OF THE 
 
 U N I V LRS ITY 
 OF I LLI N O I S 
 
 PRESENTED 5Y 
 
 Newton M. Harris 
 
 1941 
 
 909 
 
 G37w 
 
 1862a 
 


 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2017 with funding from 
 
 University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Alternates 
 
 https://archive.org/details/worldhistoricala00gilb_0 
 
THE SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 1— Lighthouse on the Island of Pharos, Alexandria 4— The Temple of Diana at Ephesus. 
 
 2— Statue of the Olympian Jupiter. 5— The Mausoleum of Artemisia. 
 
 3— The Colossus at Rhodes. 6— The Pyramids of Egypt. 
 
 7— The Walls and Hanging Gardens of Babylon. 
 
THE WORLD 
 
 HISTORICAL AND ACTUAL. 
 
 WHAT HAS BEEN AND WHAT IS. 
 
 OUR GLOBE IE ITS RELATIONS TO OTHER WORLDS, AND BEFORE MAE. 
 
 Ancient Nations in the Order of their Antiquity. 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGES AND THEIR DARKNESS. 
 
 THE PRESENT PEOPLES OF THE EARTH IN THEIR GRADUAL EMERGENCE FROM BARBARISM 
 INTO THE SUNLIGHT OF TO-DAY, AND AS THEY NOW STAND UPON 
 THE PLANE OF CIVILIZATION. 
 
 TOGETHER WITH 
 
 USEFUL AND INSTRUCTIVE CHARTS, REFERENCE TABLES OF HISTORY, FINANCE, 
 COMMERCE AND LITERATURE FROM B. C. 1500, TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 ifttimcrons ^Icgant ^jllustralioniL 
 
 By FRANK GILBERT, A. M. 
 
 Late Assistant Treasurer IT. S. at Chicaoo and Associate Editor of Chicago Journal; 
 Author of The Manual of American Literature. 
 
 ST. LOUIS, MO.: 
 
 RICHARD S. PEALE & CO. 
 
 New York: FAIRBANKS, PALMER & CO. Chicago: W. M. FARRAR. 
 
 1882 . 
 
12 Ag g • 
 
 oo 
 
 ■71 
 
 HIS age is at once busy 
 and inquiring. The peo- 
 ple have more thirst for 
 knowledge than time to 
 devote to its acquisition, 
 and of that little, much 
 must be given to the cur- 
 rent topics of the day as presented 
 in the newspapers. The aim of 
 The Woeld is to meet the demand 
 of this large class of the public 
 for a volume which shall be ency- 
 clopedic in its range of informa- 
 tion, yet so written as to be an un- 
 broken account of man’s progress 
 in the past and condition in the 
 present. 
 
 Each chapter forms an essay 
 substantially complete in itself upon the subject an- 
 nounced in the heading. It is also a link in a chain 
 of intelligence which encircles the globe and binds 
 in a grand unity all the known ages. This method, 
 adopted with grave apprehension of its feasibility, 
 was found to be natural and easy to follow. 
 
 Preliminary to the history and introductory to 
 the body of the work are presented such scientific 
 facts in regard to the heavens above and the earth 
 beneath as were deemed necessary to an intelligent 
 understanding of man’s environment. No attempt 
 has been made to give instruction in the sciences, 
 beyond the accomplishment of this object. Modern 
 scholarship has disclosed in dim outline the illimit- 
 able field of prehistoric humanity, and a faint 
 glimpse of that vast field is also afforded for the 
 same introductory purpose. 
 
 It will be observed that each country or people is 
 presented in the order of its emergence from obscur- 
 ity and followed in its development until the present 
 time. Into the ocean of the Actual debouch the 
 numberless streams of the Historical, from the Nile 
 of Egypt to the Amazon of America. Care has 
 been taken to give to each the relative prominence 
 to which it is entitled by its real weight and influence 
 in the scale of civilization. Separate facts, too, have 
 been treated upon the same principle. There is wide 
 latitude for honest and intelligent difference of opin- 
 ion as to the importance of almost every event, and 
 no two estimates would agree entirely upon details. 
 
 Every subject which seemed to require pictorial 
 representation to render it more intelligible and in- 
 teresting has been illustrated. These illustrations 
 are believed to add very materially to the intrinsic 
 value, as well as the attractiveness of the volume. 
 There are many subjects which cannot be fully pre- 
 sented unless “the art preservative of art,” as print- 
 ing has been called, is supplemented and rounded 
 out by the engraver’s art. 
 
 Of course in a volume covering a field so vast, 
 many things which are in themselves highly import- 
 ant must be passed over in silence or mentioned only 
 briefly ; but the endeavor has been to avoid the 
 omission of anything necessary to the general 
 plan of the book, as set forth upon the title-page. 
 
 In the verification of facts the author of a work 
 which is telescopic rather than microscopic, cannot 
 make original research, and often there is a wide d i- 
 vergence in the statements made by standard author- 
 ities. In this book no statement will be found for 
 which good authority could not be adduced, and in 
 many cases (more especially in the statistical part) 
 
 (in) 
 
 cil'V 
 

 k. 
 
 IV 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 great effort has been made to determine the relative 
 weight of testimony and conform thereto. 
 
 In the preparation of this volume it has been 
 assumed that the reader is far more interested in 
 American history than in foreign history ; in mod- 
 ern times than in antiquity. If the space devoted 
 to art, for instance, in the United States is small, as 
 compared with that given to the art of some other 
 countries, while American industry is given especial 
 prominence, the reason is that, much as might be 
 said in praise of art in the United States, it is unde- 
 niable that the typical American is an artisan rather 
 than an artist, and his hands are more skillful in 
 the use of tools and implements of industry than 
 the brush and chisel of art. 
 
 The earliest nation of which we know anything, 
 Egypt, seems to have been mainly anxious to pre- 
 serve the body after death ; the greatest of all 
 nations in actual attainments, England, has devel- 
 oped what might be called factory mechanism, — 
 machinery which enabled the English to convert 
 raw material into merchandise on terms to defy the 
 competition of the world. America has wrought 
 much in the English line, but the distinctive pecu- 
 liarity of the United States is care for the number- 
 less comforts and conveniences of life. In a 
 word, it seems to be the mission of American 
 industry and ingenuity to lighten the labors and 
 enhance the happiness of the toiling masses of 
 mankind. The truth of these observations is obvi- 
 ous, and it only remains to say that throughout the 
 volume the aim has been to bring out in due promi- 
 nence the distinctive characteristics of each people 
 or period. 
 
 It will be observed that the reading matter lias 
 been re-inforced by copious statistics, selected and 
 arranged with reference to the general scope of 
 The World, constituting a compend of leading 
 facts, relating to the past and to the present nations 
 of our globe. These tables, based on the latest 
 attainable information, aim to make the book 
 available for the purpose of reference, especially in 
 connection with the index, and will meet, it is hoped, 
 a want now felt by speakers, writers, professional 
 and business men and others, whose limited time 
 will not permit their consulting exhaustive treatises, 
 but who demand that the salient points shall be so 
 arranged as to be easily found just when desired. 
 By the joint aid of the table of reference and the 
 index, it is entirely feasible to almost instantaneously 
 secure the information desired. The table of con- 
 tents is designed to be a complete and ready guide 
 to the reader in selecting topics about which to 
 read, for the book is equally adapted to continuous 
 and occasional reading. 
 
 The author is under great obligations to “ Gas- 
 kell’s Compendium of Forms,” and such eminent 
 statisticians as Mulhall, Nichol and Walker, for 
 tabular matter, also to L. T. Palmer ; to Prof. W. P. 
 Jones for assistance in the chapters on China, and to 
 the Hon. C. E. Jones, of Melbourne, for aid in the 
 preparation of the chapter on Australasia. In the 
 body of the book due credit is given to the numer- 
 ous authors from whom quotations are made. 
 
 It only remains to add that one more needed labor 
 will have been performed if this book shall satisfac- 
 torily fill the niche in the library and the place in 
 the family-circle for which it was designed. 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 "7T 
 

 <L 
 
 
 
 y >S( 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 XXI. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 THE CHILDREN OF THE SUN 
 
 25 
 
 MODERN GREECE AND THE GREEK CHURCH . 129 
 
 
 II. 
 
 
 XXII. 
 
 
 THE EARTH WITHOUT MAN 
 
 37 
 
 ANCIENT ITALY AND PRIMITIVE ROME 
 
 >33 
 
 
 III. 
 
 
 XXIII. 
 
 
 PRE-HISTORIC 
 
 MAN 
 
 . 40 
 
 SEMI-HISTORIC ROME .... 
 
 138 
 
 
 IV. 
 
 
 XXIV. 
 
 
 THE MOST ANCIENT EGYPT 
 
 44 
 
 ROME AND CARTHAGE 
 
 143 
 
 
 V. 
 
 
 XXV. 
 
 
 EGYPT AT ITS 
 
 BEST 
 
 48 
 
 LAST CENTURY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC 
 
 . . X48 
 
 
 VI. 
 
 
 XXVI. 
 
 
 THE DECLINE 
 
 OF EGYPT .... 
 
 52 
 
 C.ESAR AND THE EMPIRE 
 
 >55 
 
 
 VII. 
 
 
 XXVII. 
 
 
 EGYPT AND THE GLORY OF ALEXANDRIA . 
 
 55 
 
 LATIN CLASSICS .... 
 
 160 
 
 
 VIII. 
 
 
 XXVIII. 
 
 
 EGYPT AS IT IS 
 
 59 
 
 THR EMPERORS FROM AUGUSTUS TO ALARIC . 165 
 
 
 IX. 
 
 
 XXIX. 
 
 
 ETHIOPIA AND 
 
 THE PHCENECLANS 
 
 64 
 
 PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANITY 
 
 >73 
 
 
 X. 
 
 
 XXX. 
 
 
 THE JEWS . 
 
 
 68 
 
 THE PAPACY AND MODERN CHRISTIANITY 
 
 . . 177 
 
 
 XI. 
 
 
 XXXI. 
 
 
 HEBREW LITERATURE AND SECTS 
 
 73 
 
 ITALY AND THE ITALIANS . 
 
 . . 184 
 
 
 XII. 
 
 
 XXXII. 
 
 
 ASSYRIA AND 
 
 SYRIA 
 
 81 
 
 THE DARK AGES 
 
 • • 189 
 
 
 XIII. 
 
 
 XXXIII. 
 
 
 PERSIA, PARTHIA AND THE ZENDA VESTA 
 
 86 
 
 THE SARACEN EMPIRE 
 
 • >95 
 
 
 XIV. 
 
 
 XXXIV 
 
 
 GREECE AND 
 
 HERO WORSHIP 
 
 90 
 
 THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE 
 
 . . 200 
 
 
 XV. 
 
 
 XXXV. 
 
 
 HISTORIC WARS OF GREECE 
 
 95 
 
 THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE (TURKEY) 
 
 • • 206 
 
 
 XVI. 
 
 
 XXXVI. 
 
 
 STATE CRAFT 
 
 IN GREECE .... 
 
 . 103 
 
 RUSSIA 
 
 . . 2X0 
 
 
 XVII. 
 
 
 XXXVII. 
 
 
 GREEK CLASSIC LITERATURE 
 
 109 
 
 POLAND AND THE POLES 
 
 . . 2X7 
 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 
 XXXVIII. 
 
 
 GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND ART 
 
 114 
 
 MEDIEVAL GERMANY . 
 
 . • 223 
 
 
 XIX. 
 
 
 XXXIX. 
 
 
 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY 
 
 . 120 
 
 GERMANY AND THE REFORMATION 
 
 . . 228 
 
 
 XX. 
 
 
 XL. 
 
 
 THE WORLD OF THE ANCIENTS . 
 
 
 
 1 >25 
 
 NEW GERMANY 
 
 *35 
 
 (y) 
 
VI 
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 XLI. 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 INTELLECTUAL GERMANY .... 
 
 XLII. 
 
 
 242 
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 
 
 XLIII. 
 
 
 249 
 
 BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS 
 
 XLIV. 
 
 
 255 
 
 OLD FRANCE 
 
 XLV. 
 
 
 261 
 
 TRIUMPH AND DECAY OF FRENCH MONARCHY 
 
 XLVI. 
 
 
 267 
 
 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION .... 
 
 XLVII. 
 
 
 272 
 
 NAPOLEON AND HIS CAMPAIGNS . 
 
 XLVIII. 
 
 
 281 
 
 LATTER-DAY FRANCE 
 
 XLIX. 
 
 
 289 
 
 CELTIC, GOTHIC, AND MOORISH SPAIN . 
 
 L. 
 
 
 294 
 
 FERDINAND AND ISABELLA .... 
 
 LI. 
 
 
 300 
 
 CATHOLIC SPAIN 
 
 LII. 
 
 
 305 
 
 PORTUGAL AND THE PORTUGUESE 
 
 LII1. 
 
 
 3 J 5 
 
 THE SCANDINAVIANS 
 
 LIV. 
 
 
 320. 
 
 SWITZERLAND AND LESSER EUROPE 
 
 LV. 
 
 
 325 
 
 OLD ENGLAND 
 
 LVI. 
 
 
 332 
 
 OLD ENGLAND AND THE PLANTAGENETS 
 
 LVTI. 
 
 
 339 
 
 MODERN ENGLAND AND THE PLANTAGENETS 
 
 LVIII. 
 
 
 343 
 
 LANCASTER AND YORK .... 
 
 LIX. 
 
 
 349 
 
 THE TUDORS 
 
 LX. 
 
 
 355 
 
 THE STUARTS AND THE COMMONWEALTH 
 
 LXI. 
 
 
 3 6 * 
 
 PRESENT ENGLAND 
 
 LXII. 
 
 
 367 
 
 LITERATURE OF ENGLAND .... 
 
 LXIII. 
 
 
 375 
 
 SCOTLAND AND THE SCOTCH 
 
 LXIV. 
 
 
 382 
 
 IRELAND AND THE IRISH .... 
 
 LXV. 
 
 
 387 
 
 LXVI. 
 
 BRITISH INDIA 
 
 LXVII. 
 
 AUSTRALASIA 
 
 LXVIII. 
 
 JAPAN AND THE JAPANESE 
 
 LXIX. 
 
 THE CHINESE EMPIRE 
 
 LXX. 
 
 THE CHINESE 
 
 LXXI. 
 
 MINOR ASIA AND AFRICA 
 
 LXXII. 
 
 MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS 
 
 LXXIII. 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 LXXIV. 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE ISLES OF THE SEA . 
 
 LXXV. 
 
 NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS ... 
 
 LXXVI. 
 
 EARLY COLONIAL UNITED STATES 
 
 LXXVII. 
 
 COLONIAL GROWTH AND OUTGROWTH 
 
 LXXVII I. 
 
 INDEPENDENCE AND UNION .... 
 
 LXXIX. 
 
 THE YOUNG REPUBLIC 
 
 LXXX. 
 
 THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE .... 
 
 LXXXI. 
 
 THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT 
 
 LXXX 1 1. 
 
 RISE AND FALL OF THE CONFEDERACY 
 
 LXXXIII. 
 
 THE PRESENT UNITED STATES .... 
 
 LXXXI V. 
 
 GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 LXXXV. 
 
 PRESIDENTS AND PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS 
 
 LXXXVI. 
 
 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES, 
 
 lxxx,vil 
 
 AMERICAN INVENTIONS AND INVENTORS 
 
 LXXXVIII. 
 
 AMERICAN INDUSTRY AND ART .... 
 
 LXXXIX. 
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE 
 
 xc. 
 
 THE DOMINION OF CANADA 
 
 TABLES OF REFERENCE 
 
 PAGE 
 
 400 
 
 4 11 
 
 427 
 
 434 
 
 442 
 
 453 
 
 461 
 
 467 
 
 477 
 
 485 
 
 49i 
 
 500 
 
 509 
 
 516 
 
 522 
 
 529 
 
 555 
 
 564 
 
 57 > 
 
 580 
 
 59 * 
 
 622 
 
 6314 
 
 638 
 
 650 
 

 6 
 
 1 
 
 Abbas, Khedive of Egypt 60 
 
 Abdul Hamid II 208 
 
 Abelard and Heloise 193, 263 
 
 Abica of Tyre 67 
 
 Aborigines of Germany 242 
 
 Abraham 68 
 
 Abu-Bekr Succeeds Mahommed 19S 
 
 The Saracen Empire under 198 
 
 Re-arranges the Koran 197 
 
 Abyssinia, or Modern Ethiopia 66 
 
 Population and Area 66 
 
 Acadia and the Acadians 395 
 
 Academies in France 270 
 
 Achaean League, The 107 
 
 Achilles 92 
 
 Acropolis at Athens, The 1 17 
 
 Actium, The Battle of 1 57 
 
 Adams, John 518, 580 
 
 Adams, John Quincy 5*28, 583 
 
 Addison, Joseph 379 
 
 Adelaide 417 
 
 Adler on the Jews So 
 
 Adolphus, Gustavus 233 
 
 Adrian I, Pope 180 
 
 Adrianople 202 
 
 Adrianopolitan Period 206 
 
 Adullum, The Cave of 135 
 
 Etolian League, The 107 
 
 Eschylus 1 10 
 
 Esop and his Fables no 
 
 Eneas of Virgil 161 
 
 Eneas in Latium 135 
 
 Eneid of Virgil, The 161 
 
 Afghanistan 455 
 
 Africa, Minor Asia and 453 
 
 Ancient Libya 456 
 
 Explorations in 456 
 
 Agamemnon and Iphigenia 92 
 
 Agassiz Louis 644 
 
 Age of Fable, the Golden 40 
 
 Fables, Poland's 218 
 
 The Stone and Bronze 42 
 
 of the Mammoth, The 40 
 
 of the Mastodon, The 40 
 
 The Augustan 159 
 
 of the Antonines 16S 
 
 of Poetry, the Silver and Golden 161 
 
 The Apostolic 176 
 
 of the Bishops 178 
 
 of the Popes 178 
 
 The Medieval 178 
 
 The Dark 189 
 
 of Chivalry 190 
 
 Agnosticism of Alexandria 57 
 
 Agincourt, Battle of 351 
 
 Agrarian Laws .. • 139 
 
 Agrarianism, Primitive 136 
 
 Agricola and Britain 333 
 
 Agrippa, Menenius 139 
 
 Agripina 166 
 
 Ahaz S4 
 
 Aix la Chapelle, Peace of. 310 
 
 Alabama 592 
 
 Alabama Claims 564 
 
 Alaric. The Goth 17 1 
 
 The Emperors from Augustus to*. 165 
 
 Sacks Rome 17 1 
 
 Alaska 593 
 
 Alba Longa 135 
 
 Albert I., Emperor of Germany 250 
 
 Albert II., Emperor of Germany 250 
 
 Albert V., of Austria 250 
 
 becomes Albert II. of Germany 250 
 
 Albert, Prince of Wales 368 
 
 Albigenses, The, a Protestant Sect 181 
 
 Alembert, D’ . . . 271 
 
 Alexander The Great 53,55, 101 
 
 Alexander Severus 168 
 
 Alexander 1 213, 221 
 
 Alexander II 215 
 
 Alexander III 216 
 
 Alexandria, Glory of. 55 
 
 Commerce of 56 
 
 Museum at 56 
 
 Public Library 57 
 
 Theological Warfare at 58 
 
 Alexandrian Philosophy 57 
 
 Christianity 58 
 
 Alexis, Emperor of Byzantine 202 
 
 Alfonso XII 313 
 
 Alfonso V 315 
 
 Alfonso I . . .315 
 
 Alfred The Great 336, 375 
 
 Algeria 457 
 
 Algerine Piracy 521 
 
 Alhambra of Granada... 29S 
 
 Ali Mehemet, the Saracen 19S 
 
 Allen, Ethan 505 
 
 Alliance, The Holy 213 
 
 Alps, The 326 
 
 Alsace — Lorraine 240, 291 
 
 Amadeus, Victor 186 
 
 Amadeus 313 
 
 Amanothph II 49 
 
 Amanothph III 50 
 
 Amazons, Theseus battles with the 92 
 
 Amendments to the Constitution 
 
 American Indians 
 
 Literature 
 
 Inventions and Inventors 
 
 Industries 
 
 Ammon, The God 
 
 Alexander’s Sonship to 
 
 Amphictyonic League, The 
 
 Amru, The Saracen in Egypt 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Amurath, The Sultan 
 
 Anatomy — Born at Alexandria.. 
 
 Anabaptists 
 
 Anam, or Cochin, China 
 
 Anamese Literature 
 
 Ancient Egypt, The Most 
 
 Italy, and primitive Rome.. . 
 
 Ancients, The World of the 
 
 Andersen, Hans 
 
 Anderson, Maj. Robert 
 
 Andersonville Prison 
 
 Andorra 
 
 Andre, Major 
 
 Andrew of Hungary 
 
 Andronicus 
 
 Angevine Dynasty 
 
 Anglo-Saxons in England 
 
 Anne, Queen 
 
 Animal Kingdom, The 
 
 Antietam, Battle of 
 
 Antilles, The 
 
 Antioch 
 
 Antiochus Epiphanes 
 
 Antony, Mark 
 
 in Egypt 
 
 Antonius, T. Aurelius 
 
 Antonines, The Age of the 
 
 Apostolic Age, The 
 
 Appomattox, Surrender at 
 
 Appius, Claudius 
 
 and Virginia 
 
 Apollo, The Colossus 
 
 Arab Shiek, an 
 
 Arabs and the Saracen 
 
 Arabia and the Arabs 
 
 Aradnus 
 
 Aragon and Castile 
 
 Arbela, Defeat of Darius 
 
 Arcadian League, The 
 
 Archaeological Discoveries 
 
 Archimedes 
 
 Architecture of the Greeks 
 
 of Corinth 
 
 .569 
 
 ■tss 
 
 .638 
 .622 
 .629 
 ••56 
 ..56 
 . 107 
 ..58 
 .256 
 .202 
 
 ••57 
 
 453 
 
 453 
 
 44 
 
 - - >33 
 
 >25 I 
 
 322 
 
 530, 550 
 542 
 
 ....329 
 
 . . . 192 
 . .202 
 
 ■ • -339 
 ■ --334 
 
 ..366 
 ■39 
 ■■■537 
 ■••479 
 ....85 
 /i. S5 
 • -• > 5 6 
 •■•157 
 ..168 
 . .168 
 ...176 
 
 ■ --546 
 .. .139 
 ...140 
 
 • •>25 
 ....68 
 •••■97 
 •••455 
 . . . .66 
 .. .299 
 . . . 101 
 . ..107 
 ....83 
 ... 1 26 
 .. .118 
 . . . 13 ° 
 
 £ 
 
 ► 
 
 9 
 
 
PAGE. 
 
 Architecture in China 449 
 
 in Germany.. 227 
 
 in France 269 
 
 Area of Civilization 
 
 of Egypt 59 
 
 of Persia S9 
 
 of Present Italy 1S4 
 
 of the Byzantine Empire 201 
 
 of Turkey 209 
 
 of Siberia 216 
 
 of Poland 217 
 
 of Prussia 241 
 
 of Germany 241 
 
 of Austria 249 
 
 of Hungary 250 
 
 of Bosnia 254 
 
 of Belgium 255 
 
 of the Netherlands 256 
 
 of Portugal 315 
 
 of Norway 322 
 
 of Sweden 323 
 
 of Canada • -394 
 
 of Australasia 4 11 
 
 of the United States 570 
 
 Argentine Republic 468 
 
 Aristedes 99 
 
 Aristophanes hi 
 
 Aristotle 115 
 
 Arius, The Presbyter 58 
 
 Arizona 594 
 
 Arkansas 593 
 
 Arkwright, Sir Richard 624 
 
 Armada Destroyed, The Spanish 307 
 
 Arnold, Benedict , 5 65, 5 X 3» 5 X 4 
 
 Arnold of Brescia 181 
 
 Arpad Dynasty of Hungary, The 250 
 
 Artemisia, Widow of Mansolus 125 
 
 Art and Achievements, Titanic 48 
 
 of Ethiopia 65 
 
 of Phcenicia 67 
 
 Greek Philosophy, and 1 14 
 
 Etruscan 14 1 
 
 Byzantine 205 
 
 Flemish and Dutch 259 
 
 in Spain 313 
 
 American 637 
 
 Articles of Confederation 512 
 
 Arthur, Chester A 569, 586 
 
 Arya 127 
 
 Aryan Race, The 88, 128, 400 
 
 Ascanius 135 
 
 Asia and Africa, Minor 455 
 
 Assassination of Lincoln 546 
 
 of Garfield 569 
 
 Assembly, National 275 
 
 The Legislative 276 
 
 Asser 375 
 
 Asshur 81 
 
 Assyria 81 
 
 Assyrian Antiquity Si 
 
 Ninus and Semiramis 81 
 
 Senacherib and Sardanapolis 82 
 
 The City of Nineveh ... .82 
 
 Babylon and Its Hanging Gardens S3 
 
 Babylonian History 83 
 
 Alexander and Babylon S3 
 
 Recent Archaeological Discoveries S3 
 
 Assyrians, The 53 
 
 Astronomy, The Science of 25, 32 
 
 Astronomers 23, 25, 32, 35 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Atcacer Quibir 318 
 
 Athanasius 58, 176 
 
 Athenians, The 97 
 
 Athens, The City of . .97 
 
 Athor 52 
 
 Atlanta, Capture of 545 
 
 Atossa 97 
 
 Attorney General, The 579 
 
 Audobon.J. J 640 
 
 Auerstadt, The Battle of 237 
 
 Augsburg, Council of 232 
 
 Augustan Age, The 159 
 
 Augustus, Frederick 219, 220 
 
 Augustine, an Early Christian Writer 176 
 
 Augustine Monks 230 
 
 Augustus, Caisar 457 
 
 Defeats Antony 157' 
 
 to Alaric, The Emperors, from 165 
 
 Aurelius, Marcus, Emperor of Rome 16S 
 
 Austerlitz, The Battle of 237 
 
 Austria-Hungary ... 249 
 
 German and Semi -German 249 
 
 The Dual Empire Formed 249 
 
 The Hapsburg and Hohenzollern 249 
 
 Rhodolph and Ottocar 249 
 
 The Duchy and Arch Duchy 252 
 
 Modern or Present 253 
 
 Hungary and the Magyars 253 
 
 The Hapsburgs in Hungary 253 
 
 Present Government of the Empire 253 
 
 Religion and Education 253 
 
 Bosnia and Hervegovina 254 
 
 The Literature of Hungary 254 
 
 The Cities of. 254 
 
 Australia, Western 426 
 
 Area, Debt, Exports 426 
 
 Australasia, the Colonies of 411 
 
 Australasian Independence 426 
 
 Ayasha 197 
 
 Aztecs in Mexico, The 461 
 
 Azores Islands 317 
 
 Azores and Portugal, The 4S4 
 
 Baalbac, The City of 84 
 
 Babel, The Tower of. 69 
 
 Babylon, Jewish Captivity in. 69 
 
 The City of 82 
 
 Babylonians, Early history of the S3 
 
 Bache, A. D 644 
 
 Bach, a Composer 245 
 
 Bacon, Roger 341, 368 
 
 Bacon, Francis 377 
 
 Bacon’s Rebellion 493 
 
 Bagdad, the City of 82 
 
 Bahama Islands, The 479 
 
 Bakumin, Michael 215 
 
 Balaklava, The Battle of 214 
 
 Baldwin, Count, of Flanders 202 
 
 Baliol 345 
 
 Bancroft, George 644 
 
 Bank of England 36S 
 
 The United States 51S 
 
 Banking System, U. S 036 
 
 Banks, N. P 536, 541 
 
 Barbarossa 225 
 
 Enters Italy 185 
 
 Barneveldt, John, a Dutch Soldier 258 
 
 Barons W ar, The ... 341 
 
 Barnet, The Battle of 353 
 
 Bastile, Fall of the 275 
 
 Bathsheba of Nineveh 81 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Battles of the Franco Prussian War 241 
 
 Bavarian Republic, The 259 
 
 Baxter, Richard 194, 378 
 
 Bazil Ascends Byzantine Throne 202 
 
 Bazilian Dynasty, The 202 
 
 Beaconsfield, Lord 373 
 
 Beauregard, General 531, 561 
 
 Becket, Thomas, & 339 
 
 Beecher, Lyman 649 
 
 Beecher, Henry Ward 649 
 
 Before History 23 
 
 Beirat, The City of 66 
 
 Belfast 38S, 390 
 
 Belgium and the Netherlands 255 
 
 Religion and Education 256 
 
 Java — Dutch Government 256 
 
 Typography and Resources... 257 
 
 The Dutch in History 257 
 
 The Nation and Its Great War 25S 
 
 The Throes of the Dutch Republic 258 
 
 Period of Prosperity 258 
 
 Fall of the Republic 259 
 
 Dutch Art 259 
 
 Waterloo 260 
 
 Belisarius, General 
 
 Beloochistan 455 
 
 Belshazzar, King of Babylon 83 
 
 Belus, The Temple of 82 
 
 Benares, The City of 40S 
 
 Benedek, Marshall 239 
 
 Bengal, the City of 404 
 
 Benhadad, King of Syria 84 
 
 Bennett, J. G 
 
 Bennington, Battle of 51 1 
 
 Berlin, The French Enter 2S5 
 
 The University of. 235 
 
 The Treaty of. 254 
 
 Berenice’s Hair, The Group 32 
 
 Beethoven 245 
 
 Bey, A Turkish 208 
 
 Bible, The Books of the 70 
 
 The Persian 88 
 
 Birney, James G 527 
 
 Bishop of Rome, Pope ... 178 
 
 Bismark, Count Von 238 
 
 Black Death, The 348 
 
 Bladensburg, Battle of 520 
 
 Blaine, James G 566 
 
 Blair, Frank P 554 
 
 Blanchard, Thomas 625 
 
 Blenheim The Battle of 269 
 
 Blucher, Marshal 237, 369 
 
 Boabdil, Moorish King 299 
 
 Defeated by Ferdinand 299 
 
 Boadicea, Queen 333 
 
 Board of Trade and Plantations 500 
 
 Bobadilla, Admiral 304 
 
 Boccacio 193 
 
 Boileau 270 
 
 Bokhara 434 
 
 Colleges of 454 
 
 Boleslas I., of Poland 218 
 
 Boleyn, Annie 356 
 
 Bolingbroke of Lancaster 34S, 350 
 
 Crowned Henry IV 350 
 
 Bolivar, Simon 470 
 
 Bolivia, Republic of. 474 
 
 Bombay, The City of 407 
 
 Bonaparte, Napoleon 2S1 
 
 Bonaparte, Louis 259 
 
 M 1 . 
 
INDEX. 
 
 IX 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Bonaparte, Joseph 285, 310 
 
 Borough R epresentation 345 
 
 Bosnia, The Province of 254 
 
 Boston, “ Tea Party,*’ S °3 
 
 Evacuation of 506 
 
 Great Fire in 5 6 4 
 
 Bosworth, Battle of 254 
 
 Bossuet 269 
 
 Botany Bay ... .411 
 
 Botzaris, Marco 102, 131 
 
 Bourbons in France, The 271 
 
 Boyne, Battle of the 365, 3SS 
 
 Brabant, The Dukedom ok 258 
 
 Bradstreet, Mrs. Ann 63S 
 
 Bragg, General 53 ^ 
 
 Brake, The Air 625 
 
 Brandywine, The Battle of 5 11 
 
 Brazil, The Empire of. 469, 318 
 
 Kingdom Established 318 
 
 Dom Pedro 470 
 
 Breakspear, Adrian IV 340 
 
 Breckenridge, John C 530, 561 
 
 Brickmaking in Egypt 47 
 
 Bright, John 373 
 
 British India 400 
 
 Britons, The Ancient 333 
 
 Bronze and Stone Age .42 
 
 Bronte, Charlotte 381 
 
 Browne, C. F 647 
 
 Brown, General 519 
 
 Brown, John 529 
 
 Browning, Mrs 380 
 
 Browning, Robert 3S1 
 
 Bruce, Robert 345 » 3^4 
 
 Brussa, City of 206 
 
 Bryant, William Cullen. 645 
 
 Brussells, the City of. 255 
 
 Uprising in 255 
 
 Brutus, Junius 138 
 
 Brutus, Marcus 157 
 
 Bruyere, La 270 
 
 Bubastis, Priests of 52 
 
 Buchanan, James 528, 585 
 
 Buchner, Prof. 247 
 
 Buckner, General 533 
 
 Bucolics of Virgil 161 
 
 Buddhism in Japan 430 
 
 in China 451 
 
 Buel, General 534, 538 
 
 Buenos Ayres, The City of 468 
 
 Button 271 
 
 Bui wer-Lytton 381 
 
 Bull Run, Battles of 531, 536 
 
 Bull Fights of Spain 314 
 
 Bundesrath and Reichstag 251 
 
 Bunker, or Breed’s Hill . 505 
 
 Bunyan, John 378 
 
 Burgoyne, General 512 
 
 Burgundy, First King of 325 
 
 Duke of 25S 
 
 Burke, Edmund 379 
 
 Burmah, or Farther India 454 
 
 Burmuda Isles, The. 484 
 
 Burns, Robert 386 
 
 Burnside, Ambrose E 534, 537 
 
 Butler, Samuel 378 
 
 Butler, Benjamin F 534, 550 
 
 Bvblus, City of 66 
 
 Byron, Lord 130, 380 
 
 Byzantine Empire, The 197, 200 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Byzantine Empire, Area and Conserva- 
 
 tism of 200 
 
 Justinian and Belisarius 201 
 
 The Civil Law 201 
 
 Brazil Dynasty. 202 
 
 The Comnenians and Latin Crusaders .. .203 
 
 Palceologi and the Turks 203 
 
 Byzantium, City of 169, 200 
 
 Cabinet, The English 373 
 
 of the United States 573 
 
 Cabot, John 394, 491 
 
 Cabot, Sebastian 394, 468 
 
 Cabral, Pedro Alvarez 318 
 
 Cade Rebellion, Thejack 351 
 
 Caenar von, The Castle of. 344 
 
 CiEsar, Julius . . .^S, 151, 153, 155, 156, 157, 163,333 
 
 Caesar, Tiberius 165 
 
 Caesar, Caius or Caligula 165 
 
 Caesarea, The City of. .* 71 
 
 Cairo, Egypt 61 
 
 Caius, Marius 150 
 
 Caius, Caesar 165 
 
 Calais, City of 262 
 
 Calcutta, City of 409 
 
 Calendar, The Gregorian 35 
 
 The Russian 33 
 
 The Egyptian 4S 
 
 Calderon 314 
 
 Calhoun, J. C 323 
 
 California 594 
 
 Caliphs of Damascus 59 
 
 Caliph of Mahammed 197 
 
 Caliphs, First Four 198 
 
 Caligula, Emperor 165 
 
 Assassinated 166 
 
 Calmar, Union of 321 
 
 Calvin, John 265, 328 
 
 Calvinists and Lutherans 232 
 
 Cambyses 53, 65 
 
 Camden, Battle of 313 
 
 Camillus Captures Veii 14 1 
 
 Camoens, The Poet 319 
 
 Canada, Dominion of 394 
 
 Census of 1881 394 
 
 English Discovery of. 395 
 
 Acadia and the Acadians 393 
 
 Champlain's Policy 396 
 
 British Policy 396 
 
 Old World Prejudices 396 
 
 The Indians of 396 
 
 Manitoba and Hudson Bay 396 
 
 Political system of 397 
 
 Virtual Independence 397 
 
 Reciprocity 397 
 
 Cities, Education, Railroads 393 
 
 Labrador, the Esquimaux 399 
 
 Canaan, Land of 69 
 
 Canal, The Suez 60 
 
 The Cloaca Maxima 186 
 
 Candace, Queen 65 
 
 Candia, The Island of 126 
 
 Cannoe, Battle of 146 
 
 Cantebury, Bishopric of. * 334 
 
 Canute, the Dane 321 
 
 Rules, England 336 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 317, 45S 
 
 Cape Verde Islands 317 
 
 Capetian Line, The 262 
 
 The Valois Branch 262 
 
 Captivity of the Jews 69 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Carlist War, The 312 
 
 Carlos, Don 312 
 
 Carlovingian Empire 257 
 
 Dynasty 262 
 
 Carlyle, Thomas ..38I, 386 
 
 Carolina, North 613 
 
 South 616 
 
 Carolina, Colonial History 497 
 
 French Huguenots 49S 
 
 Carnot, French Minister 278 
 
 Carthage, Rome and 143 
 
 Its Place in History 144 
 
 First Punic War 144 
 
 Hamilcar and Hannibal 143 
 
 Second Punic War 145 
 
 Hannibal Crosses the Alps 146 
 
 Battle ot Came 146 
 
 Fall of Carthage 147 
 
 Carthagenians, The. 143 
 
 Cartier, Jacques 393 
 
 Casimir, The Restorer 218 
 
 The Great 218 
 
 Casimir IV 218 
 
 Castelar. 3^ 
 
 Castile and Aragon United 299 
 
 Castor and Pollux, Sudden Appearance of. . 137 
 Cataline, The Conspiracy of. 152 
 
 Cataracts of the Nile 62 
 
 Catherine de Medici 265,267 
 
 Catherine j , 
 
 Catherine of Russia 207, 213 
 
 War with Turkey 207 
 
 Petitions Poland 213, 220, 236 
 
 Cato the Censor 147 
 
 Destroys Carthage 147 
 
 The Younger. . 149 
 
 Cave Dwellers, The 4S7 
 
 Cavour, Italian Statesman 186 
 
 Cedar Mountain, Battle of. 537 
 
 Cedars of Lebanon, The ... 67 
 
 Celtic and Moorish Spain. 
 
 Celts of Great Britain 
 
 Celts and Celtic Progress 
 Census of Canada 
 
 of the United States 518, 370 
 
 Central America 4-0 
 
 The States of. 473 
 
 Champlain Founds Quebec 396 
 
 Chancellorville, Battle of 538 
 
 Channing, Dr 643 
 
 Chaldea 82 
 
 Chaldean Bricks 82 
 
 Charlemagne and Chivalry . 190 
 
 and the Dark Ages 192 
 
 in Germany 228 
 
 at Aix la Chapelle 225 
 
 Dynasty 262 
 
 Charles XII 
 
 Charles VI 235 
 
 Charles VII 236 
 
 Charles VII 264 
 
 Charles IX 263, 267 
 
 Charles, Martel 225 
 
 Defeats the Saracens 262, 225 
 
 Charles X 289 
 
 Charles V 306 
 
 Charles II 309 
 
 Charles XI 323 
 
 Charles XI 323 
 
 Charles I., and Parliament 362, 363 
 
x. INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Charles I., at Marston Moor 364 
 
 Charles II 364 
 
 Returns From Holland 365 
 
 Charleston Attacked 506 
 
 Chart., A Geological 38 
 
 Charter, The Magna 341 
 
 Charws of Lindus 125 
 
 Chasidium Sect 80 
 
 Chaucer, Geoffrey 347* 376 
 
 Cheops, The Pyramid of 46 
 
 Chicago Fire, The 564 
 
 Chickamauga, Battle of 541 
 
 Chilperic IV., King of the Franks 262 
 
 Chili, The Republic of 474 
 
 War with Peru 476 
 
 Chinese Empire 434 
 
 Its Territorial Extent 434 
 
 China Proper 434 
 
 The Shanghai Region ..437 
 
 The Valley of the Hwang- Ho 437 
 
 Interior China 437 
 
 Products of China 437 
 
 Rivers, Climate, Forests, Flora 439 
 
 Minerals, Petroleum, Animals 439 
 
 Corea and Its Exclusiveness 440 
 
 Manchura and the Modern Tartars 440 
 
 Mongolia and the Mongols 4-41 
 
 Thibet and the Grand Llama 441 
 
 Chinese, The. . 442 
 
 The China of Fable 442 
 
 The Dynasties of China 443 
 
 Confucius and the Great Wall 443 
 
 The Most Civilized Land . .. ..443 
 
 Kublai-Khan and Marco Polo 443 
 
 International Commercial Intercourse. ..444 
 
 Population and Government 445 
 
 Revenue and Taxation 446 
 
 Peculiarities — Occupation 447 
 
 Architecture and Art 449 
 
 Education and Office-Holding 450 
 
 Hanlin University 450 
 
 Religion of China 451 
 
 Eve of Great Reforms 452 
 
 Chivalry, The Age of. 190 
 
 Chloroform Discovered 627 
 
 Chrisna, of India 174 
 
 Christ, Jesus the 173 
 
 Rome and 173 
 
 Four Biographies of 173 
 
 Paul Preaches 174 
 
 Christian Commission, The 549 
 
 Christian IV 232 
 
 Christian 1 321 
 
 Christian X 321 
 
 Christiana, City of 322 
 
 Christian Church, The 175 
 
 Churches, The Eight 174 
 
 Christians, Persecutions of by Pagans. . . .174 
 
 Christianity in Egypt 5S 
 
 Constantine Embraces 
 
 Early Days of 174 
 
 Paul’s Preaching 174 
 
 Catacombs of Rome 175 
 
 The Apostolic Age 176 
 
 Papacy and Modern 177 
 
 In Britain 334 
 
 In Scotland 3S2 
 
 Chrysostom 176 
 
 Chusan Archipelago 434 
 
 Church, The Greek 132 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Eight Christian 174 
 
 Its Primitive Simplicity 174 
 
 of the Catacombs i75 
 
 Apostolic Age 176 
 
 of Rome 177 
 
 The Russian 217 
 
 Churches, Strength of the 1S3 
 
 Cicero i$3> I 57> i6 3 
 
 Cincinnatus 140 
 
 Cities of Ireland 390 
 
 of Japan 427 
 
 of China 444 
 
 of Italy 184 
 
 Civil Service of the U. S 571 
 
 Civil War in Portugal 318 
 
 In the United States. . 529 
 
 Civilization, The Area of. 38 
 
 Classics, The Latin .... 160 
 
 Clay, Henry 523 
 
 Claudius 166 
 
 In Britain. ... 333 
 
 Clement V., Pope 263 
 
 Clemens, Samuel L 647 
 
 Clenisthenes of Greece 106 
 
 Cleopatra and Antony 157 
 
 Cliff' House Indians 486 
 
 Climate and Resources of Egypt 44 
 
 Clinton, General 509 
 
 Clinton, DeWitt 612 
 
 Cloaca Maxima 136 
 
 Clothing of the Egyptians 54 
 
 Clovis, Merong 262 
 
 Clovis, Merovingian Dynasty 224 
 
 Accepts Christianity 261 
 
 Cnaeus Pompeius 15 1 
 
 Code Napoleon, The 27S 
 
 Colbert, M 269 
 
 Coleridge, The Poet.. 3S1 
 
 Colfax, Schuyler 554 
 
 Coligny, Admiral 2 66 
 
 Collins, Wilkie 381 
 
 Colonial Policy, Roman 137 
 
 History of the U. S 491 
 
 Colonies of F ranee 293 
 
 of the Netherlands ....256 
 
 of Spain 306, 314 
 
 of Portugal 317 
 
 of Sweden 323 
 
 of England 373 
 
 Colorado 596 
 
 Colossus of Rhodes, The 125 
 
 Colt, Samuel 625 
 
 Columbia, The United States of 471 
 
 Columbus, Christopher 302 
 
 Sails for the New World 303 
 
 Death and Disgraced 304 
 
 Comets 32, 35 
 
 Commerce of Europe 264 
 
 of Alexandria 57 
 
 of the Phoenicians 67 
 
 Commentaries, Blackstone’s 370 
 
 Commons, House of 341 
 
 Commonwealth', The English 361, 364 
 
 Comnens, Isaac 202 
 
 Compromise, The Period of. 542 
 
 The Missouri 522 
 
 Conception, The Immaculate 182 
 
 Confederacy, Rise and Fall of the 355 
 
 Confederation, The Swiss 325 
 
 Confederate States, The 530 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Confession of Faith 386 
 
 St. Patrick’s , 388 
 
 Confucius, The Age of 443 
 
 Congress, First Continental 503 
 
 Second Continental 504 
 
 Under the Constitution 516 
 
 The Confederate 557 
 
 Conservative Leaders, English 372 
 
 Consini, Leonora 268 
 
 Conspiracy of Cataline 152 
 
 Constantine the Great 58 
 
 Succeeds Constantius 169 
 
 Declared Emperor 169 
 
 Embraces Christianity 169 
 
 Decree of Milan 169 
 
 Defeats Lucenius 169 
 
 Removes to Constantinople 169 
 
 Constantine IX 202 
 
 Constantine XIII 202 
 
 Constantine II 384 
 
 Constantinople Founded 169, 200 
 
 Resists Repeated Sieges 198 
 
 Constantius and Galerius 169 
 
 Constantius, Son of Constantine 170 
 
 Constellations of the Zodiac 32 
 
 Constitution, Canadian 397 
 
 of France 276 
 
 of the U. S 515, 569 
 
 Conti, Prince of France 219 
 
 Continental Army 505 
 
 Money 517 
 
 Consuls of Rome, First. 138 
 
 Continents and Population 38 
 
 Convention, The National 276 
 
 Cooper, J. Fennimore 641 
 
 Cooper, Peter 625 
 
 Copenhagen, City of 321 
 
 Copernicus 35, 248 
 
 Copts and Coptic Races 54, 63 
 
 Coptic Justice. 54 
 
 Copley, John S 637 
 
 Copperheads at the North 53S 
 
 Corday, Charlotte 27S 
 
 Cordova and Moorish Spain 296 
 
 and Its Literature 297 
 
 The Fall of 29S 
 
 Corea, Island of. 440 
 
 Corfu, Island of. 126 
 
 Corinth, City of 129 
 
 Corinthian Architecture 130 
 
 Coriolanus 141 
 
 Cornelia . 149 
 
 Corpus Juris Civilis 201 
 
 Corn Laws in England ...... .371 
 
 Cornwall, Duke of 2 26 
 
 Cornwallis, General 514 
 
 Corsica, Conquered 145 
 
 Cortez and Mexico 462 
 
 Costa Rica, States of 47S 
 
 Cotton Gin, The 523, 624 
 
 Cotton Industry, The 632 
 
 Cow pens, Battle of. ....514 
 
 Cowper, William 3S0 
 
 Council, The Nicene 179 
 
 The Vatican 128 
 
 of Constance 228 
 
 Courts of the U. S., The 579 
 
 Cracow, City of. 218 
 
 Cracus 218 
 
 Cranmer, Thomas 356 
 
INDEX 
 
 xi 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Crater, The Tycho 31 
 
 Creation, The Theories of. 37 
 
 Creed, The Nicene 176 
 
 Crescent, Success of the 207 
 
 Cressy, Battle of 346 
 
 Crete, Island of 126 
 
 Croesus of .Lydia 96 
 
 Cromwell, Oliver 363 
 
 Dissolves Parliament 365 
 
 Becomes Lord Protector 365 
 
 Cromwell. Richard 365 
 
 Crusade, The First 191,263 
 
 The Second 191 
 
 The Third . 192 
 
 The Fourth 192 
 
 The Fifth 192 
 
 The Eighth, 192 
 
 The Latin 202 
 
 Cuba, The Island of. 4S0 
 
 Curtis, General 533 
 
 Curtis, George W 64S 
 
 Cushites Dynasty, The 52, 65 
 
 Customs of the Egyptians 54 
 
 Cuvier 39 
 
 Cynics, The 116 
 
 Cyprus, The Island of 126 
 
 Cyrus the Great 53, 96 
 
 Dagobert 224 
 
 Daimios of Japan 432 
 
 Dakota Territory 598 
 
 Damascus, City of 84 
 
 Siege of. 192 
 
 and the Saracens 19S 
 
 Dana, Richard H 641 
 
 Dana, James D 644 
 
 Danes in History 321 
 
 Dante 187, 193 
 
 Danton 276, 278 
 
 Darius Hystaspes S6, 97 
 
 Dark Ages, The 189 
 
 Medieval Chaos 1S9 
 
 Feudalism and Feudal Tenures 190 
 
 Guizot on Feudalism iqo 
 
 The Crusaders ... 190 
 
 Charlemagne 193 
 
 The Minnesingers 193 
 
 Witchcraft, Wesley 194 
 
 The Saracen Empire 189 
 
 Darwin, Charles 381 
 
 David, King of Israel 70 
 
 David 1 3S4 
 
 David II 384 
 
 Davis, Jefferson 530, 555, 561 
 
 Daza 169 
 
 Deborah 70 
 
 Debt ot Egypt 60 
 
 of the Colonies 502 
 
 Decatur, Commodore 521 
 
 Declaration of Independence 506 
 
 Decline of Egypt 52 
 
 Decree of Milan 171 
 
 Decretals, Forged Documents 180 
 
 Defoe, Daniel 179 
 
 De Grasse, Count 514 
 
 De Kalb, Baron 512 
 
 De’Launay, Gov 275 
 
 Delaware 598 
 
 Delphi, Oracle of 108 
 
 Delta of the Nile 62 
 
 Deluge, The 69 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Demosthenes 1 13 
 
 Denmark 321 
 
 Dennison A. L 624 
 
 Dentatus 140 
 
 D’Estaing, Count 512 
 
 Destruction of Jerusalem 71 
 
 Detroit, Surrender of 519 
 
 Developments, Gradations of. 41 
 
 Developments, Geological 39 
 
 Diana of Ephesus. . . 126 
 
 Dickens, Charles 3S1 
 
 Diderot 271 
 
 Diocletian 169 
 
 Directory of France, The 277 
 
 Fall of the 280 
 
 Discovery of the New World 303 
 
 Disraeli, Benjamin 373 
 
 as a Novelist 38 1 
 
 Dollinger 234 
 
 Dombroroka, Princess 218 
 
 Domesday, Book of England - 338 
 
 Dominion of Canada 394 
 
 Domitian 167 
 
 Donation, a Forged Document 1S0 
 
 Donelson, Capture of Fort ... 533 
 
 Douglas, Stephen A 527, 600 
 
 Dowlah, Surajah 404 
 
 Drake, Sir Francis 359 
 
 Drake, Joseph R 640 
 
 Draper, Dr. J. W 644 
 
 Dresden, Battle of. 285 
 
 Dryden, John 378 
 
 Druzbacka, Elizabeth 222 
 
 Dublin, The City of 390 
 
 The University of 391 
 
 Dufferin, Lord 397 
 
 Duncan and Macbeth 3S4 
 
 Durer, Albrecht 259 
 
 Dustan 336 
 
 Dutch Republic, The 25S 
 
 Commerce 258 
 
 in History, The 257 
 
 The Medieval 258 
 
 Acknowledged by Phillip II 308 
 
 Art 259 
 
 Dwellings of the Egyptians, The 54 
 
 Dynasty, First Egyptian 46 
 
 The Cushite $ 2 , 65 
 
 of Fatima, The 59 
 
 The Ptolemic 55 
 
 The Ommiad 19S 
 
 The Bazilian 202 
 
 The Palacologi 202 
 
 The Merovingian 224, 262 
 
 The Hohenstaufels 226 
 
 of Hungary, Arpad 250 
 
 The Hapsburg 250 
 
 Dynasties of China, The 443 
 
 Eads, John B 628 
 
 Earth Without Man, The 37 
 
 Its Surface in Square Miles 37 
 
 The Planet. . 23, 26 
 
 Earth’s Strata, The 3S 
 
 East India Company, Dutch 403 
 
 The English 404 
 
 Kcologues of Virgil, The 161 
 
 Ecuador, Republic of 471 
 
 Ecumenical Council of Constance . . v 22S 
 
 Edda, The Elder 324 
 
 Edict of Nantes 268 
 
 Edinburgh, Founded 
 
 Edmund I 
 
 Edmunds, George F 
 
 Education in Turkey 
 
 in Germany 
 
 in Austria 
 
 in Belgium 
 
 in the Netherlands 
 
 in France 
 
 in Denmark 
 
 in China 
 
 Edward the Elder 
 
 Edward the Confessor 
 
 Edward I. of England 
 
 Annexes Wales 
 
 Scotland, a Dependency 
 
 Rebellion of the Scotts 
 
 Edward II 
 
 Defeated and Captured 
 
 Edward III 
 
 Lays Claim to France 
 
 Defeats the French 
 
 Edward IV 
 
 Victory at Tewksbury 
 
 Defeated by Warwick 
 
 Edward V., murdered by Richard III 
 
 Edward the Black Prince 
 
 Edward VI 
 
 Abolishes Mass 
 
 Lady Jane Grey His Successor 
 
 Edwardian Age of England, The 
 
 Edwards, Jonathan 
 
 Edwin of Northumbria 
 
 Egbert, King of Wessex 
 
 Egypt, The most Ancient 
 
 The Geography of 
 
 Its Climate and Resources 
 
 The Rosetta Stone 
 
 First Egyptian Dynasty 
 
 Cheops, Pyramid and Sphinx 
 
 The Shepherd Kings.... 
 
 The Dawn of Thebes 
 
 The Memphian Kingdom 
 
 At Its Best 
 
 From Memphis to Thebes 
 
 Kanark and its Tombs 
 
 Cataracts ot the Nile 
 
 Reform in the Calendar 
 
 Amanothph and the Exodus 
 
 A G.impse of Greece 
 
 Rameses the Great 
 
 Home Development and Conquest. 
 
 Gold and its Influence 
 
 Decline of 
 
 Shishank and Bubastis 
 
 The Cushite Period 
 
 Commerce and Discovery 
 
 Assyrian and Persian Wars 
 
 Cambyses Work of Destruction. . 
 
 and Greece 
 
 University at Heliopolis 
 
 Coptic Justice 
 
 Clothing and Dwellings 
 
 Domestic Life in 
 
 Political Divisions in 
 
 Survey by an Eminent Writer. . . . 
 
 and Glory of Alexandria 
 
 Alexander and Alexandria 
 
 Papyrus Making 
 
 The First of the Ptolemies 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 334 
 
 33b 
 
 566 
 
 . . 209 
 
 241 247 
 
 2 S3 
 
 256 
 
 257 
 
 293 
 
 321 
 
 450 
 
 336 
 
 ... -33 6 
 
 343 
 
 344 
 
 • -345 
 
 34S 
 
 346 
 
 ....346 
 
 346 
 
 340 
 
 346 
 
 3S2 
 
 35* 
 
 353 
 
 354 
 
 34<5 
 
 358 
 
 358 
 
 258 
 
 347 
 
 ...639 
 
 334,3 8 3 
 
 335 
 
 44 
 
 44 
 
 - 44 
 
 ■ ..-45 
 
 4 6 
 
 46 
 
 ..,..47 
 
 47 
 
 47 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 49 
 
 5° 
 
 5° 
 
 51 
 
 51 
 
 52 
 
 52 
 
 52 
 
 S3 
 
 53 
 
 S3 
 
 53 
 
 53 
 
 54 
 
 54 
 
 54 
 
 ■ ••■54 
 
 54 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 56 
 
Xll. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Egypt, Alexandrian Commerce 56 
 
 Its Public Buildings 56 
 
 The Museum, The .Library 56 
 
 The Ptolemies and Science 57 
 
 Alexandrian Philosophy 57 
 
 Material Decline of Alexandria 57 
 
 Alexandrian Christianity 58 
 
 Theological Warfare 58 
 
 Zenobia in Egypt 58 
 
 The Saracen Invasion 58 
 
 Present 59 
 
 Turkish Subjugation 59 
 
 The Present Dynasty 59 
 
 Debt and Political Consequences 60 
 
 Railroads and the Suez Canal 60 
 
 Cairo and Alexandria 61 
 
 The Niles Natural Recources 62 
 
 Slave Trade and Education 62 
 
 The Present Population 6 2 
 
 The Fellahs, Copts and Turks 63 
 
 Elder Edda, The 324 
 
 Elgin Marbles 1 19 
 
 Eliot, John 638 
 
 Eliot, George 381 
 
 Elizabeth, Queen of England 358 
 
 Declines the Suit of Philip II 358 
 
 Defeats the Spanish Amada 358 
 
 Mary, Queen of Scots 359 
 
 Favorites of the Queen 359 
 
 Raleigh— Drake 359 
 
 English Literature 360 
 
 Elizabethan Age of Literature 360 
 
 Emancipation, The Proclamation of 538 
 
 Emanuel, Victor 186 
 
 Emerson, Ralph Waldo 645 
 
 Emigrants of France 276 
 
 Emigration of the Irish 390 
 
 Empire, The Roman 155 
 
 The Saracen 189, 195 
 
 The Byzantine 200 
 
 The Ottoman 205 
 
 The British 332 
 
 Emmet, Robert 393 
 
 Emperors from Augustus to Alaric 165 
 
 Encyclopedia of F ranee 271 
 
 England, Old 332 
 
 Early Britons 333 
 
 Caesar in Britain 333 
 
 The Druids 333 
 
 Roman Conquest 333 
 
 Advent of the Anglo-Saxon 334 
 
 Christian Evangelization 334 
 
 Irish and Roman Church 335 
 
 The Synod of Whitley 335 
 
 The Danish Incursion 335 
 
 From Alfred to Edward 335, 337 
 
 The Norman Invasion 337 
 
 Harold and William 337 
 
 Domesday Book and Realty 338 
 
 Henry I., Long Reign 338 
 
 and the Planta genets, Old 339 
 
 Thomas & Becket 339 
 
 Strongbow and Irish Subjugation 339 
 
 Henry II., Sorrows . 340 
 
 Richard Cceur de Leon .340 
 
 John and the Magna Charter 341 
 
 Henry III. and Parliament 341 
 
 Edward and the Barons 341 
 
 Roger Bacon, Scientist 34 2 
 
 Architecture and Free Masonry 342 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 England, Retrospect of Old 342 
 
 and the Plantagenets, Modern. 343 
 
 Edward I. and his Ambition 343 
 
 Llewellen, Welsh Policy 344 
 
 Arthurian Legends 345 
 
 Wallace, Bruce, Subjection of Scotland . .345 
 Edward and Scotch Independence. .... .345 
 
 Edward II.— Edward III 346 
 
 France and the Black Prince 346 
 
 Chaucer — Wycliflfe 347 
 
 Richard IT., and Wat. Tyler 34S 
 
 Houses of Lancaster and York 349 
 
 Period of the Roses . . .349 
 
 Henry IV. and Wycliffe 350 
 
 Henry V. in France 351 
 
 Henry VI.— One Hundred Years’ War.. 351 
 
 Jack Cade’s Insurrection 351 
 
 The War of the Roses 352 
 
 Edward IV 352 
 
 Warwick, the King Maker 352 
 
 Edward V.— Richard III 354 
 
 Bosworth Field 354 
 
 The House of the Tudors 355 
 
 Henry VII. and his Times 355 
 
 Henry VIII., his Character and Times. . .356 
 
 Edward VI. and Jane Grey 358 
 
 Bloody Mary 351 
 
 Accession of Elizabeth 358 
 
 Philip of Spain 358 
 
 Mary, Queen of Scots 358 
 
 The Elizabethan Age 358 
 
 Under the Tudors. 360 
 
 Ireland under the Tudors 360 
 
 The Stuarts and Commonwealth 361 j 
 
 The Gunpowder Plot 361 
 
 Sir Walter Raleigh 361 
 
 Tobacco and Potatoes 362 
 
 King James Version 362 
 
 Virginia and New England. 362 
 
 Charles I. and Royalty...., 362 
 
 Cromwell, The Long Parliament 363 
 
 The Commonwealth 364 
 
 Charles II., James II 364 
 
 William and Mary- Anne 365 
 
 Close of Stuart Dynasty . .366 
 
 At the Present Time 367 
 
 The Georges — William IV 368 
 
 Victoria and Prince Albert 368 
 
 Colonian Intervention 371 
 
 Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars 371 
 
 The Corn Laws 371 
 
 Political Parties and Leaders 372 
 
 Royalty, its Palaces and Revenues 373 
 
 Parliament, Thj Ministry 373 
 
 The United Kingdom and British Empire. 373 
 
 Colonial Possessions 373 
 
 England, The Literature of 375 
 
 Chaucer and his Times 376 
 
 Shakespeare and his Contemporaries ...376 
 
 Milton and his Contemporaries . 378 
 
 Literature of the Restoration 378 
 
 Addison and the Spectator 379 
 
 Byron and his Peers 3S0 
 
 The Great Novelists 3S1 
 
 Contemporary Men of Letters 381 
 
 Latest Type of Literature in 3S1 
 
 English, William H 569 
 
 Ephesus, The City of 126 
 
 Temple of Diana 
 
 Epicurean and Stoic Philosophy 1 16 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Epictetus 161, 163 
 
 Erfurt, The University of 230 
 
 Ergamenes 65 
 
 Eric of Denmark 321 
 
 Ericsson, John 533» *> 2 7 
 
 Erin, as Known to the Celts 367 
 
 Erostratus 126 
 
 Escurial, Palaces of the 30S 
 
 Espartero, Regent 312 
 
 Esquimaux of Labrador 399 
 
 Essenessect 74 
 
 Ethelbert, Earl of Kent 334 
 
 Ether, Discovery of 627 
 
 Ethiopia Subjugated by Egypt 51 
 
 Secession of 5 2 
 
 and the Phoenicians 64 
 
 and Egypt 65 
 
 Elective Monarchy 65 
 
 The Arts and Sciences of 65 
 
 Present Ethiopia or Abyssinia 65 
 
 Etrusci and the Etruscans 134 
 
 Romans Capture 14 1 
 
 Etruscan Art 140 
 
 Euripedes no 
 
 Eutaw Springs, The Battle of 514 
 
 Evilmerodach 83 
 
 Executive Department, The 572 
 
 Exodus from Egypt, The 49 
 
 Exposition, The Centennial 565 
 
 Ezra the Scribe 70 
 
 Fabian Policy, The 146 
 
 Fabius, Consul of Rome 146 
 
 Fable, The Golden Age of 40 
 
 Poland and Its 218 
 
 The China of. . . 442 
 
 Factory System, The 624 
 
 Fairbanks, Thaddeus 626 
 
 American Scales 626 
 
 Fair Oaks, Battle of. 535 
 
 Farragut, Admiral 549 
 
 Farmer, From Shepherd to 42 
 
 Fatima, The Dynasty of 59 
 
 Federalists of the U. S., The 517 
 
 Fellahs of Egypt, The 62 
 
 Fenelon 269 
 
 Fenian Brotherhood, The 393 
 
 Ferdinand of Germany. . 232 
 
 Ferdinand IV 250 
 
 Ferdinand and Isabella 300 
 
 Capture of Malaga 299 
 
 Ferdinand VII., of Spain 310 
 
 Fergus, The Celt 3S2 
 
 Ferrend, Extract From 220 
 
 Feudalism and Feudal Tenures 189 
 
 Defined by Guizot 190 
 
 in Poland 218 
 
 in the Netherlands 25S 
 
 in Scotland 3^4 
 
 Fichte 246 
 
 Fifteenth Amendment 553 
 
 Fiji Islands, The 4S4 
 
 Fillmore, Millard 526, 5S4 
 
 Finances of the Confederacy 560 
 
 Fire Arms, The Manufactory of. 625 
 
 P'isher, Capture of For' 559 
 
 Fisheries, Canadian 595 
 
 of the United States 629 
 
 Flanders, The Count of. 258 
 
 Flavii, a Roman Family 167 
 
 Flemish and Dutch Art 260 
 
INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Flodden Heights, Battle of. 385 
 
 Florence, The City of 186 
 
 Florida 498, 598 
 
 Florida Purchased 3 11 
 
 Fontaine, La 270 
 
 Foote, Commodore 53 2 
 
 Forrest, General 545, 554 
 
 Forum at Rome, The 160 
 
 Fourteenth Amendment 553 
 
 France, Old.... 201 
 
 Ancient Gaul 261 
 
 Clovis and the Franks 261 
 
 The Merovingian Line 262 
 
 Charles Martel and Saracens 262 
 
 Carlovingian and Capetian Dynasties.. .262 
 
 The House of Valois 262 
 
 Abelard and Heloise 263 
 
 St. Louis, Molay, Serfs 263 
 
 Battle of Agincourt and Joan of Arc 264 
 
 The Renaissance and Rabelais 264 
 
 The Vandois and John Calvin 265 
 
 Massacre of St. Bartholomew's 265 
 
 Protestantism Organized in 266 
 
 Triumph and Decay of Monarchy 267 
 
 Henry of Navarre 267 
 
 Recantation and Toleration 268 
 
 Louis XIII., Richelieu 268 
 
 Louis XV 26S 
 
 Intellectual Progress 268 
 
 Persecution and Oppression 269 
 
 Literati of that Period 269 
 
 Louis XV. and John Law 270 
 
 Finance and Colonization .270 
 
 American Revolution 271 
 
 Great Revolutionary Writers 271 
 
 Colonies in America 271 
 
 Colony in India 270 
 
 The Revolution in 272 
 
 States General — National Assembly 272 
 
 The Bastile— The Emigrants 275 
 
 Flight of the Royal Party 276 
 
 Legislative Assembly 276 
 
 Change of the Calendar 276 
 
 The Jacobins 276 
 
 The Girondists and Paine 276 
 
 The Reign of Terror 277 
 
 The Directory 277 
 
 Napoleon and the Revolution 277 
 
 Notable Characters 278 
 
 The Code Napoleon 278 
 
 Napoleon and His Campaigns 281 
 
 Latter Day 289 
 
 A Recall of the Bourbons 289 
 
 Louis Phillipe, King 2S9 
 
 Louis Napoleon 290 
 
 The Siege of Paris 291 
 
 Centralization in 292 
 
 Importance of Paris 292 
 
 Land and Rents 293 
 
 Religion and Education 293 
 
 Colonial Possessions 293 
 
 Contemporary French Literature 393 
 
 The Rise of the Republic 292 
 
 Jules Grevy, President 292 
 
 The Cities of 292 
 
 Franks Invade Gaul 261 
 
 Franklin, Benj 507, 623, 639 
 
 Franklin, Battle of 546 
 
 Fredericksburg, Battle of 537 
 
 Free Masonry in England 342 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Free Trade in England 371 
 
 Fremont, John C 528, 532 
 
 French of Canada, The 395 
 
 Settlements in the Miss. Valley 499 
 
 French Revolution, The 272 
 
 France Declares War Against Germany 239 
 
 Francis, Joseph I., of Austria 251 
 
 Franks Allies of Rome, The 184 
 
 Under Charlemagne 184 
 
 Invade Gaul 261 
 
 Frederick I., called Barbarossa 225 
 
 and the Lombards 226 
 
 and the Crusades 226 
 
 Frederick II., and the Crusades 192, 226 
 
 Wears the Crown of Jerusalem 226 
 
 Drives Pope Gregory IX. From Rome.. 226 
 
 Establishes Court at Palermo 226 
 
 Frederick I., King of Prussia 235 
 
 Frederick William I., King of Prussia. . ...235 
 Frederick William IV., King of Prussia. . ..338 
 
 Frederick William, Crown Prince 240 
 
 Frederick II., Called Frederick the Great.. .236 
 
 War with Austria 236 
 
 The Seven Years' War 236 
 
 Division of Poland 236 
 
 Sympathy for America 237 
 
 Frederick III. of Austria 250 
 
 Fuller, Margaret 642 
 
 Fuller, Thomas 378 
 
 Fulton, Robert 623 
 
 Fushimi, Battle of 432 
 
 Gaelic Language, The 3S8 
 
 Gaines Farm, Battle of 536 
 
 Galba, a Roman Imperator 166 
 
 Galerius, a Roman Imperator 168 
 
 Galileo 35 
 
 Galveston, Capture of 538 
 
 Gama, Vasco da 317 
 
 Gambetta. 291 
 
 Games, The Four Greek 107 
 
 Garibaldi, of Italy. . . . 186 
 
 Garfield, James A 532, 569, 5S5 
 
 Gates, General 512 
 
 Gaul, Conquered by Rome 261 
 
 Invaded by Germans 261 
 
 Invaded by Franks 261 
 
 Gauls Invade Rome, The 142 
 
 Genghis Khan, a Tartar Chief.. . 212 
 
 Genoa and Pisa, The Cities of. . ... 184 
 
 Geographic, by Ptolemy, of Alexandria 128 
 
 Geography of Egypt, The 44 
 
 Geological Periods 37 
 
 Chart. 38 
 
 Developments 39 
 
 George I., Elector and King 367 
 
 South Sea Bubble 367 
 
 George II 368 
 
 George III 368 
 
 The Revolutionary War 368 
 
 George IV 368 
 
 George, Prince of Denmark 131 
 
 Georgia 49 s * 599 
 
 Georgies of Virgil, The 161 
 
 German Thought and Intelligence 242 
 
 Music and Literature 243 
 
 Universities and Libraries 347 
 
 Philosophy 245 
 
 Order in the North 227 
 
 Germans, The Medieval 223 
 
 Germany, Medieval 223 
 
 xiii. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Germany, The Ancient Teutons 223 
 
 Introduction of Christianity 224 
 
 The Merovingan Kings 224 
 
 Charles the Hammer 225 
 
 Reign of the Stewards. . 225 
 
 Charlemagne, Ludwig 225 
 
 Barbarossa, Otto 225 
 
 Inquisition and Frederick II 226 
 
 Decline of the Empire .226 
 
 The Hanseatic League 227 
 
 Conversion of Prussia 227 
 
 and the Reformation 228 
 
 John Huss at Prague 228 
 
 Byzantine Empire Falls 229 
 
 Invention of Printing and Paper 230 
 
 Martin Luther, Diet of Worms 231 
 
 Translation of the Bible 231 
 
 The Augsburg Confession 232 
 
 The Thirty Years' War 232 
 
 Adolphus and Wallenstein 233 
 
 The Peace of Westphalia 233 
 
 The Lutheran Church 234 
 
 New 235 
 
 Military Beginning of New 235 
 
 Rise of Prussia, Frederick William 235 
 
 Frederick and Maria Theresa 236 
 
 The Division of Poland 236 
 
 The French Revolution and 237 
 
 Napoleon in Germany 237 
 
 Jena Blucher and Waterloo 237 
 
 The Uprising in 1S48 23S 
 
 William I. and Bismarck 238 
 
 Schleswig and Holstein 238 
 
 The Seven Weeks’ War 239 
 
 The Hohenzollerns . . 239 
 
 The Franco-Prussian War 239 
 
 The Seven Months’ War 240 
 
 Paris, its Resistance and Capitulation . . . 240 
 
 Alsace-Loraine 240 
 
 Present States and Reconstruction 24 1 
 
 Compulsory Education and Army 241 
 
 Area and Population 241 
 
 Intellectual 242 
 
 Development of German Thought 242 
 
 An Intellectual Quadrangle 242 
 
 Attainments in Music 242, 244 
 
 Philosophers of 245 
 
 Universities and Libraries of 247 
 
 Scholarship of. 248 
 
 Gettysburg, Battle of . 538 
 
 Gibralter, The Straits of. 53, 309, 369 
 
 Gideon and His Band 70 
 
 Gilbert of Ravena, Pope 1S0 
 
 Gilbert, Sir Humphrey 491 
 
 Girondists of France 276 
 
 Gladstone, William E 372 
 
 Gloucester, The Earl of 351 
 
 Gluck 245 
 
 God Ammon, The 56 
 
 Thoth, The 49 
 
 Godfrey of Bouillon 191 , 263 
 
 Gods of Mythology 120 
 
 Godwin, Earl of Wessex 337 
 
 Goethe 243 
 
 Golden Age of Fable 40 
 
 of Poetry . . .161 
 
 Golden Horde of Tartars 212 
 
 Goldsmith, Oliver 380 
 
 Goodyear, Charles 627 
 
 Gorilla, The 39 
 
XIV. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Gothic Alphabet, The 223 
 
 Spain 294 
 
 Goths of Germany, The 22S 
 
 Goudar, City of 66 
 
 Government of the United States 571 
 
 of Italy 186 
 
 of Turkey 20S 
 
 Gracchus, Tiberius 149 
 
 Gracchus, Caius 149 
 
 Gradations of Development 41 
 
 Granada and the Alhambra 29S 
 
 Grand Vizier, The 20S 
 
 Grand Llama 441 
 
 Grant, U. S. . . 532, 534 539, 546, 553, 554, 564, 585 
 
 Gratian, Emperor 17 1 
 
 Gravelotte, Battle of 240 
 
 Gray, Asa. 644 
 
 Gray, Thomas 380 
 
 Great Britain, Territory of 332 
 
 Greece and Hero Worship 90 
 
 Its Pre-eminence 90 
 
 Grecian Peculiarity 90 
 
 Age of Fable and Poetry 90 
 
 Its Political Divisions 91 
 
 Grote and Schliemann 91 
 
 Heroic Age and Hercules 91 
 
 Theseus and the Amazons 92 
 
 The Trbjan Heroes 92 
 
 Homers and the Heroic Age 92 
 
 The Siege of Troy 93 
 
 The Wanderings of Ulysses 94 
 
 Historic Wars 95 
 
 The Spartans and Messenians 95 
 
 The Four Great Wars of 96 
 
 Asia Minor and Crcesus 96 
 
 The Persians and Ionians 96 
 
 Persian Invasion 97 
 
 The Glories of Marathon 97 
 
 Thermopylaj and Its Defense 98 
 
 The Battle of Salamis 98 
 
 Themistocles and Greece’s Ingratitude. ..99 
 
 The Peloponnesian War 99 
 
 The Genius of Pericles 90 
 
 Philip of Macedon 100 
 
 Alexander the Great 100 
 
 Roman Conquest 102 
 
 Modern Greek Heroism 102 
 
 State Craft in 103 
 
 Lycurgus and His Laws 103 
 
 The Spartan Monarchy 103 
 
 The Laws of Draco 105 
 
 Solon and Athens 105 
 
 The Constitution and Its Features 105 
 
 Solon and Lycurgus 106 
 
 Clenisthenes and Democracy 106 
 
 Pericles the Statesman 106 
 
 The Four Leagues and Games 107 
 
 The Delphi Oracle 108 
 
 Classic Literature of 109 
 
 Homer in Literature 109 
 
 Hesiod, ./Esop, and other Poets no 
 
 Sapho, Pindar, and the Lyrists no 
 
 The Dramatists and Attica no 
 
 Comedy and Aristophanes in 
 
 Herodotus Xenophon and Plato in 
 
 Aristotle and Philosophy 112 
 
 Demosthenes and Oratory 113 
 
 Philosophy and Art 114 
 
 Socrates and His Philosophy 115 
 
 Epicureans, Stoics and Cynics. 116 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Greece, Painting and Sculpture 117 
 
 Orders of Grecian Architecture 118 
 
 The Elgin Marbles 119 
 
 and Rome, Mythology of. 120 
 
 Jupiter and Celestial Heredity 120 
 
 The Amours of the Gods 121 
 
 Olympus 122 
 
 Phaeton and His Presumption 124 
 
 Pegasus and Poetry 123 
 
 Centaurs and Other Monsters 123 
 
 The Riddle of the Sphinx 124 
 
 Orpheus and Eurydice 144 
 
 and the Greek Church 129 
 
 Corinth, Ancient and Modern 129 
 
 Byzantine and Moslem Rule 130 
 
 The Venetians and the Parthenon 130 
 
 The Greek Revolution 13 1 
 
 Intervention of the Great Powers 13 1 
 
 The Monarchy Established 131 
 
 Present Government of. -131 
 
 Condition of the Country 132 
 
 Greek Church and 132 
 
 Greek Church Elsewhere 133 
 
 Its Characteristics 132 
 
 Outer Greece 125 
 
 Greek Church, The. 17 1 
 
 Poets and Philosophers 90 
 
 Greeley, Horace 564, 644 
 
 Green, General 514 
 
 Greenland Discovered 324 
 
 Gregorian Calendar, The 35 
 
 Gregory XIII., Pope 35 
 
 Gregory The Great 179 
 
 Gregory II., Pope 180 
 
 Gregory VII., (Hildebrand) 180 
 
 War of the Investitures 180 
 
 Gregory IX., Pope 226 
 
 Grevy, Jules ... 292 
 
 Grey, Lady Jane 358 
 
 Guatemala 478 
 
 Guiana, French, English and Dutch 470 
 
 Guinea, a Tract of Country in Africa 457 
 
 Guilford Court House, The Battle of 514 
 
 Guise, House of 266 
 
 Gunpowder, First Used 228 
 
 Gunpowder Plot of Guy Fawkes 361 
 
 Gustavus, Wasa 322 
 
 Gustavus, Adolphus.... 323 
 
 Gutenberg, John 230 
 
 Hadrian, Emperor 16S 
 
 Haeckel, Ernest 247 
 
 Hague, The City of the. 256 
 
 Hale, John P 527 
 
 Halicarnassus, City of 125 
 
 Halifax, Canada, The City of 398 
 
 Hallam and the Dark Ages 193 
 
 Halle School of Philosophy 247 
 
 Halleck, Gen. H. W 550 
 
 Halleck, Fitz Greene 641 
 
 Hamilcar 145 
 
 Hamilton, Sir William 3S6 
 
 Hamilton, Alexander 517, 51S, 636, 640 
 
 Hamlet, Prince of Denmark 322 
 
 Hampden, John 363 
 
 Hampton, Wade 5^3 
 
 Hancock, General W. S 535, 550, 569 
 
 Hancock, John S°6 
 
 Handel 245 
 
 Hannibal *45» *4^ 
 
 Hanno 145 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Hanseatic League 327 
 
 Hapsburg, The Dynasty of 250 
 
 in the Netherlands 358 
 
 Hardee, General 563 
 
 Harper’s Ferry, Brown at 529 
 
 Harrison, William H 525, 584 
 
 Harte, Bret 649 
 
 Hastings, Battle of. 337 
 
 Haydn, Joseph 24$ 
 
 Hayti, The Island of 481 
 
 Havana, The City of 480 
 
 Hawthorne, Nathaniel 648 
 
 Hawthorne, Julian 64S 
 
 Hawaiian Islands, The 484 
 
 Hayes, Rutherford B 565, 585 
 
 Headley, J. T 64S 
 
 Headley, P. C 648 
 
 Hebert 377 
 
 Hebrew Nation, The 68 
 
 Bible, The 73 
 
 Literature and Sects 73 
 
 Hegel 246 
 
 Heine, Heinerich 244 
 
 Heison II 126 
 
 Heidleberg, The University of. 248 
 
 Helen, Wife of Menelaus 92 
 
 Heliopolis, The City of 29 
 
 University of 53 
 
 Helenic University, The 57 
 
 Helveti and Switzerland 325 
 
 Hendricks, Thomas A 566 
 
 Henry III. of Germany 180 
 
 Henry II. of France 266 
 
 Henry III. of France 267 
 
 Henry IV. of France 266, 267, 26S 
 
 Henry, Count of Portugal 315 
 
 Henry I. of England 339 
 
 Henry II. of England 33S, 339, 340 
 
 Henry III. of England 341 
 
 Parliament Established 341 
 
 Henry IV. of England 350 
 
 Henry V., King of England 351 
 
 Henry VI. of England and France 351 
 
 Henry Tudor Defeats Richard III 354 
 
 Crowned Henry' VII 355 
 
 Henry VIII., King of England 356 
 
 Henry, Patrick 503 
 
 Henry, Capture of Fort 533 
 
 Herbert, George 378 
 
 Hercules 91 
 
 Herder .243 
 
 Hero Worship, Greek 90 
 
 Heroic Age, The 90 
 
 Herods of Jewish History 71 
 
 Herodotus 1 1 1 
 
 Herring, S. C 627 
 
 Herschel, Sir William 35 
 
 Herzegovina, Province of 254 
 
 Hesiod 103 
 
 Hibernia, as Known to the Romans 3S7 
 
 Hildebrand, Pope 180 
 
 Highlanders of Scotland. .. 3S3 
 
 Highways of Rome, The 137 
 
 Hildreth, Richard 644 
 
 Hill, General A. P 536, 563 
 
 Hill, General D. H 563 
 
 Hiram of Phoenicia. . . 67 
 
 Historic Wars of Greece 95 
 
 History, Before 23 
 
 Hitchcock, Edward 644 
 
INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Hohenlinden, Battle of 237 
 
 Hohenstau-fels, Dynasty 226 
 
 Hohenzollerns, House of 235 
 
 Holland, J. G 648 
 
 Holland, Kingdom of 256, 259 
 
 Holly Springs, The Battle of 538 
 
 Holmes, O. W 646 
 
 Holy Alliance, The 213 
 
 Humboldt, Von 23, 248 
 
 Homemnes. 50 
 
 Homer 90, 103, 109 
 
 Honduras, The State of 47S 
 
 British 479 
 
 Honorius 171 
 
 Hood, General 545, 546 
 
 Hood, Thomas 380 
 
 Hooker, General 535, 538, 541, 550 
 
 Hopkins, Ezekiel 515 
 
 Hopkins, Samuel 623 
 
 Horace 162 
 
 Hottentot, The 39 
 
 House of Representatives, The 572 
 
 Houston, General Sam 525 
 
 Howard, General O. 0 553 
 
 Howe, Elias 626 
 
 Howells, J- D 649 
 
 Howe, Lord 509 
 
 Howe, General 509 
 
 Hudson's Bay Company 396 
 
 Huguenots of France 265 
 
 Hull, General 519 
 
 Hume, David 379, 386 
 
 Hungarians and Maria Theresa 236 
 
 History 250 
 
 Literature and Language 254 
 
 Hungary- Austria 249 
 
 The Hapsburg and 250 
 
 The Dual Government 250 
 
 and Maria Theresa 236, 250 
 
 Area of. 250 
 
 Hunter to Shepherd, From 41 
 
 Huss, John, at Prague 22S 
 
 Opposition to the Romish Church 228 
 
 Hussite War, The 228 
 
 Huxley 381 
 
 Hyades, The 332 
 
 Ibrahim 60, 131 
 
 Ibrahim, The Devil 219 
 
 Iberia, or Celtic Spain 294 
 
 Iceland and its Government 320 
 
 Iconoclasts, Reign of the 201 
 
 Ida, Mount 126 
 
 Idaho Territory 599 
 
 Ignatius, Bishop 176 
 
 Iliad, Homer's 92 
 
 Illinois 599 
 
 Imitation of Christ 181 
 
 Immaculate Conception Proclaimed 182 
 
 Impeachment Trial of Johnson 554 
 
 Inauguration of Washington 519 
 
 India of the Ancients . 127 
 
 India, the French in 270 
 
 India, British 400 
 
 Victoria, Empress of 400 
 
 The Aryan Race 400 
 
 Alexander the Great 403 
 
 Portuguese and Dutch 403 
 
 British Expulsion of the Dutch 404 
 
 Lord Clive and Surajah Dowlah 404 
 
 Hasting , s--Cornwallis 404 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 India, The Sepoy Mutiny 407 
 
 Viceroys of the Crown ... .407 
 
 Owen Merideth — Lord Ripon 407 
 
 The Mogul Empire 408 
 
 Benares the Holy City 408 
 
 Sanskrit and its Possibilities 408 
 
 Railways— Population — Religion 408 
 
 Indian Territory 6oi, 4S9 
 
 Indian Wars in the West 516 
 
 War in Florida 520 
 
 Indiana 601 
 
 Indians, The American 485 
 
 Origin of the Race 485 
 
 Mounds and Mound -Builders 4S6 
 
 Cliff Houses 4S5 
 
 Cave Dwellers 4S7 
 
 Native Tribes of the Atlantic 4S8 
 
 Reservations of the United States 4S9 
 
 The Indian Bureau 4S9 
 
 The Indian Territory 489 
 
 Opportunity and Prospects 490 
 
 Their Relation to U. S. History 490 
 
 Indians of Canada, The 396 
 
 Industries of the U. S 629 
 
 Infallibility, Papal 182 
 
 Inker man, Battle of 214 
 
 Innocent III 181, 192, 226 
 
 Inquisition Established, The 181 
 
 of Spain, The 301 
 
 Insurance 636 
 
 Intellectual Germany 242 
 
 Interior, The Secretary of the 577 
 
 Investitures, War of 1S0 
 
 Ionians, The 97 
 
 Isles, The 126 
 
 Iowa 602 
 
 Iphegenia 92 
 
 Irenaeus of Lyons 176 
 
 Ireland, England, In 340 
 
 Subjugated by the Tudors 360 
 
 and the Irish 387 
 
 Its Situation and Area 387 
 
 Roads and Products of 387 
 
 Conversion under St. Patrick 387 
 
 Its Language and Literature 38S 
 
 Counties and Provinces 388 
 
 English Rule 38S 
 
 Daniel O’Connell and Parnell ....3S9 
 
 Revolution and Reform 389 
 
 Emigrations to America. ... 390 
 
 Irish Land Law — Its Cities 390 
 
 Emmet and the United Irishmen 393 
 
 The Fenian Brotherhood 393 
 
 The Land League 393 
 
 Irish Missionaries in England 335 
 
 Policy of the Tudors 360 
 
 Church, The 387 
 
 Land Bill, The 39 ° 
 
 Iron Industry, The 633 
 
 Irving, Washington 642 
 
 Isaac to Moses, From 69 
 
 Isabella, Ferdinand and 300, 305 
 
 Isabella II 3 12 
 
 Islam, see Saracen, also Mohammed 
 
 The University of 61 
 
 The Followers of. 198 
 
 and Constantinople 207 
 
 Islands, The Ionian 126 
 
 Isles of the Sea.. 479 
 
 Ismail, Khedive of Egypt 60 
 
 XV. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Isocrates 113 
 
 Ispahan, Capital of Persia 89 
 
 Israel and the Hebrews 68 
 
 Isthmian Games, The 107 
 
 Italians — Italy and the 1S4 
 
 Italy and Primitive Rome 133 
 
 The Peninsular of Ancient 134 
 
 and the Italians 184 
 
 The Youngest Nation 184 
 
 The Lombards 184 
 
 in the Dark Ages 185 
 
 The Free Cities 1S5 
 
 The Chief Glory of Medieval 185 
 
 Emanuel and Italian Unity 186 
 
 Pope Pio Nino 186 
 
 The Present Government 187 
 
 Condition of the Country 187 
 
 Literature and Art of 187 
 
 The Italian Renaissance 188 
 
 luka, Battle of. 538 
 
 Ivan, Grand Prince of Moscow 212 
 
 Expels the Golden Horde 212 
 
 Monarch of the Russias 212 
 
 Ivan, The Terrible 212 
 
 Ivry, The Battle of 267 
 
 Iyeyas, Emperor 43 x 
 
 Jackson, Andrew 520, 524, 583 
 
 Jackson, Gen. Stonewall 535, 562 
 
 Jacob in Egypt 69 
 
 Jacobins of F ranee, The 276 
 
 Jagellos Family, The 219 
 
 James I. of England 361 
 
 The Gunpowder Plot 361 
 
 Translation of the Bible 362 
 
 James I. of Scotland 384 
 
 The Baronial Power 384 
 
 James II. of England 365 
 
 Establishes the Bloody Assizes 365 
 
 Defeated at Boyne 363 
 
 James II. of Scotland 384 
 
 Civil and Border Warfare 384 
 
 James V. of Scotland 384 
 
 Navy Built and Fisheries Established. . .385 
 
 Defeated at Flodden ....385 
 
 James VI. of Scotland 386 
 
 James, Jr., Henry 649 
 
 Janizaries, The 206 
 
 Japan and the Japanese 427 
 
 Description of the Country 427 
 
 Its Cities, Products and Population 428 
 
 Mines and Minerals 428 
 
 Its Early History 428 
 
 Its Greatest Queen Kogu 429 
 
 Letters and Philosophy 429 
 
 Buddhism Introduced 430 
 
 First Contact with Europeans 430 
 
 Jesuit Missions, The Dutch 431 
 
 Tycoon Iyeyas 431 
 
 America and Commodore Perry 431 
 
 Fall of the Daimios 432 
 
 Christian Calendar Adopted 433 
 
 as it is, or New Japan 433 
 
 Idolatry and Sintuism 433 
 
 Methods of Transportation 433 
 
 Modern Missions 433 
 
 Japanese Literature.... 433 
 
 Java 256 
 
 Jay, John 640 
 
 Jefferson, Thomas 518, 5S0, 640 
 
 Jena, Battle of. 237, 285 
 
xvi. 
 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 
 Jephthah 
 
 
 Juvenal 
 
 
 
 Legislative Assembly of France.. 
 
 
 
 
 Jerome 
 
 
 Kaani, Persian 
 
 
 ..89 
 
 Legends, The Arthurian 
 
 
 345 
 
 
 Jerome, Chauncy 
 
 
 
 
 
 Leicester, Earl of 
 
 
 
 
 Jerusalem 
 
 
 Kansas-Nebraska Bill, The 
 
 
 •527 
 
 Leipzig, The University of 
 
 
 
 
 and the Jews 
 
 
 Kant, Immanuel 
 
 
 
 The Battle of 
 
 
 237 
 
 
 Submits to Alexander 
 
 7° 
 
 Karaites 
 
 
 
 Leo The Great, Pope 
 
 
 
 
 Captured by Ptolemy Soter 
 
 
 Katzbach, The Battle of 
 
 
 .237 
 
 Leo X. and Luther 
 
 • ■79. 
 
 l8l, 231 
 
 
 Destroyed by Titus 
 
 
 Kearny, General 
 
 
 
 Leo III., Pope 
 
 
 1S0 
 
 
 Godfrey, King of 
 
 
 Keats, John, English Poet 
 
 
 .380 
 
 Crowns Charlemagne 
 
 
 
 
 Christians Driven out by Saladin 192 
 
 Keiser 
 
 
 244 
 
 Leo III. of Byzantine 
 
 
 
 
 Jesus the Christ 
 
 
 Kempis, k Thomas 
 
 
 .181 
 
 The Reign of the Iconoclasis. . 
 
 
 
 
 The Society of 
 
 
 Kenneth, King of the Lowlands 
 
 
 .383 
 
 Leo IV. of the Byzantine 
 
 
 
 
 Jesuitism and the Inquisition 
 
 181 
 
 Kent, Chancellor 
 
 
 .643 
 
 Leo XIII., Pope 
 
 
 183 
 
 
 The Boast of 
 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 
 .603 
 
 Leonidas at Thermopylae 
 
 
 98 
 
 
 Jesuit Missions in Japan, China and 
 
 India.. .431 
 
 Kepler, The Astronomer 
 
 
 ••35 
 
 Leopold of Saxe Coburg, Prince... 
 
 
 ■3>. 255 
 
 
 in America . . . 
 
 
 Key, Francis S 
 
 
 
 Leopold II. of Saxe Coburg 
 
 
 255 
 
 
 Jesuits, The Society of the 
 
 
 Khedive of Egypt, The 
 
 
 •59 
 
 Lepidus, Antony, Caesar’s Master of Horse. 157 
 
 
 Dissolution by Papal Bull 
 
 1S2 
 
 Kiah-tsing, Chinese Emperor 
 
 
 
 Lesseps, M. de 
 
 
 
 
 Jewish Literature and Sects 
 
 
 Kingdom, The Animal 
 
 
 
 Lessing, a German Dramatist 
 
 
 243 
 
 
 History — The Intangible in 
 
 73 
 
 Kings, The Legendary 
 
 
 ■38 
 
 Lexington, Battle of 
 
 
 5°4 
 
 
 Persecutions in England 
 
 346 
 
 Kings, The Shepherd 
 
 
 • •47 
 
 Liberal Leaders of England 
 
 
 372 
 
 
 Jews, The 
 
 68 
 
 Kirk of Scotland 
 
 
 .386 
 
 Liberia, The Republic of 
 
 
 457 
 
 
 A Peculiar People 
 
 
 Klopstock 
 
 
 
 Liberius, The Thirty-Sixth Pope . . 
 
 
 >79 
 
 
 The Fatherhood of Abraham. .. 
 
 68 
 
 Knights of St. John, The 
 
 
 D93 
 
 Libraries and Universities of Germany 
 
 247 
 
 
 From Isaac to Moses 
 
 <59 
 
 Knox, John, and Presbyterianism 
 
 
 
 Lichtenstein, The Province of 
 
 
 254 
 
 
 The Period of the Judges 
 
 69 
 
 Konasski, Stanislas 
 
 
 
 Limbourg, The Dukedom of. 
 
 
 
 
 Saul and David 
 
 7° 
 
 Koran of Mohammed, The 
 
 
 
 Lincoln, Abraham 
 
 53°, 546. 585 
 
 
 Solomon King, Poet and Philosopher 70 
 
 Kosciusko, Thaddeus, Defends Poland 
 
 
 
 Lisbon Taken from the Moors 
 
 
 3iS 
 
 
 Disunion and Subjugation 
 
 7° 
 
 in America 
 
 
 
 Great Earthquake in 
 
 
 316 
 
 
 The Restoration and the Maccabees 71 
 
 Koshroes II., King of Persia 
 
 
 .197 
 
 Literature of the Jews 
 
 
 73 
 
 
 Under the Roman Rod 
 
 
 Kossuth 
 
 
 
 The Hebrew Bible 
 
 
 73 
 
 
 Destruction of Jerusalem 
 
 
 Krasicki, Archbishop 
 
 
 
 The Septuagint. The Talmud 
 
 
 73 
 
 
 Persecution in Dispersion 
 
 7 2 
 
 Kremlin at Moscow, The 
 
 
 .214 
 
 Sadduces and Pharisees. Essenes. 
 
 74 
 
 
 Improved Condition of the 
 
 
 Kublai-Khan 
 
 
 •443 
 
 Testimony of Pliny 
 
 
 74 
 
 
 Jerusalem and the 
 
 
 Ku Klux Klan, The 
 
 
 554 
 
 Philo on the Essenes 
 
 
 74 
 
 
 In Poland 
 
 
 Labrador and the Esquimaux 
 
 
 • 399 
 
 Josephus on Jewish Sects 
 
 
 74 
 
 
 Persecution in Spain 
 
 
 Lafayette de Marquis 271 
 
 272, 
 
 Sii 
 
 The Chasidim 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 Joan of Arc 
 
 
 Lake Regillus, Battle of. 
 
 
 137 
 
 Felix Adler on the Jews 
 
 
 
 
 John the Evangelist 
 
 >76 
 
 Trasimenus, Battle of 
 
 
 146 
 
 of Persia 
 
 
 Sq 
 
 
 John of Saxony 
 
 >31 
 
 Lamartine 
 
 
 
 Greek Classics 
 
 
 
 
 John of England 
 
 
 Lancaster, The House of 
 
 
 •349 
 
 The Latin and Preclassic 
 
 
 
 
 Signs the Magna Charter 
 
 34 1 
 
 Land Bill, The Irish 
 
 
 39° 
 
 Italian 
 
 
 '87 
 
 
 John III. of Portugal 
 
 3*8 
 
 Land League of Ireland 
 
 
 
 In the Dark Ages 
 
 
 .... 193 
 
 
 Establishes Kingdom of Brazil. 
 
 318 
 
 Language of Ireland, Original 
 
 
 •3S7 
 
 of the Sarace n Empire 
 
 
 ....■99 
 
 
 John Maria Joseph 
 
 318 
 
 Laoc66n, The , 
 
 
 IIQ 
 
 Turkish 
 
 
 
 
 John of Gaunt 
 
 
 LaPlat 1 of South America 
 
 
 468 
 
 of Poland 
 
 
 
 
 Johnson, Dr. Samuel, Lexographer. 
 
 366 
 
 Lathe, The 
 
 
 .625 
 
 of Germany 
 
 
 
 
 Johnson, Andrew 
 
 545. 553 > 585 
 
 Latin Classics 
 
 
 l60 
 
 of Hungary 
 
 
 254 
 
 
 Johnston, Albert Sydney 
 
 
 Macauley and Primitive Latin 
 
 
 160 
 
 Under Louis XIV 
 
 
 
 
 Johnston, Joseph E 535* 
 
 545. 546, 562 
 
 The Golden Age 
 
 
 l6l 
 
 of Cordova and Moorish Spain 
 
 
 297 
 
 
 Jones, John Paul 
 
 
 The Silver Age 
 
 
 .163 
 
 of Spain 
 
 
 3*3 
 
 
 Joseph, Son of Jacob 
 
 
 The Historians of Rome 
 
 
 164 
 
 of Portugal 
 
 
 3*9 
 
 
 Joseph II 
 
 
 Latium, The Ancient Nation of. 
 
 
 •134 
 
 of the Scandinavians 
 
 
 ••• 325 
 
 
 Josephus 
 
 
 Law, John, “Mississippi Bubble.” 
 
 
 
 in England 
 
 347. 360, 375 
 
 
 Joshua 
 
 
 Law, The Coptic 
 
 
 
 in Scotland 
 
 
 
 
 Jovian 
 
 
 The Jewish 
 
 
 
 in Ireland 
 
 
 3SS 
 
 
 Juana 
 
 
 The Licinian 
 
 
 •■49 
 
 of the Japanese 
 
 
 428 
 
 
 Juarez, President of Mexico 
 
 465 
 
 The Salic 
 
 
 ■312 
 
 in America 
 
 
 638, 649 
 
 
 Judah, The Tribe of 
 
 
 Lawrence, Commodore 
 
 
 •5'9 
 
 Livy, a Roman Historian 
 
 
 
 
 Judea or Palestine 
 
 
 Laws, Lycurgusand His 
 
 
 .103 
 
 Llewellyn, of Wales 
 
 
 344 
 
 
 Judges, The Period of the 
 
 
 of Draco 
 
 
 
 Locke, John 
 
 
 378 
 
 
 Judiciary of England Under Edward I 345 
 
 of Solon 
 
 
 .105 
 
 Locomotive, The 
 
 
 623, 625 
 
 
 Julian 
 
 
 of Napoleon, or Code Napoleon . . . 
 
 
 
 Lombards in Italy, The 
 
 
 >84 
 
 
 Jupiter, The Planet 
 
 
 League, The Hanseatic . 
 
 
 
 London Captured by Boadicea 
 
 
 333 
 
 
 The Mythological God 
 
 
 leagues, The Four Greek 
 
 
 .107 
 
 Longfellow, Henry W 
 
 
 645 
 
 
 Jurisprudence, Roman 
 
 
 Lebanon, The Cedars of 
 
 
 ..67 
 
 Long Island, Battle of 
 
 
 509 
 
 
 Justin, Martyr 
 
 
 Lebrun, a French Artist 
 
 
 
 Ix>ngstreet, General James 
 
 
 542, 562 
 
 
 Justin II 
 
 
 Lech I., King of Poland 
 
 
 
 Lookout Mountain, Battle of 
 
 
 542 
 
 
 Justinian, Emperor 
 
 
 Lee, General Robert E 
 
 •536, S4<5 
 
 Lorraine, Alsace and 
 
 
 
 
 Corpus Juris Civi/is 
 
 
 Legendary Kings of Rome 
 
 
 
 Lome, Marquis of. 
 
 
 
 
INDEX. 
 
 xvil 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Lost Stars, The 32 
 
 Louis of Bavaria 13 1 
 
 Louis LX. of France 192, 263 
 
 Convokes a Parliament 263 
 
 Louis X. of France 263 
 
 Louis XI. of France 264 
 
 Louis XIII. of France 268 
 
 Louis XIV., the Grand 26S 
 
 Louis XV. of France 270 
 
 and John Law 270 
 
 and New France 270 
 
 Louis XVI. of France 271 
 
 Marie Antoinette 271 
 
 and the United States 271 
 
 Louis XVIII 289 
 
 Louis Philippe, of France 2S9 
 
 Louis I. of Portugal 315 
 
 Louisiana 499, 51S, 603 
 
 Low Lands, or the Netherlands 25S 
 
 Lowell, James R 646 
 
 Loyola Founds the Society of Jesus 1S1 
 
 Lubbock, Sir John 43 
 
 Lucenius, Defeat of .. 169 
 
 Lucius, King of Rome 136 
 
 Lucretia, Tragedy of 137 
 
 Lucretius 162 
 
 Ludwig the Pious 225 
 
 Lundy's Lane, Battle of 519 
 
 Lutherans, Numerical Strength of 234 
 
 Luthcrism and Anabaptists 232 
 
 Luther, Martin, and the Reformation 230 
 
 Lutzen, The Battle of 233 
 
 Luxemburg Dynasty of Germany 229 
 
 The Dukedom of 258 
 
 Lycurgus and His Laws 103 
 
 Lydia, The Kingdom of 96 
 
 Lyon, Gen. Nathaniel S3 2 
 
 Macauley, Lord 381, 160 
 
 Macbeth 384 
 
 Maccabees, Rule of the 7 1 
 
 M’Clellan, General G. B 531, 537 
 
 Macdonough, Commodore 520 
 
 Macedonia, Philip of 100 
 
 MacKenzie on the Turk 209 
 
 MacMahon, Marshall 292 
 
 Macomb, General 520 
 
 MacPherson, General 243, 553 
 
 Macpherson, James 380 
 
 McCormick, Cyrus 627 
 
 McDowell, General 531 
 
 Madagascar, The Island of 456 
 
 Madeira, Discovery of 316 
 
 Madison, James 518, 583,640 
 
 Magi of the East, The 87 
 
 Magna Charter, The 341 
 
 Magna Grajcia 134 
 
 Magrudcr, General 535 
 
 Maine 604 
 
 Magyars of Austria-Hungary 250 
 
 Malaga, City and Capture of 299 
 
 Malbone, Edward G 637 
 
 Malcolm I., of Scotland 384 
 
 Malta, The Island of 192 
 
 Malvern Hills, Battle of 535 
 
 Mamelukes Subjugate Egypt 59 
 
 Mammoth, The Age of the 40 
 
 Man, The Earth Without 37 
 
 and Nature 38 
 
 From Sponge to 39 
 
 Prehistoric .40 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Manitoba, Canada 396 
 
 Manchuria, Country of 440 
 
 Manlius Torquatus 142 
 
 Mansard, The Architect 270 
 
 Marat, Jean Paul 27S 
 
 Marathon, Battle of 97 
 
 Marbles, The Elgin 119 
 
 Marcellus, General 145 
 
 Marcus Aurelius 163 
 
 Mardonius, General 97 
 
 Marengo, Battle of 237 
 
 Margall, President 313 
 
 Margaret, Queen of the Danes 321 
 
 Margaret of Scotland 3S5 
 
 Maria Christina 312 
 
 Marie Antoinette 27S 
 
 Marion, General 513 
 
 Marius, Caius 150 
 
 Mark Twain on the Sphinx 46 
 
 Marlborough, Duke of. 366 
 
 Mars, The Planet 25, 26 
 
 Marshall, Humphrey 533 
 
 Marston Moor, Battle of 364 
 
 Martius, The Campus 134 
 
 Martyr, Justin .176 
 
 Mary, Queen of England 35S, 306 
 
 Marries Philip II., of Spain 358 
 
 Persecutes the Protestants.... 358 
 
 Mary and William of Orange 365 
 
 Mary, Queen of Scots 385 
 
 Maryland 493> 604 
 
 Masonry of Old England, Free 342 
 
 Massachusetts 604 
 
 Mastodon, The Age of 40 
 
 Mather, Cotton 638 
 
 Matter and Motion 37 
 
 Matthias of Germany 232 
 
 Maurice of Nassau 258 
 
 Maury, Commodore 644 
 
 Mausolus, The Tomb of. 125 
 
 Maximian 169 
 
 Maximilian, The Emperor 464 
 
 Maximus of Thrace 168 
 
 Mazarin, Cardinal 268 
 
 Meade, General George G 538, 550 
 
 Mecklenburg Resolutions, The 505 
 
 Medes and Persians, The 53 
 
 Medici, Catherine de 265, 267 
 
 Medici, Mary de 2 68 
 
 Medieval Germany 223 
 
 Mehemet, Ali 60 
 
 Mehemit, Tewfix 59 
 
 Melancthon, Philip 231 
 
 Melbourne, The City of 420 
 
 Memphis, The Glory of 46 
 
 Mendelssohn 246 
 
 Menelaus of Sparta 9 2 
 
 Menes of Egypt 46 
 
 Mercury, The Planet 25, 26 
 
 Mercia, Kingdom of. 334 
 
 Merovingian Dynasty 224 
 
 Atrocities of the 224 
 
 Mcssenia, Kingdom of 95 
 
 Messenian Wars, The Three 95 
 
 Metamorphoses, By Ovid 162 
 
 Methodism, The Founders of 3^9 
 
 Metz, Battle of 240 
 
 Mexico and the Mexicans 461 
 
 Discovered by Cortez 462 
 
 The Aztecs and Their Civilization 461 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Mexico, The Conquest of 462 
 
 Mexican Independence 463 
 
 Civil War and Mexicanization 463 
 
 Political Fortunes of Santa Anna 463 
 
 The Mexican War •••463 
 
 Disestablishment of the Church 464 
 
 Maximilian and the Monroe Doctrine.. .464 
 
 The French in Mexico 464 
 
 Juarez and Political Stability 465 
 
 Subsequent Presidents 465 
 
 The City of Mexico 465 
 
 Resources of the Country 466 
 
 Agriculture and Transportation ......... .466 
 
 Banco Nacional Mexicano 4 66 
 
 Mexican War, The 5 2 5 
 
 Michigan 606 
 
 Michael VIII 202 
 
 Mickiewicz, Adam 222 
 
 Miecislas I., of Poland 218 
 
 Miecislas II. of Poland 218 
 
 Mignard 270 
 
 Mikado, Rebellion Against the 432 
 
 Milan, The Decree of 169 
 
 The City of 186 
 
 Military Duty in Germany 241 
 
 Milky Way, The 32 
 
 Mill, James Stuart 381 
 
 Miller, Joaquin 649 
 
 Miltiades Defeats Darius 97 
 
 Milton, John, and His Writings 378 
 
 Minerals in the U. S '633 
 
 Ministry, The English 373 
 
 Minnesota 605 
 
 Minor Asia and Africa 453 
 
 Minute Men of the Revolution 5°4 
 
 Mirabeau 372 
 
 Missions, Modern 183 
 
 Missouri 608 
 
 Mitchell, S. A 35 
 
 Mississippi 605 
 
 Mississippi Valley, French Settlements in.. 499 
 
 Mithrides of Parthia 87 
 
 Mithridates Defeated by Sulla 151 
 
 Mockern, The Battle 237 
 
 Modern Egypt 59 
 
 Persia 89 
 
 Ethiopia 65 
 
 Greece 102 
 
 Greece and the Greek Church 129 
 
 Christianity, The Papacy and 177 
 
 Missions 183 
 
 Mogul Empire, The 408 
 
 Mohammed, The Prophet. 195 
 
 Names Kadijah 195 
 
 Begins Preaching 196 
 
 Seeks Safety in Flight 196 
 
 Builds a Mosque at Medina 196 
 
 War Upon the Christians 196 
 
 Captures Mecca 196 
 
 Death 196 
 
 The Koran of 197 
 
 Mohammed II., at Stainboul 207 
 
 Mohammedan Era Dates From 196 
 
 Mohammedanism, The Strength of. 197 
 
 Moliere, a French Writer 270 
 
 Molay, Jacques 263 
 
 Moltke, Von, a General 239 
 
 Monaco, Republic of 330 
 
 Mongolia and the Mongols 441 
 
 Monitor and Merrimack 533 
 
xviil. INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Monmouth, Battle of 512 
 
 Monroe, James 522 
 
 Monroe Doctrine, The 5 1 7 » 5$3 
 
 Montana Territory 609 
 
 Montenegro, The Principality of 331 
 
 Montpensier, The Duke of 312 
 
 Montreal, The City of 398 
 
 Mons-Sacer, The Hill of 134 
 
 Moon, The Earth’s 25 
 
 Neptune’s 25 
 
 Moons of Saturn, The 25 
 
 of Jupiter, The 25 
 
 of Uranus, The 25 
 
 Moors in Spain, The 295 
 
 Persecutions of the 301 
 
 Moore, Sir Thomas 3571 376 
 
 Moreau, Marshall 337 
 
 Morgan, General 539 
 
 Morgarten, Battle of 328 
 
 Moriscoes of Spain 301, 308 
 
 Moroe, or Ethiopia 65 
 
 Morocco 457 
 
 Morris, George P 641 
 
 Morris, Robert 5 x 3 i 5 X 7 
 
 Morse, S. F. B 626 
 
 Moscow, The City of 213, 285 
 
 Moses, The Lawgiver 49, 69 
 
 Moslem, The Believer in 197 
 
 Mosque of St. Sophia 201 
 
 Moswijah 198 
 
 Motley, John L 644 
 
 Mound- Builders of America 486 
 
 Mount Cenis Tunnel .327 
 
 Mowing Machine, The 627 
 
 Mozart 245 
 
 Muhlenberg and the Lutherans 234 
 
 Multiple Stars, The 32 
 
 Munda, Battle of 156 
 
 Murad V., of Turkey 208 
 
 Murfreesboro, Battle of 53S 
 
 Museum at Alexandria 56 
 
 Myloe, Naval Battle of 145 
 
 Mystics, The Sect of the 181 
 
 Mythology, Greek and Roman 120 
 
 of the Scandinavians 324 
 
 Nabonasar, King of Babylon 83 
 
 Nabopolasar, King of Babylon 83 
 
 Nantes, The Edict of 268 
 
 Napata, Temple of 5a 
 
 Napier, Sir Robert 66 
 
 Napoleon Bonaparte and his Campaign 2S1 
 
 Appointed First Consul 277 
 
 Italian and Egyptian Campaign 277, 2S2 
 
 Elected Emperor 277 
 
 The Code Napoleon 378 
 
 At Austerlitz 237, 2S2 
 
 At Marengo 237,282, 277 
 
 At Jena ?37, 285 
 
 Dissolves the Assembly..* 280 
 
 At Dresden 2S6 
 
 Victory for the Allies 286 
 
 Imprisoned at Elba 286 
 
 The 100 Days Campaign 286 
 
 Battle of Waterloo 2S6 
 
 Death at Helena 2S6 
 
 Napoleon III. — President 290 
 
 and the Coup d'etat 290 
 
 and the Crimean War 290 
 
 The Siege of Paris 291 
 
 Declares War with Germany 239, 291 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Napoleon III. — Surrender at Sedan 240, 291 
 
 Naseby, The Battle of 364 
 
 Nashville, The Battle of 546 
 
 Nassr-ed-Din 89 
 
 Natal, The Colony of 458 
 
 National Guard of France 272 
 
 Assembly of France 275 
 
 Convention of France 276 
 
 Nature and Man 38 
 
 Naval Battles of the Civil War 549 
 
 Navy Founded by Henry V., The British 351 
 
 Navy of the American Revolution, The 515 
 
 of the War of 1812 519 
 
 Navy, the Secretary of the 57 ^ 
 
 Nebo, Temple of 83 
 
 N ebuchadnezzar 82 
 
 Nebulae, or Star Clusters 32 
 
 Nebraska 609 
 
 Necho II 53 
 
 Nemean Games of Greece 107 
 
 Neoplatonism of Alexandria 57 
 
 Nepos, Cornelius 103 
 
 Neptune, The Planet 25,26 
 
 Neriglosar 83 
 
 Nero — The Emperor 166 
 
 Nerva, Roman Senator 167 
 
 Netherlands, Belgium and the 255 
 
 Typography and Resources 257 
 
 The Dutch in History 257 
 
 Dutch Commerce 258 
 
 The Dutch Republic 25S 
 
 Nevada 610 
 
 New England, Early Colonial History of. . . 403 
 
 Landing of the Pilgrims 493 
 
 Plymouth Colony 491 - 
 
 Colony of Massachusetts Bay 494 
 
 Harvard College Founded 494 
 
 Settlements in Connecticut 495 
 
 The Charter Oak 495 
 
 Persecution of Roger Williams 495 
 
 King Philip’s War 49S 
 
 The Illustrious Names of Early 496 
 
 The Salem Witchcraft 496 
 
 New Hampshire 610 
 
 New Jersey 610 
 
 New Mexico Territory 61 1 
 
 New Netherland’s Discovered 496 
 
 New Orleans, The Battle of 5 X 9 
 
 The Capture of 534 
 
 New-Stars 3 2 
 
 New South Wales, The Colony of 413 
 
 Area, Population, Government 413 
 
 The Mineral Productions of 414 
 
 Newspapers in U. S 636 
 
 Newton, Sir Isaac 35 » 3^ 
 
 New York, Early Colonial 496 
 
 Henry Hudson Discovers 496 
 
 Trading Post Established by the Dutch.. 496 
 
 The “ Patroon” System Introduced 496 
 
 The Dutch Governors of ... .497 
 
 History 61 1 
 
 New Zealand, The Colony of 423 
 
 Nibelungenlied, Medieval German Poetry... 242 
 
 Nicsea, The City of 202 
 
 Nicaragua 478 
 
 Nicene Creed, The 176 
 
 Nicene Council, The 179 
 
 Nicholas I., Czar of Russia 214 
 
 Nicomedia, The City of 202 
 
 Nightingale, Florence 214 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Nihilism in Russia 215 
 
 Nimrod, of Assyria 81 
 
 Nineveh, The City of 81 
 
 Ninus, King of Assyria 81 
 
 Niphon, The Island of 427 
 
 Nitocris, Queen of Assyria 83 
 
 Normans, The 262 
 
 Normandy and Brittany 262 
 
 And the Norwegians 322 
 
 North Carolina 613 
 
 N or th - Lord 370 
 
 Norway, Consolidated with Denmark 321 
 
 An Independent Kingdom 322 
 
 And her Merchant Marine 32 2 
 
 and its Literature 322 
 
 Its Revenue and Resources 322 
 
 Nosks of the Zenda Vesta 87 
 
 Novgorod, The Republic of 210 
 
 Nubian Kingdom, The. . . 49, 64 
 
 Mines 45, 32 
 
 Valley, The 64 
 
 Numa Pompilius — King of Rome 136 
 
 Numidian Jugurtha 130 
 
 Obelisks of Egypt, The 49 
 
 O’Connell, Daniel 389 
 
 O’Conor, Charles 565 
 
 Octavius, Afterward Augustus Caesar 157 
 
 Odyssey, Homer’s 92 
 
 Ohio 613 
 
 Oimemepthah, King ot Egypt 50 
 
 Oimemepthah II 51 
 
 Olga, Regent of Russia 21 1 
 
 Olenburg, The Danish House of 321 
 
 Olympic Games of Greece, The 107 
 
 Omar, The Caliphat of 58 
 
 Omnibus Bill, The 526 
 
 Ommiad Dynasty, The 198 
 
 Opinion of Astronomers 25 
 
 Oporto ana its Wine 319 
 
 Oracle, The Delphic 108 
 
 Orange-Nassau Family, The 25S 
 
 Orange River, The Teritory of 45S 
 
 Orbit, Position in the 36 
 
 The Moon and Her 36 
 
 Orchan, The Sublime Port 206 
 
 Ordinance, The Northwest 522 
 
 Oregon 613 
 
 Origen of Alexandria 176 
 
 Orleans, The Siege of Raised 264 
 
 The Duke of 270 
 
 Osci, Early Races of Italy, The 134 
 
 Osinta, King of Egypt 51 
 
 Othman Founds the Ottoman Empire 20S 
 
 Otho of Bavaria 131 
 
 Otho, Imperator of Rome 166 
 
 Otho, the Great King of Germany 225 
 
 Restores Peace in Italy 1S4 
 
 Otis, James 507 
 
 Ottawa, Canada 398 
 
 Ottocar 249 
 
 Ottoman Empire, The 206 
 
 Ourique, The Battle of 315 
 
 Ovid, Roman Poet 162 
 
 Oxford, University of 342 
 
 Packenham, General 520 
 
 Padisha, or Sublime Porte 206 
 
 Paine, Thomas 276, 277, 640 
 
 Painters, Celebrated Italian 1S7 
 
 Palaces of Egypt, The 54 
 
 of England, Royal 373 
 
INDEX. 
 
 xix 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Palasologi Dynasty, The 202 
 
 Palatinates, Poland Divided into 218 
 
 Palfrey, John G 642 
 
 Palermo, The City of. 1S6 
 
 Palestine in the Time of Christ 172 
 
 Palmyra, Zenobia Queen of 5S 
 
 The City of 84 
 
 Panama, Isthmus and State of 479 
 
 Pan-Slavonic Nation, A 221 
 
 Papacy and Modern Christianity 177 
 
 Its Slow Growth 178 
 
 Papal Infallibility, The Dogma 182 
 
 Paper, First Made 230 
 
 Papyrus, When First Used 55 
 
 Paraguay Republic, The 46S 
 
 Paris, Siege of 240, 291 
 
 The importance of. 292 
 
 Paris of Troy and Helen of Sparta 92 
 
 Parker, Theodore 643 
 
 Parkman, Francis 644 
 
 Parliament Established in England 341 
 
 and Cromwell, The Long 364 
 
 Under Cromwell, The Rump 365 
 
 of Present England — 373 
 
 Abolished, The Irish 3S9 
 
 The Canadian 397 
 
 The Australian 423 
 
 Parnassus, Mount 108 
 
 Parnell and the Irish 3S9 
 
 Parsees of Persia, The 88 
 
 Parthenon of Athens, The 117 
 
 Parthia and the Zenda Vesta 86 
 
 and Rome, Darius 86 
 
 Pascal 270 
 
 Pasha of Turkey, The 208 
 
 Patagonia and the Patagonians 468 
 
 Patents and Patentees 622 
 
 Paul Preaches Christ 174 
 
 Paul, Czar of Russia 213 
 
 Paulus, Consul of Rome 146 
 
 Pavia, The City of 186 
 
 Pea Ridge, The Battle of 533 
 
 Pedro, Dom, Emperor 318 
 
 Pelasgi, The 134 
 
 Peloponnesian War, The 99 
 
 Pemberton, General 541 
 
 Penal Colonies of Australasia 41 1 
 
 Pendleton, George H 545 
 
 Penn, William 497 
 
 Pennsylvania 497, 615 
 
 People, A Peculiar 68 
 
 Pepin of Germany 225 
 
 Pepin, The Short 225, 262 
 
 Periander hi 
 
 Pericles and Aspasia 106 
 
 Period, The Cushite 5 2 
 
 of the Judges — 69 
 
 of Compromise 5 22 
 
 of Conflict, The 5 2 9 
 
 Periods, The Geological 37 
 
 Perrault 270 
 
 Perry, Commodore M. C 431 
 
 Perry, Commodore O. II 
 
 Persia, Parthia and the Zenda Vesta 86 
 
 its Early History and Wars 86 
 
 Physical Aspects and Conditions 86 
 
 Darius, Parthia and Rome 87 
 
 Zorasten and the Magi 87 
 
 The Parsees and the Zenda Vesta S8 
 
 Summary of the Persian Bible 89 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Persia, Comparative Antiquity 89 
 
 Present S9 
 
 Persian Invasion of Egypt 55 
 
 Isolation 86 
 
 Literature 86 
 
 War with Greece 97 
 
 Persius, a Roman Poet 162 
 
 Persecution of the Jews 72 
 
 of Christians 174 
 
 Persepolis, The City of. 87 
 
 Peru, Republic of 472 
 
 Francisco, Pizarro Invades 473 
 
 Mines and Guano Beds of 474 
 
 Peter The Great, Czar of Russia 212 
 
 Peter at Rome, Saint 17S 
 
 Peter The Hermit 190, 263 
 
 Petersburg, Capture of 546 
 
 Petition of Rights, The 363 
 
 Phcedrus, Fables of 162 
 
 Pharaohs of Egypt, The 49 
 
 Pharisees, a Jewish Sect 74 
 
 Pharsalia, The Battle of. 152 
 
 Pharos, Lighthouse on the 56 
 
 Phidias the Sculptor 1 17 
 
 Philce, The City of 62 
 
 Philip of Macedonia 100, 102 
 
 Philip IT. of Spain 25S, 306 
 
 Marries Bloody Mary 306 
 
 and Queen Elizabeth 30 7 
 
 Philip The Handsome 263 
 
 Philip VI., First Valois King 264 
 
 Philip m., King of Spain 30S 
 
 Philip IV., King of Spain 309 
 
 Philippi, The Battle of 137 
 
 Philo and the Essenes 57, 74, 117 
 
 Philosophy, Alexandrian School of 57 
 
 and Art, Greek 1 14 
 
 Phoenicia and the Phoenicians 64 
 
 The Cities of 66 
 
 Tyre and Sidon 66 
 
 Commerce and Enterprise. 67 
 
 The Colonies of 67 
 
 The Arts and Industries 67 
 
 Disappearance of the Phoenicians 67 
 
 Pickens, General 513 
 
 Piets of Scotland, The 382 
 
 of England, The 333 
 
 Pierce, Franklin 527, 584 
 
 Pillow, Massacre of Fort 542 
 
 Pindar no 
 
 Pisa, The City of 1S5 
 
 Pittsburg Landing, Battle of 534 
 
 Pius Antonius 49 
 
 Pius IX., Pope 186 
 
 Dogma of Immaculate Conception 186 
 
 Dogma of Infallibility 186 
 
 Planets, The 25, 26, 36 
 
 Plates, Explanation of the Astronomical 36 
 
 Plato 112, 1 15 
 
 Plattsburg, Battle of. 519 
 
 Plautus 161 
 
 Pleiades, The 32 
 
 Plhehmen, Meiothph 51 
 
 Pliny 74, 164 
 
 Plow, The 624 
 
 Plutarch 103 
 
 Pocahontas and Capt Smith 492 
 
 Poe, Edgar Allen 640 
 
 Poictiers, The Battle of 225 
 
 Poland and the Poles 217 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Poles, Their First Appearance 217 
 
 The Casimirs Feudalism 218 
 
 A Monarchical Republic 219 
 
 John Sobieski 219 
 
 Anarchy and Intervention 220 
 
 Stanislas and Neighboring Powers 220 
 
 St. Petersburg and Warsaw 220 
 
 Fall of the Republic 220 
 
 Kosciusko 220 
 
 Polish Characteristics 231 
 
 Russian Policy, Pan Slavonic Dream.. ..221 
 
 Literature, Paul Soboleski 221 
 
 Polish Jews, Religious Persecutions 222 
 
 Polani or Poles, The 217 
 
 Pole Star, The 32 
 
 Poles, Poland and the 217 
 
 Policy, Roman Colonial 137 
 
 Polish Characteristics 221 
 
 Literature 221 
 
 Jews 222 
 
 Political System of Canada 397 
 
 Polk, James K 525, 584 
 
 Poll Tax Rebellion of England 347 
 
 Polybius, a Greek 144, 146 
 
 Polycarp, a Christian Martyr .. 176 
 
 Pompey the Graat 71, 152 
 
 Pompadour, Madam 270 
 
 Pompilius, Numa 136 
 
 Pontius Pilate 71 
 
 Pope, General 536, 550 
 
 Pope, Alexander 379 
 
 Popes of Rome, The 17S 
 
 Population of Ireland, Increase of. 3S9 
 
 of the Japanese Empire 427 
 
 Porsena of Clusium 137 
 
 Porte, The Sublime 206 
 
 Porter, Commodore 549 
 
 Porter, Fitzjohn 537 
 
 Port Hudson, Capture of 541 
 
 Porto Rico, The Island of 480 
 
 Port Said, The Town of 61 
 
 Portugal, The First Appearance of 29S 
 
 and the Portuguese 315 
 
 Alfonso of Leon and Castile 315 
 
 Maratime Supremacy 316 
 
 Zarga, daGama 317 
 
 and Colonial Possessions 317 
 
 Don Sebastian and Sebastian ism 318 
 
 and Brazil 318 
 
 Civil War and England 319 
 
 Exportation of Wine 319 
 
 Portuguese Literature 319 
 
 Absorbed by Spain 318 
 
 Revolt Against Spain 318 
 
 Possessions of the Netherlands 256 
 
 Postmaster General, The 578 
 
 Potter, Paul 259 
 
 Powers, Hiram 63 7 
 
 Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VI 236 
 
 Prague, The University of 228 
 
 Great Riot at 232 
 
 Praxitiles, The Attic 1 17 
 
 Prebble, Commodore .. ..521 
 
 Pre-historic Man 40 
 
 Prescott, W. H 644 
 
 President, The Duties of the 572 
 
 Presidents and Presidential Elections 572 
 
 Presidential Electors 579 
 
 Prcvost, Sir George 520 
 
 Priesthood, The Roman 177 
 
 C); 
 
s> 
 
 
 k- 
 
 XX. 
 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 
 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Primitive Savage, The 
 
 
 Railroads of the Japanese Empire 
 
 
 Roman Mythology, Greek and 
 
 
 Agrarianism 
 
 
 Raleigh, Sir Walter, an English Statesman. 
 
 •359 
 
 Republic, The Last Century 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fathers, The 
 
 
 Arrested by King James 
 
 .36' 
 
 Romanofs, The House of the 
 
 •213 
 
 Princeton, The Battle of 
 
 ....510 
 
 Introduces the Potato into England. . . . 
 
 .362 
 
 Rome, Ancient Italy and Primitive 
 
 
 Printing Invented... 
 
 
 and Early Colonial History 
 
 .491 
 
 The Peninsula of Italy 
 
 
 Press, The 
 
 
 Rameses I., of Egypt 
 
 
 The Races and Cities 
 
 
 Proctor, Richard A 
 
 
 Rameses The Great 
 
 
 Latium and Alba Longa Compared 
 
 
 Products and Roads of Ireland 
 
 ... .3S7 
 
 Rape of the Sabines 
 
 
 ^Enus and the Famous Twins 
 
 
 Protectorate of England Established.... 
 
 ....36s 
 
 Rassam’s Discoveries in Assyria 
 
 • • 8.3 
 
 The Founding of 
 
 • '35 
 
 Protestant Reformation, The 
 
 
 Ravenna, Italy 
 
 
 The Rape of the Sabines 
 
 
 War, The 
 
 . .. .22S 
 
 Reconstruction Art, The 
 
 553 
 
 The Reign of Numa Pompilius 
 
 .136 
 
 Church in France 
 
 
 Reconstruction of the German Empire 
 
 .241 
 
 The Tarquins, Lucius and Tullia 
 
 .136 
 
 Protestants, The Early 
 
 
 Reference Tables, See Tables of Reference . . 
 
 
 Primitive Agrarianism 
 
 
 The Persecutions of the 
 
 
 Reformation, The Protestant 
 
 
 Roman Colonial Policy 
 
 • '37 
 
 Protestantism in Germany 
 
 
 Under the Hussites, The 
 
 
 The Public Highways 
 
 
 
 . .. .266 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Prussia, The Rise of 
 
 
 Regulus and the Punic War 
 
 
 Semi Historic 
 
 
 The House of Hohenzollerns 
 
 • ••235 
 
 Reichstag and Bundesrath, of Germany.... 
 
 
 Republicanism and First Consuls of. . . . 
 
 •>38 
 
 Declares War Against France 
 
 .. ..237 
 
 Reid, The Philosopher 
 
 .386 
 
 The Rivalry of Classes 
 
 .'38 
 
 Defeated at Anerstadt and Jena 
 
 ... . 2.17 
 
 Reign of Terror in France 
 
 •277 
 
 Establishment of Tribunate 
 
 • '39 
 
 Victories at Katzbach and Mockern. 
 
 ....237 
 
 Religion in France . 
 
 
 Agrarianism and the Plebs 
 
 •'39 
 
 Blucher Defeated at Leipzig 
 
 .... 2)7 
 
 In Scandinavia 321 
 
 325 
 
 Cincinnatus and Dentatus 
 
 . I4O 
 
 Blucher at Waterloo 
 
 
 in China 
 
 45 ' 
 
 Virginius and Virginia 
 
 . 140 
 
 William I., King of Prussia 
 
 ....238 
 
 Religions of History, The Ten 
 
 • '75 
 
 Coriolanus and His Pride 
 
 .141 
 
 The Seven Weeks’ War 
 
 ....239 
 
 Religious Toleration in Austria 
 
 •253 
 
 Greek and Roman Ideals Compared 
 
 .141 
 
 Schleswig-Holstein War..; 
 
 
 Toleration in Belgium 
 
 .256 
 
 Invasion of the Gauls 
 
 .141 
 
 North German Confederation 
 
 ....239 
 
 Toleration in the Netherlands 
 
 •257 
 
 T he Gauls and Latins 
 
 .142 
 
 War With France 
 
 
 Toleration in Spain 
 
 ■ 3'3 
 
 and Carthage 
 
 •'43 
 
 Battles Around and Surrender of Metz. .239 
 
 Rembrandt, Painter 
 
 .250 
 
 Pyrrhus and His Elephants 
 
 •'43 
 
 Sedan and Capture of Napoleon III 
 
 ....239 
 
 Remus and Romulus 
 
 ••'3 
 
 Carthage and Its Place in History 
 
 •'44 
 
 Siege and Capture of Paris 
 
 ....239 
 
 Renaissance in France, The 
 
 
 The First Tunic War 
 
 '44 
 
 Heavy French Indemnity Required. 
 
 
 in Japan 
 
 .432 
 
 Hamilcar and Hannibal 
 
 •'45 
 
 A Part of the German Empire . . . . 
 
 . . . .241 
 
 Republic, The Dutch 
 
 •25S 
 
 The Second Tunic War 
 
 •'45 
 
 Psammeticus I 
 
 • 53 . 6 s 
 
 The Fall of the Dutch 
 
 259 
 
 Hannibal Crosses the Alps 
 
 I46 
 
 Ptolemaeus, Claudius 
 
 
 The Bavarian 
 
 
 The Battle of Cannai 
 
 I46 
 
 Ptolemaic System, The 
 
 
 The French 276, 
 
 29 2 
 
 The Fabian Policy 
 
 I46 
 
 Ptolemic Dynasty, The 
 
 55 
 
 of Spain, The 
 
 ■312 
 
 Scipio and the War in Africa 
 
 I46 
 
 Ptolemies, The First of the 
 
 56 
 
 The Swiss 
 
 325 
 
 The Further Conquests of 
 
 ■47 
 
 and Science, The 
 
 57 
 
 of Andorra 
 
 3 2 9 
 
 Third Tunic War, Fall of Carthage. . . . 
 
 147 
 
 Ptolemy, Epiphanes 
 
 45 
 
 of San Marino 
 
 33 ° 
 
 Last Century of the Roman Republic. .. 
 
 148 
 
 Ptolemy, Philopater 
 
 45 
 
 The Roman 
 
 ■'38 
 
 The March of Conquest 
 
 I4S 
 
 Ptolemy of Alexandria 
 
 ....128 
 
 of Novgorod, The 
 
 210 
 
 Area of the Republic... 
 
 148 
 
 Public Domain of the United States. . . . . 
 
 ...570 
 
 of Poland 
 
 .219 
 
 The Censor and Younger Cato 
 
 '49 
 
 Pulaski, Count 
 
 .. S'2 
 
 Republican Party Under Burr and Jefferson. 517 
 
 The Gracchi 
 
 ■49 
 
 Punic War, The First 
 
 ••■•'44 
 
 or Anti Slavery Party 
 
 ■527 
 
 Sulla and Marius 
 
 •' 5 ° 
 
 The Second 
 
 ••■•'45 
 
 Reservations of the U. S. Indian 
 
 .489 
 
 The Unification of Italy 
 
 .' 5 ° 
 
 The Third 
 
 
 Resources of Egypt, The 
 
 ■ •44 
 
 Burning of 
 
 ' 5 ' 
 
 Pyramid and Sphinx, Cheops 
 
 
 Restoration of the Jews, The 7 
 
 .74 
 
 Sulla Dictator 
 
 'S' 
 
 Pyramids of Egypt 
 
 
 Revolution in Paris 240, 
 
 272 
 
 Pompey the Great 
 
 • '52 
 
 Pyrrho, The Father of Skeptics 
 
 
 in Portugal Against Spain 
 
 .318 
 
 Judea and Spain Taken 
 
 '52 
 
 Pyrrhus of Epirus 
 
 
 Reynolds, General J. F 
 
 .541 
 
 Cicero and the Conspiracy of Catalinc. 
 
 '52 
 
 Pythia of Delphi 
 
 
 Rhacotis, Village of 
 
 ••55 
 
 Julius Caesar, His First Consulate 
 
 ■53 
 
 Pythian Games of Greece 
 
 
 Rhine, The Confederation of the 
 
 237 
 
 Caesar and the Empire 
 
 ■55 
 
 Pythias 
 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 .6l6 
 
 Caesar and the Calendar 
 
 •'55 
 
 Quarles, Francis, English Poet 
 
 ....378 
 
 Rhodes, The City and Colossus of. 
 
 .1 2t; 
 
 Testimony of Froude 
 
 56 
 
 Quebec, The City of. 
 
 .... 397 
 
 The Island of 
 
 •'93 
 
 The Age of Skepticism 
 
 156 
 
 Captured by Wolfe 
 
 ....501 
 
 Rhodolph, Count of Hapsburg 
 
 249 
 
 The Assassination of Caesar 
 
 156 
 
 Montgomery before . . . 
 
 ••• 5 °S 
 
 Emperor of Germany 
 
 249 
 
 The Triumvirate 
 
 '57 
 
 Queens’and, The Colony of 
 
 ....425 
 
 Richard Cceur de Leon 
 
 34 ° 
 
 Cleopatra of Egypt 
 
 '57 
 
 Area 
 
 
 Richard II., of England 
 
 34 S 
 
 Augustus and His Policy 
 
 ■57 
 
 Quiritary Land of Rome 
 
 •••.'39 
 
 Richard III , of Englan *' 
 
 354 
 
 The Empire and the Senate 
 
 158 
 
 Rabellais, Francois 
 
 . . . . 285 
 
 Richelieu, Cardinal 232, 
 
 ^68 
 
 Popularity of the Emperor Augustus.. . 
 
 •'59 
 
 Racine 
 
 
 Richter 
 
 244 
 
 The Augustan Age 
 
 .'59 
 
 Railroad, The Pacific 
 
 
 Riot, The Canadian 
 
 
 Latin Classics 
 
 160 
 
 Railroad Strikes of 1S77 
 
 ....566 
 
 in New York, The Draft 
 
 542 
 
 The Emperors from Augustus to Alaric 
 
 '65 
 
 Railroad Industry U. S 
 
 
 Robert of Normandy 
 
 ■189 
 
 Tiberius Ca?sar and Caligula 
 
 
 
 
 
 276 
 
 Rome in the Days of Nero 
 
 166 
 
 of British India 
 
 
 Rochambeau, Count 
 
 5'4 
 
 The Siege of Jerusalem 
 
 166 
 
 o' 
 
 v 
 
 ► 
 
 fv 
 
INDEX. 
 
 xxi. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Rome, From Vespasian to Trojan 167 
 
 Hadrian to Marcus Aurelius 16S 
 
 The Forum 168 
 
 The Age of the Antonines 16S 
 
 Ulpian the Lawyer 168 
 
 Diocletian and Constantine 169 
 
 Julian the Apostate 170 
 
 Weakness and Dissension 17 1 
 
 Theodosius, the Permanent Division of 
 
 Empire 1 7 1 
 
 The Greek and Roman Churches 171 
 
 The Last Days of Imperial 17 1 
 
 and Christ 173 
 
 and Primitive Christianity 173 
 
 The Papacy and Modem Christianity.. ..177 
 
 The Early Popes 178 
 
 Popes Leo and Gregory 179 
 
 Papal Corruption and the Reformation.. 180 
 
 Protestantism in Italy 181 
 
 The Mystics and Inquisition 181 
 
 The Jesuits and Jesuitism 18 1 
 
 Philip Schaff on the Church of Rome... 182 
 
 Present Pope and the Vatican 183 
 
 Spiritual Divisions of Christendom 1S3 
 
 Modern Missions 183 
 
 Present Italy 184 
 
 Romerer, King of Egypt 51 
 
 Romulus, The Founder of Rome 134 
 
 Rosecrans, General 541, 550 
 
 Roses, The War of the 352 
 
 Rosetta Stone, The 45 
 
 Rotterdam, The City of 256 
 
 Roumania 331 
 
 Rousseau, Jean Jaques 271 
 
 Rubens '59 
 
 Rubber, Vulcanized 627 
 
 Rudaki, Persian Poet . .89 
 
 Rurik, Grand Prince and Founder of Russia, 210 
 
 Russia, The Dawn of 310 
 
 Novgorod, The Great Republic 210 
 
 Grand Princes, From Rurik to Igoe 21 1 
 
 Olga’s Revenge and Piety 211 
 
 Vladimir and Christianity 21 1 
 
 Geughis Khan and the Golden Horde. . . 212 
 
 Ivan, Peter and Catherine 212 
 
 Moscow and Napoleon 213 
 
 Alexander I. and the Holy Alliance 314 
 
 Nicholas and the Crimean War 214 
 
 Alexander II. and the Serfs ..315 
 
 Nihilism, Siberia 315 
 
 Present Condition of .216 
 
 Greek Church in 216 
 
 Russian Calendar, The 35 
 
 Saarbrucken, Battle of 240 
 
 Sabbakon of Ethiopia 65 
 
 Sabelli Race, The 134 
 
 Sabines, Rape of the 136 
 
 Sadduces 74 
 
 Sadowa, Battle of 239 
 
 Safes, American 626 
 
 Sahara, The Desert of 457 
 
 Saida, City of 67 
 
 Sais, The Town of 50, 53 
 
 St Albans, The Battle of 352 
 
 St. Augustine, in England 334 
 
 St. Bernard, Abbott of 191 
 
 St. Bartholomew, Massacre of 265 
 
 St. Clair, General 516 
 
 St. Columba, an Irish Saint 3S3 
 
 St. Helena, The Island of 460 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 St.Johns, N. F., The City of. 39S 
 
 St. John, The Knights of 193 
 
 St. Patrick and Ireland’s Conversion 3S7 
 
 Confession of Faith 38S 
 
 St. Petersburgh, City of 214, 220 
 
 St. Sophia, The Mosque of 201 
 
 Saladin Captures Jerusalem 192 
 
 Salamis, Naval Battle of. 99 
 
 Sallust 163 
 
 Salic Law of Spain, The 313 
 
 Saminite Race, The 142 
 
 Samson, the Israelite 70 
 
 Sandys, George 638 
 
 San Domingo 4S1 
 
 Sandwich Islands, The 484 
 
 Sanitary Commission, The . 549 
 
 San Marino, The Republic of 330 
 
 Sanskrit of India, The 408 
 
 San Salvador 478 
 
 Santa Anna, President of Mexico 463 
 
 Sanskrit Language 87 
 
 Sappho . . no 
 
 Saracen Empire, The . 195 
 
 Mohammed 195 
 
 Mecca and Medina 196 
 
 The Strength of Islam 197 
 
 The Great Empires 197 
 
 Mohammed Morals, The Koran 197 
 
 The Caliphate and the Ommiad Dynasty. 198 
 
 Division and Fall of the Empire 198 
 
 The Saracens and Modern Civilization. . 199 
 
 Saracenic Glory and its Eclipse 199 
 
 Saratoga, Battle of 512 
 
 Sardanapalus, King of Assyria 82 
 
 Sardinia Captured by the Romans 145 
 
 The Kingdom of 1S6 
 
 Sardis, Capital of Lydia 97 
 
 Satsuma Rebellion in Japan, The 432 
 
 Saturn, The Planet 35, 36 
 
 Saul, King of Israel 70 
 
 Savage, The Primitive 41 
 
 Savage Station, The Battle of 536 
 
 Savonarola, an Early Antipapist iSr 
 
 Savoy, The House of 186 
 
 Saxe-Coburg, the Kingdom of 255 
 
 Saxe, John G 647 
 
 Scales, American 626 
 
 Scandinavia and the Scandinavians 320 
 
 Iceland and its Literature 320 
 
 The Danes in History 321 
 
 Norway and the Norwegians 322 
 
 Sweden and the Swedes 323 
 
 Mythology of 324 
 
 Greenland and the Norsemen in America. 324 
 
 Schaff on the Roman Church 182 
 
 Scheffer 260 
 
 Schelling 246 
 
 Schiller, Von 246 
 
 Schleswig and Holstein Question 329, 321 
 
 Schliemann’s Explorations at Troy 90 
 
 Science in England, Society for Promotion of. 368 
 
 Scio, The Massacre of 131 
 
 Scipio in Spain 146 
 
 Captures Carthage 147 
 
 Scotland and the Scotch 382 
 
 Scotia and Nova Scotia 3S2 
 
 The Piets — The Anglo Saxon 3S2 
 
 Conversion to Christianity ..382 
 
 Fergus the Scotch -Irishman 38 2 
 
 Edwin and Edinburgh 3S3 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Scotland, Constantine II. and England 384 
 
 Duncan and Macbeth 384 
 
 James I. — Feudalism 384 
 
 Bruce and Independence 3S4 
 
 Robert and the House of Stuart 3S4 
 
 David II., James V 3S4 
 
 Henry VIII. and the Scotch Crown 385 
 
 Mary, Queen of Scots 385 
 
 James VI. Becomes James I. of England. 385 
 
 John Knox and Presbyterianism 386 
 
 Union with England 386 
 
 Scotch Literature and Writers 380 
 
 Scott, Sir Walter 386 
 
 Scott, General Winfield 519, 525, 531 
 
 Sculptors, Noted Italian 187 
 
 Scythia of The Ancients, The 187 
 
 Sebastian, Dom 318 
 
 Secession, Southern 530 
 
 Ordinance Repealed 553 
 
 Sects, Hebrew Literature and 73 
 
 Sedan, Battle of 240 
 
 Sedgwick, General John 545 
 
 Seleucidae, The Victory of 8$ 
 
 Selim, Sultan of Turkey 85 
 
 Semiramis, Queen of Assyria Si 
 
 Semmes Raphael 558 
 
 Senacharib S2 
 
 Senate of the United States, The 572 
 
 Seneca 163 
 
 Senegambia, The Country of 457 
 
 Sepharvaim, The City of 84 
 
 Sepoy Mutiny of India, The 407 
 
 Septuagint, Hebrew Bible 73 
 
 Sepulcher, The Holy. . 192 
 
 Serfs, Liberation of Russian 215 
 
 of France Liberated 263 
 
 Serrano, President 312 
 
 Servetus Burned by Calvin 265 
 
 Servia, The Kingdom of 330 
 
 Servilius, Consul of Rome 139 
 
 Servius, Tarquin 137 
 
 Servius, Flavius 169 
 
 Sevastopol Bombarded by the Allies 214 
 
 Sevechus of Ethiopia 65 
 
 Seven Years’ War, The 235 
 
 Severus, Alexander 168 
 
 Seward, William H 5 2 7 
 
 Sewer, The Cloaca Maxima 136 
 
 Sewing Machine 626 
 
 Sextus and Lucretia 137 
 
 Seymour, Horatio .. 554 
 
 Shakespeare, William 376 
 
 Sheba, The Queen of. 65 
 
 Shepherd, From Hunter to. . . .41 
 
 to Farmer, From 42 
 
 Kings of Egypt 47 » 49 
 
 Sheik-ul-Islam 208 
 
 Shems-ed-Dim Mohammed 89 
 
 Sheridan, General Philip II 542. 553 
 
 Sherman, General W. T 542, 545, 550 
 
 Shillaber, B. P 647 
 
 Shishank and Bubastis 52 
 
 Siam, The Kingdom of 453 
 
 Siberia, or Russia in Asia 217 
 
 The Rivers and Mountains of 217 
 
 Area and Population 217 
 
 Sicily and the First Punic War 144 
 
 Sickles, General D. E 541 
 
 Sidney, Sir Philip 376 
 
 Sidon, The Cities of Tyre and 66 
 
■s. © 
 
 
 ,t« - 
 
 U- 
 
 XXII. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Sierra Leone 457 
 
 Sigismund I., King- of Poland 219 
 
 Sigismund II., the Last of thejagellos 219 
 
 Sigismund, King of Sweden 323 
 
 Signs of the Zodiac 3 r 
 
 Silesia, The Providence of 235 
 
 Silk Culture in the United States 632 
 
 Silliman, Benjamin 644 
 
 Sintuism Worship 4*33 
 
 Siphara, The City of &4 
 
 Slavs, The Polish 222 
 
 Slavonic Republic, The Dream of a 221 
 
 Slowacki, Julius 222 
 
 Smith, Adam 379 
 
 Smith, General Kirby 54^ 
 
 Smith, Captain John 49 2 
 
 Smugglers of Rhode Island and the Gospee.503 
 
 Sobieski, John, A Polish Ruler 219 
 
 Defeats Ibrahim, The Devil 219 
 
 Defeats the Turks Under Mustapha. . . . 219 
 
 Sobieski, James, of Poland 219 
 
 Sobieski, Paul 221 
 
 Socrates 1 15 
 
 Solar System, The 26 
 
 Solomon, King 7° 
 
 Solon and his Laws 105 
 
 Solymon The Magnificent 192, 207 
 
 Sons of Liberty, Organized 5°3 
 
 Soudan, Africa 457 
 
 South America, The Countries of 467 
 
 South Carolina 616 
 
 South Mountain, The Battle of.. . 537 
 
 Southey, Robert 381 
 
 South Sea Company, The 367 
 
 Spain, Celtic, Gothic and Moorish 294 
 
 Iberia and the First Age of Spain 294 
 
 The Gothic Period 294 
 
 Theological Animosity 294 
 
 Invasion of the Moors 295 
 
 The Moorish Kingdom Established. . . . 295 
 
 Averroes and Religious Reaction 297 
 
 Fall of Cordova and Rise of Granada.. .298 
 
 The Alhambra 29S 
 
 The Fall of Malaga 299 
 
 The Conquest of Granada 299 
 
 Ferdinand and Isabella 300 
 
 and Portugal 300 
 
 The Moors and Moriscoes 301 
 
 Persecution of the Jews 301 
 
 The Inquisition and Auto-da-fe 301 
 
 Christopher Columbus and his Career.. .302 
 
 Indian and African Slavery 304 
 
 The last Days of F erdinand and Isabella. 304 
 
 Catholic, Chapter LI 305 
 
 Philip and Juana 305 
 
 The Escurial 307 
 
 Portuguese and Spanish Crowns 30b 
 
 Decline and Loss of Territory 306 
 
 Napoleon and Spain 310 
 
 The Rulers from Charles V. to Isabella II.31 1 
 
 A Republic 3 X 3 
 
 Alfonzo and the Present Government.. .313 
 
 Art and Literature of 313 
 
 Sparks, Jared 642 
 
 Sparta, The Kingdom of 95, 98, 104 
 
 Spartans, The 95* I0 4 
 
 Spencer, Herbert 3S1 
 
 Spenser, Edmund 376 
 
 Sphynx, The Great Pyramid and 46 
 
 Sponge to Man, From the 39 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Spots on the Sun, View of 31 
 
 Spottsylvania, Battle of 545 
 
 Spurius Cassius 139 
 
 Stamboul, or Constantinople 204 
 
 Stamp Act, The 5° 2 
 
 Stanislas of Poland 220 
 
 Stanton, Edwin M 57^ 
 
 Star of Bethlehem, The 32 
 
 Stark, Col. John 5 12 
 
 Stars, The 25, 32 
 
 State, The Secretary of 573 
 
 State Sovereignty, The Doctrine of 55^ 
 
 Stales of the German Empire 241 
 
 of the United States 592 
 
 of Colombia, The United States 471 
 
 Steamboat, The 623 
 
 Stephen of Vendome 192 
 
 Stephen, King of England 338 
 
 Stephen I. of Hungary 250 
 
 Stephens, Alexander H 530, 555, 561 
 
 Sterne, Lawrence 380 
 
 Steuben, Baron 5 12 
 
 Stevens, Thaddens 553 
 
 Stewards, or Major Domi 223 
 
 Stewart, Commodore 5 X 9 
 
 Stilicho 171 
 
 Stockholm, The City of 323 
 
 Stone and Bronze Age, The 42 
 
 The Rosetta 45 
 
 Stoneman, General 535 
 
 Story, W. W 637 
 
 Story, Judge 643 
 
 Stowe, Harriet B 64S 
 
 Strasburg, The Siege of 240 
 
 Stratherne, Ancient 383 
 
 Strongbow, Earl of Pembroke 340 
 
 Stuart, General J. E. B 536 
 
 Stuart, Gilbert C 63 7 
 
 Stuart, Prof. Moses 643 
 
 Stuarts of Germany, The 225 
 
 of England, The 361 
 
 Subjugation of the Jews 7° 
 
 Suetonius 164 
 
 Suez Canal and Town 60 
 
 Suffrage in the United States 579 
 
 Suffolk, The Duke of 351 
 
 Sulla, Cornelius 150 
 
 Sullivan, General 509 
 
 Sumner, Charles 527 
 
 Sumner, General E. V 53^ 
 
 Sun, The Children of the 25 
 
 The Paternity of the 25 
 
 Spots on the 31 
 
 Supreme Court, The. .. . 579 
 
 Sumter, Fort, Bombardment of 530 
 
 Swedes in America, The 497 
 
 Swedenborg, Emanuel 323 
 
 Sweden, First Founded 322 
 
 and Protestantism 323 
 
 Gustavus Adolphus 323 
 
 The Literature of 324 
 
 Scandinavian Mythology 324 
 
 Swedenborg and the Church of the New 
 
 Jerusalem 323 
 
 Swift, Jonathan 379 
 
 Swing, David 649 
 
 Switzerland and Lesser Europe 325 
 
 The Helveti and Medieval Switzerland.. 325 
 
 The Story of William Tell 326 
 
 The Mountains of 326 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Switzerland, The Mt. CenisTunne 4 327 
 
 and the Reformation .328 
 
 The Swiss as Soldiers 328 
 
 Swiss Literature and Universities 329 
 
 Sydney, The City of 424 
 
 Sylvester 179 
 
 Syracuse, The City of 126 
 
 Syria, Antiochus, Epiphanes of 7 1 
 
 in its First Period 81 
 
 Under the Selucidae 84 
 
 Modern, and Syriac 85 
 
 Tables of Reference, Astronomical 36 
 
 of Ancient History and Literature, From 
 
 B. C. 1500 to A. D 200. . . 651-662 
 
 of American and European History and 
 LiteratureA. D. 200 to A. D.18S2. ..663-6S4 
 The Principal Countries of the World... 685 
 
 The Commerce of the World 685 
 
 The Legislatures of the World 686 
 
 Congressional Apportionment, Based on 
 
 Census of 1S80 686 
 
 The Industries of All Nations 6S7 
 
 Money of All Nations, Compared With 
 
 Population 687 
 
 Armaments of All Nations, or the Art of 
 
 War 6S8 
 
 The Capital or Wealth of All Nations. .6SS 
 The Earnings or Income of All Nations, 688 
 
 The Increase of Railroads since 1S70 6S8 
 
 The Food Supply of All Nations 689 
 
 The Food of All Nations 6S9 
 
 Agricultural and Pastoral Industries of 
 
 the World 690 
 
 Increase of Population since 1S70. ... . .690 
 Consumption of Cotton, Wool, Flax, 
 
 Etc 690 
 
 Manufacturers of All Nations 690 
 
 Gold and Silver Production of All Na- 
 tions 691 
 
 The Gold Coinage of the World 691 
 
 The Mint Coinage of the United States, 691 
 Increase of Commerce and Balance of 
 
 Trade 693 
 
 Gold and Silver Coins of the U. S 692 
 
 Coin Minted and Production of Precious 
 
 Metals 692 
 
 Production of Iron and Steel Works in 
 
 U. S 692 
 
 U. S. Financial History 693 
 
 U. S. Political History 694 
 
 U. S. Military History 695-699 
 
 U. S. Naval History 700 
 
 Paper Money and Fractional Currency in 
 
 U. S 701 
 
 Pension Statistics of the U. S 701 
 
 The Presidents and Their Cabinets, 702, 703 
 
 Right of Suffrage in States 704 
 
 New Testament Canon 704 
 
 The Chinese Empire 704 
 
 Foreign Exchange 710 
 
 Pay Roll of the Leading Civil officers 
 
 U. S.. 710 
 
 Pay Roll U. S. Army, Navy and Marine 
 
 Corps 710 
 
 Distances and Standards of Time 705 
 
 History of the Several States and Terri- 
 tories 706 
 
 Population of the Several States 707 
 
 Population of the Leading Cities of the 
 U. S 70S 
 
 — 3 v 
 
INDEX. 
 
 XXlil. 
 
 71 
 
 < 5 " 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Tables, Population of the Cities of the World .70S 
 Religious and Educational Statistics of 
 
 U. S 709 
 
 The Metric and Standard System of 
 
 Measure 7 1 1 
 
 Tacitus 164 
 
 Talmage, T. DeWitt 6*9 
 
 Talmud, The 74 
 
 Tamerlane 206 
 
 Tarakus of Ethiopia 65 
 
 Tarlton, General 5*4 
 
 Tarquin, Lucius, King of Rome 136 
 
 Tarquin The Proud 137 
 
 Tarquin Servius 137 
 
 Tarquinius Collatinus 138 
 
 Tartar Invasion of Russia, The 212 
 
 Tasmania, 414 
 
 Tasso 187 
 
 Taylor, Bayard •.• 645 
 
 Taylor, Jeremy 37S 
 
 Taylor, Gen. Richard 546, 363 
 
 Taylor, Zachery 526, 5S4 
 
 Telegraph, The . ..626 
 
 Tell, William, and Swiss History 326 
 
 Temples of Egypt, The 52, 54 
 
 Ten Tribes of Israel - 7 ° 
 
 Tennessee 616 
 
 Tennyson, Alfred 381 
 
 Terence 161 
 
 Territory and Tribes, The Indian 489 
 
 Territorial Governments, The 579 
 
 Terror, The Reign of 277 
 
 Terry, General 5 : 9 
 
 Tertullion of Carthage 176 
 
 Tenure of Office Bill 553 
 
 Tetzel 231 
 
 Tewfix, Khedive of Egypt 59 
 
 Tewkesbury, Battle of 352 
 
 Texas, Republic of 525 
 
 Annexed to the United States 525, 617 
 
 Thackeray 381 
 
 Thales of Miletus 114 
 
 Thebes in Egypt 4S 
 
 in Greece 91 
 
 Themistocles 99, 106 
 
 Theodra, Queen 201 
 
 Theories of Creation 37 
 
 Theodore II., of Abyssinia 65 
 
 Theodosius of Constantinople 17 1 
 
 Theseus the Pride of Athens 92 
 
 Theresa, Maria • 236 
 
 Thermopylae, The Glory of. 98 
 
 Theses of Martin Luther 231 
 
 Thibet and the Grand Llama 441 
 
 Thiers, M., President of France 292 
 
 Thirteenth Amendment 553 
 
 Thirty Years’ War 232 
 
 Thomas, Gen. Geo. H 539, 546, 550 
 
 Thoth, the Egyptian God 49 
 
 Thothmosis, King 49 
 
 Thothmosis IV 50 
 
 Thucydides 112 
 
 Thurman, Allen G $66 
 
 Tiber, The River 134 
 
 Tiberius Caesar 165 
 
 Ticinus, Battle of 146 
 
 Tiglathpileser 84 
 
 Tilden, Samuel J 565 
 
 Tirhakus 65 
 
 Titus.. * 7 *» *66 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Tokio, Japan 427 
 
 Toronto, The City of 398 
 
 The University of 39S 
 
 Torquemada ... .302 
 
 Tory Party Leaders of England .. 372 
 
 Tower of Babel, The 69 
 
 Trafalgar, The Battle of 282, 31© 
 
 Trajan 167 
 
 Traslmenus, Battle of Lake 146 
 
 Trebia, The Battle of 146 
 
 Trent Affair, The 532 
 
 Trenton, The Battle of 510 
 
 Treasury, The Secretary of the 574 
 
 Treaty of Berlin, The 253 
 
 Tribunatus Established in Rome 139 
 
 Tribes, The Ten 70 
 
 Tribes of the Atlantic Coast., The Ind an 488 
 
 Tribune, The N. Y 565 
 
 Trinity College, Dublin 393 
 
 Tripoli, a Country in Africa 457 
 
 Tripolls, The City of 66 
 
 Trojan War, The 92, 95 
 
 Trollope, Anthony 3S1 
 
 Trowbridge, J. T 648 
 
 Troy Captured by the Greeks 93 
 
 Troyes, The Treaty of 351 
 
 Trumbull, John 637 
 
 Tudors, The House of the 355 
 
 Tullia, Wife of Lucius 136 
 
 Tullius, Hostilius 136 
 
 Tullius, Servius 136 
 
 Tunis, Africa 457 
 
 Turkestan and Ancient Scythia 455 
 
 Turkey, or the Ottoman Empire 206 
 
 Adrianople and Tamerlane 206 
 
 The Fall of Constantinople 207 
 
 Solyman the Magnificent 207 
 
 The Decline of the Empire 207 
 
 Religion and Intelligence in 208 
 
 Present Condition of 208 
 
 Area, Population, Government 208 
 
 Education, Railroads, Debt 209 
 
 Tycho, The Crater 31 
 
 Tycoon of Japan Established 432 
 
 Tyler, John 525, 5S4 
 
 Tyler, Wat, and the Poll Tax 34S 
 
 Tyndall 381 
 
 Tyre and Sidon, The Cities of 66 
 
 Ulema and the Koran 20S 
 
 Ulfila 224 
 
 Ulpian 16S 
 
 Ulrica Eleonora, Queen of Sweden 323 
 
 Ulysses of Ithaca 92 
 
 The Wanderings of 94 
 
 Umbri, A Race of Ancient Italy.... 134 
 
 Unhistoric Man 43 
 
 Union of Sweden and Norway 323 
 
 United Kingdom, The 373 
 
 United States of Colombia, The 471 
 
 United States, Early Colonial History of the. 491 
 
 England and English America 491 
 
 The Dutch and New Netherlands 496 
 
 The Spanish and French Settlements. . . .49S 
 
 Colonial Growth and Outgrowth 500 
 
 Board of Trade and Plantations 500 
 
 Intercolonial Wars S°° 
 
 French, Spanish and English Posses 
 
 sions 501 
 
 Capture of Quebec 5 01 
 
 Colonial Debts and Money . ...5 02 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 United States, The Stamp Act 503 
 
 Smuggling and the Gaspee 503 
 
 The Boston Tea Party 503 
 
 First Continental Congress 503 
 
 Minute Men and Paul Revere 504 
 
 Battles of Lexington and Concord 504 
 
 Continental Army Organized 505 
 
 The Battle of Bunker Hill 505 
 
 Evacuation of Boston 506 
 
 Charleston and Moultrie 506 
 
 Declaration of Independence £06 
 
 Eminent Men of the Period 506 
 
 Independence and Union 509 
 
 The Hessians and Indians 509 
 
 The Two British General Howes 509 
 
 The Battle of Long Island 509 
 
 The Defeat of Burgoyne 510, 512 
 
 La Fayette and French Reinforcements. .53 1 
 
 The Battle of the Bran iywine 51 1 
 
 Battle of Germantown and Evacuation of 
 
 Philadelphia 511 
 
 The Battle of Bennington 51 1 
 
 Valley Forge and the Hour of Gloom.... 512 
 
 Articles of Confederation Submitted 512 
 
 France Recognizes American Indepen- 
 dence 512 
 
 The Battle at Monmouth ...512 
 
 The Campaigns in the South 513 
 
 The Treason of Arnold 513 
 
 The Surrender of Cornwallis 514 
 
 The Navy of the Revolution 515 
 
 The Adoption of the Constitution 515 
 
 The Young Republic 516 
 
 Election of Washington as President. .. 516 
 
 Hamilton and the U. S. Bank 518 
 
 The Period of Compromise 522 
 
 The Period of Conflict 529 
 
 The Rise and Fall of the Confederacy.. .£55 
 
 The Present 564 
 
 The Government of the.... 571 
 
 The Presidents of the 5S0 
 
 The States of the 592 
 
 Inventions and Inventors of the 622 
 
 The Industries of the 629 
 
 American Literature 638 
 
 Universe, The Conception of the 23 
 
 University of Alexandria, The Hellenic 57 
 
 of Islam, Cairo 63 
 
 of Prague 228 
 
 at Leipzig 228 
 
 Erfurt 230 
 
 Wittenburg 230 
 
 of Berlin 235, 247 
 
 of Jena 247 
 
 of Halle 247 
 
 of Heidlebcrg 24S 
 
 of Copenhagen 321 
 
 of Toronto 398 
 
 of Hanlin, China 450 
 
 Universities of Germany, The 242 
 
 of Belgium, The 256 
 
 of the Netherlands 257 
 
 of Switzerland 329 
 
 of Ireland 391 
 
 Upsala, Sweden, The Library of 224 
 
 Uranus, The Planet 25, 26 
 
 Urban II., Pope 263 
 
 Uruguay, The Republic of 468 
 
 Utah Territory 617 
 
 Valcntinian 17* 
 
XXIV. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE- 
 
 Valentinian II 171 
 
 Valerius Corans i<| 2 
 
 Valerius, a Roman General 137 
 
 Van Buren, Marlin £>25, 583 
 
 Van Dieman's Land .411 
 
 Van Dorn, General 533 
 
 Van Dyck 259 
 
 Van Eyck, Hubert. 259 
 
 Van Eyck, Jan 259 
 
 V alencia, The T reaty of . . . 3 1 1 
 
 Valois Branch of the Capetian Dynasty 263 
 
 Vatican Council, The 1S2 
 
 at Rome, The 183 
 
 Vaudois, The, a Religious Sect 265 
 
 Massacre of the 265 
 
 Venezuela, The Republic of 470 
 
 Venice, The City of 184 
 
 Venus, The Planet 25, 26 
 
 Verdun, The Treaty of 264 
 
 Vermont 618 
 
 Versailles, Louis XVI Retires to 275 
 
 Vespasian 1 66 
 
 In Britain 333 
 
 Vesta, Persia, Parthia and the Zenda 86 
 
 Vice President, The Duties of the 572 
 
 Vicksburg Captured 541 
 
 Victoria, Queen of England 419 
 
 Marriage with Prince Albert 368 
 
 Victoria, The Colony of 479 
 
 Vienna, The City of 237, 249 
 
 Napoleon at 237 
 
 Vionville, The Battle of 240 
 
 Virgil, a Poet of Rome 162 
 
 Virgin Islands, The 479 
 
 Virginia, First Settlement in 492 
 
 Captain John Smith and Pocahontas 492 
 
 Slavery Introduced into 492 
 
 First Indian War 49a 
 
 The Colonial Governors of 493 
 
 Bacon’s Rebellion in 493 
 
 History of 619 
 
 Virginia, The Death of 140 
 
 Virginius, a Roman Tribune 140 
 
 Volcanoes 24 
 
 Volcanic Eruptions 24 
 
 Voltaire . . . 271 
 
 Von Humboldt . . 23 
 
 Vladimir of Novgorod 21 1 
 
 Embraces Christianity 21 1 
 
 Wagner 246 
 
 Wakefield, The Battle of 352 
 
 Waldo, of Lyons, Peter 181 
 
 Waldenes, The 1S1 
 
 Wales Absorbed by England 344 
 
 Wales, Llewellyn, Prince of 344 
 
 Wales, The First English Prince of 344 
 
 Wall of China, The Great 443 
 
 Wallace, William .345, 3S4 
 
 Wallenstein and the Reformation 33 
 
 Walpole, Sir Horace 367 
 
 Walter, The Penniless 191 
 
 Waltoft, Izaak 378 
 
 War for Grecian Independence 130 
 
 The First Punic 144 
 
 The Second Punic 145 
 
 The Third Punic 147 
 
 of the Investitures 1S0 
 
 The Crimean ...214 
 
 The Hussite 22S 
 
 The Thirty Years' 232 
 
 PAGE 
 
 War, The Seven Years’ 235 
 
 The Seven Weeks’ 239 
 
 The Dutch 258 
 
 The Peninsula 31 1 
 
 of the Roses, The 352 
 
 The Mexican 463 
 
 of America, The Colonial 503 
 
 The Revolutionary 509 
 
 with England, The Second .518 
 
 War, The Secretary of 576 
 
 Wares, Henry and William 643 
 
 Warren at Bunker Hill, General 505, 5 o 5 
 
 Warren, Seth 512 
 
 Warsaw, The City of 220 
 
 Wartburg, The Castle of 231 
 
 Warwick, The Earl of .352 
 
 Washington Territory 620 
 
 Washington Selected as the Capital 516 
 
 Burnt by the British 521 
 
 Washington, George, and Virginia Militia, 501 
 
 Present at Braddock’s Defeat 501 
 
 Takes Command at Boston 505 
 
 and the War of the Revolution 509 
 
 Inaugurated as President... 517, 580 
 
 Watch -making in America 624 
 
 Waterloo, The Plain and Town of 260 
 
 The Battle 286 
 
 Watts, Isaac 479 
 
 Way, The Flammian 145 
 
 The Appian 145 
 
 Wayne, General Anthony 516 
 
 Weapons, Bronze and Stone 43 
 
 Webster, Daniel 523 
 
 Webster, Noah. 643 
 
 Weimer, The Court of 243 
 
 Weisenberg, The Battle of 240 
 
 Wellington, Lord 31 1, 286 
 
 Welsh Chiefs at Caernarvon 344 
 
 Wenda, Queen 218 
 
 Wesley, John and Charles 369 
 
 West, Benjamin 637 
 
 West Indies, 'The 479 
 
 Westminster Abbey 337, 34 * 
 
 West Virginia 620 
 
 Westphalia, The Peace of 233, 323 
 
 Weiland 243 
 
 Wheeler, William A 566 
 
 Whig Parties of England 372 
 
 Party of the United States 590 
 
 Whipple, E. P 646 
 
 Whisky Insurrection in Pennsylvania 51& 
 
 Whitby, The Synod of 335 
 
 Whitfield, George, and Methodism 369 
 
 White Plains, The Battle of. 509 
 
 Whitman, Walt 648 
 
 Whitney, Eli 624, 523 
 
 Whittier, John G 641; 
 
 Wilberforce, William 370 
 
 Wilderness, Battle of the 545 
 
 Wilkes, Captain Charles 532 
 
 William, Duke of Normandy 263 
 
 Invades England 263 
 
 Claims English Crown 337 
 
 Defeats Harold at Hastings 337 
 
 Crowned at Westminster Abbey 337 
 
 The Domes- Day Book 338 
 
 William and Mary. . . 365 
 
 Victory of the Boyne 365 
 
 Act of Settlement Passed 363 
 
 William IV., of England 368 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 William I., First King of the Netherlands.. .257 
 
 William II., of the Netherlands 257 
 
 William III., of the Netherlands 237 
 
 William of Nassau 238 
 
 William I., King of Prussia 238 
 
 Crowned Emperor of Germany 239 
 
 Receives the Surrender of Napoleon.. ..240 
 
 Williamsburg, The Battle of 535 
 
 Willis, N. P 641 
 
 Wilson, Alexander 640 
 
 Wilson, Henry 565 
 
 Wilson’s Creek, Battle of 532 
 
 Winchell, Alexander 644 
 
 Winchester, The Battle of 542 
 
 Wirt, William .389 
 
 Wirz, Henry 542 
 
 Wisconsin . 620 
 
 Witchcraft of the Dark Ages 193 
 
 and King James’ Version 104 
 
 Innocent VIII., Bull Against 194 
 
 Richard Baxter and John Wesley on. . . . 194 
 
 Salem, Massachusetts 194 
 
 Wittenberg, The University of 230 
 
 Wolfe Captures Quebec . .501 
 
 Wolsey, Cardinal 356 
 
 Wood, Jethro 624 
 
 Woodworth, Samuel 640 
 
 Wool Industry 633 
 
 Woolman, John 639 
 
 Worcester, J. E 643 
 
 Wordsworth, William 381 
 
 World of the Ancients, The 125 
 
 Outer Greece 125 
 
 Rhodes and its Colossus 125 
 
 Halicarnassus and its Mausoleum 125 
 
 Diana of Ephesus 126 
 
 Syracuse and Archimedes 126 
 
 The Ionian Islands 126 
 
 Crete and Cyprus 126 
 
 Scandia, Sarmatia, Dacia, and Thrace.. . 127 
 
 Scythia and India, Arya 127 
 
 Ptolemy and His Geography 128 
 
 The Ptolemic System 128 
 
 The Great Periods of the 24 
 
 Worms, The Diet of. 231 
 
 Worship, Greek Hero 90 
 
 Worth, The Battle of 240 
 
 Wycliffe, John 347 
 
 Wyoming Territory 621 
 
 Massacre of 512 
 
 Xenophon 1 12 
 
 Xerxes the Great 53, 9S 
 
 Ximenes, Cardinal of Spain 302, 306 
 
 Y aroslaf, Prince of Russia . . . . 2 1 1 
 
 Yesso, an Island of Japan 427 
 
 Yokohama, a Seaport City of Japan 427 
 
 York, Richard Duke of 352 
 
 York, Edward Duke of 352 
 
 Crowned Edward IV 352 
 
 Yorktown, Cornwallis* Surrender at 514 
 
 Ypsilantis, Alexander, and Demetrius 102 
 
 Zahringen of Switzerland 325 
 
 Zama, The Battle of 147 
 
 Zenda Vesta, Persia, Parthia and the S6 
 
 Zcnobia, Queen of Palmyra 58 
 
 Zerubbabel, The Jews Under 70 
 
 Ziska, John 229 
 
 Zoroaster and the Zenda Vesta S7 
 
 Zululand and the Zulus 45S 
 
 Zwingle and the Reformation 32S 
 

 ■-TS 
 
 CIENCE has dispelled the old 
 delusion that all things were 
 created for man, that he is the 
 diamond of creation, all else 
 being mere setting ; but it is 
 none the less true, that no 
 conception can be formed of 
 the universe, except in its human 
 relations. It is equally true, that in 
 order to follow the path of human 
 progress intelligently, it is necessary 
 to first glance at the vast field of 
 knowledge, outside the domain of his- 
 tory, antedating all human records. 
 Such a preliminary survey will serve as 
 a fitting introduction to the specific 
 inquiry in hand, and, indeed, forms 
 an integral part of it. The great Yon Humboldt 
 maybe said to have finished the demonstration of the 
 fact that “the universe is governed by law,” by 
 which it is meant that all things proceed in an or- 
 derly and rational manner, as Great Britain or the 
 United States may be said to be governed by law. 
 It is the part of science to discover and disclose 
 those laws, in their manifold relations. It is but 
 yesterday that man began to unravel the mysteries 
 of creation. For thousands of years the eye of gen- 
 ius was dimmed by the mists of absurd conceits and 
 immemorial blunders. 
 
 Albeit the ancient folly that the universe was 
 made for man has been cast into the limbo of ex- 
 ploded heresies, it is undeniable that the prepara- 
 tions made for man were elaborate beyond all pre- 
 conception. Whether one glance over the celestial 
 
 field, and pause to ponder upon the wonders of the 
 heavens, or delve deep into the earth to ascertain 
 the marvels of geology and paleontology, one is 
 alike impressed with the magnitude and minuteness 
 of the preparations which rendered this earth habit- 
 able by human beings. From the remotest star in 
 the Milky Way to the tiniest spear of grass, all forms 
 a part, necessary and correlative, in the mighty sys- 
 tem of being over which man sways the scepter of 
 superior intelligence. 
 
 The antiquity of the human race is a problem 
 thus far defiant of solution. Biblical chronology 
 has been somewhat variously interpreted by differ- 
 ent scholars, but science and scripture agree that 
 man was the last and crowning result of creation. 
 Vast epochs intervened between the beginning and 
 the end of the journey which began in the dim 
 chambers of mere conceptive potency, and ended in 
 humanity. It would be foreign to the object of this 
 volume to discuss the polemics of science. The field 
 of positive and definite information is far more in- 
 viting and profitable. It is wiser to calmly glean 
 and garner the wheat of knowledge than to frantic- 
 ally thresh the tares of controversy. It may be, 
 and doubtless is, a grander flight of genius to skim 
 along the azure of philosophic thought than to wearily 
 plod along the road of events ; hut as a preparation 
 for the intelligent perusal of history, a few general facts 
 of nature are vastly more helpful than the sublimest 
 disquisitions upon the abstract and the abstruse. 
 
 The development of existing cosmos out of pri- 
 mordial chaos, produced continents, oceans and 
 mountains in the place of a vast globe of liquid fire. 
 The great mass of the earth is still in a fluid and fiery 
 
 
 7 “ 
 
 (23) 
 
£k. 
 
 24 BEFORE HISTORY. 
 
 state, covered by a comparatively thin crust of cold 
 and solid substance. In tracing the necessary 
 course of this change from a molten to a solid con- 
 dition, a scientific writer of our day remarks : “ As 
 
 the interior became hard and concrete by cooling, 
 furrows, corrugations and depressions in the exter- 
 nal crust of the globe would occur, causing great in- 
 equalities in its surface.” Volcanic eruptions are 
 simply the escape of the central fire, and liability to 
 such eruptions would be proportionate to the thin- 
 ness of the crust. Once this globe must have been 
 little else than one universal volcano, belching fire 
 and lava at every point. In the earlier stages of 
 creation, volcanic action played the chief part, even 
 after its general subsidence. 
 
 As volcanoes were the great agencies of the geo- 
 logical dawn, so glaciers came in the cool of the 
 
 evening. The transition from more than tropical 
 heat, the world over, to universal winter is supposed 
 to have been sudden, and no satisfactory hypothesis 
 has yet been devised for its explanation. Agassiz 
 says of this era of frost : “ A vast mantle of ice and 
 snow covered the plains, the valleys, and the seas. 
 All the springs were dried up ; the rivers ceased to 
 flow. To the movements of a numerous and ani- 
 mated creation succeeded the silence of death.” It 
 was in the period immediately following the general 
 thaw, or springtime of that supreme winter, that 
 the present life of the earth was begun. Nature 
 having, as it were, frozen out, and gotten rid of her 
 experiments, zoological and botanical, was ready to 
 create man and his vital environments. 
 
 In point of time, then, the great period of the 
 world was before man, as well as before history. 
 
 ■A 
 
 71 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 The Paternitt op the Sun — Chief Members op the Solar Family — Peculiarities 
 op the Several Planets— The Properties op Matter— Density, Velocity and 
 Diameter op Planets— The Moon — Sun-spots— Precession and Multiple Stars — 
 The Star op Bethlehem and its Re -appearance — The Milky Way andj Star- 
 Clusters— Comets— Gravitation— Time— Noted Astronomers. 
 
 
 'HOU hast set the solitary 
 in families, was spoken 
 of man, but it is quite as 
 applicable to worlds. There 
 are, it is true, wandering 
 stars which seem defiant 
 of the law of association, 
 as there are human beings who 
 shoot off on tangents of solitude, 
 forming exceptions to the general 
 rule of society. The rule itself 
 is, however, none the less forcible. 
 
 In the opinion of some astron- 
 omers, there exists somewhere in 
 the limitless and illimitable vast- 
 ness of space a luminary which 
 is the center and source of life, 
 light and existence. But no eye 
 has caught a glimpse of it, nor is there any like- 
 lihood of such discovery. The utmost stretch of 
 astronomical intelligence goes to the ascertainment 
 of suns which are, each in its sphere, the head of 
 a planetary system or family. Every fixed star that 
 shines in the firmament is the father of a family 
 of worlds, and the same is true of countless others 
 which lie beyond human ken, however assisted the 
 eye may be by the telescope. 
 
 The central body, the light and life, of our system 
 of worlds, is the Sun. The planets and satellites 
 which belong to this system are absolutely depend- 
 
 ent upon the father-sun for the necessaries of life, 
 no less than for all the luxuries of planetary exist- 
 ence. They can never reach “ majority,” but ever 
 remain “ infants.” Children are they of a parent 
 whose patriarchal authority must be respected for- 
 ever. Without the heat of the Sun, every planet 
 would become little else than a vast iceberg. There 
 are many members of this family too small for 
 observation from an earthly stand-point, and many 
 which can be discerned by the telescope can not be 
 explored by it, and are hardly worth mention. The 
 recognized and important children of the Sun are 
 Neptune, Uranus, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Earth, 
 Venus and Mercury, eight in all. Some of these 
 have satellites of their own, or, as they might be 
 designated, children. These grandchildren of the 
 Sun, so far as discovered, are eighteen. The 
 Moon is the satellite of Earth. Mars, Venus and 
 Mercury have none. Saturn has eight moons or 
 satellites, Jupiter four, Uranus four, and Neptune 
 one. From observation by the naked eye, the Moon 
 occupies a prominence out of all proportion to its 
 real importance in the solar household. This planet 
 of ours is somewhat below par in magnitude. It 
 is, however, one of the more favored children of the 
 Sun in point of relative position. Some of the plan- 
 ets are so far removed from the Sun as to suffer 
 perpetual winter, while others endure a continuous 
 furnace heat. 
 
 It would hardly be of interest to "go a-sailingall 
 
1 
 
 
 26 
 
 THE CHILDREN OF THE SUN. 
 
 among the little stars,” but some members of the 
 family deserve special attention, besides the Earth. 
 Mercury, the smallest of the noteworthy planets, is 
 the nearest to the Sun. “ I am blinded by my own 
 
 The Earth. 
 
 light,” says the Ormuzd of the Persian mythology, 
 and Mercury might well say the same. It is sup- 
 posed to have very high mountains. Its tempera- 
 ture is seven times hotter than our own. If its 
 material were as liable to combustion as our own, 
 it would have been consumed with fervid heat long 
 ago. Its days are very unequal in length, and if 
 inhabited at all, it must be by very peculiar people, 
 veritable salamanders. “ They must,” observes a 
 French author, “ be as vivacious and mad as raving 
 maniacs,” Venus must have twice the heat of the 
 
 Earth. Like Mercury, 
 it has immense moun- 
 tains, some of them at 
 least twenty-five miles 
 high. It is studded 
 with islands, and has 
 an atmosphere not very 
 inference or guess of 
 
 Telescopic Views of Venus. 
 
 unlike our own. The 
 
 the astronomers is that Venus is a very lovely 
 world. Although destitute of moons, it has the 
 benefit of reflections from Mercury and Earth. 
 
 Mars is nearest to Earth, 
 and presents close analo- 
 gies to our planet, espe- 
 cially in atmospheric 
 phenomena and polar 
 cold. It is believed to 
 have a very dense air. 
 Continents and seas are 
 distinguishable upon it. 
 A fair idea of its topog- 
 
 Telescopic View of Mars. . , » j 
 
 raphy may be formed 
 from a study of the map of North America, 
 
 Telescopic View of Jupiter. 
 
 with this transposition : that the continent of 
 one stands for the water of the other. Science 
 shows it to be a very old planet. The other plan- 
 ets, Neptune, Saturn, Ura- 
 nus, and Jupiter, are so 
 very far off that their pe- 
 culiarities are less known 
 than those of the other 
 members of the family of 
 the Sun. The rings of 
 Saturn, however, deserve 
 mention. The most plaus- 
 ible theory is that they 
 consist of an accumulation of satellites, completely 
 filling its orbit. These satellites, however, defy 
 anything like definite observation. 
 
 In this connection, it may be well to give some 
 facts general to 
 the solar system. 
 
 The properties 
 of matter are 
 fourteen, viz. : 
 
 Divisibility, in- 
 destructibility, 
 impenetrability 
 (or the occupancy of space), variability (i. e., gas, 
 liquid or solid), inertia, motion, force, gravitation, 
 magnetism, electricity, heat, reflection, refrac- 
 tion, polarizing and absorbing, cohesion and 
 repulsion. Taking water as a standard of unity, 
 the density of the planets is as follows : Nep- 
 tune, 1.25; Uranus, .97; Saturn, .76; Jupiter, 
 1.32 ; Mars, 5.12 ; Earth, 5.44 ; Venus, 5.11 ; 
 Mercury, 6.71. The velocity of planets, stated 
 in miles per second, is as follows: Neptune, 3.491 ; 
 Uranus, 4.369; Saturn, 6.196; Jupiter, 8.389; 
 Mars, 15.50; Earth, 19.13; Venus, 22.50; Mercury, 
 30.76. The diameters of the planets, expressed in 
 miles, are as follows: Neptune, 32,243; Uranus, 
 34,704; Saturn, 71,936; Jupiter, 88,316; Mars, 
 3,900; Earth, 7,925.3; Venus, 7,566; Mercury, 
 2,960 ; the Sun, 851,736. 
 
 The Moon is too prominent a factor in the celes- 
 tial problem which astronomy has been solving for 
 thousands of years (but can never fully solve), to 
 be overlooked. It is insignificant from the stand- 
 point of the universe, or even from that of the 
 Sun ; but the Earth has special interest in it. 
 Everybody has heard of “ the man in the Moon,” 
 
 Telescopic View of Saturn. 
 
 

PLATE I, 
 

THE CHILDREN OF THE SUN. 
 
 but the wisdom of the telescope pronounces him a 
 myth, or, if he ever existed, it was ages ago. The 
 Moon is set down as a vast charnel-house. It has 
 neither air, water, nor life of any kind. Its awful 
 crags are absolutely desolate. The supposition is 
 that it is an exhausted, burnt-out, and used-up 
 world. If there is life at all, it must be utterly 
 unlike any known to man. It is the Sahara of the 
 skies. Distant from the earth only 240,000 miles, 
 it is attracted and largely controlled by this planet. 
 The term satellite is appropriate. It is not exhaust- 
 ive, however, for it, too, is a planet of the Sun. 
 Although distant 92,000,000 miles from the head 
 of the family, it is more influenced by it than by 
 the Earth. The action of the Moon upon this 
 planet is chiefly in the ebb and flow of the tides. 
 
 Its huge craters 
 are, some of 
 them, one hun- 
 dred miles in 
 diameter, and 
 the whole sur- 
 face of the 
 moon appears 
 to be honey - 
 combed by ex- 
 tinctvolcanoes. 
 The Moon has 
 its phases from 
 full to crescent. 
 
 The Crater Tycho, as seen by Telescope. They are the 
 
 different portions of her illuminated surface, which 
 she presents to the Earth in revolving around it. 
 When the dark side is turned toward us the Moon 
 is said to be new ; then it is half-full and horned, 
 and by these phases the revolutions of the Moon 
 are ascertained. The time between full moons is 
 29£ days ; a synodical month, or lunation. 
 
 Sun-spots were first carefully studied by Fabri- 
 cius in the seventeenth century. They have been 
 observed very closely ever since. Those of to-day 
 are not those of two centuries ago. Perpetual change 
 goes on. They are the result of some kind of tre- 
 mendous storms or cyclones. That vast furnace 
 seems to be subject to inconceivable perturbations, 
 by the side of which Vesuvius in action would be 
 cold calm. The flames are supposed to rise to a 
 height of 100,000 miles sometimes. The rents and 
 chasms in that ocean of flame are measureless in 
 
 width and depth. Astronomers have measured one 
 chasm or spot 
 thatwasfound 
 to be large 
 enough to 
 hold one hun- 
 dred Earths. 
 
 A still larger 
 spotwasmeas- 
 ured in 1839, 
 and found to 
 be 186,000 
 miles in diam- 
 eter. The 
 speedormove- 
 m e n t per 
 ceived in spots 
 exceeded that 
 of the most Telescopic view of a Sun-spot. 
 
 violent hurricanes, three to one. 
 
 The term precession applies to the gradual fall- 
 ing back of the equinoctial points from east to 
 west. In his apparent annual revolution around 
 the Earth, the Sun does not cross the equinoctial 
 
 Aries. 
 
 Taurus. 
 
 Gemini. 
 
 Cancer. 
 
 Leo. 
 
 Virgo. 
 
 Libra. 
 
 Scorpio. 
 
 Sagittarius. 
 
 Capricomus. Acquarius. Pisces. 
 
 The Twei.ve Signs or the Zodiac. 
 
 at the same points one year that it does the next, 
 but drops to the west about 50 seconds a year. The 
 
] 
 
 i 
 
 a) 
 
 THE CHILDREN OF THE SUN. 
 
 3 2 
 
 entire precession of the equinoxes requires a period 
 of nearly 26,000 years. Consequently the apparent 
 positions of the stars constantly undergo change, 
 and the Pole-star, even, is not the same in all eons. 
 
 For the convenience of astronomical study, the 
 heavens are divided into distinct spaces, represented 
 on the map by the figures of animals or other 
 objects. These spaces, with the stars they contain, 
 are called constellations. They are distinguished 
 as northern, zodiacal, and southern, according to 
 their positions in respect to the ecliptic. There are 
 twenty-five prominent constellations in the north, 
 twelve in the zodiac and eighteen in the south. 
 
 Multiple stars are those which seem to the ordi- 
 nary observer to be single, but which, when viewed 
 through a telescope, appear to be two or more stars. 
 If there are only two, they are called double, or 
 binary stars. Variable stars exhibit periodical 
 changes of brightness. Temporary stars are the 
 luminaries which make their appearance suddenly 
 in the heavens, often very brilliant, but after a 
 while fading away, or nearly so. If they do not 
 disappear entirely they are called new stars. Astron- 
 omers can arrive at no satisfactory solution of this 
 mystery. Some stars known to the ancients are 
 not to be found. They are called lost stars. 
 
 One peculiarity of astronomy is that it can fore- 
 tell events in its own line, and also discover lost 
 information. For instance, it is known that in the 
 year 4 B. C. a brilliant star appeared, which astron- 
 omers call the “ Star of Bethlehem,” and of this 
 star the learned Professor Gounnier remarks: “In 
 1887 the ‘ Star of Bethlehem ’ will be once more 
 seen in ‘ Caseopia’s Chair,’ and will be accompanied 
 by a total eclipse of the sun and moon. The star 
 only makes its appearance every 315 years. It will 
 appear and illuminate the heavens, and exceed in 
 brilliancy even Jupiter when in opposition to the 
 sun, and therefore nearer to the sun and brightest. 
 The marvelous brilliancy of the ‘ Star of Bethle- 
 hem,’ in 1887, will surpass any of its previous visit- 
 ations. It will be seen even by noonday, shining 
 with a quick, flashing light, the entire year, after 
 which it will gradually decrease in brightness, and 
 finally disappear, not to return to our heavens until 
 2202, or 315 years after 1887. This star first 
 attracted the attention of modern astronomers in 
 the year 1575. It was then called a new star. It 
 was no new star, however, for this was the star 
 
 which shone so brightly 4 B. C., and was the star 
 that illuminated the heavens at the nativity of 
 Christ.” 
 
 Beside the planets which belong to our system, 
 and the suns of other systems, which are, for the 
 most part, the countless stars of our firmament, is 
 the Milky Way. That is too sharply defined in its 
 individuality, as seen by the naked eye, to be passed 
 over, although, in point of fact, no part of the solar 
 system. It comprises luminous matter; aggrega- 
 tions of stars. As one writer expresses it, “ The 
 Milky Way presents patches of diffuse, luminous 
 matter, and many millions of stars, some isolated, 
 others formed in groups, and forming, in its total- 
 ity, a kind of zone or ring, the diameter of which 
 would be about six times greater than its thickness, 
 and of which our sun would form a part. It has 
 been estimated that light would not traverse the 
 distance between those nebulae and the earth in less 
 than sixty millions of years, while a cannon-ball 
 would require 37,000 millions of years to traverse 
 the same distance; yet the limits of the universe 
 would still be untouched. As Buchner and others 
 contend, it is highly probable that the universe, 
 like the earth, is a sphere, with no “jumping-off 
 place ” anywhere. Star-clusters are near of kin to 
 the Milky Way. Some of these groups have been 
 ascertained to contain no less than 25,000 stars, 
 such as the Pleiades, the 
 Hyades, and the group known 
 as Berenice’s Hair. These glob- 
 ular clusters, or galaxies, are 
 supposed to be held together 
 by their motions and mutual 
 attractions. • Nebulae are star- 
 clusters, only so far off as to be 
 
 J . . Nebulae viewed through 
 
 vague even to the telescopic the Telescope. 
 
 eye. The separate stars cannot be distinguished. 
 
 They form the extreme verge of celestial discovery, 
 
 and serve to suggest the infinite spaces beyond 
 
 the reach of scientific inquiry. 
 
 By all ignorant people, great consequence is 
 attached to comets. As a matter of fact, they are 
 trifles, and literally lighter than air. They are 
 small, irregular nebulae, which travel in space, and 
 which, coming within the sphere of the sun’s attrac- 
 tion, approach that body at an ever-increasing veloc- 
 ity, revolving around it, at a varying distance from 
 its surface, and again moving off toward other 
 
 i yrvy'&'7'.. .* 
 
 7T 
 
 
 
 
10 4 
 
 np xU-03 
 
 (otuui' 
 
 i Ycepheus 
 
 PLATE. V. 
 
 SCALE OF 
 
 MAG N I T U D E 
 
 Constellations Visible In the United States. 
 
±{L 
 
 G 
 
 ' 
 
 C* 
 
 THE CHILDREN OF THE SUN. 35 
 
 regions of the sky, losing their velocity as they 
 recede. They vary in their nature and move- 
 ments, and really possess very little actual signifi- 
 cance in the solar 
 economy. They 
 are to the solar 
 system about what 
 a light morning 
 fog is to a day 
 in June. Comets 
 are infrequent, but 
 shooting stars are 
 very common, and 
 deserve brief con- 
 sideration. They 
 are sometimes 
 called bolides, aer- 
 olites, or meteorites. This branch of science has 
 not reached basis of demonstration in its details. 
 Enough is known to warrant the positive assertion 
 that these seeming eccentricities are not freaks of 
 nature, but results of established laws of the uni- 
 verse, especially that great fundamental law, gravi- 
 tation. This law of gravitation is so very funda- 
 mental, in fact, as almost to deserve the appellation 
 of “ First Cause,” or, as a German would put it, 
 “ the cause of the cause of the thing caused.” One 
 extract from Rambosson’s lectures on this subject 
 will serve as a fitting bridge between this subject 
 and its immediate successor. He says: 
 
 “ It has been found that the earth revolves upon 
 its rapid course like a vast cannon-ball amidst 
 moving clusters of rings of bullets, circulating ever- 
 lastingly in fixed ellipses. These rings are regular 
 rivers, without beginning or end, which pour along 
 their beds in celestial projectiles, intersecting at 
 several points the invisible route which the earth 
 follows around the sun. The earth, in passing 
 through them, is struck by thousands of the small 
 planets, which drop to its surface, and its attractive 
 force drags a great number more of them into its 
 train, causing them to revolve around it for some 
 time, like so many imperceptible moons, until they, 
 too, fall to its surface in the shape of shooting stars.” 
 
 Whenever and wherever there has been anything 
 approaching a correct computation of time, astron- 
 omy has been the base of reckoning. The Egyp- 
 tians, Greeks, and Romans, not only, but the Hin- 
 doos and Chinese, all adopted the same general 
 
 plan. The moon is the convenient stand-point for 
 computing months, as the sun is for computing 
 days and years. The present system, sometimes 
 called the new style, was introduced by Pope Greg- 
 ory XIII. in 1582, as the result of careful study 
 and observation, and so accurate is it that the vari- 
 ation between the computed and the actual year is 
 not over one day in 5,000 years. The Gregorean 
 calendar was at once adopted in Catholic countries, 
 but it gained general credence in Protestant coun- 
 tries only about the beginning of the eighteenth 
 century. Russia has not even yet adopted it. The 
 Russians, or the members of the Greek Church, 
 reckon from the birth of Christ, old style. The 
 Mohammedans reckon from the flight of their 
 prophet from Medina 1,300 years ago ; the He- 
 brews from the creation, 5641. 
 
 Several great astronomers deserve mention for 
 the services they rendered mankind in making 
 known the wonders of the heavens. First of all 
 ranks Copernicus, born in 1473, a German, who 
 verified the ancient theory that the sun was the 
 center of the solar system. After his day this 
 was a demonstrated fact, and not a mere hypothe- 
 sis. Galileo, born 1564, made further discoveries in 
 that same line, proving beyond a doubt that the 
 world moves around the sun, not the sun around 
 the earth. For that “heresy” he was tried, and 
 would have suffered martyrdom had he not recanted, 
 his recantation being 110 detriment to science. Gal- 
 ileo was an Italian. Kepler, a German, born in 
 1571, made great progress in this science, and with 
 good reason exclaimed: “I think thy thoughts 
 after thee, O God.” He discovered several of the 
 fundamental laws of the solar system. With Sir 
 Isaac Newton, born in 1642, England came to 
 occupy the front rank in astronomical discoveries, 
 for he discerned that greatest of all laws, the law 
 of gravitation, or the reason why the planets 
 revolve, as well as why the apple falls to the ground 
 when shaken from the stem. His supreme law is 
 that matter attracts other matter in proportion to 
 its mass and distance. Sir William Herschel and 
 his son, belonging in their life work to England 
 and the present century, deserve exalted rank, as 
 do Mitchell, father and daughter, in this country. 
 Richard A. Proctor has done and is doing very 
 much to bring astronomical knowledge within the 
 easy reach of the general public. 
 
 Comet of 1819. 
 
 
TABLE SHOWING THE RELATIONS OF POSITION IN THE ORBIT. 
 
 Name 
 
 Place op 
 Perihelion. 
 
 Annual 
 
 Variation. 
 
 Place of 
 
 North Node. 
 
 Annual 
 
 Variation. 
 
 
 Inclination of 
 Orbit. 
 
 Annual 
 
 Variation. 
 
 Mercury 
 
 u 
 
 15° 30’ 48" 
 
 4- 5.84" 
 
 
 16° 50' 39" 
 
 — 7.82" 
 
 
 70 q, 18 „ 
 
 + 0,181" 
 
 Venus . 
 
 a 
 
 9° 42’ 32" 
 
 
 - 2.68” 
 
 n 
 
 15° 33' 6" 
 
 — 18.71" 
 
 
 3° 23' 32" 
 
 4- 0.045" 
 
 
 69 
 
 10° 46’ 38” 
 
 
 - 11.81" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mars 
 
 
 3° 45’ 28" 
 
 
 - 15.82" 
 
 £ 
 
 18° 33' 16" 
 
 — 23.29” 
 
 
 1° 51' 6" 
 
 — 0 003" 
 
 Jupiler 
 
 T 
 
 12° 18’ 47" 
 
 
 - 6.65" 
 
 
 9° 21' 27" 
 
 — 15.81" 
 
 
 1° 18' 35" 
 
 — 0.226" 
 
 Saturn 
 
 ® 
 
 0° 35’ 23” 
 
 
 4 19.37" 
 
 69 
 
 22° 34' 37" 
 
 — 19.42" 
 
 
 2° 29' 24" 
 
 — 0.155" 
 
 Uranus 
 
 up 
 
 18° 36' 8" 
 
 
 - 2. 4" 
 
 XT 
 
 13° 17' 9" 
 
 — 36. 0" 
 
 
 0° 46' 30" 
 
 + 0.031" 
 
 Neptune 
 
 
 14° 19’ 28" 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 11° 9' 30" 
 
 
 
 1° 47' 2" 
 
 
 Table showing the diameter in miles, and the angular diameter of each body, in seconds, wnen at the mean distance from the Earth; the 
 weights of each as compared with those of the Sun and Earth, and the Densities as compared with that of the Earth, and with equal bulks of water. 
 
 
 Diameter in 
 
 Weight 
 
 Weight 
 
 Density 
 
 Density 
 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Seconds. 
 
 Sun — 1. 
 
 Earth = 1. 
 
 Earth — 1. 
 
 Water — 1. 
 
 Sun 
 
 851736 
 
 1923.6" 
 
 1.000000 
 
 354936. 
 
 0.284 
 
 1.533 
 
 Mercury 
 
 2960 
 
 6.7" 
 
 
 0.0729 
 
 1.392 
 
 7.518 
 
 Venus 
 
 7566 
 
 17.1" 
 
 
 0.9101 
 
 1.032 
 
 5.572 
 
 Earth 
 
 7925.6 
 
 
 
 1.0000 
 
 1.000 
 
 5.4 
 
 Mars 
 
 3900 
 
 5.8" 
 
 JZTUVJ7 
 
 0.1324 
 
 1.105 
 
 5.965 
 
 Jupiter 
 
 88316 
 
 38.4" 
 
 TVT7.3TT 
 
 338.718 
 
 0.258 
 
 1.393 
 
 Saturn 
 
 71936 
 
 17.1" 
 
 
 101 364 
 
 0.149 
 
 0.804 
 
 Uranus 
 
 34704 
 
 4.1" 
 
 
 14.252 
 
 0.19 
 
 1.025 
 
 Neptune 
 
 32243 
 
 2.4" 
 
 T27SIT 
 
 18.98 
 
 0.335 
 
 1.807 
 
 The following are .the Elements of the Moon, and of her Orbit. 
 
 Mean Distance in Radii of Earth 59.96435 
 
 Mean Distance in Miles, 237,626 
 
 Eccentricity of Orbit, 0.054844 
 
 Diameter in Miles, 2153 
 
 Angular Semi-diameter 14’ 44" to 16' 46" 
 
 Weight (Earth = 1), 0.011399 
 
 Weight of Earth and Moon (Sun being 1), -= 
 
 Sidereal Revolution, days, 
 
 Synodical Revolution, 
 
 Inclination of Orbit, 
 
 Revolution of Nodes, Days, 
 
 Revolution of Perigee, 
 
 Density (Earth = 1). 
 
 jifm 
 
 27.321661418 
 29 530488715 
 5° 8’ 47.9" 
 6798.28 
 3232.57534 
 0.5657 
 
 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 
 
 Plate I. 
 
 Contains representations of the planets Venus and Mars, Jupiter and 
 Saturn. The figure of Venus (Fig. 2) is copied from a drawing by 
 Schroeter representing the planet near its inferior conjunction. The 
 figure of Mars (Fig. 1) is copied from a drawing by Secchi. The figure of 
 Jupiter, (Fig. 3) is copied from a drawing in the Sidereal Messenge^ 
 and the figure of Saturn (Fig. 4) is copied from a drawing by Dawes. 
 
 Plate II. 
 
 Shows the apparent size of the Sun as viewed from the several plan- 
 ets, and the relative sizes of the eight principal planets. 
 
 Plate III. 
 
 * Is a representation of the appearance of the full Moon, copied from 
 
 the engraving of Bear and Maedler — also a representation of portion of 
 
 the moon’s surface as seen with a powerful telescope near the time of 
 the first quarter. 
 
 Plate IV. 
 
 Contains representations of Comets. Fig. 1 is a representation of 
 Halley’s comet as it appeared to the naked eye October 29, 1835, accord- 
 ing to Strave. Fig. 2 is a representation of Donati’s comet as it ap- 
 peared to the naked eye October 10, 1858, according to Prof. Bond. Fig. 
 3 is a telescopic view of the head of Douati’s comet as it appeared 
 October 2, 1858, according to Prof. Bond. 
 
 Plate V. 
 
 This Map shows all the prominent constellations visible in the United 
 States; the center is the North Pole. The map shows all the Fixed Stars 
 of not less than the third magnitude, with many of the smaller stars. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 Matter and Motion — Theories of Creation— Geological Periods— Nature and Man— The 
 Continents and Population — Geological Developments — From Sponge to Man — The 
 Animal Kingdom. 
 
 # THE EARTH WITHOUT MAN. 0 
 
 F the facilities for studying 
 all the planets of our solar 
 system were the same, this 
 world would dwindle into 
 insignificance, being one of 
 the smallest of the heaven- 
 ly bodies. It is, however, 
 able to boast a surface of 
 197,124,000 square miles, and a plan- 
 etary mass amounting to 256,000 mil- 
 lions of cubic feet. All this matter is 
 in constant motion. The “ change- 
 less rocks ” are never at rfest, absolute- 
 ly. As the earth itself is in motion, 
 so are its component parts. Gradual 
 changes are being wrought through 
 this activity. “ Nature, immutable in 
 its laws, but forever variable in its 
 phenomena, never repeats itself.” The rotation of 
 the earth is around an ideal axis, passing through 
 the two poles. The movement is from right to left, 
 or from west to cast, that is, contrary to the appar- 
 ent motion of the sun and stars. 
 
 The origin of the earth is an unsolved, if not an 
 insoluble, mystery. Ingenious theories on this sub- 
 ject have been elaborated, but none of them have 
 been actually verified. Kant, Laplace, and others, 
 have devoted a good deal of study to the birth of 
 the earth. Their ideas are interesting, without 
 being satisfactory, or worthy of more than mere 
 
 reference in this connection. We know that it was 
 a slow development. That much is certain. The 
 records of geology show that “ in the beginning,” 
 must have been millions, and probably billions, of 
 ages ago, and that the present life, animal and veg- 
 etable, of the world, including man, must be of 
 comparatively recent date. The commonly received 
 opinion is that originally the planets were sparks 
 from the sun, vast gaseous or liquid matter, and 
 that, by a process of cooling and solidifying, was 
 brought into existence the rocks, soil, and various 
 transmutations which make up a habitable world. 
 It is supposed that some planets are now going 
 through the process of preparation for utility, and 
 perhaps others, again, have literally outlived their 
 usefulness. 
 
 With a lamp of gecdogical science for guide, one 
 might, by descending a shaft sunk deeply in the 
 earth, read, page by page, the history written in the 
 strata penetrated. Each stratum represents and 
 records a vast and distinct formative period. 
 These strata may be classed as shown in the 
 subjoined chart. The organic remains, animal 
 or vegetable, which are contained in a greater part 
 of these various formations, afford the principal 
 data for ascertaining, frequently with absolute cer- 
 tainty, the order of succession of the various lay- 
 ers. There is, however, more or less lapping over, 
 the ages not being so perfectly disconnected in pro- 
 ductions as the scientists at one time supposed. 
 
 WITH A GEOLOGICAL CHART. 
 
 ( 37 ) 
 
THE EARTH WITHOUT MAN. 
 
 “ The idea is not warranted,” says Keclus, “ which 
 connects some kind of cataclysm with the end of 
 each geological period, and continuity of life has 
 linked together all the formations, from the orgau- 
 
 MAN. 
 
 msmmsGWemmmsm 
 
 
 * _-* , * r * . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Le — — — — 
 
 
 
 
 BIRDS AND Different 
 MAMMALIA. orders. 
 
 FIS1I (soft scaled). 
 
 MARSUP1ALIA. 
 
 MARSUPIAL MAMMALIA. 
 
 The Earth’s Strata. (Hitchcock.) 
 
 ized beings which first made their appearance on 
 earth, down to the countless multitudes which now 
 inhabit it.” To this may be added, in a general 
 way, that the higher the organism is raised in the 
 scale of being, the narrower the limits between 
 
 
 wliich it is confined. Man, for instance, is found 
 in all parts of the world, but the higher types of 
 manhood are quite limited. Human remains are to 
 be found, on the other hand, side by side with the 
 bones of the cave-bear, the mammoth, the woolly 
 rhinoceros, and other extinct species. 
 
 About three-quarters of the earth’s surface is 
 covered by sea. No part of this surface is without 
 its organic life, and beneath large portions of the 
 land are deposited the vast stores of fuel and metals 
 of every kind. Ample provision is made for the 
 happiness of every kind of creatures. The under- 
 ground resources belong exclusively to man. He 
 alone can appropriate to his use coal, iron, copper, 
 silver, gold, and kindred resources of nature. The 
 relations man sustains to his surroundings form an 
 interesting subject of study. It is only where all 
 conditions are favorable that satisfactory results 
 can be obtained. It is no less true that, were all 
 nature auspicious, this very favorability would be 
 paralyzing to human effort. Some obstacles must 
 be encountered, or no triumphs are to be expected. 
 Perpetual summer balm, plenty and pleasure 
 unceasing, would undermine the character and debil- 
 itate the system, while arctic winter, sterility and 
 suffering are no less benumbing. 
 
 On the American continent, the area favorable 
 to civilization is small. In South America the 
 temperate region is narrow, and subject to disad- 
 vantages so serious as to preclude the hope of great 
 South American prosperity. North America is 
 much more 'favored, and, with Asia and Europe, 
 comprises the great area for civilization, and it will 
 be with these continents, for the most part, that 
 general history must have to do, not only now, but 
 during the ages to come. Man can adapt himself 
 to almost any vegetable food nature furnishes. 
 The potato, now as important as wheat, was unknown 
 to our ancestors of a few centuries ago. If there 
 were no wheat or potatoes either, we could get on 
 very well with some of the other cereals and roots. 
 But the continent of America tried in vain to pro- 
 duce a permanent historical civilization without 
 that one animal, the horse. While, therefore, 
 details of zoology would be out of place here, it is 
 well, before proceeding to the records of man, to 
 pause for a brief consideration of the animal king- 
 dom by which man is surrounded, and upon which 
 he is so dependent. 
 
_J1 
 
 THE EARTH WITHOUT MAN. 
 
 39 
 
 According to Cuvier, the greatest of all natural- 
 ists, and second to none as a scientist, the living 
 animals are divided into two great classes, those 
 having backbones, and those destitute of the same ; 
 vertebrates, and invertebrates. The former include 
 fishes, reptiles, birds, and mammals, the latter being 
 all those living things which nourish their young 
 by direct food supply from the mother. The in- 
 vertebrates take in mollusks, such as oysters, snails, 
 cuttle-fish ; also spiders, lobsters, and insects gen- 
 erally, including those half -developed, pulpy things 
 called “ radiated animals.” One of the very lowest 
 forms of life is the sponge, familiar to everybody 
 as a toilet article. 
 
 The flint is a petri- 
 fied sponge. The 
 coral, as ornamental 
 as the sponge is use- 
 ful, is another petri- 
 faction of animal 
 life as found in the 
 sea. 
 
 It is a popular 
 theory with the sci- 
 entists that one form 
 of life develops into 
 another, and that 
 all, from man down, 
 originated in the 
 very lowest form of 
 vitality, a form so 
 very nearly akin to 
 the vegetable kingdom as to be almost indistinguish- 
 able from it. This is a theory, not an established fact. 
 If it be true, then, we are not only descended from 
 monkeys, but from a first parent lower in the scale 
 of being than the dumb oyster, the useful sponge, 
 or the beautiful coral. The lowest form of man is 
 about as much like the chimpanzee (the most 
 human of animals) as he is like the civilized man. 
 If this world were visited by a being of intelligence, 
 or rather of capacity for intelligence, but utterly 
 ignorant of what he was to find here, he would 
 infer, as a strong probability, that the development 
 from the least to the greatest was by gradual steps. 
 He would nowhere find any “connecting link,” 
 however, but everywhere suggestions and family 
 resemblances. 
 
 The soft-footed aniinalculae, or rhizopoda, leading 
 
 up to sponges, infusoria , corallines, corals, echin- 
 odennata, and parasitic worms, constitute the 
 different species of the first division of animals. 
 The second division, with its countless sorts 
 of worms, is just one step removed from insects, 
 crabs, shrimps, and mollusks. The latter grade 
 into fishes and reptiles. The progress to birds and 
 animals of the mammal family is a much longer 
 stride ; still the resemblances are preserved through- 
 out. The embryo and the skeleton, however, show 
 the kinship of nature more clearly than existence 
 in its perfection. For instance, there is no mis- 
 taking the man and the orangoutang, seen in any 
 
 vitality, but their 
 skeletons, with 
 hands and feet cut 
 off, are almost in- 
 distinguishable. 
 That any species 
 ever passed over, by 
 development, into 
 another species, is a 
 theory without the 
 support of direct 
 evidence. There is 
 not an attribute of 
 man, however, 
 which is not found 
 in rudimentary 
 form in the brute 
 ci’eation. The old 
 idea of instinct, in 
 distinction from reason, has been abandoned. 
 Rational use of intellectual faculties accounts for 
 intelligence, judgment and efficiency, whether in 
 man or beast, bird or insect. 
 
 The animal kingdom has been compared to a 
 great city. From it go out many thoroughfares, 
 and each street has its own starting-point and des- 
 tination, not necessarily separate in all respects, but 
 maintaining individuality even in intersections. 
 Along these streets are found all sorts of people, 
 and all sorts of business. The Broadway of this 
 city of Existence is Man. All other roads, whether 
 parallel with or at right-angles to it, are tributary, 
 and contribute to its supremacy. There is inter- 
 dependence throughout, but all in consistence witli 
 the grand idea of climacteric unity in man’s rule 
 over “the earth and the fullness thereof.” 
 
 7T 
 
 o 
 
a 
 
 ' 
 
 4 
 
 Q 
 
 Fable— Primitive Savage— From Hunter to Shepherd— From Shepherd to Farmer— Primi- 
 -Stone and Bronze — Gradations op Development, and Degrees op Savagery — Celts and 
 ■Sir John Lubbock’s Testimony— Prehistoric and Unhistoric Man. 
 
 HE poetic fancy in all ages 
 lias depicted primitive man 
 as a delightful and angelic 
 being. All civilized people 
 have had their golden age 
 of the past. If, as in the 
 case of all Europe, the bar- 
 baric age lapped on the age of 
 civilization, compelling a recog- 
 nition of ancestral savagism, 
 still the imagination would trav- 
 el back to a more remote ancestry 
 to find an honorable origin. But 
 now, the poetic faculty has been 
 superseded by the scientific sense, 
 and we must all admit, whatever 
 our fancies and conceits, that man 
 in his first estate was a savage of 
 the lowest type. A few years ago, it would have been 
 positively absurd in a historical work, to treat of 
 prehistoric man. It would have been set down as 
 self-evidently preposterous. But there is a history 
 older than history. The annals of primeval man do 
 not follow out any line of chronology with exact- 
 ness, nor do they present to the mind individual 
 types and details. They simply show us the stages 
 by which the savage became a man capable of his- 
 toric achievements. For this we are indebted to 
 archaeology, which may be defined as the history of 
 men and things which have no history. 
 
 The Roman poet, Horace, was almost prophetic 
 of what would be discovered centuries after him, 
 when he wrote : “ When these brutes, now called 
 
 Mammoth (E. primigenius) and Mastodon (31. giganteus) Restored. 
 
 men, first crawled out of the ground, a dumb and 
 dirty lot, they fought for nuts and sheltering spots, 
 with nail and fist ; then with sticks ; later, with 
 arms forged of metal. Then they invented names 
 and words. With language and thought, came cit- 
 ies, and some relief from strife.” In the days of 
 the mammoth, in what seems to have been an 
 almost totally distinct era, man lived in caves, and 
 was on much the same plane of existence as the 
 Fuegians when first discovered. He fed on fruits, 
 
 7 <5 
 
 ( 4 °) 
 
 •r 
 
nuts, and roots, on fish or flesh, according to his 
 opportunities and necessities. Emerging, by slow 
 and gradual steps, from the cavern of darkest sav- 
 agery, primitive man was still a hunter, living by 
 the chase, or a fisher, as circumstances might deter- 
 mine. What is now the recreation of the over- 
 worked civilized man was the first employment of 
 the race. A people dependent upon wild beasts 
 
 of a cave, he has a tent made of the skins of beasts, 
 rude in its simplicity, still a great improvement on 
 a hole in the ground. It was a great step to go 
 from wild to domestic animals. The brute and 
 man meet on the same level when both live by 
 rapine and violence. Grazing is an ascent toward 
 the table-lands of civilization. The Hebrews can 
 trace their descent from that Bedouin sheik, Abra- 
 
 and fish for sustenance arc necessarily migratory. 
 They must follow the trail wherever it leads, and if 
 neither the game nor the fisb appear in their accus- 
 tomed haunts, they must go in search of them. 
 
 From hunting to pastoral life is the natural 
 gradation. This, too, is somewhat migratory. The 
 flocks must be led beside still waters and into green 
 pastures, be the same far or near. The shepherd 
 is some advance upon the hunter and fisher; still, 
 he is very near the bottom of the ladder, lie can- 
 not build him a house or form society. The shep- 
 herd must be in constant readiness to move. Instead 
 
 ham, but we may all rest assured that in the far- 
 away ages our ancestors fed their flocks and pitched 
 their tents in true Arabic fashion, however obscure 
 the annals may be. The hunter may he as isolated 
 from the rest of his kind as the deer of the forest, 
 mating only at the fierce impulse of a passing pas- 
 sion, but the nomad belongs to a tribe. It may be 
 small, or it may branch out into an imposing mul- 
 titude ; it is surely a great improvement. There is 
 a community of interest which begets society and 
 stimulates progress. Most nations can be traced 
 back traditionally, if not historically, to this prim- 
 
 ► 
 
 
 — 6 
 
 V 
 

 G 
 
 5 
 
 ^7 
 
 42 PREHISTORIC MAN. 
 
 itive or tribal system. The father is the patriarch, 
 and as such a little king, absolute, indeed, but with- 
 out temptation to despotism. Poets love to picture 
 the pastoral life. It has charms for romance and 
 sentiment, especially when viewed from afar. 
 
 To the pastoral life succeeds the agricultural 
 phase of progress. Necessity is the mother of civ- 
 ilization. It takes a great deal of land to maintain 
 a very small pastoral population. With the increase 
 of people, it becomes impossible to live by meat and 
 milk alone. Very likely there have, almost from 
 the first, been some crude attempts at tillage, but, 
 in proportion as the people improved, the cultiva- 
 tion of the ground has always gained in relative 
 prominence. It is only when agriculture is the 
 chief reliance of a people that permanent habita- 
 tions are built, and stable institutions are out of 
 the question with vagrant tribes of flock-tenders. 
 It may be said, then, that when a people have so 
 
 Stone Ax. (Mound Builders'.) Stone Hammer. 
 
 far prospered that they are tillers of the soil, farm- 
 ers, properly so called, they have reached a stage of 
 civilization which fairly takes them out of the pre- 
 historic list. 
 
 There is abundant evidence of the correctness of 
 this theory of progress. We now give the more 
 prominent facts in support of the foregoing obser- 
 vations. 
 
 The rude implements discovered in the valley of 
 the Somme, in France ; at Hoxhe, Santon, Down- 
 ham, and Thetford, England, in conjunction with 
 elephant remains, and those of other extinct ani- 
 mals, raises a presumption which is irresistible : their 
 makers were rude barbarians. Flint instruments, 
 found in the gravel drifts at Ponte Molle, near 
 
 Rome, attest the same facts. So do many of the 
 relics of America. In fact, wherever science has 
 explored, and, as it were, had access to the libraries 
 of prehistoric man, the same line of facts has been 
 ascertained. The nearest approach to an exception 
 to this rule is found in America. Here, on this 
 continent, there was once a progress reaching civil- 
 ization, and that without the pastoral phase. There 
 was, however, an intermediate phase, and the prin- 
 ciple of gradation from low to high is perfectly 
 traceable in the remains of the aboriginal Ameri- 
 cans, and in Peru there were shepherds with vast 
 flocks of sheep. 
 
 Mention has been made of the flint or stone, and 
 of the bronze age. Man seems to have been endowed 
 with a strong predilection for some sort of imple- 
 ment. The researches of archaeology have traced 
 out five distinct stages of the stone age, and on so 
 broad a scale as to show the operation everywhere 
 
 Copper Relics from Wisconsin. 
 
 of the same grand law of growth. First came the 
 rudest flints, mere chunks of stone. Then came 
 flakes chipped from the rock, and showing the 
 dawn of the creative or fashioning faculty. The 
 third stage indicates some skill and art in the fash- 
 ioning of the flint. The idea of form and comeli- 
 ness, of adaptability and convenience, crops out. 
 Tiie fourth age was the beginning of grinding or 
 rubbing. The points are made sharp by attrition. 
 The fifth stage brings us to the perfectly polished 
 and quite artistic flint implements, which show 
 constructive invention. Some of these flints are a 
 rude sort of ax, one piece fitted into another, like 
 helve and blade. One is impressed witli the 
 immense progress made from the use of a jagged 
 
jsje 
 
 
 PREHISTORIC MAN. 
 
 43 
 
 stone, such as an ape might use, to the somewhat 
 curiously wrought and laboriously finished flint 
 hatchet. 
 
 While there are found these five gradations, there 
 are indicated by them three stages of human prog- 
 ress. The flints, implements of the cave period, 
 show man at his worst ; the flint flakes belong to a 
 people devoted to the chase, while the ground, pol- 
 ished, and fashioned stones bespeak a pastoral age. 
 not unmixed with the initial steps of agriculture, 
 The archaeological designations of these three ages 
 are the palaeolithic, the mesolithic, and the neo- 
 lithic. No nation has come up to civilization with- 
 out passing through those primitive stages. 
 
 Between the fifth or stone age and the bronze age 
 intervened a sixth stage, transitional in character, 
 in which copper, cold and crude, was hammered 
 into shape. It was used like a stone, and not fused 
 and fashioned in conformity to the peculiar prop- 
 erties of metals. It was treated as a kind of mal- 
 leable stone. Very little creative progress was made 
 anywhere during this stage. This period is found 
 everywhere, but evidently continued much longer 
 in the new world than in the old. The Promethean 
 gift of fire seems to have come much earlier to the 
 barbarians of the East than to the savages of the 
 West. 
 
 The seventh stage opens to view the bronze age 
 proper. Then began the fusing of metals. The 
 soft copper and hard tin were blended into the 
 bronze of the prehistoric age. That was probably 
 the result of a lucky accident. When once the idea 
 of melting and mixing metals was conceived, the 
 
 skill slowly attained in the making of stone and 
 copper implements was brought into requisition, 
 and improvements were easy and inevitable. The 
 world over are found traces of the birth of bronze, 
 the dawn of its day, and the brilliance of its aurora. 
 Manufacturing by molding began. The corner- 
 stone of all construction was laid when smelting 
 and molding commenced, and that corner-stone 
 may be said to have reached around the world. It 
 was at this point of development that the more 
 advanced peoples became celts, i. e., tool-makers 
 and users. 
 
 Sir John Lubbock remarks that “the use of 
 bronze weapons is characteristic of a particular 
 phase in the history of civilization, and one which 
 was anterior to the discovery, or, at least, to the 
 general use, of iron. Soon after iron, came pot- 
 tery. Man found, not only the advantage of soft- 
 ening metals with fire, but of hardening clay with 
 it. A mass of evidence proves that a stone age 
 prevailed in every great district of the inhabited 
 world, followed, as general progress was made, by 
 the other ages named.” As Figuier observes, “ The 
 development of man must have been doubtless the 
 same in all parts of the earth, or that, in whatever 
 country we may consider him, man must have 
 passed through the same phases in order to arrive 
 at his present state. He must have had everywhere 
 his age of stone, his epoch of bronze, and iiis epoch 
 of iron, in orderly succession.” In a word, the pre- 
 historic man of the jrast still lives in the unhistoric 
 man of the present, and the march from savagism 
 to civilization is over substantially the same road. 
 
 T 
 
-V 
 
 £ A 
 
 HN attempt has been made to 
 trace man in his civilized 
 state to Ethiopia, bnt the 
 nearest to that country that 
 research has been able to 
 come is Egypt. The land 
 of the Pharaohs, the pyr- 
 amids, the Sphinx, and the 
 Nile, if not the veritable cradle of civ- 
 ilization, was its earliest historic home. 
 By civilization is here meant that 
 stream of intelligence and betterment, 
 which, trickling through the ages, has 
 fertilized Europe and America. The 
 myriads of China and Japan are not 
 without a civilization, and it may 
 antedate that of more Western peoples, but it does 
 not belong to that steadily widening current of 
 thought which gives a certain unity to all the lands 
 and times, from the dawn of history to date. 
 
 As a term in geography, Egypt represents almost 
 as fixed and unvarying a quantity as America. 
 Nature has determined its boundaries. It is indeed 
 the country of the Nile, or Egyptus, as that river 
 was once called. From the seven mouths of that 
 grand river, through which it debouches into the 
 Mediterranean Sea on the north, to the cataracts or 
 rapids of the south, which arrest navigation at 
 Syene, and from desert to desert, on either side, 
 extends this wonder-land. Upper Egypt is the 
 
 region of the undivided Nile, and Lower Egypt of 
 the vast delta, through which it flows in several 
 streams, broadening the area of productiveness. 
 Besides these, were a few green spots in the desert, 
 and ports on the Red Sea. 
 
 By its geographical position, the country was pro- 
 tected from hostile incursions by a better than Chi- 
 nese wall, and allowed to develop normally until a 
 comparatively late period. Not that the same race 
 maintained the ascendency all the time, but that 
 the immunity from hostile incursion enjoyed by that 
 people was such as no other nation ever enjoyed 
 until the United States came upon the stage of 
 national development. It was not necessary to 
 exhaust the resources and ingenuity of the people in 
 war. There was ample leisure for and incentive to 
 the cultivation of the arts of peace. 
 
 The Rainless Land might be the appellation of 
 Egypt. The productiveness of the soil is not depend- 
 ent upon capricious clouds. During our spring 
 months the air is sultry and the ground parched. 
 The rains of mountainous Abyssinia commingle in 
 the upper Nile, and by about the middle of June 
 the mighty flood reaches Egypt, and the overflow 
 begins. The fields of the delta are one vast sheet of 
 water during August, September, and October. The 
 villages, built on raised mounds or artificial hills, 
 are little islands. The water is red with Abyssinian 
 mud. When the water disappears, early in Novem- 
 ber, the alluvial deposit is the richest of soil, and 
 
 ~ 7 [ 
 
 FT 
 
 (44^ 
 

 3 
 
 a 
 
 ' 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 THE MOST ANCIENT EGYPT. 45 
 
 the vegetation is prodigious. Two crops a year can 
 be raised. First wheat and barley, then corn and 
 rice. The latter crop is sowed to grow during the 
 inundation, giving rise to the proverb about casting 
 bread (seed) upon the water. It is harvested in time 
 for the second crop to be put in, and matured during 
 the same year. A country so fertile can support a 
 very dense population, especially as the water affords 
 facilities for transportation 
 and exchange. For a long 
 time gold and precious stones 
 came from the south, and to 
 some extent commerce is 
 still maintained in that di- 
 rection. The Nubian mines 
 were the “bonanzas” of an- 
 tiquity. To them Thebes 
 was largely indebted for its 
 opulence, being for five hun- 
 dred years the richest city 
 in the world. The water 
 which overflowed the delta 
 supplied the clay for most 
 excellent brick, and a road- 
 way for the stupendous 
 blocks of stone which are 
 still conspicuous and mar- 
 velous in ruins. It is from 
 the inscriptions on these 
 monumental ruins that the 
 oldest authentic history must 
 be gleaned. Until a quite 
 recent date those hiero- 
 glyphics were a sealed book. 
 The discovery and deci- 
 phering of that key to the 
 mysteries of Egyptian rec- 
 ords, called the Rosetta Stone, led to the recovery of 
 a lost treasury of knowledge. And here, an account 
 of this pass-key to the historic treasures of Most An- 
 cient Egypt can hardly fail to be read with interest. 
 
 The Rosetta Stone was discovered in 1799, at 
 Rosetta, a town on the delta of the Nile. It is sup- 
 posed to have been set up originally in a temple, 
 and was, in its perfect state, 3 feet 1 inch high, 2 
 feet 5 inches wide, and 10 inches thick. It lias been 
 broken, lmt has still 14 lines of hieroglyphics, 32 
 cursive Egyptian, the so-called demotic or enchorial 
 writing, and 54 lines of Greek. The latter serve 
 
 as the clew to the rest. From the Greek inscription 
 it appears that it was erected in honor of King 
 Ptolemy Epiphanes, in the ninth year of his reign, 
 B. C. 196-7, by the priests assembled in synod. The 
 birth of the king is narrated ; also the disturbances 
 in Upper Egypt, the inundation of the Nile, the 
 death of Ptolemy Philopater, the attack of Antio- 
 chus, and especially that a copy of this synodical 
 inscription should be carved 
 on a tablet and erected in 
 every temple of the first, 
 second, and third rank, 
 throughout the country. 
 
 About one-third of the hiero- 
 glyphic portion was pre- 
 served, and nearly all the 
 Greek and demotic versions 
 of it. At the capitulation 
 of Alexandria to the En- 
 glish, not long after its dis- 
 covery, it came into posses- 
 sion of the conquerors, and 
 in due time found its way 
 to the British Museum and 
 was published. It was at 
 once recognized as a key to 
 the decipherment of hiero- 
 glyphics, if only the com- 
 bination of the lock could be 
 discovered. Eminent Greek 
 scholars succeeded in restor- 
 ing the Greek text, and 
 Egyptologists made some 
 progress toward understand- 
 ing the rest of the in- 
 scription. The demotic text 
 is still somewhat inexplic- 
 able, but finally, in 1851, Brugsch Bey is supposed fo 
 have completed the translation of the hieroglyphics, 
 although the work was not really perfected until 1867. 
 
 One year after, another tablet in three languages 
 was found at San. The latter is in good preserva- 
 tion and has 37 lines of hieroglyphics, 76 lines of 
 Greek, and 72 of demotic writing. The decree of 
 Canopsus, served to complete and verify the progress 
 already made in reading hieroglyphics. Between 
 the two, it was positively ascertained that they were 
 used for sounds, not ideas, and tiro exact import 
 of these sounds was determined. 
 
 The Interior of the Great 
 Pyramid. 
 
 7 ~ 
 
 £ 
 
 7 
 
 > 
 
 5 
 
THE MOST ANCIENT EGYPT. 
 
 46 
 
 Following tho clew thus furnished, it has been 
 discovered that the earliest dynasty to leave imper- 
 ishable records was the royal house of Memphis, 
 dating back to B. C. 4400, and coming down to 
 B. C. 3300. The Memphian kingdom was Lower 
 Egypt, now called “the Beharah” by the Arabs. 
 The whole land was divided into states, much as 
 the United States is. They are sometimes desig- 
 nated nomes. These were, at the dawn of history, 
 forty-two in number. Each enjoyed “ state rights,” 
 but recognized the “national sovereignty” of the 
 chief dynasty, wherever it might be located. The 
 earliest monarch definitely outlined is Menes, the 
 founder of Memphis, and constructor, it is supposed, 
 of the dyke of Co- 
 chenke, which now 
 regulates somewhat 
 the overflow of the 
 Nile. lie caused tem- 
 ples to be erected in 
 every village or city, 
 which were the main 
 features of the towns. 
 
 It may be observed 
 that the ancient Egyp- 
 tians were remarkable 
 for their piety. Many 
 of the priests were the 
 scions of royalty, and 
 the Pharaohs were often, if not usually, addressed 
 as “Your Holiness.” Memphis was a seat of learn- 
 ing. A list of the kings who succeeded Menes 
 could be given, but it would be barren of interest, 
 for it is a list of names and nothing, else for hun- 
 dreds of years. There is a suspicious closeness of 
 resemblance between the names of the first conquer- 
 ors or founders of Egypt, India, Judea, and Greece, 
 namely : Menes, Menu, Moses, and Minos. 
 
 There were five Memphian dynasties, but only 
 one successor of Menes who towered into the region 
 of perpetual glory, Cheops, the master builder of 
 all the ages. The crowning work of his reign was 
 the pyramid bearing his name. It is 450.75 feet in 
 height by 746 feet broad at the base. Surrounded 
 by seventy minor pyramids, and companioned by 
 that “ monarch of the past,” the Sphinx, it defies 
 time or rivalry. High about it is piled the sand, 
 but in vain the desert tries to entomb it. 
 
 The builder of the Sphinx (called by the Arabs 
 
 the “ Lion of the Night”) is not known. It has the 
 form of a lion and the head of a man. It was hewn 
 out of the solid rock, except that the fore-legs, which 
 extend fifty feet from the breast, were added to the 
 body, some idea of which can be formed from the fact 
 that these legs are in good proportion to the 
 rest of that ancient marvel. 
 
 The great American humorist Samuel L. Clem- 
 ens (Mark Twain), putting aside for the moment 
 his cap and bells, thus eloquently gives voice to the 
 sentiment inspired by the august presence of this 
 gigantic work of art : 
 
 “ After years of waiting, it was before me at last. 
 The great face was so sad, so earnest, so longing, so 
 
 patient. There was 
 a dignity not of earth 
 in its mien, and in its 
 countenance a benig- 
 nity such as never 
 anything human wore. 
 It was stone, but it 
 seemed sentient. If 
 ever image of stone 
 thought, it was think- 
 ing. It was looking 
 toward the verge of 
 the landscape, yet 
 looking at nothing — 
 nothing but distance 
 and vacancy. It was looking over and beyond 
 everything of the present, and far into the past. 
 It was gazing out over the ocean of Time — 
 over lines of century-waves, which, further and fur- 
 ther receding, closed nearer and nearer together, 
 and blended at last into one unbroken tide, away 
 toward the horizon of antiquity. It was thinking of 
 the wars of departed ages ; of the empires it had 
 seen created and destroyed; of the nations whose 
 birth it had witnessed, whose progress it had watched, 
 whose annihilation it had noted ; of the joy and sor- 
 row, the life and death, the grandeur and decay, of 
 five thousand slow revolving years. It was the type 
 of an attribute of man — of a faculty of his heart and 
 brain. It was Memory — Retrospection — wrought 
 into visible, tangible form. All who know what 
 pathos there is in memories of days that are ac- 
 complished, and faces that have vanished — albeit 
 only a trifling score of years gone by — will have 
 some appreciation of the pathos that dwells in those 
 
 The Great Pyramid (Cheops), and the Sphinx. 
 

 
 THE MOST ANCIENT EGYPT. 
 
 47 
 
 grave eyes that look so steadfastly back upon the 
 things they knew before History was born, before 
 Tradition had being — things that were, and forms 
 that moved in a vague era which even Poetry 
 and Romance scarce knew of — and passed one by 
 one away, leaving the stony dreamer solitary in the 
 midst of a strange, new age, and uncomprehended 
 scenes. The Sphinx is grand in its loneliness ; it is 
 imposing in its magnitude ; it is impressive in the 
 mystery that hangs over its story. And there is that 
 in the overshadowing majesty of this eternal figure of 
 stone, with its accusing memory of the deeds of all 
 ages, which reveals to one something of what he 
 shall feel when he shall stand at last in the 
 awful presence of God.” 
 
 An eminent Egypt- 
 ologist describes as fol- 
 lows the method of pyr- 
 amid building: “First 
 the nucleus was formed 
 by the erection of a 
 small pyramid upon 
 the soil of the desert. 
 
 It was built in steps, 
 and contained a stone 
 chamber, well con- 
 structed and finished. 
 
 Then coverings wei - e 
 added until the final 
 size was reached, and 
 at last all was inclosed in a casing of hard stone, 
 deftly fitted together and polished to a glassy surface. 
 The pyramid, thus finished, presented a gigantic 
 triangle on each of its four sides. The stone used 
 for the inner structure was found near the place of 
 erection, hut as the work progressed, better material 
 was brought from the mountain quarries as far up 
 the Nile as the modern Assouan.” The granite last 
 referred to was as hard as metal, and susceptible 
 of an exquisite polish. The dates of construction 
 of the Sphinx and the great pyramid are subjects 
 of conjecture, and authorities widely differ in their 
 conclusions. It is supposed that the tenth king of 
 Memphis was reigning when Abraham, forced by 
 the stress of fodder for his flocks, drove his herds 
 to Egypt, there getting himself into trouble by pre- 
 tending that his wife was his sister. It may ho well, 
 in this connection, to speak of an episode in Egyp- 
 tian history which served to consolidate the country 
 
 d 
 
 politically. We refer to the reign of the Shepherd 
 Kings, or Hycsos, who scourged Egypt for one hun- 
 dred years. From the meager accounts preserved, 
 they must have been to that country much what the 
 Golden Horde, or Tartars, were to Russia. A race 
 of shepherds and traders, these Arabs gradually 
 gained a foothold in Lower Egypt. Some think 
 they were the Philistines before they settled in Pales- 
 tine ; others, that they were the Hebrews, between 
 the time when Joseph, or, as the tablets call him, 
 Zeplinet-Plicenich — Joseph the Phoenician — was a 
 member of Pharaoh’s cabinet, and the subjugation 
 of the Israelites. Be that as it may, for a century or 
 so these interlopers maintained a certain sovereignty 
 
 over the agricultural 
 ami mechanical Egyp- 
 tians. Salatis was the 
 first of these Shepherd 
 Kings, and five others 
 are named in the chron- 
 icles. Finally the peo- 
 ple became so restive 
 under foreign domina- 
 tion that LTpper and 
 Lower Egypt joined 
 forces and swept the l 
 enemy out of the land. 
 
 The union thus form- 
 ed included the minor 
 states of the country, 
 and survived its immediate occasion. The kings of 
 Thebes now became monarchs of all Egypt, much 
 as Ivan the Great secured for the grand princedom 
 of Moscow the sovereignty of all the Russias through 
 the expulsion of the Tartars. The Pharaohs of 
 Abraham, Joseph, and Moses, were the rulers of 
 Memphis, or Lower Egypt, and it was doubt less for 
 the pyramids that the Hebrew slaves were com- 
 pelled to make “bricks without straw,” and it 
 was in all probability from the fecund ooze of the 
 delta of the Nile that the magical and miraculous 
 ten plagues sprung. 
 
 And now, without wearying the reader with mere 
 skeletons of facts, names, and dates, we take leave 
 of Most Ancient Egypt, only pausing to make 
 this remark, although Egypt has well been called 
 “the monumental land of all the world,” no con- 
 temporary monuments of Menes, the first to reign 
 over all the land, have been discovered. 
 
A 
 
 4 
 
 _a_ 
 
 -<$y '<^y imidL 
 
 EGYPT 
 
 BEST 
 
 (W\fA*At/WWW\i? 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 V 
 
 From Memphis to Thebes — Karnak — The Tombs and Cataracts of Upper Egypt — Reform 
 in the Calendar — Amanothph and the Exodus — A Glimpse of Greece — Rameses the 
 Great — Home Development and Conquest — Gold and its Influence. 
 
 
 roR seven hundred years the 
 scepter of national suprem- 
 acy, so long held by Mem- 
 phis, belonged to Thebes. 
 It was not simply apolitical 
 ascendancy. Memphis and 
 Lower Egypt could boast 
 ‘gigantic works which were 
 a triumph of architectural 
 science, but art, in its more esthetic 
 character, belonged rather to Thebes. 
 That marvelous city, the miracle of 
 history, even in ruins, represents an 
 unbroken chain of reigns, and its tab- 
 lets jireserve the names of nionarchs 
 with the most meager details. Of 
 course, the catalogue of those names would be te- 
 dious and unprofitable. The city had a road of its 
 own to the Red Sea, and thus not only commanded 
 the Ethiopian trade, but had a seaport. It was a 
 London with its Liverpool. At one time Elephan- 
 tine, built on an island of the Upper Nile, was the 
 capital of a small kingdom, as was also Heracleop- 
 olis, near Memphis. But Thebes and Memphis 
 long enjoyed the sovereignty of Egypt. 
 
 In the shadowy days of antiquity, the temple of 
 Karnak “ rose like an exhalation,” and the countless 
 tombs of Beni-IIassarwcre tunneled into the hills that 
 form the site of Egyptian Thebes, for this antique city 
 must not be confounded with the Thebes of Greece. 
 
 These houses of death give a certain deathlessness 
 to Egypt, for upon the walls are depicted the em- 
 ployments and amusements of the people. The 
 resemblance between Egyptian life thousands 
 of years ago and to-day is wonderfully close. 
 Indeed, about Thebes are evidences of the most mar- 
 velous achievements in Titanic art. Vast and im- 
 perishable stones, such as modern skill could not 
 quarry, served to make the region of Upper Egypt 
 a ceaseless source of interest. 
 
 Without attempting to follow the political for- 
 tunes of dynasties with closeness, it will be of interest 
 to note the more important facts of this middle pe- 
 riod of Egypt. 
 
 It was in the year B. C. 1321, that the new peri- 
 od began. It was then the calendar was reformed, 
 a work showing great attainments in science ; as- 
 tronomy especially. It was almost identical with 
 the calendrial reformation inaugurated at Rome by 
 Julius Caesar, which is the real basis of modern com- 
 putation of time. Caesar was little more than a 
 borrower from “ the wisdom of the Egyptians,” 
 learned while dallying with Cleopatra (for that 
 greatest of Romans had a genius for combining 
 pleasure with more substantial advantages). The 
 fundamental and intimate relation of that old re- 
 form in time-keeping with the present system, renders 
 it worth our while to look somewhat minutely into 
 it. The era of which we speak was called Meno- 
 plires, and of it an eminent Egyptologist remarks 
 
EGYPT AT 
 
 (and we cannot do better than to quote his words) : 
 “ The observing man may note that every star rises 
 to-day earlier than it did yesterday, and that every 
 morning a fresh set of stars peeps up from the hori- 
 zon to be seen but for a moment before they are lost 
 in the bright light of the day-break. The day on 
 which a star is thus first seen in the east, is called 
 its heliacal rising, and at the beginning of the era 
 of Menophres, the first day of Thoth, the civil new 
 year’s day began, falling on the day the Dog-star 
 was first seen to rise at day-break, which was held 
 to be the natural new year's day, when the Nile be- 
 gan to rise, six weeks before the overflow. This 
 agreement between the natural new year’s day and 
 the civil new year’s day may have happened simply 
 by the motion of the civil year, but it was possibly 
 accompanied by a reform in the calendar, and by 
 fixing the length of the civil year at 365 days, in the 
 belief that the months would not again move from 
 their seasons. Among the common names of the 
 months, that of the last, the Bull, was clearly 
 brought into use at this time, when the year ended 
 with the rising of that constellation. The months, 
 however, were left with the mistakes in their hiero- 
 glyphical names, which had arisen from former 
 change of place. The four months which were 
 named after the season of vegetation fell during 
 the overflow of the Nile ; the months named after 
 the harvest fell during the height of vegetation, 
 and those named after the inundation fell during 
 harvest time. But if no alteration was made at 
 this time in the calendar, and the civil year already 
 contained 365 days, the addition of the five days had 
 probably been made five hundred years earlier, 
 when the first month of the inundation would have 
 
 The Egyptian God, Thoth. 
 
 begun with the Nile’s overflow. The Egyptian year 
 was never altered. For the want of a leap year, 
 1461 civil years took place in 1460 revolutions of 
 
 ITS BEST. 49 
 
 the sun ; and in the beginning of the reign of the 
 Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius, the new year’s 
 day again came around to the season from which it 
 moved in the reign of the Menophres. Again, Plu- 
 tarch says, that the God Thoth, i. e. King Thotlmio- 
 sis, taught the Egyptians the true length of the 
 year; and the figure of this king is often drawn 
 with a palm-branch, the hieroglyphic for the word 
 year, in each hand, hence it is probable that he is 
 the author of the change in the calendar, made in 
 the year B. C. 1321.” 
 
 This reformer of time was industrious in many 
 ways. Cleopatra’s needle (now in Central Park, 
 New York), and other obelisks, date from his 
 reign. From the lowest part of the kingdom to 
 Nubia, are scattered unmistakable evidences of his 
 constructive energy. At Heliopolis, Ombos and 
 Samneh, temples which must have been marvels of 
 architectural grandeur were erected. But it was 
 during the i - eign of his son Amanothph II. that 
 the arts were brought to a high degree of perfec- 
 tion, especially the industrial branches. The 
 paintings on the walls of the Theban tombs show 
 this. The artisan life these set forth, reveals ad- 
 vanced civilization. It is supposed that under this 
 king the Hebrew exodus occurred, and we have 
 herein probably supplied to us a missing link in 
 Biblical history. The Bible tells us when Joseph 
 brought his father and brethren into Egypt, and 
 when Moses led them out, but when the transition 
 from pets to slaves occurred, and the intermediate 
 steps, are not suggested in the sacred record. From 
 Joseph, prime minister, and his brethren highly 
 favored, to abject slavery, was a long stride. In 
 the light of Egyptology it seems probable, almost 
 to certainty, that they either were the Shepherd 
 Kings or their allies, and that the period of actual 
 bondage was very brief, less, surely, than one hun- 
 dred years. Even if they were not at all connected 
 with the Shepherd Kings, they wore of the same 
 Arab stock, and the Pharaohs of Thebes and Unit- 
 ed Egypt naturally “knew not Joseph,” belonging 
 as he did to the Memphian kingdom. The mud of 
 the Nile, mixed with chopped straw, and baked in 
 the sun was used very extensively. The Egyptian 
 version of the Exodus is quite unlike the Hebraic 
 account. The priests of Egypt were prejudiced 
 against them because of their religion, and secured 
 their isolation and enslavement. Moses, a learned 
 
5 ° 
 
 EGYPT AT ITS BEST. 
 
 priest of Heliopolis, preferred being the chief man 
 among the despised Israelites, rather than one 
 among many aristocratic priests. He espoused their 
 cause, gave them a code of laws, and a reformed 
 religion, encouraged them to form a hostile alliance 
 with the Canaanites, and when they were beaten by 
 Amanothph, he retreated with them into the desert, 
 from which, after years of wandering and hiding 
 from their adversaries, they succeeded in reaching 
 the land of their 
 allies whom in 
 part they dispos- 
 sessed. 
 
 How much this 
 history was a dis- 
 torted account, 
 we leave the 
 reader to judge. 
 
 It is certainly in- 
 teresting and cu- 
 rious. The two 
 peoples thus in- 
 timately associ- 
 ated in the far- 
 off days may be 
 said to have 
 given to Europe 
 and America 
 their great characteristics. To those fugitive slaves 
 we owe our religion, and to their pursuers have been 
 traced, through many a devious winding, the gen- 
 eral civilization of modern 
 times. It would be inter- 
 esting to follow the Ex- 
 odus to the Land of Prom- 
 ise, but that would be a 
 tangent, and we must now 
 dismiss from our thoughts, 
 in connection with Egypt, 
 the children of Israel. 
 
 Thothmosis IV. was the 
 next king of Egypt. The 
 temple which stands be- 
 tween the fore-legs of the 
 Sphinx, near Memphis, 
 was evidently the work of 
 Dress of the King. his reign. I hat edilice 
 shows, as has been observed, that “ in this reign at 
 least, though probably much earlier, the rock had 
 
 COLOSSAL STATUE OF 
 
 been carved into the form of that monster.” The 
 next king, Amanothph III., was a great warrior, and 
 did a great deal of temple and tomb building, of 
 wall-painting and of obelisk-carving. He conquered 
 numerous tribes of Ethiopians. His successor, 
 Ilornemnes deserves mention for the fact that he 
 was unwittingly the father of Greek civilization. It 
 was this way : Greek pirates, or sailors, much the 
 same thing in old times, had established themselves at 
 
 Sais, on the east 
 of the Delta, and 
 conducted the 
 Mediterranean 
 commerce of 
 Egypt, being for 
 the most part in- 
 dependent and 
 free. Gradually 
 they spread and 
 improved, enjoy- 
 ing the privilege 
 of intercourse 
 with cultured 
 Egypt for five 
 hundred years. 
 Finally, at the 
 time at which 
 we have arrived 
 they incurred the enmity of the government. 
 They belonged to Lower Egypt, and Upper 
 Egypt ruled the country. They were driven 
 out as the Hebrews had been before them. They 
 returned to Greece, founded several cities (Boeotian 
 Thebes among the number), and thus sowed 
 the seeds of Greek civilization. Athens is sup- 
 posed to owe its origin to that second great 
 exodus. 
 
 We come now upon the name which towers 
 above all other Theban names — Rameses. The 
 first king who bore that name achieved noth- 
 ing, at least left nothing, which has survived the 
 ravages of three chiliades. His son, Oimemep- 
 thah, was an industrious builder, and the inscrip- 
 tions upon the walls of his structures, are very 
 useful in deciphering the religion of Egypt. 
 The next king, Rameses II., brought the The- 
 ban dynasty to its highest glory. War and 
 architecture, sculpture and painting, united in 
 making him the most illustrious of all the mon- 
 
 RAMESES THE GREAT. 
 

 EGYPT AT ITS BEST. 
 
 5 1 
 
 arclis the Nile can boast. ITis name is hardly less 
 imposing than that of Caesar. He was succeeded by 
 Plhehmen-Meiothph, Oimempthah II., Osinta, Ro- 
 merer, and four more kings bearing his own name, 
 and then the glory of Thebes departed, not a sud- 
 den and overwhelming calamity, like that which 
 dimmed the light of Troy and Jerusalem, but else- 
 where, and with diminished luster, shone the star 
 of Egyptian Empire. The last of those kings was 
 a contemporary of Priam, Achilles, Helen, and 
 Ulysses. The period from Rameses the Great to 
 Raineses the last, was nearly two hundred years. 
 
 No nation of antiquity relied so much as Egypt 
 did upon the development of its own resources for 
 growth and splendor. Indeed, no other nation ever 
 equaled it in this proud pre-eminence until the 
 United States of America surpassed it. The mar- 
 tial spirit was not wanting even upon the banks of 
 the Nile. The tablets abound in evidences of con- 
 quest. Rameses the Great seems to have inaugu- 
 rated a somewhat new policy. Hitherto wars ap- 
 pear to have been waged for defense, and against 
 encroaching neighbors. But he marched forth up- 
 on a campaign of subjugation. The carved and 
 painted walls of Theban temples portray victory 
 over the Ethiopians and the Arabs not only, but 
 Tartars, or Scythians, Medes, Persians, Syrians, 
 Lycians, and, in fine, the countries generally now 
 known as Turkey in Asia, and Russia in Asia. 
 How thorough were his conquests we cannot ascer- 
 tain, but they were certainly extensive enough to 
 give that king rank among the great soldiers of 
 mankind. The art of war must have been much 
 the same then as it continued to be, down to the 
 invention of gunpowder. Steel was known and 
 used both for offense and defense. 
 
 The population of Egypt at its best, when the 
 
 glory of Thebes was brightest, is supposed to have 
 been about 5,500,000. This estimate is based on the 
 registry of the crown tenants of the military age. 
 
 The subjugation of Ethiopia brought the gold- 
 mines of that country into the direct possession of 
 the Egyptians. To realize the importance of this, 
 one should recall the situation of this country before 
 and after the Mexican war. Prior to that conflict 
 the jirecious metals came into the coffers of the 
 United States through commercial intercourse, but 
 after that, the mines of California (a part of the 
 territory secured from Mexico) were worked to the 
 best advantage, and a new era in prosperity was in- 
 augurated. Those ancient mines diffused wealth 
 over the known world. Even Palestine sat, as 
 it were, under the drippings of the Egyptian 
 mint, and so astonishing was the increase of wealth 
 in Jerusalem, that the chronicles of the Hebrew 
 kings declare that gold was as plenty as stones in 
 the streets of that capital during the reign of 
 Solomon. The Ophir of the Bible is supposed by 
 some to have been simply a port on the Red Sea, 
 the gate through which the gold of Egypt 
 poured into Palestine in exchange for the prod- 
 ucts of that “ land flowing with milk and hon- 
 ey.” The exhaustion of those Nubian or Ethio- 
 pian mines had much, perhaps most, to do with the 
 decay of Egypt. We shall see further on in this 
 history how Spain derived advantage from the 
 mines of the new world, only to make its fall the 
 greater. The light of three thousand years is too 
 dim to admit of a close analysis of the causes of 
 Egypt’s fall, but certain it is, that its prosperity was 
 not abiding, and that by the time the last of the 
 Rameses passed away, the glory of Thebes, which 
 had been gradually fading for a century and a half, 
 suffered a permanent, but not a complete, eclipse. 
 
Q_ 
 
 OF EGYPT 
 
 'jmnmimtmm 
 
 
 HS 
 
 THE DECLINE 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Shishank and Bubastis — The Cushite Period — Commerce and Discovery — Assyrian and 
 Persian Wars — Cambyses and his Work of Destruction — Egypt and Greece — The Uni- 
 versity at Heliopolis — Coptic Justice, Clothing and Dwellings — Domestic Life and 
 Political Divisions— A Survey by - an Eminent Writer. 
 
 ATIONS do not build monu- 
 ments in honor of disaster, 
 and the lights which fall 
 upon the decline of Egypt 
 b are for the greater part side- 
 lights. The nation was di- 
 Tided, and the glory of 
 Thebes departed about 950 
 B. C. Shishank, of Bubastis, in Low- 
 er Egypt, succeeded the dynasty of 
 Raineses, so far as that dynasty had 
 succession in power. His capital was 
 about sixty miles from one of the 
 mouths of the Rile. It was very 
 near, if it did not embrace in its im- 
 mediate jurisdiction the land of 
 Goshen, and was thus that part of 
 Egypt from which the Jews derived 
 many of their ideas, being next to 
 Heliopolis. The Urim and Thummim of the Hebrew 
 priesthood was also worn by the priests of Bubastis. 
 It is generally supposed that the whole history of 
 the fall of man is of Egyptian origin, and the re- 
 semblance between the laws, customs and rites of 
 that country and of Palestine are striking, although 
 in many particulars there is a sharp contrast, showing 
 that Moses was no mere copyist. The kings of Bu- 
 bastis could not extend their sway over the whole 
 country, although they made some conquests abroad. 
 Tanes and Mendes were independent cities and sov- 
 ereignties, and Thebes was no inconsiderable power 
 
 long after it had suffered eclipse. It faded out so grad- 
 ually that it cannot be assigned a date of death. 
 Shishank divided the temporal and the spiritual 
 powers. The soldiers of the Bubastis were obeyed 
 in the Thebaid, but the priests had no jurisdiction 
 beyond their immediate parishes, as the modern 
 term is. 
 
 Soon after the death of Shishank, almost inter- 
 minable civil war became chronic. No master- 
 spirit arose to quell the storm. First one city and 
 then another would be in the ascendant, and for- 
 eign dependencies threw off the Egyptian yoke. 
 Notable among these secessions was Ethiopia, and 
 finally that southern nation became the master and 
 Egypt the servant. Although independent, it was 
 Coptic, and as a factor in the development of man, 
 was essentially Egyptian. It contributed no new 
 element to civilization. If, as some suppose, the 
 Ethiopians, called also the Cushites, really ante- 
 dated the Egyptians in civilization, their subsequent 
 career added no lasting monuments to their glory. 
 The Ethiopians waged fierce warfare with other na- 
 tions far to the North, especially Assyria, now 
 grown to greatness, but in all the arts followed 
 the models of Egypt, feebly and, far off. At the 
 height of its glory, the Nubian gold-mines added to 
 the resources of the kingdom, and some works still 
 stand to attest the imitation of Theban grandeur, 
 notably the temple at Nap at a, and the monarch of 
 Ethiopia boasted himself to be the Avell-beloved of 
 Athor, a Theban sroddess. Sometimes the Cushite 
 

 k. 
 
 THE DECLINE OF EGYPT. 
 
 53 
 
 kings established their court at Thebes, later in 
 Memphis, and still later at Sais, in Lower Egypt. 
 The Ethiopian conquerors, like the Normans who 
 took England, were gradually absorbed, and as Nor- 
 mandy was lost sight of, and conquered and con- 
 querors became unified as Englishmen, so Cushite 
 and native Coptic gradually merged in Egyptians. 
 This Cushite period, as it might be called, was not 
 without its glory. From the Greeks and Phoeni- 
 cians the people learned navigation and caught the 
 spirit of enterprise. The priests tried to discourage 
 all progress, and did succeed in greatly hampering 
 it, but some of the monarchs were great and secular. 
 
 About the middle of the seventh century before 
 the Christian era, Psammeticus I. encouraged in- 
 tercourse with the Greeks. He employed them as 
 soldiers, gave Greek names to his children, and al- 
 lowed colonies from Greece to settle upon the Delta. 
 His son, Necho II., sent a fleet on a voyage of dis- 
 covery from the Red Sea, with a view to circum- 
 navigate Africa, and see if there were not some 
 “Northwest” passage for commerce. The expedi- 
 tion covered a period of three years. The Straits 
 of Gibraltar were discovered and sailed through. 
 As far as known, this was the most far-reaching 
 voyage which had ever been undertaken at that 
 time, and quite outstripped the “sailor’s yarn ” spun 
 by Homer about the wanderings of LTysses. 
 
 Necho carried on extensive wars with the Assyri- 
 ans, or, as by that time they deserved to be called, 
 Babylonians or Chaldeans, for Nineveh had fallen. 
 This line of military policy was carried on with va- 
 rying fortunes, amid scenes no longer of much in- 
 terest, until Cyrus the Mede crushed the liberties 
 of Egypt. What he began, his son Cambyses fin- 
 ished. He thoroughly overthrew the ancient em- 
 pire of Egypt, and henceforth its most ancient 
 form ceased to exist. The original, independent 
 and African nation was no more. Afterwards 
 Cambyses took Sais, captured King Psammeticus 
 and over-ran and sacked the cities. From that 
 time on, the Egypt of the pyramids has had only 
 its past to boast of, and its ruins to glory in, and 
 its subsequent achievements have been mainly due 
 to foreign influences. 
 
 It was in the year 523 B. C. that Cambyses 
 marched his conquering barbarians into Egypt, and 
 i 332 B. C., that Alexander the Great invaded the 
 land of the Sphinx. During those two centuries 
 
 9 ...... 
 
 the country was at the lowest ebb of happiness and 
 the high-water mark of misery. The demoniacal 
 Cambyses madly destroyed and desolated out of 
 wanton savagery. The stupendous works of art at 
 Thebes and elsewhere, were laboriously disfigured 
 and defaced. His wanton Medes and Persians, the 
 Vandals of their day, took special delight in break- 
 ing off the heads of statues, the beard being held 
 in as much veneration among them as the “pig- 
 tail”is in China. No inconsiderable portion of the 
 destruction now witnessed among the ruins of 
 Egypt is chargeable to them, especially during the 
 reign of the mad Cambyses. His immediate suc- 
 cessor, Darius, was a mercenary ruler. He cared 
 more for the spoils and revenue than for malicious 
 gratification. Taken as a whole, that period of 
 two hundred years was one long, relentless, and 
 desolating tyranny, relieved briefly during the war 
 of Xerxes with Greece, when the opportunity for 
 revolt was improved, resulting, however, in no act- 
 ual benefit to the Egyptians. 
 
 That was a dreary period. Its details are unin- 
 teresting in the extreme. It is only from the stand- 
 point of general results that it possesses significance. 
 What was really the most important thing of all, 
 was the fall of Egypt as a vast school house of the 
 nations. The pursuit of knowledge in that coun- 
 try was beset with exceeding difficulty, especially 
 for the Greek. The foreign student of philosophy, 
 science, and art, would need true heroism to trust 
 his life in any part of Egypt, especially if he were a 
 Greek. That was an exceedingly fortunate thing 
 for Greece and the whole world. It stimulated and 
 developed the indigenous civilization of Greece, and 
 contributed incalculably, although indirectly, to the 
 glory of Athens. The intellectual scepter of the 
 world passed from Coptic into Grecian hands, never 
 to be regained. Henceforth the very glories of 
 Egypt, if they do not really belong to Greece, are yet 
 so very Hellenic as to have a distinctive type more 
 susrsrcstive of Athens than of 'Thebes or Memphis. 
 It was during this decline of Egypt that the univer- 
 sity at Heliopolis became the fountain-head of lib- 
 eral education for the civilized world. The schools 
 of that city cannot be dated in their origin, but it is 
 known that it was there that Solon, Pythagoras, 
 Plato, and the learned Greeks generally, repaired to 
 study not only “ the wisdom of the Egyptians,” but 
 the science, philosophy, institutions and literature 
 
 
54 the decline of egypt. 
 
 of Assyria, and the whole world of existing civiliza- 
 tion. There the scholars of the nations far and 
 near repaired for study, as now they seek the uni- 
 versities of Germany. 
 
 There are some features of the laws of the Coptic 
 period which merit attention, but which may be- 
 long to the oldest empire, for a common law older 
 than any record of it, is by no means peculiar to 
 English-speaking peoples. The principle of crimi- 
 nal law was retribution, not reform or mere re- 
 straint in the future. It was “ an eye for an eye 
 and a tooth for a tooth.” Slaves were far better 
 protected than children or wives. Forgers were 
 severely punished. Imprisonment for debt was not 
 allowed. The most notable law was what in Brit- 
 ish and American law is called “ the statute of lim- 
 itations,” carried to the extreme that no debt could 
 be collected at law unless it had been acknowledged 
 in writing, provided the defendant denied the ob- 
 ligation under oath. 
 
 The clothing of the Egyptians was mostly linen, 
 the, women wearing a single garment extending 
 from head to foot; the men, one of coarse texture 
 and somewhat shorter. Sandals were worn gen- 
 erally, but the head was bare, except that some- 
 thing in the way of a badge of distinction was 
 worn. The ordinary dwelling was a small plot 
 of ground inclosed between four unroofed walls. 
 A priest could marry only one wife, but poly- 
 gamy was allowed to the secular part of the com- 
 munity. The land belonged to the crown, the 
 priesthood, and the soldiery in equal parts, the rev- 
 enues of the government coming from the peasants 
 on the crown lands. The area of civilization was 
 not far from eleven millions of acres. For politi- 
 cal purposes the country was divided into nomcs, or 
 counties, varying from time to time in number 
 from thirty to forty. There were also township di- 
 visions for purposes of government. It may be 
 added in conclusion, that the fine arts of this period 
 compare poorly with the sculpture and painting of 
 Greece ; the pupil far surpassing the master. 
 
 Speaking of this period, an eminent historian 
 writes: “ We now possess but few traces of the 
 Egyptian laws and customs by which to explain the 
 form of government ; but there are two circumstances 
 which throw some light upon it, and prove that it 
 
 was a mixed form, between a monarchy and an aris- 
 tocracy. First, every soldier was a land-owner, and 
 arms were only trusted to those who had such an 
 estate in the country as would make them wish to 
 guard it from enemies from abroad and from ty- 
 rants and tumults at home. These men formed a 
 part of the aristocracy. A second remarkable in- 
 stitution was the hereditary priesthood. Every 
 clergyman, sexton and undertaker, every physician 
 and druggist, every lawyer, writing clerk, school- 
 master and author, every sculptor, painter, and 
 land measurer, every magistrate and every fortune- 
 teller, belonged to the priestly order. Of this sacred 
 body the king, as we learn from the inscriptions, 
 was the head ; he was at the same time chief-priest 
 and general-in-chief of the army, while the temples 
 were both royal palaces and walled castles of great 
 strength. 
 
 The power of the king must have been in part 
 based on the opinion and religious feeling of the 
 many ; and however selfish may have been the 
 priests, however they may have kept back knowl- 
 edge from the people, or used the terrors of the 
 next world as an engine for their power in this, yet 
 such a government, while more strong, must have 
 been far more free than the government of the 
 sword. Every temple had its own hereditary fam- 
 ily of priests, who were at the same time magis- 
 trates of the city and the district, holding their 
 power by the same right as the king did his. The 
 union between church and state was complete. 
 But the government must have been a good deal 
 changed by Rameses II. and his father. After all 
 Egypt was united under one scepter, the power of 
 the monarch was too great for the independence of 
 the several cities. The palaces built by these kings 
 were not temples ; the foreign tributes and produce 
 of the gold mines were used to keep in pay a stand- 
 ing army ; and by a standing army alone could 
 Raineses have fought his battles so far from home 
 as in Asia Minor and on the banks of the Euphra- 
 tes. The military land-holders were wholly unfit- 
 ted for foreign warfare.” There is no plainer les- 
 son in history than this : However splendid and 
 strong it may seem, a nation which employs for its 
 defense foreign mercenaries, has entered upon its 
 period of decline. 
 
 IK 
 

 
 EGYPT AND THE 
 GLORY OF ALEXANDRIA. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Alexander and Alexandria — The I’ii yl.e — Papyrus Making — Alexander and Egypt — 
 First of the Ptolemies — Alexandrian Commerce and Public Buildings— The Muse- 
 um— The Library— The Ptolemies and Science— Alexandrian Philosophy— The Mate- 
 rial Decline of the City— Alexandrian Christianity — Theological Warfare — Zeno- 
 bia in Egypt — Persian Ravages — The Saracen Invasion. 
 
 __ , 
 
 
 N the meteoric splendor of 
 Alexander, Greece may 
 well take perpetual pride. 
 It is none the less true that 
 he was by no means a typ- 
 ical Greek. He belonged 
 to barbaric Macedonia, 
 which had little in com- 
 mon with classic Athens, or the cul- 
 ture which has made the lfame of 
 Greece illustrious. His exploits belong 
 indeed to another portion of this his- 
 tory, but we are now about to enter up- 
 on a chapter of the past which consti- 
 tutes the one grand monument to his 
 His dazzling splendors as a 
 world conqueror will shine forever, but 
 the kingdom was divided upon his un- 
 timely death, and fell into fragments. It was 
 saved from universal disgrace by the Ptolemaic dy- 
 nasty, and the still greater and more enduring gen- 
 ius of Alexandria (for there are local as well as per- 
 sonal genii). We have seen Egypt rise and fall, 
 being the world’s greatest academy, even in its de- 
 cline. But Persian oppression and the enervating 
 influence of wealth had so vitiated the Coptic race 
 that it seemed incapable of recovery. The new pe- 
 riod of Egyptian greatness is more Hellenic than 
 Coptic. It is Greece transplanted in Egypt, much 
 as the glory of the United States is England trans- 
 
 ported to America. For three centuries the dynasty 
 of the Ptolemies endured, and for nine cen- 
 turies, Alexandria was the great literary and scien- 
 tific metropolis of the world, rivaling in scholar- 
 ship, if not original works of genius, Athens and 
 Rome at their best. 
 
 Hitherto, in our history, we followed the course 
 of empire as marked out upon the tablets and 
 memorial stones of royal association, but we may 
 now pass out into the broader ocean of literature. 
 About the time of the Persian invasion, papyrus 
 became common and cheap in Egypt, and what is 
 more, the use of letters took the place of picture 
 writing with its slow work and unsatisfactory re- 
 sults. The way was thus made ready for Alexan- 
 dria with its libraries and book-lore. There are in 
 Europe, to-day, no less than ten thousand Egyp- 
 tian papyri. But our main concern is with Alex- 
 andria, its kings and savants, its erudition and its 
 literature; in fine, the part taken by it in the devel- 
 opment of man. 
 
 Having established his sway over all Greece and 
 the Grecian cities of Asia Minor, Alexander led his 
 forces against Darius. His war upon the Persians 
 endeared him to the Egyptian heart, so that when 
 he went thither he was hailed as a deliverer. With 
 a quick eye to the possibilities of empire, he deter- 
 mined to erect a city worthy to perpetuate his name 
 near one of the mouths of the Nile, where then 
 stood the small village of Rhacotis. The site was 
 
 r 
 
 T 
 
 ( 55 ) 
 
9 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 56 
 
 EGYPT AND THE GLORY OF ALEXANDRIA. 
 
 well chosen, and although he never returned to 
 carry out the plan, his idea, barely begun in his life- 
 time, bore fruit. Between that little village and 
 the island of Pharos, the water was exceptionally 
 deep and peculiarly well adapted for the harborage 
 of ships. 
 
 Alexander treated the Egyptian prejudices with 
 respect, instead of trying to exasperate and hu- 
 miliate the people. His victories over the Per- 
 sians made secure his hold upon the land of the 
 pyramids, and his reverence for Ammon and the 
 other deities of the Nile, made his claim of sonship 
 to Ammon a highly appreciated compliment. It 
 was eight years after his entrance upon Egypt that 
 he died at Babylon, 
 during which period 
 very little had been 
 done to carry out his 
 plan beyond preparing 
 the way for it. His 
 half-brother, Philip 
 Arridseus, was declar- 
 
 ed by his generals, 
 assembled at Babylon, 
 to be his successor. 
 
 But in the course of a 
 few years the empire 
 fell into fragments, 
 these generals dividing 
 it between themselves. 
 
 The province of 
 Egypt fell to the lot 
 of Ptolemy. From the 
 first, he was virtually 
 
 king of the country, and his dynasty continued 
 with varying fortunes, until finally the imperialism 
 of Rome absorbed the country. The city which he 
 built and made his capital, survived the dynasty 
 with which in glory it was indivisibly united for a 
 brilliant series of centuries. 
 
 The first of the Ptolemies, B. C. 322, was sur- 
 named Soter, and the last in point of fact was Cleo- 
 patra, who applied the fatal asp to her breast B. C. 
 30. The real glory of Alexandria faded gradu- 
 ally as the light of Christianity obscured the bright- 
 ness of pagan philosophy and science. No other 
 date can be fixed for the final eclipse of its splen- 
 dor so appropriate as the burning of its marvelous 
 and vast library by the Arabs, A. D. 640. We 
 
 Light-house on the Pharos. — (One of the Seven Wonders of the world.) 
 
 shall not, however, in this chapter, catalogue the 
 kings who ruled in Alexandria or the emperors who 
 held it in vassalage, but endeavor to give an idea of 
 the actual place held during these years by the 
 city which may be said to furnish the connecting 
 link between ancient and modern times. 
 
 This city combined commercial with educational 
 supremacy and in its palmy days, which were many, 
 had about three hundred thousand inhabitants, 
 which, by the way, is about its present population. 
 It was laid out on a generous plan. The two main 
 streets crossed one another at right-angles in the 
 middle of the town, which was from the first, three 
 miles long and nearly a mile wide, with streets wide 
 
 enough for carriages. 
 Upon the neighboring 
 island of Pharos was 
 erected (about three 
 centuries before 
 Christ) a gigantic 
 light-house of white 
 marble, which is class- 
 ed as one of the seven 
 wonders of the world. 
 As described, the early 
 city must have been 
 peculiarly modern. 
 The public buildings 
 which fronted the har- 
 bor included a cham- 
 ber of commerce, and 
 beside the wharf and 
 cemetery, there were 
 theaters, circuses, race- 
 courses, public parks, public libraries, public schools, 
 and the temple of Therapis, which might pass for 
 a cathedral. The chief of all these institutions 
 was the University, generally called the Museum. 
 
 This Museum was the home of philosophy and 
 learning, the resort of students old and young. Its 
 great hall was devoted to lectures, and was also used 
 as a dining-room, for the physical necessities of the 
 scholars were duly regarded. The state spent vast 
 sums of money in maintaining this institution. On 
 the porch and in the spacious grounds gathered “ in 
 groups and knots ” the scholars and professors in 
 the pursuit of knowledge. In the old Coptic uni- 
 versity previously mentioned, the savants taught 
 only what was, strictly speaking, “ the wisdom of the 
 
 FT 
 
I 
 
 EGYPT, AND THE GLORY OF ALEXANDRIA. 57 
 
 Egyptians but this Hellenic U niversity was truly 
 cosmopolitan. It drew knowledge from the whole 
 world. Its library was early a large one and steadily 
 increased with the growth of literature. 
 
 It may be well to say here that the Alexandrian 
 library was fired three times, and nearly destroyed 
 each time ; first by Caesar, when he conquered the 
 city ; second by Christian fanaticism, and lastly by 
 Mohammedan fanaticism, the loss being greater 
 upon each repetition. This vast repository of liter- 
 ature was open to the public for reading and for 
 copying, and the latter was an important industry 
 in those days of more thirst for knowledge than 
 facilities for its gratification. The papyrus and the 
 scribe of those days were the printing press and 
 compositor of modern times. The first Ptolemy 
 was a historian of no mean attainments, and the 
 last to make that name illustrious was an astrono- 
 mer second only to Galileo and Copernicus. It was 
 not bravery alone which was rewarded in Alexan- 
 dria, nor yet commercial enterprise. Neither was 
 under-rated, but both were held in less repute than 
 scholarship, art, and all which the term culture 
 embraces. Sculptors, painters, poets, historians, 
 linguists, scientists of all kinds, and every dweller 
 upon the lofty table-land of intellectual life, were 
 the real aristocrats of that city. Not only was 
 Alexandria a repository for all the wisdom of Greece, 
 but it embraced the body of Syrian and Assyrian 
 learning and Jewish literature. The scattered 
 writings of the Hebrew tongue were gathered into 
 one book and translated into Greek (for Alexan- 
 dria being a Grecian city, in fact, made Greek the 
 language of general literature). That translation 
 is known as the Septuagint, and is identical with 
 our Old Testament. Jesus Christ and others in the 
 New Testament, quoted from the Septuagint, when- 
 ever they quoted at all from the scriptures of their 
 own people, which shows that the Septuagint was 
 the version used even in Judea. 
 
 Never did a sovereign show more appreciation of 
 intellectual superiority, regardless of nationality, 
 than the founder of the great house of Ptolemy. 
 He lived familiarly with the learned men of his 
 capital, courting their society. He was not so 
 much their patron as their friend, for lie did not 
 have the offensive ways suggested by the term 
 “patronize.” The list of eminent professors at 
 Alexandria would be a very long one, covering the 
 
 entire range of intellectual pursuits. The noble 
 city was an asylum for the banished free-thinkers 
 of other lands. None were more famous than the 
 physicians. Anatomy was born at Alexandria, and 
 so indeed was natural history. Mathematics was 
 brought to a still higher degree of perfection there 
 than ever before attained. The study of nature by 
 patient analysis and consecutive observation was fair- 
 ly begun there, without being carried to any very 
 satisfactory degree of perfection. There was in the 
 Alexandrian dissecting-rooms and zoological collec- 
 tions the suggestions of modern science, but the 
 difference is that between the gray of early morn 
 and full sunlight. Unfortunately, between that 
 twilight and this daylight was the almost rayless 
 darkness of a thousand years. When Alexandria 
 fell, night overspread the world, its mantle being 
 finally lifted only by the invention of printing. 
 
 The peculiarity of Alexandria as compared with 
 other great cities of learning, ancient and modern, 
 was the paucity and insignificance of its original 
 literature. The copying business seemed to be un- 
 favorable to the development of originality. It can 
 boast no Homer, no Plato, no Virgil, no Horace, no 
 Tacitus. In the world of ideas, poetical or philo- 
 sophical, its every contribution to literature might 
 perish without any very serious loss. Much has been 
 said of the Alexandrian school of philosophy, its 
 Neoplatonism and its Agnosticism, but these terms 
 suggest vast erudition, with a singular barrenness of 
 ideas. Philo, the Jew, was second to no Alexan- 
 drian in his philosophical ability, and his works are 
 extant and accessible to English readers, but they 
 are dreary and vapid. The attempt to adapt Pla- 
 tonic thought to Hebraic theology was futile. The 
 long list of writers, prose and poetic, contains no 
 really great name. It is not for its productions of 
 genius, but for the conservation of learning, that 
 Alexandria is entitled to wear a crown of metropoli- 
 tan supremacy. 
 
 Its commerce continued with some interruptions, 
 but without eclipse, until the trade of India and the 
 far Orient began to go around the continent of Af- 
 rica, instead of through its northern portion. The 
 voyage around Africa and through the Straits of 
 Gibraltar, previously mentioned, bore' little fruit, at 
 least it had no direct connection with the discovery 
 which left Alexandria stranded upon the desert, un- 
 til the construction, or rather the reconstruction, of 
 
 -71 
 
the Suez Canal by DeLesseps, since which time it 
 has resumed some commercial importance. 
 
 What has now been said of Alexandria as a seat 
 of learning, prepares one to understand the part 
 taken by that remarkable city in determining the 
 character of Christianity, which service, be it good 
 or ill, was the final glory of the city. The date of 
 the introduction of Christianity into Egypt is uncer- 
 tain. St. Mark has the traditional honor of its in- 
 troduction. The first opponent of Christianity, the 
 father of all who assail it as unworthy the “divinity 
 which doth hedge it about,” was Celsus of Alexan- 
 dria. He was answered by his townsman, Origen. 
 That controversy partook of the metaphysical hair- 
 splitting so popular in that university town. Hith- 
 erto, the Christians had been content to be practical 
 pietists. The scholarly and scholastic Alexandrians 
 raised and discussed matters of opinion, and inau- 
 gurated tire terribly demoralizing policy of excom- 
 munication on dogmatic ground. Theology, as a 
 field for dialectic combat and angry disputation, was 
 born in the Museum, and was the natural offspring 
 of the Alexandrian school of philosophy. It was 
 there that Bishop Athanasius insisted upon the di- 
 vinity of Jesus, and Presbyter Arius denied it, car- 
 rying the controversy so far as to occasion the Ni- 
 ce nc Council and Creed, and making a schism in 
 the church, over a creedal point quite foreign to 
 the simple thought of the primitive Christians. For 
 a time Alexandria was the capital of Christianity, 
 almost as truly as Rome afterwards became. But 
 that proud position was only briefly held. When 
 Constantine had established his court on the Bos- 
 phorus, the city named in his honor became the seat 
 of empire for the Creek Church, and Rome as a 
 rival capital, became the metropolitan see for the 
 rival western church. 
 
 The opinion of Athanasius was espoused in Rome; 
 and that of Arius in Constantinople, and Alexan- 
 dria lost its prestige. Constantine sought to make 
 his urban namesake a great seat of learning, the 
 central point of Greek thought, and an intellectual, 
 as well as religious center of influence. In this lie 
 so far succeeded as to sap the life of Alexandria. 
 What Roman conquest had hardly impaired, and 
 Arab conquest subsequently attempted, the rivalry 
 
 of Constantinople very nearly effected. The real 
 secret, however, of Alexandrian decay was the un- 
 due prominence given to mere learning in distinc- 
 tion from real thought, and polemical theology in 
 distinction from actual religion. 
 
 In the year A. D. 270, occurred an interesting 
 episode in Egyptian history. Zenobia, Queen of 
 Palmyra, one of the most interesting characters in 
 history, was acknowledged by all Egypt as queen. 
 She made the country a province of Syria. Her 
 reign was short, but its influence upon Upper Egypt 
 permanent. Two years after her sovereignty began, 
 she was taken captive by a Roman army and car- 
 ried in triumph to Rome, to spend the rest of her 
 days in enforced retirement. 
 
 The Coptic element still clung to the idea of sep- 
 aration from imperial Rome through Syrian leader- 
 ship. This movement failed, but the Copts of Up- 
 per Egypt were fired with a quenchless purpose to 
 break the hated yoke. When, at length, the Ro- 
 man Empire was divided, Egypt fell to the lot of 
 the Eastern Empire. That was about the begin- 
 ning of the fifth century. A century later, the 
 Persians having conquered a large part of Syria, in- 
 vaded Egypt. Temple ravages were committed, but 
 the capital was not taken. Other raids followed, 
 but no decisive advantage was gained. The country 
 suffered terribly from the rivalries of Persia and the 
 Eastern Empire. Then came the Saracen. One 
 of the first countries to be conquered by the follow- 
 ers of Islam, was the land of the Pharaohs, Alexan- 
 dria only offering serious resistance. The Saracen 
 commander who won this province was Amru. It 
 was under the Caliphat of Omar. It was by Amru 
 that the Alexandrian library was burned the third 
 time, in obedience to the instructions of Omar, who 
 said, “ If the books are the same as the Koran they 
 are useless, if not, they are wicked, therefore they 
 should be burned in any case.” In this spirit did 
 the Saracens ever rule all Egypt. It is none the 
 less true, that ultimately, the treasures of Alexan- 
 drian knowledge were largely preserved and dissem- 
 inated in Europe by the Mohammedans rather than 
 the Christians. The service to civilization rendered 
 by the Moors in Spain, might be called without ex- 
 aggeration, Egypt’s last, best gift to mankind. 
 
 
 Al 
 
 58 
 
 EGYPT, AND THE GLORY OF ALEXANDRIA. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Egypt, Geographically speaking — From Amru to Saladin — The Mamelukes and Turk- 
 ish Subjugation — Present Dynasty — Debt of Egypt, and its Political Consequences 
 —Railroads and the Suez Canal — Cairo, and the Present Alexandria — The Nile — 
 Natural Resources— Slave Trade and Education— Present Population, Fellahs, 
 Copts and Turks. 
 
 -Cl 
 
 F all the countries of the 
 world Egypt alone is the 
 same, geographically speak- 
 ing, “yesterday, to-day, and 
 forever.” X atural bounda- 
 ries determine its area. 
 Egypt As It Is, presents 
 the same topographical pe- 
 culiarities as did the Egypt of the 
 Pyramids and the Sphinx. The coun- 
 try embraced is the lowest or northern 
 division of the valley of the Xile, 
 from the lowest cataract, latitude 
 24° 3' 45" north, to the Mediterranean 
 Sea, latitude 31° 35'. Measured on the 
 meridian line, its length is 450 miles, 
 but making due allowance for the windings of the 
 mighty river, its length reaches 600 miles. The 
 average width is eight miles, the maximum width 
 being 160 miles. The whole area of the valley, in- 
 cluding the Delta of the Nile, is only 11,351 square 
 miles. There is a good deal of semi-desert country 
 included in Egypt proper, on either side of the valley, 
 which swells the area to 175,130 square miles. For 
 administrative purposes, there are thirteen provinces 
 or counties. The jurisdiction of Egypt, as a nation, 
 extends to some outlying regions, Nubia, Darfur and 
 a vaguely defined territory, mostly barren sands, 
 with occasional oases. 
 
 Between the Egypt which Amru conquered and 
 the present nation of that name, which came into 
 
 existence, politically, during this century, and is now 
 subject to a novel subjugation, retaining the sem- 
 blance of independence without its reality, stretches 
 a gulf which may be sufficiently spanned for our 
 purpose in few words; for when Alexandria fell, 
 Egypt became once more erne loped in “a darkness 
 that might be felt.” Under the Caliphs, alike at 
 Damascus and Bagdad, it was a mere cipher. The 
 Fatima dynasty of the Saracen Empire gained pos- 
 session of the country in 970, under which Cairo 
 was founded, and became, as it has remained ever 
 since, the capital. That famous Paynim, Saladin, 
 who did so much to baffle the Crusaders, obtained 
 the sovereignty of Egypt, and a new era seemed 
 about to dawn upon the land ; but with his death 
 the Empire was dismembered, and Egypt again 
 lapsed into utter insignificance. 
 
 In 1250 came the regime of the Mamelukes. 
 They were Turkish or Caucasian slaves, who became 
 so strong, being trusted with the affairs of state by 
 their enervated masters, that they rose in successful 
 rebellion, deposing the Sultan who feebly reigned at 
 Cairo. They were never fully conquered until Na- 
 poleon won the victory of the Pyramids, July, 1798. 
 The Ottoman Empire succeeded, however, in reduc- 
 ing the country to a partial condition of vassalage. 
 This reduction dates from 1517, Selim being the 
 Ottoman sovereign under whom the subjugation was 
 effected. 
 
 The present Khedive (Arabic for king), Mehemet 
 Tewfik, came to the throne in 1879, upon the abdi- 
 

 Jd 
 
 s A 
 
 60 
 
 EGYPT AS IT IS. 
 
 cation of liis father, Ismail. He is the sixth ruler 
 of the dynasty founded by that truly great man, 
 Mehemet Ali, who was appointed governor of 
 Egypt, as viceroy of the Sultan at Constantinople, 
 in 1806. His reign as a sovereign began five years 
 later. Mehemet Ali remained upon the throne which 
 he himself reared until 1848. His eldest son, Ibra- 
 him, died the same year, and the crown passed to 
 Abbas, Ali’s grandson. He wore it until 1854, when 
 his uncle, Said, a man nine years his junior, suc- 
 ceeded him. In 1863 Ismail came to the throne, a 
 man of such Oriental extravagance, both in public 
 
 $500,000,000. The actual control of the nation is 
 in the hands of an “International Commission of 
 Liquidation,” composed of seven members. The 
 present Khedive has an annual allowance of $750,- 
 000 for himself, $250,000 for his deposed father, 
 and $350,000 for other members of the royal 
 family. 
 
 The railroads of that country are the property of 
 the state. They extend, all told, about a thousand 
 miles. The great public work of Egypt, belonging 
 to modern times and practical matters, is the Suez 
 canal. It has a total length of ninety-two miles, 
 
 Cairo. 
 
 improvements and personal or household habits, 
 that he became a hopeless bankrupt. His abdica- 
 tion was the result brought about by the combined 
 pressure of British and French creditors. One of 
 the prodigalities of the Khedive was an agreement 
 to pay the Sultan an enormous tribute in exchange 
 for more perfect independence, for the indepen- 
 dence achieved by force in 1811 left some vestiges of 
 vassalage. In 1866 the almost complete disinthrall- 
 ment was purchased by an agreement to pay a lib- 
 eral annual tribute and furnish Turkey in time of 
 war a contingent of Egyptian soldiers. In every- 
 thing else the separation was absolute. 
 
 The debt of Egypt at the close of 1880 was about 
 
 and is wide and deep enough for the passage of 
 large vessels. The sidings serve the same purpose 
 as switches on single-track railroads. The number 
 of vessels which passed through it in 1879 was 1,477, 
 with a tonnage of 3,236,942. It was first opened 
 for business in 1869. The cost, in round numbers, 
 of this short canal was $100,000,000, so difficult was 
 it to protect the channel from the drifting sand 
 This canal was a triumph of French engineering, 
 its projector and constructor having been M. de Les- 
 seps, the indefatigable head of the Panama canal 
 project now being pushed for the uniting of the two 
 great oceans. At the present time the Suez canal 
 is under British control. More than three-fourths 
 

 
 L 
 
 EGYPT AS IT IS. 
 
 6 1 
 
 of the shipping which passed through the canal dur- 
 ing its first decade belonged to Great Britain. Port 
 Said, on the Mediterranean end of the route, is one 
 terminus, and Suez, on the Red Sea, the other. A 
 new town, Ismailia, came into existence in connec- 
 tion with the canal. None of these towns, however, 
 can boast any real thrift and general business. 
 
 Egypt has only two cities of any considerable size, 
 Cairo and Alexandria. They are 117 miles apart. 
 The discovery of the passage to India by the Cape 
 of Good Hope, in 1497, was afar more serious blow 
 to Alexandria than its capture by Amru. Its glory 
 
 tions. But it is only in a commercial point of view 
 that the Alexandria of to-day is an important city. 
 
 The population of Cairo is about 350,000. It is 
 the religious capital of Mohammedanism It is 
 there that the great university of Islam is located. 
 Not less than ten thousand students assemble there 
 to study the Koran, and con the priestly lore of the 
 Crescent. Saracenic architecture is exhibited in its 
 highest degree of perfection in its numerous mosques 
 and minarets, the most remarkable of the former 
 being the one erected by Sultan Tooloon, in 879. 
 
 An ancient Egyptian proverb exclaims, “ What, 
 
 Town of Suez. 
 
 had indeed departed, but it was still an impor- 
 tant mart of trade. The commerce of the East 
 flowed through its port, and its marvelous light- 
 house continued to be the great beacon of commerce. 
 After Portuguese enterprise had wrought its work of 
 revolution the city dwindled to a population of 
 0,000 a century ago. But since then it has received a 
 fresh lease of life. Ten years ago the population 
 had reached 220,000. Besides the Pharos, it has a 
 breakwater two miles long which furnishes a road- 
 stead for a very extensive commerce between Eu- 
 rope and India. From its wharfs are exported large 
 quantities of grain, sugar, cotton, and other produc- 
 
 want ye wine who have Nilus to drink of 7” To no 
 other country is any river anything like as impor- 
 tant as the Nile is to Egypt. This mighty stream 
 was long a profound mystery as to its source, and 
 a prolific source of speculation, no less than a tempt- 
 ing field for exploration. It is still somewhat of a 
 mystery, but it is certain that the river is formed by 
 the junction of the Blue and White Nile at Kliar- 
 toom, the capital of Nubia. The elevation at that 
 point above the level of the sea is 1188 feet. After 
 flowing northerly through about two degrees of lat- 
 itude, it receives a third and final tributary at El 
 Burner, called the Black Nile. From this point it 
 
 7 
 
 s>, 
 
 \ 
 

 k. 
 
 6 2 
 
 EGYPT AS IT IS. 
 
 descends, in a round-about way, througn several lat- 
 itudes, forming the famous Cataracts of the Nile, 
 the last being at Assonan, the boundary between 
 Nubia and Egypt. For about fifteen hundred 
 miles this majestic river receives no tributary. The 
 White Nile is believed to be tire parent river. It 
 originates in a large lake, the Victoria Nyanza, sit- 
 uated in equatorial mountains. 
 
 The valley of the Nile, from Philae to Cairo, is 
 hedged about by chains of hills. The Delta proper 
 is, however, one dead level — a plain without so much 
 
 are found in the desert. The crocodile and the hip- 
 popotamus rarely visit the lower Nile. Wild hogs 
 roam in the marshes bordering the Delta. Camels, 
 donkeys and mules are raised in large quantities. The 
 principal crops of the farmers are, to name them in 
 the order of their importance, cotton, maize, dur- 
 ra, beans, wheat, barley, rice, lintels, lupine, gar- 
 den vegetables, clover, sugar-cane, flax, hemp, to- 
 bacco, sesame, opium, henna, indigo, safflower, 
 roses, melons, oranges and bananas. Sheep are 
 raised largely, and it is a great country for poultry. 
 
 Port Said, and the Northern End of the Canal. 
 
 as a hillock. The desert between the Nile and the 
 Red Sea is somewhat diversified by hills. The usu- 
 al rock formation of the country is limestone, with 
 some granite in the southern portion. The only 
 minerals found in quantities to yield revenue arc 
 salt, natron and n re. The plants which nature 
 produces without tillage usually have hairy, thorny 
 exteriors. The palm-tree flourishes with very little 
 cultivation. Oranges, figs, and tamarinds abound 
 and are of an excellent quality. Olive, mulberry, and 
 poplar trees thrive there. 
 
 Zoologically speaking, Egypt does not make very 
 much of a showing. Gazelles, hyenas, and jackals 
 
 The slave trade still survives in Egypt to some 
 extent, but it is being suppressed gradually, and 
 that mainly through British influence. A system 
 of popular education, very imperfect and inadequate, 
 still of vast advantage to the rising generation, has 
 been adopted, and it is not too much to hope that 
 Egypt may once more have a place among the really 
 important members of the family of living nations. 
 Of the present population, a modern writer has accu- 
 rately, if somewhat floridly, remarked : “In the ill- 
 paid fellahs who cultivate the soil and work the 
 boats and water-wheels, who live in mud hovels, 
 wearing very little clothing, we seethe unprivileged 
 
 FT 
 
\ 
 
 
 EGYPT AS IT IS. 
 
 6 3 
 
 £l£ 
 
 class, that has labored under various masters from 
 very early times, unnoticed by the historian. These 
 are the same in the form of the skull as the Galla 
 tribe of east Africa, and were probably the earliest 
 inhabitants of the valley. Such were the builders 
 of the pyramids, as we learn by comparing their 
 heads with the great Sphinx. They suffer under 
 the same plagues of boils and blains, of lice and of 
 flies, as in the time of Moses. Their bodies are 
 painted with various colors, pricked into their skin, 
 as they were when the Israelites were forbidden to 
 make any marks on their flesh. 
 
 “ In the industrious Copts, the Christians of the 
 villages, the counting-house, and the monastery, 
 with skull and features half European and half 
 Eastern, we have the old Egyptian race of the Delta, 
 the ruling class, such as it was in the days of Psam- 
 metichus and Shishank. Between Silsilis and the 
 second cataract we find, under the name of Nubians, 
 the same old Egyptian race, but less mixed with 
 Greeks or Arabs. Such were the Nabatae who fought 
 against Diocletian, and such in features were 
 the kings of Ethiopia, Saba-Cothph, and Ergame- 
 nes. We know them by their likeness to the stat- 
 ues, and by their proud contempt of the Fellahs. 
 They were both zealous Christians under Athana- 
 sius; but Christianity has only remained among the 
 mixed race of the Copts. 
 
 “ To the east of the Nile, near Cosseir, and again 
 throughout the whole of Ethiopia from Alton Sim- 
 bel to Meroe, are the Abalxleh Arabs, brave and 
 lawless. These were the Southern enemies con- 
 quered by Rameses, and they often fought against 
 
 the Romans. They are the owners of the camels now, 
 as they used to be, and are the carriers across the sands 
 of the desert. To the south of Syene, in the desert 
 between Ethiopia and the Red Sea, are the less civ- 
 ilized marauding Bishareen Arabs, the Blemmyes 
 and Troglodytes of the Greeks. These Arabs seem 
 to be less at home on the banks of the Nile than 
 the Copts and the Nubians. They no doubt reach- 
 ed the valley at some later period, when the others 
 were already settled there, and reached not by pass- 
 ing through Egypt, but by crossing over from the 
 Arabian side of the Red Sea. 
 
 “ In Abyssinia we find a people in features and in 
 language more Hebrew than Arabic. The people 
 Frementius found there in the reign of Constantine 
 and the people for whom the Ethiopic version of 
 the Bible was made, whose forefathers readied the 
 country in trading vessels from Ezion-geber in the 
 reign of Solomon, or earlier. 
 
 “Alexandria is still peopled with sullen Copts, 
 clever Greeks, shabby-looking Jews, with here and 
 there a glossy negro in a white dress. The Chris- 
 tian monks live in peace among the Moslem der- 
 vishes. The ruling class who walk along the street 
 with proudest and firmest step are the Turks, in gay, 
 many-colored clothing, while the poor of the city, as 
 of old, are the half-naked, brown-skinned Fellahs.” 
 To such a depth has the ancient mother of civiliza- 
 tion fallen. The picture is not overdrawn. To the 
 initial observation of this chapter, may be appositely 
 added, that in comparative importance as a member of 
 the household of nations, present Egypt is the great- 
 est conceivable contrast to the Egypt of antiquity. 
 
■yjo. 
 
 
 ETHIOPIA 
 
 a HD THE PH(EN\C\^ S 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 Ethiopian and Phcenician Conjectures— Ethiopia and Egypt — Elective Monarchy and 
 Glimpses op Civilization — Christianity— The Arts and Sciences in Ethiopia — Modern 
 Ethiopia, or Abyssinia— Pikenicia, and Phcenician Cities — Tyre and Sidon — Commerce 
 and Enterprise— Phcenician Colonies — The Arts and Industries op the Piicenicians — 
 The Disappearance op this People. 
 
 
 F the honored names in the 
 list of ancient nations and 
 peoples, none are more shad- 
 owy and vague than Ethiopia 
 and the Phoenicians. The 
 former stands for a well-de- 
 fined region of country, pri- 
 marily, but is often confound- 
 
 ed with Africa in general, and Egypt 
 in particular ; the latter, applied to a 
 people who can hardly be said to have 
 had an abiding habitation. The Ethi- 
 opians occupied a land now penned up 
 and isolated, but once the half-way 
 house between interior Africa and 
 India. There was, indeed, a Phoenicia, 
 but the Phoenicians were free rovers 
 of the seas. Herein the two present the sharpest 
 possible contrast ; but in the estimation of many, 
 they are equally entitled to honor ; one for origina- 
 ting civilization (an unsubstantiated claim for Ethi- 
 opia), and the other for its dissemination. Books of 
 ponderous size and great erudition, if somewhat fan- 
 ciful in theories, have been written to show that 
 even Egypt and Judea derived their civilization 
 from Ethiopia or Cush, while whole libraries have 
 been published to prove that the promulgation of 
 progressive ideas must be accredited to the enter- 
 prising Phoenicians. Without going into the dis- 
 
 cussion of those speculative themes, it may be of 
 interest in this chapter to familiarize the reader with 
 the lands and peoples suggested by the heading. 
 
 In that southeast region where the sources of 
 the Nile have been sought, mountains abound, and 
 there are also rich valleys. Erom time immemorial, 
 two distinct races have been found there, the Ethi- 
 opians and the Arabs. The latter were ever nomads, 
 but the former dwelt in cities, possessed governments 
 and laws, left monumental ruins distinctively their 
 own. and were once far-famed for their arts and cul- 
 ture. The Nubian valley was once as fertile as the 
 delta of the Nile. It is so still, except as the sands 
 of the adjacent deserts have drifted on and overlaid 
 the original soil. Cataracts impede navigation and 
 make a strong barrier between Ethiopia and Egypt. 
 Caravans have always been the dependence of Nu- 
 bia for commercial intercourse. Camels and drom- 
 edaries are river and sea to that country. At the 
 southern extremity of the Nubian valley, the river 
 spreads itself and incloses numerous fertile islands. 
 Along the entire length of this valley, one may even 
 now encounter a succession of grand ruins, monu- 
 ments which rival in beauty and exceed in sublimity 
 the marvels of Thebes. But for all that, Ethiopia 
 can give no intelligible account of its youth and 
 usefulness. Those monuments are dumb. No Bo- 
 setta stone has unsealed their lips. We know from 
 Egyptian records, that the Pharaohs early invaded 
 
 71 
 
 ( 6 4) 
 
 5|7 
 

 ETHIOPIA AND THE PHCENICIANS. 
 
 65 
 
 the territory, subjugated the people and enriched 
 their own country with the treasures of the van- 
 quished. 
 
 From scattered and brief mention here and there 
 in the remotest ages of history, it is evident that the 
 Ethiopians were a warlike people, and at one time 
 masters of the navigation of the Red Sea, and a part 
 of the peninsula of Arabia. They were indeed con- 
 quered by Egypt, but later, when Egypt’s conqueror, 
 Cambyses, attempted to extend the sway of the 
 Medes and Persians to that country, he failed. Nat- 
 ural barriers were more potent, however, than hu- 
 man prowess. 
 
 At one period of Egyptian history the monarchs 
 of that country were Ethiopians. This Cushite dy- 
 nasty furnished three kings, Sabbakon, Sevechus, 
 and Tarakus, the latter called in the Hebrew histo- 
 ry, Tirhakah. In the reign of Psammeticus, the 
 entire warrior caste of Egypt migrated to Ethiopia 
 and became the military instructors of the people. 
 
 The Ethiopian kings were elected. The electors 
 were the priests, for there, as everywhere, the church 
 sought to rule the state. A singular custom pre- 
 vailed. If the ecclesiastics wanted a change in the 
 administration they dispatched a courier to the mon- 
 arch with orders to die. So potent was superstition 
 and priestcraft, that this mandate appears never to 
 have been resisted until as late as the reign of the 
 second Ptolemy. During that sovereign’s rule in 
 Egypt, Ergamenes, of Ethiopia, received orders to 
 
 1 3 
 
 1 An Ethiopian princess traveling in a planKtram, or car drawn by ox- 
 en. 2 Over her is a sort of umbrella. .3 An attendant. 4 The char- 
 ioteer or driver. 
 
 be his own executioner. But he was a Greek phi- 
 losopher by education, and instead of meekly obey- 
 ing, lie slew the priests and instituted a new religion. 
 
 This country, called also Meroe, was not averse to 
 female sovereignty, if a stranger to female suffrage. 
 More than one queen ruled the land of Cush. The 
 Queen of Sheba is supposed to have been one of the 
 number, and certain it is that Candace, who made 
 war upon Augustus Caesar, was one of the most 
 illustrious sovereigns of antiquity, scant as is our 
 knowledge of her. She was indeed defeated by the 
 world-conquering legions of Rome, but she was able 
 to secure terms of peace which were highly honora- 
 ble, and in strong contrast with the tragic fate of 
 Cleopatra. 
 
 It is highly probable that Ergamenes introduced 
 the worship of Jehovah, among other gods, for un- 
 der Queen Candace (the second probably of this 
 name) we find, from the Acts of the Apostles, that 
 her Secretary of the Treasury, as the officer would 
 be called in this country, traveled by chariot to Jeru- 
 salem for purposes of worship. The account rep- 
 resents him as reading the scriptures as he jour- 
 neyed (the Septuagint, probably), and as having 
 been converted to Christianity by Philip. 
 
 Traces of the Christian religion are to be found in 
 Ethiopia, but the Ethiopians took more readily to the 
 worship of Islam’s prophet than to the fellowship of 
 Jesus of Nazareth. That once grand and powerful 
 country long since lapsed into barbarism and ceased 
 to possess interest or importance. 
 
 We cannot better close this account of Ethiopia in 
 its relations to antiquity than by quoting Dr. Tay- 
 lor’s comments upon its arts, commerce and manu- 
 factures: “ The pyramids of Ethiopia, though in 
 ferior in size to those of Middle Egypt, are said to 
 surpass them in architectural beauty, and the sepul- 
 chers evince the greatest purity of taste. But the most 
 important and striking proof of the progress of the 
 people in the art of building is their knowledge and 
 employment of the arch. The Ethiopian vasesdepiet- 
 ed on the monuments, though not richly ornamental, 
 display a taste and elegance of form that has never 
 been surpassed in sculpture and coloring. The edi- 
 fices of Meroe, though not so profusely adorned, rival 
 the choicest specimens of Egyptian art. It was the 
 entrepot of trade between the North and the South, 
 between the East and the West. It does not appear 
 that fabrics were woven in Ethiopia as extensively 
 as in Egypt: but the manufactures of metals must 
 have been at least as flourishing But Meroe owed 
 its greatness less to the produce of its soil or its fac- 
 
 \ 
 
ETHIOPIA AND THE PHOENICIANS. 
 
 
 66 
 
 tories than to its position on the intersection of the 
 leading caravan-routes of ancient commerce. The 
 great changes in these lines of trade, the devasta- 
 tions of successive conquerors, and revolutions, the 
 fanaticism of the Saracens, and the destruction of 
 the fertile soil by the encroachments of the desert- 
 sands, are causes sufficient for the ruin of such a 
 powerful empire. Its decline was probably accele- 
 rated by the pressure of the nomad hordes, who took 
 advantage of its weakness to plunder its defenseless 
 citizens.” 
 
 with England which began early in 18G8. In a few 
 months the conquest was complete, and rather than 
 yield to Sir Robert Napier’s demand for uncon- 
 ditional surrender, Theodore committed suicide. 
 Early in his reign he had shown some high qualities 
 of statesmanship, and inspired the hope that Ethi- 
 opia would once more become a fairly prosperous 
 country ; but that hope was doomed to disappoint- 
 ment. Gondar, the capital and chief city, once had 
 a population of 50,000, but now it has hardly more 
 than one-tenth of that number. 
 
 Coast of Tyie. 
 
 The population of Abyssinia, the present Ethio- 
 pia, so far as there is a modern country correspond- 
 ing to ancient Cush, is about 12,000,000. The com- 
 mon people tire industrious husbandmen, belonging, 
 for the most part, to the Abyssinian Church, a branch 
 of Christianity which retains the Oriental rite of cir- 
 cumcision, as no less binding than baptism and the 
 sacrament of the Lord’s Supper. The government 
 is an absolute monarchy. In 1855, Theodore II. 
 was crowned king of Abyssinia, and under him the 
 country came into considerable prominence, lie 
 conceived the idea of conquering Egypt. This really 
 chimerical idea, and the imprisonment of certain 
 British subjects, finally involved Theodore in a war 
 
 "“7 
 
 Phoenicia was an insignificant tract of land in the 
 north of Palestine, along the coast of the Mediter- 
 ranean Sea, of uncertain extent. A plain twenty- 
 eight miles in length and averaging about one mile 
 in width, constituted Phoenicia proper, hemmed in 
 between the sea and the mountains. Later, the term 
 applied to a strip of country 120 miles long and 
 some twenty miles wide. The modern Beirut is 
 within its limits. So were the old cities of Byblus, 
 Tripolis, and Aradnus. But the cities which made 
 it illustrious were Tyre and Sidon, or Zidon, prover- 
 bial in the days of our Savior for their wickedness. 
 Both were great commercial cities, less than twenty 
 miles distant from each other. The modern name 
 

 
 ETHIOPIA AND THE PHCENICIANS. 
 
 6 7 
 
 Q> 
 
 "71 
 
 of Sidon is Saida. Tyre is now in utter ruin. It 
 was overthrown by Alexander the Great, and its 
 destruction prepared the way for the supremacy 
 of Alexandria. All the other cities of Phoenicia 
 accepted the Grecian yoke without a struggle. Tyre 
 regained somewhat its ancient prosperity, but never 
 its relative importance. Its complete destruction 
 occurred during the Crusades. The people became 
 convinced that their position was a most unfortu- 
 nate one, being especially liable to military depreda- 
 tion, and so, as a Venetian historian expresses it, “ the 
 Tyrians, one day at vespers, leaving the city empty, 
 without the stroke of a sword, without the tumult 
 of war, embarked on board their vessels and sailed 
 away, no more to return.” That was a proceeding 
 eminently in keeping with the Phoenician spirit of 
 adventure. They had always been a sea-faring peo- 
 ple. 
 
 Thev dwelt along a coast indented with harbors and 
 bays, well supplied with timber suitable to shipping 
 purposes. The famous “Cedars of Lebanon ” belonged 
 to, and largely explain the maritime enterprise of, 
 the Phoenicians. Their cities were not parts of one 
 great empire, but free and independent states, joined 
 together by the loose tie of a confederate league, 
 Sidon being the head-center at first, and afterwards 
 Tyre. The people were sailors and merchants, and 
 the dividing line between piracy and commerce was 
 vague and uncertain. 
 
 The earliest authentic history of the Phoenicians, 
 is the account of the reign of Abica of Tyre (B. C. 
 1050). That was in the days of David. His son 
 and heir, Hiram, was a broad-minded sovereign, as 
 his negotiations with David and Solomon show. 
 Under him. Tyre was the commercial capital of the 
 world. One hundred and fifty years later, Carthage 
 was founded. It was an offshoot of Tyre, and 
 
 served an important purpose in the westward exten- 
 sion of commerce. Its struggle with Rome for the 
 supremacy of the world belongs to a later period of 
 this history. 
 
 Apart from that struggle, known as the Punic 
 Wars, the Phoenicians were content to confine their 
 ambition to the water. That was their element. 
 Of course they had a large land trade, for it was 
 necessary to their merchant marine. That trade 
 had three branches, — the Arabian, which included 
 the Egyptian, and that with the Indian seas ; the 
 Babylonian, or the heart of Central Asia and North 
 India ; the Armenian, including what would now be 
 called Southern Russia. What their ships did was 
 to bridge the watery gulfs, which neither camels nor 
 the fragile boats of the Nile could cross, and thus 
 maintained commerce between peoples otherwise 
 isolated from each other. Vast caravans from 
 “ Araby the Blessed” brought frankincense, myrrh, 
 cassia, gold, and precious stones, cinnamon, ivory, 
 ebony, and similar merchandise. Like the Jew of 
 to-day, the Phoenician was to be found wherever 
 there was money to be made in traffic, and since 
 commerce is the great agency in the advancement 
 of civilization, the corsairs of Tyre and Sidon were, 
 in effect, however mercenary their designs, the great 
 evangelists of antiquity, missionaries of learning 
 and progress. They submitted to Nebuchadnezzar 
 without serious resistance, and later, to Persia, but 
 all the while maintained commercial liberty. The 
 payment of tribute was exacted and complied with. 
 
 All along the Mediterranean, Phoenician colonies 
 were established, and trading-posts grew into cities. 
 These colonies were to be found on either shore, and 
 on mainland and island. They even pushed their ad- 
 venturous keels through the straits of Gibraltar, estab- 
 lishing trade with the Britons and the Scandinavians. 
 
 

 _s> 
 
 
 
 At 
 
 
 THE JEWS. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 A Peculiar People — The Fatherhood of Abraham — From Isaac to Moses — The Great Law- 
 giver — The Period of the Judges — Saul and David — Solomon; King, Poet and Philoso- 
 pher — Disunion and Subjugation — The Restoration and the Maccabees — Under the 
 Roman Rod — The Destruction of Jerusalem — Persecution in Dispersion — Improved Con- 
 dition of the Jews — Jerusalem no longer their Dream of Paradise. 
 
 IIE ob ject of this chapter is 
 to bring to mind the more 
 important features of scrip- 
 tural history, and such ma- 
 terial trials and experiences 
 as throw light thereupon, 
 reserving for another con- 
 nection that crowning glory of 
 the Jews, Jesus Christ and his 
 mission. Christianity belongs to 
 the present, albeit its roots draw 
 nourishment from the past. A 
 Hebrew chronological table will 
 be found in the Tables of Refer- 
 ences. 
 
 In taking a general survey 
 of the whole world, past and 
 present, one nationality stands out conspic- 
 uous for its distinctive characteristics. The 
 Jews are that nationality. They are indeed “ a 
 peculiar people.” Despised and persecuted, dis- 
 persed and maligned for nearly two thousand 
 years, they remain steadfast and apart, clinging 
 with tireless tenacity to their immemorial customs, 
 the Hebraic blood unmixed and pure, always and 
 everywhere. Wherever found (and they are almost 
 ubiquitous) they are as distinctly “the children of 
 Israel” as if intermarriage with other nations were 
 
 an absolute impossibility. With a history as spe- 
 cific as if it were the record of a day, they take us 
 back to the very foundation of all existence, and 
 show us the founder of the nation, Abraham, in his 
 relations to the whole human family. He was an 
 
 An Arab Sheik. 
 
 Arab Sheik and belonged to a tribe of Bedouin 
 shepherds, which sacrificed their first-born to ap- 
 pease the gods of their idolatry. Abraham, who 
 was born about B. C. 2200, enjoined upon his de- 
 scendants the substitution of a sacrificial beast for 
 a human being, assuring them that lie did so by the 
 express command of Jehovah, whom they should 
 worship in all singleness of devotion. The story of 
 the rescue of Isaac by divine Interposition is told 
 
 FT 
 
 ( 68 ) 
 

 Ll 
 
 THE JEWS. 
 
 69 
 
 with minuteness, and must have produced a pro- 
 found impression. Then, too, he took care to re- 
 move to a region of country remote from his ances- 
 tral home. When, in later time, the history of the 
 Jews began to be written, the record was carried 
 back to the very morning of creation, and each gen- 
 eration given from Adam down, together with 
 many details, such as the sacrifice of Abel, the wick- 
 edness of the antediluvians, the Deluge, the Tower 
 of Babel, and other incidents too familiar to be 
 mentioned here, but all of which, taken together, 
 tended to strengthen the hold upon the children of 
 Abraham of the religious changes instituted, and 
 out of. which the distinctive nationality of the Jews 
 grew, by a gradual process of development. The 
 oneness of the Deity, and Abraham’s abhorrence of 
 human sacrifices, may be called the Joachim and 
 Boaz of the Hebrew temple, the parent thoughts of 
 the very nation itself. Isaac did not make any 
 marked contribution to the nationality. He lacked 
 the vigor and the personal power of his father Abra- 
 ham, and his son Jacob, or Israel. The latter saw 
 
 47 /L~ = v*' tf uari . q c~\ 
 
 Arrival of Jacob’s Family in Egypt. 
 
 his somewhat numerous family, with their vast 
 flocks, comfortably quartered on the rich pastures of 
 Lower Egypt — Goshen — while one of the sons was 
 prime minister of that great kingdom. That must 
 have been a proud day for the patriarch. But he 
 was not unmindful of the great mission of fidelity 
 to Jehovah which his grandfather inaugurated, and 
 with his dying breath he besought his children to be 
 true to the great trust of nationality bequeathed to 
 them. His eye of faith saw his descendants wend- 
 ing their way hack from Egypt to Canaan, there to 
 make trial of a pure theocracy. It was four hun- 
 dred years before that hope was realized. Some 
 idea of what the Jews learned during those centu- 
 ries may be inferred from a perusal of Egyptian 
 
 history. How much of that time was spent in sla- 
 very we know not, but it is safe to say that the He- 
 brews had the full benefit of the discipline of bond- 
 age, and also of association on terms of amity with 
 the most civilized people then on the globe, and 
 that by the time they returned to Palestine they 
 were incomparably better prepared for the responsi- 
 bilities of nationality than they would have been 
 had they remained wandering shepherds, dwelling 
 in tents and seeking new pasturage as immediate 
 wants might dictate. 
 
 Moses was a greater genius than Joseph, or any 
 of his ancestors. He was a thorough scholar, famil- 
 iar with all the learning of the day, and the laws, 
 customs, and history of Egypt. To learning he 
 added reflection. It was not in vain that he fed the 
 flocks of Jethro forty years. During those years of 
 seclusion he had time for meditation and the devel- 
 opment of vast ideas. When, at length, the time 
 came for him to lead the Hebrews out of bondage, 
 he was prepared to be their great lawgiver. What- 
 ever view one may take of inspiration, it must be 
 conceded that the preliminary experience of Moses 
 was admirably adapted to prepare him for the great 
 work in hand, and here it may be well to say that it 
 would be improper in a work of this kind to enter at 
 all upon the discussion of the inspiration of the Bi- 
 ble or the special interposition of Providence in Jew- 
 ish affairs. 
 
 Counting the years of captivity in Babylon, the 
 Hebrew nation dwelt in Canaan about fifteen hun- 
 dred years. It was B. C. 1450 when they crossed 
 Jordan equipped with an elaborate code of laws and 
 system of worship. It was to be a theocracy, the 
 government acknowledging no king but Jehovah, 
 the priesthood being the nearest approach to royalty. 
 Moses was not the founder of a dynasty. From in- 
 fancy to manhood the adopted child of a king’s 
 daughter, he still had no sympathy with the pomp, 
 pageantry and luxuries of court. He tried to pre- 
 serve the Hebrews from such an incubus. For a 
 few hundred years the experiment of a pure theoc- 
 racy, with leaders called “ Judges,” worked well ; at 
 least, it gave satisfaction; but the people finally 
 wearied of such Arcadian simplicity. There were 
 fifteen judges, ending with Samuel, and including 
 one woman, Deborah, and that strongest of men, 
 Samson. That was a period of much conflict and 
 not much real progress. The books of Joshua and 
 
 
 
 < 5 " 
 

 
 THE JEWS. 
 
 Judges reveal to us a people on the brink of utter 
 barbarism, sunk in the depths of ignorance, and in 
 imminent danger of lapsing permanently into idola- 
 try. It was at the beginning of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury before Christ, that Joshua led the people 
 across Jordan, and the last of the eleventh century 
 when Samuel, the last of the judges, delivered up 
 the reins of government. To that period belonged 
 Deborah with her song, Gideon and his band, Jepli- 
 thali and his daughter, and Samson the strong ; all 
 so familiar to the reader as to call for only the brief- 
 est mention. 
 
 The first king, Saul, was evidently chosen for his 
 great stature, while his successor, David, was a man 
 of genius. From the character given Saul one is 
 not surprised that lie failed to found a dynasty. 
 David is spoken of as a man after God’s own heart, 
 by which it is not implied that Deity approved the 
 many wrongs he did, but that lie was the right kind 
 of man to develop the rude Hebrews into an im- 
 portant nation, and gain for that people recognition 
 among the family of nations. It was during the 
 reign of this sovereign that the Jews were able to 
 secure diplomatic connection with Egypt, Phoenicia 
 and other nations in the vicinity. David was a great 
 warrior, a true statesman, and a good poet. He had 
 a versatile genius. Some of his psalms are too mil- 
 itary and vehement to suit the present taste, but 
 that he is entitled to high rank in the world of poe- 
 sy is indisputable. As a statesman he was too 
 much devoted to his own particular tribe, Judah, in 
 distinction from Israel as a whole. The dismem- 
 berment of the kingdom followed at the death of 
 his successor and son, Solomon. The nation was 
 never reunited politically, but all tribal distinctions 
 were ages ago obliterated, and it is impossible to 
 discriminate between the Jews proper and the Ten 
 Tribes. 
 
 Solomon was another great genius. The prov- 
 erbs attributed to him may be a collection of na- 
 tional proverbs, but the song which bears his name 
 attests the exuberance of his youthful imagina- 
 tion, while the Ecclesiastes attests the profound 
 philosophy of his old age. The young man who 
 could sing only of love, and who had every oppor- 
 tunity for enjoyment, recorded in his old age the 
 utter vanity of earth. He was the great poet and 
 the one philosopher of old Judea. 
 
 From the death of Solomon to the overthrow of 
 
 the independence of both branches of the Hebrew 
 nation, about four hundred years, the Jews do not 
 seem to have made much progress. They certainly 
 made no impression upon the outside world. It was 
 a constant warfare between monotheism and poly- 
 theism. The people seemed to be infatuated with 
 other religions, and in perpetual peril of losing their 
 peculiar ideas, and of merging in the common herd 
 of idolatry. But captivity in Babylon cured them 
 of all disposition to forsake Jehovah. This was a 
 very remarkable fact, quite inexplicable, indeed ; but 
 whatever the reason, it is certain that those Jews 
 who returned from the captivity were cured of all 
 leaning towards other gods. A few of the older 
 people could remember the old city of Jerusalem 
 with its magnificent temple, and the horrors of the 
 siege, the relentless cruelty of Nebuchadnezzar, and 
 the sins for which the people were punished. But 
 for the most part, all was new to the restored peo- 
 ple. It is thought by many that the Jews had no 
 literature before this time, that the history, laws, 
 and poetry of the nation had been preserved and 
 handed down orally, but this is not probable. It is 
 no doubt true, however, that contact for two gener- 
 ations with the learned and polished Babylonians, 
 had been of incalculable advantage to them, and 
 very likely portions of the history were written for 
 the first time bv Ezra, the scribe. His name is 
 borne by only one book, and several books are 
 anonymous. He may have written those, and edited 
 new editions, as we say, of all the Hebrew literature 
 of that date, and all but a few of the minor proph- 
 ets antedated Ezra. 
 
 Several of the books of the Bible relate to the 
 captivity and the restoration, after which the Bib- 
 lical record is almost silent. Those of the minor 
 prophets, which belong to the later period, throw 
 very little historical light. It was in B. C. 536, 
 that the Hebrews were authorized by Cyrus to re- 
 turn to Judea, and many of them did return under 
 the leadership of Zerubbabel. They formed a Per- 
 sian province or satrapy, and so remained for over 
 two hundred years, the high priests being allowed 
 to act as governors, usually. The yoke of Persia 
 was light. Alexander the Great received the sub- 
 mission of Jerusalem, and after his death Ptolemy 
 Soter took the city, carrying away one hundred 
 thousand captives. Henceforth, until the Romans 
 came into possession of it, Judea was the prey 
 
 
 

 THE JEWS. 
 
 < I 
 
 of rival powers, now Egypt and now Syria. Anti- 
 ochus and the Ptolemies coveted it, and each 
 thought they had a claim upon it.' In B. C. 1G9, 
 Antiochus Epiphanes of Syria took and plundered 
 the city of Jerusalem, massacred vast numbers of 
 the people, and desecrated the holy places. The 
 sacrilege even more than the cruelties of the Syri- 
 an despoilers aroused the national indignation. 
 
 The Maccabean wars followed, in which the Jews 
 under the Maccabees showed great heroism and 
 
 7 1 
 
 bloody massacre followed. Herod was successful. 
 This inhuman tyrant died in B. 0. 3, and his suc- 
 cessor, Archelaus, was the Herod who slaughtered 
 the innocents, in the fiendish hope of killing the in- 
 fant Jesus. In A. U. 6, lie was banished for his 
 cruelties. Then the scepter departed from Judea, 
 and the next ruler was a Roman Procurator. 
 Among the latter rulers was Pontius Pilate. In 
 A. D. 37, Agrippa was made king of Judea, but 
 upon his death, seven vears later, the pro-consul of 
 
 
 j 
 
 J. -- 
 
 V' <v 
 
 Jerusalem, from Mount of Olives. 
 
 valor. Under Judas Maccabees, favorable terms of 
 peace were secured, lasting, however, only a short 
 time. The Syrian power was irresistible by the 
 Jews. When (B. C. r 63) Pompey the Great de- 
 manded the submission of the Jews to Roman sway 
 he was hailed as a deliverer. But a few years later 
 another Roman, Crassus, plundered the temple, 
 robbing it of vast treasures. Troublous times 
 again prevailed. The Asmodean family ruled as 
 subject kings, and had done so for over one hun- 
 dred years, but in B. C. 37, Herod led a Roman 
 army in an, assault upon Jerusalem for the avowed 
 purpose of dethroning the ruling dynasty. A 
 
 Syria had Judea within his jurisdiction, and it has 
 been a part of Syria ever since. 
 
 In A. 1). GO, a rebellion broke out against Ro- 
 man authority in Cassarea, a city established by 
 the Romans among the Jews. Vespasian marched 
 GO, 000 soldiers into Judea to quell the uprising. 
 After two years of ineffectual warfare hostilities 
 were suspended until A. D. 70, when Titus, the son 
 of Vespasian (the latter being then Emperor of 
 Rome) laid siege to the city, and after a desperate 
 resistance took it. So stubborn had been the de- 
 fense that Titus determined to destroy the Jews, 
 root and branch, lie razed their sacred city to the 
 
 9 
 
 
 v 
 
 ■ef’V 
 

 7 2 
 
 THE JEWS. 
 
 ground and dispersed the people. From this time 
 on they have been a nation without a country. 
 
 The history of the Jews in dispersion is the story 
 of cruelty and injustice carried to the utmost verge. 
 Rome persecuted them because they were such rig- 
 id adherents to the worship of Jehovah, to the ex- 
 clusion of all other deities. It was the custom to 
 deify the dead emperors, and pay to them certain 
 homage, which to a Hebrew would be idolatry. To 
 the Roman government, refusal to worship as pre- 
 scribed by the authorities was treason. The Jews 
 were free to worship their own God in their own 
 way, and the Roman mind could not see why they 
 should object to paying the prescribed respect to 
 the memory of deceased emperors. Out of this 
 state of affairs grew bloody persecutions which con- 
 tinued down to the days of Constantine. The 
 Christians could appreciate the conscientious scru- 
 ples of the Hebrews. Indeed, they shared them, 
 and were herein on a common level with them. 
 They, too, had been persecuted much and often for 
 refusal to conform to the religious requirements of 
 the .State. But none the less, they proved more 
 cruel in their treatment of the Jews than the pa- 
 gans had. It was for a very different reason. In- 
 stead of being very grateful to them for being the 
 “ peculiar people” from whom they had derived 
 their sacred book, their Deity and their Savior, 
 the Christians seemed only to remember that Jesus 
 Christ was crucified at the instigation of a Jewish 
 mob. That all the patriarchs, prophets and apos- 
 tles from Abraham to Paul were Jews, and even 
 the Lord himself, had no mollifying influence. All 
 through the ages the Jews were persecuted by the 
 Christians, and in this day there is a strong popu- 
 lar prejudice against them all over Christendom, 
 on account of one act of mob violence. 
 
 There has been a gradual improvement in public 
 sentiment towards the Jews, and for the most part 
 the laws discriminating against them have been re- 
 
 pealed. The progress made by them in attaining 
 the front rank in all the higher walks of life is 
 phenomenal. They hold the purse-strings of com- 
 merce and finance generally, to such an extent that 
 they may be called the bankers of the world. 
 There are a great many Rothschilds on a smaller, 
 yet large scale. In music the Hebrew genius has 
 excelled. In statecraft the children of Israel are 
 pre-eminent. In every civilized and half -civilized 
 land they are a nation within a nation, a people 
 within a people, neither seeking nor allowing as- 
 similation with their neighbors. There are no in- 
 dications of any tendency toward Gentilism. 
 
 It may be added that since the rod of oppression 
 has been broken, the Israelites show no longing to 
 return to Palestine. On the contrary, they have 
 a keen scent for any land “ flowing with milk 
 and honey,” offering good opportunities for busi- 
 ness, and modern Canaan is sterile and uninviting. 
 Originally shepherds, then slaves in brick-kilns, 
 later farmers, they are now wholly given to traffic 
 and all the different phases of exchange, with every 
 trace of the agriculturist obliterated from the na- 
 tional character. It has been justly observed by a 
 modern Hebrew writer that “ the majority of in- 
 telligent Israelites in the present have long since 
 abandoned the work of building up an independ- 
 ent national existence of their own. Their pa- 
 triotism has been illustrated upon all the great 
 battlefields of this century. The achievement of 
 higher conditions of human life they are disposed 
 to regard as the fulfillment of Messianic prophecy, 
 and the furthering of this end in intimate union 
 with their fellowmen as the highest dictate of 
 their religion.” To the United States government is 
 due the high honor of being the first Christian na- 
 tion to accord the Jews absolutely full and equal 
 rights before the law, and the example of this nation 
 was eminently helpful to them in securing their 
 rights in other lands. 
 

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 gliiiiiiiiimiiiuiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiimiMiiiii iiiiiiiniiHiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiimiHHMiHiiiimiiiijj 
 
 minminiiininuiniiniiuuiiiiimmiimniniHiiiiimniiuuimiuuiiiniiuimuHinMiiiniiiiuiiinaniniiimiinmuinnmr 
 
 HEBREW LITERATURE AND SECTS. 
 
 ««nmminninn«Mmiiiiiiiiiniiiiiuiiii« i»imiHliii«'. innnmininiinniiniimiiiiinnilll»mniiimiHni«nmiiiiinHiiiiwwiiiiii“| 
 
 niiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiniiiS 
 
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 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 The Intangible in Jewish History — The Hebrew Bible— The Septuagint — The Talmud— 
 Saddtjcees and Pharisees — Essenes — Testimony' op Pliny' — Philo on the Essenes — 
 Josephus on Jewt?h Sects— The Chasidim — Felix Adler on the Jews in Literature 
 and op To-day. 
 
 S-J* 
 
 ‘HE chapter immediately 
 preceding the present one 
 was devoted to the out- 
 ward facts of Jewish his- 
 tory, omitting such details 
 as belong more appropri- 
 ately in the tabular state- 
 ments yet to be made, also reserv- 
 ing for a later chapter Christ and 
 Christianity. The Founder of 
 our religion was indeed a Jew by 
 nativity, but he was also a part of 
 the Roman Empire. The Jews 
 have been and are a mighty pow- 
 er in the world, apart from their 
 nationality and the religion which 
 has been adopted by the civilized 
 world. Judaism must be classed 
 among the supreme forces of mankind. One 
 might be entirely familiar with Biblical and Chris- 
 tian history without forming anything like an ade- 
 quate conception of Jewish influence upon the gen- 
 eral course of events. While this volume may well 
 pass by many important matters, upon the suppo- 
 sition that the reader will consult his Bible for de- 
 tails of Hebraic history, there arc phases of the 
 case which serve to explain the otherwise inexpli- 
 cable potency of the Hebrew nation upon which 
 the sacred record throws but very little light. This 
 class of facts will occupy our main attention in 
 
 this connection. But upon the threshold of our 
 present subject is the book of books — the Bible. 
 
 The Old Testament is held in equal reverence by 
 Jews and Christians. In each of those great 
 churches some hold that volume to be the word of 
 God in the fullest sense, while others see in it simply 
 the most important part of the literature of a re- 
 markable people. The Old Testament, as it is held 
 by Protestants, consists of thirty-nine books, orig- 
 inally written in Hebrew. Their ago is uncertain 
 in many cases. The oldest manuscript of the Old 
 Testament which is now known dates from 1106. 
 It is the opinion of many learned scholars that the 
 laws, history and poetry of the Jews were never re- 
 duced to writing until after the Captivity. Others 
 again, contend that Moses left behind him a body 
 of laws, and a history up to date, to which anony- 
 mous writers added from time to time, and this lat- 
 ter theory is more consistent with the representa- 
 tions of the Bible itself and with what is known of 
 the Jewish people. 
 
 Among the literary treasures of Alexandria was 
 a translation into Greek of the Hebrew Bible. It 
 is known as the Septuagint, from the tradition 
 that the translation was the work of seventy per- 
 sons. The quotations in the New Testament were 
 made, as internal evidence proves, from that rather 
 than from any original version. It varies only 
 slightly from the Hebrew text. 
 
 Next in rank to the Bible stands, in Jewish 
 
 ^ • 
 
 ( 73 ) 
 
HEBREW LITERATURE AND SECTS. 
 
 71 * 
 
 estimation, the Talmud. This is a library in itself, 
 composed by many writers through a long period 
 of time, covering the entire range of Hebrew 
 thought, spiritual and secular, with some grotesque 
 attempts at science. For many centuries it has 
 served as an authority upon all matters of faith 
 and religious practice among the Jews, and the 
 great business of the educated priesthood was to 
 ascertain and make known the contents of the Tal- 
 mud. It has been compared to an ocean which 
 only an expert mariner could navigate, and on 
 which the unskillful and inexperienced would be 
 lost. As a bond of national union the Talmud has 
 been a great power among the Jews in the disper- 
 sion and persecution. 
 
 In all the record, from Genesis to Malachi, one 
 finds no indications of sectarianism. In the New 
 Testament we are confronted with Pharisees and 
 Sadducees indulging in all the rancor of sectarian 
 animosity. These sects seem to have come into 
 existence between the Restoration ordered by Cyrus 
 and the subjugation by Rome. The Sadducees 
 were very conservative, tenacious for the laws and 
 regulations of Moses, suspicious of any and every 
 thing not distinctly based on the Pentateuch. The 
 Pharisees were more inclined to adapt Mosaic ideas 
 to current opinions. In time they came to substi- 
 tute traditions not only for the more ancient law, 
 but for the more modern thought. In the days of 
 our Savior the chief difference between these sects 
 was on the doctrine of the resurrection and immor- 
 tality. The Sadducees rejected both, finding no 
 warrant for either in the books of Moses, while the 
 Pharisees accepted and taught both, finding noth- 
 ing against either in Moses or the other prophets. 
 Jesus was outspoken in criticism of both, but on 
 their cardinal point of difference he was a Pharisee. 
 The same was true of Paul, and all the early fa- 
 thers. Indeed, so integral is the doctrine of immor- 
 tality to the Christian idea of religion that it is 
 difficult to understand how a sect which rejected 
 that doctrine could be religious at all, and espe- 
 cially how it could be ranked as the conservative 
 or orthodox branch of the church. It may be said 
 that Christianity has never been Sadducaical, but 
 the Jews, as a general thing, are, and Pharisaism 
 (using the term in no offensive sense) is a part of 
 Christianity. 
 
 Another sect of the Jews, not mentioned in the 
 
 
 Bible, and long neglected, is deserving of far more 
 attention. We refer to the Essenes. That bril- 
 iant essayist, De Quincey, had the temerity to pro- 
 nounce this sect a myth, or rather, a sort of for- 
 gery. He may have been sincere, although this is 
 open to doubt. However that may be, the hypoth- 
 esis is simply preposterous. There are three dis- 
 tinct and original sources of Essenic information, 
 namely, Pliny, Philo, and Josephus. They are not 
 entirely harmonious, but differ only as it would be 
 natural for three writers to differ who had widely 
 distant points of observation. Josephus, being a 
 Jew who resided in Jerusalem, had the best means 
 of information ; Pliny, who merely crossed the 
 country, the least; Philo was an Alexandrian Jew. 
 
 Pliny, the elder, born in Verona twenty-three 
 years after the Christian era began, wrote in bis 
 natural history this passage : 
 
 “ Lying to the West of Aspeltetes, and sufficiently 
 distant to escape its noxious exhalations, are the 
 Esseni, a people that live apart from the world, and 
 marvelous above all others throughout the whole 
 earth, for they have no women among them ; to 
 sexual desire they are strangers ; money they have 
 none ; the palm-trees are their only companions. 
 
 Day after day, however, their numbers are fully re- 
 cruited by multitudes of strangers which resort to 
 them, driven thither to adopt their usages by the tem- 
 pests of fortune, and wearied with the miseries of 
 life. And thus it is that through thousands of ages, 
 incredible to relate, this people eternally prolonged 
 their existence without a single birth taking place 
 there, so fruitful a source of population to it is that 
 weariness of life which is felt by others.” 
 
 Except as to the antiquity of the sect, Pliny’s idea 
 of it was substantially correct. 
 
 Philo’s account is as follows : 
 
 “ Our lawgiver trained an innumerable body of 
 his pupils to partake of these things, being, as I 
 imagine, honored with the appellation of Essenes 
 because of their exceeding holiness. And they dwell 
 in many cities of Judea, and in many villages, and 
 in great and populous communities. And this sect is 
 not an hereditary or family connection ; for family 
 ties are not spoken of with reference to acts volunta- 
 rily performed, but it is adopted on account of their 
 admiration for virtue and love of gentleness and hu- 
 manity. At all events, there are no children among 
 the Essenes ; no, nor any youths or persons only just 
 
 5 ) \ 
 
HEBREW EITERATURE AND SECTS. 
 
 entering upon manhood. Since the dispositions of 
 all such persons are unstable and liable to changes 
 from the imperfections incident to their age, but 
 they are all full-grown m%n, and even already de- 
 clining toward old age. Such as are no longer car- 
 ried away by the impetuosity of their bodily passions, 
 and are not under the influence of the appetites, but 
 such as enjoy a genuine freedom, the only true and 
 real liberty. And a proof of this is to be found in 
 their life of perfect freedom. 
 
 “No one among them ventures at all to acquire 
 any property whatever of his own, neither house nor 
 slave, nor farm, nor flocks, nor herds, nor anything 
 of any sort which can be looked upon as the foun- 
 tain or provision of riches, but they bring them to- 
 gether into the middle as a common stock and en- 
 joy one common, general benefit from it all. 
 
 “ And they all dwell in the same place, making 
 clubs, and societies, and combinations, and unions 
 with one another, and doing everything throughout 
 their whole lives with reference to the general ad- 
 vantage ; but the different members of this body 
 have different employments in which they occupy 
 themselves and labor without hesitation or cessation, 
 making no mention of either cold or heat or any 
 change of temperature as an excuse for desisting 
 from their tasks. But before the sun rises they be- 
 take themselves to their daily work, and they do not 
 quit it until some time after it has set, when they 
 return home rejoicing no less than those who have been 
 exercising themselves in gymnastic contests ; for 
 they imagine that whatever they devote themselves 
 to as a practice is a sort of gymnastic exercise of 
 more advantage to life and more pleasant to both 
 soul and body, and of more enduring benefit and 
 equability, than mere athletic labors, inasmuch as 
 such toil does not cease to be practiced with delight 
 when the age of vigor of body has passed, for there 
 are some of them who are devoted to the practice of 
 agriculture, being skillful in such things as the sow- 
 ing and cultivating of lands ; others again, are shep- 
 herds or cowherds, and experienced in the manage- 
 ment of every kind of animal ; some are cunning in 
 what relates to swarms of hees; others again are ar- 
 tisans and handicraftsmen, in order to guard against 
 suffering from want of anything of which there is at 
 times an actual need ; and these men omit and de- 
 lay nothing which is requisite to the innocent sup- 
 ply of the necessaries of life. 
 
 75 
 
 “ Accordingly, each of these men who differ so 
 widely in respective employments, when they have 
 received their wages, give them up to one person 
 who is appointed as the universal steward and gen- 
 eral manager, and he, when he has received the 
 money, immediately goes and purchases what is nec- 
 essary, and furnishes with food in abundance, and 
 all other things of which the life of man stands in 
 need. And those who live together and eat at the 
 same table day after day, contented with the same 
 things, being lovers of frugality and moderation, 
 and averse to all sumptuousness and extravagance 
 as being a disease of both body and mind. Not on- 
 ly are their tables in common, but all their dress, for 
 in the winter there are thick cloaks found, and in 
 the summer light, cheap mantlps, so that whoever 
 wants one is at liberty, without restraint, to go and 
 take whichever kind he chooses, since what belongs 
 to one belongs to all, and on the other hand, what- 
 ever belongs to all belongs to each individual. 
 
 “ And again, if any one of them is sick, he is 
 cured from the common resources, being attended 
 by the general care and anxiety of the whole body. 
 Accordingly the old men, even if they happen to be 
 childless, as if they were not only the fathers of 
 many children, hut were even also particularly hap- 
 py in an affectionate offspring, are accustomed to 
 end their lives in a most happy and prosperous and 
 carefully attended old age ; being looked upon by 
 such a number of people as worthy of so much hon- 
 or and provident regard that they think themselves 
 bound to care for them even more from inclination 
 than any tie of natural affection. 
 
 “Again, perceiving with more than ordinary acute- 
 ness and accuracy what is alone, or at least above 
 all other things, calculated to dissolv e such associa- 
 tions, they repudiate marriage, and at the same 
 time they practice continence to an eminent de- 
 gree ; for no one of the Essenes ever marries a wife, 
 because woman is a selfish creature, arid one addict- 
 ed to jealousy in an immoderate degree, and terribly 
 calculated to agitate and overturn the natural in- 
 clinations of a man, and to mislead him by her con- 
 tinual tricks; for as she is always studying deceitful 
 •speeches and all kinds of hypocrisy, like an actress 
 on the stage, when she is alluring the eyes and 
 ears of her husband, she proceeds to cajole his pre- 
 dominant mind after the servants have been deceived. 
 
 “And again, if there are children, she becomes full 
 

 9 k. 
 
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 G| 
 
 1 
 
 7 6 HEBREW LITERATURE AND SECTS. 
 
 f 
 
 r 
 
 
 of pride and all kinds of license in her speech, and all 
 
 earth out of a desire for ample revenue, but provid- 
 
 
 
 the obscure sayings which she previously meditated 
 
 ing all things which are requisite for the natural 
 
 
 
 in irony, in a disguised manner, she now begins to 
 
 purposes of life ; for they alone of almost all men, 
 
 
 
 utter with an audacious confidence, and becoming 
 
 having been originally po5r and destitute, and that, 
 
 
 
 utterly shameless, she proceeds to violence, and does 
 
 too, from their habits and ways of life, rather than 
 
 
 
 numbers of actions of which every one is hostile to 
 
 from any real deficiency of good fortune, are never- 
 
 
 
 such association ; for the man who is bound under 
 
 theless accounted very rich, judging contentment 
 
 
 
 the influence of the charms of a woman, or of cliil- 
 
 and frugality great abundance, as in truth they are. 
 
 
 
 dren by the necessary ties of nature, being over- 
 
 “ Among those men you will find no makers of 
 
 
 
 whelmed by the impulses of affection, is no longer 
 
 armors or javelins or swords or helmets or breast- 
 
 
 
 the same person towards others, but is entirely 
 
 plates or shields ; or makers of arms or military 
 
 
 
 changed, having, without being aware of it, become 
 
 engines ; no one, in short, attending to any employ- 
 
 
 
 a slave instead of a freeman. 
 
 ment whatever connected with war, or even 
 
 
 
 “ This now is the enviable system of life of these 
 
 to any of those occupations, even in peace, which 
 
 
 
 Essenes, so that not only private individuals, but 
 
 are easily perverted to wicked purposes ; for they 
 
 
 
 even mighty kings, admiring the men, venerate the 
 
 are utterly ignorant of all traffic, and of all com- 
 
 
 
 sect and increase their dignity and majesty in a 
 
 mercial dealings, and of all navigation, but they 
 
 
 
 still higher degree by their approbation and by the 
 
 repudiate and keep aloof from all that can possibly 
 
 
 
 honors which they confer on them.” 
 
 afford any inducement to covetousness ; and there is 
 
 
 
 The foregoing extract is a fragment of the lost 
 
 exercise to train them toward its attainment all 
 
 
 
 works of Philo, preserved by the historian of the 
 
 praiseworthy actions by which a freedom which can 
 
 
 
 primitive church, Eusebius. It may be found in 
 
 never be enslaved is firmly established. 
 
 
 
 the fourth volume of Yonge’s translation of Philo’s 
 
 “ And a proof of this is that though at different 
 
 
 
 works. The following excerpt is from Philo’s essay 
 
 times a great number of chiefs of every variety of 
 
 
 
 on “ The Virtuous being also Free ” : 
 
 disposition and character have occupied their coun- 
 
 . 
 
 
 “ Among the Persians is the body- of the Magi 
 
 try, some of whom have endeavored to surpass even 
 
 
 
 [called in the gospel ‘wise men of the East’]. More- 
 
 ferocious wild beasts in cruelty, leaving no sort of 
 
 
 
 over, Palestine and Syria too are not barren of ex- 
 
 inhumanity unpracticed, and have never ceased to 
 
 
 
 emplary wisdom and virtue, which country no slight 
 
 murder their subjects in whole troops, and have 
 
 
 
 portion of that populous people, the Jews, inhabit. 
 
 even torn them to pieces, while living, like cooks, cut- 
 
 
 
 There is a portion of that people called Essenes, in 
 
 ting them limb from limb, till they themselves be- 
 
 
 
 number something more than four thousand, in my 
 
 ing overtaken by vengeance of Divine justice, have 
 
 
 
 opinion, who derive their name from their piety, 
 
 at last experienced the same misery in their turn ; 
 
 
 
 though not according to any accurate form of the 
 
 others again having converted their barbarian fren- 
 
 
 
 Greek dialect, because they are, above all men, de- 
 
 zy into another kind of wickedness, practiced an in- 
 
 
 
 voted to the service of God, not sacrificing living 
 
 effable degree of savageness, talking with the people 
 
 
 
 animals, but studying rather to preserve their own 
 
 quietly, but through the hypocrisy of a more 
 
 
 
 minds in a state of holiness and piety. These men, 
 
 gentle voice, betraying the ferocity of their real 
 
 
 
 in the first place, live in villages, avoiding cities on 
 
 dispositions, fawning upon their victims like treaeh- 
 
 
 
 account of the habitual lawlessness of those who in- 
 
 erous dogs, and becoming the cause of irremediable 
 
 
 
 habit them, well knowing that such a moral disease 
 
 miseries to them, have left in all their cities monu- 
 
 
 
 is contact with wicked men, just as a real disease 
 
 ments of their impiety, and hatred of all mankind, 
 
 
 
 might be from an impure atmosphere, and that this 
 
 in the never-to-be-forgotten miseries endured by 
 
 
 
 would stamp an incurable disease upon their souls. 
 
 those whom they oppressed ; yet no one, not even of 
 
 
 
 Of these men some cultivate the earth, and others, 
 
 those immoderate tyrants, nor of the more trench- 
 
 
 
 devoting themselves to those arts which are the re- 
 
 erous and hypocritical oppressors, was ever able to 
 
 
 
 suits of peace, benefit both themselves and all who 
 
 bring any real accusation against the multitudes of 
 
 
 
 come in contact with them, not storing up treasures 
 
 those called Essenes, or Holy. But even- one being 
 
 L 
 
 „ el 
 
 of silver and gold, nor acquiring vast sections of 
 
 subdued by the virtue of these men, looked up to 
 
 1 © 
 
 
 (D ^ 
 
 
 

 k. 
 
 HEBREW LITERATURE AND SECTS. 
 
 77 
 
 them as free by nature, and not subject to the 
 frown of any human being, and have celebrated 
 their manner of messing together, and their fellow- 
 ship with one another beyond all description in re- 
 spect of its mutual good faith, which is ample proof 
 of a perfect and very happy life.” 
 
 Without pausing for any comment, we append 
 now what Josephus says in his brief epitome of the 
 three sects of the Jews : 
 
 “ There were three sects among the Jews who had 
 different opinions concerning human actions. One 
 was called the sect of the Pharisees ; another the 
 sect of the Sadducees ; and still another the sect of the, 
 Essenes. Now for the Pharisees, they say that some 
 actions, but not all, are the work of fate, and some 
 of them are in our own power, and that they are lia- 
 ble to fate without being caused by fate. But the 
 sect of the Essenes affirms that fate governs all things 
 and that nothing befalls men except with its deter- 
 mination. And for the Sadducees, they take away 
 fate, and say that there is no such thing, and that 
 the events of human affairs are not at its disposal, 
 but they suppose that all our actions are within our 
 own power, so that we are ourselves the cause of 
 what is good, and receive what is evil from our own 
 folly.” 
 
 This brief and metaphysical comparison of the 
 sects is found in the thirteenth book and fifth chap- 
 ter of the Antiquities. But it is not all Josephus 
 has to say on the subject. On the contrary, after a 
 digression, he devotes considerable space to the sub- 
 ject, and with that extended passage closes the full 
 presentation of the original sources of Essenic infor- 
 mation. This final, excerpt is as follows : 
 
 “ For there are three sects among the Jews, the 
 followers of the first of which are the Pharisees, the 
 second the Sadducees, and the third sect, which pre- 
 tends to a severer discipline, are called Essenes. 
 These last are Jews by birth and seem to have great- 
 er affection for one another than the other sects 
 have. These Essenes reject pleasures as an evil, but 
 esteem continence and the conquest over our pas- 
 sions as a virtue. They neglect wedlock, but choose 
 out other persons’ children while they are pliable and 
 fit for learning, and esteem them to be of their kin- 
 dred, and form them according to their own man- 
 ners. They do not absolutely deny the fitness of 
 marriage, and the succession of mankind thereby 
 continued ; but they guard against the lascivious be- 
 
 havior of women, and are persuaded that none of 
 them preserve their fidelity to one man. 
 
 “ These men are despisers of riches, and so very 
 communistic as raises our admiration. Nor is there 
 any one to be found among them who hath more 
 than another ; for it is a law among them that those 
 who come to them must let what they have be com- 
 mon to the whole order, insomuch that among them 
 all there is no appearance of poverty or excess of 
 riches, but every one’s possessions are intermingled 
 with every other’s possessions, and so there is, as it 
 were, one patrimony among all the brethren. They 
 think that oil is a defilement, and if any of them be 
 anointed without his approbation it is wiped off his 
 body ; for they think to lie sweaty is a good thing, 
 as they do also to be clothed in white garments. 
 They also have stewards appointed to take care of 
 their common affairs, who every one of them has no 
 separate business for any, but what is for the use 
 of them all. 
 
 “ They have no one certain city, but many of 
 them dwell in every city ; and if any of their sect 
 come from another place, what they have lies open 
 for them, just as if it were their own ; and they go 
 in to such as they never knew before as if they had 
 been ever so long acquainted with them ; for which 
 reason they carry nothing at all with them when 
 they travel into remote parts, though still they take 
 their weapons witli them for fear of thieves. Ac- 
 cordingly, there is in every city where they live, one 
 appointed particularly to take care of strangers and 
 to provide garments and other necessaries for them. 
 But the habit and management of their bodies is 
 such as children use when they are afraid of mas- 
 ters ; nor do they allow the change of garments or 
 of shoes until they be first entirely torn to pieces or 
 worn out by time. Nor do they either buy or sell 
 anything to one another, but every one gives what 
 he hath to him that wants it, and receives from him 
 in turn of it what may be convenient for himself ; 
 and although there be no requital made, they are 
 freely allowed to take whatsoever they want of 
 whomsoever they please. 
 
 “ And as for their piety towards God, it is very 
 extraordinary ; for before sunrise they speak not a 
 word about profane matters, but put up certain 
 prayers, which they have received from their fore- 
 fathers, as if they made supplication to the sun for 
 rising. After this, every one of them is sent away 
 
 19 
 
 FT 
 
 TIT 
 
A \ r i 
 
 
 by their curators to exercise some of those arts 
 wherein they are skilled, in which they labor with 
 great diligence until the fifth hour ; after which 
 they assemble themselves together again in one 
 place, and when they have clothed themselves in 
 white veils, they then bathe their bodies in cold wa- 
 ter. And after this purification is over, they every 
 one meet together in an apartment of their own 
 into which it is not permitted to any one of another 
 sect to enter, while they go, after a pure manner, in- 
 to the dining-room as into a certain holy temple, and 
 quietly sit themselves down, upon which the baker 
 lays their loaves in order ; the cook also brings a sin- 
 gle plate of one sort of food, and sets it before every 
 one of them ; but a priest says grace before meat, 
 and it is unlawful for any one to taste food before 
 grace be said. The same priest, when he hath 
 dined, says grace again after meat ; and when they 
 begin and when they end, they praise God as He that 
 hath bestowed food upon them ; after which they 
 lay aside their white garments and betake t hemselves 
 to their labors again until the evening; then they re- 
 turn home to supper after the same manner, and if 
 there be any strangers there they sit down with 
 them. Nor is there ever any clamor or disturbance 
 to pollute their house, but they give every one leave 
 to speak in their turn ; which silence thus kept in 
 their houses appears to foreigners like some tremen- 
 dous mystery ; the cause of which is that perpetual so- 
 briety they exercise ; and the same settled measure 
 of meat and drink that is allowed them, and that such 
 as is abundantly sufficient for them. 
 
 “ And truly, as for other things, they do nothing 
 but according to the injunctions of their curators; 
 only these two things are done among them at their 
 own free will, which are to assist those that want it, 
 and to show mercy ; for they are permitted of their 
 own accord to afford succor to those that are in dis- 
 tress ; but they cannot give anything to their kin- 
 dred without the curators. They dispense their 
 anger after a just manner and restrain their passion 
 They are eminent for fidelity and are the ministers 
 of peace. "Whatever they say also is firmer than an 
 oath, but swearing is avoided by them, and they es- 
 teem it worse than perjury, for they say that he who 
 cannot be believed without swearing by God is 
 already condemned. They also take great pains in 
 studying the writings of the ancients, and choose out 
 of them what is most to the advantage of their soul 
 
 ~ 7 \ 
 
 and body, and they inquire after such roots and 
 medicinal stones as may cure their distempers. 
 
 “ But now, if any one hath a mind to come over 
 to their sect, he is not immediately admitted, but he 
 is prescribed the same method of living which 
 they use, for a year, while he continues excluded, 
 and they give him also a small hatchet and the 
 forementioned girdle and the white garment. And 
 when he hath given evidence during that time 
 that he can observe their continence, he ap- 
 proaches nearer to their way of living, and is made 
 a partaker of the waters of purification ; yet is he 
 not even now permitted to live with them, for after 
 this demonstration of his fortitude, his temper is 
 tried two more years, and if he appear to be worthy, 
 they then admit him into their society. And before 
 he is allowed to touch their common food, he is 
 obliged to take tremendous oaths that in the first place 
 he will practice piety toward God, and then that he 
 will observe justice toward men, and that he will do 
 no harm to any one, either of his own accord or at 
 the command of any one ; that he will always hate 
 the wicked and be assistant to the good ; that he will 
 ever show fidelity to all men, and especially to those 
 in authority, because no one obtains the government 
 without God’s assistance, and that if he be in 
 authority he will at no time abuse his authority, nor 
 endeavor to outshine his subjects either in his gar- 
 ments or in any other finery ; that he will be per- 
 petually a lover of truth and propose to himself to 
 reprove those who tell lies ; that he will keep his 
 hands clean from theft and his soul from unlawful 
 gains ; and that he will neither conceal anything 
 from those of his own sect nor discover any of their 
 doctrines to others ; no, not though any one should 
 compel him to do so at the hazard of his life. More- 
 over, he swears to communicate their doctrines to 
 no one otherwise than as he receives them himself ; 
 that he will abstain from robbery, and will equally 
 preserve the books belonging to their sect and the 
 names of the angels [or messengers]. These are the 
 oaths by which they secure their proselytes to them- 
 selves. 
 
 “ But for those that are caught in any heinous 
 sins, they cast them out of their society, and he who 
 is thus separated from them does often die after a 
 miserable manner, for as he is bound by the oath he 
 has taken, and by the custom he hath engaged in, 
 he is not at liberty to partake of that food that he 
 

 0 «> 
 
 
 G\ 
 
 HEBREW LITERATURE AND SECTS. 79 
 
 P 
 
 * 
 
 
 meets with elsewhere, but is forced to eat grass and 
 
 Romans gave abundant evidence what great souls 
 
 
 
 famish his body with hunger until he perish, for 
 
 they had, in their trials, wherein they were tortured 
 
 
 
 which reason they receive many of them again, and 
 
 and distorted, burnt and torn to pieces, and went 
 
 
 
 when they are at their last gasp, out of compassion 
 
 through all kinds of instruments of torment, that 
 
 
 
 to them, as thinking the miseries they have endured 
 
 they might be forced either to blaspheme their leg- 
 
 
 
 until they came to the brink of death to be sufficient 
 
 islator, or to eat what was forbidden them ; no, nor 
 
 
 
 punishment for the sins they had been guilty of. 
 
 once to flatter their tormentors, or to shed a tear ; 
 
 
 
 “But in the judgments they exercise they are 
 
 but they smiled in their very pains, and laughed 
 
 
 
 most accurate and just, nor do they pass sentence by 
 
 those to scorn who inflicted the torments upon them, 
 
 
 
 the vote of a court that is fewer than a hundred. 
 
 and resigned up their souls with great alacrity, as 
 
 
 
 And as to what is determined by that number, it is 
 
 expecting to receive them again. 
 
 
 
 unalterable. What they most of all honor, after 
 
 “ For their doctrine is this, that the matter they 
 
 
 
 the name of God himself, is the legislator Moses, 
 
 are made of is not permanent, but that the souls are 
 
 
 
 whom if any one blaspheme he is punished capitally. 
 
 immortal and continue forever ; and that they come 
 
 
 
 They also think it a good thing to obey their elders 
 
 out of the most subtile air, and are united to their 
 
 
 
 and the majority. Accordingly, if ten of them 
 
 bodies as to prisons, into which they are drawn by 
 
 
 
 be sitting together, no one of them will speak while 
 
 a certain natural enticement ; but that when they 
 
 
 
 the other nine are against it. They also avoid spit- 
 
 are set free from the bonds of the flesh, that then 
 
 
 
 ting in the midst of them or on the right side. 
 
 they, as released from a long bondage, rejoice and 
 
 
 
 Moreover, they are stricter than another of the Jews 
 
 mount upward. And this is like the opinion of the 
 
 
 
 in resting from their labors on the seventh day, for 
 
 Greeks, that good souls have their habitations be- 
 
 
 
 they not only get their food ready the day before, 
 
 yond the ocean, in a region which is neither op- 
 
 
 
 that they may not be obliged to kindle a fire on that 
 
 pressed with storms of rain or snow or intense heat ; 
 
 
 
 day, but will not remove any vessel out of its place, 
 
 but that this place is such as is refreshed by„the 
 
 
 
 or go to stool thereon ; nay, on the other days they 
 
 gentle breathing of the west wind that is perpetu- 
 
 
 
 dig a small pit a foot deep with a paddle (which 
 
 ally blowing from the ocean ; while they allot to 
 
 
 
 kind of hatchet is given them when they are first 
 
 bad souls a dark and tempestuous den, full of nev- 
 
 
 
 admitted among them) and covering themselves 
 
 er-ceasing punishment. And indeed, the Greeks 
 
 
 
 round witli their garments that they may not affront 
 
 seem to have followed the same notion when they 
 
 
 
 the divine rays of light, they ease themselves into 
 
 allot the islands of the blessed to their brave men, 
 
 
 
 that pit ; after which they put the earth that was 
 
 whom they call heroes and demigods, and to the 
 
 
 
 dug out into the pit, and even this they do only in 
 
 souls of the wicked the region of the ungodly in 
 
 
 
 the more lonely places which they choose out for 
 
 Hades, where their fables relate that certain persons, 
 
 
 
 this purpose ; and although this easement of the 
 
 as Sisyphus and Tantalus and Ixion and Tityus are 
 
 
 
 body be natural, yet it is a rule with them to wash 
 
 punished, which is built on this first supposition 
 
 
 
 themselves after it as if it were a defilement to them. 
 
 that souls arc immortal : and thence are those ex- 
 
 
 
 Now after the time of their preparatory trial is over. 
 
 hortations to virtue and dehortations from wicked- 
 
 
 
 they are parted into four classes, and so far are the jun- 
 
 ness collected whereby good men are bettered in the 
 
 
 
 iors inferior to the seniors, that if the seniors should 
 
 conduct of their life by the hope of reward after 
 
 
 
 be touched by the juniors, they must wash them- 
 
 death, and whereby the inherent inclinations of bad 
 
 
 
 selves, as if they had intermixed themselves with for- 
 
 men to vice are restrained by the fear and expec- 
 
 
 
 eigners. They are long-lived also, insomuch that 
 
 tation they are in, that although they should lie con- 
 
 
 
 many of them live above a hundred years, by means 
 
 ceaied in this life, they should suffer immortal pun- 
 
 
 
 of the simplicity of their diet ; nay, as I think, by 
 
 ishment after their death. These are the divine 
 
 
 
 means of the regular course of life they observe also. 
 
 doctrines of the Essenes about the soul, which 
 
 
 
 They contemn the miseries of life, and are above 
 
 lay an unavoidable bait for such as have once had a 
 
 
 
 pain by the generosity of their minds. And as for 
 
 taste of their philosophy. 
 
 
 
 death, if it be for them glory, they esteem it better 
 
 “ There are also those among them who under- 
 
 
 . & 
 
 than living always ; and indeed our war with the 
 
 take to tell things to come by reading the holy 
 
 19 
 
 ^7 
 
 IO " J 
 
 ‘a ' 
 

 Al 
 
 80 
 
 HEBREW LITERATURE AND SECTS. 
 
 books, and using several sorts of purifications, and 
 being perpetually conversant in the discourses of the 
 prophets ; and it is but seldom that they miss in 
 their predictions. 
 
 “ Moreover, there is another order of Essenes, 
 who agree with the rest in their every way of living 
 and customs and laws, but differ from them in the 
 point of marriage, as thinking that by not marry- 
 ing they cut off the principal part of human life, 
 which is the prospect of succession ; nay, rather that 
 if all men should keep the same opinion, the whole 
 race of mankind would fail. However, they try 
 their spouses for three years, and if they find they 
 have their natural purgations thrice, as trials that 
 they are likely to be fruitful, they then actually 
 marry them. But they do not use to accompany 
 with their wives when they are with child, as a dem- 
 onstration that they do not marry out of regard to 
 pleasure, but for the sake of posterity. Now the 
 women go into the baths with some of their gar- 
 ments on, as the men do with somewhat girded 
 about them. And these are the customs of this or- 
 der of Essenes. 
 
 “ But then, as to the two other orders first men- 
 tioned, the Pharisees are those who are esteemed 
 most skillful in the exact explication of their laws, 
 and introduce the first sect. These ascribe all to 
 fate [or Providence] and to God, and yet allow 
 that to act what is right, or the contrary, is princi- 
 pally in the power of men, although fate does co- 
 operate in every action. They say that all the souls 
 are incompatible, but that the souls of good men 
 only are removed into other bodies, but that the 
 souls of bad men are subject to eternal punishment. 
 But the Sadducees are those that compose the sec- 
 ond order, and take away fate entirely, and suppose 
 that God is not concerned in our doing or not do- 
 ing what is evil ; and they say that to act what is 
 good or what is evil is at man’s own choice, and that 
 the one and the other belong so to every one that he 
 may act as he pleases. They also take away belief 
 in the immortal duration of the soul, and the pun- 
 ishments and rewards in Hades. Moreover, ’the 
 Pharisees are friendly to one another and are for 
 the exercise of concord and regard for the public ; 
 but the behavior of the Sadducees one toward an- 
 other is in some degree wild, and their conversa- 
 tion with those who are of their own party is as 
 
 barbarous as if they were strangers to them. And 
 this is what I had to say concerning the philo- 
 sophical sects among the Jews.” 
 
 At the risk of being somewhat tedious, we have 
 presented absolutely all that is known of the sect 
 of Jews wdiose peculiarities are most strikingly sug- 
 gestive of Christianity. In these strangely neg- 
 lected excerpts may be found a key to much 
 which would otherwise be inexplicable in the 
 connection of Judaism with the religion of modern 
 Europe. 
 
 The Chasidim is a modern sect of Jews. It is 
 numerous among Polish, Hungarian and Russian 
 Jews, but almost unknown elsewhere. It is fanat- 
 ical in the extreme, and abject in subservience to 
 the priests. The Chasidim have been compared to 
 the Shakers in their eccentric religious practices. 
 
 The most important sect of to-day is the Karaites, 
 (sons of scripture) dating from the early part of 
 the middle ages. Once powerful, their numbers 
 are now insignificant, their importance growing 
 out of their intellectual history. Rejecting the 
 Talmud, they ever strenuously maintained the 
 sole authority of “ Moses and the Prophets.” They 
 were noted in a period of general darkness for lit- 
 erary and scientific activity. Their literature has 
 been lost, in large part, but very much still remains, 
 a proud monument to the intellectual capacity of 
 the Hebrew nation. At present the Karaites are 
 almost extinct, except as found in the Crimea, where 
 they are protected and prosperous. Formerly they 
 were doubly persecuted, the Christians hating them 
 the same as any other Jews, and the Rabbinical or 
 orthodox Jews seeing in them heretics worse than 
 “ Christian dogs.” 
 
 In discussing the Jews and their place in history, 
 Felix Adler remarks: “Not only has their own 
 literature been opened to scientific study by such 
 men as Zunz, Geiger, Munk, Rappoport, Luzzato, 
 and others, but they have rendered signal service 
 in almost every department of science and art. I 
 mention among the Philosophers, M. Mendelssohn, 
 Maimon Herz ; in political economy, Ricardo and 
 LaSalle ; in literature, Borne, Heine, Auerbach, 
 Grace Aguilar ; in music, Mendelssohn, Bartholdy, 
 Meyerbeer, 1 1 alevy ; among the prominent statesmen 
 of the day, Disraeli, Lasker, Cremieux,” — and, he 
 might have added, Gambetta. 
 
 TC 
 
 

 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Assyrian Antiquity — Ninl’3 and Semiramis — Senacherib and Sardanapalis — Description op 
 Nineveh — Clay Libraries — Babylon; Its Hanging Gardens and Temple op Belus— 
 Babylonian History — Alexander and Babylon — Recent Archeological Discoveries — 
 Syria in its First Period — Syria under the Selucid.e — Modern Syria and Syriac. 
 
 ORDING to Hebraic his- 
 tory, the primitive king- 
 dom of the world was As- 
 syria. Nimrod was the 
 first to establish monarchy 
 in the place of the patri- 
 archal form of government, 
 
 and of the 
 cities hav- 
 ing a place 
 in history, 
 
 Nineveh 
 was the 
 first. That 
 city and 
 Babylon, among the 
 most memorable in an- 
 tiquity, both belonged 
 to Assyria. That king- 
 dom is supposed to 
 have been formed 
 about two thousand and two hundred years before 
 our present era. Assyria proper corresponded very 
 nearly to the present Koordistan. The term, how- 
 ever, lias lieen used in a loose way to apply to a vast 
 and shifting area in the vicinity of the Euphrates 
 and the Tigris. The name itself is derived from 
 
 Asshur, a son of Shem, and the chief god of the 
 Assyrian idolatry. There are archaeological reasons 
 for supposing that the Assyrians were Semites. 
 Their features in sculpture are Jewish and Arabic 
 in resemblance. 
 
 Ninus is the name of one of the early and more 
 illustrious of the Assyrian kings. lie was, perhaps, 
 
 the founder of Nin- 
 eveh, the previous 
 capital being now 
 lost entirely. If 
 history and tradi- 
 tion do not slan- 
 der him, this king, 
 like the “sweet 
 singer of Israel,” 
 was guilty of the 
 monstrous crime of 
 choosing for the fa- 
 vorite of his harem 
 the wife of one of 
 his brave soldiers. 
 It is not charged that the Assyrian monarch caused 
 the death of the despoiled husband. This Bath- 
 sheba of Nineveh was the famous Semiramis; 
 long one of the more august figures in history. 
 Recent research has greatly dimmed the luster 
 of her renown, or rather, east suspicion upon 
 
 A\<5 
 
ilS: 
 
 -ti- 
 
 82 
 
 ASSYRIA AND SYRIA. 
 
 the flattering accounts of early historians. But if 
 the latter may be at all trusted, she was indeed a 
 helpmeet to Ninus during his life, accompanying 
 him in war, and counseling with him at all times on 
 all matters of state. When lie died Semiramis as- 
 sumed the administration as regent. To her Assyria 
 is said to owe Babylon. If so, she, not Nebuchad- 
 nezzar, could truthfully say, “ Behold, is not this 
 great Babylon which I have budded.” Under her 
 it became great and metropolitan, but not the capi- 
 tal. She was a woman of war, and is represented 
 by Herodotus as having “ led her conquering legions 
 far and near.” 
 
 The next Assyrian monarch of renown was Se- 
 nacherib, who began to reign about 700 B. C. He 
 fought successfully with the Egyptians, the Israel- 
 ites and the Philistines. It was by his father, Sar- 
 gon, that Babylon was made a part of Assyria, and 
 it was by Senacherib that the captivity of the ten 
 tribes was effected. The number of the captives is 
 computed at 200,000. He built a most superb pal- 
 ace in Jjmeveh which Bayard has unearthed in its 
 ruins. Nineveh reached the culmination of its ar- 
 chitectural glory in the first half of the seventh cen- 
 tury. It was near the close of this century (the ex- 
 act date is unknown) that it was destroyed. The 
 governor of the province of Babylon, assisted by the 
 Scythian hordes from the North, captured and de- 
 stroyed it. The last king of Nineveh was Sardan- 
 apalus, renowned (whether justly or not is open to 
 dispute) for effeminacy. He was wholly abandoned 
 to the pleasures of the seraglio. When besieged in 
 his capital, he is said to have raised a huge funeral 
 pyre, placed his numerous wivfs and costly treas- 
 ures upon it, and then with his own hand applied 
 the torch. This done, he mounted the pile himself, 
 and fittingly perished. With him the Empire of 
 Assyria went down forever and Nineveh became a 
 ruin. The scepter of empire passed to Babylon. 
 
 Nineveb was on the Tigris distant nearly three 
 hundred miles from Babylon. It was more than a 
 city in the ordinary sense of the term. It was a col- 
 lection of fields as well as houses, designed to be a 
 walled community, capable of withstanding any and 
 every kind of siege. It was fifteen miles long and nine 
 miles wide. It is believed that the houses were built 
 separately, and each had very considerable ground. 
 The walls were two hundred feet high, and so -wide 
 that three chariots driven abreast could pass along 
 
 -71 
 
 the top. Making all due allowance for extrava- 
 gance of statement, it is certain that Nineveh was a 
 very marvelous city. 
 
 The clay of that region made excellent bricks. 
 Early the art of writing was introduced and the 
 potter was the publisher of that day and land. 
 The soft bricks 
 were indented 
 with the words 
 of the author, 
 and then those 
 m a nu script 
 bricks were 
 kilned and thus 
 preserved. Of 
 late years vast 
 quantities o f 
 these earthen 
 books have 
 been brought to light, and many of them translated. 
 For historical purposes they are not very satisfac- 
 tory, mythological creations being so interwoven 
 with actual fact as to defy critical dissection. 
 
 In the plain of Shinar, about sixty miles 
 south of Bagdad, where now stands the little 
 village of Ilillah, once stood the magnificent 
 Babylon, the metropolis of Chaldea. It was about 
 fourteen miles in extent on each of its four 
 sides. The river Euphrates ran through it. Raw- 
 linson believes it to have been the most magnificent 
 city of the old world. Isaiah calls it “ the glory of 
 kingdoms, the beauty of the Chaldee’s excellency.” 
 Its most notable feature, accounted one of the seven 
 wonders of the world, was the series of so-called 
 hanging gardens within its walls. Those gardens 
 consisted of terraces raised one above the other to 
 
 an immense height on pillars, well floored with cem- 
 ent and lead, and covered with earth in which the 
 most beautiful shrubs and trees were planted. Im- 
 memorial in its origin, the city was completed by 
 Nebuchadnezzar of Biblical fame. It was a brick 
 city, naphtha and bitumen taking the place of lime. 
 The most remarkable structure of Babylon was the 
 temple of Belus. The following is the description 
 of it: “The temple of Belus was, at its founda- 
 tion, a furlong in length, and about the same in 
 breadth ; its height is said to have exceeded six hun- 
 dred feet, which is more than that of the Egyptian 
 pyramids. It was built in eight stories, gradually 
 
 
£> 
 
 
 s 
 
 ' 
 
 
 0 
 
 ASSYRIA AND SYRIA. 83 
 
 diminishing in size as they ascended. Instead of 
 stairs, there was a sloping terrace on the outside suf- 
 ficiently wide for carriages and beasts of burden to 
 ascend. Nebuchadnezzar made great additions to 
 this tower, and surrounded it with smaller edifices, 
 inclosed by a wall somewhat more than two miles 
 in circumference. The whole was sacred to Bel or 
 Belus, whose temple was adorned with idols of gold 
 and all the wealth that the Babylonians had ac- 
 quired by the plunder of the East.” 
 
 The earliest authentic record of the Babylonians 
 goes back to B. 0. 747. They were an offshoot 
 from the Chaldeans who dwelt among the moun- 
 tains of Taurus and 
 Caucasus. They were 
 employed originally as 
 mercenaries by the As- 
 syrians. That has al- 
 ways proved a danger- 
 ous experiment, fre- 
 quently ending, as in 
 this case, in the ultimate 
 overthrow of the em- 
 ploying power by the 
 employes. The intro- 
 duction of the Egyp- 
 tian solar year with the 
 accession to the Baby- 
 lonian throne of Nabo- 
 nasar, merely fixes a 
 date (B. C. 747). Noth- 
 ing noteworthy occur- 
 red, however, except that 
 under that ruler, nor yet under his 
 successors. Prior to the overthrow of Nineveh, 
 Babylon was the seat of a satrap rather than a king. 
 The first real sovereign was Nabopolasar, the fa- 
 ther of Nebuchadnezzar. The latter raised the em- 
 pire to its supreme glory. lie extended widely its 
 area and the grandeur of Babylon. The book of 
 Daniel furnishes about all the history we have of 
 the empire from that date to its complete submis- 
 sion, supplemented by some references of a histori- 
 cal character in Jeremiah and Ezekiel. 
 
 There is, however, a break in the record which 
 can be supplied in its meager outlinesfrom another 
 source. So far as the Biblical record goes, it would 
 be a waste of space to reproduce it, so familiar and 
 accessible is it. But Belshazzar did not immediate- 
 
 ly succeed Nebuchadnezzar. Between them inter- 
 vened the regency of Queen Nitocris, who held the 
 reins of government during the strange insanity of 
 the great king. Besides her were E vilmerodach, who 
 was slain and succeeded by his brother-in-law, Neri- 
 glosar, whose son was dethroned for his despotism, 
 and the lawful dynasty restored in the person of the 
 young and dissolute Belshazzar, whose feast on the 
 very night his capital was taken and himself slain, 
 is known to all. 
 
 As we write, brilliant successes in Assyrian archas- 
 ology are reported. In 1880 an expedition was or- 
 ganized to search for tablets, or brick books, on the 
 
 site of Babylon. It was 
 under the charge of 
 Hormuzd Rassam. An 
 account from a source 
 usually authentic, states 
 that Rassam has un- 
 earthed “a perfect treas- 
 ure trove of relics, con- 
 taining some traditions 
 that date before the 
 flood.” The account 
 proceeds thus : 
 
 “ Among his discov- 
 eries are the account- 
 books of the great fi- 
 nancial officers of the 
 Babylonian Empire, 
 who farmed the public 
 revenues, this ancient 
 syndicate being known as the house of Beni Egibi ; 
 fragments of the history of Babylon to the time of 
 the capture of the city by Cyrus ; royal personal rec- 
 ords made by Cyrus and by Alexander the Great, who 
 was consigned so summarily by Hamlet to the bung- 
 hole of a beer-barrel ; a record of the gardens of King 
 Merodach Caladan, who had sixty-three parks in 
 Babylon ; and several inscriptions made by Nebu- 
 chadnezzar himself, which may throw some light 
 upon his bucolic experiences in the grass. 
 
 “Besides the records, Rassam has discovered ex- 
 tensive hydraulic works which were used to water 
 the hanging gardens ; the ruins of the observatory 
 tower of the great temple of Nebo, containing beau- 
 tiful specimens of vitrified bricks which have always 
 been a puzzle to the scientists ; the ruins of the city 
 of Cutha, containing a temple that was restored by 
 
 Hanging Gardens of Babylon. 
 
 calendraic adoption 
 twelve 
 
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 e 
 
 84 ASSYRIA AND SYRIA. 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar ; another city, not yet identified, at 
 a place known by the Arabs as the Mounds of Deyr ; 
 and still another city which the records showed to 
 be the ancient Sippara. These two cities Rassam 
 believes to be the cities of Sepharvaim, mentioned 
 in the Book of Kings.” 
 
 The London Times gives the following interesting 
 particulars concerning these two cities : 
 
 “ The first three lines of the largest of the foun- 
 dation records bring our speculative thoughts to a 
 focus and center our minds on the traditions of one 
 of the most ancient cities of Chaldea : ‘ To the 
 
 Sun-god, the 
 great lord, 
 dwelling in 
 Bit-Parr a, 
 which is within 
 the City of Sip- 
 para.’ Here, 
 then, we have 
 restored to us 
 the ruins and 
 records of a 
 city whose tra- 
 ditions go back 
 to the days be- 
 fore the flood, 
 w hen pious 
 Xisuthrus, by 
 order of his 
 god, £ buried in 
 the city of Sip- 
 para of the Sun 
 the history of the beginning, progress, and end of 
 all things’ antediluvian. And now we recover, 
 twenty-seven centuries after they were buried, the 
 records of the pious restorers of this ancient temple. 
 Such a discovery as this almost makes us inclined 
 to dig on in hopes of finding the most ancient 
 records buried there by the Chaldaic Noah. There 
 are many points of history raised by this inscrip- 
 tion, but it will suffice to say that from the earli- 
 est days of Babylonian history the city of ‘ Sippara 
 of the Sun ’ was a prominent center of social and 
 religious life.” 
 
 Evidently the mysteries of antiquity, as hidden 
 beneath the debris of Babylon the Great, afford a 
 tempting field for exploration. 
 
 Had Alexander the Great lived to a good old age, 
 
 Babylon would have had a second and perhaps more 
 glorious career, but the untimely death of that great 
 conqueror was fatal to her reconstruction. Ptole- 
 my carried out the Alexandrian idea in Egypt, but 
 the old capital of “ the Chaldees’ excellency ” rap- 
 idly fell into ruins, and the jackals do indeed “ cry 
 in their desolate houses, and wild hounds in their 
 pleasant palaces.” 
 
 Syria is not a very definite term, but was gen- 
 erally used to designate not only the present 
 Syria but Mesopotamia also, and a part of Asia 
 Minor. Damascus was the capital of the kingdom 
 
 of Syria, a city 
 at least as old 
 as Abraham. 
 The desert of 
 Syria was not 
 far off, on the 
 oasis of which 
 were built 
 Tadmor and 
 Palmyra. 
 Baalbec, one of 
 the most inter- 
 esting cities in 
 ruins to be 
 found any- 
 where, was all- 
 ot her Syrian 
 city. The coun- 
 try was often 
 divided into 
 numerous pet- 
 ty states, and as a nation achieved no honor. 
 King David was successful in war against sev- 
 eral Syrian states. It was near to the close of 
 Solomon’s reign that Damascus was founded. Its 
 founder was Rezor, who had been a slave origin- 
 ally. He succeeded in building up a power 
 which was a formidable foe to Israel for several 
 centuries, but that was about all. The most 
 powerful king of Syria was Benhadad. The Jews 
 and Israelites, after the secession of the Ten Tribes, 
 were often at war, and Syria was sometimes a party 
 to their quarrels. During the reign of Ahaz at Jeru- 
 salem, the Syrians joined the Israelites in war upon 
 the former, who sought .the protection of Tiglath- 
 pileser, of Assyria. Judea’s extremity was Assyria’s 
 opportunity, and Damascus, which threatened to 
 
 \ 
 
 
 

 ASSYRIA AND SYRIA. 
 
 rival Nineveh, was destroyed. With it fell the king- 
 dom of Syria, to be lost sight of until after the dis- 
 memberment of the Macedonian Empire, when it 
 once more was a name and a power. 
 
 The second period of Syrian history began with 
 the victory of Seleucidae over the satrap of Persia 
 and Medea (B. 0. 312) and continued until the Bo- 
 man Empire swallowed up the kingdom, two hun- 
 dred years later. He built up a strong kingdom and 
 his son Antiochus strengthened it still more. The 
 permanent capital of this new Syria was Antioch. 
 
 The Ptolemies, as we have seen, made themselves 
 a mighty factor in the world’s progress ; but the Se- 
 leueidae did nothing worthy of note. It is true that 
 the Christians were first called such in Antioch, but 
 that city never exerted any very remarkable influ- 
 ence in the religious world, and the second Syrian 
 kingdom may be dismissed with the observation 
 that it is suggestive of the fact, that nations, like 
 individuals, may be so very commonplace as to be 
 beneath. notice. During the period of the Crusades 
 Syria suffered terribly. In 1517 Sultan Selim con- 
 quered it, and it has ever since remained a part of 
 the Ottoman Empire, except from 1832 to 1841, 
 when it was under Egyptian rule. It now forms a 
 portion of the three pashalics, Aleppo, Damascus, 
 and Sidon, and has a population, inclusive of the 
 nomadic Arabs, of about 2,000,000, most wretched- 
 ly governed, and eking out a scant subsistence upon 
 a soil exhausted by improvident tillage. 
 
 The term Assyria long ago ceased to have a place 
 in the actual, in distinction from the historical 
 world, but the Syria of to-day is that portion of 
 Turkey in Asia which lies between latitudes 31° 
 and 37° 2' north, skirting the Mediterranean 
 Sea from the Gulf of Iskanderoon to the Isth- 
 mus of Suez, with an area estimated at 60,000 
 square miles, although the eastern and southern ex- 
 
 85 
 
 tensions are indefinite. It includes Palestine with 
 its many mountains, towns, rivers, lakes and other 
 places rendered sacred by Hebrew history and tra- 
 dition. It is the land of the Bible, and the oriental 
 customs, costumes and general mode of life of 
 Biblical times may still be found there. Man has 
 changed less than nature, for fields once fertile are 
 now sterile. The great difficulty is the scarcity of 
 water. The soil is light and sandy, easily rendered 
 a victim of drouth. Wheat, barley and beans are 
 the chief products. Figs, olives and mulberries 
 thrive in many parts of Syria, and are the staple 
 fruits of the land. Peaches, pomegranites, oranges, 
 lemons, grapes, apricots and almonds are also grown 
 there. Jackals, hyenas, antelopes, wild swine and 
 wolves are the pest of Syria, while camels, asses, 
 horses, sheep, goats and cattle are the main domes- 
 tic animals. There are some Christians and a few 
 Jews among the native population, but for the most 
 part Mohammedanism is the prevailing religion. The 
 language now mainly in use is Arabic. The old 
 Syriac, or Aramaic, has nearly died out. Modern 
 Greek is understood and largely used on the coast. 
 The Syriac is a dialect of Shemitic language known 
 to us through a Christian literature extending hack 
 to the second century of our era, and which flour- 
 ished until the Saracen Empire arose, and the Cross 
 gave way to the Crescent. A great deal of primi- 
 tive Christian literature is preserved in that lan- 
 guage. But the most notable distinction of the 
 Syriac is its ancient versions of the New Testament. 
 It also has at least two very old versions of the Old 
 Testament. In determining the correct text of the 
 sacred volume these venerable manuscripts are of 
 inestimable importance. The Syriac language is in 
 itself a curious monument of repeated conquests, 
 containing as it does a great many words of Greek, 
 Persian, Latin, Arabic and Tartar origin. 
 
T is the peculiarity of Per- 
 sia that it has hovered per- 
 petually upon the border 
 of civilization, neither con- 
 tributing to it nor deriving 
 benefit from it. From the 
 earliest times to the pres- 
 ent day it has been in in- 
 tellectual isolation. Having much that 
 was good, it has strangely lacked the 
 assimilating faculty. It conquered 
 Egypt, overthrew Babylon, and sub- 
 dued the Greek cities of Asia Minor, 
 yet it remained substantially the same. 
 Its area varied with the fortunes of 
 war, but its national character under- 
 went no radical alteration. And even 
 when the sword of Islam revolutionized 
 the religion of Persia, the people remained as they 
 had been from the earliest times, half barbaric and 
 half civilized, all after their own fashion. 
 
 The early records of Persia are merely the wild 
 dreams of fable and poetry. The earliest authen- 
 tic account of that nation relates to the wars of Cy- 
 rus, Cambyses, Darius, Xerxes and Mithridates, of 
 which we hear enough for the purposes of this vol- 
 ume in connection with Egypt, Greece and Pome. 
 Persia deprived the first of independence, the 
 
 second of existence itself, but sought in vain to con- 
 quer the third and fourth. It can only boast that, 
 notwithstanding Alexander’s victories and the her- 
 oism of Marathon, Thermopylae, and Salamis, the 
 Greeks did not destroy Persia; they simply pre- 
 served their own. Mithridates did not crush or even 
 check Roman conquest, but his kingdom main- 
 tained its own individuality and independence, sur- 
 viving the fall of Rome no less than the decay of 
 Athens. The Persian dynasties, whether Arelue- 
 menidae, Arsacidae, or Sasanidae, do not concern the 
 world of progress, but they held their own for near- 
 ly twelve hundred years, falling only before the 
 fanaticism of the Koran. 
 
 Ancient Persia was only about three hundred 
 miles long and two hundred wide, between the In- 
 dian Ocean and the Persian Gulf. It is a moun- 
 tainous country and not very fertile. It suffers 
 severely from drouth. It was a good place to raise 
 predatory warriors, also to excite poetic fanev and 
 religious emotions, but a very poor place to culti- 
 vate a happy community and develop a wholesome 
 state of society. 
 
 By the aid of Cuneiform inscriptions, the brick 
 libraries of Assyria, and other sources of informa- 
 tion, some genuine history has been arrived at. 
 Darius Hvstaspes, who came to the throne in B. (’. 
 521, reduced the kingdom to political order. Before 
 
 Persian Isolation — Early History and Wars — Physical Aspects and Conditions— Darius, 
 Parthia and Rome — Zoroaster and the Magi — The Zenda Vesta and the Parsees — 
 Summary' of the Persian Bible — Comparative Antiquity — God, Satan and Immortality 
 —Modern Persia— Persian Literature. 
 
k. 
 
 PERSIA, PARTHIA AND THE ZENDA VESTA. 
 
 87 
 
 his day, the Medes and Persians were two 
 neighboring tribes of Assyrians, who, by uniting 
 their forces, had been able to subdue kings and 
 build up a great empire loosely held together. From 
 his reign may be dated the consolidated and organ- 
 ized kingdom. 
 
 Among the more imposing ruins of antiquity 
 must be numbered Persepolis, supposed to have 
 been founded by this Darius. It was wantonly de- 
 stroyed by Alexander the Great. 
 
 Darius Hystaspes divided the country into nine- 
 teen satrapies, or provinces, each holden for the 
 purpose of certain fixed tribute and ruled by a sa- 
 trap who was virtually absolute, so long as he paid 
 his taxes in full. 
 
 The central govern- 
 ment maintained 
 some authority as a 
 safeguard against 
 refusal to pay the 
 assessments. There 
 was indeed a period 
 during which Persia 
 seemed dead, the 
 victim of Alexan- 
 der's genius, but it 
 was only stunned. 
 
 The dynasty of Da- 
 rius Hystaspes did, 
 it is true, go down after two centuries, but in less 
 than one hundred years the Parthians under 
 Arsaces revolted, and another Persian dynasty 
 was founded which remained in power about 
 450 years, Mithridates belonging to that dynasty. 
 During that period the empire was usually called 
 Parthia. The Parthians were a tribe of Ayrian 
 neighbors of the Medes and Persians, to whom 
 they were early subjected, and with whom they 
 became identified. The change of name of the 
 kingdom was mainly due to the dynastic change. 
 The Parthians were often at war with Rome, nei- 
 ther gaining decisive victories. It is thought that 
 if Julius Caesar hail lived a few years longer he 
 would have annexed Parthia or Persia to the Ro- 
 man Empire. 
 
 The real interest in Persian history relates to 
 Zoroaster and the Zenda Vesta. All else, except as it 
 lias already been suggested, may well lie passed over 
 in silence, as a period of war and intrigue having 
 
 no vital connection with the great current of events. 
 The ancient Greeks attributed, and the modern 
 Parsees still attribute (the latter being those who 
 still hold the Zenda Vesta to be the revelation of 
 God) the authorship of the sacred book of old Per- 
 sia to Zoroaster. He was a great philosopher and 
 religious teacher. The age in which he lived is un- 
 known, and conjectures vary widely. All the inci- 
 dents of his life, as recorded, were mythical. He 
 was a native of Bactria, a country in Central Asia, 
 having the city of Bactria for its capital. It was 
 the home of the Magi or “ wise men ” to whom 
 reference is made in the Gospel of Matthew. A 
 deputation of Magi, guided by the star of Bethle- 
 hem, paid their re- 
 spects to the infant 
 Jesus in his manger 
 cradle. 
 
 The Zenda Vesta 
 was the Bible of 
 Persia under the 
 olden kings. When 
 Alexander overran 
 Asia, the ancient 
 religion fell into de- 
 cline, and the Par- 
 thians systematical- 
 ly suppressed it. 
 Many of the books 
 or parts were lost forever, but when the Per- 
 sian dynasty of Sassanidae came to the throne, no 
 effort was spared to restore “ the good book ” in its 
 entirely. When the Mohammedans took Persia 
 and compelled the people to substitute the Koran 
 for the Zenda Vesta, the more devout and res- 
 olute fled to Bombay, Surat, and elsewhere, 
 taking their religion and their literature with 
 them. They are known now as Parsees, and 
 to them is the world greatly indebted for the 
 preservation of all that was really worth pre- 
 serving in Persia. 
 
 Oriental scholars think that the oldest portions 
 of this work cannot be placed later than B. C. 
 1500. It was added to from time to time, but the 
 great bulk of it was collected together, it is sup- 
 posed, about a thousand years later. It con- 
 sists of twenty -one parts called Nosks, each 
 containing a vesta and zend, that is, an orig- 
 inal text and commentary thereon. Only a 
 
 vy 
 
-V 
 
 l£. 
 
 88 
 
 PERSIA, PARTHIA AND THE ZENDA VESTA. 
 
 very small part, chiefly the Vendidad, is extant. 
 The names and summaries are as follows: 
 
 1. Setudar. — (Praise worship) containing the 
 praise and worship of the Yazatas, or angels. 
 
 2. Setudgar.-— Prayers and instructions to men 
 about good actions : chiefly those enjoining one an- 
 other to assist his fellowman. 
 
 3. Vahista-Mathra. — On abstinence, piety, and 
 religion. 
 
 4. Baglia. — An explanation of religious duties, 
 how to guard against hell and reach heaven. 
 
 5. Dam-dat. — Knowledge of this and a future 
 life, revelations of God con- 
 cerning heaven, earth, water, 
 trees, fire, men and beasts. 
 
 On the resurrection of the 
 dead and the passing "of the 
 Bridge Chin vat. 
 
 6. Nadar. — On astron- 
 omy, astrology, geography, 
 etc. 
 
 7. Pacham. — What food 
 is allowed or prohibited. 
 
 8. B ' atus h in i . — (Fifty 
 chapters, only thirteen extant 
 at the time of Alexander the 
 Great) treated of kings and 
 high priests. 
 
 9. Banish. — (Sixty chap- 
 ters extant at the time of 
 
 Alexander.) The code of The visit of 
 
 laws for kings ; also, on the sin of lying. 
 
 10. Koshusarub. — On metaphysics, natural phi- 
 losophy, and divinity. 
 
 11. Vishtasp Nosh. — On the conversion of King 
 Gushtasp and propagation of religion. 
 
 12. Chidrusht. — On the nature of divine things, 
 obedience due to kings, agriculture, and the reward 
 of good actions. 
 
 13. Safand. — On the miracles of Zoroaster. 
 
 14. BaghanYesh. — Praise of high, angel-like men. 
 
 15. Iarasht. — On human life; why some are 
 born in wealth and others in poverty. 
 
 16. Nayarum. — Code of law ; what is allowed, 
 what prohibited. 
 
 17. Husparum. — On medicine and astronomy. 
 
 18. Domasarub. — On marriages, and treatment 
 of animals. 
 
 19. Husharum. — Civil and criminal law. 
 
 20. Vendidad . — Removal of uncleanness of ev- 
 ery description, from which great defects arise in 
 the world. 
 
 21. Hadohlit . — On the creation ; its wonders. 
 
 The Zenda Vesta is supposed to be the oldest of 
 
 all hterary works, at least of the Aryan race, with 
 one exception, and that exception is the Rig. Vida 
 of India. The latter is believed to have been pro- 
 duced before the great Aryan family began its mi- 
 gration from India, and when the Sanscrit was the 
 common language of all the many Aryan nations.* 
 The Zenda Vesta is more spiritual. Instead of de- 
 ifying natural objects, it 
 spiritualizes worship. It 
 must have produced, or been 
 produced by, a great relig- 
 ious reformation. 
 
 The cardinal doctrine of 
 this Persian faith was the ex- 
 istence of two mighty spir- 
 its, good and evil, God and 
 Satan. The personality of 
 the devil was not distinctly 
 taught by Zoroaster, who be- 
 lieved in a great first cause, 
 the primal good, and an evil 
 tendency. But the region 
 with which his name is iden- 
 tified is thoroughly dualistic, 
 as much so as the scene in 
 the wise Men. the Garden of Eden and the 
 
 book of Job. The relics of the Zenda Vesta 
 contain some sublime poetry, and eminently Christ- 
 like prayers. The belief in a future existence 
 of personal consciousness is a prominent feature 
 of the Zoroastrian religion. The Jews were 
 brought in contact with this religion during 
 their captivity, and borrowed from them the word 
 Paradise, for as found in the New Testament, 
 it is a Persian word. The sect of the Pharisees, 
 with their firm belief in immortality, may be 
 claimed as the result of intercourse of the Jews 
 with the Persians. In the Persian theology the 
 spirit of good is called Ormuzd ; of evil, Ahritnan. 
 In its present form the religion of ancient Persia 
 sees in these two personages merely principles, ten- 
 dencies, and laws of being. 
 
 The Persia of to-day is one of the most unhappy 
 
 * For the Aryans, see chapter on India. 
 
 (5" 
 
 a 
 
 V 
 
PERSIA, PARTHIA AND THE ZENDA VESTA. 
 
 89 
 
 k 
 
 kingdoms on the earth. In distress and misery the 
 Persians are sadly pre-eminent. The government 
 is an absolute monarchy. The king, or shall, knows 
 no authority but his personal caprice. The present 
 ruler, Nassr-ed-Din, revels in wealth while his sub- 
 jects starve by the thousands. The area of the 
 kingdom is 648,000 square miles, a large part of 
 which is an arid desert. There are not, on an 
 average, more than seven persons to a square mile, 
 and still the population is excessive. The taxes are 
 levied on the plan of squeezing from the producing 
 class all they .can possibly endure and live, often 
 more than that. There are four cities of consider- 
 able size, Tauris or Tabreez, Teheran, Mershed, Is- 
 pahan and Yezd. Ispahan is the capital. There 
 are eight thousand villages in the country. In 1873 
 the Shah visited Europe and much good was an- 
 ticipated therefrom, but he was too brutish to profit 
 by his observations. The prevailing religion is Mo- 
 hammedanism. There are not more than seven thou- 
 sand followers of Zoroaster left. They are called 
 Parsees. The severity of Mohammedan persecution 
 drove the persistent Parsers into exile. Many of 
 them found asylum in India. The Armenian and 
 Nestorian Christians are somewhat numerous in 
 some parts of Persia. The native name for the 
 country is Iran. The best feature of Persia is its 
 educational facilities. There are numerous colleges 
 for the upper classes in which Persian and Arabic 
 literature are cultivated, and many of the common 
 people can read. The literature of the language is 
 rich, especially in poetical works. But in the rise 
 of the Saracen Empire, the Persia which had so 
 long maintained itself in its essence uncontamin- 
 ated and unbroken, was lost forever. The old 
 name exists and some of the national traits, but 
 the blight of Islam was complete and irremediable. 
 
 The poets of Persia deserve high rank. The pres- 
 ent poet-laureate of the Shah, Hakim Kaani, is said 
 to have a rare command of language and rhythm, 
 and to be worthy to rank with the best authors of 
 
 the day. The first rank among the poets of Persia 
 belongs to Rudaki. Whole lines are in the highest 
 degree classic. He was born blind. Omar Kheiy- 
 ane, a great poet, astronomer and mathematician, 
 was the author of a work called Aljebr u el Mukabi- 
 leli, or the science which still bears the name Alge- 
 bra, which he gave it. He was an extreme free- 
 thinker in religion. Anwari is another famous name 
 in Persian classics. His “ Divan,” or collected 
 works, has been lithographed at Zebris during the 
 present reign. Saadi, who flourished in the thir- 
 teenth century, has never been excelled for the pur- 
 ity and elevation of his sentiments. His fancy 
 soared among the stars of the most sublime ideas of 
 ethics. His “ Rose-Garden,” a charming collection 
 of moral tales in prose and verse, has been trans- 
 lated into English, and is one of the choice volumes 
 of the world’s best literature. But the supreme 
 poet of Persia was Shems ed-Din Mohammed, bet- 
 ter known by his nom de plume of Hafiz. He was 
 born at Shiraz early in the fourteenth century. He, 
 too, was a bold free-thinker who worshiped beauty 
 rather than the Deity of any creed, and his inter- 
 pretations of human sentiment in its diverse forms 
 give him a place among the immortal bards of the 
 ages. His tomb is an object of veneration to nu- 
 merous visitors, and time only adds to the popular- 
 ity of his lyrics. 
 
 Persian literature is also rich in works on morals 
 and science, and in prose fictions. “ The modern 
 Persians,” says Palmer, “ like other oriental na- 
 tions, have been stimulated into intellectual activity 
 in recent times by communications with the West, 
 and the result has been a number of useful works 
 on educational and scientific subjects have been 
 translated from the European languages. The old 
 standard authors, however, still hold their ground, 
 and are studied with as much ardor as ever. Judged 
 from a literary point of view, the Persian intellect 
 is brilliant, volatile and vivacious, and not unlike, in 
 national characteristics, the French.” 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 The Pre-eminence of Greece — The General Grecian Peculiarity— The Age of Fable and 
 Poetry' — Political Divisions of the Territory — Grote and Schliemann— The Heroic 
 Age aijd Hercules — Theseus, the Amazons and Medea— The Trojan Heroes — Homer’s 
 Portrayal of the Heroic Age — The Siege of Troy' — The City Taken — The Wanderings 
 of Ulysses — The Closing Scene. 
 
 \ A 
 
 N the desert of antiquity- 
 stands that beautiful oasis, 
 Greece, forever green and 
 fertile in the products of 
 genius. We may admire 
 the martial splendor of 
 Alexander, the dauntless 
 heroism of Marathon and 
 Thermopylae, the statesmanship of Peri- 
 cles, and the naval splendors of Salanns, 
 but it is to her poets and philosophers, 
 her art and her oratory, that Greece owes 
 the crown of fadeless glory which encir- 
 cles the Hellenic brow and makes the 
 subject upon which we enter with this 
 chapter replete with interest. That 
 little rock-bound southeastern penin- 
 sula of Europe is linked in proud pre- 
 eminence with the civilization of the entire continent. 
 For a long time it was the only civilized portion of 
 Europe. Everywhere else the barbarian held un- 
 disputed sway for centuries after the Hellenes had 
 mastered “ the wisdom of the Egyptians ” and bet- 
 tered their instructions. 
 
 Hard by Africa and Asia both, with ample har- 
 bors and productive soil, the country was well 
 adapted to be the home of a great if not a numer- 
 
 ous people. The term Greek really includes not 
 only the dwellers on that peninsula, as we shall see, 
 but numerous colonies established on adjacent 
 islands and mainland. To trace in detail the growth 
 and decay of each petty state in Greece proper, 
 even, would be tedious and unprofitable. The aim 
 is to make plain the subject in its entirety, and ena- 
 ble one to clearly apprehend the place belonging to 
 the Greeks in the world of the past. It may be re- 
 marked here that the Alexandrian age of Egypt 
 was, as has been shown, more Grecian than Coptic, 
 and that having once entered the stream of prog- 
 ress, the Hellenic waters never ceased to give color 
 and character to the whole body, much as the Miss- 
 issippi river is essentially the Missouri after their 
 waters commingle and flow together into the Gulf 
 of Mexico. 
 
 Much which long passed for Grecian history is 
 now known to be wildly fabulous, and some tilings 
 gravely condemned as fiction have been shown by 
 later research to have been actual. In the critical 
 work which exposed the legendary and mythical 
 character of supposed history, the late Mr. Grote 
 took the lead, and for the rescue of actual facts 
 from the reproach of being unreal, the world is 
 supremely indebted to Schliemann. Between what 
 one tore down and the other built up, — dug up, 
 
 SC 
 
 V* <5" 
 
 (90) 
 
c. 
 
 GREECE AND HERO WORSHIP. 9 1 
 
 rather, — the dark places of Grecian history have been 
 made bright with intelligence. The first great name 
 in Greece is that of Homer, and Schliemann has 
 shown that his' Trojan 
 war was not the vagary 
 of inventive genius, but 
 the veritable siege of a 
 veritable- city. How- 
 ever much freedom the 
 poet allowed his muse, 
 his subject was histori- 
 cal. Troy was no myth, 
 and in monumental 
 ruins may be read the 
 story of “ the wrath of 
 Achilles.” And if Ho- 
 mer had a substratum of history for his heroes, so, 
 no doubt, had the great dramatists of Greece whose 
 grand conceptions fill a large space in the intellec- 
 tual world. It would be vain, however, to attempt 
 the separation of truth and fiction, and more prof- 
 itable to view all those characters in a poetic light, 
 as we do Hamlet, King Lear and Hiawatha. 
 
 From first to last Greece was divided into numer- 
 ous states, generally independent of eacli other, and 
 sometimes at war. The union of those common- 
 wealths was confederate rather than federal, and 
 when brought to its strongest point was really a 
 partnership at will. The doctrine of “ state sover- 
 eignty” was never disputed. Homer may be said 
 to furnish the key of the entire political history of 
 the Greeks, when he introduces us to Achilles sulk- 
 ing in his tent, and the allies powerless to coerce his 
 active co-operation in the war then in progress, and 
 for which he had enlisted. It was not until he vol- 
 untarily buckled on his shield and drew his rusty 
 sword from its scabbard, that he led his terrible 
 myrmidons into battle, slew the mighty Hector, and 
 paved the way for the fall of Troy. It is, of course, 
 idle to speculate as to the probable course of history 
 had the Greeks been one nation. Perhaps the glo- 
 ries of Greece and Rome would both have unified. 
 
 It may be, on the other hand, that, like the Ger- 
 many of the first half of the present century, it 
 owes much of its literary importance to its political 
 insignificance, and that national greatness would 
 have dwarfed the intellectual growth of the people. 
 The age of Grecian barbarism, midway between 
 primitive savagery and the civilization which could 
 
 produce a Homer and the long line of subsequent 
 splendor, is called the Heroic age. Not that it was 
 really more grand than any other similar age in 
 other lands, but the poets took up the faintly out- 
 lined characters, weaving about them ideal person- 
 alities, combining the rugged originals with a sub- 
 limation purely fanciful. This heroic period is not 
 definite in chronology, but generally designates the 
 time from B. C. 1400 to B. C. 1200. The first of 
 these is Hercules, whose marvelous exploits would, 
 if true, prove him to have been indeed a demigod. 
 He was a knight-errant, succoring the weak, subdu- 
 ing tyrants, and performing labors most prodigious. 
 The Greeks of the period before his day are called 
 Pelasgians. Hercules was a Phoenician by blood. 
 
 He was born in Thebes, not the grand old city of 
 the Nile, but the town of that name in Greece 
 founded by Cadmus the Phoenician. He traveled 
 far by land and water. The Straits of Gibralter 
 were his pillars. His proverbial labors were under- 
 taken in expiation of the murder of his wife and 
 children, committed in a fit of rage ; at least, that is 
 the more usual explanation of those labors. These 
 labors were twelve in number, the chief being the 
 slaying of the Nemean lion, one of the hydra with 
 nine heads ; cleansing the stables of King Augeas 
 who had a herd of three thousand oxen whose stables 
 had not been cleansed for thirty years ; stealing the 
 girdle of Ilippolyta, the queen of the Amazons, and 
 the apples in the garden of the Hesperides, the gift 
 of the goddess Earth to Juno 011 the occasion of 
 her marriage with Jove. His final labor was bring- 
 
 Horaer. 
 
 7T 
 

 
 9 2 
 
 GREECE AND HERO WORSHIP. 
 
 iug Cerberus, the watch-dog of hell, from the nether 
 world. The shirt steeped in the blood of Nessus, 
 which caused his death in awful agony, was sent to 
 him by his wife, who was inflamed with causeless 
 jealousy. The garment burned into his flesh and 
 could not be gotten off without taking the flesh 
 with it. All these exploits and experiences are in 
 constant use for illustrations. 
 
 Next to Hercules in heroic eminence was The- 
 seus, the pride of Athens. Ilis name brings up the 
 familiar bed of Procustes, or the stretcher. It was 
 of iron. All travelers who fell into his hands were 
 placed upon it. If they were longer than the bed 
 they were chopped off, if shorter, they were 
 stretched. This eccentric landlord was placed upon 
 his own bedstead by Theseus and made to accept 
 his own hospitality. Theseus made war upon those 
 illustrious females, the Amazons, as Hercules had 
 before him. Greek sculpture was fond of repre- 
 senting the battles of the Amazons, and to the end 
 of time, women who boldly stand up for their rights, 
 undaunted by masculine opposition, will be known 
 as Amazons. Theseus has figured more upon the 
 histrionic stage than Hercules. We catch a shad- 
 owy glimpse of this hero in history. His shade flits 
 across the stage of statecraft, but only to disappear 
 in the clouds of antique dust. 
 
 The heroic age is, for the most part, the story of 
 the Trojan heroes and those associated with them. 
 Homer was not alone in treating this subject. On 
 the contrary, his accounts are tantalizing, and what 
 he omitted the tragedians sought to supply. Ho- 
 mer introduces us to the Greeks on the plain before 
 the doomed city, and 
 during the Iliad never 
 once wanders from that 
 charmed spot. The 
 Odyssey treats only of 
 the w anderi n g s of 
 Ulysses. Of what went 
 before and followed 
 after, we know nothing, /if 
 except as others fur- A 
 nishedthe information. \ 
 
 Between all, the ac- Meneiaus. 
 
 count is quite full. An attempt will now be made to 
 narrate all the important features of this great pic- 
 ture of the heroic age and its apotheosis bv genius. 
 
 Paris, the handsome son of Priam, King of Troy, 
 
 paid a visit to Meneiaus, King of Sparta. He 
 abused the hospitality of his royal friend by eloping 
 with his beautiful wife, Helen. The injured hus- 
 band sent tidings of his wrong to the different 
 
 Iphigenia. 
 
 chiefs of Greece, inviting them to join in avenging 
 the outrage. The appeal met with a cordial response. 
 All were willing to go except Ulysses of Ithaca. He 
 had just married a wife, and still more recently be- 
 come a father. Not wanting to leave the lovely Penel- 
 ope and the infant Telemachus, he pretended to be 
 crazy, but the trick was detected, and the trickster 
 joined them in the expedition. A vote was taken 
 on the question of who should be generalissimo. 
 The choice did not fall upon the venerable Nestor, 
 the brave Achilles, or the crafty Ulysses, but upon 
 the magnificent Agamemnon. To insure success 
 and safety, the commander-in-chief resolved to offer 
 in sacrifice his own daughter, Iphigenia. A goddess 
 interposed and saved the girl, leaving a hind upon 
 the altar as a substitute. One may see in this story 
 a resemblance to the less tragic incident commem- 
 orative of Hebrew substitution of a sheep for a hu- 
 man being. But Agamemnon, unlike Abraham, 
 supposed his child had perished. So did the mother, 
 Clytemnestra, who thereupon conceived deadly ha- 
 tred for her husband, a hatred that made her false 
 to her marriage vows, and cost him his life upon his 
 return from the war. But to proceed. On their 
 way to Troy the fleet attacked an innocent people 
 and despoiled them. Among the victims taken 
 captive was the beautiful maiden, Briseis. The girl 
 was allotted to Achilles, but coveted bv Agameni- 
 
 "7T 
 
 ^JT 
 
GREECE AND HERO WORSHIP. 
 
 93 
 
 non. The latter, exerting his superior authority, took 
 her to himself. Thereupon Achilles withdrew from 
 the general camp and began his immortal “ sulks.’’ 
 The war dragged its weary length, battle after bat- 
 tle being fought without decisive advantage on 
 either side, until, finally, a friend of Achilles, 
 Patroclus, was slain, when the great sulker forgot 
 his grievance and made short work of the Trojans. 
 
 The Greeks were still unable to enter the city. 
 To drive the warriors within the gates was all that 
 they could do. Then it was that the craft of Ulys- 
 ses achieved its greatest triumph. At his sugges- 
 tion a huge wooden horse was made and filled with 
 the flower of the army. The Greeks then set sail 
 as if tired of the 
 enterprise. Troy was 
 exultant over the 
 raising of the siege, 
 and fell into the 
 trap. Sallying forth 
 to view the relics of 
 the camp, great curi- 
 osity was excited by 
 the wooden horse. 
 
 The people conclud- 
 ed to bring it into 
 the city as a trophy. 
 
 A Trojan priest, by 
 the name of La- 
 ocobn, tried to dis- 
 suade them from this madness. “ I fear the Greeks,” 
 he said, “even when they offer gifts.” Hardly 
 had he spoken thus, accompanied by his two 
 sons, when two monstrous sea-serpents came ashore, 
 making straight for the priest and his sons, whom 
 they strangled, and the popular cry was that the 
 gods were angered by his opposition. With enthu- 
 siasm, if hard work, the horse was brought within 
 the walls. Previous to this, Ulysses and I homed had 
 crept into the town and stolen an image of Minerva, 
 called the Palladium, which was the safety of the 
 city. The silly Trojans flattered themselves that 
 they now had a substitute for the Palladium. At 
 night when all was still, the men cut their way out 
 of their equine box, set fire to the city, and opened 
 the gates to their friends who had quietly sailed 
 back. The fall of Troy was thus brought about by 
 strategy and not by bravery. The slaughter was 
 terrible and relentless. Those who escaped the 
 
 sword were sold into slavery, including the surviv- 
 ors of the royal family. A few fled under the lead- 
 ership of AEneas, who, according to Virgil, was the 
 father of Rome. Helen’s crime was condoned by 
 her husband with whom she returned to Sparta. 
 Throughout, she is represented as passive in the 
 extreme. 
 
 Varied were the experiences of the heroes. Achil- 
 les had already been slain, shot in the heel (his only 
 vulnerable spot) by a poisoned arrow from the 
 shaft of the cowardly and mean Paris. The mur- 
 der of Agamemnon upon the threshold of his own 
 palace was a favorite theme of the tragedians, and 
 the sorrows of his children furnished occasion for 
 
 illustrating the piti- 
 lessness of fate. But 
 Ulysses was the real 
 hero after the fall of 
 Troy. He wandered 
 in many lands. Ho- 
 mer represents him 
 visiting every land 
 known to the Greeks, 
 real and fabulous, 
 and experiencing all 
 sorts of dangers. He 
 even went to the 
 infernal regions and 
 returned. 
 
 The first country 
 visited which was purely fabulous and has always 
 been fraught with poetic interest was the land 
 of the lotus-eaters. The food of the people was 
 the lotus-plant, the effect of which was perfect 
 contentment witli present surroundings. It was 
 with difficulty that Ulysses could drag his com- 
 panions on shipboard. They next arrived at the 
 island home of the Cyckqxs, — giants who dwelt 
 in caves and had a fondness for human flesh. One 
 of these monsters, Polyphemus, devoured several 
 Greeks. The wily chief got him under the influ- 
 ence of wine, put out his eye (for he had only one, 
 and that in the center of his forehead). After that 
 it was easy to escape from the cave and the island. 
 The island of King vEolus was touched upon 
 next. This monarch was intrusted witli the custo- 
 dy of the winds, kept in bags. He treated the dis- 
 tinguished traveler witli deference and at parting 
 gave him a bag of wind. The sailors were so curi- 
 

 LL 
 
 94 
 
 GREECE AND HERO WORSHIP. 
 
 ous to know what was in the sack that they untied 
 it, whereupon a furious hurricane arose, blowing the 
 ship back to the island, and exposing them all to 
 great peril. Not long after the ship came to the 
 iEgean Isles, where the daughter of the sun, Cir- 
 ce, dwelt. She was a potent sorceress, able by her 
 enchantment to turn men into swine. She prac- 
 ticed her arts upon a part of the crew. By the aid 
 of Mercury, Ulysses succeeded not only in resisting 
 her influence but in compelling her to disenchant 
 his companions. They were most hospitably enter- 
 tained after that, and it is broadly intimated that 
 Ulysses was quite content to stay with the fair en- 
 chantress. But dalliance came to an end at last, 
 and the crew once more set sail for home. 
 
 The story of the Sirens belongs to this won- 
 derful journey, as do Scylla and Charybdis. The 
 Sirens were mystic maidens who could sing so 
 sweetly that to hear them was to be drawn towards 
 them by an irresistible impulse. They were on 
 land, and if the sailors and companions of the 
 
 Ulysses Tied to the Mast. 
 
 great Greek attempted to swim ashore, they would 
 surely perish. Ulysses, having been warned by the 
 goddess Circe, caused himself to be bound to the 
 
 mast, and told his companions to fill their ears with 
 wax. Those who did so escaped the enchantment, 
 while those who did not lost their lives. Scylla was 
 a rock and Charybdis a whirlpool near together, 
 between which he was obliged to sail. A slight 
 variation either way from the roadstead, and all 
 would have been destroyed. 
 
 It was such hairbreadth escapes as these which 
 fill the pages of the Odyssey, and serve to illus- 
 trate the puerility of the early Greek knowl- 
 edge of the world. Homer is supposed to have 
 been a Greek of Asia Minor, but even those enter- 
 prising colonists were illy acquainted with the rest 
 of mankind. We cannot stop to tell all the 
 prodigious experiences of the wanderer. Reaching 
 home as last, after an absence of twenty years, he 
 found his faithful Penelope cunningly dodging the 
 matrimonial question. A crowd of suitors sought 
 her hand (for she was a “rich widow”). She prom- 
 ised to select one among the number as soon as she 
 had finished weaving the garment then in her loom. 
 By day she worked industriously, and in the silence 
 of the night unraveled what she had woven during 
 the day. Ulysses pretended to be a beggar, and as 
 an old tramp presented himself at the dining-room 
 door of his own palace, where the suitors were feast- 
 ing at his expense. When they were well plied with 
 wine he drew his sword and made terrible havoc 
 among them. 
 
 It may be said that the world takes leave of the 
 heroic age of Greece witli the spectacle of that first 
 of Enoch Ardens heaping in indiscriminate slaugh- 
 ter the gang who, under the pretext of courting 
 his supposed widow, were literally eating him out of 
 house and home. One bids farewell to this last of 
 the heroes feeling that lie was more moved by 
 the prodigality of his insolent guests than by 
 the constancy of his ideal wife, the ever-praised 
 Penelope. 
 
 \ a 
 IL 
 
 
 Tv 
 
 S 6 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 The Actual in Fabulous Wars — Spartans and Messenlans— T nE Four Great Wars of 
 Greece — Asia Minor and Crcesus — The Persians and the Ionians— The Invasion of 
 Greece by the Persians — The Glories of Marathon— Thermopyl.e and its Heroic De- 
 fense — Salamis and the Flight of Xerxes — Themistocles and the Ingratitude of Repub- 
 lics — The Peloponnesian War — The Genius of Pericles — Philip of Macedon — Alexander 
 the Great— Roman Conquest of Greece — Siege of Athens— Modern Greek Heroism. 
 
 •} 
 
 1IUS far our history lias 
 not dealt very much in hu- 
 man butchery, nor do we 
 intend that it shall, except 
 as the same may be neces- 
 sary to the unfolding of 
 the progress of the world 
 from savagery to genuine civiliza- 
 tion. In the case of Greece, her 
 historians seemed to think the 
 blood-stained footprints of war 
 would interest posterity vastly 
 more than the domestic life, the 
 poetry, the art, the philosophy, and 
 the social institutions of the peo- 
 ple. To find the most elaborate 
 details of the almost interminable 
 civil wars of Greece, one has only 
 to turn to Herodotus, Thucydides or kindred his- 
 torians of later date. They tell all about them, but 
 the far more important and interesting class of in- 
 formation alluded to must be searched for in the 
 by-ways of knowledge. The average history of 
 Greece is mainly devoted to the exploits of armies. 
 The field of real interest is a narrow one, however. 
 The Trojan war belongs to history, it is true, in its 
 general outlines, but all the surviving details apper- 
 
 tain to the heroic age, the fabulous and the poetic. 
 In the gray of the morning all was misty, and 
 Homer’s blind eyes saw gods watching over and 
 assisting godlike men, engaged in the business and 
 pastime of cutting each other’s throats. 
 
 The first historic war of Greece was waged be- 
 tween the Spartans and the Messenians. Around 
 that series of struggles, romance and poetry have 
 thrown no robe of beauty. For it has been woven 
 no royal purple, no cloth of gold. Many details 
 have been preserved, but they add little, if anything, 
 to the valuable store of human knowledge. Those 
 two peoples dwelt as neighboring states on the 
 Peloponnesus. They were of one stock — Dorians. 
 But they were unlike by the time they rose above 
 the obscuring hills of time. Messenia was a much 
 better country than Lacedaemonia. It produced 
 better crops and better people. But Lacedaemonia 
 had Sparta, and Sparta had Lycurgus. As a mili- 
 tary community the Spartans were the superior, and 
 with the usual meanness of uncivilized people, the 
 stronger continually encroached upon the weaker, 
 and provoked war. A chronic state of belligerency 
 existed between them. Even when the fire seemed 
 dead, it only smouldered. There were three Messe- 
 nian wars, with the dates, B. 0. 743-724 ; 085-668 ; 
 464—455, covering a period of about three centuries, 
 

 k. 
 
 96 
 
 HISTORIC WARS OF GREECE. 
 
 and active hostilities during forty-five years, all told. 
 Finally, in the latest set-to, lasting nine years, the 
 Messenians were not only conquered, as usual, but 
 wiped out. It was a war of extermination. “ When 
 Greek meets Greek, then comes the tug of war.” 
 The better but weaker people were driven from 
 Peloponnesus, disappearing forever as a distinctive 
 people from the face of the earth, leaving behind 
 them little else than the record of their calamity. 
 
 Passing by trivial outbreaks of hostility, we may 
 say that the great historic wars of the Greeks, ex- 
 clusive of the Messenian, were four, namely, the 
 Persian, the Peloponnesian, the Macedonian and 
 the Roman. Each one of these had an important 
 bearing upon the great events of world-wide interest. 
 We have named them in their chronological order. 
 The first began in Asia Minor, but was none the 
 less Greek, and ultimately extended to Greece. It 
 may be said to have begun with the fall of Croesus 
 (B. C. 546), and closed with Cimon’s defeat of the 
 naval and military forces of the Persians in the 
 battle of Eurymedon (B. C. 465), a period of eighty- 
 one years. The Peloponnesian, or great civil war 
 of Greece, began in B. C. 431 and continued with 
 hardly any cessation of hostilities for twenty-seven 
 years. Macedonia began to be a power in the world 
 during the reign of Philip, the father of Alexander 
 the Great. He began the interference with the 
 affairs of Peloponnesus, B. 0. 344. His greater son 
 closed his prodigious career B. C. 323, and with his 
 death terminated the really brilliant military career 
 of Greece. The fourth war in the present list, the 
 one with Rome, was little more than the gradual 
 absorption of Greece and the Greeks round about, 
 111 the universal empire of the Eternal City. The 
 first conflict of Greek and Roman arms was in 
 B. C. 214, and in B. C. 146 the supremacy of Rome 
 over Greece ceased to be disputed or resisted. Such 
 are the boundaries of our present theme. 
 
 The Greeks were a people of wonderful enterprise. 
 They sent out colonies without number. The 
 population, in excess of what was convenient and 
 desirable, “went west,” only “out west” was really 
 “down east ” Unless, indeed, as some think, 
 the Greek settlements on the mainland were the 
 older of the two. However that may be, it is 
 undeniable that crossing to the opposite shore, 
 they built cities and developed states with mar- 
 velous fecundity. The fatherland laid claim to 
 
 no sovereignty over the swarms which went out from 
 the parent hive, and the best of feeling prevailed. 
 While these colonies were flourishing in wealth and 
 culture, there grew up a somewhat important king- 
 dom further inland — Lydia. The colonial cities 
 were free marts of commerce, like the cities of Hol- 
 land and Germany, which formed the Hanseatic 
 League and of which we shall speak at a later 
 period. Not content with further enlargement 
 toward the East, Lydia, like Russia, was impatient 
 for a seaboard. Croesus, the Lydian king whose 
 wealth has been proverbial, and is so still, came to 
 the throne in B. C. 560. He laid siege to Ephesus, 
 one of the Grecian cities of Asia Minor, and soon 
 took it. He treated the citizens so leniently that he 
 had very little difficulty in extending his sway, in a 
 patriarchal way, over the whole of Asia Minor. For 
 a tribute, small to those commercial cities, but enor- 
 mous to him, he agreed to respect their rights and 
 defend them, too. The cities and the monarchy sus- 
 tained some such relations to each other as vassals 
 and baron in the feudal system. His enormous ' 
 wealth became known and laid him liable to attack. 
 About that time Cyrus the Great came on the stage 
 of imperial action. He was a Persian, but he held 
 the scepter of Medea as well, the latter being a 
 great kingdom. Cyrus moved upon Croesus, and 
 before the opulent monarch could utilize his re- 
 sources Lydia became a province of Persia, and thus 
 the Greek and the Persian were brought face to face 
 for the first time. Croesus had the means to procure 
 powerful if not invincible help. He. sent his am- 
 bassadors to Sparta and an alliance was formed, 
 but before the aid could arrive all was over. 
 
 Cyrus would have had the ready allegiance of the 
 Greek cities, had he been content to guarantee the 
 continuance of the mild sway of the Lydian sover- 
 eign ; but his demand was “ unconditional and im- 
 mediate surrender. ” To this they would not con- 
 sent. He deputized his lieutenants to complete the 
 subjugation of Asia Minor. It was not a difficult 
 task. Nor was the Persian yoke heavy or irksome, 
 and the sovereignty of Persia was soon acknowl- 
 edged throughout Asia Minor. 
 
 Cyrus was ambitious of bagging larger game than 
 Lydia, and as for Greece, he knew no more about it 
 than a Tartar does of Australia. He besieged Baby- 
 lon, and it fell. The exploits of himself and of his 
 son Cambyses in Egypt lmve already been men- 
 
 's 
 
■ 3 . 
 
 
 -t- 
 
 HISTORIC WARS OF GREECE. 
 
 97 
 
 tioned. It was not until Darius, the successor of 
 Cambyses, came to the throne, that Greece attracted 
 Persian attention. A trivial accident was the spark 
 which kindled the flame of that great war. At that 
 time Darius had a magnificent empire. It ex- 
 tended from the HUgean Sea to the Indian ocean, 
 and from the steppes of Russia in Asia, to the cata- 
 racts of the Nile. The idea of his being seriously 
 mindful of little Greece, would have seemed to him 
 absurd. One day he sprained his ankle while out 
 hunting. There happened to be a Greek physician 
 within call, named Democedes, and he was summoned 
 to dress the wound, which he did so skillfully that the 
 king insisted upon retaining him as his family doc- 
 tor. His favorite wife, Queen Atossa, was treated 
 by Democedes, and so satisfactorily, that she con- 
 ceived a desire to *»ve Greek maids to attend her, 
 comb her hair and make her dresses. To please her, 
 the doctor was sent to Greece, under escort, to procure 
 the damsels. His companions were instructed to find 
 out all they could about the country, and their 
 report may be said to have introduced Greece to 
 Pei’sia, and been the beginning of the relations be- 
 tween those two countries. It was not imme- 
 diately productive of results. Had all the states of 
 Greece adopted and adhered to the “ Monroe doc- 
 trine, ” as the policy of non-intervention with 
 the affairs of other nations is called, they might have 
 been spared war with the great empire of Asia. But 
 the Athenians undertook to meddle with the affairs 
 of that continent, as friends of the Ionians, and to 
 resent an insolent threat by Persia. Athens was by 
 that time a powerful state witli a very formidable 
 navy. Sardis, the capital of Lydia, one of the twenty 
 satrapies of Persia, was taken by the Ionians and the 
 Athenians. Darius was more indignant with the in- 
 termeddlers from Athens than with the others, who 
 had been gradually drawn into the rebellion by a 
 train of circumstances which furnished some excuse 
 for their uprising. The success of the combined inva- 
 sion and its result loosened the hold of Darius upon 
 all Asia Minor. If the victors had been sustained 
 by reinforcements, they might have been successful 
 in defying the power of Persia. But they were not. 
 Athens was content to drop the matter, and asked 
 only to be “ let alone. ” Having made a brilliant 
 sortie, for that was about all it amounted to, the 
 Athenians were disposed to go home and there let it 
 end. But not so with Darius. He found it no 
 
 very hard matter to reduce the Ionians and such 
 other subjects as had been incited to rebellion by 
 their example. It took several years, however, to 
 compass that end. When it came, all traces of free- 
 dom were obliterated, and those once independent 
 cities became in reality subject to a despotic power. 
 
 The king then pursued his revenge to the mother 
 country. He sent an army under Mardonius through 
 Thrace into Greece. The Macedonians, through 
 whose country he had to pass, made it very un- 
 pleasant for the invaders. The Persians were so 
 crippled that they thought it prudent to go back 
 and recruit, first punishing severely their guerilla 
 assailants. That was in B. C. 492. 
 
 Two years later a greater force came over. This 
 time a far different course was pursued, and devas- 
 tating as they went, the Persians steered their way 
 by water for Attica. It was a mighty armament. 
 Of course the details given are colored, because we 
 have only the Greek version of them. The army 
 landed on the plain of Marathon, in the bay of 
 which the Persian fleet found anchorage. That 
 plain is now one of the most memorable spots in all 
 history ; made so by Greek valor on the present 
 occasion. It is one of the few level regions of any 
 extent in Attica, being about five miles in length 
 and two in breadth. Two days’ march and the army 
 would be before the walls of Athens, and it is al- 
 most certain, that if that march had been made, the 
 city which had the honor of being the literary and 
 artistic capital of the classic world would have 
 fallen, its mission of culture still far from complete. 
 It is supremely ridiculous to say of most battles, 
 that upon their results the fate of ages and peoples 
 was staked, but in this instance such was the case. 
 
 The Athenians were equal 
 to the emergency. They 
 boldly met the invaders. 
 The battle of Hastings was 
 a repetition of the battle 
 of Marathon, only with 
 reversed results. William 
 of Normandy conquered 
 the Saxons, Harold falling 
 with his kingdom, but Mil- 
 Miitiadcs. tiades, the hero of Mara- 
 
 thon, was successful. His handful of brave Athe- 
 nians rushed forward to the attack so furiously that 
 they soon drove the enemy to their ships. Their gal- 
 
 

 S' 
 
 98 HISTORIC WARS OF GREECE. 
 
 lant impetuosity caused a pause and made the victory 
 complete. They had no allies. It was Athens against 
 the countless hordes of barbarism. About ten thou- 
 sand European freemen repelled the attack of at 
 least half a million of Asiatics. That was the first 
 real meeting of the two continents in hostility upon 
 a scale of continental importance. The Spartans 
 were on their way to Marathon, but Miltiades needed 
 no “ night or Bliicher ” to help him win his Water- 
 loo. It is a melancholy reflection that the hero of 
 this victory, more brilliant than Waterloo or the 
 Wilderness, died in prison not long after, his con- 
 finement aggravating a wound he received in an un- 
 successful attempt, sub- 
 sequent to Marathon, to 
 enlarge the dominion of 
 Athens. His fate con- 
 tributed largely to the 
 proverbial idea of the in- 
 gratitude of republics. 
 
 The Persians were ex- 
 asperated rather than 
 discouraged by the for- 
 tunes of Marathon. 
 
 Darius resolved to take 
 a revenge worthy his 
 magnificence. An execu- 
 tive officer in distinction 
 from a man of war, 
 he was equal to great 
 achievements, in preparation at least, for a clash 
 of arms. But before he had completed his 
 necessary arrangements death called him away. 
 That was in B. C. 485. Xerxes, the son of the 
 favorite wife already mentioned, took his place 
 upon the throne. lie had other matters of im- 
 portance to attend to, and it was four years more 
 before the Persians were ready to renew the offen- 
 sive. The king proposed to accompany the expedi- 
 tion in person. The point of crossing selected was 
 the narrow strip of water, the Hellespont, where the 
 two continents come nearly together. A bridge was 
 built across it. That was a great work, attended 
 with exceeding difficulties. The army of invasion 
 was provided with a vast fleet, as well as all con- 
 ceivable facilities for operation by land. With a 
 show of fairness the monarch sent embassadors to 
 the different states of Greece to demand submission. 
 The expression of compliance with this demand was 
 
 by sending back earth and water. Several of the 
 smaller states complied, and the disposition to actu- 
 ally resist was confined to Athens and Sparta. The 
 latter seemed to remember the glories of Marathon 
 in a noble spirit of emulation, rather than a mean 
 spirit of envy. It was in the spring of B. C. 480 that 
 Greece was invaded, and in a few months, two more 
 battles, hardly less memorable than Marathon, were 
 fought, one by land and the other on the sea, the 
 first, Thermopylae, being the everlasting glory of 
 Sparta, the second, Salamis, adding another star to 
 the Athenian crown. 
 
 Thermopylae was a narrow pass, through which 
 the mighty army had to 
 march, in gaining a foot- 
 hold of advantage. Its 
 defense was intrusted to 
 Leonidas, king of Sparta, 
 and his squad — for it was 
 hardly more than that — 
 consisted of three hun- 
 dred Spartans, with their 
 Helots, or serfs, and 
 about twenty-five hun- 
 dred men, gathered from 
 other cities of Greece. 
 The latter proved to be 
 of no real assistance. On 
 one side was one of the 
 largest armies ever in 
 array anywhere or at any time, and on the other 
 a small battalion. Had the position of the de- 
 fenders been approachable only on one side, as 
 generally siqiposed, the resistance would have been 
 effectual, but there was a weak point, a secret path, 
 by which the enemy could flank them. A traitor 
 (not a Spartan) betrayed that decisive secret to the 
 Persians. When they learned that, the Spartans 
 knew that they could not hope to keep back the 
 assailing horde. They would not surrender, neither 
 would they fly. The post of danger which their 
 country had assigned them was held with an unfal- 
 tering heroism. Leonidas and his brave three hun- 
 dred only thought of selling their lives as dearly as 
 they could. The slaughter which they produced 
 was prodigious, for the number engaged in it. They 
 fell like the old guard at Waterloo, with their 
 faces to the foe, and their swords fairly glutted 
 with blood. Xerxes gained possession of the pass. 
 
 Pass of Thermopylae. 
 
 ► 
 
 
 
 

 lLu 
 
 HISTORIC WARS OF GREECE. 
 
 99 
 
 and so far as mere men was concerned, had suffered 
 no crippling loss. But a grand moral effect was pro- 
 duced. The Greeks were fired with a heroic patri- 
 otism seldom displayed by any people. The Persians 
 marched upon Athens, which they found very nearly 
 deserted, and after a short check, took possession of 
 it, and wrought their barbaric will. Fortunately, 
 that was before the statesmanship of Pericles, and 
 the genius of Praxiteles and other artists and archi- 
 tects, had made it the marvel of the world. The 
 people had been removed with all their movables, 
 and scattered to places of safety. Thermopylae was 
 to Greece at that time much what the battle of 
 Bunker Hill was to the Americans of the Revolu- 
 tionary War, and the taking of Athens did Xerxes 
 no more good than the taking of Washington did 
 the British, in the second war between England and 
 the United States. 
 
 The decisive battle of the Persian war was still 
 to be fought, and that by water. And now the far- 
 sighted wisdom of Athens was displayed. Ever 
 since the battle of Marathon, the return of the Per- 
 sians had been anticipated, and the greatest Athe- 
 nian of his time, Themistocles, had been unsparing 
 and untiring in making preparation to meet the 
 enemy upon the element which separated the two 
 countries. The revenues of the state, derived mainly 
 from mines, which had been divided among the 
 citizens, he induced the people to appropriate to 
 the construction of a navy. There were a few 
 other Greek navies of small dimensions, but the 
 Athenian only was really formidable. Themistocles 
 had to use a great deal of diplomacy to get the Per- 
 sians to venture everything upon a naval engage- 
 ment, but he finally succeeded. The Grecian fieet 
 was massed at Salamis, and Xerxes ordered it to be 
 surrounded and cut to pieces. That order was pre- 
 cisely what Themistocles wanted, for it afforded ap- 
 portunity for doing something decisive. The bat- 
 tle was not a long one. The Persian fleet was a 
 vast, unwieldy, and soon panic-stricken mol) of 
 boats, and the well-trained triremes of Athens cut 
 them down like grass. It was Marathon upon the 
 sea. The terrified monarch, as he beheld the en- 
 gagement from a lofty throne on the Grecian shore, 
 caught the mania, and fearing that he might he 
 hemmed in and lost utterly, made haste to regain 
 the Hellespont and recross it. Themistocles secret- 
 ly spurred him on by reports sent to him by pre- 
 
 tended traitors. The great Athenian judged that 
 if the Persians fled from the country in terror, they 
 would never again seriously menace the liberties of 
 Greece, and he was right. Some further feeble at- 
 tempts were made in that direction, but nothing was 
 done having in it any real menace and peril. Never 
 again had Greece occasion to fear Eastern enemies, 
 and when the two nations next appear before us the 
 brave defenders are no less brave if less honorable 
 assailants, and Persia is on the defensive. 
 
 The fate of Themistocles was hardly less sad than 
 that of Miltiades. He did not die in prison, but he 
 was banished and became a pensioner upon the 
 bounty of the son and successor of Xerxes, Artax- 
 erxes. Of the three heroes of the Persian war, 
 only Leonidas was spared the pangs inflicted by an 
 ungrateful people. He fell upon the field of glory. 
 
 The father of the Athenian navy, the Nelson of 
 antiquity, in his last days gave still further empha- 
 sis to the ingratitude of republics. In all commu- 
 nities which are really free, there is a wide range for 
 the pendulum of popular favor, and the favor of 
 one hour may turn to disfavor in the next. In this 
 country this fact is constantly being illustrated. 
 But there is this difference in Greek and American 
 popular sentiment. Its loss in the former case was 
 banishment or death ; in the latter it is merely ad- 
 verse criticism, traduction perhaps, and relegation 
 to private life. The spirit of party ran higher and 
 went further then and there than now and here. 
 Even Aristides, surnamed the 
 Just, was banished simply 
 because the people wearied 
 of his monotonous goodness, 
 and when the crisis at Sala- 
 mis came, he was found with 
 his countrymen, working to- 
 gether with his old rival, 
 
 Themistocles, for the com- 
 mon cause. The glory of 
 Greece, and especially of Ath- 
 ens, would have been more brilliant in all these ages 
 if the surviving heroes of the great Persian wars 
 had not suffered the vengeance of party politics. 
 
 The next great war of Greece was the Peloponne- 
 sian war. It was entirely Grecian and yet had 
 some connection with the Persian invasion. The 
 latter developed vast military prowess, for even af- 
 ter Salamis it was necessary to keep up a powerful 
 
 'S 
 
 \ 
 
IOO 
 
 HISTORIC WARS OF GREECE. 
 
 army -of defense. It was several years before the 
 danger of another invasion was over, and still 
 longer before the fear of it subsided. To be pre- 
 pared for the worst, the Athenians and Spartans 
 agreed to live together in peace for at least thirty 
 years. That truce was born of fear lest the “ bar- 
 barian ” should again swoop down upon them. It 
 was scrupulously observed. In the meanwhile, both 
 states flourished and became far stronger than ever 
 before. The expiration of the truce found Greece 
 on a military footing, for the repulsion of a foe whose 
 reappearance had by that time ceased to be appre- 
 hended. With nothing 
 particular to do (for 
 Greece was not ambitious 
 for foreign conquest) the 
 two great rival states 
 were not long in coming 
 to blows after the truce 
 had lapsed. There has 
 been a great deal of 
 learned explanation of 
 the causes of the war 
 which now began (called 
 the Peloponnesian), but 
 the real explanation is 
 found in the one word — 
 jealousy. Athens wanted 
 to be, and really ought 
 to have been, the political 
 capital of Greece then, 
 as she is now. Sparta 
 would consent to nothing 
 of the kind, and each had its sympathizers. For 
 twenty-seven years the conflict was maintained, and 
 it was as inglorious as the other was glorious. The 
 genius of Thucydides as a historian, and especially 
 as a writer of eloquent orations which were never 
 delivered, lias thrown around it a halo, and given 
 it an undue prominence. It began in the year B. C. 
 431, and the Athenians finally, in B. C. 405, submit- 
 ted to terms of peace which left the States of Greece 
 sustaining to each other substantially the same “state 
 rights” relation as they did originally, except that 
 Sparta now claimed a certain supremacy, an advan- 
 tage it lacked the statesmanship to retain and turn 
 to much real benefit. 
 
 We pass over this period without going into de- 
 tails. They are not important enough to justify it. 
 
 The glory of that era was indeed great, but it was 
 not military. The civil genius of Pericles and the 
 intellectual grandeur of others of whom we are yet 
 to speak, have contributed incalculably to the splen- 
 dor of classic antiquity. But Pericles died in the 
 third year of the war, and Sparta really added no 
 luster to the glories of Thermopylae, by preparing 
 the way as she did for the subjugation of all Pelo- 
 ponnesus, herself included, by the semi-Hellenic 
 Alexander of Macedonia, upon whose wars we now 
 enter. 
 
 It was not until Greece had been sorely rent by 
 inter-state wars and had 
 degenerated, politically 
 speaking, into a jargon of 
 petty and rival national- 
 ities, that Macedonia 
 came upon the stage. The 
 real founder of the Mace- 
 donian Empire was not 
 Alexander, but his father, 
 Philip. The son carried 
 out the vast scheme of 
 his royal sire. Both died 
 young. Philip was only 
 forty-seven years of age 
 when cut down by assas- 
 sination. He had reigned 
 twenty-three years, and 
 was on the eve of making 
 war upon Persia. Begin- 
 ning as the sovereign of a 
 half barbaric kingdom be- 
 yond the pale of Greek civilization, he took ad- 
 vantage of the divided and hbstile condition of 
 the different states, also of the extreme bitterness 
 of party feeling in the republic, to extend his 
 influence. Gradually, by cunning diplomacy, 
 downright bribery, and military genius, he ex- 
 tended his kingdom until at length he had gained 
 ascendancy over all Greece. Some states he treated 
 with deferential respect, but all had to bow to his 
 sway, or at most, dared not openly antagonize 
 him. Then he made known his purpose. He an- 
 nounced himself as the champion of the Greek cause 
 against Persia. He called for men and means to 
 carry on an aggressive war. Great enthusiasm pre- 
 vailed. Had he lived he might have achieved uni- 
 versal empire. But as he entered a theater, just 
 
 Alexander the Great. 
 

 £ 
 
 HISTORIC WARS OF GREECE. 
 
 IOI 
 
 prior to his intended departure for Persia, one Pau- 
 sanias, who had a private grievance, cut him down. 
 
 Alexander was then only twenty years of age, but 
 he had already distinguished himself in battle, and 
 was at once chosen to succeed his father at the head 
 of the Grecian expedition against Persia. There 
 were some dissenters. His right to the crown of 
 Macedonia was not disputed, but his headship of the 
 confederate states of Greece was. He had some 
 hard fighting on Grecian soil before he could set out 
 for Asia. Thebes of Boeotia was the most stubborn 
 of the free cities. He had to raze her to the very 
 ground. “ The boy of Pella,” as lie was derisively 
 called, could not under- 
 take foreign conquest 
 until he had completely 
 established home rule. 
 
 He was not the con- 
 queror of Greece, albeit 
 the destroyer of one of 
 her great cities. He 
 made an example of 
 Thebes to show what 
 he might do, sparing 
 Athens to show the 
 paternity of his gov- 
 ernment, if only firm 
 and secure. 
 
 Alexander came to 
 the throne in B. C. 
 
 436, and two years later 
 set out for Asia, leaving Greece, as it proved, 
 forever. He had an army of only 30,000 foot 
 and 5,000 horse. With that small band he under- 
 took the conquest of the world, for the empire 
 which he was to assail ruled the whole civilized 
 world, outside of Greece and its offshoots, and the 
 Asiatic portion of the latter. It is true that many 
 Greeks preferred Persian friendship to Macedonian 
 supremacy, and while the great soldier was fighting 
 for Greek civilization, as he professed and as the 
 event proved, Antipater, who had been left in 
 charge of Alexander’s affairs at home, found it hard 
 work to maintain his ground. But Alexander 
 freely supplied him with “the sinews of war” from 
 the rich booty of Persian plunder, and so well did 
 the vicegerent use his means, that the scepter of 
 Macedon was more *potent throughout Greece in 
 the absence than in the presence of Alexander. 
 
 To follow the swift course of the warrior who 
 ranks with Caesar and Napoleon as one of the 
 three greatest soldiers of all time, would be foreign 
 to our purpose. Wherever he went victory fol- 
 lowed. He met Darius and his army upon the open 
 field, and it was Marathon and Salamis over again. 
 The vast army was routed in a battle near Issus in 
 B. C. 333, and a second and still larger army was 
 defeated two years later near Arbela. During the 
 intervening two years he had taken Tyre, received 
 the homage of Egypt, and cast about “ for more 
 worlds to conquer. ” After the second battle he was 
 undisputed master of all the Persian empire, but 
 
 not ready by any means 
 
 to stay his victorious 
 course. He pressed on 
 to India, everywhere 
 victorious. He would 
 probably have pushed 
 on to the utmost verge 
 of the Orient, but final- 
 ly he was obliged to 
 turn back. The sol- 
 diers who were invinci- 
 ble in battle were stub- 
 born in refusing to go 
 any farther. He found 
 the hardships from 
 thirst and hunger on 
 the return march more 
 terrible than “ an army 
 with banners. ” When he had returned to Susa, he 
 married the daughter of Darius, and then began at 
 Babylon the reconstruction of bis empire, evidently 
 intending to make that city his capital. But hardly 
 had he begun this work, when he fell a victim to fe- 
 ver. He was only thirty-three years of age, and un- 
 like Philip, he had no son old enough to take up and 
 complete his designs. His empire fell to pieces, and 
 his grand idea of llellenizing the East (for he had 
 evidently entertained such an idea, even if he had 
 formed no definite plan) was never carried out, ex- 
 cept in fragments. Alexandria, whose glory has 
 been dwelt upon in a previous chapter, may be taken 
 as a suggestion of the stupendous scheme which 
 would have been undertaken had his life been 
 spared. 
 
 It is not too much to say that the premature 
 death of Alexander was a greater calamity to Asia 
 
 \ 
 
 7 
 
HISTORIC WARS OF GREECE. 
 
 than any other event in all history. Greek civiliza- 
 tion would have been established from the dEgean 
 Sea to the Indian ocean, instead of being confined 
 in its transplanting, to a small area. Not that 
 that vast region would have been thoroughly per- 
 meated by it, of course, but that the Macedonian 
 arms had plowed furrows through Southern Asia in 
 which the seeds of civilization would doubtless have 
 been planted, and brought forth fruit of incalcula- 
 ble importance. But if one were to consider only 
 what Alexandria became in the world of thought, it 
 must be conceded that Alexander at least doubled 
 the power over mankind of the Greek intellect. 
 
 The Roman conquest of Greece was brought about 
 largely by the dissensions of the Greeks themselves, 
 especially by hostilities between the Aclneans and 
 the iEtolians. Philip of Macedonia (the last of the 
 line) entered into an alliance with Hannibal against 
 the Romans, and shared the fate of Carthage in 
 point of subjugation, although the treatment of 
 Greece by the Romans was always generous and 
 chivalrous. Philip declared war against the Ro- 
 mans in B. C. 216, and in B. C. 146 occurred the 
 battle of Leucopetra, which completed the dissolu- 
 tion of the last of the Greek Leagues, the Achaean, 
 and henceforth Greece was under the yoke of 
 Rome. The Senate, and afterwards the emperors, 
 treated the fatherland of their own civilization with 
 exceptional kindness. It was not until the Byzan- 
 tine Empire placed its cruel foot upon the Greek 
 neck, that all free institutions and popular rights 
 were disregarded. As Schmitz well expresses it, 
 “ Greece, though conquered by the arms of the Ro- 
 mans, subdued them in turn by its vast superiority 
 in the arts and in literature. The Romans them- 
 selves owned that they were the humble disciples of 
 
 Greece ; and that country in which we first meet in 
 its full development with all that is noble and 
 beautiful in man, is still the perennial spring at 
 which we and all future generations may refresh 
 our minds and drink intellectual inspiration. ” 
 
 Such are the really great and historic wars of 
 Greece, but struggles of a later date deserve notice. 
 
 Modern Greece achieved independence through 
 the sword. After the Turks were defeated by the 
 Christians at Vienna in 1684 Greece was ravaged 
 by the Venetians under Francesco Morosini. In 
 1687 Athens fell into the hands of the Christians. 
 Terrible was the destruction incident to that siege. 
 The Greeks were hardly a party to the conflict, it 
 being a part of the war between the Venetians and 
 the Turks, but none the less were Greek statuary 
 and architecture the victims of the struggle. The 
 Turks stored powder in the Parthenon, which ex- 
 ploded with desolating effect. That triumph, so 
 dearly won, was lightly esteemed, and soon Greece 
 once more groaned under the Turkish yoke. 
 
 The war of Independence began in 1821, and the 
 last battle of that war was fought in Bceotia in Oc- 
 tober, 1829. In the first battle of this series Prince 
 Alexander Ypselantes was defeated, but in the last 
 his brother Demetrius won a brilliant victory over 
 the Turk. It will be seen from a later chapter 
 that Grecian nationality, as it now exists, rests upon 
 foreign intervention, but it is none the less true that 
 the Greeks of this nineteenth century fought for 
 independence with a valor and heroism worthy of 
 Marathon and Thermopylae, and that Marco Botzar- 
 is, if not Demetrius Ypsilantes, deserves to rank 
 with the foremost warriors of that people who could 
 boast a Miltiades, a Leonidas, a Themistocles and 
 an Alexander. 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 State Eights in Greece — Lycurgus and his Laws — The Spartan Monarchy — Republicanism 
 and the Laws of Draco — Solon and Athens — The Constitution and its Leading Rea 
 tures — Solon and Lycurgus Compared — Clenisthenes and Democracy — Pericles, the 
 Statesman and his General Influences — The Pour Leagues and Games— Their Char- 
 acter and Influences — The Power of the Leagues — The Delphic Oracle and Pythia 
 the Priestess. 
 
 REECE was indeed the vic- 
 tim of what in this country 
 might be called the Calhoun 
 doctrine, but she was not 
 withoutgreat statesmen. The 
 science of government was 
 carried to a high degree of 
 perfection, although upon a 
 small scale. A “ pent-up Utica ” did, 
 it is true, contract the powers of the 
 lawgivers, but they achieved greatness, 
 and deserve the prominence of a chap- 
 ter devoted to their exclusive consider- 
 
 The first if not 
 
 the lawgivers was Lycurgus. 'f ' " ' 
 
 In the Homeric poems we see 
 
 statecraft hardly above tribal jjp i > jdy 
 
 chieftainship. Lycurgus, who 
 
 had probably been a student 
 
 of law in Egypt, gave to Sparta 
 
 a body of laws, or system of ■ X 
 
 government, which ultimately 
 
 raised it to the supremacy, not Lycurgus. 
 
 only over the other Dorian states of Peloponne- 
 
 sus, but over the whole of Greece. It was not 
 the aim of Lycurgus to make the people happy 
 or virtuous, but the state strong. The date of his 
 work is uncertain. Some place it as early as B. C. 
 1100, others as late as B. C. 880. The latter is sup- 
 ported by the better authorities. The age of Homer 
 and Hesiod is from B. C. 900 to B. C. 800. Obvious- 
 ly, then, the name Lycurgus stands rather for a 
 body of laws borrowed largely from the Delta, than 
 for an individual. Not that it was entirely an exotic 
 by any means, but that the indigenous root was fer- 
 tilized by the loam of the Nile. It was claimed for 
 the laws of Lycurgus, as for those of Moses, that 
 they were the direct gift of Deity, and both were 
 written upon tables of stone. Like Moses, too, he is 
 supposed to have gone off by himself to die, hoping 
 thereby to strengthen the authority of his enact- 
 ments. The territory tributary to Sparta, forming 
 with it the State of Lacaonia, was, according to Plu- 
 tarch, divided into 39,000 sections, of which 9,000 
 were given to as many landed aristocrats of the city, 
 and the rest to free subjects of the state ; but these 
 details are not historically correct. It is only ascer- 
 tainable that the land was divided among the people 
 in such a way as to form three distinct castes, name- 
 ly, the Dorians of Sparta ; their serfs, or Helots ; and 
 
 13 
 

 .. 
 
 104 
 
 STATECRAFT IN GREECE. 
 
 the subject people, or peasantry, of the provincial 
 district. All political power was monopolized by 
 the aristocracy of the city. Deprivation was also 
 exemption and privilege to some extent, for the peas- 
 antry were also the merchants and manufacturers 
 of the country, and were not considered to be in the 
 perpetual service of the state, as the aristocracy were. 
 The latter were wholly given to politics and war. 
 The Helots were treated with the utmost severity. 
 Thev were “fixtures” and could not be sold off the 
 
 priests and chief justices, but not sovereigns in any 
 proper sense of the term. Courage was the one 
 virtue held in unlimited esteem. It was the deifi- 
 cation of the martial spirit. The story told of the 
 Spartan youth who stole a fox, is doubtless fabu- 
 lous, but eminently characteristic. Rather than 
 disclose what he had done, he allowed the fox, which 
 was hidden in his breast, to gnaw his vitals. To 
 steal was all right, but to be caught at it or found 
 The commerce of the country 
 
 out in it all wrong. 
 
 OLD ATHENS AS VIEWED FROM PIRJiUS. 
 
 farm or the household. They were serfs, but not 
 slaves. A people who were unsparing in rigor to- 
 ward themselves, would, as a matter of course, be 
 pitiless in their treatment of subordinates. The real 
 reins of government were held by the senate, as in 
 the republican days of Rome, but royalty was main- 
 tained in theory. 
 
 The peculiarity of the Spartan monarchy was, 
 that two kings occupied the throne, a custom sup- 
 posed to have arisen from the fact that Aristode- 
 mus left twin sons. These two kings corresponded 
 to the two consuls of Rome. The kings were chief 
 
 was quite limited. Iron was the only currency, and 
 it is said that this financial policy was adopted and 
 maintained for the purpose of discouraging business 
 enterprise. This restriction applied, however, only 
 to the higher class and the city. The provincials 
 were left free in their traffic. 
 
 Evidently, the spirit of the heroic age was per- 
 petuated at Sparta as nowhere else, although in 
 the Homeric verse no special pre-eminence was given 
 to that state. Helen was indeed the queen of that 
 kingdom, but her husband, Menelaus, was bv no 
 means the hero of the war. His brother, Asramem- 
 
 (0 
 
 
 to 
 
 FT 
 

 
 STATECRAFT IN GREECE. 
 
 io 5 
 
 non, at as the chief, elected to that position by the 
 suffrages of his peers. But in historic times the 
 heroic age survived mainly in Sparta, and that, on 
 account of the martial character of her constitu- 
 tion. In all the states of Greece except Sparta, roy- 
 alty was abolished about the same time, and at a 
 very early day, and in Sparta even, the semblance 
 only remained. By far the most important of these 
 states was Athens, or Attica ; the latter being the 
 name of the territory. The people are generally 
 called Athenians, sometimes Ionians, but rarely At- 
 ticans. Theseus is said to have given the Athenians 
 their first political institutions. He divided the 
 people into three classes ; the aristocracy, the hus- 
 bandmen, and the artisans, the two latter classes 
 having no voice in the government. A new consti- 
 tution was given to the state by Draco, B. C. 624. 
 His was the first written law of Attica. It is pro- 
 verbial for its severity and is said to have been writ- 
 ten in blood. The evident design of this conserva- 
 tive law-maker was to re.press the rising power of 
 the common peojfie and conserve the “vested rights” 
 of the favored few. His personal unpopularity, un- 
 der the operation of his code, was such that he had 
 to seek safety in flight. The popular discontent 
 found expression in sedition and strife. Finally, 
 after a turbulent and futile struggle for existence, 
 the legislation of Draco succumbed and gave place 
 to the laws of Solon, a legislator so wise that his 
 name is a standing synonym 
 for statesmanship. 
 
 Enriched in intelligence 
 and purse by foreign travel 
 and commerce, Solon also 
 had the advantage of military 
 prestige. He called to his aid 
 Epimenides of Crete, a far- 
 famed sage. He imposed re- 
 straints upon the profuse 
 expenses of the temple and 
 funeral obsequies. That was 
 Epimenides’ part of the reform 
 ments did not go to the roots of things. The great 
 trouble was the unjust distribution of land. The aris- 
 tocracy held the more fertile plains, and derived the 
 chief advantage from agriculture, without doing any 
 of the work. The unrest was so great, and the dissat- 
 isfaction witli the code of Draco so general, that in 
 B. 0. 594, Solon was made Archon with ample 
 
 Solon. 
 
 but these improve- 
 
 authority to revise the laws. He was constituted a 
 constitutional convention and legislature, all in one. 
 He did not abuse his opportunity. He was the first 
 George Washington of history. His first work was 
 to abolish imprisonment and slavery for debt. He 
 also reduced the rate of interest, and virtually scaled 
 down debts by debasing the coin. Solon was a 
 friend of the poor without being a demagogue. He 
 abolished capital punishment, except for murder. 
 He admitted foreigners to citizenship. He was, 
 perhaps, the father of naturalization laws, the first 
 great protector of immigration. He conciliated the 
 rich by requiring a property test in suffrage. The 
 people were divided into four classes according to 
 property qualifications, with a graduated scale of 
 rights and privileges. He thus put a premium up- 
 on enterprise in business. The property available 
 for political elevation, however, was realty. The 
 magistrates, to whatever class belonging, were re- 
 sponsible to the whole people, and not merely to 
 their own classes. There were two legislative bodies, 
 one being the Council of Four Hundred, corre- 
 sponding to our Senate, and the other, the Areop- 
 agus, corresponding to a New England town-meet- 
 ing, or Russian Mir. The latter certainly existed 
 before his day, however it may have been with the 
 former, but it was modified by him, and set in its 
 place as one of the institutions of popular sover- 
 eignty. The ordinary public assembly was held 
 once a month, the number necessary to a quorum 
 not being definitely fixed, but six thousand was re- 
 garded as a small meeting. 
 
 Solon devised a curious way to supervise and hold 
 in check the radicalism or carelessness of the Are- 
 opagus. Instead of a supreme bench composed of 
 a few elderly lawyers, with the power of nullifica- 
 tion by which they could set aside a law as uncon- 
 stitutional, ho provided a supreme court consisting 
 of six thousand, with authority to set aside any pop- 
 ular enactment inconsistent with the established or- 
 dinances of the state. He did not attempt, how- 
 ever, to prevent all alterations. He devised a 
 plan for amending the constitution which was sub- 
 stantially the same as the one which now prevails in 
 this country. At the first popular assembly each 
 year, one member of the body politic had a right to 
 propose a change in the established laws. At the 
 third ordinary meeting the subject was brought up 
 again and a committee appointed by lot from the 
 
 ~ 7 \ 
 
 

 
 106 
 
 STATECRAFT IN GREECE. 
 
 supreme court, or heliaea of 6,000, to investigate the 
 matter and decide upon its adoption or rejection. 
 This variation from the prevailing system of this 
 country, does not go to the heart of the matter 
 Solon may be called the father of flexible constitu- 
 tions. He contemplated no distinctions between 
 judge and jury, nor a body of professional law- 
 yers. Demosthenes, the greatest of all advocates 
 and prosecutors, was a “ layman.” A body of arbi- 
 trators (men over sixty years of age) was created to 
 try private law-suits, and from the decision rendered 
 no appeal could be taken. For public offenses, 
 crimes, the law provided the council of Areopagus, 
 and this criminal court was conducted with all the 
 solemnities of oaths. A majority convicted, but if 
 there was a tie vote, the herald cast “ the vote of 
 Athena ” in favor of acquittal, on the principle that 
 the accused is entitled to the benefit of the doubt. 
 
 Lycurgus was far more specific in his code than 
 Solon was. The greater of these two statesmen 
 left much to the authority of the people. He must 
 have been thoroughly democratic, a Jefferson rather 
 than a Hamilton. His code began to take cogni- 
 zance of the individual at sixteen, but up to that 
 age the child was subject exclusively to parental 
 authority. From sixteen to eighteen the Athenian 
 youth was obliged to submit to the training of the 
 gymnasium, a school for both brain and brawn. At 
 eighteen he was regarded as having reached major- 
 ity, and was an “ infant ” no longer. He could hold 
 property and vote, although full citizenship was not 
 attained before the twentieth year. Military service 
 was required between the ages of eighteen and sixty. 
 As regards women, Solon sought to curb licentious- 
 ness and extravagance, rather than to elevate the 
 sex and enlarge its sphere, in the modern sense of 
 the term. His ideal woman was a domestic drudge, 
 pure and simple. He was not, however, inclined to 
 require the women to stay at home quite so closely 
 as they were obliged to do at a later period in the 
 history of Athens. His code was designed to amel- 
 iorate somewhat the hardships of a slave. He en- 
 couraged the maintenance of a strong navy for the 
 protection of commerce. Solon is supposed to have 
 died B. C. 559. 
 
 Clenisthenes introduced some important changes 
 in the Athenian constitution half a century later, 
 which increased the power of the people, but he 
 displayed no genius for statecraft at all compara- 
 
 ol 
 
 ble to that of the great names mentioned. Aristi- 
 des and Themistocles were great political lawyers in 
 their day, as were Ephialtes, who deprived the Are- 
 opagus of a great deal of its power, and Thucydi- 
 des, who was the leader of the aristocracy, and 
 Alcibiades, a subsequent leader of the popular party. 
 But none of these politicians deserve rank with Ly- 
 curgus and Solon. The only other name in Greek 
 annals worthy of association with them is that of 
 
 Pericles and Aspasia. 
 
 Pericles whose name and fame can not be disasso- 
 ciated from Aspasia, the beautiful, accomplished 
 and brilliant companion of his joys and labors. 
 He was not so much a great law-maker as a 
 great executive officer. His genius was equal to 
 theirs, and was as truly a glory to statecraft. 
 Pericles rose to eminence upon the ruin of Miltiades, 
 of whom we heard in connection with Marathon. 
 Of the hero of that most glorious victory of Grecian 
 arms, it is enough to say here that he was inclined 
 to absolutism in government, and fell a victim to 
 the strength of the doctrine of popular sovereignty. 
 Pericles was the acknowledged leader of the democ- 
 racy, although of the most aristocratic descent. He 
 sought to accomplish two objects ; first, to make 
 Greece one nation, with Athens as its political and 
 commercial capital ; and second, to make the repub- 
 lic a government by the people, rather than a gov- 
 ernment by and for an oligarchy. He provided 
 compensation for public service, such as serving on 
 the jury and even for attending the worship of the 
 gods. He also gave employment to the poor out 
 of the treasury of the public. It was in his day 
 that Athenian art reached its loftiest heights, and 
 the Grecian glory shone brightest. He was the first 
 

 
 STATECRAFT IN GREECE. 
 
 107 
 
 
 and the last broadly national statesman of Greece. 
 Lycurgus was a Spartan, Solon an Athenian, Alex- 
 ander a barbarian, Pericles a Greek, in the fullest 
 sense of the term. 
 
 Pericles succeeded in making his views so far un- 
 derstood and appreciated at Athens, that he was the 
 master spirit of Attica until the day of his death, 
 but he could not carry out his general plan. Sparta 
 adhered, with the tenacity of South Carolina, to the 
 doctrine of state sovereignty and hostility to central- 
 ization. War ensued, in the course of which Peri- 
 cles died. In that great struggle, the Peloponnesian 
 war, Athens stood for the doctrine of the union of 
 Greece (not its preservation, but its establishment), 
 and in the failure of the national party, a death- 
 blow was given to the political supremacy of Greece 
 in the intellectual world. Pericles sought by state- 
 craft, rather than by force, to unify the Greeks. 
 What he could not do, Alexander might have done, 
 but showed no disposition to do. Had he lived to 
 reconstruct Greece, he might have consolidated it 
 into one nation, but it would have been on the 
 Macedonian, rather than on the Athenian plan. 
 His ambition was military and had foreign conquest 
 as its chief aim, while the greater Pericles tried to 
 develop Greece to the fullest possible extent. A 
 higher statesmanship could not be conceived, at 
 least no higher ideal has ever been realized. Al- 
 though he failed to carry out his plan in all its 
 grandeur, he succeeded in developing at Athens a 
 splendor which has never been equaled anywhere 
 else in all that makes real culture. To this day no 
 city in literature or art can seek higher honor than 
 to be called a Modern Athens. The statesmanship 
 of Pericles rendered possible those matchless attain- 
 ments in esthetic civilization. 
 
 Looking at the matter from an American point of 
 view, there could hardly be anything more incon- 
 gruous, than to couple the political associations of 
 independent states composed of kindred people, with 
 the pastimes of that people. If in writing of the 
 United States, one should devote a chapter to “ Fed- 
 eral Relations and Base Ball,” the inference would 
 be that the writer was either idiotic or insane. 
 They represent the extremes in point of importance. 
 With us, the “National game” has nothing what- 
 ever to do with nationality. But the Greeks were 
 a very different people from ourselves. Their na- 
 tional games were not played by a few hired men. 
 
 gazed upon by spectators who, for the most part, 
 would scorn to take part in the game, even though 
 assured of the championship. On the contrary, the 
 pastimes of the Greeks had a rank and significance, 
 giving to them a really first-class position, even in 
 universal history. They brought all sections togeth- 
 er on a common and really national level. Taken 
 collectively, they form the true Panhellenia ( Pan 
 being the Greek for all), and to omit them would be 
 to overlook a fundamental feature of the national 
 life of the Greeks. 
 
 There were four leagues or confederacies in Greece 
 at different times : the Arcadian, the Amphictrionic, 
 the Achaean and the iEtolian. The games were also 
 four : the Olympic, the Isthmian, the Nemean and 
 the Pythian. There were other similar games, only on 
 a smaller scale, in other parts of Greece, sustaining 
 to the great games much the same relation that a 
 county fair does to an inter-state or international 
 exposition. 
 
 To these festive occasions, any Greek was welcome, 
 and was guaranteed immunity from assault, going 
 and coming, however hostile any state through which 
 he traveled might be to the state of which he was 
 a citizen. None but pure Hellenists could com- 
 pete in any of these games. Even Alexander the 
 Great was denied the privilege, although in later 
 years Tiberius and Nero, Roman Emperors, bore 
 off Olympian prizes. The different names of the 
 four great games were suggested by their location, 
 the first being on the plain of Olympia, the 
 second on the isthmus of Corinth, the third on 
 the Nemean plain, and the fourth at Pythia. 
 
 The games were all alike in main feature, only 
 that the first was the chief. There were chariot 
 races, foot races and other athletic sports, literary 
 entertainments and music. They blended worship 
 with physical and intellectual gymnastics. The 
 prizes had no intrinsic value, being a wreath of 
 laurels or other leaves, but they were esteemed more 
 highly than gold, and proved incalculably stimula- 
 tive to the culture of body and mind. The Greeks 
 reckoned time by the ( llympic games, which occurred 
 once in four years. The founding of these games 
 dates back of history and is shrouded in mystery, 
 but the historic period of their existence extends 
 over a thousand years, namely, from about B. C. 
 050 to A. I). 450, when the influence of the 
 Christian church secured their abolition. They 
 
A 
 
 k. 
 
 108 
 
 STATECRAFT IN GREECE. 
 
 T| 
 
 had, however, declined seriously before that time. 
 
 Of the leagues of Greece, tlie most important was 
 the Amphictyonic, whose origin was mythical. There 
 were several Amphictyons, or conventions, but the 
 Amphictyon met at Delphi in the spring, at An- 
 thela in the autumn, a town within the pass of 
 Thermopylae, where stood a temple of Delmeter. Its 
 objects were twofold, — to guard the temple of Apollo, 
 at Delphi, and to restrain the mutual violence among 
 the states belonging 
 to the confederacy. 
 
 The latter object was 
 not attained to any- 
 thing like a satisfac- 
 tory extent. The tem- 
 ple, however, was pre- 
 served with religious 
 sacredness. Its oracle 
 was held in the very 
 highest esteem by the 
 Greeks everywhere, 
 and later, by the Ho- 
 mans, but its immedi- 
 ate custody was in- 
 trusted to the citizens 
 of Delphi. The chief 
 city of Delphi, Crissa, View of Delphi and 
 
 was utterly destroyed by the allied forces of 
 Greece, in the sixth century before Christ, for 
 the practice of extortion upon the visitors to 
 the Delphic Oracle. For ten years that holy war 
 was waged. The oracles were generally couched 
 in the most obscure language, and were given out 
 by a chief priestess called the Pythia. The temple 
 was a vast treasure-house. It was sometimes de- 
 spoiled, or in part depleted, but such levies were con- 
 sidered as sacrilegious in the highest degree. It was 
 not till Christianity displaced the classic superstitions, 
 that this oracle ceased to exert a powerful influence. 
 
 The mountain at the foot of which the Delphic 
 oracles were uttered is in some respects the most 
 famous in the world. It was sacred in the classic 
 era to the muses. Thence the sacred Nine were 
 
 fabled to take their flights, and Mount Parnassus 
 yielded inspiration to the poet. To climb its 
 rugged heights, drink of its springs, and breathe its 
 rare and exhilarating air, filled the mind with poet- 
 ical fancies. With Helicon, Cithaeron and Parnassus, 
 it nearly enclosed the Boeotian valley. Not as lofty 
 as Pelion and Ossa, nor so august as Olympus, it is 
 none the less true that surrounding it cluster asso- 
 ciations which render it one of the most memorable 
 
 peaks on the globe. 
 One of the so-called 
 Homeric hymns gives 
 the legendary account 
 of the founding of this 
 temple : Apollo slew 
 upon that spot a ter- 
 rible dragon, then 
 guided thither a Cre- 
 tan ship, directing the 
 crew of it to estab- 
 lish themselves there- 
 “ The whole land,” 
 said they, “is bare and 
 desolate, and whence 
 shall we get food?” To 
 this Apollo replied, 
 “Foolish men, stretch 
 forth your hands each day and slay each day the rich 
 offerings, for they shall come to you without stint 
 or sparing, seeing that the sons of men shall 
 hasten hither to learn my will. Only guard ye well 
 the temple I have reared, for if ye deal rightly, no 
 man shall take away your glory ; but if ye speak 
 lies or do iniquity, if ye hurt the people who come 
 to my altar and make them go astray, then shall 
 other men rise up in your place and ye shall be 
 thrust out forever.” This legend was the strongest 
 possible safeguard against personal violence to 
 visitors ; but so cunningly deceptive were the re- 
 sponses of that oracle that Delphic came to be 
 a synonym for statements capable of various 
 interpretations and utterly elusive of definite un- 
 derstanding. 
 
 Mount Parnassus. 
 
 T*T 
 
 a 
 
HE term “ classic ” was used 
 originally to designate the 
 surviving Greek and Roman 
 literature. It is often used to 
 designate the more perma- 
 nent and valuable portion of 
 our own or any other litera- 
 ture. In attempting to give 
 an idea of the subject in hand for 
 this chapter, it will be necessary to 
 adopt the method admitting of the 
 greatest brevity. There are no 
 less than one hundred and twenty- 
 seven names in the list of Greek 
 } classics. Some of these authors are 
 known to us only in brief fragments, 
 quotations found in later writings. 
 A few are merely alluded to, and the 
 name itself may designate a class rather than an in- 
 dividual. There are six which belong to the age of 
 fable, and may be as mythical as the Muses, namely, 
 Orpheus, Eumolpus, Tbamyris, Olen, Ghrysothemis, 
 and Philammon. The fragments which remain and 
 are attributed to them may be, and probably are, the 
 waifs from a traditional folk-lore. 
 
 The first historic name is that of Homer. Fora 
 
 
 long time his personality was in dispute, and even 
 now seven cities claim his birth. He was a native 
 of the isle of Scio or Asia Minor, but none the less 
 a Greek. He was the father of Ejjic poetry, and 
 paradoxical as it may seem, it is none the less true, 
 that an Asiatic wrote the oldest European work 
 (prose or poetry) extant. He may well be called the 
 father of European literature. For a long time, 
 probably for centuries, his Iliad and Odyssey were 
 preserved by being memorized and repeated on fes- 
 tive occasions. The people held those marvelous 
 stories of gods and men mingling in the affairs of 
 earth, in much the same reverence that a devout 
 worshiper of Jehovah and Jesus does the Old and 
 the New Testaments, and we find Plato opposed to 
 the reading of Homer in the public schools of his 
 ideal republic on that very account. The nature of 
 these stories has been stated under the head of the 
 “ Heroic Age. ” St. Augustine well said of Homer, 
 “ he stands alone and aloft on Parnassus, where it is 
 not possible now that any human genius should stand 
 with him, the father and prince of all heroic poets, the 
 boast and the glory of his own Greece, and the love 
 and admiration of mankind.” Some fifty hymns, 
 once attributed to him, have been pronounced by 
 later scholarship apocryphal. His name will remain 
 
 CHAPTER X VII. 
 
 The Term Classic and Traditional Authors — Homer and his place in Literature — Hesiod, 
 HSsop and Other Epic and Didactic Poets — Sappho, Pindar, and the Lyrists — The 
 Drama — The Dramatists and Attica— HSschelus — Sophocles and Euripides — Aristophanes 
 and Greek Comedy — Greek Prose — Herodotus — Zenophon — Plato, Aristotle and Philo- 
 sophical Literature— Demosthenes and Oratory in Literature— The Immortal Twelve. 
 
I IO 
 
 GREEK CLASSIC LITERATURE. 
 
 •v ®. 
 
 
 embodied in the hearts of men to the end of time. 
 Another great name in Greek literature is Hesiod. 
 Born in Boeotia, he was an Asiatic Greek by descent. 
 He lived about 900 years before Christ. He sang 
 in dull, prosaic verse, of the evils of his times, and 
 the grotesque theogony of Greece was set to music 
 in a clumsy fashion. His works are not much read, 
 nor do they deserve to be. His “ Works and Days” 
 is a tedious bucolic. He is classed as the earliest, 
 but by no means as the first, of didactic poets. In 
 this list of elaborate poets, epic and didactic, figure 
 Arctinus of Miletus, Lesches of Lesbos, Agias of 
 Traezen, Eumelus of Corinth, and Strasinus of Cy- 
 prus, whose produc- 
 tions have been lost. 
 
 Under the head of 
 elegiac and iambic 
 poets, are mentioned 
 eight names, vary- 
 ing in date from B. 
 
 C. 720 to B. C. 594, 
 nothing remaining 
 from any of them, 
 of any consequence, 
 except zEsop, who is 
 supposed by Plu- 
 tarch to have been 
 born in B. C. 620, 
 but who is now gen- 
 erally regarded as a 
 myth. The fables 
 which bear his name 
 are believed to have 
 been imported from 
 India and Egypt, 
 for the most part, some few being indigenous to 
 the soil. They are certainly the very essence of 
 common sense, generally read in these days in Latin 
 or English prose. 
 
 The next order or school of Greek poetry was the 
 lyric. Several names, unworthy of more than mere 
 reference, survive in fragments. Two names stand 
 out conspicuous, Sappho and Pindar. Only frag- 
 ments remain of the former, and a small part of 
 the works of the latter. Sappho was a woman of 
 Lesbos, born in B. C. 610. She had a wonderfully 
 gifted mind, and was the first to raise her sex to liter- 
 ary eminence. The Lesbian women were much given 
 to study and culture. The loss of her writings 
 
 is greatly to be deplored. Her only peer in an- 
 cient lyrics was Pindar of 
 Cynocephalae, a village near 
 Thebes. He was born in B. C. 
 
 517. Undoubtedly he was the 
 greatest poet in his time of 
 antiquity, and it is a matter 
 of rejoicing that some of his 
 verse is still extant, although 
 the greater and probably the 
 better part perished utterly. 
 
 We have now forty-five of 
 his odes. He had sublimity, elegance, energy and pa- 
 thos in a high degree. 
 
 We come now to 
 the drama. For- 
 tunately much more 
 of the Greek drama 
 remains than of the 
 minor poems. Three 
 great names stand 
 out second only to 
 Homer, and among 
 the dramatists of the 
 world second only to 
 Shakspeare. They 
 are zEschylus, Soph- 
 ocles and Euripides. 
 The others simply 
 swell the catalogue 
 of Greek authors, 
 without contribut- 
 ing to the value of 
 extant classic litera- 
 ture. The drama 
 may be called a Greek invention, and it was 
 not until Shakspeare’s appearance upon the stage, 
 that anything at all approaching the original 
 models in merit was produced, and the continental 
 critics were slow in admitting the “Bard of Avon,” 
 because he disregarded the Greek pattern. The 
 Semitic families had no drama, properly speaking. 
 The Greek drama is distinctively Attic. zEschylus 
 and Euripides, Sophocles and Aristophanes, were 
 all born in Attica. The times of Pericles witnessed 
 the highest dramatic attainment. 
 
 zEschylus, a soldier of Marathon -and Salamis, 
 wrote seventy tragedies, of which seven remain. He 
 was the “ Father of Tragedy.” For his impiety he 
 
GREEK CLASSIC LITERATURE. 
 
 Ill 
 
 was banished. Genius is rarely popular when it 
 deals with theology, and the Greek drama was es- 
 sentially religious. His greatest work extant is 
 “ Prometheus Bound.” It represents the Supreme 
 Being as infinitely indignant at Prometheus for being 
 compassionate. Seeing man in his emergence from 
 the brute, capable of making some use of fire, yet 
 destitute of it, he introduced that primitive element 
 of civilization. Zeus had him bound to a rock, and 
 every day a vulture gnawed at his vitals, and at 
 night they were restored only to keep up the eternal 
 procession of agony. There is an awful sublimity in 
 this tragedy. It has been compared to the Hebraic 
 account of the way man was first set upon the path 
 of knowledge by the influence of Satan, who thence- 
 forth was cursed with the enmity of the very race 
 he had initiated into knowledge. Others have com- 
 pared Prometheus in his sublime philanthropy (for 
 he knew what fate awaited him) to Jesus on the 
 cross. Two of the three original Promethean 
 trilogy have been lost. The story of Agamemnon’s 
 sacrifice of his daughter Iphigenia, the revenge of 
 Clytemnestra therefor, and the awful revenge of 
 Orestes, the son of Agamemnon, upon his mother, 
 for the murder of the great king when he returned 
 from Troy, are all set forth by iEschylus. The doc- 
 trine of fate, terrible, relentless, and hopeless, is set 
 forth with lurid vividness. Sophocles, who was ten 
 years the junior of AEschylus, was less bold and vig- 
 orous, but more beautiful and exquisite. He also 
 was a soldier, but his military record was not bril- 
 liant. He wrote one hundred and thirteen tragedies. 
 Seven only have survived to us. His “ CEdipus Ty- 
 rannus ” is the most famous of his tragedies, but 
 there is a depth of pathos in “Antigone,” “CEdipus 
 at Colonos,” and “ Electra,” which could hardly be 
 surpassed. Euripides, born only five years later, 
 was an aristocrat, as his dramas plainly indicate. 
 He wrote at least seventy-five tragedies, some say 
 ninety-two, eighteen of which are now extant. They 
 are mostly devoted to the exploits of the heroic age. 
 Thus we have from three dramatists born in Athens 
 or its suburbs, within the same generation, at least 
 two hundred and fifty-eight tragedies, of which there 
 are now extant thirty-two. 
 
 Comedy among the Greeks took the place some- 
 what of the press. It was personal and related to 
 current men and measures. They pleased the many 
 by their flings and stings, directed against the con- 
 
 spicuous few. The Athenians had no newspapers to 
 lampoon public men, but they had a vast out-door 
 theater which held thirty thousand people. The 
 price of admission Avas seven cents. The theatrical 
 season was during the months of December, Janu- 
 ary, February and March. The solemn aAvfulness 
 of the tragedies was relieved by the commedians, 
 avIio Avere the hornets of society, to use an illustra- 
 tion suggested by one of the best surviving comedies. 
 The list of comedy contains the names of ten dram- 
 atists, but no play of any in the’ list has survived, 
 except eleA'en of the fifty-four plays of Aristophanes, 
 avIio Avas born in Athens B. C. 444. About a cen- 
 tury before his time, flourished three noted Avriters 
 of comedy : Epicharmus, Phormio and Dinolochus. 
 A little later came Chionides and Cratinus. Aris- 
 tophanes had tAVO brilliant cotemporaries, Eupolis 
 and Crates. In these extant comedies we have 
 sharp criticisms of Pericles, broad caricatures of 
 Socrates, the first ridicule of woman’s rights, and 
 revolting pictures of social corruption. 
 
 We turn iioav to prose. The earliest trace of this 
 style of composition is Periander of Corinth (B. C. 
 627). He ruled that city for more than forty years. 
 His edicts Avere, some of them, reduced to writing. 
 They Avere long since lost. The names, and in some 
 cases, a feAV fragments, are preserved of twenty writ- 
 ers of Greek prose, during the period from the days 
 of Periander to the birth of the drama. Two of 
 these, Thales and Pythagoras, deserve mention. 
 They wrought grandly in the domain of philosophy. 
 The former studied faithfully in Egypt, and may be 
 said to have established the connection between 
 Coptic knowledge and Hellenic wisdom. There Avere 
 a few historians in that early period, but Herodotus 
 was the first to Avrite any- 
 thing really Avorthy that 
 designation. He was born 
 at Halicarnassus in 484. 
 
 Tie Avas a narrator of what 
 he saw and heard, credu- 
 lous and unsophisticated. 
 
 He traveled almost every- 
 where, and in his Avorks, 
 happily extant, he dAvells 
 upon the countries he vis- 
 ited, rather than upon per- 
 sonal experiences. He was a model pen photog- 
 rapher. It is generally supposed that the world lost 
 
 H P OAO T OC 
 
 Herodotus. 
 
 - V 
 
< 5 . 
 
 
 I 12 
 
 GREEK CLASSIC LITERATURE. 
 
 nothing in the extinction of the so-called historical 
 works of those who went before him. Indeed, Greek 
 prose seems to have been exceedingly fortunate in 
 the “ survival of the fittest.” Next to Herodotus, 
 and greater than he in intellectual power and liter- 
 ary skill, stands Thucyd- 
 ides, the inventor of phil- 
 osophical history. He was 
 an Athenian of the aristo- 
 cratic class. His history 
 of the Peloponnesian war 
 is a masterpiece, and that 
 more from the elaborate 
 political speeches embod- 
 ied in it than for the his- 
 tory itself. It is safe to 
 say, that until within a 
 hundred years, no superior 
 historian was ever produc- 
 ed. He preserved the martial exploits and political 
 controversies of those times, forgetful of the people 
 in the every-day affairs of life. 
 
 A long list of other military historians might be 
 given, the wars of Alexander the Great having been 
 a favorite theme, but those works perished long ago, 
 except only the writings of Xenophon, an Athenian, 
 
 who was born in B. G. 
 444. He was a volumin- 
 ous writer, a friend and 
 disciple of Socrates, his 
 productions being of two 
 distinct classes, historical 
 and philosophical. His 
 Anabasis relates to the 
 expedition of the Greeks 
 of Asia Minor who ac- 
 companied Cyrus the 
 Y ounger, in his ill-starred 
 expedition to Babylon, and especially of their 
 retreat, which his elegant Greek has rendered 
 immortal. No classic prose is more widely read 
 as a text-book than the Anabasis. Xenophon’s 
 philosophical works have at their head “ The 
 Memorabilia of Socrates,” a series of dialogues 
 between the supreme philosopher and his pupils. It 
 is not too much to say that “ The Memorabilia,” 
 “The Economics,” “The Banquet of the Philos- 
 ophers,” and “ The Apology of Socrates,” all from 
 the pen of Xenophon, are to his great teacher much 
 
 what the four Gospels are to Jesus Christ. If Plato 
 was his St. Paul, Xenophon was all his evangelists 
 in one. Neither Jesus nor Socrates, those great 
 founders of distinct schools of thought, ever wrote 
 a word, but were particularly fortunate in their 
 literary friends. Plato will always stand at the very 
 front of philosophical writers. His works were 
 voluminous and in the form of dialogues. They 
 display the subtlety and power of analysis, for which 
 the Greeks were pre-eminent. They are exceedingly 
 profound and hard to understand. His ideal re- 
 public, “ The Atlantis,” is the model of all the ideal 
 states in literature, and by hundreds of communi- 
 ties started by dreamers of Utopia. It is commun- 
 istic in its fundamental principle. It makes the 
 state everything, the individual nothing. Even the 
 family was to be wiped out, and in its place was to 
 be sterpiculture, on the same scientific basis as “ pedi- 
 greed” cattle and horses are raised. It was not until 
 two thousand years later that any serious attempt 
 was made to carry out the Platonic theory. It was 
 witli him and his admirers a mere theory, a curious 
 speculation. He was born at Athens in B. C. 429, 
 making him forty years younger than Socrates, and 
 about that much older than Aristotle, who, with 
 him and Socrates, rank as the three great philos- 
 ophers of the classic age. It was not until Bacon’s 
 genius dawned upon the world that they had a peer 
 in any land or time. A Macedonian by birth, an 
 Athenian by education, Aristotle has left us most 
 erudite and philosophical disquisitions on logic, 
 metaphysics, physics, ethics, rhetoric and poetry as 
 an art. 
 
 It remains to speak of only one more branch of 
 literature. There are some noted names in philos- 
 ophy, which do not belong in a literary resume. 
 This remaining branch of prose classics is oratory. 
 Eloquence is one of the great features of Greek 
 literature. The heroes of Homer, and the politi- 
 cians and generals of Thucydides, were all ora- 
 tors. Republican institutions favor the develop- 
 ment of the art of persuasiou. The list of Greek 
 orators whose fame has come down to us contains 
 eleven names, all except one being Athenians. 
 That solitary exception was Dinarchus, a Corinthi- 
 an. He was educated, however, at Athens, and re- 
 sided there, and is generally numbered among “ the 
 Attic Canon. ” Judging from the few addresses 
 preserved, lie was hardly deserving the title of ora- 
 

 GREEK CLASSIC LITERATURE. 
 
 I I 
 
 tor. Antiphon (B. C. 479) must have been a great 
 criminal lawyer, for although there was no distinct 
 profession of law, the orators were, to all intents 
 and purposes, lawyers, as well as politicians. About 
 ten years later came Andocides, whose three excel- 
 lent orations are admirable in their simplicity. 
 A decade later still came Lysias. He was a very 
 prolific writer of public addresses. Mention of him 
 is frequently made in ancient writings, and his sur- 
 viving orations show him to have been a man of 
 marvelous power. Isocrates, twenty years later, 
 was a teacher of oratory, rather than an orator. 
 He was too timid to exercise his art freely. In this 
 connection may be mentioned the fact, that about 
 the middle of the fifth century before Christ, the 
 first treatises on rhetoric and oratory known to 
 have been written in the Greek language, were pro- 
 duced in Sicily by Corax, Tisias and Gorgias, the 
 latter having transported the art to Athens, and 
 founded the first school of eloquence and composi- 
 tion in Attica and Greece proper. Besides Isocrates 
 there was Isseus, who did much as a professor of elo- 
 cution. Machines, of whose orations we have only 
 three, was a cotemporary and rival of Demosthenes. 
 Cicero and Quintilian pronounced him almost equal 
 to Demosthenes. Hyperides (B. C. 39G) was also 
 compared with Demosthenes. We have no speci- 
 mens of Iris eloquence. 
 
 The one supreme name in Greek oratory not 
 only, but in the entire art of eloquence, is the one 
 last mentioned. Demosthenes was born in the Attic 
 town of Paeonia, B. C. 385. He had some seri- 
 ous natural defects of speech to overcome. 1 1 is 
 first attempt at oratory was a failure. But he 
 was not discouraged. His physical infirmity, stam- 
 mering, was overcome, or turned to positive advan- 
 tage. His powers of persuasion were almost irri- 
 
 Demosthenes. 
 
 sistible, even with a people as intelligent as the 
 Athenians. He was a master of invective. His 
 orations against Philip, 
 the father of Alexander 
 the Great, have been for 
 more than two thousand 
 years, a syonym for in- 
 vective discourse. “ Phi- 
 lippics” is the familiar 
 name for that class of 
 orations. His series of 
 speeches called “ Con- 
 cerning the Crown,” are 
 admirably judicious and 
 lofty iu tone. We have sixty of his addresses, and 
 they have been of incalculable importance as mod- 
 els of oratory, studied and practical in all civilized 
 lauds almost ever since they were pronounced. A 
 coward in battle, he was a true hero in debate, and 
 a wise counselor. The claims and merits of Demos- 
 thenes, as they have come to be estimated by the 
 settled judgment of mankind, may be stated thus: 
 1. Purity in ethical character ; 2 . Intellectual 
 
 mastery of the subject in hand ; 3. The magic 
 
 force of felicitous language, thanks partly to his 
 own genius, and partly to the matchless beauty of 
 the Greek tongue ; 4. Freedom from all bombast, 
 concise, fluent, sweet and impressive. 
 
 Having taken a hasty glance at Greek literature, 
 we may sum up by giving the list of extant authors, 
 upon whom rests the fame of that literature, and 
 who will continue to be read and admired in all 
 ages : Homer, Pindar, rEschylus, Sophocles, Eurip- 
 ides and Aristophanes ; Herodotus, Thucydides, 
 Xenophon, Plato, Aristotle, and Demosthenes. 
 They are the immortal twelve of Greek classic liter- 
 ature. 
 

 
 
 
 ft. * 
 
 
 [jpn 
 
 IL=Ei 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 The Greeks and Abstruse Thought — Thales and Pythagoras— Socrates and His Philosophy 
 — Plato and Aristotle — Their Place in Philosophy— Epicureans and Stoics — The Cynics — 
 Pyrrho and Skepticism — Neoplatonism — The Uses op Greek Philosophy — Painting and 
 Sculpture — The Laocoon and Oly'mpian Zeus — Praxiteles and Phidias — The Parthenon 
 and the Acropolis — The Three Orders op Grecian Architecture— Indebtedness op Rome 
 and the Rest op the World to Grecian Architecture — The Elgin Marbles. 
 
 T is safe to say that the 
 philosophy of the Greeks 
 embraces all ancient philos- 
 ophy, if not the germs of all 
 modern secular speculation. 
 The Egyptians and the pro- 
 found thinkers of India 
 were theologians. Their problems were 
 more religious than metaphysical. The 
 latest intellectual development.in Egypt 
 was a growth from Hellenistic seed. In 
 treating of Alexandria, some reference 
 was made to philosophy and philosophers, 
 but in taking a view of philosophy in 
 its entirety, it must be conceded upon 
 the threshold that the glory and the fea- 
 tures of abstract thought belong to that 
 marvelous people, the Greeks. It was not 
 until Bacon revolutionized philpsophy, that any really 
 independent and important step was taken outside 
 tyie Greek limitations. Medieval scholastics, Abelard 
 the orthodox and Bruno the heretic, were none 
 of them philosophers. The more than royal line 
 which began with Thales of Miletus, and closed with 
 Proclus of Alexandria, held sway in speculative 
 thought, unrivaled and almost undisturbed, fading 
 out at last through sheer exhaustion. The period 
 
 of this dynasty was about a thousand years, for 
 Thales was born in B. C. 636, and Proclus in A. D. 
 412. To present within the compass of one chapter 
 the history of such a period and phase of intellectual 
 activity, is the task now in hand. 
 
 Thales founded a school, or class of philosophers, 
 who were determined to solve the mystery of origin. 
 He saw in water the all-pervasive element, the sub- 
 stratum of things. Some of his disciples substituted 
 fire for water ; others air. The greatest of these 
 early searchers after the First Cause was Pythagoras. 
 He it was, probably, who enriched Greek thought with 
 Egyptian science, especially mathematics. It was 
 hoped by using “ the wisdom of the Egyptians” as 
 a ladder, to climb into heaven and discover the 
 supreme mystery of earth. Pythagoras taught the 
 transmigration of the soul, the eternal procession of 
 existence, in ever-varying forms. With all the help, 
 however, of Egypt, the Greeks made very little prog- 
 ress before the days of Socrates. The enthusiastic, 
 persistent, and profound study of abstractions, was a 
 wonderful discipline. For that long period the 
 Greek mind was being trained in a gymnasium of 
 thought. Aside from the mental discipline derived, 
 no benefits resulted. The direct fruit of all that 
 long labor was sophistry, the use of reason and logic 
 as an exhibition of intellectual skill. Had the entire 
 
 A 
 
 ( T h) 
 
& 
 
 > 9 
 
 k. 
 
 GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND ART 
 
 n 5 
 
 fruitage stopped there, the Greek philosophy would 
 have been an unmitigated failure. But it did not. 
 
 The training of the mind for so long a time 
 culminated in producing 
 Socrates, who was born 
 in Athens B. C. 470. He 
 found philosophy a jum- 
 ble of negations and 
 pretentious assumptions. 
 
 The learned looked down 
 with lofty contempt upon 
 the common people, who 
 saw in occurrences the in- 
 terposition of a personal 
 deity. As regards the Socrates, 
 
 popular theories of cause and effect, the philosophers 
 were infidels. Socrates agreed with them in their 
 denials, but was not content to rest in mere nega- 
 tion. In the “ Clouds,” Aristophanes ridicules the 
 substitution of “ ethereal rotation” for deity, much 
 as an orthodox clergyman of to-day denounces the 
 substitution of evolution for creation ; but that sub- 
 stitution was not the distinctive peculiarity of Soc- 
 rates; by any means. He taught, rather, that the 
 study of Nature was a waste of time. “Man, know 
 thyself,” was his motto. He was the father of de- 
 ductive philosophy, and with him also began an era 
 of accuracy in thought and expression. He was fond 
 of leading his pupils to see their ignorance and ap- 
 preciate definiteness of ideas. His method was by 
 questioning them. The term “Somatic” is suggestive 
 of interrogation points. But appreciation of igno- 
 rance and a start in the direction of knowledge, had 
 for their final object, moral instruction. He was a 
 philosophical moralist. So important was this latter 
 work that it has been said that “ individual con- 
 science and personal decision date from the epoch 
 of Socrates, and their growth from that time is the 
 progress of the world-history.” lie was a man of 
 very marked eccentricities. Plain, ill-shapen and 
 outspoken, he was utterly indifferent about dress. 
 His wife, Xantippe, had no patience with his 
 dreamy indifference to practical matters, and has 
 come down to the world pilloried as the great scold. 
 No doubt she had cause for her impatience. He 
 was too indolent to even write out his views, leaving 
 that to Plato and Xenophon, who either contented 
 themselves with developing the Socratic ideas, or 
 were so very modest that they attributed to their 
 
 teacher ideas which were really their own. In his 
 old age, the great teacher was accused of not wor- 
 shiping the popular gods, but instituting a religion 
 of his own, and consequently of corrupting the 
 youth. He was found guilty and condemned to 
 suffer death by poison. A cup of hemlock was pre- 
 sented to him. He drank the deadly poison with 
 composure, and died in the serenity of an upright 
 life. He was seventy-one years of age. His life- 
 work had been completed, and the loving and gifted 
 disciples who revered his memory embalmed his 
 thoughts, and made them the rich inheritance of 
 mankind. 
 
 Plato and Socrates are so interlinked, that the 
 Socratic and Platonic philosophies are substantially 
 one and indivisible, except upon points too minute 
 for observation at long range. Of his works, as 
 literary productions, this is not the place to speak, 
 and the same remark holds good of Aristotle. Both 
 are conspicuous in Greek classic literature. Both 
 escaped the melancholy fate of Socrates, but neither 
 shrank from his conception of truth, while both 
 were even more revolutionary than the great mar- 
 tyr of pure reason. Plato could 
 boast his descent from Solon, and 
 his love was so immaculate, his 
 philosophy so ethereal and majes- 
 tic, that his countrymen came to 
 revere him as the son of a virgin 
 and a god. The doctrine of the 
 immaculate conception has been 
 applied to the most illustrious 
 men of many lands. He was 
 born at Athens in B. C. 430. He 
 was said to be the son of Apollo. 
 Ariston, betrothed to his mother, 
 Perictione, was warned in a dream, to delay the 
 nuptials until the birth of the divinely begotten 
 child. His life was long and sad, being “ sickbed 
 o’er with the pale cast of thought. ” Aristotle, a 
 Thracian by birth, was born B. C. 384. He was 
 something of a scientist. He combined ethics and 
 metaphysics with physics. The three supreme 
 names in philosophy represent a gradual increase in 
 the domain of thought. Socrates created moral 
 philosophy. Plato inquired into all truth. Aris- 
 totle was hardly less anxious in the search for facts, 
 as well as for virtue and truth. He saw in knowl- 
 edge the basis of wisdom, and had some apprecia- 
 

 k. 
 
 1 1 6 
 
 GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND ART. 
 
 tion of the relations of the tangible to the intan- 
 gible. He was the tutor of Alexander the Great, 
 and the especial object of study by the scholastics 
 of the medieval age. 
 
 The most practical phases of Greek philosophy 
 are suggested by the terms Epicurean and Stoic. 
 These contrasting views or theories of wise living 
 were and are practical. The exact statement of 
 Platonic and Aristotelian philosophies, would lead 
 one to an illimitable plain, abounding in incompre- 
 hensible subtleties. But the distinctive ideas of the 
 Epicure and the Stoic are easily stated and under- 
 stood. The former has been somewhat misrepresent- 
 ed, still, the popular notion of epicureanism is sub- 
 stantially correct. To make the most and the best of 
 this life by the enjoyment of its good things, is the 
 highest wisdom, according to the epicurean school, 
 while stoicism teaches that the best way to avoid 
 misery is to be indifferent to the happenings of life. 
 One sees the wisdom of making the most and the 
 best of the positively good, while the other sees the 
 wisdom of being so fortified against the inevitable 
 evil as to endure it with calmness. Both are right 
 in what they teach directly, while both are wrong 
 in the denials into which they naturally drifted. 
 
 The founder of epicureanism, Epicurus, was born 
 B. 0. 342, died B. C. 272. He was a noted teacher 
 in Athens. His voluminous writings have per- 
 ished, but his doctrines are known. He believed 
 in moderation and sobriety, hut happiness was 
 his highest ideal. Philosophy he regarded as the 
 art of life, not the art of truth in the abstract, 
 herein differing from both Plato and Aristotle. 
 The founder of the sect of Stoics, Zeno, was a na- 
 tive of Cyprus. The date of his birth is not known. 
 He became a lecturer on philosophy at Athens, late 
 in life, the spot where his pupils gathered being 
 the stoa or porch, whence the name. He fixed his 
 thoughts on virtue as the supreme good. “ Be vir- 
 tuous and you will be happy*” is stoicism ; “ Be 
 happy and you will be virtuous,” epicureanism. In 
 their determination to avoid effeminacy the stoics 
 affected stolidity. The Romans had no taste for 
 the metaphysics of the philosophers, but the prac- 
 tical issue raised by these conflicting theories, ap- 
 pealed to the Roman mind, and the great thinkers of 
 Rome were either Epicureans or Stoics, mostly the 
 latter. From the days of Brutus to those of Mar- 
 cus Aurelius, the austerity of stoicism met with es- 
 
 pecial favor iu Rome. Its ideal man was the typi- 
 cal Roman. In other words, if one were to picture 
 to one’s self the realization of Zeno’s philosophy, he 
 would be “ the noblest Roman of them all. ” 
 
 Another famous sect of philosophers at Athens 
 was the Cynics. The term has come to mean any- 
 body who has become soured and disgusted, critical 
 and weary of life and all its belongings. The rep- 
 resentative Cynic was a Stoic who made an ostenta- 
 tious show of contempt for the world. Virtue was 
 a sort of warfare carried on by the mind against 
 the body. Serene contempt was intensified into 
 virulent hatred. Diogenes with his tub, and grim 
 sneer at everybody and everything, was the typical 
 Cynic. To make a virtue of insolent criticism and 
 censure, was cynicism two thousand years ago, as 
 now. It was Diogenes who, being seen with a lighted 
 candle at noonday, was asked what he was looking 
 for and answered, “ I seek an honest man.” But 
 the Cynics did some good. They attacked all with 
 indiscriminate rancor, and some of the absurdities 
 of the philosophers received beneficent excoriation, 
 especially the theories of the skeptics, who placed 
 abstract logic above the demonstrations of facts. 
 
 Mention has now been made of the more illus- 
 trious philosophers of the classic age, and their 
 distinctive ideas presented. Century after cen- 
 tury, the incomparable intellect of the Greek 
 nation sought the solution of life’s deeper prob- 
 lems, without the aid of either religion or science. 
 There was a little faith and a very little science, 
 but not enough of either to be perceptible in 
 influence. At last the effort was given up. 
 Various changes of base were made, but all to 
 no purpose. From Thales down, all failed to arrive 
 at conclusions which were really satisfactory. Even 
 Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, failed in giving per- 
 manent satisfaction. At last the Greeks became 
 utterly tired of the whole domain of philosophy, 
 and in place of this or that belief, came to almost 
 total disbelief. Skepticism prevailed over all. 
 “ There is no absolute criterion of truth,” said 
 Pyrrho, the father of the skeptics. Socrates ad- 
 mitted his ignorance, hut was confident that the 
 search for knowledge would be richly rewarded; 
 Pyrrho, who, as a soldier of Alexander the Great, 
 had been in India and Egypt, and knew something 
 of all philosophies, pronounced the riddles of 
 philosophy insoluble. There was much reluctance 
 
 
 ~7U 
 
4 
 
 <a 
 
 GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND ART. 
 
 IX 7 
 
 to accept his views, but finally, in what was 
 called the New Academy at Athens, of Arcesilaus 
 and Carneades, agnosticism prevailed. Arcesilaus 
 was a disciple of Aristotle, as was Carneades a 
 century later, having been born in B. C. 213. With 
 him the race of philosophers seemed to become 
 extinct. And so far as Greece was concerned, it 
 died forever. 
 
 Greek culture, however, saw a rival of the spirit 
 of philosophy in Alexandria. In that intellectual 
 capital of the world, an attempt was finally made to 
 solve the problems of philosophy by the aid of 
 religion. Philo is the most prominent name in this 
 connection. Neoplatonism it was called. Accept- 
 ing the doctrine that reason is impotent to meet the 
 demand, Philo and 
 his school offered 
 the aid of faith, 
 especially the in- 
 tense piety of the 
 Hebrew nation. He 
 was a Jew of Greek 
 education. He be- 
 lieved he saw in 
 the “ thus saitli the 
 Lord” of his people 
 the missing link in 
 Philosophy. He was 
 born a few years be- 
 fore Christ. It was 
 
 not long before 
 
 The Acropolis at Athens as it was. 
 
 Neoplatonism and Christianity were jostled against 
 each other, both eager to turn to advantage 
 tiie confession of philosophy that it could not solve 
 the mystery of truth. Plotinus is the great name 
 in this conflict. In the Gospel of John with its 
 deification of the “ Word,” may be seen the influence 
 of Neoplatonism upon the church, especially in 
 the doctrine of the Trinity. The last of the Neo- 
 platonists, Proelus, was born A. D. 412. He showed 
 the power of Christianity more than Protinus did. 
 He tried to save philosophy by liberal concessions; 
 but to no purpose. It was doomed, and with his 
 death was buried, ceasing to be a real power in the 
 world, until Bacon gave it a scientific tendency. 
 
 It was, then, the province of t he Greeks to show 
 that philosophy cannot produce satisfactory results 
 upon any other than a scientific basis. It tried 
 ever\ r conceivable theory, and whatever the dis- 
 
 tinctive idea, and alike with and without religion, 
 it fell short of producing intellectual content, and 
 its grand glory is the claim it may justly lay to the 
 high honor of having stimulated inquiry. 
 
 The Greeks were no less prominent in art than 
 in philosophy. They excelled equally in painting, 
 sculpture and architecture. From the nature of the 
 case the works of the painters have perished. Apelles, 
 whose portraits were the admiration of his country- 
 men, was a cotemporary of Alexander, whose por- 
 trait he painted. Nothing remains to testify, 'first 
 hand, to the merit of Greek art with the brush and 
 easel. But what Greek genius wrought in stone has 
 not wholly disappeared. 
 
 Praxiteles, who flourished at Athens late in the 
 
 fourth century be- 
 fore Christ, has been 
 called the head of 
 the Attic school. He 
 worked in marble 
 and bronze both, 
 chiefly in the for- 
 mer. His subjects 
 were mythological. 
 Venus, Cupid and 
 Apollo were favorite 
 subjects with him. 
 He has been called 
 “ the sculptor of 
 the beautiful.” As 
 the sculptor of the 
 grand, the highest honor belongs to Phidias, who 
 flourished in the splendid era of Pericles and his 
 no less brilliant Aspasia (B. C. 500). The colossal 
 statue of Zeus at the temple of Olympia, in Flis, 
 classed as one of the seven wonders of the world, 
 was the work of his brain and hand. It was in gold 
 and ivory. It occupied its more than royal throne 
 until A. 1). 475, when it was destroyed by fire. An 
 imitation of the head is preserved in the Vatican 
 museum, and that is all that remains to us of that 
 prodigy of art. Phidias put the best work of his 
 life, however, into the Parthenon and the other 
 temples of the Acropolis of Athens. That citadel 
 was not only adorned with the temple of Athena, 
 but of the Erechtheum and other temples. It was 
 no less the treasury of Greek art than the strong- 
 hold of the capital. Speaking of Phidias, Mr. 
 Frothingham remarks: “He was a man of lofty 
 
 
 
GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND ART 
 
 soul, majestic intellect, consummate knowledge of 
 the principles of Ins art, and wonderful skill in de- 
 sign. The buildings that crowned the Acropolis at 
 Athens are believed to have been erected under his 
 direction, and much of the work — how much can- 
 not be known — may be ascribed to his hand. The 
 great statue of Athena in the Parthenon, of gold, ivory 
 and precious stones, was, there is little room to 
 doubt, executed by him.” Numerous bronzes of great 
 
 Ionic order was somewhat ornate. It dates as far 
 back, probably, as the Doric, but seems to have been 
 less used. The third and most elaborately carved 
 order was the Corinthian, which was not introduced 
 until the Alexandrine age. It was never the pre- 
 vailing order in fashion in Greece, to which rank it 
 rose, however, in Rome. “The Greeks,” says Mor- 
 gan, “ were not great builders, but they were supreme 
 architects.” It is equally true that the Romans were 
 
 THE PARTHENON. 
 
 Constructed of Pentelic Marble, under the direction of the celebrated sculptor Phidias, dedicated to Minerva, 438 II. 
 
 merit are traditionally associated with the name of 
 Phidias. 
 
 The term architecture is derived from the Greek, 
 and means “ chief art,” and such was the Grecian 
 estimate of the building art. The supreme editice 
 of antiquity, in beauty if not in sublimity, was the 
 Parthenon, which is conceded to be the type of per- 
 fection in construction. It was not a large building, 
 being only 228 feet long and 101 feet wide. The 
 material used was the finest white marble. It was 
 painted within and without. It dates from B. C. 
 440. The architects were Ictinus and Callicrates. 
 It belongs to the Doric order of architecture. Ruins 
 of Greek temples show three orders, the Doric being 
 the most common and most severely simple. The 
 
 not great architects, but magnificent builders. The 
 Greek ideas of architecture were carried to grander, 
 if less exquisite results, in Rome than in Athens, and 
 the Pantheon, built at Rome about thirty years before 
 Christ, was not only Greek in name (Pantheon 
 meaning in that language a temple for all the gods) 
 but it was Grecian in its essential characteristics. 
 Indeed, almost all public architecture in Europe and 
 America, except the Gothic, may be said to attest 
 the excellency of Greek genius in that department 
 or art and industry. 
 
 The Parthenon was despoiled from time to time, 
 but much of its statuesque wealtli survived until a 
 comparative late day, in the ruined temple, but was 
 at last carried off to England by Lord Elgin, and 
 
 V 
 
GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND ART. 
 
 A 
 
 ll 9 
 
 deposited, in the British museum. Those treasures 
 of art are known as the “ Elgin Marbles, ” and in 
 them may be seen the subtle and refined artistic 
 genius of the Greek civilization. 
 
 One of the best known and most remarkable 
 pieces of statuary in the world is the Laocoon of 
 three Rhodian artists, Agesander, Achenodoras and 
 Polydorus. It is based on a Trojan tradition, best 
 told by Virgil in his yEnead. A priest of that city 
 opposed the introduction into Troy of the wooden 
 horse, when he and his 
 two sons were slain by 
 two great serpents from 
 the sea, which the Trojans 
 seeing, accepted as a sign 
 from Heaven that the 
 priest had given unright- 
 eous counsel. It might 
 be noticed that the cen- 
 tral figure is much larger 
 in proportion than the 
 sons. The former is the 
 chief merit of this incom- 
 parable work of art. 
 
 In his history of art, 
 
 De Forest characterizes 
 Greek art as follows : 
 
 “ The first plastic works 
 of Greece were undoubted- 
 ly marked with a strong 
 Oriental impress. They 
 were the creations of the 
 artisan rather than of the artist, and consisted of 
 sumptuous decoration applied to armor, household 
 utensils, and the like. The description of Achilles’ 
 shield, in the Iliad gives us an idea of the splendor 
 of this kind of work. The first representations of 
 the gods were symbolic, a stone or a piece of wood ; 
 
 and the earliest complete images were of wood. 
 These wooden idols were very rude, but were con- 
 sidered specially sacred, even in later times. They 
 were supplied with elaborate wardrobes, and were 
 dressed and washed by regular attendants. Metal 
 statues and clay images of the gods were introduced 
 toward the close of the archaic period of Greek 
 art.” 
 
 For the benefit of those who are interested in the 
 techniques of architecture we append what De 
 
 Forest says in his history 
 of art about the lintel or 
 entablature of a Greek or- 
 der. “ It has,” he observes, 
 “three members, — the 
 architrave, or principal 
 beam, which rests directly 
 upon the capital of the col- 
 umns ; the frieze, or orna- 
 mental band ; and the pro- 
 jecting cornice which pro- 
 tects the frieze and archi- 
 trave, as the capital pro- 
 tects the column from the 
 inclemencies of the weath- 
 er. The column is also 
 divided into three parts, — 
 the base, which is an ex- 
 pansion of the shaft, hav- 
 ing the same relation to 
 it that the foot has to the 
 human figure ; the shaft 
 or upright support; and the capital or bearer, 
 which has been likened to a hand spread out 
 to receive the weight of the architrave. The 
 pediment or gable is the triangular space at either 
 end of a building between the cornice of the 
 entablature and the cornice of the sloping roof.” 
 
 GROUP OF THE LAOCOON. 
 

 k. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 j GREEK AND ROM 
 
 AN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 
 A 
 
 3] ; 
 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 Hf 
 
 m 10 
 
 ** 1 
 
 
 rn 
 
 m 0 
 
 Greek and Roman Names — The Origin of Classic Myths — Jupiter and Celestial Heredity 
 —War in Heaven — Division of the Spoils — The Amours of the Gods — The Chief Divin- 
 ities AND THEIR ALLOTMENTS — MINOR DUTIES — OLYMPUS — THE MYTH AND DETAILS OF CRE- 
 ATION and the Fall of Man — Classic Story of the Deluge — Phaeton and his Presump- 
 tion — Deification of Love — Pegasus and Poetry' — Centaurs and Other Monsters — The 
 Riddle of the Sphinx — Orpheus and Eurydice — Ignorance, Credulity and Skepticism. 
 
 N nothing else are Greek 
 and Roman annals and 
 ideas so similar as in my- 
 thology. Nearly all the 
 deities of Roman idolatry, 
 
 MOUNT OLYMPUS. 
 
 as known to 
 us through 
 Latin liter- 
 ature, were 
 transferred 
 from Ath- 
 ens to Rome 
 Avith hardly 
 any other 
 change than 
 that of names. Cro- 
 nos was called Saturn ; 
 
 Zeus, Jupiter or Jove; 
 
 Poseidon, Neptune; 
 
 Ares, Mars ; Hephaes- 
 tos, V ulean ; Hermes, 
 
 Mercury ; Hera, Juno ; 
 
 Athena, Minerva ; Artemis, Diana ; Aphrodite, Ve- I is obvious, that natural and ethical meanings can be 
 
 nus ; Hestia, Vesta ; Demeter, Ceres ; Dionysius, 
 Bacchus; Phoebus, Apollo; Letus, Latona. The 
 Roman names are commonly used and Avill be em- 
 ployed usually in this chapter. 
 
 It lias been said that with Homer and Hesiod the 
 formation of the myths 
 Avas finished, and that 
 Avith the drama and 
 philosophy, desintegra- 
 tion and unbelief be- 
 gan, the personalities 
 vanishing into the thin 
 air of symbols of ideas. 
 It has been claimed by 
 some that the old 
 myths Avere born of nat- 
 ural phenomena, and 
 designed to teach les- 
 sons in natural history. 
 Others again insist that 
 moral ideas underlie 
 the stories of the gods. 
 These theories are often 
 advocated at ith great 
 skill and ingenuity. It 
 
 STv” 
 
 ( I2 °) 
 
•vfs 
 
 A 
 
 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 I 2 I 
 
 put into them, and the myths made to do important 
 service by way of illustration ; but there is no good 
 reason to suppose that any philosophical basis can 
 be discovered historically for the gods of Greece and 
 Rome. They grew up gradually out of the 
 ooze of ignorance and superstition, and all attempts 
 to etherealize that mud are futile. As well try to 
 establish the identity of the alluvia of the Nile and 
 the manna of the wilderness. The home of the 
 gods was Mount Olympus and their king was Jupi- 
 ter. He was elected to that position by the suf- 
 frage of his brothers and sisters. The Greek mind 
 would not allow the doctrine of “ the divine right 
 of kings,” even in heaven. Jupiter was indeed called 
 “ the father of gods and men,” but it was no such 
 paternity as the Jews attribute to Jehovah, and the 
 Christians to the Deity of their worship. Jupiter 
 was surely the elder son of Saturn, and the latter 
 the youngest son of Uranus, or Heaven, who was 
 the son of Earth, eldest child of Chaos, the latter 
 being the real father of gods and men, the great 
 First Cause. Thus we see that Jupiter was the 
 great-great grandson of the divine parent of all 
 
 things. 
 
 The ancient Greeks and Romans caught a 
 
 faint glimpse of a celestial chain of heredity. 
 
 The first active display of heavenly energy defin- 
 itely conceived in this mythology bears a striking 
 resemblance to the war in heaven, described so 
 minutely by the greatly praised and sometimes read 
 “ Paradise Lost,” of Milton, only the rebels of the 
 old myths won the battle. Jupiter, his brothers and 
 sisters, so runs the story, rose in rebellion against 
 their father and the older deities, called Titans. The 
 battle was fierce and desperate. At last the Titans 
 were vanquished, and cast down into hell, or Tar- 
 tarus, from which they will emerge in some remote 
 future, something as Satan is promised release from 
 the same place of torment, for the space of a thou- 
 sand years. 
 
 Having won the world by conquest, the victors 
 divided the spoils. Jupiter took heaven, or Olym- 
 pus, where the gods reside, Neptune the ocean, and 
 Pluto, Hades, the home of departed spirits. Un- 
 fortunately for the peace of mankind, the Earth 
 was what is called a free zone, — a vast common 
 held by the gods in sociage. The principle of evil, 
 the Ahriinan of the Persians, the Satan of the 
 Jews, the Siva of the Hindoos, and the Loki of 
 the Scandinavians, does not appear in classic my- 
 
 Jupiter. 
 
 tliology. Any such deity would be superfluous. All 
 the gods are bad, differing more in capacity than in 
 disposition. Jupiter’s high domain was no less tur- 
 bulent than the ocean, and there was not repose 
 even in the dreary desolation of the netherworld. 
 
 Jupiter was a notori- 
 ous rake. His life, as 
 written by the poets, was 
 that of a divine Don 
 Juan. His wife, Juno, 
 was jealous, constant- 
 ly watching him, and 
 wreaking revenge upon 
 the victims or fruits 
 of his amours. The de- 
 tails of ancient mythol- 
 ogy are too vile to be 
 read, especially as portrayed by the Latin poets. The 
 older Greeks were less indecent in their narrations. 
 But at its best, the mythology of the Greeks and 
 Romans was a seething caldron of impurity. Nu- 
 merous were the demi-gods, or semi-gods, as they 
 might better be termed, for in Greek myths, as in 
 antediluvian times, “the sons of God” made love 
 to the “ daughters of men.” Among the Greeks and 
 the Romans religion and morals had no connection. 
 That feature of religion so very prominent in 
 Christianity and Buddhism is almost entirely want- 
 ing in classic mythology, this deficiency showing 
 itself with especial emphasis in the love intrigues of 
 the Olympic deities. 
 
 The rank and sphere of Jupiter, Neptune, and 
 Pluto, have already been stated. Apollo was the 
 god of music, physics, poetry, and the arts. The 
 nine Muses, the especial patrons of poetry, were un- 
 der his rule. The chariot of the sun was his, and 
 he alone could guide it. Mars was the god of bat- 
 tle. Vulcan was the blacksmith and general arti- 
 san of heaven. Mercury was the messenger of the 
 gods, also the deity of commerce and thievery. 
 Bacchus was the god of wine. Venus was the god- 
 dess of love, and a female of decidedly loose morals. 
 She was wedded to Vulcan, who was lame and unat- 
 tractive. Minerva was the goddess of wisdom, espe- 
 cially in war. She sprang full armed from the 
 brain of Jupiter. Diana was the goddess of the 
 chase. iEolus was the god of the wind, Momus of 
 laughter, and Ceres of fruit and grain. Vesta was 
 one of the older goddesses, and was the guardian of 
 
 7 
 
 | 
 
<3. 
 
 122 
 
 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 domestic virtue. She was rather Roman than 
 Greek in her origin, and the same is true of Janus, 
 who had two faces and was the deity of peace. 
 His temple at Rome was always open in time of 
 war, and was closed only three times during a pe- 
 riod of seven centuries. Latona was the goddess 
 of night, and Aurora of morning. The Earth was 
 sometimes personi- 
 fied as Cybele, some- 
 times as Rhea, and 
 sometimes as Ops. 
 
 Themis was the god- 
 dess of law and jus- 
 tice, and Nemesis of 
 retribution. These 
 Avere the principal 
 deities and their sev- 
 eral allotments. Be- 
 sides these there 
 were the gods of the 
 rivers, the woods, and 
 the rural deities wit h- 
 out number. Pan 
 Avas an illustrious 
 woodland deity, in- 
 terested in shep- 
 herds, fishermen and 
 fowlers. lie was half 
 man and half goat. 
 
 He was a famous 
 musician. The sa- 
 tyrs Avere also half 
 man and half goat. 
 
 Nymphs Avere beau- 
 tiful female attend- 
 ants upon the great 
 goddesses. They 
 Avere sometimes call- 
 ed Naiads or Nere- 
 ids. Echo was one 
 of their number. 
 
 The Fates Avere three sisters, daughters of Chaos, and 
 presided over the destinies of mortals. The Furies 
 Avere also three sisters, and Avere employed in making 
 both the living and the dead miserable. Pluto, the 
 god of Hades, has been mentioned. There Avere three 
 Judges of the dead, Minos being chief justice. In 
 passing from Earth to Hades, the soul had to cross 
 the river Styx in the boat of a miserly old fcrry- 
 
 THE ASSEMBLY OF THE GODS 
 
 man called Charon. The Christian conception of 
 a heaven for the good and a hell for the bad Avas 
 only dimly outlined in classic mythology. Hades 
 was the place of all departed souls, but some found 
 existence there pleasant, or at least free from pain, 
 Avliile others Avere subjected to different degrees of 
 unhappiness. The abode of the gods Avas on the 
 
 summit of Mount 
 Olympus, in Thessa- 
 ly. The deities had 
 their individual 
 homes, but all, when 
 convened by their 
 sovereign Jupiter, 
 repaired to the pal- 
 ace of his celestial 
 highness, where there 
 av a s feasting and 
 merriment. 
 
 Ambrosia Avas 
 their food and nectar 
 their drink. The 
 cup-bearer Avas the 
 lovely goddess Hebe, 
 or the beauteous boy, 
 stolen for that pur- 
 pose from Earth, 
 Ganymede. Apollo 
 tAvanged his lyre 
 amid the feast and 
 the nine Muses sang 
 responsively. At 
 sundoAvn the deities 
 retired to their own 
 respective abodes. 
 Their houses Avere 
 of brass, built by 
 Vulcan. 
 
 Among the Titans 
 Avas Epimetheus. In 
 accordance Avith au- 
 thority given him from on high, he created the ani- 
 mals of the earth. Man Avas his last and favorite 
 Avork. He asked his brother Prometheus, Avho had 
 some supervisory connection Avith creation, to help 
 him secure to man supremacy. Thereupon the 
 daring Titan lighted a torch at the sun and gave 
 fire to men. That supreme gift greatly incensed the 
 gods, but none the less proved an inestimable boon 
 
Jx> 
 
 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 12 ' 
 
 to the human family. For his impiety, as it was 
 called, Prometheus was bound to a rock where a 
 vulture ate his ever-renewing vitals. This myth 
 furnished the groundwork of the highest tragedy 
 of Greek literature. 
 
 The story of Pandora and her box is a variation of 
 the Promethean story. It is said that to furnish the 
 first woman, Pandora was made of material contrib- 
 uted by each god, and corresponding to the charac- 
 teristics of each. She seemed a perfect being. Epi- 
 metheus was delighted with such an addition to the 
 world. But Prometheus warned him that J upiter 
 meant mischief by his seeming fair bounty. And 
 so it proved. In his work of creation Epimetheus 
 had carefully rejected all 
 bad material, and put it 
 in a refuse box. To keep 
 that closed forever, would 
 protect man from evil, 
 but to open it, would be 
 to let loose upon the 
 world all evil. Of course 
 Pandora was so very cu- 
 rious to know the con- 
 tents of that box that one 
 day she lifted the lid, 
 when out flew the con- 
 tents, to torment and 
 distract mankind. 
 
 The story of the fall 
 of man, not only, but of 
 the flood, is clearly trace- 
 able in classic mythology. The only survivors of 
 that deluge were Deucalion and his wife Pyrrha, 
 a pious and God-fearing couple. After the waters 
 had subsided they proceeded, in obedience to an 
 oracle, to people the world by casting stones behind 
 them, those thrown by the man becoming men, 
 those thrown by the woman becoming women. 
 The new race was hardy, but far inferior to the 
 antediluvians. 
 
 The passion of love is variously brought out by 
 mythology. Venus was the goddess of love in its 
 fullest sense, but besides her were Psyche and Cupid. 
 The former was the goddess of the spiritual ele- 
 ment in love, without its physical expression. Cupid 
 was the son of Venus, a mischievous boy, roaming 
 about with his bow and arrow, shooting whom he 
 would, and whom he wounded was sure to fall in love 
 
 DEUCALION AND PYRRHA. 
 
 with the next person met of the opposite sex. Thus 
 his own mother one day wounded herself with one of 
 Cupid’s arrows, and in consequence became so enam- 
 ored of an earthly boy, Adonis, that she found no 
 pleasure in heaven, but wooed the unresponsive lad. 
 He was unmindful of all her charms, being wholly 
 given to the pleasures of the chase. At last a wild 
 boar ended the life of Adonis. 
 
 “ The Muses nine” were not the only mythologi- 
 cal embodiment of the classic idea of the poetical 
 faculty as a divine gift. Those famous sisters dwelt 
 on Mount Helicon, and drank of the fountain Hip- 
 pocrene. Minerva presented to them the winged 
 horse Pegasus, upon which, if one rode, he would 
 
 soar aloft among the 
 creations of fancy. This 
 horse appears in several 
 myths, especially in the 
 slaying of the Chimaera. 
 That horrid monster 
 breathed fire and raised 
 havoc in Lycia. Beller- 
 ojihon, mounted on the 
 winged horse, undertook 
 to slay the ravaging drag- 
 on, and did so. But when, 
 later, the slayer of the 
 Chimaera attempted to 
 fly upon Pegasus to heav- 
 en, Jupiter sent a gad- 
 fly, which so worried the 
 horse with wings that he 
 threw his aspiring rider, who became lame and blind 
 from the fall. 
 
 The centaurs were monsters with the heads of 
 men and the bodies of horses. They were sometimes 
 admitted to the society of men. On one occasion 
 they were invited to a marriage feast, and when 
 under the influence of wine offered violence to 
 the bride. A fierce combat followed, known in 
 sculpture and poetry as the battle of the Lapithae 
 and Centaurs. But one of the Centaurs, Chiron, 
 was renowned for his wisdom and goodness. At 
 death Zeus placed him among the stars. Chiron 
 was famous for his skill in prophecy, poetry and 
 medicine. Apollo is said to have intrusted to his 
 care the infant YEsculapius, who stands in le- 
 gend ary annals as the great physician. 
 
 The Pygmies were a nation of dwarfs. They 
 
 

 I2 4 
 
 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 once came upon Hercules asleep, and prepared to 
 attack him as if he were a city with walls. The 
 Griffin, or Gryphon, was a monster with the body of 
 a lion, the head and wings of an eagle, and a back 
 covered with feathers. It was the guardian of hid- 
 den treasures, especially of the gold of India. The 
 Sphinx of Greece was a cruel monster with the body 
 of a lion and the head of a woman. It infested the 
 highway near Thebes. All passers-by were asked 
 by the Sphinx, “ What animal is that which in the 
 morning goes on four feet, at noon on two, and in 
 the evening on three?” None could guess the riddle 
 until CEdipus replied, “ Man, who in childhood creeps 
 on hands and knees, in manhood walks erect, and 
 in old age with a staff.” Her 
 riddle guessed, the Sphinx 
 plunged into the sea and 
 was seen no more forever. 
 
 Phaeton was ambitious 
 to drive the chariot of the 
 sun, his father, Apollo, or 
 Phoebus. The sire finally 
 consented. The car of day 
 made a perilous trip around 
 the world, inandout among 
 the heavenly bodies. For a 
 time all went well. The 
 horses darted up the vault- 
 ed sky at a furious rate. In 
 a luckless moment Phae- 
 ton glanced down to earth 
 and lost self-control. The 
 reins fell from his hands. The horses darted madly 
 off into space, setting fire to mountains, cities and the 
 world generally. Had not Jupiter taken pity on the 
 earth, utter ruin would have been inevitable. He 
 launched a thunderbolt at Phaeton, hurling him to 
 earth, sacrificed to save the world which was being 
 destroyed for his folly. The ambition of the youth 
 was noble, but it was none the less necessary that he 
 should pay the penalty of his presumption. 
 
 Orpheus and Eurydice are familiar mythological 
 characters. Orpheus was the son of Apollo and the 
 Muse Calliope. He could play the lyre so very charm- 
 ingly that he drew to him the very beasts of the field, 
 who were softened and made gentle by the influence 
 of his music. He was wedded to the nymph Euryd- 
 ice. Soon after their marriage, which was pre- 
 sided over by Hymen, the god of wedlock, she 
 
 was wandering with her sylvan companions in the 
 woods when a serpent bit her foot. She died of the 
 wound. The disconsolate husband sought his love 
 in Hades. He sang his grief in tones so melancholy 
 that the spirits of the dead shed ghostly tears, and 
 so did even the Furies. All the regions below were 
 stirred with sympathy. Finally Pluto consented 
 that the tender Orpheus should take back his bride, 
 but on one condition — he should not look back in all 
 his ascent to the upper world. In a moment of for- 
 getfulness he turned to look at his fair companion 
 limping along behind him. That moment she van- 
 ished into thin air, saying, “Farewell, a last fare- 
 well.” In vain he lingered and sought for Eurydice. 
 
 At length he returned to 
 earth alone and disconso- 
 late. All thoughts of love 
 were now abhorrent to him, 
 until in death he was re- 
 united to his lost wife. 
 
 The common people of 
 Greece always had confi- 
 dence in the national dei- 
 ties as actual personages, 
 and the stories told about 
 them were implicitly be- 
 lieved. But the educated 
 class seems to have seen 
 in the popular mythology 
 a series of allegories or 
 downright fables, more cu- 
 rious than solemn. In 
 Rome, even the common people came to doubt 
 the reality of their religion, and the educated 
 class looked upon it as the invention of 
 
 their ancestors, and more especially of the Greeks, 
 whose intellectual superiority was held in highest 
 respect. Actual faith in the myths of the. old 
 Greeks, fading out, left a blank in which Chris- 
 tianity could inscribe its tenets without the ne- 
 cessity of first eradicating deep-rooted theologi- 
 cal convictions. Mythology may be called the 
 half -brother of the heroic element 'in Greek his- 
 tory. 
 
 It is a curious fact that Christian Europe culti- 
 vated belief in the classic deities as spiritual reali- 
 ties, only they were held to he demons, or devils. 
 This was the general opinion of Christendom until 
 about a century ago. 
 
 “PHAETON." 
 
 
 < r 
 
 ■£> 
 
THE WORLD OF THE ANCIENTS 
 
 The Senility op the World— Outer Greece — Rhodes and its Colossus — Halicarnassus and 
 its Mausoleum — Diana op Ephesus — Syracuse and Archimedes — Ionian Islands — Crete 
 — Cyprus — Prom Mauritania to Albion — Scandia, Sarmatia, Dacia and Thrace — Scythia 
 and India— Arya, the Cradle op Civilization — Ptolemy and his Geography — The Ptol- 
 emaic System, or the Three-pold World op the Ancients. 
 
 £ 
 
 
 "HE lands thus far visited 
 in the course of this histo- 
 ry form very insignificant 
 parts of the present world. 
 Some of the nations have 
 disappeared altogether, liv- 
 ing, if at all, only in “ a 
 good diffused,” or in a de- 
 crepitude which is a living death. 
 But Rome, with all its vicissitudes, 
 is a very important part of the ac- 
 tual life of to-day. Standing, there- 
 fore, at the division line between the 
 old nations which have upon them 
 ^ every mark of senility, if they are 
 not actually in the grave, and the 
 one nation of antiquity which re- 
 newed its youth at the fountain of 
 ecclesiastical authority, it may be well to pause for 
 a survey of the world of the ancients. 
 
 This old world contained many Greek cities and 
 colonies, some of whom have thus far escaped the 
 attention to which their importance entitles them. 
 We will visit those places of interest and then fur- 
 nish a key to the accompanying map. 
 
 Within ten miles of the Asiatic coast lies the 
 island of Rhodes, with an area of 420 square miles, 
 with a population of 135,000. Its main town bears 
 the same name. That citv dates from B. C. 408. 
 
 N— ^ 
 
 At the entrance of one of its harbors once stood the 
 Colossus of Rhodes (see frontispiece) one of the 
 seven wonders of the world. It was a brazen statue 
 of Apollo, supposed to date from B. 0. 280. It was 
 105 feet in height. Tradition says that ships 
 in full sail passed between its huge legs. It could 
 be ascended by a winding staircase. In B. C. 224 
 an earthquake overthrew it. Its fragments were 
 still preserved as late as A. D. 672. The execution 
 of that stupendous work of art is attributed to 
 Charus of Lindus. 
 
 Not far from Rhodes, upon the mainland of Asia, 
 Stood the Greek city of Halicarnassus. It was 
 thoroughly Greek in language and culture, but truly 
 Persian in political character. It was ruled for a 
 long time by a line of princes who were loyal to 
 the Persian crown. The most noted of these 
 was Mausolus (see frontispiece) whose tomb is an- 
 other of the seven wonders of the world. It was 
 erected by his widow, Artemisia, in B. C. 353. Pli- 
 ny described it minutely. Like the Colossus of 
 Rhodes, it was the victim of an earthquake, but 
 that elemental destruction was far from complete. 
 
 In the fifteenth century the Knights of Rhodes took 
 possession of the city and desecrated the tomb. 4 
 Later the Turks used the stones for other purposes 
 to such an extent that for a long time the very site 
 was in doubt. 
 
 Passing northward from Halicarnassus, one ar- 
 
±L 
 
 1 2 6 
 
 THE WORLD OF THE ANCIENTS. 
 
 rives at Ephesus, one of the most important of the 
 historic cities of the Ionian Confederation. It was 
 the supposed birthplace of the goddess Diana, 
 and there stood still an- 
 other of the seven wonders 
 of the world, the temple 
 of Diana (see frontispiece). 
 According to Herodotus, 
 Hercules founded the city 
 B. C. 1250. That wondrous 
 temple was fired in B. C. 
 356 by Erostratus,the youth 
 who had an insane thirst 
 for notoriety. The actual 
 
 destruction of the temple, 
 and the consequent decay 
 of the city, was the work 
 of Goths in A. D. 262. Re- 
 cent excavations have dis- 
 closed the foundations 
 of three distinct temples 
 built upon the same site. 
 
 The last temple of Diana 
 was 164 feet wide, 343 
 feet long, with 100 mas- 
 sive columns, some of 
 which were carved most ornately 
 
 SYRACUSE 
 
 A Christian 
 
 church was established at Ephesus in the apostolic 
 age, to which St. Paul addressed one of his most 
 characteristic epistles, and it was there that the 
 great apostle narrowly escaped being mobbed for 
 preaching the gospel, the cry of the mob being, 
 
 “ Great is Diana of the Ephesians ! ” 
 
 Syracuse was once a very flourishing Greek city 
 of Sicily. Its prosperity began when the Romans 
 gained possession of the rest of the island, which 
 had been settled largely by the Phoenicians. That 
 change in the condition of Syracuse grew out of 
 the first Punic war, which settled the question of 
 supremacy between Rome and Carthage. Without 
 anticipating the chapter devoted to that struggle, it 
 may be said that in B. C. 275 the Roman power es- 
 tablished the rule in Syracuse of Heiron II., an 
 ally of Rome, and that under this king the city 
 
 prospered greatly. Its population was immense and 
 its public buildings magnificent. But in the second 
 Punic war Syracuse allied itself with Rome, a fatal 
 mistake. The city was besieged. For a long time 
 the defense was impregnable, thanks to Archimedes, 
 that prodigy of mathematics and mechanics ; but 
 in B. C. 212 the city fell, Archimedes himself being 
 slain in the wild havoc of the sack. It is now a 
 city of imposing ruins. 
 
 Along the western and southern coast of Greece 
 extends a chain of islands, containing in all 1041 
 square miles. They are called the Ionian islands, 
 of which the largest is Corfu. From immemorial 
 time the people were Greeks. The total population 
 
 of the cluster is about 
 two hundred and fifty 
 thousand. Politically they 
 have been subjected to a 
 great many vicissitudes, 
 but finally, in 1864, they 
 were annexed to Greece, 
 much to their satisfaction. 
 
 Crete, or Candia, is one 
 of the more famous is- 
 lands of the Mediterra- 
 nean. It is 150 miles long 
 and from 6 to 35 miles in 
 width. In the midst of 
 it rises Mount Ida, famous 
 in classic mythology as 
 the retreat of the Mino- 
 taur. It is supposed to have contained a popula- 
 tion of over a million at one time, but has now only 
 about 200,000. From 1866 to 1869 the Cretans 
 were at war with the Turks, demanding annexation 
 to Greece. They were subdued after a most des- 
 perate struggle. It is supposed by some that Crete 
 was the very cradle of European civilization. 
 Tradition makes Minos its ruler at one time. It 
 was a part of Phoenicia once, but a Greek colony 
 was early planted there, which entirely supplanted 
 the Phoenician settlement. 
 
 Cyprus is another Greek island of about the size 
 and population of Crete. It is 44 miles south of 
 Cape Annonone, in Anatolia, and about the same 
 distance west of Syria. As a naval point it is of 
 very great importance. The Turks took possession 
 of it in the sixteenth century, keeping it until the 
 present decade, when the “ Sick Man” was compelled 
 
 
THE WORLD OF THE ANCIENTS. I27 
 
 to surrender it to England. Cyprus lias almost 
 always been under foreign rule. It is rich in 
 ruins and its mines of relics have been very indus- 
 triously worked, yielding prolific stores of coins, 
 pottery and other evidences of buried civiliza- 
 tions. These relics attest the existence, under 
 Phoenician, Assyrian, Greek, Persian, and, later, 
 Egyptian rule, of great wealth and high culture. 
 
 We turn now from Outer Greece, as it might be 
 called, to the large divisions of the world of the 
 Ancients. The map which accompanies this chap- 
 ter will be our guide in what remains. 
 
 The term Mauritania was used to designate the 
 little-known northwestern portion of Africa, 
 as Libya Interior, 
 
 Ethiopia Interior, 
 
 Ethiopes, Hesperia 
 and Fortunate Isles 
 were names for un- 
 explored and dimly 
 conceived portions 
 of the same conti- - 
 nent. It will be 
 observed that the 
 Ancients had no 
 idea whatever of 
 Southern Africa, 
 and none of any 
 real intelligence of 
 any portion of Af- 
 rica outside of Ethiopia proper, Egypt, and the 
 southern shore of the Mediterranean sea. If their 
 ships passed beyond the pillars of Hercules the 
 prows were turned northward rather than southward. 
 Hibernia, the present Ireland, was mentioned by 
 Aristotle, Pliny, Ptolemy aud some others, but none 
 of them seemed to have any real information in re- 
 gard to it. Albion (England) signifies “ White 
 island,” suggested, perhaps, by the Cliffs of Kent. 
 No doubt the Phoenicians knew something of En- 
 gland, but no part of the British Islands came into 
 any vital relations to the rest of the world until 
 Agricola established there the rule of Rome. 
 
 Scandia, or Scandinavia, derived no prominence 
 whatever until the medieval age. Those bold pirates 
 of the northern waters never entered the Mediterra- 
 nean in ancient times, nor were they disturbed in 
 their own homes by men from the civilized South. 
 The vast region between the Baltic and the Black 
 
 Sea, and from the Vistula to the Volga, called Sar- 
 matia, was also an almost wholly unknown land, 
 even to the Romans of the declining empire. It ex- 
 tended southward to Dacia, the home of the Daci, 
 a warlike people who are supposed to have gone from 
 Thrace northward as early as the time of Alexander 
 the Great, but of whom we really hear nothing un- 
 til about the time our Christian era began, when 
 the Romans undertook their conquest. It was over 
 a hundred years before the Daci were really subdued. 
 Thrace was the border-land between Greek and bar- 
 barian, or rather, the barbaric and thoroughly non- 
 Hellenistic portion of Greece. The Macedonians 
 were only semi-Greek, and the Thracians had no 
 
 part or lot in that 
 superb civilization. 
 At the present time 
 Thrace is infested 
 by a people nearly 
 as rude and uncul- 
 tured as their an- 
 cestors of the re- 
 motest day. 
 
 Germania, Gaul, 
 Italia, and Hispa- 
 nia are, as the read- 
 er readily recogni- 
 zes, the Germany, 
 France, Italy, and 
 Spain and Portu- 
 gal of to-day. They were the rudest of savages all 
 through the old-world period. 
 
 Turning to Asia, we find, besides Asia Minor, Ara- 
 bia, Media, Persia and Syria (of which we have heard 
 or will hear distinctively, and which were-, in time, the 
 seats of great civilizations), India, Scythia and Arya. 
 The former tempted Alexander, through whom some 
 very slight knowledge of the country was derived 
 by the Greeks, but for nearly all purposes of 
 definite knowledge and real communication it was 
 an unknown world, and one to which the historians 
 of antiquity very rarely so much as refer. Scythia 
 was the original name for the indefinite region 
 north, east and south of the Caspian Sea and the 
 Sea of Aral. It was hardly a geographical term, 
 being vaguely applied to the hives whence swarmed, 
 from time to time, hordes of barbarians. Much 
 of Russia, especialiy in Asia, was vaguely desig- 
 nated Scythia, aud if a band of savage raiders in 
 
 a 
 
G> 
 
 
 .. 
 
 ±>L 
 
 128 
 
 THE WORLD OF THE ANCIENTS. 
 
 old times would not be otherwise identified, they 
 were called Scythians, or Gauls, according to the 
 direction from which they came. 
 
 From a strictly ancient point of view, no name 
 on the map referred to (given on the preceding page) 
 would be less important than Arya ; but in view of 
 modern philological discoveries it assumes very 
 great importance. It was the home of the Sanskrit- 
 speaking people of India, the Ayran race, from 
 which has sprung the Indo-Germanic races, or 
 nearly the entire civilized world of to-day. The 
 higher classes of India are Aryans, and so are the 
 Persians, and, as has been well remarked, “ also the 
 whole of the extensive family whose forefathers 
 once inhabited central Asia, whence they migrated in 
 search of pastures new, some going southeast to 
 India, some northward or northwestward to Russia, 
 and others westward to Asia Minor, thence to 
 southern and central Europe. ” It will be seen that 
 according to this opinion, based on a scientific study 
 of comparative philology, Arya was the cradle of 
 the Greek, the Roman, the Brahmin and the 
 Yankee. In the Sanskrit tongue, Arya means 
 “ agricultural, ” “ respectable, ” and “ honorable.” 
 
 Such was the ancient knowledge of geography. 
 The wisdom of antiquity on that subject was 
 summed up by Ptolemy of Alexandria, not one of 
 the thirteen kings of Egypt who had their capital 
 there, but Claudius Ptolemseus, who flourished in 
 
 the middle of the second Christian century. His 
 Geographia represented that a great inland sea was 
 formed by the coast of Africa, extending eastward 
 until it joined the coast of Asia. He thought the 
 world extended east and west 170°, instead of 120°. 
 Geography was largely a speculative instead of a 
 scientific study, from the earliest time until after 
 the globe had been circumnavigated. Ptolemy 
 set forth what had been known for centuries, and 
 it was not until the fifteenth century that his work 
 became antiquated. 
 
 To the ancients the earth was the center of the 
 universe. Their idea of astronomy, called the 
 “ Ptolemaic system,” was that the sun and moon 
 revolved around the earth, and that beneath this 
 world of ours were the infernal regions of gods and 
 spirits, while in the azure above were lands fairer than 
 the eye of man ever beheld. In a word, the World 
 of the Ancients was a vast edifice with three stories. 
 There was no uniformity in the ancient ideas of the 
 world below and above us. The modern distinctions 
 of hell and heaven were not sharply and uniformly 
 outlined. To Homer and the Greeks the nether 
 world was gloomy and painful ; to Virgil and the 
 Romans it was not wholly so. In a general way, 
 however, it may be said that the ancient theory was 
 that this earth was intermediate, ' in happiness 
 or misery, as well as in position, between the two 
 spiritual worlds of their imaginations. 
 
 
 
Mim: 
 
 AND THE] 
 
 MODERN GREECE 
 
 GREEK CHURCH 
 
 eminent historian lias well 
 remarked that “there seems 
 to be something in the Ro- 
 man rule which brought 
 death to the Greek spirit.” 
 When, therefore, in tracing 
 historic wars of Greece we 
 followed the fortunes of the 
 Greeks to the period of Roman conquest, 
 we m ay fairly be said to have reached the 
 end, in an important sense, of Ancient 
 Greece. From that time until our own 
 century, that unhappy country was the 
 prey of misery and oppression. There 
 was no Medieval Greece. For two chil- 
 iads the land was obscured. Its history 
 could be written with minuteness, but with no profit. 
 Greek thought permeated, if itdid not dominate, the 
 intellectual world, but apart from philosophy/includ- 
 ing speculative theology, poetry and general litera- 
 ture, all was blank. Modern Greece is indeed insig- 
 nificant, still it is a distinct national entity. To 
 trace in outline the course of events, from a Gre- 
 cian point of view, from the great conquest to the 
 present day, and then set forth the actual condition 
 of Greece now, together with an account of the 
 Greek church, will be our object in this connection. 
 
 The original policy of Rome was to respect, to a 
 most remarkable degree, the political sentiments of 
 the Greeks. In B. 0. 196, Flaminius proclaimed the 
 liberty of Greece. Nine years later, after some fur- 
 ther conquests, rendered necessary, from the Roman 
 standpoint, by rebellion, the Aclnean League was 
 crushed, but in B. C. 147, Sparta and Corinth were 
 allowed independence, but still there was no con- 
 tentment. Such was the state of things at Corinth 
 that the Roman policy was suddenly and radically 
 changed. The year B. C. 146 saw that superb city 
 laid in ashes, its treasures of art scattered and de- 
 stroyed, and Greece blotted out, to be, henceforth, 
 merely the Roman Province of Acliaia. To Cor- 
 inth may thus be attributed the dubious honor of 
 occasioning the great calamity of Greece. For 
 this reason specific mention of that city has been 
 reserved for this chapter. 
 
 Corinth is situated fifty miles from Athens, on 
 the isthmus bearing the same name. The place on 
 which it is located is sterile and volcanic, but the 
 city commands all the passes between the Pelopon- 
 nesus and Northern Greece, making it an excellent 
 point for commerce, especially in ancient times. It 
 was the gateway of the two seas, Ionian and yEgc- 
 au, the emporium of Eastern and Western traffic. 
 The city of Corinth usually allied itself with the 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 Decat op the Destructible — From Greece to Achaia — Corinth, Ancient asd Modern — 
 Byzantine and Moslem Rule — The Venetians and the Parthenon — The Greek Revolu- 
 tion, Byron and Botzaris — Intervention op the Great Powers — The Monarchy Estab- 
 lished — Kings and the Constitution — Present Government op Greece — Condition op 
 the Country — Greek Church and Greece — Greek Church Elsewhere— Characteristics 
 op this Church — Farewell to the Greeks. 
 
 

 k 
 
 1 3 ° 
 
 MODERN GREECE AND THE GREEK CHURCH. 
 
 Spartans as against the Athenians, but some time 
 
 P' after the Peloponne- 
 sian war it took up 
 the sword against 
 Sparta in what was 
 called the Corinthian 
 War, which ended in 
 the renewal of friend- 
 ly relations. Its wealth 
 made it a great cen- 
 ter of art. The mer- 
 chant princes were 
 Corinthian capital. liberal patrons of 
 
 sculpture and painting. If Boston is the Athens 
 
 than five thousand inhabitants. When the Ro- 
 man Empire fell asunder and the Byzantine Em- 
 pire rose to supremacy in the East, Greece 
 became a part of it, remaining under the sway 
 of the Emperor at Constantinople until the 
 fourth Crusade (1203), when it fell to the lot of the 
 Frankish princes. For two centuries and a half 
 the Dukedom of Athens was a speck on the map 
 of the East, and hardly more. 
 
 On the fall * of Constantinople (1453) Greece 
 passed under the Moslem rod. In 1687 the Chris- 
 tian League, under Venetian leadership, besieged and 
 took Athens. A few years later the Venetians 
 were driven out, and the Moslem once more had 
 
 ANCIENT CORINTH. 
 
 of America, Corinth was the New York of Greece. 
 Besides sculpture and painting, the city was no- 
 ted for the splendor of its architecture. Indeed, 
 the most elaborate order of ancient architecture was 
 the Corinthian order, especially the capital. Numer- 
 ous temples and palatial residences embellished the 
 city until Roman vandalism laid them low. The 
 principal monument now remaining is the citadel, 
 situated on the hill Acrocorinthus. The view from 
 that citadel is one of the most magnificent in the 
 world. A few columns exist in ruins in other parts 
 of the city, mournfully elegant in their tale of fall- 
 en grandeur. The present city is a village of less 
 
 possession of Greece. From that time until the 
 successful termination of the Greek rebellion the 
 despotism of the Turk kept the country in a most 
 deplorable condition of subjugation. 
 
 The war for Grecian independence began in 1821. 
 It was a remarkable struggle. The sympathies of 
 the civilized world were enlisted in behalf of the 
 country which had been so long the garden of civ- 
 ilization. Money and men were contributed from 
 far and near. The most notable volunteer from 
 without was Lord Byron, the poet. He had drunk 
 deep at the fountain of Greek inspiration, and 
 thither he went to help in the deliverance of Mod. 
 
 V 
 
 "MV 
 
MODERN GREECE AND THE GREEK CHURCH. 
 
 I 3 I 
 
 ern Greece from Turkish tyranny. He repaired to 
 one of the Ionian isles, and met his death at Misso- 
 longhi, January 5, 1824. 
 
 During the year 1822 the island of Scio witnessed 
 a most horrible massacre by the Turks, the popula- 
 tion being reduced from 120,000 to 16,000 inhab- 
 itants. The Greeks achieved some brilliant victo- 
 ries by sea, and the next year a small band of Greek 
 patriots fell upon the Turkish camp at Carpenesion, 
 putting to the sword 800 Turks, with a loss on their 
 side of only 50, but among the number was their 
 gallant leader, Marco Botzaris, whose heroism was 
 the final glory of the historic wars of Greece. 
 
 But in 1825 the superior numbers of the Moslem 
 forces, led by the indomitable Ibrahim Pasha of 
 Egypt, crushed out the revolution, for the time. 
 Finally the Great Powers, England, France and 
 Russia, interposed by diplomacy. The Allies pro- 
 posed that Greece should constitute a tributary 
 province, with the right to choose its own govern- 
 ors. Greece was willing to accept these terms, but 
 the Ottoman Empire rejected them with scorn. 
 The war then became a naval one between the Al- 
 lies and the Turks, resulting, as was inevitable it 
 should result, in the almost total destruction of the 
 Turkish fleet. It may be said that from this time 
 the Sultan has been, in the full sense of the term, 
 “ The sick man of the East.” The “ Eastern ques- 
 tion” became a troublesome problem at once. It 
 was not desired to weaken the Turkish Empire too 
 much. For two years the Allies were uncertain 
 what to do with their “ white elephant.” In the 
 meanwhile there continued to be some fighting be- 
 tween the original belligerents. 
 
 In 1828 the Allies decided to create Greece an in- 
 dependent kingdom, offering the crown to Prince 
 -John of Saxony. He declined to accept it. The 
 offer was then made to Prince Leopold of Saxe- 
 Coburg. lie accepted conditionally, the conditions 
 not being satisfactory to the Guardian Powers. He 
 was nominal king of Greece, however, until 1830. 
 Otho, second son of Louis of Bavaria, was ten- 
 dered the crown, after much delay and negotiation. 
 In 1833 ho assumed the reins of government, nom- 
 inally, for he was only eighteen years of age at the 
 time. The capital at that time was Nauplia, a 
 small and inconsequential Peloponnesian city. In 
 1835 the capital was removed to Athens, where it 
 has ever since remained, and of right belongs. At 
 
 the same time Otho assumed full control of 
 the government. The people demanded a con- 
 stitution, with all the popular rights implied. 
 This demand became so imperious and menacing that 
 in 1843 the king complied. That was an important 
 revolution, achieved without bloodshed. Affairs 
 moved on with tolerable smoothness, the king 
 yielding partial obedience to the constitution, until 
 one day in October, 1862, when he and his queen 
 returned from a short excursion among the islands 
 of the vEgcan sea, the royal yacht was met at Sala- 
 mis by a deputation of citizens, and the king in- 
 formed that his services were no longer needed. 
 He took passage in a British man-of-war for Ven- 
 ice, and thence proceeded to Bavaria, to be lost 
 henceforth from public view. 
 
 The people held an election for king, resulting 
 in the choice of Prince George of Denmark, a 
 younger brother of Alexandria, Princess of Wales. 
 He accepted on condition that the Ionian Islands, 
 which had constituted a nominal republic, under 
 British protection, since 1814, should be an- 
 nexed to the kingdom. This condition was accept- 
 able to all the parties in interest. The new king 
 was crowned George I., and assumed the reins in 
 October, 1863, proving an acceptable sovereign. 
 He may be said to have established a dynasty. 
 His queen, Olga, is a member of the royal fam- 
 ily of Russia. 
 
 The population of Greece in 1879, was 1,679,775. 
 The legislative power is vested in a representative 
 chamber called The Boule, elected by manhood suf- 
 frage for the term of four years. The Boule meets 
 annually. The number of this body varies with the 
 population. Under the present census it is 188. In 
 the exercise of executive functions the king has a 
 cabinet of eight responsible ministers. Ministerial 
 changes are frequent, for popular favor in Greece is 
 precarious. The education of the people is receiving 
 considerable attention, but the masses are still 
 densely ignorant. Not half the men can read, nor 
 more than one-tenth of the women. All the able- 
 bodied young men are liable to military service, as in 
 Germany. About one-half of the people are agri- 
 culturists, and yet not more than one-sixth of the 
 area is under cultivation, and agriculture is in a very 
 backward state. Greece can boast only seven miles 
 of railroad. That connects Athens with the port of 
 Piraeus. The country is almost roadless, and com- 
 
132 MODERN GREECE AND THE GREEK CHURCH. 
 
 munication exceedingly difficult, except by water. 
 The principal production is currants, which are 
 dried and exported in large quantities ; certainly a 
 most “ lame and impotent conclusion ” of Grecian 
 greatness. 
 
 The Greek church is indeed the church of Greece, 
 but the two terms are widely different, in import ; 
 Greece sustaining to the church named in its honor 
 no such relation as Rome does to the Roman hier- 
 archy. The modern Greeks are, for the most part, 
 members of the orthodox branch of the Greek church. 
 The papists and other Christians in the country 
 number only a few thousand; the Jews about 2,500, 
 and the Mohammedans less than a thousand. Re- 
 ligious toleration is guaranteed by the constitution. 
 Nominally the Greek clergy owe allegiance to the 
 Patriarch at Constantinople, but practically the 
 control of ecclesiastical matters in that kingdom is 
 vested in a permanent council, called the Holy 
 Synod, consisting of the Metropolitan of Athens, 
 and four archbishops and bishops, who during office 
 reside at the capital. It is, virtually, a strictly na- 
 tional church. 
 
 The full name of the Greek church is “ the Holy 
 Oriental Orthodox Catholic Apostolic Church, ” the 
 term “ Catholic” being alike claimed by the Greek, 
 Roman, and English churches, although usually ap- 
 plied only to the Roman. The Greek church has 
 no unbroken history with sharply defined outlines, 
 as the Roman and the Protestant churches have. It 
 may truly be called the mother church. Nearly all 
 the region visited by the Apostles belongs to it, so 
 far as it is Christian at all. The language of the 
 creeds, liturgies and theological literature of this 
 community is the Greek, whatever the popular lau- 
 guage of the laity may be. The numerical strength 
 of this church is estimated at 80,000,000, or about 
 one-half that of the Roman or the Mohammedan 
 churches, and nearly the same as that of the Pro- 
 testants. It is divided into three branches — the Or- 
 thodox, under the Patriarch of Constantinople, with 
 the subordinate patriarchates of Alexandria, Jeru- 
 salem and Antioch ; the orthodox church in Rus- 
 sia, under the Permanent Holy Synod of St. Peters- 
 burg and the Czar ; and third, the church in Greece. 
 There is a very considerable portion of the church 
 which acknowledges the authority of the Pope of 
 Rome, which yet clings to Greek church usages and 
 ideas. They are called United Greeks, and are 
 
 scattered through Turkey, Hungary, Galacia, Tran- 
 sylvania, and found even in Russia. The Nesto- 
 rians, Jacobites, Armenians, Maronites and other 
 Eastern “ heretics,” are the Protestants of the Ori- 
 ent, in an ecclesiastical point of view. 
 
 We will quote on this subject from that very 
 learned scholar, Philip Scliaff : “ The history of 
 
 the Greek church,” he says, “ is not disfigured by 
 bloody tribunals of orthodoxy like the Spanish in- 
 quisition, nor systematic and long-continued perse- 
 cutions, like the crusades against the Waldenses, Al- 
 bigenses and Huguenots, with the infernal scenes of 
 St. Bartholomew’s massacre. Yet the Greek church 
 of old has mercilessly expelled and exiled the Arian, 
 Nestorian, Eutychian and other heretics, persecu- 
 ted the Paulicians, and modern Russia rigidly pro- 
 hibits secession from the orthodox national church, 
 and all the children of mixed marriages where one 
 parent belongs to it, must be baptized and educated 
 in it. ” He might have added that there was 
 never, anywhere or in any age, more cruel and 
 heartless persecution than that practiced by the 
 Greek Church of Russia during the present genera- 
 tion, in the treatment of Roman Catholic nuns in 
 Poland. Dr. Schaff characterizes the Greek church 
 as “ a Patriarchal oligarchy in distinction from the 
 papal monarchy. ” Instead of being forbidden to 
 marry, as in the Romish communion, the Greek 
 priests are compelled to marry. There are some 
 Greek monks, like the community at Athos, but 
 monasticism is not a prominent feature of the 
 church. So there is oracular confession of the laity 
 to the clergy, but not so markedly as in the Papal 
 church. Baptism with the Greeks is by immersion, 
 and that three consecutive times. The old Greek 
 calendar, which is eleven days behind the new style 
 introduced by Pope Gregory XIII., is still retained, 
 notwithstanding the serious inconvenience of thus 
 differing in the computation of time from all other 
 Christian countries. The late Dean Stanley char- 
 acterized the Greek worship as “ a union of barbaric 
 rudeness and elaborate ceremonialism.” 
 
 And now we take our final leave of the Greeks to 
 enter upon the career of the great nation of anti- 
 quity which alone can be compared with the Gre- 
 cian in importance to the world. Fundamen- 
 tally and essentially unlike, they have sucli fellow- 
 ship in pre-eminence that each may well be called 
 the counterpart of the other. 
 
 7T 
 

 ■ tc ♦ i ti <£ 
 
 mwm 
 
 ANCIENT ITALY AND PRIMITIVE ROME 
 
 Buid’s-ete View of the City of Rome — The Peninsula of Italy — Mountains and Rivers 
 — Races and Cities — Latium and Alba Longa Compared — Legends and History — 
 HJNEAS AND THE FAMOUS TWINS — THE FOUNDING OF ROME — THE RAPE OF THE SABINES— 
 
 The Reign of Numa — The Tarquins— Etruria — Primitive Agrarianism— Lucius and Tul- 
 lia— Roman Colonial Policy — The Public Highways — Taiiquin the Proud and the Le- 
 gends of his Day — The Last of the Legendary Kings. 
 
 E have been picking our way 
 through the intricacies of a 
 history which is the record 
 of one people and many 
 states ; now we enter upon 
 a history which is the rec- 
 ord throughout of one 
 
 state and many 
 peoples. The states 
 of Greece at many 
 points of time were 
 literally innumer- 
 able, and to follow 
 the political divis- 
 ions of Greece, not 
 to say the Greeks, 
 would be both impossible and 
 unprofitable, but Rome grad- 
 ually grew from a little vil- 
 lage to an intercontinental 
 Empire. From the days of 
 Homer, whose grand epic has 
 a historical basis and value, 
 down to the mergence of 
 .Greece in Rome, is about a ancient 
 
 thousand years, and Roman history covers sub- 
 stantially the same length of time, as does also 
 the history of philosophy and many other epochs. 
 Without magnifying fanciful resemblances, we may 
 
 
 ask the reader to note the apparent tendency of 
 mankind to run in cycles of a chiliad, or in mil- 
 lenniums. The empire of Rome, from its inception 
 to its fall, stood a little longer than that, but not much 
 longer, and the same is true of the second empire, 
 at Constantinople, sometimes called the Greek or 
 Byzantine Empire, but which was, in point of fact, 
 a continuation of the Roman. 
 
 Pliny justly observed, 
 “ Rome is the mistress of 
 the world and the metropolis 
 of the habitable earth, des- 
 tined by the gods to unite, 
 civilize and govern the scat- 
 tered races of men.” With- 
 out anticipating events and, 
 as it were, taking ofl: the 
 edge of the reader’s appetite, 
 it may be well to make a geo- 
 graphical study of this seat 
 of empire. 
 
 The site of Rome is these 
 seven hills : Palatinus, Ger- 
 malus, Velia, Fagutal, Op- 
 pius, Cespius, Subura. There 
 were four parts, or wards, from the earliest time, 
 namely, Esquilina, Coelina, Palatina and Suburbana. 
 Three times was it nearly destroyed by fire, — first, by 
 the Gauls ; second, under (if not by), Nero ; and third, 
 
 ROME. 
 
 "7TT 
 
 i£) 
 
 ( 1 3 3 ) 
 
(3 ^ ^ 9 
 
 I34 ANCIENT ITALY AND PRIMITIVE ROME. 
 
 during the reign of Titus, — each time being rebuilt on 
 a grander and better scale. The population amount- 
 ed to 2,000,000, at times. The- Tiber flows through 
 it from north to south, and empties into the Medi- 
 terranean sea fourteen miles below the city. Five 
 bridges span it. A wall twelve miles long encircles 
 the city. The present city is mostly on the plain 
 known as the Campus Martius, the hills being 
 nearly deserted. It is safe to say that the original 
 Romans knew very little of the world beyond their 
 rustic burg. They were rude barbarians. Gradu- 
 ally, as their early traditional history shows, the hor- 
 izon of their knowledge broadened, and the penin- 
 sula of Italy became known to them. They traced 
 geographical lines with their swords, learning of 
 other tribes and states as they came into hostile 
 contact with them. The army of the Potomac, 
 under the late Gen. Burnside, was sometimes called 
 “Burnside’s Geography Class,” and every Roman 
 army was in effect a class in geography, teaching 
 the whole city as well as learning themselves, prac- 
 tical lessons in that branch of study. And theirs 
 was not a mere seaside knowledge. Thorough and 
 practical was the information gained. 
 
 The peninsula of Italy has an area of about 
 93,600 square miles, including all the country south 
 of the Alps. The Greeks called the land Hespe- 
 ria. The Apennines are a chain of mountains ex- 
 tending almost the entire length of Italy. The 
 Alban Hills have been called “the central sanctu- 
 ary of the Latin nations.” Mons Sacer was a hill 
 near Rome. Vesuvius is the most famous peak in 
 Italy. That volcano was in a quiescent state many 
 centuries, but in the year 79 occurred the terrible 
 eruption which whelmed in utter ruin two magnifi- 
 cent cities, Pompeii and Herculaneum, and a 
 smaller town, Stabiae, still more remote. Besides 
 the Tiber, Italy has her famous rivers, the Po, the 
 largest of the peninsula, and the Rubicon, the 
 northern boundary of Italy proper, rendered im- 
 mortal by Caesar. Along these and other rivers are 
 fertile plains, and in some of the mountains rich 
 deposits of minerals. 
 
 The different races of old Italy were five, not 
 counting the Romans, who absorbed them all : the 
 Pelasgi, the Osci, the Sabelli, the Umbri and the 
 Etrusci. The first dwelt in the southeast and may 
 have come originally from Greece ; the second were 
 central ; the third spread over the western slopes, 
 
 and included the powerful Samnites ; the fourth 
 held sway from the Adriatic to the Tyrrhene Sea, 
 and from the mouths of the Po to those of the Ti- 
 ber ; the fifth, the Etruscans, were a distinct and 
 powerful nation who made encroachments upon all 
 the others and built up a powerful state, possessing 
 many attributes of true greatness. Our informa- 
 tion in regard to them, however, is mainly confined 
 to such fugitive glimpses as Roman history affords 
 in its early and uncer- 
 tain period. We know 
 that Etruria was a con- 
 federacy of twelve in- 
 dependent states, Tor- 
 quinii, Veii, Volsinib 
 and Clusium being the 
 more important. To 
 conquer these states and 
 destroy the cities, was 
 the work of centuries. 
 
 Latium was the old term applied to a region 
 bounded on the north by the Tiber, east by the 
 Marsi and Samnium, and southwest by the Tyr- 
 rhene Sea. Besides Rome, it included Tivoli, Ostia, 
 Tusculum and Alba Longa, the latter being the 
 parent city of Rome. 
 
 Of Magna Grsecia and the Italian islands known 
 to the Greeks, an account has already been given, 
 and we are now prepared to explore the archives of 
 the Rome of traditional kings. 
 
 The story elaborated by Virgil, of the founding of 
 what became the Roman state by a band of Trojan 
 refugees, may have some truth in it. There was 
 certainly nothing improbable in the supposition, but 
 it has no place in actual history. The founding of 
 Rome as a city by Romulus and his brother 
 Remus is hardly less poetic and fanciful than the 
 exploits of zEneas, but until a comparatively recent 
 date, it was supposed that a veritable history of 
 Rome existed from the birth of those wolf-suckled 
 twins to the extinguishment of the Western Em- 
 pire. The truth is, however, that for about one- 
 half of that period, the history is legendary. 
 
 The more notable persons and events in Roman 
 history have been so critically investigated that 
 there is hardly the shadow of a shade of real fact 
 left. It is not until we come down to Scipio, mid- 
 way between the two ends, that we encounter a fa- 
 mous Roman of whose actual life we have historic 
 
 Vicinity of Rome. 
 
 k 
 
G> 
 
 ANCIENT ITALY AND PRIMITIVE ROME. 
 
 *35 
 
 data. Early Roman history has a deep interest, 
 nevertheless, and an inestimable value, for with all 
 its untrustworthiness in detail, it fairly represents 
 the spirit of early Rome, and explains the phenom- 
 enal growth of a small town into the most far- 
 reaching empire the world ever saw. It will not be 
 our purpose to point out the probable history, in 
 distinction from romance, in the records of those 
 times, for it could not be done with any degree of 
 accuracy, and if done, would be unsatisfactory. It 
 is enough to call attention to the general fact at the 
 outset, partly to guard against attaching too much 
 importance to details, and partly as an explanation 
 of the proposed disregard of all the details given of 
 that period, except 
 those which possess 
 value in throwing 
 light upon the Roman 
 character. A pure 
 fiction often has a 
 positive and great im- 
 portance in a histor- 
 ical point of view. 
 
 The story of William 
 Tell, for example, may 
 be, as now claimed, a 
 myth, but it none the 
 less fairly represents 
 the Swiss struggle for 
 liberty. Again, George 
 Washington’s “ little hatchet” never cut down a 
 parental cherry-tree, but the story none the less 
 fairly illustrates the truthfulness of “ the father of 
 his country.” With this much prefatory to our 
 narrative, we proceed. 
 
 yEneas, having finally reached Latium (Italy) 
 notwithstanding the buffetings of Juno, had the 
 good fortune and consideration to marry a royal 
 maiden, and so became a ruler in a small way. Ilis 
 son, Ascanius, or lulus, founded Alba Longa, and a 
 dynasty which held sway for three hundred years, 
 without traditions, till two brothers of the royal 
 household, Numitor and Amulius, quarreled. The 
 successful brother thought to perpetuate his family 
 title by committing the only child of his brother, 
 Rhea Silva, to a nunnery. She took the veil, as we 
 would call it in our day, as a vestal virgin, by which 
 vow she bound herself to perpetual virginity. But 
 in those far-away days, fate was not balked by any 
 
 The Wolf-suckled Twins. 
 
 little thing like that. The god of war, Mars, visited 
 her by night, and the result of that divine favor was 
 the ever-famous Romulus and Remus. Of course 
 the royal uncle was horrified, and had no idea of ac- 
 cepting the theory of the immaculate conception. He 
 caused the twins to be exposed, and, as he supposed, 
 cut short in their career at once. But the friendly 
 Tiber bore them to the foot of the Palatine in safety, 
 and a she-wolf nourished them. With the blood of 
 Mars and the milk of a wolf coursing through their 
 veins, they were in a fair way to become good 
 fighters, as, indeed, befitted the founders of a 
 mighty empire. 
 
 The king’s shepherd, all unconscious of the ori- 
 gin of the foundlings, 
 took them home and 
 reared them as his 
 own. In due time 
 they became leaders 
 of petty clans among 
 their fellows, and their 
 prowess came to the 
 knowledge of their de- 
 throned grandfather. 
 The mystery of their 
 parentage was also 
 ascertained. Then the 
 young men rallied 
 their associates, made 
 war upon the usurper, 
 slew him, and received from their grateful grandfa- 
 ther a tract of land. The legend runs that Romulus 
 built a wall for a city, and that Remus, in derision, 
 jumped over it, whereupon the irate brother slew him. 
 When the Romans were in deep affliction, ages later, 
 they remembered with unavailing horror, that the 
 foundations of their city were cemented with frater- 
 nal blood, albeit Romulus tried to carry it off 
 bravely by exclaiming, “ So perish all who dare to 
 climb these ramparts.” 
 
 Having a city, he wanted inhabitants. The out- 
 laws and desperadoes of the vicinity gathered within 
 the inclosure. It was a cave of Adullum. The 
 gang (for such they really were) soon felt the need 
 of female society, and their chief tried to negotiate 
 for wives, but to no purpose. The outlaws who had 
 rallied about his standard were not looked upon 
 witli favor as sons-in-law. Not to be baffled by re- 
 fusal, he hit upon a ruse. He announced a public 
 
 7T 
 
 
ANCIENT ITALY AND PRIMITIVE ROME. 
 
 
 136 
 
 festival in honor of a god, a sort of pagan camp- 
 meeting, and invited his neighbors. They came, 
 bringing their families with them, suspecting no 
 treachery. At a given signal, the bachelors of 
 Rome seized every man a woman, and fled within 
 the inclosure. That was the famous Rape of the 
 Sabines. It was not long before the outraged com- 
 munity rallied to the rescue and revenge. They 
 made good headway, and would probably have de- 
 stroyed the city at one blow had not the women 
 themselves interfered. Having found that the “ in- 
 tentions ” of the robbers were “ honorable,” they 
 rushed between the combatants and made peace 
 between them. The Sabines seemed quite ready to 
 ratify the enforced nuptials, since those most inter- 
 ested were satisfied with the arrangement. Hence- 
 forth the Sabines and Romans became one people. 
 
 The next king after Romulus was Numa Poin- 
 pilius, a Sabine. He has come down to us in tradi- 
 tion as a real statesman and philosopher, a man of 
 learning, albeit not above practical deception. To 
 give the laws which he promulgated special sanc- 
 tion., he pretended to have received them by divine 
 inspiration, the nymph Egeria having been con- 
 sulted by him in her grotto. To him are ascribed 
 the religious institutions of the city. It is claimed 
 that to him belongs the honor of putting an end to 
 human sacrifices at Rome. His successor was Tul- 
 lius Hostilius, a Roman chosen by the Sabines. 
 His career was one of carnage and strife. For 
 something over one hundred years, the monarchs 
 were elected by the senators, and by slow degrees 
 the territory tributary to Rome was enlarged. 
 
 The first real dynasty was the house of Tarquin. 
 The founder of it, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, is 
 represented to have been an adventurer, the son of 
 a Greek father and Etruscan mother, the tutor or 
 guardian of the infant son of the fourth elective 
 king. He abused his position to supplant his ward. 
 Rome is supposed to have been one hundred and 
 thirty-eight years old when Tarquin came to the 
 throne. From his reign date the earliest public 
 buildings and works. Etruria was the first Latin 
 state to acquire some civilization, and when Rome 
 had advanced far enough to be a little civilized, the 
 inference was that an Etruscan king had done it. 
 To him is attributed that gigantic sewer, Cloaca 
 Maxima, which is still extant. Many of the cos- 
 tumes and customs of Rome are said to have been 
 
 introduced at this time from Etruria, including 
 the triumph, lictors, fasces, chairs, curule, and per- 
 haps the toga. 
 
 CJoaca Maxima (in its present condition, 1881). 
 
 Tarquin was succeeded by his son-in-law, Servius 
 Tullius. To him is accredited the honor of en- 
 larging the city to the full size it maintained 
 during the days of the republic, a city indeed, 
 witli its four quarters, the Palatine, the Suburban, 
 the Cceline, and the Esquiline, and as many tribes 
 or wards. The outside territory he divided into 
 twenty-four tribes, or townships. These in turn* he 
 divided into classes and centuries. He was a friend 
 of the people, especially in the distribution of the 
 land. And now for the first time crops to the sur- 
 face the jealousies and animosities between the ple- 
 beians and the patricians, the great division -line 
 between the parties during the era of the republic. 
 From the first, the land question, or agrarianism, as 
 it was afterwards called, was the great issue at 
 stake, much as the relative powers of the United 
 States and the several states have been funda- 
 mental to the politics of this country from Wash- 
 ington’s administration down. The good king was 
 not allowed to finish his career in peace. He was 
 ruthlessly slain, and in his place was installed Lu- 
 cius, his son-in-law, a tool of the aristocracy. The 
 reader will not fail to note the prominence given to 
 sons-in-law in primitive Roman traditions. 
 
 This Lucius seems to have had an atrocious wife. 
 She first slew her husband and sister that she might 
 marry her brother-in-law, and then, when the ill- 
 gotten husband threw the aged king down the pal- 
 ace stairs, she drove her chariot over his prostrate 
 body. This monstrous dame bore the mild name 
 of Tullia. She must have been the Eve of the 
 Borgias. Lucius found Rome one of the forty- 
 seven petty Latin states, which met together on the 
 Alban Mount to worship Jupiter, having the 'slight- 
 
 
S) 
 
 
 e. 
 
 ANCIENT ITALY AND PRIMITIVE ROME. 
 
 Tradition presents only one more royal name : 
 Tarquin the Proud. Many curious romances clus- 
 ter around his name, or rather his supposed reign. 
 He was not a romantic character himself. Brutus, 
 who espoused the cause of the people, and who was 
 the pride of the illustrious family who disappeared 
 with the assassination of Caesar, or rather the battle 
 of Philippi, simulated idiocy to escape the mur- 
 derous enmity of Tarquin. The immediate occa- 
 sion of the uprising of the people was the pathetic 
 tragedy of Lucretia. She was compelled at the 
 point of the sword to submit to the lust of Sextus, 
 the son and heir of the king. She was the fairest 
 and most virtuous of wives. She made a statement 
 of the case the next day to her husband and father, 
 and then stabbed herself in their presence. Her 
 dead body was carried to the Forum, her tale of 
 wrong insufferable rehearsed, and the people ad- 
 jured to rise against the tyrant. The appeal was 
 successful and the dynasty overthrown, never to be 
 restored. That was B. C. 509, and for nearly five 
 centuries thereafter Rome was a republic. All in 
 vain the dethroned Tarquin sought to recover the 
 kingdom, assisted by Etruscan intervention. Lars 
 (King) Porsena of Clusium tried to crush the free- 
 dom of Rome, but he signally failed. He marched 
 his soldiers to the Tiber, and thought to cross the 
 bridge which would have made him master of the 
 situation, but Iloratius Codes defended it so gal- 
 lantly, that the Romans had time to cut it down 
 before the enemy could cross. After staying an 
 army in its course, this prodigy in arms plunged 
 into the river and safely swam to the oppo- 
 site side. 
 
 Porsena’s ineffectual efforts were not exhaustive. 
 Servius Tarquin seems to have been able to rally 
 other Latin allies. The noted battle of Lake Re- 
 gillus, near Alba, belonged to this struggle. We are 
 told that the Roman general, Valerius, vowed a 
 temple to Castor and Pollux in the crisis of this 
 battle, and that presently two youths of eminent 
 beauty and stature were seen fighting on white 
 horses in front of the Romans, and turning the 
 enemy to flight. Finally Servius was slain, and his 
 uncrowned father eked out a miserable old age at 
 the court of the tyrant of Cumae. We hear no more 
 of the Tarquins nor of crowns until the Caesars. 
 
 est possible bond of union. To his reign is assigned 
 the supremacy of Rome over all of them, besides the 
 extension of Roman sway to some other parts of 
 Italy. Lucius is supposed to have come tc the 
 throne when the city was two hundred and twenty 
 years old, B. C. 534. 
 
 He was the first to establish a Roman colony. By 
 his day the city began to be troubled with an excess 
 of population, and very likely the popular clamor 
 for land had a good deal to do with the coloniza- 
 tion policy. Greek colonies were bound to the 
 mother country by no political ties, but the colo- 
 nies sent out by Rome were an integral part of the 
 nation itself. They were subject and provincial, but 
 as much a part of the Roman kingdom, republic or 
 empire, as the case might be, as the states of this 
 Union are which have been admitted since the fed- 
 eration of the original thirteen states. The people 
 were Roman citizens as truly as if they lived on 
 Capitoline Hill. The principle of representation 
 was not allowed in the Roman government, and 
 consequently the communities living in or near 
 Rome had a decided advantage. It is as if an 
 American citizen were obliged personally to appear 
 at Washington city to have a vote in national poli- 
 tics. This advantage was not great, but the colo- 
 nies remained loyal to their national allegiance, and 
 thereto may be attributed in a very large measure 
 the expansion of the little village of outlaws into a 
 nation, extending from the British Isles to the far 
 Orient. 
 
 Intimately connected with the political constitu- 
 tion which bound the parent city and her colonial off- 
 spring together, was the road system, which was as 
 old apparently as the first colony. Between the 
 city and the colony was built a broad and perma- 
 nent highway, having for its primary object the 
 establishment of military connection. Either 
 could readily come to the assistance of the other in 
 case of attack. Some of those old roads are still 
 extant, and almost intact. They bespeak a very 
 considerable degree of civilization. These roads, if 
 not a fortunate accident, attest a prescience in 
 statecraft unparalleled in all history, prior to the 
 British policy by which a small island became the 
 supreme empire, and of which we shall have occa- 
 sion to speak hereafter. 
 
 J 37 
 
 o 
 
3 
 
 SEMI-HISTORIC ROME 
 
 Republicanism in Rome — Fikst Consuls — Rivalry op Classes — Establishment op Tribunate 
 —Agrarianism and the Plebs — Cincinnatus and Dentatus — Virginius and Virginia — 
 
 CORIOLANUS AND HIS PRIDE — GREEK AND ROMAN IDEALS COMPARED — LATIUM— INVASION OP 
 the Gauls — The Gauls and Latins— Rome and Italy. 
 
 E shall hear no more of kings. 
 That grandest of all Ro- 
 mans, Julius Caesar, was 
 assassinated on the mere 
 suspicion of kingly ambi- 
 tion. In the popular mind 
 of to-day, emperor is a 
 more imposing title, sug- 
 gestiveof more real power, than that of king, 
 but originally, it was little different from 
 consul or president for life. The strug- 
 gle through which Rome passed in displac- 
 monarchy with republicanism, must 
 have been a long and desperate one, more 
 terrible by far than the legends represent, 
 else the entire people, from patrician to ple- 
 beian, would not have had such profound and lively 
 repugnance to monarchy. That repugnance was 
 the one bond of fellowship among all classes. How- 
 ever high party spirit and animosity might run, there 
 were no royalists in Rome. Civil wars, dictators, 
 and every possible experience came, without so 
 much as suggesting, apparently, a resort to mon- 
 archical institutions, and the first serious apprehen- 
 sion of such a resort did not come until some four 
 hundred and fifty years after the last of the Tar- 
 quins. The principle of republicanism could hard- 
 
 ly have a firmer hold upon a nation than it had 
 upon Rome during the consular period. In this im- 
 mediate connection, it is proposed to bring out the 
 more interesting and important facts and legends 
 of the republic during the centuries of merely tra- 
 ditional history, from the expulsion of the Tar- 
 quins to the first Punic war. 
 
 The first Consuls of Rome were Junius Brutus 
 and Tarquinius Collatinus. The name given to the 
 latter shows the shadowy uncertainty of the history 
 of that day, and suggests that perhaps, the over- 
 throw of monarchy was gradual. There had by that 
 time grown up some considerable commerce, and 
 commercial law began to be a prominent feature. 
 Evidently the early Romans had no pity for insol- 
 vent debtors, and enacted rigorous penalties for the 
 enforcement of business contracts. The rich and 
 the poor formed the two parties in the state, during 
 the misty morning hours of the Republic. The 
 patricians tried to perpetuate themselves as a landed 
 aristocracy, while the plebeians insisted upon a fair 
 share of the realty, and less severe penalties for un- 
 fortunate poverty. Twice during the first half cen- 
 tury of the republic it was necessary to appoint a 
 dictator, or absolute autocrat of the state, to con- 
 centrate the entire force of the nation as against 
 hostile neighbors. In all such emergencies, the 
 
 ( 138 ) 
 
3 
 
 
 « 
 
 SEMI-HISTORIC ROME. 
 
 139 
 
 rivalries of parties and factions were forgotten, but 
 only to revive as soon as the military necessity for 
 harmony was removed. 
 
 The first noteworthy romance (for such it must 
 be called) of the Republic occurred in the year 
 B. C. 495, when the first Appius Claudius was one 
 of the consuls, and the popular Servilius the other. 
 By that time the party feeling was so strong that 
 the plebs refused to take up arms to repulse an in- 
 cursion of the Volsci, until solemnly promised the 
 redress of their wrongs. The enemy having been 
 driven back, the senate refused to carry out the 
 agreement. Another dictator was appointed to 
 negotiate terms of reconciliation, for the plebeians 
 threatened civil war, and the senate was frightened. 
 This dictator sent Menenius Agrippa to negotiate 
 peace. He is said to have narrated to them the 
 famous fable of the mutiny of the eyes, ears, 
 hands, etc., against the belly, which finally termin- 
 ated in the conclusion by all the members, that each 
 was necessary to the whole. This view seems to have 
 been shared by both factions at Rome, for the Sen- 
 ate made liberal concessions to the common people, 
 and henceforth there was a gradual enlargement of 
 popular rights, with only rare, infrequent and tem- 
 porary reactions in favor of the aristocracy. 
 
 It was perhaps as the result of this popular up- 
 rising, sometimes called “ the secession of the Mons 
 Sacer,” that the institution of the Tribunatus was 
 established. The tribunes were magistrates charged 
 with the duty of conserving and advancing the in- 
 terests of the common people. The two consuls 
 were supposed, originally, to represent both parties, 
 but the aristocratic element having gained the con- 
 sular ascendancy, the plebeians insisted upon hav- 
 ing two tribunes. The first selections were Sicinius 
 and Brutus (the frequency of the latter name being 
 suggestive of the legendary character of our in- 
 formation). The office of tribune survived and had 
 its uses in accordance with its original plan, long 
 after the expansion and wealtli of Rome had ena- 
 bled all classes of the citizens to be patricians. 
 “ When,” says a great Roman historian, “ after the 
 vast conquest of Rome, the struggle of classes lay 
 no longer between patricians and plebeians, but be- 
 tween the aristocracy, or the nobles, and the hetero- 
 geneous populace which constituted the mass of the 
 citizens, this institution supported again the cause 
 of the multitude, and secured its final triumph in the 
 
 establishment of the empire. The emperors them- 
 selves assumed the name and office of the tribunes, 
 and as such claimed a legal prerogative for the pro- 
 tection of popular rights, and they, in their turn, 
 converted their prerogative to an instrument for 
 admitting the provinces into the privileges of the 
 city, and transforming all the subject races of the 
 empire into Roman citizens.” Surely the seces- 
 sion of the sacred mountain was one of the most 
 important revolutions of all history, however in- 
 significant it may have seemed at the time, and 
 however legendary may be our information as 
 to its details. 
 
 The land question assumed especial prominence 
 in the infancy of the Republic. Agrarian laws were 
 passed during the consulate of Spurius Cassius, 
 B. C. 493, amid great opposition from the patricians. 
 The great excitement on this subject was much la- 
 ter, however, when the Gracchi came forward as the 
 leaders of the popular cause. There were two kinds 
 of land held by the aristocracy, and none by the 
 poorer class. What was called Quiritary land be- 
 longed to the occupants in fee simple, but much of 
 the territory round about was public domain, the 
 title being in the state. This part of the Ager Ko- 
 manus was monopolized by the patricians on the 
 payment to the state of a nominal rent. The plebs 
 insisted upon having a share of the state lands, not 
 as tenants at the will of landlords, but as citizens in 
 the enjoyment of a political right. The conflict 
 must have been sharp, bitter and protracted. The 
 plebeians seem to have gained much in theory, but 
 little in fact. The legislation secured, amounted to 
 hardly more than a “ barren ideality.” More than 
 once the common people, when brought face to face 
 with a foreign foe, seized the opportunity to exact 
 concessions from the senate, a body composed of 
 the higher class, but there were other interests which 
 came to the front. 
 
 The agrarian laws of Spurius Cassius required 
 the state to divide among the poorer class a 
 portion of its own actual property (the primitive 
 homestead act), and at the same time to ex- 
 act strict payment by the patricians of the rents 
 due the state, the same to be appropriated to 
 the support of the citizens when called to arms. It 
 was about this time that the tribunes of the people 
 were invested with a veto power upon the enact- 
 ments of the Senate, and given personal inviolabil- 
 
 © 
 
 "7 
 
140 SEMI-HISTORIC ROME. 
 
 ity. Gradually they gained ground, and when 
 above the reach of patrician bribery or intimidation, 
 they were very useful. But neither consuls nor 
 tribunes were allowed to wield the superior power of 
 the state with regularity. 
 
 In the period under consideration dictators were 
 numerous. The names of 110 less than seven appear 
 in a period of twenty-seven years. As modern states 
 under constitutional government, whether republics 
 or monarchies, feel obliged under emergencies to 
 suspend the writ of habeas corpus, or even to declare 
 martial law, so the Roman Republic frequently del- 
 egated absolute power to some eminent citizen, usu- 
 ally a great soldier. The 
 most illustrious of these 
 dictators was Cincinna- 
 tus, the ideal patriot of 
 ancient history. He is rep- 
 resented as a pure-minded, 
 unambitious farmer, qui- 
 etly following the plow, 
 except when the necessi- 
 ties of the state impera- 
 tively called for his servi- 
 ces. All classes had un- 
 bounded confidence in 
 him. A patrician of the 
 bluest blood, he was no 
 less a man of the people. 
 
 Nature came the nearest 
 to realizing that lofty 
 ideal citizen when it pro- 
 duced a Washington. Without being a reform- 
 er, he was in the grandest sense of the term, a 
 conservative. He flourished about three hundred 
 years after Romulus, and four hundred and fifty 
 before Christ. 
 
 Among the tribunes, the most illustrious name 
 is that of Dentatus. He was the soldier par ex- 
 cellence of legendary Rome. As brave as Achilles, 
 he never “ sulked in his tent,” nor was he in- 
 vulnerable except in his heel. Had he been, he 
 could never have been wounded, for he never re- 
 treated. He boldly met every danger. His scars 
 were numerous, and all in the front. He seemed to 
 bear a charmed life, but fell at last on the field of 
 battle, not however, a victim of the foe, his death- 
 wound being the result of treachery. The Consul, 
 Appius Claudius, a name already odious, but ren- 
 
 dered doubly so by this later bearer of it, deter- 
 mined to get rid of the dauntless champion of popu- 
 lar rights. He gave secret orders that Dentatus 
 should not be allowed to come out of the battle 
 alive. The fact that the chief hero of the Romans, 
 a people that fairly worshiped personal bravery, was 
 believed to have sprung from the plebeian ranks, 
 and had been assassinated by the orders of a haughty 
 patrician while fighting the common enemy, shows 
 the strength of the class prejudice. 
 
 Another noted plebeian of that period was Virgini- 
 us, the father of Virginia whose story, like that of 
 Lucretia, has ever served as a monument to female 
 
 virtue. Virginius was 
 also a Tribune. While 
 he was upon the “ tented 
 field,” Appius, who was 
 as lustful as he was proud, 
 saw the daughter, who 
 was just then ripening 
 into womanhood, on her 
 way to school attended by 
 her nurse. He conceived 
 an unhallowed passion for 
 her, and set about grati- 
 fying it. A supple tool 
 pretended that Virginia 
 was his long lost slave. 
 A trial was had, and false 
 witnesses proved the claim. 
 The court as well as the 
 witnesses were bribed. 
 But tidings of the horrible fate that awaited the 
 virgin were brought to the father just as he was 
 mourning the death of Dentatus (not yet aware of 
 the real cause of the old soldier’s death). He has- 
 tened home, too late to save his daughter, except by 
 plunging his dagger into her breast. This one rem- 
 edy he applied, and as Lucretia was enshrined in 
 the Roman heart as a martyr to matronly virtue, so 
 Virginia is the ideal of virginal purity. “Death 
 before dishonor,” was the sentiment in both cases. 
 It is not too much to say that the modern world, 
 as well as Ancient Rome, is the better for these two 
 legends, for such they undoubtedly were. Taken 
 together, they point a most impressive moral. As 
 in the case of Lucretia, so m the case of Virginia, 
 “ the blood of the martyrs was the seed ” of reform, 
 and contributed powerfully to the popular cause. 
 
SEMI-HISTORIC ROME. 
 
 Another noted character of the period under 
 consideration was Coriolanus. He was quite as 
 proud as Appius Claudius, but his was the pride of 
 personal character. He scorned to stoop, and is 
 the typical aristocrat. For his valiant services in 
 battle, and his nobility of character, he was the 
 pride of the city. All classes were disposed to do 
 him reverence. By the exercise of the least degree 
 of the arts of a politician, he could have been the 
 pet of all the people, but he despised the plebeians. 
 In him centered all the prejudice of the patrician. 
 Scorning “the vulgar herd,” he let it be known 
 perfectly well that he would not, literally speaking, 
 turn his hand over to gain the favor of the multi- 
 tude. The re- 
 sult was that he 
 was banished, 
 and in banish- 
 ment offered 
 his services to 
 the Y olscians, 
 against whom 
 he had recently 
 led the Roman 
 legions in tri- 
 umph. His per- 
 sonal prowess 
 turned the scale, 
 and Rome was 
 at his mercy. 
 
 Deputations be- 
 sought his pardon and his leniency. To them all 
 he turned a deaf ear, until at last his own wife, 
 mother and child came out to him. Then anger 
 melted into love and gentleness. 
 
 Such were the ideals held before the Roman gaze 
 for generations, as typical characters, ideals of the 
 more pronounced Roman characteristics. Others 
 followed at a later date, but of more historic ac- 
 curacy of outline. The heroes of legendary Greece 
 seemed wholly deficient in moral stamina, or even 
 the conception of morality. Herein Rome shows 
 a very marked superiority, although far less civil- 
 ized in intellectual culture. 
 
 Besides the struggles between patricians and ple- 
 beians, relating to civil rights and privileges, in which 
 the lower classes made some gains, and numerous 
 petty conflicts with neighboring states in which the 
 whole people shared in an inconsequential way, 
 
 there were several really great wars, culminating, 
 notwithstanding some serious disasters, in mak- 
 ing Rome master of Italy, the position it occupies 
 when brought into conflict with Carthage. It is 
 evident from glimpses caught here and there, that 
 Etruria was long the most civilized state in Italy, 
 not counting the few Greek colonies in the south. 
 Etruscan art was very considerable, and there is 
 good reason to believe that a valuable Etruscan lit. 
 erature once existed. There were other states in 
 Latium, which were somewhat more advanced than 
 Rome, but the Romans were desperate warriors and 
 had a colonial policy which gradually helped extend 
 the state. The conquest of Etruria seems to have 
 
 been a very close 
 contest. If not, 
 the Romans 
 were tempted to 
 abandon their 
 own rude and 
 unwh olesome 
 town (for Rome 
 was never a 
 good city, from 
 a sanitary point 
 of view) and set- 
 tle in the Etrus- 
 can city of Veii, 
 which was about 
 twelve miles be- 
 yond the Tiber. 
 It took thirty years to capture the city ; that is, 
 thirty years from the time the first attempt was 
 made until the last one, which culminated in suc- 
 cess. Camillus was the General under whom the 
 capture was made. That was in B. C. 396. That 
 year was memorable for the fall of Veii, which 
 Camillus is said to have torn down, removing the 
 building material to Rome, lest the party favoring 
 the transfer of the capital should finally carry the 
 day. 
 
 But the year was still more memorable for the 
 raid of the Gauls. Now, for the first time, we con- 
 front the aborigines of France, a people with which 
 Rome had a great deal to do through many centu- 
 ries. The Gauls, who came finally to be subjects of 
 imperial Rome, came upon the stage of history as 
 wild marauders. In their savage enterprise, they 
 had crossed the Alps, and penetrated southward, 
 
 A 
 
 l 4 ! 
 
 A 
 
 o 
 
 ► 
 
 
 9 
 
 ~ 
 
142 SEMI-HISTORIC ROME. 
 
 desolating Italy as they went. Among the places 
 which they ravaged was Rome, which must have 
 been a feeble town, although nearly four hundred 
 years old. Their march was victorious. Brennus, 
 their leader, was a “ mighty man of war, ” not 
 covetous of lands, but greedy-eyed for personal 
 property of all sorts. It is by no means certain 
 that the Romans do not owe the fall of Veii to these 
 barbarians rather than to their own prowess. Be 
 that as it may, they were an overmatch for the Ro- 
 mans. On the banks of the Allia, eleven miles from 
 Rome, the two armies met, the representatives of the 
 peoples destined to many a desperate encounter in 
 coming ages. The Grants utterly routed the Romans 
 and drove the few survivors into the city in head- 
 long haste, boldly pushing their way within the 
 walls, the people taking refuge in the Capitol. In 
 after times the Romans pictured the senators calmly 
 pursuing the business of legislation when the Cauls 
 came upon them. This of course was a preposter- 
 ous invention. The indubitable fact is, that Rome 
 was at the mercy of the Gauls, who pillaged and 
 sacked until their greed was glutted. The Capitol 
 escaped the ravages of flame, but not the city. The 
 proud Romans attributed its salvation to divine in- 
 terposition. The horde glutted their barbaric lust 
 for spoils, and left the city, which never suffered like 
 disaster again until the Goths and Vandals took it 
 at the final fall of Rome. 
 
 Besides the Etruscans were the Samnites, a Latin 
 
 people of great military strength, as compared with 
 the Rome of that day. For a long series of years 
 there was war between the two peoples. Samnium 
 had the alliance of Etruria, and is said to have se- 
 cured aid from the Gauls. But all things have an 
 end, and the Samnite war or wars (for there were 
 three of them) which began B. C. 343, closed B. C. 
 282. There were several famous names in connec- 
 tion with these wars, Manlius Torquatus, Valerius 
 Corvus, and others, but none of the details are 
 worthy of record here. It is enough to say, that 
 by the time Rome had stood four hundred years, it 
 was the master of Italy, except the Greek cities, 
 and the citizens of Latium became citizens of 
 Rome, only with some restrictions in their rights. 
 
 That consummation, so gradual, but all the more 
 secure, put an end to the struggle between the pa- 
 tricians and the plebeians. Henceforth, urban in- 
 habitants or citizens of the city were aristocrats. 
 To have ancestry strictly Roman, was enough. 
 “The first families” joined in asserting superiority 
 over the Latin citizens, as in later centuries all the 
 Latin citizens accounted themselves vastly superior 
 to the outsiders, however complete their citizenship. 
 Rome, in brief, is now the capital of Italy, and 
 proud alike of her Dentatus and her Coriolauus, 
 and the terms patrician and plebeian came gradu- 
 ally to designate the inevitable social distinctions of 
 a large community, rather than distinct factions 
 and castes. 
 
6) 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 Pyrrhus and nia Elephants — Carthage and its place in History — The First Punic War — 
 Hamilcar and Hannibal — The Second Punic War — Hannibal Crosses the Alps — The 
 Battle op Cannae— The Fabian Policy— Scipio and the War in Africa— The Further 
 Conquests op Rome — The Third Punic War and the Fall op Carthage. 
 
 A 4 
 
 
 
 K-* 
 
 ‘HAT an arena do we leave 
 for the Carthaginians 
 and Romans to contend 
 *on !” Such 
 is the excla- 
 mation at- 
 tributed to 
 Pyrrhus of 
 Epirus, cousin of Alexander 
 the Great. The remark is 
 no doubt apocryphal, as are 
 the details given of the war 
 which Pyrrhus made upon 
 Rome. But it is highly 
 probable that he foresaw a 
 desperate conflict between 
 them. At the time at which we have 
 arrived, Rome is master of Italy, ex- 
 cept the Grecian towns on the coast, 
 and they dared not trust to their own 
 valor. They induced the king of 
 Epirus to come to their defense. lie 
 brought a few Epirotes with him, and 
 a kind of cavalry heretofore unknown Pyrrhus of 
 
 to the Romans, namely, elephants. Greek and Ro- 
 man arms were thus brought into conflict, and in the 
 first engagement Pyrrhus was victorious. Ilis own 
 
 losses, however, were heavy. “ One more such vic- 
 tory,” he said, “ and I am ruined.” He did not care to 
 follow up his advantage, and tried the virtue of nego- 
 tiation, and if we may believe Roman 
 tradition (for our facts are still shad- 
 owy) the Greek was profoundly im- 
 pressed with the incorruptibility, hero- 
 ism, and manliness of the Romans. 
 He moved on without accomplishing 
 anything decisive, going to the help 
 of some Greek colonists against Car- 
 thaginian interlopers. It was not long 
 before he returned and had another 
 battle with the Romans. This time 
 he was thoroughly beaten, and re- 
 turned to his own country in disgrace. 
 That was the last aggressive war on 
 Rome by the Greeks. It served as a 
 prelude, and hardly more, to the 
 Punic wars. Acquaintance with 
 the elephants of Pyrrhus prepared 
 the legions to meet the shock of 
 Hannibal and his elephants. Pyr- 
 E P irus - rlius was actuated, apparently, by 
 
 no settled animosity, nor did he have any con- 
 ception of Roman destiny. He must have seen 
 in the citizens of Rome a community of rather 
 
 ( 143 ) 
 
 
Q_ 
 
 interesting barbarians, and that is about all. The 
 Carthaginians may be said to have been the first 
 people, beyond the narrow limits of Italy, to resolute- 
 ly attempt to thwart the “ manifest destiny ” of Rome. 
 
 Cartilage was the capital of a republic of the same 
 name, on the southern shore of the Mediterranean 
 Sea, near the site of the modern Tunis. It was a 
 Phoenician city, an offshoot of Tyre, founded B. C. 
 850. It had a vast commerce aud a splendid civili- 
 zation, including a literature, but the final success 
 of the Romans in destroying it involved the loss of 
 that literature. Consequently we know very little 
 about Carthage, except as it is derived from Roman 
 sources, and from 
 Polybius, a Greek, 
 who was present at its 
 destruction, as the 
 friend of the victori- 
 ous Scipio, and whose 
 work has been all lost, 
 with the exception 
 of a few chapters. 
 
 The Carthaginians 
 were called Punei, 
 hence the three wars 
 with Rome were called 
 the Punic wars. They 
 were a very enterpris- 
 ing people. Their 
 commerce extended 
 wherever ships sailed 
 in those days, and a vast inland trade was 
 carried on with the Numidians, and other 
 African and nomadic tribes. The population of 
 the city is supposed to have been about 700,000. 
 The government seems to have been quite sim- 
 ilar to that of Rome ; an aristocratic republic. 
 In carrying forward commercial enterprise, it 
 was necessary to establish trading-posts here and 
 there. For that reason Carthage long enjoyed 
 the control of a very considerable amount of foreign 
 territory, not acquired for the ordinary purposes of 
 conquest and dominion, but for the uses of traffic. 
 According to Polybius, all the islands of the western 
 Mediterranean belonged to Carthage, besides much 
 territory in Spain. At the time the first Punic 
 war began, B. C. 264, a very considerable area of land 
 about the city was under a high state of cultivation. 
 The nobility took delight in agriculture, and the me- 
 
 chanical arts were not neglected. At that time they 
 were a far more civilized people than the Romans, 
 and they might have well looked down with lofty 
 scorn upon the rude barbarians of the Tiber. 
 
 The immediate occasion of the war between the 
 two republics was the attempt of Carthage to gain 
 possession of Sicily, an island about the size of the 
 State of Maryland, and the most important in the 
 Mediterranean. It contained a flourishing Greek 
 colony. It is worthy of remark that although Ath- 
 ens was a great commercial center, a little passe 
 then, but long prominent, it never came into con- 
 flict with Carthage. Sicily was too near Italy to 
 
 m ake the establish- 
 ment there of a Punic 
 stronghold tolerable 
 in the eyes of Rome, 
 which by this time 
 had become master of 
 Italy, and was in no 
 mood to brook in- 
 tervention from the 
 Southwest. Seeing 
 that two great powers 
 were thus brought 
 into conflict, Pyrrhus 
 may reasonably have 
 withdrawn, in the 
 hope of a life-and- 
 death struggle be- 
 tween these two re- 
 publics which should pave the way for the Epi- 
 rotes to ride in triumph over both. If he held 
 any such theory he was destined to disappointment, 
 the real disaster of the war being confined to one of 
 the combatants, the other gaining in proportion to 
 its rival’s loss. 
 
 The Romans were successful in driving the Car- 
 thaginians from Sicily, or rather, they and their 
 allies were successful, for in the beginning of the con- 
 flict Rome was not single-handed by any means. 
 The Carthaginians were compelled to give up their 
 enterprise. They would have been content, proba- 
 bly, to go on with their commerce without further 
 combat with the Romans. They do not appear to 
 have seen a rival on the Tiber, but the Romans 
 were not content to let the matter rest there. They 
 carried the war into Africa, assuming the aggres- 
 sive. A naval battle was fought not long after, in 
 
 A 
 
 
 CARTHAGE. 
 
ROME AND CARTHAGE. 
 
 H5 
 
 which, to let them tell it, the Romans performed 
 prodigies. They were not sea fighters, but they 
 grappled the enemies’ ships, boarded them and 
 waged a hand-to-hand fight, for which the Cartha- 
 ginian mercenaries were not prepared. The victory 
 of Mylse was the Trafalgar of the Punic war, and 
 the Romans never wearied of boasting of it. They 
 took from Carthage several outlying posts, but on 
 the continent of Africa they experienced terrible 
 disasters. Regulus, the hero of the first Punic war, 
 as conducted by land, was not properly supported. 
 His army was terribly defeated 
 and himself taken prisoner. He 
 was sent as an envoy of peace 
 to Rome, where he had the hero- 
 ism to advise the senate to reject 
 the terms offered, and then bore 
 back the refusal of his country 
 to entertain the idea of a.cessa- 
 tion of hostilities, while under 
 the cloud of disaster. His patriot- 
 ism cost him his life, but the 
 persistence of Rome was reward- 
 ed. After dragging along twenty- 
 four years the first Punic war 
 ended in an agreement on the 
 part of Carthage to give up all 
 claims to Sicily, restore her pris- 
 oners and pay to Rome a consid- 
 erable indemnity. The losses 
 on both sides had been large 
 without being at all decisive. 
 
 It may be said that both were weary and took a rest, 
 with no thought of permanent peace. 
 
 Twenty years elapsed between the first and the 
 second Punic wars. To Carthage those were years 
 of wasting civil strife. The unhappy republic was 
 the prey of party conflicts, involving serious loss. 
 One faction was in favor of strict attention to busi- 
 ness, the other, insisting that a more military char- 
 acter must be given to the state, and that the war- 
 like power which had arisen in Italy must be crushed 
 before commerce could prosper on a solid founda- 
 tion. The leaders of the two parties, Hanno and 
 Hamilcar, when the issue was raised, died during 
 the cessation of hostilities, and Hannibal, son of 
 the great soldier Hamilcar, came to the front as 
 the worthy successor of his martial father. At 
 the age of twenty-six, he became the General of 
 
 the Carthaginian army in Spain, for in Iberia, as 
 the ancients called it, Carthage 
 had very important possessions. 
 
 Tradition has it, that at the age 
 of nine his father took him to 
 the temple and made him swear 
 eternal enmity to Rome. If he 
 did take such an oath, right 
 loyally did he observe it. 
 
 Turning now to Rome, we find 
 that the interval of peace with 
 Carthage was a 
 
 season of preparation. Some 
 fighting was necessary to main- 
 tain the supremacy of Latium, 
 and hold the Gauls in check. 
 Sardinia and Corsica were con- 
 quered and a large part of Illyria 
 overrun. Rome asserted herself 
 in the affairs of Greece. The 
 famous Flaminian Way, from 
 Rome to the Gallic frontier near 
 Ariminum, was constructed, giv- 
 ing the consul Flaminius a 
 reputation second only to Ap- 
 pius, who built the Appian Way. 
 Marcellus, a plebeian, yet a noble- 
 man, carried the Roman arms 
 to triumph over an alliance of 
 Gauls and Germans. The Car- 
 thaginians had indeed gained 
 much in Spain, but the extension 
 of Roman power was far the greater of the two. The 
 second Punic war began, however, with great advan- 
 tage on the part of Carthage, from the fact that it 
 had the services of one of the greatest warriors of 
 history, for Hannibal ranks with Alexander, Caesar, 
 Napoleon and Grant. 
 
 The summer of B. C. 218 witnessed the begin- 
 ning of the second Punic war. The young Cartha- 
 ginian General crossed the Ebro with a hundred 
 thousand men and thirty-seven elephants, resolved 
 to enter the Roman territory by way of the Pyrenees 
 and the Alps. The undertaking was one of the 
 most difficult ever planned, the distance being eight 
 hundred miles. The very fact that he must subsist 
 off the tribes along the route, made the entire march 
 the invasion of a hostile country. He left detach- 
 ments behind at several points, to hold in check the 
 
 Hannibal’s Vow. 
 
" G\ 
 
 146 ROME AND 
 
 CARTHAGE. 
 
 (O ' 
 
 t 
 
 
 enemies he had made and subdued. He turned the 
 
 devastation. Finally, a conflict became inevitable. 
 
 
 
 Pyrenees by taking the coast line, and probably in- 
 
 In B. C. 216 was fought the immortal battle of 
 
 
 
 tended to outflank the Alps also. The Romans 
 
 Cannae, on the borders of Apulia. Both sides were 
 
 
 
 were expecting nothing of the kind. They had de- 
 
 gathered there in full force, as if the fate of Rome 
 
 
 
 signed sending Scipio to attack Hannibal in Spain, 
 
 were in the balance. Again Hannibal was victori- 
 
 
 
 and Sempronius was to march upon Carthage it- 
 
 ous. The slaughter was terrible. Forty-five thou- 
 
 
 
 self. The latter had set sail before the news of this 
 
 sand Romans were lost, including a large number of 
 
 
 
 aggressive movement was received. Scipio was di- 
 
 senators and the Consul Paulus. Polybius puts 
 
 
 
 rected to intercept Hannibal at the Rhone, but he 
 
 the loss at seventy thousand. But all was not lost. 
 
 
 
 was too late. The great soldier had got beyond 
 
 Cannae was two hundred miles from Rome, separa- 
 
 
 
 him. Looking back upon it all, one is surprised 
 
 ted from it by mountains and rivers. Then, too, the 
 
 
 
 that Hannibal did not await the attack, being far 
 
 conquerors must needs gorge themselves with plun- 
 
 
 
 better prepared to meet it then than later ; but he 
 
 der. “ To the victors belong the spoils.” Had the 
 
 
 
 evidently misjudged the nature of Roman rule in 
 
 army of invasion been content to take advantage 
 
 
 
 Italy. Thinking it like Carthaginian rule in Afri- 
 
 of the success, even Rome would have been laid in 
 
 
 
 ca, he supposed that he had only to reach Latium 
 
 ruins. Once before the Gauls had devastated it, 
 
 
 
 to have the alliance of the Latins, and so he avoid- 
 
 but Camillus restored it. Had the Carthaginians 
 
 
 
 ed an engagement by trying one of the most diffi- 
 
 razed the walls, no third Romulus or second Ca- 
 
 
 
 cult passes of the Alps, probably the Little St. Ber- 
 
 millus would have appeared. The destroyer would 
 
 
 
 nard. The sufferings of his men were terrible, and 
 
 have looked carefully to that. But what the brav- 
 
 
 
 the losses immense, so late was the season. When 
 
 ery of Roman arms could not do, the richness of 
 
 
 
 at last the army of invasion came down into the 
 
 Italian spoils effected. It is said that three bushels 
 
 
 
 sunny valleys of the Cisalpine, it had dwindled 
 
 of gold rings were taken from the fingers of the 
 
 
 
 to twenty thousand foot, six thousand horse, and 
 
 fallen legionaries. However that may have been, it 
 
 
 
 seven elephants. Worst of all, there were no allies. 
 
 is certain that the mercenaries and allies of Car- 
 
 
 
 He was in the enemy’s country in an unexpected 
 
 thage gave themselves up to rapine and plunder. 
 
 
 
 sense. And now the genius of Hannibal was put 
 
 thus throwing away the opportunity of final victory. 
 
 
 
 to the test. Appreciating the situation, his first 
 
 To follow the fortunes of the second Punic war 
 
 
 
 care was to gain a victory, however small the scale. 
 
 in its details, would be uninteresting. Henceforth, 
 
 
 
 in the hope of thus winning allies. He succeeded. 
 
 the policy of Rome was to detach the allies from 
 
 
 
 The skirmish of the Ticinus brought him thousands 
 
 Hannibal, and worry him out by delays. Fabius 
 
 
 
 of Gauls, and now he was eager for a battle with 
 
 was the consul who advised this course, and from 
 
 
 
 Scipio, especially as the latter would soon be rein- 
 
 that day to this the “ Fabian policy ” has been a 
 
 
 
 forced by Sempronius. The battle of Trebia was 
 
 proverbial term. Every nerve was strained to 
 
 
 
 fought, Scipio having been joined by Sempronius, 
 
 maintain the Roman army. Debtors, criminals and 
 
 
 
 and the latter being in command. The result was 
 
 slaves were enlisted. Hannibal kept up the devas- 
 
 
 
 a great victory for Hannibal. Early the next year 
 
 tation, and even appeared before the walls of Rome. 
 
 
 
 he crossed the Apennines and tried to provoke an- 
 
 But the Romans all this while were busy in Spain 
 
 
 
 other battle there. Failing in this, he pushed on 
 
 and Carthage, also at Syracuse. Their aim was to 
 
 
 
 into the heart of Italy, the very valley of the Tiber. 
 
 so harass and punish the Carthaginians that they 
 
 
 
 It was then neoessary for the Roman legions to fol- 
 
 would recall Hannibal before he hail executed his 
 
 
 
 low him. Another battle was fought, this time by the 
 
 full purpose, and in this they were successful. By 
 
 
 
 waters of Lake Trasimenus, and again Hanni- 
 
 carrying the war into Africa they so far alarmed 
 
 
 
 bal was victorious. By this time the Roman sen- 
 
 the citizens of Carthage that they felt compelled to 
 
 
 
 ate was seriously alarmed. The crisis of Rome had 
 
 abandon the aggressive policy, and in a repubbe not 
 
 
 
 come, and the nation was threatened with disintegra- 
 
 even a Hannibal can defy the popular voice. While 
 
 
 
 tion. A victorious foe was devastating the country 
 
 Fabius kept up just enough of activity to prevent 
 
 
 4 
 
 with impunity. To fight, was to run the risk of more 
 
 the fall of Rome, Scipio “ pushed things” in Africa 
 
 L 
 
 e) 
 
 defeat, and to avoid conflict, was to encourage 
 
 so vigorously that in B. C. 201 Carthage sued for 
 
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 [L 
 
 ROME AND CARTHAGE. 
 
 H7 
 
 
 peace and submitted to ignominious terms. Han- 
 nibal had inspired such terror that when he set sail 
 from Crotonia, in the fall of 203, Rome felt infinite 
 relief, and when Scipio wrung from the enemy hu- 
 miliating concessions, Roman joy knew no bounds. 
 He was held in the highest repute as the savior of 
 his country and the greatest of warriors. Carthage 
 was at his mercy. He could have razed it to the 
 ground, but he was not in favor of any such policy. 
 He did not demand the surrender of Hannibal, now 
 in disgrace, although it was not his fault that Rome 
 was not at the mercy of Carthage. It was a test of na- 
 tional character, of popular endurance ; Roman hero- 
 ism was an overmatch for Carthaginian civilization. 
 
 The victory of Zama near the city of Carthage 
 had effaced the memory of Tarentum and Cannae. 
 Scipio Africanus, as he was now called, might 
 doubtless have been consul for life, but he was a 
 true patriot. As his humanity saved Carthage from 
 destruction, so his patriotism saved republicanism 
 at Rome intact. 
 
 Rome was now the foremost military power in the 
 world. The empire of Alexander had fallen to 
 pieces, and the greatest of the fragmentary king- 
 doms, Egypt, had developed a more wholesome am- 
 bition than lust for dominion. The Roman legions 
 were soon recruited and turned eastward. With the 
 subjugation of Carthage all the region west of Rome 
 was under Roman dominion, except the barbarians. 
 To reduce Greece, was an easy task. Macedo- 
 nia was feeble, and the various confederacies of 
 Greece illy prepared to cope with the great and cen- 
 
 tralized republic. From Greece the victors passed 
 to Asia, and made serious inroads into the empire of 
 Antiochus. In fine, the Roman conquests of this 
 period, without being brilliant, were decisive, and 
 as rapid as could be desired. Rome adhered to her 
 original policy of digesting her conquests. In the 
 meanwhile Carthage was slowly dying, suffering the 
 agonies of mortification. Hedged about and de- 
 prived of commerce or mercenaries, it was the mere 
 shadow of its former self. Hannibal was the most 
 unpopular and unhappy of men, and finally died in 
 sorrow and exile in the year B. C. 183. In that 
 same year Scipio died also. 
 
 It was not until B. C. 148 that Carthage was de- 
 stroyed. The third Punic war was hardly a war at 
 all. The party led by Cato, the pedantic censor, in- 
 sisted that Carthage must be destroyed, seemingly 
 afraid that something might transpire to renew its 
 lease of life. The senate became tired of the de- 
 mand for its destruction, and ordered it, more to 
 stop the annoyance of Cato’s harsh croak than from 
 any real fear of its former rival. The Carthagin- 
 ians made a brave but ineffectual resistance. An- 
 other Scipio led the Romans in this inglorious war. 
 And now, after an illustrious career of seven centu- 
 ries, Carthage was literally wiped from the face of 
 the earth, and henceforth, until her final fall, Rome 
 is destined to meet no really formidable enemy. 
 Whatever combats she may have waged in the leg- 
 endary days of youth and infancy, it may be said, 
 that within the purview of history, Carthage was 
 the only actually dangerous rival of Rome. 
 
 H"""- 
 
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 LAST CENTURY 
 
 ROMAN REPUBLIC 
 
 
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 vm);>\X>, 
 
 HEN the second Punic Avar 
 closed, there existed no 
 nation which could stay 
 the march of empire up- 
 on Avhich the Eternal City 
 then entered. From the 
 failure of Hannibal’s plan 
 of conquest, to the return 
 of Cassar from the subjugation of Western 
 Europe, including England and a large 
 part of Germany, a period of something 
 over a century, the rvorld rvas fairly 
 drenched Avith blood. Frequent Avere the 
 civil Avars of Rome, and almost constant 
 Avere her aggrandizements. 
 
 It Avould be easy, but unprofitable, to 
 trace the details of that gory century. A great deal 
 of historical space has been devoted to it, but there 
 Avere no really great battles fought. The gradual 
 expansion of the Roman Empire Avas as much due 
 to its political constitution as to the heroism of its 
 soldiers. It Avas the policy of Rome to make her 
 victims her partners in the fruits and honors of 
 victory, to an extent wholly unknown to the world 
 before her day. It is true that no such policy Avas 
 pursued toward Carthage, but that was an excep- 
 tional case. This peculiarity of Rome has been 
 pointed out before. It antedates authentic history, 
 
 and Avas adhered to Avith a steadiness of purpose 
 which is the proudest monument to Roman genius. 
 
 It may be Avell, first of all, to point out the terri- 
 torial limits of Rome in its glory. The little vil- 
 lage of Romulus had, by the time at Avhich we have 
 arrived, attained to such dimensions, that it could 
 defy all human limitations to its expansion, and 
 Avhile it took a century to actually acquire world 
 domain, it is true that Avhen Carthage passed under 
 the yoke, the Avhole Avorld was at its mercy. It re- 
 quired a period of one hundred years to harvest the 
 field, but the real credit of it all dates back to the 
 calamity of Carthage. 
 
 The Roman Empire, as now gradually developed, 
 Avas tri-continental. In Africa it stretched from 
 the Straits of Babel-mandel, on the south point of 
 the Red Sea, Avestward through the Straits of Gib- 
 raltar, and then southward to the desert of Sahara, 
 including part of Abyssinia, all of Egypt, Barca, 
 Tripoli, Algiers and Morocco. In Asia, its main 
 possession was Asia Minor or Turkey, Avith apart of 
 Arabia and Persia. Julius Cassar contemplated in- 
 roads into the far Orient, but he Avas cut off before 
 carrying out his Eastern project. In Europe, it in- 
 cluded all the continent except Russia, Northern 
 and Western Germany, and Scandinavia. 
 
 For the most part, the interest of this period clus- 
 ters about a feAv names, and in the careers of Cato, 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 A Century of Blood — The March of Conquest — The Harvest of Power — Area of the Re- 
 public — The Catos; the Censor and the Younger — The Gracchi— Caius Marius — Sulla 
 and Marius — The Unification of Italy — Sulla Supreme — Burning of the City — Latium 
 no More— Sulla the Dictator — Sulla’s Character and Work— Pompey the Great — He 
 Suppresses Piracy — Judea and Spain Taken — Pompey and C.esar — Cicero and the 
 Conspiracy of Cataline — Julius C.esar in the West — His First Consulate— Froude’s 
 C.ESAK. 
 
 (H 8 ) 
 
•Via. 
 
 
 iL 
 
 LAST CENTURY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 
 
 1 49 
 
 the Gracchi, Marius, Sulla, Cataline, Cicero, Pom- 
 pey and Caesar, may be read the progress of Rome 
 towards its manifest destiny. A great deal of in- 
 terest centers in Cato the Censor. His figure is 
 sharply defined in historical outline, and he stands 
 out upon the page of Time, the very ideal of auster- 
 ity. The Roman virtues he exemplified to perfec- 
 tion. He was incorruptible. Penurious to the last 
 degree, nothing could induce him to acquire wealth 
 illegally, or contrary to his views of honor. Car- 
 thage in ruins was his monument. He was a pa- 
 trician who looked upon the enlargement of citi- 
 zenship, and the outgrowth of provincialisms, as 
 degeneracy. He failed to see in that enlarge- 
 ment the necessary condition of imperial growth. 
 He was a chronic grumbler. As events swept on in 
 an ever-widening stream, he stood upon the shore 
 and railed. He was greatly esteemed, and it was 
 quite the fashion to admire his Romanesque virtues, 
 but he can hardly be said to have exerted much real 
 influence. The stream would not reverse its course 
 and flow up hill to please even Cato the Censor. 
 When he died the last link was broken between Rome 
 the Insignificant and Rome the Magnificent. There 
 
 were two Catos, the 
 younger being a cotem- 
 porary of Caesar, one 
 standing at the begin- 
 ning, the other at the 
 end of the period under 
 consideration. They are 
 so similar in character, 
 that one suspects the 
 younger must have sat 
 for the picture painted 
 of the elder. The young- 
 er Cato was a prolific 
 writer on agriculture and 
 Cato the Younger. other “topics of the 
 
 times. ” He died at last by his own hand, unwilling 
 to survive the ascendancy of Julius Caesar, whom he 
 looked upon as a demoralized and demoralizing 
 demagogue. 
 
 There were two Gracchi of note, Tiberius and 
 Caius.' “The mother of the Gracchi” is a prom- 
 inent figure in Roman records. It is of her that 
 it is reported, that when the matrons of Rome 
 were summoned to appear in public with their jew- 
 els, she came simply dressed. Being reproved for 
 
 disregarding the order, she pointed to her sons, 
 saying, “ These are my jewels. ” Later, Rome 
 loved to hold her up as the 
 model matron, a worthy com- 
 panion-in-honor of the chaste 
 Lucretia and Virginia. The 
 name of this greatly venerated 
 matron was Cornelia. Tiberius 
 renewed the agrarian agitation, 
 carrying it much farther than 
 it had been carried before, and 
 his brother continued the agita- 
 tion. Alarmed at the growing 
 depopulation of Italy, he con- Tiberius Gracchus, 
 ceived the project of raising the condition of the Ro- 
 man commonalty. He was the son of a Consul, and 
 his mother, Cornelia, was the daughter of the Elder 
 Scipio Africanus. Plebeian yet noble was the blood in 
 his veins. He espoused the cause of the oppressed and 
 the impoverished. He was the O’Connell and Parnell 
 of his day. The aristocracy took alarm, and spared 
 no effort to thwart his laudable purpose. He was ir- 
 repressible, and no allurements of office could turn 
 him aside. He tried to revive the Licinian law, 
 and made progress, being elected a Tribune. His 
 term of office expired before his work was complet- 
 ed, and he insisted upon re-election, which would 
 have been illegal, as the constitutional lawyers of the 
 day claimed. A riot occurred, and Tiberius was slain. 
 That was in B. C. 133. A few years later his 
 brother Caius took up the cause of the landless 
 against the landlords, and he too was slain. 
 
 The nobles seemed to be all-powerful. The rich 
 became immensely more wealthy, and the poor sank 
 into hopeless poverty. Henceforth there was a vast 
 body of the people dependent upon the spoils and 
 largess which the conquests of the period provided 
 on a liberal scale. With the failure of the Gracchi 
 Rome lost forever the opportunity to escape from 
 the constant menace of a mob, and the very triumph 
 of the aristocratic senate paved the way for the ulti- 
 mate subjugation of that body to the behests of an 
 emperor. That victory was a century-plant which 
 flowered in the subversion of the Republic and the 
 establishment of the Empire. 
 
 Caius Marius, one of the greatest names in the 
 military annals of Rome, was a Volscian. He began 
 life a farm-laborer. By his courage and genius he 
 rose to eminence as a soldier, and then aspired to 
 
 “ 
 
 \ 
 
_9 
 
 LAST CENTURY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 
 
 ! 5 ° 
 
 a political preferment. He was a successful politi- 
 cian, aided largely by alliance with the illustrious 
 
 family of the Cae- 
 sars, one of the 
 first families in 
 the state, long be- 
 fore Julius made 
 the name immor- 
 tal — and typical 
 of imperialism. 
 In Africa he dis- 
 tinguished him- 
 self not only at 
 Zama, but by the 
 conquest of that 
 troublesome en- 
 iiarius. emy, the Numid- 
 
 ian Jugurtha, whose wars have been preserved to 
 mankind by the pen of Sallust. 
 
 His lieutenant in the latter war was Cornelius 
 
 Sulla. He did 
 great things for 
 Rome in Africa. 
 He returned the 
 hero of a glorious 
 campaign, and 
 seven times the 
 consular power 
 and honor was a- 
 warded him. In 
 the Northwest he 
 strengthened and 
 enlarged the Ro- 
 man Empire, and 
 was the idol of 
 3 a desperate at- 
 tempt to break the magic spell of Rome. Marius 
 saved his country. But his star finally waned. Sul- 
 i la belonged to a younger generation, and succeeded 
 in supplanting the veteran. In their day, the Ital- 
 ian nationalities, still cherishing jealousy of Roman 
 supremacy, rose in rebellion. The Social or Mar- 
 sic war was a very formidable uprising, and for its 
 suppression Sulla won the highest credit. When 
 that struggle was over and the republic needed a 
 general to put down insurgents in Asia, and enlarge 
 the empire eastward, he was chosen for the position, 
 to the chagrin and discomfit of Marius. The latter 
 was about seventy and the former twenty-one years 
 
 younger. They were very different types of men. 
 Marius was a rough and unlettered barbarian ; Sulla 
 was in education a Greek. 
 
 There had arisen “ a mighty man of war ” in 
 Asia, Mithridates, and when Sulla had departed for 
 his overthrow, Marius set about organizing the Ital- 
 ians into a political party, and had himself a]> 
 pointed to the Eastern command. Sulla had not 
 left the country, and promptly returning, entered 
 Rome as a conqueror. Marius was not prepared for 
 this emergency, and was obliged to seek safety in 
 flight. He fled to Africa. A warrant for his arrest 
 was issued. The officers dogged his steps, and it is 
 reported that when they found him, they were so 
 awed by his presence and name that they shrank 
 from arresting him. When they asked him what 
 answer he had to make to the summons, he replied, 
 “ Tell the Roman Senate you found Caius Marius 
 sitting upon the ruins of Carthage.” He had then 
 been Consul six times. He finally returned, and 
 raised an army to fight the blue-blooded aristocracy 
 of the senate in the interest of the common people. 
 He was successful, and for the seventh and last time 
 was elected consul, with Caria as his colleague. He 
 died during the year, the revolution which he aimed 
 at, namely, the thorough enfranchisement of the 
 Italians, incomplete ; but his colleague was able to 
 obliterate all remaining distinctions between Italians 
 and Romans. To Marius, therefore, belongs the 
 honor of vastly extending the area of the republic, 
 and of unifying Italy under the Roman name and 
 constitution. 
 
 Sulla had departed on his mission to the East, 
 while Marius was a fugitive. He stormed and sacked 
 Athens, and the Roman soldiers sent out by Marius 
 to fight against Sulla had the good sense to join 
 him in marching upon the common enemy. His 
 career was a glorious one, from a military point of 
 view, and he returned to Rome laden with military 
 spoils. Marius was no more, but the Marian party 
 was still powerful, and hostile to Sulla. His mili- 
 tary prestige, and the spoils with which he could en- 
 rich his followers, made him master of the situa-. 
 tion. He was not slow in taking advantage of his 
 position. The opposition came out to meet him 
 with an army, but his course was not seriously 
 stayed, and he wrought his will. 
 
 It was about this time that the capital was burned 
 (B. C. 83) and the Sibylline oracles perished with 
 
 £ 
 
 71 
 
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 LAST CENTURY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 1 5 I 
 
 it. The loss of state papers was certainly very 
 great, and throws a cloud of uncertainty over all 
 the historical records previous to this time. Hence- 
 forth minute documentary records were kept, on 
 which subsequent history is supposed to rest. 
 
 Sulla, to return to our narrative, allied himself 
 with the aristocracy. He was a born autocrat. 
 The common jieople were odious to him. Besides, 
 the popular party had been resolutely inimical to 
 his claims as a military hero. After much civil 
 war and political intrigue in desolating Italy, 
 Etruscan civilization had not been obliterated, but 
 he finished it. Out of his rivalry with Marius 
 grew a desolating war upon Etruria not only, but on 
 the Samnites, and when he sheathed his sword they 
 were no more. In these latter days, some relics of 
 that early civilization of Italy have been unearthed, 
 just enough to attest the greatness of the destruc- 
 tion effected. Sulla was appointed Dictator. That 
 was in B. C. 82. Proscription and massacre were 
 the order of the day. Marius had thinned the 
 ranks of the senate by his high-handed and bloody 
 line of policy, and now came retaliation. Sulla de- 
 termined to restore the reign of the oligarchy, and 
 crush out the rising power of democracy. Some of 
 his methods were peculiar. He enfranchised at one 
 stroke ten thousand slaves, whose masters he had 
 executed or driven into banishment. They were 
 registered as members of the Cornelian clan, of 
 which the Dictator was the head, and thus was his 
 power consolidated, as he supposed. He divided 
 public and confiscated private land among his 
 legionaries on a liberal scale. He reconstructed 
 the senate at his sovereign pleasure. When he 
 had, as he thought, rendered secure the ascendancy 
 of the oligarchy, lie voluntarily abdicated and re- 
 tired to his suburban estate to enjoy the luxuries of 
 private life. He survived about twelve months, dy- 
 ing at the age of sixty. Between hard campaign- 
 ing and unbridled debauchery, he was literally 
 used up. 
 
 Sulla was a Bourbon, as we use that term m 
 these days. Blind and deaf to the demands of na- 
 tional growth, he determined to restore the ancient 
 landmarks, and compel the great empire to run po- 
 litically in the same old grooves which were the 
 ruts of Rome as an insignificant city, great only in 
 its possibilities. He went to his grave, serenely 
 confident that he had undone the gradual work of 
 
 centuries, and especially the violent reform of the 
 Marians. But it was all a mistake. Chaotic civil 
 war soon broke out, and the state seemed threatened 
 with suicide. Blood flowed freely, and the shadow 
 of anarchy constantly hovered over the republic. 
 
 There was really no peace until the empire became 
 imperial in government, as well as in area. But it 
 took only ten years to undo what Sulla had done 
 as Dictator. What he had done as Proconsul in 
 the East, was the salvation of the empire. Mithri- 
 dates, King of Parthia, was a great military genius, 
 and came very near building up a vast kingdom in 
 Asia; one which would have overshadowed and 
 dwarfed Rome. The victory which Sulla won at 
 Chserona, decided the day forever as between Rome 
 and its last real rival. Henceforth, the Romans 
 had only the rude barbarians of the Northwest to 
 fear. The East was powerless. The civilized world 
 had only one political capital, the really half -bar- 
 baric “ Eternal City.” This world-conquest may be 
 said to have begun with the first Punic war, and 
 ended with the stamping out of the great uprising 
 in Greece, Asia Minor and the East generally, un- 
 der the leadership of Mitliridates. The subsequent 
 wars in those quarters involved no real peril to 
 Rome. 
 
 Among those who rose to some eminence un- 
 der Sulla, as adherents to his political fortunes, 
 was Cnaeus Pompeius ; and among those who suf- 
 fered persecution for the cause of the people and 
 progress, was Julius Caesar. The former would 
 have been a minor character in Roman history, had 
 his career ended witli the retirement of his chief, 
 while the latter would have been wholly forgotten, 
 but for subsequent events. Pompey was the first, 
 after Sulla, to rise to an eminence entitling him to 
 conspicuous notice. He was not a really great, or 
 a bad man. He was a patriot of much more than 
 the average virtue, and a trifle more than the aver- 
 age ability. His great achievement was the sup- 
 pression of piracy. Rome had become the center 
 of commerce, simply because it had the power to 
 compel all commercial peoples to pay tribute. To 
 secure the largesses of corn and wine, and all pre- 
 cious or useful merchandise, it was necessary to 
 have immunity from the pirates who infested 
 the Mediterranean. They had become very for- 
 midable and impudent. They had no idea of being 
 suppressed, but Rome set about the task, B. C. G7, 
 
 O 
 
_s> 
 
 
 152 LAST CENTURY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 
 
 and was entirely successful. Pompey’s commission 
 was virtually the absolute sovereignty of that sea for 
 three years, together with its coast for fifty miles 
 around, which in many cases was about as far in- 
 land as actual Roman authority penetrated. It was 
 a right royal commission. The authority was not 
 abused. 
 
 He was then appointed governor of the East, and 
 did much to consolidate and perfect the empire. 
 Syria and Phoenicia 
 yielded unconditionally 
 to his sway. Now, for 
 the first time, Jewish 
 and Roman history be- 
 gin to have points in 
 common. It was sixty 
 years before Christ that 
 he laid siege to Jerusa- 
 lem and took it. It was 
 not destruction, but 
 subjugation, which he 
 sought and obtained. 
 
 His exploits won him 
 great popularityat Rome. 
 
 His next field of glory 
 was Spain, where he was 
 invested with supreme 
 authority. 
 
 Pompey’s glory was 
 his weakness. He was a 
 member of the conserva- 
 tive party, and its lead- 
 er, without being fully 
 equal to the tasks in- 
 volved. In the mean- 
 while, Julius Csesar had 
 developed into the lead- 
 er of the opposition, and he was a man of com- 
 manding genius. Without going now into the gen- 
 eral career of this greatest of all Romans, it may be 
 well to dispose of his relations to Pompey. Gener- 
 ally hostile, they were sometimes friends and co- 
 workers. At one time they were knit together by 
 ties of marriage. In those days of easy divorces, 
 matrimonial alliances for political reasons were not 
 uncommon. But on the principle of “ natural 
 selection ” the two men were not adapted to a “ co- 
 parceny.” Caesar was a thorough Marian. Pom- 
 pey, without being a consistent party man, was, on 
 
 the whole, a Bourbon of the Sullan school. Then 
 each would naturally be somewhat jealous of the 
 other. Caesar seems to have been spared any very 
 intense jealousy by his consciousness of superiority, 
 and for a long time Pompey was spared it by the 
 possession of inordinate self-conceit. But finally, 
 all makeshifts and devices of compromise being ex- 
 hausted, each recognized in the other an implacable 
 enemy, and they came to sustain to each other much 
 
 the relation Carthage and 
 Rome had sustained. 
 One or the other must 
 perish. Civil war was 
 inevitable, and culmin- 
 ated in the battle of 
 Pharsalia, fought in 
 June, B. C. 48. Both 
 armies were large and 
 well-officered. It was a 
 complete victory for 
 Caesar. The vanquished 
 warrior fled with a small 
 remnant of the army, 
 and ift his flight he was 
 assassinated by false 
 friends. At the age of 
 fifty-eight he fell, the 
 hero of three triumphs 
 over the three continents. 
 Long the foremost man 
 of Rome, Pompey fell 
 while seeking asylum in 
 Egypt, where he had 
 hoped to recruit his 
 forces and make one 
 more stand against the 
 inevitable. 
 
 Between the glory of Pompey and the eclipsing 
 splendor of Caesar, there intervened the conspiracy 
 of Cataline, an episode of the republic rendered im- 
 mortal by Cicero. Cataline was a spoilt child of 
 fortune. Noble in blood and great in intellect, he 
 was ignoble in spirit and unscrupulous in the use of 
 means. He aspired to the consulship. Failing to 
 reach the goal by fair means, he conceived the des- 
 perate purpose of raising a conspiracy. It was an 
 age of blood and horrors, and that Aaron Burr of 
 Rome resolved to achieve command by arming the 
 lowest and most desperate class of citizens. Ilis 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 v£> 
 
 7 o 
 
LAST CENTURY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 
 
 T 53 
 
 Cicero. 
 
 and so perhaps he was. 
 
 plot was disclosed, and Cicero, then the foremost 
 
 orator at the Roman 
 bar and in the senate, 
 undertook to thwart 
 him by prosecution for 
 treason. The orations 
 he delivered are preserv- 
 ed, and rank second on- 
 ly to the Philippics of 
 Demosthenes. The great 
 orator secured the ban- 
 ishment of the conspira- 
 tor, and was hailed as 
 the savior of his country ; 
 Cicero was a most accom- 
 plished man in every way. He was the ripest fruit 
 of civilization produced by the Roman republic. 
 His weakness was vanity, and as a man of public 
 affairs lie was not the equal of Caesar, but in schol- 
 arship and superb statesmanship he was unrivaled. 
 His is one of the most august figures in all history. 
 A philosopher and a statesman, be contributed more 
 to the literature of his country than to its political 
 destiny, while yet pre-eminent in affairs of state. 
 The consulship was attained by him. He was not a 
 strong partisan, nor was he a thoroughly great poli- 
 tician in any point of view. His powers were a lit- 
 tle to odiversified to admit of the very highest achiev- 
 ments. He sought to preserve the good in old 
 forms and ideas, while appreciating the advantages 
 of progress. He seemed somewhat vacillating, but 
 it was the vacillation of intellectual breadth rather 
 than cowardice. He enjoyed the popular favor, and 
 escaped the perils of civil war until the great crisis 
 of the state culminated in the assassination of .Ju- 
 lius Caesar, when not even a Cicero could maintain 
 a neutral position. He fully identified himself with 
 the party of Brutus, incapable though lie was of act- 
 ual participation in the assassination. When Cae- 
 sarism won the day and retribution came, Cicero 
 was one of the victims. He was murdered by order 
 of the victorious Octavius, B. C. 42. But his fame 
 and his writing remain a vital part of the world, 
 and will survive to all time. 
 
 Julius Caesar belongs in part to the period of this 
 chapter, and in part to the next. Although he 
 never wore a crown, he justly stands as the typical 
 emperor. Imperialism and Caesarism are synony- 
 mous terms. Yet lie was a democrat, in distinction 
 
 from an aristocrat, and throughout his political ca- 
 reer was the unvarying and indomitable foe of 
 the aristocracy. His blood was noble, none more so, 
 and he could have been the pet of the senatorial 
 aristocrats. But following the fortunes of the Ma- 
 rian party, to which he was bound by family ties, he 
 championed the cause of the populace. Cautious 
 and far-seeing, he did not blurt out his plans, and 
 spoil all by wearing his heart on his sleeve. He en- 
 tered public life early, and yet was deliberate and 
 prudent in pushing to the front. He took care not 
 to call upon himself special animosity. By gradual 
 steps he rose, until he was allowed a command in 
 the far West. Up to this time he had not distin- 
 guished himself. Some narrow escapes are recorded 
 of him in the days of Sulla, whose command to put 
 away by divorce the wife of his youth, he grandly 
 disobeyed. He was not a model husband by any 
 means, and did divorce his wife afterwards from 
 motives of policy. He was a spendthrift and de- 
 bauche. 
 
 After distinguishing himself in Spain, he return- 
 ed and was elected Consul, B. C. 59. That was 
 something of a crisis in the republic, for the new 
 Consul improved the time to secure many reforms, 
 and to foreshadow quite clearly the aims of the de- 
 mocracy. It was evident that lie would, if lie could, 
 put an end to the narrowness of the past. Rome, 
 to his conception, was a nation, not a metropolis. 
 This ever-present political issue, the constant quan- 
 tity in Roman politics, was accepted in all its logic 
 by Caesar. It was not the plebeians against the pa- 
 tricians, Latium against the city, but the whole em- 
 pire against the favored few of the capital. He 
 became henceforth the recognized leader of the na- 
 tional party. His term of service over, he went to 
 Gaul as Proconsul, and pushed the conquest of the 
 West to Britain. By the artful employment of po- 
 litical agencies, he so far conciliated Pompey and 
 his party, as to secure the extension of his military 
 commission. He “ stooped to conquer.” Allowed 
 a powerful army, lie made such splendid use of his 
 opportunities, that he laid Rome under very heavy 
 obligation to him, and consolidated about him an 
 army which could be relied upon to follow Avhcrever 
 he led. He was then able to take an aggressive 
 and bold stand. The civil war with Pompey was 
 incident to his plan, nothing more. His request to 
 be allowed to come home and stand for another 
 
 O 
 
V a 
 
 
 *54 
 
 LAST CENTURY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 
 
 consular election being denied by the senate, he 
 boldly denied not only the authority of that body, 
 but the very constitution of the republic. He was 
 forbidden to advance nearer than the river Rubicon, 
 but he crossed it, and in so doing set himself square- 
 ly against both the present edict and the law of 
 traditional authority. That was the turning-point 
 in his fortunes, and, as it proved, the death-blow 
 of the republic. With wonderful celerity, he passed 
 from place to place, quelling the rising storm of 
 opposition. Everywhere the conservatives were 
 aroused, and nothing save the incomparable genius 
 of Caesar prevented a crushing combination against 
 him. From Rome he went to Spain, then back 
 again to meet the forces of Pompey. No sooner 
 had he won the battle of Pharsalia than he was off 
 for Egypt, and put down the party whose cause 
 Pompey had espoused. A mutiny in his own army 
 was soon put down, and swiftly followed by the utter 
 overthrow of the Pompeian party, which made its 
 last stand in Africa. We next find him in Spain 
 again. By that time he was ready to come back to 
 Rome and enter upon the actual exercise (one can 
 hardly say enjoyment) of his authority. He was 
 now master of Rome and all its tributaries. The 
 empire, politically speaking, dates from his election 
 as Dictator for life, when he had reached a position 
 from which only death could dislodge him. We 
 cannot better close this chapter than by citing, 
 without endorsing, the now famous concluding pas- 
 sage in Froude’s Caesar : 
 
 “ The spirit which confined government to its 
 simplest duties, while it left opinion unfettered, was 
 especially present in Julius Caesar himself. From 
 cant of all kinds he was totally free. He was a 
 
 friend of the people, but he indulged in no enthu- 
 siasm for liberty. He never dilated on the beauties 
 of virtue, or complimented, as Cicero did, a Provi- 
 dence in which he did not believe. He was too sin- 
 cere to stoop to unreality. He held to the facts 
 of this life and to his own convictions ; and as he 
 found no reason for supposing that there was a life 
 beyond the grave, he did not pretend to expect it. 
 He respected the religion of the Roman State as an 
 institution established by the laws. He encouraged 
 or left unmolested the creeds and practices of the 
 uncounted sects or tribes who were gathered under 
 the eagles. But his own writings contain nothing 
 to indicate that he himself had any religious belief 
 at all. He saw no evidence that the gods practically 
 interfered in human affairs. He never pretended 
 that Jupiter was on his side. He thanked his sol- 
 diers after a victory, but he did not order Te Deums 
 to be sung for it ; and in the absence of these con- 
 ventionalisms he perhaps showed more real rever- 
 ence than he could have displayed by the freest use 
 of the formulas of pietism. 
 
 “ He fought his battles to establish some tolerable 
 degree of justice in the government of this world ; 
 and succeeded, though he was murdered for doing it. 
 
 “ Strange and startling resemblance between the 
 fate of the founder of the kingdom of this world 
 and of the Founder of the Kingdom not of this 
 world, for which the first was a preparation. Each 
 was denounced for making himself a king. Each 
 was maligned as the friend of publicans and sin- 
 ners ; each was betrayed by those whom he had loved 
 and cared for ; each was put to death ; and Caesar 
 also was believed to have risen again and ascended 
 into heaven and become a divine being.” 
 
 v£> 
 
 r 
 
 ■n® - 
 

 
 CHAPTER XXVI 
 
 The Republic and Imperialism — C.esar and the Calendar — H is Motto in Life— Testimony 
 of Froude — Senatorial Reform — Age of Skepticism — The Proffered Crown — The Assas- 
 sination Plot — The Triumvirate — Cleopatra the Beautiful— Augustus and his Policy 
 — The Empire and the Senate — Popularity of the Emperor Augustus — Merivale on 
 the Empire — The Augustan Age. 
 
 
 T was in the year B. C. 46 
 that Caesar was named Dic- 
 tator for ten years, with the 
 right to nominate the per- 
 sons whom the people were 
 to choose for their Consuls 
 and Praetors. In less than 
 two years his bloody corse 
 lay at the foot of Pompey’s pillar in 
 the senate cham- 
 ber. During that 
 short space of 
 ' & time was wrought 
 a mighty work of 
 reconstruction,! 
 and the founda- 
 tions of imperi- 
 alism were laid so 
 securely, that nothing but the 
 corrosions of time could de- 
 stroy them, and even then de- 
 struction was not complete. Jnlins Ctesar. 
 Republicanism was not democracy. The form of 
 self government was maintained without conferring 
 the substance of liberty. 
 
 Under the plea of popular rights was inaugura- 
 ted the Empire. The term “emperor” (imperator) was 
 
 unknown then, and was not assumed by the first of 
 the Caesars ; but the reality of absolutism was en- 
 joyed by Julius Caesar more fully than by any of 
 his successors. They all refrained from assuming 
 the kingly name, and kept up some show of popu- 
 lar government. In the course of time Emperor 
 became a more imposing title than King, but origin- 
 ally the idea of monarchy was not suggested by it, 
 or even by the really more sovereign title of Dicta- 
 tor. Caesar was absolute master because the people 
 so elected, and the right of hereditary succession 
 was not an integral part of primitive imperialism. 
 
 The work of reform was commenced at once. 
 The courts were purified and political rings broken 
 up. The standard of public morality had sunk to 
 a pitiful depth of degradation during the perturbed 
 century now closed. Caesar was no purist, but he 
 appreciated the necessity of a higher tone of public 
 sentiment. He early set about reforming the cal- 
 endar. Cicero sneered at him, and so did the other 
 learned men of the times. They were skilled in 
 the wisdom of Greece, but unversed in that of 
 Egypt. Caesar had been in Alexandria, and his 
 quick perceptions saw the advantage of a scien- 
 tific division and measurement of time. lie 
 adopted substantially the Egyptian system, previ- 
 ously explained. Our Julian calendar, leap year 
 
 ( T 55) 
 

 ® a 
 
 x 5 6 
 
 CAESAR AND THE EMPIRE. 
 
 ancl all, still stands, and the first day of Jan- 
 uary has been New Year’s day ever since B. C. 45. 
 
 For fourteen years Csesar had known no rest, and 
 he was now fifty-five years old, but he abated none 
 of his industry. His was a nature which could not 
 find repose in life. “ If you want a thing well 
 done, do it yourself ” was his characteristic motto. 
 The confused state of the government demanded 
 his constant attention in affairs of peace, but he 
 was soon obliged to set out for Spain to put down 
 the last remnant of the conservative party in its 
 open hostility. He took with him his sister’s son 
 (he had no child of his own) Octavius, afterwards 
 Augustus, then a lad of eighteen years. This boy 
 he adopted, and to him he evidently looked for a 
 successor. No doubt the youth learned much dur- 
 ing that campaign which was of incalculable ad- 
 vantage to him as emperor. In the spring of 45, 
 the very last battle of that civil war was fought in 
 Spain, near Gibraltar. It completed the defeat of 
 the party which had been effectually crushed in 
 point of fact at Pharsalia. “ The free constitution 
 of the republic,” says Froude, “ had issued at last in 
 elections which were a mockery of representations, 
 in courts of law which were an insult to justice, 
 and in the conversion of the empire into the feed- 
 ing-grounds of a gluttonous aristocracy.” This is 
 the language of an imperialist, still it is not an ex- 
 aggeration. The battle of Munda was fought in 
 March, and it was not until late in the following 
 autumn that the Dictator set out on his return to 
 Rome. His first care was to disarm opposition by 
 clemency. He tried by that means to placate the 
 implacable aristocracy. 
 
 He filled the senatorial vacancies, and raised the 
 number of that body to nine hundred. Among the 
 senators were some Gauls, and even some emanci- 
 pated slaves. The high-born patricians were in- 
 sufferably indignant. He tried to check the effem- 
 inacy of the times, and stringent sumptuary laws 
 were passed. A commission was appointed to digest 
 the laws, judicial and statutory, and great effort 
 was made to make Rome a scientific center. lie 
 formed large engineering plans for draining the 
 Pontine marshes, and similar enterprises. His 
 architectural plans were on a magnificent scale. 
 Nothing, in fact, seemed to escape his attention in 
 the shape of secular improvement. It was an age 
 of universal skepticism. Caesar himself had held 
 
 the office of high priest, but was a disbeliever in all 
 religious tenets, including the doctrine of immor- 
 tality. Classic myths were as mythical to him as 
 to us of to-day, and the intelligence of mankind 
 shared his agnosticism, except as there was a sect 
 of Jews who were somewhat learned and held to 
 the doctrine of a future life. Old forms of worship 
 and systems of religion were maintained only for 
 secular reasons, being interwoven with the political 
 structure of society and deemed useful for purposes 
 of state. 
 
 But the crisis was near. On the fifteenth of Feb- 
 ruary, the day of the Lupercalia (a feast in honor 
 of Pan, who was supposed, in a literal sense, to 
 “ keep the wolf from the door ”) Mark Antony, 
 henceforth a noted name, but hitherto subordinate, 
 offered Caesar the crown. Antony was one of the 
 Consuls. A faint applause was heard. Open disap- 
 proval might have been dangerous. It was evident 
 that the Romans were not at all kindly disposed to- 
 ward a return to royalty. The traditions of the 
 Tarquins were too deeply graven in their thoughts. 
 The offer was gently put aside, and upon its repeti- 
 tion Caesar was heard to say, “ I am not king. The 
 only king of Rome is Jupiter.” The boldness and 
 persistence of the offer and the feebleness of the re- 
 fusal, confirmed the suspicions of the senatorial oli- 
 garchy that Caesar really cherished kingly ambition 
 and would not be content to remain Imperator. It 
 was clear that the only way to dispose of him was by 
 assassination. That expedient was resolved upon. 
 
 Once more a Bru- 
 tus was found to un- 
 dertake the cause of 
 republicanism This 
 later Brutus was sup- 
 posed by some to be 
 the natural son of Cae- 
 sar, but however that 
 may be, they were 
 close friends. It was 
 at first doubtful if he 
 would lend his name 
 and person to the plot, but he finally did. The con- 
 spirators kept their secret well ; albeit some rumors 
 of the impending catastrophe were noised abroad, 
 yet Caesar continued to perform his official duties 
 at the senate without special precautions. At 
 length the fifteenth of March, the day agreed upon 
 
 mm//. . 
 
 Marcus Brutus. 
 
 
 6 ' 
 

 k. 
 
 C.ESAR AND THE EMPIRE. 
 
 I 57 
 
 for the assassination, came, and the Imperator ap- 
 pearing as usual in the Capitol, the conspirators 
 surrounded him, and the bloody work was finished 
 before his friends could rally. Many romantic de- 
 tails, evidently the invention of later imaginations, 
 are told illustrative of the tragic interest which will 
 ever cluster about that most memorable of all assas- 
 sinations. It has been worthily dramatized by the 
 genius of Shakspeare, and one is tempted to pause 
 over the tragedy. The really historical interest does 
 not center in the taking off itself, but in what led 
 to it and resulted from it ; and Cicero was right 
 when he remarked, “ The tyrant is dead ; tyranny 
 remains.” The imperial party having lost its leader, 
 another bloody civil war ensued, but out of it all the 
 empire emerged territorially and politically intact. 
 
 At first Antony, Lepidus, master of horse, and 
 Octavius, Caesar’s nephew 
 and heir, were stunned, 
 but they soon rallied and 
 roused the popular indig- 
 nation, for Caesar was a 
 name to conjure with. 
 Cicero apologized for and 
 lauded the assassination, 
 while Brutus and Cassius 
 rallied an army in defense. 
 A bitter and desperate 
 
 Octavius. 
 
 struggle ensued. It was a 
 
 comparatively easy task to 
 punish the assassins, but the three avengers then fell 
 out. Lepidus was first disposed of, and Antony and 
 Octavius waged fierce warfare. In the meanwhile, 
 the former had settled 
 himself luxuriously if 
 not comfortably at Alex- 
 andria, giving himself up 
 to the society of Cleopatra, 
 the queen of Egypt, whoso 
 beauty and dalliance have 
 made her name familiar 
 to all. That was no time 
 for voluptuousness. An- 
 tony might have won the 
 imperial prize by strict at- 
 Marcus Antonius. tcntion to business, but lie 
 
 frittered away his opportunity, and no eleventh-hour 
 rally could save him. He perished, and with him 
 the beauteous queen. With her fell the dynasty of 
 
 the Ptolemies. Its position was precarious before, 
 and now the last spark of real royalty expired. 
 Cleopatra was designed 
 by Octavius to grace his 
 triumphal return to the 
 capital, but she baffled 
 him by applying the fa- 
 tal asp to her breast. That 
 sweet revenge was denied 
 him, but he was none the 
 less master of the situation. 
 
 His uncle, under somewhat 
 similar circumstances, had 
 been very lenient to his en- 
 emies. Augustus, as he now 
 called himself, resolved to Bust of cleopatra at Deuderah - 
 avoid that peril. He put to the sword all whom he 
 thought could stand between him and security on 
 the imperial throne. He seemed to be the very ideal 
 of monstrous cruelty, so relentlessly did he carry 
 out this policy, but having once made an end of his 
 enemies, he bid a long farewell to slaughter, and 
 inaugurated a period of tranquillity. 
 
 The reign of Augustus Caesar, which was in ef- 
 fect a continuation of the Imperatorsliip of Julius 
 Caesar, covered a period of forty years, namely 
 from B. C. 29, whan he returned to Rome to enjoy 
 his triple triumph, his last enemy, Antony, having- 
 been crushed under his feet, until near the close of 
 A. D. 14, when he tranquilly fell asleep in death. 
 From the battle of Actium, in which the Antonian 
 army was routed, the empire had been at rest. No 
 internal dissension disturbed the repose of the civil- 
 ized world. Such a profound and universal cessa- 
 tion of hostilities had never been known, and has 
 not been enjoyed since. " The empire means peace.” 
 It is curious that this reign of peace rested not 
 only upon carnage, but upon military rule. Augus- 
 tus owed his ascendancy in its continuance to the 
 standing army. He was not only Princeps of the 
 senate, — a strictly republican and civil title,— but also 
 Consul and Proconsul, being Tmperator for life. 
 The senate was reorganized by him, and lost forever 
 its independence and importance. Henceforth it 
 was hardly more than the British house of lords, re- 
 taining the semblance of authority without the real- 
 ity. The powers of the Tribunate were also absorbed 
 into the imperial office. As sovereign pontiff or 
 high priest, he assumed what there was left of 
 
 a 
 
 "7f 
 
 V 
 

 C^ESAR AND THE EMPIRE. 
 
 ecclesiastical jurisdiction. It was not much, but 
 something. He was no advocate of skepticism, and 
 certainly no admirer of philosophy. He contemned 
 the speculations of metaphysics, and did what he 
 could to restore the old faith. Indeed, he was em- 
 inently conservative. Having won all the honors and 
 powers he could covet, he set about allaying the 
 animosities of the old regime by conspicuous re- 
 spect for the traditional prejudices of the citizens. 
 
 Perhaps Csesar’s ghost with the ugly stabs of the 
 
 isfied with the honor, thus conferred, but he took 
 care that the actual authority exercised should be 
 such that ever since his day, Emperor has been the 
 proudest and most royal title possible among men. 
 
 Hitherto the Empire of Rome has had no certain 
 boundaries, and no organic adjustment. Procon- 
 suls and Praetors have been assigned! to duties in an 
 irregular and jerky way. Augustus systematized 
 the government and districted the state. Italy, 
 from the Alps to the Straits of Messina, was divided 
 
 conspirators, was an ever-potent argument against 
 persistent radicalism. He may have felt that his 
 personal safety recjuired him to conciliate the favor 
 of the conservative element, so far as that could be 
 done without the surrender of imperial ambition. He 
 loved the reality of power without its pomp. He 
 lived plainly, dressed in “ homespun,” walked the 
 streets, nodding and chatting pleasantly with his 
 acquaintances, obeying subpoenas to appear as a 
 witness in court, and in every way of that kind con- 
 cealing the crown he wore. Like Romulus, Camil- 
 
 ^ lus, Cicero and Julius, he was hailed as the father 
 of his country, and professed to be abundantly sat- 
 
 -r*js ~ 
 
 into eleven districts, all under the control of the 
 Pnetor in the city. The rest of the empire was 
 divided into senatorial or imperial provinces, ac- 
 cording as the governors were accountable to the 
 senate or the Emperor. The entire standing army 
 was not far from three hundred and fifty thousand, 
 not including the naval force, which was very con- 
 siderable, and the first ever maintained by the Ro- 
 mans. Speaking of the taxes levied at this time, an 
 eminent historian says : “ The sources of public 
 revenue were indeed numerous and varied. The 
 public domain reserved in ancient times to the state 
 after each successive contest, had now been gener- 
 
 
 
 
■v 
 
 s> J- 
 
 CyESAR AND THE EMPIRE. 
 
 *59 
 
 ally divided among the citizens, or remitted to then 
 subjects ; the tribute or land tax, originally imposed 
 upon citizens and subjects alike, had been remitted 
 to the soil of Italy since the conquest of Macedonia , 
 but this contribution was still levied throughout the 
 provinces, in money or in kind, and the capitation 
 tax pressed alike upon every inhabitant of the Ro- 
 man dominions. Mines and quarries, fisheries and 
 salt works, were generally public property farmed 
 for the state. Tolls and customs were exacted on 
 every road and in every city, and most of the ob- 
 jects of personal property, both dead and live stock, 
 including slaves, paid a duty in proportion to their 
 value. Augustus imposed a rate of one-twentieth 
 on legacies, but this mild experiment in direct tax- 
 ation caused cousiderable murmurs. The great 
 corn-growing countries of Egypt and Africa made a 
 special contribution of grain for the supply of 
 Rome and Italy. The largesses, both of victuals 
 aud money, to the people, which had been an occa- 
 sional boon from the early times of the republic, 
 were henceforth conferred regularly and systemati- 
 cally, and there was no more fatal error in the pol- 
 icy of the empire (though it was neither invented 
 by the emperors nor could they relieve themselves 
 from it) than the taxation of industry in the prov- 
 inces to maintain idle arrogance at home.” 
 
 The population of the city of Rome is supposed 
 to have been about 700,000 ; that of the empire as 
 a whole, not less than 100,000,000. The capital 
 was enriched by many temples and other public 
 
 buildings, and other cities like Alexandria and An- 
 tioch, rivals of Rome in population and general civil- 
 ization, seemed to bask in imperial smiles. The Em- 
 peror made an extended Eastern tour, not as a con- 
 queror, but as the friend and benefactor of his sub- 
 jects and fellow citizens, for he carefully maintained 
 the appellation of citizen, and the franchises which 
 it implied were en joyed by many of the people in all 
 parts of the empire. At one time he undertook in 
 person an expedition to quell an insurrection in a 
 remote Western province (for profound as was the 
 peace of Rome, barbaric eruptions of a trivial na- 
 ture were not wholly wanting), and the eagles of 
 Rome took a somewhat widening circle in their 
 flight westward. He left the empire enlarged a lit- 
 tle, and consolidated so thoroughly that it rested 
 on a basis so solid that it seemed for centuries to be 
 eternal. It lias been remarked, that of the city of 
 Rome Augustus could say, “ I found it brick and 
 left it marble.” Of the empire, surely it might be 
 said that he found it bricks and left it an arch. 
 The loose material was cemented into a grand and 
 enduring structure on which the government of the 
 world for centuries could securely rest. 
 
 The details of this reign were uneventful, and in 
 following the empire in its course from this time on 
 we shall not find very much of actual importance. 
 Rome has now acquired its distinctive type and char- 
 acter. Before following the long line of emperors 
 it may he best to pause and consider Latin literature, 
 for the best part of it belongs to the Augustan age. 
 
 7 
 
LATIN CLASSICS 
 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII 
 
 Preclassic Literature— Macaulay and Primitiye Latin— Three Periods — The Golden Age 
 — Virgil — Horace — Lucretius — Ovid — The Poets of the Silver Age — Cicero and Latin 
 Prose— The Historians of Rome: Sallust, C.esar, Livy, and Tacitus — The Plinys — Quin- 
 tilian— Latin Jurisprudence. 
 
 [jl 
 
 m 
 
 ♦ 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 PS 
 
 A /3k\ 1 
 
 Blit 
 
 @) 
 
 ff§ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 JTiS 8T„)i' 
 
 
 
 TIERE is most unmistaka- 
 ble proof that the Romans, 
 like the Greeks and many 
 other peoples, had their 
 early ballads. Every coun- 
 try which can boast much 
 curiosity and intelligence, 
 with little if any reading or writ- 
 ing, has had a wealth of such crea- 
 tions of mingled history and fancy, 
 of fable and fact, woven into pop- 
 ular songs. But that primitive Lat- 
 in literature almost wholly perished 
 long before the present Latin liter- 
 mature had its birth. What is known 
 as the history of the kings and 
 early consuls of Rome is mainly 
 ficticious. More than three hun- 
 dred years after the date ordinarily assigned for the 
 foundation of the city, the public records were de- 
 stroyed by the Gauls, and it was at least a century 
 and a half later, before the annals of the common- 
 wealth were compiled. 
 
 Speaking on the subject in hand, Macaulay says 
 in one of his essays, “ The Latin literature which 
 has come down to us is of later date than the 
 commencement of the second Punic war, and con- 
 sists almost exclusively of words fashioned on Greek 
 
 models. The Latin metres — heroic, elegiac, lyric, 
 and dramatic — are of Greek origin. The best Latin 
 epic poetry is the feeble echo of the Iliad and Odys- 
 sey. The best Latin ecologues are imitations of 
 Theocritus. The plan of the most finished didactic 
 poem in the Latin tongue was taken from Hesiod. 
 The Latin tragedies are bad copies of the master- 
 pieces of Sophocles and Euripides. The Latin 
 comedies are free translations from Demophilus, 
 Mereander and Apollodorus. The Latin philosophy 
 was borrowed without alteration from the Portico 
 and the Academy ; and the great Latin orators 
 constantly proposed to themselves as patterns, the 
 speeches of Demosthenes and Lysias.” There is, 
 therefore, nothing original, strictly speaking, in the 
 extant writings of the Latin classics, and the very 
 name of any absolutely original author has per- 
 ished. The later writers, whose works have per- 
 ished, were imitators, and probably poor at that. 
 The fair inference from fragments is, that the best 
 of the literature has survived. Without enumer- 
 ating the lost books, we will give some idea of the 
 present body of Latin classics. It is only where a 
 language and a literature is original and germinal, 
 like the Greek, that its very fragments and tradi- 
 tions are valuable. 
 
 Latin literature may be said to have had three 
 periods. The first contains many lost works and 
 
 <5 
 
 (160) 
 

 ® J- 
 
 LATIN CLASSICS. l6l 
 
 two names worthy of record, Plautus and Terence. 
 Both were writers of comedies, not the grand and 
 powerful works of Aristophanes and Shakspeare, but 
 the light, half farcical conceits of the present “ play 
 of the period.” They have all the vices of the 
 Greek and some of the excellences. We have 
 twenty of the comedies of Plautus. They are low 
 and morbid, generally devoted to the intrigues of 
 illicit love. They were very popular for at least 
 five centuries. He was a native of Italy, but not 
 of Rome, and was born B. C. 210. Terence was 
 eighteen years younger and a native of Carthage. 
 He was a slave, as was Epictetus, the great ethical 
 writer of later Rome. 
 
 He modeled his works 
 after the Greek pat- 
 terns. He left six 
 plays, which are much 
 read by scholars, and 
 studied by playwrights 
 of classical education. 
 
 He had great power 
 of character delinea- 
 tion. He is credited 
 with having given to 
 the Latin language 
 its highest perfection 
 in point of elegance 
 and art. He was more 
 refined than Plautus. 
 
 The latter wrote for 
 the stage as patronized by a coarse people ; the 
 former wrote for a more refined taste. 
 
 Passing over the somewhat long list of lost medi- 
 ocrity, we come to the Golden Age, for what re- 
 mains belongs either to that pei’iod or the Silver 
 Age, a distinction fully justified by the poetry 
 of the two ages, but not by the prose. The poets of 
 the Golden age are Ovid, Virgil, Horace and Lucre- 
 tius ; of the Silver Age, Phaedrus, Juvenal, Lucan, 
 Statius and Martial. The prose writers of the 
 former age are Cicero, Nepos, Caesar, Sallust and 
 Livy ; of the latter age, Tacitus, Suetonius, Seneca, 
 Pliny, Quintilian, Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius. 
 The two latter names are sometimes omitted, but they 
 belong here. The first was a slave and the second an 
 emperor, and both were pure and lofty moralists. 
 Tacitus, Quintilian and Seneca are second only to 
 Cicero, if indeed, not worthy to rank at his side. 
 
 The first name in Latin literature is that of Vir- 
 gil. He was a man of rare genius and indefatiga- 
 ble industry. He wrote much and was unwearied 
 in perfecting his lines. Born at Mantua in B. C. 
 70, he became a ripe scholar, a careful student of 
 the Greek, also of medicine and mathematics. At 
 the age of thirty he repaired to the capital. His 
 education was received mainly at Naples, where his 
 last years were spent. His disposition was of a re- 
 tiring nature, loving the solitude of Nature and his 
 library. His first work was the “Bucolics,” a truly 
 rural poem of considerable length. The “ Georgies ” 
 and “ Ecologues ” came later and occupied his time 
 
 for seven years. But 
 his one really great 
 production is the “ jE- 
 neid,” upon which the 
 last ten years of his 
 industrious life were 
 spent. He lived to 
 complete it, but so crit- 
 ical was his taste that 
 he never ceased to pol- 
 ish the verse. Had his 
 life-work closed with- 
 out the latter epic, he 
 would have ranked 
 with Hesiod, only his 
 superior by far. The 
 iEneid gives him com- 
 panionship with Ho- 
 mer, but a long distance beneath him. He is, there- 
 fore, a second and greater Hesiod, and second and less- 
 er Homer. The subject of the HNieid is the settle- 
 ment of the Trojans in Italy. In the “ Iliad ” Mineas 
 is one of the minor heroes of Troy, and Virgil repre- 
 sents him as escaping with great difficulty from that 
 city at the time of the great conflagration, leading a 
 small colony of refugees to Italy. Their journey 
 thither was an eventful one. The story of his stay at 
 Carthage and the passion of Queen Dido, the device 
 by which he escaped, and her tragic end, are familiar 
 to those at all acquainted with classic legends. He 
 catered to the national prejudice by representing 
 the Queen of Carthage as jilted by the hero to whom 
 it was pretended the descent of the Emperor Augus- 
 tus could be traced. The story has no historical 
 foundation beyond the probability that some fugi- 
 tives from Troy may have found their way to Italy, 
 
•V 
 
 4 
 
 1 62 
 
 LATIN CLASSICS. 
 
 and formed part of the stock of the Roman people. 
 The .ZEneid suggests in its earlier books the Odyssey, 
 in the later, the Iliad. Some minor poems are at- 
 tributed to him. They are not of a high order, and 
 if written by him must have been the production of 
 “ vealy ” youth. 
 
 Next to Virgil ranks Horace, the consummate 
 master of the art of poetry. He loved ease, and 
 wrote odes and epodes, satires and epistles which at- 
 test a mind of the highest culture, of lofty genius 
 and sublime repose. He took the world as he found 
 it, not over curious as to what went before or would 
 come after. He saw in the theological teachings of 
 his day a collection of myths, and cared no more 
 for Jupiter and the Olympian deities than we of to- 
 day do. As for a future life, it was the least of his 
 troubles. He was not gross, but was ‘‘of the earth 
 earthy.” In his life was seen the typical man of the 
 world, the poet of a civilization which is content to 
 follow the motto, ‘ One world at a time.” There 
 was nothing of the controversialist in his disposi- 
 tion, nor had he any conception of any “mission” 
 in life. It any one cared to accept the foolish fables 
 of the priests or the ratiocinations of the pliilosophers, 
 he had no objections. That was their business, not 
 his. The son of an emancipated slave, he took no 
 thought for to-morrow. Brilliant, amiable, respect- 
 able, jovial and fairly well-versed in the learning of 
 the day, he could satirize without cauterizing ; be- 
 stow praise without fulsome flattery ; sound the lute 
 in festivity without swinish licentiousness. His odes 
 have never been excelled as odes, and it is hardly 
 too much to say, that in his way he is above all 
 competition. His language is force itself, his senti- 
 ments beautiful, and the melody of his versification 
 charming. He has been called the Pindar of Rome, 
 and it would he over praise for the great Greek lyrist, 
 to call him the Horace of Athens. 
 
 Lucretius embraced the same agnostic (as it is 
 now called) philosophy as Horace. He was an Epi- 
 curean, not in tastes and habits, like Horace, but he 
 was a strenuous advocate of the theological, physi- 
 cal and moral system of Epicurus. His work on 
 Nature is well worthy the high praise of Ovid when 
 he says, “ The sublime strains of Lucretius shall 
 never perish until the day when the world shall he 
 given up to destruction.” Tic had the true fire of 
 poetry. There is a grandeur and beauty in his verse, 
 even when it is evident that his main anxiety is to 
 
 make a strong argument for materialism. The lat- 
 est philosophy, that which finds its highest presenta- 
 tion in Herbert Spencer, must ever recognize in 
 Lucretius its poet laureate. Many tilings which he 
 supports by suppositions and arguments which seem 
 absurd, have been proven since his day to rest upon 
 scientific ground. He was born in B. 0. 95, and what 
 Horace accepted as a matter of course, Lucretius 
 fought for with the zeal of an Ingersoll. He was 
 the stuff that martyrs were made of, but he was not, 
 so far as known, ostracised or persecuted for his 
 “ blasphemy ” of the popular gods, or his philosoph- 
 ical theories. He died in the prime of manhood, 
 and before he had put the finishing touches on his 
 immortal poem. 
 
 Ovid first saw the light on the very day that Cic- 
 ero’s star became obscured by the darkness of death. 
 He had rank, talent and fortune. Like Horace and 
 Lucretius, he was an agnostic, but he lacked the re- 
 finement of the one and the enthusiasm of the other. 
 He sang of love in a morbid and unwholesome way. 
 His “Metamorphoses ” is almost an epic. It is a 
 series of myths, some of them very beautiful, a few 
 of them chaste. This was his best production be- 
 yond all question. For the most part, however, 
 Ovid’s poetry is elegiac. Much that he wrote is ut- 
 terly unfit for perusal. It is vile without any ex- 
 cuse for it ; and when the poet was banished for trea- 
 son, although without any sufficient cause, and 
 obliged to linger out life in vain supplications for 
 pardon, it is hard to pity him. He wrote much, and 
 in a literary point of view, most admirably. 
 
 The poets belonging to the Silver Age are not 
 worthy of very extended notice. The fables of Plise- 
 drus made the Romans acquainted with vEsop. He 
 was a translator and hardly more. Being the son 
 of a Thracian slave, he may be supposed to have 
 been familiar with them from childhood. Two of 
 these Silver poets, Persius and Juvenal, rank as 
 satirists. The former was born about thirty-four 
 years before Christ, and the latter about forty years 
 after. They were both stoical in their sympathies 
 and tendencies. Lucan, who was a cotemporary of 
 Juvenal, wrote some fine passages. They are mostly 
 to be found in his Pharsalia, a work in which Cae- 
 sar and Pompey, Cato and Brutus, are held up to 
 the admiration of hero-worshipers. Martial was a 
 Spanish Roman. II is native city in Spain was giv- 
 en full rights and privileges, which made him a 
 
 Q) 
 
 
LATIN CLASSICS. 163 
 
 Roman before the law. He was the laureate, one 
 might justly say, of the Emperors Titus and Domi- 
 tian, the latter of whom made some literary preten- 
 tions, but without much reason. His Epigrams, 
 twelve hundred in all, are essentially satirical com- 
 positions. They present a frightful picture of so- 
 cial demoralization. 
 
 We pass now to the prose literature of the Latin 
 language. Here too we find an almost abject ser- 
 vility to Greek genius, and nothing at all approach- 
 ing the highest Attic attainments. Cicero is the 
 first name. All who went before him either perish- 
 ed or deserved no better fate. Cicero was a close 
 student of the Greek models. Something less than 
 Demosthenes in oratory, he had a far wider range 
 of thought. 
 
 He wrote much 
 upon ethical 
 subjects and 
 was a Stoic in 
 his professions. 
 
 All his works 
 abound in slurs 
 upon the pres- 
 ent life, and 
 exhortations to 
 exchange the 
 known for the 
 unknown. It 
 is hard to rec- 
 oncile his actual life of gorgeous luxury with 
 a philosophy of self-denial and positive contempt 
 of the world. Herein he occupies the same 
 position as Seneca. Both were men of the most 
 extravagant habits. They talked like Anchorites, 
 and lived like Sybarites. They contributed noth- 
 ing to the new ideas of the world. They elabor- 
 ated the views of Zeno, and preached with 
 tedious fullness a doctrine of self negation, 
 sharply contrasting with their lives. Cicero 
 was about two generations before Christ, and 
 Seneca nearly that after him. They illustrate 
 the hollowness of Roman stoicism. Seneca was 
 nothing to the world except an ethical writer, but 
 Cicero has left us orations of such grandeur that 
 all subsequent orators owe a vast debt to him. He 
 was a great statesman, a senator of whom any age 
 or land might be proud. Profoundly learned and 
 varied in his attainments, he was the Gladstone of 
 
 his day, only instead of making Homer a specialty, 
 he delighted in setting forth the beauties of an ideal 
 life foreign to his own experience. N ot that he was 
 a very bad man. On the contrary, he was, for his 
 times, an unusually good man. But by his mode of 
 living, he gave the sneer to his theory of life. Epic- 
 tetus, who was several centuries later, and Marcus 
 Aurelius, who ruled the empire, discoursed in much 
 the same way as Cicero and Seneca did about the 
 vanity of life, and the uncertainty of living after 
 death ; but they seem to have been consistent and 
 sincere. The orations of Cicero now extant are 
 forty-nine in number, some of them incomplete, but 
 all of them highly valuable. Of his rhetorical 
 works, his dialogues on the Orator, and his essay on 
 
 the Division 
 of Oratory, are 
 most esteemed. 
 His style is sup- 
 posed to be the 
 very perfection 
 of Latin prose. 
 His numerous 
 extant epistles 
 are mainly val- 
 uable for the 
 light which 
 they throw up- 
 on the history 
 of his times. 
 
 The first of the historians in point of time was 
 Sallust, a Sabine, born in B. C. 85. A Plebeian by 
 birth, he rose to eminence in politics, and secured 
 the appointment of Governor of Numidia, where 
 he accumulated a vast fortune, returning to Rome 
 for its enjoyment. Surrounded by all the luxuries 
 of ill-gotten gain, he wrote his history of the con- 
 spiracy of Cataline and of the war against Jugur- 
 tha, relieving the dryness of his narrative with 
 moral reflections upon the degeneracy of the 
 times. After him came Cornelius Nepos, a friend 
 of Cicero, whose voluminous writings are all lost 
 except his “ Lives of Eminent Generals.” He 
 seems to have been a faithful chronicler. The most 
 eminent of all Romans, Julius Ctesar, was a his- 
 torian. His writings are history now, but they re- 
 late to events with which he had to do — “ all of 
 which I saw and part of which I was.” Ilis writ- 
 ings preserve to us a record of the wars he waged, 
 
 Lucretius. Seneca. Tacitus. 
 

 lL. 
 
 164 
 
 LATIN CLASSICS. 
 
 and describe tlie people he conquered. His style is 
 simple, and his descriptive powers very great. 
 Marvelous as was his genius for war and politics, 
 he well deserves immortality as an author also. 
 His “Commentaries” possess incalculable worth, 
 apart from the glories of Caesar in other fields of 
 effort. Livy was a greater historian than even Caesar 
 or Sallust, and if second to Tacitus, he has been well 
 called the prose Homer of Rome. Born in B. C. 
 59, at Padua, he found the empire established, and 
 sought to preserve its history from its inception to 
 its imperial perfection. He wrote one hundred and 
 forty-two chapters, of which only thirty-five are 
 now extant. The first ten which survive carry the 
 history from the arrival of vEneas in Italy to the 
 year B. C. 293, a few years prior to the war with 
 Pyrrhus. There is, then, a loss of ten chapters, or 
 books. The account recommences with the second 
 Punic war, B. C. 218. What remains is mostly de- 
 voted to that second Punic war. He accepted 
 myths and legends as veritable history. It must be 
 conceded that his work is more valuable for pre- 
 senting what the Romans supposed to be true of 
 their ancestors, than for telling the actual truth, 
 and in this respect he was much like Herodotus. 
 
 The greatest historian of antiquity, Greek or 
 Roman, was Tacitus, born in A. D. 54. He had been 
 Procurator .of Belgic Gaul, and we are indebted to 
 him for a great deal of information about the 
 manners of the Germans in those days. Much that 
 he wrote has been lost. A mode) of brief and 
 philosophical biography, is his life of his father-in- 
 law, Agricola. He was a master of terse and com- 
 prehensive expressions. Suetonius, some twenty 
 years later, wrote a very interesting series of biog- 
 raphies, simple, precise, and correct. His subjects 
 were the first twelve Caesars, from J ulius to Domitian. 
 
 Pliny is another familiar and illustrious name in 
 Latin literature. There were two eminent men of 
 the name. Pliny the Elder was a naturalist. His 
 history of men and peoples was less remarkable 
 that that unequaled monument of studious dili- 
 
 gence and persevering industry, “ Natural History.” 
 The work abounds in absurd stories. He was not so 
 much a critical observer of nature as a painstaking 
 collector of prevailing notions. He was a victim 
 of the first eruption of Mt. V esuvius. His nephew, 
 Pliny the Younger, wrote “ The Panegyric of the 
 Trojan,” and his books, or chapters of letters, are all 
 valuable for their pictures of the manners and modes 
 of thought of that period. He was born in A. D. 
 61. He had for a teacher in rhetoric the great 
 Quintilian (also a Spanish Roman) who survived 
 his pupil eight years, dying in Rome in A. D. 118, 
 at the age of seventy. Quintilian’s “ Institutes of 
 Oratory ” is a complete treatise on the art of com- 
 position. He was a perfect master of the art which he 
 taught, and his observations on style fairly entitle 
 him to the supreme post of honor among the rheto- 
 ricians of all times and languages. 
 
 We cannot dismiss this subject without alluding 
 to the one branch of literature which owes more to 
 Rome than to Greece, and that is, law. It was in 
 the appreciation of jurisprudence as a science, that 
 the intellect of Rome showed its greatest originality. 
 Servile in copying from Greece in most domains of 
 pure reason, it marked out a path of its own in 
 legal literature. It was not until a comparatively 
 late date, the reign of Justinian, that the scattered 
 parts were gathered into one digest ; but the mate- 
 rial itself was gradually accumulating in the form 
 of legal opinions through centuries. By a process 
 of growth almost imperceptible, the raw material 
 of legal literature, as it exists to-day, was accumula- 
 ted in the files of the Roman courts. There is 
 nothing in the Latin literature of which the Ro- 
 mans might be so justly proud as the gradual accre- 
 tions of legal lore in the. Eternal City, which were 
 finally digested and systematized as the Pandicts, a 
 work prepared and promulgated by the order of the 
 Emperor Justinian in the sixth century after 
 Christ, but which in its essence and highest merits 
 must be considered as the contribution of the Latin 
 classics to legal literature. 
 
< TT V ..T- T ..T JT3 T..T- 
 
 ( i6 5) 
 
 THE EMPERORS FROM V 'AUGUSTUS TO ALARIC 
 
 'T'y / /■ / /■ ^ 
 
 AVINGr seen the neph- 
 ew of the great Caesar 
 reap for himself the 
 harvest of imperialism, 
 enjoying the honors 
 and prerogatives of ab- 
 solute authority, as re- 
 newed by popular and 
 senatorial delegation, from time to 
 time until the public became ac- 
 customed to the one-man rule, 
 we come now to trace the path of 
 empire. 
 
 The Rome which would not follow 
 out the suggestion of Mark Antony 
 to crown the most illustrious Julius, 
 has passed away, and a generation 
 has come which accepted the mean and contempti- 
 ble Tiberius as a matter of course. He was the 
 successor, but not the son, of Augustus. Not one 
 drop of the blood of the Caesars coursed in his veins, 
 being simply the son of the Empress by a former 
 marriage. It was known that the senile Emperor 
 had adopted him as his son (having none living of 
 his own) and that was enough. Tiberius wore the 
 imperial purple without having his right challenged. 
 By virtue of the tribunieian power with which he 
 
 had been invested, he summoned the Senate at the 
 death of Augustus, and his right to the office of Im- 
 perator was conceded. Augustus and Julius were 
 both accorded divine honors, and henceforth the 
 apotheosis of the dead emperors became a recog- 
 nized institution of the state. Soon all disguises 
 were thrown off, Tiberius accepting the homage as 
 well as the subserviency of the senate and the peo- 
 ple, all fear of another Brutus being dismissed. For 
 twenty-three years he ruled the empire, a morose, 
 bad man, without a single redeeming feature, bad at 
 the start and constantly sinking deeper in the mire 
 of infamy; making all about him unhappy, yet too 
 feeble to seriously disturb the 
 general thrift of the empire. 
 
 Tiberius was succeeded by 
 a scion of the proud Clo- 
 dian family, Caius Caesar, 
 or Caligula, as he is usu- 
 ally called. He was a prom- 
 ising youth, and much 
 was expected of him, but he 
 proved even worse than Tibe- 
 rius. Insanity seized him, 
 and the monstrous freaks of 
 his cruel craze made him an object of detestation. 
 Wild and incredible stories are told of his madness. 
 
 Caligula. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 The Path of Empire— Tiberius C^sar— Caligula and Nero — Rome in the Days of Nero — 
 The Siege of Jerusalem— From Vespasian to Trajan — Hadrian— The Forum— Marcus 
 Aurelius— The Age of the Antonines — Ulpian the Lawyer— Diocletian — Constantine 
 and ContantinOple — Julian the Apostate — Weakness and Dissension — Theodosius and 
 the Permanent Division of the Empire — Greek and Roman Churches — Last Days of 
 Imperial Rome. 
 
 
 7t 
 
 o 
 
■v 
 
 — 4 **- 
 
 1 66 
 
 THE EMPERORS FROM AUGUSTUS TO ALARIC. 
 
 some 
 ruler, 
 the 
 
 common sense, 
 dying in A. D. 
 
 son of his latest 
 son was the famous 
 
 But the general public hardly felt the weight of his 
 despotic hand. His prodigality was prodigious, and 
 his personal habits revolting. After five years of 
 infamy he was assassinated, not like Caesar, for politi- 
 
 ical reasons, but in re- 
 venge for private wrong 
 and insult. For a short 
 time it looked as if the 
 republic might be re- 
 stored ; but the reac- 
 tionary party was dis- 
 tracted by dissensions, 
 and soon Claudius, 
 uncle of Caligula, a 
 weak-minded old man, 
 was raised to the throne. 
 Hardly up to the stand- 
 ard of mediocrity, he 
 yet had the merit of 
 and made a very good 
 54. To him succeeded 
 consort, Agripina. This 
 Nero, the pupil of Seneca; 
 a young man of whom 
 much good was expect- 
 ed, but who proved the 
 proverbial type of tyr- 
 anny. This emperor 
 killed his own mother, 
 and was accused of set- 
 ing fire to Rome for 
 the excitement of wit- 
 nessing the conflagra- 
 tion. Under him be- 
 gan the persecution of 
 the Christians. Having reigned wisely and mod- 
 erately for five years, his character seemed to under- 
 go a radical and detestable change, and at the age 
 of thirty he died, having been on the throne four- 
 teen years, during which time he succeeded in effect- 
 ually obliterating all the honors he had Avon in the 
 early years of his reign. Among the victims of his 
 murderous malice Avas his tutor, Seneca. Such a 
 life Avas fitly terminated by the hand of an assassin, 
 his atrocities being unbearable by those Avitliin the 
 circle of his immediate influence. That Avas in 
 A. D. 68. 
 
 Nero died childless, and a recent Avriter, in com- 
 menting upon the situation at that point, observes : 
 
 Nero. 
 
 “ The stock of Julii refreshed in vain by grafts from 
 the Octavii, the Claudii, and the Homitii, had been 
 reduced to a single branch, and Avitli Nero the adop- 
 tive race of the great Dictator was extinguished. 
 The first of the Caesars had married four times, the 
 second thrice, the third tAvice, the fourth thrice also, 
 the fifth six times, and the sixth thrice. Of these 
 repeated unions a large number had borne offspring, 
 yet no descendants of any had survived. A few had 
 reached old age, many had reached maturity, some 
 were cut off by early sickness, the end of others Avas 
 premature and mysterious ; but of the Avhole num- 
 ber a large proportion Avere undoubted victims of 
 political jealousy. Such was the price paid by the 
 usurper’s family for their splendid inheritance ; but 
 the people accepted it in exchange for internal 
 troubles and promiscuous bloodshed ; and though 
 many of the higher classes of citizens had become 
 the victims of Caesarian tyranny, yet order and 
 prosperity had reigned generally throughout the em- 
 pire ; the Avorld had enjoyed a breathing-time of a 
 lmndred years before the next outbreak of civil dis- 
 cord which is uoav to be related. ‘ The secret of 
 the empire,’ namely, that a prince could be created 
 elseAvhere than at Rome, Avas now fatally discovered, 
 and from this time the succession of the Roman 
 princes Avas most commonly effected by the distant 
 legions, and seldom Avithout violence and slaughter.” 
 
 The first of these strictly military emperors Avas 
 Galba, Avho Avas proclaimed Imperator by the army 
 in Spain. He Avas someAvhat parsimonious, and did 
 not suit the praetorian guards, Avho caused his as- 
 sassination. Otho succeeded him for a short time, 
 when the legions of the Rhine insisted upon mak- 
 ing Yitellius emperor, and the Syrian army named 
 Vespasian. It looked as if anarchy had been inau- 
 gurated, and the end of the empire Avas near. But 
 Vespasian succeeded in firmly establishing himself, 
 and transmitting the crown to his son Titus. It 
 was Avhile the father 'was emperor, that the son laid 
 siege to Jerusalem, and after a terrible resistance, 
 effected its destruction. The hero-worship which 
 had grown up and become a part of the very con- 
 stitution of the empire Avas not seriously opposed 
 by any except the JeAVS and the Christians. Mono- 
 theism suav in the deification of the dead emperors, 
 not a form of loyalty to the government, but a hor- 
 rible sacrilege. This made Jews and Christians, 
 then hardly distinguishable, a “ peculiar people ” in 
 
 71 
 
 

 J 
 
 
 THE EMPERORS FROM AUGUSTUS TO ALARIC. 
 
 a very unfortunate sense, for they were constantly 
 suspected of treason. The secular Romans, to whom 
 all religion was an empty form, could not under- 
 stand the conscientious scruples of these Monothe- 
 ists. That was one of the most memorable sieges 
 ever known. The heroic resistance of the be- 
 leagured city was sublime and awful. Confidently 
 expecting deliverance from Jehovah, non-Chris- 
 
 sian, and the last of the Flavii. With all his faults 
 and bigotry, Domitian was a beneficent ruler for the 
 empire at large. When the dagger of a freedman 
 laid him in the dust, the old senatorial party, so 
 long in the background, reasserted itself, placing 
 a venerable senator, Nerva, upon the throne. Lit- 
 tle more than a year elapsed, when death claimed 
 him, and a new period began. 
 
 ROMAN FORUM RESTORED. 
 
 1. Temple of Jupiter. 4. Regia. 7, 8, 9. Temples of Saturn, of 11. Statue of Domitian. 
 
 2. Basilica Julia. 5. Temple of Castor and Pollux. Vespasian, of Concord. 12. Rostra. 
 
 3. Temple of Vesta. 6. Tabularium. 10. Column of Phocas. 13. Arch of S. Severus. 
 
 14. Basilicai. 15. Temple of Antonius and Faustina. 
 
 tian Jews did not hesitate to seek shelter within the 
 walls, while the Christians, as confidently looking 
 for the second coming of Jesus, were bold in the 
 defiance of temporal power. The dispersion of the 
 one and the repeated persecution of the other fol- 
 lowed, and that not simply from monsters of the 
 Neronean type, but from emperors of good in- 
 tentions, including Vespasian. Titus, and the Anto- 
 nines. 
 
 The accession of Vespasian to the throne was 
 the elevation of a thoroughly plebeian family, the 
 Flavii, to the royalty. The founder of this dynasty 
 had a long and honorable reign, his immediate suc- 
 cessor a brief and no less honorable one, followed 
 by the bloody Domitian, the second son of Vespa- 
 
 Trajan succeeded to the throne apparently be 
 cause all recognized his con- 
 spicuous fitness for the grave 
 duties of the imperial pur- 
 ple. His long reign was 
 rendered glorious by the 
 immense extension of the 
 empire in every direction. 
 
 There had been a gradual 
 growth in area ever since 
 the supremacy of Rome 
 had become an established 
 fact, but more especially 
 under Trajan, who was 
 succeeded by a relative, Hadrian. This noble enr- 
 
 21 
 
Q_ 
 
 168 
 
 THE EMPERORS FROM AUGUSTUS TO ALARIC. 
 
 peror had more genius for government than any ruler 
 since Julius Caesar. Under him much was done to 
 civilize the ruder “portions of the empire ; Hadrian 
 being alike equal to military and civil emergencies. 
 Toward the close of his reign, Hadrian chose as his 
 associate (for it was the custom then and afterwards 
 to choose an assistant emperor) T. Aurelius Anto- 
 ninus, a man of mature age and most exemplary 
 character. 
 
 The Forum at Rome corresponded with the Agora 
 at Athens. It was an open space surrounded by 
 public buildings, and devoted to business. It was 
 at once a market-place and a court of justice. All 
 kinds of transactions centered there. The climate 
 admitted of such an open-air system. The Forum 
 had to be enlarged several times to meet the de- 
 mands of the public, but the cut given on the pre- 
 ceding page represents the Forum as it was when the 
 empire was at its best. It may be added that as 
 American towns frequently have squares around 
 which business centers, so the Italian towns gener- 
 ally had their forums, sustaining substantially the 
 same relation to them that the great Forum did to 
 Rome. 
 
 At the death of Hadrian, to return to the emper- 
 ors, Antoninus associated with himself in the gov- 
 ernment a near relative, known in history as Marcus 
 
 Aurelius. “ The an- 
 cient world,” it has 
 been truly remarked, 
 “perhaps the modern 
 world, has never enjoy- 
 ed a period of more 
 unbroken felicity, than 
 that which glided tran- 
 quilly from Vespasian 
 to Marcus Aurelius. ” 
 This is called the “ Age 
 Antonines. ” 
 the 
 
 persecutions of that 
 age, and the wars necessary to maintain and extend 
 the empire, the condition of mankind, as a whole, was 
 eminently prosperous. It extended over a period 
 of about one hundred years. The Antonines were 
 philosophers in the very best sense of the term ; 
 broad-minded, high-souled and conscientious. The 
 latest of them was a writer of ethical precepts, 
 whose essays are still admired by all lovers of good 
 
 Marcus Aurelias. 
 
 of the 
 N otwithstanding 
 of 
 
 Alexander Severus. 
 
 morals. The Antonines did much to raise the pub- 
 lic standard of right, and give an impetus to higher 
 morality. 
 
 With the death of Marcus Aurelius, A. D. 180, a 
 new and calamitous era began. His son Conmo- 
 dus, was a vile wretch, early assassinated, and fol- 
 lowed, at brief intervals, by several emperors of the 
 Nero and Caligula type, whose names are not enti- 
 tled to even the honor of mention. About the 
 year 220, Alex- 
 ander, better 
 known as Sev- 
 erus, came to 
 the throne. He 
 was amiable and 
 honorable if not 
 great. He it was 
 who placed at 
 the head of af- 
 fairs, in point of 
 fact, Ulpian, a 
 man pre-emi- 
 nent in Roman 
 jurisprudence. 
 
 His rule of thirteen years was of incalculable ben- 
 efit, not alone or mainly to the empire of his day, 
 but to the science of law. Under the genius of Ul- 
 pian, justice became indeed a science, if such it 
 had not become prior to that time. 
 
 While engaged in a military expedition upon the 
 Rhine, Severus was slain in a mutiny instituted by 
 an officer named Maximus, a rude Thracian peasant, 
 of superb physique. The soldiers were captivated 
 by the personal prowess of this Thracian, and 
 named him emperor. Then followed another series 
 of swiftly rising and falling emperors, having no 
 just claim to the sovereignty, and no fixed tenure of 
 office. For fifty years the empire was on the verge 
 of anarchy. During that time, the barbaric hordes, 
 the Persians on the East and the Goths in the 
 West, seriously menaced the very existence of the 
 empire. But the hour of doom had not come. 
 Diocletian was raised to the throne in A. D. 284, 
 and his accession marked a new era in the empire, 
 entering then upon what may be called its oriental 
 phase. The very name of Consul ceased to be used. 
 Having completed the degradation of the old rul- 
 ing class at Rome, and succeeded in readjusting the 
 empire on a strictly autocratic plan, he vol- 
 
.. 
 
 k. 
 
 THE EMPERORS FROM AUGUSTUS TO ALARIC. 
 
 169 
 
 untarily abdicated, and spent the remaining years 
 of his life in elegant retire- 
 ment. His chief associate in 
 power was Maximian, whom he 
 compelled to abdicate also, 
 leaving the government to Ga- 
 lerius in the East, and C011- 
 stantius in the West. The for- 
 mer, Diocletian’s favorite son- 
 in-law, was allowed to name the 
 associate of both himself and 
 Constantius, and he chose for 
 
 Diocletian. his OW11 
 
 associate his nephew, Daza, 
 and for Constantius one 
 Flavius Servius. The real 
 choice of Constantius was 
 his own son Constantine of 
 Christian memory. At that 
 time Constantius Avas in Brit- 
 ain, and there he died not 
 long after. 
 
 The ambitious son boldly 
 assumed the office of his 
 father, having already Avon a 
 brilliant record as a soldier, 
 and evinced remarkable sa- 
 gacity. Constantine did not 
 press his claims at once, but 
 was content to exercise the 
 functions of a subordinate 
 officer, busied with the ad- 
 ministration of affairs in the 
 extreme Nortlnvest. Declared Emperor at York in 
 A. D. 306, it Avas not until several years later that 
 he openly asserted his claim. By that time Chris- 
 tianity had made tremendous strides, and had a 
 vast number of converts. Constantine Avas totally 
 devoid of religious scruples or convictions, but he 
 had the Avisdom to avow himself a champion of the 
 Christian church. That rallied to his standard 
 multitudes of enthusiastic supporters in all parts of 
 the empire, especially in the East, Avliere he Avas in 
 most need of allies. His army had the enthusiasm 
 of religious zealots, and they fought Avith a heroism 
 Avhich Avas irresistible. Several battles were neces- 
 sary to the decision of the issue betAveen the rival 
 Caesars. The last battle Avas fought at the Melvian 
 bridge, only three miles from Rome. Constantine 
 
 CONSTANTINE THE GREAT. 
 
 had already issued the Decree of Milan, giving im- 
 perial license for the first time, to Christianity, and 
 avowing himself a believer in its doctrines. Enter- 
 ing Rome in triumph, he became, A. D. 312, the 
 first Christian sovereign of the world. He had pre- 
 tended to see Avhile marching through Gaul a vision 
 of the cross in the heavens, inscribed with the le- 
 gend, “ By this sign conquer.” But the capture of 
 Rome Avas not the subjugation of the entire Roman 
 Empire by any means, and it was not until 323 that 
 the great battle between paganism and Christianity 
 Avas fought. Two mighty armies met, one under 
 Constantine appealing to 
 the Christian’s God for suc- 
 cor, the other under Lu- 
 cenius exhorted to remember 
 that the gods of Olympus 
 Avere many against only one, 
 and he “ the Prince of Peace.” 
 The defeat of the pagans 
 Avas an utter rout and the 
 shattered host sought refuge 
 in the fortress of Byzantium, 
 from which they were soon 
 driven. At last the surrender 
 Avas unconditional, and Con- 
 stantine found himself sole 
 emperor of the entire Ro- 
 man Empire. 
 
 In personal character this 
 man Avas utterly detestable, 
 but he certainly had great 
 genius, and in nothing did 
 he shoAv this more plainly than in transferring 
 his capital from Rome to Byzantium, Avhich he 
 changed to Constantinople, and reconstructed 
 upon a scale worthy the imperial center of the 
 Avorld. Like a second Romulus, “ he builded 
 better than he kncAv.” He required the nobles to 
 erect there lofty palaces. Gibbon says, in comment- 
 ing upon this subject, “ The city and senate of Rome 
 remained as before, Avhile those of Constantinople 
 Avere endued Avith co-ordinate honor and authority, 
 and enjoyed, moreover, all the advantage of the im- 
 perial presence. Two capitals could not, indeed, 
 exist on equal terms Avithin the same sphere. Rome 
 sank immediately into a provincial metropolis, such 
 as Alexandria, Antioch, or Treves; Constantino- 
 ple became the mistress of the world and succeeded to 
 
 
 <5 r y 
 
1 
 
 1 70 
 
 THE EMPERORS FROM AUGUSTUS TO ALARIC. 
 
 Koine’s proudest title — the designation of ‘ The City.’ 
 
 ‘•The reign of Constantine lasted to the year 337, 
 untroubled by civil dissensions, and prosperous in 
 the conduct of affairs on every frontier of the em- 
 pire. The historians commemorate the settlement 
 of the finances on a new basis, which rendered them 
 more elastic, and gave, perhaps, considerable relief 
 to the reviving industry of the general populations. 
 The interior, at least, of the provinces remained 
 undisturbed by war. Letters revived; humanity 
 extended her conquests.” Constantine bequeathed 
 
 new religion. The endless and fierce doctrinal 
 controversies in the church had disgusted him. 
 Plato and Aristotle seemed grander to him than 
 Arius and Athanasius. An enthusiast, he hoped to 
 restore the old paganism, modified by philosophy, 
 deeming it far preferable to Christianity, and striv- 
 ing earnestly to undo what his uncle had done, but 
 to no purpose. 
 
 Perhaps Julian might .have changed the whole 
 current of European events, from a religious point 
 of view, had he lived to old age ; but he died 
 
 CONSTANTINOPLE. 
 
 his empire to his son Constantins. It was indeed 
 Roman, but it had been thoroughly reconstructed, 
 and the capital itself had been changed. The son 
 was an absurd stickler for ceremony, and all the 
 circumstances of royalty. He visited Rome, but 
 affected indifference to its grandeur. The father 
 had, in the fiendishness of his character, and with 
 a Neronean ferocity, put to death nearly all of his 
 own family. This favorite son had a brief and un- 
 eventful reign, followed by the accession of his 
 cousin Julian, familiarly, but unjustly, known as 
 the “ Apostate.” Julian had been educated a 
 Christian, but upon arriving at the age of dis- 
 cretion, he preferred the old philosophy to the 
 
 early, and no Elisha took up his mantle. This 
 Julius had no Oc- 
 tavius. He fell in 
 battle with the Per- 
 sians, who had al- 
 ways maintained 
 their independence 
 if not their impor- 
 tance, and who were 
 threatening the in- 
 tegrity of the em- 
 pire. His death was 
 entirely disconnect- 
 ed with his paganism, but occasioned a great deal 
 
 Julian. 
 
 & 
 
THE EMPERORS FROM AUGUSTUS TO ALARIC. 
 
 171 
 
 of legendary invention. It was reported that he 
 exclaimed in dying, “ Thou hast conquered, 0 
 Galilean ! ” Of course this was pure fiction, 
 but it none the less suggested the real fact in 
 the case. Henceforth paganism was utterly dead, 
 and no important attempt was ever again made 
 to revive it. The soldiers had made no objec- 
 tion to Julian’s religion, nor did they seem to care 
 anything about it, one way or the other, for when 
 the next emperor, Jovian, restored the ensign of the 
 cross, they were indifferent. His reign was also 
 soon over. In less than a year he died, and the of- 
 ficers of state who were with him (for Jovian was 
 still absent from the capital on the military cam- 
 paign begun by Julian) put Valentinian, a good 
 soldier but no scholar, upon the throne. This em- 
 peror soon returned to Constantinople, abandoning 
 the provinces beyond the Tigris. Appreciating the un- 
 wieldy magnitude of the empire, he made his broth- 
 er Valeus his associate, assigning him to the East. 
 
 The successor of Valentinian was his son Gra- 
 tian, who soon associated with him in the govern- 
 ment his younger brother, Valentinian II. He re- 
 sided himself in Treves or Paris, and the youthful 
 brother emperor at Milan. Rome, as a city, was 
 practically abandoned by the successors of the 
 Caesars long before it fell a prey to the Gothic and 
 Vandal hordes. The brothers were both very weak 
 and inefficient. Gratian put himself under the 
 protection of Alaric the Goth, but was finally assas- 
 sinated by Maximus, who had been declared emperor 
 by the legions in Britain. Valentinian would have 
 been served the same way, probably, had not Theo- 
 dosius of Constantinople shielded him from harm, 
 and secured him in the possession of the middle 
 portion of the old empire. Thus, in A. D. 383, the 
 Roman empire had three emperors, and was ruled 
 by a triumvirate again, something as it was during 
 the days of Octavius, Antony and Lepidus, four 
 centuries earlier, when imperialism was in the throes 
 of birth. Soon there was war between the three 
 emperors, resulting in making Theodosius absolute 
 master of the entire empire. At his death, he 
 
 made what proved to be the permanent division of 
 the empire into Eastern and Western, putting one 
 of his own sons at the head of each empire. 
 
 From this time on, we have, as now, the Roman 
 and the Greek churches. I 11 395, this important 
 division was made. Without following up the sub- 
 ject ecclesiastically, it is important to note that the 
 division of the church was the work of an emperor, 
 rather than the result of theological schism. It fol- 
 lowed in the path of politics, and may be put down 
 as a political necessity. 
 
 With the dawn of the fifth century, the very last 
 stage of Roman imperialism is reached. The North- 
 ern horde had devastated Greece, and turned cov- 
 etous eyes upon Italy. Ravenna was then the 
 capital. The military genius of Stilicho repulsed 
 them with terrible slaughter, but he died in A. D. 
 408, leaving the emperor Honorius at the mercy of 
 the still undismayed barbarian. The indomitable 
 Alaric marched into Italy, and leaving the emperor 
 at Ravenna, made straight for Rome. He wanted 
 spoils, and knew the old city was the seat of wealth, 
 if not of empire. Rome was powerless, and Ra- 
 venna rendered no assistance. The barbarian en- 
 tered the city, wrought his pleasure, and retired from 
 it after twelve days of sack. That was in A. D. 409. 
 
 Alaric as a Christian resjiected the churches, and 
 those who sought refuge within them were spared, 
 but the sack was complete. The Rome of antiquity 
 had fallen, and although the new capital was not 
 disturbed, the western empire itself crumbled, and 
 disappeared in the night of the Dark Ages. 
 
 But before entering upon that period and phase 
 of the world’s history, or even following fur- 
 ther the trail of events in Italy from Romulus to 
 date, it will be necessary to pause over a collateral 
 branch of Roman history, for the rise and fall of 
 the empire, distinctively, was only a part of the 
 greatness of Rome. A more potential influence 
 than imperialism began its manifestations within 
 the empire during the first emperor’s reign, and 
 from an obscure beginning developed into that vast 
 entity called Christendom. 
 
•*y 
 
 172 
 
 PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 o 
 
|llllllhtHlllllllllilM&^i?l!.lil(llllltultlf>lhl] 
 
 tegsiig 
 
 HE history of Rome would 
 be inexcusably defective if 
 special prominence were 
 not given to Christianity in 
 its primitive stage. That 
 period of ecclesiastical de- 
 velopment belonged to the 
 empire of the Caesars. The found- 
 er of the religion which now pre- 
 vails over Europe and America was 
 a subject of Rome, and the dis- 
 tinctively primitive period of our 
 faith was entirely Roman. By her 
 conquests, her roads, and her gene- 
 ral unification of many peoples, the 
 Queen City of the world prepared 
 the way for the propagandists of 
 the faith. To contemporary eyes, 
 the religion of the despised and crucified Nazarene 
 was a mere trifle ; hut in the light of subsequent 
 events, it is clothed with incalculable importance, 
 outranking in vital force and molding power every 
 other feature of Roman history. In its career is 
 justified the prediction, “ The stone which the build- 
 ers rejected, the same lias become the head of the 
 corner,” and that, too, whether the Romans or the 
 Jews be considered as the “ builders.” 
 
 The Jews were almost unknown to the civilized 
 world of olden times, and their religion was confined 
 
 to the narrow tract of land called Palestine, their 
 nationality becoming a great factor only after the 
 past had begun to merge into and give place to the 
 present. The chief claim, however, of the Hebrews 
 to pre-eminence, is the production, humanly speak- 
 ing, of Christianity. It is proposed to consider 
 tliis mighty system of worship in its early stage, as 
 a separate entity, and that without doctrinal bias, in 
 a purely historical spirit. The fact that the birth 
 of Jesus of Nazareth is the time from which all 
 civilized modern nations compute dates, is a fitting 
 testimony to the significance of his supreme person- 
 ality. Born of lowly parents, there could have been 
 no more improbable suggestion made during his 
 lifetime, even when he was most prosperous, than 
 that he would prove to be the most notable char- 
 acter in all history, but that such is the fact, is' in- 
 dubitable. 
 
 The four biographies of Jesus (for such the Gos- 
 pels really are) agree in representing the founder of 
 Christianity as a teacher of certain fundamental 
 principles, and not as either an organizer or sys- 
 tematizer. Tie formed no church, formulated no 
 creed. Content to teach practical truths, his aim 
 as a teacher was to fill the heart of man with gen- 
 tleness, and banish from it impure thoughts. His 
 ideal was essentially original and new, so far as the 
 great world of the Roman empire was concerned. 
 In his own native Palestine was a small sect called 
 
 ( T 73) 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 Rome and Christ — The Jews and Jesus — The Fundamental Truths — First Churches — St. 
 Paul and the Primitive Fathers — Virtues and Faith of the Early Church — Pagan 
 and Christian Persecutions Compared — Flexibility of Christianity — The Catacombs — 
 The Primitive Fathers — Nicene Creed. 
 
 PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 7^7 V 
 
 Tier 
 
•*y k 
 
 
 : 74 
 
 PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 Essenes, by whom were practiced the virtues and 
 graces exemplified and advocated by Jesus Christ. 
 That sect may have derived its doctrines from the 
 few Jews who had wandered into India, and learned 
 the wisdom of the Cliristlike Chrisna. However 
 that may be, the Christian religion as it was started 
 by Jesus, and further promulgated by Paul, was a 
 fresh element in human society. The old mytholo- 
 gies were almost dead. Men of education held all 
 Olympus in contempt, and philosophy was no long- 
 er the satisfaction of spiritual longings. Some- 
 thing radically unlike either would naturally meet 
 with favor. 
 
 The preaching of Jesus was indeed brief. At 
 the age of thirty he abandoned his trade as a car- 
 penter, and devoted himself to the life of an itin- 
 erant preacher, and healer of diseases. Less than 
 three years later, his body was nailed to the cross, 
 his public career ended. During that time he visit- 
 ed many places in his native land, and created a 
 great sensation, but his influence did not extend be- 
 yond Canaan. To all appearances, he had entered 
 upon a strictly provincial career. His most inti- 
 mate associates, the disciples, and the devoted 
 women who revered him the most, had no concep- 
 tion of his real mission. 
 
 The church at Jerusalem was the oldest of all 
 the churches, but could hardly be called the mother 
 church. In the earliest days of Christianity, very 
 soon after the crucifixion, there were eight churches. 
 The one at Jerusalem was a commune, each mem- 
 ber pooling his property, and having all things in 
 common. The other prominent and somewhat later 
 churches were those at Antioch, Ephesus, Smyrna, 
 Athens, Corinth, Rome and Alexandria. 
 
 For the most part, these churches attest the zeal 
 and broad views of Paul. That great apostle of the 
 Gentiles, as he is called, conceived the idea of mak- 
 ing the doctrines and personality of Jesus the foun- 
 dation of a world-wide religion ; one which should 
 supersede Judaism and paganism. It was a lofty 
 thought, and the most stupendous undertaking that 
 ever engaged the efforts of man. The success which 
 attended the preaching of Christianity on the Paul- 
 ine plan, must ever stand in history as a more far- 
 reaching and exalted triumph of genius than any 
 of the conquests of the world by arms. Mohammed 
 was a sword-bearer, and his caliphs were men of 
 war, but Jesus, Paul, and all the propagandists of 
 
 primitive Christianity, were men of peace. Perse- 
 cuted and maligned, they won their way by moral 
 force, and when at last Constantine acknowledged 
 the Christian religion as the state religion, he sim- 
 ply gave official recognition of the fact that, de- 
 spite every obstacle, the new faith had conquered, 
 the empire being more Christian than Pagan. The 
 converts were mainly from the middle and lower 
 classes, but included many of the nobility, and a 
 large element of learning. 
 
 The primitive simplicity and purity of the church 
 was maintained for the first two centuries, when the 
 prevalence of the faith changed somewhat in its 
 character. Angry disputes and immorality gained 
 ground. Pious frauds and forgery were practiced. 
 In their zeal to substantiate their peculiar views, 
 disputants would often interpolate passages into the 
 Testament, and even palm off spurious writings as 
 sacred. A great deal of stress was laid upon the 
 supposed near approach of the end of the world. 
 The earth was very soon to be burnt up, and the 
 wildest theories of impending ruin were entertain- 
 ed. The prophesied near approach of the end of 
 the Jewish dispensation, and the establishment of 
 the Christian religion, were interpreted to mean the 
 literal destruction of the globe, at least of all 
 physical life upon it. It may be remarked that 
 that millenarian delusion has been the prolific pa- 
 rent of fanaticism, almost from the beginning of 
 the Christian era. 
 
 We sometimes hear of the ten persecutions of 
 the Christians by the Pagan emperors. There were 
 at most only five, and these were slight, as com- 
 pared with the Inquisition and kindred persecutions 
 of Christians by Christians. In a strictly religious 
 point of view, polytheism was tolerant, but there 
 were religious rites and ceremonies blended with 
 political institutions, as previously explained, which 
 rendered the monotheistic scruples of Jews and 
 Christians treasonable, in the light of Roman law. 
 But “those light afflictions” were like a little water 
 thrown upon a great flame, stimulating rather than 
 quenching the zeal of the believers. “ The blood 
 of the martyrs is the seed of the church ” was writ- 
 ten by Tertullian, during the days of pagan 
 supremacy, and was true of those light persecutions. 
 Many a primitive Christian was obliged to contrib- 
 ute, however, to the brutal pleasure of a Roman 
 multitude, gathered at the amphitheatre to witness 
 
PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANITY. I 7 5 
 
 a contest between wild beasts and men. The train- 
 ed and professional gladiators were often killed in 
 the fierce combat, and the untrained Christians 
 were almost always slain. Sometimes women and 
 even children were thrown to the wild beasts for the 
 delectation of a bloodthirsty populace. But the 
 persecutions in later times, except in Germany, Hol- 
 land and Great Britain, were so severe as to prevent 
 the spread of opinions and sentiments opposed to 
 the ruling church. Protestantism was burnt out of 
 Italy, France and Spain, with a persistence and ve- 
 hemence in persecution finding no parallel in the 
 history of primitive Christianity. One general 
 characteristic of 
 Christi anity, 
 which very ear- 
 ly manifested 
 itself, deserves 
 observation; 
 namely, its a- 
 daptability. No 
 other religion 
 can at all com- 
 pare with it in 
 this regard. 
 
 There are ten 
 religions within 
 the scope of his- 
 tory, including 
 the agnosticism 
 of Confucius. 
 
 All except Christianity are local, or, as in the case 
 of Judaism, strictly national. When Greece and 
 Rome developed in philosophy, outgrowing the 
 crude myths of their ancestors, their religion re- 
 mained stationary. The world moved on and left 
 Olympus behind. Brahminism, Buddhism, and Is- 
 lamism, each is substantially the same, always and 
 everywhere, resembling the man who should wear 
 the same clothing in all seasons and latitudes. Chris- 
 tianity has the elasticity which admits of and in- 
 vites growth, while it defies outgrowth. There is 
 absolutely no limit to its range of thought. The 
 world has undergone many changes since its birth, 
 hut to every phase of human development it has 
 accommodated itself. It thus gives promise of a 
 permanence, which is not the fixity of the rock, 
 but the gradual, sure, and persistent growth of the 
 century plant. The progress of civilization demands 
 
 frequent and radical changes, which must be met in 
 disregard of precedents and prejudice, and it is 
 ability to meet these demands that gives to Chris- 
 tianity the promise of universal spiritual empire. 
 This adaptability enabled the primitive church to 
 conquer the empire, survive the Dark Ages, and 
 conform to the conditions of vitality peculiar to its 
 ever-varying environment. 
 
 A peculiarly interesting feature of primitive 
 Christianity was the catacombs of Rome. The 
 Roman method of disposing of dead bodies was to 
 burn the corpse. Cremation was almost universal 
 in the Eternal City, and quite general throughout 
 
 the empire. But 
 the early Chris- 
 tians were op- 
 posed to destroy- 
 ing the body, 
 whether by fire 
 or other means. 
 They looked for 
 a literal resurrec- 
 tion of the body, 
 and that in the 
 nearfuture. The 
 catacombs were 
 vast subterra- 
 nean chambers 
 which were used 
 as receptacles of 
 the bodies of be- 
 lievers in those primitive days. Many legends are told 
 of the church of the catacombs which lack historical 
 verification. It is probable that those underground 
 rooms were the quarries from which building material 
 for the city had been taken from time immemorial. 
 Their use for the purposes of Christian burial is sup- 
 posed to have been the first utilization of the space. 
 The earliest mention of the catacombs was in the 
 reign of Nero. Sometimes the persecuted church took 
 refuge in the catacombs. Many inscriptions attest 
 the piety of the early fathers. The symbols carved 
 on the stones also bear testimony to the religious 
 character of the place. No doubt the original 
 quarries were greatly enlarged under the Christian 
 influence and usage, and the catacombs are sup- 
 posed to have reached their maximum dimensions in 
 the fifth century. 
 
 The first age of the Christian church is called the 
 
 RUINS OF THE COLISEUM, ROME. 
 
 i. 
 
 <S" 
 
 22 
 
 
PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 Apostolic age. That period extended from the 
 crucifixion of Jesus to the death of St. John, or the 
 destruction of Jerusalem. The overthrow of that 
 city had a powerful influence upon the church. 
 Armenia was the first country in which Christianity 
 was established as the national religion. Wherever 
 there were Hebrews dispersed, the religion of Christ 
 early found some adherents. 
 
 Of the primitive fathers of note, the first was Ig- 
 natius, bishop of Antioch, where the believers were 
 first called Christians. He died a martyr under 
 Trajan. Justin Martyr 
 was an eminent writer. 
 
 He was beheaded under 
 Marcus Aurelius in the 
 seventy-fifth year of his 
 age. Another martyr for 
 the same period, Polycarp, 
 deserves mention as the 
 special friend and spirit- 
 ual son of John the Evan- 
 gelist. Irenaeus, of Lyons, 
 was a skillful theologian. 
 
 He wrote much against 
 gnosticism. He was mar- 
 tyred at the beginning of 
 the third century. Next 
 in point of time, and 
 superior to all who have been named in ability and 
 influence, was Tertullian, a native of Carthage. A 
 lawyer by profession, he brought to Christianity a 
 mind well trained for discussion. Origen, of Alex- 
 andria, was a learned teacher of the faith, and the 
 author of some eminent treatises on religious sub- 
 jects. But the greatest of all the Christian fathers 
 
 was Augustine. A Numidian by birth, he may justly 
 be called the great light of the Western church. 
 His writings were very voluminous, and he may 
 be said to have formulated the doctrines of the 
 church. His powerful logic was directed against 
 Pelagianism, and every form of heresy then extant. 
 Pelagius believed in free will, while Augustine was 
 a stout defender of the doctrine of man’s moral 
 inability and absolute dependence upon God. John 
 Calvin was simply a later edition of Augustine. 
 Besides these eminent fathers there were two of 
 
 renown, Jerome 
 
 great 
 
 CATACOMBS OF ROME. 
 
 and Chrysostom. The 
 former was a learned 
 scholar whose crowning 
 work was the translation 
 of the Bible into Latin. 
 His version of the sacred 
 volume is called the Vul- 
 gate. Chrysostom was re- 
 markable for his eloquence 
 as a preacher. He was 
 the great orator of the 
 early church. 
 
 Two conspicuous names 
 in this connection are 
 Athanasius, bishop of 
 Alexandria, and Arius. Of 
 both we have heard something already. The for 
 mer maintained the divinity of Christ and the trini- 
 ty of the Godhead, while the latter was a Unitarian. 
 The Nicene creed, which is substantially held by 
 nearly all Christendom, is an embodiment of the 
 views not only of Athanasius, but of nearly the 
 entire primitive church. 
 

 1 
 
 
 \ HOLmiBLEM 1 
 ^m^m! j| 
 
 THE PAPACY 
 
 CHRISTIANITY 
 
 
 
 
 I Til the fall of the West- 
 ern Empire Rome seem- 
 ed to disappear forever. 
 
 Indeed it had long be- 
 fore ceased to be a real pow- 
 er in the world, being lit- 
 tle else than a city of lux- 
 ury and reminiscence. But 
 it was destined to a second greatness, a su- 
 premacy more potent and absolute than 
 imperialism had ever known or conceiv- 
 ed. The Vatican at Rome is to-day the 
 capital of a mighty empire, no less real 
 because spiritual. 
 
 In following the city of Romulus from 
 its foundation to the stage in history now 
 reached, it has been necessary to traverse a wide 
 range of inquiry. Primitive Christianity was a part 
 of the Roman Empire, springing up within it, and 
 being greatly facilitated in its dissemination and 
 growth by the mechanism of universal empire which 
 centered in Rome. But primitive Christianity gave 
 no special prominence to Rome itself. Jerusalem 
 was the spiritual capital in those days of the Chris- 
 tian church. When, however, the Roman Empire 
 and Jerusalem both lay in ruins, the miter of the 
 
 Roman pontiff usurped the place of the scepter and 
 the high priest, and to both the imperial purple and 
 the holy sepulcher succeeded the surplice. In trac- 
 ing the history of Italy we shall see much of the 
 popes and the papacy ; but without anticipating the 
 next chapter, it may be well to consider the Church 
 of Rome as a distinct factor in the world, and in 
 this same connection glance at the Modern Church, 
 without anticipating the great reformatory events 
 yet to be noted. 
 
 When the Northern invaders poured into Italy, 
 they found the Christian priesthood a powerful 
 body, a tremendously influential power in the society 
 of the entire empire ; but the sovereignty of the 
 Roman See maybe called the “section of imperial- 
 ism ” subsequently saved from the general wreck. 
 The Church of Rome was greedy for land, and ear- 
 ly acquired vast territorial possessions. Its lust of 
 power was a slower, but more momentous growth. 
 After every vestige of sovereignty over Europe had 
 been torn from Rome as a political capital, the 
 priesthood undertook the establishment of an em- 
 pire more despotic than the world had ever seen, 
 and succeeded in its establishment. The popes, as 
 we shall presently see, acquired an ascendancy over 
 Europe more absolute and remarkable than the 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 The Second Rome — Spiritual Empire — The Medieval Priesthood — Church and State — The 
 Church and Learning — The Early Popes — Rome and Theology — Leo the Great — Greg- 
 ory the Great — The Temporal Power or the Popes — The Decretals and Donation— 
 The Guelpiis — Papal Corruption and the Reformation — Protestantism in Italy — The 
 Mystics — The Inquisition — The Jesuits — The Dogma of the Immaculate Conception — 
 Philip Schaff on the Church of Rome — Present Pope and the Vatican — Spiritual 
 Divisions of Christendom — Modern Missions — A Reflection. 
 
 
 f 
 
 
■V a 
 
 s 
 
 © 
 
 i 
 
 ol 
 
 V 
 
 THE PAPACY AND MODERN CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 rule of the Caesars. The papacy cannot be attrib- 
 uted to any one man, but was the slow growth of 
 centuries, accelerated by an occasional genius for 
 organization, but mainly due to impersonal causes. 
 
 The medieval age was the golden age of supersti- 
 tion. It has been said that the ninth century was 
 the age of the bishops ; the tenth and eleventh, of the 
 popes ; but all those dark centuries, from Alaric to 
 Luther, were ruled far more by the ecclesiastical 
 than the 
 secular 
 power. It 
 was not 
 the union 
 of church 
 and state, 
 but the 
 sovereign- 
 ty of the 
 church 
 over the 
 state. In 
 the lan- 
 guage o f 
 Pope In- 
 nocent, 
 
 “These 
 two bran- 
 ch e s of 
 power 
 were the 
 sun and 
 m oon ; ” 
 the church 
 
 being the sun, and the state, or crown, being merely 
 the moon. The thunders of Rome were heard at ev- 
 ery court, and the lightnings of the pontificate made 
 the sky of all Europe lurid for a thousand years. 
 
 The church was not an unmitigated evil, how- 
 ever, even during this period. If it was autocratic, it 
 did much to break down that bulwark of autocracy, 
 the arrogance of birth. The priesthood, from the 
 lowest to the highest, was open to all, however hum- 
 ble, and the stable-boy’s son might hold the keys of 
 St. Peter. There was something higher than roy- 
 alty, and more potent than the blood of kings. Grad- 
 ually and imperceptibly this idea prepared the way 
 for democratic ideas. The priests were the allies of 
 kings, it is true, the two despotisms being drawn to- 
 
 gether by a common danger and a common pur- 
 pose ; but unwittingly, the church did something to 
 undermine the monarchy. 
 
 In the domain of learning it was partly good and 
 partly bad. The priests were generally far from 
 being men of learning, and the church did not en- 
 courage the cause of education, nevertheless, it is 
 true that when the floods of ignorance aud devas- 
 tation swept over all Europe, threatening to utterly 
 
 destroy the 
 civiliza- 
 tion of 
 Athens, 
 Alexan- 
 dria and 
 Rome, the 
 monaster- 
 ies of the 
 continent 
 served a s 
 the ark 
 wherein to 
 save alive 
 some por- 
 tion of an- 
 cient liter- 
 ature. We 
 have al- 
 ready seen 
 that much 
 of the clas- 
 sics have 
 been lost 
 forever. 
 
 Here and there a studious recluse clung to Plato, 
 Aristotle, Homer, Virgil, Horace, or Cicero, and so 
 the destruction was not complete. The church, as a 
 body, deserves no credit for the preservation of an- 
 cient literature, but fortunately it had individual 
 scholars among its secluded monks and privileged 
 priests. 
 
 The term Pope means father (papa) and origin- 
 ally was by no means peculiar to the head of any 
 particular church. It came gradually to be claimed 
 by the bishop of Rome as his distinctive appellation. 
 There have been 260 Popes of Rome, including St. 
 Peter and the present pontiff, Leo XIII. The early 
 list is somewhat uncertain. It is doubtful if Peter 
 was ever the pastor of the church at Rome, although 
 
 NICENE COUNCIL. 
 
THE PAPACY AND MODERN CHRISTIANITY. 1 79 
 
 he is supposed to have suffered martyrdom there 
 under Nero. His pontificate is reckoned by the 
 Romanists from A. D. 42 to 67. I 11 the authorized 
 
 list of popes all are called saints (with one excep- 
 tion) until the middle of the sixth century, and 
 none after the middle of the sixteenth century, and 
 very few after the eighth. However undesigned 
 this may be, it suggests very fairly the most general 
 fact in regard to the subject, namely, that in the 
 primitive age of the church the Roman See was 
 purely ecclesiastical, if not 
 wholly religious, but for a 
 thousand years it has been 
 as thoroughly secular as any 
 dynasty could be, although 
 using the weapons of the 
 Spirit largely for the accom- 
 plishment of its purposes. Not 
 that all the popes have been 
 bad, but that papacy has for a 
 thousand years been eager for 
 temporal power. And to-day, 
 shut up in the Vatican, it still 
 dreams of secular authority. 
 
 In the controversies between 
 the theologians of the early 
 church, Rome took a lively 
 interest, and to its especial 
 championship of the doctrine 
 of the Trinity, was due in a 
 very large measure its pre- 
 eminence. It came to be the 
 stronghold of orthodoxy, al- 
 though the first Christian emperor was heret- 
 ically inclined. Sylvester, who was made bishop 
 of Rome in 314 and held the office twenty-two years, 
 was the first Primate of all the Sees of Italy. He 
 was raised to that dignity by Constantine and the 
 Nicene Council in 325. He was in effect an arch- 
 bishop. The thirty-sixth pope, Liberius, was de- 
 posed and banished by the Arian or Unitarian em- 
 peror, Constantius. He was a martyr to the cor- 
 ner-stone of orthodoxy, as now and usually held at 
 Rome ; but, singularly inconsistent as it may seem, 
 Liberius was also the first in the list of popes to 
 whom was denied canonization. 
 
 The first pope to absolutely claim universal 
 authority over Christendom, was Leo the Great, in 
 440. He was a man of remarkable genius for exec- 
 
 
 utive matters. He claimed the primacy of the uni- 
 versal church, or of the Catholic church, on the 
 ground that Jesus had said, “ Thou art Peter, and 
 upon this rock will I build my church.” He scouted 
 the corresponding claim of the Patriarch of Con- 
 stantinople. The Roman and Greek churches from 
 that time have been sharply outlined as rival and 
 hostile hierarchies. Leo aspired to rule the East, 
 no less than the West. His followers never formal- 
 ly renounced the claim, but practically contented 
 themselves with the Western 
 Empire. Between the two 
 great divisions of Christendom 
 there has not been any very 
 considerable conflict, territori- 
 al boundaries being observed, 
 except in a few cases. 
 
 Protestantism and Catholi- 
 cism dispute the same territory; 
 but the Roman and the Greek 
 each enjoys a domain apart 
 from the other. The claims, 
 therefore, set up by the first 
 Leo led to no such conflict as 
 the one disputed by Luther 
 during the pontificate of Leo 
 X., the most memorable of all 
 the twelve Leos. The West 
 readily accepted the claims of 
 Rome, and the East con- 
 temptuously iguored them in 
 favor of Constantinople. 
 
 We find no notable pope 
 from Leo until the accession of the greatest of all 
 popes, Gregory, whose pontificate dates from 568 
 to 604. Those were troublous times in Europe. 
 No great ruler sat upon any throne, and Gregory 
 seized every opportunity to magnify his office. 
 He extended the authority of the Church of 
 Rome to Spain, and strengthened it throughout 
 Europe, as a spiritual sovereignty ; but his 
 great work was the elevation of the host, as 
 it might be called, — the raising of ecclesiastical 
 authority above thrones and sovereignties. He also 
 took care to strengthen the hold of the church by 
 improving the ceremonials and worship. Music was 
 cultivated, and it might be said to have given to the 
 Roman church its splendor and pomp, the peculiar- 
 ities which alike inspire awe in the breast of a savage, 
 
 

 
 i8o 
 
 THE PAPACY AND MODERN CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 7T 
 
 and please the aesthetic taste of the cultivated wor- 
 shiper. In A. D. 730, the title of Pope was changed 
 from Servus Servorum, Servant of Servants, to Dorni- 
 nus, or Lord. Gregory II. was the pope who received 
 the sword of Lutprand in recognition of this new 
 sovereignty. It was not, however, until the corona- 
 tion of Charlemagne, 800, that the papacy received 
 its full measure of jurisdiction. The Lombards re- 
 sisted the popes, but Charles the Great confirmed 
 their claims. Leo III. was the pope who crowned 
 that greatest of medieval sov- 
 ereigns. The temporal au- 
 thority of the popes continued 
 until the unification of Italy 
 under Victor Emanuel. 
 
 It was under the pontifi- 
 cate of Adrian I. that the 
 forged documents known as 
 the Decretals and Donation 
 were devised, which have 
 been called “ those two magic 
 pillars of the spiritual and 
 temporal monarchy of the 
 popes. ” By the former, 
 all ecclesiastical disputes, 
 wherever occurring, were to 
 be referred to the bishop of 
 Rome for settlement, and by 
 the latter, Constantine (the 
 supposed author of the first 
 decree) donated to the pon- 
 tiffs the temporal authority 
 over Rome, Italy, and the 
 Western empire generally. 
 
 These forgeries would not have been perpetrated, 
 had there not been the densest ignorance among 
 tire people, including Charlemagne himself, and 
 his court ; also a long period of previous arrogation 
 of nearly that much authority. That those docu- 
 ments were spurious, admits of no doubt at the 
 present time, but their falsity was not discovered 
 until long after their promulgation. Building on 
 that false foundation, and the gradual encroach- 
 ments which preceded those most stupendous of 
 all forgeries, the papacy pursued a career of arro- 
 gance and licentiousness, of treachery and vice. 
 
 With very rare exceptions, the popes, for a thou- 
 sand years, were monsters of villainy, and eminent 
 only for their crimes. They were the heads of the 
 
 Guelph party, and filled Italy with woe. It was a 
 desolating, sickening and horrible contest for tem- 
 poral power in Italy, with some diversions in favor 
 of superstition in general, and against the spirit of 
 Protestantism in particular, especially as that spirit 
 found expression in Italy. There were some mut- 
 terings of the coming Reformation, but intrigues, 
 plots and infamies seemed to engage the almost 
 undivided attention of the popes down to the time 
 when Martin Luther and kindred reformers began 
 their stupendous work, when 
 a new era in papacy was 
 inaugurated. 
 
 U util the eleventh century, 
 the popes were elected by the 
 clergy and the people of 
 Rome, but for eight hundred 
 years the college of cardinals 
 has had the authority, a two- 
 thirds majority being nec- 
 essary to a choice. There 
 have been numerous cases — 
 nearly twenty — of sharp, bit- 
 ter and protracted contests, 
 resulting in two or more pre- 
 lates claiming the tiara at 
 the same time. 
 
 It was in this century, 
 1073, that Hildebrand was 
 elected pope, taking the title 
 of Gregory VII., under 
 whom was waged the “War 
 of the Investitures.” By the 
 term investiture was designa- 
 ted the ceremony by which parish priests and 
 other clergy were clothed with the functions of 
 their sacred office. The secular authorities, 
 especially in Germany and France, insisted upon 
 the right to invest the clergy, while the pope in- 
 sisted that such investiture belonged within the 
 province of the pontificate. The issue thus raised 
 involved the relative superiority of the secular and 
 the spiritual authorities. It was a question of 
 church or state. Henry III. of Germany set up 
 a new pope, Gilbert of Ravenna; but Gregory had 
 the alliance of Robert of Normandy, and was, 
 withal, a great genius. The contest was still in 
 progress when Gregory died, 1085. The question 
 of investiture was not decided until 1122, when a 
 
 

 © - 
 
 — -9 ip" . 
 
 G\ 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 
 THE PAPACY AND MODERN CHRISTIANITY. l8l 
 
 > 
 
 compromise was effected — a compromise which 
 
 teenth centuries. They constituted at once the best 
 
 
 
 gave the lion’s share of the advantage to the Papacy. 
 
 and the worst features of the Romish church. To 
 
 
 
 When the Protestant Reformation set Europe 
 
 the serious, monastic life, whether recluse or med- 
 
 
 
 ablaze with religious ideas hostile to the Papacy, Pope 
 
 dicant, afforded special incitements to purity, while 
 
 
 
 Leo X. found himself compelled to make Italian 
 
 to the hypocritical it offered special facilities for im- 
 
 
 
 politics secondary, and the suppression of Protes- 
 
 position and immorality. Medieval mysticism, as 
 
 
 
 tantism primary. From that time to date the spir- 
 
 expressed in aKempis and others of his class, car- 
 
 
 
 itual empire of Rome has engaged the chief atten- 
 
 ried spirituality to the highest pinnacle of the tern- 
 
 
 
 tion of the popes. 
 
 pie of faith ; but the modern church has had its 
 
 
 
 Since the Leo who fulminated his bull against 
 
 mystics, from Spener and Francke, who founded 
 
 
 
 Luther, none of the popes have been great elements 
 
 the Halle school of pietists in Germany, to Moody 
 
 
 
 in Italian affairs. They clung to the temporality 
 
 and Sankey of contemporary fame. 
 
 
 
 of the petty Roman state with great tenacity, but 
 
 But to return to the papacy, we find in the Inqui- 
 
 
 
 not so much for its own sake as from fear lest its 
 
 sition a more natural development of liierarchal 
 
 
 
 loss should prove a fatal blow at the hierarchy 
 
 ideas. It was early in the thirteenth century that 
 
 
 
 itself. 
 
 Innocent III. established the Inquisition, but it was 
 
 
 
 The first outcropping of Protestantism was in 
 
 not until Protestantism captured Germany and Eng- 
 
 
 
 1134, when Arnold of Brescia entered emphatic 
 
 land, and seriously threatened Europe, that this in- 
 
 
 
 protest against papal corruption. The Waldenses, 
 
 strument of persecution was put in full operation. 
 
 
 
 disciples of Peter Waldo, of Lyons, date from 1170, 
 
 At first the Inquisition was ' merely a process of in- 
 
 
 
 and early acquired foothold in the valleys of Pied- 
 
 vestigation, as the term would indicate, but it grew 
 
 
 
 mont. Persecuted and maligned, they held their 
 
 into an institution terrible in power and cunning in 
 
 
 
 own, and to-day number between twenty and thirty 
 
 device. It spread to every country where the 
 
 
 
 thousand communicants. They constitute almost 
 
 authority of the pope of Rome was recognized. W ith 
 
 
 
 the entire Protestant force of Italy. They have 
 
 its auto-da-fe, it was used for the eradication of the 
 
 
 
 sixteen churches. The Albigenses were a similar 
 
 Jews from Spain, no less than the Protestants from 
 
 
 
 but smaller sect of Protestants belonging to the 
 
 the face of the earth. In proportion as the papacy 
 
 
 
 period of Waldo and his immediate followers. Sa- 
 
 was strong the Inquisition was thorough. Its vie- 
 
 
 
 vonarola, who preached at Florence in the latter 
 
 tims were millions in number. Nothing can be ad- 
 
 
 
 part of the fifteenth century, effected the downfall 
 
 duced in its extenuation unless it be the fact that 
 
 
 
 of the Medici,- the ruling family in that part of It- 
 
 the inquisitor was often sincere in his merciless 
 
 
 
 aly, but anti-Papacy which he earnestly proclaimed, 
 
 bigotry. 
 
 
 
 gained no permanent and general foothold in the 
 
 Jesuitism sprang from the same soil as the Inqui- 
 
 
 
 immediate national vicinage, as it might be called, 
 
 sition, but it can boast some positive good and some 
 
 
 
 of the popes, and he himself died the death of a 
 
 extenuating virtues. The Society of Jesus was 
 
 
 
 martyr. 
 
 founded by Ignatius Loyola, a Spaniard, and re- 
 
 
 
 The Mystics were deeply spiritual religious enthu- 
 
 ceived pontifical sanction from Pope Paul III. in 
 
 
 
 siasts, whose influence dates from the middle of the 
 
 1540. Originally it was designed to be an order of 
 
 
 
 fourteenth century, and who were not at all contro- 
 
 monks, bound to the ordinary monastic vows of 
 
 
 
 versial. Thomas a Kempis, who died in 1471, was 
 
 chastity, poverty and obedience ; but the second 
 
 
 
 the best known of these remarkable men. His 
 
 vicar-general of the order, James Laynez, gave to it 
 
 
 
 treatise on “ The Imitation of Christ” has been 
 
 its present and historical character, a character 
 
 
 
 translated into every language, and is the expres- 
 
 which has made Jesuitical a synonym for deceptive. 
 
 
 
 sion of the most intense piety. Religious recluses 
 
 The maintenance of the papal authority against any 
 
 
 
 became somewhat common at an early day, and 
 
 and all adversaries was made the prime object of 
 
 
 
 may be closely identified with tlieFssenes of Judea, 
 
 the order, under the motto, “ The end justifies the 
 
 
 
 quite fully described in a previous chapter; but 
 
 means.” It was and is a secret society with won- 
 
 
 4 
 
 monasticism reached its climax in mendicant orders 
 
 derful adaptation to the exercise of influence. By 
 
 i 
 
 v£) 
 
 <3 
 
 in the thirteenth, fourteenth, fifteenth and six- 
 
 a subtle process of insinuation and percolation, as 
 
 
 <b ' 
 
 
 
 
] 
 
 THE PAPACY AND MODERN CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 if 
 
 - r 
 
 one might say, the Jesuits gained control of the 
 reins of government, the institutions of learning, 
 and the great agencies of power in many countries. 
 From being a protector of Rome the order grew in- 
 to a vast and dangerous empire. In 1773 a papal 
 bull was promulgated for the dissolution of the en- 
 tire order. This was done at the request of France, 
 Spain, Portugal, Parma, Naples and Austria. The 
 
 self-sacrifice of the order in carrying the gospel to 
 the heathen, especially in America. Jesuit missions 
 did much to Christianize the aborigines of this con- 
 tinent, more particularly in South America and on 
 the Pacific coast ; also to establish pioneer churches 
 in many parts of the far Orient. 
 
 It was in 1854 that the Immaculate Conception of 
 the Virgin Mary was proclaimed as a divine dogma, 
 
 order could only exist as a recognized institution in 
 Russia, thanks to the sufferance of Catharine II. 
 For several years the society seemed powerless, if 
 not dead. But after the terrible upheaval of the 
 French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars, the 
 Jesuits were looked upon with more favor, and in 
 1814 the order was re-established in its original form 
 by a papal bull. Since then Jesuitism has been less 
 arrogant than formerly, but to its influence in large 
 measure may be attributed the “Syllabus of Error” 
 and the dogma of Papal Infallibility. The latest 
 blow at the Jesuits was struck by the Republic of 
 France in the secularization of French education. 
 The chief credit and boast of Jesuitism is the heroic 
 
 and the Vatican Council of 1870 declared the pope 
 to be “ the infallible bishop of bishops.'" In the 
 year 1804 the pope issued the “ Syllabus of Errors,” 
 a general bull against, or condemnation of, modern 
 civilization, including scientific thought and relig- 
 ious freedom. 
 
 Speaking of the worship and ceremonies of the 
 church of Rome, the learned Philip Schaff observes : 
 “The Roman church accompanies its members from 
 the cradle to the grave, receiving them into life by 
 baptism, dismissing them into the other world by 
 extreme unction, and consecrating all their impor- 
 tant acts by the sacramental mysteries and bless- 
 ings. It draws all the fine arts into its service. 
 
 
 V 
 

 Q 
 
 ^ 0 
 
 
 ] 
 
 THE PAPACY AND MODERN CHRISTIANITY. 183 
 
 
 
 Gothic cathedrals, altars, crucifixes, Madonnas, pic- 
 
 Speaking of modern missions. Dr. Hurst says : 
 
 
 
 tures, statues and relics of saints, rich decorations. 
 
 “ The gospel was first preached in Madagascar by 
 
 
 
 solemn processions, operatic music, — all combine to 
 
 missionaries of the London Missionary Society in 
 
 
 
 lend their great attractions for the common people, 
 
 1818. Their labors, joined chiefly to those of the 
 
 
 
 and for cultured persons of prevailing aesthetic 
 
 Church and Friends’ Societies, have resulted in the 
 
 
 
 tastes, especially among the Latin races. Catholic 
 
 overthrow of idolatry. The Queen and her govern- 
 
 
 
 service is the same all over the world, even in lan- 
 
 ment accept Christianity ; and from the capital, by 
 
 
 
 guage, the Latin being its sacred organ, and the 
 
 contributions of converted Malagasy natives, mis- 
 
 
 
 vernacular being only used for sermons which are 
 
 sionaries have been sent to unconverted tribes in 
 
 
 
 subordinate. Its throne is the altar. It centers in 
 
 distant parts of the island. In 1820 the American 
 
 
 
 the mass, a communion service, which is regarded 
 
 Board began a mission in the Sandwich Islands, and 
 
 
 
 as a real though unbloody repetition or continua- 
 
 in less than half a century of earnest, persistent 
 
 
 
 tion of the atoning sacrifice of Christ on the Cross.” 
 
 work a nation was redeemed from barbarism. 
 
 
 
 The present pope of Rome, Leo XIII., is said to 
 
 Where there used to be only savages there are now 
 
 
 
 be seriously considering the propriety of removing 
 
 Christians, who not only support their own churches 
 
 
 
 his residence from the Vatican at Rome to some 
 
 but send missionaries to other islands. Wesleyan 
 
 
 
 other spot. Several places have been suggested as 
 
 missionaries introduced Christianity into the Fiji 
 
 
 
 eligible capitals for the great hierarchy, Malta es- 
 
 Islands in 1835. The Fijians were a most savage 
 
 
 
 pecially ; but there is no immediate prospect of a 
 
 and degraded people, whose horrible cannibalistic 
 
 
 
 change. The Vatican, which embraces St. Peter’s, 
 
 feasts made their very name a terror. Christianity, 
 
 
 
 is the grandest achievement of all architecture. 
 
 as preached by the missionaries of the Wesleyan, 
 
 
 
 There are said to be 11,422 rooms in it, not count- 
 
 London, and one or two other societies, have ef- 
 
 
 
 ing mere closets. 
 
 fected a wonderful change among these cannibals. 
 
 
 
 All the churches not belonging to the Roman or 
 
 They have given up their old practices, and become 
 
 
 
 Greek communion are Protestants, except a few 
 
 a Christian nation. Churches and schools succeed 
 
 
 
 remnants of the apostolic churches in Asia, the 
 
 the bures or temples ; family worship is general ; 
 
 
 
 Armenian, the Nestorian, the Jacobite, and the still 
 
 marriage is sacred ; the Sabbath is observed ; and 
 
 
 
 less important remnants in Egypt and Abyssinia. 
 
 law and order reign. Many thousands are commu- 
 
 
 
 The Eastern churches, including the Greek, num- 
 
 nicants in the churches, and devoted Fijians go to 
 
 
 
 ber over 80,000,000 ; Protestant, something more 
 
 distant islands as missionaries and teachers. Some 
 
 
 
 than 120,000,000 ; Roman Catholic, about 200,- 
 
 of them have recently fallen victims to the canni- 
 
 
 
 000,000 ; making the grand total of Christendom 
 
 bals of New Britain. Before 1812 there were no 11 a- 
 
 
 
 over 400,000,000. 
 
 tive Christians in Polynesia. Now there are no less 
 
 
 
 After the evangelization of Europe the Christian 
 
 than 340,000, of whom 08,000 are communicants.” 
 
 
 
 world seemed indifferent to the further propagation 
 
 The aggregate membership of mission churches 
 
 
 
 of the faith, until late in the seventeenth century, 
 
 in 1879 was 575,480. 
 
 
 
 when there was an awakening to “ newness of life.” 
 
 Thus we have as the supreme phenomenon of 
 
 
 
 The Dutch exerted themselves for Java and Cey- 
 
 the world, the most notable feature of all historv, 
 
 
 
 Ion, the Danes for India, Xavier and fellow-Catho- 
 
 the religion founded by a Roman subject, one who 
 
 
 
 lies for Japan, America and Africa. Very great 
 
 never opposed imperialism, but, on the contrary, ad- 
 
 
 
 progress was made apparently toward Christianiz- 
 
 vised the paying of tribute to Caesar, and general 
 
 
 
 ing the pagan world, but the seed sown resulted in 
 
 conformity to temporal authority. Out of the Ro- 
 
 
 
 meager harvests in permanent effects. The evan- 
 
 man empire, but not at all as a result of Roman 
 
 
 
 gelized portions of India, China and Japan are 
 
 civilization, came a power which not only gave a 
 
 
 
 traceable to missionary labors belonging to the nine- 
 
 second birth to Rome itself, but a new impulse and 
 
 
 
 teenth century. 
 
 character to all nations and peoples. 
 
 
 J 
 
 msKJwmh ( f /vp>> 
 
 
 k 
 
 . & 
 
 
 Q 
 
 V 
 
 23 
 
 ^ — * 
 
 "y ' 
 
*S< <2. 
 
 The Youngest Nation — The Lombards — Italy in the Dark Ages — The Free Cities — The 
 Chief Glory of Medieval Italy — Modern Italy — Victor Emanual and Italian Unity 
 — P io Nino — Present Government of Italy — Condition of the Country — Italian Liter- 
 ature — Italy and Art — The Italian Renaissance. 
 
 Italy of to-day is the 
 ll youngest member of the 
 family of nations. It was 
 Vjtl ' j not until Victor Emanuel, 
 in the last decade, unified 
 the country under one 
 crown and one constitution 
 mJSC p that the present nation came into ex- 
 C-jl®#} p istence. Prior to that time, church 
 'IPnfi r an d s ^d" e were inseparably blended on 
 
 ihm ip that peninsula, the former being in 
 p the mastery. The kingdom of 
 llPi&lv p Italy, as it now stands, has an area 
 olf !§•> of 112 > 296 square m les, and con- 
 ^ ^sists of sixty-nine provinces. The 
 
 principal cities, to name them in the 
 v(X^» order of their population, are N aples, 
 Milan, Rome, Palermo, Turin, 
 Florence, Genoa, Venice, Bologna, Messina, Leg- 
 horn and Catenia. 
 
 Italy, as the peninsula once known as Latium is 
 now called, may be said to the product of the Lom- 
 bards, who poured into the country from the North, 
 being to that peninsula what the Angles were to 
 England. The very name was borrowed from a 
 Lombard prince, Italians, who, however, was less 
 entitled to that honor than Albion, the king of the 
 
 Lombards in Italy about the middle of the sixth 
 century. The year 568 is the date for the division 
 line between Ancient Rome and Modern Italy. Al- 
 bion was the Columbus, Italicus the Amerigo in the 
 
 case. 
 
 The Lombards were the bravest of the brave. 
 From the heights of the Alps they beheld the pleas- 
 ant valleys and fertile plains of the South, and 
 moved over with their families. There was no 
 devastation. They exercised squatter sovereignty 
 without the shedding of blood. They formed a 
 new tenantry. Some of the old inhabitants moved 
 further south, others remained, and the two sets 
 of inhabitants became mixed, as were the Saxons 
 and the Normans in England. The Lombards 
 adopted the civilization they found, including the' 
 Christian religion. Their sway did not extend to 
 the maritime cities of the Adriatic and Mediterra- 
 nean seas. The Latins who fled cherished bitter 
 animosity to the Lombards in their southern re- 
 treats, and so did the city of Rome, which, though 
 nominally subject at that time to the Caesars at 
 Constantinople, was really ruled, even at that early 
 period, by the Pontiffs. The Franks were sought 
 in alliance by the older race, and Charlemagne, 
 their greatest sovereign, conquered Italy in 774, re- 
 ceiving his coronation at Rome Christmas-day, 800. 
 
 o 
 
 ► 
 
 K 
 
 ( i8 4) 
 
A 
 
 ITALY AND THE ITALIANS. 
 
 185 
 
 During the darkest centuries of the Dark Ages 
 Italy was almost constantly the victim of petty and 
 interminable warfare. The Lombards invoked 
 German alliances, as the Latins and Romans had 
 French. In 961, Otho the Great restored temporary 
 peace. The Lombards soon rebelled against the 
 German yoke. In a generation or so, all was once 
 more confusion, anarchy and bloodshed, remaining 
 so until Barbarossa, entering Italy in 1154, made a 
 
 and turmoil of the land and gave herself to com- 
 merce. She was the Carthage of the period. The 
 first Doge was elected in 697. The founding of Ven- 
 ice near the island of Rialto dates from 809. St. 
 Mark is its patron saint, and the cathedral of 
 that name is its most famous edifice. Istria 
 and Dalmatia were united to this urban repub- 
 lic in 997. 
 
 Genoa and Pisa, on the other side of the Adriatic, 
 
 FLORENCE. 
 
 desperate effort to assert Teutonic supremacy. The 
 bravery of the Italians was such that he was 
 baffled, and in 1183, the peace of Constance rec- 
 ognised the independent Tights of the Italian cit- 
 ies. “ Thus ended,” says Mariotti, “ the first and 
 noblest struggle in Europe between liberty and 
 despotism.” 
 
 And . now comes into conspicuous prominence 
 several cities of Italy, once mighty factors in the 
 world’s work. First of these was Venice, queen of 
 the Adriatic, which was founded by Roman citi- 
 
 1 1 zens when Alaric and Attila invaded the country. 
 That city avoided, as far as possible, the troubles 
 
 J1 
 
 >[<•> 
 
 were free and independent states from the begin- 
 ning of the eleventh century. These three repub- 
 lics are medieval in origin. Their early annals are 
 shrouded in impenetrable mystery, but their petty 
 contests and rivalries would not be of interest if 
 preserved. Later, but similar, were the origins of 
 Naples, Amalfi and Gaeta. Genoa, the birth-place 
 of Columbus, was long the queen of the Mediterra- 
 nean, and the Genoese arc still the best sailors on 
 that sea. The Venetian aristocracy, it may be ad- 
 ded, long bloody and tyrannical, still cherishes the 
 pride of the Doges. The sea, now receding from 
 the lagoons, renders hopeless all attempts to regain 
 
a footing among the mighty cities of Europe. Flor- 
 ence, Milan, Pavia and Palermo each, are cities 
 replete with interest to one minutely studying Italy. 
 
 The real significance of Italian history is not in 
 the rivalries of petty states 
 and factions. The sov- 
 ereigns who deserve atten- 
 tion are the Popes, and 
 not the Guelplis and the 
 Glhibelines, the Borgias 
 and the Medici. It was 
 not until Victor Emanuel 
 and Garibaldi arose that 
 a single name, military or 
 political, acquired suffi- 
 cient importance to merit 
 consideration, beyond the 
 sphere of the Papacy 
 
 Italy presents no point 
 of special political interest 
 until the house of Savoy 
 appears above the waves. 
 
 In 1870 was accomplished 
 the unification of Italy with Rome as its capital. 
 In this illustrious house of Savoy, under which this 
 grand result was obtained, there were three Charles 
 Emanuels, three rulers 
 bearing the name of Vic- 
 tor Amadeus, and two 
 Victor Emanuels, all 
 creditable rulers and men 
 of some genius, the most 
 illustrious being the last 
 of the eight. They raised 
 the petty dukedom of 
 Savoy to the kingdom of 
 Sardinia, and later, to 
 the kingdom of Italy. 
 
 The crowning elevation 
 was achieved by Emanu- 
 el II., father of Hum- 
 bert, the present king of 
 Italy. He claimed the 
 title of King of Italy as 
 early as 1861, having been crowned King of 
 Sardinia in 1849, in the thirtieth year of his 
 age ; but the full measure of his ambition was delayed 
 until 1870. Louis Napoleon supported the Pope and 
 kept him in the temporality of the Papal States by 
 
 French bayonets. The king of Italy had removed 
 his capital from Turin to Florence, but could not 
 enter Rome. Victor Emanuel was so fortunate 
 as to have the assistance of that great statesman, 
 Cavour, and that grand 
 patriot, Garibaldi ; and al- 
 though excommunicated 
 by the pope, he remained 
 faithful to the Roman 
 hieracliy as a spiritual 
 power. He kept the cause 
 of Italian unity separate 
 from religion. The Cri- 
 mean war gave him oppor- 
 tunity to distinguish him- 
 self and gain for his nation 
 the respect of the great 
 powers. Italy derived 
 honor and benefit, indirect, 
 but great, from that war, 
 and this was true of no 
 other participant in it. 
 Victor Emanuel had re- 
 peated conflicts with Austria, and won some vic- 
 tories at Austrian expense. He was in antipathy to 
 France for barring his way to the Eternal City. 
 
 Therefore he was in close 
 sympathy with Prussia 
 in its war with both of 
 those powers. From 
 Prussian victory over 
 both, Italy derived sub- 
 stantial advantage, es- 
 pecially from the fall of 
 the Napoleonic empire. 
 Rome then opened her 
 gates to the great king 
 as a matter of course, 
 amid the wildest enthu- 
 siasm. The people re- 
 joiced exceedingly at the 
 change in rulers. The 
 dream of Italian nation- 
 ality had always been 
 fondly cherished by the Romans, and they ' saw in 
 Victor Emanuel the resurrection of old Rome in its 
 better days. The venerable Pope, a good old man, 
 one of the few real saints of the Pontificate, shut 
 himself up in the Vatican, not from fear, but in the 
 
 VICTOR EMANUEL II. 
 
 1 86 
 
 ITALY AND THE ITALIANS. 
 
 T 
 
V®- 
 
 ITALY AND THE ITALIANS. 
 
 I8 7 
 
 indulgence of what in boys is called “ the sulks.” 
 There he remained, chosing to play the role of pris- 
 oner and victim, until the serenity of death came 
 to his release, when Pius IX. was succeeded by an- 
 other old man, Leo XIII. 
 
 Pio Nino was born in 1792, and came to the 
 papal throne in 1846. Personally kind and just, 
 he was a staunch upholder of the ancient spirit of 
 despotism, and sought to prop up the falling for- 
 tunes of the Pontificate. He may be said to have 
 enlarged the creed of Rome by two doctrines ; name- 
 ly, the immaculate conception of tbe Virgin Mary 
 as well as her son, and the infallibility of the Pope 
 in all matters of 
 faith and morals. 
 
 He bluntly opposed 
 a free press, free 
 speech, liberty of 
 conscience, and 
 popular and mod- 
 ern ideas of civil 
 rights, being thor- 
 oughly and consist- 
 ently medieval. 
 
 The Italians rever- 
 ed his virtues, but 
 disregarded his po- 
 litical advice. His 
 successor is a man 
 of much ability, 
 but thus far he has 
 effected nothing to make his name remembered. 
 Of him it can be said, that he strenuously clings to 
 the old ways and ideas ; but he gradually accepts, 
 apparently in good faith, the inevitable and com- 
 plete loss of temporal power. No dynasty in Europe 
 lias such a hold upon its people as the Italian, and 
 all thought of restoring the papal temporality may 
 well be dismissed. 
 
 The government of Italy is a constitutional mon- 
 archy, with a senate appointed for life, and a cham- 
 ber of 508 deputies elected by popular suffrage. The 
 press is free and tbe people contented. The national 
 debt is large, but the country is, on the whole, pros- 
 perous'. The educational system is good. The rail- 
 roads and canals afford sufficient facilities for trans- 
 portation. The present population is not far from 
 thirty millions. The great industries are silk culture, 
 wine making, and the production of works of art. 
 
 Italy can boast a splendid literature, and an in- 
 comparable art. The chief of its authors is Dante, 
 whose poetic representation of the Romish view of 
 the future life is an immortal work. Under the 
 guidance of Virgil he explored hell and purgatory, 
 and then the spirit of his lost love, Beatrice, led him 
 through Paradise. Dante ranks with Goethe, and 
 second only to the incomparable Shakspeare. His 
 works have been translated into all tongues, and are 
 the delight of a peculiarly wide circle of readers. 
 Another familiar name is Tasso. He was very 
 highly esteemed in his day, but wiser after-judg- 
 ment placed him in the lower rank of genius. Boccac- 
 cio, whose tales 
 
 View of Rome, showing the Castle of St Angelo and St. Peter’s. 
 
 would be rejected 
 by a modern pub- 
 lisher as indecent, 
 occupies a conspic- 
 uous place on ac- 
 count of seniority. 
 Like the two other 
 Italian authors just 
 named, he was one 
 of the pioneers of 
 modern literature, 
 and is deserving of 
 great credit for 
 doing so well at 
 so early a period. 
 Italy did much for 
 the Present at its 
 dawn, and then subsided, the life of the nation 
 sapped apparently by the evil influences of a 
 church which would sacrifice any and every- 
 thing to build up and maintain ecclesiastical 
 authority. Its best work was in the line of art. 
 
 Painting, as it now exists, was brought from Con- 
 stantinople to Italy in the eleventh century, and 
 thence it spread over Europe. There were many 
 schools or styles of painting in Italy, nearly every 
 town having its characteristic invention of which it 
 could boast, its line of artists culminating generally 
 in some great master. Florence could claim Da 
 Vinci and Michael Angelo; Rome had Raphael; 
 Bologna, Guido ; Parma, Correggio ; Venice, Titian 
 and Paul Veronese. Not infrequently sculpture 
 and painting went together. Germany and the 
 Netherlands did great things for modern art, and 
 Germany, France, and to some extent, Spain, have 
 
_G) 
 
 
 e 
 
 7 
 
 k. 
 
 1 88 
 
 ITALY AND THE ITALIANS. 
 
 contributed very materially to the artistic wealth of the 
 world ; but all combined cannot equal this one small 
 country, the peninsula of Italy. What Greek art was 
 to the ancients, that is Italian art to modern times. 
 
 Italy sustains a peculiar relation to ancient and 
 modern civilizations as the great conservator and 
 restorer of ancient literature. The chief service of 
 that country in the domain of letters was not so 
 much the production 
 of original genius as 
 of faithful restorers 
 of the past. That was 
 the supreme service 
 of the Italian renais- 
 sance. Petrarch and 
 Boccaccio wrought 
 most nobly in the res- 
 toration of the ancient 
 classics, and a bril- 
 liant essayist observes < 
 
 “Their enthusiasm im- 
 parted an impetus to 
 research, and a uni- 
 versal interest in 
 manuscript and an- 
 tiquities sprang up. 
 
 Monasteries were 
 searched, and monks were bribed, when no better 
 way availed, to give up their treasures. Pilgrims 
 traveled to Byzantium in search of MSS. as in earlier 
 days they had of relics in the Holy land. No less 
 earnest was the work of collecting and revising the 
 MSS. thus obtained. No effort was spared to ar- 
 rive at the original meaning of an author, and 
 years were sometimes spent upon a single work.” 
 
 It was most appropriate, certainly, that Italy, the 
 heir of Rome, should thus reclaim and perpetuate 
 the treasures of classic literature. 
 
 Italy has been called a paradox, and from one 
 point of view such it certainly is. With a vicious 
 and deplorable financial system it enjoys industrial 
 prosperity. The aggregate of industries rose 16 per 
 cent during the last decade, and the average per capi- 
 ta 10 per cent. Exports 
 increase more rapidly 
 than imports. In man- 
 ufactures great ad- 
 vancement is being 
 made. Taxes are high. 
 N ot less than thirty-one 
 per cent of the earnings 
 of the people is re- 
 quired to support the 
 government. In France 
 it is seventeen and a 
 half per cent, and in 
 Great Britain twelve 
 per cent. The increase 
 in the wealth of the 
 people during the 
 seventh decade of this 
 century was one hun- 
 dred and ten million pounds sterling, but the national 
 debt increased during the same period 150 millions. 
 The people suffer from the lack of food, or rather 
 they are small eaters. The amount consumed is 
 less according to population than that of any part of 
 Europe, Portugal alone excepted. If the people ate 
 more and heartier food their industrial capacity 
 might be much greater. 
 
 
 o 
 
 ► 
 
 
 « 
 

 
 HE printing press may be 
 regarded as the dividing 
 line in respect to the dis- 
 semination of knowledge, 
 between the old world and 
 the modern ; but in treat- 
 ing of nations and peoples, 
 the more natural demarkation is 
 that neutral belt known as the 
 Dark Ages. The Roman Empire 
 was first divided, as we have seen, 
 falling apart of its own weight, and 
 then the western half of it was dev- 
 astated by barbaric Norsemen. A 
 period of chaos followed in the 
 west, a night with no light but 
 “ the horned moon ” of the Cres- 
 cent, and as morning approached, a 
 few stars twinkled in the heavens. That crescent 
 queen of the Dark Ages was the Saracen empire, 
 which will engage our attention in the next chap- 
 ters, and the stars of the dawn were the modern 
 nationalities of Europe which gradually emerged 
 from the medieval night. Those nations, differen- 
 tiated by the natural boundaries of language, arc 
 the Turks, the Russians, the Italians, the Germans, 
 the French, the Spanish (including the Portuguese), 
 the Scandinavians and the English. These seven 
 
 jieoples are the nebulae thrown off by the sun of 
 imperial Rome. It shall be the purpose of this 
 chapter to set forth the condition of Europe during 
 the Dark Ages, apart from the Papacy, already con- 
 sidered, and the empires which are to be severally 
 brought out in subsequent chapters. 
 
 During the entire period of history, nothing so 
 desolate and vicious can be found as this chiliad of 
 darkness. It seemed as if civilization had fled from 
 the homes of men, and no morning would ever 
 dawn upon Western Europe. The religion of Jesus 
 of Nazareth had been adopted in theory, while the 
 Christianity of actual practice was in the sharpest 
 possible contrast to the benevolent and gentle teach- 
 ings of the crucified Christ. Violence, bloodshed, 
 brutality and crime made Europe a vale of tears. 
 
 The chief feature of the period was feudalism, 
 and that was born of the necessity of seeking pro- 
 tection at the price of liberty. Political institutions 
 and national authority afforded no actual safe- 
 guards against rapine and murder. The farmer had 
 no assurance that he should reap ivhat he had sown, 
 or enjoy what he had harvested. The country was 
 everywhere so overrun with marauders, that neither 
 person nor property was safe. Husbands and broth- 
 ers were slain, wives and sisters subjected to outrage 
 worse than death, and the robbers and despoilers 
 were entrenched in strongholds. Finally there came 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 Medieval Chaos — Feudalism — Feudal Tenures — Guizot on Feudalism — Chivalry — The 
 Crusades — History of each in Chronological Order — Charlemagne — Dante— The Min- 
 nesingers, Troubadours and the Troviers — Witchcraft— Testimony of Lecky' — Wesley 
 on Witchcraft— Its Survival of the Dark Ages. 
 
 (189) 
 
190 
 
 THE DARK AGES. 
 
 to be a truce between the weak and the strong, by 
 which the former put themselves under vassalage 
 to the latter, serving them in war and paying trib- 
 ute to them in peace, all in the hope that self-inter- 
 est would dictate to the robber in his castle that he 
 should protect the peasant in his hut. To such an 
 extent did the lord become interested in the vassal 
 that some security was afforded. Thus did barbar- 
 ism work out a certain degree of reformation. 
 Feudalism was a great amelioration of the condition 
 of affairs to which it owed its own existence. It 
 gradually developed into an elaborate system. 
 
 For the most part, 
 the tenantry of Eu- 
 rope at the present 
 times is a relic of feu- 
 dalism. The legal 
 ownership of the soil 
 rests in most cases 
 upon no just title of 
 purchase, but upon 
 the corner-stone of 
 rapine and violence. 
 
 Gradually, as nations 
 rose into definite out- 
 lines of jurisdiction, 
 the state took the 
 place of the fief and 
 the vassal became a 
 subject, until, in mod- 
 ern times, little remains of feudalism, except in 
 the matter of land tenure. The reliance of the 
 people for redress and protection is not upon 
 the lord of the nearest castle, but upon the mag- 
 istrate who represents the sovereignty of the law. 
 
 In his History of Civilization, M. Guizot makes 
 some extravagant claims for feudalism, but the fol- 
 lowing passage is an admirable presentation of facts 
 in regard to the system : “ There was nothing mor- 
 ally common between the holder of the fief and his 
 serfs. They formed part of his estate ; they were 
 his property; and under this word property are 
 comprised not only all the rights we delegate to 
 the public magistrate to exercise in the name of the 
 state, but likewise all those which we possess over 
 private property ; the right of making laws, of levy- 
 ing tuxes, of inflicting punishment, as well as that 
 of disposing of them — of selling them. There ex- 
 isted not, in fact, between the lord of the domain 
 
 and the cultivators, so far as we consider the latter 
 as men, either rights, guarantees or society. * * 
 
 This system seemed, however, naturally to pour in- 
 to the mind of every possessor of a fief a certain 
 number of ideas and moral sentiments — ideas of 
 duty, sentiments of affection. That the principles 
 of fidelity, devotedness and loyalty became devel- 
 oped and maintained by the relations in which the 
 possessors of fiefs stood towards one another, is 
 evident.” 
 
 Another generic feature of the period was chiv- 
 alry. It is said in praise of Don Quixote, that it 
 
 laughed chivalry out 
 
 MARCH OF THE CRUSADERS 
 
 of Europe, and that 
 was a great and good 
 thing to do when 
 done, for the morning 
 of modern day had 
 broken ; but in its 
 way and time chivalry 
 was very beneficent. 
 It stimulated and 
 cultivated the senti- 
 ment of honor, and 
 honor is one of the 
 fundamental ingredi- 
 ents of good charac- 
 ter, both individual 
 and national. Chival- 
 ry was born in the 
 reign of Charlemagne, although plain traces of its 
 rudiments may be found in the early Teutons, the 
 Germans of Tacitus. The knight-errant of romance, 
 bravely redressing the wrongs of suffering innocence, 
 without thought of reward or danger, was not a 
 myth. Found in all parts of Europe in those times 
 of universal wrong, chivalry was the highest ideal 
 presented of real goodness. Often fighting in a 
 tournament, which was about the same as a mod- 
 ern prize-fight (only arms, armor and horses were 
 allowed the combatants), still the knight was a mes- 
 senger of avenging justice, an angel of succor to the 
 unfortunate. Loyalty, courtesy and valor were 
 the cardinal virtues of 
 The Crusades belong 
 were seven of them, all substantially alike in cause 
 and purpose. They attest the monstrous folly with- 
 in the range of universal possibility. Of nothing 
 has the European branch of the human family 
 
 a true knight, 
 to the Dark Ages. There 
 
> 1 ° . ■ — — 
 
 Gj I ' 
 
 THE DARK AGES. I 9 I 
 
 more occasion to be ashamed than of these frenzied 
 efforts to gain possession of that empty hole in a 
 rock called the Holy Sepulcher. Viewed in the 
 light of modern practicality, there was no occasion 
 for that series of wars. The Saracens did indeed 
 have possession of the tomb of our Lord, but even 
 from the standpoint of Christian devotion, there 
 was no reason ^ 
 why that fact 
 should dis- 
 tu r b the 
 e quanimity 
 of all Europe. 
 
 But Peter the 
 Hermit, a 
 crazy fanatic, 
 conceived the 
 idea of arous- 
 ing popular 
 zeal for the 
 rescue of that 
 tomb from 
 the Moham- 
 medans, on 
 the ground 
 that Jesus 
 Christ was to 
 come again 
 very soon, his 
 second ap- 
 pearing to be 
 on the spot 
 made sacred 
 by his pas- 
 sion, resur- 
 rection and 
 ascen s i o n. 
 
 The vast mul- 
 titudes who left home and all local endearments, 
 animated by a common purpose, mingled together as 
 friends and brethren. For the first time the peoples 
 of Europe met on a common footing of amity. They 
 were not fighting each other, and the narrow ideas 
 of devotion to a petty sovereignty were forgotten. 
 They came together on a basis of brotherhood as 
 broad as the continent. They learned something, 
 eacli from all. The sparse seeds of civilization were 
 scattered, to bear fruit and be the beginning of a 
 new era. There was a commingling which proved 
 
 of incalculable advantage to Europe. Out, then, of 
 the most gigantic folly of all times, grew one of the 
 most beneficent impulses of all times, and if the Cru- 
 sades had no justification, their horrors and devas- 
 tations have certainly proved a blessing in disguise. 
 
 The first Crusade dates from 1096 to 1099. The 
 leader, Peter the Hermit, had for his first lieuten- 
 ant, W alter 
 the Penni- 
 less. To their 
 standard ral- 
 lied in those 
 three years 
 six large ar- 
 mies, num- 
 bering, all 
 told, 600,000. 
 Several very 
 distinguished 
 knights gain- 
 ed renown in 
 thatCrusade. 
 Godfrey of 
 Bouillon, af- 
 terwards the 
 King of Je- 
 rusalem, be- 
 longed to 
 that crusade. 
 So did Tail- 
 ored, Ray- 
 mond of Tou- 
 louse, and 
 Hugh the 
 Great. They 
 besieged J e- 
 rusalem, and 
 in July, 1098, 
 The object 
 only the success 
 1147 the Moham- 
 medans took Edcssa and prepared to attempt 
 the recapture of Jerusalem. That called out the 
 second Crusade, which continued two years. The 
 Ahbot of Clairvaux, St. Bernard, was the great 
 apostle of this uprising, and the excitement 
 amounted to a mania. The kings of France and 
 Germany took the field in person, with an aggregate 
 army of 1,200,000. It seemed as if all Europe was 
 
 TAKING OF JERUSALEM BY THE CRUSADERS. 
 
 Engines were framed by some Genoese artists, who had fortunately landed in the harbor of Jaffa. 
 Two movable turrets were constructed and rolled forward with devout labor. llot h 
 
 siblc. but to the most neglected, parts of the fortification. Raymond s « . JI T V, were 
 
 by the Are of the besieged, but his colleague was more vigilant and successful, the enemies were 
 driven by his archers from the rampart; the draw-bridge was let down; and on a Friday, at three in 
 the afternoon, the day and hour of the passion, Godfrey of Bouillon stood victorious on the walls 
 of Jerusalem. — Gibbon' 8 Decline and Fall, chap, lviiii. 
 
 the holy city fell into their hands, 
 of Peter had been gained, 
 was not permanent. In 
 
 
 V 
 
Q. 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 9 2 THE DARK AGES. 
 
 one vast mad-house. Women and children insisted 
 upon taking part in what ’was expected to he little 
 less than the annihilation of the Moslem power. 
 Horrible were the sufferings entailed and utter was 
 the failure of the movement. After an ineffectual 
 siege of Damascus the shattered remnants straggled 
 back to Europe, demoralized to the last degree. 
 The most stupendous delusion of all the ages was 
 at an end, yet not at an end, for just forty years later 
 began the third Crusade, which lasted three years. 
 That renewal of hostilities between Cross and Cres- 
 cent was occasioned by the fall of the kingdom of 
 Jerusalem, which terminated in 1187. The mighty 
 Saladin, who reasonably aspired to universal Moham- 
 medan empire, drove the Christians from the sacred 
 city. That aroused the indignation of Frederick 
 Barbarossa of Germany, Philip Augustus of France 
 and Richard Coeur de Leon of England. Their ef- 
 forts were not wholly fruitless. They could not re- 
 store Christian rule, but they forced from Saladin a 
 treaty exempting from taxes and special peril Chris- 
 tian pilgrims to the Holy Sepulcher, and so numer- 
 ous were these palmers, as the pilgrims were called, 
 that this treaty was highly important. 
 
 In 1203 Pope Innocent III. tried to organize still 
 another crusade. A slight beginning was made at 
 Venice, but the movement was abortive. The 
 fourth Crusade was a peculiarly tragic attempt of 
 about 30,000 boys just entering their teens, and hardly 
 that, to rescue the sepulcher of Jesus from infidel 
 hands. These lads were led by a shepherd boy, 
 Stephen of Vendome. They set sail by ship from 
 Marseilles, intending to reach Palestine. Two of 
 their seven ships were wrecked. Those who escaped 
 the perils of the sea landed at Egypt, but on- 
 ly to be sold into slavery. By some writers that mel- 
 ancholy episode is called the fourth Crusade. Oth- 
 ers apply that designation to the expedition of An- 
 drew of Hungary, organized in 1217. He took a 
 few Moslem fortresses on Mount Tabor, but in the 
 second year of his expedition gave up and came 
 home. 
 
 For ten years only did the world have rest from 
 Crusades. The fifth one was organized in 1228 
 by Frederick II. of Germany. After ten years of 
 fighting and diplomacy a treaty was entered into be- 
 tween the Sultan of Egypt and the German Empe- 
 ror, by which the latter acquired Palestine, and re- 
 turned home with some substantial acquisitions to 
 
 show as the fruit of his expedition. But in 1248 
 came the Turk, who besieged, captured and pillaged 
 Jerusalem. Louis IX. of France, called St. Louis, 
 tried to drive back the barbaric infidel, but was tak- 
 en prisoner by the Sultan of Egypt, who was finally 
 prevailed upon in 1250 to accept a ransom for his 
 royal captive. 
 
 The last of the Crusades dates from 1270 to 1272. 
 St. Louis began it, but he soon died, and the lead- 
 ership fell upon Edward of England. No progress 
 was made, however,' toward dispossessing the Turks. 
 For more than two centuries longer the idea of res- 
 cuing the Holy Sepulcher from the Moslems was 
 cherished as the dream of popes and devotees. The 
 new world with its diversions put an end to all 
 thoughts of an eighth Crusade. 
 
 The Island of Malta acquired considerable prom- 
 inence in the conflict between the Mohammedans 
 and the Christians. Solyman the Magnificent, in 
 furtherance of his scheme to annex Hungary to his 
 empire, and extend Islamism to Western Europe, 
 captured the island of Rhodes in 1521, wresting it 
 from the Knights of St. John, who had held it 
 undisputed since their retreat from Palestine. 
 The knights retired from Rhodes to the Island 
 of Malta, which was bestowed upon them by Charles 
 V. of Germany. They fortified it, and that so well, 
 that when in 1505 Solyman attempted its capture 
 he was baffled. 
 
 One name towers so high during this black peri- 
 od as to be immortal and illustrious. AYe do not 
 refer to any of the brave knights and princes who 
 won renown in the holy wars, but to Charlemagne, 
 the emperor who will come before us somewhat in 
 detail later, but who, because he made all Europe 
 bow before his throne, deserves conspicuous atten- 
 tion. AV ithout touching upon subsequent history, it 
 may be said of him here, that he had the genius to 
 create an empire, but not to transmit it. Under 
 him the Franks and the Teutons were united, Ins 
 dominion embracing nearly all Europe, except the 
 savage North. Pope Leo III., in the year A. D. 800, 
 placed the imperial crown upon the head of this 
 Alexander of medieval times. A rude and almost 
 literally unlettered barbarian, he gathered about 
 him the learning of every land, founded schools, col- 
 lected libraries, and in many ways sought to elevate 
 the character of the people. His ideas were grand, 
 but they availed little. Europe was not soil prepared 
 
 O 
 
^2 
 
 
 THE DARK AGES. 
 
 [ 93 
 
 for the seed he sowed, and much of it bore no fruit. 
 Charles the Great was a monster of vice, licentious, 
 cruel and superstitious. He pronounced the death 
 penalty against those who refused Christian bap- 
 tism, or ate meat in Lent. He was a strange mix- 
 ture of greatness and weakness, of iron and clay. 
 Hallam says : “ In the Dark Ages of European 
 
 history, the reign of Charlemagne affords a solitary 
 
 names may he mentioned here, such as Petrarch, 
 Boccaccio and Abelard, but with the one exception 
 of Dante, all the distinctively medieval literature 
 might be obliterated without so great a loss as one 
 play of Euripides or oration of Cicero. 
 
 There sprung up during that period a class of 
 minstrels called minnesingers, troubadours, and tro- 
 viers, who rendered important service to the art of 
 
 MALTA. 
 
 resting-place between two long periods of turbu- 
 lence and ignominy, deriving the advantage of con- 
 trast both from that of the preceding dynasty and 
 of a posterity for whom he had formed an em- 
 pire which they were unworthy and unequal to 
 maintain.” 
 
 In a literary point of view, the Dark Ages can 
 boast only one or two great names. Dante is a poet 
 whose fantastic visions of heaven, purgatory and 
 hell, will always be the admiration of mankind. 
 Chaucer was a true poet also, but he was the morn- 
 ing star of imaginative modern literature, rather 
 than a distinctive part of medieval times. Several 
 
 poetry, although not one of them all composed any 
 great or immortal verse, but they sang of love and 
 war, of heaven and passion, in strains which fired 
 the medieval heart and gave character to subse- 
 quent poetic expression. In themselves considered, 
 those songs and ballads may be set down as of little 
 worth, while in their influence upon real genius of 
 a later period they were invaluable. 
 
 Singular as it may seem, the most important link 
 connecting the Dark Ages with modern times is 
 witchcraft. That phase of human experience be- 
 longs almost wholly to the historical in distinction 
 from the actual world. Traces of it may be found 
 
 •f 
 
194 THE dark ages. 
 
 in the remote past, and perhaps in the present, but 
 as a prominent factor in the affair's of men it was 
 developed during the medieval period, finding its 
 fullest life, however, during thestagesof early Pro- 
 testantism, being peculiar to no church or country. 
 
 The translators of the King J ames version of the 
 Bible were so full of this belief that the law of Mo- 
 ses against poisoning was rendered by them, “ Thou 
 shalt not suffer a witch [instead of a poisoner] to 
 live.” And the woman of Endor who was con- 
 sulted by King Saul was evidently a spiritualistic 
 medium, and not at all a witch, in any proper sense 
 of the term. There is no doubt a close connection 
 between ancient magic, divination, ]astrology and 
 necromancy, amUnedieval witchcraft ; hut the latter 
 term stands for a distinctive form of the unnatural, 
 the abnormal and the mysterious, which was not 
 regarded so much as supernatural as sub-natural, 
 originating with the fiends of the world below. 
 
 In 1484 Pope Innocent VIII. issued a bull against 
 witchcraft, and commissioned the Inquisitor Spren- 
 ger to extirpate it. He put to death hundreds every 
 year, and always and everywhere the more vigorous 
 the prosecution, the more prevalent the mania — for 
 such it was. Insanity was mistaken for demoniac 
 possession. From first to last, tens if not hundreds 
 of thousands must have fallen victims to this terri- 
 ble delusion, the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries 
 being the worst in this respect of all. Lecky tells 
 us that the first appearance of the conception of a 
 witch dates from the twelfth century. He describes 
 a witch as “ a woman who had entered into a de- 
 liberate compact with Satan, who was endowed with 
 the powers of working miracles whenever she pleas- 
 ed, and who was continually transported through 
 the air [generally on a broomstick] to the Sabbath, 
 where she paid her homage to the Evil One. The 
 panic created by this belief advanced slowly, but 
 after a time with a fearfully accelerated rapidity. 
 Thousands of victims were sometimes burnt alive 
 in a few years. Every country in Europe was 
 stricken with the wildest panic. Hundreds of the 
 ablest judges were selected for the extirpation of 
 the crime. A vast literature was created on the 
 subject, and it was not until a considerable portion 
 of the eighteenth century had passed away that the 
 executions finally ceased.” 
 
 After giving many details of witchcraft in many 
 lands, this same writer, the highest authority upon 
 the subject, observes : “ Witchcraft resulted, not 
 
 from isolated circumstances, but from modes of 
 thought; it grew out of a certain intellectual 
 temperature acting on certain theological ten- 
 ets, and reflected with almost startling vividness 
 each great intellectual change. Arising amid the 
 ignorance of an early civilization, it was quick- 
 ened into an intenser life by a theological struggle 
 which allied terrorism witli credulity, and it declined 
 under the influence of that great rationalistic move- 
 ment which since the seventeenth century has been 
 on all sides encroaching on theology.” In no other 
 country did it rage so furiously and persistently as 
 in Scotland. 
 
 That famous English Puritan, Richard Bax- 
 ter, whose “Saints’ Rest” is one of the classics of 
 religious literature, was an intense believer in the 
 reality of witchcraft, and the duty of its extirpation. 
 His writings on this subject did much to stimulate the 
 mania in primitive Massachusetts known as Salem 
 Witchcraft, in the last years of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury. The last execution of a witch in Europe 
 occurred in Switzerland in 1782, and the last 
 law against witchcraft, the Irish statute, was 
 not repealed until 1821. It was in 1768 that John 
 Wesley wrote plaintively, “ The English in general, 
 and indeed most of the men of learning in Europe, 
 have given up all accounts of witches and apparitions 
 as old wives’ fables. I am sorry for it, and I willing- 
 ly take this opportunity to enter my solemn pro- 
 test against this violent compliment which so many 
 who believe the Bible pay to those who do not believe 
 it. I owe them no such service. I take knowledge 
 that these are at the bottom of the outer} 7 which has 
 been raised, and with such insolence spread through 
 the land in direct opposition, not only to the 
 Bible, but to the suffrage of the wisest and best 
 men of all ages and nations. They well know 
 (whether Christians know it or not) that the 
 giving up witchcraft is in effect giving up the 
 Bible.” A delusion which could call out from 
 such a man such a declaration as late as 1768, 
 may well be called the deepest-rooted and most 
 ' tenacious of all the poison-plants of the Dark 
 Ages. 
 
— 
 
 
 
 THE SARACEN EMPIRE. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 Medieval in Origin and Glory — The Term Saracen — Mohammed’s Early Days and Associa- 
 tions — Mecca and Medina — Death op the Prophet and Sketch op his Work — The 
 Strength op Islam — The Great Empires of a Thousand Years Ago— Mohammedan Mor- 
 als — The Koran — The Caliphate and the Ommiad Dynasty'— Spread op Empire — Con- 
 stantinople — Division op the Saracen Empire — Fall op the Empire — The Saracens and 
 Modern Civilization — Saracenic Glory and its Eclipse. 
 
 
 >F all the powers and princi- 
 palities of earth, whether 
 temporal or spiritual, none 
 are or were so distinctively 
 medieval as that strange mix- 
 ture of the flesh, the spir- 
 it and the 
 devil, called the Sar- 
 acen Empire. It 
 may, indeed, be said 
 to have had its root 
 in the far-away days 
 of Abraham and 
 Hagar, but from Ish- 
 mael to Mohammed, 
 the root hardly put 
 fortli a shoot of real nationality, 
 and Saracenic glory, which began 
 with the prophet of Mecca, was 
 dimmed by the dawning of modern 
 civilization, to which, indeed, it 
 made some valuable contributions. 
 
 The term Saracen is found in clas- 
 sic literature occasionally. As used 
 by the old writers, it applies to a particular tribe of 
 Arabs and one of no special importance either. 
 But in these later centuries, it is often used to desig- 
 
 nate all the followers of Mohammed, more properly, 
 however, those who constituted the nation founded 
 by the prophet of Islam. It Avas not an orderly, 
 regular and Avell-defined empire, but in part an area 
 and in part an idea ; a curious hybrid, half ambi- 
 tion and half fanaticism. To get an idea of it one 
 must first of all form a just con- 
 ception of Mohammed, his sur- 
 roundings and genius. 
 
 Mohammed Avas born at Mecca, 
 in “ Araby the Blest,” April 20, A. 
 D. 571. That city Avas the center 
 of trade betAveen Africa and India, 
 carried on by caravans of camels. 
 He belonged to one of the first 
 families, and was himself engaged 
 in the mercantile and transporta- 
 tion business. Although aristocratic 
 in connection and blood, his im- 
 mediate family Avas quite poor. 
 Besides traveling and trading, he 
 spent some time, as did that other 
 greater founder of a nation, Moses, 
 in tending flocks. While yet ob- 
 scure, he married Kadijah, a rich Avidow, and 
 instead of giving himself up to fast living, he de- 
 voted his time to religious meditation, the develop- 
 
 -71 
 
 (' 95 ) 
 
 V 
 
k. 
 
 196 THE SARACEN EMPIRE. 
 
 merit of those ideas which were destined to make 
 him immortal, and for which he was largely in- 
 debted to Christians he had met while a commercial 
 traveler. Like many another genius, he claimed to 
 have derived his inspiration from some supernatural 
 source. Mohammed was twenty-four years of age 
 when he began this novel proceeding. 
 
 The Arabs claimed descent from Abraham 
 through that servant- 
 girl whom “the father 
 of the faithful ” drove 
 into the wilderness with 
 her son Ishmael. They 
 worshiped one God, but 
 stood in mortal terror 
 of the devil, and were 
 tinctured somewhat 
 with idolatry. A few of 
 them were Christians 
 but for the most part 
 they held to the old 
 worship with a half- 
 dazed loyalty to ances- 
 tral ideas. Judaism was 
 embraced by many. 
 
 The Arabs’ were in a 
 state of religious fer- 
 mentation. Moham- 
 med began to preach in 
 609. • He had epileptic 
 fits and conceived him- 
 self to be under some 
 sort of spiritualistic in- 
 fluence. He was wont 
 to retire to a cave for 
 prayer and communion 
 of soul. His townsmen paid no heed to him, or if 
 they did, ridiculed his pretensions, but his motherly 
 wife had unbounded confidence in his claims, fully 
 sharing his belief that his abnormal experiences were 
 divine favors and not the result of physical and 
 mental disorder. 
 
 His public career as a preacher or prophet began in 
 612. He was banished and his believers compelled 
 to seek safety from the mob in flight. After three 
 years he was allowed to return to Mecca and resume 
 his preaching of the doctrine of one God, for mon- 
 otheism was about all there was to his original doc- 
 trine. He made some converts, especially among 
 
 merchants or “ traveling men,” from the city of Me- 
 dina. I 11 619 his first convert and good wife died. He 
 mourned deeply, but not as one who refuseth to be 
 comforted, as he married several other wives, event- 
 ually establishing an extensive harem. The famous 
 Hegira occurred September 20, 622. That was 
 the flight of the prophet and his followers from 
 Mecca to Medina, two hundred and fifty miles north. 
 
 The Mohammedan era 
 dates from that flight, 
 as the Christian era 
 does from the birth of 
 Jesus. At Medina he 
 built a mosque and set 
 about establishing a 
 distinct religion on a 
 large scale. Hitherto 
 he had aimed at refor- 
 mation ratherthan sub- 
 stitution. Not making 
 very satisfactory prog- 
 ress by moral suasion, 
 he appealed to the 
 sword and war was de- 
 clared against sur- 
 rounding tribes, Jews 
 and Christians. In 623 
 he was successful in a 
 battle with the Mec- 
 cans, and later had 
 some reverses, but on 
 the whole made very 
 considerable progress, 
 and secured quite favor- 
 able terms of peace in 
 628. About this time 
 the sword-bearing prophet opened negotiations 
 with foreign oriental courts and began to be 
 a notable person in Arabia. The Meccans did 
 not observe the terms of peace, and in the next 
 campaign he succeeded in capturing the city. In 
 632 he made his last great pilgrimage to Mecca, 
 this time attended by an army of forty thousand 
 and a seraglio of ten wives (he had fourteen in all). 
 In June of that year the prophet died at Medina, 
 leaving no son to reap what he had sown, his only 
 child being Fatima, the wife of Ali, of whom we 
 shall speak later. 
 
 At the death of this most remarkable man, his 
 
 o 
 

 UL 
 
 THE SARACEN EMPIRE. 
 
 l 97 
 
 followers were without a leader, and the religion 
 he founded might well have been thought to be 
 in a very precarious condition, and no one cer- 
 tainly could have indulged a dream of splendid 
 empire for his disciples. But to-day those dis- 
 ciples number nearly two hundred millions, oc- 
 cupying southeastern Europe, southwestern Asia, 
 and the northern half of Africa, while the magnifi- 
 cent empire which he founded fills a large place in 
 history ; both religion and empire having always had 
 for corner-stone and inspirational belief the simple 
 declaration, “ There is no God but God, and Mo- 
 hammed is his prophet.” 
 
 The real strength of Islam was in these two 
 ideas ; first, the time of one’s death is immutably 
 fixed ; second, heaven is the reward of the brave 
 soldier of the Crescent, and hell the destiny of the 
 coward. Mohammed and his immediate successors 
 were able to muster armies of actual believers in 
 these two ideas. If one were fully convinced of 
 the truth of those ideas, he would be undismayed 
 by danger and afraid of nothing but cowardice. 
 His bravery Avould be in proportion to the complete- 
 ness of his faith. In the entire history of man- 
 kind there was never an army imbued Avith convic- 
 tions so peculiarly favorable to the martial spirit as 
 Avere the disciples of Islam. The heaven and the 
 hell of Mohammedanism are not dim and shadoAvy. 
 On the contrary, the heaven promised Avas just such 
 a paradise as the voluptuous oriental nature would 
 most ardently long for. The angels were not harp- 
 ists Avitliout passion or sex, but beauteous young 
 women, all smiles and tenderness, while hell Avas 
 torture, veritable, physical, endless and most excru- 
 ciating. So long as the natural reason of the 
 Saracen could be blindfolded by his religion he Avas 
 absolutely invincible in arms. But such preposter- 
 ous notions cannot hold absolute sway ahvays. 
 Gradually the Saracen came to feel at heart, Avhat- 
 ever his surface belief, that life is Avorth living, and 
 that to throw it away on an uncertainty Avould be 
 foolish. The original zeal and faith of the Mo- 
 hammedans could not survive after the first heat of 
 novelty had cooled off. 
 
 At the time Mohammed Avas born, there were tAvo 
 powerful empires and emperors, Justin II., Avho 
 ruled at Constantinople over the Byzantine Empire, 
 and Koshroes II., King of Persia. The Byzan- 
 tine possessions in Asia consisted of Asia Minor, 
 
 Syria, part of Armenia, Southeastern Persia, 
 extended over a vast and illy defined Eastern terri- 
 tory and as far Avest as the Mediterranean and 
 iEgean seas. In one of these empires Christ Avas 
 Avorshiped ; in the other Zoroaster Avas revered as 
 the great teacher of religion. Mohammed saAV in 
 both religious idolatry, and boldly did his Saracens 
 attack both. The Arabian peninsula lay on the 
 confines of both empires, and the desert Avas the 
 impregnable Avail of protection from both. 
 
 The Arabs Avere greatly improved in morals by 
 Mohammedanism. They had been much given to 
 drunkenness and gambling, but Mohammed radically 
 and permanently cured them of both. His disci- 
 ples have ahvays remained true to his teachings on 
 temperance. It is only fair to add that Mohammed 
 did more for the cause of temperance than all other 
 reformers in that line combined have ever been 
 able to accomplish. Those avIio see in drunkenness 
 the supreme curse of Christendom must be tempted 
 to regret the failure of the Saracens, and later the 
 Moors and Turks, to overrun and possess Europe. 
 Mohammed did something to lessen the social vice of 
 his people. The old Arabs Avere grossly licentious. 
 He did indeed alloAv a man to be the husband of 
 four wives, but that Avas a restriction as compared 
 Avith previous practices, and some improvement up- 
 on irregular libertinism. 
 
 The Koran, which he pretended to receive by the 
 inspiration of God, is held in the greatest possible 
 veneration by his disciples. It is a jumble of pre- 
 cepts and statements, without method and often 
 without sense. It cannot be summarized. As 
 Canon Kingsley said of it, “ After all, the Koran is 
 not a book, but an irregular collection of Moham- 
 med’s meditations and notes for sermons.” It is 
 neither a creed, a code, a diary nor a history. It is a 
 scrap-book of odds and ends put together some time 
 after the prophet’s death by Abu-Bekr. The 
 Saracen’s faith, however, requires the acceptance of 
 the Koran as the gift of God through Mohammed 
 to man, of an eternal, uncreated, perfect and all- 
 sulficicnt revelation. 
 
 Every true Moslem believer has always held that 
 the Caliph or Vicar of the prophet was the lawful 
 lord of the world, but the prophet died Avitliout ap- 
 pointing a successor. It was expected that the hus- 
 band of his only child Avould be appointed for the 
 succession, but Mohammed’s favorite Avife, Ayesha, 
 
 P7 
 

 k_ 
 
 198 
 
 THE SARACEN EMPIRE. 
 
 defeated this, and brought in her father, Abu-Bekr. 
 The first four Caliphs belong to a distinct period. 
 They were, to name them in their order, Abu-Bekr, 
 Omar, Othman and Ali; the one who should have 
 been first being last. The selection was by no de- 
 fined method, but made in a hap-hazard way. For 
 twelve years after the death of Mohammed — 632 to 
 644 — the Saracens were harmonious, and swift was 
 the march of empire. Persia fell, and the Eastern 
 empire tottered and was shorn of her oriental prov- 
 inces. As if by magic, the Saracen empire rose to 
 pre-eminence. J erusalem, Antioch and the regions 
 round about accepted the Crescent. The wealth of 
 Persia and Syria were emptied into the coffers of 
 Abu-Bekr, but he used it only for the cause of Is- 
 lam. His personal habits were simple in the ex- 
 treme. Medina was the first capital. It was after- 
 wards located respectively at Damascus and Bagdad. 
 
 The accession of Ali was the signal for the 
 ^ first real dis- 
 sensions, and 
 vain were all 
 his endeavors 
 t 0 reconcile 
 the factions. 
 He died at 
 the hand of 
 a n assassin, 
 and his rival, 
 M o s w i j a h, 
 succeeded 
 him. The 
 
 latter founded an hereditary dynasty, one which 
 lasted in the East a century, and in Spain, to which 
 it was driven, nearly three centuries more. It was 
 called the Ommiad dynasty. 
 
 The motto of the conquering Saracens was, “ Ko- 
 ran, tribute or sword,” and so fierce were their on- 
 slaughts, that the Koran was generally preferred to 
 the sword, or even to tribute. On the very year of 
 the prophet’s death, the invasion of both empires 
 Avas begun, and nothing could resist the fanatics 
 avIio suav in the spirit-land houris beckoning the 
 brave to bliss. Egypt fell Avitliout a blow almost, 
 glad of an excuse to change masters, and Syria Avas 
 subjugated in six years. The northern portion of 
 Africa, called Latin Africa, Avithstood the Crescent 
 sixty years, but finally Caesar and Christ were both 
 displaced on the dark continent by Mohammed. 
 
 The great Mosque of Damascus. 
 
 Early in the eighth century the Ommiad SAvay was 
 extended to India, hitherto independent of both 
 Russian and Persian despotism, and unacquainted 
 Avitli Moses and Jesus. In 710 the Oxus Avas crossed 
 and India subjected to the encroachments of the 
 Saracens. The religion of the desert seemed to be 
 very Avell adapted to the wants and tastes of the 
 Hindoos, and iioav began the conversion of those 
 terrible Moslems, the subjects of the Grand Turk 
 and of the Great Mogul. A Saracenic province be- 
 ttveen the Oxus and the Jaxartes developed later 
 into what Freeman calls “ the region Avhence issued 
 in future ages the Avarriors Avho planted the standard 
 of Islam on the banks of the Ganges and the shores 
 of the Adriatic, the proud Mogul of India and the 
 terrible and abiding Ottoman of Europe.” It was 
 not long before the Avill of the Caliph Avas supreme 
 from the remote Jaxartes to the Atlantic, a reach 
 of empire beyond the dream of Alexander or Caesar. 
 
 But there Avas one mighty rock Avhich said to the 
 Saracen, “ Thus far shalt thou go and no farther, 
 and here shall thy proud waves be staid.” That Avas 
 Constantinople. From the first it had been espe- 
 cially coveted. Repeated efforts to capture it Avere 
 made to no avail. The first siege Avas in 673. In 
 711 the opportune moment seemed to have arrived. 
 That year the Justinian dynasty became extinct at 
 Constantinople, and the Caliphat at Damascus at- 
 tained its utmost extent. But the city Avithstood 
 the shock. Six years later another Saracen army 
 laid siege to Constantinople, but to no purpose. 
 The Caliphate never Avon the golden prize. The 
 city of Constantine remained the capital of the Ro- 
 man, or Greek, or Byzantine empire until a fiercer 
 race of Mohammedans than the Saracens besieged 
 it, namely, the Turks, or Ottomans, in 1453. 
 
 When the Ommiad dynasty fell (750) the Cali- 
 phate Avas divided, nevermore to be joined together. 
 From that time the Crescent Avas no longer the 
 horned ensign of a united empire. During the 
 Crusades all belieA r ers in the Koran Avere exhorted 
 to join in Avar against the believers in the Bible, 
 each branding the other as Infidels, and there Avas 
 much the same unity under one standard as the 
 other. Nothing approaching political autonomy 
 Avas secured under either the Cross or the Crescent. 
 Henceforth the folloAvcrs of Islam Avere divided in- 
 to sects or nationalities, hostile to each other, much 
 as Christians Avere and are. To folloAV these frag- 
 
 4T«r 
 
 
 1 
 
THE SARACEN EMPIRE. 
 
 ments in their jargonic details would be foreign to 
 the purposes of this volume. The Eastern Sara- 
 cens had Bagdad for their capital, the Western, 
 Cordova in Spain. Of the Moors, the Turks and 
 the Tartars, all in a certain sense Saracens, we shall 
 I have occasion to speak more specifically in connec- 
 tion with Spain, Turkey and Russia. The warfare 
 in any religious sense between the Cross and Cres- 
 cent was continued until Ferdinand and Isabella, 
 the patrons of Columbus, conquered the Moors, or 
 Saracens, in Spain, their only foothold in the 
 Western Empire. It was then felt that the dis- 
 grace of the fall of Constantinople had been offset, 
 and the blood of unholy Holy W ars, was washed 
 from Cross and Crescent forever. There has been 
 some prejudice in the sanguinary discussion of the 
 j “ Eastern question,” but no war on that distinctive 
 issue. The fall of the Saracen empire might be 
 placed at the overthrow of the Ornmiad dynasty, or 
 it might be said to still survive wherever Moham- 
 med is revered as Allah’s prophet ; but it would, 
 perhaps, be more proper still to say, that as the 
 Turk planted himself at Constantinople, and the 
 Great Mogul in India, the Saracen empire gradually 
 faded into one or the other, and became indistin- 
 guishable and finally extinct. 
 
 199 
 
 Much has been said in these later years of the in- 
 debtedness of modern civilization to the Saracens. 
 There is just enough truth in the claims set up to 
 entitle the subject to some consideration. The 
 Arabs were not inventors or originators of anything. 
 Even the numerals which bear their name were bor- 
 rowed by them from India. They were judicious 
 appropriators and zealous propagators. They learned 
 a great deal from all the peoples whom they subju- 
 gated. They cultivated a native literature rich in 
 sentimental poetry and stories, and studied with 
 avidity physical and metaphysical science as taught 
 by and embraced in classic literature. No people 
 ever held literary excellence in higher repute, a fact 
 of vast importance in stimulating letters. In as- 
 tronomy, medicine, logic and the arts, useful and 
 ornamental, the Saracens were far in advance of the 
 Christians of medieval Europe. In the blackness 
 of the Dark Ages the abundant scholarship of the 
 Saracens was largely instrumental in rescuing from 
 destruction the wisdom and writings of the ancients. 
 It did vastly more in this regard than did the sparse 
 learning of the Christian monasteries, and for that 
 service at least, if for no other particular reason, 
 the civilization of to-day should hold the Crescent 
 in grateful memory. 
 
f' 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 The Three Empires of the East — Byzantium— The Empire Established— Its Area and Con- 
 servatism — Justinian and Belisarius— Justinian and the Civil Law— Leo HI. and the 
 Iconoclasts— Bazil and his Dynasty — The Comnenians and the Latin Crusaders — 
 Palasoloui and the Turks — The Byzantine Empire and Europe. 
 
 
 T is now time to revert to 
 the Eastern portion of the 
 divided Roman Empire, 
 generally known as the By- 
 zantine Empire. Follow- 
 ing streams of intelligence 
 which had their origin in 
 the Eternal City, or were so 
 closely connected with Rome and Italy 
 as to demand attention before taking 
 leave of the city of the seven hills, we 
 have traveled a long way from Constan- 
 tinople and the empires of the East. 
 Beginning with the offshoot of Rome, 
 following with the medieval, which was 
 finally swallowed up by the third em- 
 pire, we shall see that these three 
 members of this historical family of 
 nations, the Byzantine, the Saracen and the Otto- 
 man empires, sustain peculiarly intimate relations 
 to each other. 
 
 Some seven centuries and a half before the 
 Christian era, a Greek colony established a city up- 
 on the Thracian Bosphorus, on the site of the Mod- 
 em Constantinople. It was called Byzantium. It 
 was a thrifty commercial town, and that is about 
 all that can be said of it, never acquiring any real 
 importance in history. A thousand years after its 
 
 establishment, Constantine the Great saw its geo- 
 graphical advantages as the capital of a great em- 
 pire of inter-continental importance, and gave to it 
 a new name and a new destiny. That was in the 
 year 330. Then, for the first time, that now his- 
 toric spot became worthy the attention of history. 
 There was no Byzantine history of any importance 
 until Byzantium ceased to exist. 
 
 But it was still later before the Byzantine empire 
 came into being. Constantine made his metropoli- 
 tan namesake the capital of the undivided Roman 
 empire. That empire was definitely divided by 
 Theodosius the Great in the year 395, when the 
 emperor assigned the western portion to his son 
 Ilonorius, and the eastern to the elder brother, Ar- 
 cadius. This eastern empire, sometimes called the 
 Greek, sometimes the Eastern, and sometimes the 
 Byzantine, proved the great conservator during the 
 medieval ages, of both Greek and Roman civilization. 
 
 While nearly all Europe was in the throes of a 
 new life, and the rude barbarism of the North and 
 West was amalgamating with the culture of the old 
 world, thus forming a Modern Europe, there stood 
 upon the Bosphorus a mighty city which preserved 
 Roman law and Greek literature until such 
 time as the West had fairly started upon the 
 highway of modern progress. The Byzantine em- 
 pire was the great conservator of the past, while 
 
 |V 
 
 ( 200) 
 
THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. 201 
 
 the present was being evolved. The civil institu- 
 tions were Roman ; the language employed, Greek. 
 
 This medieval empire comprised, substantially, 
 modern Turkey, Greece and Egypt. Sometimes 
 the area was extended, sometimes contracted, accord- 
 ing to the fortunes of war. The imperial crown was 
 elective, and more than one great military hero found 
 the army a stepping-stone to the throne. Owing 
 to the natural strength of Constantinople, it was 
 easy to defend it against assault. It is said to have 
 withstood no less than twenty sieges. The extent 
 of its domain varied frequently, but for centuries, 
 lost territory 
 was generally 
 recovered. The 
 empire cared 
 little for in- 
 crease of do- 
 main, but was 
 peculiarly te- 
 nacious in the 
 maintenance 
 of its natural 
 ancient boun- 
 daries. It was 
 the object of 
 envious attack 
 on all sides, 
 and to hold its 
 own was quite 
 enough, and, 
 as it proved, 
 even more than could be accomplished permanently. 
 
 The first Byzantine emperor of renown was Jus- 
 tinian. His uncle, Justin, had come to the throne 
 early in the sixth century, rising from a Thracian 
 shepherd lad to the imperial purple, through mili- 
 tary genius. Justin was the David of the dynasty, 
 and his nephew its Solomon. From 527 to 565, 
 Justinian wore the imperial crown. It was a splen- 
 did reign. By him was erected the magnificent 
 edifice, the cathedral, now Mosque of St. Sophia. 
 In the field he had the services of Belisarius, who 
 ranks with Hannibal, Marlborough and Wellington, 
 if not with Alexander, Caesar and Napoleon. Beli- 
 sarius lived to experience the cruel ingratitude of 
 the government he had served so well. Tradition 
 represents him as a blind beggar in his old age. 
 lie gained splendid victories over the Persians in 
 
 the East, the Vandals in Africa, the Goths in Italy, 
 and insurgents at home ; but he was never popular 
 with the beautiful but vicious queen Theodora, and 
 his misfortunes were due to her machinations. 
 
 Justinian enriched his empire with the spoils of 
 conquered nations, and still more by the development 
 of manufactures, agriculture and commerce. But 
 the great glory of this illustrious reign was neither 
 military, industrial nor commercial. It was legal. 
 That grandest of all monuments to and embodi- 
 ments of the science of law, Corpus Juris Civilis, 
 constitutes his highest claim to the gratitude of the 
 
 world. That 
 work is the 
 Roman code, 
 revised and 
 edited by a 
 corps of able 
 lawyers, with 
 Tribonian as 
 editor-in-chief. 
 It consists of 
 four parts, the 
 Pandects or 
 Digest ; the 
 Code ; the In- 
 stitutes, and 
 the Novel Is, or 
 supplemental 
 edicts. It was 
 some five hun- 
 dred years be- 
 fore the stupendous work became known to the 
 nations west of the Byzantine empire, but for 
 several centuries it has formed and still forms 
 the basis of jurisprudence all over the conti- 
 nent of Europe. England has always had a com- 
 mon law peculiar to itself, and France is mainly 
 guided in legal matters by the Code Napoleon, but 
 the civil law, as expounded in the Corpus Juris Civilis, 
 is to the rest of Europe what Blackstone’s Commen- 
 taries arc to English jurisprudence. 
 
 In 718 Leo TIL ascended the Byzantine throne. 
 With him began the reign of the Iconoclasts. For 
 about one century there raged a fierce controversy 
 over the worship of images. The priests and the 
 peasantry clung to this species of idolatry, while the 
 government sternly opposed it. Iconoelasm was, 
 however, a pretext quite as much as the real cause 
 
a 
 
 4 
 
 202 
 
 THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. 
 
 of contention. Behind the images was the issue of 
 church or state, the priesthood seeking to subordi- 
 nate the temporal power, and the latter to hold the 
 clergy; in due subordination. The Greek church 
 never attained to the power of the church of Rome. 
 Leo was the emperor for more than twenty years, 
 and he succeeded in giving the secular arm author- 
 ity enough to maintain its ascendancy ever after. 
 
 Next to Justinian,’ the greatest name in the an- 
 nals of the Byzantine empire, is that of Bazil the 
 Macedonian. He ascended the throne in 867. 
 Many reforms and improvements in the government 
 date from this reign. A new version of the laws 
 was made, and the revenue system of the nation 
 greatly simplified. His son, Leo IV., made what 
 proved to be the fatal mistake of calling the Turks 
 to his aid in resisting the attacks of the Saracens. 
 The seed then and thus sown bore fruit in the over- 
 throw of both the Byzantine and Saracen empires. 
 
 For ninety years the Bazilian dynasty held the 
 scepter. Then it became extinct, and Isaac Com- 
 nenus was raised to the throne by the unanimous vote 
 of the army. He was worthy the high trust. For 
 two years he ruled the empire, when he retired to 
 a monastery. His son Alexis took the place he va- 
 cated, and his dynasty furnished six emperors in 
 succession. The Comnenians held sway until 1204, 
 when Constantinople was taken for the first time. 
 The conquerors were a small army of French and 
 Venetian crusaders called Latins. They were actu- 
 ated in a large measure by religious fanaticism, the 
 adherents of Rome being hardly less hostile to the 
 Greek church than to Islam. Having Constanti- 
 nople, they had the entire empire, which they pro- 
 ceeded to divide into four parts. The capital fell 
 to the lot of Baldwin, Count of Flanders, and he was 
 recognized as emperor by his associates. 
 
 The vanquished descendants of Isaac Comnenus 
 retired to the city of Trebizond, in Asiatic Turkey, 
 and there established a kingdom which maintained 
 its independence until 1461, when the Turks con- 
 quered and annexed it. Baldwin found his position 
 a difficult one to hold. The Bulgarians were very 
 hostile, and anarchy at home supplemented Slavic 
 or Christian hostilities. In 1206 he was taken pris- 
 oner by the Bulgarians and died. His brother Henry 
 took the reins of government and held them six 
 years. He was a brave and able man, hut his reign 
 was none the less a sorry failure. 
 
 In 1261 began the dynasty of the Palseologi, 
 which was a restoration of the Greeks, and contin- 
 ued until the overthrow of the empire. The first 
 emperor of this line was Michael VIII., who was 
 indebted to the alliance of the Genoese for his crown. 
 He was an able and patriotic man, but he made one 
 egregious mistake. He tried to unite the Greek and 
 Roman churches. Such a union would have been 
 in substance the triumph of the papacy. By that 
 policy he excited the intense animosity of the clergy 
 and the common people. 
 
 During the reign of Michael’s great-grandson, 
 Andronicus, who ascended the throne in 1328, the 
 Turks made very serious inroads upon the territory 
 of the empire. Two important towns, Nicsea and 
 Nicomedia, were captured by them, and the coast 
 of what is known as Turkey in Europe was devas- 
 tated. From this time forward, the invaders made 
 rapid strides. In 1362 the Sultan Amurath made 
 Adrianople his capital ; a city founded by the em- 
 peror Hadrian, one hundred and thirty miles west 
 from Constantinople. From that vantage-ground 
 the Ottoman waged almost incessant war against 
 the key city of two continents. 
 
 The last of the Greek emperors, Constantine IX., 
 was wise, brave and patriotic, but the empire had 
 been so enfeebled by despotism and was so palsied 
 by age that it could not withstand the shock of bar- 
 barism, and fell, all the efforts of Christian allies, 
 which were very considerable, being unavailing. By 
 this time, nearly the middle of the fifteenth centu- 
 ry, the papacy recognized the importance, from a 
 Christian point of view, of keeping the Mohamme- 
 dans from gaining possession of the key city of both 
 Europe and Asia. Hungary and Poland responded 
 to the pope’s appeal to succor beleaguered Constan- 
 tinople, but Germany, France and England stood 
 aloof from the conflict upon the Bosphorus. In'the 
 summer of 1453 the city was captured and Con- 
 stantine XIII., the last of the Byzantine Emperors, 
 died sword in hand. In this siege cannons were 
 first used upon a large scale. 
 
 The death of the Byzantine empire was the birth 
 of the present Ottoman empire, and where the his- 
 tory of one ceases that of the other begins. Upon 
 the ruins of the one great Christian empire of the 
 middle ages, rose the Turkey of to-day, a power 
 which upholds the Crescent, and in that respect is 
 the heir and successor of the Saracen empire, to 
 
 i 
 
 V£> 
 
 
 O 
 
ARRIVAL OP THE CRUSADERS’ FLEET BEFORE CONSTANTINOPLE. 
 

 THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. 
 
 205 
 
 which, however, in attitude towards science and lit- 
 erature, it has no resemblance, the Ottoman having 
 always been hostile to civilization. 
 
 The fall of Constantinople was deeply deplored 
 by Christian Europe as the lamentable triumph of 
 Mohammedanism, but it proved an inestimable 
 blessing to the West. Driven into exile, many of 
 the Byzantine scholars and artisans traveled west- 
 ward, taking their knowledge and skill with them. 
 They accomplished great results. The West was 
 prepared to profit by their higher civilization. 
 These new teachers taught law and theology to the 
 ignorant, and useful arts to the idle. The germs 
 of the Renaissance and the Reformation were sown 
 in the lands covered with the blackness of the Dark 
 Ages by the refugees from Constantinople. What 
 the Moors accomplished in Southwestern Europe, the 
 Byzantines wrought in Central and Eastern Europe. 
 In a word, Constantinople was a vast grain-bin, 
 and when the storehouse fell, much of the seed 
 fell upon fallow ground, much of which ground 
 had never before been reclaimed and made fruitful. 
 
 Byzantine art is a distinct and important school 
 of architecture and ornamentation, developed by 
 the artists of that empire out of Christian symbol- 
 ism. Says an eminent writer upon the historical 
 development of art, “ During the Dark Ages', after 
 Rome had been conquered by the Goths and Huns, 
 and the fine arts had been nearly extinguished by 
 
 the influx of barbarism, many Western artists re- 
 tired to Constantinople, and founded a school by 
 which the traditions of antique and classical art 
 were cherished and modified by whatever was new 
 and peculiar in the Christian system. The great 
 features of this style are the circle and dome, the 
 round arch, and all the various details of form 
 which are derived from the lily, the cross, the 
 nimbus, and other symbols.” Besides the Mosque 
 of St. Sophia, may be mentioned St. Mark’s Cathe- 
 dral at Venice as specimens of Byzantine archi- 
 tecture. All that is truly artistic and sublime in 
 Russian structures may also be claimed as Byzan- 
 tine. 
 
 The fall of this empire no more overthrew the 
 Greek church than the banishment of the Popes 
 from the Vatican would destroy the Roman church ; 
 but it greatly weakened the authority of the 
 Patriarch of Constantinople, and prepared the way 
 for Peter the Great to adopt for Russia a strictly 
 national church without incurring, as Henry the 
 Eighth of England did in adopting the same poli- 
 cy, the wrath and anathemas of the central head 
 of the church. There was no Greek Empire, and 
 so the Great Czar could substitute his Holy Synod 
 for the patriarchy, and still be “ orthodox.” Herein 
 the church of the Eastern Empire proved itself 
 to be more liberal than the church of the Western 
 Empire. 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 
 ‘ 4 - 3 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 uSr 
 
 
 
 
 
 "71 
 
 pv 
 
THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 
 
 TURKEY 
 
 the confluence of the Medi- 
 terranean and the Black 
 seas, where Constantine fixed 
 his court and reared a city 
 monumental of his name, 
 and where Justinian held 
 sway, now rules the “ Sick 
 Man.” Never was there a 
 more appropriate name for a govern- 
 ment. The Ottoman empire, or Tur- 
 key, is strong only in weakness. It 
 stands because the rest of Europe can- 
 not afford to allow any really vigorous 
 power to hold Constantinople. To set 
 forth the historic and present relations 
 of this burnt-out volcano, requires but 
 
 few details. 
 
 The Ottoman empire, traced to its source, leads 
 back to a tribe from the Altai mountains. The 
 Ottoman career of conquest dates from 1330. 
 About that time Orchan made successful sorties 
 upon Necomedia and Nicola. He called the gate 
 of his palace the Sublime Porte, and himself Pa- 
 disha. Both titles are still in use, the former being 
 frequently employed to designate the sovereign, or 
 Sultan. His right arm in conquest was a band of 
 soldiers known as Janizaries, a body of warriors 
 
 which became virtually autocratic in later centuries, 
 raising up and overthrowing Sultans at pleasure. 
 They were finally destroyed early in "the present 
 century. They were the only Turkish approach to 
 a regular nobility. The founder of the empire re- 
 sided at Brussa. The second Sultan, Amurath I., 
 made Adrianople his capital. That was in 13G5, 
 and that city remained the capital until Constanti- 
 nople was conquered in 1453. 
 
 During that Adrianopolitan period, the Byzan- 
 tine empire was not only overrun by a gradual pro- 
 cess of conquest, but came in contact with that 
 prodigy of valor and cruelty, Tamerlane, or Timar 
 the Lame. He was the leader of a predatory band 
 of Mongols. As a soldier Tamerlane may well 
 claim the very highest rank. In 1360 he became 
 the chief of his tribe, being then twenty -four years 
 of age. lie subjugated the whole of central and 
 western Asia, from China to the sea, and from Si- 
 beria to the Ganges. In 1402 he met the Turks 
 and completely routed them. His death, occurring 
 three years later, saved China from invasion. He 
 was destitute of statesmanship, and his conquests 
 were mere raids, desolating but transitory in effect. 
 As soon as nature could repair the wastes of his wars, 
 all was restored. The Ottoman empire regained its 
 vigor and never lost its identitv. In less than a 
 
 (206) 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 Tiie Sick Man of the East (Turkey) — The Empire Founded — Adrianople and Tamerlane — 
 The Fall of Constantinople and its Effect — Solyman the Magnificent — Decline of 
 the Empire — Scheme of Catharine the Great— State op Dependence — Religion and 
 Intelligence in Turkey — Present Condition of the Empire — Area, Population, Gov' 
 ernment, Education, Railways and Debt. 
 
 
THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 
 generation it greatly humiliated the Byzantine em- 
 pire, and in less than two generations the latter 
 ceased to exit, having been supplanted by the former. 
 It was Mohammed II. who transferred the seat of 
 empire from Adrianople to Constantinople, the 
 Turkish name for which is Stamboul. 
 
 The conqueror of Constantinople, as previously sug- 
 gested, wrought a great work for Europe. The city 
 was appropriated by Mohammed, and many of the 
 people submitted to his rule, which was tolerant, 
 but a large number of the better class fled from Is- 
 
 tions and extended the area of the empire with 
 facility, his ambition being to conquer Western 
 Europe and establish the Crescent throughout the 
 continent. For a time he seemed likely to succeed. 
 The Knights of St. John were driven from Rhodes, 
 the Hungarians beaten upon their own soil, and the 
 way was thus opened for the success of his plan. 
 But the W estern nations were alarmed and alert. 
 Solyman gained some advantages and extended the 
 area of Turkey in Europe, also of Turkey in Africa, 
 very materially, but his great ambition for Euro- 
 
 lam as from the plague, taking their civilization 
 with them westward. 
 
 The capture of Constantinople was followed by 
 other important victories of the Crescent in East- 
 ern Europe. During the next hundred years the 
 Ottoman empire attained the summit of its power, 
 and Greece and Arabia were soon added to the do- 
 main of the Porte. The Saracen empire had crum- 
 bled away, and the Moors were being pushed out of 
 Spain. The strength of Islam was this new king- 
 dom of the Bosphorus. 
 
 It was under the third Sultan of Stamboul, Soly- 
 man the Magnificent, that the Ottoman empire 
 reached its highest point of greatness. His rule 
 extended from 1520 to 1566. He was a statesman 
 with all which that implies. Educated, temperate, 
 patriotic and philosophical, he had the fire and at 
 times the ferocity of his race. He quelled insurrec- 
 
 pean conquest was baffled. He died during a cam- 
 paign in Hungary, and with his death tfie decline 
 of the Ottoman empire began. 
 
 From that time until nearly the close of the 
 eighteenth century, the Turk was the almost con- 
 stant terror of his Christian neighbors. Russia, Hun- 
 gary, Poland, Austria and Italy were frequently im- 
 broiled in war withthe Ottoman, -and all Europe felt 
 somewhat apprehensive of Crescent ascendancy. 
 The records of those wars are monotonous and un- 
 instructive, blood and misery being terms suggestive 
 of the period. Late in the eighteenth century a great 
 change was wrought. Catharine of Russia set her 
 heart upon dividing Turkey with Austria, as she 
 had Poland with Austria and Prussia, and waged 
 relentless war in furtherance of this design. The 
 rest of Europe had allowed a Christian country to 
 he dismembered, and surely, she thought, would not 
 
object to the expulsion of Islam from the continent. 
 But that was a miscalculation. England and France 
 became alarmed at the strides of Germany and 
 Russia, especially the later, and when Turkey was 
 at the mercy of the Hapsburg and the Romanoff, 
 they interfered and secured for the Sultan terms of 
 peace which substantially guaranteed the autonomy 
 of the Ottoman empire. 
 
 From that time the Turk lias retained his Eu- 
 ropean foothold by the friendly interposition of the 
 Anti-Russian powers. Not that the Ottoman ap- 
 peals to the sympathy of those nations, but simply 
 that so long as 
 the Sultan of 
 a people who 
 have lost all 
 aggressive am- 
 bition rules at 
 Constantino- ' 
 pole, the “bal- 
 ance of power” 
 is safe. Turkey 
 forthe lastcen- 
 tury lias sim- 
 ply been a mere 
 puppet, mov- 
 ing as the great 
 nations pull 
 the string, and 
 dependent for 
 bare existence 
 upon the^ suf- 
 ferance born of mutual jealousy. Some show of in- 
 dependent action is kept up, but it is the veriest show 
 in the world. Turkey is a charity empire, a monu- 
 ment of the sparing grace of its peculiar position. It 
 admits of no division. That is, Constantinople does 
 not admit of division, and its position is so very 
 commanding, that the nations are not willing to 
 have it added to the strength of any of their neigh- 
 bors. 
 
 Such in its history and prospects is Turkey, 
 viewed from an international standpoint. The 
 population consists mainly of Christians who abhor 
 their masters and long for deliverance. Those 
 Christians are nearly all members of the Greek 
 church, or at least distinct from both the Papacy 
 and Protestantism. There are a good many Protest- 
 ant missionaries in Turkey Their labors are con- 
 
 fined to fellow Christians, the Turk proper being 
 impervious to the darts of occidental propagandists. 
 
 Of literature, Turkey can boast nothing worthy 
 of note, either in the past or the present. In the 
 higher ranges of civilization the Ottoman finds 
 nothing congenial. The Saracen could fight as well 
 and also easily enter into the intellectual life of the 
 world. 
 
 The reigning Sultan of Turkey is Abdul-Hamid 
 II., who succeeded to the throne on the deposition 
 of his elder brother, Murad V., in 187G. He is the 
 thirty-fifth in male descent from the founder of 
 
 the empire, 
 Otliman, and 
 twenty-eighth 
 since Constan- 
 tinople was 
 conquered by 
 the Turk. The 
 royal residence 
 is the seraglio, 
 or harem, and 
 this residence, 
 notwithstand- 
 ing the bank- 
 rupt condition 
 of the imperi- 
 al treasury, is 
 maintained at 
 enormous ex- 
 pense. The 
 will of the Sul- 
 tan is absolute. Forms of constitutional limit- 
 ations upon the arbitrary authority of the Sultan 
 have been adopted recently, but in point of fact 
 the legislative and executive departments of 
 the government are in the hands of his sublime 
 highness, and the functions of law are directed by 
 two officers, the Grand Vizier, who looks after secu- 
 lar affairs, and the Sheik-ul-Islam, who is the head 
 of the church. There is a body or class known as 
 the Ulema which comprises the “ Mufte,” or inter- 
 preters of the Koran, the judges and high function- 
 aries of the law. “ Bey” is a general term, applying 
 to all important civil officers, while “Pasha” is the 
 designation of tax gatherers and other officers who 
 are both military and civic in function. A minis- 
 terial council, or cabinet, called the “ Divan,” exists, 
 comprising eight ministerial departments, namely, 
 
 
 208 
 
 THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE. 
 
THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 209 
 
 War, Finance, Marine, Commerce, Public Works, 
 Police, Justice and Education. 
 
 Prior to the war with Russia in 1877, or rather 
 to the treaty of Berlin in 1878, the area of the em- 
 pire was 1,742,874 square miles and the population, 
 something in excess of 28,000,000. That treaty 
 gave Bosnia and Herzegovina to Austria - Hungary, 
 made the states of Bulgaria and Eastern Roumelia 
 semi-independent, and added somewhat to the terri- 
 tory of Roumania, Servia and Montenegro, so that 
 now the territory is estimated at 1,116,848, and the 
 population at 21,000,000. Turkey in Europe was 
 reduced about one-half, in both territory and poj> 
 ulation. It now consists of 62,028 square miles, 
 population 4,275,000. Turkey in Asia comprises a 
 territory of 710,320, with a population of 15,715,- 
 000 ; Turkey in Africa, 344,500 square miles, pop- 
 ulation, 1,010,000. A recent writer says, “All con- 
 sular and other reports agree in stating that the 
 native population of every part of the Turkish em- 
 pire is fast declining, in many provinces at such a 
 rate that the formerly cultivated lands are falling 
 into the condition of deserts. Want of security 
 for life and property, an anarchical yet extortionate 
 administration, and a general absence of all moral 
 and material progress, are given as the principal 
 reason for the rapid decrease of the population.” 
 The same writer, in speaking of education in 
 the Ottoman empire, observes that “ public schools 
 have been long established in most considerable 
 Turkish towns, while ‘ medresses,’ or colleges, with 
 public libraries, are attached to the greater number 
 of the principal mosques. But the instruction af- 
 forded by these establishments is rather limited. 
 The pupils are chiefly taught to read and write 
 the first elements of the Turkish language ; the 
 class-books being the Koran, and some commenta- 
 ries upon it. I 11 the ‘medresses,’ which are the col- 
 leges or schools of the ulemas, the pupils are in- 
 structed in Arabic and Persian, and learn to decipher 
 and write the different sorts of Turkish characters. 
 The instruction comprises philosophy, logic, rhet- 
 oric, and morals founded on the Koran ; and these, 
 with theology, Turkish law, and a few lessons on 
 history and geography, complete the course of 
 study.” 
 
 The railways of the empire have a total length 
 of about 1,000 miles. The national debt is nearly 
 
 81,000.000,000, and the national credit is at an ex- 
 ceedingly low ebb, and the paper money of the em- 
 pire amounts to about $450,000,000. In every point 
 of view Turkey is in a moribund state. The coun- 
 try is rich in resources, but for the most part those 
 resources are undeveloped. 
 
 We cannot better close this chapter than by an 
 excerpt from MacKenzie’s History of the 19th Cen- 
 tury. It runs thus : “The Turks conduct the affairs 
 of the people whom they conquered on the princi- 
 ples of a hostile military occupation rather than a 
 government. The depotism of the sultan is abso- 
 lute and unrestrained. All life and property be- 
 long to him, and the Christian population must 
 vindicate by an annual payment of money their 
 claim to the elementary privilege of living. When 
 the sultan requires their property he can send and 
 take it. The people have no defense in law, and, by 
 the principles on which the government is founded, 
 none in right. But the sultan is not by any means 
 their worst enemy. Men purchase from him the 
 privilege of collecting taxes, and having paid the 
 purchase-money, they are at liberty to inflict upon 
 their victims such personal violence as may be 
 deemed necessary to enforce the yielding up of 
 their available means. Magistrates, judges, and 
 government servants of every degree plunder at 
 will for their own personal benefit. Every post, 
 high and low, has been purchased by its holder, 
 whose single aim in discharging its duties is to en- 
 rich himself at rhe expense of those over whom he 
 has gained authority. Any trader who incurs the 
 perilous suspicion of being rich, any proprietor of 
 a good estate, may be put to death on a slight pre- 
 text, and his possessions seized. Any Turkish ruffian 
 may with impunity assault or murder a Christian. 
 A good Mohammedan regards it as his right and 
 duty to kill a Christian when he has opportunity. 
 The evidence of a Christian against a Turk is not 
 received in a court of law. A Turk can legally 
 steal Christian children and forcibly convert them 
 to Islamism. The frightful principle of slave- 
 owning law is practically in force in the Ottoman 
 dominion — no Christian has any rights which a 
 Turk is bound to respect. The only security of 
 the people is to conceal their wealth and seem to be 
 poor. Under the sway of the Turk the appearance 
 of poverty is rarely deceptive.” 
 
 

 
 CHAPTER XXXVI 
 
 The Dawn op Russian History — Novgorod, the Great Republic — Grand Princes from 
 Rurik to Igor— Olga’s Revenge and Piety— Vladimir and the Introduction op Chris- 
 tianity — Yaroslaf and his Code — Four Centuries op Progress — Genghis Khan and the 
 Golden Horde — The Ivans — Peter the Great— Catharine the Great— Moscow and Na- 
 poleon — Alexander I. and the Holy Alliance — Nicholas and the Crimean War — Alex- 
 ander II. and the Serfs — Nihilism— Siberia— Present Condition op Russia — Greek 
 Church in Russia. 
 
 'HE great territory of Rus- 
 sia first presents itself to 
 the historic ken in A. D- 
 862. All previous events 
 in that vast region must 
 forever remain matter of 
 conjecture. The first ob- 
 ject which greets the eye is the 
 best. Russia’s aurora fills with 
 astonishment the student of the 
 past, unprepared to discover in 
 that far-away land and time a 
 vigorous republic, Novgorod, call- 
 ed “ the republican mother of a 
 most despotic empire.” This dawn 
 of history was the slowly fading 
 twilight of a liberty whose day was 
 clothed in mist, and whose last 
 lingering ray was darkened by the night of des- 
 potism. 
 
 Novgorod the Great, not the great despoiler, but 
 the great republic, preceded the great empire. 
 Sjieaking of this period of early dawn, yet evening, 
 Karamsin says : “ At that time the great republic 
 
 had become so powerful that it was a common saying 
 among its neighbors, ‘Who can dare oppose God and 
 
 Novgorod the Great?’ Its commerce,” he con- 
 tinues, “extended to Persia, India, and to Constan- 
 tinople.” The nations around were its tributaries, 
 but unfortunately between it and the Baltic Sea, 
 which was its principal channel of communication 
 with the rest of the world, were the unfriendly and 
 barbaric Varangians, and the Baltic itself swarmed 
 with Norman pirates. Novgorod dared not attempt 
 unaided the subjugation of two such formidable en- 
 emies, and weary of constant depredations upon her 
 commerce, allied herself with one against the other. 
 Rurik, Prince of Varangia — the first name in Rus- 
 sian history — was invited with his two brothers to 
 defend the Republic against the Normans. This 
 was a dangerous experiment. Rurik used his power, 
 as might have been expected, and became, after the 
 death of his two brothers, Grand Prince of Russia, 
 for from that time it really became a nation, al- 
 though it was several centuries before the empire. 
 Rurik’s administration continued fifteen years. He 
 was certainly a very great ruler, but unfortunate- 
 ly imbued with the spirit of despotism ; a perfect 
 specimen of barbaric greatness ; brave, crafty, insa- 
 tiable, adventurous, and capable of the most savage 
 treachery. He might well have been the ideal and 
 model of most subsequent rulers of Russia, doing 
 
 (210) 
 
£> 
 
 
 s 
 
 ' 
 
 RUSSIA. 21 I 
 
 all in his power to supplant the arts of peace with 
 the ferocity of war. In his reign began the agita- 
 tion by sword and treaty of the never-ending East- 
 ern question. Like all who came after him, he 
 wanted Constantinople, the key of the Bosphorus, 
 and like them he failed to get it. His immediate 
 successor, Igor, was his close imitator, and lost his 
 life while collecting taxes in the usual way, by tak- 
 ing an army around with him. 
 
 His widow, Olga, became regent. Fabulous tales 
 are told of her revenge upon the slayers of her hus- 
 band. After gratifying her vengeance she visited 
 her northern dominions, where her first enterprise 
 was to build towns, a 
 favorite pastime with 
 Russian rulers. In 
 other countries towns 
 grow ; in Russia they 
 are made to order. 
 
 She regulated if she 
 did not reduce the 
 taxes, and most of 
 all, she divided the 
 land into commons. 
 
 Here is the first men- 
 tion of that famous 
 institution, the Com- 
 mune, and it is un- 
 fortunate that more 
 particulars are not 
 given of its infancy. After many other measures 
 which contributed in favor of the argument for 
 woman in politics, Olga became desirous of em- 
 bracing Christianity. In order to do so she repaired 
 to Constantinople where she was led to the baptismal 
 font by the emperor himself. There were already 
 some Christians in Russia, but even Olga’s example 
 failed to make it fashionable ; her own son, who was 
 to succeed her, holding her religion in contempt. He 
 was, however, a noble character, as the chronicles at- 
 test, but was early killed in war with their old and 
 ever new enemies, the Turks. 
 
 The empire, or rather the nation, which was still 
 composed of principalities and republics, was then 
 divided, and civil war followed between the different 
 rulers. One of these, Vladimir of Novgorod, con- 
 quered the other princes, his brothers, and reunited 
 and enlarged Russia. For his victories lie deter- 
 mined to return thanks to the ancient gods of his 
 
 people by sacrificing not only a human being but a 
 Russian. The choice fell upon the son of a Chris- 
 tian. The father refusing to give him up, both 
 were killed. They have been canonized by the 
 Russian church as its only martyrs. It appears 
 almost incredible that Christianity should have met 
 with no serious resistance among these pagans, when 
 in all other lands it has caused or been the cause of 
 streams of blood and misery unimaginable. Vlad- 
 imir’s greatness awakened the zealots of four relig- 
 ions, the Creeks, the Romans, the Jews, and the 
 Mohammedans ; each striving to convert him to 
 their own system of ceremonies — one can hardly 
 
 say worship. He ap* 
 pointed a committee 
 of boyars — a class of 
 noblemen — to in- 
 vestigate them all 
 and report. After 
 due consideration 
 this cool convert 
 adopted the Greek 
 faith, influenced 
 more by the example 
 of his ancestress Ol- 
 ga — who was called 
 the wisest of mortals 
 — than by the report 
 of the committee. 
 Having made his de- 
 cision, he experienced no little difficulty in getting 
 himself baptized in a manner sufficiently sen- 
 sational to satisfy his barbaric highness. It 
 was necessary to go to war, take a city, and 
 abduct a bishop that the ceremony might be 
 performed in his own country. Once in the church 
 himself, his troubles were ended. A general order 
 was given that all should appear on the bank of the 
 river and be baptized. Nobody objected — and so 
 the present religion of Russia was established. The 
 grateful national church recognizes Vladimir, its 
 founder, as co-equal with the Apostles. He is said 
 to have raised Russia to its highest primitive glory; 
 but unwarned by the past, united Russia was again 
 divided, this time among seven sons. 
 
 A season of bloodshed followed, wherein such 
 mild terms as monster, fratricide and assassin arc 
 continually heard. Then Yaroslaf, the best and 
 ablest of the seven, became ruler of the entire na- 
 
 

 212 
 
 RUSSIA. 
 
 -1 p 
 _ > 
 
 tion. He was revered for his religion and toler- 
 ance, for his efforts in behalf of education and 
 civilization, and he succored rather than encroached 
 upon the liberties of the citizens of Novgorod. To 
 him the national church owes its freedom from By- 
 zantium, and Russia itself by its alliances became 
 closely connected with the other great nations of 
 Europe. The three daughters of Yaroslaf were 
 Queens of Norway, Hungary and France, and his 
 daughters-in-law belonged to the Greek, German and 
 English royal families. He gave to Russia its first 
 code. That was in the year 1018. The right of 
 private vengeance was recognized ; but when no 
 avenger appeared the murderer paid a fine to the 
 public treasury. The penalty for killing a man was 
 twice as much as that for killing a woman. Under 
 this code, Novgorod was indeed considered an ap- 
 pendage of the Grand Principality, but every citi- 
 zen called to the town meeting by the sound of the 
 great bell, could vote, and all questions were deci- 
 ded by that vote, even to the choice of Grand 
 Prince — at least popular approbation was consid- 
 ered necessary, and he was not acknowledged until 
 he had sworn to govern in accordance with the 
 ancient laws of the Republic. 
 
 It was now four centuries since the reign of Ru- 
 rick, at which time the absolute independence of 
 Novgorod was compromised. Twice, during this 
 period, there had been a strong centralized govern- 
 ment, and more or less of despotism ; in fact, a 
 complicated blending of the two, despotism and 
 democracy. Russia was then rapidly advancing 
 towards civilization, and no nation in Europe had 
 brighter prospects. Notwithstanding the fact that 
 her Grand Princes had always been despots in their 
 relations to other princes, and to individual sub- 
 jects, interference with the local self-government 
 of the republic had never been attempted. Nor 
 was there then in Europe more commercial enter- 
 prise than in Novgorod, the glory of the North. 
 But Russia as a whole lacked unity. The various 
 states were not one people. Dissensions often arose 
 and disintegration followed, until, when the Tartar 
 invasion came, in 1236, the country was illy prepared 
 to defend itself against that genius of barbarism, 
 Genghis Khan, who with his Golden Horde made a 
 pasture from Kasan to Vladimir. For two centu- 
 ries the Tartar yoke accustomed the Russian neck 
 to servitude, and the spirit of the people was so 
 
 broken that the way was prepared for imperialism. 
 The Tartars, that horde of organized tramps, bold 
 and numerous, made themselves perfectly at home 
 in Russia. Never rooting themselves deeply in the 
 soil, never assimilating with the inhabitants, they 
 simply foraged upon them, until finally, in the year 
 1462, a Grand Prince arose, strong enough and bad 
 enough to cope with them. 
 
 Ivan, Grand Prince of Moscow, was at once the 
 liberator and the enslaver of his country. For 
 forty years he persistently pursued a determined 
 purpose, with a cold, unimpassioned patience and 
 persevering industry that should have made him 
 the admiration of all who have a bias towards im- 
 perialism. To become absolute monarch of all the 
 Russias, to be feared abroad and supreme at home, 
 was his constant aspiration. Without personal bra- 
 very, with none of those high attributes which in- 
 spire enthusiasm, he was enabled by the condition of 
 that most distressful country, and by a guile al- 
 most superhuman in its malignancy and efficacy, 
 to conquer and reduce to submission all the dis- 
 cordant elements of Russia. The first step towards 
 this achievement was the expulsion of the Golden 
 Horde. This accomplished, one Prince was incited 
 to war against another, until the only powerful bar- 
 rier to his ambition was republican Novgorod, 
 which wielded a. power almost equal to that of Ivan. 
 It ruled over all the North, whose commerce it had 
 possessed and protected for seven centuries. Ivan 
 destroyed that commerce and reduced the haughty, 
 liberty -loving Novgorod, which could rally forty 
 thousand warriors, and numbered four hundred 
 thousand people, to the insignificant village which 
 it still remains. All this was not accomplished 
 without a long and bitter struggle. Liberty died as 
 hard in Russia as in Poland, — but it died ; and that 
 great land was a dungeon without a window. 
 
 Had Ivan the Great and his successor Ivan the 
 Terrible, been Ivan the Good and Ivan the Sensible, 
 the future of Russia might have been as changed as 
 would have been our national life had the Ameri- 
 can Revolution resulted in a monarchy instead of a 
 Republic. The misfortune of Russia has been that 
 her great rulers have seemed to be under the bane- 
 ful influence of that drop of Tartar blood said to 
 course in their veins. 
 
 The first real genius after Ivan the Great was 
 Peter the Great. Their objects were different, their 
 
 A. — 
 
 ■? & 
 
3 
 
 71 
 
 a. 
 
 RUSSIA. 
 
 methods the same. One forced submission upon 
 the people, the other sought to force civilization 
 upon them. Instead of attempting to gradually 
 modify inherited customs, and supplant old ideas 
 with new by a process of healthy growth, he tried to 
 foist a sort of fiat civilization upon his subjects. 
 Whatever he did was done by the force of his own 
 unbridled and relentless will. That he accom- 
 plished many and wonderful things for Russia, can- 
 not be denied ; but that his ideas and methods were 
 not conducive to a wholesome development of a 
 happy and progressive people, subsequent events 
 have fully 
 shown. The 
 rights and 
 interests of 
 his subjects 
 were ruth- 
 lessly sacri- 
 ficed to im- 
 perial am- 
 bition, and 
 whatever 
 he thought 
 served to 
 aggrandize 
 the materi- 
 al welfare 
 of Russia 
 was to be 
 purchased 
 at any cost. 
 
 The happiness, the moral improvement, the lib- 
 erties of the people, were utterly unimportant to 
 this purchaser of civilization. Notwithstanding all 
 his reforms, his subjects were left to the mercy of 
 whatever any tyrant like himself might do. He 
 looked upon Russia as a great estate hereditary in 
 the family of the Romanoffs. The civilization of 
 which he was the author was precarious, not to say 
 spurious and pernicious. The reign of Peter the 
 Great was from 1689 to 1725. 
 
 Hitherto Russia had been more oriental than oc- 
 cidental in ambition and ideas, but henceforth its 
 outlook was towards the West. The first of his suc- 
 cessors to rise to prominence was Catharine II. 
 Peter assumed the title of Emperor of Russia, and 
 Catharine was every inch an empress. Her reign 
 extended from 1762 to 1796. Those were eventful 
 
 213 
 
 years. Frederick the Great ruled Prussia, Voltaire 
 was in all his glory, and the independence of Amer- 
 ica was achieved. Catharine connived with Fred- 
 erick to partition unhappy Poland ; she sympathized 
 with Voltaire in his skepticism and cynicism, while 
 callous to his appeals for justice and liberty within 
 her own border, quite content, however, to have 
 England lose her colonial possessions. She was a 
 monster of licentiousness, albeit a woman of mighty 
 intellect. She was comprehensive in her plans and 
 strong in execution. 
 
 Catharine the Great was succeeded by her son 
 
 Paul, who 
 continued 
 somewhat 
 the policy 
 of Peter 
 and Cath- 
 arine. The 
 throne to 
 which he 
 succeeded 
 had by that 
 time aspir- 
 ed to a rank 
 among the 
 great pow- 
 ers ; and it 
 improved 
 somewhat 
 under him. 
 During the 
 
 rule of Alexander I. (1801-1825) Russia was the 
 balance of power in Europe. lie was an able and 
 liberal man, without being great in statesmanship 
 or philanthropy. He may be called the father of the 
 Holy Alliance. This compact was entered into at 
 Paris, September 26, 1815, by the sovereigns of 
 Russia, Austria and Prussia, joined by most of the 
 other European powers, and bound the high con- 
 tracting parties to exclude forever every member of 
 the Bonaparte family from any throne in Europe, 
 also to stand by each other in the maintenance of 
 their royal prerogatives and the general peace. He 
 affected great respect for philosophy. 
 
 It was during the reign of this czar that the city 
 of Moscow came prominently before the world. 
 This court capital of Russia lies 400 miles southeast 
 of St. Petersburg. Founded in the twelfth century 
 

 
 ;I 4 
 
 RUSSIA. 
 
 it was the capital until 1712 when Peter the Great 
 removed to the city which he built and named in 
 his own honor. It is esteemed as a sacred city by 
 the devout Cossacks. To its inhabitants belongs 
 the honor of striking Napoleon a blow from which 
 he never recovered. When he marched the French 
 army thither in 1812, expecting to winter there, 
 they had the heroism to set fire to it and flee. It 
 contained then nearly 10,000 houses and over 250,000 
 i n h abitants. 
 
 Napoleon 
 found barely 
 12,000 people 
 clinging to 
 the burnt 
 city, and he 
 was obliged 
 to retrace his 
 steps. No less 
 than 8 75 can- 
 nons aban- 
 doned by 
 the French 
 when they 
 retreated are 
 now treasur- 
 ed in the ar- 
 senal at Mos- 
 cow as tro- 
 phies of that triumph by fire. The central part of 
 the city, the Kremlin, stands upon a hill and is 
 surrounded by a massive wall with lofty towers, 
 and consists of churches, palaces and other public 
 edifices. “ As seen from a distance,” says a recent 
 visitor, “the Kremlin seems to form one gigantic but 
 bewilderingly fantastic pile.” The great conflagration 
 already mentioned raged from the 14th to the 21st of 
 September. It was not until the great fire at Chi- 
 cago on the 9th of October, 1871, that the world wit- 
 nessed another conflagration upon so large a scale. 
 
 Upon the death of Alexander I. Nicholas I. came 
 to the throne. This stern despot ruled from 1825 
 to 1855. He had an inordinate faith in Russian 
 prowess, verily believing that his country was able 
 to defy all Europe. Under his influence the na- 
 tional pride rose to an absurd height. A pretext 
 for a war upon Turkey, having for its object the 
 capture of Constantinople, was sought and found. 
 The war in the Crimea was the result. 
 
 The Crimean war was a conflict in which were 
 arrayed against Russia, Great Britain, France, Italy 
 and Turkey. It began in the fall of 1853. The 
 combined fleets of England and France entered the 
 Black Sea, and the natural supremacy of Russia in 
 those waters was permanently lost. Sevastopol, 
 the stronghold of the Russians in the Crimea, was 
 bombarded, and finally evacuated. On the 25tli 
 of October, 1854, was fought the battle of Balakla- 
 
 va, and elev- 
 en days later 
 the victory of 
 Inkermann 
 
 VIEW OF THE KREMLIN. 
 
 was won. 
 
 Hostilities 
 continued 
 until Febru- 
 a ry, 1856, 
 when an ar- 
 mistice was 
 concluded, 
 followed in 
 March by the 
 treaty of Par- 
 is, which ter- 
 minated the 
 conflict. The 
 sufferings 
 and the losses 
 
 of the Allies in camp were terrible. No general won 
 renown in 
 that war. 
 
 Florence 
 Night i 11 - 
 gale, an 
 English la- 
 dy of phi- 
 lanthropic 
 disposition 
 becamefa- 
 m on s the 
 world over 
 for her ef- 
 ficient zeal 
 
 m caring 
 forthesick 
 and woun- 
 ded. She 
 may well be 
 
 Alexander TI. (1855). 
 
 called the angel of the hospital. 
 
 The 
 
 "sjv 
 
 f <r 
 
\ <3 
 
 RUSSIA. 
 
 2I 5 
 
 great Sanitary Commission of the American civil 
 war was a sublime product of her kindly genius. 
 
 The first distinctive policy of the successor to 
 Nicholas, Alexander II., was the liberation of the 
 serfs, which was accomplished in 1861. To that 
 great act of justice the Czar was driven by two con- 
 
 which in the spring of 1881, culminated in the as- 
 sassination, after repeated failures, of the very Czar 
 whose fiat had liberated the serfs. Between eman- 
 cipation and assassination occurred another war 
 with Turkey, with no advantage to the Cossack. 
 The other powers occupied a position of armed 
 
 SEVASTOPOL DURING THE BOMBARDMENT OP TIIE ALLIED FORCES 
 * '(SH* 
 
 siderations, in themselves hostile, — regard for liberal 
 sentiment, and fear of the progressive nobility and 
 educated class. Imperialism felt the need of the good 
 will of the fifty million laboring classes as a safeguard 
 against the increasing and importunate demand for 
 representative government. The absolutism of the 
 throne was in danger. The emancipation of the 
 serfs threw a halo around imperialism in Russia 
 that blinded for a time the dimmed eyes of liberty, 
 but the banishment during the last twenty years of 
 twenty thousand subjects to the desolate wilds and 
 horrible mines of Siberia has dispelled all illusion, 
 and created a state of affairs absolutely awful, and 
 
 neutrality, taking good care that the Russian bear 
 should not make his lair in the city of Constantine. 
 
 The latest phase of Russian affairs is Nihilism. 
 To understand the creed of the Nihilists it is only 
 necessary to recall the meaning of nihil — nothing. 
 Its father, Michael Bakumin, says, “ Our first work 
 must be annihilation, and when once the floods rise 
 take heed that no ark be allowed to rescue any 
 atom of this old world which we consecrate to de- 
 struction.” The prominent victims of this destruc- 
 tion are God, government, marriage, and property, 
 and with these gone what would there be left? It 
 is a frenzied anxiety to overthrow absolute despot- 
 
 
 2 7 
 
£- 
 
 21 6 
 
 RUSSIA. 
 
 ism, and can only be palliated by the reflection that 
 “ tlie destroyer of weeds, thistles and thorns is a 
 benefactor, whether he soweth grain or not.” The 
 present Czar, Alexander III., is virtually a prisoner 
 in the palace, so constant and great is his apprehen- 
 sion of peril from the Nihilists. Dynamite is the 
 Bastile which deprives him of all real liberty. 
 
 The northern portion of Asia, Siberia, is a dis- 
 tinct and notable part of the Russian empire. The 
 Ural mountains and the river of the same name 
 divide it from Russia in Europe. On the south it 
 has no well-defined boundary, being pushed down- 
 ward farther and farther upon every pretext. The 
 Arctic Ocean is its northern limit, and the Pa- 
 cific its eastern. It has an area of something over 
 four millions and a half square miles, and a popu- 
 lation of over three millions, three hundred thou- 
 sand. Russian and Polish exiles and their descen- 
 dants form three-fourths of the population. As 
 early as the seventeenth century the policy of ban- 
 ishment to those desolate polar regions was adopted 
 by the Russian government. At first heretics were 
 sent there in punishment of their dissent from the 
 orthodox Greek church. Instead of burning her- 
 etics at the stake or massacring them, the Russian 
 government transported them. Entire communi- 
 ties of Protestants (for such they really were) were 
 sometimes forced to remove to Siberia and kept 
 there. Then political offenders were banished 
 there, and that policy is still maintained. Vast 
 numbers of Poles have from time to time been com- 
 pelled to cast in their lot with the Siberians. Nihil- 
 ists, if not executed, are driven thither in large 
 chain-gangs, suffering terribly on the long and ar- 
 duous journey. Ordinary criminals are consigned to 
 the same fate. The Ural, Altai and other moun- 
 tains are rich in the precious metals, and the mines 
 are worked by the prisoners. Terrible are the 
 
 hardships of these worse than galley slaves. The 
 government derives large revenue from these mines. 
 The trade in Arctic furs is very considerable. The 
 native Calmucks are rude savages. Reindeers 
 abound in Siberia. 
 
 The balance of trade is in favor of Russia, yet 
 singular as it may seem, it is a liberal exporter of 
 specie. The mints of the empire turn out on an 
 average $10,000,000 in gold coin and $5,000,000 in 
 silver coin each year. More than two-thirds of this 
 coinage flows out of the country, and has done so 
 for at least a decade. The paper money of the 
 country amounts to $890,000,000. The national 
 debt, inclusive of this paper money, is $3,410,000,- 
 000. In European Russia the death rate and birth 
 rate are both higher than any where else on the 
 continent. Russia produces food enough to feed 
 90,000,000 of people, or ten million in excess of the 
 actual population. It has fifteen thousand miles of 
 railroad, constructed, however, with reference to mil- 
 itary necessity more than commercial convenience. 
 
 The national church of Russia is the Greek 
 church. The Emperor is now the head of it, and 
 next to him ranks the Holy Synod, composed of 
 seven bishops. Originally the head of the church 
 was the Patriarch at Constantinople. When the 
 Ottoman empire superseded the Byzantine, and the 
 Moslem took the place of the Christian on the Bos- 
 phorus, a Russian patriarch was appointed by the 
 Czar. That was in the sixteenth century. But 
 Peter the Great arrogated to himself supreme ec- 
 clesiastical authority, abolishing the patriarchy and 
 instituting the synod. No change has been made 
 since his day in the spiritual rule of the country, 
 except that otheiyeligions have been tolerated^of late 
 years. Strictly orthodox in doctrines, as judged from 
 a distinctively Greek point of view, the Russian 
 church is entirely independent and national in polity. 
 
 FT 
 
CHAPTER XXXVII. 
 
 Sympathy tor Poland— First Appearance op the Poles — Polish Age op Fable— The His- 
 torical Era begins — Casimir the Restorer, and Casimir the Great — Feudalism in Po- 
 land — Elective Monarchy or Monarchical Republic — Mode and Place of Election — 
 Foreign Influence— John Sobieski— Anarchy' and Intervention — Stanislas, and the 
 Neighboring Great Powers — St. Petersburg and Warsaw — Fall op the Republic — 
 Kosciusko and the War por National Life — Polish Characteristics — The Indignation 
 op the World — Russian Policy — Pan-Slavonic Dream — Polish Literature— Paul Sobo- 
 leski on Poland— Polish Jews — Religious Persecution. 
 
 
 T is impossible to think of 
 Russia without being re- 
 minded of Poland. The 
 one will suggest the other 
 
 ff 
 
 as the Polani in the fifth century. They are a prom- 
 inent branch of the great Slavonic family, and pri- 
 marily occupied the broad plain between the rivers 
 Oder and Vistula. The name itself means in its 
 original root ( polaska ) a 
 plain. Poland may be called 
 the prairie of Europe, or 
 rather, it is the nearest ap- 
 proach to a prairie (except 
 in some respects Holland), 
 that Europe can boast. 
 There are large tracts of 
 sand and morass, also broad 
 reaches of forest, but as a 
 whole, the country is well 
 adapted to agriculture. Its 
 waters flow into either the 
 Baltic or the Black sea. The 
 area of the land of the Poles 
 is about 282,000 square 
 miles. At the time of the 
 first dismemberment of the 
 kingdom (1773) the population was estimated at 
 12,000,000, mostly farmers, enjoying a comparative 
 thrift, feeding immense herds of cattle, horses and 
 
 [ir 
 
 City of and Cathedral at Cracow. 
 
 to every intelli- 
 gent mind. On 
 the map of the 
 world Poland 
 no longer exists ; 
 but the Poles are 
 a very positive 
 and distinctive 
 people. They 
 have a country, 
 denationalized, crushed and 
 despairing, still a sharply 
 defined part of the territory 
 of Europe. Its history is full 
 of pathos, its fate enlisting the sympathies of every 
 tender soul, or even approximately respectable heart. 
 
 The Poles first came within the vision of history 
 

 <2_ ^ 
 
 ^ 0 
 
 
 G\ 
 
 2l8 POLAND AND 
 
 THE POLES. 
 
 (0 ' 
 
 * 
 
 
 swine, and cultivating a wide area of rye, barley and 
 
 records, which challenges special attention. From 
 
 
 
 wheat. That such a people should have been so com- 
 
 Casimir I. to Casimir III. was nearly three centu- 
 
 
 
 pletely subjugated, is one of the miracles of history. 
 
 ries, but nothing will be lost in crossing that dreary 
 
 
 
 Like all countries, Poland had its age of fable. It 
 
 waste with eyes closed in sleep. The first Casimir 
 
 
 
 dates from the ducal reign of Lech I., in the middle 
 
 was called the Restorer, the second the Great, and 
 
 
 
 century. In some chronicles the country is called 
 
 great he surely was. As a reformer his genius shone 
 
 
 
 Lecliici. About one hundred years later flourished 
 
 resplendent. Brigandage was checked, and every 
 
 
 
 Wenda, the Queen Elizabeth of the Poles. She was 
 
 form of violence held in some restraint. Casimir 
 
 
 
 so tenacious of her sovereignty that she declined all 
 
 was not content with temporary measures. He es- 
 
 
 
 offers of marriage. Her seat of government was Cra- 
 
 tablished the reign of law. A convention was called 
 
 
 
 cow, named in honor of Cracus, a ruler whose mem- 
 
 by him to frame a code. This was a very impor- 
 
 
 
 ory is still revered in Polish tradition. There were 
 
 tant step. That system of laws had all the defects 
 
 
 
 many other legendary sovereigns, petty and shadowy. 
 
 of feudalism, but was a very great advance over 
 
 
 
 The historical era began in 962 with Miecislas I., 
 
 irresponsible and unbridled absolutism. The Poles 
 
 
 
 the fifth prince of the house of Piast. He intro- 
 
 were early divided into three classes : nobles, peas- 
 
 
 
 duced Christianity, being compelled to do so as a 
 
 ants and burghers, or town-folk, and for each the 
 
 
 
 part of the price of the hand of the Hungarian 
 
 law was different. The laboring class felt the ex- 
 
 
 
 Princess Dombrowka. The marriage and the bap- 
 
 treme rigor of serfage ; the nobles were arrogant, idle 
 
 
 
 tism occurred the same day. The next step was to 
 
 and lawless, the burghers industrious, independent 
 
 
 
 force the rite of baptism upon the people, and it was 
 
 and mildly aggressive. In the growth of the coun- 
 
 
 
 not a difficult thing to do. The old faith sat lightly 
 
 try the cities took the lead. One especial reason of 
 
 
 
 upon the nation, and gave way almost without a 
 
 this was the fact that Casimir was the great patron 
 
 
 
 struggle. The second of the Christian kings, Bo- 
 
 of industry. The artisans flocked to the Polish 
 
 
 
 leslas I., made the Polish arm feared throughout 
 
 towns and found profitable employment. From 
 
 
 
 Hungary, Germany, and even in Italy and France. 
 
 that time Poland found place among the more pro- 
 
 
 
 Russia crossed swords with him, led on by Vladimir 
 
 gressive and prosperous nations of Europe. 
 
 
 
 the Great. He has well been called “ the true foun- 
 
 From the very first, feudalism was exceptionally 
 
 
 
 der of his country’s greatness.” He was succeeded by 
 
 strong in Poland, and the nobility never neglected 
 
 
 
 Miecislas II., an idle and vicious imbecile. It was 
 
 an opportunity to enhance the power of their class. 
 
 
 
 under his reign, however, that the land was divided 
 
 The kings were gradually reduced in authority un- 
 
 
 
 into Palatinates, each presided over by a local judge. 
 
 til they became little else than putty in the hands of 
 
 
 
 That was certainly an important step in the right 
 
 the nobles. With the accession of Casimir IV., 
 
 
 
 direction. He died in 1034. For seven years the 
 
 1445, Poland may be said to have passed from a 
 
 
 
 Poles were kingless. The interregnum was prolific 
 
 monarchy to a republic. To our political concep- 
 
 
 
 of great evils. Despotism is better than anarchy. 
 
 tions it is inconsistent to speak of a country as be- 
 
 
 
 too much government than none at all. The late 
 
 ing both a republic and a kingdom ; but such the 
 
 
 
 king had left behind him a queen and an infant 
 
 land of the Poles became in the middle of the fif- 
 
 
 
 son. The former tried to sway the scepter, but was 
 
 teenth century, so remaining until the nation itself 
 
 
 
 so very unpopular that she was obliged to leave the 
 
 was blotted out. Upon the death of a king the 
 
 
 
 country. She took with her the heir to the throne, 
 
 lords would meet to elect a successor. The first 
 
 
 
 Casimir. At first he was not much missed, but as 
 
 distinctively elective king (for so aggressive had the 
 
 
 
 the horrors of anarchy increased, the desire for the 
 
 nobility become that the positive claim of right to 
 
 
 
 restoration of the royal family increased. After six 
 
 determine the royal succession came almost as a 
 
 
 
 or seven years the lost heir was recovered. It was a 
 
 matter of course) Casimir IV., was Grand Duke 
 
 
 
 long time before the mother would disclose his hid- 
 
 of Lithuania, and he did not want the crown. For 
 
 
 
 ing-place. 
 
 a long time he evaded the unwelcome honors thrust 
 
 
 
 For three centuries the stream of Polish history 
 
 upon him. It was not that he shrank from respon- 
 
 
 j 
 
 flows on, turbulent, turgid and monotonous. Dur- 
 
 sibility, but he hoped to extort concessions to the 
 
 i 
 
 e 
 
 ing all that time nothing occurred, according to the 
 
 royal authority. In this he failed. The nobles 
 
 vs 
 
 ' v 
 
 L 1 
 
 ■* ' e 
 
 v' 
 

 o ^ 
 
 - 9 
 
 k 
 
 Gj 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 1 
 
 POLAND AND 
 
 THE POLES. 219 
 
 f 
 
 
 compelled him to occupy the throne as their puppet 
 
 Foreign as well as domestic princes were eligible 
 
 
 
 rather than their ruler. And in all the subsequent 
 
 to the throne. A Czar of Russia, Alexis, father of 
 
 
 
 history of Poland the kingly power was the shad- 
 
 Peter the Great, was a candidate at one time. The 
 
 
 
 owy reflection of the aristocracy. 
 
 difficulty of an election was greatly increased by 
 
 
 
 Early in the sixteenth century a few burghers 
 
 the veto power, inherent in the diet, by which the 
 
 
 
 were admitted to the parliament of barons, and 
 
 will of the majority could be nullified. That fea- 
 
 
 
 that was the recognition of the growing importance 
 
 ture of the law of royal elections was finally aban- 
 
 
 
 of the citizen (using the term in its original signifi- 
 
 doned out of sheer necessity. 
 
 
 
 cance.) In religious matters the influence of IIuss 
 
 For twenty-two years, from 1674 to 1696, Poland 
 
 
 
 and Luther was very considerable, although re- 
 
 was under the rule of a truly great man, John Sobies- 
 
 
 
 pressed and finally suppressed by persecution. 
 
 ki. He nobly earned the crown by having been his 
 
 
 
 Under the reign of Sigismund I. (1506 — 1548) 
 
 country’s best defender in many an hour of danger. 
 
 
 
 leaders of the reformed faith were beheaded or ban- 
 
 It was not so much Hostile Christians as Moslems 
 
 
 
 ished. That king lived to a great old age and was 
 
 that harassed Poland. Turks and Tartars were 
 
 
 
 one of the great rulers of his age. Upon his death 
 
 very insolent, aggressive and powerful. Ibrahim 
 
 
 
 his son was chosen to fill his place. Hitherto the 
 
 the Devil, Pasha of Damascus, led a vast army 
 
 
 
 elective franchise was confined to a very narrow 
 
 of invasion. Another time Mustapha led three 
 
 
 
 range. The kings were taken from the family of 
 
 hundred thousand Mohammedans in a crusade 
 
 
 
 the Jagellos. When the last member of that line 
 
 upon the Christians, and, says Salvandy, “ Ger- 
 
 
 
 died, the way was open to a wider range of choice. 
 
 many looked to Sobieski as its savior, and Europe 
 
 
 
 The nobles met in 1572 on the plains of Prague, on 
 
 as the bulwark of Christendom. The embassador 
 
 
 
 the bank of the Vistula, opposite Warsaw. Hereto- 
 
 of the empire and nuncio of the pope were 
 
 
 
 fore the selection of a new king had devolved upon 
 
 at his feet in importunate supplication.” That was 
 
 
 
 delegates representing the aristocracy ; but now it was 
 
 in the year 1683. The Cross was in peril, and the 
 
 
 
 agreed that the entire body of the Equestrian order 
 
 Crescent seemed about to displace it. But Sobieski 
 
 
 
 should be eligible to advice in the election. Thus 
 
 was equal to the emergency. Poland saved Chris- 
 
 
 
 tens of thousands of armed and mounted men were 
 
 tianity from the last really formidable assault of 
 
 
 
 brought together to choose a ruler for life. “ At the 
 
 Islamism. It is no exaggeration to say that on the 
 
 
 
 time appointed,” says Ducloss, “for the holding of the 
 
 twelfth of September, beneath the walls of Vienna, 
 
 
 
 elective diet, such numbers of the nobles arrived 
 
 the last battle of the Crusade was fought, and Po- 
 
 
 
 that the circumference of the place (twelve miles 
 
 lisli valor, genius and prestige won the day. From 
 
 
 
 in extent) where they were stationed by counties 
 
 that time on, the conflict was a series of assured 
 
 
 
 for the greater facility of collecting their suffrages, 
 
 victories for the Christians. 
 
 
 
 was scarcely able to contain them ; and as they 
 
 The name of Sobieski deserves to rank with the 
 
 
 
 were all armed, they looked like men assembled to 
 
 supreme warriors of all times, but as a ruler in 
 
 
 
 conquer a kingdom, rather than to exercise a peace- 
 
 peace he was weak and wicked. He was the last 
 
 
 
 ful, deliberative privilege. In the center of a circle 
 
 independent King of Poland, and incomparably 
 
 
 
 or kolo, was the tent, capable of holding six thou- 
 
 the greatest sovereign his country ever knew. The 
 
 
 
 sand people, and in it the senators and ministers of 
 
 Republic was on the brink of ruin, and if he did 
 
 
 
 the crown met for consultation.” This description 
 
 not save it, he at least prolonged its life. 
 
 
 
 applies specifically to the assembly held upon the 
 
 The eldest son of John Sobieski was confident 
 
 
 
 deatli of Sigismund II., the last of the Jagellos, 
 
 of his election to succeed his father, but the no- 
 
 
 
 but it is hardly less appreciable to the usual convo- 
 
 bles were not at all disposed to favor his candidacy, 
 
 
 
 cations at the recurrence of each interregnum. As 
 
 or that of any other member of the family. The 
 
 
 
 a matter of course the meetings were turbulent, often 
 
 candidates were two besides James Sobieski, Prince 
 
 
 
 bloody, and never free from imminent peril. Many a 
 
 Conti, nephew of Louis XV. of France and Fred- 
 
 
 
 time before it finally fell the Republic of Poland 
 
 crick Augustus, Elector of Saxony. The latter 
 
 
 i 
 
 tottered and rocked upon its base, seeming to be on 
 
 won the prize, but he did not keep it long. Charles 
 
 L 
 
 J 
 
 the verge of utter destruction. 
 
 XII. of Sweden took the field against him, and 
 
 is 
 
 V 
 
 <5 
 
 - » 
 
 
220 POLAND AND THE POLES. 
 
 made short work of capturing Cracow, deposing the 
 king and placing Stanislas, Palatine of Posnania, 
 upon the throne, if throne it may be called. He 
 was a great and splendid man, but fortune was 
 against him. The republic of Poland was in a 
 state of interminable turmoil and factiousness. A 
 little later we find Stanislas a fugitive and Fred- 
 erick Augustus back in power. The latter died in 
 1733. “ He had a few virtues,” says a native his- 
 torian, “ but more vices. His reign was one con- 
 tinued scene of disasters ; many of which may be 
 attributed to himself, but more perhaps to the in- 
 fluence of circumstances.” The diet which met to 
 elect a successor resolved, first of all, not to place 
 the crown upon a foreign brow. 
 
 The dethroned Stanislas, now father-in-law to 
 Louis XV., was the choice of the nobles. Sixty 
 thousand voices were raised in his support. But 
 Austria and Russia favored the candidacy of Fred- 
 erick Augustus II., son of the late king. A Mus- 
 covite army proclaimed him king and marched to 
 the enforcement of the proclamation. Stanislas 
 had lost his ambition and energy. He was unsuited 
 to the task of resisting foreign interference. The 
 Czar was foremost in claiming protectoral power. 
 
 St. Petersburg,” we are told, “ was the great focus 
 by the middle of the eighteenth century where the 
 rays of Polish intrigue were concentrated, and 
 where the more ambitious natives resorted to ob- 
 tain, by flattering the imperial confidants, the digni- 
 ties of the republic. Every intimation, however 
 slight, from the northern metropolis, was an 
 imperious obligation on the feeble king and his ser- 
 vile minister ; and not on them alone, but on the 
 great body of the nobles, who had lost all sense of 
 the national dishonor, and who transferred their 
 homage from Warsaw to St. Petersburg without 
 shame or remorse.” Of course the republic could 
 not long survive such a state of affairs. Famine, 
 anarchy, rapine and desolation were everywhere. 
 
 The population dwindled away, and poverty took 
 the place of thrift. Catharine of Russia resolved 
 to end the shame, and erase the republic from the 
 political map of Europe. Stanislas Augustus fee- 
 bly swayed the scepter of Poland during the expir- 
 ing hour. The Poles had the bravery necessary 
 to defense, but the uncongruous and unstable gov- 
 ernment afforded unfriendly neighboring powers 
 facilities for devising ways and means to dis- 
 
 member the distracted nation. The evil came 
 gradually. When too late the nation was aroused 
 to the danger of the situation, and the cause of 
 national independence found a grand leader in the 
 heroic Thaddeus Kos- 
 ciusko, one of the 
 heroes of the Ameri- 
 can revolution. He 
 had rendered import- 
 ant service in the 
 cause of American 
 Independence, and re- 
 turning to his native 
 land, made a grand 
 effort to rescue it from 
 the allied robbers. 
 
 Cracow and Warsaw 
 both opened their gates to him. Kosciusko was 
 prudent and kindly no less than brave, but the 
 frenzy of the French Revolution, rather than the 
 calm patriotism of the Americans, pervaded the 
 ranks of the nationalists. Wild scenes of blood 
 were enacted, and the salvation of Poland rendered 
 hopeless by these excesses. In 1795 the end came. 
 Warsaw fell before a Russian army. Austria, Prus- 
 sia and Russia divided the territory between them, 
 the latter taking the lion’s share. It was the Mus- 
 covite who had done the fatal work, for the most 
 part, and the other powers were made partakers in 
 the infamy as the price of acquiescence. 
 
 In his history of the Republic of Poland Ferre nd 
 says in contemplation of the erasure of the republic : 
 “ Perhaps no people on earth can boast more per- 
 sonal heroism than the Poles, but as it was virtually a 
 country without a government, without finances, a 
 national army, or any central authority of binding 
 force, the surprise is not that it fell at last, but that 
 it stood so long. Valor, although almost superhu- 
 man, could not preserve the proud nobles from un- 
 bounded dissipation, nor consequently from temp- 
 tation to corruption, from receiving bribes to repair 
 their shattered fortunes ; it could not prevent the 
 powers which lavished this means of corruption from 
 interference with the affairs of the kingdom ; it 
 could not dissolve the union of these powers with 
 the discontented parties at home; it could not in- 
 spire the slow-moving machine of government with 
 vigor, when the humblest partisan, corrupted by 
 foreign money, could arrest it with a word ; it could 
 
 "3 \ 
 
s> 
 
 Ml 
 
 POLAND AND THE POLES. 
 
 22 I 
 
 not avert the entrance of foreign armies to support 
 the factions and rebellions ; it could not, while di- 
 vvied in itself, uphold the national independence 
 against the combined effects of foreign and domes- 
 tic treason ; finally, it could not effect impossibilities, 
 nor therefore forever turn aside the destroying 
 sword which had so long impended over it.” 
 
 The extinction of the republic of Poland aroused 
 the indignation of the world. France, England and 
 America were indignant to the last degree. Sweden 
 and Turkey joined in the outcry. 
 
 During the Napoleonic war, and the 
 diplomacy which followed, there 
 seemed to be some hope of restora- 
 tion. To little purpose. The three 
 robber powers never abandoned the 
 idea which had so long been cherished. 
 
 Napoleon’s star set and the treaty of 
 Vienna was made. By that treaty the 
 kingdom of Poland was proclaimed 
 June 20, 1815, with Cracow as its 
 capital, but it was simply the district 
 
 KRASINSKI. 
 
 of Cracow with a popula- 
 tion of 61,000, hardly a 
 shadow of real Poland. 
 
 Four millions of the peo- 
 ple came under the direct 
 sway of Russia. At that 
 time Alexander was Czar, 
 and at first he seemed 
 disposed to rule the Poles 
 in justice and with great 
 liberality. For some time 
 all went well. The peo- 
 ple were fast becoming 
 loyal to the Czar at St. 
 
 Petersburg. This state of things continued three 
 years without signs of collapse. But it was an un- 
 natural condition of affairs, and discontent on one 
 side and repressive measures on the other, created a 
 breach which widened continually. When the vicious 
 Constantine succeeded Alexander almost all pretense 
 of good feeling between Poles and Russians disap- 
 peared. Conspiracy after conspiracy sprang up to 
 emphasize the Polish discontent without alleviating 
 the evils of foreign rule. By 1830 popular discon- 
 tent had taken the form of insurrection, and failure 
 then did not prevent subsequent efforts to throw off 
 the yoke, and restore Poland to political autonomy. 
 
 It would be profitless to follow the fortunes of 
 these unavailing efforts to restore the lost national- 
 ity. Time seems to lessen the prospect of success, 
 and to-day Poland is enveloped in a darkness un- 
 relieved by a single star. The only approach to 
 hope is the dream of a Pan-Slavonic nation, a na- 
 tion which should so far reconstruct the map of 
 Europe as to make [into one nation all the Slavs. 
 Such a conformation to the divisions of race, lan- 
 guage and traditional sympathies is not to be ex- 
 ^ pected. Bloody rebellions arose in Po- 
 land in the years 1830, 1846, 1849 and 
 1863, each having been crushed with 
 unpitying rigor by Russian despotism. 
 The Poles are the Irish of the contin- 
 ent in valor, perseverance, lack of 
 unity, and repeated calamities. 
 
 In a literary point of view Poland 
 has never produced a genius so bril- 
 liant as to attract the admiration of 
 mankind. That nation boasts about 
 fifteen hundred literary names, but 
 
 SLOW ACKI. 
 
 THREE GREATEST POLISH POETS. 
 
 one may search through 
 all the productions of 
 that literature, as made 
 accessible to English 
 readers, without being 
 rewarded with a single 
 diamond of thought 
 which shines with es- 
 pecial luster. 
 
 From Kochanowski to 
 Olizcrowski the heights 
 of immortal poetry are 
 not reached. Often pa- 
 thetic, the verse of Po- 
 land is never Shakspearean. The venerable Paul 
 Soboleski, author and editor of “Poets and Poetry 
 of Poland,” says, “Prostrate, partitioned, suffering 
 and blotted out as it were from existence, Poland 
 awaits the fulfillment of her destiny. Fate some- 
 times strikes nations as it does individuals, but hope 
 in her case, though it may seem futile to other na- 
 tionalities, never forsakes the sorrowing hearts of 
 her children. Scattered though they are thoughout 
 the habitable globe, they have never ceased to wait, 
 to hope, and to trust that she will once more be re- 
 suscitated, resurrected, regenerated, and be once 
 more counted among the nations of the earth.” 
 
 
J* 
 
 222 
 
 3 
 
 POLAND AND THE POLES. 
 
 Three names stand out conspicuously in Polish 
 literature as the great triumvirate of song. The 
 earliest, but not the first, of the trio was Archbishop 
 Krasicki, born in 1734. He died the first year of the 
 present century. After the partition of the country 
 his bishopric, Warmia, fell to the lot of Frederick 
 of Prussia. That sovereign had no sympathy with 
 the deeply religious nature of his more than royal 
 subject, but he admired his learning, wit and genius, 
 and invited him to reside at his palace of Sans 
 Souci. In 1795 be raised him from Bishop of War- 
 mia to Archbishop of Gniezno. He was a voluminous 
 writer. The really supreme name, however, was Adam 
 Mickiewicz, born in 1798. He was fifty-seven years of 
 age when he died. He was a subject of Russia, and 
 enjoyed the favor of the nobility at Moscow, and later 
 at St. Petersburg. But good fortune did not abide 
 with him, for he was obliged to leave the country 
 to save himself from arrest for treason. He resided 
 much of the time at Paris, where his bones now 
 rest. The youngest of the three, Julias Slowacki, 
 Avas born in 1809. He Avas an intense patriot. 
 The revolution of 1848 filled his heart Avith hope 
 for his beloved Poland, but Avhen that hope died he 
 too passed away, expiring in April, 1849. He voiced 
 the deep pathos of unhappy Poland. 
 
 Another great name in Polish literature is Sta- 
 nislas Konarski. He Avas not a poet, but a philo- 
 sopher. He is credited Avith creating a neAV phase 
 in the intellectual life of his country. He Avas born 
 in the first year of the eighteenth century. He be- 
 
 longed to an aristocratic family, and in his day Avas 
 on friendly terms with the great thinkers of all 
 Europe. He Avas a practical educator and a poAverftil 
 promoter of political reform. 
 
 Poland can boast at least one very charming 
 poetess, Elizabeth Druzbacka. She belonged to the 
 first half of the eighteenth century. She Avas not 
 versed in any language but her oavu and wrote 
 pure national verses, contributing materially to 
 the development of a distinctively national lit- 
 erature. 
 
 Poland has a larger proportion of JeAvish popula- 
 tion than any other part of Europe. That race 
 has indeed been most cruelly persecuted there, 
 as every Avhere, but Avhen the indignities and out- 
 rages of Spain and other parts of Christendom ren- 
 dered life a burden to that people, they could find 
 in Poland comparative immunity from persecution. 
 The Polish Jews are easily distinguished by their 
 ignorance, superstitions and general inferiority, as 
 compared Avith German JeAvs. 
 
 Russia proper has suffered little from the perse- 
 cution of Christians by Christians, but the Polish 
 Slavs are intense papists, and the monstrous meas- 
 ures resorted to by the Russian church and govern- 
 ment to “ convert ” them to the Greek faith form 
 one of the most revolting pages in the annals of 
 persecution. As late as the fourth decade of the 
 present century inoffensBe and saintly nuns Avere 
 treated Avith all the brutality that Russian bigotry 
 and savagery could devise. 
 
CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
 
 Ancient Teutons — The German Race— Introduction op Christianitt — The Merovingian 
 Kings — Charles the Hammer and the Saracens — The Reign op the Stewards — Charle- 
 magne — Ludwig the Pious — Otto the Great — Frederick Barbarossa— The Inquisition' 
 and Frederick II. — Decline of the Empire — The Hanseatic League — “The German 
 Order op the North ’’ — Conversion op Prussia. 
 
 ■*71 
 
 N tracing the course of 
 Roman history, occasional 
 and far-off glimpses were 
 caught of the Germans. 
 They appeared upon the 
 stage of events as brave 
 and fierce barbarians, occu- 
 pying a vast and illy de- 
 fined territory, requiring the genius of 
 a Caesar to subdue them, and the per. 
 sistence of imperialism to keep them 
 in subjection. They cannot be said to 
 have contributed to or retarded civiliza- 
 tion, but were aloof from it, except 
 as brought into uncongenial contact 
 with it. 
 
 In pointing out the objects of inter- 
 est in the medieval period, attention 
 was called to the greatest of German monarchs, 
 Charlemagne, who belonged no less to France than 
 to Germany, and who received the crown as empe- 
 ror at Rome. He rises into the air the veritable 
 Mont Blanc of Alpine royalty, visible from afar 
 in every direction. We have also seen something 
 
 of Germany in connection with Italy. But all 
 these fugitive glimpses must have served only to 
 sharpen the appetite for more specific and orderly 
 information in regard to that people, once composed 
 of hostile tribes, but now a homogeneous race. 
 The Germans, as the term ’is sometimes used, include 
 the most important branch of the great Aryan 
 race, a division of the human family including not 
 only the English and Scandinavians, but the Hindoos, 
 Persians, Greeks, Romans, Celts and Slavs. By the 
 aid of comparative philology, the oneness in origin 
 of all these great nationalities can be established, 
 but it is in its popular sense that the term is here 
 used. 
 
 In the old days of Roman conquest and Gallic 
 invasion, Germany, France, Spain and the north- 
 ern part of Italy were to the soldiers and senators, 
 the plebeians and patricians of the Tiber, one vast 
 world of “ outer darkness.” It was in 380 B. C. 
 that Pytheas, a Greek navigator, first sailed into 
 the Baltic, and in B. C. 113 occurred the invasion 
 of Roman territory by the northern horde. Marius, 
 Caesar and later leaders of Roman legions won lau- 
 rels (and sometimes lost them, too) in fighting the 
 
 28 
 
 (223) 
 
224 MEDIEVAL GERMANY. 
 
 Germans. They had neither cities nor villages, but 
 were nomadic. Their vices were indolence, drunken- 
 ness and gambling ; their virtues were respect for do- 
 mestic ties, bravery and fidelity. They worshiped the 
 forces of nature under a multitude of names. Taci- 
 tus, in his “ Germania,” gives 
 scription of the people, 
 accept civilization, but 
 Rome was a conqueror, 
 not a civilizer. 
 
 The most noted of 
 the Germans were the 
 Goths. They accepted 
 Christianity in the 
 fourth century, and 
 from them it gradually 
 spread to all Germany. 
 
 The story of the first 
 real step towards civili- 
 zation is interesting. 
 
 Some German pirates 
 brought home from the 
 Levant a Christian boy, 
 
 Ulfila, who conceived 
 the idea of evangelizing 
 the people with whom 
 his lot was thus cast, 
 lie translated the Bible 
 into their language, and 
 it is supposed that he 
 even invented a Gothic 
 alphabet. A part of his 
 translation of the New 
 Testament is still ex- 
 tant, preserved in the 
 library at Upsala, Swe- 
 den. lie was not perse- 
 cuted, nor were his fel- 
 low workers in the cause. The old Germans, like 
 their descendants of to-dav, were religious liberals. 
 Ulfila was an Arian, or Unitarian, and although 
 Rome adopted the Athanasian doctrine of the Trin- 
 ity, Germany always leaned strongly towards hetero- 
 doxy. “ After the invention of a Gothic alphabet by 
 Ulfila, we hear no more,” says Bayard Taylor, “of a 
 written German language until the eighth century. 
 There was at least none accessible to the people.” 
 The Latin was cultivated a little in connection with 
 politics and religion. By the year 570, Europe, 
 
 outside of Germany, was very generally Christian- 
 ized, but the greater part of the Germans were still 
 Pagans. Their final and complete evangelization 
 Avas the result of military necessity, dictated by 
 political expediency, rather than the triumph of the 
 Cross upon its merits. So many pagan customs 
 were retained, under a change of name, that the 
 
 transition was almost 
 imperceptible. 
 
 As western Europe 
 emerged from the obscur- 
 ity of barbarism, the vast 
 regions now known as 
 Germany and France 
 were inseparable. Clovis, 
 who founded the Mero- 
 vingian dynasty in the 
 last years of the fifth 
 century, ruled over both 
 as one. That dynasty 
 continued from 486 to 
 638, a century and a half, 
 during which the Franks 
 or French were specially 
 conspicuous. It was a 
 sickening succession of 
 crowned criminals. The 
 people were the victims 
 of a family feud running 
 through generations. The 
 Nibelungen Lied, the 
 Iliad of Germany, to be 
 referred to more especial- 
 ly hereafter, celebrated 
 in rude song the horrible 
 story of Merovingian 
 
 atrocities. These kings 
 © 
 
 and queens (for the 
 women were as bad as the men) practiced all hea- 
 thenish vices while professing the Christian name. 
 Taylor tells us that during the long and bloody 
 feuds of the Merovingian kings the system of free- 
 dom and equality which the Germanic races had so 
 long possessed, was shaken to its very base, the ten- 
 dency being to augment the power of the nobles, 
 the civil officers and the dignitaries of the church. 
 
 Dagobert, the imbecile and vile, was the last as 
 Clovis was the first of this line of sovereigns. The 
 form and semblance of authoritv lingered in the 
 

 MEDIEVAL GERMANY. 
 
 225 
 
 family after him, but the reality of power, which 
 had been gradually slipping away, distinctly passed 
 to what may be called the dynasty of the Major 
 domi or Stewards, of the Royal Household. 
 
 From 638 to 768 these Stuarts, beginning with 
 Pepin, held the reins of power. The second of 
 them was Charles Martel, to whom France and 
 Germany are indebted for one of the most import- 
 ant victories of all history. The Saracens having 
 gained a firm footing in Spain, crossed the Pyrenees 
 350,000 strong and threatened to carry the Crescent 
 in triumph over all Western Europe, and perhaps 
 extinguish the light of the Cross. It certainly 
 seemed as if Islam was about to possess all the West. 
 It was in October, 732, 
 that Charles Martel, sur- 
 named Charles the Ham- 
 mer, gave battle to the 
 invaders near Poictiers. 
 
 It is said that when night 
 fell, nearly two hundred 
 thousand dead and 
 wounded lay upon what 
 seemed to be the indeci- 
 sive field. When the next 
 morning came, Charles 
 prepared to renew the 
 fight, but found that the 
 enemy had retreated. It 
 was the Gettysburg of 
 the war between the Saracens and the Christians. 
 The soldiers of the Crescent never again attempted 
 to meet the Franks and Germans upon their own soil. 
 Those Yankees of Northern Europe had won a bat- 
 tle decisive of that point, although it was many 
 years before the Southwest was freed from the Sar- 
 acens. It is known as the Battle of Tours. 
 
 After several generations the Stuarts found it ex- 
 pedient to assume the title as well as the reality of 
 royalty, and when Pepin the Short died (738) he 
 was “ king by the grace of God.” The pope had be- 
 stowed the title upon him, also the title of “ Patri- 
 cian of Rome.” He left two sons, one of whom soon 
 died, leaving the other, Charles the Great, sole sov- 
 ereign of France and Germany. He wore the 
 crown forty-three years, being during the latter part 
 of his reign Emperor of Rome. 
 
 Charlemagne was in the main a German. He 
 established his court at Aix-la-Chapelle, where he 
 
 was finally buried. While he sought to clothe him- 
 self with the -faded purple of imperial Rome, he 
 none the less devoted himself to the development 
 of the German people into a great and civilized 
 nation. He established schools, organized local gov- 
 ernment, collected with great care the songs, tradi- 
 tions and chronicles of the people, evidently hoping 
 to build up the Germanic character upon a native 
 basis. He was seven feet high, and no less gigantic 
 in intellect than in body. Y ast and beneficent was 
 his scheme. Germany seemed upon the eve of a 
 great career. 
 
 Ludwig the Pious, son and successor of so 
 great a sire, was the weak and abject tool of the 
 
 priests. He closed the 
 schools, or gave them into 
 the hands of the ecclesi- 
 astics, and worse still, he 
 totally destroyed the bal- 
 lads, songs and legends 
 of the Germans which his 
 great father had collect- 
 ed. Of all that wealth 
 of Teutonic folk-lore, 
 nothing survived, unless 
 it be the fragment of the 
 “ Song of Hildebrand.” 
 Germany was now thrust 
 back into barbarism, and 
 its development retard- 
 ed for centuries. In the last years of the tenth cen- 
 tury, Germany had a ruler capable of making his 
 nation grand and prosperous — Otto the Great. But 
 he was haunted by an evil ambition. Instead of try- 
 ing to develop his own legitimate realm, he frittered 
 away his resources and opportunities in vainly trying 
 to grasp that delusive and illusive phantom, the Ro- 
 man Empire. He was determined, like many less 
 notable German emperors, and two still greater men 
 of his line, Charlemagne and Frederick Barbarossa, 
 to make Aix-la-Chapelle the capital of an empire 
 which should include Italy, and be a real revival of 
 the glory of the Caesars. It was a dreary and 
 bloody endeavor to realize the impossible. 
 
 Frederick I., called Barbarossa for his red beard, 
 was elected emperor by the sovereign votes of the 
 German princes in 1152, and wore the crown until 
 he was cut off in one of the Crusades in the year 
 1197. He was a Suabian, Suabia being then a 
 

 226 
 
 MEDIEVAL GERMANY. 
 
 prominent German state, long since extinct. Bar- 
 barossa did much to restore peace and justice within 
 his realm. He made repeated attempts to bring the 
 Lombards into subjection, but no sooner would he 
 return to Germany, than the standard of revolt 
 would be raised. It was after his sixth expedition 
 into Italy that the news 
 of the Saracen capture 
 of Jerusalem was heard, 
 and the fanatical zeal of 
 Europe, including that 
 of Frederick and his 
 knights, was aroused. 
 
 This valiant king lost his 
 life when near the bor- 
 ders of Syria, drowned 
 while bathing in a river. 
 
 That was in 1190. 
 
 After several troublous 
 years, Barbarossa’s grand- 
 son, Frederick II., came 
 to the imperial throne. 
 
 In his reign the ambi- 
 tious Pope Innocent III. 
 established the Inquisi- 
 tion, and determined to 
 make Italy one of the 
 crown diamonds of the 
 church. The pontiff and 
 the emperor played fast 
 and loose with each other 
 during the lifetime of the 
 former, after which Fred- 
 erick determined to make 
 good his hereditary claim 
 to Italy. For this lie was 
 excommunicated by Pope 
 Gregory IX. In 1228 he 
 undertook a Crusade, and as the result of diplomacy 
 rather than valor, secured possession of Jerusalem 
 and the country round about for ten years, justly 
 claiming the crown of Jerusalem as his reward. The 
 pope did all he could to defeat that bloodless victory 
 of the Cross. Upon the king’s return the people were 
 so generally in sympathy with him and against the 
 unjust pontiff, that the latter was driven from Rome 
 and glad to regain the keys of St. Peter by remov- 
 ing the anathema he had laid upon the sovereign. 
 Frederick established his court at Palermo, Italy, 
 
 FREDERICK II. PUTTING ON THE CROWN OF JERUSALEM. 
 
 and was essentially an Italian rather than a German 
 emperor. Boldly did he confront the arrogance of 
 the church, and without being in design a religious 
 reformer, wrought a great work in preparing the 
 way for Luther and his co-laborers, being a protest- 
 ant but not a Protestant. Brave, heroic, noble and 
 
 persistent, his is one of 
 the most illustrious names 
 in European history. But 
 the record of this Freder- 
 ick has a stain. His life 
 was largely spent in try- 
 ing to crush the repub- 
 lican cities of Italy. That 
 great wrong was not, 
 however, without its 
 compensating good. It 
 operated as an important 
 exemption of the German 
 free cities from imperial 
 intervention. So fully 
 occupied was he in the 
 south that the north en- 
 joyed beneficent neglect. 
 He died in 1250, and, 
 after a feeble and mel- 
 ancholy struggle for ex- 
 istence, the dynasty to 
 which he belonged, the 
 Hohenstaufels, became 
 extinct. 
 
 No other monarch of 
 the medieval period de- 
 serves mention. The elec- 
 tors became corrupt to 
 the lowest point, and 
 openly sold the imperial 
 crown to the highest bid- 
 
 der. At one time the Duke of Cornwall, England, 
 bought the prize, his revenue from the tin mines of 
 his duchy making him the Vanderbilt of his day. 
 He did not, however, attempt to exercise imperial 
 jurisdiction. The German people were far more 
 respectable than the empire as such. 
 
 By 1410 there were three claimants of the German 
 crown, also three claimants of the papal tiara. It 
 may be remarked parenthetically that the really 
 significant event of this period was the Hussite 
 war, which was the morning-star of Protestantism, 
 
3 
 
 
 MEDIEVAL GERMANY 
 
 227 
 
 or, as it might be called, the signal-gun of that 
 great conflict between papal authority and the right 
 of private judgment, in which Germany took the 
 leading part, and from the commencement of which 
 dates the close of the medieval age. Luther was 
 not the originator of the great movement which 
 bears his name. That honor belongs to John Huss, 
 with whom our next chapter will begin. 
 
 Before closing this account of medieval Germany 
 notice must be taken of the Hanseatic League, and 
 the state of civilization which produced the cities 
 belonging to it. Late in the fourteenth century 
 several commercial cities sprung up in Germany, 
 mostly in the north. They were largely the result 
 of the Crusades. Those expeditions had made the 
 people of Europe acquainted with oriental luxuries, 
 and created wants which could only be supplied by 
 commerce. Lubeck, Hamburg and Bremen were 
 the first cities in importance to grow out of this de- 
 mand. Those were marts of exchange for Eastern 
 and Western commodities. They constituted the 
 “ Hansa,” and drew into their alliance, among oth- 
 ers, the cities of the Rhine. They constituted a vast 
 commercial and naval power, bound together by the 
 common tie of traffic. This Hanseatic League had 
 its agencies in every commercial city, from Lisbon 
 to Novgorod. Their vessels plowed the Mediterra- 
 nean and whitened the Baltic and the North seas. 
 Carthage was outstripped, and a spirit of enterprise 
 stimulated which was a cardinal factor in dispelling 
 the blackness of the Dark Ages. Then for the first 
 time in Europe there were “ merchant princes.” 
 The key to the Hanseatic policy is well supplied in 
 the saying of those princes, “ If the emperor claims 
 authority over us, then we belong to the pope ; if 
 the pope claims any such authority, then we belong 
 to the emperor.” The league was politic and thrifty. 
 One of the emperors tried to destroy it, but failed ut- 
 
 terly, and the exultant merchants said among them- 
 selves, “ The Devil tried to shear a hog, but found 
 it ' great cry and little wool.’ ” 
 
 This league and the “ German Order in the 
 North” cared neither for the pomp of kings nor the 
 solemmty of ecclesiastics. The latter had an inde- 
 pendent realm and was a gradual growth from the 
 same root of secular thrift which gave rise to the 
 broader league. Unfortunately both lacked the 
 unity and system necessary to develop a permanent 
 political nationality, but as a “ power dif- 
 fused ” deserves very high rank. The German Or- 
 der was an order of knights, growing out of the 
 Crusades as did the Knights of St. John and the 
 Knights Templar (the two latter belonging to 
 Italy). The merchants of Bremen and the other 
 cities of Northern Germany fostered this order, 
 and by their patronage gave it a commercial or sec- 
 ular spirit quite apart from the religious character 
 of the other orders. 
 
 But to the German Order must be accredited the 
 honor of Christianizing the Prussians, the latest 
 portion of the German people to discard paganism. 
 Their spiritual welfare was watched over by “ the 
 Brothers of the Sword,” a branch of the German Or- 
 der. Like the greater part of medieval evangelization, 
 the conversion of the Prussians was wrought by force. 
 
 The Hanseatic League dates from 1241, and in 
 the same century German architecture made great 
 strides. So, too, did university education, but more 
 particularly in the Italian part of the empire. 
 Some idea of the political condition of Germany 
 can be formed from the statement that at the end of 
 the Hohenstaufen dynasty there were one hundred 
 and sixteen priestly rulers, one hundred ruling 
 dukes, princes, counts and barons, and more than 
 sixty independent cities, not counting, of course, the 
 petty states and republican cities of Italy. 
 
 ~7[s 
 
 - 
 
•Vie. 
 
 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIX. 
 
 The Great Transitional Period — John Uuss in Prague — The Hussite War— Pall of the 
 Byzantine Empire — Invention of Printing and Paper— Martin Luther— Diet of Worms 
 — Translation of the Bible — Luther’s Opportunity and Policy — The Anabaptists— The 
 Augsburg Confession — The Victory of Prudence — The Thirty-Years War — Gustavus 
 Adolphus and Wallenstein — The Peace of Westphalia — The Desolations and Results 
 of the Great Conflict Between Protestant and Catholic — Lutheran Church in 
 Europe and America. 
 
 'HE first definite and des- 
 perate resistance to the es- 
 tablished church in Ger- 
 many was the Hussite War, 
 and the peace of Westpha- 
 lia which terminated the 
 Thirty-Years War was the 
 establishment on the partial ruins 
 of Koine of Protestantism as the 
 state religion of Germany. This 
 transitional period extended from 
 1410 to 1648. It was a memorable 
 epoch for the whole world in many 
 ways. During it America was dis- 
 covered, gunpowder and the print- 
 ing press invented, or rather intro- 
 duced into Europe, making, with 
 Protestantism, four great powers in 
 civilization, each adequate to a thorough and uni- 
 versal revolution. The glory of the former must 
 be shared by Italy and Spain, of the latter by Ger- 
 many and England, while the other two belong to 
 Germany alone. Gunpowder radically changed the 
 methods of warfare, and thus proved revolutionary 
 to an extent not generally appreciated. Curiously, 
 the first Protestant war with its guns sounded the 
 
 death knell of chivalry and gave promise of the 
 era of heavy battalions, as against sword and armor. 
 
 John Huss was born in 1369, and educated at 
 the University of Prague, Bohemia, where he filled 
 a professor’s chair, and afterwards the rectorship. 
 Before his day a few religious men had preached 
 against the corruptions and abuses of the church, 
 but Huss gave to the movement a tremendous impe- 
 tus. He opposed the doctrine of absolution ; the 
 worslfip of saints and images ; traffic in offices and 
 indulgences from purgatory, and the practice of 
 administering only the bread of the sacrament to 
 lay communicants, reserving the sacramental wine 
 for the clergy. The latter point was made specially 
 prominent in the controversy, and conflict followed 
 the teaching of Huss. The University was divided, 
 the Romish sympathizers finally seceding and 
 establishing the U niversity at Leipzig. The emperor 
 at that time was Sigismund. He was not partic- 
 ularly interested in the matter, but was drawn into 
 the contest. An (Ecumenical Council was called 
 at the City of Constance, and Huss was guaranteed 
 a safe conduct to and from the council by the Em- 
 peror. He attended, in the hope of being able to 
 defend his doctrines in such an august body. But 
 he was denied the privilege, and condemned, with- 
 
 (228) 
 
 
GERMANY AND THE REFORMATION. 
 
 229 
 
 — — 
 
 - o 
 
 _ > 
 
 out a hearing and contrary to the pledge given him, 
 to be burnt at the stake unless he recanted. This 
 he would not do, and so, on the sixth of July, 1415, 
 this great man suffered martyrdom. 
 
 The blood of John Huss aroused a terrible 
 furor, especially among the Bohemians. Nobles 
 and people united in indignant protest against the 
 council. That body stayed in session three years 
 and a half, the burn- 
 ing of Huss being the 
 one thing accomplish- 
 ed. Soon after its dis- 
 solution the Emperor 
 departed for the East 
 to wage war against 
 the Turks upon the 
 Danube, thinking lit- 
 tle, apparently, about 
 the Hussites. But they 
 were terribly in ear- 
 nest. They organized 
 under the leadership 
 of John Ziska, a noble 
 of rare military genius 
 and heroism. Having 
 found the pledges of 
 princes and prelates 
 untrustworthy, they 
 took matters into their 
 own hands, resolved 
 to protect themselves 
 and command respect 
 for their rights of con- 
 science. Many of them 
 were wild fanatics who 
 anticipated the speedy 
 second coming of 
 Christ, but others were cool, brave champions of 
 duty. Ziska introduced among his soldiers the 
 “ thunder-guns,” small field-pieces which had first 
 been used at the battle of Agincourt, between 
 the English and the French, three years before. 
 He also introduced the use of iron-plated flails with 
 which to crack the helmets of the knights. Be- 
 tween the guns and the flails the peasants (for such 
 the most of them were) of Ziska were an over- 
 match for the trained and disciplined regulars who 
 rallied from far and near, at the call of the pope 
 and the Catholic princes, to crush the Hussites. 
 
 The papal authorities cared far more for the 
 rebellion in Bohemia than for the Moslem inva- 
 sion on the Danube. The secular princes would 
 have given up the contest in 1420, but the legate of 
 the pope forbade any compromise with the heretics. 
 For several years the conflict raged. In 1426 a 
 Catholic army 200,000 strong was utterly routed 
 by the Protestants, variously called “ Hussites,’’ 
 
 “ Orphans, ” and 
 “ Taborites.” Ziska 
 was slain at last, 
 but his followers ral- 
 lied under another 
 leader and brave- 
 ly demanded their 
 rights. Unfortunate- 
 ly they were not al- 
 ways united, and the 
 enemy was swift to 
 take advantage of 
 any dissension. In 
 1434 the Catholic 
 forces so far suc- 
 ceeded in crushing 
 the Taborites that 
 from that date the 
 Bohemian Reforma- 
 tion ceased to be 
 dangerous to Rome, 
 excejit as it had 
 sowed the seed of 
 Protestantism, and 
 prepared the way for 
 it. The next year 
 Emperor Sigismund 
 died, and with his 
 death expired the 
 Luxemburg dynasty which began with Rhodolph, 
 successor to the Duke of Cornwall. 
 
 A few years before (1453) the Eastern or Byzan- 
 tine empire had fallen. The Roman empire of 
 Constantine and Justinian, so long a bulwark 
 againt the Saracens, fell at last, and Islam gained 
 in Eastern Europe quite as much as it had lost in 
 the West — Turkey avenged Spain. The Roman 
 church looked on with indifference, caring more to 
 suppress Protestantism than to check Mohamme- 
 danism, especially as the inroads of the latter were 
 made at the expense, mainly, of the rival church. 
 
 0 - 
 
 <5 
 
 » 
 
Q_ 
 
 2 3 ° 
 
 GERMANY AND THE REFORMATION. 
 
 There was some talk of another Crusade, but it 
 died out barren of even endeavor. The people and 
 princes had become too secular to engage in a 
 “ holy ” war. 
 
 A little before the fall of Constantinople, about 
 1436, a German named John Gutenburg conceived 
 the idea of casting movable types and setting them 
 together to form 
 words. It was a 
 simple thing to do, 
 but it was none the 
 less the greatest 
 discovery of all the 
 ages, and did more 
 than any other 
 agency to enlighten 
 Europe. It was a 
 gradual discovery. 
 
 The great demand 
 for playing-cards 
 must be credited 
 •with the parent 
 idea. The figures 
 used in making the 
 “ kings,” “ queens,” 
 
 “jacks,” etc., of a 
 pack were first cut 
 on wooden blocks, 
 to be dipped in ink, 
 and then pressed 
 upon the card 
 paper. This device 
 led to the carving 
 of letters and 
 words upon blocks 
 so as to make a 
 page. That was 
 done in Holland as 
 early as 1430, by means of which books were printed. 
 The “ Devil’s Testament,” as cards have been call- 
 ed, thus led to supreme good. Another preparation 
 for the discovery was the invention of paper made 
 from linen, a great relief from the expense of 
 parchment and a prerequisite to printing. Paper- 
 making in Germany dates from the beginning of 
 the fourteenth century. John Gutenburg deserves 
 much but not all the credit of types. Another name 
 to be held in honor is that of Faust, a man of wealth 
 who assisted Gutenburg, who was a poor man. The 
 
 people suspected that printed books were the work 
 of the Devil, and the priests eagerly encouraged the 
 idea. This was not simply because they wished to 
 prevent popular intelligence (ignorance and super- 
 stition going together), but because the making of 
 manuscript books was an important branch of in- 
 dustry, and one which priests and monks monopo- 
 lized. Their craft 
 was in danger. 
 They saw in mova- 
 ble types the death 
 of their highly 
 profitable monop- 
 oly. But none the 
 less surely and 
 swiftly did the art 
 of printing spread, 
 not only in Ger- 
 many but all over 
 Europe. One of 
 the original Gut- 
 enburg Bibles was 
 recently sold in 
 New York City for 
 $ 8 , 000 . 
 
 Martin Luther, 
 who really did 
 more for civiliza- 
 tion than any man 
 of his time, was 
 born at the little 
 Saxon town of 
 Eisleben, Novem- 
 ber 10, 1483. His 
 father was a poor 
 miner. Young Mar- 
 tin was a promis- 
 ing boy and early 
 conceived the idea of getting an education. He sang 
 songs beneath the windows of the rich, among other 
 things, as a way of eking out a support in the pur- 
 suit of his studies, which he prosecuted at the uni- 
 versity of Erfurt. lie joined the order of Augustine 
 monks, and was very highly esteemed by his associ- 
 ates and superiors. In 1508 Luther was appointed 
 lecturer in Greek, and later, of theology at the then 
 new university at Wittenberg. After two years he 
 was sent to Borne on a special commission, where he 
 beheld with amazement the secular character of the 
 
 _s> 
 
s> 
 
 A a. 
 
 GERMANY AND THE REFORMATION. 23 1 
 
 papal court. His eyes were opened, but lie had 110 
 thought of separation from the mother church un- 
 til long after. In 1517 Pope Leo X., a great lover 
 of art and luxury, undertook to replenish his ex- 
 chequer by a wholesale traffic in indulgences. They 
 were hawked about the country, the peddler of them 
 in Germany, Tetzel, going so far as to sell pardons 
 for all sins actually committed not only, but 
 licenses to commit others with impunity. This 
 aroused the righteous indignation of Luther, 
 and on 
 the 31st 
 of Octo- 
 ber he 
 boldly 
 nailed to 
 the door 
 of the 
 church at 
 Witte 11 - 
 burg his 
 n i n e t y- 
 five not- 
 ed theses, 
 or prop- 
 ositions 
 in denial 
 of the 
 right to 
 thus abet 
 crime and 
 vice. 
 
 This 
 holy zeal 
 
 aroused fierce and bitter opposition. Dr. Luther 
 was denounced as a Hussite. A council was called, 
 and he was guaranteed immunity to and from 
 it. He accepted, notwithstanding the fate of 
 Huss. A 11 attempt was made to condemn him in 
 disregard of that guaranty, but the Emperor, 
 Charles V., best known in connection with Spain, 
 refused to be a party to such perfidy, and Luther 
 departed from the Diet of Worms unmolested, after 
 having boldly defended his position. 
 
 By a preconcerted plan he was kidnapped on the 
 road by his friends and taken in disguise to the 
 friendly castle of Wartburg, where lie spent his time 
 in making a translation of the Bible into the Ger- 
 man language. “ In that great work,” says Mr. 
 
 Taylor, “ he accomplished more than a service to 
 Christianity ; he created the modern German lan- 
 guage. Before his time there had been no tongue 
 which was known and accepted throughout the 
 whole empire.” He was assisted in this great work 
 by Philip Melancthon and other scholars. It was 
 done with the utmost care, and is a monument 
 marking the dawn of German literature. 
 
 The Emperor of Germany was also King of 
 Spain, Naples, Sicily and Spanish America, spend- 
 ing very 
 littletime 
 in his im- 
 perial do- 
 minions. 
 Between 
 wars with 
 the Turks 
 and the 
 French 
 he could 
 not give 
 much at- 
 tention to 
 ecclesias- 
 tical mat- 
 ters in 
 Germany. 
 
 con- 
 dition of 
 things 
 gre atly 
 f av or e d 
 the Prot- 
 estant cause. Luther’s policy was to win to his 
 support as many as possible of the petty sov- 
 ereigns. By his Bible and his preaching he aimed 
 to reach the popular heart, and by his political pol- 
 icy to secure the protection of the real rulers of 
 Germany. A popular uprising in Southern Ger- 
 many occurred in 1525, the oppressed peasants 
 making a bold strike for their rights. Luther 
 wrote and spoke vehemently against them. His 
 writings of a political nature present him in a 
 very bad light. The only excuse for him is that by 
 the policy he pursued he secured immunity for the 
 great cause nearest his heart. 
 
 That uprising was a very serious calamity. It 
 was a failure, and a costly one in every respect. It 
 
 LUTHER BURNING THE POPE’S BULL. 
 
 This 
 
■v 
 
 GERMANY AND THE REFORMATION. 
 
 ±IL 
 
 - to 
 
 * 
 
 i 
 
 was the result in large part of religious fanaticism, 
 John of Leyden, leader of the Anabaptists, a sect 
 of Millenarians who entertained numerous fantastic 
 notions, was finally suppressed, and Lutheranism 
 came out of the contest strong. In 1529 seven 
 reigning princes, headed by Saxony, and fifteen 
 sovereign cities, joined in a solemn protest against 
 the resolution of the Emperor and the Catholic 
 States to outlaw and crush out Luther and the doc- 
 trines promulgated by the Diet of Worms. 
 
 The next year a diet was summoned by the Em- 
 peror to meet at Augsburg. A statement of doc- 
 trine, prepared by Luther 
 who was absent and Melanc- 
 thon who was present, was 
 offered as the views of the 
 Protestants. That statement, 
 called the “Augsburg Con- 
 fession,” is still the creed of 
 the Lutheran church and is 
 substantially identical with 
 the creeds of the Evangelical 
 churches of to-day. 
 
 Luther escaped martyr- 
 dom, being as prudent as he 
 was bold. Wars with other 
 nations favored his immu- 
 nity and the spread of his 
 doctrines. Military necessity 
 secured a truce, from time 
 to time, and the father of 
 the Reformation died before 
 the great struggle for religious progress fairly began, 
 his death occurring February 17, 1546. Martin 
 Luther was the friend and counselor of all Protest- 
 ant rulers, beloved by a vast following among the 
 people, the first and greatest of the brilliant galaxy of 
 reformers who were the pioneers of present relig- 
 ious liberty. 
 
 The Thirty-Years War was the next feature of 
 German history worthy of mention. It dates from 
 an outburst of mob violence at Prague, May 23, 
 1618, about a century after the Reformation was 
 fairly begun. At that time four-fifths of the Ger- 
 mans were Protestants, including many of the 
 princes ; but the Hapsburgs continued to support 
 the Papacy. The emperor at that time was Matthias. 
 He was not for war, but the Jesuits were eager for 
 it and plotted to make a local disturbance general, 
 
 and the brother and successor of Matthias, Ferdi- 
 nand, was wholly with them. So little, however, 
 did the Protestant Electors appreciate the situation 
 that they voted for Ferdinand without considering 
 his ecclesiastical affinities of serious importance, 
 and that notwithstanding the fact that he had as a 
 Duke declared that he would rather rule over a 
 desert than heretics. The bitterness of polemical 
 controversy in the Protestant church was a great 
 source of weakness. Calvinists and Lutherans 
 were intense in their animosity to each other, and 
 lines of theological thought almost too fine to be 
 discernible served as ram- 
 parts behind which hostile 
 sects showered abuse at 
 each other. While the Cath- 
 olics were harmonious, the 
 Protestants invited attack 
 by their dissensions. The 
 Emperor conceived it possible 
 to uproot Protestantism by a 
 war of extermination against 
 it, and the Protestants them- 
 selves were largely respon- 
 sible for his thinking so. 
 
 At that time England, Hol- 
 land, Denmark and Sweden 
 were Protestant and the 
 practical ruler of France, 
 Cardinal Richelieu, had no 
 sympathy with Ferdinand. 
 The Protestants could have 
 suppressed him, had they been at all sensible. Their 
 blind factiousness encouraged him and involved the 
 country in war for a generation, and a more desolat- 
 ing, brutal and fiendish struggle was never waged any 
 where by any people. The Christians of that empire 
 seemed to forget all scripture but the passage, “ I 
 came not to send peace, but a sword.” To follow the 
 bloody track of that mighty slaughter through its 
 devious windings for thirty long years, would be a sur- 
 feit of horrors. When once the Protestants had their 
 eyes opened to the situation, they formed a union for 
 mutual defense and chose for their leader Christian 
 IV., king of the then powerful Denmark. Eng- 
 land and Holland furnished substantial aid. But 
 there was no clearsighted and highminded appre- 
 ciation of the struggle, on the part of those most 
 interested. 
 
GERMANY AND THE REFORMATION, 
 
 2 33 
 
 There were several great reputations made during 
 that war, but the names most entitled to recognition 
 were those of Wallenstein and Gustavus Adolphus. 
 The former was a soldier of fortune who allied him- 
 self to the Catholic cause. He had vast wealth, 
 secured by two marriages, and he bought important 
 estates which made him a prince. Wallenstein had 
 a genius for war. He supported and paid his army 
 by plunder, serving the Hapsburgs with conspicuous 
 success. He was distrusted as aiming at imperial 
 
 princes he would have made short work of the 
 Hapsburgs, but he was regarded with suspicion and 
 absolute animosity in some instances. He won 
 several important victories, the most important of 
 all being the one at Lutzen, November 6, 1632, 
 which cost him his life. He fell at the head of his 
 victorious troops, and even in death was “ The 
 Swede of Victory.” Gustavus Adolphus gave vital- 
 ity to the cause which cost him his own life. 
 
 The end was not yet. Year after year the con- 
 
 PEACE OF WESTPHALIA. 
 
 honors, and suspected, at last, of designing to desert 
 to the Protestant cause, and finally assasinated at 
 the evident instigation of the Emperor in Febru- 
 ary, 1634. Gustavus Adolphus was quite the equal 
 of Wallenstein in military genius and a man of 
 high character. He came to the throne of Sweden 
 in 1611, when he was seventeen years of age. A 
 splendid specimen of a man in every way, he real- 
 ized the actual issue at stake and embarked in the 
 cause of Protestantism in Germany when he was 
 thirty-four years of age, having already achieved 
 important victories over the Russians. Had lie 
 been cordially supported by the German Protestant 
 
 fiict raged. It developed into a struggle for life on 
 the part of Protestantism and a struggle for terri- 
 torial acquisition on the part of the petty princes 
 and the foreign states. France was especially anx- 
 ious that Germany should be so weakened that her 
 own area could be extended northward, and with 
 most consummate skill did Richelieu play his part 
 with that object in view. Finally, in 1648, a peace 
 was negotiated at Westphalia, and the guns of that 
 most atrocious of all wars were spiked. And surely 
 it was time. A population of thirty millions had 
 been reduced to twelve millions. The livestock 
 and products of the empire had been proportionate- 
 
2 34 
 
 GERMANY AND THE REFORMATION. 
 
 ly reduced. The civilization of Germany was set 
 back two centuries. Demoralization and depopula- 
 tion, poverty, crime and misery combined to pro- 
 duce a result of appalling desolation. “ After the 
 Thirty Years’ War,” says a great historian, “ Ger- 
 many was composed of 203 more or less indepen- 
 dent, jealous and conflicting states, united by a 
 bond which was more imaginary than real ; and this 
 confused, unnatural state of tilings continued until 
 Napoleon came to put an end to it. All branches 
 of industry had declined, commerce had almost en- 
 tirely ceased, literature and the arts were suppressed, 
 and except the astronomical discoveries of Coperni- 
 cus and Kepler there was no contributions to human 
 knowledge. Politically the change was no less dis- 
 astrous. Germany, as a whole, lost her place 
 among the powers of Europe. The Holy Roman 
 Empire became a shadow.” Famine and pesti- 
 lence completed what had been begun by a war 
 waged by one branch of the church for the exter- 
 mination of a rival branch, resulting, however, in 
 universal amnesty for all Germany except the Prot- 
 estants of Austria. The Pope, Innocent X. tried to 
 nullify the treaty and keep up the war, but his bull 
 was disregarded and not allowed to be read in the 
 empire. The horrible crusade against twenty-five 
 million of Protestants was unavailing. The new sect 
 was indeed crushed out of Spain, France and Italy, 
 but in Germany, as in Holland, Sweden, England^ 
 Switzerland and Dennmark, it had come to stay. 
 
 The name of Lutherans is borne by about 40,- 
 000,000 of people at the present time. No man 
 born upon the continent of Europe ever had 
 so grand a monument as that in perpetuation of 
 his name and fame. In nearly every country of 
 Christendom is the Lutheran church established. 
 Its membership in the United States is fully equal 
 to the total population of the thirteen states at the 
 time they declared themselves independent of Great 
 Britain. In Germany this church is a conservative 
 element. Curiously, the name is not officially rec- 
 
 ognized by the church itself, but custom has so long 
 applied it to the reformed church in its direct out- 
 growth from Luther that it is no longer resented. 
 
 The great name in the annals of the Lutheran 
 church of America is Muhlenberg. There were 
 several members of the family who rose to emi- 
 nence, the latest being the author of the well-known 
 hymn, “ I would not live alway.” That Dr. Muh- 
 lenberg was great-grandson of Heinrich Melchior 
 Muhlenberg who in 1742 came to this country as a 
 missionary, and founded the Lutheran Ministerium 
 of Pennsylvania. He had been an instructor in 
 Francke’s Orphan-house in Germany, and so deeply 
 was he imbued with pietism that the American 
 branch of the Lutheran church is more spiritual, 
 orthodox and conservative than the parent tree. 
 
 It is doubtful if Luther would feel as much sym- 
 pathy, were he now upon the earth and in his nor- 
 mal frame of mind, witli Protestant as with Catho- 
 lic Germany, outside of the church which bears his 
 name. The liberalism of Modern Germany may 
 be called an outgrowth from the Reformation of 
 the sixteenth century, but the connection is more 
 historical than actual, the child bearing but little 
 resemblance to the father. The present papists of 
 Germany are more in accord with Luther than 
 Tetzel. Writing in 1871, that great Catholic 
 scholar l)hl linger gave it as his solemn opinion 
 that “ no other man in the whole Christian era has 
 given to his race as much as Luther gave to his — 
 language, a manual of faith for the people, the 
 Bible, the hymns. He alone has left the ineffacea- 
 ble stamp of his own spirit alike upon the German 
 tongue and the German mind. The very men 
 among the Germans who from the depths of their 
 souls abhor him as the terrible heresiarch and the 
 betrayer of religion, are forced to speak in his 
 words and think in his thoughts.” The great up- 
 rising with which his name is associated was indeed 
 religious primarily, but in effect it was hardly more 
 a reformation than a renaissance. 
 
HE great Thirty-Years War, 
 which extended from 1G18 
 to 1648, was distinctively 
 religious in origin and de- 
 sign ; the Seven-Years War 
 (1756-63) grew out of ter- 
 ritorial greed. Frederick 
 the Great of Prussia had seized 
 the province of Silesia, and Maria 
 Theresa wanted to recover it. Af- 
 ter three bloody wars (1740-42; 
 1744-45 ; 1756-63) the attempt was 
 entirely abandoned. That decisive 
 advantage of Prussia had much to 
 do with the fact that it has at last 
 supplanted Austria as the head of 
 Germany. In one sense, then. New 
 Germany begins with the close of the 
 Seven-Years War; but in a higher sense it dates 
 from the Thirty-Years War, which determined the 
 religious boundaries of continental Europe. 
 
 It was the middle of the seventeenth century 
 when the great war of the Protestants and Catholics 
 closed. Hildebrand estimates that German civiliza- 
 
 tion was thrown back two hundred years by that 
 desolating conflict. The picture which that bril- 
 liant essayist draws of Germany in the eighteenth 
 century is glowing in the extreme : “ Hundreds of 
 
 flourishing cities were reduced to ashes ; ground 
 which had been tilled and plowed for ten centuries 
 became a wilderness ; thousands of villages disap- 
 peared ; trees grew in the abandoned houses.” The 
 first event of real note was the rise of Prussia, 
 already suggested, from an insignificant principality 
 to the rank of one of the five great nations of 
 Europe. 
 
 The first king of Prussia was crowned at the be- 
 ginning of the eighteenth century, and the Univer- 
 sity of Berlin was founded the same year. That 
 first of the Ilohenzollerns to receive the royal crown, 
 Frederick I., was not remarkable for anything. 
 Not so his son and successor, Frederick William I. 
 He was a very marked character. He came to the 
 throne in 1713, just a year before the first of the 
 Georges was raised from the Electorate of Hanover, 
 one of the many petty states of Germany, to the 
 British throne. It was about that time too that the 
 Etoperor of Germany, Charles VI., issued what was 
 
 ( 2 3 5 ) 
 
 CHAPTER XL. 
 
 The Military Beginning or New Germany — After the Thirty-Years War — Rise of Prus- 
 sia — Frederick WTlliam — Frederick the Great and Maria Theresa— Division of Poland 
 — Liberalism in the Abstract — French Revolution and Germany — Napoleon in Ger- 
 many — Jena, Blucher and Waterloo — 1848 — William I. and Bismarck — Schleswig and 
 Holstein — The Seven-Weeks War — Needle and Krupp Guns — Austria’s Humiliation— 
 The Hohenzollerns and New Germany — The Spanish Crown and the Franco-Prussian 
 War — The Seven-Months War; Its Heroes, Victims, Battles and Sieges — Paris, its 
 Resistance and Capitulation — Terms of Peace— Alsace-Lorraine and the Great Indem- 
 nity — Reconstructed Germany — Present States — Bundesrath and Reichstag — Compul- 
 sory Education and the Army — Area and Population of Present Germany. 
 
\ < 2 . 
 
 
 2 3 6 
 
 NEW GERMANY. 
 
 called the “ Pragmatic Sanction,” establishing the 
 order of succession to the throne for his dynasty, 
 in consequence of which Maria Theresa, not yet 
 born, succeeded to the crown of her father. There 
 were thus the beginnings of several important mat- 
 ters. Frederick William I. was busy all his life with 
 beginnings. By his parsimony and meanness he filled 
 the coffers of the crown and accustomed his subjects 
 to hardships. He had but one extravagance, a 
 weakness for a body-guard of giants. For this ec- 
 centricity he squandered many thalers. A rude 
 barbarian who made life in his household (private 
 and official) one long misery, this king, when he 
 died in 1740, was sincerely mourned by none. It is 
 only charity to believe that a vein of insanity ran 
 through his composition. A few months later 
 Charles VI. also died. The former was succeeded 
 by Frederick II., called Frederick the Great, the 
 latter by*the Empress Maria Theresa. 
 
 The childhood and youth of Frederick were mis- 
 erable owing to the brutality of his father. He 
 was a close student of Voltaire, whom he admired, 
 and from whom he derived many broad and hu- 
 mane ideas, which resulted in important reforms. 
 By him torture was abolished and religious liberty 
 
 FREDERICK TUE GREAT. 
 
 established ; witchcraft was no longer classed among 
 the crimes. Frederick was in full sympathy with 
 that class of philosophers of whom Voltaire was the 
 chief. Of late years France and the whole world 
 have learned philosophy of Germany, but in the 
 eighteenth century the order was reversed. Fred- 
 
 erick was a man of war, however, and not a stu- 
 dent, except as studies and letters were a recreation. 
 Hardly had he seized the scepter when he drew the 
 sword and rushed into war with Austria. For five 
 years wi tli only slight rest there was bloodshed, oth- 
 er countries being drawn into it. In 1745 peace 
 was restored, and on terms which were so advan- 
 tageous to Prussia that Frederick was dubbed the 
 Great thus early in his reign. 
 
 To those five years of war succeeded eleven years 
 of peace. During that period Frederick did much 
 to strengthen Prussia. Waste lands were restored, 
 and civil institutions improved. The cultivation of 
 the potato, strenuously resisted by the peasants, 
 was introduced, and the general condition of the 
 people greatly improved. In 1742 the King of Ba- 
 varia was chosen emperor of Germany by the elect- 
 ors, and crowned Charles VII. Maria Theresa in 
 that dark day repaired to Hungary and threw her- 
 self upon the loyalty of the Hungarians. Their 
 chivalric rally to her support made her one of the 
 most powerful of sovereigns. In 1745 the emperor 
 died, and his son was glad to surrender all claims to 
 Austria to be confirmed in the title to Bavaria. The 
 figure-head husband of the great Maria Theresa was 
 nominal emperor. She arranged a coalition against 
 Prussia with France and some minor powers, to go 
 into effect in the spring of 1759, but Frederick stole 
 a march on his enemies and took the initiative him- 
 self. For seven years the war raged. After the car- 
 nage and sacrifices of that struggle peace brought to 
 Prussia increase of territory and general importance. 
 
 In one thing only were Frederick and Maria 
 Theresa agreed — in the partition of Poland. That 
 infamy, as seen in an earlier chapter, was mainly 
 attributable to Catharine II. of Russia, and quite 
 reluctantly consented to by the Austrian empress. 
 The kings of Poland were elected, and the sove- 
 reign chosen in 1765 was a liberal, who allowed the 
 Protestants religious liberty. The Catholics, who 
 were largely in the majority, created civil war. This 
 state of affairs was seized upon as a pretext for 
 charging the Poles with unfitness for nationality. 
 And so, on the 5th of August, 1772, those three 
 crowned robbers took possession of about one-third 
 of the kingdom of Poland, dividing between them 
 about 1,000,000 square miles and 4,500,000 popula- 
 tion. The region received by Frederick was peo- 
 pled by Germans although Poles. 
 
NEW GERMANY. 
 
 237 
 
 Frederick lived until 1 786, and during the last 
 years of his life the nation enjoyed peace. He re- 
 joiced, as did Catharine, in the success of the Ameri- 
 can colonies. I 11 the abstract, both the Prussian and 
 the Russian sympathized with the spirit of freedom, 
 but neither ever allowed sentiment to interfere 
 with ambition. 
 
 Maria Theresa died in 1780, and her son, who 
 had been crowned Emperor Joseph II. in her life- 
 time, survived her ten years. Both tried to im- 
 prove the condition of their subjects by giving 
 them just government, without loosening the reins of 
 absolutism. The son was the most earnest in this 
 endeavor. He was, in his way, 
 a radical reformer, who tried 
 to make his people noble in 
 purpose and prosperous in 
 every way. But his heart was 
 better than his head, and he 
 was grievously disappointed 
 in the results attained. Im- 
 bued with the progressive 
 ideas of the age, lie tried to 
 make Austria a model state. 
 
 His epitaph, written by him- 
 self, was peculiarly appropri- 
 ate : “ Here lies a prince 
 
 whose intentions were pure, 
 but who had the misfortune 
 to see all his plans shattei’ed.” 
 
 Some good, however, resulted 
 from the spirit or atmosphere 
 of the court. The empress was a devout Catholic, 
 although somewhat jealous of Rome ; the emperor 
 was not a Protestant, but he was the avowed enemy 
 of papal arrogance. He spoke harshly of priests, 
 and yet Austria remained a Catholic country. 
 Frederick was a sneering skeptic. 
 
 Out of the French Revolution grew general war 
 on the continent. The banished and fugitive prin- 
 ces and nobles of Franco fermented trouble, and 
 the Republic at Paris found itself involved in mili- 
 tary controversy with both branches of Germany 
 (for Prussia was now the rival and peer of Austria). 
 The conllict was waged in a somewhat sickly way 
 until Napoleon came to the front. 
 
 In the Napoleonic war the battle of Austerlitz 
 was the especial humiliation of Austria, but it did 
 not stand alone. “ Marengo’s field ” was won by 
 
 Napoleon at Austria’s expense June 14, 1800, and 
 his Marshal, Moreau, achieved the brilliant victory 
 of Ilohenlinden on the third of December follow- 
 ing. In 1805 Austria secured the alliance of Eng- 
 land, Russia and Sweden against France. Napo- 
 leon thereupon marched to the very gates of Vienna 
 and gained, December 2nd of that year, the great 
 victory of Austerlitz. But Prussia still stood aloof. 
 When, however, the conqueror organized the Con- 
 federation of the Rhine, designed to absorb the free 
 cities and small principalities of Germany, and 
 eclipse both Austria and Prussia, the latter took 
 alarm. In 1806 war was declared by Frederick 
 William. Two battles were 
 fought in October of that 
 year, Auerstadt and Jena. 
 The first defeat was bad 
 enough, but the second was 
 utterly prostrating and deep- 
 ly humiliating. Unlike Aus- 
 terlitz, Jena was avenged. 
 Waterloo retrieved the reputa- 
 tion of the Prussians and the 
 fall of Paris, fifty year later, 
 completed the redress. Even 
 before Waterloo was fought 
 B1 richer had defeated a por- 
 tion of the French army. 
 The battle of Katzbach and 
 Mockern, comparatively trivi- 
 al engagements, proved Prus- 
 sian victories. He was com- 
 mander-in-chief of the Prussian army when the bat- 
 tle of Waterloo was fought. Napoleon hoped to 
 defeat Wellington before his Prussian ally could join 
 him, and he came very near doing it. “ Night or 
 Blucher,” exclaimed Wellington. Only two days 
 before, BlUcher had been defeated at Leipzig, but 
 he came to the rescue on the ever-memorable eight- 
 eenth of June with forces enough to turn the 
 scale, and convert the impending defeat of Wel- 
 lington into the most stupendous and important 
 victory of modern times. 
 
 After the suppression of that “ scourge of God,” 
 Napoleon Bonaparte, Germany, in common with all 
 Europe, enjoyed a season of peace for thirty years. 
 During that time literature and science made great 
 progress. The terms of peace and reconstruction, 
 adopted after Waterloo, insured civil and religious 
 
 < 5 " 
 
S) 
 
 
 
 238 
 
 NEW GERMANY. 
 
 liberty to the people. They could worship as they 
 pleased, and every state (there were 39 in Germany) 
 was guaranteed a representative government. The 
 educated class were especially encouraged by the 
 liberty enjoyed to demand more, and be content 
 with nothing short of self-government. Not that 
 all felt that Avay, but that among the students there 
 was a very great pressure for republicanism. At 
 last, in 1848, there was an outbreak of democracy. 
 It accomplished very little. Many of the young 
 men engaged in the vague and half-formed rebellion 
 were obliged to seek safety in flight, and thousands 
 found new and better homes in America. In Ger- 
 many the uprising was mainly 
 useful as political education, 
 alike to subjects and sovereign. 
 
 Indeed, all Europe received a 
 most wholesome and bene- 
 ficent development in the 
 direction of larger liberty. To 
 the United States that upris- 
 ing proved highly important. 
 
 A new class of emigration 
 coming to these shores per- 
 ceptibly raised the standard 
 and improved the character of 
 immigration from continental 
 Europe. About that time, it 
 may be added, the Irish fam- 
 ine drove hither an enormous 
 number of ignorant peasants. 
 
 The German influx was some- 
 thing of a counteractant. 
 
 In 1857 the King of Prussia, Frederick William 
 IV., a weak and feudalistic sovereign, was stricken 
 with apoplexy, and his brother William, then sixty 
 years of age, was made Prince Regent. At once the 
 latter began the inauguration of some reforms in 
 administration, and when he became William I. 
 (1861) a new page was turned in German, and in- 
 deed, European history. Although an old man, he 
 was blessed with great vigor of body and mind, and 
 his reign became second only to that of Frederick the 
 Great in point of influence upon the destinies of the 
 people. He early recognized the consummate genius 
 of Bismarck. Those two names must always be 
 linked in fame. Neither ever showed sympathy 
 with the cause of personal freedom, but sought the 
 aggrandizement of the nation in the interest of the 
 
 dynasty. As we write, Germany is in a ferment 
 over the imperial rescript, or official manifesto, of 
 the Emperor, to the effect that Germany is not gov- 
 erned by a ministry accountable to a parliament, but 
 that the ministers are the mere tools of the sovereign, 
 and that the sovereign is the state. I 11 this document 
 is seen the hand of the premier. 
 
 Bismarck was born on the family estate April 1 , 
 1815. He early showed a taste for public life. His 
 career began in diplomacy, 1852, except that he had 
 previously been a short time in jmrliament. Kaiser 
 William was not slow in recognizing his intense 
 loyalty to imperialism, and his consummate ability 
 as a statesman. He had from 
 the first two ideas — the for- 
 mation of a German empire 
 with Austria left out, and the 
 humiliation of France. The 
 first was never concealed. 
 
 Bismarck attracted general 
 attention for the first time in 
 connection with the Schleswig- 
 Holstein war. That was begun 
 December 7, 1862. At first 
 Austria helped Prussia, ex- 
 pecting to have one of the 
 duchies, Schleswig or Hol- 
 stein, for its share of the 
 spoils. Against these two great 
 German powers was arrayed, 
 besides those little duchies, 
 the feeble kingdom of Den- 
 mark. Of course the end could 
 not be doubtful. A diplomatic Avar followed the 
 close of actual hos- 
 tilities. In that cor- 
 respondence and 
 those negotiations 
 Count Bismarck 
 (for he Avas not 
 then a prince) Avon 
 the admiration of 
 the Avorld by Avhat 
 may properly be 
 called deceptive 
 truthfulness. He 
 said Avhat he 
 meant, and meant 
 what he said. So unusual 
 
 BISMARCK. 
 
 thing Avas that in dip- 
 
 -rfler 
 
 V 
 
NEW GERMANY. 
 
 2 39 
 
 ► 
 
 lomacy that his utterances were misinterpreted. The 
 result was a misunderstanding which served as a pre- 
 text for Prussia to declare war against Austria, 
 which it did in June, 1866. 
 
 On one side of the Seven-Weeks War, as it was 
 called, was Prussia with nineteen millions of peo- 
 ple ; on the other, Austria with, including the allied 
 German states, fifty millions. It seemed a rash pro- 
 ceeding on the part of Prussia to seek a quarrel 
 against such odds. But hardly had the war begun 
 before it was over, resulting in the utter overthrow 
 of Austria. The Prussian army was supplied with 
 the needle-gun and Krupp guns. The former were 
 a great improvement upon the musketry of the Aus- 
 trians, while the latter were no less superior to the 
 cannons of the enemy. The respective commanders- 
 in-chief were very unevenly pitted against each 
 other. Prussia had that Wellington of the period, 
 
 Von Moltke, while 
 Austria bad only 
 Marshal Benedek. It 
 was on the second of 
 July that both sides 
 rallied and met in 
 full strength. “ Mar- 
 shal Benedek,” says 
 a recent historian, 
 “ after being forced 
 back from the fron- 
 tier, had taken posi- 
 tion on the Elbe, 
 with his front cover- 
 ed by that stream 
 and the Bistritz. His 
 right was protected 
 by the fortress of Josephstadt, and his left by the 
 fortress of Koniggratz. Near his center was the 
 village of Sadowa, and on the heights overlooking 
 this village Benedek established his headquarters. 
 His army numbered about 200,000 men. On the 
 morning of the 3d of July the Prussian army 
 began the engagement, resulting in Austrian defeat 
 all along the line. This battle and victory is some- 
 times called Sadowa, sometimes Koniggratz.” The 
 vanquished lost 20,000 killed, 18,000 prisoners. The 
 victors lost 10,000 men. The battle was decisive. 
 The Prussians followed up their advantage with 
 swiftness, allowing no time for recuperation or alli- 
 ance. There was no small likelihood of French in- 
 
 tervention in favor of Austria. To head that off, 
 the war had to be pushed to a speedy conclusion. 
 
 When the work of reconstruction came, the 
 real object of Bismarck was disclosed. Schleswig and 
 Holstein were almost forgotten. Austria ceased to 
 be the great central and imperial power of Ger- 
 many, and Prussia more than took its place. In- 
 stead of the old loose federation, with Austria at 
 the head, came that close and really national union, 
 the North-German Confederation, and that not so 
 much with Prussia as the head as with Germany ap- 
 pended to Prussia. The people were at first de- 
 lighted. The old dream of German nationality was 
 realized at last. 
 
 In December, 1867, the constitution of the new 
 union was submitted to the several states and rati- 
 fied. All the German states, except Bavaria, Wur- 
 temberg and Baden, twenty-two in number, be- 
 longed to the Union, and formed indeed one nation, 
 under a common military, postal and financial sys- 
 tem, similar in unity to the United States of 
 America. Since then the authority of United Ger- 
 many has been so far extended that the Hohen- 
 zollerns may be said to have the hereditary title to 
 a firmly consolidated empire which embraces all 
 Germany except Austria. 
 
 The new attitude of Prussia alarmed France, at 
 least stimulated a desire to humiliate the “ upstart” 
 nation. The question of the Spanish crown fur- 
 nished a pretext or occasion for war. There was 
 talk of bestowing that crown, then without a head 
 on which to rest, upon a Hohenzollern. The 
 French professed to see in this a great indignity. 
 For that family to be on two thrones not contigu- 
 ous to each other, but on each side of France, was 
 not to be tolerated. An imperious demand w r as 
 made upon William that he should give a pledge to 
 the effect that no member of his family should rule 
 Spain. The demand was flatly refused. A decla- 
 ration of war followed at once. The prince who 
 had been proffered the crown had declined it, but 
 that was not enough to satisfy Louis Napoleon. 
 The formal declaration of war occurred July 19, 
 1870. The French people were delighted. In a 
 few days both France and Germany had their 
 armies in the field. On the fourth of July the Ger- 
 mans crossed the French frontier, assuming the ag- 
 gressive. A long war was almost universally antici- 
 pated. King William was at the head of the German 
 
 v 
 
 3 ° 
 
NEW GERMANY. 
 
 1 
 
 240 
 
 army, in theory, but now, as in the war with Aus- 
 tria, Von Moltke was the real commander-in-chief, 
 with the Crown Prince, Frederick William, next in 
 rank. The Emperor, Louis Napoleon, was also the 
 nominal head of the French army, giving the 
 Prince Imperial his first baptism of blood ; but 
 Marshals MacMahon and Bazaine were the real lead- 
 ers. For his blunders the latter was banished, 
 while the former was accredited with doing the 
 best that could be dorne and was subsequently hon- 
 ored with the presidency of the French Republic. 
 
 The first 
 battle of the 
 war was 
 fought at 
 W e i s s e 11 - 
 burg Au- 
 gust 4th, 
 in which 
 the French 
 were defeat- 
 ed. Two 
 days later 
 another de- 
 tachment of 
 the two ar- 
 mies met 
 at Worth, 
 with the 
 same result. 
 
 The main 
 army of the 
 French was 
 
 also attacked at Saarsbrucken, and driven back upon 
 Metz. The battle of Vionville, on the frontier, was 
 fought on the 16th, neither army gaining any con- 
 siderable advantage. The decisive battle of the war 
 was fought August 18th, and is known as the battle 
 of Gravelotte. Both armies fought desperately, but 
 the French were compelled to give way. The utmost 
 activity followed, the Germans steadily gaining up- 
 on their adversaries until finally, September 1st, the 
 battle of Sedan was fought. Before night came on 
 Napoleon III., who was present with his army, 
 wrote to King William, “Not having been able to 
 die at the head of my troops, I lay my sword at 
 your majesty’s feet.” The French prisoners num- 
 bered 25,000. The entire army surrendered. 
 
 The war seemed to be over, but events were trans- 
 
 piring at Paris which postponed the final settle- 
 ment for some time. Paris rose in political revolu- 
 tion against the empire not only, but boldly defied 
 the invader. The Emperor could deliver his im- 
 perial crown, but not the nation, certainly not the 
 capital. Henceforth the war was a siege, or a 
 series of sieges and bombardments. Strasburg held 
 out nobly, and Paris desperately. The besiegers 
 cut off the supplies of Paris. Strasburg fell Sep- 
 tember 27th, Metz a month later, and on the 28th 
 of the succeeding January Paris formally sur- 
 rendered. 
 
 In the 
 settlement 
 which fol- 
 lowed, the 
 provinces 
 of Alsace 
 and Lor- 
 raine were 
 wrenched 
 from the 
 power of 
 France, to 
 the great 
 grief of the 
 people who 
 are Ger- 
 mans by 
 blood, but 
 French in 
 their sym- 
 p a t h i e s. 
 
 France thus lost a territory of 5,500 square miles and 
 more than one and a half millions of people. The 
 siege of Paris and the reduction of the military spirit 
 of the French people had occupied, all told, a period 
 of seven months, and the losses of property had fal- 
 len chiefly upon France. The terms of peace added 
 to the losses of territory and perishable property the 
 exaction of a money indemnity (cash in hand, too) 
 of five thousand million francs (81,000,000,000). 
 The promptness with which the people rose to the 
 demands of the occasion was astonishing. Con- 
 vinced that the only way to rid Paris and France 
 of the hostile army was to raise the indemnity, 
 they took their hard-earned savings from their hid- 
 ing places, poured them into the treasury faster than 
 the government could issue bonds, and in excess of 
 
 _e_ i _- 
 
 V V 
 
 _ s 
 
 i v 
 
t>rv 
 
 
 k. 
 
 NEW GERMANY. 
 
 24I 
 
 the national requirement. In a few years it was 
 found that Germany was injured far more than 
 France by that indemnity. The increase in the 
 national debt imposed no serious burden upon tax- 
 payers, while the spirit of wild speculation crazed 
 the Germans. It was a curious instance of “ the 
 biter bitten.” The French people were enriched by 
 the exchange of hoarded, unproductive coin for 
 interest-bearing bonds — rentes. 
 
 During those seven months there had been seven- 
 teen great battles fought and fifty-six minor engage- 
 ments ; twenty-two fortified places were taken ; 
 385,000 soldiers (including 11,360 officers) were 
 taken prisoners. The losses of cannon were 7,200, 
 and of small arms 600,000. Such prodigious cap- 
 tures and indemnity were never known before in 
 the annals of war. 
 
 We turn now to the reconstruction of the Ger- 
 man Empire and its firm establishment upon a 
 Prussian basis. What the Seven-Weeks War had 
 fairly commenced the Seven-Months War rendered 
 complete. The Teutonic dream of liberty and 
 union had now been one-half realized — the latter 
 had been secured. It was to a large extent at the 
 expense of liberty, but it was not at first appreci- 
 ated that unity meant imperialism. 
 
 The present German Empire consists of four king- 
 doms, namely, Prussia with its thirteen provinces, 
 and Bavaria, Saxony and Wurtemburg; six Grand 
 Duchies, Baden, Hesse, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 
 Mecklenburg- Shetitz, Oldenburg and Saxe-Weimar, 
 Eisenach ; five Duchies, Saxe-Meininger, Saxe-Co- 
 burg-Gotha, Saxe-Altenburg, Brunswick and An- 
 halt ; seven Principalities, Schwartzburg-Rudol- 
 stadt, Schwartzburg-Sondershauen, Waldeck, Reuss- 
 Elder line, Reuss-Younger line, Schaumburg-Lippe 
 and Lippe-Detmore ; three free cities, Hamburg, 
 
 Lubeck and Bremen, and the “imperial-lands,” 
 Alsace-Lorraine. The King of Prussia is by virtue 
 of that kingship, president of the confederacy, em- 
 peror or Deutscher Kaiser. 
 
 Corresponding to our Congress is a Bundesratli 
 and Reichstag. The former, or senate, has at least 
 one representative from each state, Alsace-Lorraine 
 alone excepted, and some have several, the “empire 
 state ” of Prussia seventeen. The Reichstag has 
 one member for each district of 100,000 inhabitants. 
 If no dissolution occurs, the Diet or Congress ex- 
 pires by constitutional limitation in three years. 
 Each state has its own constitution and local self- 
 government. 
 
 Universal education is con^ulsory, and therein 
 largely may be found the secret of Prussian superi- 
 ority in war over both Austria and France. The 
 relative military strength of these nations, by num- 
 bers and expenditure, are given in a subsequent 
 table, but the power of education admits of no sta- 
 tistical measurement. Every German is liable to 
 military duty, and must enter the army at the age 
 of twenty years. After three years of actual service 
 he is put upon the reserve roll, in time of peace for 
 four years. At the expiration of that time he is 
 enrolled in the “landwehr,” or militia, for five years, 
 and then finally in the “ landsturm,” a home-guard, 
 until the age of fifty. 
 
 Prussia has an area of 137,066 square miles, and 
 a population of about 25,000,000, which is about 
 equal to the total of the other states constituting 
 the German Empire, the entire area of the empire 
 being 212,091 square miles, population December 1, 
 1875, 42,727,360. The system of military pro- 
 scription is a constant incentive to emigration, 
 and very materially lessens the population of 
 the empire. 
 
CHAPTER X LI . 
 
 Kingdom of the Mind — Tardy and Sudden Development of German Thought — An Intel- 
 lectual Quadrangle — German Literature, Lessing, Klopstock, Wieland, Herder, 
 Schiller, Goethe, Richter and Heine — The Court of Weimar — German Music, Reiser, 
 Handel, Bach, Gluck, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Wagner — German 
 Philosophers — Kant, Fichte, Shelling, Hegel, Buchner and Haeckel — German Univer- 
 sities — Leibnitz and Berlin— Halle University and the Halle School — Heidelberg 
 University and its Library— German Specialists — Humboldt, 
 
 
 N following the ordinary 
 course of history the proud- 
 est claims of Germany to 
 honorable distinction hard- 
 ly attracted attention, be- 
 ing entirely disconnected 
 from political or military 
 affairs. In all other coun- 
 tries “ the scholar in politics ” has been 
 a very considerable personage ; but In- 
 tellectual Germany may be said to have 
 constituted a world by itself, sublimely 
 indifferent to and independent of the 
 fortunes of state. 
 
 “ The Aborigines of Germany,” says 
 Taylor, “ had their bards, their battle- 
 songs and their sacrificial hymns when 
 they first became known to the Ro- 
 Charlemagne gathered those crude be- 
 of literature, so far as possible, into a 
 library which his imbecile and superstitious son, Lud- 
 wig the Pious, committed to the flames. In the 
 Nibelungenlied we have a no less crude attempt at 
 poetical composition. Tint barbaric epic resembled 
 Homer only as the jagged rock resembles the pol- 
 ished statue. Poor in itself, it led to nothing bet- 
 
 mans. 
 
 cfinnmo-s 
 
 ter. On the contrary, it was not until the magnetic 
 genius of Luther set Europe aglow that any name 
 worthy of mention appeared in the literary annals 
 of Germany, and even Luther excelled more as a 
 translator than an author of originality. The seed 
 which he sowed perished as utterly as did the grain 
 which Karl the Great had garnered. The cruel 
 heel of the Thirty-Years War crushed the intel- 
 lectual life of Germany, and it was not until the 
 middle of the eighteenth century that it revived 
 and became a power. We shall see that English 
 literature was a gradual growth of many centuries ; 
 but the darkness of Medieval Germany was unre- 
 lieved by any flashes of light. There was nothing 
 precocious about its intellectual development. 
 When, however, the light broke, it fairly flooded 
 the land, nay, rather, the whole world. Hardly had 
 the morning star appeared before the mid-day sun 
 ruled the heavens. Herein Germany was phenome- 
 nal and in the highest degree sensational. 
 
 Intellectual Germany may be said to be quadran- 
 gular, literary, musical, philosophical and erudite. 
 Each side of this quadrangle has such marked in- 
 dividuality as to require distinct consideration. 
 
 German literature, in any high sense, began 
 with and reached its summit in that splendid gal- 
 
 ( 2 4 2 ) 
 
Q_ 
 
 INTELLECTUAL GERMANY. 
 
 243 
 
 £]£ 
 
 axy, Lessing (1729) ; Klopstock (1724) ; Wieland 
 (1733) ; Herder (1744) ; Schiller (1759) ; Richter 
 (1762); Heine (1799). The figures appended to 
 each name give the year of the birth of each. It 
 ■will be seen that they all belong to the eighteenth 
 century, and in actual literary labors they were al- 
 most contemporaneous. In them we have the great 
 immortals of the purely literary please of German 
 thought. 
 
 Lessing was a Saxon. His Minna Von Borrihelm 
 was the first national drama of Germany, and pro- 
 duced a profound sensation. But it was as a critic 
 that he excelled. He set in motion the critical fac- 
 ulty of the nation, substituting intelligent doubt for 
 blind credulity. He died in 1781. It has been 
 pertinently said of Lessing, “ To him religion was 
 not obedience, but insight ; morality not duty, but 
 wisdom ; poesy not inspiration, but taste.” His 
 Laocoon, a series of critiques, was a prodigiously 
 revolutionary work. 
 
 Klopstock was also born in Saxony. Strange as 
 it may seem at this day, it took great courage to 
 even attempt, in his time, to build a German litera- 
 ture. Even Frederick the Great, with all his admi- 
 ration for literary ability, scouted the idea. Klop- 
 stock was not deterred by the absence of encourage- 
 ment, and, it may be added, of genius. He was a 
 poet of only mediocre power. “ He was the father 
 of German poetry, not because he created it, but 
 because he made it possible — not on account of his 
 genius, but on account of his standpoint.” The 
 pioneer poet of his country, he blazed a few trees 
 as he painfully picked his way through the Black 
 Forest. He died in 1803. 
 
 Wieland, like Klopstock, produced nothing which 
 was in itself particularly meritorious. A prose 
 translation of Shakspeare was the first introduction 
 of the great dramatist to the German public. 
 Oberon, a romantic epic, was Wieland’s best produc- 
 tion from 1772 until his death, 1813. He r-esided 
 at Weimar, and with Goethe, Schiller and Herder 
 rendered that otherwise petty court one of the 
 grandest in all history. He was a natural poet, al- 
 beit of no very high order. Weimar is a small city, the 
 capital of the Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar, which 
 may be said to live upon the remembrance of the 
 eminent authors just named. No other town was 
 ever blessed with such an array of talent at one time. 
 
 Herder was a Prussian, the son of a school- 
 
 master, and very much of his life was spent in edu- 
 cational labors. It may be said that teaching was 
 his trade, literature his relaxation. He was more 
 critical than creative. His central idea was that 
 the highest works of art, literary, or otherwise, are 
 the most distinctively national. By instilling that 
 conviction into the German mind, he, like Lessing, 
 Klopstock and Wieland, contributed greatly to the 
 development of a thoroughly national literature. 
 Perhaps the best known of his works is Letters on 
 Hebrew Poetry. He too died in 1803. 
 
 In all the chief cities of Germany may be found 
 statues in honor of the most popular of all the poets 
 of that people, Johann Christoph Friedrich von 
 Schiller, and upon the 
 hundredth anniversa- 
 ry of his birth, 1859, a 
 “ Schiller - fund ” of 
 several hundred thou- 
 sand dollars was rais- 
 ed, the income from 
 which is to be devoted 
 to the maintenance 
 of indigent authors. 
 
 In him the Germans 
 saw realized in a pre- 
 eminent and peculiarly 
 national poet for whom 
 
 VON SCHILLER. 
 
 ideal 
 
 Wie- 
 
 popular form the 
 Lessing, Klopstock, 
 land and Herder prepared the way. He excelled in 
 two lines, as a dramatist and a lyrist. His Robbers 
 and Wallenstein are masterpieces of dramatic litera- 
 ture. His minor productions are remarkable for ex- 
 quisite finish and splendor of diction. A military 
 surgeon by education, he made great sacrifices to his 
 lofty art. He died at Weimar when only in his 
 forty-sixth year. Three years before he had been 
 made a baron of the realm by the Emperor Fran- 
 cis II. Carlyle says of Schiller, “ He was a high 
 ministering servant at truth’s altar, and bore him 
 worthily in the office which he held.” 
 
 John Wolfgang Von Goethe, a native of Frank- 
 fort-on-the-Main, is acknowledged as the foremost 
 man of literary Germany. For many years he was 
 recognized as an almost autocratic authority. His 
 great novel Wilhelm Meister is the most famous 
 work of fiction in the German tongue, the only one, 
 in fact, which may be said to enjoy a world-wide repu- 
 tation, unless it be his Sorrows of Werther. He was 
 a profound and varied student of nature, being 
 
 11 
 
2 44 
 
 INTELLECTUAL GERMANY. 
 
 well-versed in many sciences. He lived to the ripe 
 old age of 83, retaining his superb and manifold 
 
 facilities to the last. His 
 was a life of luxury, 
 his very labors being 
 sources of delight to 
 him. Born of wealthy 
 parents, he never knew 
 the hardships and dis. 
 appointments • of or- 
 dinary experience. In 
 him we see the best re- 
 sults of good fortune. 
 Of his greatest work, 
 Faust, Bayard Taylor, 
 to whom the English- 
 G0ETHE - reading public is in- 
 
 debted for a masterly translation, has this to 
 say: 
 
 “ There is nothing in the literature of any coun- 
 try with which we can compare it. There is no 
 other poem which, like this, was the work of a 
 whole life, and which deals with the profoundest 
 problems of all life. It is so universally compre- 
 hensive that every reader finds in it reflections of 
 his faith and philosophy. * * The poem embod- 
 
 ies all the finest qualities of Goethe’s mind — his rich, 
 ever-changing rhythm, his mastery over the ele- 
 ments of passion, his simple realism, his keen irony, 
 his serene wisdom, and his most sacred aspiration. 
 The more it is studied the wider and further it 
 spreads its intellectual horizon, until it grows to be 
 so far and dim that the physical and the spiritual 
 spheres are blended together. Whoever studies 
 Faust in connection with the works of other Ger- 
 man authors cannot but admit that the critic is not 
 wholly mistaken who asserts that the single ele- 
 ments which separately made his compeers great 
 have combined to make one man greatest ; that 
 Ivlopstock’s enrichment of the language, Lessing’s 
 boldness and clearness of vision, Wieland’s grace. 
 Herder’s universality, and Schiller’s glory of rhythm 
 and rhetoric are all united in the immortal works 
 of Goethe.” 
 
 From Goethe to poor Heinrich Heine is a long 
 step ; but the latter name is too frequently men- 
 tioned in general literature to be passed over in 
 silence. A Jew by birth, he was by no means “a He- 
 brew of the Hebrews.” On the contrary, he was 
 
 singularly deficient in the thrifty qualities of his 
 race, and he hated business intensely. Audacious 
 in ridicule, he paid no heed to the probable effect 
 upon his own fortunes of his merciless criticisms 
 and lampoons. He was the poet of every-day life, 
 his subjects being simple and his treatment brief.' 
 Fifty years ago he published his first volume of 
 poetry. Its popularity was wonderful. Most of his 
 time was spent in Paris, where he died in 1856. He 
 was deeply imbued with democratic ideas and radi- 
 cal principles. Indeed, he was more French than 
 German in his type of mind and tastes. It was 
 thirty years from the publication of his first volume 
 until his death, during which period he may be said 
 to have possessed without enjoying a wide popu- 
 larity. With all his faults, Heine exerted, on the 
 whole, a wholesome influence upon German litera- 
 ture, especially in rebuking affectation and knock- 
 ing from under it the stilts of romanticism. His 
 later productions were not up to his early ones in 
 merit, for his intellectual faculties were as prema- 
 turely senile as Goethe’s were abnormally vigorous 
 at fourscore. 
 
 It remains to speak of only one more member of 
 the German family of letters, Richter, better known 
 by his literary name of 
 “ J ean Paul.” He was 
 the humorist par excel- 
 lence of German auth- 
 ors. His private life 
 has been called “ a long 
 inheritance of priva- 
 tion.” His death oc- 
 curred in 1825. He 
 was neither great nor 
 small : he was unique. 
 
 His admirers class him richter. 
 
 with Hood and Douglas Jerrold. 
 
 The Germans are remarkable for their love of 
 and attainments in music. During the sixteenth 
 century there were a few symptoms of musical tal- 
 ent, but that was all. In the seventeenth century 
 the princes began to have operas performed at their 
 courts. The first public performance of an opera 
 in Germany was at Hamburg in 1678. In that pe- 
 riod lived Keiser, a composer, who once enjoyed a 
 splendid reputation. He wrote much, but his ope- 
 ras and cantatas were harsh, and deficient in melo- 
 dious strains. But the great name of this period 
 
 [C 
 
 

 
 INTELLECTUAL GERMANY. 
 
 2 45 
 
 was Handel, born in Halle, Saxony, 1685. Most of 
 his life was spent abroad, espe- 
 cially in London, where he died 
 in 1759, but he was none the less 
 a thorough German. He com- 
 posed much which was not of the 
 very highest order, more particu- 
 larly in the operatic line. His 
 genius lay in the direction of ora- 
 torio. The Messiah is his grandest work, and in all 
 music can be found nothing more sublime. Mo- 
 zart declared it impossible to improve his choruses. 
 The Messiah was written for the city of Dublin. It 
 made him the musical idol of England, which he 
 remained until his death. His bones rest in West- 
 minster Abbey. 
 
 Bach is an illustrious name in musical history. 
 John Sebastian, born at Eisenach in 1685, was ilie 
 Bach, but for more than two centuries the family 
 tvas distinguished as musicians. The first to gain a 
 place in history was Veit. He was a Hungarian, 
 and settled in Thuringia in 1600. The one mem- 
 ber of the family to gain a world-wide reputation, 
 served as organist and concert-master in various 
 places until at the age of thirty -eight he was chosen 
 musical director of the St. Thomas School, Leipsic. 
 There he spent twenty-seven years, and the promi- 
 nence of Leipsic as a center of musical education is 
 very largely due to John Sebastian Bach. He was 
 a voluminous composer. “ In nearly every field of 
 his art,” says Frothingham, “ he was a discoverer, 
 in some he was a prophet of future discoveries. 
 The fame of Bach has been increasing since his 
 death. For generations to come they who study 
 the difficult science of music will go to him as stu- 
 dents of literature or painting go to the grand 
 masters.” 
 
 For the improvement of dramatic music the pub- 
 lic is very especially indebted to Christopher Gluck, 
 who was born in 1714. He was educated at Milan 
 and spent much of his time abroad, but his influ- 
 ence was most felt in his native land. After hearing 
 Gluck’s great opera of Iphigenia at Weimar, Schil- 
 ler wrote, “ Never has any music affected me so 
 purely, so supremely, as this ; it is a world of har- 
 mony piercing straight to the soul, and dissolving 
 it in the sweetest, loftiest melancholy.” His death 
 occurred at Vienna, November 15, 1787. 
 
 A still greater name in music is Joseph Haydn, 
 
 His older sister, 
 
 the son of a poor Austrian wheelwright and sexton. 
 He early drifted to Vienna. In 1760, when he was 
 twenty-eight years of age, his hitherto luckless life 
 turned, and for thirty years his circumstances were 
 easy and auspicious. He was a very devout Papist. 
 Haydn is accounted the father of symphony and of 
 the stringed quartette. Instrumental music receiv- 
 ed from him its most rapid development. The 
 Creation is one of his oratorios. The leading qual- 
 ities of his compositions are said to be lucidity of 
 ideas, symmetry in their treatment and finish in 
 their development. Death came to him in Vienna, 
 May 26, 1809. 
 
 Among those who sat lovingly and docilely at the 
 feet of the father of symphony was Mozart, who 
 spoke of him as “ papa Haydn.” 
 
 He was born at Salzburg in 1756, 
 and died at Vienna in 1791. 
 
 Short as was his life it was long, 
 musically speaking. He began 
 to play the piano with very con- 
 siderable accuracy as early as 
 four years of age. He began 
 composition at eight years of age. 
 
 Maria Anna, was also a remarkable musician. 
 While they were very small children the father made 
 concert tours with them, and everywhere they ex- 
 cited amazement and admiration. The last seven 
 years of his life were given to composition, undis- 
 turbed by the necessity of teaching or performing 
 for a livelihood. The splendid operas, II Nozze di 
 Figaro and Don Giovanni, were the most illustrious 
 of his compositions. Although Mozart lived and 
 died in Vienna, was composer to the court, and is 
 considered the greatest composer of the world, from 
 the combined versatility and power of his genius, 
 Farnham writes of his burial, “ On a dismal day of 
 rain, unfollowed by a single friend, the bodies of 
 Mozart and fifteen other dead were hurried through 
 the streets of Vienna to the common burying- 
 ground of the poor, and his grave is now unknown.” 
 This was the melancholy end of one whose name is 
 imperishable. 
 
 In the latter half of the eighteenth century there 
 lived at Bonn a tenor singer to whom was born in 
 1770 a son, who may be called the Mont Blanc of 
 music, Ludwig von Beethoven. He was a student 
 of Haydn and Mozart, and like them he long resided 
 at Vienna. He seemed to have fairly entered upon 
 
 O 
 
 
ID 
 
 246 INTELLECTUAL GERMANY. 
 
 a brilliant career when deafness came upon him. 
 
 For a large part of 
 his life he was total- 
 ly deaf. But he none 
 the less effectively 
 gave his life to com- 
 position. His afflic- 
 tion isolated him 
 from society and 
 tinged his produc- 
 tions with melan- 
 choly. Symphonies 
 and sonatas, remark- 
 
 BEETHOVEN. 
 
 able for richness 111 
 ideas and sentiment, no less than for fidelity to the 
 highest laws of composition, show him to have been 
 a man of stupendous power. In a strictly intellect, 
 ual point of view Beethoven ranks at the very head 
 of his profession. This sad and solitary man died 
 in the year 1837. 
 
 In 1809 there was born 111 the family of a wealthy 
 Hebrew of Hamburg, Felix Bartholdy Mendelssohn. 
 After receiving a thorough education and devoting 
 some time to travel, he made his home at Leipsic. 
 He established the conservatory there, and contrib- 
 uted powerfully to its development as the musical 
 capital of the world. His was a sweet and lovely 
 character, a charming life and a high order of gen- 
 ius. The oratorio of Elijah was his, but he was 
 most at home in the composition of piano music. 
 As .a pianist he was one of the greatest in his day, 
 and that is much to say, for Liszt, Schumann and 
 Chopin were contemporary masters of the piano- 
 forte. Of his works it is affirmed by a competent 
 judge, “ They are a worthy culmination of the art 
 and science of his predecessors, the latest master- 
 pieces of the purely classic school, and just preceded 
 the rise of the music of the future, exquisite and be- 
 yond criticism, except that they are, as Tennyson 
 ivould say, c faultily faultless/” 
 
 The “ music of the future ” calls to mind the name 
 of Wagner, the last in the musical list of Intellect- 
 ual Germany. This son of a police actuary was 
 born at Leipsic in 1813. lie became especially 
 well known in America from the composition of 
 the Grand March for our Centennial Celebration, 
 1876. He composed those popular operas, the Fly- 
 ing Dutchman, Lohengrin and Tannhauser. But his 
 great work is the threefold opera of the Nibelun- 
 
 gen Ding. In the summer of 1876 it was performed 
 at his home, Beireuth, in a theater of his own de- 
 sign, by an orchestra composed of the best musi- 
 cians of Germany. The term “ music of the fu- 
 ture,” was originally bestowed in derision, but so 
 brilliant was the success at Beireuth that scorn was 
 turned to admiration. Like Browning and Walt 
 Whitman in poetry, and Carlyle in prose. Bichard 
 Wagner truly says of himself, “I move with entire 
 freedom, and disregard of all theoretical scruples.” 
 
 German philosophy is a term often heard, as if 
 there were a unity in the metaphysical life of Ger- 
 many. There are indeed clearly traceable and 
 strongly marked national peculiarities of thought 
 and style, subtile resemblances ; but each great 
 name stands for a distinctive idea. 
 
 The father of German philosophy was Immanuel 
 Kant, born at Konigsberg, Prussia, in 1724. He 
 was a Scotchman by ancestry, although in habits of 
 life and modes of thought preeminently Teutonic. 
 Spinoza, who is sometimes spoken of as a German, 
 belonged to the Dutch City of Amsterdam and the 
 Hebrew race. Kant first attracted the attention of 
 the intellectual world by his Critique of Pure Reason, 
 which was an era in philosophy. In style it is 
 cumbersome and awkward to the last degree. He 
 regarded psychology as the basis of philosophy and 
 the search for the First Cause as fruitless. Kant 
 lived to the ripe old age of eighty, and to the last 
 remained serenely self-centered in his quiet little 
 home of Konigsberg. Fame seemed to make no 
 impression upon him, and the great critic was in- 
 different to criticism. 
 
 Next to Kant the great name in German philoso- 
 phy is Fichte, a disciple and peer of the mas- 
 ter of transcendentalism. Jena, then the leading 
 university of Germany, offered him the profes- 
 sorship of philosophy in 1793. His life was not 
 like Kant’s, serene. His extreme liberalism raised 
 up enemies, lie was driven from Jena, only to 
 find chairs of philosophy awaiting him at Erlangen 
 and Berlin. His life terminated in 1814. 
 
 Schelling and Hegel, personal friends, were the 
 founders of bitterly Hostile rival schools or theories 
 of philosophy. The former was born in Wurtem- 
 berg in 1775, the latter in Stuttgard in 1770. Just 
 what the philosophy of cither was, is still a matter 
 of dispute between philosophical students and writ- 
 ers. Schelling lectured at Berlin for many years, 
 
 J < 5 " 
 

 * 
 
 a 
 
 INTELLECTUAL GERMANY. 
 
 reaching the eightieth year of his age. In 1818 
 Hegel came to Berlin as a university professor, 
 where he resided until his death, 1831. Numerous 
 were the disciples of these metaphysicians, and 
 powerful was the influence upon the nation of their 
 philosophy. Not that any considerable proportion of 
 the people perplexed themselves with their abstruse 
 theories and disputations ; but the spirit of free 
 thought, of downright skepticism, which pervaded 
 the metaphysicians came to be the most distin- 
 guishing characteristic of the German mind. The 
 country of Luther and the pietists became the 
 land of unbelief. Instead of the bitter scoffing of 
 the French school, there was a lofty, calm and im- 
 
 perious contempt for all which was thought to 
 savor of superstition. 
 
 The most positive and intelligible expression of 
 disbelief is the Force and Matter of Prof. Biiclmer. 
 That brilliant no less than learned German dis- 
 tinctively asserts and elaborately argues that what 
 is known of nature proves both the non-existence 
 of a personal deity and the mortality of man. He 
 goes further than the very radical Spencer, Mill 
 and Haeckel. Tie positively denies where they 
 merely decline to asseverate. 
 
 What Denslow calls “the most important scien- 
 tific and philosophical work of this century,” The 
 Evolution of Man, was produced by Ernst Haeckel. 
 This latest, if not greatest, of German philosophers 
 was born in Potsdam, Prussia, February 16, 1834. 
 He belongs to the University of Jena as lec- 
 turer on zoology. He applies philosophy to science, 
 
 2 47 
 
 and shows their essential and sublime harmony. 
 He may be said to unite the reasoning of Herbert 
 Spencer with the patient research of Charles 
 Darwin. 
 
 Germany is noted for its universities and its eru- 
 dition. The University at Berlin, founded in 1810, 
 grew out of a scientific society organized little 
 over a century before by the great pioneer of Ger- 
 man philosophy, Leibnitz, a graduate of Leipsic, 
 and a man of wonderful versatility. So far ahead 
 of his age was he that when philosophy gained a 
 foothold it came quite independent of his writings. 
 The university which grew out of his society has 
 over three thousand students in constant attend- 
 
 ance, and numbers among its former professors of 
 renown, Humboldt, Neander, Schleiermacher, Vir- 
 chow, Richte, Fichte, and Hegel. 
 
 The university of Halle was founded in 1694. In 
 1817 it absorbed the university of Wittemburg 
 which dated from 1502. Its rank is especially high 
 in theology and cognate branches of learning. The 
 great critical student of the Bible, Gesenius, was one 
 of its professors from 1810 to 1842. In those palmy 
 days of the institution there were over a thousand 
 students. There are about that number at the pres- 
 ent time. The “ Halle School” is a term applied to 
 the religious views which long distinguished Halle as 
 the great seat of evangelical learning in Germany. 
 The founder of that school was Spener, while 
 Francke, Breithaupt and Lange were eminent names 
 in it. Unlike most Germans, including the clergy, 
 the members of the Halle School devoutly believe 
 
 3 1 
 
 r 
 
 > 
 
 V£> 
 
 \ 
 
 oK 
 

 
 INTELLECTUAL GERMANY. 
 
 I 
 
 in special Providence, plenary inspiration, and are 
 truly orthodox in belief. 
 
 The oldest of the twenty -two universities of the 
 present empire is that at Heidelberg, a romantic 
 place, also famous for its schloss, or castle, founded 
 in 1836 ; the youngest is that of Strasburg, founded 
 1873. About twenty thousand students attend 
 these universities. The one at Heidelberg has a 
 library of 200,000 volumes, a zoological museum, 
 and other facilities for the study of scientific sub- 
 jects. It is a famous resort for medical and divinity 
 students. Many foreigners repair thither to perfect 
 their education. 
 
 The peculiarity of German scholarship is its 
 exceptional thoroughness. The professors devote 
 themselves to minutely small fields of research, and 
 by exploring every nook and corner, are enabled to 
 thoroughly understand them. It is this peculiarity 
 which has placed modern Germany at the front in 
 erudition. Every branch of study, philological, his- 
 torical or scientific, has received from that micro- 
 scopical method a fullness of development which 
 would have been impossible otherwise. By this 
 careful and exhaustive method the Germans have 
 been enabled to make many highly important con- 
 tributions to the stock of human knowledge. To 
 German erudition belongs the credit of discerning 
 the path of civilization in prehistoric times by the 
 clew of comparative philology, and this is only one 
 illustration among many of hardly less importance to 
 the world. German erudition is not personal like the 
 literature, philosophy and music of Germany. It 
 was and is the all-pervasive atmosphere of the na- 
 tion in its intellectual development. 
 
 We cannot better close this chapter than by re- 
 ferring to Alexander von Humboldt, who, taking it 
 all in all, deserves the very highest rank in intellect- 
 ual Germany. Born at Berlin September 14, 1769, 
 
 HUMBOLDT. 
 
 it has well been said that he was to science what 
 Shakspeare has been to the 
 drama. He combined patient 
 research into minutia with 
 grand powers of centraliza- 
 tion, discerning the relations 
 of nature’s infinite parts to 
 her grand totality. Parbach, 
 
 Mullerus and Copernicus, 
 
 Germans all, contributed to 
 astronomy in its mere infan- 
 cy, but Humboldt pointed 
 out the connection between phenomena, astro- 
 nomical precession, 
 geological transfor- 
 mations, and botan- 
 ical and zoological 
 development, showing 
 the inexorable reign 
 of law. “We associ- 
 ate the name of Hum- 
 boldt,” says Ingersoll, 
 
 “ with oceans, conti- 
 nents, mountains and 
 volcanoes : with the 
 
 7 # COPERNICUS 
 
 great plains, the wide 
 
 deserts, the snow-tipped craters of the Andes ; 
 with primeval forests and European capitals; with 
 wildernesses and universities ; with savages and 
 savans ; with the lonely rivers of unpeopled wastes ; 
 with peaks and pampas and steppes, and cliffs and 
 crags ; with the progress of the world ; with every 
 science known to man and every star glittering in 
 the immensity of space. The world is his monu- 
 ment ; upon the eternal granite of her hills he in- 
 scribed his name, and there upon everlasting stone 
 his genius wrote this sublimest of truths : ‘ The 
 
 UNIVERSE IS GOVERNED BY LAW.’” 
 
 

 HIE German empire is the 
 culminating point, politi- 
 cally, of German history ; 
 but it does not by any 
 means include all of Ger- 
 many. Before we can dis- 
 miss from consideration 
 the Teutons, and pass on to their 
 neighbors, the French, we must 
 finish the record of German and 
 semi-German nations not included 
 in that imperial confederation, the 
 chief of which has its capital at 
 Vienna. 
 
 The present duality, suggested by 
 the title to this chapter, with the 
 peculiar system of government in- 
 volved, dates from 1867, since 
 which time there has been harmony and every pros- 
 pect of a permanent union. Prior to that time the 
 proper mode of expression would have been, Austria 
 and Hungary. Austria may be said to be an out- 
 growth from a county. Rhodolph, son of Albert 
 IV., Count of Hapsburg, was the founder of it. 
 He was born in 1218. He was a bold, rude fighter. 
 By degrees he extended his authority until in the lat- 
 ter part of the thirteenth century he was elected 
 
 Emperor of ^Germany, or, as it is some times ex- 
 pressed, “ King of the Romans, by choice of the 
 Electors of Germany.” The intelligence of his elec- 
 tion was conveyed to him by his nephew, Frederick 
 of Hohenzollern. Tims at the very threshold do we 
 meet the two great royal family names still regnant 
 in the two nations of German-speaking peoples. A 
 contemporary bishop who was not a little displeased 
 with the election, exclaimed, “Sit fast, great God, 
 or Rhodolph will occupy thy throne ! ” 
 
 The most formidable rival of Rhodolph for im- 
 perial greatness was Ottocar of Bohemia, originally 
 a very powerful sovereign. For some time there was 
 war between them, resulting in the subjugation of 
 Ottocar. That king was obliged to confine his sov- 
 ereignty to Bohemia and Moravia, surrendering all 
 claims to the Duchies of Austria, Stygria, Crinthia 
 and Carniola. At Vienna, then as now the capital 
 of Austria, Rhodolph fixed his royal residence and 
 made it the paramount object of his life to secure 
 Austria as a permanent possession for the House of 
 Hapsburgh. 
 
 The duchy, or rather archduchy, of Austria, the 
 nucleus around which has grown the empire of that 
 name, has an area of 12,270 square miles, is bound- 
 ed on the south by Styria, on the west by Bavaria, 
 on the east by Hungary, and on the north by 
 
 
 O 49) 
 
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 
 
 250 
 
 Bohemia and Moravia. Intersected by the Dan- 
 ube and divided into Upper and Lower Aus- 
 tria by the river Enns, it has now a popula- 
 tion of about three millions. The Austro-Hun- 
 garian monarchy is an empire with an area of 240,- 
 348 square miles and a population of over thirty- 
 seven millions of souls. It was not until the reign 
 of Ferdinand IV., in the present century, that the 
 duchy of Austria was raised to the dignity of an 
 archduchy. The son of Rhodolph, Albert I., was 
 also Emperor of Germany. His grandson, Fred- 
 erick III., was not., but Albert V., of Austria, be- 
 came Albert II. of Germany. That was early in 
 the fifteenth century, and from that time on for 
 four centuries the election of Emperor of Germany 
 fell to the House of Ilapsburg almost as a matter 
 of course, and Austria had no separate history 
 worthy of note during that period. 
 
 Turning now to Hungary, we find the countries 
 of the Hungarian crown to consist of Hungary prop- 
 er, Transylvania, Croatia and Slavonia, with an 
 area of 99,717 square miles and a population of 
 about fifteen millions. Hungary proper has an 
 area of 68,583 square miles and a population of 
 about eleven millions. Nearly one-half of the peo- 
 ple are Magyars, and they give to the country its 
 distinctive characteristics. Next to them in num- 
 bers and influence are the Slavs. The Magyars 
 came into notice in the latter part of the ninth cen- 
 tury. They are allied at once to the Turks and the 
 Finns. They have been aptly described as “ a 
 high-spirited, proud and generous people, richly 
 gifted in every respect, in body strong, mentally 
 bright, and possessed of an inexhaustible energy.” 
 In practical results, however, they can boast but 
 little. That portion of the Roman Empire which 
 they overran had been swept over before by the 
 Huns and the Avars, the former leaving little be- 
 hind them to mark their ravages except the name 
 which the country now bears. 
 
 Hungarian history is divided into three divisions. 
 The first period, from 887 to 1301, was tempestuous 
 and bloody. The dynasty of the Arpads ruled, and 
 the country was in a chronic state of war. From 
 the latter date to 1526 the monarchy was elective, the 
 kings being chosen by the nobles. Feudalism was 
 supreme. Of the Arpads, Stephen I., crowned “ His 
 Apostolic Majesty ” in 1000, was the most illustri- 
 ous. The elective system proved repressive to the 
 
 public interest. The nobility discouraged the devel- 
 opment of any third estate, and the common people 
 were serfs. But Stephen, who is the pride of Hun- 
 gary, was really the great misfortune of the country, 
 especially in this, that he made the Latin language 
 the official language of the country, and its only 
 vehicle of civilization, and this ostracism of the ver- 
 nacular tongue continued until the current century. 
 
 In 1526 the rule of the Ilapsburgs began, and 
 remains to this day. The only serious attempt to 
 shake off that yoke was under the leadership of that 
 highly sensational revolutionist, Louis Kossuth, 
 whose carreer of meteoric splendor about the mid- 
 dle of this century 
 drew to him the 
 gaze of the world. 
 
 A journalist by 
 profession, a bril- 
 liant orator and 
 sincere patriot, he 
 succeeded in stir- 
 ring up a powerful 
 revolt against Aus- 
 tria, and after be- 
 ing compelled to 
 seek safety in flight 
 he found his way 
 to this country, 
 where his speeches 
 in the years 1851-52 excited the utmost enthusiasm. 
 But the meteor 
 disappeared with- 
 out any perma- 
 nent effect upon 
 either the heavens 
 above or the earth 
 beneath. Hun- 
 gary is a truly 
 loyal portion of 
 the empire of the 
 Ilapsburgs. On 
 two occasions it 
 may be said that 
 Hungary rescued 
 the Hapsburgs 
 from ruin. 
 
 When Maria 
 Theresa tottered maria tiieresa. 
 
 upon her throne it was the heroism and chivalric 
 
 
 <5 
 
VIENNA. 
 

 
 
 
o_ 
 
 -=-1 
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 253 
 
 devotion of the Magyars which saved her from de- 
 struction, and a little later, when Napoleon was un- 
 certain whether to destroy the house or marry one of 
 the daughters, it was Hungarian influence which 
 decided him. But for all that, the Iiapsburgs never 
 respected Hungarian rights and prejudices until 
 after the revolution of 1848 had nearly succeeded in 
 securing a separation of Hungary from Austria. 
 
 The policy of the emperors was to try to remodel 
 the institutions of the country, and make them 
 conform to the German plan. So far from suc- 
 ceeding in the eradication of what might be called 
 indigenous ideas, this policy re- 
 sulted in strengthening, vivify- 
 ing and intensifying those 
 national peculiarities. Francis 
 Joseph, who came to the throne 
 in 1848, was early given a very 
 impressive practical lesson on 
 this subject, the result of which 
 is seen in the fact that Hun- 
 gary is absolutely equal in the 
 scale of national institutions to 
 Austria. 
 
 At the risk of being a little 
 tedious, it is proposed to give 
 the political institutions of this 
 dual kingdom, quoted, with 
 some condensation, from that 
 excellent English authority, 
 
 Mr. Frederick Martin. 
 
 Francis I., who reigned from 
 1792 to 1835, was the first 
 “ Kaiser” of Austria, and when 
 his son Ferdinand IV. abdicated in 1848 in favor of 
 Francis Joseph, the latter became emperor-king. 
 
 The present constitution dates, however, from 
 1867. Each of the two countries, Austria and Hun- 
 gary, has its own parliament, ministry and govern- 
 ment, the connecting links being a common sov- 
 ereign, army, navy and diplomacy, together with 
 a controlling body, known as the Delegations. 
 The latter form a parliament of 120 members, 
 equally divided between the two countries, the dele- 
 gates being chosen by the U>cal legislatures, the lat- 
 ter bodies having two branches, substantially the 
 same as the senate and house of our legislatures. 
 The local legislature or diet is called Reichstag, in 
 Hungary, Iteichsrath in Austria. The delegations 
 
 of each country sit in a body by themselves, pos- 
 sessing co-ordinate authority and power, but if they 
 cannot agree on measures when thus acting sepa- 
 rately they meet as one body, and the final vote is 
 binding upon the entire empire. This imperial diet 
 is confined in its jurisdiction to foreign affairs and 
 war. There are three ministers for the whole em- 
 pire, namely the ministry of war, of foreign affairs 
 and of finance. There is a ministry at Austria 
 and another at Hungary. The former consists of 
 the Interior ; Public Education, Justice and Eccle- 
 siastical Affairs ; Finance ; Agriculture ; Com- 
 merce and National Defense. 
 The Hungarian departments, 
 or executives, are. Presidency 
 of the Council ; Finance ; 
 National Defense; Ministry 
 Near the King’s Person; In- 
 terior ; Education and Public 
 Worship; Justice; Commu- 
 nications and Public Works; 
 Agriculture, Industry and Com- 
 merce ; and the Ministry of 
 Croatia and Slavonia. The 
 imperial cabinet is responsible 
 to the Delegations, the local 
 cabinets to their respective 
 diets, the Reichstag and Reich- 
 sratli, as the case may be. 
 
 Religious toleration is en- 
 joyed throughout the empire, 
 but the Roman Catholic church 
 has a great preponderance. 
 There are no less than three 
 hundred abbeys and five hundred convents in the 
 empire. The perfect equality of all religious creeds 
 and civil marriage were established in 1868. Until 
 within the last twenty years the masses of the peo- 
 ple were in dense ignorance. Public schools are 
 now maintained, and in the strictly German part of 
 the empire primary education is almost universal. 
 There are eight universities in the empire. They 
 are situated at Vienna, the caj)ital of Austria, 
 Pesth, the capital of Hungary, Prague, Graz, Inns- 
 bruck, Cracow, Czernowitz and Lemberg. The first 
 and second are the most extensive, the former hav- 
 ing about 250 teachers and 3000 pupils, the latter 
 over 120 teachers and 2000 pupils. 
 
 According to an article of the treaty of Berlin, 
 
 * 5 " 
 
3 
 
 k_ 
 
 2 54 
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 
 
 (1878) Bosnia and Herzegovina were to have their 
 public affairs administered by Austria-Hungary. 
 Those provinces, formerly belonging to Turkey, 
 added a territory of 24,247 square miles and a pop- 
 ulation of 1,212,172 to the empire. These figures 
 are based on a census of 1879. About one-third 
 of the population of this new territory are Moham- 
 medans, a still larger proportion Greeks, and a sixth 
 are called Romanites. The Christians, both Greeks 
 and Romanites, were well pleased with it. 
 
 The little principality of Lichtenstein, inclosed 
 in the Austrian province of Tyrol and Yorarlberg, 
 is practically a pai’t of the empire. It contains 
 only 68 square miles and a population of less 
 than ten thousand. The people pay no taxes 
 and perform no compulsory military duty. It is 
 a fertile although mountainous little country. 
 The prince resides at Vienna, rather than at his 
 capital, V aderz. 
 
 It only remains to speak of the cities of this em- 
 pire. There are only nine having a population of 
 over 50,000. Vienna has a population of over a 
 million and is one of the grandest cities on the 
 globe. The other Austrian cities are Prague, 189,- 
 949; Trieste, 109,324; Lemberg, 87,109; Gratz, 
 81,119 and Brunn, 73,771. The Hungarian cities 
 are, the capital, Pestli, or, as it is sometimes 
 called, Buda-Pestli, which has a population of 270,- 
 464, Szegedin, 70,179; Maria-Theresiopel, 56,323. 
 Taken as a whole, the empire is eminently rural, 
 
 with a strong tendency, however, toward concentra- 
 tion of pojmlation in cities. 
 
 “ Intellectual Germany,” as the term is used in 
 this book, includes all the Germans, Austrian no less 
 than Prussian ; but in the domain of letters Hun- 
 gary has a distinct record. 
 
 The Magyars, who settled in Hungary as early as 
 the middle of the ninth century of the Christian era, 
 had a language so well defined and matured that it 
 has undergone but few changes in a thousand years, 
 It was not until the eighteenth century, however, 
 that it so much as began to be a vehicle of lit- 
 erature. Latin was the language employed by 
 writers. The Hungarian newspaper press deserves 
 especial mention for its ability and services in de- 
 veloping a vernacular literature. Kossuth was by 
 no means alone among the editors of that country 
 who rose to eminence, although he alone acquired 
 world-wide fame. This language can boast some 
 highly creditable, if somewhat commonplace, prose 
 books, but as a recent writer upon the intellectual 
 development of Europe justly observes, “ Its true 
 inauguration as a literary language, as the bearer of 
 a national civilization, as the expression of a national 
 genius, the Hungarian language received by the pub- 
 lication in 1817 of Himfy’s Love, by Sandor Kinfal- 
 udy.” A competent critic pronounces that volume of 
 “epics with strong lyrical tone,” resplendent with the 
 luster of true genius. Others have followed him until 
 Hungary has a very respectable national literature. 
 
 
 
BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS 
 
 The Two Countries Compared — Belgium as a Separate Kingdom— Religion and Education 
 — The Kingdom op the Netherlands — Java — Dutch Government and Schools — Topog- 
 raphy and Resources — The Dutch in History — Imperial and Medieval — The Nation 
 and its Great War — The Throes op the Dutch Republic — The Period op Pbosperity- 
 The Pall of the Republic — Dutch Art; Van Eyck to Ary Scheffer — Waterloo. 
 
 ELGIUM and the Nether- 
 lands are two distinct na- 
 tions in their present politi- 
 cal existence ; hut in the 
 blending of the historical and 
 the actual they cannot be 
 dissociated. The provinces 
 of Belgium are Antwerp, 
 Brabant, Flanders (East 
 and West), Hainault, Liege, Limbourg, 
 Luxembourg and Namur, several of 
 these names being suggestive of the 
 Dutch Republic. The names Brabant 
 and Limbourg are also found in the list 
 of the Netherland provinces, besides 
 Holland (North and South), Zealand, 
 Utrecht, Friesland, Guelderland, Over- 
 yssel, Drenthe and Gronningen. The 
 Dutch of history constitute, for the 
 most part, the past of both the kingdoms under 
 consideration. 
 
 Neither of these kingdoms may be called a nor- 
 mal development. On the contrary, the great pow- 
 ers of Europe, hostile to republicanism, drew arbi- 
 trary lines of national distinction and fixed the 
 boundaries of each nation to suit themselves. Be- 
 fore reverting to the historical part of the subject of 
 
 this chapter it may be well to set forth the present 
 condition of the two kingdoms now under consider- 
 ation. 
 
 Belgium dates from 1830. It was then that it 
 was cut oil from the Netherlands. The immediate 
 occasion of the secession was a popular uprising in 
 Brussels. The formal recognition of Belgium by all 
 the governments of Europe did not occur until 1839. 
 The first king was Leopold I. of Saxe-Coburg. The 
 present king, Leopold II., was born in 1835, and 
 came to the throne when his father died, 1865. The 
 kingdom has an area of 11,373 square miles and a 
 population of about six millions. It is the most 
 densely inhabited country in Europe. Small as is 
 the territory, the people are decidedly mixed. Ac- 
 cording to an official report of 1878 there are 2,256,- 
 860 Belgians who speak French, 2,659,890 who 
 speak Flemish, 38,070 who speak German, and the 
 rest speak two if not three of the languages named. 
 There are over one million proprietors of the soil. 
 The government is a constitutional and hereditary 
 monarchy. The greater part of the authority of 
 state is vested in the parliament with its two 
 branches. The executive jurisdiction belongs to 
 the ministers, each being responsible within the 
 scope of his respective department. The members 
 of both houses of the legislative part of the govern- 
 
^ s 
 
 
 < 
 
 BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS. 
 
 told, and less than 2,000 Jews. Full religious lib- 
 erty is guaranteed by the Constitution, and the 
 clergy of all denominations are paid in part from 
 the national treasury. There are four universities 
 in the kingdom, located at Brussels, Louvain, 
 Ghent and Leige. These institutions are in the 
 hands of the priests and Jesuits. Elementary edu- 
 cation is sadly neglected, about one-fifth of the 
 adult population being unable to read or write. 
 
 Turning now to the Netherlands we find a people 
 living under a constitution which dates from that 
 great year of revolutions, 1848. The area is 20,527 
 square miles, the population about four millions. 
 The city population is relatively large. In Holland 
 
 een millions belong in Java alone, which is many 
 times more important than all the rest of the colo- 
 nies of the Netherlands. It has an area of 51,330 
 square miles. Most of the people are agricultural 
 laborers, nearly all the land being held either by the 
 government or non-resident Dutch capitalists. The 
 revenue derived is very considerable, mainly from 
 the sale of coffee, with some sugar and spices. Java 
 is an island. The Dutch took permanent posses- 
 sion of it in 1077. The Portuguese had visited it as 
 early as 1511, and a Dutch settlement was effected 
 in 1595. In the fifteenth century the people em- 
 braced Mohammedanism. Prior to that they were 
 Buddhists. The Javans are very industrious and 
 
 VIEW OF ANTWERP, CHIEF COMMERCIAL CITY OF BELGIUM. 
 
 ment are chosen by the people, a property qualifica- 
 tion being attached to the right of suffrage. The 
 members of the lower house are elected for four 
 years, of the upper house for eight. The number of 
 the latter is one-half that of the former. Evidently 
 the Belgian government is about as nearly republi- 
 can as it well could be and maintain the form and 
 semblance of royalty. 
 
 Nearly all the people are Romanists in religion. 
 There are not more than 13,000 Protestants, all 
 
 proper it exceeds the rural population. Amsterdam, 
 Rotterdam and The Hague are large cities. This 
 kingdom is second only to England in colonial en- 
 terprise. These outside possessions are divided into 
 three groups, namely, the possessions in Asia, or 
 the East Indies; second, six small West India 
 islands ; third, Surinam in South America. The 
 South African possessions have slipped away from 
 the mother country. The total population of these 
 colonies is about twenty-three millions, and eight- 
 
 ► 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 "3 
 
•vfe 
 
 s 
 
 < 
 
 J 
 
 VIEW OP THE HAGUE. 
 
 when the sovereignty was vested in the ancient and 
 illustrious house of Orange. The first king of the 
 present realm was William I. He was succeeded in 
 1840 by William II., and he in turn by the king 
 now on the throne. This house traces its origin to 
 Count Waldam who lived in Germany in the eleventh 
 century. The prevailing religion is that of the 
 Reformed Church, with about an equal number of 
 Catholics. The government is impartial in matters 
 of faith and worship, but the moral influence of the 
 government is wholly Protestant. Education is 
 slowly making its way among the common people. 
 It is estimated that among the strictly rural popu- 
 lation of the Netherlands, one-fourth of the male 
 adults and one-third of the women can neither 
 
 enclosures. Intersected by rivers and canals, much 
 of the land is actually below the water level. Dikes 
 and dunes protect the country from inundation. 
 The result is a vast wealth of agricultural resources 
 so rich indeed as to make the farmers of the Low- 
 land preeminently prosperous. 
 
 Turning now from the actual to the historical, 
 we will follow the somewhat involved and devious 
 course of that Semi-German people most widely 
 designated as the Dutch. 
 
 In the days of the Roman Empire the Belgae, 
 Batavians and Tuscans were a part of the great 
 German and Gallic region conquered by Julius Cae- 
 sar. In the Carlovingian empire they lacked 
 national individuality. In the sunshine and storm 
 
 BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS. 
 
 quite skillful. The island is governed as if it were 
 an immense estate managed for the exclusive benefit 
 of distant owners and their resident agents. 
 
 Returning now to the home government, we find 
 it substantially the same in character as Belgium. 
 The entire legislative authority is vested in a body 
 called the States General, with two branches. In 
 theory the king has the veto power, but his exercise 
 of it is very infrequent. The present king is Wil- 
 liam III. The present kingdom was reconstructed 
 by and dates from the Congress of Vienna, 1815, 
 
 read nor write. The rising generation will make 
 a much better showing in this regard. According 
 to latest accounts there are 2, GOO public schools with 
 pupils to the number of 400,000. Besides these pub- 
 lic schools there are a great many private schools. 
 The universities of the kingdom are four, — those at 
 Leyden, Grbningen, Amsterdam and Utrecht. 
 
 The Netherlands, as the name suggests, is a low 
 and flat country, literally wrested from the sea by 
 the skill and industry of man. It is a delta with 
 the Rhine, the Meuse and the Scheldt as its watery 
 
 > 
 
 
 ■f 
 
 o 
 
-V <2- 
 
 -fc. 
 
 258 
 
 BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS. 
 
 of feudalism the Low Country grew into distinctive- 
 ness. There were several dukedoms : Brabant, Lim- 
 bourg and Luxembourg; countships : Artois, Flan- 
 ders and Holland ; bishoprics : Mechlin and Utrecht. 
 Being upon the outskirts of the continent, and in- 
 habiting a country then far from its present state 
 of cultivation, even as compared to other parts of 
 Europe, they were allowed to regulate their own 
 affairs pretty nearly in their own way. The rod of 
 imperialism was lightly felt. The fierce conflict 
 with the sea which the people were obliged to wage 
 cultivated boldness and energy of character. Lo- 
 cated as they were upon the seaboard, having rivers 
 which were arms of the sea, their position was pe- 
 culiarly favorable to commercial development. 
 
 -- The feudal lords had 
 their castles and arm- 
 ed retainers, but side 
 by side with them 
 grew up and flour- 
 ished marts of trade, 
 fortified against inva- 
 sion, prepared for war 
 
 without being devot- 
 ed to it. The com- 
 mercial spirit of the 
 old Phoenicians pre- 
 vailed, coupled with a heroism which would have 
 done honor to Rome in her best days. The Medie- 
 val Dutch were the pioneers of modern commercial 
 thrift. 
 
 Late in the fourteenth century the Duke of Bur- 
 gundy became also Count of Flanders, the Union 
 having been effected by marriage. In 1477 the 
 house of Hapsburg absorbed the Netherlands, and 
 a great stimulus was given to Dutch commerce. 
 For a time Austria, the Netherlands and Spain, 
 with some minor possessions, owed allegiance to the 
 same crown. They never formed one nation. 
 When the empire of Charles V. was divided the 
 Netherlands and Spain went together, and this un- 
 natural union produced the most important results. 
 At that time both peoples were enterprising, and it 
 was a very great good fortune, so far as that went, to 
 the Dutch that they were linked politically with the 
 discoverers of America. The Spaniard sought 
 gold and silver in the now world ; the Dutch were 
 true to their strictly commercial instincts. But in 
 any other regard the union was incongruous. 
 
 A Feudal Castle. 
 
 The Reformation, which found its chief apostle 
 in Martin Luther, found its readiest acceptance in 
 the Low lands. As Philip of Spain was the very 
 prince of bigots, he saw in his Protestant subjects 
 vipers to be exterminated. The result was a war 
 which began in 1566 and lasted until 1648. A 
 more causeless, cruel, devastating and heroic war 
 never stained the annals of history. For eighty- 
 two years, nearly three generations, the struggle 
 continued. At first the several provinces resisted 
 oppression and held fast to their rights in an inde- 
 pendent way, but in 1579 a union was formed at 
 Utrecht between the seven Northern provinces, 
 Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Friesland, Grbningen, 
 Overyssel and Guelderland. Spain so far recognized 
 this union as to enter into an armistice of twelve 
 years, concluded in 1609. That armistice was sim- 
 ply recuperative for the final struggle. On the 
 Spanish side were those monsters of cruelty and 
 treachery, Alva, Parma, Don John and Alexander 
 Farnese, while upon the side of the Dutch were 
 William of Nassau, Maurice of Nassau, John Bar- 
 neveldt, and others of heroic mold. The commer- 
 cial cities proved capable of the most patient endur- 
 ance of hardships. It was a noble matching of 
 patriotism against fanaticism. Finally, in 1648, the 
 peace of Westphalia recognized the independence of 
 the states forming the Dutch Republic. 
 
 The present Netherlands, with some modifications, 
 embraces that republic, while the present Belgium 
 includes the Dutch provinces which Spain retained, 
 and out of which Protestantism was stamped by 
 the persistence of Spanish Catholicism. 
 
 For a century the Dutch Republic was mistress 
 of the sea and flourished beyond all precedent. 
 Spain and Portugal were quite unable to maintain 
 their maritime supremacy. The business-like air 
 which pervaded the Rejrablic enabled the bold sea- 
 men and merchant princes of the Netherlands to 
 sweep all before them, and it was with good reason 
 that Admiral von Tromp paraded a broom at his mast- 
 head as he coasted along the English channel. In 
 1667 DeRuyter sailed up the Thames and blockaded 
 the port of London. The Swedes and the Danes 
 were awed into acquiescence. But England was not 
 to be kept down. In the eighteenth century it 
 gradually gained upon its republican rival. The 
 wresting of New York from the Dutch was one of 
 many instances in point. When the American 
 
•Ma- 
 
 BELGIUM AND THE NETHEREANDS. 
 
 2 59 
 
 colonies declared war for independence the Dutch 
 thought to improve the opportunity for recovering 
 their lost prestige. But instead of doing that, they 
 lost still more ground, receiving a blow from which 
 there was never any recovery. In the meanwhile 
 party spirit ran high in the Republic. One faction 
 would gladly have made the chief magistracy heredi- 
 tary in the Orange-Nassau family, while the other 
 favored a pure republic. 
 
 In the winter of 1794-95, the French army having 
 conquered the Spanish possessions in the North 
 (Belgium), marched into the Republic and was 
 hailed by one party as deliverers. That foreign in- 
 vasion may be said to 
 have dealt a fatal 
 blow to the Dutch 
 Republic. The Bata- 
 vian Republic was 
 declared in May, 1 795, 
 which lingered in ob- 
 scurity until, in 1806, 
 
 Napoleon hurled it 
 aside and set up the 
 Kingdom of Holland 
 for Louis Bonaparte. 
 
 Four years later he 
 incorporated it with 
 France. The Congress 
 of Vienna re-estab- 
 lished the 
 
 contributed much to the development of art in the 
 Netherlands. The older 
 brother invented, or 
 perfected, a varnish 
 which was of great im- 
 portance in the preser- 
 vation of paintings. 
 
 The next preeminent- 
 ly great name was Al- 
 brecht Diirer of Nurem- 
 berg, born in 1471. 
 
 He is called the father 
 of the German school of painting 
 
 Kingdom 
 
 of Holland, with the Orange-Nassau family on the 
 throne, Belgium being a part of it, as seen already, 
 until 1830. 
 
 Since that time the Dutch have been content 
 to quietly follow business pursuits. To-day they 
 are notable for the vastness of their holdings of 
 government and corporate bonds. Their surplus 
 capital is enormous. Not given to ostentation, 
 they seem to take a special delight in mere accumu- 
 lation. 
 
 In no other respect can the Dutch lay such high 
 claim to preeminence as in art. The painters of 
 the Flemish and Dutch schools are second only to 
 the Italians in the number of their great names and 
 the brilliance of their fame. The earliest of these 
 was Hubert Van Eyck, who flourished in the last 
 half of the fourteenth century at Ghent and Bru- 
 ges. He excelled in the depth, power, transparency 
 and harmony in his coloring. His brother Jan 
 
 SATYR AND NYMPHS— after RtTBENS. 
 
 ALBRECHT DURER. 
 
 It has been said 
 that his art was great 
 because it was the 
 natural outgrowth of 
 his own genius, race 
 and time. The ac- 
 knowleged head of the 
 Flemish school of art 
 was Rubens, born at 
 Siegen, Westphalia, in 
 1577. “As a painter,” 
 says Mrs. Shedd, “ the 
 qualities of Rubens 
 consist in a truthful 
 and intense feeling for 
 nature and a warm 
 and transparent color- 
 ing. He had wonder- 
 ful fertility of conception, and still more won- 
 derful facility of execution ; his imagination em- 
 braced every object capable of representation, 
 and he could render with equal success the most 
 forcible and the most fleeting appearances of na- 
 ture.” A pupil of Rubens of hardly less fame was 
 Anthony Van Dyck of Antwerp. He was a masterly 
 painter of portraits. He was alike successful in 
 delineating strong characters and the simplicity of 
 childhood. The next name to challenge attention 
 is Rembrandt, born in Leyden, 1608. Truthful and 
 picturesque, he possessed very remarkable power in 
 all the technicalities of his art. His lightinsf was 
 peculiar. On his canvas light is concentrated, and 
 not diffused. Paul Potter, born at Enkhuysen in 
 1625, was the first great animal painter, and it 
 would hardly be too much to call him the foremost 
 artist of nature. Landscapes from his brush show 
 the utmost fidelity to the real and very delicate 
 
 VTr- 
 
 
o 
 
 •V <2. 
 
 260 
 
 BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS. 
 
 5S- 
 
 - r 
 
 gradations of perspective. The last to be men- 
 tioned, but by no means the least, of these artists 
 of the Lowlands, was Ary Scheffer, of Dordrecht. 
 Born as the last century was on the eve of depart- 
 ure, he belonged to the present century. He really 
 belongs in that legion of honor, the great masters, 
 for his genius resembled theirs in its religious char- 
 acter. His best paintings have Christ as their cen- 
 
 ( which in the language and habits of the inhabit- 
 ants is a connecting link between the two countries 
 and peoples) the most memorable battlefield in all 
 the world, the spot above all others in Belgium 
 which a traveler would wish to visit. That illustrious 
 spot, it is hardly necessary to say, is Waterloo. The 
 village of this name is in the province of South 
 Brabant on the road from Charlevoi to Brussels, at 
 
 BATTLEFIELD OF WATERLOO. 
 
 tral figure. He also selected many subjects from 
 the great poets Goethe, Schiller and Byron. 
 
 Having now concluded the survey of the German 
 and Semi-German peoples, inclusive of the lofty 
 standpoint of the intellect, we are about to cross 
 the Rhine where the nimble and vivacious French 
 present a strong contrast to the proverbially phleg- 
 matic Dutch, and in passing we fiud in Belgium 
 
 the outskirts of the forest of Seignies. The two 
 armies occupied ridges, and the valley between 
 was indeed the valley of death. Agriculture long 
 since resumed its sway over that field, but traces 
 and relics of the immortal combat are still to be 
 found there, mementoes of what Victor Hugo says 
 was not a battle, but “ the change of front of 
 the universe.” 
 
 
*?iOLD FRANCE. tt^ 
 
 Old and New France — Ancient Gaul— Clovis and the Franks — The Merovingian Line — 
 Charles Martel and the Saracens — The Carlovingian and Capetian Dynasties— The 
 House op Valois with its Branches — From 843 to 1142 — Abelard and Heloise— St. Louis — 
 Grand Master Knight Templar Molay— Serfs— Battle op Agincourt and Joan op Arc — 
 The Renaissance and Rabelais — The Vaudois and John Calvin — The Massacre op St 
 Bartholomew’s Day. 
 
 T is hardly an exaggeration 
 to say that the prophecy, 
 “ A nation shall be born in 
 a day,” was literally ful- 
 filled in the case of France. 
 When the mighty deeps of 
 Paris were lashed into a 
 fury which leveled the Bas- 
 tile to the ground in one grand spasm 
 of righteous indignation, old things 
 passed away and New France was 
 created. The French people of the 
 present time are the product of the rev- 
 olution of a century ago, and not, like 
 the English people, the slow growth of 
 many centuries. 
 
 Iiome not only conquered Gaul, but 
 did much to civilize it. When the em- 
 pire crumbled, the German and Gothic barbarians 
 poured down from the north, coming both by land 
 and water, and the country lapsed back into barbar- 
 ism. The transition from Gaul to France was at 
 first a reaction subversive of the progress made 
 during the period from Caesar to Clovis. That prog- 
 ress had two stages, religiously, but in actual civili- 
 zation it was one gradual improvement. The sub- 
 stitution of Olympic deities for the wild fanaticism 
 
 of the long-bearded Druids was a very beneficent 
 step, followed later by a quite general acceptance of 
 Christianity. By a wholesome process of growth 
 the various institutions, ideas and methods of Ro- 
 man civilization were adopted and thoroughly nat- 
 uralized. There were prosperous cities, well-tilled 
 farms and even colleges of some renown in Gaul. 
 
 But in A. D. 481, the savage Franks, no longer 
 held in check by the eagles of Rome, crossed the 
 Rhine and took possession of the land, and that 
 without a struggle. The Gauls had been greatly 
 benefited by the Roman conquest, but were not at 
 all loath to exchange masters. Not only the old 
 Gauls, but the Goths who had preceded the Franks 
 in forming settlements in Gallia, took kindly to the 
 change. Clovis, first of the Frank kings, accepted 
 Christian baptism and seemed disposed to encourage 
 the regular How of the stream of civilization. But 
 his acceptance of Christianity proved a great calam- 
 ity. He was surrounded by orthodox priests and 
 theologians, while in southern Gaul the Arian doc- 
 trine had been espoused. The royal convert de- 
 clared it a shame that such fair possessions should 
 belong to heretics, and soon a desolating war was in 
 progress. 
 
 The destruction attributable to Clovis and his po- 
 lemical advisers was trivial as compared with the 
 
■v 
 
 
 262 
 
 OLD FRANCE. 
 
 desolation wrought by the rivalries of his four sons. 
 When he died, 511, a long period of barbarism be- 
 gun. The dynasty which he founded, called the 
 Merovingian line (in honor of the otherwise obscure 
 grandfather of Clovis, Meroveg) continued from 
 496 to 741, sixteen generations. During all that 
 time the dreary waste was unrelieved by a single 
 ray of hope. By sad and bloody steps the land re- 
 ceded toward a savage condition. Gradually the 
 bad became worse, but the royal family sank lower 
 than the people, — so very low that it sank out of 
 sight with Chilperic IV. 
 
 The immediate occasion of the disappearance 
 of the Me- 
 rovingian 
 line and 
 the acces- 
 sion of the 
 Carlovin- 
 gian, was 
 the inva- 
 sion of 
 Wes tern 
 Europe by 
 the Sara- 
 cens. The 
 latter hav- 
 ing defeat- 
 ed Spain, 
 crossed the 
 Pyrenees, 
 thinking 
 
 to subjugate France and Germany, then substan- 
 tially one country. The feeble king could do 
 nothing to check the invasion, but Charles, Mayor 
 of Paris (an office which had gradually come 
 to exercise almost regal authority), came to the 
 front as general of an army composed of Ger- 
 mans and Franks. He met the Saracens at Or- 
 leans and crushed them. He is known as Charles 
 Martel (the Hammer) and the savior of Western 
 Europe from Islam. He might have taken the 
 crown at once, but preferred a ducal title. 
 
 His son Pepin enjoyed the regal fruits of that 
 splendid victory. He was not a memorable sove- 
 reign. His claim to distinction is the fact that he 
 was the son of Charles Martel and the father of 
 Charlemagne. The latter reigned over the Franks, 
 but was a German in reality. The Carlovingian 
 
 * 111 l 
 
 THE CORONATION OF HUGH CAPET. 
 
 line has been set forth in connection with German 
 history. In the disintegration of the Carlovingian 
 empire, which followed immediately the death of 
 Charlemagne, Gaul (now become France) fell to 
 the lot of a branch of that family which produced a 
 series of rulers signally unworthy of sovereignty. 
 Those imbecile and vicious kings followed each other 
 in monotonous infamy until 987, when Hugh Capet 
 came to the French throne. The people were no 
 longer Franks, a name suggestive of their Teutonic 
 origin, but Frenchmen. The Capetian line held 
 the scepter until 1328, through fourteen generations. 
 We find little of note during this period. The 
 
 elevation 
 of Hugh 
 Capet was 
 the result 
 of nation- 
 al necessi- 
 ty and pa- 
 pal inter- 
 vention. 
 
 There 
 had come 
 to be a po- 
 tent set- 
 tlement of 
 Normans 
 upon the 
 west of 
 France, 
 Norman- 
 
 dy and Brittany. Under the Capetians these Nor- 
 mans were fused largely with the Franks from over 
 the Rhine, and the French nationality consists of 
 Gauls, Romans, Teutons and Normans amalgam- 
 ated. The distinctive France is, therefore, a braid 
 with four strands inseparably interwoven. 
 
 By the time the dynasty founded by Hugh Capet 
 gave place to the Valois branch of the royal family, 
 the nation had still another quadruple character ; 
 it consisted of the church, the king, the nobility 
 and the people, developed in the order observed. 
 The struggles and rivalries of these factors or pow- 
 ers during the Middle Ages possess no marked pecul- 
 iarity. Whether the king was of the house of Va- 
 lois, Valois-Orleans or Valois- Angoleme, the dreary 
 waste of centuries presents very few sterling fea- 
 tures. But before proceeding with the Bourbons it 
 
-±] 
 
 k- 
 
 OLD FRANCE. 
 
 263 
 
 Ql 
 
 ~ 7 [ 
 
 may be well to pause in our dynastic sketch to note 
 the really noteworthy events and historical land- 
 marks of France up to the accession of the last of 
 the French royal families. 
 
 The treaty of Verdun, 843, was the recognized 
 date for the distinct creation of Italy, France and 
 Germany. The coronation of Hugh Capet has been 
 called “ the triumph of German manners and feudal 
 connections.” Christian art and the burning of 
 heretics in France began about the eleventh cen- 
 tury. The conquest of England by William, Duke 
 of Normandy, a disgraceful victory of French arms, 
 dates from this century, but 
 as it never seriously modified 
 French civilization, while it 
 did the civilization of Eng- 
 and, it belongs to the history 
 of the latter country. Upon 
 both countries it and other 
 causes entailed a long series of 
 wars, during which the Brit- 
 ish kings laid claim to France, 
 in whole or in part, occasion- 
 ally gaining a foothold in the 
 land, notably at Calais. Prac- 
 tically, it resulted in the pro- 
 duction of that remarkable 
 patroit and martyr, Joan of 
 Arc, and a few interesting mili- 
 tary episodes. That is about 
 all, from the French point of 
 view. The first Crusade was 
 formally inaugurated at Cler- 
 mont, France, and Peter the Hermit, who was its 
 great apostle, was a Frenchman. So was the pope 
 of the period, Urban II., and the famous Christian 
 knight, Godfrey of Bouillon. That Crusade dates 
 from 1095. In the subsequent Crusades France 
 bore a prominent part. It was specially conspicu- 
 ous in the establishment and maintenance of na- 
 tional amity and royal heredity. 
 
 During the darkest part of the Dark Ages, France 
 produced a great intellectual luminary, and, pro- 
 phetic of its future national character, intellectual 
 preeminence was linked with love and romance. 
 Thus Abelard and his fair Ileloise are the first names 
 in French annals to gain immortality, apart from 
 the accident of rank. The former was a great 
 scholar and debater. Having won distinction by 
 
 PETER THE HERMIT. 
 
 his learning and skill in dialectical subtleties, such 
 as the medieval scholars were fond of, he was hired 
 to teach Heloise Greek. They fell in love and were 
 imprudent. To save him from disgrace (for he was 
 a priest), she refused to be married, preferring to 
 bear alone the burden of their mutual calamity. 
 She suffered everything, but never wavered in her 
 loyalty to him. He developed into a cold-blooded, 
 selfish ecclesiastic, as mean as she was amicable. 
 Their story is peculiarly pathetic, and to this day 
 the French love to bedeck with flowers and bedew 
 with tears the one grave of this couple. It is a per- 
 petual shrine of sentimental- 
 ism. But in addition to all 
 that, Abelard did something 
 to relieve the intellectual ster- 
 ility and stupidity of his time 
 and church. 
 
 One sovereign in the long 
 list so rapidly passed over de- 
 serves special mention, Louis 
 IX., known often as St. Louis. 
 From 1226 to 1270 he held the 
 reins of government, a truly 
 great and good man. He loved 
 the people, and was unremit- 
 ting in his zeal to serve them. 
 He convoked a parliament (or 
 states-general) ; established in- 
 stitutions of justice ; issued 
 humane edicts ; sought to 
 maintain peace ; endowed hos- 
 pitals and asylums ; encour- 
 aged art ; practiced virtue in private life, and charity 
 to the poor. Somewhat given to superstition, he 
 was yet free from the character usually stamped 
 upon the human mind by credulity. 
 
 Early in the fourteenth century occurred the 
 trial and condemnation of Jacques Molay, Grand 
 Master of the Knights Templar. He was a victim 
 of the cupidity of Philip the Handsome, and the 
 servility to that monarch of Pope Clement V. The 
 Order of the Temple had grown out of the Crusades, 
 and was possessed of great wealth. Molay was 
 burnt at the stake, and the order compelled to ex- 
 ist only in secret. Its present prosperous condition 
 is of very modern date. 
 
 The serfs of the royal domain were liberated July 
 3, 1315, by Louis X. He was a quarrelsome king, 
 
 33 
 
 o 
 
\ < 2 . 
 
 264 OLD FRANCE. 
 
 and needed soldiers to fight in Flanders. That, and 
 not philanthropy, prompted emancipation. The 
 development of the power of the people became 
 by this time a prominent feature. The burghers or 
 commons, acquired very considerable authority. 
 Speaking of France at this period, Guizot remarks : 
 “ There have been communes in the whole of Eu- 
 rope, in Italy, Spain, Germany and England as well 
 as in France. Not only have there been communes 
 everywhere, but the communes of France are not 
 those which, as communes, under that name and in 
 the middle ages, have played the chiefest part and 
 taken the highest place in history. The Italian 
 communes were the parents of glorious republics. 
 The German communes became free and sovereign 
 towns, which had their own special history, and ex- 
 ercised a great deal of influence upon the general 
 history of Germany. The communes of England 
 made alliance with a portion of the English feudal 
 aristocracy, formed with it the preponderating house 
 in the British government, and thus played, full 
 early, a mighty part in the history of their country. 
 Far were the French communes, under that name 
 and in their day of special activity, from rising to 
 such political importance and to such historical 
 rank. And yet it is in France that the people of 
 the communes, the burgherdom, reached the most 
 complete and most powerful development, and ended 
 by acquiring the most decided preponderance in the 
 general social structure. There have been com- 
 munes, we say, throughout Europe ; but there has 
 not really been a victorious third estate anywhere 
 save in France.” White declares that in the course 
 of this sovereign’s life the middle ages passed away 
 and modern life began. 
 
 From the accession of the first Valois King, 
 Philip VI. to Charles VII. (1326 to 1453) France 
 and England were almost constantly at war. The 
 darkest day was October 25, 1415, when the battle 
 of Agincourt was fought, resulting in a most terrible 
 slaughter of the flower of French chivalry. The Eng- 
 lish seemed to be absolute masters of the situation. 
 Year after year the unequal contest was waged, in- 
 vading Britons desolating the land with impunity, 
 and laying successful siege to the cities. The first 
 great check to English aggression came from the 
 weird leaderslrip of Joan of Arc. This strange 
 girl was a peasant born. That was an age of wild 
 hallucination. At the age of sixteen, 1428, she 
 
 had a dream in consequence of which she fancied 
 herself ordained by Providence to deliver her coun- 
 try from the English soldiery, then ravaging the 
 land. At first her “ mission ” was too incredible to 
 be seriously entertained. The idea of a rustic maid 
 raising the siege of Orleans (which she promised to 
 do if given command of troops) was preposterous. 
 But the situation was critical in the extreme, and 
 her enthusiasm inspired confidence. She was given 
 an opportunity to try the experiment. It was a 
 glorious success. Her faith bred heroism in those 
 about her, and by a spasm of patriotism the Eng- 
 lish were forced to abanden Orleans not only, but 
 to surrender many other advantages. Finally she 
 was captured and subjected to treatment quite 
 in keeping with medieval ideas of justice. The 
 French made no effort to secure her exchange. 
 They allowed her to be treated by the English as 
 they saw fit. She was tried for heresy and witch- 
 craft. For three weeks she was badgered by bish- 
 ops and lawyers. Her sentence was imprisonment 
 for life. That was too lenient, and she was afterwards 
 accused of wearing man’s clothes, forbidden in the 
 book of Leviticus, and on that charge burnt in the 
 market-place at Rouen (1431). And still the 
 French court and people were indifferent. Later, 
 her name was enshrined and held in highest 
 honor. 
 
 The dawn of modern day in Germany is called 
 the Reformation, or the revival of religion ; in 
 France, the Renaissance, or the revival of learning. 
 The former clustered about the name of Luther; 
 the latter was less personal. The great reformer 
 was able to rally to his support a powerful political 
 following. The cause of learning had the sympathy 
 of Louis XI. That monarch ruled from 1461 to 
 1483. He encouraged printing and scientific pur- 
 suits. A monster of cruelty, the victim of super- 
 stition and fear, he yet had his good points as a 
 sovereign. Duclos says of him, “ Louis XI. was 
 far from being without reproach ; few princes have 
 deserved so much ; but it may be said that he was 
 equally celebrated for his virtues and his vices, and 
 that, every thing being put in the balances, he was 
 a king. The term renaissance (pronounced ruluia- 
 songs) is French for regeneration or second birth. 
 A term which means in English a purely spiritual 
 and religious ex]>erience of the individual soul, de- 
 signates, in the French, an awakening of intellectual 
 
 a 
 
 r 
 
 1 
 
 In 
 
0 
 
 1 
 
 J 
 
 OLD FRANCE. 
 
 265 
 
 activity, and this difference fairly illustrates the 
 representative characteristics of the two peoples. 
 
 The first name in this movement is Francois Ra- 
 bellais. He was born in 1495, and died at Paris in 
 1553. He was a priest by profession, a humorist 
 by nature. His writings are grotesque, coarse and 
 often tedious, yet learned, thoughtful and generally 
 sprightly. They consist of the account of the life 
 and experiences of “ Gargantua ” and “Pantagruel.” 
 Through Rabellais’ preposterous conceits runs a vein 
 of sharp criticism upon the follies of his age, the 
 corruptions of the clergy, the inanities of the school- 
 men, the 
 crime of 
 despot- 
 ism, and 
 the evils 
 of super- 
 stition. 
 
 His was 
 a voice of 
 laughter, 
 but yet 
 none the 
 less “the 
 voice of 
 one cry- 
 ing in 
 the wil- 
 derness. 
 
 Prepare 
 ye the 
 
 way of the lord.” The Renaissance was the fore- 
 runner of both the Reformation and the Revolu- 
 tion, of Calvin and Voltaire, of St. Bartholomew 
 and the Fourteenth of July. 
 
 The name of John Calvin is associated with the 
 little Swiss stronghold of Geneva and the Presby- 
 terian church in Scotland and later in America ; 
 but he was none the less a Frenchman. Born at 
 Noyon in 1509 he came to the notice of the public 
 through a treatise on Clemency, called out by the 
 first persecution of the French Protestants. The 
 latter were and still are called Huguenots. lie re- 
 ceived his Protestantism from a Lutheran teacher. 
 But long before Luther, or even John Huss, there 
 was a very considerable Protestant church in 
 France. It consisted of the inhabitants of the 
 small and somewhat isolated districts on the 
 
 eastern slope of the Cottian Alps, called Vaudois. 
 They worshiped God, indifferent to the pope. So 
 long as the evangelical faith and simplicity were 
 confined to that people all went smoothly; but 
 when Europe was aroused by the boom of the 
 Lutheran cannon they were condemned as heretics. 
 Three thousand were burnt or put to the sword and 
 the rest imprisoned or otherwise destroyed. The 
 Vaudois were literally wiped out. That was in 
 1540. But in the Huguenots lived the faith and 
 heroism of the Waldenses, as the Vaudois were 
 sometimes called. 
 
 Calvin 
 took the 
 precau- 
 tion of 
 getting 
 out of 
 the coun- 
 try be- 
 fore he 
 incurred 
 the ven- 
 geanceof 
 theeccle- 
 siastical 
 authori- 
 ties. He 
 lived in 
 Geneva, 
 mainly, 
 where he 
 
 wrote on theology, preached, and exercised the func- 
 tions of a stern persecutor until his death (1564). He 
 was determined that Geneva should be not only 
 Protestant, but orthodox. His burning of Servetus 
 for Unitarianism was, on a small scale, entirely in 
 keeping with the massacre of St. Bartholomew. The 
 spirit of toleration and clemency was foreign to the 
 thought and practice of the sixteenth century, es- 
 pecially to the French of that day. At no time 
 was the government of France other than Catholic. 
 
 The massacre of the Huguenots begun on St. Bar- 
 tholomew’s Day, August 24, 1572, was the most horri- 
 ble slaughter of innocent men in cold blood 011 record, 
 and it was perpetrated “ for conscience’ sake,” a 
 woman being the prime mover in the awful infamy. 
 That woman was Catherine de Medici, the Italian 
 mother of the weak king, Charles IX., the last but 
 
 
 ► 
 
 Is 
 
k. 
 
 266 
 
 OLD FRANCE. 
 
 Ql 
 
 ~ 7 [ 
 
 one of the 1 louse of Valois. He reigned from 1560 
 to 1574, his mother being the chief power behind 
 the throne. The ducal house of Guise held the 
 leadership of the Catholic party. Thousands of 
 Protestant churches had sprung ixp, and the new 
 religion seemed to prosper, despite repeated and 
 cruel persecution. But the Catholic faction deter- 
 mined to make an utter end of “ the new mischief,” 
 and neither Catherine, the king nor Guise scrupled 
 to go to the utmost length of repression. The first 
 victim was the illustrious Admiral Coligny, who 
 was assassinated in his bed-chamber that awful 
 night. His blood was the signal for a general 
 slaughter. The Catholic populace, high and low, 
 was seized with a murderous frenzy, and the 
 Protestants, taken all unaware, fell by thousands, 
 and that not only in Paris, but throughout the 
 kingdom. The number of victims could never be 
 ascertained. The estimates for Paris vary from 
 1,000 to 4,000 ; for France, from 30,000 to 100,000. 
 It was so terrible as to be fatal to the cause of 
 Protestantism. 
 
 It was during the reign of Henry II. that Prot- 
 estantism made the most rapid progress in France. 
 The first Protestant church in Paris was organized in 
 1555, and in the country at large there were, three 
 years later, not less than 2,000 Protestant places of 
 
 worship, with congregations estimated at 400,000, 
 all told. Speaking of this horrible butchery, An- 
 derson says : “ In all parts the massacre went on. 
 The houses of the Huguenots had been marked 
 with white, and the names of the inmates taken, 
 that none might escape. Neither age nor sex was 
 spared by the enraged soldiers. The King himself 
 took a position at one of the windows of the Louvre, 
 and fired upon the flying Huguenots. For three 
 days Paris Was thus given over to the rage of Guise 
 and his party.” 
 
 When, a few years later, Henry of Navarre, who 
 had been a gallant defender of Protestantism on 
 many a battlefield, came to the throne in 1589, as 
 the first of the Bourbons, he thought it necessary, 
 for political reasons, to abjure his Protestant faith 
 and avow himself a papist. He tried to be some- 
 what lenient to Protestantism, but a blow had been 
 struck which was fatal to the cause. When next 
 the spirit of reform found embodiment it was not 
 in Evangelical Christianity, but in Voltairean hos- 
 tility to all religion. The importance of that aw- 
 ful night could not be overestimated, but for our 
 purpose it is enough to add that the first fruits of 
 it ripened a century later, and that the intervening 
 period was preparatory to the overthrow of mon- 
 archy and the birth of Latter-day France. 
 
 
URING the reigns of 
 her two sons, Charles 
 IX. and Henry III., 
 Catherine de Medici 
 was virtually the sov- 
 ereign of France, cov- 
 ering the period from 
 the death of her hus- 
 band, Henry II., in 1559, to the ac- 
 cession of Henry of Navarre, known 
 
 which had intervened at- ^ 
 tention had been directed 
 
 slain the Protestants by HENIlY iy. 
 
 the tens of thousands during the reign of Charles, 
 and then, when her son Henry III. caine to the 
 throne, she made terrible havoc with the Catholic 
 
 nobles of France. She seemed to be especially de- 
 termined to destroy the “ second estate ” of the 
 realm, so as to build up a veritable autocracy. The 
 son naturally sympathized with this policy. He 
 was not, however, in accord with her ecclesiastical 
 policy, and formed an alliance with the King of 
 Navarre, who was to be his successor on the throne 
 of France. So desperate and unscrupulous were 
 his opponents, the church party, that they procured 
 his assassination. That brought to the throne 
 Henry IV., a Protestant. But from considerations 
 of policy he identified himself with the Catholic 
 church, while granting toleration to the Protestants. 
 The conflict between his real convictions and his 
 sense of expediency had the result to make him 
 charitable toward all shades of Christian faith. 
 
 Henry IV. was cousin of his predecessor, and 
 came to the throne by due course of heredity. His 
 predecessor’s war upon the Guises and other Cath- 
 olic nobles had prepared the way for him to be pop- 
 ular with their foes, and his ehivalric record gave 
 him a strong hold upon the whole nation. lie had 
 to fight, however, for his regal rights. The condi- 
 tion of the country was turbulent in the extreme. 
 The battle of Ivry, at which his fate was decided, 
 was a costly one in the loss of life. Ilis personal 
 bravery invested the white plume he wore witli a 
 romantic interest, and made the name of Navarre 
 
 CHAPTER X L V . 
 
 Henry op Navarre — Recantation and Toleration— Louis XIII.— Richelieu— Louis XIV.— 
 The Grand Monarchy and Intellectual Progress — Persecution and Oppression— The 
 Literati op that Period — Louis XV. and John Law — Finance and Colonization — France 
 and the American War op Independence— The Encyclopedia and the Great Revolu- 
 tionary Writers. 
 
 V 
 
 (“ 6 7> 
 

 Ale- 
 
 * 
 
 268 
 
 TRIUMPH AND DECAY OF FRENCH MONARCHY. 
 
 so dear to the hearts of his hero-worshiping subjects 
 that even his final recantation was forgiven by the 
 Huguenots them selves. It was not until 1594 that 
 he was absolute and undisputed in his claim to the 
 crown. The famous Edict of Nantes, guarantying 
 religious toleration, was issued in April, 1598. His 
 recantation was never satisfactory to the popes, of 
 whom there was several during his reign, and he was 
 on unfriendly terms with that most Catholic king, 
 Philip of Spain. One day as he was riding in his 
 carriage, a papal fanatic, Francis Ravaillac, stabbed 
 him to the heart. Catholic Europe rejoiced in the 
 completion of the bloody work begun by the assas- 
 sination of his immediate predecessor. 
 
 The reign of his son, Louis XIII., extended over 
 a period of thirty-three years (1610-1643). At first 
 he was a mere child under the control of his mother, 
 Mary de Medici, a woman as weak as her kin Cath- 
 erine had been cruel. She 
 in turn, was controlled by 
 another Italian woman, a 
 lady of her court, who ad- 
 vanced her husband to 
 : the highest rank. The 
 
 Leonora 
 
 tutelage 
 the king- 
 age. In 
 
 real ruler was 
 Consini. The 
 continued after 
 Mary de Medici. Came of legal 
 
 1617 this state of affairs was terminated by the as- 
 sassination of Consini, the execution for sorcery of 
 his strong-minded wife, and the brief banishment 
 from court of the queen-mother. 
 
 About this time the august figure of Cardinal 
 
 Richelieu appear- 
 ed upon the stage 
 of political action. 
 As a provincial 
 bishop he had writ- 
 ten some extremely 
 dull books, mostly 
 against the Prot- 
 estants. He had a 
 genius for govern- 
 ment, not for lit- 
 erature. Invested 
 with the cardinal’s 
 hat, lie came to 
 court as the friend of the queen-mother, but very 
 soon he developed into the master spirit of the gov- 
 
 RICHELIEU. 
 
 ernment, and swayed the destinies of France with a 
 more absolute hand than Catherine de Medici. His 
 aim through life was threefold : to crush Protestant- 
 ism, the nobility and Austria. He never for a mo- 
 ment lost sight of either object, and pursued his 
 purpose with a genius which has given his name im- 
 mortal luster. He seemed, viewed from the stand- 
 point of passing events, to vacillate. He varied his 
 policy, now helping the Protestants in the Thirty- 
 Years War, then putting down their sympathizers 
 at home, and still again bending all his energies to 
 cripple the nobility, irrespective of religion. His 
 eventful life terminated in 1642, success having 
 crowned his triple ambition to a very large extent, 
 especially at home. 
 
 The weak Louis XIII. did not long survive his 
 great prime minister. Brave in war, but in peace 
 the mere tool of Richelieu, he gave place the year 
 following the death of that illustrious statesman to 
 Louis XIV., called Louis the Grand, in whom the 
 imperial policy of the cardinal found its fullest em- 
 bodiment, and by whom the way was quite fully 
 prepared for the horrors which came during the 
 reign of his grandson, Louis XVI. The Grand 
 Monarch wore the crown from 1643 to 1715. The 
 first years of his reign were his only in name. It 
 was not until 1661, when he was twenty-two years 
 of age, that he assumed the actual control of affairs. 
 Cardinal Mazarin 
 succeeded Cardi- 
 nal Richelieu, and 
 he continued the 
 policy of his pred- 
 ecessor, and ren- 
 dered his work 
 complete. When 
 he died, early in 
 1661, everything 
 was ready for au- 
 tocracy, and Louis 
 
 XIV. was the ideal mazarin. 
 
 autocrat. His motto was “ The king is the state.” 
 The feudal barons had disappeared or been reduced 
 to political nonentity. Lords were mere courtiers 
 and pensioners. Under Richelieu and Mazarin the 
 crown had become the government to the fullest 
 possible extent, only the real wearer wore also the 
 red hat of a cardinal. But under the new king, 
 nowfullv arrived at manhood, the real and the seem- 
 
 r 
 
TRIUMPH AND DECAY OF FRENCH MONARCHY. 
 
 269 
 
 ing agreed. The debased aud corrupt nobility ac- 
 cepted the situation bheerfully, well pleased to spend 
 their days luxuriously basking in the sunlight of 
 court favors. The king had for his Secretary of 
 the Treasury M. Colbert, one of the greatest of all 
 the financiers of the world, and under his adminis- 
 tration of revenue matters the royal coffers were 
 well filled ; the times were good, so far as concerned 
 the court and its retinue. France was the foremost 
 nation in Europe. The other courts aped the 
 splendor which characterized the Grand Monarchy 
 
 had its dark side. The Edict of Nantes was revok- 
 ed in an evil hour, and in consequence hundreds of 
 thousands of Huguenots, many of them skilled arti- 
 sans, lied. They were gladly received in Protestant 
 countries, and they took their profitable industries 
 with them. That monstrous mistake of the Mag- 
 nificent King was of incalculable benefit to Eng- 
 land and loss to France. Then, too, he fancied he 
 could regulate the affairs of all Europe and em- 
 broiled his country in a war which brought almost 
 the entire military force of the continent, including 
 
 BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF THE PALACE OF VERSAILLES, THE RESIDENCE OF LOUIS XIV. 
 
 French became the court language of the continent. 
 
 In intellectual jmrsuits the French made greal 
 strides during the latter part of the seventeenth 
 and the early part of the eighteenth century. Mon- 
 taigne wrote his immortal essays, and Descartes his 
 still greater work on philosophy. Brilliant dram- 
 atists arose. The French language was brought to 
 its present state of philological perfection. Archi- 
 tecture flourished. Internal improvements of great 
 importance were made. The land was cultivated 
 intelligently and profitably. The nation prospered 
 in war and in peace. The golden age of royalty had 
 come, and to all appearance had come to stay. The 
 glory of Versailles was world-wide. Even remote 
 Siam was dazzled by its splendor. But the picture 
 
 Great Britain, into alliance against the French. It 
 was this coalition which brought out the Duke of 
 Marlborough and secured for England the “ glori- 
 ous victory” of Blenheim. Terrible was the slaugh- 
 ter of the French. It was Waterloo on a small 
 scale, so far as glory and carnage were concerned, 
 but peace did not come until nine years later. Blen- 
 heim was fought in 1704. The long and desolating 
 series of wars waged by Louis XIV. resulted in some 
 substantial gains to France, but involved the masses 
 of the people in most extreme misery. 
 
 Literature can boast some illustrious names dur- 
 ing this reign. The sweet-souled Fenelon and the 
 eloquent Bossuet were the glory of the church. The 
 disquisitions of Fenelon upon spiritual life are in- 
 
 
O S> 
 
 270 TRIUMPH AND DECAY OF FRENCH MONARCHY. 
 
 stinct with immortality. Pascal with his abrupt 
 and profoundly suggestive genius, belonged to that 
 period. So did the genial and lively La Fontaine, 
 the brilliant and creative Racine, Moliere, La 
 Bruyere and Boileau. Great ar- 
 tists flourished, Lebrun, Regnard, 
 
 Mignard and de Sevigne ; , also 
 those great architects, Perrault 
 and Mansard, who constructed 
 the Louvre and Versailles. The 
 French Academy had been found- 
 ed in Richelieu’s day, but many 
 academies of great advantage to 
 the cause of intellectual progress 
 flourished. 
 
 All things have an end. In 1715, 
 at the age of seventy-seven, hav- 
 ing reigned seventy-two years, 
 this ideal of a despot, this Louis 
 XIV. in whom all the faults and 
 blight of absolutism found their 
 fullest expression, died, worn out 
 by vice and the cares of state. 
 
 France was on the verge of an- 
 archy. Ambition had been sated. 
 
 There was no nation so high in 
 the scales of national glory, none 
 so low in the scale of happiness 
 and real prosperity. The people 
 had been sacrificed to the extrav- 
 agance of the court, and the 
 court had experienced the vanity 
 and vexation of such ineffable 
 meanness. The magnificent sov- 
 ereign outlived the popularity 
 won by his grandeur. As the 
 funeral train moved through the 
 streets the people indulged in 
 shouts of joy, — the shadow cast 
 before by that great coming event, 
 the French Revolution. 
 
 The new king, Louis XV., was 
 an infant when he came to the throne. The regency 
 was intrusted to the Duke of Orleans, until his death 
 in 1723. He was a debauchee of fairly average abil- 
 ity and character. The only thing to make his rule 
 memorable was the encouragement he gave to the 
 wild scheme of speculation originated and pushed by 
 John Law, known as the “Mississippi Bubble.” Law 
 
 saw the possibilities of the Mississippi Valley and 
 the advantages of paper money. Born in Edin- 
 burgh, of humble parents, he laid his plans 
 before more than one court. Louis XIV. had been 
 deaf to his seductions, but the 
 Regent was captivated. A bank 
 of circulation and deposit was 
 organized. Paper money was so 
 easily made and popular withal 
 that the government went into 
 the business on what is now called 
 the fiat plan. An era of wild 
 speculation ensued. Everybody 
 was getting rich. Times were 
 flush. Of course this sort of 
 thing was of short duration. The 
 banks failed, the paper money 
 lost its purchasing power, and 
 the whole scheme proved a bub- 
 ble. The valley of the Mississippi 
 was vastly more valuable than 
 even Law had conceived, but it 
 was not available until many 
 years later. Indeed, it may be 
 said that John Law was ahead of 
 his times. This country has abun- 
 dantly demonstrated the wealth 
 of that valley not only, but the 
 feasibility of a currency based on 
 the good faith of the government, 
 as well as the bank-note system. 
 The disasters of the Law craze 
 contributed largely to the general 
 discontent with the existing order 
 of things. 
 
 There were some very able 
 financiers during this period of 
 vergence upon revolution. The 
 extravagance of Madame Pom- 
 padour and other royal favorites, 
 taxed to the utmost the ingenuity 
 of those having in charge the 
 royal exchequer. It required genius of a high order 
 to meet the public and private demands upon the 
 king’s purse. The people were burdened with ex- 
 cessive taxation. 
 
 During this period much effort was made to build 
 up a New France. In India the French had a rea- 
 sonable hope of rivaling England, and in America 
 
< 2 . 
 
 TRIUMPH AND DECAY OF FRENCH MONARCHY. 
 
 they were well established and started in the execu- 
 tion of truly imperial plans. From Quebec to New 
 Orleans extended the country claimed by France. 
 Brave and self-denying men, like LaSalle, Cham- 
 plain and Marquette, wrought a great work in the 
 new world. But the court was too corrupt to afford 
 proper support, and nothing of a permanent nature 
 remains as the fruit of all such sowing, except the 
 French portion of Canada. In that portion of the 
 British Empire may be found a people who repre- 
 sent the Ante-Revolutionary French. Their ances- 
 tors left the old country 
 before the new era, and 
 their descendants suggest 
 what France would have 
 been had the Bourbons and 
 Bourbonism remained reg- 
 nant in the French nation. 
 
 Louis XV. died May 10, 
 
 1774, sixty-three years of 
 age. His long reign, his ir- 
 regularities and arrogance 
 of power, had completed the 
 destruction of the mon- 
 archy. Its actual fall was 
 now only a question of time. 
 
 His successor, Louis XVI., 
 and his well beloved queen, 
 
 Marie Antoinette, were the 
 victims of a series of wrongs 
 for which they were not re- 
 sponsible. They garnered 
 the harvest of Bourbon 
 crimes. This country owes him much, for it was 
 during the reign of Louis XVI. that France was 
 the very efficient, if somewhat secret, ally of the 
 United States in the war of Independence. Lafay- 
 ette was not the only eminent Frenchman of his 
 day who succored us in time of need. The purse 
 of France was liberally opened to us, and the funds 
 supplied were quite as useful as the sword of Lafay- 
 ette and his brave associates. Enmity to England 
 was not by any means the only incentive to French 
 sympathy with America. The spirit of freedom 
 was moving among the dry bones of France, and in- 
 tense interest was felt in the cause of American 
 liberty on that account. Beyond a doubt the suc- 
 
 271 
 
 cess of the thirteen rebellious colonies, followed as 
 it was by the establishment of a genuine republic, 
 contributed largely to the revolutionary cause. The 
 feasibility of self-government on a large scale was 
 being demonstrated, and operated as a powerful 
 irritant and stimulant. 
 
 It is now time to call attention to the intellectual 
 development of France during this latter part of 
 the eighteenth century. The post of honor should 
 be assigned to that coterie of learned and progres- 
 sive men who produced the Encyclopedia. D’Alem- 
 bert and Diderot were 
 the leaders. Voltaire con- 
 tributed to it, but had 
 his individual mission. The 
 object of that great literary 
 work was the emancipation 
 of thought by the dissemin- 
 ation of knowledge. It was 
 the work of men freed from 
 the fetters of old opinions, 
 the manacles of medieval 
 superstition. It was a great 
 pioneer, a proud monument 
 of modern intelligence and 
 mental liberty. Besides this 
 Encyclopedia three names 
 should here be recorded, 
 Voltaire, Rousseau and Buf- 
 fon. The latter was a great 
 naturalist, and as sucli did 
 much to usher in the pres- 
 ent day of scientific obser- 
 vation and classification. Rousseau’s was a strangely 
 inconsistent and unlovely character, but he had a 
 genius for the ideal, and a passion for the rights of 
 man. He set forth the beauties and claims of liberty 
 with a persuasiveness which made his pen one of the 
 more potent factors of his time. But the supreme 
 name in the list of pioneers of the Revolution is 
 that of Voltaire. He ranks as the great enemy of 
 the Christian church, but the church which he as- 
 sailed, be it remembered, was very different from 
 the Christianity of the present time, and he himself 
 was a believer in a personal Deity and the future life. 
 Voltaire, more than any other man, was the father 
 of the French Revolution. 
 

 Li 
 
 CHAPTER X L V I. 
 
 Triumph op French Monarchy — The States-General — The Third Estate — National Assem- 
 bly — The Bastile — The Emigrants — Flight of the Royal Family — Royalty in Prison — 
 The Legislative Assembly — Change of the Calendar — The Jacobins — Trial and Execu- 
 tion of the King — The Girondists and Thomas Paine — The Reign of Terror — The 
 Directory — St. Bartholomew Avenged — Napoleon and the Revolution — Notable Char- 
 acters of the Revolutionary Period: Mirabeau, Marie Antoinette, Charlotte Corday, 
 Marat, Danton and Robespierre— The Revolution and Napoleon. 
 
 
 XIII. wore the 
 
 HE triumph of French 
 monarchy over both feud- 
 alism and the rights of the 
 people reached its highest 
 culmination in the dis- 
 appearance from the poli- 
 tics of the country of the 
 States-General, or parliament of 
 France. The king was then not 
 only supreme, but single in author- 
 ity, sharing nothing with any 
 class, order or institution in the 
 land. The reappearance of the 
 States-General, the assembling 
 once more of that body, was a no 
 less distinctive recognition of the 
 decay of absolutism. The date of 
 the former was 1644, while Louis 
 crown ; the date of the latter was 
 
 1787, when Louis XVI. began to feel the need of 
 props for the throne. That period, 143 years, was 
 one of splendid misery, of gilded and gorgeous in- 
 famy. 
 
 The States-General consisted of three estates, as 
 they are generally designated, the nobility, the cler- 
 gy and representatives of the citizens. The right, 
 
 however, of the third estate to sit with the first and 
 second estates was sharply contested. The former 
 stood for the bourgeois, or towns-folk, whose import- 
 ance was a gradual growth. 
 
 Louis XVI. found that he had evoked a danger- 
 ous power, resorted to a perilous expedient. The 
 first and second estates were tractable enough, but 
 the popular or bourgeois element had acquired 
 a self-poise and independence which alarmed his 
 majesty. Hardly had this parliament been convened 
 before a royal decree was issued for its dissolution. 
 But the sovereign was not sovereign. When the 
 order came, Mirabeau, the Patrick Henry of the 
 French Revolution, boldly refused to obey the man- 
 date. He belonged to and spoke for the third es- 
 tate. The attempt was then made to disperse the 
 body by the bayonet, but that plan utterly failed. 
 Behind the bayonets were soldiers who were patriots, 
 and they refused to obey orders. So far from 
 breaking up the States-General, they formed a mili- 
 tia called the X ational Guards. At the head of this 
 noble military body was the grand Marquis Gilbert 
 de Lafayette, whose services in behalf of American 
 liberty had endeared him to the friends of freedom 
 in his own land. The organization had for its 
 avowed purpose the protection of the National 
 
 “FT 
 
 •ns- 
 
 ( 2 7 2 ) 
 
MEETING OF THE STATES-GENERAL. 
 
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 
 
 Assembly, the new and improved name assumed 
 by the undismayed members of the States-General. 
 
 From States-Gen- 
 eral to National As- 
 sembly was a step of 
 incalculable import- 
 ance. It was with 
 great reluctance that 
 the clergy and nobil- 
 ity joined the new 
 body. The king tried 
 most assiduously to 
 maintain the royal 
 prerogative. All sorts 
 of petty devices were 
 resorted to, but all to 
 lafayette. no purpose. Mirabeau 
 
 and his compatriots resolved to secure for their 
 country constitutional 
 
 government, and they 
 were not to be baffled. 
 
 The spirit of high resolve 
 and heroic patriotism 
 was absolutely dauntless. 
 
 The first meeting of 
 the National Assembly 
 was held May 5, 1789, 
 and it was on the 14th of 
 the following July, that 
 the Bastile fell, making 
 a day forever fresh in 
 the memory of every 
 Frenchman. July Four- 
 teenth is to France much 
 what July Fourth is to 
 America. The Bastile was something more than 
 an ancient jail, as the Declaration of Indepen- 
 dence was something more than a disavowal of 
 allegiance to the British Crown. That prison was 
 a body animated by the spirit of despotism in its 
 most hideous form. Built by Charles V., in 1370, it 
 had been repaired, enlarged and made increasingly 
 odious by subsequent monarehs. It was not a prison 
 for criminals, but for political offenders, uncon- 
 victed, but obnoxious to royalty, or to some court fa- 
 vorite. The only formula used in condemning one 
 to the Bastile was the lettre de cachet. The pris- 
 oner was left in ignorance of the cause or duration 
 of his punishment, and not allowed to communi- 
 
 cate with friends. Voltaire was once incarcerated 
 there. On the fourteenth of July the populace lit- 
 erally leveled the massive building to the ground, 
 killed the governor, De Launay, and liberated the 
 prisoners. The real leaders of the mob were women, 
 respectable but plebeian. Paris, it may be remarked, 
 is notable for the prominence of its women both in 
 business and politics. The keys of the Bastile were 
 sent to George Washington, and by him presented to 
 the government of the United States, to be kept 
 among the more treasured archives at the capital 
 of the republic which French valor and gold had 
 done so much to establish. 
 
 The destruction of the Bastile was so swift and 
 complete that it terrified the nobility. Many of 
 them fled incontinently from the country, and be- 
 came refugees at foreign courts. They were called 
 and are known in history as emigres, or emigrants. 
 
 They were very active 
 throughout the Revolu- 
 tionary period, plotting 
 for the defeat of liberty 
 and the reestablishment 
 of despotism. 
 
 The king and queen 
 were very much alarmed 
 by the great uprising. 
 They could not be wholly 
 blind to the significance 
 of that destruction. It 
 certainly boded no good 
 to monarchy. The royal 
 family retired to Ver- 
 sailles, in the hope of 
 being secure from popu- 
 lar indignation without an abandonment of the 
 throne. It was a half-way measure and ill-advised. 
 Presently a vast mob, with fishwomen and the like 
 at the front, marched thither. Emboldened by the 
 royal flight and aggravated by the journey, they 
 would have slain the king and queen had it not been 
 for the kindly and brave intervention of Lafayette. 
 He shielded the king and his household, at the same 
 time inducing them to return to Paris. He acted 
 in the capacity of a peacemaker between the mob 
 and the crown. 
 
 The king was now a prisoner in his own palace, 
 virtually, and the populace had absolute authority. 
 The leveling process begun at the fall of the Bastile 
 
 7T 
 
 o 
 
( A 
 
 G> ^ 
 
 ^ G) 
 
 u. 
 
 G\ 
 
 1 
 
 276 THE FRENCH 
 
 REVOLUTION. 
 
 1° 
 
 t 
 
 
 was rapidly carried to an unprecedented length. 
 
 of “ the year of our Lord.” common to all Chris- 
 
 
 
 Titles were abolished. The king himself was Citi- 
 
 tendom, France was to measure time by distance 
 
 
 
 zen Louis Capet, and the queen merely a citizeness. 
 
 from the culminating point of the French Revolu- 
 
 
 
 They were not even free, but rather prisoners in the 
 
 tion. And in place of weeks of seven days were 
 
 
 
 palace of the Tuilleries. 
 
 established periods of ten days. The folly and 
 
 
 
 In an evil moment the royal couple tried to es- 
 
 inconvenience of a provincial, in place of a 
 
 
 
 cape, and join the Emigrants beyond the border. 
 
 cosmopolitan calendar, seemed to be quite over- 
 
 
 
 They were foiled. Recaptured and in confinement, 
 
 looked in a mad frenzy to break down the associa- 
 
 
 
 their condition was pitiable in the extreme. Just 
 
 tions of the Christian era with the new order of 
 
 
 
 one year after the Bastile fell, and in commemora- 
 
 things. 
 
 
 
 tion of its fall, the people adopted a Constitution. 
 
 The Republican government was fatally deficient 
 
 
 
 That was a most important step toward freedom, 
 
 in conservatism, which is as necessary in reforma- 
 
 
 
 and would have been even if the constitution had 
 
 tion as radicalism. 
 
 
 
 been despotic in character. The bare fact that the 
 
 The Anti-Christian and utterly revolutionary 
 
 
 
 people had secured an organic law was of the most 
 
 party was called Jacobins. The name applies, pri- 
 
 
 
 serious moment. That constitution compelled the 
 
 marily, to a political society founded in 1789 and 
 
 
 
 king to swear fealty to it. His attempted flight was 
 
 superseded in 1794. Carlyle calls them “Lords of 
 
 
 
 regarded as a violation of his oath. For that un- 
 
 the Articles,” adding, “ they originate debates for 
 
 
 
 availing endeavor to flee, the royal household were 
 
 the legislative ; discuss peace and war ; settle be- 
 
 
 
 imprisoned in a lonely castle. I 11 the meanwhile 
 
 forehand what the legislative is to do.” This society. 
 
 
 
 the Emigrants had not been idle. They sought to 
 
 or club, had its branches in all parts of France. At 
 
 
 
 arouse the fears and enlist the sympathies of other 
 
 first Lafayette and other moderate republicans be- 
 
 
 
 European monarchs and monarchists. Their ef- 
 
 longed to it, but later it fell under the influence of 
 
 
 
 forts were by no means fruitless. Soon an army of 
 
 Robespierre and Danton. Mirabeau died early in 
 
 
 
 no mean dimensions marched into France towards 
 
 the revolution ; Lafayette was left behind in the 
 
 
 
 Paris, sent thither from Austria and Prussia both. 
 
 march of radicalism, and a reign of terror was in- 
 
 
 
 The object of these military operations was to put 
 
 augurated. From the declaration of the Republic 
 
 
 
 an end to the Revolution. But that only made a 
 
 to the fall of Robespierre, the last of the Jacobins, 
 
 
 
 bad matter worse for the king and his friends. The 
 
 was less than two years, but in that brief time was 
 
 
 
 revolutionists were abundantly able to repel inva- 
 
 wrought a work which shocked the humane sensi- 
 
 
 
 sion and suppress discontent. 
 
 bilities of the world and has never ceased to be a 
 
 
 
 The National Assembly was not quite democratic 
 
 reproach to the cause of self-government. 
 
 
 
 enough to suit the popular demand, and the more 
 
 The king, “ Citizen Louis Capet,” was brought to 
 
 
 
 truly representative body, the Legislative Assembly, 
 
 trial for complicity with the Emigrants in conspiracy 
 
 
 
 took its place for a short time. On the twentieth 
 
 against the republic, December 11, 1792. Upon 
 
 
 
 of September, 1792, that too gave place to the still 
 
 his trial Thomas Paine, who had rendered the 
 
 
 
 more democratic National Convention, as it was 
 
 United States incalculable service as a journalist 
 
 
 
 called. The latter decreed the total and perpetual 
 
 during the Revolutionary War, and who was then a 
 
 
 
 abolition of royalty in France and the permanent 
 
 member of the National Convention, made a pow- 
 
 
 
 establishment of a republican form of government. 
 
 erful argument in defense of the king, or rather, in 
 
 
 
 The French Republic began by making an un- 
 
 favor of mitigating his punishment to banishment 
 
 
 
 wise change in the calendar. Unmindful of the im- 
 
 to America. But the sentence of death was passed 
 
 
 
 portance of uniformity among all civilized nations 
 
 upon him, and he was guillotined January 21, 1793. 
 
 
 
 in the measurement of time, the revolutionists pro- 
 
 The queen shared his fate, after a delay of a few 
 
 
 
 posed to make a radical alteration. Not only was 
 
 months. The heir to the crown, the Dauphin, died 
 
 
 
 time to be measured by days and months bearing 
 
 in prison when about nine years of age, the victim 
 
 
 
 new names (in itself of trivial consequence), but the 
 
 of cruel treatment. 
 
 
 
 establishment of the Republic was to supersede the 
 
 The opposers of these extreme measures were 
 
 
 Q 
 
 birth of Jesus Christ for dating purposes. Instead 
 
 called Girondists. A great may of them were 
 
 t 
 
 ' f 
 
 6 ^ ^ © 
 
 

 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 
 
 : 77 
 
 guillotined for their moderation. Mr. Paine, who 
 belonged to that party, owed his escape from death 
 to a fortunate accident and the tardy intervention 
 of the United States. The accident referred to 
 was this : his door was chalk-marked for execution, 
 as was supposed, but in reality the mark was on the 
 inside of the door of the adjoining cell, and when 
 both doors were closed no sign of death was vis- 
 ible. That blunder, trivial in itself, saved the life 
 of Thomas Paine, and it was during his imprison- 
 ment, while waiting for death, that he wrote his 
 treatise on religion, called “ The Age of Reason.” 
 Had it not been for that chalk-mark blunder the 
 most notable attack on the Christian religion ever 
 penned in the English language, before the present 
 generation, would never have been written. Him- 
 self an extreme, if not a violent radical, in religion 
 and politics, Paine was quite too conservative to 
 suit the leaders of the French Revolution. 
 
 The Reign of Terror stands out in history as a 
 horrid nightmare. For months Paris and France 
 at large seemed wholly given up to the ravages of 
 monstrous cruelty. In the name of freedom, equal- 
 ty and fraternity the most outrageous and revolting 
 crimes were perpetrated. The guillotine was kept con- 
 stantly busy and bloody. It was not alone the ene- 
 mies of the Revolution who were brought to the block. 
 The mad frenzy of the period decimated the ranks 
 of the revolutionists themselves. Many were the 
 victims of their own policy. The most extreme 
 radical of them all, Hebert, was brought to the guil- 
 lotine by Robespierre on the twenty-fourth of 
 March, 1794, and on the fifth of the next month 
 Danton shared his fate. July 28th of the same 
 year Robespierre himself was executed, thus com- 
 pleting the circle and carrying the policy of terror to 
 its logical sequence. The Convention was no longer 
 put in the background by the leaders of the Ja- 
 cobins. 
 
 Early in the following year the National Conven- 
 tion adopted a new constitution, and under that 
 organic law the executive authority of the govern- 
 ment was placed in the hands of a Directory, con- 
 sisting of five members. The intraetables resisted 
 this substitution of regular authority for anarchical 
 cruelty, and their resistance brought Napoleon 
 Bonaparte .to the front for the first time, who quelled 
 the Parisian mob October 5, 1795. From that time 
 on, other factors of more or less prominence 
 
 entered into the history of France, besides the 
 Revolution. The Reign of Terror was over, but 
 revolutionary ideas remained, and have never 
 ceased to be fruitful of great and greatly benefi- 
 cent results. 
 
 It is due to the truth of history to add that the 
 honors of the Jacobin period were really insignifi- 
 cant as compared with that one horror, the Massacre 
 of St. Bartholomew in 1572. More blood was shed 
 that one night than during all the period from the 
 fall of the Bastile to the establishment of the Di- 
 rectory. After two centuries the supreme crime 
 of French history was avenged. 
 
 The wars of Napoleon form a separate chapter. 
 The desperate resolution of the monarchical gov- 
 ernments of Europe t<? prevent the establishment of 
 a permanent republic in France furnished that 
 “ grey-eyed man of destiny ” the opportunity to dis- 
 tinguish himself, and out of the necessities of war 
 erect an empire, transient, indeed, but none the less 
 imperial. The inevitable drift of Avar is toward abso- 
 lutism. The executive functions of government Avere 
 intrusted to a Directory Avliich felt jealousy of Na- 
 poleon’s rising power. But between the reestablish- 
 ment of the old monarchy and the peril of a new 
 dynasty there Avas no choice but to give loose rein 
 to “ the man -on horseback.” Napoleon’s first po- 
 litical office Avas that of First Consul, which title 
 Avas bestowed upon him after the Italian and Egyp- 
 tian campaigns. That Avas just as the eighteenth 
 century Avas closing. The Directory gave place to 
 three Consuls, the Corsican being the first. The 
 other two were little more than figure-heads. 
 
 With the dawn of the nineteenth century the Re- 
 public of France ceased to exist, in point of fact, as 
 a vital force, and notwithstanding a feAv spasmodic 
 movements, Avas dormant for seventy years. The 
 empire followed the consulate. After Marengo and 
 Ilohenlinden Napoleon Avas made Consul for life 
 Avith poAver to name his successor. That Avas the 
 substance of imperialism. The full recognition of 
 it soon folloAved. In 1804 he Avas elected Emperor, 
 not of France, but of the French, a distinction with 
 some difference. The Grand Louis had claimed 
 France as a family estate ; the greater Bonaparte 
 accepted its government as the gift of the people. 
 Pope Leo had crowned Charlemagne at Rome ; Na- 
 poleon, after a lapse of many centuries, summoned 
 his successor, Pius VII., to Paris to give solemnity 
 
 
 > 
 
-£ A 
 
 278 
 
 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 
 
 and eclat to his coronation at Notre Dame. The 
 imposing ceremony occurred December 2, 1804. As 
 Emperor he henceforth waged war, made laws and 
 carved out kingdoms. His achievements as a ruler 
 were great, but for the most part they belong to the 
 Consular period of his rule. The Code Napoleon is 
 still a grand monument of legal wisdom and ad- 
 ministrative skill. Although bearing his name, his 
 only credit is that he allowed the highest political 
 wisdom of the French Revolution to crystalize. That 
 was a great deal, and for 
 it he deserves liberal 
 gratitude. The Code 
 Napoleon conserved the 
 best results of what, with 
 all its faults, was the 
 grandest of all political 
 uprisings, and whatever 
 the mutations of the 
 government since then, 
 the country has never 
 ceased to enjoy the 
 benefits of that codifica- 
 tion. Whether king, em- 
 peror, president or com- 
 mune has held sway in 
 France during the pres- 
 ent century, the common 
 law of justice and the 
 mechanism of public af- 
 fairs have enjoyed a 
 stability of incalculable 
 benefit. Out of the wild 
 horrors of the Reign of Terror came forth a body 
 of laws, and a system of administration, which have 
 enabled France to prosper, whatever the form of 
 government. 
 
 It remains to speak more in detail of the specially 
 conspicuous characters of the revolutionary period. 
 
 At the head of this list, not to mention here Vol- 
 taire, Rousseau and the other inspirers of the move- 
 ment, stands Honore Gabriel Requetti Mirabeau, the 
 first, greatest and wisest of its parliamentary leaders. 
 He was born in Provence in 1749. Massive, ugly 
 and disfigured in person, his eloquence was of the 
 very highest order. He entered the last States-Gen- 
 eral ever assembled as a representative of the third 
 estate, and almost from the first became the leader 
 of the popular wing of that body. He remained the 
 
 undisputed leader of the revolutionary party until 
 his death, April 2, 1791. He was not a republican. 
 His theory of government finds its expression in the 
 limited monarchy of Great Britain ; but he was a re- 
 former whose plowshare ran deep down into the sub- 
 soil of despotism. Had the improvements which he 
 advocated been effected, the long strides toward jus- 
 tice and liberty which he recommended been actu- 
 ally taken, Louis Capet and Marie Antoinette might 
 have been saved, and the Reign of Terror been 
 
 averted. The genius of 
 Mirabeau has at last 
 found very substantial 
 embodiment, and the 
 French revolutionist’s 
 highest vindication is the 
 present republic of 
 France. 
 
 A peculiar interest 
 attaches to the melan- 
 choly fate of Marie An- 
 toinette, fifth daughter 
 of Maria Theresa of Aus- 
 tria, and wife of Louis 
 XVI. A pure and lovely 
 lady, she was unfortu- 
 nate in having a very 
 haughty manner and 
 being a stickler for all 
 court etiquette. She was 
 never popular at court. 
 Her virtues and her aus- 
 terity combined to make 
 her disliked. When the revolution began she was es- 
 pecially unpopular with 
 courtiers and the people. 
 
 Under the trials and af- 
 flictions of her royal hus- 
 band, and their ill-starred 
 children, she developed 
 a heroism which has 
 made her an object of 
 adoration in the temple 
 of posthumous fame. 
 
 She shared the calam- 
 ities of the Bourbons in 
 honor upon the house of the Hapsburgs. After 
 long imprisonment she was brought before the Rev- 
 olutionary Tribunal October 13, 1793, where she 
 
 Marie Antoinette. 
 
 way to reflect 
 
 high 
 
 
3 
 
 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 
 
 k 
 
 2 79 
 
 defended herself with sublime indignation and elo- 
 quence. But all to no purpose. On the third day 
 following she was borne to the scaffold. The ride 
 from prison to the guillotine occupied two hours. 
 On either side of her 
 tumbril were rows of 
 soldiers, and the streets 
 were filled with a jeering 
 mob. The populace saw 
 in her simply a con- 
 spicuous representative 
 of immemorial despot- 
 ism and spoliation. 
 
 The first place in the 
 roll of dishonor, as 
 guilty of perverting a 
 revolution which was in 
 itself sublime, belongs to 
 Jean Paul Marat, a 
 native of Switzerland. 
 
 A physician by educa- 
 tion, a dwarf in form, 
 he became a popular idol 
 on account of the vigor with which he assailed with 
 his pen the upper classes, including the rich and the 
 titled. From September 12, 1789, to July 14, 1793, 
 Marat conducted a journal which was the organ of 
 the most extreme Jacobinical ideas. Among other 
 things he coolly maintained that the salvation of 
 France demanded the guillotining of 270,000 per- 
 sons. His was the task of making the press subser- 
 vient to the monstrous policy of Danton and the 
 other terror- 
 ists. His jour- 
 nal, issued un- 
 der different 
 names, sup- 
 plied the oil to 
 the lamp of 
 
 popular frenzy and political horrors. 
 
 Intense was the feeling all over 
 France against him. Even Danton 
 came to tremble lest he should be 
 “ hoist by his own petard.” 
 
 This man Marat met his fate at the 
 hand of Charlotte Corday, a young lady of Norman- 
 dy, beautiful, pious, intellectual and enthusiastic. 
 She conceived it to be her patriotic and religious duty 
 to assassinate Marat. Accordingly she came to Paris, 
 
 gained admission to his house, found him in a bath, 
 plunged a knife into his heart and calmly awaited 
 her fate. The assassination occurred July 13, 1793. 
 A few days later she was guillotined. Lamartine 
 
 expressed the verdict of 
 history when he wrote, 
 “ In beholding her act 
 of assassination history 
 dares not applaud ; nor 
 yet, while contemplating 
 her sublime self-devo- 
 tion, can it stigmatize or 
 condemn.” 
 
 Danton was hardly less 
 radical and relentless 
 than Marat. He was an 
 orator very popular with 
 the lower classes of the 
 Paris populace. His 
 stentorian voice was al- 
 ways raised for blood 
 and vengeance. He fill- 
 ed the position of Min- 
 ister of Justice during the time when that meant 
 chief of the guillotine. So long as the Girondists, 
 or moderate republicans, furnished victims for the 
 knife and block, Danton, Marat and Robespierre, 
 
 the triumvirate of terror, 
 cooperated, but when 
 the thirst for blood de- 
 manded victims from 
 among the Jacobins 
 themselves, dissension 
 was inevitable. Danton 
 was an atheist, Robes- 
 pierre a deist. The latter 
 was indeed hostile to all 
 existing and organized 
 religions, but he believed 
 in a Supreme Being, and 
 caused Danton to be exe- 
 cuted for enthroning 
 Reason as the God of 
 worship. Danton fell 
 April 5, 1794. 
 Robespierre, the last of the Jacobin leaders to per- 
 ish in the furnace of his own construction, was a 
 lawyer of Arras. In the early part of the Revolution 
 he bore an inconspicuous part. It was as the head 
 
>k 
 
 280 
 
 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 
 
 Robespierre. 
 
 of the Jacobin club that be realized bis ambition. 
 He was an earnest advocate of the execution of the 
 king, and the prosecution of 
 the Girondists. After the 
 execution of Danton and the 
 assassination of Marat he 
 was virtually dictator of 
 France. Then it was that 
 he attempted to undo the 
 ( atheistic influence of Danton 
 sby a speech in honor of the 
 Deity. He made himself 
 ridiculous by posing in the 
 character of a pietist, and to 
 the laugh raised over his deism rather than to the de- 
 testation of his cruelties, may be attributed his fall 
 and execution. His power and prestige were drowned 
 in ridicule. When his arrest was decreed he tried in 
 vain to lift his voice in self-defense. The privilege he 
 had so often denied to others was refused him, and 
 the next day after he had been hurried to prison he 
 was guillotined. His name will forever stand as a 
 synonym for the horrors of the Reign of Terror. It 
 was his bad preeminence to be foremost in disgracing, 
 perverting and retarding what was, despite all per- 
 versions, the grandest and most beneficent revolu- 
 tion the world ever saw. 
 
 In his history of the French Revolution, Lamar- 
 tine, speaking of the period at which we have ar- 
 rived says, “ The Revolution had only lasted five 
 years. These five years were five centuries for 
 France. Never perhaps on this earth did any na- 
 tion ever produce in so short a time such an erup- 
 tion of ideas, new notions, characters, geniuses, tal- 
 ents, catastrophies, crimes and virtues. Men were 
 born like the instantaneous personification of 
 things that should think, speak or act.” While 
 there were turmoil and terror at home, there were 
 brilliant achievements in battle. Napoleon was not 
 
 the only great hero. Hocke, Jourdan, and Moreau 
 were commanders of consummate ability, but they 
 were not only eclipsed by the subsequent splendors of 
 Napoleon, but by the stupendous intellect of Carnot, 
 Minister of War, the Stanton of France. His work 
 for the armies of France in those days can only be 
 appreciated by those who know something of the 
 debt the United States owes Edwin M. Stanton. 
 
 When Napoleon returned from Egypt (1799) the 
 Directory had become very unpopular, and the way 
 was prepared for that final crisis, known as the 
 Revolution of the 18th and 19th Brumaire. That 
 was the movement which supplanted the Directory 
 with the Consulate. The fear of another Reign of 
 Terror occasioned the transition. Napoleon was in 
 command of the troops in and about Paris, and enter- 
 ed the Council Chamber not to go out until he hadin 
 effect revolutionized the government. The proceed- 
 ings of that memorable occasion, as narrated by An- 
 derson, may well close this chapter : “ He addressed 
 them [the Council of the Ancients] declaring that 
 the constitution had been violated, that it was not 
 strong enough to save France from anarchy ; he 
 said that he had only accepted the command of the 
 troops for the purpose of bringing the strong arms 
 of the nation to the support of the deputies who 
 constituted its head, and ended by promising to re- 
 sign his power as soon as the danger was passed. 
 He afterwaids entered the hall of the Five Hundred 
 with four grenadiers to make a similar speech, when 
 the whole assembly rose as one man with cries of 
 ‘Down with the Dictator !’ and crowded around him, 
 one member even attempting his life ; but he was 
 rescued by fresh arrivals of troops, and left the hall. 
 In the confusion which followed, a report was cir- 
 culated among the troops that the deputies had at- 
 tempted their general’s life ; and a detachment of 
 grenadiers then entered the hall, and cleared it at 
 the point of the bayonet.” 
 
 r 
 
 <*r 
 
HE genius of Richelieu in- 
 vested the name of France 
 with the supreme splen- 
 dors of royalty; Voltaire 
 and Diderot lifted it to the 
 highest rank of intellectu- 
 al progress, 
 and Napoleon illu- 
 mined the whole 
 nation with mili- 
 tary glory, raising 
 a martial monu- 
 ment which even 
 the Franco-Prus- 
 sian War could not 
 level to the ground. 
 
 Barbarian though 
 he was, emulous of 
 the fame of Alexander and Caisar, 
 rather than the vastly higher honor 
 of constructing a republican edifice 
 worthy the present age upon the 
 ruins of kingly despotism, he fills 
 so large a place in the early part of the nine- 
 teenth century that his campaigns demand conspic- 
 uous consideration. In him we see the supreme effort 
 of the old idea of conquest to resist a loftier ambi- 
 tion more consonant with the spirit of the age, 
 
 NAPOLEON i. 
 
 namely the popular demand for equal rights and 
 exact justice. 
 
 Napoleon Bonaparte was a native of the small 
 island of Corsica, then only recently added to 
 French territory. He was born August 15, 1769. 
 His father was a lawyer who died in early man- 
 hood, leaving the care of a numerous 
 family to his energetic widow. Na- 
 poleon was the second son. He was 
 educated for the profession of arms 
 at Paris. Being snubbed, as he 
 thought, in his first army experience, 
 he applied for leave to tender his 
 sword to the Sultan of Turkey. One 
 can but regret the denial of his 
 wish. He was made a lieutenant in 
 the army at the age of sixteen. 
 When Robespierre fell he was in 
 danger of disgrace, if nothing worse, 
 for he was suspected of sympathy 
 with that monster. But his insig- 
 nificance shielded him. Ilis first 
 distinction was won in devising an 
 acceptable and successful plan for quelling the mob 
 which assailed the convention in the Tuilleries soon 
 after Robespierre had fallen. As the reward of his 
 services then he was given command of the forces 
 in and about Paris. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVII. 
 
 Napoleon’s Place in History— Birth and Early Career — The Italian Campaign — The 
 Egyptian Campaign — Napoleon and the Allies Join Issues — Marengo and Hohenlinden 
 — Austerlitz and the Column Vendome — Trafalgar, Jena and Vienna — On to Moscow! 
 and the Result— The Fall, Exile and Death op Napoleon. 
 
M2- 
 
 
 The next spring Napoleon was sent to Italy to 
 take command of one of the three armies engaged 
 in the defense of the Republic against the “ Emi- 
 grants ” and their monarchical allies. He was only 
 twenty-seven years of age, very short and slim. 
 His troops early and always loved to call him “ The 
 Little Corporal.” The Austrians whom he encount- 
 ered there conceived contempt for his youth. At 
 Monte Notte, April 12, 179G, he won his first victory 
 over the enemies of his country. It was with good 
 reason that he afterwards dated his patent of no- 
 bility from that battle. His next exploit was the 
 passage of his army over the river Adda at Lodi. 
 The battle of Lodi was a brilliant victory, won by 
 bravery and skill. So remarkable were his move- 
 ments and their results, that he soon attracted the 
 attention of Europe, and was seen to be a great 
 soldier. He destroyed no less than five Austrian 
 armies in that Italian campaign. So terrible was 
 the destruction, that a year after he took command 
 a treaty of peace was signed by which France 
 gained great advantage and Vienna itself was spared 
 the ravages of sack by the troops of Napoleon. 
 Other treaties followed as fruits of that campaign. 
 He returned to Paris to be received with the honors 
 due his genius and successes. 
 
 Napoleon was something of an elephant upon 
 the hands of the republic. To provide a safe outlet 
 for the restless military energies of himself and his 
 soldiers, who had fought just enough to want to 
 keep on fighting, an expedition into Egypt was 
 planned. It was indeed a wild-goose chase, if ever 
 there was one. Soldiers and savans set sail from Tou- 
 lon in the summer of 1798, with no definite idea of 
 what they did want. Turkish Mamelukes met them 
 in hostile array. The “ Battle of the Pyramids ” was 
 fought with success to the French arms. The British 
 fleet, under Lord Nelson, attacked the French fleet 
 at Alexandria, and won a naval victory which for a 
 short time cut off Napoleon’s communication with 
 France, but he easily made himself master of Egypt, 
 except the seaport town of Acre, garrisoned by Eng- 
 lish troops. He mai'ched into Palestine, and returned 
 to confront a Turkish army, and gained the victory 
 of Aboukir, which closed his Egyptian campaign. 
 In the fall of 1799 he returned to France. The 
 people hailed him as a glorious hero. His march 
 through France was a mighty ovation, and the hon- 
 ors and authority of First Consul came to him in 
 
 the way set forth in the previous chapter. Europe saw 
 in the new head of the French government an 
 exceedingly dangerous character. Previous appre- 
 hensions ripened into certainty, and from hence- 
 forth it was only a question of time when the com- 
 bined power of the other nations of Europe would 
 crush him or he them. For fifteen years the strug- 
 gle continued, with only slight truces. Finding 
 himself in hostility to all Europe, Napoleon seemed 
 determined to conquer and reconstruct the whole 
 continent, — not that either he or the allies clearly 
 appreciated the irrepressibleness of the conflict at the 
 outset, but that from the time the hero of Lodi and 
 Aboukir became the First Consul there was no 
 alternative for either of the two parties but uncon- 
 ditional surrender. 
 
 In May, 1800, Napoleon crossed the Alps by a 
 way supposed to be impassable and swooped down 
 upon the Austrians. The battle of Marengo was 
 soon fought and won. About that time another 
 French army in Germany, under Moreau, gained 
 the splendid victory of Hohenlinden. By mid- 
 summer Najmleon was back in Paris, assiduously 
 applying himself to the reconstruction of the gov- 
 ernment of France. For several years he was en- 
 gaged in developing the resources, improving the 
 laws and political institutions of the country. In 
 1804 he was elected emperor. All this while it was 
 evident that no real peace had been negotiated and 
 on both sides preparations were being made for an- 
 other encounter. 
 
 Early in 1805 Napoleon took the field. England 
 made no secret of its hostility, and Russia and Aus- 
 tria formally declared war against France. In 
 October Napoleon entered Germany, and on the 
 30th of November he took posession of Vienna, 
 occupying the splendid palace of the Schonbrunn. 
 Twelve days later was fought the ever-memorable 
 battle of Austerlitz. The energies which had been 
 accumulating during the few years of peace were 
 let loose. Napoleon won his most illustrious vic- 
 tory on that day. Among tlie trophies of the bat- 
 tle were twelve hundred Austrian cannons. They 
 were afterwards melted down and used as the bronze 
 for the famous column erected at Paris in memory 
 of that victory in the Place Vendome. 
 
 But the success of the French on the land had 
 an offset in the defeat of the French navy in the 
 battle of Trafalgar, fought in October of that year. 
 
 Q w 
 
 282 
 
 NAPOLEON AND HIS CAMPAIGNS. 
 
< 
 
 NAPOLEON AND HIS CAMPAIGNS. 
 
 RETREAT OF THE FRENCH FROM MOSCOW. 
 
 283 
 
 ©Tv" 
 
 

 **x a. 
 
 
 NAPOLEON AND HIS CAMPAIGNS. 
 
 
 
 Lord Nelson very nearly annihilated the enemy. 
 That did not, however, prevent Napoleon from be- 
 ing absolute on the continent. It made England 
 undisputed mistress of the seas. The French Em- 
 peror none 
 the less pro- 
 ceeded to cut 
 up Europe 
 into king- 
 doms, and 
 parcel it out 
 among his 
 brothers and 
 favorites as 
 if it were a 
 private es- 
 tate. His el- 
 der brother, 
 
 Joseph, he 
 made king 
 of Spain, 
 and another 
 brother be- 
 came the 
 king of Hol- 
 land. Prus- 
 sia had been 
 neutral and 
 was reward- 
 ed with Han- 
 over, the old 
 possession of 
 the present 
 English dy- 
 nasty. Sev- 
 eral of the 
 smaller Ger- 
 man states 
 were under 
 Napoleonic 
 “protection.” 
 
 But Freder- 
 ick of Prussia did not long remain neutral. As soon 
 as he declared war against Napoleon the Eagles of 
 France flew to Prussia. The battle of Jena was 
 fought, and the victorious French Emperor entered 
 Berlin in triumph. Still another brother was given 
 a kingdom, and soon the royal family of Portugal 
 took refuge in Brazil. There was disaffection in 
 
 Germany which was quelled by the victories of Eck- 
 muhl and Essling, followed by another occupancy 
 of Vienna, and the treaty of Vienna. Thus the 
 continent was prostrate at the feet of “The Lit- 
 tle Corpor- 
 al.” That 
 was in the 
 fall of 1809. 
 
 Napoleon’s 
 star had now 
 reached its 
 zenith. 
 
 Flushed by 
 his victories, 
 lie was em- 
 boldened to 
 un dert a ke 
 the conquest 
 ofllussia. As 
 the winter of 
 1812-13 set 
 in he set out 
 for Moscow. 
 After a long, 
 weary march 
 he came in 
 sight of that 
 ancient cap- 
 ital of the 
 Muscovite 
 Empire. The 
 city was in 
 flames. The 
 people had 
 set fire to the 
 town, rather 
 than afford 
 shelter from 
 the wintry 
 blast, for the 
 enemy. It 
 was a des- 
 perate but heroic expedient. The desired effect was 
 produced. The army of invasion was compelled 
 to return through the snow. The loss was terrible. 
 Of the four hundred thousand French soldiers 
 who started on that expedition only about fifty 
 thousand survived. That was the most disastrous 
 expedition in all history. It crippled the force of 
 
 & _ 
 
 7 & 
 

 
 4 ^ 
 
 286 
 
 NAPOLEON AND HIS CAMPAIGNS. 
 
 Napoleon beyond all recovery and made Waterloo 
 possible. Fresh troops were recruited and a power- 
 ful army was soon in the field. Napoleon had no idea 
 of surrender. In August 
 of 1813 he defeated the 
 allies at Dresden, but 
 was obliged, nevertheless, 
 to retreat into France. 
 
 Blticher led 130,000 
 Prussians, and Welling- 
 ton was at the head of a 
 powerful English army 
 in Portugal and Spain. 
 
 Those two great captains, 
 destined to conquer the 
 great conqueror, slowly 
 moved toward each 
 other. France was now 
 for the first time since 
 Napoleon came to the 
 front the battlefield. On 
 the heights of Montmar- 
 tre, overlooking Paris, 
 
 was fought a battle which resulted in victory for the 
 allies, and on the 31st of March, 1814, Alexander 
 of Russia and Frederick 
 of Prussia took posses- 
 sion of Paris and dicta- 
 ted terms of peace. The 
 Emperor was obliged to 
 abdicate and accept im- 
 prisonment upon the 
 island of Elba. That 
 little island was to be 
 his “ empire.” There he 
 was to hold miniature 
 court. It was a sweet 
 revenge to think of the 
 great dictator as “ crib- 
 
 o 
 
 bed and cabined” within 
 such narrow limits. 
 
 On the 20th of April 
 Napoleon took his sor- 
 rowful departure for that island but on the first of 
 March next following he set foot upon the soil of 
 France once more. He had eluded the vigilance of 
 the allies. Tremendous was the popular enthusiasm. 
 
 The Bourbon who had been placed upon the throne, 
 Louis XVIII., was powerless. Popular enthusiasm 
 knew no bounds. Everybody seemed to be in 
 
 ecstasies of delight over 
 the return of the hero 
 of Austerlitz. The sol- 
 diers and people vied in 
 enthusiasm. The king 
 was glad to escape with 
 his life, and Napoleon 
 was Emperor once more. 
 The war was renewed. 
 The allies were not con- 
 tent to allow the restor- 
 ation of the empire. 
 Early in June a com- 
 bined English and Rus- 
 sian army was quarter- 
 ed at some distance from 
 each other in the neigh- 
 borhood of Brussels un- 
 der Wellington and Blii- 
 cher. Napoleon raised 
 an army of 150,000 men to resist them. On the 
 18th of Jnne, 1815, was fought the battle of Water- 
 loo. Wellington was al- 
 most beaten, but Blilcher 
 came to his succor just 
 in time to turn the scale. 
 The defeat of the French 
 was utter. On the twen- 
 tieth instant Napoleon 
 re-entered Paris, a van- 
 quished fugitive. His 
 plan was to find asylum 
 in America, but he was 
 arrested by the allies 
 and sent to the lonely 
 island of St. Helena 
 from which he never 
 escaped. Henceforth he 
 was a close prisoner of 
 war, the farce of a Lilli- 
 putian empire being altogether abandoned. There 
 he died, May 5, 1821, and with him perished (it may 
 be hoped for all time to come) the last ambition of 
 the Universal Empire. 
 

LATTER-DAY FRANCE 
 
 
 A Great Experiment and its Result — Louis Philippe— Louis Napoleon and iiis Coup d’etat 
 — The Empire — The Siege of Paris and the Avenging of Jena — The Crisis— Centraliza- 
 tion in Prance— Importance of Paris — National Contentment, Land and “Rentes” — 
 Religion and Education — Colonial Possessions— Contemporary French Literature- 
 
 I-- 2 -'"' 
 
 ITH the fall of the Emperor 
 Napoleon a reaction in 
 favor of monarchy set in. 
 The French natipn seem- 
 ed to be tired of all that 
 savored of newness, and 
 to long for the old ways- 
 Louis XVIII., a Bourbon in blood and 
 character, was placed upon the throne. 
 He did much to restore the ancient re- 
 gime. His death occurred in 1824, and 
 at that time the reaction seemed to be per- 
 manent. The king himself had been less 
 reactionary than the Council which sur- 
 rounded him. But no sooner had his 
 brother, Charles X., succeeded him upon 
 the throne than the depth and strength of the sen- 
 timent among the people for liberty began to assert 
 itself. Charles was disposed to be imperious and 
 presumptuous. He carried things with a somewhat 
 absolute will, the monarchical and democratic par- 
 ties getting warmer and more bitter all the time ; 
 until in 1830 the king was compelled to give up the 
 struggle. Iiis only safety, as an individual, was in 
 abdication. The grim specter of Louis XVI. terri- 
 fied him into abdicating in favor of his cousin of 
 the Orleans family, who was crowned Louis Philippe. 
 
 The crafty cousin declined the scepter as a royal 
 gift, thereby securing a popular confirmation of his 
 authority, for so democratic a declination brought 
 out, as expected and designed, an expression of the 
 people. 
 
 For eighteen years Louis Philippe ruled France, 
 careful ever 
 to respect the 
 constitutional 
 limitations of 
 his preroga- 
 tives. This 
 king was not 
 royal in vir^ 
 tues or vices- 
 Without be- 
 ing quite what 
 would be call- 
 ed a bad man 
 he was sordid, 
 avaricious and 
 tricky. H 
 best trait or 
 characteristic 
 was a sincere admiration for America and high aj> 
 preciation of the just place among nations of 
 the United States. If mediocre in mind and 
 
 (289) 
 
 CHAPTER XL VI 1 1. 
 
uneventful in career, he was remarkably mod- 
 ern in his sympathies. King though he was, Louis 
 Philippe was in every sense a part of Latter-day 
 France. His reign terminated, as it began, in abdi- 
 cation. It had fairly demonstrated that the 
 French, unlike the English, would not voluntarily 
 accept monarchy, however hedged about by popular 
 concessions. That was the one significant thing 
 about the reign of the three post-Napoleon ic kings, 
 more especially the last and best of the trio. The 
 great experiment of royalty in the France of the 
 nineteenth century was thoroughly tried, and the 
 fact of incompatibility fully 
 established. 
 
 When Louis Philippe laid 
 down the scepter the election 
 of a President was the first 
 public business in order. 
 
 Choice fell on Louis Napo- 
 leon, “ nephew of his uncle,” 
 and that solely because he 
 was the nephew of the man 
 who had made France bril- 
 liant with military glory. He 
 was looked upon as a hair- 
 brained, weak and harmless 
 young man. But beneath his 
 placid exterior beat a heart 
 ambitious of imperial power. 
 
 His secret purpose was to be 
 to his uncle what Augustus 
 Caesar had been to Julius 
 Caesar. He proceeded cau- 
 tiously. His age at the time 
 of his election was forty years. He solemnly swore 
 to deliver the trust to his successor four years later, 
 but had no intention of doing so. The peasantry 
 idolized the great name he bore. A few conspirators 
 were taken into his secret, and the force of the gov- 
 ernment put in position to uphold his usurpation. 
 The first overt act contemplated was to amend the 
 constitution, under which the President could not 
 be elected to a second term. Finding that he could 
 not peaceably carry his point, he executed that great 
 political crime known as the Coup d ’ etat of Decem- 
 ber 2, 1851. Arrests and assassinations were made 
 with a ruthless hand, and before the country 
 knew what was being done the republic had been 
 strangled, and all the machinery of the government, 
 
 civil and military, was employed to enforce con- 
 formity to the will of the usurper. Two weeks later 
 the form of an election was invoked to give the 
 semblance of popular sanction to what had been 
 done. The people were not prepared to resist, and 
 the “ plebiscite,” or election, passed off as the con- 
 spirators desired. The assumption of imperial au- 
 thority thus had the appearance of popular approval. 
 “ The empire means peace,” said the new emperor, 
 and he was right for a long time. 
 
 Louis Napoleon proved a man of great talent, if 
 His reign extended until the 
 disasters of the Franco-Prus- 
 sian war broke the spell of his 
 power and revolutionized the 
 government. Under him 
 Paris was beautified as no 
 other city ever was, and for 
 the most part the people 
 prospered. The government 
 was respected at home and 
 abroad. However severely 
 his method of coming to the 
 throne was condemned, his 
 use of power seemed to be in 
 the main good, and it was 
 generally thought that the 
 empire had been reestablished 
 upon a firm basis. Louis 
 Napoleon was admitted into 
 the brotherhood of royalty, 
 and was perhaps more influ- 
 ential for some fifteen years 
 in the general affairs of 
 Europe than any other member of that family. In 
 the Crimean war the French bore a part commen- 
 surate with the importance of the nation. Later, 
 the bayonets of France protected the Pope in his 
 temporality. Whenever the Emperor wanted the 
 sanction of a “ plebiscite ” he had it. His first not- 
 able failure was in trying to get England to unite 
 with him in breaking the Southern blockade during 
 the civil war in this country, and the kindred scheme 
 to establish Maximilian of Austria as Emperor of 
 Mexico. His hand in the former plot was not dis- 
 covered at the time, but his part in the abortive 
 usurpation in Mexico was known from the first. The 
 success of the United States in crushing rebellion 
 was a death-blow to Napoleon’s intervention in 
 
 
 290 
 
 LATTER-DAY FRANCE. 
 
/ 
 
 
 <r- 
 
 LATTER-DAY FRANCE. 29 1 
 
 American affairs. He was chagrined and somewhat 
 humiliated, but not seriously weakened thereby in 
 his hold upon the French scepter. 
 
 To all appearances the empire was strong and 
 sound when the war with Prussia began. Its real 
 weakness was the utter corruption of the govern- 
 ment. With a criminal at its head there was no 
 soundness in the body itself. The empire was 
 honeycombed by swindles of all sorts, and needed 
 only the test of a great war to disclose its rotten- 
 ness and overthrow its very foundations. 
 
 The Franco-Prussian War has been described 
 sufficiently, 
 except the 
 siege of Pa- 
 ris, which 
 was reserv- 
 ed for this 
 connection. 
 
 The Ger- 
 mans acted 
 a subordin- 
 ate part in 
 the great 
 drama of 
 that siege. 
 
 Within the 
 limits of the 
 beleagured 
 city was go- 
 ing on the 
 contest that 
 gave espe- 
 cial significance to that episode of war. Practi- 
 cally the hostile environment was little else than 
 a great opportunity for republicanism to arise 
 from the tomb and throw off the cerements 
 of death. The Coup d’etat had not killed it. 
 The long sleep seemed to have been refreshing 
 to the vigor of liberty. At first there was bewilder- 
 ment. Dazed by the unaccustomed light of free- 
 dom, the Parisians were precipitated, at first, into a 
 frenzied communism. All the horrors of the great 
 revolution were revived. Leaders, maddened by 
 long suppression and disasters in war, sprang to the 
 front with the inauguration of another reign of ter- 
 ror. Some very worthy people wpre cruelly slaugh- 
 tered. The outlook was gloomy in the extreme. 
 Once more women of the humbler class rushed 
 
 wildly about as if they were daughters of the three 
 Furies. Petroleum was used as an agent of indis- 
 criminate destruction. The Column Vendome was 
 one of the more conspicuous objects of destructive 
 frenzy. 
 
 But that delirium of retribution was brief, and 
 not without its benefits. It served to show the 
 depth and intensity of the sentiment for liberty. 
 Humiliating as was the defeat of the French army, 
 the fall of the empire was ample compensation to the 
 people, and in the darkest hours of the nation the 
 hope of Republicanism shone as a star of the morning 
 
 in the hori- 
 zon of pop- 
 ular opin- 
 ion. 
 
 Napoleon 
 surrendered 
 to the Prus- 
 sians Sep- 
 tember 4, 
 1873, and 
 the siege of 
 Paris was 
 complete on 
 September 
 19th. It was 
 on the sev- 
 enth of the 
 next month 
 that Gam- 
 betta, the 
 one great 
 
 statesman of France, then Minister of the In- 
 terior, with authority to act as Minister of 
 War, escaped from Paris in a balloon, and at 
 once set about organizing an army of relief. 
 He hoped to break the siege by attack from with- 
 out. But he could not. In January following 
 Paris was obliged to open its gates to the enemy 
 and submit to such terms as the conquering Ger- 
 mans might dictate. Those terms were the surren- 
 der of Alsace and Lorraine and the payment of an 
 indemnity of $1,000,000,000, the Germans to en- 
 tirely evacuate the country only after all the money 
 had been paid. It was submission to these hard 
 terms and the removal of the Government from Paris 
 to Versailles that especially fired the frenzy of the com- 
 munists. It was a proud day for Kaiser William, who 
 
 7T 
 
 <0 
 

 292 
 
 LATTER-DAY FRANCE. 
 
 as a youth had witnessed Napoleon’s march through 
 Berlin, after Jena, to ride in triumph through the 
 streets of Paris. France was humiliated and im- 
 poverished, and the latest (and probably the last) of 
 the Bonapartes was a fugitive, destined to linger 
 only a few sad years in his retreat at Chisselhurst, 
 England, from which his son and heir was to go 
 forth, bearing a British commission, to fall a victim 
 to Zulu savagery, leaving the ex-Empress Eugenie 
 desolate. Retribution and revenge could ask no 
 more. 
 
 It is needless to follow the fluctuations of French 
 politics. The prudence and 
 patriotism of the people tri- 
 umphed. The republic found 
 in M. Thiers, the first presi- 
 dent, a stateman equal to the 
 emergency. As long ago as 
 the reign of Louis Philippe he 
 had risen to eminence. An 
 author and a politician, he 
 was trusted by the nation, and 
 he did not betray his trust. 
 
 His successor, Marshal Mac- 
 Mahon, although in sympathy 
 with the imperial party, re- 
 mained true to his oath as 
 President of the Republic. 
 
 At first the respective parti- 
 sans of the Bourbons, the Or- 
 leanists and the Bonapartists 
 were hopeful, but as time 
 wore on and the republic 
 passed successfully through petty emergencies, the 
 people settled down to the belief that the republic, 
 no less than the empire, means peace, and that self- 
 government is adapted to the French nation. When 
 M. Grevy came to the Presidency all serious appre- 
 hensions of reaction disappeared. The crisis was 
 really over. 
 
 The Republic of France is thoroughly centralized. 
 The political divisions of the country are, 36 prov- 
 inces, 86 departments, 362 arrondissements, 2,700 
 cantons and 36,000 communes. The commune cor- 
 responds to our city and town organizations. The 
 maire, or mayor, is appointed by the national gov- 
 ernment, and is under the supervision of the prefect 
 of a department. There is an under-prefect for each 
 arrondissemcnt. Cantons are divisions for elective, 
 
 judicial and military convenience. The American 
 and German respect for state rights is quite foreign 
 to the French conception of politics. Paris and 
 Lyons have some local self-government, but gener- 
 ally speaking, France is a thoroughly centralized 
 republic. 
 
 Paris has an importance, as compared with the 
 rest of the country, quite unknown to any other city 
 on the globe. London is not England, New York 
 is not the United States, nor Berlin Germany, to 
 anything like the extent that Paris is France. In 
 the great revolutions of the last century and in sub- 
 sequent uprisings, the city took 
 the lead and controlled events. 
 The great names of France, 
 whatever the department of 
 thought and action, belong to 
 Paris. Lyons can make silk, 
 the vineyards of the rural dis- 
 tricts slake thirst, and Havre 
 harbors ships ; but Paris is 
 the focal point of all Frefich 
 genius, glory and achieve- 
 ments. All the railroads lead 
 thither and all the aspirations 
 of the people tend to its ag- 
 grandizement. So old that 
 Caesar rebuilt it, yet so new 
 that it is the very flower of 
 modern civilization, it is the 
 most luxurious city on the 
 globe. 
 
 The French may be set down 
 as the most contented people of Europe. The 
 emigration from there is almost none at all, 
 except that the Basques of the department of 
 the Haute-Pyrenees have, many of them, gone 
 to South America to escape military proscrip- 
 tion. The ordinary Frenchman prefers not 
 only his native land, but his native commune. 
 Eighty-five per cent, of the people are born, live and 
 die in the same place. The real estate is divided 
 among no less than 5,550,000 proprietors. No less 
 than five millions of freeholders have less than six 
 acres of land each. The public debt is also very 
 widely distributed. In 1879 the total bonded debt 
 of France was in francs 19,862,035,783, or nearly 
 84,000,000,000. The number of bondholders was 
 4,380,933, or, in rough numbers, one government 
 
 FT 
 
\ Q_ 
 
 bL 
 
 LATTER-DAY FRANCE. 
 
 2 93 
 
 bondholder to every $1,000 of the public debt. The 
 greater part of this debt draws three per cent, in- 
 terest, one-third of it five per cent. The total an- 
 nual revenue, or rentes, of the people from these 
 bonds is 748,404,952 francs. There is no thought 
 of paying the principal of this debt. It is held at 
 home and constitutes a permanent and perfectly 
 safe investment. Transactions in rentes and other se- 
 curities are conduc- 
 ted on the Bourse. 
 
 The population of 
 France in 1880 was 
 37,166,000. The 
 population of the 
 provinces wrested 
 from France by Ger- 
 many as a part of 
 the results of the 
 Franco-German war 
 may be set down at 
 a million and a half. 
 
 The number of the 
 depositors in savings 
 banks and holders of 
 rentes numbered in 1879, 7,454,863. The people are 
 economical, industrious and cheerful. The French 
 masses are quite illiterate. Setting aside four millions 
 of children under six years of age, and it may be said 
 that thirty per cent, of the population can neither 
 read nor write. Once Protestantism seemed likely to 
 be the religion of the country, but by the latest census 
 98.02 per cent, of the people are Romanists, only 1.6 
 per cent. Protestants. All religions are equal before 
 
 the law, except that state allowances for the clergy 
 are confined to the Roman Catholics, Protestants 
 and Jews. 
 
 The present colonial possessions of France are 
 utterly insignificant. They contain a population 
 of about two and a half millions, but with the excep- 
 tion of two thousand natives of France the colonists 
 are barbarians, most of them downright savages. 
 
 Slavery was abolish- 
 ed in all the colo- 
 nies in 1848. 
 
 There have been 
 some great authors 
 in France since Vol- 
 taire, but none of 
 those belonging to 
 this century can 
 claim the very high- 
 est rank except Vic- 
 tor Hugo. His Les 
 Miserahles may just- 
 ly be set down as 
 the greatest novel 
 ever written. Its 
 popularity was prodigious and its influence incalcu- 
 lable. Written for the purpose of showing that 
 knowledge is the great reformatory agency in the 
 world, it has a strength and vigor of thought almost 
 Shakspearean. Dumas, father and son, deserve hon- 
 orable mention, as does “George Sand” (Madam, 
 Dudevant), but their place in literature is not among 
 the immortals. Taine and Louis Blanc must be ac- 
 corded exalted praise as critics and that is all. 
 
 f 
 
 
 •'« s 
 
 V 
 

 
 I' M l!t T*f . . ■ .'. . iV: ' T i ft. ; , ‘ i . "‘f >, . . 
 
 CELTIC, GOTHIC AND MOORISH SPAIN 
 
 SHHHi 
 
 CHAPTER XLIX. 
 
 Ibeeia and the First Age of Spain — The Gothic Period— Theological Animosity — Invasion 
 of the Mooes — The Moorish Kingdom Established — The Light of Cordova — Zarah the 
 Luxurious — The Moorish Civilization — Arrevoes and the Religious Reaction — Fall of 
 Cordova and Rise of Granada — The Alhambra — The Glory and Shame of Spain — The 
 Fall of Malaga— The Conquest of Granada. 
 
 
 HE present nation of Spain 
 comprises, in its home ter- 
 ritory, an area of 225,600 
 square miles. The term 
 Spanish Peninsula, or The 
 Peninsula, is used to des- 
 ignate both that country 
 and Portugal. The latter 
 did not have a separate existence 
 until a comparatively late date, 
 and the old name Iberia applies to 
 the entire peninsula region. The 
 first inhabitants, called Iberians, 
 were Celts. The Phoenicians were 
 the first to introduce civilization 
 into the Peninsula. They estab- 
 lished several trading posts along 
 the coast. These were followed by 
 several Greek colonies, and later still by Cartha- 
 ginian settlements. During the second Punic Wars 
 Spain was the base of operations for the Cartha- 
 ginians under Ilamilcar and Hannibal, the Romans 
 under Scipi®. After that it became a part of the 
 Roman Empire. Then for the first time the leaven 
 of civilization began to permeate the country. As 
 a part of the great Roman Empire, Iberia produced 
 many men of note. It was the birth-place of the 
 
 Emperors Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus, Marcus 
 Aurelius and Theodosius, also of the great moral 
 philosopher Seneca, the poets Lucan and Martial and 
 the accomplished rhetorician Quintilian. Very early 
 and readily it accepted Christianity. It is thought 
 by some that it was introduced by St. Paul himself. 
 
 When the Northern horde overran the Roman 
 Empire the Iberian Peninsula was a peculiarly 
 tempting field for spoliation. That was at the be- 
 ginning of the fifth century. Three kingdoms were 
 formed, the Gothic or Visigothic, the Suevic and 
 the Vandalic. The Vandals were soon difiven 
 across the Mediterranean, and their present descen- 
 dants are called Berbers. During the century the 
 Suevic kingdom was absorbed. The new 'order of 
 things which succeeded the Roman sway was Gothic. 
 There were thirty-six kings of the latter line, none 
 of them deserving especial mention. Toledo was the 
 chief capital of Gothic Spain, but Cordova and 
 Seville were flourishing cities. For a time the Gothic 
 kingdom included France. It rose to its highest 
 degree of splendor under Euric who fixed his capital 
 at Arles, where he died in 485. 
 
 In the days of Gothic supremacy theological war 
 was waged with the greatest fury. Euric was an 
 Arian, as were the other earlier kings of his race, 
 but the Franks were Athanasians. Finally, how- 
 
 1 
 
 ( 2 94 > 
 
G> 
 
 CELTIC, GOTHIC AND MOORISH SPAIN. 
 
 2 95 
 
 ever the power of Rome was felt and the Arian 
 faith was supplanted by the doctrine of the trinity 
 which Western Europe denominates orthodox. 
 The clergy acquired more power in Spain than any- 
 where else. The synods were petty parliaments and 
 the bishops exercised 
 judicial functions. 
 
 The church could 
 hardly have asked 
 for more power than 
 it enjoyed in Spain 
 under the Goths. 
 
 No meritorious liter- 
 ary works belong to 
 the Gothic period. 
 
 It was a season of 
 barbarism and retro- 
 gression. Slavery ex- 
 isted in its worst 
 forms and the land 
 was one dreary waste 
 of misery and crime, 
 a vast moral and in- 
 tellectual desert. 
 
 The chapter on 
 the Saracen Empire 
 served as an intro- 
 duction to the period 
 of Spanish history 
 upon which we now 
 enter. The Moors 
 with their Crescent 
 and “good Damas- 
 cus blades,” were 
 invited to cross over 
 and lend a helping 
 hand to one of the 
 factions in a civil 
 war which was rag- 
 ing between the 
 Goths over the crown, which was elective. When 
 they got there they proposed to stay. Their leader, 
 Gebal-Tarik, had all the heroism of the best days of 
 Islam. Like Cortez at Vera Cruz, he burnt his 
 ships, and thus compelled his soldiers to protect 
 themselves by the scimetar against the Goths (for 
 hardly had they come over before the factions 
 united to drive them back). A three-days’ battle 
 was fought which resulted in the complete victor}' 
 
 INTERIOR OP TOLEDO CATHEDRAL. 
 
 of the Moors. In a very short time the invaders 
 had driven the Christians to the mountains and 
 taken possession of all the fertile plains and pros- 
 perous cities of the Peninsula in the name of the 
 Prophet. Gebal-Tarik was soon joined by Musa, the 
 
 Governor of North- 
 ern Africa, as Emir, 
 or representative of 
 the Caliph at Da- 
 mascus. During the 
 Ommiad dynasty 
 Spain remained a 
 province of the Sar- 
 acen Empire ; but 
 when that dynasty 
 fell and there was 
 division among the 
 faithful as to the 
 rightful leadership 
 of Islam, it became 
 independent, under 
 the royal sway of a 
 descendant of the 
 old dynasty of the 
 Ommiads. 
 
 The Moors had 
 crossed the Straits 
 of Gibraltar in April, 
 711, and twenty-two 
 years later Charles 
 Martel won the great 
 victory which saved 
 Europe north of the 
 Pyrenees from the 
 invasion, and made 
 that chain of moun- 
 tains the boundary 
 line, in the West, 
 for some seven cen- 
 turies, between the 
 two religions of modern times. Twenty-two years 
 later the kingdom, in distinction from the depend- 
 ency, was established, with Cordova as the capital. 
 
 The first Moorish King of Spain was Abderahman, 
 who reigned thirty years, and was a great soldier, a 
 real statesman and a humane gentleman. The last 
 was Abdallah the Unfortunate, sometimes called 
 Boabdil. It was in the middle of the eighth cen- 
 tury that the former came into his kingdom, 
 
 > 
 
 .. v9 
 
 C> V 
 
 37 
 
s> 
 
 If- 
 
 296 
 
 CELTIC, GOTHIC AND MOORISH SPAIN. 
 
 and almost the close of the fifteenth century 
 when the latter withdrew from his, and the 
 Moorish invasion of Spain was at an end for ever. 
 During that long period there was almost constant 
 war between the Moslems and the Christians, and 
 these different religionists were at war among each 
 other. Indeed, the Moors were fatally weakened by 
 internal dissensions, rather than by the hostility of 
 the Cross and the Crescent. 
 
 middle of the ninth century. He encouraged all 
 the arts of industry. The poor found profitable 
 employment, especially in building and adorn- 
 ing the capital, constructing roads and bridges, 
 planting vineyards and raising grain. Men of 
 distinction were invited to the court without re- 
 gard to race or religion. To him succeeded a series 
 of kings who were kept busy in trying to suppress 
 insurrections and maintain what had been be- 
 
 The question of final supremacy rested not so 
 much on which church was the stronger as which 
 was least rent and torn by its own rivalries, hates 
 and ambitions. 
 
 It was in Spain that the civilization of the Sara- 
 cens attained its most glorious results. The best 
 blood of Arabia and all the Moslem lands flowed 
 thither and built up a nation of brave soldiers, eru- 
 dite scholars and skilled artisans. Cordova was loner 
 
 O 
 
 the seat of empire. The Christians were driven 
 back and only allowed to establish themselves in the 
 province of Asturias, about the Bay of Biscay. The 
 second king to reflect honor upon the throne at 
 Cordova was Abderahman II., who flourished in the 
 
 queathed to them. In 912 another Abderahman, in 
 name and character, came to the throne, under 
 whom the kingdom was harmonious, but against 
 whom a very formidable Christian army marched. 
 Under Ramiro II. the two armies met near Sala- 
 manca and a terrible battle ensued. The Christians 
 were greatly discouraged if not utterly defeated, 
 while the Moors were left in undisputed possession 
 of their magnificent and fertile possessions. This 
 king added greatly to the glory of Cordova. 
 
 The city of Zarah, named after his favorite wife, 
 was built as a suburb of Cordova, and if we may 
 give any credit to Moorish chronicles, it was the 
 most luxurious city of palatial residences ever 
 
 K 
 

 CELTIC, GOTHIC AND MOORISH SPAIN. 
 
 reared upon this earth. Built at the base of a 
 mountain, it enjoyed a delightful climate almost 
 uninterruptedly. It was profusely supplied with 
 fountains, gardens, parks and boulevards. The 
 houses were built on one model and surrounded by 
 gardens, terraces and 
 every conceivable 
 appliance of luxury. 
 
 The central beauty 
 of Zarah was a pal- 
 ace with a roof sup- 
 ported by four thous- 
 and pillars of varie- 
 gated marble, inclu- 
 ding not only sombre 
 shafts from Egypt, 
 and white shafts 
 from Italy, but state- 
 ly malachite from 
 Russia, procured 
 through tfhe com- 
 merce of “ Novgorod 
 the Good.” The 
 floors and walls were 
 of the same material, 
 all polished to the 
 highest degree. Gold, 
 burnished steel and 
 precious jewels em- 
 bellished the ceiling. 
 
 It was luxury car- 
 ried to the loftiest 
 heights. 
 
 But the chief glory 
 of Cordova and its 
 suburb was not ar- 
 chitectural or ma- 
 terial in any sense. 
 
 Poetry, history, the 
 exact sciences, geog- 
 raphy, chemistry, medicine, inventions, discoveries, 
 and all that go to the composition of culture, found 
 its natural center there. The value of the literature 
 developed cannot be measured with any degree of 
 accuracy, for the vandalism of the Christians who 
 finally expelled the Moors, spared nothing. Whatever 
 was written in Arabic characters was assumed to be 
 the Koran, and doomed to the flames. The palaces 
 were torn down, the gardens desolated, and the real 
 
 treasures of the city destroyed. But much which 
 made the Renaissance possible and beneficent may be 
 traced to Cordova. Not that the Moors in Spain, 
 any more than the Saracens generally, were actual 
 creators of a distinctive civilization, but that they 
 
 found, conserved, 
 and to some extent 
 fused, the civiliza- 
 tions of Greece and 
 India. They were 
 apt scholars and 
 faitliful transmit- 
 ters. 
 
 The most illustri- 
 ous name in Cordo- 
 va’s crown of glory 
 is Averroes, a ripe 
 scholar and pro- 
 found philosopher. 
 
 He was what would 
 be called an agnostic 
 in our day, too broad 
 and liberal to be tol- 
 erated even in toler- 
 ant Cordova. His 
 philosophy seems to 
 have opened the eyes 
 of the devout be- 
 lievers in the Pro- 
 phet to the danger 
 of religion from 
 science. He was 
 persecuted as a her- \ 
 etic. His genius was 
 the glory of the 
 twelfth century, and 
 his persecution was 
 the triumph of the 
 Koran over free 
 thought and scien- 
 tific inquiry, the turning-point, in fact, of the 
 Moslem. Had his spirit of progress prevailed, the 
 regeneration of Europe by the Moors would have 
 been probable ; but orthodoxy triumphed, and the 
 country was held within the narrow limits of a book 
 having no scientific virtue, and Averroeism was 
 obliged to await encouragement and development in 
 Christian lands ages later. The Moors in Spain, i 
 like the Saracens in the East, marched nobly and 
 
 * 7 [ 
 
 v 
 
 o 
 

 298 
 
 CELTIC, GOTHIC AND MOORISH SPAIN. 
 
 swiftly to tlie very door of modern civilization, hut 
 only to pause upon the threshold and draw back for- 
 ever. No second Averroes came to lead the Moslem 
 intellect out of bondage to a Book. 
 
 In the year 1234 the Christians took Cordova, 
 the Moors no longer being succored by their breth- 
 ren in Africa, nor able by themselves to withstand 
 the assaults of their enemies. Granada then became 
 the capital of the Moslem power in Spain, and so 
 continued to be to the end. There the Mohamme- 
 
 eitlier. Jews and Christians were made welcome. 
 If Granada could not boast the Mosque of Cor- 
 dova, the Giralda of Seville, or the palace of Zarah, 
 its Alhambra was even a more wonderful triumph 
 of architecture than any of these. Its foundation 
 is ascribed to Mohammed I., who died in 1273. It 
 was a group of buildings with their surroundings, 
 rather than one edifice, with the royal residence as 
 its center. It was peculiarly Saracenic in this, that it 
 combined the characteristic merits of every kind of 
 
 
 dans rallied and maintained themselves for two cen- 
 turies and a half. A recent writer, speaking of the 
 kingdom of Granada, says, “ Its fertile valleys em- 
 braced the garden of the Peninsula ; its industrious 
 population carried agriculture to a degree of perfec- 
 tion unknown to modern times ; its mountains 
 yielded great quantities of the precious metals ; its 
 manufactures of silk and porcelain found a ready 
 market in the courts of semi-barbaric Europe ; the 
 commerce of Alcmena and Malaga, its principal sea- 
 ports, extended to the Indies,” and he might have 
 added, to every port of trade. Within that succes- 
 sor of Cordova, Granada, gathered a population 
 of a half a million people, not all Mohammedans 
 
 known architecture, Roman, Babylonian, Phoeni- 
 cian, Persian, Greek and Egyptian. It was not 
 only a royal residence and seat of government, but 
 it was also a home of learning and intelligence. 
 The barbarism of Christian Spain has wholly de- 
 stroyed much and greatly defaced all, but enough 
 remains to testify that the Alhambra was one of the 
 marvels of the world, and its destruction a vast 
 public crime. 
 
 As in Condova, so in Granada, dissensions made 
 conquest possible. The territory of Islam was 
 gradually narrowed by Christian encroachments. 
 New states of considerable power arose. Portugal 
 came into existence in 1145 ; Navarre extended 
 
 
3 
 
 ■yjs 
 
 CELTIC, GOTHIC AND MOORISH SPAIN. 
 
 2 99 
 
 both North and South of the Pyrenees, and stron- 
 ger than either were Castile and Aragon, especially 
 the former. The two latter were united when Fer- 
 dinand, King of Aragon, married Isabella, Queen 
 of Castile. Each reigned in his or her own right, 
 but being happy in their marital relations, they 
 formed one sovereignty. Together they set about 
 overthrowing the Moorish Kingdom, and they were 
 successful. The glories of Columbus are thus 
 blended, in a sense, with the shame of Boabdil, the 
 honor of discovering a new world with the reproach 
 of quenching the brightest light in the old world. 
 
 The first campaign of destruction was directed 
 against Malaga. That Liverpool of its day fell in 
 1487. The people were sold into slavery or par- 
 celed out among the victors as prizes of war in the 
 most barbaric manner. The more beautiful females 
 were sent, in large numbers, to Rome, Paris and 
 other centers of power, as gifts, in accordance with 
 the monstrous conception then common of inter- 
 national comity. The captured city was repeopled 
 with Christian Spaniards, and the conquerors were 
 encouraged to plot further spoliation and slaughter, 
 robbery and outrage. 
 
 In the spring of 1491 Ferdinand raised a power- 
 
 ful army and encamped with his host within a few 
 miles of the battlements of Granada, determined 
 to complete the work of conquest. Abdallah, or 
 Boabdil, the king of the Spanish Moors, was in per- 
 sonal command at Granada. The city was well 
 adapted to defensive warfare ; but even in the pres- 
 ence of impending ruin there was dissension, and to 
 that cause, hardly less than to the prowess of the 
 besiegers, the beleagured city owed its fall, for fall 
 it did. On the second day of the year 1492 it was 
 obliged to capitulate. The soldiers of the Cross 
 took possession of the Alhambra in the name of 
 Christ, and the vanquished king withdrew with his 
 people to a small mountainous territory in the 
 midst of the Alpuxarrus Mountains, where he was 
 allowed for a short time to rule as governor, and 
 vassal of the Christian monarch. But the Moors 
 were unequal to the task of building a third king- 
 dom upon Spanish soil. Not long after, Boabdil 
 crossed the straits of Gibraltar and was lost among 
 the Moors of Africa. With him did not, however, 
 disappear the Arab from Europe. There lingered 
 much of the old stock, but as a separate and puis- 
 sant political power the Moor ceased to exist in 
 Europe with the fall of Granada. 
 
Spain and Portugal — The Moors and Moriscoes — Persecution of the Jews — The Inquisition 
 AND AUTO-DA-FE— XlMENES AND TORQUEMADA — BlRTH AND EARLY EXPERIENCES OF CHRISTO- 
 PHER Columbus — The Great Discovery — Subsequent Career of the Great Discoverer — 
 Indian and African Slavery— Last Days of Ferdinand and Isabella. 
 
 CHAPTER L. 
 
 HE marriage of Ferdinand 
 and Isabella (1469) was 
 the union of two loving 
 and ever faithful hearts. 
 For thir- 
 
 ty years 
 they liv- 
 ed together in 
 harmony, and in 
 their marital re- 
 lations were mod- 
 els of domestic 
 virtue and grace. 
 
 Never was there a 
 better illustration 
 of the adage, “ In 
 union is strength.” 
 
 The fall of Granada was the first 
 great result of their cooperative 
 energy. Castile and Aragon were 
 then and throughout in practical unity, and out of 
 that unity grew modern Spain. Neither kingdom 
 lost its individuality at once, but the conquest of a 
 splendid country like Granada by their united 
 effort rendered any separation of interest imprac- 
 ticable. A new name was only a question of 
 time. Before a common heir to both Castile and 
 Aragon came to the throne, other important 
 
 additions of area were made, and it required 
 only a matrimonial alliance with Portugal to 
 prepare the way for the complete unification of the 
 Peninsula under one throne. Ferdinand and Isa- 
 bella made the necessary pro- 
 vision for such a consummation 
 by the marriage of their daugh- 
 ter with the heir of Portugal, 
 and their son with a daughter 
 
 But 
 
 of the King of Portugal. 
 
 in both cases death prevented 
 the success of the plan, and 
 instead of uniting all Iberia, 
 the country became two king- 
 doms as now, Spain and Portu- 
 gal. 
 
 In the fall of Granada, Castile 
 and Aragon had no assistance 
 of moment, but all Europe was 
 delighted. Christendom felt 
 that the overthrow of the Saracens in Spain was 
 an offset for failure in the Crusades, and for 
 encroachments upon the Greek Church on the 
 Bosphorus and along the Danube. Only one 
 thing marred the satisfaction of the pious, and 
 that was that the treaty of Granada guaranteed 
 to the Moors the free enjoyment of their religion. 
 Under that arrangement many thousands of Mos- 
 
 FERDINAND AND ISABELLA. 
 
 ( 3 °°) 
 
S) 
 
 
 k. 
 
 FERDINAND AND ISABELLA. 30I 
 
 lems remained in the land, worshiping God accord- 
 ing to the Koran. But the perfidy of ecclesiastical 
 counselors was equal to the emergency. A synod 
 of bishops and other dignitaries of the church de- 
 cided to “solicit” the conversion of the Mohamme- 
 dans by ordering those who did not embrace the 
 Christian religion to leave the country, taking with 
 them neither gold nor silver. Confiscation and ban- 
 ishment, practically, were the penalty of fidelity to 
 Islam. And this policy was rigorously carried out. 
 A great many accepted Christianity, receiving bap- 
 tism and abstaining from every form of Moslem 
 worship. To recant in any way 
 was sure death. Those who were 
 thus converted became known as 
 Moriscoes. The more liberal and 
 educated class cared little for 
 their religion. Those who clung 
 to the old faith of Mecca were 
 obliged to cross the Mediter- 
 ranean. Some of them settled 
 along the northern border of 
 Africa, but many pushed boldly 
 southward and established their 
 seats of learning and other in- 
 stitutions in Soudan. The Cres- 
 cent owes much of its present 
 power among the Africans of the 
 interior to the banished Moors of 
 Spain. But their civilization 
 succumbed to the adverse pressure 
 of a tropical climate, and long 
 since lost its vitality. It should be added that not 
 a few of the more heroic Moors were either burnt at 
 the stake or sold into slavery by Ferdinand and 
 Isabella in their terrible and relentless policy of ex- 
 tirpation. Not content with such perfidy, Ferdi- 
 nand, near the close of his reign, sent an army over 
 into Africa to plunder the Moors by wasting their 
 country and committing every species of outrage. 
 
 Black and infamous as is the record of Spain’s 
 treatment of the Moors at this time, it is not so ut- 
 terly detestable as the record of Jewish persecution. 
 The Moors were looked upon as intruders and ene- 
 mies of the country; the Jews were an integral, 
 loyal and useful part of the native population. They 
 had been in the country many centuries, for the 
 most part, and were in all respects homogeneous, ex- 
 cept that in the one matter of religion they remain- 
 
 ed true to their ancestral faith. The spirit of perse- 
 cution was stimulated by the fall of Granada, and 
 in the same year an edict was issued requiring those 
 Jews who would not recant to leave the country, 
 taking neither gold nor silver with them. The de- 
 cree was issued in March to go into effect in July. 
 Very few of the people recanted, and they were 
 hunted down pitilessly. Vast numbers perished, 
 and those who escaped suffered terribly. Some laid 
 down to die on the sands of Africa ; others perished 
 of disease contracted in overcrowded ships in which 
 they took passage for other parts of Europe. At 
 that time the new continent had 
 not been discovered, and nowhere 
 was there a welcome retreat for 
 these distressed people. They had 
 enjoyed liberty under the Moors, 
 and acquired large landed estates. 
 Granada w r as the medieval para- 
 dise of the Hebrews. To be up- 
 rooted and desolated without 
 cause, and contrary to treaty ob- 
 ligations, was one of the greatest 
 crimes of history. There were 
 probably half a million Jews in 
 Spain at that time. They were 
 hunted down like wild beasts, 
 and even the King of Portugal 
 was not allowed to harbor them. 
 
 The great instrument of this 
 destruction of two peoples, the 
 Moors and the Jews, was the In- 
 quisition. It had existed for some time in a lanquid 
 way, but the austere Ferdinand and his pious wife 
 were persuaded that it was their religious duty to 
 ply that agency of conversion unsparingly. The 
 belief of the time was that submission to the rite of 
 baptism was salvation from hell, and that heresy, of 
 whatever kind or degree, was the worst form of 
 crime. The church had always been exceptionally 
 influential in Spain, but now it was absolute, and 
 the Inquisition (“bed of justice”) was the supremo 
 tribunal, and the lurid fire of the auto-da-fe made 
 hideous the whole sky of Spain. France had her 
 Massacre of St. Bartholomew, but that was a gentle 
 shower as compared with the flood which deluged 
 Spain with blood during the joint reign of these two 
 conscientious sovereigns. Under their sway the 
 country was so completely subjugated to the will of 
 
JV 
 
 s\J- 
 
 3° 2 
 
 FERDINAND AND ISABELLA. 
 
 Romish priests that had it not been for other pos- 
 sessions in Holland their persecuting descendants 
 would have been denied the grim privilege of per- 
 secution. Absolutely no mercy was ever shown to 
 any form of heresy in Spain, and never was a work 
 of destruction more thorough or cruel. 
 
 In this policy two ecclesiastics, as well as two sov- 
 ereigns, were conspicuous, Torqueinada the Inquisi- 
 tor, and Cardinal Ximenes, the Richelieu of Spain. 
 The former had been the confessor of Isabella, and 
 hadunlimitedinfluence overlier. Withno thought but 
 to extirpate heretics he spent his life in the service of 
 the Inquisition. 
 
 Ximenes was a 
 statesman of ex- 
 traordinary abil- 
 ity and thorough 
 devotion to the 
 church. He 
 sought to make 
 the church and 
 state one, and 
 both invincible. 
 
 He was unscru- 
 pulous, crafty 
 and heartless. 
 
 Many stories 
 were told by ec- 
 clesiastical writ- 
 of the per- 
 
 ers 
 
 sonal goodness 
 of these two 
 men, some of 
 
 which have found their way into received history ; 
 but the needless outrages which Ximenes encour- 
 aged and the wealth which he accumulated stamp 
 him as a monster of wickedness, while Torquemada 
 was more bigoted if possible than the cardinal, 
 but unstained with avarice. Together they crushed 
 and destroyed not only free thought but learning 
 and progress. Henceforth, notwithstanding the 
 glories of the New AVorld, Spain declined in char- 
 acter and intelligence. 
 
 The same year that Granada fell and the Jews 
 were robbed and banished, America was discovered, 
 and all under substantially the same impulse. If 
 neither Torquemada nor Ximenes may claim the 
 credit of inducing Isabella to enter upon the enter- 
 prise of discovery (for to her rather than to herhus- 
 
 COLUMBUS EXPLAINING HIS VOYAGE. 
 
 band was Columbus indebted) it was none the less 
 due to priestly intervention. It was the great nav- 
 igator’s good fortune to enlist the support of a 
 former confessor of the queen, and the influence of 
 that ecclesiastic was decisive. Thus the same un- 
 derlying motive explains both the shame and the 
 glory of Spain. 
 
 The story of Columbus is peculiarly interesting. 
 A recent writer of much erudition has taken pains 
 to show from official documents that Christopher 
 Columbus was anything but an admirable man in 
 character, and that his ill-fortune, late in life, was due 
 
 to his own mis- 
 conduct ; but so 
 vast is the debt 
 of the world to 
 him that the 
 mantle of obliv- 
 ion may well be 
 thrown over all 
 that. He de- 
 serves to be held 
 in grateful and. 
 tender memory. 
 His story may 
 be briefly, told. , 
 Born in (^gnaka* 
 in 1435, the son 
 of a wool-comb- 
 er, at fourteen 
 he became a sail- 
 or. His native 
 city was then an 
 important but declining mart of maritime trade. 
 About the age of 35 
 lie made Lisbon, Por- 
 tugal, his home, and 
 map-making his busi- 
 ness. That was the 
 golden age of Portu- 
 gal. King John was 
 the most enterprising 
 monarch in Europe, 
 and he encouraged 
 navigation on a liber- 
 al scale. The ships coi.rMnrs. 
 
 of Lisbon skirted the African coast along the At- 
 lantic and penetrated as far as the Azores islauds j 
 continually adding to geographical and maritime 
 
 'N 
 
 J 
 
 r 
 

 FERDINAND AND ISABELLA. 
 
 3°3 
 
 The argument which he used was that by a short 
 cut to India immense treasures would be secured, 
 the gospel of Christ extended, and the revenue de- 
 rived be sufficient to equip another crusade against 
 the Moslem. That was an age of superstition and 
 avarice, and he held out the inducements most 
 likely to be influential. A wealthy Spaniard, 
 Alonzo Pinzon, offered to defray one-eighth of the 
 expense, and the Queen undertook the fitting out 
 of three vessels for the expedition, pledging, says 
 the narrative, her personal jewels. This, however, 
 is quite improbable, for Granada had just fallen, and 
 its plunder had enriched the coffers of both Castile 
 and Aragon. 
 
 fives Indians, a misnomer which has clung to them 
 ever since, and given to the islands discovered the 
 name of West Indies. He returned with many 
 specimens of the country, including several of the 
 Aborigines. Among the products found and intro- 
 duced into Europe were potatoes, tobacco and In- 
 dian corn. Ilis return was hailed as a great event 
 all over Europe. In Spain he was honored by the 
 people and the sovereigns as befitted his supreme 
 achievement. 
 
 A second expedition soon set sail for the new 
 world, indulging the most extravagant anticipa- 
 tions. Everybody was wild with golden expectations. 
 But very little was found to meet the views of the 
 
 knowledge. Map making was thus a progressive 
 science, no less than a trade. The roundness of the 
 world had been philosophically established, the mar- 
 iner’s compass discovered, and the way prepared for 
 the circumnavigation of the world ; but no one 
 seemed to have conceived the idea of trying to reach 
 the farthest east by sailing directly west, until 
 that idea took possession of the mind of Columbus. 
 He spent several years in trying to secure the funds 
 by royal patronage for his voyage. He was repeat- 
 edly refused and rebuffed and almost discouraged. 
 
 This most memorable of all expeditions sailed 
 from Palos October 12, 1492. It was with the ut- 
 most difficulty, toward the last, that Columbus could 
 keep his sailors from turning back, but finally, on 
 the 12th of December, land was discovered and 
 reached. He had found the island of San Salva- 
 dor. The natives received the voyagers with open 
 arms of friendship. They cruised about some days, 
 discovering several islands, including Hayti, or San 
 Domingo, and Cuba. Supposing he had reached 
 the land for which he had sailed, he called the na- 
 
 LANDING OP COLUMBUS IN THE NEW WORLD— afteb a Painting by Puebla. 
 
 IL 
 
 ““ 
 
 3 « 
 
 "Cl 
 

 
 3°4 
 
 FERDINAND AND ISABELLA. 
 
 adventurers. After coasting along the east shore 
 of South America, finding neither a passage to In- 
 dia, nor gold and silver mines, many returned home 
 in disgust and others remained sullen with discon- 
 tent. A reaction set in, and Columbus was super- 
 seded in command of the colony established in 
 Cuba by Bobadilla, who ordered the Admiral home 
 in chains. That injustice created a feeling in his 
 favor, and he was sent back the third time as gov- 
 ernor of the colony. That was in 1501. In the 
 meanwhile the Span- 
 iards in the new world 
 had enslaved the na- 
 tives, and under pre- 
 text of converting 
 them to Christianity, 
 were subjecting them 
 to extirpating cruel- 
 ties. The natives of 
 those once happy 
 islands were early 
 annihilated by their 
 inhuman task-mas- 
 ters, and their places 
 supplied by importa- 
 tions of Negroes. If 
 Columbus was not 
 responsible for slavery 
 he did nothing to 
 prevent or ameliorate 
 
 it. In conception of justice he was not in advance 
 of his age. Not only was the enslavement of two 
 races introduced in America in his time, but the use 
 of bloodhounds in chasing the fugitive slaves. 
 Half a century saw the native population swept 
 from those islands by the atrocity of the Spaniards. 
 
 Disappointed in his search for gold, and saddened 
 by the results of his genius, Columbus returned to 
 
 Spain, and in the year 1506 he died, poor, heart- 
 broken and neglected. After his death he was re- 
 stored to popular favor, and his remains removed 
 to Hayti for interment. In 1795 the bones of the 
 great discoverer were removed to their present in- 
 terment, the Cathedral of Havana, Cuba. It was 
 not until about the time of his death that the Span- 
 ish dream of gold and silver was realized. 
 
 The principal events of the eventful joint rule of 
 Ferdinand and Isabella have now been narrated. 
 
 The Queen died in the 
 odor of sanctity Nov- 
 ember 26, 1504, in the 
 forty-fourth year of 
 her age and the thirti- 
 eth of her reign. Of 
 her children there re- 
 mained only one 
 daughter, J oanna, and 
 she was insane. Jo- 
 anna’s son Charles, 
 afterwards illustrious 
 as Charles V., was the 
 heir of Castile and 
 Aragon, on his moth- 
 er’s side ; and on the 
 side of his father, 
 Philip, son of Maxi- 
 milian of Germany, 
 also heir of the Neth- 
 erlands, and he was, as it proved, heir also of 
 the German Empire. Ferdinand survived Isa- 
 bella a few years, marrying the niece of the 
 King of France. His last years were unevent- 
 ful, and may well be passed over. His life-work was 
 completed when the woman who was really his 
 “ better-half ” passed away. He lagged superfluous 
 until January 22, 1516, when he too passed away. 
 
 
 7 
 
 
-^1 
 
 k- 
 
 CHAPTER LI 
 
 Isabella’s Character and Death — Spanish Union — Philip and Juana — Character op 
 Ferdinand — Charles V. — Philip the Catholic — Marriage with “ Bloody Mary ” — The 
 “Invincible Armada ’’—The Escurial— Portuguese and Spanish Crowns — Philip the 
 Imbecile — The Moriscoes and Spain — Philip IV. and Spain — The Last op the IIapsburgs 
 — First op the Bourbons — Continued Decline — Loss op Territory — Napoleon and Spain 
 — Joseph Bonaparte — The Bourbons Restored — Louis Philippe’s Trick and What Came 
 op it— “The Apostolic Junta and Carlism” — Charles, Karl and Carlos — Ferdinand 
 AMI. and Queen Regent Maria Christina— Isabella II. — Provisional Government — The 
 Republican Experiment and Castelar — Amadeus I. and Marshal Prim — Another Inter- 
 regnum-Bourbons Again Restored— Alfonso and the Present Government — Spanish 
 Art and Literature, Murillo, the Cid, Calderon, Cervantes, Don Quixote and 
 the National Ballads. 
 
 T 
 
 of her 
 which 
 ial in 
 justly 
 
 HE personal virtues of Isa- 
 bella, and the service she 
 rendered the world as the 
 patron of Christopher Co- 
 lumbus will evermore en- 
 shrine her name in the af- 
 fections of mankind. Pure 
 in heart and free from 
 guile, she no doubt maintained “a 
 conscience void of offense.” She 
 was, however, very far from being 
 a model ruler. The policy of the 
 government toward Moors, Jews 
 and heretics was cruel and unjust. 
 She herself was the victim of 
 superstition, and so far miscon- 
 ceived the sphere of civil authority 
 as to devote herself largely to the 
 regulation of the religious affairs 
 subjects by means of persecution. But all 
 she did or sanctioned in that line seems triv- 
 comparison with what followed. She was 
 styled the Catholic Queen, but it was not 
 
 until after her death that Catholic Spain, in the 
 most pronounced sense of the term, came into view 
 and held its ground as the supreme political expres- 
 sion of the Roman Catholic church. 
 
 We have used the name Spain from the first and 
 treated the country as if it were one ; but in point 
 of fact, as the reader has observed, there were sev- 
 eral states, each independent of the other, Castile 
 being the most powerful and Aragon second. Fer- 
 dinand and Isabella never merged their kingdoms, 
 but their personal union proved in effect the mar- 
 riage of States. It may be said that when Ferdi- 
 nand followed his consort to the grave their two 
 kingdoms, with their accessories, were merged into 
 one nation. 
 
 Ferdinand and Isabella had been unfortunate in 
 their children. Several died young, and when the 
 illustrious queen died her only heir was Juana, wife 
 of Philip, Archduke of Austria, son and heir of 
 Maximilian I., Finperor of Germany. By her will, 
 executed October 12, 1504, Isabella bestowed the 
 crown of Castile upon Juana as “ Queen Proprie- 
 tor ” and her husband. By the Concord of Sala- 
 
 ( 3 ° 5 ) 
 
; A, 
 
 306 
 
 CATHOLIC SPAIN. 
 
 inanca, a year later, it was arranged that Castile 
 should be governed jointly by Ferdinand, Philip 
 and Juana. Philip and his wife were in the Neth- 
 erlands at the time. The year following they re- 
 turned to Spain, and it was very soon evident that 
 this tripartite agreement would lead to very serious 
 trouble. But before the year closed Philip died 
 suddenly. His poor wife was crazed by her be- 
 reavement, never recovering her reason. She lin- 
 gered many years, a melancholy lunatic. There was 
 no room for dissension. All conceded to Ferdinand 
 the sovereignty of the whole country. He held it 
 until 151G, when death claimed him. By his will 
 he left the kingdom to the young son of poor Ju- 
 ana, known in history as Charles V., with Cardinal 
 Ximenes as ruler of Castile until Charles should 
 come into his kingdom, and Ferdinand’s natural 
 son, the Archbishop of Saragossa, in charge of Ara- 
 gon during the same period. Ximenes was a great 
 statesman, a brave soldier and a learned divine, a 
 man of great power. He founded the university of 
 Alcala and translated the Bible. Of Ferdinand and 
 his rule Harrison gives this testimony : 
 
 “ Ferdinand was a bigot ; he was not free from 
 the taint of perfidy tossed to and fro so freely in 
 that age ; he was parsimonious, subtle and insin- 
 cere ; he utterly lacked geniality, and never threw 
 off the gravity which he thought becoming the 
 Spanish grandee ; he indulged in vicious gallantries 
 in egotistic designs, in an ill-assorted second mar- 
 riage ; he was suspicious, vulgar and uneducated ; 
 all this one is willing to grant, and yet concede that 
 there were elements of true grandeur in his charac- 
 ter. In the judgment of many of his contempora- 
 ries, he was the most renowned and glorious monarch 
 in Christendom. Impartial, economical, indefati- 
 gable in his application to business, he was neither 
 an epicure nor ostentatious ; he loved history, horse- 
 manship, the rites and ritual of a splendid church 
 ceremonial, knightly virtues and chivalrous un- 
 dertakings ; and with unusual control over his 
 temper, undaunted personal courage, and a far-see- 
 ing political sagacity, lie made few bad mistakes, 
 and, by wonderful good fortune, raised Spain, joint- 
 ly with his magnanimous queen, from a conglom- 
 eration of reciprocally hostile states into a spacious 
 and concentrated European empire.” 
 
 Charles V. was sixteen years of age when his 
 grandfather died. Little more than a year later he 
 
 CHARLES v. 
 
 assumed the reins of government, and the year next 
 following he was elected Emperor of Germany. No 
 monarch had 
 ever swayed so 
 vast an em- 
 pire. Besides 
 the splendid 
 kingdom of 
 Spain, inclu- 
 ding quite a 
 large part of 
 Italy, and the 
 angust em- 
 pire of Ger- 
 many, were 
 his vast Am- 
 erican posses- 
 sions, already 
 growing into 
 enormous im- 
 portance. 
 
 His reign extended from 1516 in Spain and 1519 in 
 Germany until 1555, when he voluntarily abdicated 
 in favor of his sou Philip II., known fitly as Philip 
 the Catholic, retiring himself to a monastery to 
 prepare for death. 
 
 Subsequent chapters will narrate the founding of 
 American colonies, some of them imperial. In a 
 general way it may be said that his reign witnessed 
 nearly all the settlements which grew into that 
 chain of republics extending from the United States 
 to Patagonia. In 1526 he was married to Isabella 
 of Portugal, a union which ultimately brought the 
 entire Spanish peninsula under one scepter for a 
 time. The death of Charles V. occurred September 
 21, 1558, in the fifty-ninth year of his age. His 
 last act was the execution of a codicil to his will in 
 which he solemnly and quite superfluously enjoined 
 it upon Philip to “ exterminate every heretic in his 
 dominions and cherish the Inquisition.” 
 
 Fortunately for Germany, Philip II. never wore 
 the elective imperial crown ; hut his hereditary and 
 inalienable sovereignties raised him to the supreme 
 rank among the kings of Europe. 
 
 Queen Catherine, the divorced wife of Henry VIII. 
 of England, was the sister of Charles, and Philip 
 married for his first wife the daughter of Henry 
 and Catherine, Mary, known in English annals as 
 Bloody Mary. On her part it was a love match, 
 
 " 
 
 o > 
 
 o 
 

 
 J- 
 
 CATHOLIC SPAIN. 
 
 3°7 
 
 but not so on his side. She was several years the 
 senior of her profligate and bigoted husband. From 
 the first he hated Protestantism with more in- 
 tensity than he loved pleasure, and herein there was 
 a bond of sympathy between them ; but to reside on 
 English soil and be enveloped in the fog of an un- 
 congenial court was intolerable to him. He re- 
 mained briefly with his unloved royal wife, only that 
 he might undo what her father and her brother, 
 Edward IV., had sought to do. The papacy was 
 
 his tactics ; and tried to gain England by conquest. 
 A vast navy, or Armada, was fitted out for the pur- 
 pose. An auspicious storm, supplemented by British 
 bravery, destroyed the Armada and saved En- 
 gland. That was a great crisis in the affairs of En- 
 gland. The “ Invincible Armada ” consisted of 140 
 ships. It set sail in May, 1588. Eighty-one of the 
 vessels were sunk. The fate of the Armada was, 
 in some important respects, to the modern world 
 what the battle of Salamiswasto the ancient world, 
 
 restored, temporarily. When the retrogressive work 
 seemed to be accomplished, Philip left his wife in 
 her own dominions, crossing the channel, never to 
 set foot again on English soil. Ilis unhappy wife 
 had no charms for him, and her importunities for 
 his return made no impression upon his obdurate 
 heart. 
 
 Hardly had the sad queen been borne to her last 
 home, before the serpentine Philip began to make 
 overtures of marriage to her sister and successor, 
 Elizabeth. But she was not to be wooed and won by 
 any suitor, least of all by a man she loathed and a 
 sovereign she distrusted. She was a staunch Prot- 
 estant. Failing to win by courtship, Philip changed 
 
 England, small and despised, was able to hold in 
 check the vast and unwieldy forces of Spain, and 
 as the success of Xerxes and his Persians over the 
 Greeks would have changed the current of ancient 
 civilization, so the success of Philip and his Castil- 
 ians would have changed the whole trend and char- 
 acter of modern civilization. 
 
 The first four years of Philip’s reign, to resume 
 the thread of continental history, were employed in 
 establishing his authority in Italy. Devout papist 
 though he was, he forced the pope himself to 
 sue for mercy. But nearly all his energies were ex- 
 pended in carrying out his father’s codicil, and Ilis 
 Holiness freely and fully forgave him all his Italian 
 

 3°8 
 
 CATHOLIC SPAIN. 
 
 transgressions. The long reign of Philip II. ex- 
 tended into the year 1598. In Spain, the only part 
 of his kingdom in which he really felt at home, 
 Protestantism had no lodgment, but in the Neth- 
 erlands it was very strong. The political privileges 
 of his Dutch subjects were atone time confirmed, but 
 with unflinching pertinacity he strove to crush her- 
 esy. That terrible war belongs, for the most part, 
 to a previous chapter. In 1579 a union of the sev- 
 en Protestant provinces of the Netherlands against 
 Philip was formed, with William of Nassau and 
 Orange at its head. It was not until 1648 that 
 Spain recognized the independence of the Dutch 
 Republic. Philip died with that horrible war still 
 in progress. His long and detestable life was unre- 
 lieved by a single ray of nobility. As a husband he 
 was faithless, as a father a murderer, his son and 
 heir, Don Carlos, being the victim of his inhuman- 
 ity. The policy he adopted drained the wealth of 
 Mexico and Peru to maintain wars instigated by 
 superstition, and thus, instead of allowing Spain to 
 profit by the influx of precious metals from the 
 new world he used the matchless resources of his 
 crown to destroy, impoverish and depopulate the 
 lands over which he ruled. 
 
 The Escurial, built by this monarch, was at once 
 his palace and his tomb. Its somber walls stand as 
 a monument of the most calamitous reign in all 
 history. A somewhat too gushing, but in this in- 
 stance excusably picturesque, historian says of this 
 architectural marvel : 
 
 “ A mausoleum, a monastery, a palace, a church, 
 a museum, a marvelous reliquary, where the bones 
 and limbs of hundreds of saints were devoutly ac- 
 cumulated ; a city of corridors, doors, windows, and 
 apartments ; a great library, a gigantic picture-gal- 
 lery, a network of tanks and towers, a confession- 
 stool for princely humility, a village of Ilieronymite 
 monks, a town clinging to the sides of the mountain- 
 wilderness of the Guadarramas, a swarming clois- 
 ter, an austere hermitage, a fortress, — what was not 
 this wonderful edifice, begun by Juan Baptista 
 de Toledo in 1563, and occupying 30 years of 
 Philip’s life before it was finished?” 
 
 It was in the year 1563 that Philip II. made Ma- 
 drid the permanent capital of Spain, which it has 
 remained ever since. In 1581 Philip received hom- 
 age at Lisbon as King of Portugal, intending to 
 make Madrid the central city of the entire peniu- 
 
 PHILIP III. 
 
 sula. Henry, the cardinal and king of that coun- 
 try, had died the year before, and under some color 
 of right Philip demanded the crown. His demand 
 was not conceded until a Spanish army had deso- 
 lated the land. 
 
 The successor of Philip II. was the imbecile 
 Philip III., who had all his father’s vices without 
 his ability. .-t, 
 
 A weak tool 
 of priests, he 
 was simply 
 clay in the 
 hands of the 
 ecclesiastical 
 potters. The 
 chief feature 
 of his reign 
 was the de- ' 
 mand of the”N^ 
 clergy for the 
 slaughter of 
 the Moriscoes 
 or Moors who 
 still remained in the country and professed com- 
 pliance with the religious requirements of the laws. 
 During the reign of Philip IL.they had been cruelly 
 persecuted, but it was reserved for the son to finish 
 the work. They numbered about one million souls 
 and constituted the better portion of the popula- 
 tion. They were the intelligent husbandmen, skill- 
 ful artisans and learned scholars of Spain. Under 
 their influence and fostering care the industries, arts 
 and manufactures of the land had maintained some 
 thrift, notwithstanding the paralizing policy of 
 Philip the Catholic. The priests were for mur- 
 dering them all. But the secular influence at the 
 court succeeded in somewhat modifying the decree. 
 The Moriscoes were ordered to leave the country, 
 taking nothing with them. No less than one hundred 
 thousand lives were lost in carrying out this decree. 
 At one stroke was fatally crippled the skilled indus- 
 try of the country, and important productions, such 
 as the raising of cotton, rice and sugar, were cut off. 
 Large tracts of hitherto fertile lands became utterly 
 waste, and ever since have served only as lurking- 
 places of robbers and wild beasts. 
 
 It is needless and would be tedious to follow 
 the downward course of Catholic Spain in detail. 
 There was never any very important departure from 
 
 
 <*T 
 
Of 
 
 7 
 
 
 CATHOLIC SPAIN. 309 
 
 the policy of persecution foreshadowed by Isabella’s 
 bigotry and fully established by Charles Y. From 
 the accession of that first king of the house of 
 Hapsburg, 1516, until the death of the last of the 
 Hapsburgs, Charles II., 1700, the population de- 
 clined from ten to six millions. There were only 
 five kings of this line, beginning and ending with 
 a Charles and having three Philips between. Each 
 king in this line was a weaker edition of his prede- 
 cessor until the dynasty itself ran out and became 
 extinct with the death of Charles II. 
 
 When 
 Philip IV. 
 came to 
 the throne 
 there were 
 it is esti- 
 mated, 9, 
 
 000 mon- 
 asteries i n 
 Spain, be- 
 sides un- 
 numbered 
 nunneries, 
 and friars, 
 priestsand 
 ecclesiasti- 
 cal vam- 
 pires innu- 
 merable. 
 
 During 
 the reign 
 of this 
 feeble and 
 vicious 
 
 monarch civil wars were chronic in many parts' of 
 the kingdom, and in 1640 Portugal resumed its 
 national individuality. In his reign the independ- 
 ence of the Netherlands was acknowledged and 
 several American possessions were lost. 
 
 The last of the Spanish Hapsburgs was Charles 
 II. (the Charles who out of regard to his being Em- 
 per of Germany is usually designated Charles V. 
 having been in reality Charles I. of Spain.) This 
 pitiful wreck of a man was on the throne from 
 1665 to 1700. Under him the population of Spain 
 decreased 3,000,000, and the population of Madrid 
 which had been as high as 400,000 fell to 200,000. 
 Speaking of the condition of the country under 
 
 this king, Niemann says, “ The army, once so cele- 
 brated, was now worth nothing ; it had neither able 
 leaders nor reliable soldiers ; the arsenals and maga- 
 zines were empty ; the fleets rotted in the docks ; 
 the art of building ships was forgotten ; of sea 
 charts there were none, and Spanish pilots were no- 
 toriously ignorant. The poverty was so great that 
 even the royal servants could not be paid, and the 
 members of the royal household went hungry.” 
 
 Fortunately this Charles was physically impotent. 
 Nature lifted from the country the incubus of that 
 
 detestable 
 dynasty. 
 
 The last 
 of all the 
 Hapsburgs 
 bequeathed 
 his crown 
 to the 
 gr a ndson 
 of “ the 
 Grand 
 Monarch,” 
 LouisXIV. 
 of France- 
 That first 
 of all the 
 Bourbons 
 to sit upon 
 the only 
 throne now 
 occupied 
 by a Bour- 
 bon, was 
 Philip IY. 
 
 This arrangement did not suit Austria, England 
 and Holland, who wanted Charles, Archduke of 
 Austria, to succeed as Charles III., apprehensive 
 that France and Spain might be consolidated. The 
 War of Succession which followed continued thirteen 
 years. It was during this war that Marlborough won 
 immortal fame as a soldier, and the British navy un- 
 der Admiral Rook of England took Gibraltar. France 
 assisted Philip, but in the end he was obliged to part 
 with a very considerable portion of his kingdom. 
 England took the pillars of Hercules for her portion, 
 and that gateway to the Mediterranean has proved 
 the very key to maritime, and, largely, to European 
 supremacy. Austria acquired by the treaty of 
 
 C) 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 3 IQ 
 
 CATHOLIC SPAIN. 
 
 Utrecht as her share of Spanish plunder, Naples, 
 Sardinia, Milan, and what remained to it in the 
 Netherlands. Sicily was given to Savoy. The reign 
 of Philip was a long one. He held the scepter un- 
 til 1746. The country improved somewhat under 
 him. The loss of possessions in Europe beyond 
 the national limits of the kingdom was highly bene- 
 ficial. 
 
 Philip IV. was succeeded by Ferdinand VI. This 
 
 are told, during all that period. He was not popu- 
 lar, however. The clerical influence was entirely 
 and bitterly hostile. The priests kejit the people 
 from sympathy with progressive and reformatory 
 ideas. 
 
 When Charles IV. came to the throne, 1788, the 
 ecclesiastics resumed their former sway over the 
 affairs of state. It was this king who in 1795 ceded 
 to France the island of Hayti. The year following 
 
 weak and inefficient sovereign wore the crown thir- 
 teen years. During that period the country de- 
 clined once more. At the time he came to the 
 throne war was being waged between the great pow- 
 ers of Europe, as usual, but two years after his ac- 
 cession the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle was negotiated, 
 and after that Ferdinand lived in peace. He could 
 not be induced by even the offer of Gibraltar once 
 more to join in the general war which raged. 
 
 At the death of Ferdinand, Charles III., his 
 brother, came to the throne. For twenty-nine years 
 he occupied the throne, and tried to improve the 
 j condition of the country. The Inquisition was held 
 in check. Only three victims were burned by it, we 
 
 a 
 
 Vjs — 
 
 an alliance with France was negotiated which re- 
 sulted in enabling Napoleon to employ the mili- 
 tary and naval forces of Sjiain to further his own 
 ambitious designs and, ultimately, to appropriate 
 the kingdom itself. In the great naval battle of 
 Trafalgar Lord Nelson very nearly annihilated the 
 Spanish fleet. About that time Trinidad was lost 
 to Spain, and acquired by England. It was during 
 this same reign that Spain ceded Louisiana to 
 France. 
 
 In March, 1808, there was a revolution which 
 deposed Charles and raised to the throne Ferdi- 
 nand VII. Both appealed to Napoleon, who settled 
 the matter by ordering them both to abdicate, 
 
 THE ROCK OF GIBRALTAR. 
 
 
 
CATHOLIC 
 
 which they did, whereupon he appointed his elder 
 brother, Joseph Bonaparte, King over Spain. This 
 appointment was made June 5th. Joseph entered 
 Madrid July 20th. The opposi- 
 tion rallied around Ferdinand 
 and drove the amiable Joseph 
 out of the capital. Thereupon 
 Napoleon himself took the 
 matter in hand. He restored 
 his brother in December. A 
 new element in the conflict of 
 Napoleon with Europe soon de- 
 veloped itself. The Duke of 
 "Wellington came on from In- 
 dia, and coming by way of 
 Portugal, carried the war 
 against Napoleon into the Span- 
 ish peninsula. The disaffection 
 of the country rallied around. 
 
 Wellington, adding materially 
 to his strength. Ferdinand was 
 restored to the throne in 1814. It was in the year 
 1809 that the Peninsula War began. Wellington 
 won a victory at Talavera in 1809, but for the most 
 part was obliged during the five 
 years to fall back upon his 
 Portuguese base, until the Rus- 
 sian disaster of Napoleon. Af- 
 ter that, Wellington made rapid 
 progress in the expulsion of the 
 French from Spain. The treaty 
 of Valencia, by which Napoleon 
 formally abandoned all claims 
 to Spain was signed in Decem- 
 ber, 1813. The Cortes promptly 
 invited Ferdinand to take the 
 reins of government, and rule 
 in accordance with a constitu- 
 tion which had been formed 
 nearly two years previously. 
 
 The reign of Ferdinand VII., 
 which really began with the 
 year 1814, extended until 1833. 
 
 He belonged to the Dark Ages, 
 and both disregarded the constitution and persecuted 
 those who had invited him to the throne. He ruled 
 in accordance, however, with the average public 
 sentiment of the country. The people were better 
 pleased with him than they would have been with 
 
 SPAIN. 31 1 
 
 a better ruler, so complete and demoralizing was 
 the clerical domination. The inquisition was re- 
 stored with all its attendant abominations. 
 
 It was during this reign that 
 the colonies, which had made 
 some progress toward inde- 
 pendence during the rule of the 
 Bonaparte, achieved independ- 
 ence. It may be stated here 
 that Joseph Bonaparte came to 
 the United States, and upon a 
 pleasant estate in New Jersey 
 spent the last years of his life 
 quietly and respectably, leaving 
 behind him a reputation as a 
 worthy gentleman of no special 
 force of character. In 1819 
 Spain sold Florida to the United 
 States for 85,000,000 and the 
 recognition of certain boundary 
 claims on the Mexican frontier. 
 With all his medieval and ecclesiastical tenden- 
 cies Ferdinand was not reactionary enough to suit 
 the priests. They wanted the “ good old times ” of 
 the Ilapsburgs restored. They 
 formed “The Apostolic Junta” 
 and incited the Carlist insurrec- 
 tion, which, with'some interrup- 
 tions continued for half a cen- 
 tury to be an element of discord 
 in Spain. 
 
 We have used the name 
 Charles thus far in this chapter, 
 because it is generally employed, 
 but the name which is Charles 
 in English and Karl in German 
 is Carlos, or Don Carlos, in Spain. 
 Don in Spanish and Dom in 
 Portuguese, originally meant 
 lord, although subsequently a 
 mere proper name. With this 
 much explanation we proceed 
 with the Carlist movement. 
 When Napoleon’s star set and 
 Ferdinand VII. came to the throne, the latter had a 
 younger brother, Don Carlos. The king was a de- 
 bauchee of the lowest type. He had several wives 
 and no children, and having quarreled with his 
 brother, he'was sorely distressed by the thought that 
 
 ISABELLA II. 
 
 39 
 
■MQ. 
 
 
 312 CATHOLIC SPAIN. 
 
 Don Carlos would be his successor upon the throne. 
 The counselors of the royal household persuaded the 
 king and queen that for the sake of baffling Don 
 Carlos it would be right for the queen to be untrue 
 to her marriage vow. The fruit of that suggestion 
 was a daughter, Isabella. The dilemma was as 
 great as ever, however, for by the Salic law, which 
 had been introduced by the first Bourbon and was 
 binding upon that dynasty, whether in France or 
 Spain, only males were heirs to the crown. A sec- 
 ond child was also a daughter. The king then, 
 1830, proclaimed the repeal of the Salic law, and 
 that the elder daughter, Isabella, was the heir ap- 
 parent. There was repugnance to the repeal of the 
 Salic law throughout Spain, and extensive prep- 
 arations for civil war followed. Both sides were 
 prepared for the struggle, thought to be inevitable 
 upon the death of the king. The clergy and peas- 
 antry generally espoused the cause of Don Carlos, 
 while the more liberal element was won over to the 
 side of Isabella by the promise of respect for the 
 constitution. 
 
 In the meanwhile Louis Philippe came to the 
 French throne and espoused the cause of Isabella, 
 it being agreed that she should marry a husband 
 chosen for her, and in case of failure of issue the 
 crown was to go to the children of the other 
 daughter. The wily French King provided an im- 
 potent imbecile as the husband of Isabella, marry- 
 ing Isabella’s sister to his own son, thus hoping to 
 secure the crown for his own family, upon the death 
 of Isabella, who, he well knew, could have no legit- 
 imate offspring so long as her husband lived. 
 Rendered desperate by this trick, the queen con- 
 tracted a morganatic marriage by which she had 
 several children, the present King Alfonso being 
 the elder. 
 
 A new and more liberal constitution was promul- 
 gated in 1834, and the Inquisition was abolished, 
 the liberal party rallied to the support of Isabella, 
 or rather, of her mother, the queen regent, and what 
 was more helpful to her, English, French and Port- 
 uguese troops helped her suppress Carlism. By 1840 
 the first Carlist war was over. 
 
 Isabella II. was a mere child when Ferdinand 
 VIII. died. The regency fell to the queen-mother, 
 Maria Christina, a woman of great ability. For 
 some time the royalists were called Cliristinos. She 
 was not at heart a liberal, and as soon as the Carlists 
 
 were vanquished she made no concealment of her 
 true nature. The constitution was ignored. But 
 in a few months she was obliged to lay down the 
 reins of government. The Cortes made Espartero 
 regent. He devoted himself to the material im- 
 provement of the country, building roads, working 
 the mines, etc. In 1843 the Cortes declared Isa- 
 bella to be of age. Maria Christina, who had been 
 living in France, soon came back, but her suprema- 
 cy was short lived. Gen. Narvaez was prime minis- 
 ter of Spain from 1844 to 1851 with some interrup- 
 tions. He was a truly great statesman, almost the 
 only one Spain had produced since Ximenes. 
 Through the perilous times of that period, especially 
 the revolutionary uprising of 1848, he carried the 
 kingdom successfully. 
 
 The guileful marriages of the queen and her 
 younger sister, already mentioned, occurred in 1846. 
 Don Francisco de Bourbon was the withered trunk 
 to which the queen was tied. The sister Louisa 
 was married to the young Duke Montpensier, who 
 was destined to be an important factor in Spanish 
 politics. The queen was justly indignant at the 
 trick played upon her by the Citizen King of 
 France, and her career was deeply disgraceful. In 
 public ajid private life she was a reproach to her 
 sex and her nation. Many of the best men were 
 banished. The greatest leader of the liberals, how- 
 ever, O’Donnell, was for some time a tremendous 
 power. From 1858 to 1863 he was at the head of 
 the government, distasteful as he was to the queen. 
 For several years thereafter Spain was in a state 
 bordering on chaos, and resulting in the expulsion 
 of the royal family. “ The act,” says a recent his- 
 torian, “ which led to the immediate exile of Isa- 
 bella, then enjoying the sea-baths of San Sebastian, 
 was the pronunciamento of Cadiz, of September 19, 
 1868.” That declaration of 
 reform was signed by Duke 
 Torre. Marshal Prim, Admiral 
 Topete, and other leading 
 men of the kingdom. So 
 strong was this movement 
 that the queen had to accept 
 the situation without a blow. 
 
 A provisional government 
 was formed with Serrano at 
 the head as regent or president of the ministry, and 
 Prim as war minister, Lorenzana as foreign secre- 
 
 SERRANO. 
 
 0 
 
 t 
 
 > 
 
 9 
 
 
 
CATHOLIC SPAIN. 
 
 3*3 
 
 tary, Ortiz minister of justice, Topete minister of 
 the marine, Figuerola finance minister, Sagasta 
 minister of the interior, Zorilla minister of com- 
 merce, Lopez de Ayala for the colonies. After some 
 hesitation the Cortes finally decided upon a mon- 
 archy as the form of government to be adopted. 
 The Duke of Montpensier, Don Fernando, King of 
 Portugal, and Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern, 
 were put forward as candidates for the vacant 
 throne. The latter was Prim’s candidate. His 
 candidacy occasioned the Franco-Prussian war. 
 His name was withdrawn by his father in July, 
 1870. In November following, Amadeus, son 
 of Victor Emanuel, and Duke of Aosta, was 
 elected king under the title of Amadeus I. Just 
 before his arrival Marshal Prim was assassin- 
 ated. That was a death-blow from which the prin- 
 ciple of constitutional monarchy in Spain never re- 
 covered. Amadeus was an amiable young man, and 
 that was about all there was to him. He wore the 
 crown from January, 1871, to February, 1873, when 
 “ the republic succeeded the monarchy as quietly as 
 one sentinel succeeds another.” 
 
 The first “ president of the executive power ” was 
 Senor Pi y Marzall, a scholarly gentleman of the 
 press, also a jurist and reformer on general princi- 
 ples. After five weeks he resigned, and Nicholas 
 Salmeron took the reins of government for a few 
 weeks, to be succeeded by the really great and 
 splendid Emilio Castelar. He held sway for some 
 months. Hopes were entertained of a permanent 
 
 republic ; but 
 the nation was 
 unprepared for 
 it. In 1874 
 Serrano came 
 into power 
 again as re- 
 gent, and in 
 January, 1875, 
 the house of 
 
 \V^" W 'CP*' Bourbon was 
 
 margall. castelar. restored in the 
 
 person of Isabella’s oldest son, the worthy Alfonso 
 XII. He was born in 1857. Of the government 
 as now constituted, Harrison says : 
 
 “Under him Spain enjoys an hereditary, consti- 
 tutional monarchy. The king is inviolable ; the 
 executive rests in him, the legislative power in king 
 
 and cortes. Senate and congress compose the 
 cortes, and their meetings are annual. Deputies 
 from Cuba were admitted in 1878. The king con- 
 vokes, suspends or dissolves cortes, appoints the 
 president and vice-president of the senate from the 
 senate alone, and has responsible ministers. Local 
 self-government is allowed to the various provinces, 
 districts, and communes, with which neither execu- 
 tive nor cortes can interfere except in cases of arbi- 
 trary or unconstitutional assumption. The estab- 
 lished religion is Catholic, which is maintained by 
 the state, and a limited freedom of worship is al- 
 lowed to Protestants, though it must be private.” 
 Ever since 1835 local self-government has been on- 
 joyed in Spain. But notwithstanding all the lati- 
 tude allowed under the present regime, there seems 
 to be very little disposition on the part of the Span- 
 ish people to share in the improvements of the age. 
 The term “Catholic Spain” is hardly less applica- 
 ble now than when first applied to the country. 
 
 Spain has some art of which it may justly boast, 
 and a very little literature of high merit. Murillo, 
 one of the great masters in painting, was a Spaniard. 
 The Cid is an epic of the very highest rank. It is 
 based on a historical character. The Cid Campea- 
 dor was the ideal of a hero cherished by the Chris- 
 tians of Spain, as against the Moors. The latter 
 represent him as a highwayman, the scourge of 
 honest people. He flourished in the last of the 11th 
 and first of the 12th centuries. The Song of the 
 Cid was composed a century or so later. From it 
 dates Castilian poetry, a distinct product, not bor- 
 rowed from the Moors or any other people, but a 
 truly national body of literature. A convent of 
 Benedictine monks at Cardegna was devoted to the 
 memory of the Cid, for there is his tomb, as the 
 Benedictines claim, and there are his banner, buck- 
 ler, cup and cross. Philip II. had the Cid canonized 
 by the pope, but his true apotheosis was the work of 
 an unknown poet. Cid is the Spanish corruption 
 of the Arabic word for chief — seid. He was also 
 called Campeador, or Champion. 
 
 He was the beau ideal of devotion to the Crown 
 and Cross. Macaulay says of this epic : “ It glows 
 with an uncommon portion of the fire of the Iliad,” 
 and Southey says, “ It is decidedly and above all 
 question the finest poem in the Spanish language.” 
 On the same subject Harrison remarks : “ The 
 death of the Cid seems to have been the birth of 
 
 "CJ 
 
CATHOLIC SPAIN. 
 
 
 r 
 
 Castilian poesy — a poesy different as possible from 
 that of the polished, ingenious, and impressionable 
 Moors who haunted palace, delighted in commen- 
 taries, and sent messages of battle or reconciliation 
 in verse characterized by an incomparable poetic 
 technique. The Castilian popular verse clung faith- 
 fully to reality ; it was full of dreams of national 
 grandeur obscurely foreshadowed ; it deified, with an 
 intuitive political sense, the great champion of the 
 people and opponent of an unjust ruler ; it trans- 
 formed an historic king, half a century after his 
 death, into an idealized and half-fabulous hero. 
 
 “ There were three Cids : the cavalier, who could 
 fight better than all others, who protected and gov- 
 erned his king when he was not fighting him, bru- 
 tally vigorous and frank, inaccessible to tender feel- 
 ing, a violater of holy places ; then a nobler, loy- 
 aller, cliivalric, Christian Cid, who grew out of the 
 impassioned reverie's and reminiscences of the author 
 of the Song of the Cid in 1200 — a champion fer- 
 vently adoring the Eternal, blessed with visions of 
 archangels, absolutely devoted to the king and fa- 
 therland, full of fatherly tenderness for his daugh- 
 ters, Dona Elvira and Dona Sol, full of dignity and 
 glory arising from a consciousness of just deeds and 
 chivalrous enterprises, the noblest type of honor, re- 
 ligion, patriotism, and knightliness ; and lastly, the 
 Cid of the romanceros of the sixteenth century, who 
 is a sort of Cid galant, overflowing with fine talk 
 and sentimental rhodomontade.” 
 
 In 1681 Spain lost by death a truly great drama- 
 tist, Calderon. His 
 works have never 
 been translated. 
 
 His bicentennial 
 was celebrated with 
 great pomp in 
 Spain, and was 
 received with ex- 
 pressions of warm 
 admiration from 
 the literati of other 
 nations. 
 
 The supreme 
 name in Spanish 
 literature is Cervantes, a brave soldier who lost the 
 
 CERVANTES. 
 
 use of his left arm fighting in the ranks in that bril- 
 liant and important sea-fight with the Ottoman fleet, 
 the battle of Lepanto, fought late in the sixteenth 
 century. His Don Quixote is widely read in many 
 languages. It is a prose satire upon the mock hero- 
 ism of cliivalric romances, the novels of his day. It 
 has been said that Cervantes laughed chivalry out of 
 Europe. It would be more accurate to say that he 
 rent and exposed to just ridicule the tinseled robe 
 of romance which it wore as regal purple, for chiv- 
 alry itself died when fire-arms came into use. 
 
 Quite a large body of national ballads of un- 
 known authorship exists in the Spanish language 
 which are eminently creditable. Through Lock- 
 hart’s admirable translations they have been added 
 to the treasures of English literature. 
 
 The colonial possessions of Spain at the present 
 time consist of the islands of Cuba, Porto Rico, the 
 Philippine Islands, Caroline Islands, and Palos, the 
 Marian Islands, and a small area (483 square miles) 
 in Northern Africa, Fernando Po and Annabon. 
 total area 113,678 square miles; total population, 
 6,399,347. The first, second and third alone have 
 any importance, and they are dwelt upon more es- 
 pecially under the head of “ Central America and 
 the Isles of the Sea.” 
 
 The length of railroads in Spain on the first day 
 of 1880, was 4,067 miles, with 1,242 miles more in 
 the course of construction. The government has 
 liberally subsidized the lines, but they are owned 
 and operated by private enterprise. Not much more 
 than half the soil of the kingdom is under any 
 sort of cultivation, and the average productiveness 
 of the land under tillage is much less than formerly. 
 
 The supreme characteristic of Spain is that 
 peculiarly brutal and demoralizing amusement, 
 the bull fight, the favorite Sunday entertain- 
 ment of the people of all classes. It consists 
 simply of an encounter between an infuriate beast 
 and a trained athlete and swordsman, with 
 every advantage on the side of the man. Occa- 
 sionally he is gored by the horns of the maddened 
 brute. This sort of barbarity is a relic of the 
 gladiatorial arena of Rome, and is at once cause 
 and effect of the demoralized national character 
 of the Spanish people. 
 
 V 
 
PORTUGAL AND THE PORTUGUESE 
 
 Portugal, Old and New — Lisbon, its Capture, Earthquake and Population — Last Days op 
 Alfonso — Maritime Supremacy — Zarga and Madeira — Vasco da Gama, the Azores .and 
 Cape op Good Hope — Da Gama and India — Portugal and Brazil — Dom Sebastian and 
 Sebastianism — Subsequent Portuguese Events — Port Wine — Camoens’ Lusiad. 
 
 
 IIE distinctive history of 
 Portugal dates from 1095, 
 with a subsequent period of 
 mergence in Spain. Prior 
 to that time it was an 
 indistinguishable part of 
 Spain (using the modern 
 term for the Iberian Pen- 
 insula). Before that time it had 
 been subject, in turn, to the Ro- 
 mans, Visigoths, and Moors. At 
 the close of the eleventh century 
 Alfonso V., King of Leon and 
 Castile, wrested from the Moors 
 that part of their European posses- 
 sions lying between the Minho and 
 Douro, and gave it to his son- 
 aw, Henry, who called himself 
 Count of Portugal. The name was suggested by 
 the capital, Porto Cale. Henry’s son Alfonso had 
 the title of king conferred upon him by the pope, in 
 reward for his gaining a victory over the Moors at the 
 battle of Ourique, 1139, in consequence of which vic- 
 tory his possessions were extended to the Tagus. 
 By the middle of the following century the king- 
 dom comprised substantially the same territory as it 
 does to-day. 
 
 The area of Portugal is 36,510 square miles, and 
 
 the population a trifle over four millions. The 
 period of mergence in Spain was from 1580 to 
 1640, during which time three sovereigns of that 
 country, Philip II., III., and IV., ruled over the en- 
 tire peninsula. There have been thirty-five sover- 
 eigns of Portugal, not counting the Spanish usurp- 
 ers, the present king, Louis I., coming to the 
 throne in 1861. The Portuguese call the period of 
 the three Philips, “the Captivity.” When once the 
 scepter of the Spaniard was broken the country be- 
 came singularly free from both foreign intervention 
 and domestic revolution. But those years of tran- 
 quillity have been years of utter insignificance. 
 The just pride and real importance of Portugal goes 
 back of “the Captivity.” For the most part Portu- 
 guese history is a dreary wilderness, but a few epi- 
 sodes of interest are found here and there in its 
 record, like oases in a desert. 
 
 The first Portuguese king was a very remarkable 
 man, the inconsequential nature of his realm, 
 rather than his personal character, being the expla- 
 nation of His comparative obscurity. His conquests 
 over the Moors were the first important steps to- 
 ward their final subjugation. Li order to extend 
 his dominion to the mouth of the Tagus he was 
 obliged to take Lisbon, then a Moorish city, and the 
 richest, most populous and best fortified town on 
 the peninsula. It is supposed to have had at that 
 
 " 7 ' 
 
 ( 315 ) 
 
<a 
 
 S> 
 
 PORTUGAL AND THE PORTUGUESE. 
 
 time a population of at least four hundred thou- 
 sand. It was the chief center of trade between 
 Europe and Africa. In laying siege to it the great 
 king had the genius and good fortune to secure the 
 effective alliance of the English, German and 
 Flemish crusaders, just starting out for the Second 
 Crusade. It was a co-operation which enabled Al- 
 fonso to attack by land and water, albeit he himself 
 had no ships. In recognition of the service rendered 
 by English allies an Englishman by the name of 
 
 Not only did Alfonso I. maintain and enlarge 
 the borders of Portugal, but he also laid the foun- 
 dations of that maritime greatness which raised 
 the Portuguese kingdom to its highest summit, and 
 may be said to constitute the one claim of the na- 
 tion to pre-eminence. He encouraged marine expe- 
 ditions, conferring knighthood upon those who dis- 
 tinguished themselves in that line. In this policy 
 he was impartial as between natives and foreigners. 
 He sowed the seed of a bountiful harvest. Indeed, 
 
 VIEW OP LISBON. 
 
 Gilbert was appointed first bishop of Lisbon. It 
 may be added that Lisbon now has a population of 
 about 250,000. In 1755 it suffered a most desolating 
 earthquake followed at once by a terrible conflagra- 
 tion. Not less than 30,000 lives were lost. A por- 
 tion of the present city antedates that calamity, but 
 the greater part of Lisbon was completely destroyed. 
 
 The long reign of this first king of Portugal was 
 almost constantly occupied with war. Sometimes 
 he was fighting neighboring Christians, sometimes 
 adjacent Saracens, and sometimes Moors from 
 across the Mediterranean. His final exploit was a 
 bold and successful sortie upon an army from 
 Morocco which laid laid siege to Lisbon. 
 
 it is hardly less to Portugal than to Spain that the 
 world owes the discovery of America, albeit the 
 Portuguese court declined to render Columbus the 
 succor he finally secured from the Queen of Castile. 
 Had it not been for what Columbus did, saw and 
 learned at Lisbon the fire of discovery would never 
 have been kindled in his brain. 
 
 It was in 1184 that Alfonso died. It was not 
 until the year 1419, that Portuguese seamanship 
 demonstrated its superiority and Portugal gained its 
 first foothold abroad. In that year an enterprising 
 tar, Zarga, made a voyage of discovery in a south- 
 western direction. His boldness was rewarded with 
 the discovery of . the beautiful island of Madeira, 
 
 o 
 
 t 
 
 
 
nearly a thousand miles away. The Azores islands 
 and Cape Verde were later discoveries. Madeira be- 
 came famous for its wine, also for its rich yield of 
 sugar before Cuba eclipsed it. The island is small 
 and has been 
 mainly useful to 
 Europe of late as 
 a retreat for in- 
 valids, especially 
 sufferers from 
 lung difficulties. 
 
 The climate is ab- 
 solutely delicious. 
 
 There were no in- 
 habitants upon it 
 when discovered, 
 and the present 
 people are a mix- 
 ed race, the Por- 
 tuguese and Ne- 
 gro blood being 
 intermingled. 
 
 Slavery existed 
 there once, but 
 was long since 
 abolished. The 
 last vestige of 
 slavery in the 
 Portuguese col- 
 onies was wiped 
 out in 1878. The 
 total colonial pos- 
 sessions of Portu- 
 gal embrace 709,- 
 469 square miles 
 and a population 
 of over three mil- 
 lions, mostly in 
 Africa and the 
 islands adjacent 
 to the dark con- 
 tinent. But these possessions are trivial as compared 
 with what originally seemed likely to be Portugal’s 
 share in the Orient and the New World. 
 
 The Azores islands were discovered twenty years 
 later than Madeira. The great achievement of 
 Portuguese enterprise, however, was the discoverv 
 of the passage to the East Indies by the Cape of 
 Good Hope. What Columbus vainly sought by 
 
 sailing westward, missing it only to find something 
 incomparably better, was found by skirting along 
 the western coast of Africa. Ships from Lisbon had 
 long been doing a thrifty trade with the Africans, 
 
 finding a region 
 previously sup- 
 posed to be unin- 
 habited, peopled 
 by a race of sav- 
 ages who were 
 only too eager to 
 exchange for the 
 baubles of civili- 
 zation ivory and 
 other precious 
 things. It had 
 been the theory 
 of Ptolemy that 
 Africa extended 
 westward as it ex- 
 tended south- 
 ward. The Por- 
 tuguese found 
 that just the op- 
 posite was the 
 case, and that en- 
 couraged them to 
 push their way 
 farther and far- 
 ther in the hope 
 of finding a point 
 at which land 
 ceased. Their 
 hope was realiz- 
 ed. Repeated ex- 
 peditions were 
 made without 
 success, beyond 
 the farther exten- 
 sion of com- 
 merce, until Vas- 
 co da Gama doubled the Cape of Good Hope and sail- 
 ed along the eastern coast of Africa. The people he 
 found to be less barbarous than the negroes of the 
 west ; at least he came upon some evidences of semi- 
 civilization, and traces of intercourse with Asia. 
 Feeling his way along the coast cautiously, he 
 crossed the Indian Ocean and landed on the coast of 
 Malabar, May 22, 1498. He was absent from Lisbon 
 
 RURAL FESTIVITIES. 
 
 PORTUGAL AND THE PORTUGUESE. 
 
 > 
 
 ► 
 

 
 318 
 
 PORTUGAL AND THE PORTUGUESE. 
 
 two years, returning with a rich cargo of Indian 
 goods. 
 
 A revolution in oriental traffic was now inevitable. 
 
 The Isthmus of Suez had long been closed, ex- 
 cept for caravans, and intercourse between the 
 far East and Western Europe was partly by land 
 and partly by the Mediterranean. But henceforth 
 an easier and less expensive route, thanks to Yasco 
 da Gama, was practicable. 
 
 Portugal was in a position to make good use of 
 the discovery made, for it had a large merchant ma- 
 rine and for a long time was ruled by a public-spirited 
 monarch. The Portuguese carried on trade in In- 
 dia without rivalry or check during a period of 
 many years. But in 1525 King John III. became 
 more interested in crushing out Islam heresy and 
 Judaism by the Inquisition than in developing the 
 Indian trade. The general character of the country 
 was seriously impaired by this policy, and the way 
 thus prepared for the displacement of the Portu- 
 guese in the East by a more intelligent and secular 
 people. The rise of the British Empire in Hindoo- 
 stan, and of the supremacy of the British flag upon 
 every sea was made possible by the baneful influ- 
 ence of the church in Portugal. As that empire 
 rose, Portuguese commerce dwindled until now it is 
 hardly the shadow of its former greatness. 
 
 This same King John established a kingdom in 
 America, Brazil, which is now a very considerable 
 power. It had been discovered in 1510 by Pedro 
 Alvarez Cabral, who entered with zeal into the pro- 
 ject of Christianizing that portion of the new world. 
 The Brazil of to-day is the proudest living monu- 
 ment of the golden age of Portugal. 
 
 King John was succeeded in 1557 by his infant 
 son, Dom Sebastian. When this sovereign came to 
 years of independence (he never reached years of 
 discretion) he was absolutely eager to subjugate the 
 Moors across the Mediterranean. He gathered a 
 magnificent army, and in 1577 set sail from Lisbon, 
 resolved to carry the war into Africa and accom- 
 plish a great deliverance for Christendom. He bail 
 powerful auxiliaries from other nations of Europe. 
 A great battle was fought August 3, at Atcacer 
 Quibir. The Europeans were utterly defeated, and 
 Dom Sebastian himself, who led his forces in per- 
 son, was lost. He is supposed to have been killed, 
 stripped and mutilated beyond recognition. But 
 his fate proved to be one of the most remarkable 
 
 mysteries of all history. All sorts of stories were 
 told by those who pretended to have seen him alive 
 after the battle, and his subjects were disposed to 
 believe that he had escaped and would return. So 
 strong was this belief that it developed highly inter- 
 esting results. A body supposed to be his was bur- 
 ied with all possible honors in the monastery of Be- 
 lem at Lisbon, but the hope of his survival was still 
 cherished. 
 
 One especial cause of Sebastianism (as this curi- 
 ous hope came to be called) was the danger of na- 
 tional annihilation, which his death involved. He 
 had no direct heir, and Philip of Spain claimed the 
 throne. His claim could not be disputed, and “ the 
 Captivity ” followed, during all which time the 
 credulous Portuguese persisted in expecting Sebas- 
 tian’s return. The church fostered the delusion that 
 he was on a distant island, and would some fine day 
 sail up the Tagus with a splendid and irresistible 
 fleet. This hope has not entirely died out even yet, 
 and all through “ the Captivity ” served to keep alive 
 the national sentiment. It contributed largely to 
 the preservation of a patriotism which made Portu- 
 gal improve the opportunity afforded by the utter 
 imbecility of the court at Madrid to regain its indi- 
 viduality as a nation. 
 
 The revolution by which Portugal escaped ab- 
 sorption into Spain occurred in 1640, and was 
 effected with very little bloodshed. The kingdom 
 held on the tenor of its way, suffering little from 
 war and much from superstition, until the Napole- 
 onic wars. Obliged to take sides, the government 
 formed an alliance with England and the other 
 Allies. Napoleon sent a small army into the coun- 
 try, declared the throne vacant and the country a 
 part of France. That was in 1807. The nominal 
 head of the government was Queen Maria, but she 
 being insane, the regency had been conferred upon 
 John Maria Joseph, Prince of Brazil. That was in 
 1792. When the French soldiery came, he set sail 
 from Lisbon, for Rio Janeiro. When the empire of 
 Napoleon fell, Prince John returned to Spain, 
 leaving his son, Dom Pedro, Regent of Brazil. 
 It was in 1822 that the latter became Emperor 
 of Brazil, and complete separation occurred, 
 and that without any bloodshed. In a few years 
 Dom Pedro came into possession of the crown of 
 Portugal also, but he soon surrendered it to his 
 daughter Donna Maria, preferring to remain at Rio 
 
 <3T 
 
PORTUGAL AND THE PORTUGUESE. 
 
 Janeiro. Before, that, however, he had granted 
 the people a constitution. Not long, after civil war 
 arose in Portugal, furnishing an excuse for British 
 interference, which reduced the country to a condi- 
 tion of semi-subjugation to England. Its foreign 
 policy has ever since been what the British desired it 
 to be, except as there were occasional “ perfidies, ” as 
 the English writers brand every attempt at self-as- 
 sertion on the part of Portugal. 
 
 Portugal is famous for its wine. Its vintage and 
 the country itself both derive their name from the 
 seaport town of Oporto. This wine was brought in- 
 to prominence by the British policy of encouraging 
 its importation into England, while discouraging by 
 heavy duties the importation of French wines, a 
 policy which grew out of the fact that in the early 
 years of the present century France and England 
 were at war, while Portugal was the passive ally of 
 the British. Besides, the English preferred port to 
 claret and other light wines. 
 
 The Portuguese can boast only one really great 
 name in literature, Camoens, author of that grand 
 and truly classic epic, the Lusiad. The old Roman 
 name for Portugal was Lusitania, and the poem 
 which bears a name derived from the same root re- 
 counts the proudest achievements in the history of 
 the nation, for the epic is founded on the maritime 
 exploits of Da Gama, who is its hero. Camoens’ 
 own life was one of adventure by land and sea, es- 
 
 pecially in the far East. He was fully imbued with 
 the spirit of enterprise, and his elaborate verse is 
 the noblest literary monument ever raised in honor 
 of the dominant spirit of that age. The great man 
 drained to the dregs the cup of ingratitude. He 
 died a pauper in the city of Lisbon. After his death 
 the Portuguese became aware of his genius and 
 have ever cherished his memory. He is the one lit- 
 erary man of that country deserving of even men- 
 tion. His Lusiad belongs in the best of the world’s 
 classics. 
 
4 
 
 Iceland, Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the Countries Embraced — Iceland and its Liter- 
 * ature — Denmark — The Danes in History — Hamlet — Norway and the Norwegians — Area, 
 
 Population and Emigration — Climate, Soil and Productions — The Birth op a Literature 
 — Sweden and Protestantism — Gustavus Adolphus — The Swedes in America— Decline 
 op Sweden — Present Government and Condition op Sweden — Natural Resources op the 
 Country — Scandinavian Mythology— Greenland, and the Norsemen in America. 
 
 ^ 
 
 ; HE term Scandinavia is 
 no longer in use, except 
 historically, but the in- 
 habitants of Sweden, Nor- 
 . way, Denmark and Ice- 
 land are still called Scan- 
 dinavians. Although not 
 living under one govern- 
 ment, they form, substantially, 
 one people. Distinct yet insepar- 
 able, they are several nations, but 
 one people. 
 
 In immemorial times and until 
 about the eleventh century the 
 Scandinavians spoke one tongue. 
 The language now has two branch- 
 es besides the original, the Dan- 
 ish and the Swedish. The original 
 speech is preserved in truly pristine purity in Ice- 
 land, and that frigid land must have jieculiar inter- 
 est for every student of Norse history. It was in 
 the ninth century that the country was settled by 
 Scandinavian colonists. That bleak island now has 
 a population of less than one hundred thousand 
 persons, but during all these ages it has preserved 
 the songs and stories of their ancestors in the primi- 
 tive language of Scandinavia, enriching the litera- 
 
 ture with much which commands the admiration 
 of scholars. 
 
 For something more than three hundred years 
 (928 to 1262) Iceland was a happy republic. The 
 people are still remarkable for their intelligence. 
 They are brave, pure and amiable. “ The old 
 tongue,” says Peterson, “ which is the foundation of 
 the three Scandinavian languages, they have kept 
 during 3000 years in its original purity, and the 
 humblest workman can read and write, and is 
 thoroughly conversant with the Sagas, the history 
 and the laws of his country and the Bible.” Ice- 
 land is 600 miles from Norway, 250 miles from 
 Greenland and 500 from Scotland. The long 
 winters give ample leisure for study. Once a depen- 
 dency of Denmark, the country is now entirely inde- 
 pendent, only the King of Denmark is the heredi- 
 tary head of the Icelandic government. To all 
 intents and purposes the country is a republic in 
 which all citizens are equal before the law. The 
 climate admits of very little agriculture. The pur- 
 suits of the people are pastoral and piscatorial. 
 The country is of a volcanic formation. The 
 Hecla is the chief volcano of the island, and in its 
 neighborhood is the great Geyser or Hot Sulphur 
 Spring. The houses of the people are built of lava 
 blocks and moss. In evervthing but climate and 
 
 -71 
 
 c/ 
 
 vr 
 
 (3 2 °) 
 
a } 2 
 
 THE SCANDINAVIANS. 
 
 3 21 
 
 soil, which could hardly be worse, Iceland is an 
 earthly paradise. 
 
 The once proud, but now insignificant, kingdom 
 of Denmark consists of the peninsula of Jutland 
 and several adjacent islands of the Baltic Sea. 
 Copenhagen is the capital. The government is a 
 limited monarchy. The present king, Christian 
 IX., is best known as the father of Alexandra, Prin. 
 cess of Wales, Maria Dagmar, Empress of Russia, 
 and G-eorgios I., King of Greece. The executive 
 power is vested in the king and his ministry, the 
 
 the ninth century. In the eleventh century they 
 very nearly completed the conquest of Britain, their 
 king at that time being Canute, the greatest sover- 
 eign of his age. It was under him that Denmark 
 was Christianized. Near the close of the fourteenth 
 century Queen Margaret the Dane effected the con- 
 quest of all Scandinavia, uniting Sweden and Nor- 
 way to Denmark. That consolidation was called 
 “ The Union of Calmar.” Margaret died in 1411, 
 and her nephew Eric was appointed her heir, but 
 each nation chose its own ruler. Thirty-seven years 
 
 VIEW OF COPENHAGEN. 
 
 law-making power being vested in the Rigsdag, with 
 its senate, called Landsthing and its lower house, 
 called Tolkething. These branches of the legisla- 
 ture represent, as their names would indicate, respect- 
 ively the landed aristocracy and the people at 
 large. The state religion is the Lutheran. Absolute 
 freedom of worship is enjoyed, but there are very few 
 dissenters from the established church. Protestant- 
 ism in Denmark dates from 1530. Elementary educa- 
 tion is universal and obligatory. There is a pros- 
 perous university at Copenhagen and thirteen col- 
 leges located in the different large towns of the country. 
 
 Tho Danes apjieared first upon the surface of his- 
 tory as piratical invaders of England. That was in 
 
 e 
 
 later Denmark chose Christian I., Count of Olden- 
 burg, its king, and the house of Oldenburg wore the 
 Danish crown from 1448 to 1863. There were six- 
 teen kings of that dynasty, with an average reign of 
 twenty-six years. The present sovereign belongs to 
 the Multiplex house of Schleswig-Uolstein-Sonder- 
 burg-Glueksburg, to which name might properly be 
 added, Hesse-Cassel. 
 
 For many generations Denmark avoided complic- 
 ity with general European affairs, but it became 
 somewhat involved in the Napoleonic Wars as an 
 ally of France. That alliance resulted in the loss of 
 Norway. The great uprising in Europe against des- 
 potism in 1848 extended to that kingdom and re- 
 
 
G> 
 
 £ 
 
 3 22 
 
 THE SCANDINAVIANS. 
 
 suited in securing for the people a truly liberal con- 
 stitution, one under which the real authority of the 
 crown is reduced to the minimum. The latest ap- 
 pearance of Denmark upon the international stage 
 of action was in the Schleswig-Holstein War set 
 forth in German history. 
 
 The highest distinction of Denmark is not histor- 
 ical, but histrionic. The genius of Shakspeare made 
 use of a semi-historical, semi-mythical episode in the 
 annals of the Danish court as the canvas on which 
 to paint his masterpiece, Hamlet. The Danes have 
 a vivid tradition of the melancholy prince, and point 
 with pride to his supposed grave at Elsinore. There 
 was an old play of Hamlet which Shakspeare re- 
 wrote and into which he infused the life and light of 
 genius. The historical 
 basis, so far as there is 
 any, belongs to the six- 
 teenth century. 
 
 When the allies, after 
 their victory over Napo- 
 leon at Waterloo, de- 
 prived Denmark of Nor- 
 way, in punishment for 
 French alliance, they pro- 
 posed to cede the latter 
 to Sweden ; but the Nor- 
 wegians made such an 
 earnest and manly pro- 
 test against it that Nor- 
 way was recognized as an independent kingdom, 
 although under the same dynastic head as Sweden. 
 The union with Denmark covered the long period 
 from 1387 to 1814. In the early days of Scandina- 
 via the Norwegians were the leading element and the 
 land conquered by the 'Scandinavians in France 
 (912), was called Normandy. 
 
 With an area of 122,869 square miles, Norway has 
 a population of about 2,000,000. It is an agricul- 
 tural and pastoral country, especially the latter. It 
 has two large towns, Christiana, with a population in 
 1880 of 116,801, and Bergen about one-third the size 
 of the metropolis. Great numbers of the people 
 emigrate to this country. In 1873 the emigration 
 reached 13,865. It has fallen off somewhat since, 
 but is still great and constant. The State of Minne- 
 sota lias a very large percentage of Scandinavian 
 population. 
 
 Norway can boast the largest merchant marine, in 
 
 proportion to population, in the world. At the end 
 of 1879 the shipping of that country numbered 
 8,125 vessels, of a total burthen of 1,509^477 tons, 
 manned by 58,609 sailors. There, as in Denmark, 
 the Lutheran church is everywhere predominant, 
 and education is compulsory. The legislative author- 
 ity is vested in the Storthing, divided into two 
 branches, the Lagthing and the Oldenthing. The 
 executive authority is exercised by the king nomin- 
 ally, but really by a council of state composed of two 
 ministers and nine counselors. 
 
 Norway extends 1,080 miles from north to south, 
 with a breadth varying from 270 to 20 miles. The 
 coast line is fringed with islands and indented with 
 fjords. The chief river is Glommen, or Stor-Elven, 
 
 as one part of it is called. 
 Owing to the gulf -stream 
 the country is not as cold 
 as the latitude would in- 
 dicate. But for that 
 ocean river, Norway 
 would be uninhabitable. 
 The chief source of 
 revenue is timber. The 
 pines, firs and birch of 
 that land are of great 
 value. The fisheries and 
 mines are also very con- 
 siderable sources of reve- 
 nue, especially the for- 
 mer. The iron, copper and silver mines yield less 
 than a million dollars a year, all told, while 
 the annual catch of fish exported, including 
 oysters, cannot be worth less than 85,000,000. The 
 rivers fairly swarm with salmon and salmon trout. 
 
 Since its separation from Denmark Norway has 
 developed a distinctively national literature, and 
 can boast one name of world-wide fame, Bjornstjern 
 Bjornson. Hans Christian Andersen is the best 
 known Scandinavian author. The Synnove Solbak- 
 ken, published in 1856, is regarded as the beginning 
 of Norwegian literature. 
 
 Sweden is really the major part of Scandinavia, 
 of which Gustavus Wasa was the first great sove- 
 reign. That monarch did much to strengthen the 
 nation and weaken the clergy. His reign began in 
 1523. The country was at that time torn and tor- 
 mented with ecclesiastical strife, and so it continued 
 to be until early in the seventeenth century, when 
 

 THE SCANDINAVIANS. 
 
 3 2 3 
 
 Lutheran Protestantism completely triumphed there, 
 as in Denmark and Norway. The Scandinavians 
 never had any real affiliation with Rome on the part 
 of the people. The popular heart was not enlisted 
 by popish devices. The last Catholic king of Swe- 
 den was Sigismund. He was succeeded in 1600 by 
 Charles IX., a zealous Protestant. Eleven years later 
 his great son, Gustavus Adolphus, known as the 
 “ Swede of Victory,” ascended the throne and reigned 
 twenty -one years. That reign was a splendid period 
 in Swedish history, a memorable one in the history 
 of the world. In the terrible war between Protest- 
 antism and Catholicism, in 
 which nearly all Christendom 
 was enlisted, he took a conspic- 
 uous part. The history of the 
 Thirty-Years War has for an in- 
 tegral part of its record the ex- 
 ploits of that great soldier and 
 majestic man. He gave his life 
 to the cause of Protestantism. 
 
 Gustavus Adolphus was re- 
 markable for the breadth of his 
 sympathies and the vastness of 
 his plans. Not content with 
 
 conserving the interests of Swe- 
 den, and helping in the religious 
 disenthrallment of Europe, his 
 thoughts went out to America. 
 
 It was in his day that the most 
 beneficent settlements on this 
 continent were made, and that 
 the seeds of the United States were sown, 
 a wholly independent way, he projected a settlement 
 in the new world, which he hoped would be the 
 nucleus of an ideal nation. The first Swedish colony 
 in America dates from 1637, five years subsequent 
 to the death of Gustavus, but none the less the idea 
 was his. That colony established itself on the land 
 between Cape Ilenlopen and Trenton Falls. Dela- 
 ware is a part of what was then New Sweden. The 
 Swedes had very little to do, as it proved, in the civil- 
 ization of this continent, but the dream of their 
 great king has been more than realized. 
 
 Although Gustavus Adolphus' had the honor of 
 raising Sweden to rank among the great powers of 
 Europe, the kingdom attained its highest glory un- 
 der Charles XI. (1660 to 1697). The peace of West- 
 
 Acting hi 
 
 phalia (1648) had added largely to the territory of 
 
 the kingdom. When Charles XII. came upon the 
 throne he had beneath his sway a magnificent em- 
 pire. He left it almost in rums. Many victories 
 were won over his enemies, but the country was im- 
 poverished. His reign extended from 1697 to 1719. 
 His successor was his sister, Ulrica Eleonora. Un- 
 der her a constitutional government was formed. 
 Gradually the area of Sweden was narrowed until 
 very little remained except Sweden proper. In 1814 
 Norway came, as we have seen, to form a dynastic 
 union with Sweden, but that was not an important 
 union. The union is declared to be perpetual, “with- 
 out prejudice, however, to the 
 separate government, constitu- 
 tion and code of laws of either 
 Sweden or Norway.” The law 
 of royal succession is the same 
 in both. In the event of an 
 absolute vacancy of the throne 
 the two Parliaments assemble 
 for the election of a common 
 king. 
 
 The present organic law of 
 Sweden dates from 1809, al- 
 though liberal changes were 
 made later, the latest being hi 
 1866. The government is sub- 
 stantially the same as that of 
 Norway, including religion and 
 education. There are two Swe- 
 dish universities, the one at Up- 
 sala being the chief. It numbers 
 among its alumni Emanuel Swedenborg, the great 
 scholar and author who founded what is known as 
 the Church of the New Jerusalem, and was, besides, 
 a great scientist. 
 
 The area of Sweden is 170,979 square miles; the 
 population in 1879 was 4,568,901. The emigration 
 from there to this country, which may be said to 
 have begun in 1860, reached its maximum in 1869, 
 during which year it reached 39,064. The Swedes 
 are numerous in the Northwest. Stockholm and 
 Goteborg are the two largest cities of Sweden. It is 
 estimated that 49 per cent, of the country is produc- 
 tive soil, including pasturage. Wheat is raised in the 
 southern part of the kingdom, rye, oats and potatoes 
 being, however, the chief products of the arable land. 
 The iron mines are of great value and importance. 
 
 The Scandinavians of to-day can certainly boast 
 
 
 
S) 
 
 
 THE SCANDINAVIANS. 
 
 no originality in religion. Even their modernized 
 form of Christianity was borrowed from Germany, 
 the Lutheran church being everywhere prevalent. 
 But that people may well be proud of the fullness, 
 definiteness and originality of their old mythology. 
 Its record is contained in two collections, called the 
 Eddas. The Elder Edda is in verse and dates back 
 to 1056 ; the younger is a prose work and dates from 
 1640. In those books are preserved the religious 
 conceptions and myths of ancient Scandinavia. Odin 
 
 dinavian divinities, their wars, loves, drinking bouts 
 and various exploits. Poets find in these stories rich 
 material for verse. 
 
 Mention has been made of the part taken by 
 Sweden in the early settlement of this country. It 
 is claimed by the Scandinavians, and with good rea- 
 son, too, that their ancestors were really the first dis- 
 coverers of this continent. In the ninth century an 
 Icelander, Gunbjorn, discovered Greenland. He was 
 soon followed by Eric the Bed. Eric gave the 
 
 is the Jupiter of that mythology, yet he has strongly 
 marked individuality, showing an origin quite inde- 
 pendent of classic mythology. The universe, accord- 
 ing to the Scandinavian theory, rests on the great 
 tree, Ygdrasill. The gods dwell in Asgard, and there 
 stands Valhalla, the great hall of Odin. Thor, the 
 Thunderer, is Odin’s mighty son. Jotunheim is the 
 home of the Giants. Frey is the god of sunshine 
 and rain, seedtime and harvest. Ilis sister Freya is 
 the goddess of love. The English names of the days 
 of the week were derived from and are perpetual 
 memorials of Scandinavian mythology. Loki is the 
 deity of evil. Many are the legends told of the Scan- 
 
 country he found the name of Greenland, his ac- 
 count of the country agreeing with the name he gave 
 it. Two settlements were made upon the western 
 continent. It was generally supposed, until recently, 
 that Greenland only was explored ; but it is now 
 highly probable that the adventurous keel of the 
 Norsemen plowed along the American coast as far 
 south as New England, and perhaps farther, hut in 
 the middle of the fourteenth century came that 
 terrible scourge, the plague, which destroyed the sur- 
 plus population, killed the germs of colonial enter- 
 prise and utterly uprooted whatever may have been 
 already planted on these shores. 
 
 ?> V 
 
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 j£_ 
 
 Ilf : IB ,11 
 
 The Home op the Glacier— The Helveti — Medieval Switzerland — The Story op William 
 Tell — The Alps — Glaciers and Avalanches— Zwingle, Calvin and Servetus— Swiss 
 Heroism and Local Self-Government — The Federal Government — Education and Indus- 
 try in Switzerland — The Republic op Andorra — San Marino, the Paradise op Office- 
 Holders — Monaco and Gambling — Roumania — Servia — Montenegro. 
 
 £ 
 
 T*“ 
 
 * 
 
 ’ HE- name Switzerland is de- 
 rived from Schwytz, one of 
 the twenty-five cantons of 
 the Confederation. It is 
 the very pinnacle of Eu- 
 rope, nestling in the Al- 
 pine crags, protected from 
 France, Germany, Austria and It- 
 aly by mountain barriers. With an 
 area of 15,988 square miles and a 
 population of two millions and a 
 half, only 69 per cent, of the land 
 can be called productive, and not 
 much of that is really good soil 
 The stupendous mountain ranges 
 are pecuniarly valuable mainly as 
 they attract visitors. Grain-raising 
 and cattle breeding furnish em- 
 ployment and support for the bulk of the people, but 
 the chief source of Swiss revenue is the entertain- 
 ment of strangers. The Alps are visited every season 
 by tourists from all over the world, men and women 
 seeking pleasure in scaling the lofty peaks which may 
 be said to be the natural home of the glacier. 
 
 In the days of Roman conquest the inhabitants of 
 that mountainous region were known as Helveti. In 
 the wars between the Gauls and the Romans, and 
 
 later, between the Romans and the Germans, they 
 bore some part, occasionally rising to a good deal of 
 prominence. They were brave soldiers, and once 
 gained supremacy over the warriors of Rome, but 
 their triumph was of short duration, and bore no 
 fruit. The Helveti repeatedly sought to change 
 their sterile mountain fastnesses for homes in the 
 tempting valleys east and west of them, but they 
 were compelled to fall back upon their strongholds. 
 In time their land became a Roman province, and 
 served as a barrier for the protection of Rome from 
 the Teutons. After the northern horde had overrun 
 Italy and destroyed the Empire of the AVest, the Os- 
 trogoths, Alemans, Franks and Burgundians swept 
 over Switzerland witli the besom of desolation. 
 
 In 879 the first kingdom of Burgundy was organ- 
 ized, including Switzerland, but after a century and 
 a half of inglorious independence the Carlovingian 
 dynasty, absorbed it. The people were not averse to 
 being under the imperial yoke, but the bailiff or 
 vicegerents of the emperor were very distasteful. 
 The only noteworthy rulers were the dukes of Zah- 
 ringen, who held sway during the twelfth century. 
 One of the dukes of Zahringen instituted the house 
 of Ilapsburg, the protector of the forest lands of the 
 duchy, and out of that protectorate grew the rule of 
 the Hapsburgs in Switzerland. 
 
 7 
 
 ( 3 2 5 ) 
 
•vl®. 
 
 \ 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 < 
 
 As long ago as the days of the Ilelveti we hear of 
 “ Confederates,” but the present Confederation is of 
 mucli later origin. Its first organization dates back 
 to 1291 when the three forest cantons of Schwytz, 
 Uri, and Unterwalden formed a league. Out of that 
 association grew the Confederation, much as the 
 American Union grew out of the confederation of the 
 original thirteen states. Napoleon was right when 
 he said to a Swiss deputation, “Nature made you to 
 be a federative state,” at least such seems fated to be 
 
 the case. 
 
 With oc- 
 casional 
 interrup- 
 tions the 
 cantons 
 have al- 
 ways’been 
 free and 
 united. 
 
 The 
 national 
 hero was 
 W illiam 
 Tell. His 
 very ex- 
 iste nee 
 lias been 
 question- 
 ed, and 
 certain it 
 is that all 
 known of 
 of him is 
 more le- 
 gendary than historical. The story is this : Tell was 
 a hunter living in the canton of U ri in the early part 
 of the fourteenth century. At that time the Haps- 
 burg dynasty claimed sovereignty over Switzerland. 
 An Austrian bailiff named Gessler raised a cap on a 
 pole in the market-place of Altorf to which every- 
 body was ordered to bow in token of submission to 
 the government. Tell belonged to an organization 
 formed for the purpose of throwing off the yoke of 
 oppression, and he refused obedience. Gessler con- 
 demned him to death, but reprieved him on condition 
 that he would shoot an apple from the head of his 
 own son. Being a remarkable bowman, he ventured 
 the shot, and hit the apple without harming the boy. 
 
 VIEW OF BASLE. 
 
 The tyrannical bailiff noticed that Tell had two ar- 
 rows, and asked him why he had more than one, to 
 which the intrepid archer replied, “ If I had hit my 
 son I should have shot you.” The critics pronounce 
 this story a legend common to all Aryan nations, 
 found, with slight variations, in Persia, Denmark, 
 Iceland and elsewhere. 
 
 But the chief interest of Switzerland is that 
 vast system of mountains which culminates in 
 Mont Blanc. The Alps extend from the Mediterra- 
 nean Sea, 
 between 
 Marseil- 
 les and 
 Nice, ir- 
 regularly 
 eastward 
 to about 
 18° east 
 longitude 
 and 45° 
 30 ' north 
 latitude. 
 
 The 
 Rhine, 
 Rhone 
 and the 
 Danube 
 are the 
 great riv- 
 ers which 
 rise in 
 those 
 moun- 
 tains. 
 
 The Alps cover an area of nearly 100,000 square 
 miles, extending some 700 miles from east to west, 
 varying in breadth from 50 to 200 miles, with an 
 average elevation of 7,700 feet. There are no less 
 than seven hundred peaks which tower into the re- 
 gion of perpetual snow. Among these are Mont 
 Blanc, 15,784 feet high ; Grand Ceroin, 14,815 ; Fin- 
 steraarhorn, 14,025; Schreckhorn, 14,815; Mont 
 Cenis, 11,785, and Jungfrau, 13,114. There are six- 
 teen passes, the most notable being the great St. Ber- 
 nard, between the valley of the Rhone and Piedmont. 
 Napoleon crossed it in 1800. More than two thou- 
 sand years before, Hannibal the Great had crossed 
 what is now known as the Little St. Bernard pass, 
 
 SWITZERLAND AND LESSER EUROPE. 
 
SWITZERLAND AND LESSER EUROPE. 
 
 which connects Geneva, Savoy and Piedmont. In 
 Switzerland the Alps are not enriched with minerals, 
 coal only being found there ; but hi some outlying 
 portions of the great chain iron, lead and quicksil- 
 ver abound. The distinctive Alpine animals are the 
 chamois, the ibex, the goat, and the famous dogs of 
 St. Bernard. 
 
 The vast accumulations of ice and snow in the 
 Alpine peaks, called glaciers, have been carefully 
 
 rough and undulating, not unfrequently scarred by 
 deep clefts. Toward the lower end these ice masses 
 are usually strewn with sand and coarse gravel, and 
 trains of large blocks that disguise the natural color. 
 In former conditions of the earth’s surface they at- 
 tained enormous dimensions, but, if we except those 
 of Greenland, not yet explored, none are known that 
 exceed about 30 miles in length and two or 
 three miles in breadth.” These stupendous ac- 
 
 studied by geologists. It is scientifically certain 
 that glaciers once extended over countries where they 
 are no longer found, and that the traces of them 
 throw light upon our knowledge of the earth. The 
 Alps are the chief arena for the present display of 
 this kind of phenomenon. They are described by 
 Ball as “ continuous masses of ice that originate in 
 the region of perpetual snow, but extend far below 
 the snow-line, often reaching the zone of forests, and 
 sometimes descending into inhabited districts in the 
 midst of corn-fields and fruit trees. The ice is very 
 different in appearance from what is commonly seen 
 in winter on streams and lakes. The surface is 
 
 cumulations of ice and snow are at perpetual men- 
 ace. They occasionally slip from their moorings and 
 rush downward, carrying death and desolation as 
 they go. Sometimes the slightest cause, as tlie vi- 
 bration of air, will precipitate a glacier. A glacier 
 in motion is called an avalanche. The mere sound 
 of a bell has been known to turn a glacier into an 
 avalanche. Some parts of the Alpine valleys are 
 uninhabited on account of the frequent occurrence 
 of these avalanches. 
 
 The first real triumph over the Alps was achieved 
 when the Mont Ccnis tunnel was completed. That 
 grand work of engineering is one of the wonders of 
 
 
 ■*. 
 
3 
 
 
 t 
 
 3 28 
 
 SWITZERLAND AND LESSER EUROPE. 
 
 the modern world. It was begun in August, 1857, 
 and completed as a tunnel in December, 1870. It 
 was thrown open to traffic hi the following Septem- 
 ber. It lacks only thirty yards of being eight miles 
 long. It cost $15,000,000. Trains run through it 
 in about twenty minutes. It comiects Italy and 
 France. 
 
 We may now return to a consideration of the peo- 
 ple, their ways, history, condition and industries. 
 The Swiss are a very simple-minded people. Their 
 one prominent native name, aside from the mythical 
 
 residence there dates from 1541 to 1564, the latter 
 date being the time of his death. During that 
 time his influence was almost autocratic. His 
 austere theology and cruel bigotry found their 
 most extreme expression in the burning at the 
 stake of Servetus for the crime of being a Unitarian 
 hi theology. Many ineffectual attempts have been 
 made to cleanse the skirts of Calvin from the blood 
 of Servetus. The former was indeed opposed to burn- 
 ing the poor heretic, preferring to kill him hi a less 
 horrible way, but his execution was approved by Calvin. 
 
 Tell, is Zwingle, one of the illustrious names of the 
 religious Keformation. He was a contemporary of 
 Martin Luther and contributed much to Protestant- 
 ism in its infancy. About one million and a half 
 of the population belong to the Protestant church, 
 leaving a million for the Catholic faith. But Zwin- 
 gle did less, however, for the Protestant cause than 
 John Calvin. The latter was a Frenchman, but ho 
 resided for a long time in Geneva, and may fairly he 
 claimed as a part of Switzerland. Born in 1509, he 
 fled to Geneva from the papal persecutions in France 
 in the year 1536. His first residence was short. He 
 pushed on to Strasburg, but in 1540 he was invited 
 by the senate of Geneva to return. His permanent 
 
 The Swiss have always been good soldiers. One 
 of the most brilliant victories of history was their 
 triumph over the Austrians at the battle of Morgar- 
 ten, in 1313. It has well been called the Ther- 
 mopylae of Switzerland. Their bravery, reinforced by 
 the admirable natural facilities for defense, has pro- 
 tected them from conquest. For a longtime now 
 the great powers of Europe have abandoned all idea 
 of interference with Switzerland. The French 
 Revolutionists attempted to regulate the affairs of 
 those cantons, but the Congress of Vienna (1815) 
 acknowledged and guaranteed the independence of 
 the Swiss. Each canton has its own constitution 
 and local self-government, and three of the cantons 
 
 ^r*v 
 
SWITZERLAND AND LESSER EUROPE. 
 
 3 2 9 
 
 are divided eacli into two states. “ Their constitu- 
 tions,” says Niemann, “range from purely democratic 
 to perfectly representative systems, but each constitu- 
 tion must be sanctioned by the federal assembly 
 before it can come into force. The ecclesiastical 
 authorities hi the Reformed church are the synods, 
 assemblies of the whole clergy ; and at their side 
 stands in each canton, as the highest administrative 
 authority, an ecclesiastical council — hi Geneva a 
 consistory.” The Roman Catholic church has five 
 bishoprics. 
 
 Any person eligible to the assembly is also eligible 
 to the council and the presidency. There is also a 
 federal court, having jurisdiction over all cases aris- 
 ing between the confederation and the canton, 
 between canton and canton, also between the govern- 
 ment, federal or local, on the one side and an indi- 
 vidual or a corporation on the other. 
 
 The country has three universities, Bern, Zurich, 
 and Basle ; and three professional schools of emi- 
 nence, Geneva and Lausanne theological seminaries 
 and law schools, and the law school at Freiburg. 
 
 VIEW OF ZURICH. 
 
 The central government has a constitution which 
 has undergone many changes. The present organic 
 law of the confederation dates from 1874. The con- 
 gress of Switzerland,the federal assembly, consists of 
 a national council with one member for every 20,000 
 inhabitants, and the council of states, corresponding 
 to our national senate. There is a federal council 
 exercising executive functions, composed of seven 
 members, elected by the federal assembly. The pres- 
 ident of that council, chosen annually by the 
 council itself, is president of the Confederation. 
 The president is not eligible to re-election until after 
 he lapse of a year from the expiration of his term. 
 
 Watch -making is the chief industry in Switzerland. 
 
 It remains to speak of the Republics of Andorra 
 and San Marino, also the Principalities of Monaco, 
 Pomerania, Servia and Montenegro. 
 
 Andorra is the name of a valley and a republic 
 which nestles like an eagle’s eyre far up among the 
 mountains. It is situated among the Eastern Pyre- 
 nees, between the French department of Ariege and 
 the Spanish province of Lerida. Ever since the days 
 of Charlemagne it has been independent, forming a 
 line of demarkation between Spain and France. 
 There were not more than 12,000 inhabitants by the 
 latest census. They are very primitive, kindly and 
 
 V s 
 
 v 
 

 •V <2- 
 
 
 
 33 ° 
 
 SWITZERLAND AND LESSER EUROPE. 
 
 
 hospitable mountaineers. The area of the republic 
 is 149 square miles. The government is entrusted 
 to twenty-four consuls. There is nothing worthy of 
 note in the history of Andorra. 
 
 San Marino is at once the oldest and smallest re- 
 public in the world. The area is 22 square miles, 
 the population a little less than 10,000. There are 
 five villages within its narrow limits. The largest 
 has the same name as the republic, and is the capi- 
 tal. San Marino is situated in eastern central Italy. 
 It dates back to the fourth century when St. Mari- 
 
 it is not the least among the nations. That distinc- 
 tion belongs to Monaco, which is as independent as 
 if it were the first power on the globe. Monaco is a 
 village of less than two thousand inhabitants. With 
 its surrounding territory it has an area of six square 
 miles, the total population being 3,127. It is situ- 
 ated on a high promontory in the Gulf of Genoa. It 
 has two claims to distinction. As a watering-place 
 its mild climate makes it a resort for consumptives 
 and other invalids. But its chief notoriety is due to 
 the fact that it is a legalized gambling-place, famous 
 
 
 nus, a pious stone-mason, fled thither with a few fol- 
 lowers to escape the Diocletian persecution. The 
 country has some good pasturage, and produces 
 fruit, silk-worms and wine. San Marino is the par- 
 adise of officeholders. Its little army of] 819 men 
 has 131 officers, and the political affairs of the re- 
 public are intrusted to a senate consisting of sixty 
 life members, an executive counsel of twelve, elect- 
 ed annually, and two presidents, elected for six 
 months. This has been the form of government 
 since 1847. 
 
 Although San Marino is the smallest of republics, 
 
 the world over for the extent, variety, and openness 
 of its games. Professional gamesters and respecta- 
 ble tourists are there found upon a common level, 
 the former habitues, the latter constantly coming 
 and going, the players of to-day being for the most 
 part different persons from those of yesterday. 
 What is done with more or less secrecy in the rest 
 of the world may be called the sole employment and 
 industry at Monaco. Speaking on this subject, a 
 recent writer says that the Prince receives about 
 8350,000 per annum for allowing the gambling to 
 be conducted within his principality, and that the 
 
 (D 
 
SWITZERLAND AND LESSER EUROPE. 
 
 33 1 
 
 - (0 
 
 * 
 
 present prince is entirely under the influence of the 
 Jesuits. This least country of Europe is great only 
 as an evil. The Prince resides in Paris. 
 
 Roumania was formed as a province of Turkey in 
 1861, out of the union of two minor principalities, 
 Wallachia and Moldavia. The representatives of 
 the people met at the capital, Bucharest, May 21, 
 1877, and proclaimed absolute independence of Tur- 
 key. The Berlin Congress, in the following year, 
 confirmed the proclamation. Its area is 48,307 
 square miles ; population something over 5,000,000. 
 Bucharest is a city of over 220,000 inhabitants. 
 The people are, for the most part, Greek Christians. 
 The government is an elective and strictly limited 
 constitutional principality. The present prince is 
 Karl I. 
 
 Servia gained independence of Turkey at the same 
 time and in the same way as Roumania. It was vir- 
 tually free, however, as early as 1829. The present 
 prince, Milan II., is the fourth of his dynasty, the 
 house having been founded by Milos, leader hi the 
 Servian war against Turkey, which lasted from 1815 
 to 1829. The Servians are Slavs, of the Greek 
 church, except in a small district mainly peopled by 
 Mohammedans. The area of Servia is 20,850 
 square miles ; population nearly 2,000,000. The 
 country and the people are wild and rude. The 
 
 government is similar in form to that of Roumania. 
 Belgrade is the capital, with a population of less 
 than 30,000. 
 
 Montenegro is a small and barbaric principality 
 near the Adriatic sea, serving as a wall between 
 Turkey and Austria, the Moslem and the Christian. 
 The Turk was never able to subdue the Montene- 
 grins, who are a tribe of Servians intensely devoted 
 to the Greek church. The population is not over 
 250,000, but the Prince, or Hospodar, can raise an 
 army of 20,000 at any time, especially if the object 
 is to war upon the Turks. Russia has often found 
 great advantage in Montenegrin sympathy. The 
 reigning prince is Nicholas I. The country has a 
 constitution of the modern sort. By the treaty of 
 Berlin, Montenegro gained from Turkey the town 
 and district of Dulcigno, on the Adriatic, which sur- 
 render was not actually made until 1880, and then 
 only under the pressure of the great powers. The 
 area of this principality is 3,550 square miles. The 
 country has neither roads nor villages. Forests 
 abound, and acorn-fed swine are the chief source of 
 revenue. The agriculture is carried on, the little 
 there is of it, in a very primitive way, and that 
 almost wholly by women. It may be added that the 
 same is true as regards women and agriculture, only 
 in a less degree, of the entire continent of Europe. 
 
 
CHAPTER LV. 
 
 English Greatness — National Terms — Early Britons — Julius Caesar in Britain — The Druids 
 — Roman Conquest of the Island — Independence — Advent of the Anglo-Saxon — Chris- 
 tian Evangelization— Irish and Roman Church Influences— Synod of Whitby — Danish 
 Incursion — Alfred the Great — Canute and the Anglicization of the Danes — Dunstan — 
 Edward the Confessor— The Norman Invasion— Harold and William— Battle of Hast- 
 ings — The Conquest of England — Domesday Book and Realty — Henry I. 
 
 
 ITH this chapter begins the 
 history of the most re- 
 markable people in the 
 world, historical or actual. 
 
 coun- 
 
 Besides 
 mother 
 
 try,, great hi 
 itself, is that 
 Greater Brit- 
 ain, which in- 
 cludes the 
 United States. 
 
 This republic 
 is indeed peopled by the 
 representatives of many 
 lands, still it forms one 
 mighty nation, speaking 
 the English language, in- 
 heriting its traditions, 
 and governed in great 
 part by its common law. Restricted and insular as is 
 the term England, it is certain that the word English 
 is the most comprehensive term in any speech, besides 
 
 CiBsar Lauding in Britain. 
 
 having in it the promise of a still more vast future. 
 England, Scotland and Wales constitute one island, 
 Great Britain ; and by “ the British Isles ” is meant 
 not only that island, but Ireland and the minor 
 
 specks of land in the 
 adjacent waters, subject 
 to the British crown. 
 The proper designation 
 of all those islands, hi 
 a political point of view 
 is the United Kingdom. 
 The term British Em- 
 pire is much broader, 
 including as it does all 
 the outlying possessions 
 under the rule of the 
 English crown and the 
 British constitution, 
 and upon which, liter- 
 ally speaking, the sun 
 never sets. As the Ro- 
 man Empire was the 
 growth and outgrowth 
 of the city of Rome, so the British Empire is the 
 growth and outgrowth of England, a country of 
 hardly more than fifty thousand square miles. In 
 
 
 
 ( 33 2 ) 
 
3 
 
 3 . 
 
 71 
 
 OLD ENGLAND. 
 
 a semi-historical, half-poetical way the country is 
 sometimes designated Albion, sometimes Britannia, 
 or Britain. 
 
 The original inhabitants of the country were Brit- 
 ons, from whom the present Welsh claim descent. 
 Celts and Piets, hardly distinguishable from the 
 the Britons, may fairly be classed among the first 
 settlers of Great Britain, as well as England proper. 
 In the ancient world that part of the globe bore no 
 important part. The Phoenicians are supposed to 
 have been 
 the first to 
 pass the 
 pillars of 
 Hercules, 
 and dis- 
 cover the 
 great isl- 
 and of the 
 North At- 
 1 a n t i c . 
 
 Learning 
 of the ex- 
 istence of 
 the rich 
 tin mines 
 of Corn- 
 wall, they 
 carried on 
 quite an 
 extensive 
 trade with 
 the Corn- 
 ish miners. 
 
 But it was 
 not until 
 
 the eagle eye of Julius Caesar looked across the chan- 
 nel and conceived the purpose of annexing Britain to 
 the Roman Empire that it really became a part of the 
 historical world. lie crossed the straits of Dover in 
 B. C. 55. His commentaries give a somewhat glowing 
 account of the people and of their progress towards 
 civilization. Of their religion, Druidism, he wrote, 
 “They teach that the soul is imperishable, passing at 
 deatli into another body. They consider this belief 
 a potent incentive to bravery in battle, removing as 
 it does the fear of death.” The priests were called 
 Druids, and they were not only ministers of religion, 
 but also ministers of justice, and in geheral the in- 
 
 333 
 
 tellectual aristocracy of the country. The religious 
 rites observed were horrible, for they practiced hu- 
 man sacrifice, sometimes immolating many victims 
 at one time. 
 
 Julius Csesar crossed to England twice during his 
 Gallic and Germanic Wars, but he did little more 
 than to gain and disseminate information about the 
 country. It was in A. D. 43, that England was 
 really annexed to the empire. The attacking army 
 was first led by Plautius, but soon the Emperor 
 
 Claudius 
 himself 
 appeared 
 upon the 
 s cene. 
 When he 
 returned 
 to the con- 
 tinent Ves- 
 pasian (af- 
 ter wards 
 emperor) 
 was left in 
 command. 
 The isl- 
 anders de- 
 fended 
 themselves 
 with brav- 
 ery, but 
 of course 
 they were 
 impotent 
 as against 
 such an 
 enemy as 
 
 Rome at the zenith of its power. About twenty 
 years elapsed when a rebellion broke out. The 
 leader of the Britons was Boadicea, queen of one of 
 the tribes or counties of Britain. This brave woman 
 rallied the natives to her standard of revolt, regard- 
 less of tribal fealty, and she gained some very con- 
 siderable successes. She took London, then as ever 
 the chief city of the island, and laid it in ashes* 
 But the Romans rallied their forces, and in a deci- 
 sive battle slew no less than eighty thousand Britons. 
 Seeing that all was lost, the gallant Boadicea com- 
 mitted suicide by taking poison. 
 
 In A. D. 78, Agricola was sent to Britain, com- 
 
 Q 
 
OLD ENGLAND. 
 
 334 
 
 missioned to complete the conquest of the island 
 and then to undertake in a thorough and humane 
 way to civilize the people. They were not far be- 
 hind their conquerors in civilization even then. He 
 was so far successful that a very considerable part 
 of England was made thoroughly loyal to the Ro- 
 man Emperors. The intractable and irreconcila- 
 ble took refuge in Wales, Scotland or the north 
 countries. It was a difficult task to hold the rude 
 outside barbarians in check and protect Romish 
 England from predatory incursions. Large forts 
 were built and great walls along the friths of Forth 
 and Solway. Towns sprang up in which Latin was 
 spoken, and the literature of that language was 
 read. Classic mythology largely supplanted Dru- 
 idical barbarity. Gradually the island grew in favor 
 and importance. Helena, the mother of Constan- 
 tine the Great, was a Briton. She was also a Chris- 
 tian. The introduction of Christianity occurred 
 early in the present era, but just when and by whom 
 the first seeds were sown is uncertain. It was 
 upon English soil and by British soldiers that the 
 first Christian emperor, Constantine, was proclaimed 
 emperor. The Emperor Honorius released the Brit- 
 ons from imperial allegiance. That was in 410. A 
 few months later Alaric entered Rome in triumph, 
 and the Empire of the West fell. The most west- 
 ern portion of it, however, may be said to have 
 escaped the humiliation of Gothic conquest by hav- 
 ing first been set free from the yoke of Rome. 
 
 Independence of the empire was a dubious bless- 
 ing. The Scots and Piets of Scotland and Wales 
 made themselves very troublesome. London, York 
 and Lincoln, more Roman than British, could not 
 defend themselves from the rude barbarians. The 
 townsfolk were wealthy and cultivated, but their 
 wealtli seemed to draw upon them despoiling ene- 
 mies, and culture was no match for brute force. 
 Their condition soon became unendurable. Before 
 the fifth century was half gone, they felt compelled 
 to seek protection from without. In their distress 
 they applied to the sea-rovers of Scandinavia, and 
 the cry for help was heard, the prayer for succor 
 answered, but not in the spirit of kindness. It was 
 the wolf and the lamb. 
 
 In 449 Britain became England, or, rather, the 
 transformation began then. It occurred in this 
 wise : In response to the call for help the Angles of 
 Schleswig, and the Saxons of Holstein, with some 
 
 
 Jutes from Jutland, crossed the angry waters be- 
 tween their land and the fair island of distress 
 south of them. The event seemed trivial in im- 
 portance, but it proved of the most far-reaching 
 consequence. Much of the blood of the Britons 
 courses in British veins to-day ; but the language 
 and national characteristics of the people are almost 
 wholly Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 The religious and other institutions of the Britons 
 were obliterated from the country. There were 
 several petty kingdoms and much dissension among 
 the new comers ; but they were so far harmonious 
 that they succeeded in destroying the cities, churches, 
 schools and agricultural improvements of the 
 Romanized Britons and holding in awe the savages 
 beyond the border. Essex and Wessex, Bercia and 
 Deira, were the names of those kingdoms, with a 
 fifth, Mercia, more powerful than any of the rest. 
 The people were divided into two classes, earls and 
 churls. The former held land and were the aristoc- 
 racy ; the latter were the peasant class. A promi- 
 nent feature of those times was local self-govern- 
 ment. The villages and towns, for the most part, 
 governed themselves. The town rulers were called 
 ealdermen or aldermen. The Britons, properly so 
 called, never again exercised any very considerable 
 influence over the affairs of that island. The name 
 of England soon became and remained entirely ap- 
 propriate. The chief wars which followed were 
 waged by different branches of the Anglican family, 
 or its near kinsfolk. 
 
 Late in the sixth century some of these Anglo- 
 Saxons appeared in the slave market at Rome, and 
 attracted the attention of that eminent pope, Greg- 
 ory the Great. Finding whence they came, and 
 that the gods of Scandinavia were worshiped there, 
 albeit the Cross had once flourished in Briton, he re- 
 solved to evangelize the English. St. Augustine of 
 Rome (not the supremely eminent saint of that 
 name) was delegated to the important task. That 
 was in 597. The first convert was the King, or Earl 
 of Kent, Ethelbert. His wife was a Christian 
 Frank. The first English bishopric was established 
 at Canterbury. Thirty years later, Edwin of North- 
 umbria accepted the new faith. He was the founder 
 of Edwinsburg or Edinburgh. In 633 the kingdom 
 of Mercia undertook the championship of the old 
 faith. Many a bloody war was waged in the cause of 
 these rival religions. In 680 all England became 
 
 
«> 
 
 
 OLD ENGLAND. 
 
 335 
 
 Christian. This complete triumph of Jesus over Thor 
 was largely due to the intelligence and zeal of mis- 
 sionaries from Ireland. The latter island was far 
 more civilized than England a thousand years ago. 
 Schools and churches flourished, and the Irish 
 church of that day had no connection with Rome. 
 It was somewhat in rivalry with it, especially as re- 
 gards spiritual authority in England. It became 
 necessary to convoke a synod to determine which 
 the English church should ally itself with, the Irish 
 
 and adventurous Norsemen were tempted to invade 
 England by the thrift of the island under its An- 
 glican masters. A very considerable civilization had 
 grown up, and where Roman towns had been razed 
 to the ground in whole or part, new cities had come 
 to attest a renewed prosperity. In scholarship and 
 letters the Venerable Bede won a high place by his 
 learning and genius as early as the eighth century. 
 The England of the original English had gradually 
 attained to a fair degree of national unity and en- 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 A. — 
 
 ■r r 
 
 or the Roman church. That council, the Synod of 
 Whitby, met in G64, and its decision was in favor 
 of Rome. The great royal champion of Rome, Eg- 
 bert, King of Wessex, succeeded in conquering all 
 England. He belonged to the first years of the 
 ninth century, and was a cotemporary of Charle- 
 magne. Egbert may be said to have founded the 
 English crown, and was thirty-six degrees removed 
 from Queen Victoria by lineal descent, or rather 
 ascent. 
 
 We must now turn back to a great crisis which 
 arose in English affairs in the eighth century. This 
 was the incursion of the Danes. Those powerful 
 
 lightenment when the disturbing element from Den- 
 mark was introduced into the country. That por- 
 tion of the island which was English without being 
 directly and originally subject to Wessex, did not 
 seriously object to a change of sovereignty. After 
 a contest of nearly a century the Danes succeeded 
 in establishing themselves in the eastern part of the 
 island, but they made no marked impression upon 
 the future of the country. 
 
 In the year 871 Alfred the Great succeeded to 
 the throne. His reign extended to the second year 
 of the tenth century. Those thirty years were es- 
 pecially memorable, for small as was his kingdom, 
 
 4 2 
 
 O 
 

 33 6 
 
 OLD ENGLAND. 
 
 Alfred better deserved the. title of Great than did 
 any other medieval sovereign unless it be Charle- 
 magne. During the first of his 
 reigrn he "was in constant warfare 
 with the Danes, succeeding in 
 narrowing their area and sub- 
 jecting them to a degree of vas- 
 salage. One battle, however, 
 proved a brilliant Danish victory, 
 and the king was obliged to take 
 refuge in disguise. It was dur- 
 ing that period of eclipse that he 
 served as house-servant, and was 
 whipped for letting the bread 
 burn. But he soon rallied his 
 forces and regained his losses. 
 
 Alfred was a skillful, brave and 
 powerful warrior. His real claim 
 to greatness rests, however, on his 
 statesmanship and his zeal for 
 learning. He was the most civilized ruler of the 
 age. The laws were reformed, more especially in 
 their administration, and schools established, 
 fred was the founder of the 
 British navy, and the especial 
 patron of strictly English liter- 
 ature, to which he made valu- 
 able personal contributions. He 
 was especially eager to advance 
 popular education. He trans- 
 lated several works from the 
 Latin into English. These were 
 mainly historical. His ytalace- 
 schools for the instruction of 
 the sons of the nobility, may be 
 said to have laid the corner- 
 stone of university education in 
 England. 
 
 The next British sovereign 
 of note was Canute the Dane. 
 
 His reign was from 101G to 
 1035. From vassalage to the 
 Saxon crown he rose to su- 
 premacy over both the English 
 and the Danes of the island. His policy was to 
 harmonize the people, and he treated the English 
 Avith justice. On his mother’s side Canute could 
 boast descent from Alfred. With him the dis- 
 tinctive mark of Denmark was obliterated forever 
 
 from Britain, for albeit a Dane, he Avas in spirit a 
 thorough Englishman. Alfred’s son, EdAvard the 
 Elder, Avas the first to take the 
 title of King of England, but the 
 England of Canute Avas a step in 
 advance, for it merged into one 
 (with the English as the one) the 
 tAvo Scandinavian elements of the 
 people. He Avas the only great 
 sovereign the land enjoyed from 
 Alfred to William of Normandy, 
 but not the only great ruler, for 
 Dunstan, although a subject, 
 ruled the destinies of England 
 under several kings, and Avas a 
 man Avorthy of the highest honor 
 and deathless gratitude. The 
 kings under Avhom Dunstan flour- 
 ished Avere Edmund I., Edred, 
 Edwy, and Edgar, the period 
 covered being from 940 to 9?5. A devout monk 
 Avith a passionate fondness for music, poetry and 
 literature, he Avas none the less a man of affairs. 
 
 His aim Avas to make England 
 united and great. The kings 
 Avith whom he had to do could 
 not appreciate him, and his la- 
 bors Avere made doubly arduous 
 by their imbecility. It must be 
 conceded that Dunstan was 
 somewhat hampered as a re- 
 former by superstition, and he 
 Aveakened his influence for good 
 by zeal for ecclesiastical regula- 
 tions, especially clerical celiba- 
 cy. He did much, hoAvever, to 
 improve the laAvs and encour- 
 age education, herein nobly sup- 
 plementing the Avork of Alfred. 
 
 From Canute to William Avas 
 a sAvif t descent. A feAV troublous 
 years succeeded the death of the 
 great Dane, Arhen Edward the 
 Confessor came to the throne. 
 His early life had been spent at the court of Nor- 
 mandy, and he Avas more Norman than English in 
 his tastes and ideas. During the tAventy-four years 
 of his reign (1042 to 10G6) the higher offices 
 of the government Avere largely filled Avith foreign- 
 
 's- 
 
s> 
 
 OLD ENGLAND. 
 
 ers. Weak in mind, he was swayed by others. For- 
 tunately there was one patriotic Englishman who 
 exerted a powerful influence over him, Godwin, earl 
 of Wessex, and after him his son Harold. It was 
 during this reign that Scotland was the scene of 
 those bloody deeds made immortal in the drama of 
 Macbeth, and England’s part in the overthrow of 
 
 that foul traitor is 
 
 fairly set fortli by 
 Shakspeare. And it 
 may well be remarked 
 here that the histori- 
 cal plays of that su- 
 preme genius are of in- 
 calculable value from 
 the standpoint of Brit- 
 ish history, affording 
 as they do wonderful 
 insight into the spirit 
 of the times. But 
 Edward’s most mem- 
 orable act was not 
 succoring Malcolm of 
 Scotland. It was be- 
 stowing his kingdom 
 upon his cousin Will- 
 iam of Normandy. 
 
 Such was his partial- 
 ity for the Normans 
 that he wished to be 
 succeeded by one of 
 their number. At 
 least William himself 
 set up this claim, and 
 not without some show 
 of truth. However, 
 in his last hours Ed- 
 ward bestowed the 
 crown upon Earl 
 Harold, son of Godwin, but, unfortunately, the 
 latter had once been shipwrecked upon the Nor- 
 man coast, and while held a prisoner he signed 
 a complete renunciatioh of all claim to the En- 
 glish crown in favor of Duke William. When, 
 therefore, Harold came to the throne William de- 
 manded compliance with the promise made. The 
 Saxon persisted that the pledge was exacted of him 
 under duress and was not binding. William there- 
 upon gathered his forces and invaded England. The 
 
 BATTLE OF HASTINGS, DEATH OF HAROLD. 
 
 battle of Hastings was the result. That battle oc- 
 curred in 1066. In it Harold was slain and his army 
 put to utter rout. The Saxon cause was lost, irrev- 
 ocably. What the folly of Edward the Confessor 
 had begun the sword of William the Conqueror 
 finished. 
 
 We have now seen the Briton give place to the 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, and the 
 latter assimilate the 
 Dane, and now still 
 another element was 
 introduced into the 
 English race, the last 
 of all, for the Nor- 
 man was the final 
 really foreign ingredi- 
 ent in the strictly En- 
 glish blood. In the 
 task of making one 
 people out of many 
 England has shown 
 a wonderful power, 
 and the work of as- 
 similation is still going 
 on in other parts of 
 the British islands, es- 
 pecially in Scotland ; 
 but the Saxons who 
 were so ingloriously 
 conquered at Hastings 
 have proved the real 
 masters of the situa- 
 tion. Notwithstand- 
 ing the political 
 change made, England 
 remained English, and 
 the Norman, like the 
 Dane, gradually lost 
 his identity, merged in 
 that of the descendants of the Angles, the Jutes and 
 the Saxons. It is necessary to bear these general 
 facts in mind, as a safeguard against being deceived 
 as to the actual importance of the Norman conquest. 
 
 It was not the battle of Hastings and what im- 
 mediately followed which constitutes the Conquest. So 
 complete was that initial victory that William’s right 
 to the crown of England was at once conceded. On 
 Christmas-day of that same year (1066) occurred his 
 coronation at Westminster Abbey, the Archbishop of 
 
 O 
 

 
 33 8 
 
 OLD ENGLAND. 
 
 York officiating. The new king prof essed great respect 
 for the laws of England, and was rather lenient in his 
 treatment of the vanquished. After a few months, 
 during which all went smoothly, William returned 
 to his Duchy of Normandy, to look after his affairs 
 there. Hardly had die sailed away when the spirit 
 of insubordination manifested itself, and it became 
 evident that the battle of Hastings had not really 
 subdued the nation. The duke returned with all 
 the force he could command, and then began a long, 
 bitter and desolating war. Inch by inch William 
 conquered England, and terrible was his revenge 
 upon those whom he branded as rebels. Frightful 
 tales of horror are told, and large tracts of culti- 
 vated fields were utterly devastated, the slaughter 
 of the people being ruthless. These waste places 
 he maintained as hunting grounds. Game laws were 
 mtroduced for the preservation of wild beasts 
 at the expense of the conquered Saxons, that the 
 conquerors might have the pleasure of killing. 
 The people, to a large extent, were reduced to a 
 state of serfage little better than downright slavery. 
 
 To render the conquest more secure, William 
 caused his English kingdom to be surveyed, and a 
 record to be made of the survey. That record is 
 called Domes-day Book, and detestable as was its ori- 
 gin and object, it may be called the beginning of an 
 incalculably important system of land records. 
 The present practice of keeping public records of 
 all real estate titles is of quite recent introduction, 
 still, the fundamental idea of the system is found 
 in that vestige of the Norman conquest. The lands 
 taken from the vanquished Saxons were either re- 
 tained or parceled out among the barons from Nor- 
 mandy. To a very large extent the present English 
 titles to lands are traced back to the Conquest. The 
 king did not bestow those estates absolutely, or in 
 fee simple, but conditionally, on the feudal plan. If 
 the landholder or his heirs, failed to render satis- 
 factory service to the crown, the land itself could be 
 reclaimed by a decree of forfeiture, or escheat. It fol- 
 lows that the landed property of England could 
 now be largely redistributed by law without the vio- 
 lation of any “ vested right ” or infringement upon 
 the British constitution. Possibly the land tenure 
 system introduced by William may eventually prove 
 the lever of a most radical reform in English realty. 
 
 William was a man of war apart from his cam- 
 paigns in England, but his continental struggles 
 
 were not important, and he was not a really potent 
 factor hi the affairs of France, to which his duchy 
 belonged. While engaged in devastating the town 
 of Nantes, belonging to his liege lord, Philip of 
 France, he was thrown from his horse and killed. 
 His death made glad the hearts of his subjects. 
 He had even quarreled with his own sons, and the 
 elder, Robert, had raised the standard of revolt. 
 In the struggle that followed William came very 
 near being slain by the sword of his own son. He 
 was overthrown, but filial regard saved his life. 
 
 When the career of William came to an end, Rob- 
 ert inherited Normandy and his brother William 
 Rufus, England. To a third brother, Henry, was 
 bequeathed the maternal fortune, which was very con- 
 siderable, but no part of either the kingdom or the 
 duchy. About this time the Crusades began, and 
 Robert mortgaged his duchy to Rufus to raise 
 money to join the expedition for the rescue of the 
 Holy Sepulcher. While the Knight of the Cross was 
 in “ Paynim land ” his royal brother was accidentally 
 killed in the chase, and Henry at once claimed both 
 England and Normandy. There was none to dis- 
 pute his claim, until Robert’s return, and then it 
 was too late. Henry I. held fast to both possessions, 
 being a skillful politician, a brave soldier and an un- 
 natural brother. Robert died hi prison. This first 
 of the Henrys reigned thirty-six years. He was call- 
 ed Beauclerc, or “the good scholar.” Under him the 
 country made some progress, but not much, and 
 almost none at all under his successor, Stephen, a 
 grandson of William the Conqueror, his mother be- 
 ing Adele, Countess of Blois. For twenty years 
 Stephen kept the land in a state of anarchy and 
 misery. The crown really belonged to Henry’s 
 daughter, Maude, who had been the wife of the Ger- 
 man Emperor, Henry V., and later of Geoffrey, 
 Count of Anjou, but the English of that day did 
 not take kindly to the idea of a queen, and Maude 
 was singularly destitute of tact. After several in- 
 effectual attempts to gain the crown, she retired to 
 a convent and ended her days as a pious nun. The 
 basis of the compromise was the agreement that 
 Stephen should wear the crown until death when 
 Henry, the son of Maude and Geoffrey, should suc- 
 ceed him, an arrangement which was carried out in 
 good faith. The death of Stephen occurred in 
 1154, and the accession of Henry II. proved the 
 beginning of a new series of events. 
 
a|V 
 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 
 
 OLD ENGLAND 
 
 w> 
 
 PLANTAGENETS. 
 
 * 5 * 
 
 AND THE 
 
 CHAPTER LVI. 
 
 The Sprat of Broom-Blossom— Thomas a Becket — Strongbow and Irish Subjugation — The 
 One English Pope of Rome — The Sorrows of Henry II. — Richard Cceur de Leon — King 
 John and Magna Charta — Henry III. and Parliament — Prince Edward and the Barons 
 — Roger Bacon the Medieval Scientist — The Two Bacons Compared — Westminster 
 Abbey— Architecture and Freemasonry — Retrospect of Old England. 
 
 
 _s> T, *— 
 
 => 
 
 
 ITH the coronation of Hen- 
 ry II. begins the rule 
 of the Plantagenets, 
 sometimes called the An- 
 gevine dynasty of En- 
 glish kings. The Planta- 
 genets held the scepter 
 from 1154 to 1485, or until the battle of 
 Bosworth gave the ascendancy to the Tu- 
 dors. The Dukes of Buckingham and 
 Chandos continue to call themselves 
 Plantagenets. The term originated in 
 the fact that Henry's father, Geoffrey of 
 Anjou, was accustomed to wear a spray of 
 broom-blossom in his hat, the French 
 name for which is genet. It is not propos- 
 ed in this chapter to follow the course of history to 
 the Tudors, but only to the accession of the first 
 Edward, whose broad statesmanship raised the na- 
 tion into so much more prominence than the dynas- 
 ty, that he constitutes a great landmark in English 
 history. 
 
 Henry had extensive continental possessions. Be- 
 sides the dukedoms of An jou and Normandy, he 
 was, through his queen, Eleanor, Lord of Aquitaine. 
 T he three possessions constituted about one-half of 
 the present France. The first notable reform which 
 
 he introduced was a well-directed blow at the 
 clergy. Hitherto a priest was amenable only to an 
 ecclesiastical tribunal, however heinous his crime, 
 but he abolished this un- 
 just “benefit of clergy.” 
 
 Thomas a Becket, Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, the 
 first Englishman since the 
 Conquest to hold that high 
 office, .refused to obey the 
 law. He appealed to the 
 pope and took refuge at 
 the French court. The 
 pope espoused the cause 
 of the clergy and threat- 
 ened the king with excom- 
 munication, but he stood 
 firm. A partial reconcili- 
 ation was finally effected, 
 and Becket returned to 
 the see of Canterbury. 
 
 That was in 1170. The 
 archbishop showed no 
 disposition to obey the law. 
 four barons, at the instigation of the king, assassin- 
 ated him. Three years later he was canonized, and 
 his shrine at Canterbury has ever since been a 
 
 STRONGBOW. 
 
 The result was that 
 
 ( 339 ) 
 
Q. 
 
 
 OLD ENGLAND AND THE PL ANT AGENETS. 
 
 34 ° 
 
 sacred spot to those who sympathize with his views 
 of clerical independence, of secular law and justice. 
 To allay the tempest raised by the ecclesiastics, 
 Henry consented to do penance at the shrine of 
 the “ martyr ” after he was sainted. 
 
 It was during the reign of Henry II. that England 
 gained her first foot- 
 hold in Ireland. The 
 Earl of Pembroke, 
 called “ Strongbow,” 
 led an army of - his 
 own immediate follow- 
 ing across St. George’s 
 Channel and carved 
 out for himself a pet- 
 ty kingdom which he 
 claimed to hold in the 
 name of the Britisli 
 sovereign. The foot- 
 hold thus gained was 
 the Province of Lein- 
 ster. From that time 
 to date England has 
 asserted a fictitious 
 claim to rule a peojfie 
 persistently unrecon- 
 ciled to any interfer- 
 ence with home rule. 
 
 That usurpation dates 
 from 1172. The reign 
 of Henry the Second 
 continued forty years, 
 during which time 
 much was done, be- 
 sides the abridgment 
 of clerical authority, 
 to correct abuses. The 
 rights of the barons 
 were respected, while their arrogance was re- 
 stricted. It is safe to say that the principles of jus- 
 tice found more recognition in him than in any 
 ruler of that century. He was also a patron of 
 learning. It may be remarked that it was about 
 this time that Nicholas Breakspear, an English 
 prelate, was made pope, being the only Englishman 
 to hold the keys of St. Peter. He took the name 
 of Adrian IV. Henry had enough Saxon blood in 
 his veins to be satisfactory to that element of the 
 people. With the Norman barons he was less popu- 
 
 lar. His reign was largely a struggle for the cur- 
 tailment of baronial power. It was under him that 
 the august judicial system, or, as Green calls it, “ the 
 fabric of English judicial legislation,” commenced, 
 and a glimpse is afforded of the great charter granted 
 by his son John. His reign was an education, pre- 
 paratory to the su- 
 preme event at Run- 
 nymede, of which we 
 are presently to hear. 
 
 This great king died 
 with the clouds of ad- 
 versity thick and 
 thickening about his 
 head. His two elder 
 sons were dead, and 
 the remaining two, 
 Richard and John, en- 
 gaged in a plot against i 
 their royal father,, 
 whose last days were 
 filled with sadness. 
 
 The older of the 
 two sons of Henry 
 II. is known in his- 
 tory as Richard Coeur 
 de Leon (Richard of 
 the Lion Heart). He 
 was a brave Crusader. 
 Many a romantic story 
 is told of his personal 
 prowess. With a touch 
 of poetry in his nature, 
 he was a great patron 
 of minstrels and trou- 
 badours. But apart 
 from the glamour of 
 romance, Richard lives 
 in history as a royal knight-errant, and that is 
 about all. 
 
 The younger brother, John, who succeeded to the 
 crown in 1199 and wore it until 1216, was treacher- 
 ous and despicable, yet sagacious and brave. He 
 was a great general, a powerful king, but he is best 
 known for something which he was forced to do in 
 spite of himself, and to which he never intended to 
 he faithful. We refer to the Great Charter, or 
 Magna Charta, wrung from him by the barons of 
 the realm at Runnymede. John is sometimes called 
 

 _£> 
 
 OLD ENGLAND AND THE PLANTAGENETS. 34I 
 
 Lackland. His reign extended from 1199 to 1216. 
 The charter was signed June 19, 1215. It was in 
 effect a royal pledge to respect the rights of the bar- 
 ons, the clergy and the people. That truly august 
 document constitutes the fundamental part of the 
 British constitution. A council of the clergy and 
 the nobility was held two years before the charter 
 was signed, for the purpose of devising ways and 
 means to secure that safeguard against royal usur- 
 pation. Cardinal Langton fairly earned the honor 
 of organizing this important victory over absolut- 
 ism. For once the church was on the side of prog- 
 ress and liberty. The king 
 had the support of the 
 pope, Innocent III., but 
 Langton persisted in his 
 patriotic purpose. The 
 charter as originally signed 
 by King John contained 
 sixty-one articles. It was 
 frequently renewed with ad- 
 ditions by subsequent sov- 
 ereigns. The right of trial 
 by a jury of one’s equals, or 
 peers, is, perhaps, the most 
 important guaranty of the 
 entire charter. No taxa- 
 tion without the consent of 
 the taxed was another great 
 principle, and one which 
 developed into the right of 
 the House of Commons hi 
 England and the House of Representatives in the 
 United States to originate all revenue bills. 
 
 Notwithstanding the fact that King John was a 
 very brave and able man, he not only failed utterly 
 to hold in check his English subjects, but he lost 
 the dukedom of Normandy, which was seized by the 
 French king, and henceforth the title became ex- 
 tinct. His reign was singularly inglorious, and his 
 name is exceptionally infamous in royal annals. 
 But had the one notable act of his life been vol- 
 untary, it would have made him to the English peo- 
 ple much what Abraham Lincoln is to the colored 
 people of America. As it was, he neither re- 
 ceived nor deserved the slightest credit for affixing 
 the royal sign manual to the charter. 
 
 The death of this baffled despot left the crown to 
 his son, Henry, then only eight years of age. For 
 
 three years the kingdom was ruled by a regent 
 of patriotism and statesmanship, Earl Pembroke. 
 The king was declared of age when sixteen years 
 old (1223), taking the title of Henry III. It 
 was during his reign that the great council of the 
 nation became known as the parliament, and began 
 to assume its proper function as the really supreme 
 authority in the land. Henry was a weak king, and 
 that fact was fortunate for the nation. It was 
 farther fortunate that he was a spendthrift. He 
 needed money, and had to apply to parliament for 
 appropriations. Every application, whether granted 
 or denied, served to em- 
 phasize the parliamentary 
 jurisdiction. But the church 
 of Rome was quite as eager 
 to take advantage of Hen- 
 ry’s imbecility as the people 
 were, and during this reign 
 ecclesiastical usurpation 
 made considerable headway. 
 Parliament showed a piti- 
 ful incapacity for govern- 
 ment. For many years the 
 country was in a state bor- 
 dering on anarchy. The 
 reign of this king extend- 
 ed from 1216 to 1272. 
 The nobility seemed infatu- 
 ated with a sense of their 
 own importance, and finally, 
 in 1264, they deprived the 
 king of all authority, holding him and his fam- 
 ily, with one exception, prisoners. That excep- 
 tion was Edward. This prince was a brave and 
 able man, and a good son. After a long strug- 
 gle he succeeded in breaking the power of the 
 barons and restoring his father to the throne. The 
 leader of the barons was Earl Leicester. In itself 
 considered, the Barons’ War could not be commend- 
 ed, but out of it grew the House of Commons, or 
 borough representation, and when the smoke of the 
 conflict had rolled away it was found that immense 
 progress had been made. 
 
 The chief interest of that long reign was not the 
 clash of arms, but the increase of intelligence. It 
 was during that period that Roger Bacon nourished, 
 a friar with an appreciation of science worthy the 
 nineteenth century. He was so very far ahead of 
 
 ” 
 
k*. 
 
 34 2 
 
 OLD ENGLAND AND THE PLANTAGENETS. 
 
 liis times that he was almost forgotten centuries 
 before he was understood. He was a voice crying 
 in the wilderness of ignorance, pleading for knowl- 
 edge, awakening, however, hardly an echo of sym- 
 pathy. Oxford was the seat of learning where he la- 
 bored with the greatest assiduity to serve the cause of 
 learning. It was during the reign of Henry III. 
 that the English universities began to be recognized 
 centers of influence. The Crusades had stimulated 
 zeal for knowledge, the barbaric West having come 
 in contact with the more civilized Saracens. From 
 the schools of Cordova and Bagdad came incen- 
 tives to a higher education than the Christians of 
 the Dark Ages had 
 known. In all this 
 England had its full 
 share, and Roger 
 Bacon deserves the 
 honor therefor. His 
 just rank is quite as 
 high as was that of 
 his more illustrious 
 namesake, Francis 
 Bacon, only the lat- 
 ter lived at a time 
 when the seed sown 
 fell upon fallow 
 ground, and bore 
 much fruit. Of Opus 
 Magus of the elder 
 Bacon and the No- 
 vum Orgammi of the 
 younger Bacon it 
 might well be said, “ unlike, but not unequal.” Both 
 were written in Latin, the English being considered 
 as an utterly unfit vehicle of literature. It was not 
 until the next century that anything of intrinsic merit 
 was contributed to literature in the English language. 
 Roger Bacon was more concerned with the essence 
 of things than with their form, with science than 
 with literature. To learning he added invention. 
 The telescope, microscope, spectacles, and many 
 astronomical and mathematical instruments, have 
 been claimed to be his invention ; so also is gun- 
 powder. Whether he actually invented or only 
 introduced these appliances of civilization, he cer- 
 tainly deserves great credit for trying to inaugurate 
 a better state of affairs. He tried to substitute as- 
 tronomy for astrology, chemistry for alchemy. 
 
 Westminster Abbey dates from this reign. A 
 church was built upon that site by Edward the 
 Confessor, but the present edifice belongs to the 
 reign of the third Henry. It is there that the sover- 
 eigns of England receive coronation, and beneath 
 its pavements many of them have found sepulcher. 
 Very many of the more eminent men of England 
 were either buried there or have had monuments 
 erected or tablets ascribed to their honor in that 
 august abbey. Kings, statesmen, soldiers, poets and 
 explorers there find a common place of association. 
 
 Some progress was made during this reign in art. 
 Many manuscript books, elaborately illuminated or 
 
 painted, are still ex- 
 tant, showing very 
 considerable skill 
 with the brush. Ar- 
 chitecture received 
 much attention, es- 
 pecially the Gothic 
 style of structure. 
 Masonry acquired a 
 marked prominence 
 during that period. 
 These masons were 
 free men. The great- 
 er part of the labor 
 of that day was per- 
 formed by slaves or 
 serfs, who were 
 bought and sold like 
 cattle. British com- 
 merce can hardly be 
 said to have existed, the foreign traffic of the 
 island being in the hands of the Hanseatic League, 
 or Free Cities of Germany. 
 
 During the period now 
 not be said to have contributed much to the 
 improvement of mankind, beyond giving proof 
 of an advanced idea of civil liberty. Night 
 has rested upon the nation, but the star of 
 Runnymede is the harbinger of dawn. A turn- 
 ing-point has been reached, a fork in the road 
 of history. 
 
 The Plantagenets continue 
 throne, but the betterment of 
 a whole, has gone on until at 
 tional development Old 
 disappear. 
 
 traversed England can- 
 
 England 
 
 to sit upon the 
 the kingdom, as 
 this stage of na- 
 may be said to 
 
 
 
 < 5 " 
 
Modern England — The Ambition of Edward I. — Conquest of Wales— Llewellen, and the 
 Welsh Policy of Edward — Prince of Wales — Arthurian Legends — Temporary Subjec- 
 tion of Scotland — William Wallace — Robert Bruce — The Death of Edward I. and 
 Scotch Independence — The Chief Glory of the First Edward — Treatment of the 
 Jews — Edward II. — Edward III. — The French War and the Black Prince — General 
 Character of the Edwardian Age — Geoffrey Chaucer — John Wycliffe — The Black 
 Plague — Richard II. and Wat Tyler — The Last of the Plantagenets. 
 
 ed aristocracy, many of whom were enjoying posses- 
 sions not vested in them by provable title. But he 
 soon abandoned that idea. Any such “ new ver- 
 sion ” of Domesday Book would arouse a tempest, 
 and he did not care to inaugurate another “Barons’ 
 War.” Wisely reconsidering his initial purpose, he 
 changed his plan, and selected as his line of policy 
 the subjugation of the original Britons who had 
 taken refuge in the mountains of the west and 
 north. No thought of recovering lost territory on 
 the continent was entertained. He aspired to rule 
 the entire island. He succeeded in the west and 
 failed in the north, but he none the less foreshad- 
 owed English destiny, as regards Great Britain. 
 
 The Welsh were not an easy people to conquer. 
 Brave of heart, they had the advantage of almost 
 impregnable natural fortifications. The mountains 
 of Wales are admirably adapted to a defensive war. 
 The Welsh were often at war among themselves, be- 
 ing divided into numerous clans, but they were 
 none the less quick to unite for the repulsion of a 
 common danger. They were troublesome neighbors. 
 Descended as they were from the original proprie- 
 tors of English soil, they thought it no crime to 
 make reprisals. Often they would descend in pred- 
 atory bands and pillage the adjacent country. The 
 
 CHAPTER LVII 
 
 
 ITH the reign of Edward,” 
 says Green, “ begins Mod- 
 ern England.” This ep- 
 och is unmarked by any 
 revolutionary cataclysm. 
 “ From that time,” he ex- 
 plains, “kings, lords, com- 
 mons, the courts of justice, the forms of 
 public administration, local division and 
 provincial jurisdictions, the relations of 
 church and state, in great measure the 
 framework of society itself, have all tak- 
 en the shape which they still essentially 
 retain.” For more than half a century 
 all connection with Normandy had ceased, 
 and long before that, fear of any further 
 incursions of barbaric hordes from the North had 
 disappeared. French was the language of govern- 
 ment and Latin of literature, but the people clung 
 tenaciously to English, a tenacity which was des- 
 tined to triumph completely. The age of the three 
 Edwards was a grand epoch in England’s greatness. 
 
 When the troublous and long reign of Henry III. 
 closed, Edward I. was fighting the Moslem. TJpon 
 learning his father’s death he returned home. His 
 first thought was to have a reckoning with the land- 
 
 43 
 
 (343) 
 
3 
 
 into the retreat of the Cymry and the “fabric of* 
 W elsh greatness fell at a single blow/ 5 — fell, however, 
 to rise again, and for four years the British lion was 
 held at bay by the last real Prince of Wales. The 
 king was obliged to surround Llewellyn and gradu- 
 ally close in upon him. The bold prince fell in bat- 
 tle, and Wales was annexed to England in 1282, 
 substantially as now. The king adopted a liberal 
 policy, treating the people with just liberality. By 
 the “ Statute of Wales,” the more barbarous customs 
 of the country were abolished, the English jurispru- 
 dence adopted, trade guilds in the towns established, 
 and local rights protected. The people were allowed 
 
 and were presented to the infant son of the King, 
 who had been born on Welsh soil. This first En- 
 glish Prince of Wales was the second son of the 
 king, and the chiefs supposed that he would rule 
 their country alone, or at least that the title would 
 be distinctive and permanent ; but before the child 
 reached maturity his elder brother died, and thus 
 the Prince of Wales became the heir apparent to 
 the English throne, and ever since then the title has 
 simply served as the designation of the oldest son 
 of the ruling monarch, a title witli no real jurisdic- 
 tion or special connection with the affairs of Wales. 
 
 In this connection may be introduced the Arthu- 
 
 CASTLE CAERNARVON. 
 
 344 
 
 MODERN ENGLAND AND THE PLANTAGENETS. 
 
 subjugation of Wales came to be regarded as a na- 
 tional necessity. The nursery rhyme “Taffy was a 
 Welshman, Taffy was a thief,” which is familiar to 
 English-speaking children to this day, may be set 
 down as a waif from Old England, a vestige of a 
 prejudice which once rested on a solid foundation. 
 Edward I. set about the annexation of those moun- 
 taineers in right good earnest. 
 
 The leader of the Welsh forces was the bold and 
 cliivalric Llewellyn ap Griffith. Edward marched 
 
 to hold fast to their original language and main- 
 tain their distinctive characteristics, which they do 
 to this day. Their language is totally distinct from 
 the English, and their literature is said to be rich, 
 especially in poetry. 
 
 Llewellyn was a prince, and Edward told the 
 Welsh chiefs that if they would meet him at the 
 great castle of Wales, Caernarvon, he would give 
 them a prince who had never spoken a word of En- 
 glish and was a native of Wales. They accepted, 
 
 o 
 
 \ 
 

 s< J- 
 
 MODERN ENGLAND AND THE PLANTAGENETS. 
 
 345 
 
 rian legends, or myths concerning King Arthur and 
 the Knights of the Round Table. Those legends 
 figure prominently in English tradition and verse. 
 No such persons ever existed ; at least they have no 
 place in authentic history. Robin Hood was a ver- 
 itable highwayman, probably, a Saxon who turned 
 freebooter to make reprisals upon the Norman bar- 
 ons who were titled robbers. The common people 
 loved him for his lawless espousal of justice, and his 
 memory has ever been held in esteem by the yeo- 
 manry of “ Merrie England.” The mythical Arthur 
 goes back of the Saxons. He belongs to the tradi- 
 tions of the primitive Britons. The network of 
 romance which has been woven about that name 
 and its associates may be designated as the dream of 
 the refugees who fled to the mountains of Wales. 
 The enchanter Merlin, who formed one of good 
 King Arthur’s company, was the “ Mother Shipton” 
 of the Welsh, and it was a prophecy of Merlin which 
 inspired the forlorn hope led by Llewellyn. 
 
 The ambition of Edward was more easily but less 
 permanently gratified in Scotland. That part of 
 the island had formerly acknowleged some allegiance 
 to the English crown, but Richard of the lion heart 
 had released the Scotch king from all allegiance on 
 the payment of a sum of money, used by him in the 
 Crusades. Not long after Edward came to the 
 throne a dispute arose across the border as to who 
 should inherit the Scotch kingdom. Edward was 
 asked to settle the matter, which he finally did upon 
 conditions of a renewal of the acknowledgment of 
 Scotland as a fief, or dependency, of the English 
 crown, and its king as his vassal. That made a par- 
 tial union of the countries. 
 
 The Scotch king, Baliol, soon rebelled, and the 
 famous William Wallace came to the front as the 
 hero of Scotland. Wonderful exploits are attributed 
 to him, and the English army was nearly destroyed 
 when the martial genius of Edward saved it, and 
 made him master of the situation. He showed len- 
 iency to all except Wallace, whom he beheaded hi 
 the Tower of London. The Scotch have never failed 
 to chervil his memory gratefully. 
 
 All this was early in the long reign of Edward. A 
 generation passed, and Scotland seemed to be securely 
 English. But a greater than William Wallace was 
 raised up — Robert Bruce. This nobleman spent his 
 earlier days at the English court, a semi-prisoner. 
 Coming to manhood, patriotism fired his heart and 
 
 he returned to his native land to head a revolt in 
 favor of absolute national independence. His most 
 staunch supporter was James Douglas, and together 
 they fired the heart of Scotland. Edward himself 
 was absent upon the continent at the time the war 
 began, and his armies were so badly beaten that he 
 made haste to patch up a peace with the king of 
 France, returned and took the field in person, inspir- 
 ing his army with new hope. But he was too old to 
 bear the burdens of the campaign, and sank beneath 
 them, his death resulting in the entire success of the 
 Scotch cause. Scotland remained independent until 
 James, the first of the Stuarts upon the throne of 
 England, came by natural inheritance to wear both 
 crowns, and the Welsh policy of Edward was extend- 
 ed to Scotland, thus rendering the entire island in- 
 deed one nation. 
 
 The glory of Edward was not military, but civil, 
 for he was a broad-minded, far-seeing and eminently 
 practical statesman. First of all, parliament as- 
 sumed during his reign its modern shape, and ceased 
 to be an irregular, inchoate and experimental body. 
 Under his reign it became a well-defined legislature, 
 and to this day a statute of Edward I. is as much 
 the law of England, if unrepealed, as a statute of 
 Victoria. Judicial reforms were effected of the high- 
 est importance. Instead of appeals to force and 
 chance, relics of crude barbarism, reliance was 
 placed upon the administration of justice in accord- 
 ance with the principles of order and fairness laid 
 down in Magna Charta. The relations of church 
 and state were regulated in a way to curb the arro- 
 gance of ecclesiastical authority. The establish- 
 ment of judicial districts was a great step in ad- 
 vance. That splendid fabric known as the British 
 Constitution is indeed a system of law gradual in 
 its growth, antedating English history and still in 
 process of completion ; and its corner-stone, the 
 Great Charter, was laid by the unwilling hands of 
 John Lackland ; but the framework of the mag- 
 nificent superstructure belongs to the reign of Ed- 
 ward I., and that not in rudiments alone, often in 
 exact detail as well. Borough representation, which 
 he introduced, had in it the very essence of civil 
 liberty. Some of the Boroughs failed to be repre- 
 sented, attendance upon the sessions of parliament 
 being looked upon in that day as a burden, much 
 as service upon the jury now is. There was never 
 any pecuniary compensation for the service, but 
 
A 
 
 34 6 
 
 MODERN ENGLAND AND THE PLANTAGENETS. 
 
 gradually an irksome duty came to be recognized 
 as a high privilege. 
 
 During the reign of the first Edward the Jews 
 were subjected to bitter persecution, and finally to 
 expulsion. The number banished was about six- 
 teen thousand, most of whom were robbed and 
 slaughtered before they could make good their es- 
 cape. From that time until the Protectorate of 
 
 Cromwell there were hard- 
 
 ly any Jews in England. 
 
 No part of Europe has es- 
 caped the infamy of Jew- 
 ish persecution. 
 
 The reign of Edward I., 
 sometimes called Long- 
 shanks, extended from 
 1272 to 1307, and then 
 the Prince of Wales took 
 the throne as Edward II. 
 
 His reign extended over a 
 period of twenty years. 
 
 They were melancholy 
 years. The king had no 
 fitness for government and 
 was singularly unfortu- 
 nate. To no purpose, ex- 
 cept personal and nation- 
 al humiliation, did he 
 prosecute the Scotch war 
 in which his father lost 
 his life. The worthless 
 foreigner who was his first 
 favorite, Piers Gaveston 
 of Gascony, was so very 
 obnoxious to the people 
 that he had to be banished. 
 
 The queen, Isabel of France, cared far more to ad- 
 vance the interest of her brother, Charles IV., than 
 of her husband. When the two sovereigns quarreled 
 she raised an army to oppose Edward, and defeated 
 him, took him prisoner, and hanged his prime minis- 
 ter, Hugh Despenser. A parliament soon after con- 
 vened, declared the king deposed and his son Edward 
 III. the sovereign of England. A few months 
 later the unhappy ex-king was ruthlessly murdered 
 in the castle of Kenilworth, the victim of the cru- 
 elty of Isabel and her vile associate in crime and 
 power, Roger Mortimer. Thus ended one of the 
 most inglorious and unhappy reigns in English annals. 
 
 Edward III. wielded the scepter forty years, in- 
 cluding the first three years of his reign, during 
 which his mother and Mortimer held practical sway. 
 In 1330 he sent his mother, a prisoner, to a castle 
 in Norfolk, executed her accomplice, and inaugu- 
 rated a career of his own. His first thought was 
 to regain Scotland, but he soon abandoned that 
 scheme to devote his attention to a higher ambition, 
 
 which was to be the king 
 of France, claiming the 
 crown by right of inher- 
 itance. The Salic law 
 which bars royal females 
 from succession prevailed 
 in France, and so his title 
 was fatally defective, for 
 he based his right alone 
 upon his mother’s title. 
 He none the less stoutly 
 made the claim, and for a 
 century the two countries 
 were at war. For a much 
 longer time the British 
 sovereigns insisted upon 
 appending to their legiti- 
 mate title the words “ and 
 king of France.” Edward 
 III. began the war in 1338. 
 It was not until 1346 that 
 any important movement 
 occurred, when the fa- 
 mous battle of Cressy 
 was fought. The English 
 force was small, but the 
 day was won. The glory 
 of that victory belongs 
 to Edward’s son, then only fifteen years old, 
 “ The Black Prince,” as he was called, on account 
 of the color of his armor. Prodigies of valor are 
 related of the boy, and his after life gives some 
 plausibility to them. The glories of Cressy were 
 soon followed by the siege and fall of Calais. A 
 brief truce was negotiated which continued ten 
 years when it was broken by another battle in 
 which the English won a brilliant victory. The 
 actual advantage to the English was slight, however, 
 for only a few cities on the coast were ceded to En- 
 gland by the peace which was finally agreed upon 
 in 1374. Edward lived to burv his chivalric sou, 
 
 iTv 
 
MODERN ENGLAND AND THE PLANTAGENETS. 
 
 the Black Prince, two years after the peace, him- 
 self following the next year, leaving the crown to 
 the son of the illustrious prince whose death had 
 been mourned as a national 
 calamity. 
 
 The century covered by this 
 chapter is peculiarly rich in 
 developments of an encour- 
 aging nature. The mere po- 
 litical history of the period is 
 a small part of it. It is in 
 the progress of the untitled 
 many and the aristocracy of 
 the brain that the real glory 
 of the Edwardian age appears. 
 
 It was not the heroes of war, 
 from Llewellyn to the Black 
 Prince, nor yet the statesmen 
 of parliament and the judges 
 of the assizes, who deserve es- 
 pecial praise. There had been 
 brave warriors and noble pa- 
 triots before. The grand fact 
 of the period is that England ceased to be divided 
 into enslaved Saxons and despotic Normans, the 
 entire people becoming truly English in character. 
 Instead of Robin Hood 
 with his merry robbers, 
 despoiling the nobles and 
 sharing his booty with 
 the peasants, the most 
 popular personage in 
 English traditions, we 
 have people respecting 
 the rights of others and 
 tasting the sweets of 
 manly privileges. 
 
 The supreme name of 
 this period was that of 
 Geoffrey Chaucer, the 
 father of English litera- 
 ture. He was a truly 
 great poet and thorough- 
 bred Englishman. The 
 literature of Old En- 
 gland, so far as it had intrinsic merit, was in Latin. 
 The poetry of Beowulf and Caedmon, like the prose 
 of King Alfred, the Venerable Bede and Asser, can 
 lay claim to no intrinsic merit. Besides, their En- 
 
 glish was a language quite different from modern 
 English. But Chaucer belongs to the vital present. 
 His Canterbury Tales have indeed some indelicacies, 
 many variations in orthog- 
 raphy, and a few words now 
 obsolete. It is none the less 
 true that he is a perpetual 
 wellspring of good English 
 and delightful verse. Born 
 in 1328, his last breath was 
 drawn as the fifteenth century 
 came upon t*he stage. A 
 member of the nobility, a court 
 favorite, happy in all the cir- 
 cumstances of his life, he was 
 still the poet of the people. 
 A voluminous writer, he com- 
 posed more prose than poetry, 
 but his elaborate poem, the 
 Canterbury Tales, is the one 
 immortal production of his 
 genius. 
 
 Side by, side with Chaucer 
 stands John Wycliffe, the first to give a complete 
 copy of the Bible to the English people in their 
 own tongue. Wycliffe was born in 1324, and lived 
 
 until 1384. Much of his 
 time was spent at Oxford 
 where he was a teacher of 
 note. His translation was 
 the work of his ripe age. 
 In translating it he used 
 the Latin Vulgate, and so 
 many of the terms em- 
 ployed are the original 
 Latin slightly Anglicized. 
 It was a blow at the 
 Romish church which 
 none of his contempo- 
 raries seemed to appreci- 
 ate. Chaucer and Wyc- 
 liffe, working singly, yet 
 together, did much the 
 same work for the litera- 
 ture and religion of their 
 country that Martin Luther did for the literature and 
 religion of Germany, for they laid the foundations of 
 whatever developed on British soil in letters and wor- 
 ship. Chaucer is called a skeptic by Green, but 
 
 EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE. 
 
 DEATH OF EDWARD III 
 
k- 
 
 34 8 
 
 MODERN ENGLAND AND THE PL ANTAGENETS. 
 
 Wycliffe was in spirit a veritable Puritan, and the 
 mighty streams of influence which flowed from them 
 
 i.SI'IV/’-V 
 
 JOHN WYCLIFFE. 
 
 soon commingled and proved of incalculable bless- 
 ing, secular and religious. Chaucer was the avant 
 courier of the Renaissance, as that term maybe under- 
 stood in the light of French history, while Wycliffe 
 was a radical religious reformer. Besides his trans- 
 lation of the Bible, he wrote and otherwise grandly 
 wrought against the papacy, producing a profound 
 impression, and winning to his cause a no less eminent 
 man than John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster and 
 father of the royal house of Lancaster. The Pope 
 himself was alarmed, as well he might be, although 
 the troublous times immediately following postponed 
 the inauguration of the distinctive church of En- 
 gland, and all the reforms connected therewith. 
 
 There was one gloomy feature of this period, for 
 it was in 1349 that the Black Death made its first 
 appearance, that most fatal epidemic of all history. 
 It swept over the Continent and the Britisli isles 
 with unexampled furor. No authentic record of 
 mortality was kept, and we only know that it was a 
 horror unimaginable. Large towns had grown up 
 without sanitary provisions, such as water, sewerage 
 and the like, and the filth was unendurable. The 
 laws of health were disregarded and the superstitious 
 people attributed their calamities to Providence. The 
 futility of priestcraft and penance to stay the rav- 
 
 ages of the pestilence did much for the cause of re- 
 form, awakening in the public mind thoughts akin 
 to scientific reflections. 
 
 In the eleventh year of his age Richard II., the 
 son of that popular favorite. The Black Prince, 
 came to the throne. That was in the year 1377. 
 That boy-king never reached years of real discretion. 
 His uncle, John of Gaunt, was the first sovereign 
 power behind the throne, an able, ambitious and un- 
 scrupulous man. Early in this reign occurred the 
 rebellion of the peasants against the Poll-tax, led in 
 Essex by a thresher called Jack Straw, and in Kent 
 by a ditcher known as Wat Tyler, or Walter the 
 Tyler. The former never came to anything serious, 
 but Wat Tyler rallied a vast mob, marched upon 
 London, sacked and destroyed the Palace of the 
 Duke of Lancaster, committed other depredations, 
 and succeeded in wringing from the King several 
 charters allowing the laboring people a few cardinal 
 rights. The peasants only demanded “the abolition 
 of slavery for themselves and their children forever ; 
 reasonable rent, and the full liberty of buying and 
 selling like other men in all fairs and markets, and 
 a general pardon of all past offenses.” The con- 
 cession to these demands was not sincere, and soon 
 the charters were revoked, Tyler assassinated and 
 the people dispersed. Good, however, was accom- 
 plished, for the temper of the populace had been 
 shown and a wholesome awe of the peasants in- 
 spired. 
 
 Richard was alike unpopular with high and low. 
 His nature was exceptionally unlovely. He was con- 
 tinually quarreling with his uncles and his cousins. 
 Some he killed and some he banished. Among those 
 diiven into exile was Henry Bolingbroke, Duke of 
 Hereford, son of J ohn of Gaunt. Soon after banish- 
 ment he became by the death of his father, Duke 
 of Lancaster. Having raised a small army across the 
 channel, he ventured back in 1399. The unpopu- 
 larity of Richard was such that the Duke soon found 
 himself master of the situation and he proceeded to 
 usurp the throne. The deposed king was sent to 
 Pontefract castle a prisoner, where he soon ended 
 his days, probably assassinated by royal command. 
 Thus ended the last of the Plantagenets. 
 
 — 
 

 
 -5— E- 
 
 e5^s 
 
 
 LANCASTER AND YORK. 
 
 ^TH 
 
 erh 
 
 
 CHAPTER LVIII. 
 
 The Period of the Roses— A Duel, What Led to it and What Came of it— Henry IV.— 
 lA The Lollards and Wycliffe— Henry V. and the English in France— Beginning of the 
 
 English Navy— Henry VI.— End of the One Hundred Years’ War— The English Re- 
 gency — Jack Cade and his Insurrection— The War of the Roses— Edward IV.— War- 
 wick "The King-maker ’’—Edward V.— Richard III.— Bosworth Field— 1 The Blending of 
 the White Rose and Red in the House of Tudor. 
 
 **7T 
 
 HE first of the Plantage- 
 nets, Henry II., came to the 
 throne in 1154 ; the last 
 of the house, Richard II., 
 left it the last year of the 
 fourteenth century. Then 
 followed three Ilenrys, the 
 Fourth, Fifth and Sixth, 
 forming the House of Lancaster, 
 and covering the period from 
 1309 to 1461. To the Lancasters 
 succeeded three representatives 
 of the house of York, Edward 
 IV. and Y. and Richard III., ex- 
 tending from 1461 to 1485. Those 
 eighty-six years, the period of the 
 roses, will now engage our atten- 
 tention. 
 
 Ten years after the coronation of Richard II., 
 the youngest and ablest of his uncles, the Duke of 
 Gloucester, took up arms in rebellion. He was so 
 far successful that he dictated terms of settlement 
 to the king, for a time, hut soon the royal power so 
 far gained the ascendancy that the duke was im- 
 prisoned at Calais, then an English possession in 
 France. Gloucester soon thereafter died of apo- 
 
 plexy, according to the governor of the city ; of poi- 
 son, according to current and subsequent opinion. 
 Among the adherents of Gloucester were two dukes, 
 Norfolk and Henry Bolingbroke, Duke of Here- 
 ford. The latter was the son of Joh n of Gaunt. 
 In 1398 these ducal dignitaries had a quarrel which 
 they proposed to settle by a duel. Hearing of it, 
 and glad of an excuse, the king banished them 
 both, the Duke of Norfolk for life and Bolingbroke 
 for ten years. At that time the venerable father of 
 Henry was alive. He was Duke of Lancaster. He 
 did not long survive the banishment of his eldest 
 son and heir. At his death the king seized and ap- 
 propriated to the crown the dukedom of Lancaster. 
 Hereford watched his opportunity, and when Rich- 
 ard went to Ireland in the summer of 1399 to con- 
 duct in person the Irish war, Henry Bolingbroke 
 landed on English soil with a small but intrepid 
 following. The returned exile had no designs upon 
 the throne, but simply, as he protested, came back 
 for the purpose of claiming his inheritance of Lan- 
 caster. But the king had a great many enemies 
 and the times were ripe for dynastic revolution. 
 
 On the north was Scotland and across the English 
 channel was France, both eager for revenge, and 
 glad of an opportunity to assist a rebel. The Pcr- 
 
 ( 349 ) 
 
 To 
 
Q. 
 
 350 LANCASTER AND YORK. 
 
 cies of Northumberland brought their forces to the 
 support of Bolingbroke, who soon found himself at 
 the head of an army of 60,000 men. Even the re- 
 gent who was in charge of the kingdom while the 
 king was in Ireland, the Duke of York, went over 
 to Henry’s side. Richard came back with a very 
 considerable army, but his soldiers deserted and he 
 was taken prisoner and conducted to London. 
 There he executed a formal abdication. That was 
 
 the people in forgetfulness of the flaw rn his title, 
 he plunged into foreign war, managing to retain 
 his crown until in 1413 death claimed him. No sover- 
 eign ever held fast to his scepter and yet had more 
 occasion than Henry of Lancaster to say, “Uneasy 
 rests the head that wears a crown.” 
 
 During the reign of Richard II. the incipient 
 cause of Protestantism had made a great deal of 
 headway. It was in 1393 that parliament passed 
 
 September 29, 1399. The next day parliament de- 
 posed him by due process of law on the ground of 
 malfeasance, and the banished duke who had re- 
 turned to claim a duchy was duly installed as king 
 of England under the name of Henry IV. 
 
 A crown thus won was not retained without con- 
 stant effort. On the north was Scotland and across 
 the channel was France, both ready to assist insur- 
 rection, and the spirit of faction ran so high that 
 the opposition did not hesitate to seek foreign alli- 
 ance. To gain the especial support of the church, 
 Henry inaugurated persecution, being the first En- 
 glish king to burn heretics. In the hope of uniting 
 
 the “ Statute of Premunire ,” which provided that 
 “ whoever should procure from Rome or elsewhere, 
 excummunications, bulls, or other things against 
 the king and his realm, should be put out of t’he 
 king’s protection, and all his lands and goods for- 
 feited.” The leader in this anti-papal movement 
 was John Wy cliff e, a very learned professor in Ox- 
 ford University, and translator of the Bible into En- 
 glish. During Henry’s reign a strenuous effort was 
 made to suppress and undo the work of Wycliffc. 
 In 1401 it was enacted that “ all persons convicted 
 by their bishops of holding heretical opinions, and 
 who should refuse to abjure the same, should be 
 
burned to death,” and this statute was not allowed 
 to be a dead letter. Wycliffe himself, “ The Morn- 
 ing Star of the Reformation,” died peacefully in 
 the year 1384. In the days of Richard II. and 
 Henry IV. the Protestants were called “ Lollards.” 
 
 Henry V. was just ripening into manhood when 
 upon the death of his father, March 20, 1413, he 
 was called to the cares of state. The wild pranks 
 of his youth and the coarse tastes of the times are 
 well set forth by Shakspeare in connection with 
 that unique character, Sir John Falstaff. Rising 
 superior to the evil omens of his boyhood, the young 
 king showed a masterly genius for public affairs. 
 In the hope of curing factiousness he entered with 
 great zeal upon the prosecution of war with France. 
 The brilliant victory of Agincourt, a repetition of 
 Cressy, made every loyal English heart true to his 
 cause. The British sword seemed invincible, and 
 France was at the mercy of Henry V. Step by step 
 the French Unicorn receded before the British Lion. 
 
 In 1420 the famous treaty of Troyes was made, 
 in accordance with which Henry married Catherine, 
 daughter of the King of France, and was pro- 
 claimed regent of France, the French king of that 
 day, Charles VI., being insane. The force of this 
 treaty was not recognized by the Orleanists, how- 
 ever, and real peace was not secured. For nearly 
 two years the king continued to be engaged in war 
 upon the soil of France, when he died, leaving a 
 son nine months old. In two months Charles also 
 died, and thus the infant heir of two kingdoms, 
 Henry VI., became king of England and France. 
 Many of those who disputed the regency of the father 
 conceded the validity of the claim of the son to the 
 throne of France as well as England. But there 
 was in France a party which supported the claim 
 of the son of Charles VI., in preference to the 
 grandson, holding the treaty by which the Dauphin, 
 the Prince of Orleans, had been deprived of the 
 royal inheritance, null and void. 
 
 Before proceeding with the reign of Henry VI. it 
 deserves to be noted that Henry V. was the founder 
 of the British navy. Prior to his reign the govern- 
 ment had no ships of its own, but relied upon tem- 
 porary loans of vessels from maritime towns and 
 the merchant marine of private subjects. The fifth 
 of the I Lenrys inaugurated a very important change 
 when he built the first really formidable man-of- 
 war England could ever boast. 
 
 To return now to the course of events under the 
 infant heir to two thrones, we find troublous times. 
 
 No doubt but that if Henry VI. had been of ma- 
 ture age and a sovereign of moderately good ability 
 and character, the dream of Franco-English unity 
 might have been realized. But this prospect was 
 soon dashed to the ground, the possibility even 
 never returning. 
 
 By the terms of the will the Duke of Bedford was 
 made regent of France, a man of commanding abil- 
 ity. Paris was in his hands, and the only consider- 
 able French town not garrisoned by English troops 
 was Orleans. The continuance of the struggle on 
 the part of the Orleanists or French patriots seemed 
 useless; but just when all was lost, Joan of Arc, 
 more specifically mentioned in the history of France, 
 came upon the field of action, inspiring patriotism 
 by her fanaticism, and reversing completely the for- 
 tunes of the war. 
 
 Bedford died and the English were obliged to 
 abandon the continent. The Maid of Orleans sought 
 to deliver France from foreign rule, but she suc- 
 ceeded in doing the still better thing, saving En- 
 gland from the danger of having its nationality 
 compromised and perhaps lost. The savior of two 
 nations, she was, as we have seen, the victim of the 
 unutterable meanness of both. Charles VII., un- 
 cle of Henry VI., mounted the throne. England 
 had lost all continental possessions except Calais. 
 The Hundred-Years War between the two nations i 
 came to an end in the year 1453. 
 
 Returning now to English soil, we find the coun- 
 try profoundly disturbed. There was constant fric- 
 tion during Henry’s minority between the young 
 king’s uncle, Humphrey of Gloucester, and Cardinal 
 Beaufort. Each claimed the regency. Gloucester 
 was foully murdered, but the advantage did not ac- 
 crue to the cardinal. Two years before that the 
 king, always weak and almost imbecile, married 
 Margaret of Anjou, and she, together with her spe- 
 cial friend, William de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk, 
 ruled the realm after Gloucester’s taking off. The 
 utter failure of the English in Franco occasioned 
 the banishment and subsequent murder of Suffolk, 
 and the fall of that royal favorite was soon followed 
 by several insurrections. The most formidable of 
 these (not counting the War of the Roses) was the 
 rising in Kent of twenty thousand men led by John 
 Mortimer, better known as Jack Cade. The insur- 
 
 ed 
 
 44 
 
p 
 
 352 LANCASTER AND YORK. 
 
 gents marched to London and encamped upon 
 Blackheath. They demanded certain much-needed 
 reforms in the laws relating to labor and taxes. 
 The city council of London recognized the justice 
 of the claims made. The king was removed to Ken- 
 ilworth castle, and there was every prospect of a sat- 
 isfactory settlement of the demands made. But 
 Cade could not curb the plundering disposition of 
 his followers, and the Londoners were obliged to 
 take up arms against them in self-defense. The re- 
 sult was Cade was obliged to flee, many of his fol- 
 lowers being slain. In his flight he was himself 
 killed, and all the reforms promised were defeated. 
 
 The loss of France embittered the English nation 
 and served as a sort of blood poison. The suppura- 
 tion from the Lancastrian wound poured its deadly 
 pus into the veins of both rival factions, and pro- 
 duced that terrible civil war, the War of the Roses, 
 so called because the faction of Lancaster wore a 
 red rose and the adherents of the house of York a 
 white rose as tlreir respective badges. The first out- 
 break was at St. Albans in 1455. For forty years 
 the conflict raged with occasional truces. 
 
 The year following the expulsion of the English 
 from France, Richard, Duke of York, was appointed 
 Protector of the kingdom by Parliament. The Duke 
 of Somerset, Edward Beaufort, was the leader of 
 the branch of the house of Lancaster which opposed 
 this protectorate. In less than a year Henry re- 
 sumed the reins of government, a triumph of Som- 
 erset. Thereupon York took the field in hos- 
 tility to his rival. The battle of St. Alban’s (May 
 23, 1455) followed, resulting in the defeat of York. 
 A partial peace was then effected, hut in 1459 the 
 hostilities were resumed. This time the white rose 
 of York was in the ascendancy, and the king was 
 captured, his queen and son finding refuge in Scot- 
 land. The Duke boldly claimed the crown, but 
 Parliament compromised the matter by providing 
 that Henry was to reign until death, when Richard 
 of York, instead of Henry’s own son Edward, should 
 succeed to the throne. This adjustment was not 
 at all satisfactory to the Lancasters. “ Many of the 
 great nobles,” says a cotemporary historian, “ rallied 
 to the support of the young Prince Edward, and 
 the Duke of York was defeated at Wakefield a 
 little later. The duke was killed in the action, and 
 his head, ornamented with a paper crown, was 
 placed over the gate of the city of York. His son, 
 
 the Earl of Rutland, was captured and murdered in 
 cold blood by Lord Clifford. Edward, the eldest 
 son of Richard, was now Duke of York. He at 
 once took up the cause of his house, defeated the 
 royal forces at Mortimer’s Cross, and followed up 
 his victory by a renewal of the bloody executions 
 begun by the rival party. Queen Margaret won a 
 victory over the Yorkist force in the second battle 
 of St. Albans, and rescued the king from them. She 
 failed to improve her advantage, however, and the 
 Duke of York marched boldly into London, where 
 he was declared king by the people and a large as- 
 semblage of nobles, prelates aud magistrates, March 
 3d, 1461.” 
 
 Edward IV., first of the three kings of the house 
 of York, was born upon French soil, Rouen, in 
 1441. Although he was made king in 1461, the W ar 
 of the Roses had not ceased. The Lancastrians 
 cherished the hope of dethroning him until the bat- 
 tle of Tewkesbury, May 4, 1471, when Edward was 
 completely victorious. But before that time his for- 
 tunes were various. Three years after his corona- 
 tion he married Elizabeth Woodville, which served 
 as an excuse for an outbreak, under the lead of the 
 Earl of Warwick. This earl is one of the more not- 
 able characters in English history. 
 
 Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, known as “the 
 king-maker,” was first cousin of Edward IV. He 
 was the wealthiest Englishman of his day, at least 
 he enjoyed the largest revenue of any subject of the 
 realm, and rivaled the king himself in the magnifi- 
 cence of his mode of living. He had done more 
 than any other one man to place Edward upon the 
 throne of England, and he made no secret of his 
 greatness. He assumed to be a power behind the 
 throne mightier than the monarch who sat upon it. 
 At the time the king married Elizabeth, one of his 
 own subjects, the lordly Warwick was at the French 
 capital negotiating for his sovereign the hand of a 
 princess of France. He was so much incensed at 
 this that he gave his daughter in marriage to the 
 king’s younger brother Clarence, without royal per- 
 mission, and upon an uprising in Yorkshire against 
 certain levies in 1469 he and Clarence put them- 
 selves at the head of the insurgents. In the battle 
 of Edgecot which soon followed, the royal forces 
 were defeated, the father and brother of the queen 
 beheaded. 
 
 A brief reconciliation followed. In 1470 hostili- 
 
 ol 
 
1 
 
 LANCASTER AND YORK. 
 
 353 
 
 ties broke out again. This time Warwick was 
 obliged to seek safety in flight to France. There 
 the famous king-maker entered into negotiations 
 with Queen Margaret for the restoration of Henry 
 VI., to the English throne, the marriage of Prince 
 Edward of Lancaster with his own daughter and the 
 recognition of Clarence as the heir presumptive to 
 the prince. By that arrangement he would make 
 it reasonably certain that the crown would be in- 
 herited by the Warwick blood. Louis X. was then 
 upon the French throne. He favored Warwick, and 
 
 her of the house of Neville for two generations 
 perished by the sword, with the solitary exception of 
 George, Archbishop of York. The daughter of 
 Warwick, who had married Prince Edward, was 
 wedded in 1472 to Richard, Duke of Gloucester, af- 
 terward Richard III., but even then none of the 
 blood of the “ king-maker ” ever flowed in the veins 
 of royalty. 
 
 This last enterprise of the great Warwick paved 
 the way for a renewal of hostilities between France 
 and England. In 1475 the English again invaded 
 
 TOWER OF LONDON. 
 
 the plan worked well. The seemingly hi vincible earl 
 returned to England, marched upon London, took 
 it and restored poor Henry the Sixth, Edward flee- 
 ing to Holland. 
 
 But Warwick’s career was nearly at an end. Some 
 six months later Edward returned with a force of 
 Dutch and Flemings, and the battle of Barnet was 
 fought, April 14, 1471, in which the great earl was 
 slain. A few weeks later Queen Margaret and 
 Prince Edward were both taken prisoners, and the 
 latter slain. In the following June Henry himself, 
 the last of the Lancasters, was put to death in the 
 Tower of London. That ended the War of the 
 Roses. It is said that in that war every male mem- 
 
 the French territory for the purpose of subjugation. 
 Nothing came of the expedition, however, except 
 that Louis agreed to pay a pension to the English 
 crown and betrothed his heir, the Dauphin Charles, 
 to the eldest daughter of the king of England, a 
 conclusion and result quite unsatisfactory to the 
 English people, who still clung to the hope of con- 
 tinental possessions. The betrothal just mentioned 
 was not carried out. Louis afterwards secured for 
 his son and heir the hand of Anne, daughter of the 
 German Emperor, Maximilian. Edward resolved 
 to avenge this insult, and retrieve his popularity 
 with his own i>eople by another and more extensive 
 invasion of France. But in the midst of his prep- 
 

 354 
 
 LANCASTER AND YORK. 
 
 
 arations, April 9, 1483, he died, leaving his two sons 
 Edward, aged thirteen years, and Richard, who was 
 only ten years old. 
 
 Edward V. can hardly be said to have reigned at 
 all. Upon the death of his father he departed for 
 London, hut before he 
 had reached his destin- 
 ation his uncle, Richard 
 of Gloucester, whose 
 hideousness stands re- 
 vealed in the dramati- 
 zation of Shakspeare, 
 had him seized and 
 lodged in the Tower. 
 
 Soon after, his name- 
 sake, the younger 
 brother of the young 
 king, was placed in the 
 same royal prison. 
 
 The poor boys were soon 
 murdered and the un- 
 natural uncle became 
 king of England. 
 
 Richard III. assumed 
 the kingly office July 
 6, reigning two years. 
 
 During this period he 
 may be said to have 
 assiduously tried by 
 good government to 
 purchase pardon for the 
 crimes with which his 
 coronation robes were 
 stained. In this he sig- 
 nally failed. The dis- 
 affection was too great 
 to be resisted. The 
 Earl of Richmond, 
 
 Henry Tudor, became the leader of the dis- 
 affection. He was the grandson of Owen Tudor 
 
 and Catherine, widow of Henry Y. On the ma- 
 
 ternal side of the house he was the heir to the 
 Lancastrian claims to the throne. Fortunately 
 for Henry, he was an exile in Brittany, and his 
 confederates on English soil were discovered, 
 arrested and executed before he had crossed the 
 
 channel. But the spirit 
 of rebellion could not 
 be kept down. Many 
 nobles united in invit- 
 ing the exiled earl to 
 return and claim the 
 scepter. He was saga- 
 cious enough to pro- 
 pose to put an end for- 
 ever to the cruel and 
 senseless War of the 
 Roses by marrying Eliz- 
 abeth, daughter of Ed- 
 ward IV. Landing on 
 English soil at Milford 
 Haven early in August, 
 1485, Richmond joined 
 battle with Richard on 
 the 22nd of that month 
 on the field of Bos- 
 worth. Richard com- 
 manded his own army 
 in person, was defeated 
 and slain. Richmond 
 was proclaimed king 
 upon the battlefield, 
 and the entire nation 
 acquiesced, amid uni- 
 versal satisfaction that 
 the bloody rivalries of 
 the Lancasters and the 
 Yorks had at last ter- 
 minated happily in the 
 union of both houses, and their disappearance 
 from the royal annals, equally absorbed in the 
 house of Tudor. 
 
 
CHAPTER LIX. 
 
 Henry vn. and his Times— The Times and Character op Henry VIII.— Domestic Life 
 of “Bluff Hal”— Reform and its Limitations— Henry’s Will— Edward VI. and Lady 
 Jane Grey — Bloody Mary — The Accession of Elizabeth— Her First Suitor and 
 the Armada— Mary Queen of Scots — Elizabeth and her Friends— The Elizabethan 
 Age— England Under the Tudors— Ireland and the Tudors. 
 
 §3®£f. 
 
 
 *5l 
 
 HE long reign of Henry 
 VII. (1485-1509) was sub- 
 stantially free from civil 
 strife. By marrying Eliz- 
 abeth of York he made 
 assurance of the close of 
 
 the W ars 
 of the Ros- 
 es doubly 
 sure. Some 
 pretenders 
 \ there were, 
 but no very 
 formidable 
 claimants- 
 This king 
 was exceedingly avaricious, 
 although not without 
 breadth of mind. 
 
 If he did not secure for his 
 country the honor of pat- 
 ronizing Christopher Co- 
 lumbus, as he had the opportunity to do, he was 
 not slow to take advantage of the great discovery 
 
 made by that navigator. No sooner had the ex- 
 istence of America become known than English 
 maritime enterprise began to give promise of its 
 incomparable future. As early as 1490 Henry com- 
 missioned the Cabots, of Bristol, father and son, to 
 go on a voyage of discovery, and after them came 
 Gilbert, Drake, Frobisher 
 and Hawkins. It is true 
 that the immediate results 
 of those expeditions were 
 not important, but the 
 spirit of adventure was 
 stimulated and the seed 
 sown came to a plentiful 
 harvest eventually. The 
 War of the Roses had de- 
 stroyed serfdom, or villan- 
 age in England, for sub- 
 stantially the same reason 
 that the civil war in the 
 H nited States destroyed 
 American slavery, and thus 
 the way was prepared for 
 commercial and industrial 
 thrift. The king’s greed for 
 money had an indirect tendency in the same direc- 
 tion. It was during the reign of the first of the 
 
 
 ( 355 ) 
 
k 
 
 35 6 
 
 THE TUDORS. 
 
 Tudors that a French writer declared, “ Of all the 
 states in the world that I know, England is the 
 country where the commonwealth is best governed 
 and the people least oppressed.” 
 
 By the time Henry the Seventh gave place to his 
 son, Henry the Eighth (1509), all questions as to 
 the succession were at an end, and the latter entered 
 upon his inheritance under the most auspicious cir- 
 cumstances. Marrying Catherine of Spain, he may 
 be said to have made the most brilliant matrimonial 
 alliance possible at that day. The reign of this sov- 
 ereign extends over a period of thirty -eight years, 
 and occupies a large place in the historic thought of 
 the world. His was a 
 many-sided career, full 
 of varied experiences. 
 
 To appreciate the cir- 
 cumstances which con- 
 spired to make the 
 career of Henry the 
 Eighth and the En- 
 gland of that period 
 illustrious, one must 
 call to mind the dis- 
 coveries of Columbus 
 and Da Gama ; the 
 invention of Guten- 
 burg; the rise of the 
 Ottoman empire upon 
 the ruins of the Byzan- 
 tine empire ; the Re- 
 formation in Germany, and the Renaissance in 
 France. A new day had dawned upon Europe. 
 The wealth of India and the Montezumas was begin- 
 ning to pour in upon Western Europe, and new op- 
 portunities to arise. England was no longer the 
 outer edge of creation, but the center of the world. 
 It was a time to expand the thoughts of men, and 
 without being a man of the finest parts, Henry 
 VIII. was certainly a ruler of far more than ordi- 
 nary ability, and his especial vices as an individual 
 were the occasion of his chief virtue as a king. 
 Licentious and heartless, he put aside Queen Cath- 
 erine to marry Anne Boleyn. That was in itself an 
 inexcusable crime, but in its consequences the great- 
 est of national blessings. Hie character thus had 
 compensations even where most reprehensible. 
 
 This reign was early drawn into war with France 
 and Scotland, some French towns being taken on 
 
 MARRIAGE OF HENRY VIII. AND ANNE BOLEYN. 
 
 the continent, and the brilliant victory of Flodden 
 Field being won across the Tweed. But war was 
 neither the business nor the pastime of this king. 
 To get rid of his lawful wives seemed to have been 
 his chief occupation for some time. Cardinal Wol- 
 sey undertook to bring this about in the case of 
 Catherine within the pale of the Catholic church 
 and -with the connivance of the pope. But that was 
 impossible, so strong was the Spanish influence at 
 the Vatican. For failure herein the magnificent 
 cardinal fell into disgrace and finally died. The 
 pretext for the application for divorce was that 
 Catherine was the widow of Henry’s older brother, 
 
 Arthur, who had died 
 two months after mar- 
 riage and prior to the 
 death of Henry the 
 Seventh. With the 
 hypocrisy not unusual 
 in those days he feigned 
 conscientious fear that 
 he was displeasing God. 
 What Wolsey failed to 
 do was essayed by an- 
 other ecclesiastical tool, 
 Thomas Cranmer, af- 
 terwards burnt at the 
 stake by Bloody Mary 
 for the part he took in 
 these divorce proceed- 
 ings, and for Protes- 
 tantism. Cranmer’s idea was to get an opinion 
 from the universities first, in the hope that Che pope 
 would be influenced by the judgment of the learned. 
 Here was a significant, if tentative, recognition of 
 the growing power of 
 education. It may 
 be remarked that the 
 king had shown con- 
 siderable sincere sym- 
 pathy with the pro- 
 gressive tendency of 
 the day, the New 
 Learning as it was 
 called, although in his 
 desire to win favor 
 with the pope he had 
 written a treatise in denunciation of Luther and his 
 doctrines. Some of the universities gave the desired 
 
 CRANMER. 
 
 Tv 
 
 T 
 
k. 
 
 
 THE TUDORS. 357 
 
 opinion, but the pontiff of the church remained ob- 
 durate. Resolved to be rid of his wife, come what 
 would, Henry defied the pope and unconditionally 
 cut loose from Rome. Catherine was swiftly dis- 
 posed of then, and Anne installed in her place. 
 
 The king soon tired of Anne Boleyn also, but in- 
 stead of a divorce, had her beheaded, marrying one 
 of her maids-of -honor, Jane Seymour, the very next 
 day. She died within a year. Three other wives 
 followed during the libidinous life of this monster, 
 Anne of Cleves, Catherine Howard and Catharine 
 
 •Parr. The three children who came to the throne 
 were borne to him by the three earlier wives. Edward 
 ^ I., who was the third Tudor sovereign, was the son 
 of Jane Seymour; Mary, of Catherine; Elizabeth, 
 of Anne Boleyn. Such was the life of him whom 
 his subjects were wont to call “ Bluff Hal.” 
 
 The policy of the crown was to magnify royal 
 authority and curtail the jurisdiction of parliament. 
 Wolsey ruled without parliament as far as possible, 
 and 1 homas Cromwell who succeeded him in politi- 
 cal influence, sought rather to use that body as a 
 subservient tool, filling it, as far as he could, with 
 the mere creatures of the crown. 
 
 One notable disgrace to this reign was the behead- 
 
 ing of the great and upright chancellor, Sir Thomas 
 More, his offense being that he remained a devout 
 and consistent Romanist. Henry’s severance from 
 the church of Rome, which occurred in 1533, re- 
 sulted in stripping monasteries and churches of 
 their vast wealth. He was not, however, in sym- 
 pathy with the more radical ideas of the Reforma- 
 tion, and the sword of persecution fell heavier on 
 dissenting Protestants than upon persistent papists. 
 He seemed to take Rome as his model, rather 
 than Geneva, only he wished to have the head- 
 
 ship of church and state the same, strictly national. 
 
 By act of parliament Henry the Eighth had been 
 allowed to settle the succession in his will. The 
 provision he made was that Edward should be the 
 immediate successor, and if he died without heirs, 
 his older sister, Mary, should be the first to succeed, 
 and if she too died childless, the younger sister, 
 Elizabeth, should inherit the kingdom, and if she 
 also passed away without heirs, the crown should go 
 to the heirs of Henry’s younger sister, Mary, Duch- 
 ess of Suffolk, in preference to the family of his 
 elder sister, Margaret, wife of James IV. of Scot- 
 land. All these contingencies arose. Edward was 
 ten years old when his father died, and in six years 
 
 <F~ 
 
■V 
 
 
 35 8 
 
 THE TUDORS. 
 
 lie too passed away, leaving no heir. His sisters also 
 died childless. The family, too, of the Duchess of 
 Suffolk became extinct. The will was carried out, 
 and yet its purpose was singularly defeated when 
 James VI. of Scotland, son of Mary, Queen of Scots, 
 came to be J ames I. of England, he being a descend- 
 ant of Margaret Tudor Stuart. 
 
 Edward YI. was a very pious boy, wholly under 
 Protestant influence. During his reign the church 
 of England was brought quite near to the Lutheran 
 standard. Mass was abolished, the reading of the 
 Bible encouraged. The religion favored by the 
 state may be said to have become thoroughly mod- 
 ernized. So feeble was the poor young king that 
 the succession early became a matter of intense so- 
 licitude. It was known that Mary was a zealous pa- 
 pist. In their solicitude for the church the advisers 
 of the king persuaded him to name the grand- 
 daughter of the Duchess of Suffolk, Lady Jane 
 Grey, his successor. For this he had no lawful 
 authority, and much as the ruling class deplored the 
 accession of a Romanist, they resolved to uphold the 
 law. The result was that the unfortunate and per- 
 sonally innocent Lady Jane was beheaded, with the 
 instigators of the movement. 
 
 With the death of the last of all the Edwards, 
 and the swift punishment of the Grey party, Mary 
 
 came to 
 the throne 
 filled with 
 bigotry, 
 eager to be 
 revenged 
 upon the 
 faith that 
 had had 
 so much 
 to do with 
 the troub- 
 les of her 
 moth er. 
 In addi- 
 tion to 
 this, was 
 
 QUEEN MARV. her 
 
 riage to and eager love for Philip of Spain. 
 During the five years of her reign (1553-1558) 
 nothing was left undone which could be done 
 to restore England to harmony with Rome. 
 
 Many Protestants were brought to the stake. But 
 all her efforts were futile. Blood enough she shed 
 in reaction, but her success was temporary. The 
 really permanent result of her reign was the loss of 
 England’s one remaining foothold on the continent, 
 Calais. The French recovered that town, to the 
 almost fatal chagrin of the queen, and the fierce 
 indignation of the English people. It was to En- 
 gland a blessing in disguise. 
 
 We have reached now the reign of the last and in- 
 comparably the greatest of the Tudors, “ the Virgin 
 Queen,” Elizabeth. It began 1558 and closed 1603, 
 thus covering the most brilliant and glorious period 
 of English history, with reference to which she her- 
 self might well say, “ All of which I saw and part 
 of which I was.” Twenty-four years of age at the 
 time of her coronation, already disciplined in the 
 school of adversity, keenly alive to the perils of her 
 position, she proved the right woman in the right 
 place. Masculine in form, massive in intellect, im- 
 petuous in temper, she was a remarkable adept in 
 all the arts of government. 
 
 Elizabeth early announced to Parliament her pur- 
 pose to live and die a virgin queen. The first suitor 
 for her hand was Philip of Spain, actuated no doubt 
 by motives of policy. His suit was not so much as 
 entertained. From that time on there was implac- 
 able enmity between the two sovereigns, culmina- 
 ting in the “Invincible Armada.” Spain was the 
 most powerful kingdom of Europe at that time, es- 
 pecially on the high seas. It was on the 31st of July, 
 1588, that the one hundred and thirty ships of 
 Philip’s Armada were seen off the British coast, in- 
 tent on repeating the story of William of Normandy. 
 The English ships were small and few, but the 
 “ruler of the Queen’s navee” was the dauntless 
 Drake. The invading squadron was compelled by 
 him to sail northward, and was struck by a terrible 
 storm which shattered it into hopeless wreck. That 
 was the culmination of the last attempt to “ beard 
 the lion in his den.” Since then England has been 
 secure from invasion, free to regulate her own af- 
 fairs. Philip reduced England to an extremity 
 which, with Elizabetli at the helm, was her oppor- 
 tunity to establish the principle of national security 
 upon an impregnable Gibraltar. 
 
 Other suitors, whether foreign kings or lordly 
 subjects, were easily disposed of ; but she had a 
 world of trouble with her beautiful cousin, Mary 
 
 ST 
 
THE TUDORS. 
 
 Queen of Scots. She, like the other Mary, was a 
 staunch Catholic. The papal party looked to her 
 to restore the mother church. Catholic sovereigns 
 espoused her cause. To what extent she was really 
 guilty of* plotting for the overthrow of Elizabeth, it 
 is hard to say. Beautiful in person and captivating 
 in manners, she was regarded as a dangerous rival. 
 She had a 
 checkered ca- 
 reer ; married 
 first to the 
 French Dau- 
 phin, after- 
 wards Francis 
 II., and later, 
 upon her re- 
 turn to Scot- 
 land as a wid- 
 ow, she became 
 the wife of 
 Lord Darnley, 
 the grandson 
 of Margaret 
 Tudor, daugh- 
 ter of Henry 
 VII. In Mary 
 Queen of Scots 
 vested the re- 
 siduary title to 
 the English 
 crown, and she 
 was the hope 
 of the papal 
 party. If she 
 had no sinister 
 designs upon that crown, it was certain that 
 a very considerable party in England stood ready 
 to employ unlawful means to precipitate her com- 
 ing into the kingdom. In the meanwhile trouble 
 came for Mary at her own court. Her favorite, 
 Rizzio, was killed by Darnley, and not long after 
 Darnley himself was killed by the Earl of Bothwell, 
 to whom she gave her hand in a few weeks. This 
 marriage provoked a popular uprising which re- 
 sulted in her being forced to sign her abdication in 
 favor of her son James, with a regency. Not long 
 after she escaped and took refuge in England. 
 Elizabeth afforded her asylum and professed sym- 
 pathy, but her ministers of state were apprehensive 
 
 QUEEN ELIZABETH. 
 
 of treason, and after long years of waiting brought 
 Mary to trial for complicity with Philip in the expe- 
 dition of the Armada. Her complicity in the mur- 
 der of Darnley had been proved before. Convicted 
 of treason, Elizabeth signed her death-warrant, and 
 she was beheaded. Mary Queen of Scots has long 
 been a favorite object of romantic interest, but in 
 
 strict justice 
 she hardly 
 merited special 
 commiseration. 
 
 Among her 
 subjects Queen 
 Elizabeth had 
 two favorites 
 at different 
 
 times, the Earl 
 of Leicester 
 and the Earl 
 of Essex, nei- 
 ther of whom 
 deserve es- 
 pecially the 
 prominence 
 generally giv- 
 en them. In 
 Lord Burleigh 
 and Sir Walter 
 Baleigh she 
 had realstates- 
 men and fast 
 friends. Sir 
 Francis Drake, 
 who sailed 
 around the 
 world, received the order of knighthood from her 
 royal hand on board 
 his own ship. Her 
 mariners showed 
 wonderful enterprise 
 in the New World 
 and India. The 
 common people 
 might well be classed 
 among her friends, 
 for during her reign 
 the condition of the 
 
 agricultural and in- bib waltkk raleigh. 
 
 dustrial classes improved immensely, The Eliza- 
 
 < <5- 
 
 k 
 
 (O 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 ~ 
 
 45 
 
 o 
 
Jt 
 
 3 6 ° 
 
 THE TUDORS. 
 
 bethan Age was the golden age of English litera- 
 ture. During that period flourished William Shak- 
 speare, who scaled all the peaks of thought and 
 flooded the land and age with glory. But we re- 
 serve all further discussion of literature for a sub- 
 sequent chapter. 
 
 There was much which was barbaric in England 
 when the last of the Tudors died. She herself was 
 coarse and rude to a shocking degree. In profanity 
 she could vie with “ our army in Flanders.” It is 
 none the less true that during the reign of the great 
 house of Tudor the nation rose from the mere rudi- 
 ments of greatness to rank with the foremost na- 
 tions of Europe. Once rid of the idea of becoming 
 great by continental conquest and possessions, Brit- 
 ain set about in right good earnest becoming in deed 
 as in name. Great Britain. 
 
 As early as the reign of Henry the Second, En- 
 gland cast covetous glance across the channel and 
 sent an army into Ireland for its subjugation ; but 
 it was the Tudors who really decided the fate of 
 that unhappy island. There was no centralization. 
 Britain became great because the petty kingdoms 
 were consolidated into one nation, while Ireland, 
 which in the eighth century was far more advanced 
 of the two, dwindled away and lost its splendid op- 
 portunity through the calamitous influence of the 
 tribe and the clan, in distinction from the country. 
 For a long time the “ English Pale,” or the area of 
 actual British rule in Ireland, was very limited. 
 Henry VII. determined to extend it, but pursued his 
 purpose only feebly. Henry VIII. was more fully 
 bent on Irish subjugation. Under his reign nobles 
 and people felt the hand of a master. The last of the 
 Henrys took the title of King, instead of Lord of 
 Ireland, and his successors upon the throne have 
 never ceased to hold fast both the shadow and the 
 substance of Irish sovereignty. 
 
 To suppress the national sentiment, the language, 
 dress, customs and laws of the country were prohib- 
 ited. The fact that Henry was at enmity with the 
 pope made loyalty to Rome an expression of patriot- 
 
 ism in Ireland. Edward the Sixth was actuated 
 more by zeal for Protestantism than by political 
 considerations in his endeavors to extend English 
 authority in Ireland. When Mary came to the 
 throne and Protestantism lacked the support of the 
 government, it almost immediately melted away. 
 She was not disposed to abandon the island to itself, 
 by any means, but her personal sympathies were with 
 the Irish in matters of religion. Elizabeth was in 
 sympathy, of course, with the Protestantism of her 
 brother, rather than the papacy of her sister ; but 
 she took a secular view of the Irish question, and 
 under her the power of the British crown was felt 
 throughout the entire island. “ Every vestige,” 
 says Green, “ of the old Celtic constitution of the 
 country was rejected as barbarous. The tribal 
 authority of the chiefs was taken from them by law. 
 They were reduced to the position of great nobles 
 and landowners, while their clansmen rose from 
 subjects into tenants, owing only fixed and custom- 
 ary dues and services to their lords. The tribal sys- 
 tem of property in common was set aside, and the 
 commercial holdings of the tribesmen turned into 
 the copy-holds of English law. In the same way 
 the chieftains were stripped of their hereditary jur- 
 isdiction and the English system of judges and trial 
 by jury substituted for proceedings under Brehon, 
 or customary law. To all this,” he blandly adds, 
 “ the Celts opposed the tenacious obstinacy of their 
 race.” After giving many details in regard to the 
 colonization of Ulster, which was the culmination 
 of the Irish policy of the Tudors, Green observes, 
 “ The evicted natives withdrew sullenly to the lands 
 which had been left them by the spoiler; but all 
 faith in English justice had been torn from the 
 minds of the Irishry, and the seed had been sown 
 of that fatal harvest of distrust which was to be 
 reaped through tyranny and massacre in the age to 
 come.” Parnell in solitary confinement for words 
 spoken in parliamentary debate, and that by the 
 orders of a Liberal ministry, is a continuation of 
 what might be called Tudorism in Ireland. 
 
 
 *• -U 
 
 
 71 
 
* 
 
 
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 STUARTS AND THE COMMONWEALTH. 
 
 * * * * * 
 
 * * *■ * * 
 
 -jj^u/^r/rr/rj'JT- -y/zu/zun -jo* ur>-y. 
 
 nioty/su/^jfcyrz-jnvyyunu&uywr^jryxnuyzufrurj-yyzv/zynunununu. 
 
 r> -j,-z -y/z zoxyn-yjo XT* 
 
 •CHAPTER LX. 
 
 James I. and the Gunpowder Plot— Sir Walter Raleigh — Tobacco and Potatoes— Kino 
 James’ Version of the Bible — Virginia and New England — Charles I. and the Royal Pre- 
 rogative— Eliot, Pym, Hampden and Cromwell — The Long Parliament — Cavaliers and 
 Roundheads— Regicide— The Commonwealth— The Protectorate— Charles II.— James II. 
 — William and Mary— Anne and Marlborough— The Stuarts, and England at the Close 
 of that Dynasty'. 
 
 T was on the 24th of March, 
 1003, that “ Good Queen 
 Bess,” as the English often 
 called her, passed from 
 earth, and in accordance 
 with her wish, J'ames, the 
 sixth king of Scotland by 
 that name, succeeded her, his title 
 as King of England being James I. 
 Then at last was accomplished the 
 union of Scotland and England. The 
 new sovereign had been carefully nur- 
 tured in the Presbyterian faith, albeit 
 his mother was a staunch papist, but 
 his sympathies were with neither of 
 those churches. Episcopacy suited his 
 taste. Both the Presbyterians (or Puri- 
 tans, as they were called in England) 
 and the Catholics had expected his countenance 
 and support, and he disappointed them both. 
 The disaffected factions were intense in their indig- 
 nation, and the king’s friends seriously apprehended 
 trouble, and not without reason. A little more than 
 a year after his coronation the famous Gunpowder 
 Plot was discovered, a conspiracy which has never 
 ceased to fill the average British heart with a holy 
 horror of the papacy. This plot was devised by 
 
 Robert Catesby to blow up the parliament house 
 while that body was in session. A cellar beneath it 
 had been hired, and filled with thirty-six barrels of 
 gunpowder, concealed beneath a pile of wood. The 
 session was delayed, from various causes, until No- 
 vember 5, 1605, and that day was finally fixed for 
 the explosion. It was the most diabolical conspir- 
 acy ever hatched. A few days before the session 
 began, a Catholic member of the House of Lords 
 was warned not to take his seat at the opening of 
 the session. This was a suspicious circumstance, 
 and served to put the government on its guard. 
 Guy Fawkes, who was to light the fatal match, was 
 seized in the act of entering the cellar on the morn- 
 ing of the session. A search soon disclosed the 
 horrid conspiracy. The sensation produced was 
 profound, and to this day Guy Fawkes is annually 
 burned in effigy on the night of November 5th by 
 the populace, and the papal cause in England has 
 never recovered from the injury it then received. 
 
 One of the first acts of James was the arrest and 
 conviction of Sir Walter Raleigh on the false charge 
 of conspiring against the king’s life. That brilliant 
 ornament of the Elizabethan age may well be called 
 the father of English America. To him belongs 
 the honor of founding a colony of his countrymen 
 It did not remain permanently, 
 
 in Virginia in 1590 
 
 
 ( 3 61 ) 
 
 -i)\\ 
 
I 
 
 THE GUNPOWDER CONSPIRATORS— From an Old Engraving. 
 
 would not grow to advantage in England, and if se- 
 cured -at all must be cultivated in its native land. 
 But Sir Walter found that another American prod- 
 uct, the potato, would thrive on English soil, or 
 rather, “ on Irish ground,” for he planted some 
 brought from America upon his estate in Ireland, 
 and from that experiment came the use in that 
 country of this great staple of food. 
 
 King James was a noted pedant. Utterly desti- 
 tute of genius, hardly blessed with average talent, 
 he had an inordinate opinion of his own ability. lie 
 conceived himself to be an author of brilliant parts. 
 He wrote much, but nothing of any value. In the 
 literary world his only claim to distinction is the 
 
 the two leading Anglo-American colonies, Virginia 
 in 1607 and New England in 1620, of which we need 
 not further speak here, except to add that the for- 
 mer was due to the love of tobacco, the latter to the 
 love of God. 
 
 The laws, during the reign of James I., against 
 all religious dissenters, Puritans and Catholics, were 
 very severe, but his son, Charles I., who came to the 
 .throne July 16, 1625, was filled with a determina- 
 tion to assert still more strongly the royal preroga- 
 tive in matters of taxation, faith and worship. 
 Louis the Grand of France had no more exalted 
 opinion of royalty than did this second of the Stu- 
 arts. He conceived it to be the privilege of the king 
 
 THE STUARTS AND THE COMMONWEALTH. 
 
 but it none the less laid the foundation of the colo- 
 nial policy of England, and to have done that was 
 glory enough for any man. He introduced the In- 
 dian plant, tobacco, in Europe, at least in England, 
 where it speedily gained popular favor, notwith- 
 standing the king was bitterly opposed to its use. 
 James went so far as to write a book called “ A 
 Counterblast to Tobacco,” but to no purpose. The 
 weed grew in favor, and the demand for it had 
 much to do with the renewed and successful attempt 
 to establish a settlement in Virginia. Tobacco 
 
 fact that the so-called authorized English version 
 of the Bible, the one used by the Protestants of all 
 denominations, bears his name. He had nothing to do 
 with making the translation, except to favor and con- 
 voke the assembly of learned divines at Westminster 
 which made that august translation. Some fifty 
 persons were employed four years at the task. 
 
 The death of James I. occurred March 27, 1625, 
 when he was fifty-nine years of age, and had been 
 upon the throne of England twenty-two years. The 
 great events of his reign were the establishment of 
 
 C/iris top tier 
 
 Thomas Guido Robert Thomas 
 
 Winter 
 
 <5 
 

 THE STUARTS AND THE COMMONWEALTH. 
 
 3 6 3 
 
 to do about what he pleased. But the British par- 
 liament was not the French States General. By 
 his day the House of Commons had become a tre- 
 mendous power. During the first half decade of 
 his reign he called three 
 parliaments, in each one 
 of which the Commons 
 demanded the redress of 
 grievances in accordance 
 with the principles of the 
 Great Charter, before 
 making appropriations 
 for the public sendee and 
 the royal household. 
 
 There was a deadlock in 
 each case, and the parlia- 
 ments were dissolved 
 without legislative action. 
 
 The queen was a French 
 princess, and the chief 
 counselors of the crown, 
 
 Buckingham, Strafford, 
 and Laud, attempted to play the role of Richelieu. 
 It was in the third parliament of Charles that the 
 famous Petition of Rights was offered, and secured 
 from the king 
 some concessions, 
 afterwards viola- 
 ted. One of the 
 first and most con- 
 spicuous leaders 
 of the Commons 
 was Eliot, ancestor 
 of John Eliot, the 
 great Indian apos- 
 tle. He was be- 
 headed before the 
 popular cause had 
 gained much liead- 
 
 Cromwell’s first speech in the Commons was made 
 in 1629, and Hampden’s 
 resistance of illegal taxa- 
 tion dated from 1638. All 
 
 way. 
 
 with 
 
 I’ym, 
 
 and 
 
 Associated 
 him were 
 Hampden 
 Cromwell. 
 
 The two latter fill — 
 
 the larger place in history. John Hampden stoutly 
 refused to pay taxes unjustly and unconstitutionally 
 levied by the king in disregard of parliamentary 
 authority. His resistance was made a test case and 
 proved a wonderful advantage to the popular cause. 
 
 OLIVER CROMWELL. 
 
 the while the contest 
 gained in stubbornness 
 on both sides. 
 
 There was trouble in 
 Scotland and Ireland 
 also, especially the for- 
 mer. The king tried to 
 force Episcopacy upon 
 the Presbyterians across 
 the Tweed, and they were fired with indignation. 
 The Irish were less rebellious, for once, than the 
 Scotch, and were easily pacified by Strafford. That 
 
 statesman was so 
 elated with his 
 success in Dublin 
 that he persuaded 
 the king to call 
 still another par- 
 liament, thefifthof 
 his reign. It met 
 on the 3d of No- 
 vember, 1640, and 
 is known as the 
 celebrated Long 
 Parliament. One 
 of the first things 
 it did was to im- 
 peach Strafford. 
 He died upon the 
 scaffold the fol- 
 lowing year. Laud 
 was sent to the Tower ; a bill passed providing 
 for triennial meetings of parliament, and the 
 abolition of that very odious secret tribunal, the 
 Star Chamber. The more the king conceded, the 
 louder the demands for redress, and the more reso- 
 
 o *r 
 
 oK 
 

 3 6 4 
 
 THE STUARTS AND THE COMMONWEALTH. 
 
 lute the Commons, the more arrogant did Charles 
 become. 
 
 Open war broke out in 1642 between the crown 
 and Parliament, the Episcopalians adhering to the 
 cause of the king, the Puritans quite as warmly es- 
 pousing the cause of Parliament. The former were 
 called Royalists or Cavaliers, the latter Roundheads. 
 The Presbyterians of Scotland allied themselves 
 
 Charles then fled to Scotland. He was given up, 
 tried by the Commons for treason, found guilty and 
 beheaded January, 1649. The court which tried 
 him was extra-constitutional and in the nature of a 
 court-martial, although composed of members of 
 parliament. Many of the Roundheads disapproved 
 the regicide, but the king had forfeited his right to 
 the crown, and his execution was another lonv 
 
 CROMWELL DISSOLVING THE LONG PARLIAMENT. 
 
 with the Roundheads on condition that Presbyteri- 
 anism should be established in England. Such was 
 the Solemn League and Covenant, as it was called. 
 Now Cromwell came more prominently to the front 
 than ever. In parliament he had been less conspic- 
 uous than Pym, but in war he was the master mind, 
 llis “Ironsides” were terrible in battle. In 1644 
 they won the victory of Marston Moor and the next 
 year the decisive field of Naseby was won. 
 
 step toward the rule of the people by the people. 
 
 The Commonwealth was now declared, that is, a 
 government by the Commons without king or 
 House of Peers. In Ireland Charles II., sou of 
 Charles I.. was declared king, but Cromwell soon 
 crushed out the Irish rebellion, practicing horrible j 
 cruelty in so doing. The royal cause struggled on 
 a little louver, but bv 1651 the contest was over, 
 and the younger Charles found asylum at the 
 

 k. 
 
 THE STUARTS AND THE COMMONWEALTH. 
 
 3 6 5 
 
 French court. For two years more the Long Par- 
 liament remained in session, performing the func- 
 tions of government, Cromwell being merely the 
 head of the army. In April of that year the blunt 
 soldier marched with troops into the House and 
 dispersed that body in an unceremonious manner, 
 and the parliament which had begun thirteen years 
 before and had previously lost its upper house or 
 head, and was well called “ The Rump,” passed out 
 of existence into perpetual history, memorable for 
 justice rather than law. 
 
 In 1653 began the Protectorate, and it continued 
 until 1660. A parliament summoned by Cromwell 
 conferred upon him the office of Lord Protector, af- 
 terwards made for life, with power to name his suc- 
 cessor. This wonderful man held the reins of gov- 
 ernment until 1658, singularly indifferent to the 
 forms of law, an autocrat without being a tyrant. His 
 rule was little else than martial law on a grand 
 scale, but under his sway the nation progressed rap- 
 idly and was a tremendous power in the world. 
 During that irregular period England wrested the 
 mastery of the Channel from the Dutch fleet, and 
 thus gained a naval ascendancy of inestimable val- 
 ue to the commerce of the country. Cromwell was 
 a patriot and a benefactor, if somewhat lawless and 
 high-handed. He failed mainly in not adapting his 
 government to the constitutional traditions and re- 
 specting the established order of things. His son, 
 Richard Cromwell, whom he named his successor, 
 was neither fitted for the cares of state nor ambi- 
 tious of public honor. In 1660 the Protectorate 
 ceased to exist without a struggle. 
 
 Charles II. was in Holland when the Cromwellian 
 fabric of government fell asunder. He published a 
 declaration of amnesty and toleration, returned and 
 was received with every demonstration of public sat- 
 isfaction. His reign extended to 1685, and was un- 
 eventful. The court was noted for its profligacy. 
 Charles himself was an easy-going, pleasure-loving 
 time-server, secretly accepting a pension from the 
 King of France, caring little for the public or his 
 own honor so long as he could “eat, drink and be 
 merry.” The nation got on very well with such a 
 king. Tie was at heart a Catholic, but no bigot. 
 The fate of his father exercised a wholesome re- 
 straint upon his inclinations. He longed to help 
 the papal cause on the Continent, but was too timid 
 to do so. Ilis death occurred in February, 1685. 
 
 WILLIAM OF ORANGE. 
 
 When Charles the Voluptuary died he was suc- 
 ceeded by his austere brother, James II., whose reign 
 of three years was a futile endeavor to restore the 
 papacy. This king was conscientious in his devotion 
 to the mother church, and felt it to be his sacred 
 duty to revive the ancient worship. To this end, in 
 the spirit of the Inquisition, he inaugurated the 
 “ Bloody Assizes,” a series of trials held by Chief 
 Justice Jeffries, proverbial for his injustice. The 
 nation was in no mood to tolerate this policy, and 
 an invitation was sent to his daughter Mary and 
 her husband, William of Orange, to come over and 
 take the scepter. The 
 invitation was ac- 
 cepted, and a revo- 
 lution of the great- 
 est importance ef- 
 fected without stain- 
 ing English soil with 
 blood. J ames was 
 so very unpopular 
 that he was glad to 
 escape with his fam- 
 ily in disguise. 
 
 Mary was indeed a Stuart, but her husband was 
 coequal with her in authority, and he was thorough- 
 ly imbued with the spirit of Protestantism as it had 
 been developed in the Dutch struggle with Spain. 
 The only real strength of James was his continued 
 recognition as king of England by Louis XIV. of 
 France, and the sympathy of the Catholics in Ire- 
 land. To the latter island he made his way with a 
 small army supported by French gold. On Irish soil 
 was fought the famous Battle of the Boyne, the cel- 
 ebration of which has occasioned so many riots be- 
 tween Orangemen (so named from William of Or- 
 ange) and the Irish Catholics. That battle occurred 
 July 1, 1690, and was a signal victory for William 
 and the Orangemen over James II. and the Irish, 
 his supporters. In 1694 Queen Mary died, but Wil- 
 liam continued to hold the reins of government 
 until his death, 1702. 
 
 During the previous year parliament had passed 
 the Act of Settlement (for William and Mary were 
 childless) by which the succession was conferred up- 
 on Mary’s sister Anne, wife of Prince George of 
 Denmark, she being a Protestant and the wife of a 
 Protestant, while the son of James, who was after- 
 wards known as the Pretender, was a papist. After 
 
•y{<s 
 
 £ A 
 
 366 
 
 THE STUARTS AND THE COMMONWEALTH. 
 
 Anne and her children the succession should go to 
 
 QUEEN ANNE. 
 
 the dowager, Electress Sophia, a granddaughter of 
 James I., “ and her heirs being Protestants.” The 
 reign of Anne, from 1702 to 1714, was memorable 
 
 for the splendid victories of the English army in 
 Flanders, under the command of that greatest mili- 
 tary genius of his age, the Duke of Marlborough. 
 To him England^ owes Nova Scotia and Minorca. 
 It was also memorable as a period during which 
 many famous authors lived ; the postoffice system 
 was adopted, the country prosperous, and the union 
 of the “ United Kingdom ” made stronger and more 
 equable. 
 
 For a little more than a century the Stuarts wore 
 the English crown, except as it was temporarily ta- 
 ken from them. As a dynasty it was inglorious and 
 mediocre ; but the nation stead ily advanced in all 
 that constitutes national greatness, and from being an 
 insignificant island, a mere appendage to Europe, 
 it rose during the era of the Stuarts to the very 
 front rank, Marlborough and his troops being hard- 
 ly less potent in continental affairs than Wellington 
 and his troops were a century later. But it was even 
 more to the general prosperity of the country than 
 to military genius and valor that the England 
 of that period owed its commanding position in the 
 family of nations. 
 
 
 V 
 
► 
 
 I ENGLAND 
 
 PRESENT * 
 
 
 The Decay of Royalty — The Georges — William IV. — Victoria — A Short Retrospect— 
 Blenheim and Gibraltar— Wesley, Whitefield and the Methodists— Dr. Johnson and 
 Lexicography — Blackstone and the Common Law — Wilberforce and African Slavery — 
 Colonial and International Intervention— Results of the Revolutionary and Napo- 
 leonic Wars — The Corn Laws and Free Trade — Political Parties — Party Leaders — 
 Royalty, its Palaces and Revenues — Parliament — The Ministry — The United King- 
 dom and British Empire — Colonial Possessions. 
 
 ODERX England may be 
 said to date from the 
 bloodless revolution 
 which cost James II. 
 his crown. His expul- 
 sion from the kingdom 
 not only secured Prot- 
 estanism from all dan- 
 ger of a papal 
 reaction, but 
 it subordina- 
 ted the royal 
 prerogative to 
 the will of the 
 people. Hence- 
 forth the sov- 
 ereignty will 
 not merit much attention, be- 
 ing a very insignificant part of 
 Present England. To clear the 
 way for “ weightier matters ” 
 than crowns and scepters, with- 
 out entirely ignoring the royal 
 family, it is proposed to narrate 
 the notable dynastic facts be- 
 fore entering upon the heart of the subject before 
 
 GEORGE I. 
 
 us in this chapter. Queen Anne died August 1, 
 1714. In accordance with the Act of Settlement 
 passed by parliament in 1701, George I., Elector of 
 Hanover, succeeded her upon the throne. His 
 reign continued thirteen years. Sir Horace Wal- 
 pole, whose motto was, “ Every man has his 
 price,” was the foremost politician (statesman he 
 was not) of that reign. Walpole became premier 
 under George the First, and 
 continued to hold that position 
 fifteen years under his succes- 
 sor, George II. The most mem- 
 orable feature of the reign of 
 the first of the Georges was the 
 South Sea Bubble. That gi- 
 gantic speculation dates back 
 to Queen Anne’s reign, the 
 South Sea Company having 
 been chartered in 1711. It was 
 a scheme to monopolize British 
 trade along the coast of Spanish 
 America. In a few years the 
 company became a formidable 
 rival of the Bank of England in 
 financial influence. Its pros- 
 perity was purely speculative. It had the effect 
 
 
 N> 
 
 46 
 
 (3 6 7) 
 
 
368 PRESENT ENGLAND. 
 
 to stimulate a vast amount of speculation. A 
 wild period of financial lunacy set in. The bub- 
 ble bfirst in 1720, and thousands of families were 
 ruined by it. It was cotemporary with and similar 
 to Law’s Mississippi scheme, which crazed and bank- 
 rupted France. 
 
 The reign of the second George was a long one, ex- 
 tending to" 1760, and the period was one of great im- 
 portance, but the king himself had very little to do 
 with the actual accomplishment of any of the great 
 results to be hereafter set forth. At his death his 
 
 grandson, George III., 
 came into the royal in- 
 heritance. His reign 
 extended from 1760 to 
 1820, covering the pe- 
 riod of the Revolution- 
 ary War which freed 
 this country from Brit- 
 ish tyranny, also the ca- 
 reer of Napoleon. In- 
 sane as this king un- 
 doubtedly was during a 
 george in. part of His reign, his ca- 
 
 pacity for affairs of state mattered little. The pop- 
 ularity of parties and party leaders determined the 
 policy of the government. During the last ten 
 years of this reign the Prince of Wales was regent. 
 The regency terminating with the death of the de- 
 mented king in 1820, the prince was crowned George 
 IV. He occupied the throne ten years. The third 
 George was obstinate and finally demented, but mor- 
 ally a most worthy sovereign, while his son and suc- 
 cessor was a debauchee of the vilest sort. In his 
 domestic life the last of the Georges was unhappy 
 and disreputable. At his death his brother, the 
 Duke of Clarence, succeeded to the crown as William 
 IV. For seven years he wielded the feeble scepter of 
 the great kingdom. Dying childless, the succession 
 fell to the lot of Victoria, daughter of his brother, the 
 Duke of Kent. Ascending the throne in 1837, at 
 the age of eighteen, she is now in the enjoyment of 
 a long and prosperous reign. In 1840 she married 
 Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, who died in 
 1861. Personally she is very popular ; politically 
 she is merely what the nation decrees, through par- 
 liamentary elections. Her heir, the Prince of Wales, 
 does not hesitate to say that the continuance of mon- 
 archy in England depends on the will of the people. 
 
 Having traced the sovereigns of England in their 
 decline to the present time, we now turn to the prog- 
 ress of Present En- 
 gland. In order to 
 appreciate the civil- 
 ization which is the 
 crowning honor of 
 to-day, it is necessary 
 to look back a little 
 to the period covered 
 by the preceding 
 chapter. 
 
 It was during the 
 reign of Charles II. 
 that the Royal So- V,CT0RIA AND PRINCE ALBERT ‘ 
 ciety for the Promotion of Science was formed 
 in London, and most excellently well did it 
 merit the name, for right royally did it foster the 
 growth of exact knowledge. In 1619 Harvey dis- 
 covered the circulation of the blood, and thus laid 
 the foundation of physiology, and from that time 
 on the spirit of Roger Bacon has seemed to animate 
 the British mind, producing, later in the century, 
 Sir Isaac Newton, whose discovery of the law of 
 gravitation was an epoch in science. The first En- 
 glish newspaper was printed in 1641, six years after 
 the post-office system had been established. The 
 first toll-gate was erected in England in 1663, which 
 was the beginning of passable roads for wagons. 
 The foreign trade which had only just begun in the 
 sixteenth century, became very large in the seven- 
 teenth, especially with 
 India. The use of tea 
 began late in the sev- 
 enteenth century. 
 
 The Bank of Enland 
 was established in 
 1694, during the reign 
 of William and Mary, 
 from which reign 
 dates the national 
 debt of Great Britain. 
 
 If a national debt is victoria— 1880 . 
 
 not a national blessing, it may yet be safely asserted 
 that its contraction was necessary in this case to 
 the development of the nation, if not to its absolute 
 existence. By the aid of the money borrowed on 
 the strength of the national credit England was en- 
 abled to raise and equip the armies and navies indis- 
 
 0 
 
 > 
 
 i 
 
 P7 
 

 14 - 
 
 present ENGLAND. 
 
 3 6 9 
 
 perisable to expansion from a petty kingdom to a 
 mighty empire. 
 
 It was in the year 1704 that Marlborough won 
 the splendid victory of Blenheim and other hard- 
 fought battles, which came near wrecking the pow- 
 er of Louis XIV. During the same year Sir George 
 Rooke carried by storm the fortress of Gibraltar, 
 which made England Mistress of the Mediterranean 
 
 George Whitefield in 1714. The younger Wesley 
 was the author of many very popular hymns, while 
 the other two men succeeded by their eloquence and 
 zeal as preachers in making a most profound im- 
 pression upon the English-speaking people of two 
 hemispheres. They founded the Methodist Episco- 
 pal Church in England and America. The char- 
 acteristic which the denomination has always had, 
 
 
 1 
 
 Sea, with its inexhaustible wealth of commerce, an 
 advantage of more substantial value to the people 
 than all the mines of Peru and Mexico. In losing 
 Gibraltar Spain lost much, but England gained in- 
 comparably more; the former being unable to make 
 full use of the advantage involved in the possession 
 of that rock. 
 
 Among the more noteworthy characters of the 
 eighteenth century should be mentioned the Wes- 
 leys, John and Charles, and their co-worker, White- 
 field. They were born early in the century, John 
 Wesley in 1703, his brother Charles in 1708, and 
 
 exceeding enthusiasm in the work of conversion, 
 it derived from them. They laid the founda- 
 tion of an organization which has been a tremen- 
 dous influence in the world. Whitefield was a 
 prodigy of eloquence, but John Wesley, by his 
 astonishing industry as an organizer, writer and 
 preacher, fairly earned the supreme honor of estab- 
 lishing a church which now, when only a little more 
 than a century old, numbers in communicants be- 
 tween four and five millions of souls. 
 
 Dr. Samuel Johnson is fairly entitled to the dis- 
 tinction of being the Father of the Dictionary. 
 
370 PRESENT ENGLAND. 
 
 Born in 1709, educated at Oxford, lie was an author 
 by profession. From 1747 to 1755 his time was 
 mainly devoted to his great work, “ The Dictionary 
 of the English Language,” an incomparable service 
 to the cause of letters. Attached to him as a sort 
 of literary lackey was Boswell, who preserved and 
 published the most minute details of the life and 
 conversation of the great lexicographer. It may be 
 remarked that important as was the service of John- 
 son in defining the 
 right spelling, pro- 
 nunciation and 
 meaning of En- 
 glish words, the 
 reallysupreme hon- 
 or in the line ' of 
 lexicography be- 
 longs to an Ameri- 
 can of that same 
 and the succeeding 
 century, Dr. Noah 
 Webster. 
 
 In the depart- 
 ment of legal liter- 
 ature no name can 
 be compared to 
 that of Sir William 
 Blackstone, whose 
 C o m m e ntaries, 
 written about the 
 middle of the eigh- 
 teenth century, 
 were the first clear, 
 intelligible and sci- 
 entific presentation 
 of the English common law. Ilis work is still a 
 text-book, studied by every law student, and to be 
 found in every law office in Great Britain and the 
 United States, wherever, in fact, the common law 
 prevails or is a subject of study. 
 
 One more Englishman of the eighteenth century 
 deserves mention, William Wilberforce, the great 
 Emancipator. He was a man of immense wealth, 
 and in early manhood an ordinary member of the 
 House of Commons ; but in 1787, when about thirty 
 years of age, he resolved to devote himself to the 
 cause of abolishing the African slave trade. Burke, 
 Pitt and Fox, the great political triumvirate of that 
 day, nobly seconded his efforts, and after a struggle 
 
 of twenty years his philanthrcrpy was crowned with 
 success. In the course of that struggle the British 
 public sentiment upon the infamy of slavery was 
 raised to a standard so high, and made to rest upon 
 a foundation so secure, that British influence, where- 
 ever felt, has always from that day been brought to 
 bear (with inconsequential exceptions) in opposition 
 to the hideous traffic and the horrible institution of 
 slavery. And it is very largely due to this British 
 
 sentiment that it 
 may now be said 
 that slavery has 
 been wiped from 
 the face of the 
 globe, its few re- 
 maining vestiges 
 being in process of 
 extinction. 
 
 As the wars be- 
 tween America and 
 England belong to 
 the history of the 
 United States, so 
 the campaigns 
 which resulted in 
 Waterloo beloug to 
 French history. It 
 may be well to ob- 
 serve-here, however, 
 that each produced 
 a radical influence 
 upon the policy of 
 England. George 
 III., yielding to the 
 influence of Lord 
 North, sought to compel the colonies to remain de- 
 pendencies, quite irrespective of public sentiment 
 in the colonies ; but for a 
 long time now it has been un- 
 derstood in England and the 
 colonial portion of the British 
 Empire that the question of 
 national independence really 
 rests with the colonists them- 
 selves. The New Dominion 
 and Australasia remain in the lord north. 
 United Kingdom from actual choice, and no 
 war for independence would be necessary to sep- 
 aration. Thus, it may be said that the Thirteen 
 
PRESENT ENGLAND. 
 
 Colonies secured for the colonies of the present Great 
 Britain the right which they secured for themselves, 
 its exercise beiug discretionary with those who ought 
 
 triumph of the free trade policy in England, a 
 policy which grew out of and proved helpful to the 
 manufacturing interest of the country. 
 
 The regu- 
 
 LONDON FROM GREENWICH PARK. 
 
 in all justice to decide it. The Revolutionary War 
 was thus a great lesson of non-intervention in colo- 
 nial affairs. The Napoleonic war, on the contrary, 
 was a great lesson 
 of intervention. 
 
 It made England, 
 in a certain high 
 sense, master of 
 Europe, and more 
 disposed to dictate 
 to other nations 
 than to»her own 
 colonies. 
 
 With the con- 
 sideration of one 
 more topic the 
 reader will be pre- 
 pared to take an 
 appreciative sur- 
 vey of the present 
 Great • Britain. 
 
 That subject is the corn laws and free trade. Those 
 statutes for the regulation of the grain trade date 
 back to 1300, and their abolition in 1846 was the 
 
 lations had been changed from time to time, but 
 their constant object had been to protect the manu- 
 facturing interest of the country. In the final strug- 
 gle over the re- 
 
 peal, a 
 
 lasting 
 
 years, 
 
 which 
 
 Cobden 
 
 leading 
 
 struggle 
 several 
 and in 
 Richard 
 took the 
 part for 
 reform, the prin- 
 ciples of political 
 economy, the laws 
 of supply and de- 
 mand, were dis- 
 cussed with great 
 fullness and spirit. 
 Miss Harriet Mar- 
 tineau rendered 
 .the cause of free 
 trade immense 
 service by political tracts and novels which brought 
 the Arguments of the reformers down to the under- 
 standing of the people. Sir Robert Peel, originally 
 
 WINDSOR PALACE AND WINDSOR CASTLE. 
 
 7 T 
 
 ~o 
 
 
1 
 
 p «■ 
 
 37 2 
 
 PRESENT ENGLAND. 
 
 a protectionist and a leading statesman during the 
 second quarter of the present century, came gradu- 
 ally to adopt the veiws of Cobden, Bright and Mar- 
 tineau. From that time on, the national sentiment, 
 with great unanimity, has been hostile to the doc- 
 trine of protection, and at one time the indications 
 were that the enlightened sentiment of the civilized 
 world was undergoing substantially the same pro- 
 cess of change wrought in the mind of Peel ; but 
 at the present time France and the United States 
 
 Whiggs, or Whigs. The term Tory is of Irish ori- 
 gin, and was first applied to Catholic outlaws in the 
 reign of Charles II. About the time that the roy- 
 alists dubbed their opponents Whigs, the latter re- 
 torted by applying to their adversaries another no 
 less opprobrious nickname. Gradually each party 
 came to take pride in its name, and all sense of re- 
 proach was lost sight of. It was within the present 
 generation, and in designation of their respective 
 characters, that the two parties came to be known 
 
 are strongly protective, and Germany is becoming 
 more and more so. Even in England there are 
 some signs of a reaction. 
 
 It is now time to speak of the history of parties 
 in England. There are, and long have been, two 
 great political organizations in England, each with 
 a duly chosen and recognized leader. The original 
 names of these organizations were Whig and Tory. 
 The present appellations are. Liberal and Conser- 
 vative. Whig is a contraction for Whiggamore, 
 southwestern Scotch for drover. The term was in- 
 troduced in 1648 to designate certain Covenanters 
 from that section of Scotland. In 1679 the oppo- 
 nents of the Court party in England were first called 
 
 as Liberals and Conservatives. The British Empire 
 of the present time, 
 the Great Britain of 
 to-day, has been un- 
 der the rule, at dif- 
 ferent times, of two 
 very remarkable po- 
 litical leaders, Wil- 
 liam E. Gladstone, 
 who still lives and is 
 at this time Premier 
 of Great Britain, and 
 Lord Beaconsfield, 
 lately deceased. The former is a Liberal, the latter 
 
£) 
 
 
 4 
 
 PRESENT ENGLAND. 
 
 373 
 
 was a Conservative. Mr. Gladstone is also known as 
 a learned scholar, especially in all matters relating to 
 Homer. Beaconsfield, long plain Benjamin Disraeli, 
 achieved some fame as a novelist. Hardly, if any, less 
 
 deserving of mention 
 is John Bright, the 
 great Commoner, too 
 liberal to be a leader, 
 even of the Liberals. 
 Entering parliament 
 in 1843, possessing 
 rare eloquence, he 
 has always been the 
 especial champion 
 of free trade, free 
 speech, free institu- 
 (Eari of Beaconsfield.) tions and progressive 
 
 ideas generally. During the American Civil War, 
 when many English statesmen, including even Mr. 
 Gladstone, faltered and wavered, he remained the 
 stalwart friend of the Union cause, rendering the 
 United States immense service by his eloquence. 
 
 Insignificant as the crown is in England, there is 
 one respect in which it is a very important reality. 
 The expense of maintaining it is very considerable. 
 The annual revenue of the royal family from direct 
 appropriation and from estates is about three mil- 
 lions of dollars. The royal palaces are Buckingham, 
 St. James, Kensington, Windsor Castle, Balmoral 
 and Osborne House. 
 
 The parliament consists of two bodies, the House of 
 Lords, or Peers, and the House of Commons. The 
 former, which is hereditary, so far as concerns the 
 lay membership, consists of 492 members, inclusive 
 of two archbishops and twenty-four bishops of the 
 established, or Episcopal, church. The number is 
 subject, however, to change, as the creation of new 
 lords is always in order at the pleasure of the sov- 
 ereign, that is the ministry. The Lord Chancellor 
 is president of the House of Lords. The House of 
 Commons consists of 654 members. Of these 48? 
 are English, including Welsh ; 62 Scotch, and 105 
 Irish. A further classification of the body is this : 
 representatives of boroughs, 360 ; of counties, 283 ; 
 of universities, 11. In parliamentary elections there 
 is a household and property qualification, but the 
 right of suffrage has been greatly extended, and 
 manhood suffrage seems to be inevitable in the near 
 future. 
 
 The ministry or cabinet consists, in its main offi- 
 ces of a Lord of the Treasury, who is prime min- 
 ister, or real wielder of the scepter ; Lord High 
 Chancellor ; Chancellor of the Exchequer ; Secre- 
 taries of State for the Home Department, Foreign 
 Affairs, the Colonies, War and India; First Lord of 
 the Admiralty ; Postmaster General, and Attorney 
 General. These and some other high offices are 
 strictly political, changing whenever the political 
 complexion of the House of Commons changes. 
 The subordinate executive officers are exempt from 
 this dependence upon the fortunes of politics. The 
 Civil Service of Great Britain is conducted upon 
 the plan of retention during good behavior. 
 
 The term United Kingdom applies to England, 
 Scotland, Wales and Ireland, with the little islands 
 of the British group. The term British Empire 
 has a much wider signification. The latter includes 
 all lands and peoples subject to the British crown 
 and constitution, and is the most stupendous empire 
 the world ever saw, with an ever-active power of ex- 
 pansion and absorption. And it must be admitted 
 that as a rule the cause of civilization is advanced 
 by the expansion of British jurisdiction. 
 
 In regard to British colonial possessions, Mr. Fred- 
 erick Martin asserts that they embrace about one- 
 seventh of the land surface of the entire globe, and 
 nearly a fourth of its population. He adds that of 
 this vast dominion, “three million square miles are 
 in America, half a million in Africa, a million in 
 Asia and more than two million and a half in Aus- 
 tralia. These colonies are grouped into forty ad- 
 ministrative divisions.” We add Mr. Martin’s re- 
 sume on this subject : 
 
 “ Of these forty colonies, and groups of colonies, 
 four are in Europe, eleven in or near America, ten 
 in or near Africa, seven in Asia, and eight in Aus- 
 tralasia. In Europe the Possessions are, in alpha- 
 betical order, first, Cyprus ; second, Gibraltar ; third, 
 Heligoland ; and, fourth, Malta. In America, or ad- 
 joining the American continent, the possessions are, 
 first, the Bahamas, a group of some 800 islands and 
 islets, of which twenty are inhabited ; second, the 
 Bermudas, a group of about 300 islands, of which 
 fifteen are inhabited; third, the Dominion of Cana- 
 da, comprising the Provinces of Ontario, Quebec, 
 New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Manitoba, Britisli 
 Columbia, and (since June 26, 1873) Prince Ed- 
 ward’s Island ; fourth, the Falkland Islands, a group 
 
 _ 
 
 7T7 
 
PRESENT ENGLAND. 
 
 of large area, with very few inhabitants ; fifth, 
 Guinea, on the continent of South America ; sixth, 
 the Honduras, on the continent of Central America; 
 seventh, Jamaica, to which are annexed, by an Act 
 of Parliament, passed hi 1873, the Turks and Caicos 
 Islands ; eighth, the Leeward Islands, comprising the 
 formerly separate colonies of Antigua, Montserrat, 
 St. Christopher, Nevis, Anguilla, the Virgin Islands, 
 and Dominica, the whole united under an Act of 
 Parliament passed in 1371 ; ninth, Newfoundland, 
 not yet included in the Dominion of Canada ; tenth, 
 the Island of Trinidad ; and eleventh, the Windward 
 Islands, comprising the formerly separate colonies of 
 Barbadoes, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Grenada and To- 
 bago. In Africa, and nearest to the African conti- 
 nent, the colonial possessions are, first, the Island of 
 Ascension, in the South Atlantic Ocean ; second, the 
 Cape of Good Hope, including British Kaffraria, and 
 other annexations made from 1806 to 1877; third, 
 the Gambia settlement, on the west coast ; fourth, 
 the vaguely limited Gold Coast territory, enlarged in 
 1872 by a cession of old Dutch settlements ; fifth, 
 the South African settlement of Griqualand West, 
 proclaimed British territory October 27, 1871 ; sixth, 
 the Island of Lagos, and territories on the mainland, 
 ceded under treaty of August 6, 1 8G1 ; seventh, the 
 Island of Mauritius, and its dependencies in the In- 
 dian Ocean ; eighth, Natal, separated from the Cape 
 of Good Hope in 1856 ; ninth, the Island of St. Hele- 
 na, in the South Atlantic ; and tenth, the territory 
 of Sierra Leone, on the west coast of Africa. In 
 
 Asia, the colonial possessions are, first, the town and 
 port of Aden, in Arabia, at the entrance of the Red 
 Sea ; second, the Island of Ceylon ; third, the Island 
 of Hong Kong ; fourtfi, the Empire of India ; fifth, 
 the Island of Labuan, on the coast of Borneo ; sixth, 
 the Island of Perim, in the Red Sea ; and seventh, 
 the Straits Settlements, comprising the Islands of 
 Singapore and Penang, with the territory of Ma- 
 lacca, in the Indian Archipelago. Finally, in Aus- 
 tralasia, the colonial possessions embrace, besides 
 the Fiji Islands east to the mainland of Australia, 
 ceded to Great Britain in 1874, the seven, at pres- 
 ent separated, but in all probability to be united, 
 colonies of New South Wales, New Zealand, Queens- 
 land, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and 
 Western Australia.” It is with good reason that 
 Great Britain boasts that upon it the sun never 
 sets. 
 
 We are now about to leave England and soon the 
 British Isles, when, for a short time, our course will 
 be among the lands more remote from the sun of 
 modern civilization. For the most part, for several 
 chapters, we shall still be in the British Empire, or 
 in lands virtually controlled by British men-of-war. 
 On every continent the United Kingdom has its 
 possessions. Those in Asia, North America, and 
 the continental islands of far Australasia, will be 
 separately considered, while those hi Africa, South 
 America and the West Indies, without as distinctive 
 recognition, will yet receive such attention as their 
 importance may justify. 
 
CHAPTER LXII. 
 
 English Literature in General — Dawn op Literature in England — Saxon Alfred — Chau- 
 cer and Canterbury Tales — Spenser and the Faery Queen— Percy’s Relics and Minor 
 Old English— Shakspeare— Cotemporaries .op Shakspeare— Bacon— Milton and his 
 Cotemporaries — Literature op the Restoration— Dryden — Locke and Newton— Pope 
 and Swift — Defoe, Hume and Gibbon — A Literary Group — IIymnology — Addison and 
 “The Spectator” — Steel and Tristram Shandy— Letters op Junius— Goldsmith, Cowter 
 and Young — Literary Impostors — Byron and his Peers — Hood and Browning— Lake 
 School op Poets — Gallery op the Six Intellectual Titans op Modern English Let- 
 ters — Charlotte Bronte and Jane Eyre — Thackeray and Dickens — Minor Novelists — 
 Contemporary English Men op Letters — Latest Type op Literature in England. 
 
 
 N one sense the English lit- 
 erature is not simply the 
 literature of England, but 
 it includes all the literature 
 of the English language, in 
 whatever land written. But 
 the literature of England 
 only will be considered, re- 
 serving American literature for a subse- 
 quent chapter. Some English writers ac- 
 quired such prominence that they have 
 appeared in previous chapters in con- 
 nection with the events of their times, 
 but before taking leave of England it 
 will be of interest to take a comprehensive 
 view of the grandest galaxy of authors 
 the world has ever produced, for classic 
 literature, Greek and Latin combined, 
 contains less real genius and intellectual grandeur 
 than our own vernacular, even apart from this con- 
 tinent, can boast. 
 
 The earliest name in the literary record of En- 
 gland is Beowulf, a long and utterly stupid epic. It 
 is supposed to have been brought to the island by 
 
 the Saxons when in company with the Angles and 
 the J utes, they first established themselves in Britain. 
 The old Britons had no literature, at least, if so it 
 perished utterly. The first indubitably English poet 
 was Caedmon, who died in G80. He left a metrical 
 paraphrase of parts of the Bible. His manuscript 
 was lost, and not recovered until 1054. It has no 
 intrinsic merit. The same is true of the oldest En- 
 glish prose, King Alfred’s translation from the Latin 
 of the Venerable Bede’s ecclesiastical history. Bede 
 belonged to the eighth century and Alfred to the 
 ninth. One line on the title page is suggestive of 
 the relation of old English to modern, also to Latin, 
 or “ boclaeden.” This line reads, “Aelfred Kyning 
 waes weallistod thisse bee and hie of boclaedene on 
 Englise wende” — King Alfred was the translator 
 of this book, and turned it from book-language into 
 English. Bede’s history of England was an impor- 
 tant work for the information it affords, but it is 
 hardly a part of English literature. The samo is 
 true of the somewhat apocryphal biography of Al- 
 fred by Asser, the last of the ante-Norman authors. 
 Asser belonged to the first years of the tenth cen- 
 tury. Three centuries later Layamon produced a 
 
 47 
 
 ( 375 ) 
 
■Vk 
 
 A 
 
 Q_. 
 
 
 37 6 
 
 LITERATURE OF ENGLAND. 
 
 narrative in verse of Celtic traditions, called Brut, 
 and Orm, a series of dull homilies in verse, called 
 Ormulum. Some idea of this poetry may be gath- 
 ered from the complet, — 
 
 “Tliiss boc is Dammed Orrmulum 
 “ Forrthi that Orrm itt wrohhte.” 
 
 The first really meritorious English writer was 
 
 Geoffrey Chaucer, 
 born in 1328, died hi 
 1400. He is called 
 “ the Father of En- 
 glish Poetry.” He 
 was more than that, 
 
 for England can 
 hardly be said to 
 have had any litera- 
 ture, prose or poetry, 
 before his day, cer- 
 chaucer tainly nothing of real 
 
 value. His writings were somewhat voluminous, but 
 his Canterbury Tales stands incomparably higher 
 than any other of his works. It derives its name 
 from several pilgrims on their way to pay homage 
 at the shrine of Thomas a Becket, and who, being 
 guests at the same inn, beguiled the time by telling 
 stories. One verse will serve to illustrate the nature 
 of Chaucer’s English and the plot of the Tales, 
 
 In Southwerk at the Tabard as I lay, 
 
 Redy to wenden on my pilgrimage 
 To Canterbury with ful devout corage, 
 
 At night was come into that liostelrie 
 Wei Nyne and twenty in a companye 
 Of sondry folk, by aventure yfalle 
 In felowschipe, and pilgryms were thei alle 
 That toward Canterbury wolden ryde. 
 
 It will be observed that the variations from good 
 modern English are mainly in the matter of orthog- 
 raphy, and it was not until the printing press was 
 invented that uniformity herein began to prevail. 
 
 It was not until the middle of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury that the second truly great name appeared in 
 English literature, Edmund Spenser, the author of 
 The Faery Queene. Before his day Bishop Percy had 
 collected the ballads of the language, and Percy’s 
 Reliques of Ancient English Poetry is a delightful vol- 
 ume, but the ballads themselves are anonymous. 
 Sir Thomas More, a famous jurist in the reign of 
 Henry VIII., wrote an ever-notable description of an 
 ideal republic upon an imaginary island, Utopia. The 
 
 work was composed in Latin. Cotemporaneous with 
 Spenser was Sir Philip Sidney. He was a writer of 
 much elegance, but no very marked power. Spen- 
 ser’s masterpiece was in part an imitation of “ Piers 
 Ploughman,” a cotemporary of Chaucer who was 
 very highly esteemed, but whose poetry is more 
 homiletical than poetical. But in power of imagi- 
 nation and variety of allegorical conception it is a 
 remarkable production. It is very long without be- 
 ing complete. It cannot be read cursorily with 
 profit, but its careful perusal yields an ample reward. 
 
 There are only three English books older than 
 Shakspeare which are much read, even by the schol- 
 arly few, Canterbury Tales, Percy’s Reliques, or Rel- 
 ics, and The Faery Queene. All else might be oblit- 
 erated with comparatively slight loss, except as they 
 may be useful in historical research. 
 
 It was on the 26th day of April, 1564, in the small 
 town of Stratford-on-Avon that William Shaks- 
 peare was born, and his death occurred on the 23d 
 day of the same 
 month just fifty-two 
 years later. His fam- 
 ily was humble and 
 his education limit- 
 ed. According to all 
 accounts he was the 
 most contradictory 
 character in all his- 
 tory, the supreme 
 enigma of mankind. 
 
 SHAKSPEARE. 
 
 At the age of eigh- 
 teen he was married to Anne Hathaway, seven years 
 his senior, an altogether commonplace woman. At 
 twenty-two he left his native village for London. He 
 had a keen eye for business, and when he had ac- 
 quired capital enough to return to Stratford and be 
 one of the first men of the town he did so, evincing 
 utter indifference to literary fame. At London he 
 secured employment at a theater in some humble 
 capacity. As an actor he did not excel, but he was 
 a capital manager. Wanting better plays than he 
 could procure in any other way, he set about re-writ- 
 ing and then writing dramas himself. He wrote as 
 the demands of his own theater required, and it is 
 said that he never revised his work. If a play served 
 the purposes of his stage, that was enough. Besides 
 a largo number of sonnets, some of them very ex- 
 quisite, and several long but minor poems, Shaks- 
 
 
3 
 
 
 LITERATURE OF ENGLAND. 
 
 377 
 
 peare produced thirty-seven dramas. Ten of these 
 plays are based on English history and bear the 
 names of English kings from King John to Henry 
 VIII. In no play, it is said, did the great dramatist 
 take the trouble to invent a plot for himself, or 
 scruple to use old material if it suited his purpose ; 
 but under the touch of his genius the commonplace 
 was transformed and transfigured. Ilallam wrote of 
 him : 
 
 “ The name of Shakspeare is the greatest in our 
 literature — it is the 
 greatest in all litera- 
 ture. No man ever 
 came near him hi the 
 creative powers of the 
 mind ; no man ever had 
 such strength at once, 
 and such variety of im- 
 agination. Coleridge 
 has most felicitously ap- 
 plied to him a Greek 
 epithet, given before to 
 I know not whom, cer- 
 tainly none so deserv- 
 ing of it — /J.vpt6 vovs, the 
 thousand-souled Shaks- 
 peare.” 
 
 Harlowe, Green and 
 Ben Jonson, Beaumont 
 and Fletcher, Ford and 
 Shirley, are ranked as 
 Shakspearean drama- 
 tists, but it was only be- 
 cause they were contem- 
 poraries. In point of merit they are not at all 
 
 comparable. They 
 added somewhat to 
 the honors of that 
 golden age of En- 
 glish literature, but 
 not much. The Eliz- 
 abethan Age was 
 rendered illustrious 
 by two names, Shaks- 
 peare and Bacon, 
 representatives of 
 very different ele- 
 ments of society in their origins and of widely dif- 
 ferent departments of thought in the development 
 
 of their intellectual resources. The drama was not 
 even respectable, and no doubt Shakspeare was 
 ashamed of his calling, and when he had accumu- 
 lated a competency wished to ignore and keep out of 
 sight the means by which he had acquired it. Bacon, 
 on the other hand, belonged to the nobility, and as 
 an author was a peer in the aristocracy of letters. 
 
 Francis Bacon was born in 1566, and died in 1626. 
 His father, Sir Nicholas Bacon, was Lord Keeper of 
 the Great Seal of England, a high position at court. 
 
 The son chose the pro- 
 
 BEN JONSON. 
 
 fession of law, and at an 
 early age was appointed 
 as the Queen’s Counsel 
 under Elizabeth. When 
 James came to the 
 throne he was knight- 
 ed, with the title of Bar- 
 on Verulam, and later. 
 Viscount St. Albans. 
 In the line of his pro- 
 fession he rose succes- 
 sively from Queen’s 
 Counsel to Solicitor- 
 General, Attorney-Gen- 
 eral and Lord Chan- 
 cellor. In the latter 
 position of Chief Jus- 
 tice of the realm, he 
 was accused of taking 
 bribes and the charge 
 was sustained. He was 
 deprived of his office, 
 fined, and rendered in- 
 capable of holding any office thereafter. His ambi- 
 tion to shine at court 
 and in the society 
 of those who had 
 more money than 
 brains, whelmed him 
 in ruin and misery. 
 
 His last days were 
 sad and desolate. 
 
 But however bitter 
 his failure from the 
 standpoint of per- 
 sonal ambition, his 
 life was an epoch in thought. His writings are 
 voluminous, but the chief book from his pen was, or 
 
 FRANCIS BACON. 
 
 01 
 
 *71 
 
•Ma. 
 
 3 
 
 G\ 
 
 
 4 
 
 378 LITERATURE OF ENGLAND. 
 
 
 
 is. Novum Organum, fitly described by himself when 
 lie says, “This New Instrument is the science of a 
 better and more perfect use of reason in the investi- 
 gation of things, and of the true aims of the under- 
 standing.” It effected a revolution in philosophy. 
 The Baconian method, as compared with philosophy 
 prior to his day, is well suggested by Prof. Backus 
 in the following observations : “ Twenty centuries 
 
 had elapsed after Aristotle had shown his method of 
 searching after truth before Bacon undertook to in- 
 troduce a new method. Aristotle made thought 
 active ; Bacon aimed to make it useful. Aristotle 
 made logic the fundamental science, and considered 
 metaphysics of greater importance than physics. His 
 theory, carried into practice, produced twenty cen- 
 turies of fruitlessness ; two centuries and a half of 
 Bacon’s theory in practice have revolutionized the 
 literary, the commercial, the political, the religious, 
 the scientific world. The ancients had a philosophy 
 of words ; Bacon called for a philosophy of works. 
 His glory is founded upon a union of speculative 
 power with practical utility, which were never so 
 combined before. He neglected nothing as too 
 small, despised nothing as too low, by which our hap- 
 piness could be augmented; in him, above all, were 
 combined boldness and prudence, the intensest en- 
 thusiasm and the plainest common sense.” 
 
 To the same age as Bacon, only a little later, be- 
 long Francis Quarles and George Herbert, quaint 
 writers of deeply pietistic poetry. Sir Thomas 
 Browne, who wrote prose, was really more poetic than 
 they, for his Religio Medici is one of the most faci- 
 nating of essays, often vague but always charming. 
 
 The Civil War and Commonwealth which followed 
 
 so soon after the 
 Elizabethan age pro- 
 duced a plentiful 
 crop of earnest prose 
 writers who contri- 
 buted much to the 
 formation of the En- 
 glish language as a 
 suitable vehicle of 
 grand thoughts. Jer- 
 emy Taylor and 
 Thomas Fuller, the 
 royalists, Richard Baxter and John Milton, the non- 
 conformists, discussed the politics and theology of 
 their day (very nearly the same in many respects) 
 
 with great ability and fullness. Milton’s essay on 
 liberty is one of the finest pieces of prose composi- 
 tion in any language. But the literary glory of that 
 period was Milton’s Paradise Lost. It was composed 
 after the poet had become blind. The two great epic 
 poets, Homer and Milton, were both of them sightless. 
 The latter sang the war in heaven between the loyal 
 forces of heaven and the rebellious Angels, led by 
 Satan. That supposed conflict, together with the fall 
 of man, furnished the basis of the great structure. 
 Wordsworth has happily characterized Milton in 
 these lines : 
 
 Thy soul was like a star and dwelt apart; 
 
 Thou hadst a voice whose sound was like the sea — 
 Pure as the naked heavens, majestic, free; 
 
 So didst thou travel on life’s common way 
 In cheerful godliness; and yet thy heart 
 The lowliest duties on herself did lay. 
 
 The Restoration under Charles II. brought to the 
 fore a different class of writers. Samuel Butler was 
 the most notable poet of that period. His Hudibras 
 is a brilliant satire upon the Puritans and Puritan- 
 ism. The wit is keen and pitiless. To the same 
 period, but on the opposite side of the religious and 
 political issues of the day, stands John Bunyan, 
 whose Pilgrim’s Progress is still widely read for its 
 wealth of allegory and its depth of piety. He was 
 a martyr to his religion, and while languishing in jail 
 composed the work which has made him immortal. 
 A strolling tinker by trade, some think him a gipsy 
 by descent. Another noted writer of this period was 
 Izaak Walton. His Complete Angler is refreshingly 
 free from theology, politics and ethics. It is simply 
 what it professes to be, a treatise upon fishing, but so 
 capitally done that whether one be interested in jiis- 
 catorial sport or not, one can not fail to be delighted. 
 
 After Milton the next really great name in English 
 verse was John Dryden, born in 1631, died in 1700. 
 In character he was a time-server, a puritan under 
 Cromwell, a papist under Janies II. He was the 
 latter’s poet laureate. His writings were voluminous. 
 He was the first real critic in English literature. 
 His influence was very great, and upon the whole very 
 good. He lives in the literary records of his country 
 more for his usefulness in forming the literary 
 style of the language than for the intrinsic merits of 
 his writings. 
 
 The next great name in English literature was the 
 philosopher, John Locke, a cotemporary of Dryden. 
 
 JOHN MILTON, 
 
 0 
 
 ) 
 
 k 
 
 I. 
 
LITERATURE OF ENGLAND. 379 
 
 His Essay on the Human Understanding is justly 
 ranked, as second only to Bacon’s Novum Organum. 
 In the metaphysical world his work is, as Hallam 
 expresses it, “ the first real chart of the coasts, 
 wherein some may be laid down incorrectly, but the 
 general relations of all are perceived.” Locke was 
 born 1632 and died in 1704. Sir Isaac Newton was 
 bom in 1642 and died in 1727. The latter effected 
 a revolution in natural science equal to that of Bacon 
 in philosophy. His Philosophies Naturalis Principia 
 Mathematica, may be set down as the corner-stone of 
 modern science. The work of Roger Bacon had been 
 forgotten, and had to he done over again, with read- 
 justment to the times, and that not by an imitator, 
 but by an original genius, and Sir Isaac met the re- 
 quirement. 
 
 I 11 poetry the eighteenth century opened with Alex- 
 ander Pope. His easy flowing rhymes and sharp 
 wit have been greatly admired. In his day he was 
 thought to be a prodigy, but he lacks staying qualities 
 as a poet. He is not much read at the present day, 
 except by those who do so from a certain sense of 
 duty. His translations of Homer have been eclipsed. 
 His friend, Jonathan Swift, was something of a poet ? 
 but whether he wrote in verse or prose, he was a ter- 
 rible satirist, the fiercest that ever held a pen. His 
 Voyages of Gulliver is the greatest of his works. lie 
 produced a great many pamphlets on current topics. 
 His style was intensely Saxon ; his life detestable 
 and miserable. 
 
 The first great English novelist was Daniel Defoe, 
 born in 1661, died 1731. His Robinson Crusoe is still 
 read with undiminished interest by each new genera- 
 tion, and seems to bear a charmed life. Ilis imag- 
 inary history of the Great Plague in London is a 
 strangely realistic and fascinating narrative. Field- 
 ing and Smollet who followed him may have sur- 
 passed him in genius for invention, but they soiled 
 their pages with impurities which put the novel un- 
 der the ban until redeemed by the unsullied pen of 
 Sir Walter Scott. But prior to Scott came another 
 Scotchman, David Hume, of great power. He was 
 a master of philosophical reasoning and historical 
 narration. Ilis Moral and Philosophised Essays and 
 his History of England are the two pillars of his fame. 
 Edward Gibbon, who was born in 1737 and died in 
 1794, was the second great historian of English lit- 
 
 work almost from the first, and time does not dim 
 the luster of his great name. 
 
 In the latter half of the eighteenth century flour- 
 ished a group of ethical, political, theological, crit- 
 ical and poetical writers who, without reaching the 
 high plane of really first-class merit, deserve honor- 
 able mention. These were Dr. Samuel Johnson, the 
 lexicographer ; Edmund Burke, the political orator 
 and essayist ; Adam Smith, the father of the science 
 of Political Economy. Smith’s most important work 
 was Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth 
 of Nations. Bishop Butler and William Paley wrote 
 in defense of revealed religion against the attacks 
 of the skeptics treatises which are still used as text 
 books in our schools, and arsenals from which are 
 drawn weapons used in fighting for orthodoxy. 
 
 The eighteenth century was rich in sacred poetry 
 and didactic prose. The hymns in use in the church 
 were largely composed in that century. Isaac Watts 
 belonged to the first part of it. Montgomery says 
 of Dr. Watts, “He was almost the inventor of hymns 
 in the English language.” The intense realization 
 of religious truth which marked that period deeply 
 colored its literature. It was the fashion to assume 
 piety, in verse especially, and cater to the tastes of 
 the pious, as in the case of Watts’ contemporary, 
 Dr. Young, who though a frivolous man of the 
 world was the author of the lugubrious but once 
 very popular Night Thoughts. 
 
 Joseph Addison, the accomplished essayist, was 
 born in 1672 and died in 1719. lie was a very pop- 
 ular poet in his day, but his poetry soon dropped out 
 of sight. His real claim to honorable mention rests 
 upon his contributions to and establishment of the 
 Spectator, the Tatter and the Guardian , especially the 
 former. Those publications were forerunners of the 
 more modern newspaper. They did not give much 
 news, but they discussed questions of current inter- 
 est much in the method of the present editorial of 
 the hotter sort. Those essays have been read and 
 studied as models of good, unimpassioned and pro- 
 saic prose ever since their publication. Addison’s 
 friend, Richard Steele, was a co-laborer with him in 
 these enterprises. Many of the papers were contrib- 
 uted by others, Swift and Berkley among the num- 
 ber, for to this period belonged the famous divine and 
 philosojdiei who called out Byron’s brilliant sally: 
 
 erature, as Hume was the first. Ilis Decline and 
 Fall of the Roman Empire was accepted as a standard 
 
 “ If Bishop Berkley says there is no matter, 
 It is no matter what he says.’’ 
 
 FT 
 
 
3 So 
 
 LITERATURE OF ENGLAND. 
 
 A little later came Laurence Sterne. He was of 
 Irish descent, born in 1713, died in 1768. His Tris- 
 tram Shandy, published in 1761, was the best novel 
 ever written in English until tlie days of Sir W alter 
 Scott. His Sentimental Journey was designed as a 
 supplement to the great novel, but it was not by 
 any means its equal in merit. 
 
 In 1769, and from that on until 1772, with occa- 
 sional interruptions, appeared in the Public Adver- 
 tiser, a London journal, a series of letters on polities 
 signed “ Junius.” They produced an immense sen- 
 sation. It was never known who wrote them. Vast 
 research and elaborate arguments have been ex- 
 pended on their probable authorship, but to little 
 purpose. Sir Philip Francis is generally thought to 
 have the best claim to the honor, but the mystery 
 is really insoluble. Those letters were tremen- 
 dously influential. To this day they are unrivaled 
 for power of invective and incisive criticism. 
 
 Oliver Goldsmith was a very remarkable charac- 
 ter. Like Thomas 
 Gray, who wrote the 
 elegy which has im- 
 mortalized his name, 
 he wrote a little 
 good poetry, “The 
 Deserted Village” 
 being the best ; but 
 his best production 
 was that charming 
 romance, 7 he Vicar 
 of Wakefield. It is a 
 most delightful picture of a country parson and his 
 family in the eighteenth century. The popular 
 comedy, She Stoops to Conquer, was also from his 
 pen. William' Cowper was a profoundly religious 
 poet of that period. The intensity of his belief 
 nearly unsettled his reason and brought upon him a 
 melancholy akin to mania. But his muse was capa- 
 ble of sublime flights, and once, in John Gilpin, 
 struck a humorous vein. 
 
 The latter part of this century was notable for 
 literary imposition. The most successful was that 
 of James Macpherson, author of Ossian. That 
 elaborate poem has very great merit, and is held in 
 high repute, being still much read. It purports to 
 have been the work of an Irish bard of the far- 
 away days of Celtic tradition. Macpherson strenu- 
 ously insisted that he merely translated an epic 
 
 k- 
 
 which was composed originally in the Gaelic or 
 Eise dialect. Thomas Chatterton, the poor boy- 
 poet who starved to death in a London garret at the 
 age of eighteen, was strangely infatuated with the 
 mania for imposture. He wrote some very delight- 
 ful verses at the age of eleven, and might have de- 
 veloped into something grand had he not fallen a 
 victim to the passion for literary deception. 
 
 Robert Burns and Sir Walter Scott were the 
 crowning glory of English literature in the eigh- 
 teenth century, but they belong to Scotland rather 
 than England, as Thomas Moore does to Ireland. 
 
 The most famous name in the early part of 
 the nineteenth century was Lord Byron, born 
 in 1788. He was only thirty-six years of age at 
 
 left behind him 
 much of which 
 
 LOKD BYRON. 
 
 the time of his death, but he 
 a large body of poetry, very 
 bids fair to be incorporated into the immor- 
 tal part of English 
 literature. Like his 
 friend Shelley, the 
 author of Queen Mab 
 and other deep- 
 ly emotional and 
 somewhat fantastic 
 poems, he was mor- 
 bid in the extreme. 
 
 His C'hilde Harold, 
 
 Manfred and, Don 
 Juan, and hi fact, 
 nearly every thing he wrote, fairly teem with emotion. 
 John Keats, author of Endymion, who died of a 
 broken heart, the victim of, cruel criticism, belonged 
 to the same class, in both time and type of genius. 
 There was a circle of poets of sentiment in which 
 Byron, Shelley and Keats were foremost, but which 
 was enlarged by the presence of Leigh Hunt and 
 Walter Savage Landor. They did much to infuse 
 into modern thought Greek ideas of culture. They 
 drew attention from religious subjects to the higher 
 ranges of mundane thought and activity. 
 
 Thomas Hood, born in 1799, died 1845. belonged 
 to no set. His genius was strictly individual. His 
 Bridge of Sighs and Song of the Shirt are most ex- 
 quisitely pathetic. But he excelled in wit. His 
 humor is of the very highest order. Mrs. Browning, 
 the most wonderful woman in the whole list of 
 poets, was born in 1809 and lived until 1861. Her 
 Aurora Leigh is a masterpiece, and many of her 
 

 
 LITERATURE OF ENGLAND. 
 
 minor poems are marvels of beauty and power. 
 
 Her husband, Robert 
 Browning, still lives, 
 and is a poet of high 
 rank, but curiously 
 obscure in his ex- 
 pressions. 
 
 During the pres- 
 ent century England 
 has had three poets 
 laureate, or poets 
 of the court, namely, 
 Alfred tennyson. Robert Southey, Wil- 
 
 liam Wordsworth and Alfred Tennyson. The lat- 
 ter has held the position thirty-two years. Southey 
 held it thirty years, namely, from 1813 to 1843. 
 He was a prolific writer and his poetry has good 
 points, but it is weak and thin. At the present 
 time it is seldom read. Wordsworth and Coleridge 
 
 formed, with Southey, 
 what is known as the 
 Lake School. They 
 were free from indeli- 
 cacies, and did much 
 to cultivate a whole- 
 some taste and a kind- 
 ly appreciation of the 
 poetic in little every- 
 day things. Coleridge 
 occasionally struck out 
 thackkrat. into the marvelous. His 
 
 Ancient Mariner and Christabel are inexplicable. 
 
 Charlotte Bronte, the invalid daughter of a coun- 
 try clergyman, produced in 1847 a story which 
 created a profound sensation, Jane Eyre. She was 
 then twenty-nine years of age. She lived eight years 
 
 longer and wrote two 
 other good novels, 
 Shirley and Villette j 
 but upon the first 
 rests her claim to a 
 niche in the temple 
 of immortal fame. 
 Thackeray, who was 
 born in 1811 and 
 survived until 18G3, 
 shares with Charles 
 cuarles dickens. Dickens, who was 
 
 born a year later and survived his great peer seven 
 
 years, the honor of being the greatest of novelists. 
 Those two names 
 tower above all oth- 
 ers. The former set 
 forth English high 
 life ; the latter En- 
 glish low life. Such, 
 in a general way, is 
 the difference be- 
 tween them . N o one 
 before or since has 
 reached the altitude 
 of their creative fac- george et.iot. 
 
 ulties. Hot far from them, however, stands 
 “George Eliot,” a woman of most marvelous powers 
 as a novelist and very considerable ability as a poet. 
 Charles Reed, Wilkie 
 Collins, Anthony 
 Trollope, Bulwer and 
 Disraeli are to be 
 ranked among the 
 better of our second- 
 class English novel- 
 ists of this century. 
 
 There are many 
 writers of note who 
 have made valuable 
 contributions to En- 
 glish literature dur- 
 ing the present per- john stuart mill. 
 
 iod. Thomas Carlyle, the fierce hater of shams 
 and democracy, John Stuart Mill, the great apostle 
 of Agnosticism, or positivism, Herbert Spencer, 
 the }diilosopher of 
 science, and Tyn- 
 dall, Darwin and 
 Huxley, the disci- 
 ples of pure science, 
 are only a few' of 
 the great contem- 
 porary names of 
 English men of 
 letters. Macaulay 
 belonged to the 
 middle period of 
 this century. The 
 literature of En- 
 gland, once a mere CHARLE9 R ' DARWIN ‘ 
 
 rivulet has. now widened out into a vast gulf. 
 
 ► 
 
 c>rV 
 
CHAPTER LXIII 
 
 Scotia and Nova Scotia — The Picts — Indirect Connection of the Earey Scotch and the 
 Anglo-Saxons — Conversion of Scotland— Fergus the Scotch-Irishman— Edwin and Edin- 
 burgh— St. Columba and the Scotch Name— Scottish Blood — Constantine II. and Sub- 
 ordination to England— Duncan and Macbeth— James I.— Progress and Feudalism — 
 Robert Bruce and Independence — Robert the Steward and the House of Stuart— 
 David II. — James I. — James Y.— Henry VIII. of England and the Scotch Crown— Mary 
 i^ueen of Scots — James VI. of Scotland, James I. of England — A National Paradox — 
 John Knox— Union of the United Kingdom Completed— Some Scotch Characteristics — 
 Scotch Literature — Burns, Scott, and Carlyle. 
 
 ^-2—- <a» . 
 
 0 the ancients. Great Brit- 
 ain, by whatever name 
 called, was one country. 
 The name Scotland was 
 not used to designate the 
 northern portion of the isl- 
 and until about a thou- 
 sand years ago. The Latin 
 term Scotia applied originally to 
 Ireland, and at one time was not 
 distinguishable from Hibernia. 
 Indeed, Scotland was known as 
 Nova Scotia originally. Caledonia 
 was another primitive title for that 
 part of the island. Like Wales, 
 Scotland gradually acquired dis- 
 tinctiveness as the old Britons 
 & or Picts retreated from their 
 
 conquerors, Romans, Saxons, Angles, Jutes, Danes 
 and Normans. The Picts preferred independence 
 in the back country to dependence in the native 
 portion of their island. The Romans never at- 
 tempted to push beyond the frith of Fay, and the 
 wall they built between the Forth and the Clyde 
 finally served as a dividing line between the primi- 
 
 
 tive Scotch and the English. When the Romans 
 withdrew from Britain, the Scotch, or Picts, thougth 
 it was no robbery for them to reoccupy their former 
 lands, and so strong were they that the Romanized 
 Britons felt compelled to seek succor from abroad, 
 and called to their aid, as we have seen in the chap- 
 ter on “ Old England,” the Anglo-Saxons. Never 
 was an invasion fraught with more importance, and 
 the Scotch might justly claim that there would never 
 have been any English people, properly speaking, 
 had it not been for their predatory ancestors in the 
 last years of the fifth century and the first of the 
 sixth. 
 
 The introduction of Christianity into Scotland is 
 placed by some as early as 446. But when the 
 more civilized Celts of Ireland, who had previously 
 been converted to Christianity, crossed over to Scot- 
 land in 503, and under the lead of Fergus estab- 
 lished a kingdom on the western coast, the country 
 was for the most part given up to rude paganism. 
 The records of that period are exceedingly vague 
 and unsatisfactory, but Fergus must have been a 
 brave and wise ruler, for his little kingdom was per- 
 manently established, and finally developed into the 
 chief state or tribe of the country. 
 
 
 (382) 
 

 
 SCOTLAND AND THE SCOTCH. 
 
 3 8 3 
 
 Half a century before Fergus, the Highland chief 
 Edwin had founded Edinburgh, and in 836 a de- 
 scendant of Fergus, Kenneth, became King of the 
 Lowlands, transferring his capital from Celtic Tor- 
 tevoil to Stratheme, the ancient capital of the 
 Piets. 
 
 Between Edwin and Fergus appears no name of 
 note, and between Fergus and Kenneth only one, 
 
 fact that a few emigrants should have thus taken 
 from the mother country its very name. It is as if 
 the term New England had gradually changed to 
 England, and by some inexplicable jugglery old 
 England itself had been compelled to adopt a new 
 name. It may be set down as a remarkable instance 
 of “unconscious robbery.” 
 
 The Scotch have other blood in their veins besides 
 
 VIEW OF EDINBURGH— Edinburgh Castle in the Distance. 
 
 
 7T 
 
 St. Columba, the Irish saint who spent his life in 
 evangelizing the Piets. From 563 to 597 he labored 
 untiringly and with great success. The adoption 
 by the primitive races of the religion brought over 
 by the Celts did much to bring about the complete 
 coalition of the two races, and to give the ascend- 
 ancy to the invaders. It may be observed that the 
 Celts of Ireland long protested against the applica- 
 tion of the term Scotch to the combined people, in- 
 sisting that they alone were Scotch. It is a curious 
 
 the two strains mentioned. From the Danes and 
 other Scandinavians they received large accretions, 
 also from the Saxons and the Normans of England. 
 The Teutonic clement is not predominant, but it is 
 very considerable. No people of Europe have such 
 varietv of ancestry as the inhabitants of the Lowlands 
 of Scotland. The Highlanders are descended almost 
 wholly from the original or prehistoric inhabitants 
 of the island. 
 
 The next royal name of note after Kenneth was 
 
 48 
 

 
 4 ^ 
 
 3 8 4 
 
 SCOTLAND AND THE SCOTCH. 
 
 Constantine II., great grandson of the former. His 
 reign extended from 900 to 943. He acknowledged 
 subordination to the English crown as the price 
 of assistance in the interminable wars of the 
 period, but only to retract his fealty when the im- 
 mediate cause of it was removed, and then a conflict 
 with England resulted. Constantine laid down his 
 crown voluntarily, repaired to a monastery to pre- 
 pare for death, leaving the throne to a near kin, 
 Malcolm I. 
 
 The grandson and successor of Malcolm was the 
 King Duncan of the play of Macbeth. The mon- 
 arch of the latter name was not the false friend 
 Shakspeare represents, nor was the real Lady Mac- 
 beth the monster of the stage. The historical ac- 
 count differs widely from the histrionic representa- 
 tion. Her brother, the lawful heir to the throne, 
 had been cruelly put to death to make room for 
 Duncan the Usurper. A battle was fought in 1040 
 between the two factions, terminating in the defeat 
 and death of Duncan. History says of Macbeth, 
 “ He governed Scotland with a firm hand and great 
 wisdom, and his reign was a period of great national 
 prosperity.” He and his queen were liberal friends 
 of the poor. In 1057 he shared the fate of Duncan, 
 the son of the latter coming to the throne. About 
 this time William the Conqueror subjugated En- 
 gland and placed Scotland under vassalage. 
 
 The next noteworthy name in the royal annals of 
 Scotland was David, who flourished about the mid- 
 dle of the twelfth century. Under him Scotland 
 made much progress in civilization. 
 
 The wars of Wallace and Bruce for Scottish inde- 
 pendence form a part of English history, and were 
 recorded in a previous chapter. That struggle cost 
 the country a vast amount of blood, but from a na- 
 tional point of view it was a good investment, for it 
 so far broke down the barriers of clan that Scotland 
 became in reality one country. The treaty which 
 terminated that long war dates from 1328. Thir- 
 teen years later the parliament of Scotland admitted 
 the commercial towns to representation. From 
 that time to the consummation of the union with 
 England, nearly four centuries, the “the third es- 
 tate ” was a great power in Scotland. 
 
 The death of Robert Bruce brought to the throne 
 his son, David II., then only eight years of age. 
 War soon broke out afresh between England and 
 Scotland. In the battle of Neville’s Cross, fought 
 
 in 1346, David was defeated and taken prisoner . 
 Ilis final ransom cost 100,000 marks. Otherwise 
 his reign was uneventful. It extended to 13 70. At 
 his death, there being no son to take the crown, it 
 passed to his sister’s son, Robert the Steward, who 
 took the scepter as Robert II. With him began the 
 dynasty of the Stuarts which became best known in 
 connection with England. 
 
 The first Stuart to distinguish himself was James 
 I., who reigned from 1424 to 1436. He was abreast 
 of his age at its best, and did much to systematize the 
 government and advance the interests of the people. 
 He was a poet of some merit. A few fugitive pro- 
 ductions attributed to him still exist to attest his 
 talent. Under him the baronial power was at its 
 
 height. 
 
 Douglas was the leader of the defiant feudal 
 
 lords. James II. succeeded in breaking the power 
 of the chiefs. The genius of Sir Walter Scott has 
 clothed with perpetual radiance the struggle of 
 that period. From the standjioint of history, di- 
 vested of the glamour of romance, the Scottish an- 
 nals of those times are simply the record of inter- 
 minable civil and border warfare. Generally the 
 English crown claimed and received some slight 
 recognition of sovereignty beyond the Tweed, but 
 otherwise the Highlands and the Lowlands were alike 
 free from foreign domination. 
 
 Scotland should hold the memory of James I. in 
 profound respect and lively gratitude. He was as- 
 sassinated by a base conspiracy and a brilliant reign 
 closed in darkness. It was a great calamity to the 
 nation. Political assassinations generally are. 
 
 A long series of civil wars, a chronic state of an- 
 archy almost, followed. The chiefs of clans would 
 brook no authority. Feudalism had nowhere a firmer 
 hold than in Scotland, and the nobility lived for the 
 most part in hostile isolation. 
 
 It was not until the reign of James V., a contem- 
 porary of Henry VII. of England, that really ami- 
 cable relations between the crown and the nobles were 
 established, and that by affability rather than force. 
 About the court of James the Fifth at Edinburgh 
 gathered luxury, and the chieftains found it more 
 agreeable to bask in the courtly sunshine than share 
 the vicissitudes of war, as depicted in the Scottish 
 lays. Many of them plunged wildly into dissipa- 
 tion, but even their vices were public benefactions, 
 for while they revelled the common people were left 
 to the pursuit of the paths of peace, and Scotland, 
 
o_ 
 
 -*Q- 
 
 
 SCOTLAND AND THE SCOTCH. 
 
 385 
 
 e) 
 
 hitherto frenzied with contention, enjoyed content- 
 ment. Fisheries were encouraged, a navy built, and 
 commerce sprang up. The king married Margaret, 
 daughter of the Tudor Henry VII., and thus laid 
 the foundation of the union of the two kingdoms of 
 the island. 
 
 All went smoothly until after the accession of 
 HenryVIII. to the English 
 crown. That king hated 
 Scotland, or rather covet- 
 ed the sovereignty of Scot- 
 land. In an evil hour 
 James was provoked into 
 war with his more power- 
 ful neighbor. The result 
 was disastrous. The Scotch 
 navy was destroyed and the 
 army signally defeated at 
 Flodden Heights, Sep- 
 tember 9, 1513. The 
 slaughter was terrible and 
 the overthrow complete. 
 
 The great king himself was 
 among the slain, leaving 
 an infant to inherit the 
 throne, James V. 
 
 The queen mother, 
 
 Margaret, was made re- 
 gent. The old feud be- 
 tween the crown and the 
 nobility soon broke out 
 with renewed virulence, 
 secretly aggravated and 
 intensified by Henry, who 
 was as bad a brother as 
 husband. It must be ad- 
 mitted that Margaret was 
 as unfaithful to her marital vows as her brother, and 
 her personal vices, and the crimes to which they led, 
 served to keep the country in a state of misery. But 
 all that was no excuse for her brother Henry. 
 
 At last the child became a man and was allowed 
 as early as seventeen years of age to be his own master. 
 
 We now return to James V. He was a ruler of 
 great ability, lie strove assiduously to free his coun- 
 try from foreign dictation. It had become little 
 better than a shuttlecock for French and English 
 battledore. James succeeded in commanding the 
 resjxict of his royal peers and gaining for Scotland 
 
 an honorable rank among nations, and all this while 
 yet a youth. He could have married Henry’s 
 daughter, Mary, or another Mary, the Spanish Prin- 
 cess of Portugal (Spain and Portugal then being 
 one), but he preferred an alliance with the daughter 
 of the king of France. The fruit of that marriage 
 was the beautiful and unhappy Mary, Queen of Scots, 
 
 whose melancholy career 
 forms a part of the history 
 of England, and was nar- 
 rated under the Tudors. 
 Her son, James VI. of 
 Scotland, was James of 
 England, the first British 
 sovereign of the house of 
 Stuarts. In him was se- 
 cured the “ married calm” 
 of a perpetual union be- 
 tween England and Scot- 
 land, no longer two na- 
 tions, but two made one, 
 England being the one. 
 
 It is hardly too much to 
 say, paradoxical as it may 
 sound, that when Scotland 
 ceased to exist its existence 
 began. So long as it was 
 a kingdom, with its inter- 
 minable feudatory and 
 border warfare, it was little 
 better than a heroic bar- 
 barian. But when those 
 civil wars were over the 
 energies of the people took 
 a direction which reflected 
 
 the highest honor up- 
 on the nation, prepar- 
 ing the way for splen- 
 did achievements. 
 
 The first pre-emi- 
 nence of Scotland 
 was in the line of 
 church reform. With 
 Henry VIII. and his 
 
 motive the Scotch had mahy, <;ueen or scots. 
 
 no sympathy, but with the reformation as pushed by 
 Luther, and above all by Calvin, it had the deepest 
 
SCOTLAND AND THE SCOTCH. 
 
 -tu 
 
 sympathy. Among those who sat at the feet of 
 John Calvin and imbibed his austere theology and 
 republican polity in matters ecclesiastic, was John 
 Knox. He returned from Geneva to Edinburgh to be 
 the great defender of Protestantism, the bold assail- 
 ant of the Romish church with which Mary the queen 
 was in close affiliation. Out of the movement in 
 which he was the acknowledged leader grew not only 
 the Kirk of Scotland, but Presbyterianism in Amer- 
 ica, with its many branches and mighty member- 
 ship. Wherever a Presbyterian bell calls to prayer 
 or spire points to heaven there unconscious homage 
 is paid to the religious genius of Scotland. Perse- 
 cution could not stay the progress of Presbyterian- 
 ism, and the nation soon became substantially united 
 in the rejection of all intervention from Rome. The 
 Confession of Faith was adopted by the Scotch Par- 
 liament in 1560, and to-day Scotland stands in the- 
 ology substantially on that creed, except that a 
 somewhat liberalizing tendency is manifest. Scot- 
 land is the most evangelically orthodox land on the 
 globe, and of all Christian people the least given to 
 heresy. They are especially distinguished for the 
 strict observance of Sunday as a day of rest. 
 
 The crowns of Scotland and England were united 
 forever in the year 1603. Separate parliaments 
 were maintained for a century. The union, the 
 complete consolidation of the countries, dates from 
 1707. At that time the population was 1,050,000. 
 It is now about three times that amount. The great 
 vice of the people is drunkenness. The ratio of 
 illegitimacy is also exceptionally large. In the eigh- 
 teenth century vagabondage was something appall- 
 ing, “ tramps ” being the curse of the country ; but 
 with good laws came industry and thrift. At home 
 and abroad, especially abroad, the Scotch have 
 shown remarkable ability in the prudent manage- 
 ment of great business enterprises. 
 
 It only remains to speak of the literature of the 
 Scotch people, which, as already observed, is a part of 
 English literature. 
 
 The supreme name in Scottish literature is Robert 
 Burns, whose works have well been called “ The 
 Songs of the People.” He touched and won the 
 heart as no other singer ever did. For the most 
 part, he followed the Gaelicized English of the com- 
 mon people in his own country. His genius lifted a 
 form of speech from the level of provincialism to 
 the lofty eminence of a classic. Personally the vic- 
 
 tim of misfortune, his life darkened by poverty and 
 misery, he is now in the enjoyment of a most envia- 
 ble posthumous fame. Burns was born in 1759 and 
 survived until 1796. 
 
 His life was unspeak- 
 ably sad. The son 
 of a humble peasant 
 of Ayrshire, his early 
 advantages were ex- 
 ceedingly meager. 
 
 Through life he had 
 a hard struggle with 
 poverty. He died 
 with the shadow of 
 
 the jail for debtors ROBERT BURNS. 
 
 on his heart. His somewhat voluminous correspon- 
 dence shows him to have been a master of exquisite 
 prose. It has been said that Shakspeare gave us the 
 Bible of secular literature and Burns its hymn-book. 
 
 Sir Walter Scott is the 
 second great name in Scot- 
 tish literature. Burns em- 
 ployed the provincialisms 
 of his country in his songs, 
 while Scott wrote the pure 
 English, but in both his 
 poetry and his novels he 
 showed himself to be a 
 loyal Scotchman. He was 
 born in 1771 and died in sib Walter scott. 
 
 1832. He was educated at Edinburgh university. 
 He was raised to the peerage in 1820 in recognition 
 of his literary services. In the domain of the his- 
 torical novel he has never been equaled. 
 
 Scotland can boast 
 great eminence in met- 
 aphysics. The phi- 
 losophers Hume, Reid 
 and Hamilton were 
 Scotchmen. But the 
 greatest of Scotland’s 
 sons, after Burns and 
 Scott, was Thomas 
 Carlyle, critic and his- 
 torian. In him are seen 
 the strength and acute- thomas carlyle. 
 
 ness which characterize the nation. He was born in 
 1795 and died in 1880. He spent many years in Lon- 
 don, but never ceased to be a thorough Scotchman. 
 
 
 ( 5 " 
 
HERE is no more fertile 
 land beneath the sun than 
 Ireland, known to the Ro- 
 mans as Hibernia, to the 
 Celts as Erin, or Scotia. Its 
 area is only 31,874 square 
 
 miles, or, 
 i n c 1 u d- 
 ing the 
 nearly 
 two hun- 
 dred less- 
 er isles 
 belong- 
 ing to it, 
 
 32,531. 
 
 The Irish Sea separates 
 it from England, with 
 St. George’s channel be- 
 tween it and Scotland. 
 
 The soil is too moist, the 
 rainfall too abundant for 
 grain raising to the best advantage. The bogs of 
 the low lands are a prominent feature of the island, 
 but grass grows luxuriantly, and the yield of pota- 
 
 toes is enormous. The only danger in the case of the 
 latter is that the wet soil will breed decay, or the seeds 
 of it, before the crop can be secured. Flax is a prod- 
 uct for which the country is well adapted. These 
 three, grass, potatoes and flax, have been peculiarly 
 significant in making Irish history, as will appear 
 
 presently 
 
 Irish history can hard- 
 ly be said to extend far- 
 ther back than the fifth 
 century when Christian- 
 ity was introduced. Be- 
 fore that time the barbar- 
 ic tribes of the island were 
 almost unknown, or if 
 known, little regarded. 
 The conversion of the 
 island was undertaken by 
 St. Patrick, who is its 
 patron saint. lie was a 
 Frenchman according to 
 some, a Scotchman ac- 
 cording to others. Taken 
 captive in war, he was 
 sold into Ireland where ho remained six years. Dur- 
 ing that time lie seems to have conceived a strong 
 interest in the people, for some twenty years after 
 
 ST. PATRICK IN IRELAND. 
 
 IRELAND AND THE IRISH. 
 
 (387) 
 
 
 CHAPTER LXI V . 
 
 Situation, Area, Roads and Products of Ireland — St. Patrick— Language and Literature 
 — Counties and Provinces — Irish Linen — English Rule in Ireland— The Battle of the 
 Boyne — Daniel O’Connel and Parnell— Revolution and Reform— Emigration from Ire- 
 land and Immigration to America — Irish Land Law — Irish Cities— Education in Ire- 
 land — Emmet and “The United Irishmen ’’—Fenian Brotherhood — The Land League 
 and the English Constitution. 
 
, 4 * 
 
 3 88 
 
 IRELAND AND THE IRISH. 
 
 leaving there he returned as a missionary of the 
 cross, spending over thirty years in his holy work. 
 Dates are obscure, but all this was certainly in the 
 fifth century, probably hi the early part of it. His 
 death is fixed for March 17th, with wide variations 
 in the year, and that day is observed by the Irish 
 people as sacred to his memory. Confused as is the 
 biography of this man, there are extaut two undoubt- 
 edly genuine productions of his pen, the chief being 
 his “ Confession,” wherein lie affords an interesting 
 view of his theological opinions. Curiously, none of 
 the dogmas peculiar to Romanism, as compared with 
 Protestantism, find a place in St. Patrick’s Confes- 
 sion. An absurd tradition at- 
 tributes to his miraculous pow- 
 er the banishment from the isl- 
 and of toads and snakes. What- 
 ever else he did or failed to do, 
 he surely succeeded most re- 
 markably in his mission as a 
 Christian propagandist. 
 
 The original language of Ire- 
 land was Gaelic, now spoken, 
 with some variations, in the 
 Hebrides and Highlands of 
 Scotland, in the Isle of Man, 
 and in some sections of Ireland. 
 
 There are about 100,000 of the 
 people who speak nothing else, 
 and many more who speak both 
 it and English. There is a small 
 body of literature in this language, but it is devoid 
 of much merit. The Irishmen who have excelled as 
 authors have used the English language. Thomas 
 Moore and the historian Lecky may be mentioned 
 as Irishmen who have enriched literature. 
 
 The island is divided into thirty-two counties and 
 the four provinces of Leinster, Munster, Connaught 
 and Ulster. The latter is in the north and largely 
 settled by Protestants, many of them of Scotch 
 descent. The relations of landlord and tenant are 
 regulated in that province by just customs having 
 the force of law. 
 
 There is no mining of any consequence in Ireland, 
 and very little manufacturing. Belfast spins a great 
 deal of flax and makes large quantities of linen, but 
 that once-flourishing industry was crushed to death 
 in other parts of Ireland by the British government 
 in the interest of Protestant manufacturers. At one 
 
 THE TOWER. DUBLIN CASTLE 
 
 time southern Ireland displayed remarkable aptitude 
 for this branch of skilled labor, and if events had 
 been allowed to take their normal course, Irish lin- 
 en would have made that island rich and contented. 
 The policy of the British government was protective 
 to one section and prohibitory to another. Once 
 England imported its linen from that part of 
 the island. Heavy export duties ruined the busi- 
 ness where the people were Catholics, while Prot- 
 estant Belfast was exempt from this restriction. 
 This unjust discrimination extended from 1699 to 
 1828, when its object had been completely effected. 
 Irish linen thus affords a striking instance of both 
 
 sectional and sectarian iniquity. 
 
 From the eighth to the elev- 
 enth century was the period of 
 Ireland’s greatest comparative 
 civilization. During that pe- 
 riod it was more advanced in 
 learning and culture than En- 
 gland, and certainly not inferior 
 to any part of the continent ex- 
 cept Moorish Spain. Colleges 
 flourished and the arts were 
 carried to a high degree of per- 
 fection. In education and re- 
 ligion it was independent, pro- 
 gressive and potential. The 
 church of Rome became jealous 
 of the Irish church and insti- 
 gated Henry II. of England to 
 make a war of subjugation upon the smaller but more 
 advanced island. The Irish were not united under a 
 strong central government. On the contrary, they 
 were divided into petty kingdoms having no secure 
 bond of union. This fact facilitated conquest. Hen- 
 ry made his raids in 1172. From that time to the 
 present England has claimed Irish allegiance. 
 Sometimes the yoke would be thrown off briefly, but 
 only to be made all the more galling. The most 
 memorable struggle between oppressor and oppressed 
 was the Battle of the Boyne, fought July 1, 1690. 
 The Catholics of Ireland had espoused the cause of 
 James II. after his expulsion and the coronation of 
 William and Mary, and that battle was the result. 
 The anniversary of the victory achieved by the Or- 
 angemen on that occasion is still observed in some 
 sections as a day of rejoicing and occasion of secta- 
 rian riot. Numerous have been the attempts of the 
 
 ^>IV 
 
 
Ji 
 
 k- 
 
 IRELAND AND THE IRISH. 
 
 3 8 9 
 
 Irish, even in later times, to achieve independence, 
 the abortive Fenian uprising being the last armed 
 rebellion against British authority. The more im- 
 portant details 
 and general 
 facts in this re- 
 gard have been 
 given in pre- 
 vious chapters. 
 
 The greatest 
 of Irish pa- 
 triots was Dan- 
 iel O’Connell. 
 
 He was a phe- 
 nomenal ora- 
 tor, the su- 
 preme agita- 
 tor. “No revo- 
 lution is worth 
 one drop of 
 blood ” was his 
 motto. Con- 
 vinced of the 
 futility of arm- 
 ed resistance, 
 
 lie sought to secure by parliamentary process the 
 mitigation of Irish grievances. His efforts were not 
 without much success. Many infamous laws were 
 repealed in 
 consequence 
 of his agita- 
 tion. The 
 latest and 
 most for- 
 midable re- 
 bellion oc- 
 curred in 
 1798, and 
 raged for 
 two years. 
 
 When sup- 
 pressed the 
 Irish Par- 
 liament at 
 
 Dublin was abolished, and now Ireland is represented 
 in the British Parliament. 
 
 By far the greater part of the population of Ire- 
 land is Catholic ; but until 1809 the Episcopal 
 church was the state church. In that year, after a 
 
 CUSTOM HOUSE, DUBLIN. 
 
 BANK OF IRELAND AND TRINITY COLLEGE. 
 
 long contest in parliament, it was disestablished and 
 disendowed, and the endowment, except as used for 
 annuities, was dedicated to educational and other 
 secular pur- 
 poses. 
 
 That reform 
 was not satis- 
 factory, how- 
 ever, whereup- 
 on a powerful 
 movement was 
 i naugurated 
 for securing re- 
 form in the ten- 
 ure of land and 
 the relations of 
 landlord and 
 tenant. The 
 leader in this 
 movement is 
 Mr. Parnell, a 
 large land own- 
 er and Protest- 
 ant who has 
 shown himself 
 to be a great organizer, parliamentarian and de- 
 bater. Reform within the constitution is his aim 
 and scope. The present ministry and parliament 
 
 have been 
 almost ab- 
 sorbingly, 
 occu pi ed 
 with this 
 subject, and 
 the reform- 
 ershave rea- 
 son to take 
 heart, there 
 being some 
 chance that 
 the Irish 
 may yet be 
 placed on 
 a political 
 
 and industrial equality with the English and Scotch, 
 although much remains to be done. 
 
 The statistics of Irish population are very remark- 
 able. In 1750 the population was a trifle over 2,000- 
 000, and in sixty years it lacked only a trifle of three 
 
 "71 
 
 — & 
 
IL 
 
 390 
 
 IRELAND AND THE IRISH. 
 
 times that number ; by 1841 it was over 8,000,000, 
 Before another census, came the terrible famine, 
 when thousands died of starvation, and vastly more 
 sought relief in emigration to this country, some to 
 England. It is estimated that over 2,000,000 came 
 to America between the years 1851 and 1873, and 
 that there are more Irish, including their children, 
 in the United States than in Ireland. There are 
 certainly more in New York City than in Dublin. 
 The English and the landlords do not regret this 
 loss of population, for they prefer cattle and sheep 
 
 that reasonable men among them expected, or even 
 demanded, down to the year before its passage. It 
 secures to all tenants throughout the sister island the 
 right of free sale for which Ulster was wont to be 
 envied. It gives them the privilege of getting the 
 ‘fair rent’ of their holdings fixed by the court, and 
 of obtainhig what is in fact a statutory, or lease for 
 fifteen years, renewable at the end of the term. It 
 extends the authority of the tribunal created to ad- 
 minister the new law over contracts of the most sol- 
 emn and stringent character, so that leaseholders 
 
 Q) 
 
 TT 
 
 to men and women ; butter and beef, wool and mut- 
 ton, to potatoes. In this country the industrious 
 citizen, irrespective of nationality, is a public bene- 
 factor, whatever his employment. That the Irish 
 immigrant is welcome here and the Irish emigrant 
 bidden godspeed there, is a difference largely due 
 to different economical conditions and circumstances 
 of nature. 
 
 The London Times thus briefly sums up the Irish 
 land bill, which became a law in August, 1881, after 
 one of the most memorable of parliamentary strug- 
 gles, extending over seven months: 
 
 “ It gives the tenant farmers all, and more than all 
 
 may not be excluded from the benefits of the bill. 
 
 It greatly enlarges the opportunities for the creation 
 of peasant proprietory with the aid of public funds.” 
 
 The chief cities of Ireland are Dublin, Belfast, 
 Cork, Limerick, Londonderry and Queenstown. The 
 river Liffey, flowing through Dublin, divides it into 
 two nearly equal parts. The population is about 
 250,000. The former capitol of Ireland, situated 
 there, is now used as a bank building. Belfast, 100 
 miles north of Dublin, is the chief city of the Prot- 
 estant portion of the island. It has nearly 200,000 
 inhabitants, very few of them being Romanists. ^ 
 Linen manufactories were established there as early 
 
 

 SACKYILLE STREET, DUBLIN 
 
iJ 
 
 
 IRELAND AND THE IRISH. 
 
 393 
 
 as 1637. It is still the center of Irish textual 
 manufactures. Cork is almost wholly Catholic, and. 
 its manufactures are glass and other minor staples. 
 It is situated 136 miles southwest of Dublin and has 
 an excellent harbor. Limerick has the honor of be- 
 ing the last place to surrender to William III., in 
 1691, on which occasion it secured important con- 
 cessions for the Catholics within its limits. It is the 
 chief city of Munster. Londonderry, like Belfast, is 
 in the north of Ireland, and an important center of 
 Protestant influence. It was once a fortified town. 
 Very many of the people are of Scotch descent. 
 
 Trinity College, Dublin, is the principal university 
 of Ireland. It was founded in 1320, but it fel-l into 
 decay, until revived by Queen Elizabeth in 1593. 
 Her successor, James I., granted it representation in 
 parliament, and munificent endowments. It is a 
 very rich institution and its rank is with the best 
 universities of Europe. Among its graduates are 
 numbered Swift, Goldsmith, Burke, Berkeley and 
 Sheridan. Queen’s colleges,Cork, Galway and Belfast, 
 are somewhat important centers of liberal and pro- 
 fessional education ; but not as well known as May- 
 nooth College. The latter is designed for the educa- 
 tion of priests. It has provision for about five hun- 
 dred students. It was founded in 1795. It has a state 
 endowment and is the only state endowment of any 
 kind in Ireland for the benefit of Roman Catholics. 
 
 In Irish affection no name has a more tender 
 place than Robert Emmet, born in 1780. He was 
 a leader of the United Irishmen, a great organiza- 
 tion, having for its object the liberation of their na- 
 tive country from British rule. In 1803 he and his 
 associates were engaged in an uprising which was 
 
 premature, to say the least of it. Young Emmet 
 was arrested, tried, convicted and executed. His 
 speech in his own defense on the trial is a very re- 
 markable piece of eloquence. His sad fate inspired 
 the muse of Thomas Moore, whose “ Irish melodies” 
 give voice to Irish patriotism. 
 
 The latest formidable and avowed organization in 
 favor of Irish nationality is, or was (for the society 
 seems to be a thing of the past), the Fenian Broth- 
 erhood. In medieval and legendary Ireland there was 
 a tribe by the name of Finns or Finians. The mod- 
 ern society of the name was started in 1859, in both 
 America and Great Britain. It held a “ Congress” 
 at Chicago in 1863. That first gathering attracted 
 much attention. Another, held at Cincinnati two 
 years later, was more important. It represented a 
 constituency of 80,000, and seriously threatened 
 trouble. The next year two military companies of 
 Fenians crossed from the United States to Canada, 
 to strike at England through the New Dominion, 
 The raid was abortive and inglorious. Several Fe- 
 nian riots occurred in Great Britain during 1867, but 
 they accomplished nothing directly, but indirectly 
 they wrought a great work for Ireland, impress- 
 ing upon parliament the necessity of Irish reform. 
 In that point of view the Fenian Brotherhood de- 
 serves much credit. 
 
 The Land League is a radically different organi- 
 zation. It aims at British reforms within the limi- 
 tations of the British constitution, rather than the 
 dissolution of the union. It has secured very much 
 through the land Dill and the readjustment of rents 
 thereunder, and it is still a tremendous power in Ire- 
 land and the British parliament. 
 
 
 "• ®rv 
 

 
 CHAPTER LX V. 
 
 Extent of Canada — Census Returns of 1881— English Discovery of Canada— French Set- 
 tlement of Canada — Acadia and the Acadians — Old France in “New France’’ — Cham- 
 plain and his Policy — British Policy in Canada— The Perpetuation of National Types 
 and Old World Prejudices — The Canadian Indians — Manitoba — Hudson Bay and the 
 Hudson Bay Company — Political System of Canada — Virtual Independence — Reciproc- 
 ity— The Cities of Canada — Education — Railroads — Labrador and the Esquimaux. 
 
 NTIL the year 1877 the 
 term Canada applied sim- 
 ply to a tract of country 
 some 1,400 miles long and 
 from 200 to 400 miles wide, 
 just north of the United 
 States, divided into Upper 
 and Lower Canada, and 
 forming the better, but by no means the 
 larger, part of British America, and now 
 known as the provinces of Ontario and 
 Quebec. But the term now has a much 
 wider import. What were so long the 
 distinct provinces of the Atlantic coast. 
 Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince 
 Edward’s Island and Newfoundland, 
 are now included, also British Colum- 
 bia, Manitoba, Labrador, the Hudson Bay region, in 
 fine, “ the whole boundless continent ” north of the 
 United States, except Alaska, reaching to the North 
 Pole and from ocean to ocean, formerly known as 
 British America. The complete consolidation of 
 the Dominion was not effected until 1872, Prince 
 Edward’s Island being the last province to join the 
 confederation. The total area of the Dominion is 
 about 3,500,000 square miles. 
 
 The Canadian census of 1881 may be summed up 
 in its more important features thus: 680,498 are the 
 figures for the total increase during the last decade 
 immediately preceding the enumeration, and the to- 
 tal population is now 4,350,533. The inhabitants of 
 Ontario now number 1,913,460 ; of Quebec, 1,358,- 
 469 ; of Nova Scotia, 440,585 ; of New Brunswick, 
 321,129. The population of Prince Edward’s Isl- 
 and is 107,781, and of Manitoba 49,509. British 
 Columbia and the territories are estimated at 160,- 
 000. As compared with the census of 1871 Ontario 
 shows the largest increase, the percentage being 
 18.05. Quebec, 14.02, Nova Scotia, 13.61, New Bruns- 
 wick, 12.44 and Prince Edward’s Island, 14.63. 
 
 It was in the spring of 1497 that John Cabot, a 
 foreign merchant of Bristol, England, set sail with 
 a fleet of five vessels on a voyage of discovery in the 
 new world. Henry VII. commissioned him. His 
 son, Sebastian Cabot, commanded one of the vessels. 
 They reached the Newfoundland coast in June, 
 and were the first Englishmen to behold America. 
 They returned to England almost immediately. No 
 settlement was effected. Two years later the younger 
 Cabot conducted a second expedition across the 
 Atlantic, but this time came to anchor in the Gulf 
 of Mexico instead of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 
 
 
 
 (394) 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA 
 
 395 
 
 The Cabots accomplished nothing, beyond the dis- 
 semination of New- World knowledge. 
 
 The first practical discovery of Canada occurred 
 in 1534. Jac- 
 ques Cartier, a 
 French navi- 
 gator, reached 
 the mouth of 
 the St. Law- 
 rence, and as- 
 cended that 
 lordly river as 
 far as the site 
 of Montreal. It 
 was two years 
 before Cartier 
 returned to 
 France. Prior 
 to that time the 
 New Found- 
 land fisheries 
 had tempted 
 the French, 
 
 English, Spanish and Portuguese across the Atlantic, 
 but Cartier was the first permanent settler. He 
 brought to these shores a very considerable colony 
 from the west of 
 France, men in 
 whose veins there 
 coursed the blood 
 of the old Norman 
 rovers and robbers. 
 
 A little prior to 
 Cartier’s explora- 
 tions a French fleet 
 had sailed along 
 the American con- 
 tinent from Florida 
 to Canada, dubbing 
 it “ New France,” 
 but doing nothing 
 to really justify the 
 appellation. The 
 first F rench settlers 
 had for their main 
 object trade in furs 
 and fish. Gradually they formed permanent settle- 
 ments, near the coast and along the St. Lawrence. 
 
 One of the primitive settlements of “ New France" 
 
 was Acadia, or Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and 
 a part of Maine. The first Acadian settlement was 
 in 1604. Its close proximity to the fishery banks 
 
 rendered it 
 especially im- 
 portant. In 
 1713 France 
 ceded Acadia 
 to England. 
 The people 
 resolutely re- 
 fused to take 
 the oath of al- 
 legiance to the 
 English crown. 
 There were 
 eighteen thou- 
 sand of them, 
 and the ruth- 
 less hand of 
 British power 
 removed them, 
 in many cases 
 separating families. The melancholy fate of the 
 Acadians furnished and suggested Longfellow’s 
 great and substantially historical popm of “ Evan- 
 geline.” 
 
 The F rench of 
 Canada belong to 
 the old regime, the 
 France which pre- 
 ceded the Revolu- 
 tion. They are and 
 always have been 
 singularly out of 
 all sympathy with 
 their fatherland of 
 the last century, 
 and pride them- 
 selves upon their 
 conservatis m . 
 They are profound- 
 ly religious and as 
 orthodox as a col- 
 lege of cardinals. 
 They have no share 
 in the work wrought for the French people by Did- 
 erot and Voltaire, Rousseau and Dan ton, the Cyclo- 
 pedia and the sans calotte. They have remained 
 
■Vfc- 
 
 
 396 
 
 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 as nearly stationary as possible, and show no signs 
 of uneasiness in a sitting posture. As contradic- 
 tory as it may sound, it is none the less true, that 
 old France is to be found only in “New France,” 
 among a people who left their ancestral homes be- 
 fore the Renaissance. 
 
 Second to Cartier was Champlain, in whose 
 honor Lake Champlain was named. He came to 
 this country in 1603. His aim was more to found 
 a state than to establish a trading-post. In 1608 he 
 laid the foundations of Quebec. The policy of 
 Champlain was to found an empire by converting, 
 civilizing and subduing the Indians, rather than by 
 building up a purely French colony. The colo- 
 nists were to be lay missionaries, instrumental in 
 elevating the aborigines of the New World, much 
 as the barbarians of Northern Europe had been 
 transformed by intercourse with civilized peoples. 
 But he did not know the unchangeable savagery of 
 the Indian. Many were Christianized, and for the 
 most part friendly relations have always been main- 
 tained between the races ; but the distinctive idea of 
 Samuel Champlain, as of John Eliot, proved a flat 
 failure. 
 
 From the days of Champlain dates the real pros- 
 perity of Canada. The white population increased 
 with considerable rapidity. By the year 1759, when 
 the whole country passed into English control and 
 the French flag was furled, the French population 
 numbered about 65,000 souls. There has been no 
 increase since by immigration, and a great many of 
 the French Canadians have emigrated and are emi- 
 grating to the United States, the “States,” as they 
 call it. 
 
 The sad fate of Acadia was not shared by the 
 Canadians of half a century later. On the contrary, 
 the French took the oath of allegiance in good 
 faith and the English adopted a very conciliatory 
 policy. They respected the rights and indulged the 
 preferences of the conquered people to an unprece- 
 dented degree. They were allowed to retain their 
 peculiarities of language, religion, and to a large 
 extent, laws. To this day Canada is governed upon 
 a dual plan which fosters the maintenance of the 
 French population as a distinct part of the people. 
 The present French population of Canada is some- 
 thing over one million, and the toleration of the 
 British crown, together with the radical changes in 
 France, have developed in those people a loyalty 
 
 to the imperial government second only to that of 
 the Russian peasantry. 
 
 The great bulk of the present population of 
 Canada is divided between the French, Irish, Scotch 
 and English, with a few Germans in the larger 
 towns. Along the United States border are scat- 
 tered some descendants of the Tories of the Revolu- 
 tionary War. It may be remarked that the different 
 elements of the population, whatever their nation- 
 ality, maintain their national peculiarities more te- 
 naciously there than anywhere else. For example, 
 the Battle of the Boyne is fought over with disrep- 
 utable frequency between the Catholic Irish and 
 the Orangemen upon Canadian soil. Nor is it an 
 uncommon thing to find settlements of Scotch High- 
 landers where Gaelic only is spoken and the English 
 language is an unknown tongue. 
 
 There are about 100,000 Indians in Canada, not 
 including the Esquimaux of the far north. Many 
 of these aborigines are on reservations, and all of 
 them are peaceable. No complaints of Indian wars 
 and “rings” are made. The larger part of these 
 savages are to be found in British Columbia and the 
 far north, where there is ample game. Those upon 
 reservations are making some progress in the arts 
 of civilization. 
 
 The older part of Canada is adapted to and de- 
 voted to miscellaneous farming, but Manitoba, the 
 Red River region of the north and center, is pecul- 
 iarly suited to wheat growing. It resembles Min- 
 nesota which it joins. That far-reaching tract of 
 country in the very heart of the continent, under 
 proper cultivation and with transportation facilities, 
 might furnish bread to the whole world, if necessary. 
 The great difficulty of course is transportation. A 
 railroad across the continent on Canadian soil has 
 been projected, and strong hopes of its construction 
 are entertained. A railroad to Hudson’s Bay has 
 been contemplated — one could hardly say projected. 
 The province of Manitoba was purchased by Thomas 
 Douglas, Earl of Selkirk, from the Hudson Bay 
 Company in 1810. The “Red River Settlement,” 
 or Pembina, was effected under his lordship’s auspi- 
 ces, a colony of Highlanders establishing themselves 
 there. It was not at all flourishing. At last the 
 Northern Pacific railroad came near enough to fur- 
 nish an outlet for the wheat crop and an era of some 
 prosperity was inaugurated. 
 
 Hudson’s Bay has been well described as “ a great 
 
 c 
 

 Of 
 
 ~ 7 \ 
 
 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 397 
 
 landlocked sea.” It is 800 miles in length from 
 north to south and 600 miles in width, covering 
 an area of 300,000 square miles. Hudson’s Strait 
 is its outlet to the Atlantic. It is icebound in win- 
 ter and rendered somewhat dangerous by floating 
 ice in summer. The idea of reaching the seaboard 
 from Manitoba by that route is wholly chimerical. 
 The Hudson’s Bay Company was the last of the 
 great British commercial monopolies. It was char- 
 tered in 1670 by Charles II., and it did not surrender 
 its powers and rights to the crown until quite re- 
 cently. The act of parliament authorizing the sur- 
 render and providing therefor, was passed in 1868. 
 The transfer 
 
 pardoning power, and that is about all. At the pres- 
 ent time the position is filled by the Marquis of 
 Lome, eldest son of the Duke of Argvle and son-in- 
 law of Queen Victoria. He is a worthy gentleman 
 and gives satisfaction, although, perhaps, not quite 
 as popular as his immediate predecessor, Lord Duf- 
 ferin. The constitution of the dominion, adopted 
 in 1867, defines the relative functions of the general 
 and the local governments. The former has juris- 
 diction of criminal law, including the penitentiaries ; 
 bankruptcy proceedings ; marriage and divorce ; 
 naturalization of aliens ; Indians and their reserva- 
 tions, and, in fine, all matters not expressly assigned 
 
 to the pro- 
 
 was perfect- 
 ed in 1870, 
 just two cen- 
 turies after 
 its corporate 
 creation. It 
 traded main- 
 ly in furs. 
 
 Gradually it 
 spread its 
 area of traf- 
 fic and estab- 
 lished tra- 
 ding-p os t s 
 from ocean 
 to ocean. Its 
 profits were 
 enormous. 
 
 So too were 
 its benefits to 
 
 the world, for it set in operation a stupendous 
 mechanism by which the savages of the northern 
 portionof North America were induced to harvestthe 
 fur crop of that part of the continent for the com- 
 fort and health of the civilized world. 
 
 The political system of Canada is somewhat com- 
 plicated. The fetters of colonial dependence are 
 simply bracelets, worn for ornament. The home gov- 
 ernment appoints a governor-general whose princi- 
 pal duties consist in the maintenance of a miniature 
 court at the capital, Ottawa, for the diversion of the 
 good people thereabouts. The actual authority of 
 government is divided between the Dominion parlia- 
 ment and the parliaments of the provinces. That im- 
 posing figurehead, the Governor-General, has the 
 
 PARLIAMENT HOUSE, OTTAWA. 
 
 vincial legis- 
 latures, re- 
 versing, on 
 this latter 
 point, the 
 policy of the 
 constitution 
 of the Uni- 
 ted States. 
 Pro vincial 
 legislatures 
 are restrict- 
 ed to strictly 
 local mat- 
 ters. The 
 judges in 
 Canada hold 
 office during 
 good behav- 
 ior, and the 
 
 courts consist of the local tribunals and a Su- 
 preme Court and Court of Exchequer at Ottawa. 
 
 There is no longer any considerable desire on the 
 part of Canada to be free from England, nor yet to 
 be annexed to the United States. The present sys- 
 tem of government seems to meet the popular views 
 admirably. The existence of vexatious tariff re- 
 strictions upon commerce across the border is a mu- 
 tual source of regret, but so long as the interest of 
 this republic requires protective or revenue duties, 
 these restrictions would appear to be inevitable. At 
 least there is no indication that a reciprocity treaty 
 will be entered upon between the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 Quebec is a quaint old town with walls and battle- 
 
 SFv" 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 ments, and streets which are mere lanes and alleys. 
 Few cities of Enropeare as suggestive of the medieval 
 age as Quebec. 
 
 Montreal is a 
 thrifty port, ad- 
 mirably situated 
 at the conflu- 
 ence of the river 
 and gulf of St. 
 
 Lawrence. It is 
 the natural head 
 of that chain of 
 lake navigation 
 which extends 
 from the upper 
 waters of the Su- 
 perior and links 
 together Du- 
 luth, Milwaukee? 
 
 Chicago, De- 
 troit, Cleveland, 
 
 Toledo, Buffalo, 
 
 Oswego, Ogdens- 
 burg and Mon- 
 treal. It was for- 
 merly the capi- 
 tal of Canada. 
 
 A formidable riot dispersed parliament in 1849 and 
 burnt down the capitol. It was not rebuilt. The 
 capital was 
 removed to 
 Toronto 
 during the 
 next two 
 years, and 
 then to Que- 
 bec for four 
 years. To- 
 ronto is on 
 the shore of 
 Lake Onta- 
 rio and is the 
 prov incial 
 capital of 
 the province 
 of Toronto. 
 
 WhenU pper 
 
 or Western Canada was distinct from Lower or 
 Eastern Canada, Toronto was the capital. It has 
 
 QUEBEC 
 
 UNIVERSITY OP TORONTO. 
 
 many fine buildings, the most notable being the 
 University of Toronto. It ivas in 1857 that the seat 
 
 of government 
 was removed to 
 the interior town 
 of Ottawa, which 
 has remained 
 the capital ever 
 since. St. John’s 
 in New Bruns- 
 wick and St. 
 John’s hi New- 
 foundland are 
 both very con- 
 siderable ports. 
 So is Halifax, 
 Nova Scotia. 
 Hamilton and 
 London are 
 flourishing 
 towns hi On- 
 tario. 
 
 In the matter 
 of education a 
 public school 
 system prevails 
 wherever the 
 population is dense enough to admit of it, with the 
 exception of the Province of Quebec. The French 
 
 Canadians 
 are not to be 
 lured to de- 
 struction by 
 sp e lling- 
 books. The 
 priests hold 
 firmly to the 
 children, and 
 carefully 
 train them 
 up in ignor- 
 ance and the 
 Catechism. 
 
 Speaking 
 of the rail- 
 roads of the 
 country, 
 
 Frederick Martin says, “ The Dominion of Canada 
 had a network of railways of a total length of 5,574 
 
 6 " 
 
THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 399 
 
 4 
 
 miles at the end of June, 1878. There were at the 
 same period lines of a total length of 1,996 miles in 
 course of construction, and 3,000 miles more had 
 been surveyed, and concessions granted by the gov- 
 ernment. Partly included hi the latter class is a 
 railway crossing the whole of the dominion, from 
 the Atlantic to the Pacific, to the construction of 
 which the British government contributes a grant, 
 
 applies to an area of about 500,000 square miles 
 north of Hudson Bay, the home of the Esquimaux. 
 This branch of the family of American aborigines, 
 found at the extreme north on both the Atlantic 
 and the Pacific coast, are thought to be the connect- 
 ing link between the Indian and the Mongolians 
 mentioned in a succeeding chapter on the Chinese 
 Empire. They are short, thick, muscular and stupid, 
 
 in the form of a guaranteed loan of 82,500,000.” 
 Since the term Canada, in its fullest sense, extends 
 to the North Pole, this chapter may close with some 
 account of Labrador and the Esquimaux. 
 
 Labrador means “arable land.” It is as great a 
 misnomer as the name Greenland. A distinct coun- 
 ty by that name in the valley of the Sagueney, and 
 province of Quebec, is inhabited by a few French 
 Canadians who thrive by fishing. Labrador proper 
 
 expert only in fishing or hunting. They arc sup- 
 posed to number about 50,000, including those found 
 in Greenland and Alaska. Their domestic animal 
 is the dog, and their principal food is the blubber of 
 the whale, walrus or seal. Their color is a light 
 brown. Originally they were almost wholly destitute 
 of religious sensibilities. Christian missionaries, Mo- 
 ravian and Danish Lutheran, have done something 
 in the line of their conversion to Christianity. 
 

 CHAPTER LX VI. 
 
 Imperial India — The Birth-place of the Aryan Race — Ancient Ruins— Alexander in India — 
 Portuguese and Dutch India — British Expulsion of the Xetherlanders— The French 
 in India— Lord Clive and Surajaii Dowlah— Warren Hastings— Lord Cornwallis— Se- 
 
 pfwj 
 
 t 
 
 poy Mutiny and its Results — Viceroys of the Crown — “Owen Meredith” and Lord 
 
 ( 
 
 
 >s! 
 
 \KPi 
 
 
 Ripon — The Mogul Empire — Benares the Holy Citt — Sanskrit and the Possibilities 
 
 IET3 
 
 | IS,- 
 
 
 
 
 of the Future. 
 
 11— — 
 
 -y 
 
 J URING the premiership 
 of the late Lord Beacons- 
 %¥*field the Queen of En- 
 gland added to her titles 
 that of Empress of India. 
 That country, sometimes 
 called Hindustan, is in- 
 deed an empire, containing as it does no 
 
 less than 250,000,- 
 000 people, not 
 savages either, 
 but the inheritors 
 of a splendid civ- 
 ilization, effete, it 
 is true, but not 
 wholly lost and 
 wasted. In pop- 
 ulation this- im- 
 perial possession is double that of the Roman em- ; Englishman, the German, the Yankee, all belong 
 
 "Tl 
 
 pire at its best. With the Himalaya mountains on 
 the north, and the Indian Ocean on the south, it is 
 a land by itself, rich in resources and under a high 
 state of cultivation in many parts. Such a country 
 contributes greatly to the wealth of England, both 
 by its imports and its exports, furnishing the raw 
 material and consuming the manufactured article, 
 all to an extent which may fairly entitle India to the 
 
 designation of the 
 backbone of Brit- 
 ish prosperity. 
 
 By a careful 
 comparative 
 study of lan- 
 guages it has been 
 ascertained that 
 the present great 
 nations of the 
 world came, for 
 the most part, 
 from the Aryan 
 race, which can 
 be traced to In- 
 dia. The Brah- 
 min, the Greek, 
 the Roman, the 
 
 Tv 
 
 "71 
 
 (400) 
 
BRITISH INDIA 
 
 401 
 
 
 -®L 
 
 CO U UT HOUSE STKEET, OALUOUSLE SQUAIiE, CALCUTTA. 
 

BRITISH INDIA. 
 
 4°3 
 
 to the same stock. But the connection is too re- 
 mote and obscure to be traced in this volume. It is 
 enough for our purpose to follow the footprints of 
 historical devel- 
 opment. 
 
 India is splen- 
 did, yet mournful 
 in rums. Fallen 
 temples and de- 
 caying pagodas 
 attest a past which 
 is sealed from the 
 vision of history. 
 
 Eventually their 
 mysteries may be 
 explored and the 
 gold of facts sep- 
 arated from the 
 dross of fiction. 
 
 Now those mon- 
 umental ruins are 
 surrounded by the 
 wall of mystery. 
 
 The first ap- 
 pearance of India 
 in history dates 
 from B. C. 327, 
 when Alexander 
 the Great attemp- 
 ted its conquest. 
 
 His intrepid army 
 was flushed with 
 victory over the 
 Persians, and eag- 
 er for “ more 
 worlds to con- 
 quer.” India was 
 little more to the 
 Greeks than a 
 vague rumor, a 
 fabulous land of 
 wealth and lux- 
 ury, a veritable 
 Eldorado. But 
 the march itself 
 
 was exhaustive. The Ganges was his goal, and no 
 serious' human obstacle impeded his course ; but 
 the heat of the country melted the heroism of the 
 brave Greeks, and the sand choked their enterprise. 
 
 The intrepid and dauntless Alexander spent two 
 years in the country including the time spent in the 
 march thither and back, returning without a per- 
 manent foothold. 
 The invasion was 
 not wholly fruit- 
 less, however. 
 Greek culture ac- 
 quired some ad- 
 vantage from con- 
 tact with what 
 may probably be 
 set down as the 
 oldest of all ex- 
 tant or known 
 civilizations. But 
 no vital connec- 
 tion was formed 
 between the two, 
 and India soon 
 dropped out of 
 the great world 
 with which an- 
 cient history has 
 to do, leaving be- 
 hind hardly a 
 single landmark 
 or trace of any 
 kind. 
 
 The first Euro- 
 pean, after Alex- 
 ander, to pene- 
 trate to India and 
 establish relations 
 with it was the en- 
 terprising Vasco 
 da Gama, whose 
 ex]>loits were told 
 in connection with 
 Portugal. Fora 
 century the Por- 
 tuguese enjoyed a 
 monopoly of ori- 
 ental commerce, 
 and then came the 
 Dutch to wrest it from them in great measure. 
 During the seventceth century Antwerp, Amster- 
 dam and other commercial cities grew rich in the 
 Indian traffic. The Dutch East India Company 
 
 ENGLISH LIFE IN INDIA. 
 
BRITISH INDIA. 
 
 
 4°4 
 
 was formed in 1602. The English were not slow in 
 trying to gain a footing, and the Dutch, who had 
 succeeded in eclipsing the Portuguese, found a for- 
 midable rival in the British. That rivalry was sharp 
 and bloody until 1689, when' the accession of Wil- 
 liam of Orange to the English throne brought com- 
 parative peace. 
 
 Before that time the union jack of England had 
 successfully defied the Dutch broom in Indian waters, 
 and Lord Clive had laid firmly and broadly the foun- 
 dations of British India. The decisive blow was 
 struck in 1758. But it was during the period when 
 Europe was the theater of almost constant warfare, 
 from 1781 to 1811, that England succeededin expell- 
 ing the Dutch from India. Even Java, afterwards 
 restored, was wrested from the Hollanders. By 
 the last census returns the Dutch population in In- 
 dia proper had dwindled to seventy-two. Many 
 houses and some canals remain to testify that the 
 Nether landers once possessed the land, or the sea 
 rather, but they themselves have gone. When Ad- 
 miral Duncan, of the British navy, almost annihi- 
 lated the Dutch fleet off Camperdown, on the 
 eleventh of October, 1797, that was the virtual end 
 of Dutch East India. 
 
 The East India Company, chartered by the En- 
 glish parliament in 1600, may be said to have be- 
 gun England’s connection with Indian affairs. It 
 took about a century to dispossess the national rivals 
 already mentioned. A third rival was France. To 
 the French belongs the dubious honor of origina- 
 ting the policy of employing native soldiers under 
 foreign officers, to conquer the country. They were 
 called Sepalis, or Sepoys. England soon adopted 
 the same policy. About the middle of the eigh- 
 teenth century the Indian rivalry of the two nations 
 was very sharp. For a time it seemed that the En- 
 glish were to have meted out to them the same 
 judgment' that had been awarded to the Portuguese 
 and Dutch. The honor of arresting the progress of 
 the French and finally insuring British supremacy, 
 belongs to Robert Clive, afterwards Lord Clive. He 
 entered the service of the Company as a clerk. He 
 never enjoyed the advantages of a military or lib- 
 eral education. His first exploit was the recapture 
 from the French of the city of Arcot, having at 
 command only 500 men. He held the city against 
 a besieging army of 10,000 natives. Dupleix, the 
 French governor, was held in check and defeated in 
 
 
 several engagements. A decisive battle was fought 
 June 23, 1757, on the field of Plassey. Clive had 
 1,000 English and 2,000 Sepoy troops, and with that 
 handful he defeated the native Viceroy of Bengal, 
 who was the ally of the French, Surajah Dowlali, at 
 the head of 65,000 
 men. That great 
 victory shattered 
 the French rule 
 and broke the pow- 
 er of the Viceroy. 
 
 The French rapid- 
 ly dwindled away, 
 but did not aban- 
 don all hope of re- 
 gaining lost ground 
 until in 1801 their 
 expulsion was com- 
 pleted. The final 
 outcome^ of the Na- 
 poleonic campaign surajah dowlah. 
 
 made assurance doubly sure. In the battle of Wa- 
 terloo the last remnant of Indian hope for France 
 disappeared forever. 
 
 Lord Clive was something more than a brave sol- 
 dier. He was the first Governor-General of the 
 country. His administration of affairs was only for 
 the period of two years, but during that time he 
 succeeded in crushing out all European rivalry and 
 in making highly important inroads upon native 
 rule. The Viceroy Surajah Dowlah was a powerful 
 prince, but he was destroyed. He it was who in 
 1757 took Calcutta from the English and crowded 
 150 of the prisoners taken into the dungeon rendered 
 famous as the “ Black Hole of Calcutta.” All ex- 
 cept twenty of the number died the first night of 
 suffocation. But his cruelty was trivial and mild 
 as compared to the relentless despotism of Clive, 
 whose policy was to terrorize the Hindoos into sub- 
 jection. 
 
 In 1773 the British East India Company under- 
 went some changes, and the notorious Warren Hast- 
 ings was appointed Governor-General. He pursued 
 the policy of Lord Clive. To cruelty was added 
 rapacity of the most ravenous sort. The corpora- 
 tion which they served was a commercial organiza- 
 tion and judged everything from the standpoint of 
 revenue only. Vast fortunes were accumulated by 
 private individuals in their employ, and expenditures 
 
 Tv 
 
ffl 
 
 < 
 
 BRITISH INDIA. 
 
 - £- 
 
 ~~ 0 
 
 for pensions, bribes and subsidies were immense ; 
 but so long as the Company received the lion’s share 
 in net profits abuses were unchecked. But public 
 sentiment was at last aroused. Warren Hastings 
 was impeached by parliament. His trial was one of 
 the most memorable in all history. It called out 
 the eloquence of Burke and others. Hastings was 
 acquitted by the peers before whom he was tried, but 
 convicted by the court of public opinion, which also 
 sat in judgment upon his case. The result was a ref- 
 ormation in Indian affairs. Under the lead of Wil- 
 liam Pitt, parliament in 1784 made a radical change 
 in the political system of India. Hitherto the Com- 
 pany had been absolute and despotic, but henceforth 
 a board of control was to have supervisory power. 
 It was not un- 
 til 1858 that 
 the govern- 
 ment took up- 
 on itself large- 
 ly the manage- 
 ment of the 
 country, doing 
 away with the 
 Govern or s- 
 General be- 
 holden to a cor- 
 poration, and 
 substituting 
 for them 
 Viceroys of the crown. There were twenty Gover- 
 nors-General during the ninety-three years of Com- 
 pany rule, Earl Camiing being the last. Among 
 these was Lord Cornwallis. After his inglorious 
 career in America, upon Indian soil he achieved sub- 
 stantial victories which showed that his surrender at 
 Yorktown was not the cowardice of a poltroon, but 
 the wisdom of one who bowed to the inevitable. The 
 Marquis of Wellesley, or Duke of Wellington, was 
 another of the governors and soldiers who preserved 
 and extended British rule in India. 
 
 The East India Company, which ranks as the 
 most gigantic monopoly of all history, received its 
 death-blow from the Sepoy Mutiny. The first out- 
 break occurred May 10, 1857. It spread like wild- 
 fire over the country, the central points being Cawn- 
 pore, Lucknow and Delhi. The Europeans in the 
 former were slaughtered, men, women and children ; 
 in the latter they held out until relief came. Delhi 
 
 was in the hands of the Sepoys from the first, and 
 the fall of that city was fatal to the mutiny. Strong 
 was the provocation of the mutineers, and not in 
 vain was the blood shed in the struggle. From sub- 
 jection to a soulless corporation to the rule of an 
 empire which is based largely upon regard for the 
 welfare of the people was a most beneficent revolu- 
 tion. During that war General Havelock became 
 famous as the ideal Christian soldier. The utter 
 inability of the natives to cope with the English was 
 so fully shown, and the British policy so far reform- 
 ed, that since the fall of Delhi there has been no in- 
 surrection, nor any serious manifestations of disaf- 
 fection. 
 
 Under Beaconsfield the vicerovship was held by 
 
 Lord Lytton, 
 son of Bulwer 
 E. Lytton, the 
 novelist. His 
 rulewas devoid 
 of special in- 
 terest. It must 
 be admitted 
 that as “Owen 
 Meredith,” 
 author of Lu- 
 cille, he won 
 far more hon- 
 or than he did 
 or could as 
 Viceroy. Mr. Gladstone appointed as his successor 
 Lord Ripon, one of the framers of the Treaty of 
 Washington, which settled the “Alabama claims.” 
 
 Without going into wearisome details, it may be 
 added that the present Britisli policy is to allow the 
 native population to be governed in accordance with 
 their own system of laws and methods of justice, so 
 far as such liberty may be indulged without endan- 
 gering English supremacy. In that way can the 
 interests of the British public be best conserved and 
 promoted. 
 
 Having traced the course of events in India from 
 the standpoint of foreign intervention, showing the 
 relations of that country to the rest of the world, it 
 will be of interest to ascertain its history from an 
 independent standpoint. 
 
 The great Hindoo epic, Ramayam, not inaptly 
 called “ The Iliad of the East,” is supposed to be at 
 least three thousand years old ; but its statements 
 
 T 
 
 Cl r v 
 
 " 
 
 5 1 
 
•V 
 
 
 408 
 
 BRITISH INDIA. 
 
 are self-evident fiction, for the most part. The first 
 kingdom of India within the range of authentic his- 
 tory was the Mogul Empire. Mogul is a corruption 
 or abbreviation of Mongol. The dynasty was founded 
 by Baberin 1556, a descendant on his mother’s side of 
 that great Tartar, Tamerlane. These Mogul emper- 
 ors, fifteen in number, were all Mohammedans. 
 They were fierce warriors and terrible bigots. Their 
 zeal for Islam was only equaled by their slakeless 
 thirst for plunder. They ravaged India and gathered 
 the rich spoils of the more civilized but less warlike 
 “heathen round about.” The empire was at its 
 height in the last half of the seventeenth century. 
 Delhi was the 
 capital. The 
 Europe ans, 
 whether Portu- 
 guese, Dutch, 
 
 French or En- 
 glish, avoided 
 conflict with 
 the great Mo- 
 gul. The great 
 
 Sepoy rebellion 
 was abetted by 
 Bahadur, the 
 emperor at 
 Delhi. The 
 
 empire had al- 
 ready been 
 
 greatly weak- 
 ened by schism 
 and dissen- 
 tions, and that Sepoy alliance was fatal. The 
 English shot his sons and grandson, and trans- 
 ported the emperor himself to Burmah where he 
 died. Thus with the close of the Sepoy rebellion 
 the Mogul Empire disappeared, and has since shown 
 no symptoms of life. 
 
 In 1878 the total railway mileage in India was 
 8,215. There had been expended in the construc- 
 tion and equipment of these railroads over 8500,000,- 
 000. The population of British India, classified 
 according to religion, is Brahmans, 140,000,000 ; 
 Mohammedans, 40,000,000 ; Buddhists, .3,000,000 ; 
 Christians, 900,000 ; various forms of aboriginal be- 
 lief, 6,000,000. In Southern India the missionaries 
 have met with some success. Buddhism is a reformed 
 
 BUDDHA. 
 
 or later Brahminism, Buddha sustaining much the 
 same relation to Brahma as Jesus Christ does to 
 Jehovah in our religion. The total following of 
 Buddha at the present day in British India is con- 
 fined to the Burmese possessions. 
 
 India has several splendid cities, centers of trade 
 and wealth, the most notable of these being the seldom 
 visited, because far inland, Benares. It is upon the 
 banks of the Ganges. The Brahmans regard it with 
 sacred veneration. It is the chief seat of Indian 
 education. It contains some splendid mosques and 
 temples. It has a population of about 250,000. 
 
 A glance at the Sanskrit language and literature, 
 
 and we take 
 leave of India. 
 In the study 
 of languages 
 as a science, 
 the Sanskrit is 
 the most help- 
 ful. It ceased 
 to be spoken 
 so many cen- 
 turies ago that 
 its death is 
 shrouded in 
 impenetrable 
 mystery. The 
 sacred books 
 of the Brah- 
 mins are pre- 
 served from 
 vulgar knowl- 
 edge by being entombed in a dead tongue. This 
 religious literature is enormous in volume, and 
 contains some remarkably fine productions. Max 
 Muller has placed a very considerable knowledge 
 of this literature within the reach of English read- 
 ers, and made the terms Vedas and Puranas some- 
 what familiar. Religion and philosophy not only, 
 but the sciences, are discussed at great length in these 
 ancient tomes. Evidently, the Hindus in their best 
 estate were a highly intellectual people, and it is not 
 at all improbable that with the- aid of this Sanskrit 
 literature the scholarship of the future will be able to 
 trace the stream of civilization, by a broad and un- 
 mistakable channel, and not by mere conjecture, to 
 its very fountain-head. 
 
 FT 
 
 <r 
 
UUVUi-N'OU (iJiNiilUL’S TALACE, CALCUTTA, 
 
k 
 
 
 CHAPTER LXVII. 
 
 General Outlook — Each Colony Separately Considered— New South Wales — Van Dieman’s 
 Land, or Tasmania— South Australia — Victoria — New Zealand — Queensland — Western 
 Australia — Australasian Independence. 
 
 conception of the discovery than that it might serve 
 as a depot, whereon the mother country could dis- 
 charge the criminality that she was slowly ascer- 
 taining could not all be jiut to death. There was 
 no realization that a country so desirable deserved 
 a worthier population, or that a section of the people 
 at home that trembled on the verge of pauperism, 
 but had not been tainted by crime, had rights to an 
 asylum in the new paradise. The urgent need was 
 a corral for prisoners, and Botany Bay would serve. 
 
 The first shipment consisted of 565 male prisoners 
 and 192 females, condemned to banishment for life. 
 They were accompanied by sufficient military to 
 guard against an otherwise possible outbreak, and 
 the civil staff to administer the affairs of the settle- 
 ment. Free settlers were not encouraged. Their 
 presence might have interfered with discipline. 
 There were free colonists, but they were people that 
 could be relied on as aids in any emeute; and they 
 were favored with convict labor to any extent de- 
 sired in prosecuting their personal enterprises. 
 
 The area given up to the criminal classes and their 
 custodians was ample, including all that is now 
 South Australia, Victoria and Queensland, as well 
 as the colony of new South Wales; and yet within 
 fifteen years another convict settlement was estab- 
 lished in Van Diemen’s Land. The country was not 
 overstocked, but the island presented advantages, 
 
 is called the new 
 world, and Australasia 
 might well be called the 
 newest world, and positively 
 the last. This globe has 
 been thoroughly explored, 
 and no continent or conti- 
 nental island remains to be 
 discovered. The surface of the whole 
 earth is now within the compass of hu- 
 man knowledge. Between the southeast- 
 ern shore of Asia and the western coast 
 of America stretch many small islands 
 and some large ones, the more im- 
 portant of these being the group called 
 Australasia, with an area of 3,425,000 
 square miles and a population of about 5,000,000- 
 This portion of the British Empire (for such it is) 
 has seven natural and political divisions. It is pro- 
 posed in this exceptionally long chapter to present 
 the more interesting facts in regard to each colony 
 in their proper order. 
 
 New South Wales, as it is now called, was discov- 
 ered by Captain Cook, in 1770, and eighteen years 
 later, a convict colony was established at Botany Bay. 
 The country was so beautiful, that Cook suggested a 
 name reminding the reader of a choice garden, or site 
 for villas ; and the British government had no higher 
 
AUSTRALASIA. 
 
 
 412 
 
 which could not be so easily secured on the main- 
 land. The latter settlement was a dependency of 
 the former, prisoners being transferred from one 
 colony to the other, as well as shipped direct to V an 
 Diemen’s Land from Great Britain. For ten years 
 from 1803, no free colonists were permitted in the 
 new settlement. The island was a prison and noth- 
 ing more. But in 1813 the desirability of free set- 
 tlers, as part of a reformatory system, led to the 
 home government offering grants of land to fami- 
 lies possessing capital, and prison labor without 
 charge, as inducements to take up their abode in the 
 colonies. There was little difficulty in procuring 
 limited emigration, as the climate in each case was 
 good, in the case of Van Diemen’s Land especially, 
 and the soil could hardly be too highly praised. It 
 was not until men arrived in the colonies that the 
 heinousness of the system became apparent. It was 
 hardly possible for imagination to present a pic- 
 ture of such conditions of life as were realized by 
 the colonists after their acclimation. 
 
 Prisoners on their arrival in the colony, after the 
 system was in full bloom, were housed in depots, 
 waiting to be selected by free settlers. Sometimes 
 the relatives of a criminal reached the colony before 
 him, selected land, and were ready to take him as 
 their assigned servant, so that in his case transpor- 
 tation was no punishment ; but in the majority of 
 instances prisoners, men or women, taken as assigned 
 servants, were treated worse than slaves, as the mas- 
 ter generally spoken of as the “cove” had no inter- 
 est in preserving the servant as a piece of property. 
 If twenty were worn out, other twenty could be pro- 
 cured to take their places, with no more trouble 
 than sending an application, or calling to select from 
 the next shipment. Usually the convicts were of 
 the worst type, short of meriting capital punish- 
 ment ; and if there were any redeeming features in 
 men or women, when first placed on the vessel for 
 transportation, four to six months’ life 011 shipboard, 
 exposed to the contaminating influence of convict 
 opinion, seldom failed to produce an inverted 
 scheme of life before the end of the voyage. Some 
 on each ship were as nearly demons as could be 
 found on earth, and they were idolized. 
 
 The assigned servant was usually at the mercy of 
 men very little superior in education or morals, as 
 the better classes in Great Britain shunned the con- 
 vict colonies, and if they must needs emigrate, found 
 
 & 
 
 TT 
 
 homes in Canada or in the United States, rather 
 than expose their families to the degrading associa- 
 tions of penal settlements. 
 
 Servants who had offended their masters were 
 sent to the stipendiary magistrate with a sealed let- 
 ter, specifying the number of stripes they were to 
 receive, and on that warranty without inquiry the 
 prisoner was handed to the flagellator to be flogged 
 as per mandate. After the punishment they were 
 sent back to the employer knowing insubordination 
 would be still more severely castigated. Wrongs of 
 that class rankling in natures naturally brutal, re- 
 sulted in conspiracies and murder, and then the 
 fiends, goaded to desperation, betook themselves to 
 the unsettled country, called “ the bush,” to subsist 
 as bushrangers by spoliation until they were hunted 
 down like wild beasts with the aid of native track- 
 ers and bloodhounds to lead the military and po- 
 lice to their lairs. Prisoners brought in after bush- 
 ranging were hanged or sent to Norfolk Island, or 
 attached to chain-gangs, compelled to work on the 
 roads or public works, having manacles to drag that 
 rendered their escape impossible. 
 
 Norfolk Island was a deeper pandemonium at- 
 tached to Van Diemen’s Land from 1825 to 1855, 
 to which the worst criminals were sent as the last 
 resort this side the gallows. The island is on the 
 Pacific, about five miles long, by little more than 
 two miles broad ; and in that limited area, Dante 
 might have gathered many unimagined tortures for 
 the completion of the agonies of the damned. 
 
 This abhorrent system continued in New South 
 Wales until 1840, and in Van Diemen’s Land until 
 1853, after which no new shipments were sent 
 from Great Britain to the colonies named. Queens- 
 land was also first settled by convicts in 1825, 
 the country being then known as Moreton Bay ; but 
 that region was thrown open to free settlement in 
 1842, and in 1846 there were only 2,257 inhabitants 
 in the settlement, including free and felon. West- 
 ern Australia is the only settlement in Australasia, 
 that is still cursed with the convict system, and its 
 continuance there is due to the petitions of the in- 
 habitants, addressed to the mother country, setting 
 forth that the free settlers are precluded by the re- 
 pute of the colony from obtaining free labor, and 
 must be ruined if denied the aid of prisoners in the 
 prosecution of their enterprises. U nder such repre- 
 sentations the colony is allowed 200 prisoners per 
 
£ 
 
 Q 
 
 AUSTRALASIA. 413 
 
 year, under protest from the other colonies, and the 
 total population is only 26,166, including 1,790 pris- 
 oners. Western Australia was first settled in 1829, 
 and developed slowly. 
 
 The total population of Botany Bay in 1788 was 
 1,030, of which number 757 were life prisoners, the 
 remainder being guards, military government offi- 
 cials, and the multitudious hangers-on that always 
 surround the fleshpots in Egypt, or elsewhere. The 
 free population increased to 20,029 in forty years, 
 and the convicts then numbered 15,669, of which 
 total 1,513 were females. The growth of New South 
 Wales was slow until the incubus of transportation 
 was removed in 1840, and in the year following that 
 event, there was an addition of 20,206 to the popu- 
 lation. The decade following the discontinuance 
 saw an advance to 265,503 ; but at that time the 
 district of Port Philip was agitating for separation, 
 and in the following year its desire was granted by 
 its erection into the colony of Victoria. 
 
 Gold was discovered on several occasions in New 
 South Wales before its discovery in California, but 
 the free settlers were of the opinion that its exploi- 
 tation would unsettle labor, and for that reason the 
 auriferous wealth of the country was belittled, so 
 that hardly any person understood the significance 
 of “ the find.” The great geologist, Sir Frederick 
 Murchison, addressing the Geographical Society of 
 London in 1845, announced the probability of ex- 
 tensive gold-fields being opened in Australia ; but it 
 is only fair to mention that the precious metal had 
 been then recently found near the Macquarie river, 
 following up in a desultory way previous “finds” in 
 1829. The colony of New South Wales appointed a 
 geologist in 1850, and about the same time a work- 
 ing miner in California, impressed with the similarity 
 of the two countries, determined to return to the col- 
 ony to search for a payable gold-field. Mr. Hargraves 
 was fortunate in his investigations, as we find him in 
 May, 1851, established at Opliir, near Bathurst, New 
 South Wales, leading a party of miners whose oper- 
 ations speedily made that country the cynosure of 
 all eyes. The surrounding colonies were largely de- 
 pleted of their young and vigorous men by the rush 
 toward Bathurst. Every vessel that put into an 
 Australian port was immediately deserted, unless 
 the commander had the wisdom to announce the 
 ship to sail for Sydney ; in that event he could man 
 and load in a few days and procure any rates he 
 
 thought fit to ask for freight. Port Jackson, the 
 port of Sydney, was the busiest spot in Austra- 
 lasia as long as the colony enjoyed the monopoly 
 of gold discoveries ; but the other members of the 
 group had long been playing at hide-and-seek with 
 treasure, and Victoria offered a reward to any per- 
 son who might open a payable gold-field in its terri- 
 tory. Later in 1851, discoveries in Buninyong at- 
 tracted attention to Victoria, and since that date it 
 has become well understood that the whole of the 
 continent is auriferous. The colony of New South 
 Wales in its first year of gold production raised 
 $2,341,680 worth, and in the following year over 
 $13,500,000. Subsequently the returns were larger, 
 although never to exceed $15,000,000, and that 
 amount included gold received at the mint from 
 other colonies for conversion into coin and bars- 
 
 In four years from the establishment of Victoria 
 as a separate colony, New South Wales had passed 
 the highest point previously reached in population, 
 continuing to grow rapidly until the year 1859, when 
 the constitution of Queensland, as a separate govern- 
 ment, reduced the aggregate from 342,000 to 336,- 
 000 in round numbers. The areas nominally gov- 
 erned, in the colony, as originally defined, were “all 
 territory from Cape York in the parallel of 10° 37' 
 south latitude, to South Cape in latitude 43° 29' 
 south, including the islands in the Pacific within 
 this latitude, and inland to the westward as far as 
 the 135th meridian of east longitude,” could not be 
 even approximately administered by the official 
 staff available, and, in fact, the elder colony did not 
 attempt any such feat of statecraft. The process 
 consisted mainly in drawing from the outlying por- 
 tions the means to pay for the physical improvement 
 of the governing center. 
 
 South Australia was cut off from the first colony 
 in 1836, in the days of penal settlements, hut that 
 segregation did not seriously affect the total of pop- 
 ulation. The area of New South Wales at present 
 is 310,938 square miles. Its greatest length being 
 900 miles, with an average breadth of about 500. 
 On the north is the colony of Queensland ; on the 
 south Victoria ; on the west South Australia, and 
 on the east the Pacific Ocean. The population of 
 the country, according to the latest returns, pub- 
 lished in 1880 by the authorities in Sydney, gave an 
 aggregate of 734,282 persons ; the increase of the 
 last year having been about 40,000. 
 
A 
 
 XL 
 
 4M 
 
 AUSTRALASIA. 
 
 Until 1S55 government was by means of a nomi- 
 nee council, or legislature, to which the members of 
 the administration were admitted, ex officio; after 
 that time, responsible government was inaugurated. 
 The parliament of two houses imitates Lords and 
 Commons, and the governor represents the first es- 
 tate. All money bills must be initiated in the low- 
 er house, on a message from the viceroy, and such 
 legislation may be rejected in toto, but cannot be 
 amended by the upper house. The British theory 
 of rule by three estates is in fact carried out in the 
 practice of the whole group of Australian colonies, 
 except the colony of Western Australia, and the in- 
 formation now given will serve in all the cases indi- 
 cated, the differences being trivial. 
 
 The council consists of twenty-one or more nomi- 
 nees appointed by the crown, as advised by minis- 
 ters ; there were thirty -nine members in 1878 ; and 
 the assembly is an elective body of 102 members, 
 chosen by universal male suffrage. The governor 
 is the executive, but he is advised, and in most mat- 
 ters controlled, by a responsible ministry, raised to 
 office on the votes of the lower house, and answera- 
 ble to that body for every official act. The ap- 
 pointment of the governor rests with the home 
 authorities, but the salary to be paid depends on the 
 colonial assembly, with the proviso that no change 
 can be made during a term of office to affect the 
 salary and allowances of the then incumbent. The 
 present governor receives $35,000 per year and 
 a residence ; and the ministry, eight in number, 
 are paid, the colonial secretary $10,000, and the 
 other ministers $7,500 per year. The governor is 
 commander-in-chief of all the forces of the colony. 
 
 The public lands of the colony are made over to 
 the people to be administered by their representa- 
 tives, and the sale and rent of lands constitutes a 
 large item in the revenues of the colony, amounting 
 to more than half the receipts from all sources. 
 There is no direct taxation ; the second largest item 
 of income being from customs duties. The annual 
 outlay ranges from about $10,000,000 in 1870 to 
 $27,500,000 in 1880, including $2,000,000 for new 
 public works. The public debt of the colony 
 amounted at the close of 1879 to $78,949,550. main- 
 ly incurred for railroads, telegraph lines and other 
 public works, the property of the state. There were 
 at the time named 600 miles of railroad open for 
 use, and in the succeeding year 223 miles were add- 
 
 ed to the network. The telegraph lines at that 
 date aggregated 8,472 miles. 
 
 From 1850, the year preceding the opening of the 
 gold-fields, to 1864, trade more than quadrupled ; 
 but from that time there was a steady falling off for 
 about six years, followed by a gradual increase until 
 1878. The chief exports are wool, tin, copper, tal- 
 low and preserved meat. The country is richer in 
 coal than any other part of Australasia, and its gold- 
 fields cover a vast area known as the Western, 
 Northern and Southern fields; but the produce has 
 not kept up to the figures that at one time prom- 
 ised to rank New South Wales among the great gold- 
 producing countries of the world. The fiscal policy 
 of the colony is a near approximation to free trade, 
 and the crown lands are in part devoted to squat- 
 ting, or what is known among us as ranche-keeping, 
 and ordinary farming, the principal crops being 
 wheat and maize. Cattle and sheep abound, and 
 pigs and horses present large and profitable aggre- 
 gates. 
 
 The colony now known as Tasmania, in honor of 
 the Dutch navigator, Tasman, by whom the island 
 was first discovered, was in the beginning named 
 for a governor of the Dutch East Indies. Cook 
 partly explored the country, and, as we have seen, it 
 was for many years a penal settlement. That un- 
 fortunate commencement has detracted greatly from 
 the success that must otherwise have attended on 
 colonization in the midst of so many natural advan- 
 tages. The area is estimated at 26,215 square miles, 
 including a number of small islands in two groups, 
 northeast and northwest. The country and climate 
 invite settlement, and when the initial mischance 
 has been lived down, its numerous advantages will 
 make Tasmania the abode of the wealthiest families 
 in Australasia. At the present time the outlook for 
 the colony is not cheering. In 1853, 2,314,414 acres 
 of land had been leased from the crown, yielding a 
 rental of $147,845 ; but in 1877 the quantity leased 
 had fallen to little more than one million, and the 
 rental was only $31,960. Of more than four million 
 acres of land sold at that date, less than one mil- 
 lion was under cultivation. The Country had fallen 
 into bad repute, and something more than a mere 
 change of name is requisite to give the infant state 
 a new start in life. 
 
 The first years of the colony have been glanced 
 at under the head of penal settlements, and need 
 
 V 
 
ADELAIDE. 
 
3 
 
 AUSTRALASIA. 
 
 4 X 7 
 
 not be referred to in detail ; but a new regime was 
 inaugurated after the system of transportation came 
 to an end. A constitution was granted to the col- 
 ony, permitting all persons who possessed property 
 to the extent of $1,000 in leasehold, or $150 freehold, 
 to vote for members of the Upper House, and all 
 persons occupying or owning houses, of the value of 
 $35 per annum, or freehold property worth $250, to 
 vote for members of the Commons. A commission 
 in the army or navy, or holding a degree, or being 
 in holy orders, entitled the person so distinguished 
 to exercise the franchise for both houses ; the actual 
 fact being that education and respectability were 
 the desiderata at which the constitution aimed^ 
 through provisos as to freehold and leasehold prop- 
 erty. The substratum of society could not be en- 
 tirely excluded from a voice in the administration 
 of affairs ; but checks were demanded. 
 
 The system of government described as operating 
 in the other colonies obtains also in Tasmania 
 without material change. The governor, appointed 
 by Great Britain, is allowed $17,500 ; and he is ad- 
 vised by five responsible ministers, each of whom re- 
 ceives $3,500 per year. As in all the other colonies, 
 the ministers must hold a seat in the Upper or 
 Lower House. 
 
 The revenue of the government is derived mainly 
 from customs, excise, and bonding duties ; the terri- 
 torial revenues are small, and manufactures are 
 inconsiderable. The public debt in 1880 was $8,934,- 
 000, resulting from loans incurred to prosecute 
 public works ; the debentures redeemable before 
 1902. Population does not increase rapidly, but 
 there is an increase of about ten per cent. The pro- 
 portion of uneducated persons is large, but decreas- 
 ing. Immigration is very slightly in excess of 
 emigration, the movement being almost entirely 
 between the colonies, as Tasmania has no attractions 
 for Europeans looking to Australia. The same may 
 be said of the commerce of Tasmania ; it is purely 
 local. Wool is the staple, but the island will repay 
 expenditure of capital. Horses, cattle, sheep, and 
 swine thrive ; the soil is fertile ; roads are excellent ; 
 there are large beds of coal ; iron ore and tin 
 abound, and gold-fields have been worked, which in 
 1879 gave returns to the value of about $729,000 ; 
 exports of tin in the same time exceeding $1,500,000. 
 Railroads were opened for traffic in 1871, and ex- 
 tensions have been made that aggregated 179 miles 
 
 at the beginning of 1880. The telegraph system is 
 also state property, and at the commencement of 
 1880, 781 miles of line were being worked. The 
 department does not yet pay expenses, but viewed as 
 part of a system of police, it is indispensable. 
 
 The colony called South Australia occupies the 
 central portion of the Australian continent, between 
 12° and 38° south latitude, and 129° and 141° east 
 longitude, stretching from the Indian to the South- 
 ern Ocean ; a territory about 2,000 miles long by 500 
 miles wide ; an area of 903,000 square miles, bound- 
 ed on the east by Victoria, New South Wales, and 
 Queensland ; and on the West by 'Western Australia. 
 The country is just ten times the size of Great 
 Britain. Colonization has been confined almost 
 entirely to a small section in the south of the 
 greater area, and much of South Australia is yet 
 unexplored. 
 
 The prevalent characteristics of one colony are 
 so nearly like the features of each other, that a brief 
 description of South Australia may serve to deline- 
 ate in a sketchy manner the whole of the continent. 
 Particular and detailed pictures of the territory 
 would demand pen photographs, inconsistent with 
 the design of this work, so we content ourselves 
 with a few general observations. 
 
 There are parts of the Pacific slope on this con- 
 tinent that so closely resemble Australian contours, 
 that it is easy to believe that the two countries were 
 at one time a continuous territory, subject to like 
 influences for a geologic era; but there are no 
 Andes nor great mountain ranges to give grandeur 
 to the scene. Mountains, as they are called, in 
 that country, might be described as mere foot-hills. 
 The principal range in South Australia, known as 
 the Flinders, rises north of the head of St. Vincent’s 
 Gulf, and runs several hundred miles north to Lake 
 Blanche ; continuing, after a break by the hills called 
 the Hummocks, to Port Wakefield, due south and 
 southeast, by ranges to Gape Jervis. At intervals. 
 Flinders Range is followed by similar elevations, the 
 highest points on Musgrave and Macdonnell being 
 about 4,000 feet above the sea. Mount Lofty, the 
 background of Adelaide, capital of the colony, is 
 2,334 feet high ; and mounts Remarkable and Brown 
 reach 3,200 feet. A succession of hills is all that 
 can be said for them, by men who have seen the 
 Cordilleras or the Altitudes in Colorado. The slopes 
 and valleys are often of great beauty, and dotted 
 
 cflV 
 
■Me. 
 
 k. 
 
 418 
 
 AUSTRALASIA. 
 
 with homesteads, have a peaceful charm ; but in 
 Hi any districts the soil is light, covered with scrub 
 and brushwood. Considerable areas near the hills 
 tell of the drenching rains that at times wash the 
 vegetal matter and fertilizing salts from the ranges, 
 and have made tracts of superb farm land not 
 surpassed in the world. 
 
 Where the Mallee scrub once flourished, there are 
 good pasture lands, not the most fertile, but ex- 
 cellent third-rate territory, on which squatters make 
 fortunes, and over parts of which farmers combine 
 grazing with agriculture. Saltbush and Myall 
 Country, in the far North, remind the traveler of 
 the saltbush plains, that used to torture pilgrims 
 to Utah, in the days of Brigham’s “ Hand-Cart Brig- 
 ades ” ; and on which so many hundred gallant fel- 
 lows laid down their lives, during the early exodus 
 to the Californian gold-fields. There are no great 
 lakes. Where such desirable features are promised, 
 the depth is inconsiderable, and the heat of summer 
 leaves little more than a swamp. The country 
 wants only extensive irrigation, to make a paradise 
 for farmers and raisers of cattle. India already 
 looks to Australasia for supplies of horses, and the 
 wool of the continent is never surpassed. Wheat of 
 the finest grade is produced in Australia, and it 
 would be difficult to name a fruit that will not 
 flourish. 
 
 The Murray is the only river of any volume in 
 South Australia, and that is common to the three 
 great colonies. It runs into the Southern Ocean, 
 within the territory we are describing, rising near 
 mount Kosciusko, New South Wales, and forming 
 the boundary between that colony, Victoria, and 
 South Australia ; running about 2,400 miles, of 
 which extent nearly 2,000 miles is navigable. The 
 mouth is impeded by a shifting sand-bar, but that is 
 no great difficulty. The rivers generally diminish 
 from fair streams to creeks in summer, often 
 becoming a mere succession of water-holes. There 
 are lakes in the colony, the principal being Alex- 
 andrina and Albert — almost the only fresh-water 
 lakes, the great majority being small and brackish. 
 
 The flora of the Australian continent is decidedly 
 limited ; set down a traveler in any part of the 
 country, and it would be hardly possible for him to 
 determine from the vegetation around him which of 
 the colonies he inhabited, except that he could pro- 
 nounce between the extremes of north and south. 
 
 Forest lands are mostly in the mountainous districts. 
 The deep gullies are covered thickly with shrubs and 
 ferns, and the table lands are well grassed. Vege- 
 tables or European fruits grow abundantly in the 
 gullies, and on the grass lands wheat comes to per- 
 fection. The scrub lands fail more on account of 
 surface water than from any want in the compo- 
 nents of the soil. The saltbush is excellent feed for 
 sheep and cattle, and the country can sustain almost 
 unlimited stock. Artificial grasses thrive, and most 
 squatters have some portion of their lands improved 
 by their introduction for fattening their cattle and 
 sheep. 
 
 The climate of the peopled portions of South Aus- 
 tralia resembles that of Southern Europe ; parts of 
 Spain and Italy seem to be reproduced on the new 
 continent, but the Alps and Pyrenees are wanting, and 
 the idleness of both countries may also besought in 
 vain. The heat of the country does not oppress as 
 much as lower temperatures on this continent, the 
 atmosphere being less humid. There are but few 
 days in the year in which the colonist desists from 
 out-door labor on account of the sun, or of the hot 
 winds — a kind of sirocco — that blow across the con- 
 tinent and strike all animal and vegetable life with 
 desiccating dryness. March, April and May are pleas- 
 ant months, and September, October and November. 
 The spring and early summer could hardly be desired 
 more beautiful. 
 
 Aborigines are seldom lovely, and still less fre- 
 quently lovable ; the Australian is no exception. 
 They were never powerful in numbers or physique 
 except in some few regions, and they are dying off, 
 having no desire to learn the arts of civilization- 
 Schools established for their benefit do not win their 
 regard, and although they profess any creed in re- 
 turn for gifts of tobacco, their acquirements always 
 end in smoke. It is supposed that they are allied 
 to the Papuans, as although black, they are not of 
 the Negro type. Their hair curls, but is not woolly. 
 The men are not muscular, but they are tolerably 
 well formed, built of bone and sinew. The women, 
 worn out by incessant drudgery in the service of 
 their thankless masters, are perhaps the least prepos- 
 sessing human beings to be found on this footstool. 
 1 hey have few accomplishments and no ambition to 
 rise above the status in which nature and accident 
 have placed them. The weapons of the men are 
 spears, throwing-sticks, waddies and boomerangs, and 
 
 a N 
 
s> 
 
 AUSTRALASIA. 419 
 
 they make shields of bark with which they will 
 defend themselves from the assaults of numerous 
 enemies as long as the assailants are not at close 
 quarters. 
 
 The first year of this century was signalized from 
 an Australian standpoint by the discovery of por- 
 tions of South Australia by Lieutenant Grant of H. 
 M. S. Lady Nelson, but it was not until 1802 that 
 the country was surveyed by Captain Flinders. That 
 gentleman was not very favorably impressed, or he 
 failed to convey his impressions to others, as the 
 country was left severely alone for almost an aver- 
 age lifetime after the visit of the investigator. A 
 wiser and more daring explorer, Captain Sturt, in 
 1830, found his way from the Murrumbidgee to the 
 Murray, and followed that river to its mouth in En- 
 counter Bay, traversing the territory from New 
 South Wales. The result of that journey, and the 
 report of the captain was an application of gentle- 
 men in London to the home government. An un- 
 favorable reply, from the powers that were, deferred 
 action for three years, but in 1834 the colony was 
 founded on condition that no convicts should be 
 sent there. 
 
 The first governor landed in Holdfast Bay in 
 1836, but prior to Captain Hindmarsh’s arrival, the 
 colony had been governed by commissioners. Nomi- 
 nee government continued until 1851, when a con- 
 stitution granted partial election of the legislature. 
 In 1856 responsible administration became the law 
 under the system already described. Six ministers 
 advise the crown, and are answerable to parlia- 
 ment for the management of affairs. The governor, 
 who is commander-in-chief of the forces, receives 
 825 ? 000, and ministers are paid 85,000 per year each. 
 Public works of various kinds have been undertaken, 
 including railroads, and that has resulted in a debt 
 of 833,110,000. There were in 1879, 533 miles of 
 railroad in use, and 405 miles in construction, be- 
 sides 5,686 of telegraph line, inclusive of a line 
 across the continent of 2,000 miles. The population 
 of the colony exceeds 250,000 persons. 
 
 Wool, wheat and flour, and copper ore are the sta- 
 ples, and mining operations are extensively carried 
 on, but nothing has yet been done in the way of ex- 
 ploiting the iron ore of the country. Great enterprise 
 has been displayed by the colony in exploring the in- 
 terior of the continent. About 250,000 square miles 
 of territory are put to profitable use. Farmers are 
 
 permitted to take up lands after survey with the ad- 
 vantage of credit to the extent of 1,000 acres of 
 ordinary lands, or of 640 acres of lands reclaimed by 
 drainage. Lands bought and sold in the colony 
 pass by registration under the Torrens Act, and the 
 saving in expense is great. The tariff of the colony 
 imposes the highest duties on articles that can be 
 manufactured in the country, but the people that 
 administer the law call it incidental protection. 
 There is only one colony that directly advocates and 
 insists on protectionist legislation in the Australian 
 group, and that is Victoria. 
 
 The northern territory annexed to this colony has 
 one prosperous settlement at Port Darwin. The 
 climate is tropical, the rainy season commencing in 
 Octobor and continuing five months ; the greatest 
 heat and rain coming together. Fever and ague is 
 the great trial to which settlers are liable. The soil 
 is fertile, and all tropical fruits flourish. Alluvial 
 mines have been opened in many localities and are 
 paying ; but the population shows 2,070 Chinese and 
 Malays to only 400 Europeans. 
 
 Victoria, once the Port Philip District of New 
 South Wales, and at one time called Australia Felix, 
 was first settled in 1835. The area of the country 
 is not extensive, but the enterprise of the popula- 
 tion and other advantages have given the commun- 
 ity a lead in the affairs of the group, that is not 
 likely to be soon lost. 
 
 Victoria is the southernmost colony on the conti- 
 nent, between the 34th and 39th parallels of south 
 latitude, and between the 141st and 150th meridi- 
 ans of east longitude. Its coast line is about 600 
 geographical miles, extreme length from east to.west 
 about 420, and its greatest breadth about 250 miles. 
 The colony embraces one thirty-fourth of the con- 
 tinent, being 88,198 square miles, a little less than 
 the area of the main island of Great Britain. Blun- 
 ders in defining the territorial lines between the col- 
 onies have given to Victoria a considerable strip of 
 country, that properly belongs to South Australia. 
 The bounds of Victoria, landwards, have already 
 been given. She is shut in by the two sister colonies 
 and the Murray. The southern boundary is the 
 southern ocean, Bass’s Straits and the Pacific. Cap- 
 tain Cook, in 1770, sighted Point Hicks, in what is 
 now Victoria, the country probably having been vis- 
 ited by navigators more than a century earlier. 
 Western Port was discovered in 1798, and the strait 
 
420 AUSTRALASIA. 
 
 that divides the continent from the Van Diemen’s 
 Land was sailed through and named for Bass in the 
 same year. Port Philip Bay, the harbor of Mel- 
 bourne, was discovered in 1802, and after that time 
 the country became well known to the leading men 
 of New South Wales; but its value as a pastoral 
 region was not understood for one-third of a cen- 
 tury. Colonel Collins, in charge of convicts, at- 
 tempted to settle the territory in 1803, but happily 
 he abandoned the enterprise in 1804, declaring the 
 land unfit for habitation. Twenty years later the 
 country was traversed by colonists from New South 
 Wales, but settlement did not follow for ten years. 
 In November, 1834, the Brothers Henty, interested 
 in whaling, established their home at Portland, and 
 remained in that section, although their occupations 
 changed to squatting soon afterwards. The first 
 settlement in Melbourne was made in May following 
 by Batman, who bought of the natives 000,000 acres 
 of land. Fawkner, who always asserted that he was 
 the founder of the city, sent a party in August, 
 and himself entered the settlement in October. The 
 name Australia Felix was bestowed on the western 
 portion of the country in 1836, by the explorer, 
 Major Mitchell, since knighted. The administration 
 of law in the settlement was inaugurated in the 
 same year by Captain Lonsdale, resident magistrate, 
 and from that date regular government was the rule. 
 The governor of New South Wales visited and 
 named Melbourne in 1837, and half acres of land 
 were sold in the village for $175. In 1851 Victoria 
 was allowed to assume control of its own affairs. 
 
 Gold had been discovered in several places, by 
 squatters, but the significance of the “find” was not 
 comprehended ; it was only feared that publicity 
 given to the auriferous condition of the soil would 
 raise the wages of labor, and disincline the working 
 class to serve as shepherds. The establishment of 
 self government was immediately followed by more 
 vigorous action. Active search for payable fields com- 
 menced, and finds were reported, in July and Aug- 
 ust. In September of that year all Melbourne was on 
 the march toward Buninyong, where a good lead 
 had been found. 
 
 The government imposed an extraordinary license 
 fee on gold miners ; a tax so great that only a few of 
 the diggers could pay the imposition in advance. 
 Gold-field commissioners and mounted police were 
 sent to the gold regions, to arrest men found mining 
 
 without a permit. Thousands of men on the gold- 
 fields in the most prosperous times did not realize as 
 much money from their operations as would have 
 enabled them to pay the demands of the govern- 
 ment and buy food. 
 
 Sir Charles Ilotham was sent out as governor by 
 the mother country, and he brought with him the 
 manners of a man-of-war captain, impressed with 
 the necessity for rigorous proceedings against the 
 diggers. His line of policy was to worry the miners 
 into rebellion by incessant hunting for licenses, and 
 then crush them into submission by an overwhelm- 
 ing display of military force. He was successful. 
 The miners of Ballarat built a stockade at Eureka, 
 and presented front against the injustice with which 
 they were treated ; but they were not able to with- 
 stand the force of soldiery and police sent against 
 them. The rebellion was suppressed, as were other 
 erneutes on other gold-fields, and many prisoners 
 were taken. 
 
 There was an attempt to rally the people gener- 
 ally in Melbourne, in support of the governor, but 
 the demonstration was a failure, resulting only in 
 calling out the mass of the population to denounce 
 his high-handed proceedings. The martinet discov- 
 ered that his work was only commenced, and he 
 induced his secretary, Mr. Foster, to resign his office, 
 assuming the blame that properly belonged to his 
 superior. That was the end of absolutism in 
 Victoria. 
 
 The new constitution was proclaimed in 1855, and 
 after that the ballot Was introduced, followed by an 
 abolition of property qualification for members of 
 the Assembly, and after a little while by universal 
 male suffrage for voters for that house. Property 
 qualification for voters and members of the council 
 continues to be the law, but in each case the require- 
 ment has been reduced. Non-payment of members 
 was found practically a disqualification of the lion- 
 propertied classes, and in consequence the people 
 commenced agitating for that concession to justice. 
 They were met on the threshold by the refusal of 
 the upper house, representing property, to concur in 
 any such measure. To allow payment of members 
 was to diminish the power of the wealthier classes, 
 and the fight was continued for years ; but in the 
 end the popular party, carrying the war into Africa, 
 won the battle, and now there cannot be found on 
 this footstool a more complete presentation of 
 
MELBOURNE. 
 
AUSTRALASIA. 
 
 4 2 3 
 
 r 
 
 democratic government than is offered by the colony 
 of Victoria. 
 
 Gold was raised in Victoria in the first year of the 
 gold-fields to the value of $2,902,940, the mines not 
 being opened, in reality, until September. In the 
 next year the total exceeded $55,000,000, and in the 
 following year, $63,000,000. It is useless to repro- 
 duce the figures for each year from that date to the 
 present time ; the vast population, that was almost 
 exclusively employed on the gold-fields, has been 
 largely called off to more satisfactory pursuits, and 
 as a consequence the totals have dwindled under 
 that head to an aggregate of about $15,000,000 in 
 1879, the total to that date being about $976,346,- 
 920. The calculation presented is based on an aver- 
 age of $20 per ounce for gold, and economists are 
 well content to see the totals diminish, seeing that 
 gold has never been raised to the price for which it 
 sells. 
 
 Victoria commenced its public debt in 1855 with 
 a trifling loan of about $2,400,000. Its total in 1879 
 exceeded $100,250,000, all incurred for public works, 
 on which sum the interest has never been behind by 
 one day. There are 1,125 miles of railroads in 
 operation, as shown by the returns in 1879, and at 
 that time 165 miles in addition had been authorized 
 by parliament. There were in use at the same date, 
 5,736 miles of wire in telegraphic work, and the 
 number of messages exceeded 1,000,000 annually, 
 the rates having been reduced, to bring the service 
 within the reacli of the poorer classes. All these 
 works are the property of the state, and many others, 
 including docks and the Yan Yean water works, are 
 valuable assets. The gold-fields are being supplied 
 with expensive reservoirs, some assisted by the gov- 
 ernment, and others entirely at the cost of the state, 
 rates being charged for water supply. 
 
 The governor is allowed $50,000 per year, besides 
 $10,000 for rent of the residence at Tooruk ; and 
 the ministers are paid : $10,000 to the premier, $8,000, 
 to the attorney-general, and $7,500 to the other seven. 
 The leader of the miners in the rebellion at Ballarat, 
 Mr. Lalor, is now shaker of the assembly, with a 
 salary of $7,500 per year. Members of the lower 
 house are paid : $1,500 per year. Members are elected 
 to the assembly for three years, subject to dissolution, 
 and to the council for ten years, a fifth of the body 
 retiring every two years. The population of \ ictoria 
 to the present time, is about 900,000. Gold, wool, 
 
 tallow, and preserved meats are staple imports ; 
 wheat is also exported, but not in such quantities as 
 to challenge a place in the record. The country is 
 by far the most densely populated of the Australian 
 colonies, with the most complete educational system, 
 although it has not yet arrived at the eminence of 
 being compulsory. The colony has an armed force 
 and a navy for defense. 
 
 New Zealand is known to have been visited by 
 Tasman in 1642, and again by Cook in 1769, but 
 was not colonized until long after. It consists of 
 two groups, the north and middle islands ; but there 
 are also several outlying islands, including South, or 
 Stewart Island and Chatham Island. The coast line 
 is about 3,000 miles, the group aggregating 1,000 
 miles in length by about 200 miles across. Its area 
 approximates to 105,342 square miles, about two- 
 thirds being fit for pastoral purposes and agriculture. 
 The population in 1854 was 32,554, exclusive of 
 maories, and the number in 1879 was reported 463,- 
 729, of which total about 300,000 were able to read 
 and write. Gold-fields were first opened in 1857, in 
 which year over $200,000 value was raised. In the 
 following year there was a slight increase, followed 
 by decreasing yields for two years, after which better 
 “ finds ” were struck, showing in 1861 nearly $4,000,- 
 000, the next nearly $8,000,000, and subsequent 
 yields that approximated to $14,000,000. The total 
 yield, to the end of 1879, being $180,635,410. The 
 maori, or native population, in 1878, according tore- 
 turns then obtained, aggregated 43,595. They are 
 very intelligent aborigines, capable of receiving civil- 
 ization, and as farmers, are persevering and success- 
 ful. In war a large amount of courage and skill 
 has been displayed by them, taxing the powers of the 
 colonists, and British military forces. The maories 
 are now peacefully disposed. 
 
 The present government was established by stat- 
 ute in 1852, dividing the colony into six provinces, 
 which were afterwards increased to nine. The suf- 
 frage is practically household, giving a vote to every 
 person that is beneficially interested in the country. 
 The system of government by provinces was super- 
 seded in 1875, when superintendents and provincial 
 officers gave place to local boards and the governor. 
 Legislation is vested in a parliament of two cham- 
 bers, each member of either house being paid $1,050 
 per session. Four aborigines are elected to the lower 
 house by the maories. The governor is the execu- 
 
AUSTRALASIA. 
 
 4 2 4 
 
 tive, having in consideration of his duties as gover- 
 nor and commander-in-chief of the forces, $37,500 
 per year as salary and allowance. He is advised by 
 nine ministers, who are responsible for the adminis- 
 tration of their departments, and for the general 
 management of affairs. Two maories are always 
 included in the cabinet, but they are not in charge 
 of any branch of the government. The home gov- 
 ernment used to control native affairs until 1803, 
 but since that date the colonists have been in the 
 enjoyment of full responsibility. The seat of the 
 general government is at Wellington since 1864; up 
 to that date 
 the capital was 
 Auckland. 
 
 Public works 
 have been very 
 expensive in 
 New Zealand, 
 and their prose- 
 cution has in- 
 volved the col- 
 ony in a consid- 
 erable debt, part 
 of which is guar- 
 anteed by the 
 Imperial gov- 
 ernment. The 
 total to 1879 
 was $119,791,- 
 550.The Chinese 
 in New Zealand 
 numbered 4,382 
 in 1878, and of that number only eight were 
 females. The natives of the Flowery Land have 
 the same peculiarity in all their travels; they 
 leave their better-halves under the shelter of “ the 
 Brother of the Sun and the Moon.” They are not 
 valued as colonists, partly on that account, but they 
 are industrious and frugal, and grow rich on land that 
 would hardly give bread to Europeans, either as gar- 
 deners or as miners. In some of the Australian col- 
 onies Chinese are subject to special taxation, to ex- 
 clude them. 
 
 Population in New Zealand increases more rapidly 
 by excess of births over deaths, and by immigration, 
 than in any other colony in the group, and exports 
 are increasing. Commerce in twenty years to 1878 
 has grown more than twenty-fold. The staple ex- 
 
 ports are wool, corn, flour, kaurie-gum and pre- 
 served meat. Gold was exported in 1875 to the 
 amount of 318,367 ounces ; in 1876 to the extent of 
 371,865 ounces, and in 1877, 310,486 ounces. Rail- 
 roads were commenced in 1872, at the cost of the 
 state by loans, and at the end of 1879 there were 
 1,171 miles open for traffic, besides 284 miles in 
 course of construction. At the same date the length 
 of electric telegraph in use aggregated 3,512 miles, 
 which had sent during the preceding year 1,448,943 
 messages. The General Assembly in 1879 sanctioned 
 further constructions to the extent of 938 miles ex- 
 tra broad, to be 
 completed with- 
 in the five years 
 then ensuing. 
 The completed 
 lines, when pre- 
 pared for ser- 
 vice, are to cost 
 $80,000,000. 
 
 The system of 
 government in 
 this colony is in 
 the main similar 
 to that describ- 
 ed in connec- 
 tion with other 
 colonies. Each 
 colony is per- 
 mitted to draft 
 its own consti- 
 tution, provided 
 that it embodies the principle of responsible admin- 
 istration ; but when the form has been adopted, as 
 for instance in the case of Victoria, an appeal for 
 change, beyond what is contemplated in the original 
 instrument, is received by the imperial government, 
 with a tone and demeanor that seems to say, “You 
 have made your choice and must content yourselves 
 to work out your own salvation.” The bicameral 
 system is by all the colonies treated as indispensable ; 
 but in course of time, in many of the states single 
 chambers must be resorted to, because of the unac- 
 commodating spirit that is manifested. The re- 
 sponsibility of rule can be borne by one chamber as 
 well as by two or more. 
 
 “We have already glanced at Queensland under the 
 name of Moreton Bay, forming part of the penal 
 
•y <2. 
 
 6 - 
 
 < 
 
 AUSTRALASIA. 
 
 4 2 5 
 
 
 colony of New South Wales. That name ended 
 when the settlement was cut adrift from its old asso- 
 ciations, and the better title, Queensland, was be- 
 stowed with the constitution and powers of respon- 
 sible government. Earliest colonization dates from 
 the year 1825, when the first shipment of “govern- 
 ment men ” arrived. That was the euphonious 
 method by which convicts were indicated ; they were 
 “ government men.” Seventeen years elapsed from 
 that arrival, and in 1842 the country was thrown 
 open to free settlers. An enumeration four years 
 later showed a population of 2,257, including free 
 and felon, and the transportation system at an end. 
 The virus had not gone far enough to establish 
 acute pycemia, as in Tasmania. Change of name 
 and improved habits have placed the country among 
 the best conditioned communities. 
 
 The boundaries of Queensland are on the north, 
 the gulf of Carpentaria on the east, the Pacific 
 Ocean on the south, the colony of New South Wales 
 on the west ; the 141st meridian of longitude from 
 the 29tli to the 26th parallel and thence to the 138th 
 meridian, north, to the gulf first named, “ including 
 all and every the adjacent islands, their members 
 and appurtenances, in the Pacific Ocean and in the 
 Gulf of Carpentaria.” The dimensions were estab- 
 lished by Her Majesty’s order in council, when the 
 first governor arrived, in December, 1859, and inau- 
 gurated responsible administration. Parliament 
 consists, as in Great Britain, of two houses : the 
 council of thirty members, nominated for life by the 
 crown ; the commons, or assembly of 55 members, 
 chosen by ballot from as many electorates ; voting 
 among males being as wide as taxation. Holders of 
 property, either leasehold or freehold, are in addition 
 permitted to cast a ballot for each property, as well 
 as for their residence. Considering the origin of 
 the community, it is perhaps but natural that prop- 
 erty should have been fenced about with safeguards. 
 
 The governor of Queensland, commander-in-chief 
 and vice-admiral, as his commission runs, is allowed 
 a salary from the imperial authorities, like all other 
 such officials, merely to define his character as a 
 civil servant, somewhere about $5,000 per annum ; 
 his allowance from the colony being $25,000 per 
 annum. Responsible ministers, to the number of 
 six, are paid $5,000 per year each, and are answer- 
 able to parliament for every act of the administra- 
 tion, as well as for their personal deeds. The rev- 
 
 1 
 
 enues of the colony are derived mainly from sales 
 and rents of public lands, customs duties, and ex- 
 cise. Public works and aid to immigration have 
 compelled the country to incur a public debt. In 
 1879 the total liability of the colony was $50,960,- 
 430, but in the year last passed the parliament 
 authorized the administration to raise a new loan of 
 $15,000,000. Considering the vast area of the 
 country, 669,520 square miles with a seaboard of 
 2,250 miles, and that the debt is a first charge on 
 all lands and revenues, the public creditor is of 
 course perfectly safe, and would be though the 
 liability were largely increased. The population 
 of the colony does not increase rapidly. It is depend- 
 ent on Chinese and South Sea Islanders for a large 
 part of all recent arrivals, and even with such ques- 
 tionable aids, the immigration of 1879 only aggre- 
 gated 6,896, while the emigration for the same term 
 amounted to 8,134. Similar results were chronicled 1 
 in the preceding year, although the figures were not 
 quite so unfavorable. The climate is semi-tropical, 
 and Europeans suffer so severely from exposure to 
 the heat, that none remain in the country longer 
 than is absolutely necessary to protect their inter- 
 ests. The population in 1879 amounted to 217,851, 
 including 13,269 Chinese at work on the gold-fields. 
 
 The number of Aborigines in the territory appears 
 to be undetermined. 
 
 Wool is the staple export, the other items being of 
 small amount, including preserved meat, copper, 
 and gold. Cotton and sugar-cane are said to flour- 
 ish in Queensland ; they have certainly been accli- 
 mated successfully, but the supply of suitable labor 
 is so limited, that some time must elapse before the 
 returns upon the outlay will sensibly affect the ex- 
 ports of the colony. There are probably about 
 25,000 acres under sugar-cane at the present time. 
 Livestock does not flourish quite so well as in Vic- 
 toria, but the figures under that head are satisfac- 
 tory. Coal-mines have been opened and promise 
 continuous yields ; gold-mines, which were entered 
 on in 1867, gave $6,532,155 value in precious metal 
 in 1877. Railroads in operation in 1878 amounted 
 to 298 miles, and at that time 113 miles in addition 
 were in course of construction. At the end of 1877 
 the telegraph service of the colony employed 5,229 
 miles of wire with 112 stations. Like all the other 
 colonies having responsible government in the ^ 
 Australian group, Queensland has an agent general 
 
 

 G\ 
 
 1 
 
 
 Q) 
 
 426 
 
 AUSTRALASIA. 
 
 in London, whose duties are mainly to keep the 
 friends of the colony in parliament advised as to 
 its interests, which, added to the dignity of having 
 such an officer, is perhaps a justification for the 
 outlay involved. 
 
 The exceptional conditions of Western Australia, 
 the only penal settlement now retained by Great 
 Britain, and retained as such at its own solicitation, 
 removes that colony from the category in which 
 the other colonies of the group appear. It is the 
 Ishmael of settlements, and if the hand of every 
 other colony is not against it, the reason must be 
 sought in the fact that its conditions are too feeble 
 to demand much energy in dealing with all the mis- 
 chief that it is capable of accomplishing. It is also 
 supposed in its defense that “its poverty and not its 
 will consents” to receive such poor yokefellows in 
 the difficult task of building up a colony in Western 
 Australia. The area of the territory is great, esti- 
 mated at 1,000,000 square miles, its greatest length 
 being from north to south 1,600 miles, and from 
 east to west 1,000 miles. The actually colonized 
 territory is within an area of about GOO miles by 
 150. The outlying territory operates as a kind of 
 sanitary ground, over which the infected cannot 
 approach the other colonies. Vessels from the 
 pariah settlement are subjected to strict examin- 
 ation and social quarantine regulations on their 
 entry to healthy ports. More severe measures were 
 once threatened. 
 
 There is not responsible government, only the 
 nominee system that has been mentioned before. 
 The governor, who is paid $12,500 per year, dis- 
 charges executive functions, and calls to his aid a 
 legislative council of 21 members, seven nominated 
 and the remainder elected. Property qualifications 
 are demanded from voters and representatives ; in 
 one case a minimum of $50 per year, and in the other 
 of $5,000 in landed property. Instead of a respon- 
 sible ministry there is an executive council, composed 
 
 of officials, including the judiciary, the professional 
 heads of departments, and six secretaries of state. 
 
 The governor, within the instructions given to 
 him with his commission, or subsequent directions 
 from the colonial office in London, is dictator in the 
 colony. His councilors have no control. The 
 income of the state is derived from sales of land, 
 leases, licenses, and customs ; added to an imperial 
 grant in aid of $76,620 per annum. I11 the year 
 1879 Western Australia incurred a debt for the 
 construction of a railroad, amounting in all to 
 $1,805,000. At the end of 1879 there were 78 miles 
 of road open for traffic. The territory, as defined 
 by the royal commission, includes all that portion 
 of New Holland to the west of 129° east longitude. 
 The first settlement was made in 1829, and 21 years 
 later the gross total was only about 6,000 persons, 
 bond and free. The last census, taken in 1871, 
 showed only a population of 25,353, nearly 1,800 of 
 whom were prisoners. The exports of the colony 
 consist almost entirely of wool and lead ore ; the 
 value of wool in 1879, the highest point reached, 
 was $787,945 ; and the lead ore exports for that year 
 aggregated $56,875. Coal has been found in 
 small quantities, and recent investigations favor the 
 belief that the colony is rich in minerals, including 
 copper. 
 
 It is highly probable that the Australasian colon- 
 ies will, in the course of a few years, constitute 
 themselves a republic after the manner of the United 
 States, the home government being willing to afford 
 the colonists every facility to carry out desires for 
 independence whenever the popular will may take 
 that form ; and almost inevitably the city of Mel- 
 bourne will be the capital of the nation in the day 
 which no loyal Australian would wish to hasten. 
 The Queen of Great Britain has no portion of her 
 well-ruled empire in which her name is more revered 
 than in Australia, but in the progress of human 
 affairs, change is certain. 
 
 r 
 
CHAPTER LXVIII. 
 
 The Great Britain of the East — The Country Described— The Cities of Japan — Products 
 and Population — Mines — Early History — Japan in the time of Caesar— The Great 
 Queen — Introduction from China of Letters and Philosophy — Buddhism Introduced— 
 First Contact with Europeans — Jesuit Missions— The Dutch in Japan — Tycoon Iyeyas 
 — Two Centuries of Peace — America and Japan — Fall of the Daimios — Christian Cal- 
 endar Adopted — New Japan — Japanese Idolatry' and Sintuism— Transportation— Mod 
 ern Missions — Japanese Literature. 
 
 £ 
 
 
 3 * 
 
 vAl Neppon, or Nihon, is 
 the native name of that 
 “ Sunrise Kingdom,” 
 known to Europe and 
 America as Japan. This 
 land of the dawn, which 
 we are to visit, is not a 
 part of the continent of 
 Asia, sustaining to it much the same 
 relation that Great Britain does to 
 Europe. 
 
 Japan consists of four large islands 
 and numerous minor isles, embracing 
 “ The Thousand Islands ” of the Ori- 
 ent. The four large islands are Nipon, 
 or Niphon, with an area of 95,000 
 square miles ; Yesso, with 30,000 square miles ; Kin- 
 sin, area 10,000 square miles; Sikok, 10,000. The 
 entire area, including the 3,840 small islands, is 
 about 150,000 square miles. The total length of the 
 empire is 1,000 miles from north to south. Conse- 
 quently the climate varies widely, but as a whole it 
 belongs to the temperate zone. 
 
 Japan is the home of earthquakes. The country 
 is mountainous ; the mountains show volcanic effects. 
 The highest peak, Fusiyama, 14,170 feet high, is an 
 
 extinct volcano. The rivers are short, shallow and 
 rapid. Throughout the empire there is only one 
 fresh-water lake of any considerable exteut. That 
 is called Biwako, or Lake Orni. 
 
 Near this lake is the city of Miako, or Saikio, the- 
 western, or ancient, capital. Tokio, commonly 
 called Yeddo, is the eastern capital. The former 
 was long kept sacred from the intrusion of foreign- 
 ers. It was built about 1100 years ago. It is almost 
 surrounded by mountains. This ancient capital has 
 a population of about 380,000 inhabitants. Tokio 
 has about three times that number of people. The 
 most important seaport of Japan is Yokohama, the 
 third city in size. Its spacious and pacific harbor 
 affords protection for ships. It is on the bay of 
 Yeddo, and only twenty miles from the national 
 capital. Osaca, on the island of Nipon, is second 
 only to Tokei in population. Next to Yokohama 
 in size ranks Nagasaki, on the island of Kinsin. 
 Neigata, on the northeast coast of Nipon, Kobe, near 
 Osaca, and llokodate, on Yesso, are the remaining 
 cities of some magnitude. 
 
 Japan is highly cultivated, so far as it is arable. 
 The population, by the census of 1872, was 33,110,- 
 825, and it requires good tillage to support so largo 
 a number of inhabitants on an area so small, as com- 
 
 
 1 * 1 « 
 
 ( 4 2 7 ) 
 
-i 
 
 k_ 
 
 428 
 
 JAPAN AND THE JAPANESE. 
 
 pared with population. The same census gave the 
 number of farmers as 14,870,420. The mulberry 
 tree, with its silk- worm, and the tea-plant, furnish the 
 main articles of export. Raw silk goes to Europe 
 in large quantities. The surplus tea of the country 
 finds its way, most of it, to this country. For home 
 consumption rice is the chief product of Japan. It 
 exports more to the United States than to any other 
 country, and imports more from England than from 
 any other, although the import trade with the 
 U nited States is 
 increasing very 
 rapidly. 
 
 Speaking of 
 the rural popu- 
 lation, a recent 
 visitor to that 
 country writes, 
 
 “ The farmers 
 are a simple- 
 hearted and in- 
 dustrious race. 
 
 Rakes, spades, 
 and plows used 
 by them are of 
 rude construc- 
 tion. Sometimes 
 the plows are 
 drawn by oxen, 
 but just as fre- 
 quently by men, 
 women or chil- 
 dren. They show 
 great kindness 
 to animals, very 
 few of which, however, are to be found in the em- 
 pire.” The grass in Japan is so coarse that sheep 
 and cattle cannot thrive upon it. The few domes- 
 tic beasts of Japan are fed on grain exclusively. 
 The people live almost exclusively on rice, fish and 
 radishes, with some potatoes, fowl, onions, pump- 
 kins, and the like. The fruits of Japan are of an in- 
 ferior quality. 
 
 The mines in Japan are very important. Gold, 
 silver and copper are exported in large quantities 
 and have been for a long time. It is said that be- 
 tween the years of 1550 and 1639, the Portuguese 
 exported from that country not less than 8297,500,- 
 000 in gold and silver. The yield has fallen off in 
 
 late years, but it is still a very important feature of 
 Japanese resources. 
 
 It is now time to turn our attention to history. 
 It is impossible to fix a boundary line between fable 
 and reality, legend and authentic history, with any 
 degree of precision. The Japanese have a literature 
 running far back into the remote past, and some 
 things are credited by them which are simply incredi- 
 ble. The people themselves believe that they had 
 national existence about 2500 years previous to the 
 
 present empire, 
 and that was 
 established by 
 Zinmu about 
 2,500 years ago. 
 According to 
 that the period 
 of the Japanese 
 world does not 
 differmuchfrom 
 the period of the 
 Christian and 
 Hebrew world. 
 
 This Zinmu 
 was a great war- 
 rior, and estab- 
 lished his king- 
 dom over the 
 entire area of 
 Japan. It was 
 in his day that 
 the people of 
 that country 
 learned to di- 
 vide time with 
 some degree of accuracy into months and years. 
 That fact perhaps, rather than any great exploits 
 and conquests, makes the year B. C. 667 the begin- 
 ning of definite computation and narration in 
 Japan. The emperor, or mikado, was also high- 
 priest, or pope. 
 
 The first capital was Kaswabara, but it was 
 changed several times. Saikio, or Miako, was the 
 capital for nearly a thousand years. It was removed 
 from there to Tokei in 1867, as one of the results of 
 the great revolution to be explained later. Native 
 writers agree in stating that the total number of 
 emperors in unbroken line was one hundred and 
 twenty-four. The emperor, or mikado, became so 
 

 , 4 - 
 
 japan AND THE JAPANESE. 
 
 4 2 9 
 
 sacred and august a personage that he could not 
 stoop to practical statesmanship, and for a period 
 
 of six hundred 
 
 years the real 
 rulers were the 
 tycoons, or shio- 
 goons. Origin- 
 ally the tycoons 
 were the mili- 
 tary chieftains. 
 
 They ruled by 
 fear and fre- 
 quently involv- 
 ed the country 
 in civil war over 
 their rival and 
 hostile ambi- 
 tions. 
 
 The first cen- 
 sus of Japan 
 was taken B. C. 
 
 97. The emper- 
 or who caused 
 this enumera- 
 tion of his subjects was Sujintenno. He built a 
 powerful navy and established commercial relations 
 with Corea, ir- 
 
 rigated the arid 
 landanddrained 
 the lakes. Evi- 
 dently he was a 
 great statesman. 
 
 It was his suc- 
 cessor, Quinin- 
 tenno, who abol- 
 ished the hid- 
 eous practice of 
 requiring the 
 empress and her 
 court to commit 
 hari-kari upon 
 the death of the 
 emperor. His 
 humane reforms 
 extended to oth- 
 er things, and 
 
 the actual civil- 
 
 ization of Japan was greatly advanced 
 He also paid much attention to irrigation. 
 
 JAPANESE SOLDIERS. 
 
 by him. 
 During 
 
 his reign 800 canals and ponds were constructed 
 in the interest of agriculture. After him came 
 
 Kekotenno, who 
 had the land 
 surveyed and 
 large grain ware- 
 houses built, in 
 which the sur- 
 plus of the years 
 of plenty could 
 be stored for use 
 in the years of 
 scarcity. 
 
 In the year 
 A. D. 200, a wo- 
 man ascended 
 the throne of 
 Japan, Jingu 
 Kogu, the widow 
 of the emper- 
 or Chinaitenno. 
 She had been 
 her husband’s 
 companion in 
 arms, and her scepter was a sword. She led her 
 army to victory over Corea. She acquired more 
 
 renown than 
 any predecessor, 
 and to this day 
 the painters and 
 poets of J apan 
 delight in set- 
 ting forth her 
 exploits. At that 
 time the art of 
 working in silk 
 was unknown in 
 the empire. It 
 was introduced 
 from Corea dur- 
 ing the reign of 
 her son. 
 
 Late in the 
 third century of 
 the Christian 
 era, Chinese lit- 
 erature and let- 
 ami Confucius 
 1 teacher of the 
 
 ters were introduced into Japan, 
 became the great philosopher ant 
 
 "3T 
 
43 ° 
 
 JAPAN AND THE JAPANESE. 
 
 Japanese. His practical ideas commended them- 
 selves to their approval, and they adopted him 
 as their intellectual father. The introduction of 
 Chinese letters was a very great event. “ Prior 
 to that event,” says Lanman, “ their own tongue 
 does not appear to have been reduced to writ- 
 ing.” About that time the favorite Japanese mu- 
 sical instrument, the koto, was invented. The 
 emperor, Osintenno, son of Jingu Kogu, also intro- 
 duced from China improvements in silk culture and 
 
 grand on the little island of Eno-Shima. It is called 
 Dai Butsu, or “ The Great Buddha.” 
 
 The mild and meditative religion of Buddha did 
 not prevent war, civil or foreign. An attempt was 
 made to subjugate China. It resulted in failure 
 and the bootless invasion of Japan by the Chinese. 
 It was found that either could repel the other; 
 neither could subjugate the other. Even among the 
 disciples of Buddha in Japan there arose war. The 
 priests quarreled so bitterly that to their animosity 
 
 DAI BUTSA, OR, THE GREAT BUDDHA. 
 
 manufacture. Dikes were constructed to guard 
 against inundation, and rice-mills built. 
 
 The first national history dates from A. D. 400. 
 One hundred years later Buddhism was introduced. 
 It also came through the gateways of Corea and 
 China, and it found ready acceptance, rapidly dis- 
 placing the old Sintu worship. The national char- 
 acter was very materially modified by this religious 
 innovation. The higher classes were especially in- 
 fluenced by it, and it became the fashion for the em- 
 perors to abdicate and adopt the life and habit of 
 the Buddhist priesthood. 
 
 One of the truly great works of art in Japan is 
 the bronze image of Buddha, fifty feet high and ad- 
 mirable in proportion, which stands solitary and 
 
 is attributed a great conflagration, which in 1536 
 destroyed about one-half of the capital. During the 
 period known as the Dark Ages in Europe, Japan 
 was on very nearly the same plane, as regards civil- 
 ization, as that continent. The records of that 
 period in botli cases should be written with blood. 
 
 The first connection between Japan and Europe, 
 so far as known, dates from 1541. Some Portuguese 
 traders voyaging from Siam to China were wrecked 
 on the coast of Kinsin. The national records make 
 mention of the fact on account of the firearms which 
 the strangers had. Two years later the Portuguese 
 opened important communications with Japan for 
 the double purposes of traffic and evangelization. 
 The Jesuits and the merchants kept each other com - 
 
 t 
 
 <3 
 
10 
 
 JAPAN AND THE JAPANESE. 
 
 pauy. It was in 1549 that Francis Xavier, called 
 “ the bright and morning star of modern missions,” 
 visited Japan. He spent ten years in the establish- 
 ment and superintendence of Jesuit missions in In- 
 dia, Ceylon, Japan and Malacca, baptizing, it is said, 
 a million converts. Two of those ten years were 
 spent in Japan. Such was the progress made by 
 missionaries of the cross, that Tycoon Xobu Nanga ? 
 who rose to eminence in 1557, like Constantine the 
 Great, espoused the cause 
 of Christ from motives of 
 policy. He waged war up- 
 on the Buddhists, begin- 
 ning his crusade in 1569. 
 
 A great many lives were 
 taken and temples de- 
 stroyed. The Jesuits were 
 delighted with their prog- 
 ress. In 1581 their com- 
 munion numbered 150,- 
 000. But the triumph was 
 short, and the reaction 
 destructive. Buddhism 
 had a firm hold upon the 
 people, especially the 
 higher classes, and the 
 seeming prosperity of the 
 Jesuits was due to no real 
 sympathy with their mis- 
 sion. With a change of 
 power came the reaction, 
 and the Jesuits were 
 swept out of the country, 
 utterly and ruthlessly. 
 
 They appealed to the 
 sword, and fell by it. In 1585 they were ordered to 
 leave the country within twenty days, and desist at 
 once from preaching and baptizing. Those who 
 should disregard the warning were threatened with- 
 death. But for some time the execution of the 
 threat was evaded. The Jesuits had ships of their 
 own, and the tycoon concluded that instead of send- 
 ing them away it would be better to employ those 
 ships in war with Corea. 
 
 It was the last year of the sixteenth century that 
 the English and Dutch mariners first visited Japan. 
 The English never made much headway in estab- 
 lishing commercial relations with that country until 
 our own times. The Dutch were more successful. 
 
 43 1 
 
 They seem to have succeeded in convincing the Jap- 
 anese authorities that they had no religious designs, 
 but were purely commercial and financial in their 
 purposes. Such certainly was the fact, and for quite 
 a long period after the representatives of all other 
 parts of Europe had been expelled, the Dutch were 
 allowed to maintain a trading post at the island of 
 Hirado, and the profits realized from this monopoly 
 of European commerce were very considerable. The 
 overthrow of this monop- 
 oly was brought about by 
 the United States. But 
 before passing to that re- 
 volutionary event we must 
 return to the political 
 affairs of the empire. 
 
 During the year 1600 a 
 battle was fought near 
 Lake Orni which gave 
 to Iyeyas total authority 
 over the country. This 
 soon removed the capital 
 to Yeddo. He gave the 
 country a most admirable 
 system of laws, and estab- 
 lished justice upon so firm 
 a foundation that for 
 more than two hundred 
 years after his death the 
 land had peace. No por- 
 tion of Christendom could 
 ever boast so conspicuous 
 practical exemplification 
 of the religion of the 
 Prince of Peace as the 
 Japan of that period. The first American ship in 
 Japanese waters was a man-of-war commanded by 
 Commodore Bidell. That was in 1846. The naval 
 visit which accomplished practical results was made 
 by Commodore M. C. Perry in 1853. He negotiated 
 a commercial treaty with Japan which was the be- 
 odnnimr of one of the most radical revolutions that 
 country ever experienced. The next year Sir James 
 Sterling of the British navy arrived at Nogasaki, de- 
 termined to secure for England as much latitude of 
 commerce with Japan as had been granted to the 
 United States, and he was successful. Other 
 nations followed, and the Dutch monopoly fell, and j ^ 
 with it Japanese exclusiveness, to a very consider- 
 
0 
 
 JAPAN AND THE JAPANESE. 
 
 43 2 
 
 able extent. Trade was limited and hedged about 
 with many restrictions. The new policy was firmly 
 established by 1858. 
 
 Japan, like France and Italy, had its Renaissance. 
 It began about the first of the eighteenth century. 
 There was a great revival of learning, a mighty 
 intellectual development. The government at 
 Yeddo, as it was then called, had presumed 
 too much and gone too far in ignoring the law- 
 ful authority of the Mikado at Mikio. When 
 in 1868 the Tycoon, now for the first time officially 
 taking this title, negotiated treaties hy which 
 foreigners were al- 
 lowed some com- 
 mercial privileges, 
 that innovation was 
 made the occasion 
 of revolution. The 
 battle of Fushimi 
 was fought, and 
 the daimios and 
 their leader put 
 down. Suddenly 
 as if by magic the 
 power which had 
 been supreme for 
 centuries was crush- 
 ed and the Mikado 
 moved from Kioto 
 to Yeddo, hence- 
 forth Tokio, and 
 became in fact, as 
 in theory, the supreme authority in the nation. 
 
 The immediate object of the revolution was not 
 obtained. The Mikado found that what the Tycoon 
 had assented to he could not escape from. The 
 foreign governments were quite too poAverful and 
 their navies too strong to be defied by a kingdom of 
 islands. A little injury was inflicted upon property 
 owned by foreigners and a few outrages committed 
 (for which ample indemnity was soon paid), and 
 then the Japanese accepted the situation. The 
 government and the great mass of the people were 
 so well pleased to be rid of the daimio despotism 
 that they were in no humor to maintain a quarrel 
 with foreigners. “Finding,” says an able writer, 
 “it impossible to drive out the foreigners, as many 
 of the patriots desired, the new government ratified 
 the treaties, and thenceforth followed in quick suc- 
 
 cession those radical changes in the national policy 
 which made Japan the wonder of the nations. The 
 feudal system, after seven centuries of existence, 
 was abolished in August, 1871, and the daimios 
 made to reside as pensioners at Tokio. The 
 Mikado appeared in public as the active patron of 
 the dock-yards, light-houses, hospitals, schools, 
 colleges, railways and telegraphs which were rapidly 
 established.” Finding that isolation was impossible, 
 Japan entered with enthusiasm upon a Study of 
 Western civilization, fully resolved apparently to 
 adopt and adapt the latest improvements of the 
 
 day. In a short 
 time a flourishing 
 newspaper press 
 was established, 
 and the decimal 
 system of reckon- 
 ing money, as it 
 obtains in the Uni- 
 ted States, Avas 
 ad opted. The J ap- 
 anese sen corre- 
 sponds to our dol- 
 lar. National banks 
 on the American 
 plan were establish- 
 ed. They now num- 
 ber over 200. The 
 Avestern postal sys- 
 tem is also in 
 vogue there. The 
 English postal savings system has been adopted, 
 and is very largely patronized. 
 
 All these changes Avere not Avrought Avithout 
 some very stubborn resistance, especially in Kinshui. 
 These rebellions required the intervention of the 
 military for their suppression. The chief of these 
 Avas the Satsuma rebellion, led by Saigo Takamori. 
 It began February 1, 1877, and lasted seven months. 
 The rebels numbered 37,500, and the losses in killed 
 and Avounded on both sides amounted to about 
 15,000. 
 
 The total public debt of Japan, September 1, 
 1878, Avas $375,725,677, all of which Avas held at 
 home except $13,399,016, held in England. These 
 figures include the paper money in circulation, $121,- 
 054,731. By the operations of a sinking fund the 
 debt, foreign and domestic, is being obliterated. 
 

 
 k. 
 
 JAPAN AND THE JAPANESE. 
 
 433 
 
 The first line of railroad, from Hiogo to Osaka, 
 25 miles, was opened in the summer of 1875. At 
 the close of 1879 there were open to business 76 
 miles of railway, with 140 miles in process of con- 
 struction and 455 additional miles chartered. The 
 mileage of telegraphs at that time was 1,935. The 
 standing army is about 80,000, with a militia, or 
 home-guard liable to duty, of 5,000,000. The navy 
 consisted in June, 1878, of three iron-clads. one 
 gunboat, and several wooden vessels. 
 
 political control. As Sintuism is the indigenous 
 religion, it deserves especial consideration. The 
 worship of the sun is its fundamental idea. 
 The moon is also an object of adoration. The 
 emperors claim descent from the sun. Image 
 worship, or idolatry, abounds. There are gods 
 of war, rice, riches and the like. Perhaps the 
 most curious feature of Sintuism is the seven 
 happy gods, who are represented in a way 
 Quite foreign to occidental ideas of deity. The Jap- 
 
 THE SEVEN HAPPY GODS. 
 
 In theory the government is an absolute mon- 
 archy ; in practice it is a responsible ministry. 
 
 The empire is divided into thirty-eight kens, each 
 having a governor appointed by the central govern- 
 ment at Tokio. There are three imperial cities, To- 
 kio, Osaka and Kioto, governed by mayors. The 
 area of the rice-fields is 5,585,900 acres ; of the other 
 cultivated fields, 3,817,300 acres. 
 
 In 1872 the calendar of Christian nations was 
 adopted, and it may be said that old Japan dated 
 from B. C. 667 to A. D. 1872. The ancient faith 
 has 97 temples, the Buddhists 296,900, sustaining a 
 priesthood numbering 168,654. But new Japan lias 
 by imperial decree abolished the religious machinery 
 of former days, so far as the same was subject to 
 
 anese, whatever his religion, worships his ancestors, 
 and reverence for parents is carried to an extreme 
 unknown in Europe or America. 
 
 The government school for boys (Kaiseiyak-ko), 
 at Tokio, employs German, French and English 
 teachers, and thousands of boys and young men 
 may now receive a complete education in the 
 science and literature of these different nations. It 
 is the science and worldly wisdom of the Occident, 
 far more than its religion, that the Japanese arc 
 disposed to adopt. Japan has a voluminous litera- 
 ture, and the great majority of the people can read. 
 No European or American has ever yet discovered 
 in their books, whether prose or poetry, any flashes 
 of genius. 
 
 7 
 
CHAPTER LXIX. 
 
 Territorial Extent — China Proper — The Chinese Coast — The Shanghai Region — The Val- 
 ley or the Hwang-ho — The Interior — Products — The Rivers or China — The Climate — 
 The Forests — The Flora or China— Geology or the Country— Mineral Wealth and 
 Petroleum — Chinese Animals — Corea and its Exclusiveness — Manchuria and the Mod- 
 ern Tartars — Mongolia — Thibet and the Grand Llama. 
 
 HINA, embracing China Prop- 
 er, Corea, Manchuria, Mon- 
 golia, Tibet and Eastern Tur- 
 kestan, and exclusive of Co- 
 chin-China, Siam and other 
 merely nominal tributaries, 
 covers an area of 4,740,000 
 square miles. This is equal to nearly the 
 whole of continental Europe. It extends 
 from the jiarallel of north latitude 18° 
 30', which runs nearly centrally through 
 Soudan, Africa, and falls about sixty 
 miles south of the City of Mexico, to 
 north latitude 53° 25', almost corre- 
 sponding to the parallel of Liverpool, 
 England, and the northern extremity of 
 the Province of Quebec. In longitude 
 it stietclies through fifty degrees, from the 80th to 
 130th meridians. Russia bounds it along its entire 
 northern line, of nearly 3,000 miles ; the Pacific 
 Ocean (or its subdivisions known as the Japan, the 
 \ellow and the China Seas) washes its entire east- 
 ern and southeastern boundary, of more than 4,000 
 miles in extent; Cochin-China, Burmah, British 
 India, Bootan, Sikkim and Nepaul border it on the 
 south and southwest, and the latter and Russia on 
 the west. 
 
 China Proper, or that portion which is distinctively 
 
 Chinese in civilization and autonomy, embraces only 
 about half of this vast empire, yet it has an area 
 nearly equal to that of Germany, Austria, France, 
 Italy, Spain, Norway and Sweden, and the British 
 Isles united, having a coast-line of about the same 
 contour and length as that of the United States on 
 the Atlantic, and a land frontier estimated at 4,400 
 miles. With the exception of an inconsiderable 
 projection in the northeast, between the Gulf of 
 Pe-chi-li and Corea, it corresponds in latitude with 
 that portion of the United States south of the south- 
 ern line of New York State and that part of Mex- 
 ico north of the city of Vera Cruz. It lies south of 
 all Europe, except the southern portions of the Span- 
 ish, Roman and Grecian peninsulas and their out- 
 lying islands. About half of China Proper is hilly 
 or mountainous, containing a large proportion of 
 lands which cannot be cultivated even by the labori- 
 ous methods of terrace-farming and artificial irri- 
 gation, so largely practiced in that country. 
 
 From its southernmost limit, on the gulf of Ton- 
 quin, to the Chusan Archipelago, nearly a thousand 
 miles northward, the lookout of China on the sea is 
 indescribably cheerless. A range of disintegrated 
 granite mountains frowns, or, under a tropical sun, 
 glares, on the passing voyager all the way. Treeless, 
 shrubless, almost bladeless, their flanks of rotten 
 granite gullied into red and yellow gulches, and their 
 
 ( 434 ) 
 
CUSTOM HOUSE, SHANGHAI. 
 
fi> 
 
 
 CHINESE EMPIRE. 
 
 437 
 
 intervening ridges and summits heaped with black- 
 ened boulders, these desolate mountains yield no 
 hint of the rich, populous interior just behind them. 
 But within a hundred and fifty miles of Shanghai 
 the prospect changes. Here the charming Chusan 
 Archipelago appears off the Bay of Hangchow. 
 These islands are beautifully terraced from their 
 summits to the sea. Temples perched on the prin- 
 cipal eminences or on the ledges of rocky promon- 
 tories, where they can only be reached by steps cut 
 in the solid rock, stand embowered in lovely groves ; 
 shrines dot the waysides ; walled towns and unwalled 
 villages are seen on every side ; and around all 
 
 glistens the sea, animated 
 
 by gaily pennoned junks and 
 bevies of fishermen’s boats. 
 
 Not far north of these 
 islands appears the low, flat, 
 alluvial plain, on the edge 
 of which stands Shanghai, 
 ih the delta of the river 
 Yang-tse-Kiang. This plain 
 is one of the most remark- 
 able geographical develop- 
 ments of China. It extends 
 inland from Shanghai (in 
 north latitude 30° 10') to- 
 wards the south 150 to 250 
 miles ; westward, from 300 
 to 500, and northward about 
 800 miles, to the gates of 
 
 Peking and the base of the mountains over which 
 climbs the great wall, the northern boundary of 
 China proper. From its southern verge, on the bay 
 of Hangchow, to its northern limit, on the gulf of 
 Pe-chi-li, only the bold, mountainous promontory 
 interjected between the Yellow Sea and tlie gulf of 
 Pe-chi-li, constituting the greater part of the prov- 
 ince of Shantung, intervenes between this plain and 
 the ocean. In the interior this vast sea of verdure 
 sweeps northward past the Shantung promontory, 
 comes out to the gulf coast beyond it, and continues 
 about a hundred miles still farther north. From the 
 west the mountain ridges and lines of foot-hills 
 which make the water-shed between the tributaries 
 of the two great water-courses of China, the ^ angtse 
 and the Yellow rivers, project into it. From south 
 to north, through its greatest length, runs the Grand 
 Canal, about 800 miles in length, one of the grand- 
 
 est achievements of man, considering the early age 
 in which it was constructed, whether regarded as a 
 feat of civil engineering, or as a project of political 
 and commercial sagacity. 
 
 This whole plain, except in seasons of extreme 
 drought, or when the Yellow river overflows its 
 banks (which, like those of the lower Mississippi, 
 are in many places higher than the surrounding 
 country) and floods whole districts, is one unbroken 
 sea of harvest. Rice, maize, millet, mulberry, cot- 
 ton, sugar-cane, vegetables of every variety, and or- 
 chards, interspersed with innumerable cities, towns 
 and hamlets, fill the entire region. Westward of this 
 wide, extended plain lie sev- 
 eral large, populous prov- 
 inces of rich valleys and 
 table lands, finely watered 
 by the sources and upper 
 tributaries of the Yang-tse 
 and Yellow Rivers, and va- 
 ried by hill and mountain 
 scenery growing more and 
 more wild and romantic as it 
 extends westward and south- 
 ward, until the limits of 
 China Proper are reached in 
 the lofty mountain chains 
 which make the boundaries 
 of Kokonor and Tibet, and 
 the glaciered heights of the 
 Himalayas. Southward of 
 the Yang-tse river, the mountains and hill coun- 
 try, bordering the Great Plain, are the favorite 
 habitat of the tea-plant. The bulk of the teas 
 and their choicest varieties are produced on the 
 beautifully terraced hill and mountain sides of 
 this rough, broken region. Rice is the principal grain 
 raised in this portion of the country, which yields 
 nearly all the fruits produced in the south-temperate 
 zone and the tropics, in America. Oranges, bana- 
 nas, pomaloes (or shaddocks), peaches, pears, and 
 smaller fruits known in our markets, and mangoes, 
 lichens, arbutus, lungans, carambolas and other fruits 
 peculiar to Asia, grow in abundance. Sweet potatoes 
 and ground-nuts (or peanuts) and yams arc produced 
 in large quantities. 
 
 The rivers of China are numerous, but only a few 
 of them are of great length. The principal of theso 
 are the Hwang-ho, or Yellow river, in the northern 
 
 
 
G 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 G 
 
 CHINESE EMPIRE. 
 
 43 8 
 
 provinces, the Yang-tse-Kiang in the central prov- 
 inces, and the Se-Keang, or Western river, in the 
 south. The Peiho, a narrow and exceedingly tortu- 
 ous stream, in the northeastern province, the Ning- 
 po river, emptying into the Bay of Hangchow, a 
 little south of the Yang-tse, and the river Min, in 
 the province of Fuh-kien, are all navigable for ocean 
 or foreign river steamers only to the head of tide 
 water, a distance of 12 to 100 miles. The Pearl, 
 
 or Canton, river, a branch of the Se-Keang, is now 
 navigable for the same class of vessels about sixty 
 miles. The Yellow river, though a stream of im- 
 mense length and often of enormous volume, has a 
 broad, inconstant channel, full of shifting sand-bars, 
 and is practically unnavigable for anything but 
 small native flat-boats. The one grand river of 
 China is the Yang-tse-Kiang, which is navigated by 
 daily lines of American and English-built steamers, 
 mostly of the Hudson river pattern, for a distance of 
 750 miles, and could be used for several hundred 
 miles further by vessels like those employed on the 
 Ohio and the Upper Mississippi. Rising in the 
 
 province of Tibet, among the Min mountains, it 
 enters the western central province of Sze-Chuen, 
 and, first making a great bend to the north, receiv- 
 ing its chief tributary, the Hean-Keang (a river of 
 about the size of the Ohio), then curvi ng for more 
 than three degrees to the south, it finally bears 
 northward and eastward again, and empties into the 
 Yellow Sea in north latitude 31°. From its source 
 to the sea it traverses not less than 2,900 miles. 
 
 Through the lower 750 miles of its channel it is 
 thronged in all seasons of the year with native craft 
 and large numbers of foreign-built vessels, many of 
 which are owned by native guilds. 
 
 The climate of China Proper corresponds in the 
 main to that of the United States and northern 
 Mexico in the same latitudes. The winter tempera- 
 ture in the northern provinces is rather milder than 
 in the corresponding latitudes of the United States, 
 and is not quite so mild as in the same belts of Eu- 
 rope. On the other hand, the summer heat aver- 
 ages somewhat higher than it does in this country 
 and Europe. 
 
 o 
 
 * 
 
 Is 
 
 
* 
 
 CHINESE EMPIRE. 
 
 This may be due in part to the fact that so large 
 a portion of China is denuded of forests ; which also 
 accounts for the small rainfall and slight humidity 
 of many parts of the country, and frequent famines 
 consequent thereon. The most thickly settled parts 
 of the country, whether in the plains or in the 
 mountains, are quite bare of timber, the exceptions 
 being chiefly the groves around the temples and 
 monasteries of the several religious orders ; where the 
 priests protect the trees, partly for the purposes of 
 ornament and the delectation of themselves and the 
 devotees who throng here in the hot season to enjoy 
 the cooling shade and romantic beauty of these syl- 
 van retreats, and partly as a source of revenue. For 
 lumber and wood-fuel the most populous regions 
 are now dependent mainly on the timbered districts 
 far back in the sparsely inhabited mountain regions, 
 or upon importations by sea. 
 
 China, one name of which is “ The Central Flow- 
 ery Kingdom,” is unusually rich in the variety 
 and commercial value of its flora ; particularly as re- 
 gards its shrubs and flowering plants and trees. 
 Through the painstaking efforts of early Dutch and 
 English gardeners many of the latter have been ac- 
 climated in Europe, and distributed from Holland 
 and England into the gardens and hot-liouses of all 
 the civilized world. Of the useful shrubs and trees 
 whose products are eagerly sought for by all nations, 
 the list is remarkably long. The principal ones are 
 the tea-plant, cinnamon, camphor, the mulberry- 
 tree, ginger, rhubarb and ginseng. 
 
 Comparatively little is known of the geology and 
 mineralogy of this country. It is certain, however, 
 that northern China is largely covered with the loess 
 formation, identical in nature with the loess of the 
 Rhine, and the similar formation covering eastern 
 Kansas, Nebraska, and southeastern Dakota to the 
 depth of from fifty to several hundred feet. No 
 more fertile soil and subsoil have been discovered in 
 any land. The mountains and hills of southern 
 China are for the most part of igneous origin — 
 composed largely of a rotten feldspathic granite, 
 easily excavated with the pickaxe, interspersed with 
 quartzose boulders and blocks of gneiss. 
 
 Iron, copper and coal are known to exist, the lat- 
 ter of good quality and in large quantities, and of 
 late the Chinese government has consented to the 
 employment of foreign capital and mechanical ap- 
 pliances for mining it. Petroleum has been discov- 
 
 439 
 
 ered in several parts of the country, and if foreigners 
 were permitted to explore for it by right methods 
 there is good reason to believe it would be found in 
 paying quantities. China imports many thousand 
 gallons of kerosene from America every year, and 
 the trade is constantly increasing at a rapid rate — 
 when a little encouragement from the Chinese gov- 
 ernment would lead to home manufacture equal to 
 all their present demands, and much more. Gold 
 and silver are found hi small quantities, but the 
 government jealously restricts information of this 
 nature, and the product is a matter of mere conjec- 
 ture. The mineral wealth of this great empire lies 
 as yet undeveloped. When Western learning has 
 raised up a class of Chinese scientists and civil en- 
 gineers, and the imperial government becomes more 
 tolerant of foreign enterprise, then the rich mineral 
 treasures of China will burst into view in the midst 
 of the hundreds of millions of people that crowd 
 Asia in all quarters, and the stories of the caves of 
 Aladdin will be surpassed by the new-found wealth 
 of Cathay. Already enough is known of these re- 
 gions to warrant the fulfillment of this prediction. 
 
 The fauna of this empire comprehends all the 
 genera and most of the species of animals known to 
 Asia. All the domestic animals of Europe and 
 North America are found here. Tigers, lions, leop- 
 ards, and other beasts of prey haunt its southern 
 and southwestern jungles ; apes and monkeys are 
 found in the districts bordering on Cochin-China ; 
 and the Bactrian camel and the elephant are reared 
 in the west and southwest, from which regions 
 troops of camels come and go along the great cara- 
 van routes of Central Asia. Venomous reptiles are 
 numerous, of which the most dreaded is the cobnq 
 the scourge of India. Birds of innumerable varie- 
 ties, from the diminutive humming-bird to the con- 
 dor and the eagle, are native to the country. Among 
 those remarkable for the beauty of their plumage 
 are the silver and the golden pheasant, the argus- 
 bird, paroquets of several varieties, the cockatoo, 
 the peacock, the mandarin duck, and humming-birds 
 of more than a dozen species — “flying flowers,” as the 
 Chinese call them. Food birds of delicious quality 
 are found in large quantities, including the rice- 
 bird, quails, snipe, woodcocks, pigeons, pheasants, 
 and ducks and geese, both wild and tame. Fish of 
 excellent sorts are taken in largo quantities from 
 the rivers and along the coast, and arc raised in arti- 
 
\]GL 
 
 440 
 
 CHINESE EMPIRE. 
 
 ficial ponds, this kind of food being the main re- 
 liance of a large proportion of the inhabitants for 
 their supply of meat-food, particularly in the south- 
 eastern provinces. 
 
 North of China Proper lie Corea and Manchuria. 
 The former maintains the most complete self-isola- 
 tion, excluding foreigners from direct social or com- 
 mercial intercourse, with a rigor unknown to the 
 Japanese at the time that Commodore Perry first 
 visited them, to negotiate the treaty that has succeed- 
 ed in bringing Japan into the general comity of na- 
 tions. It is death for a foreigner to enter Corea with- 
 
 seen of this scaled and mysterious land. Man- 
 churia, the native • land of the present Tartar 
 dynasty of China, lies north of Corea and China 
 Proper, stretching northward to the Amoor river. 
 It is composed in large part of delightfully di- 
 versified regions of fertile hills and vales, covered 
 with extensive forests, broad native parks of oak 
 openings, and vast areas of prairie land, nearly all 
 lying within the same latitudes as Iowa and Min- 
 nesota, or France and Northern Spain. Other por- 
 tions of it are rugged and mountainous, bleak and 
 barren. This entire country is divided into three 
 
 out special permit, and the latter is very rarely given, 
 and then under the severest restrictions and a sys- 
 tem of intolerable espionage. It is for the most 
 part a fertile country, well diversified with hill and 
 vale. The government is a despotism. Still people 
 are industrious, and seem to be contented. Suffering 
 for lack of the necessities of life is thought to be 
 almost unknown. The attempts of the United States 
 to lead the rest of the world in opening the ports of 
 Corea to commerce, as it opened Japan, although 
 persistent, have effected little beyond the ameliora- 
 tion of the condition of sailors wrecked upon that 
 coast. Such unfortunates were, until very lately, 
 either massacred or held in perpetual slavery in 
 Corea, to prevent their reporting what they had 
 
 sub-provinces : Moukden (or Shin-king), Kirin, and 
 Tsi-sti-har, of all which a great part is believed to 
 be as capable of high cultivation as the American 
 and European States generally are. Yet, with the ex- 
 ception of the small district of Moukden, which 
 contains a considerable population of Chinese ag- 
 riculturists, mechanics and traders, it is still the 
 home of nomads, a region roamed over by a people 
 scarcely more nearly assimilated to Chinese civiliza- 
 tion than are the Sioux of Dakota to that of the 
 adjacent American States. The merchants of the 
 few rudely constructed trading towns and stations 
 of this region are Chinese ; the Tartars them- 
 selves preferring to live by the chase, fishing^ 
 and a rude style of agriculture but little bet- 
 
 
 CHINESE STREET SCENE. 
 
 < 5 " 
 
A 
 
 
 CHINESE EMPIRE. 
 
 44 ] 
 
 
 ter than that practiced by the North American 
 Indians before recent efforts to civilize the latter. 
 In fact, not only in this respect, but in many 
 other of their practices in peace and in war, as 
 well as in physiological distinctions, they bear 
 striking resemblances to several North American 
 tribes. 
 
 Mongolia lies west of Manchuria, on nearly the 
 same parallels. It has the lofty Altai Mountains in 
 the north, the snow-covered Ala-shan and Kin-shan 
 
 subject to the ruling dynasty of China, to which the 
 Mongols acknowledge hereditary allegiance, while 
 they maintain their ancient Tartar form of gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 South of Mongolia, and directly west of China 
 Proper, are piled the mountains of Kokinor and 
 Tibet, with their glaciers surpassing those of all 
 the world besides, and their intervening fertile valleys 
 and plains and burning deserts. Tibet is the tlirone- 
 land of the Grand Llama, who is pope to a church of 
 
 Mountains in the south, and several lateral ranges, 
 between which extend plateaus of different degrees of 
 elevation, from 900 feet to over 3,000 feet above 
 the ocean. There are many dreary deserts in this 
 immense country, but, on the other hand, there are 
 broad areas of fertile prairie land and rich hill and 
 valley country, as capable of producing enormous 
 crops of wheat and maize as are the plains of Kan- 
 sas and Nebraska. But with the exception of lim- 
 ited portions settled in part by Chinese agriculturists 
 and traders, they are under the control of nomads, 
 in a state of semi-barbarism, kindred to that of the 
 Manchus. Mongolia is rather nominally than really 
 
 many millions more than confess allegiance to the 
 Homan pontiff. He resides at the sacred city of Lassa, 
 renowned in all Buddhist countries for its holy tem- 
 ples and immense monasteries. The people are en- 
 gaged chiefly in agriculture, herding, and a rude form 
 of mining for silver, gold, copper and precious stones. 
 Most of them live in tho greatest poverty, the prey of 
 despotic rulers and swarms of idle monks who 
 infest the countless monasteries and constitute a 
 larger ratio of tho population than the religious 
 orders in any other part of the globe. Tho history 
 and civilization of tho Chinese people will form tho 
 subject of another chapter. 
 
 © 
 
CHAPTER L X X. 
 
 The China of Fable — Table of Dynasties — The Age of Confucius, and the Great Wall — 
 Peace on Earth— T nE Most Civilized Land — Kublai Kahn and Marco Polo — Inter- 
 national Commercial Intercourse — Population of China — The Goaernment — Revenue 
 and Taxation — Peculiarities of the People — Food — Occupation — Architecture and Art 
 — Education and Office-holding — The Hanlin University — Religion of China. 
 
 1 IIINA is undoubtedly the old- 
 est of now existing nations. 
 Its ports, like those of Greece, 
 claim eons upon eons when 
 the earth was filled with de- 
 migods, demons and giants. 
 Some of these fables refer the 
 origin of man to a point of 
 time more than 2,800,000 years an- 
 tecedent to the birth of Christ. The 
 earliest epoch of rational Chinese his- 
 tory begins with the reign of Fulii, 2,825 
 years before Christ, or only 303 years 
 after the deluge — reckoning according to 
 Hales’ Chronology, which nearly corre- 
 sponds with that of the Septuagint. Per- 
 haps some credence is due to the tradi- 
 tions of the two fable-obscured sovereigns immedi- 
 ately preceding Fulii. One of these, Yu-chow, is 
 said to have led the Chinese into China from the 
 far West, down the left bank of the Yellow river, 
 and to have settled them in some measure, in its 
 great bend, in the province of Shansi, teaching 
 them to exchange their shifting tents for huts of 
 boughs and trees. His successor, Sin-jin, the 
 “ Preacher of Righteousness,” laid the foundation of 
 the Chinese war-ship of Shang-te, the “ Supreme 
 
 Ruler,” which is the only state religion of China to 
 this day, and of which the emperor is the sole priest. 
 He was also, they believe, the discoverer of fire, by 
 friction of two pieces of wood. However that may 
 be, he encouraged his people to set up permanent 
 homes and hearths, and abandon nomadic life. 
 
 Fulii, who began his reign B. C. 2,852, organized 
 the people into tribes with distinct names, heads, 
 and judges. He also discovered iron, and taught 
 men to use it for implements of peace and war. He 
 was the Tubal-Cain of China. After reigning 115 
 years, he was succeeded by his son, Sliimiung, the 
 “ Divine Husbandman,” who invented the plow, and 
 encouraged men to engage in agriculture, and taught 
 them the use of herbs. He reigned 140 years, and 
 was succeeded by the usurper, Hwang-ti, about B. C. 
 2,697. Hwang-ti was a great general and a wise 
 ruler. He taught the people arts and manufactures, 
 encouraged learning, and instituted the sexegenary 
 cycle, by which the Chinese still reckon time. The 
 first of these cycles dates from the sixty-first year of 
 Hwang-ti’s reign, or B. C. 2,637, i. e., 518 years af- 
 ter the Deluge. He seems to have had no little 
 knowledge of astronomy, and he established the 
 Chinese calendar with a true understanding of the 
 length of the year, not recognized by the Romans 
 until nearly 2,650 years later. His wife, Seling, in- 
 
 
 ^7 
 
 ( 44 2 ) 
 
\ 
 
 k_ 
 
 THE CHINESE. 
 
 443 
 
 vented and taught the art of silk-spinning and 
 weaving. He reigned 100 years and was succeeded 
 by three kings of much less importance, when the 
 reign of Yau the Great began, B. C. 2357. Here 
 commences the authentic history of this wonderful 
 nation. The historical writings of Confucius, the 
 records of his great book, the “Shuking,” go no 
 farther back than Yau. Under this sovereign and 
 his successor, Shun, there was a remarkable flood, 
 or overflow of the Yellow river, along which the 
 densest population had settled. Shun called Yu to 
 his aid, and by deepening the bed of the river, open- 
 ing new channels, and casting up dikes, the inunda- 
 tion was assuaged and the fields reclaimed. Yu 
 became the founder of the first Chinese dynasty, 
 that of Hia. The sovereignty, theretofore regarded 
 as elective, became from this time on hereditary in 
 the eldest son; and the records cease to claim for 
 sovereigns reigns of improbable duration. It is im- 
 possible in this volume to do more than name the 
 several dynasties which from that time have ruled 
 the destinies of China, as in the following table 
 
 Dynasties. Founder 
 
 Hia 
 
 Shang 
 
 Chau. 
 
 Tsin 
 
 Han 
 
 After Han.. 
 
 Tsin 
 
 Sung 
 
 Tsi 
 
 Liang 
 
 Chin 
 
 Sin 
 
 Tang 
 
 After Liang. 
 After Tang. 
 After Tsin. 
 After Han. 
 After Chau. 
 Interregnum 
 
 Sung 
 
 S. Sung 
 
 Yuen.. 
 
 Ming . 
 
 Tsing . 
 
 Y u, the Great 
 
 Ching-tang 
 
 Wu-Wang 
 
 Chwang-siang 
 
 Liu-Pang 
 
 Liu-Yu 
 
 Kau-ti 
 
 Wu-ti 
 
 Yang-Kicn 
 
 Li-Yuen 
 
 Chwang-Tsung 
 
 Ko-Wei 
 
 Kublai Kahn 
 
 llung-Wu 
 
 Sun-chi 
 
 No. Sov- 
 ereigns. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Eras. 
 
 17 
 
 439 
 
 B. C. 2205 to B. C. 1766. 
 
 28 
 
 644 
 
 B. C. 1766 to B. C. 1122. 
 
 35 
 
 873 
 
 B. C. 1122 to B. C. 249. 
 
 3 
 
 47 
 
 B C. 249 to B. C. 202. 
 
 26 
 
 423 
 
 B. C. 202 to A. D. 221. 
 
 2 
 
 44 
 
 A. D. 221 to A. I). 265. 
 
 15 
 
 155 
 
 A. D. 265 to A. D. 420. 
 
 8 
 
 59 
 
 A. I). 420 to A. I). 479. 
 
 5 
 
 23 
 
 A. D. 479 to A. D. 502. 
 
 4 
 
 55 
 
 A. D. 502 to A. D. 557. 
 
 
 30 
 
 A. D. 557 to A. D. 587. 
 
 
 31 
 
 A. D. 587 to A. 1), 618. 
 
 20 
 
 289 
 
 A. I). 618 to A. D. 907. 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 A. D. 907 to A. D. 923. 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 A. D. 923 to A. D. 936, 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 A. D. 936 to A. D. 947. 
 
 
 4 
 
 A. D. 947 to A. D. 951. 
 
 
 9 
 
 A. I). 951 to A. D. 960. 
 
 
 10 
 
 A. D. 960 to A. D. 970. 
 
 9 
 
 157 
 
 A. I). 970 to A. D. 1127. 
 
 9 
 
 153 
 
 A. D. 1127 to A. D. 1280. 
 
 
 88 
 
 A. I). 1280 to A. I). 1368. 
 
 10 
 
 276 
 
 A. D. 1368 to A. D. 1644. 
 
 9 
 
 
 A. D. 1644 to 
 
 The third dynasty is remarkable for its great 
 length of rule, 873 years — the longest known to his- 
 tory. It was during the sixth century of this dynasty 
 that Confucius arose. The country increased in 
 population and developed in resources during this 
 long period, notwithstanding the many internecine 
 wars growing out of the resistance of feudatory 
 lords to the power of the emperor. Learning was 
 cherished, and men of letters were conspicuous in 
 the councils of the government. The usurper, 
 Chwang-Siang-Wang, after having exterminated the 
 
 last of the Chau dynasty, and reduced all the petty 
 states to his sway, assumed the name of “ The First 
 Emperor,” and addressed himself to the extinction 
 of all past history. He ordered the principal schol- 
 ars of the realm to be put to death, all books were 
 to be delivered up to be destroyed, under penalty of 
 death, and the royal and provincial libraries were 
 burned. The loss to China and the world can never 
 be estimated. 
 
 Although this emperor was one of the greatest 
 military commanders in all Chinese history, and 
 although he constructed bridges, dikes, canals, and 
 many other public works, crowning all his feats of 
 civil engineering by building the Great Wall of 
 China, one of the marvels of the world, the name of 
 this vandal emperor lives now mostly in execration. 
 His dynasty survived him only seven years. 
 
 It is a singular coincidence that the succeeding 
 dynasty, the last of the old era of the world and the 
 beginning of the Christian era, was remarkable for 
 the progress of the nation in the arts of peace, and 
 that at the same time that the Roman Empire was 
 at peace witii the world, and Jesus was born in Beth- 
 lehem, the Emperor Ping-ti (signifying “ peace ”) was 
 enjoying a quiet reign in China. 
 
 Owing to the Weakness of the last of the Han dy- 
 nasty, and the quarrels attending the attempts to set 
 up its successor, the empire became divided into 
 three principalities. The divisions were not over- 
 come and the country reunited until nearly four 
 hundred years later, under the strong government 
 of Yang-Kien, or Kautsu. One of the most illustri- 
 ous dynasties in Chinese history was that of Tang, 
 extending from A. U. 618 to A. I). 905, when, as 
 that learned American sinologue, S. Wells Williams, 
 has well said, “China was probably the most civil- 
 ized country on earth” — Europe being then “ wrapped 
 in the ignorance and degradation of the Middle 
 Ages.” Taitsung, the second of this dynasty, es- 
 tablished schools, instituted the present system of 
 literary examinations, and made appointment to 
 ofliee conditional first of all upon the rank secured 
 in these scholastic examinations. He extended his 
 empire over all the countries now subject to China, 
 and even beyond these limits. 
 
 The Yuen dynasty, that of the Mongol Tartars, 
 was founded by Kublai, grandson of Genghis Khan, 
 the terrible Tartar chief who overran all Asia and 
 Western Europe. It was during Kublai’s rule that 
 
 
Q_ 
 
 3 
 
 444 
 
 THE CHINESE. 
 
 Marco Polo visited China, and on his return amazed 
 all Europe by his truthful narrative of the high civili- 
 zation, •wealth and magnificence of “ Cathay.” The 
 Grand Canal was constructed by Kublai, and under 
 him and his grandson the empire enjoyed great 
 prosperity. Their successors were profligate, weak 
 or tyrannical, and after 88 years of Mongol suprem- 
 acy the people threw off the Tartar yoke, and the 
 Chinese dynasty of Ming swayed the imperial scepter 
 for 276 years. 
 
 In 1516, during the reign of Kiah-tsing of this 
 dynasty, the Portuguese came to China. Foreign in- 
 tercourse was soon 
 begun. A Portu- 
 guese colony was 
 begun at Ningpo 
 and a profitable 
 trade established, 
 when a series of 
 acts of piracy and 
 cruel outrages (in- 
 cluding the kid- 
 napping of Chinese 
 to be sold into slav- 
 ery), committed by 
 the commanders 
 and owners of Por- 
 tuguese vessels, led 
 to the expulsion of 
 the foreign traders. 
 
 Acts of rapacity 
 committed by oth- 
 er foreigners and, 
 later, the quarrels of the Roman Catholic mission- 
 aries of different orders, are chiefly responsible for 
 that spirit of suspicion and exclusion which has 
 ever since, to a greater or less degree, marked the 
 Chinese treatment of foreigners. 
 
 The Dutch first became known to the Chinese in 
 a naval attack upon the Portuguese settlement at 
 Macao, in 1622. Beaten off, they took forcible pos- 
 session of the Pescadores islands in the China Sea, 
 to the great annoyance of the Portuguese of the 
 China coast and the Spaniards of the Philippine 
 islands, as well as of the Chinese. After this, in 
 1624, they seized a portion of the island of For- 
 mosa, and held it by force for 28 years. The English 
 appeared off the mouth of the Canton river in May, 
 1637, and asked permission to trade. Partly by 
 
 force, they succeeded in disposing of their goods and 
 obtaining cargoes. No further attempt was made 
 until 27 years later, when the East India Company 
 sent a single vessel to Macao, but, through the jeal- 
 ous treatment of the Portuguese, failed to dispose 
 of its cargo. Some desultory commerce was carried 
 on at Formosa and Amoy. At last the English se- 
 cured trading privileges at Canton in 1684. Their 
 commerce with this country was of small impor- 
 tance, however, until the opening of the present cen- 
 tury, when the opium trade set in. This soon assum- 
 ed frightful proportions. The Chinese strove to ex- 
 clude it, but it was 
 smuggled into the 
 country under cov- 
 er of the arma- 
 ments of the cor- 
 rupt East India 
 Company and hire 
 of the English flag 
 to Chinese and Por- 
 tuguese coast-trad- 
 ers. This led to 
 the Anglo-Chinese 
 war, known as 
 the “Opium War,” 
 closing with the 
 treaty of Nanking, 
 and the compul- 
 sory opening of five 
 Chinese ports in 
 1842. The first 
 American vessel 
 engaged in the China trade, the Empress, set 
 sail frftm New York in 1784, only six months 
 after the definitive treaty of peace with Great 
 Britain acknowledging American independence. It 
 made a successful voyage. The first American treaty 
 of amity and commerce between the United States 
 and China was negotiated at Macao in 1844. Nearly 
 all the commercial nations of the earth are now hi 
 liberal treaty relations with the Chinese, securing to 
 them, among other rights, the privilege of trading 
 at twenty-one ports ; of traveling in the country ; of 
 enjoying and disseminating tlieir religious doctrines ; 
 and, what is still more noteworthy, the jurisdiction 
 of their consuls in all actions for debt or damages, 
 or prosecution for offenses of any kind committed 
 by their subjects on Chinese soil. 
 
■it 
 
 THE CHINESE. 
 
 In 1872, according to the returns of the Imperial 
 customs, there were 3,661 foreigners in China, of 
 whom 1,771 were natives of Great Britain and Ire- 
 land, 1,541 of the United States, 481 of Germany, 
 and 239 of France. More than half of all these, or 
 2,047, were at Shanghai, and 308 at Canton, leaving 
 1,306 scattered among the other treaty ports, at 
 Peking, and at the several mission stations. This 
 does not include the foreigners at the Portuguese city 
 of Macao, and at the British island of IIong-Kong. 
 
 445 
 
 mile. The most densely inhabited portions of both 
 countries show a much larger average. The rich, 
 alluvial Chinese provinces of Kiangsu, Anhevei, 
 and Chehkiang, in the Great Plain of China, aver- 
 age 850,705, and 671 inhabitants, respectively, per 
 square mile. These are the most densely populated 
 provinces. The Belgian provinces of Brabant, East 
 Flanders, and Hainault average fully as dense a 
 population as this ; or, severally, 771, 760, and 679 
 per square mile. Behm and Wagner estimate the 
 
 VIEW OF NINGPO, CHINA 
 
 The population of the entire Chinese empire is 
 still an indeterminate problem, since the statistics 
 of the dependencies are mere estimates. These are 
 as follows : population of Manchuria, 6,000,000, of 
 which the semi-civilized province of Moukden, or 
 Shinking, contains 2,187,286 ; of Mongolia, 3,000,- 
 000 ; of Tibet, 6,000,000, and of Corea, 8,000,000. 
 The population of China Proper is known with about 
 as great certainty as that of most European and 
 American countries. According to the latest official 
 returns, the Eighteen Provinces contained 360,279,- 
 079 inhabitants, or 277 per square mile. There is 
 no good reason to believe that this is an exaggera- 
 tion. Belgium lias over 480 inhabitants per square 
 
 total population of the Chinese Empire, excluding 
 Eastern Turkestan, at 425,000,000, which is in ex- 
 cess of the above figures. 
 
 The government of China is practically dual; a 
 democracy within an autocracy. From the ancient 
 patriarchal times there has come down a system of 
 elders, chosen by the people to act as arbitrators in 
 matters of disagreement and preserve the peace. 
 As a rule their administration is eminently mild and 
 just ; which cannot always he said of the imperial 
 rule. The imperial government is wholly vested, 
 theoretically, in the llwang-ti, or emperor. Under 
 the title of Tien-tzi, “ Son of Heaven,” lie is both 
 the spiritual and secular he;id of the nation, clothed 
 
 A 
 
 a 
 
 > 
 
 
 
< 
 
 71 
 
 re .. e> 
 
 446 THE CHINESE. 
 
 with the highest legislative and executive authority, 
 without limit or control. But in reality he is re- 
 stricted and held in by time-honored and sacred 
 customs, which have all the potency of a written 
 constitution. The emperor is the sole liigh-priest of 
 the empire. He, with his representatives, perform 
 the great religious ceremonies at the Temple of 
 Heaven, the Temple of Agriculture and elsewhere. 
 No ecclesiastical hierarchy is maintained at the pub- 
 lic expense ; nor is there any priesthood attached to 
 the Confucian or state religion. 
 
 The succession since 1644 has not been hereditary, 
 but the emperor names his successor — any member 
 of the imperial family, within certain limits. The 
 administration of the empire is under the supreme di- 
 rection of the Interior Council Chamber, comprising 
 four members — two Tartar and two Chinese — assist- 
 ed by two members of the Hanlin, or Great College 
 of Peking, who have to see that nothing is done 
 contrary to the civil and religious laws of the em- 
 pire laid down in the Ta-tsing-hwei-tien (i. e. Col- 
 lected Regulations of the Great Pure Dynasty, the 
 constitution or fundamental law of the empire), and 
 the sacred writings of Confucius. Under this 
 Council, or Imperial Cabinet, are six boards, each of 
 which is presided over by a Tartar and a Chinese : 
 the Board of Civil Appointments and Administra- 
 tion ; the Board of Revenue, regulating all financial 
 affairs ; the Board of Rites and Ceremonies ; the 
 Board of Military affairs ; the Board of Public 
 Works; and the Board of Judiciary — the highest 
 tribunal of criminal jurisdiction. Theoretically in- 
 dependent of the government, and above all these 
 boards, is the Board of Public Censors, of about 40 
 members, under two presidents, one Tartar and one 
 Chinese, who, by the ancient custom of the empire, 
 have each the privilege of presenting any remon- 
 strance to the sovereign. One censor must be pres- 
 ent at the meetings of each of the six boards. This 
 right of remonstrance, like the right of petition in the 
 United States, is generally regarded as sacred and 
 inalienable, and is exercised with a large degree of 
 freedom. 
 
 Great effort is made in this constitution to pre- 
 serve a balance of power between the Chinese and 
 the Tartar elements of China Proper — the standing 
 army, however, being at all times largely Tartar. 
 Every province and city has its military head, usually 
 a Tartar, as well as its chief civil magistrate, a Chi- 
 
 nese mandarin. The standing military force of the 
 empire consists of two great divisions — the one com- 
 posed of Tartars, the other of Chinese and other 
 subject races. The latter is used mainly as a con- 
 stabulary force, the former is maintained in garri- 
 sons and fortifications in all the great cities along 
 the coast and on the frontier. China had nothing 
 worthy the name of a navy until 18??, when the 
 government purchased four admirably constructed 
 English-built iron gun-boats of about 450 tons each. 
 
 To these they added in 18?9 four similar ones, and 
 recently they have constructed and equipped several 
 small revenue cutters at their own navy-yards and 
 arsenals. These yards, docks and arsenals, estab- 
 lished with the aid of foreign instructors and me- 
 chanics, are now largely operated by Chinese offi- 
 cials and workmen. This navy is intended only for 
 coast defense and enforcement of the customs laws. 
 
 The public revenue of China of late years has 
 been estimated to average $125,000,000. Only the 
 receipts from custom duties are made public. In 
 1878 these amounted to 12,483,988 haikwan taels, 
 or about $18,725,000. The largest expenditure of 
 the imperial government is for the army — amount- 
 ing to almost $45,000,000 per annum. 
 
 China avoided the dangers of contracting a for- 
 eign debt until 1874, when it negotiated a loan of 
 £627,675 at 8 per cent., secured on the customs rev- 
 enue. In 1878 it negotiated another loan of £1,- 
 604,276 at 8 per cent., secured in the same way. The 
 total foreign imports in 1878 at all the twenty-one 
 open ports amounted to £21,241,208, and the exports 
 to £20,151,654. In the ten years ending 1878 the im- 
 ports increased 18 per cent, and the exports 25 per 
 cent. Of this trade the English get the lion’s share, 
 carrying off in 1878, £14,600,000 of the exports, and 
 giving in exchange £6,608,921 of British home prod- 
 uce and the whole of the balance in opium. There 
 is no way of ascertaining the amount of the domes- 
 tic trade of this populous country, or the volume and 
 worth of the trade carried on with Asia and Europe 
 overland. 
 
 Physically, the Chinese of the Great Plain and 
 Southern China are rather smaller than the average 
 European. Their complexion is considerably lighter 
 than the Hindoos, with that slight yellow or sallow 
 tinge peculiar to the Mongolian race. The cheek- 
 bones are prominent, the shape of the face is as 
 generally round as that of the European is oval. 
 
 

 
 THE CHINESE. 
 
 447 
 
 The hair is straight, coarse and black, the beard is 
 thin (whiskers are scarcely ever seen), the eyes are 
 in all cases black, small and almost invariably ob- 
 lique. The nose is small, and without being flat, is 
 wide and singularly depressed at the lower extrem- 
 ity. The lips are seldom so thin as in the European 
 type. The hands and feet are small and remarkably 
 well-shapen ; the motions of the body are light, quick 
 
 are secluded, except those of the laboring class, but 
 they have large influence in their homes, where con- 
 jugal and filial affection and respect are accounted 
 the highest virtues. Children, as a rule, are treated 
 with tenderness, and often with excessive indul- 
 gence. 
 
 On the other hand, filial respect and love are man- 
 ifested more generally than hi other nations. The 
 
 TEA GARDENS AT SHANGHAI. 
 
 and often graceful. This is a sketch of the typical 
 Chinaman. The mountaineers, the people of the 
 northwest provinces, and the Formosans, Coreans, 
 and Tartar tribes in general average fully as great 
 height and muscularity as the European or Anglo- 
 American. All of these last-named Asiatics are 
 semi-savage, or, at least, much more ignorant, coarse 
 and fierce than the true Chinaman. The latter is 
 peaceable, industrious, temperate in the use of in- 
 toxicating drinks, frugal, yet kind and hospitable. 
 The elders are sedate, dignified and polite. The 
 younger people are full of good humor and bubbling 
 over with love of social sports and mirth. Women 
 
 doctrine of filial obedience is fundamental in their 
 social, political and religions systems ; the first essen- 
 tial of instruction they receive at home, in school, in 
 society, in and out of oflice. 
 
 Among the vices most common in China, the 
 opium-smoking, which has developed at an alarming 
 rate since the early part of this century, is one of 
 the most destructive. 
 
 As to licentiousness, there is nothing to prove that 
 this people is any more addicted to it than Europe- 
 an races. Polygamy is allowable, and is practiced 
 by men of wealth. Concubinage is honorable ; con- 
 cubines and their children are legitimate, and the 
 
 7 ] 
 
 56 
 

 448 
 
 THE CHINESE. 
 
 law compels the man to provide for them. But 
 the great body of Chinese are monogamists, either 
 from choice or necessity. Infanticide is practiced 
 to some extent, but it is in direct violation of 
 imperial rescripts against it and the popular sen- 
 timent, and there is a benevolent society whose 
 special business is to prevent this crime, and care 
 for foundlings. 
 
 The Chinese seem to have an unaccountable bent 
 for doing tilings in a way directly opposite to the 
 style of doing the same in other lands. The point 
 of their magnetic-needle is toward the south ; the 
 place of honor for their guests is on the left hand ; 
 they wear white as 
 a badge of mourn- 
 ing ; their joiners saw 
 inside of the gauge 
 line, instead of just 
 outside of it, as Eu- 
 ropean joiners do ; 
 and they draw a 
 plane towards them 
 instead of pushing 
 it. Scores of simi- 
 lar inversions of Eu- 
 ropean customs can 
 be recited. They are, 
 perhaps, more sensi- 
 ble than some other 
 people in abjuring 
 artificial heat in 
 their dwellings as 
 much as possible, supplying its place by increas- 
 ing the weight and number of their garments, and 
 wearing furs next the body instead of with the hair 
 outward. The unnatural and barbarous practice of 
 compressing the feet of their fashionable women, and 
 insisting on it as an essential mark of high life, was 
 introduced about A. D. 950. It is the most irration- 
 al of their fashions ; less injurious than such ex- 
 treme compression of the vital organs as is frequent- 
 ly seen in other countries, but equally indefen- 
 sible. The shaven head and long queue of the China- 
 man are badges of loyalty to the Tartar government, 
 liogues, convicts and suspects are compelled to lose 
 their queues and wear their hair long, which is the 
 most effective means conceivable to induce an hon- 
 est Chinaman to Hold on to his queue and keep his 
 head shaved. 
 
 The food of the Chinese is largely rice, millet, or 
 maize, and vegetables, fish and fowl ; which accounts 
 for their living so inexpensively. Their habit of 
 saving everything, of turning everything that is fit 
 for nothing else into manure for the fields, and con- 
 verting it through agriculture into food or other 
 field products, is worthy of universal imitation. The 
 eating of rats and mice is confined to the poorest 
 classes. None of them seem to crave such food, as 
 the Viennese epicure does his fattened snails or the 
 Frenchman his dish of frogs. 
 
 The principal occupations of this people are agri- 
 culture, manufactures and trade. Excepting lit- 
 erature, no pursuit 
 ranks so high in the 
 Chinese code as agri- 
 culture. The Tem- 
 ple of Agriculture 
 occupies a large in- 
 closure in one corner 
 of the Chinese quar- 
 ter of Peking, and 
 there, once every 
 spring, the emperor, 
 accompanied by all 
 his ministers, goes 
 to invoke the bless- 
 ing of Heaven on 
 the toils of the hus- 
 bandman, while he 
 plows a furrow in 
 the sacred field, as 
 an example to all his people. Artificial irriga- 
 tion and fertilization are employed to a remark- 
 able degree, and the soil is made to produce from 
 two to three crops a year, according to climate, 
 from age to age, without impoverishment. 
 
 There was a time when the inventive genius of 
 the Chinese appears to have been as strikingly active 
 as it is now sluggish. The use of the magnetic 
 needle seems to have been discovered as early as in 
 the reign of Ilwang-ti, fully 2,650 years before the 
 opening of our era, although it was not applied to 
 navigation until very much later. Silk spinning 
 and weaving is referred to a still earlier period. 
 Costly furniture, richly embroidered robes, felts, 
 mattings, ornaments of silver, gold, copper and 
 brass, and the use of precious stones, were common 
 in the older dynasties, contemporary with the best 
 
 Is 
 
 rr- 
 
THE CHINESE. 
 
 449 
 
 periods of Egyptian and Assyrian magnificence. 
 Porcelain was made long before tlie Christian era. 
 The origin of paper, the art of printing, gunpowder, 
 and numerous other inventions, are traced back to 
 China at dates varying from 2000 to 9000 years ago. 
 For reasons not well understood, the spirit of in- 
 vention seems to have sunk into lethargy during the 
 last few centuries, and the Chinese busy themselves 
 in repeating the manufactures of their fathers, even 
 the patterns of their costumes having remained 
 unaltered for 
 generations. 
 
 The great 
 quantities of 
 their industri- 
 al productions 
 are beyond any 
 known means 
 of estimate ; 
 besides supply- 
 ing the home 
 wants of their 
 teeming mill- 
 ions, they send 
 their tea, silk, 
 porcelain, mat- 
 tings, drugs, 
 and not less 
 than one hun- 
 dred other ag- 
 ricultural or 
 manufactured 
 articles, to all 
 parts of the 
 world, either 
 in fleets of Chinese junks and foreign vessels, or 
 by caravans overland to various parts of Asia and 
 into Europe. 
 
 Chinese architecture is not of a high order. Their 
 dwellings, for the most part, are of burnt or sun- 
 dried brick and of stone, seldom more than two 
 stories in height. Only the very poorest classes live in 
 huts of bamboo, or mud and straw. Some of their 
 temples, pagodas, palaces, and imperial tombs are 
 works of considerable architectural grandeur, gar- 
 nished without and within with highly colored porce- 
 lains, enameled or glazed bricks, and porcelain 
 figures, bas-reliefs and intaglios of human figures, 
 animals, birds, flowers, fruits, etc. Their sculpturing 
 
 is of little merit, being rather grotesque than nat- 
 ural or of graceful and beautiful designs, and pol- 
 ished execution. Their carving, especially in ivory, 
 is often marvelously elaborate and superb, only lack- 
 ing a few of the characteristics of the most refined 
 art. Some of their India-ink drawings (always 
 excepting the perspective) and their paintings in 
 water-colors of birds, fishes, insects, fruits, flowers, 
 costumes, and other distinct objects, are exquisite. 
 The brilliancy of their water-colors is unsurpassed, 
 
 and European 
 and American 
 artists confess 
 that in some 
 shades of color 
 they have not 
 yet learned to 
 equal them. 
 The use of oil, 
 iii the painting 
 of pictures, the 
 Chinese have 
 never acquired 
 to any com- 
 mendable de- 
 gree ; and very 
 few of them 
 have manifest- 
 ed any consid- 
 erable effort to 
 learn it. Their 
 paintings on 
 porcelains and 
 their fine gild- 
 ing in lacquer 
 are justly admired the world over, — although these 
 have stiff, hard, realistic features which separate them 
 from superlative art. Feats of civil engineering have 
 been performed by the Chinese which, considering the 
 age in which they were wrought, were truly marvelous. 
 The Great Wall already referred to deserves further 
 attention. Starting at the sea, winding like a hugo 
 serpent along the crests of mountain chains, spanning 
 intervening chasms on enormous arches, it ends at 
 last far out in the Gobi desert, thirteen hundred 
 miles from its point of beginning. It is constructed 
 of huge bricks and stone facings, of from four to ten 
 feet thickness, with fillings of concrete or indurated 
 clay. For most of the immense distance above 
 
 » 
 
 ■+M 
 
s> 
 
 
 k. 
 
 45° 
 
 THE CHINESE. 
 
 given it is thirty feet high, twenty-five feet broad at 
 its base, fifteen feet at its summit, paved on top with 
 brick or flag-stones, protected with crenelated battle- 
 ments, and guarded every few hundred yards with for- 
 tified towers rising forty feet or more above the ground. 
 
 The Grand Canal is still unequaled in length by 
 any other single canal in the world. Its influence in 
 developing China is a study for statesmen of all 
 lands. This is but one of the canals of this country- 
 The great plains of the no^tli and the broad, alluvial 
 delta of the Canton river are ramified in all direc- 
 tions with canals. In no other country, not even 
 excepting Holland, is water so much relied on for 
 transportation. Their means of land carriage are 
 still exceedingly primitive, men being the chief bur- 
 den-bearers in the most thickly populated provinces. 
 Beasts of burden are more numerous in the northern 
 and western provinces. Wheeled vehicles are few. 
 The wheelbarrow is used to a considerable extent in 
 some parts of the country — and along the Grand 
 Canal and in other parts of the Great Plain region 
 they are partly propelled by wind when the direction 
 favors. Few roads are constructed for two-wheeled 
 vehicles, whereas paved roads for footmen are meas- 
 ured by hundreds of thousands of miles. Railroads 
 could be constructed with ease in the greater part of 
 the most fruitful regions of China, but the opposi- 
 tion of the people and of the government, for various 
 reasons, is still unsubdued, although there are indi- 
 cations of late of a better feeling. A telegraph line 
 has been opened between Shanghai and Peking, after 
 long opposition, and it is hoped it will soon lead the 
 way to other modern improvements in communica- 
 tion. The government postal system has been re- 
 stricted, until lately, to government dispatches, and 
 private correspondence has been conducted by pri- 
 vate expresses. Some of the bridges of China, built 
 of marble, granite and other kinds of stone, are 
 fine specimens of engineering skill and artistic taste. 
 There are marble bridges high enough for large 
 junks, witli lowered masts, to pass under. The 
 stone bridges of China, some of them several 
 hundred feet long, are numbered by hundreds — one 
 might say thousands. There are places where 
 roadways have been quarried out of the sides of 
 precipices in the canons of their great rivers, and 
 through mountain passes, on a scale which com- 
 mands admiration for the wisdom of their rulers 
 and great engineers. 
 
 The principal roots of the national existence are 
 its form of local government, hitherto referred to, 
 (the government of towns and city wards by elective 
 elders), and its educational system. The imperial 
 government for nearly fifteen hundred years has 
 intensified the influence of the latter by basing its civil 
 service upon it, making the attainment of the high- 
 est literary degrees a condition precedent to the hon- 
 ors and emoluments of office. There is no heredi- 
 tary civil office but that of emperor, and even that, 
 as previously explained, does not follow the law of 
 primogeniture. All other offices are held up before 
 the sons of the rich and the poor, the sons of the 
 ministers of state and those of the humblest peas- 
 ants and mechanics, as prizes to be contested for, 
 on equal terms, first of all in the schools, which 
 offer them the only portal of admission. Subse- 
 quent promotions depend, except when personal fa- 
 voritism or corruption creeps in, both on scholarship 
 and successful administration. Of course this is a 
 powerful stimulus to the people to educate their 
 children. The government provides a system of ex- 
 aminations, from that of the primary schools up 
 through all the grades to that which admits the gray- 
 haired doctor of philosophy to the Hanlin Univer- 
 sity, “ the college of forty,” from which the emperor 
 selects his Highest civil ministers. The people and 
 their wealthy benefactors provide the schools. The 
 founding of elementary schools and academies is one 
 of the most common, as it is one of the most grate- 
 fully appreciated forms of Chinese benevolence. 
 Very generally the people tithe themselves to main- 
 tain schools, or support them by voluntary subscrip- 
 tions. Men of wealtli employ private tutors. But 
 wherever and howsoever educated, all the pupils 
 must enter the examinations through the one door, 
 and pass the same ordeal. First, there is an exami- 
 nation annually in each district, presided over by the 
 district magistrate assisted by examiners selected 
 from among the elders and the first literati of the 
 district. This examination contains certain sjiecified 
 elementary work in writing, reading, and the memor- 
 izing of precepts inculcating respect and obedience 
 to parents and magistrates, simple lessons in social 
 virtue, the great importance of education, a very 
 limited elementarv knowledge of numbers, £eo<rra- 
 phy and history, the “ five elements,” the four sea- 
 sons, the six principal kinds of grain, the six do- 
 mestic animals, etc. Besides these elements, the 
 
 G' 
 
 "7t 
 
 "3 N 
 
 " 
 
THE CHINESE. 
 
 45 1 
 
 
 children are required to memorize pages on pages of 
 the classics, without being expected to comprehend 
 their meaning until they have advanced years farther 
 in their studies. Those who pass this village exam- 
 ination have their names posted at the entrance of 
 the magistrate’s office, and are said to have earned 
 “the village name.” These may enter, whenever they 
 choose to present themselves, the annual county or 
 district examination, covering a much more arduous 
 field of study. If they 
 pass this ordeal they are 
 said to have earned 
 “ the county name.” 
 
 N ot more than one in a 
 hundred of those who 
 enter the district exam- 
 inations ever attains to 
 this distinction. N one 
 but such as have, how- 
 ever, are permitted to 
 enter the next examin- 
 ation, which is for the 
 first literary degree, 
 carrying the title of 
 “ Beautiful Ability.” 
 
 This entitles the holder 
 to wear “the gilt but- 
 ton,” “ the white robe ” 
 and other insignia of 
 scholarly rank. The 
 curriculum of study up 
 to this point embraces 
 a thorough memori- 
 zing of the classical 
 books of China (the 
 writings of Confucius and his commentators), 
 and a good degree of understanding of the most 
 practical parts of them — including Chinese his- 
 tory, geography, social science and political gov- 
 ernment. From these graduates the army of 
 teachers, scribes, lawyers, and physicians is continu- 
 ally recruited ; but before the citizen can hope to 
 hold any public office above that of constable, he 
 must enter the triennial examinations, held at each 
 of the provincial capitals, and win the second liter- 
 ary title — that of “ Advanced Man.” Preparation 
 for this contest carries him farther and farther into 
 the depths of the Confucian philosophy. It involves 
 great labor, embracing the mastery of the most 
 
 abstruse doctrines of Confucian metaphysics, a 
 good knowledge of the theory and code of the Chi- 
 nese government, and great readiness in the use of 
 the language. The natural sciences, which have 
 gradually wrought their way into the higher schools 
 of Europe and America, and which have done so 
 much to develop these countries within the past one 
 hundred years, are still (with the exception of astron- 
 omy) excluded from the regular curriculum of Chi- 
 nese study, although be- 
 ginning to receive atten- 
 tion in some of the special 
 schools established under 
 government auspices at 
 Peking, and the great 
 centers of foreign trade, 
 Shanghai, Fuchow, Can- 
 ton, Tien-tsin, and other 
 points. 
 
 While comparatively 
 few from the masses of 
 the Chinese people attain 
 to even the first literary 
 rank, it may be truthful- 
 ly said that the multi- 
 tudes are able to read and 
 write in a rudimentary 
 way, if nothing better. 
 There are very few of the 
 common people — of the 
 males — who cannot read 
 the almanac, keep a 
 written memorandum of 
 accounts, and enjoy the 
 popular romance, writ- 
 ten for this class of readers in the limited vocabu- 
 lary of common speech, and found scattered through 
 the huts of the laboring classes and the boats of the 
 river people. The folk-lore of China is voluminous, 
 and their romances of love and war are almost in- 
 numerable. A large part of this stuff is the veriest 
 trash, but in the worthless mass there is a little good 
 wheat which manifests itself in various ways. 
 
 The religion of the Chinese is a strangely confused 
 medley of Confucianism, Taouism, and Buddhism 
 engrafted on the ancient monotheism, which has 
 come down to them from the earliest ages. They 
 have a vague notion of one “ Supreme Euler,” or 
 “ Shang-te,” of whom Confucius taught that it is 
 
 

 45 2 
 
 THE CHINESE. 
 
 impossible for man to know anything clearly. As 
 the Creator and Supreme Ruler of all things ani- 
 mate and inanimate, he is to be regarded with rever- 
 ence. He has established the relations of man to 
 man, and man to the material world ; and to the 
 study of these relations and the duties growing out 
 of them Confucius addressed himself, using all the 
 light that had come down to his time from preced- 
 ing sages. Had he not lent his authority to some 
 of the ancient mysticisms, and hallowed many of 
 the old-time superstitions, had he not inculcated 
 such extreme reverence for the past, and had not 
 his followers, re-inforced by the government educa- 
 tional system, ordained that from generation to 
 generation the whole mind of the ruling class of 
 China shouldbe spent in looking back to the thoughts 
 and practices of the past and patterning after them, 
 it would be difficult to commend the Confucian 
 philosophy too highly. The worship of Shang-te, 
 the Supreme Ruler, as observed by the emperor at 
 the Altar of Heaven, at Peking, is the state relig- 
 ion of China. There at stated periods he stands, 
 as the sole priest and father of his people, under the 
 open sky, with not an idol anywhere in the vast tem- 
 ple enclosure, and burns incense and offers sacrifice 
 to “ Him who rules in the zenith and in the four 
 quarters of heaven ; ” asks forgiveness for the trans- 
 gressions of rulers and people ; and invokes blessings 
 on the nation. Confucius has his temple in every 
 city and considerable town, and honors almost di- 
 vine are paid to him by order of the government ; 
 which exerts its power to increase the popular rever- 
 ence for his teachings. Taouism dates back to the 
 sage, Leaoutze, a contemporary of Confucius. It 
 was originally a non-idolatrous rationalism and spir- 
 itology, which sought to exalt men above their fleshly 
 lusts and into a state of sagely wisdom by the con- 
 templations of reason, very much as Buddhism, 
 which was introduced from India into China 
 about 600 years later, in A. D. 65, sought to pre- 
 pare man by meditation, self-denial, prayers and 
 deeds of humanity for absorption into the essence 
 
 of the divine Buddha. Both of these have degenera- 
 ted into systems of idolatry, superstition, and monk- 
 ish indolence, mendicancy and fraud. Only a few of 
 the most highly educated Confucianists, and about 
 100,000 Christian converts, can be regarded as above 
 subjection to these corrupting forms of religion. 
 
 Slowly, but surely, the ferment of European civ- 
 ilization is working, as may be inferred from some 
 things already said, and many other indications that 
 might be noticed if there were space. The opera- 
 tion of the Chinese foreign customs service, modeled 
 after the English service, has worked a great reform 
 in the collection of the revenue, and has paved the 
 way for other innovations. The establishment of 
 arsenals and navy-yards ; the erection of light- 
 houses ; the re-organization of a portion of the 
 army, which has been armed and drilled by Ameri- 
 can and European tacticians; the education of a 
 large number of Chinese youth in the schools of 
 Europe and America ; the establishment of schools 
 of foreign learning, at Peking and elsewhere ; the 
 adoption of foreign-built vessels for a large part of 
 their river and coast trade ; the introduction of 
 clocks, sewing-machines, and numerous other west- 
 ern inventions ; the progress of missions directed 
 against their superstitions ; the growing use of the 
 public press ; the use of the marine telegraph cable, 
 and the recent establishment of a line of telegraph 
 of several hundred miles in length, — all denote that 
 the progress of the age cannot be stayed, even by 
 Chinese conservatism. 
 
 According to the census of 1880, there are 105,465 
 Chinese in the United States. They are found in 
 every state and territory of the Union, North Car- 
 olina and Vermont alone excepted. At this writing 
 a bill is pending before Congress to prohibit during 
 the next twenty years immigration from China. The 
 Chinese do not come to this country to become 
 Americans, but to remain a fe'w years, and then 
 return to their native land and families. There is 
 to be no disturbance of the Chinese now within the 
 borders of the United States. 
 
 V 
 
 

 E are about to leave the Old 
 World for the New, but 
 before doing so it is pur- 
 posed to gather into* one 
 sheaf the ungarnered 
 wheat of the two oldest 
 continents. 
 
 Of all the continents Asia is the larg- 
 est. According to Behrn and W aguer its 
 area, inclusive of Islands, is 16,924,000 
 square miles. The population is 794,000,- 
 000. The appended table presents the 
 details on this point, the names italicized 
 being those of countries already con- 
 sidered. 
 
 Names. 
 
 Area in 
 Sq. Mi 
 
 Pop. 
 
 Names. 
 
 Area in 
 Sq. Mi. 
 
 Pop. 
 
 Asiatic Russia 
 Chinese Em. . 
 
 Japan 
 
 Anam ) 
 
 Siam V 
 
 Burmah \ 
 British India. 
 
 6.250.000 
 
 4.740.000 
 
 150.000 
 
 752.000 
 
 1.580.000 
 
 12,000,000 
 
 425.000. 000 
 
 35.000. 000 
 
 21.000. 000 
 
 240.000. 000 
 
 Bokhara 
 
 E. Turkestan.. 
 Afghanistan... 
 Beroochistan .. 
 
 Persia 
 
 Arabia 
 
 Turkey ... 
 
 76,000 
 
 590.000 
 
 250.000 
 
 107.000 
 
 680.000 
 1,020,000 
 
 673,000 
 
 2,500.000 
 
 580.000 
 
 .000 
 
 2,000.000 
 
 5.000. 000 
 
 4.000. 000 
 16,500,000 
 
 The Empire of Anam is also known as Cochin- 
 China. It was created about eighty years ago. It 
 is south of China. The government is thoroughly 
 despotic. The emperor rules through mandarin 
 agents. The religion is Buddhism, with a sprink- 
 
 ling of Confucianism among the higher classes. The 
 capital is Hue, at the mouth of the river of the 
 same name. The export is chiefly silk. In the six- 
 teenth century Roman Catholic missions were estab- 
 lished in the country which have continued to flour- 
 ish in spite of persecution. The present Christian 
 population of the empire is about half a million. 
 The Anamese language is very similar to the Chi- 
 nese, and the literature is still more closely allied to 
 that of China. 
 
 No other part of Minor Asia is so important as 
 Siam, “ the kingdom of the free,” as the term im- 
 plies. The freedom referred to is disbelief in Brah- 
 manism. It occupies the middle portion of the In- 
 do-Chinese peninsula. The people arc ardent Bud- 
 dhists. The capital is Bangkok, the “ Venice of the 
 East.” The architecture of Siam is suggestive of 
 Egypt. “ Their structures,” says Leonowens, “ are 
 solid and endurable. The temples are beautifully 
 situated amid spacious avenues of trees, and enclos- 
 ed by gardens, while their tapering, pyramidal 
 roofs, sculptured facades and lofty jirochaidi (spires 
 all painted, gilded and glazed) arc made vocal witli 
 tiny air-bells at all hours of the night and day, and 
 resplendent beyond description in the sunlight.” Of 
 all the nations living almost entirely apart from the 
 outside world, Siam is the only one to have a music 
 
 CHAPTER L XXI . 
 
 Asia in General, Minor Portions in Detail — Anam — Siam— Burmah — Bokhara — East Tur- 
 kestan — Afghanistan— Beloochistan — Arabia— Africa in General and in Detail — 
 Madagascar — Algeria — Morocco — Tunis — Tripoli — Central Africa and Siberia — South 
 Africa — The Dutch and the English — Zululand and the Last of the Bonapartes — St. 
 Helena— Birth-places of the Great Religions of the World. 
 
 ( 453 ^ 
 
 > 
 
k. 
 
 454 MINOR ASIA AND AFRICA. 
 
 which is truly musical, judged from the European 
 or American standard. The tang-wong and taJcay 
 are instruments closely resembling the piano. The 
 art of painting; has been carried to some degree of 
 merit, but architecture is the art most perfected. 
 Watt Phra Kean, or temple of the Emerald God, is 
 a magnificent structure, and there are many tem- 
 ples and palaces of hardly less grandeur. The relig- 
 ion of the country is Buddhism. The ]:>eople are 
 exceptionally moral and observant of the five com- 
 mandments of Buddha : thou shalt not kill, steal, 
 commit adultery, lie, or get drunk — and the posi- 
 tive virtues insisted upon are, reverence for parents, 
 care for children, obedience, gratitude, moderation, 
 fortitude, patience and resignation. The Siamese 
 literature, which is quite full, is largely religious in 
 tone. The people love poetry. The sacred books 
 are numerous and of such a high character that a 
 Christian missionary writes : “ It is difficult to see 
 how the human understanding unaided by revela- 
 tion could soar so high, and, as it were, touch the 
 very throne of God.” 
 
 The government of Siam is a duarchy, there be- 
 ing two kings ; but the second king is hardly more 
 than a vice or lieutenant. About his court is the 
 Council of Twelve, or Cabinet, and when the chief 
 king dies that body may defeat the execution of his 
 will as to his successor on the throne. This veto 
 power is not the only restriction upon royal author- 
 ity. There are laws, written and unwritten, to which 
 he must conform, and which render the government 
 in effect a constitutional monarchy. When General 
 Grant visited the Siamese court in 1878, he found it 
 a seat of learning and justice beyond all anticipa- 
 tion. From 1851 to the present time, the throne has 
 been occupied by a patriot and statesman. First, 
 Malia Mongkut, crowned in 1851, a model gentleman 
 and deep student. Astronomy was his favorite 
 study. His death occurred in 1868, and the same 
 night the Council, Senabawdee, confirmed his eldest 
 son, Somdetch Chowfa Chullalon Korn, as king, and 
 the younger son, Prince George Washington, second 
 king. The latter king had a family of 81 children. 
 Polygamy prevails, and the wealth, social import- 
 ance and rank of a man determines the number of 
 his wives. But in the royal household there can be 
 only two wives whose sons are eligible to the throne. 
 Slavery existed in Siam until 1872, when by royal 
 edict the institution was abolished, or rather, its ab- 
 
 olition began then, for the process was gradual. A 
 system of compensation to masters was adopted 
 which prevented any serious dissatisfaction. 
 
 Siam is sometimes called “The Land of the White 
 Elephant.” Any white animal or bird is held to 
 be almost sacred, as being animated by the pure soul 
 in its metempsychosis. A white elephant is sup- 
 posed to be animated by a deceased king of excep- 
 tional whiteness of character. The palatial stable 
 of the white elephant is guarded from the evil spirits 
 by a white monkey. The same veneration prevails 
 in Burmah for the white elephant, or “ august and 
 glorious mother-descendant of kings and heroes.” 
 
 Burmah is between latitudes 19° and 27° north, 
 and forms a part of what is sometimes called Far- 
 ther India. The soil is productive and the climate 
 agreeable. The mineral wealth of the country is 
 great and varied, including gold, silver, copper, anti- 
 mony, lead, tin, iron, coal and precious stones, such as 
 rubies and sapphires. Rice, corn, cotton, tobacco, 
 indigo and milldt are the chief products of the coun- 
 try. Elephants, tigers, the rhinoceros and the buf- 
 falo are found there, the first and the last being do- 
 mesticated. The people are short, robust and swarthy 
 members of the Mongolian race. Buddhism is the 
 prevailing religion. The ruler of Burmah is abso- 
 lute in his authority, and not even the most horrible 
 abuse of power by the sovereign seems to shake the 
 loyalty of his subjects. 
 
 Bokhara is the name of both a city and a country, 
 the former being the capital of the latter, and the 
 most important commercial city of Central Asia. 
 It has long been famous as a seat of Mohammedan 
 learning. It contains a hundred colleges and has 
 about 10,000 students in attendance. The fierce 
 Tartar, Ghengis Khan, desolated the city in 1230. It 
 was soon restored, so far as possible. The popula- 
 tion is about 100,000. The country of which it is 
 the capital is sometimes called Great Bucharis. With 
 the exception of a little gold in the sands of the 
 Oxus or Amoo river, Bokhara is destitute of miner- 
 als. It is also deficient in timber. The ancient 
 Bactria nearly corresponds to this country. The 
 Russians exercise semi-protectoral jurisdiction over 
 Bokhara. The religion of Islam prevails, and 
 Christianity has no foothold whatever, except as the 
 Russians have given the Greek church a little ad- 
 vancement. No part of the world is more com- 
 pletely isolated than Bokhara. 
 
MINOR ASIA AND AFRICA. 
 
 455 
 
 Turkestan (land of the Turk) is estimated to 
 have an area of 1,576,402 square miles. The west- 
 ern portion is now a part of Russia. It is the home 
 of the ancient Scythians. East Turkestan is nat- 
 urally an arid land. Agriculture requires irrigation. 
 With the aid of mountain torrents tamed and ren- 
 dered supplemental to the plow, the people manage to 
 raise fair crops, generally. The system of govern- 
 ment is exceedingly crude and despotic, the policy 
 being to levy all the tax that the productions of the 
 country would possibly bear. The religion of the 
 inhabitants is Mohammedanism, with a few scat- 
 tered traces of Buddhism, which prevailed until the 
 eighth century. The Chinese long claimed sover- 
 eignty over the country. They were finally expelled 
 from Kashgar, the capital, in 1865, by YakoobBey, 
 who has since attracted some general attention as a 
 brave mountain warrior whose exploits are important 
 from their supposed bearing upon the eastern rival- 
 ries of Russia and England. Formerly the com- 
 merce of the country was conducted by way of 
 China, but now the trade with Russia is very consid- 
 erable. 
 
 Afghanistan, or land of the Afghans, is known 
 in Persia as Wilijet, “ the mother country.” It is the 
 bridge between India and AVestern Asia. It is a very 
 mountainous region. The Afghans are divided into 
 many tribes, each independent of the rest, until re- 
 cently. It was the middle of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury when they became an organized people. The 
 British have repeatedly tried to conquer the country, 
 but the mountains serve as natural fortresses for the 
 natives, and the English were obliged to be content 
 with the establishment of a non-Russian nationality. 
 It is now quite well conceded at London and St. Pe- 
 tersburg that the country shall remain free. The 
 religion of Islam prevails. 
 
 Beloochistan is a part of the same wild and inhos- 
 pitable region as Afghanistan and Turkestan, inhab- 
 ited sparcely by wandering shepherds, subject in a 
 vague way to a despotic khan whose seat of empire 
 is Kelat, which was stormed and taken by the En- 
 glish in 1839. In the sack the khan of the period 
 was slain. Industry is almost unknown. The peo- 
 ple are worshipers of Allah and his prophet Mo- 
 hammed. In the more favored valleys a little rice, 
 tobacco, cotton, barley and indigo are produced. 
 
 Arabia, the land of the Prophet, is a peninsula 
 surrounded by water on all sides except the north, 
 
 where it borders on Turkey. It is a very uninviting 
 country, hot, dry and unproductive. By the aid of 
 irrigation the people manage to coax from the soil 
 meager harvests of coffee, cotton, indigo, tobacco, 
 barley, sugar, and many aromatic plants. Thei’e is 
 really no national government. The Arabs being 
 wandering tribes, each sheik, or patriarch, is a 
 petty tyrant. A few of the people dwell in villages 
 and cultivate the soil, but for the most part they 
 are Bedouins, or predatory and vagabondish tribes. 
 Mecca is the chief city, owing its prominence to the 
 fact that it was the birthplace of Mohammed. The 
 other cities of Arabia are Medina, Loheia, Mocha, 
 
 MOCHA. 
 
 Aden, Muscat, Yemba, and Rostok. Once tire Arab 
 caravans were a very important feature in interna- 
 tional transportation, but they have dwindled into ut- 
 ter insignificance now, and Arabia is interesting only 
 from its suggestions of antiquity. Owing to its deso- 
 lation and sand, the conquerors of the jiast shunned 
 it, and the Arabs were allowed to develop in their own 
 weird way, undistributed by the rise and fall of 
 empires. It can boast a literature which was rich 
 in poetry, at least, before the religious insanity and 
 terrible earnestness of Mohammed had given birth 
 to the Saracen Empire, which was rather an out- 
 growth from than a development of Arabia. The 
 principal exports of the country are dates, coffee, 
 gum arabic, myrrh, aloes, pearls, balsams and other 
 drugs. 
 
 The least important of all the continents, Africa, 
 was the first to attract our attention, including as it 
 does that once splendid country, Egypt. The name 
 itself was not known until after the Romans had 
 
45 6 
 
 MINOR ASIA AND AFRICA. 
 
 come into collision with the Carthaginians. The 
 ancient designation was Libya. Africa extends 
 about 4,500 miles from north to south, and contains 
 an area of 11,600,000 square miles. Its population 
 is a matter of wild conjecture, not far, perhaps, from 
 200,000,000. 
 
 In these estimates Madagascar is included. That 
 is the chief island in the near vicinity of the con- 
 tinent. It has an area of 228,500 square miles, and 
 a population of 5,000,000. Some faint suggestions 
 of civilization are found 
 there, hut that is about 
 all. Very considerable 
 effort has been made to 
 introduce Christianity, 
 and not without some 
 success, especially 
 among the higher clas- 
 ses. The chief city of 
 the island is Tanan- 
 arive, in the interior. 
 
 It has a population of 
 25,000, and carries on a 
 thriving business in 
 gold and silver manu- 
 factories, and in rings. 
 
 The language, Mala- 
 gasy, has been reduced 
 to writing by European 
 missionaries. In the 
 sixteenth, seventeenth 
 and eighteenth cen- 
 turies the island was the 
 resort of pirates who 
 roved the sea in quest 
 of ships laden with the treasures of Indian commerce. 
 
 We return now to the continent of Africa. In 
 remote antiquity none of the continents could com- 
 pare with Africa in the scale of importance. Egypt, 
 as we have seen, was the fountain-head of that 
 mighty stream of civilization which has fertilized 
 the world, and even Ethiopia was not to be despised. 
 Cartilage, the formidable rival of old Rome, and for 
 a long time the queen city of commerce, was located 
 on the African side of the Mediterranean sea. The 
 Saracen Empire was largely African, and the Moors, 
 the noblest race of the medieval age, belonged in 
 part to that continent. But since their day Africa 
 has been little better than a cipher, her unfortunate 
 
 sons the drudges of white masters, and the continent 
 itself contributing very little to the civilization of 
 mankind. It belongs to the past, and perhaps to the 
 future, but in only a very subordinate way to the 
 vital present. Upon its monumental ruins the 
 mind’s eye reads the inscription, “ Ichabod ” — the 
 glory has departed. 
 
 A very lively interest is felt in the geography of 
 Africa, and numerous efforts of great enterprise have 
 been made during the last decade to ascertain what 
 
 are the physical facts in 
 regard to that conti- 
 nent. A recent writer 
 who conceals his name 
 remarks : “ Africa is 
 
 no longer the terra in- 
 cognita that it was in 
 the days when the 
 adults of this gener- 
 ation thumbed their 
 school geographies. 
 Then the vast interior 
 of that mysterious con- 
 tinent was marked as 
 ‘desert’ or ‘uninhab- 
 ited,’ but now we know 
 that numerous oases 
 dot the sandy wastes, 
 and that the supposed 
 ‘ uninhabited regions ’ 
 teem with millions of 
 human beings. To the 
 indefatigable labors 
 and indomitable cour- 
 age of such men as Liv- 
 ingstone, Cameron, Stanley, Grant, Burton, Speke, 
 Pinto, and other explorers ; to the zeal of the mission- 
 aries, and to the ever-pushing spirit of barter, is the 
 world indebted for its present store of knowledge of 
 the Dark Continent. Still, Africa is, in its great inte- 
 rior, comparatively unknown. There are yet vast 
 regions of that continent where the foot of the white 
 man has never trodden, and, on this account, is that 
 country a present favored field of exploration and 
 travel. There are now expeditions engaged in ex- 
 ploring Africa under the direction of societies in 
 Germany, Russia, France, England, Italy, Spain, and 
 other States.” 
 
 In northern Africa there are four countries, each 
 
MINOR ASIA AND AFRICA. 
 
 •V<s 
 
 possessing a very considerable civilization. Decay, 
 but not death, is stamped upon them all. They are, 
 to name them in the order of their importance, 
 Egypt, Algeria, Morocco, Tunis and Tripoli. They 
 all skirt along the Mediterranean on one side and 
 the Sahara on the other. One of them, Morocco, is 
 washed by the Atlantic also. They are strongly, 
 almost wholly, Mohammedan in faith. The excep- 
 tions are mainly Jews. Of the once-flourishing 
 Christian churches which may almost be said to 
 have covered that vast region in the early period of 
 the church, hardly a vestige remains. Islam swept 
 them all away, and is itself secure against dislodg- 
 inent, apparently. From Cairo to Fez, the Prophet 
 and the Koran have absolute sway, and their influ- 
 ence is silently extending southward. In the opin- 
 ion of some eminent authorities Mohammedanism 
 is sure to conquer Africa, not as in its infancy, by 
 the sword, but by the natural affinity between itself 
 and the colored race upon its native sand. In so 
 doing it is displacing most revolting forms and 
 phases of idolatry, and its progress may be viewed 
 with satisfaction. 
 
 We have no occasion here to pause over Egypt. 
 
 A STREET IN ALGIERS. 
 
 Algeria, the most considerable colonial possession of 
 France, swarmed in the early part of this century 
 with pirates, as did all that coast. To the United 
 States is the world principally indebted for the sup- 
 pression of Algerian piracy. The French maintain 
 there an army of 60,000. 
 
 Morocco has a population about the same as Al- 
 geria. It is independent, ruled by a sultan known 
 to his own subjects as “ Absolute Ruler of True Be- 
 lievers.” The dynasty boasts descent from Moham- 
 
 >T*— ^ 
 
 =® £ 
 
 457 
 
 mod’s great son-in-law, Ali. Fez, its capital, is a 
 gloomy town of about 100,000 inhabitants, having 
 the air of being wholly subservient to the sultan and 
 his numerous harem. In the days of Moorish glory, 
 and long into its decline, Fez was a splendid city, 
 but of its splendor there remain only mosques. 
 
 Tunis has recently acquired special prominence. 
 As we write, France is trying to annex it, in effect, to 
 Algeria, and Tripoli is in danger of the same fate. 
 The Bey of Tunis is under treaty obligations to 
 furnish the Ottoman Empire a certain number of 
 troops in time of war. 
 
 Tripoli, the easternmost part of what was once 
 the Barbary States, is small in population and 
 somewhat vague in area. It is little better than a 
 desert, with a few oases. The country is under the 
 rule of an absolute pasha. 
 
 In jiassing from northern to southern Africa, on 
 either side extends the most extensive desert on the 
 globe, the Sahara. It consists of rocky plateaus and 
 mountains separated by immense tracts of barren 
 gravel. South of the Sahara, on the Atlantic coast, 
 is Senegambia, noted only for its exportation of 
 slaves before the traffic was abolished. Just below 
 it is the small and kindred country of Sierra Leone. 
 Inland, and extending indefinitely, is Soudan, a 
 somewhat fertile belt, having for its principal cities, 
 Kano, Kuka, Timbuctoo and Sokoto. The coast 
 from the south line of Liberia southward some 
 twenty degrees below the equator is called Upper 
 and Lower Guinea. Still farther south lies the land 
 of the Hottentots, whose pitiable degradation early 
 eidisted missionary effort. On the eastern coast 
 stretches the same domain of savagery, between the 
 Gulf of Aden and Port Natal, the names Zululand, 
 Mozambique, Sofala, Zanguebar and Soumati stand- 
 ing for parts of the same general country stretching 
 through thirty degrees of latitude and contributing 
 hardly anything except ivory and ostrich feathers to 
 the world. The heat of the climate, except in Zu- 
 luland and Sofala, forbids any considerable civiliza- 
 tion. The one spot at all civilized and occidental 
 in all that vast reach of continent is Liberia, just 
 north of the equator. Moravia is its capital. That 
 republic was founded in 1820 by the American Col- 
 onization Society, which hoped that it would form 
 the nucleus of a general exodus of negroes from this 
 country. But less than twenty thousand American 
 Africans are to be found there. The colored man, 
 
 'v 
 
» 
 
 MINOR ASIA AND AFRICA. 
 
 even in the days of slavery, had no longings for the 
 Canaan of his ancestors. The constitution of Libe- 
 ria was modeled after that of the United States, 
 only white men cannot vote. There are schools and 
 churches fairly well sup- 
 
 people 
 n their 
 
 ported, and the 
 are prosperous i 
 small way. 
 
 The extreme southern 
 point of Africa, Cape 
 of Good Hope, is on 
 about the 35th degree 
 of latitude, and the cli- 
 mate is delightful, re- 
 sembling that at Santi- 
 ago and upon the pam- 
 pas of the Argentine 
 Republic. In that re- 
 mote region are to be 
 found very considerable 
 settlements of Europe- 
 ans, Dutch and English. 
 
 The former went there 
 first, but having no 
 strong home government 
 to protect them, fell into the hands of the English. 
 These Dutch are called Boers. They are an easy- 
 going people, unambitious, luxuriating in exemp- 
 tion from the ex- 
 acting tasks of civ- 
 ilization without 
 being barbarians. 
 
 They are truly Ar- 
 cadian. They love 
 liberty, are virtu- 
 ous, and as indus- 
 trious as their cir- 
 cumstancesrequire. 
 
 The English find 
 it no child’s play 
 to suppress their 
 rebellion. This 
 cluster of Europe- 
 an settlements in 
 South Africa con- 
 
 NATTVE MISSIONARY CHILDREN. 
 
 MISSIONARY RESIDENCE. 
 
 sists of Cape Colony, Natal, Orange River Free 
 State, and Transvaal. Cape Colony was origin- 
 ally founded by Van Riebeck in 1G52, and seemed 
 as promising as English settlements in America. 
 
 It fell into English hands in 1796. The area of 
 this colony is 348,000 square miles and the popu- 
 lation 1,500,000, and of these only about 240,000 
 are of European descent. Wool is the chief export. 
 
 Natal, formerly a part 
 of the Cape settlement, 
 has a European popula- 
 tion of 25,000, and, like 
 the Cape of Good Hope 
 colony, has no increase 
 from without, and is 
 wholly given to sheep- 
 raising. Orange River 
 Free States is a territory 
 west of Natal, occupied 
 by some 40,000 Dutch 
 settlers who would not re- 
 main in Natal after the 
 English had taken pos- 
 session. Transvaal is so 
 named because it is loca- 
 ted beyond the river V aal 
 which divides it from 
 Orange. It was in the 
 valley of this river that 
 diamonds began to be found in such rich abund- 
 ance in 1870. It was to secure these precious stones 
 that the English organized an independent colony 
 
 across the Vaal. It 
 is thought that no 
 country is richer in 
 mineral resources 
 than this part of 
 Africa, but only 
 the diamonds and 
 the gold have been 
 mined. 
 
 J ust north of 
 Natal is Zululand. 
 The natives are 
 fierce warriors, sav- 
 ages of the most 
 dangerous if not 
 the lowest type. 
 They are passion- 
 ately fond of war and the chase. They hate Euro- 
 peans because the tendency of civilization is to lessen 
 game. They have given the English a great deal of 
 trouble, fighting and fleeing as the emergency might 
 
MINOR ASIA AND AFRICA. 
 
 459 
 
 require. At last, however, after a great deal of ex- civilized world for his unhappy mother, while, in an 
 pense and loss of life, these savages have been so far impersonal point of view, it was regarded as an 
 
 * 
 
 it 
 
 - 0 
 
 < 
 
 subdued as to give no serious trouble to the natives. 
 In their subjugation occurred the highly sensation- 
 al death of a 
 young man who 
 may well be call- 
 ed the last of 
 the Bonapartes, 
 the Prince Im- 
 perial, son of 
 Louis Napoleon 
 and Eugenie, 
 lie was a very 
 worthy youth, 
 and in the hope 
 of winning some 
 military renown, 
 he went to that 
 distant land an 
 officer in tiie British army. Ambushed and slain, 
 his melancholy fate excited the sympathy of the 
 
 additional guarantee of republicanism in France. 
 There is no longer any danger from the Bonapartists. 
 
 PORT NATAL. 
 
 Had the son of 
 
 the great 
 
 em- 
 
 peror. 
 
 and 
 
 tlie 
 
 grand nephe 
 
 w of 
 
 the still gre 
 
 ater 
 
 emperor, reti 
 
 urn- 
 
 ed with 
 
 an 1 
 
 ion- 
 
 orable 
 
 military 
 
 record, 
 
 he would 
 
 have 
 
 been 
 
 a 
 
 standin 
 
 g 11 
 
 ueii- 
 
 ace to 
 
 self- 
 
 gov- 
 
 ernmen 
 
 it in 
 
 re- 
 
 publican France. 
 
 It was 
 
 inexj 
 
 ires- 
 
 siblyim 
 
 ilanc 
 
 holy 
 
 fall' a 
 
 vict.ii 
 
 n to 
 
 be said 
 
 that 
 
 . all 
 
 
 
 V 
 
<S 
 
 MINOR ASIA AND AFRICA. 
 
 unconsciously those Kaffirs immolated him upon 
 the altar of French liberty. 
 
 The island of St. Helena is accounted as an Afri- 
 can island, although it is no less than 1,400 miles 
 east of the mainland. It contains only 47 square 
 miles. The nearest land is the Isle of Ascension, 
 and that is 800 miles distant. This solitary and 
 rocky speck in the Atlantic Ocean was rendered fa- 
 
 the really great continents of to-day, Europe and 
 America, borrowed their religion from Asia, and that 
 in the birth-places of the two religions which are 
 supreme in the world, neither has now any foothold. 
 Dr. Hurst divides the world, religiously, thus : Chris- 
 tianity, 418,000,000,000 ; Buddhism, 400,000,000 ; 
 Mohammedanism, 215,000,000; Brahmanism, 175,- 
 000,000; Judaism, 7,000,000; all other forms of 
 
 mous by the fact that Napoleon Bonaparte spent the 
 last years of his life there, the great international 
 prisoner. The otherwise unimportant island has 
 the pre-eminence of being the most august jail the 
 world ever knew, the cage in which the lion of the 
 nineteenth century breathed his last. 
 
 In this chapter the less important portions of 
 two continents have engaged attention, and from 
 the standpoint of the actual both are of trivial im- 
 portance. But it is a remarkable fact, that both of 
 
 religious belief, 174,000,000. Gautama Buddha 
 attempted to reform Brahmanism, and his re- 
 ligion, after a brief home success, was driven out 
 of India, utterly and permanently, as was Chris- 
 tianity out of Palestine. As nearly all Africa 
 seems disposed to accept Islamism, so Asia, except 
 India, Arabia and Persia, unites in worshiping Gau- 
 tama Buddha, who might well say with Jesus Christ, 
 “A prophet is not without honor save in his own 
 country.” 
 
 k 
 
 © 
 
 ► 
 
 > 
 
 9 
 

 CHAPTER LXXII. 
 
 Spanish Thirst for Gold — The Discovery by Cortez— The Aztecs and their Civilization — 
 The Conquest op Mexico — New Spain — Mexican Independence — Civil War and “ Mexi- 
 canization” — Santa Anna and his Political Fortunes— The War between Mexico and 
 the United States and its Territorial Result — Disestablishment of toe Church — 
 Maximilian and the Monroe Doctrine — Juarez and Political Stability — Subsequent 
 Presidents — The Federal System— City of Mexico— Resources of the Country and 
 the Total Yield of Silver and Gold — Agriculture an'd Transportation — Banco 
 N ACIONAI. Mexicano. 
 
 f II E historian Prescott re- 
 marks of the Spaniards 
 who braved the perils of 
 the ocean to follow where 
 Christopher Columbus had 
 led that they were “afflicted 
 with a thirst for which gold 
 was a specific remedy.” 
 Columbus himself wasted much 
 of the time which should have 
 been spent in harvesting the field 
 which he had discovered in a 
 fruitless search for the precious 
 metals. Neither on the islands 
 of the Caribbean sea where he 
 first saw the new world nor on 
 the Atlantic coast were to be 
 found in any considerable quan- 
 tities what they all sought. The gold and the silver 
 lay farther west, in what was long known as New 
 Spain, later as Mexico, and in the region farther 
 south on the Pacific coast. 
 
 Mexico is the southern portion of North America. 
 Its area is 701,040 square miles, and its population 
 about 10,000,000. It was in the year 1519 that 
 Spanish avarice discovered Mexico. Hernando Cortez 
 
 
 landed at what is now Vera Cruz, on the Atlantic, 
 or gulf side of the country, having under his com- 
 mand less than six hundred men. lie had with him 
 two things unknown to the natives, gunpowder and 
 horses. Dr. Draper attributes the fall of aboriginal 
 Mexico to the lack of horses. The country which 
 is now almost overrun with them was then wholly 
 destitute of them. The invader destroyed his ships, 
 to prevent retreat. But before proceeding with the 
 exploits of this intrepid but detestable intruder it 
 may be well to survey the country which he found 
 and despoiled. 
 
 “At the beginning of the sixteenth century,” says 
 Prescott, “ the Aztec dominion reached across the 
 continent, from the Atlantic to the Pacific.” It was 
 a truly magnificent empire. The government was 
 a monarchy, but the monarch was elected, no one 
 being eligible, however, but the brothers or nephews 
 of the late king. A system of hieroglyphics re- 
 sembling the Egyptian was in use, serving as a 
 means of promulgating and preserving laws and 
 records. According to the dubious testimony of 
 Spanish historians the Aztecs sacrificed human be- 
 ings to appease their gods, sometimes immolating 
 upon the altar of worship no loss than 20,000 victims. 
 Of course this must be a gross exaggeration, but the 
 
 -71 
 
 
 (461) 
 
 b 
 
G\ 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 & 
 
 462 MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. 
 
 horrible custom no doubt prevailed. Otherwise the 
 people were far advanced. Their especial excellence 
 was astronomy. In that science they attained re- 
 markable proficiency. They had discovered the 
 cause of eclipses, and the location in the heavens of 
 the more important constellations. They could cal- 
 culate time accurately. They were good farmers, 
 succeeding remarkably well in their agriculture, 
 considering the fact that they had no beasts of 
 burden. 
 
 “ The Aztec character,” to quote farther from 
 Prescott, “ was perfectly 
 original and unique. It 
 was made up of incon- 
 gruities, apparently irre- 
 concilable. It blended 
 into one the marked pe- 
 culiarities of different 
 nations, not only of the 
 same phase of civiliza- 
 tion, but as far removed 
 from each other as the 
 extremes of barbarism 
 and refinement. It may 
 find a fitting parallel in 
 their own wonderful cli- 
 mate, capable of produc- 
 ing on a few square 
 leagues of surface the 
 boundless varieties of 
 vegetable forms which 
 belong to the frozen re- 
 gions of the north, the 
 temperate zone of Eu- 
 rope and the burning 
 skies of Arabia and Hin- 
 dustan.” Cortez found the Aztec throne occupied by 
 Montezuma II. He had succeeded his uncle, the first 
 and great Montezuma, sixteen years before. The 
 uncle had extended his kingdom by the conquests of 
 the Mextecas and the Tlaxcalans. The capital (the 
 city of Mexico) was called Tenochtitlan. The follow- 
 ing description is given of it : “ The city was nine 
 
 miles in circumference and the number of its houses 
 was about 00,000, and of inhabitants probably 500,- 
 000. Though a few of the streets were wide and of 
 great length, most of them were narrow and lined with 
 mean houses. The large streets were intersected by 
 numerous canals crossed by bridges. The palace, 
 
 near the center of the city, was a pile of low, irreg- 
 ular stone buildings of vast extent. It was a walled 
 town, well garrisoned.” The wonderful strangers 
 were treated with cordiality and confidence, at first. 
 Montezuma allotted Cortez a palace for his occu- 
 pancy. This kindness was repaid with treachery 
 and cruelty. The king was seized and imprisoned, 
 his life sacrificed and his capital destroyed. 
 
 The news that Cortez had discovered the ardently 
 sought land of gold and silver some way reached the 
 Spaniards in Cuba and in the mother country. Oth- 
 ers joined him, and with 
 their aid and the aid of 
 tribes hostile to the 
 Aztecs, he succeeded in 
 subjugating the country. 
 In 1522 the invader was 
 appointed governor and 
 captain-general of what 
 was then called New 
 Spain, which position he 
 held without interrup- 
 tion until 1528, when he 
 returned to Spain. After 
 an absence of two years 
 he resumed the gover- 
 norship of New Spain, 
 remaining ten years. In 
 1540 he returned to 
 Spain, dying in 1547. 
 Cortez established sla- 
 very, compelling the na- 
 tives to till the soil and 
 work the mines for their 
 conquerors. They were 
 somewhat skillful in 
 mining, and it was only that feature of the country 
 which interested the Spaniards. 
 
 From the time of Cortez until independence was 
 achieved, about three centuries, there were sixty- 
 four viceroys, or governors. During that period 
 the present Mexican people may be said to have 
 come into existence, for the native is neither Indian 
 nor Spanish, but a mixture of both. For a long 
 time, however, the foreign element was an alien 
 element. Mexico was looked upon by the mother 
 country during all the colonial period, as a good 
 place to accumulate a fortune, but a poor place to 
 enjoy it. 
 
 4- 
 
 
±1 
 
 MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. 
 
 4 6 3 
 
 The native population had its aristocracy. The 
 
 Aztec noble- 
 men were 
 called Ca- 
 ciques. They 
 were never 
 in any sort 
 of personal 
 ser v i t u d e, 
 but as a 
 class they 
 were depriv- 
 ed of the op- 
 portunities 
 
 MEXICAN CACIQUE. which of 
 
 right belonged to them. The Creoles were also de- 
 prived of political privileges. The government was 
 administered, and the army officered, by men sent 
 over from Spain for that purpose. 
 
 The first formidable resistance to the home gov- 
 ernment occurred in 1810, under a priest named 
 Hidalgo. It was soon suppressed and the leader shot. 
 Ten years later a native of Mexico, Hon Augustin 
 Iturbide, came forward as the leader of a movement 
 for independence. The declaration of independence 
 was issued February 24, 1821. The country was 
 ripe for it. In the autumn the colonial government 
 was forced to surrender unconditionally. The viceroy 
 vacated the capital. In the following May the army 
 declared Iturbide emperor. Spain was in no condi- 
 tion to assert its claim to sovereignty. 
 
 But the end was only the beginning. The struggle 
 for independence over, civil war began. In Decem- 
 ber next, Santa Anna, who was destined to be the 
 most prominent man in Mexican affairs for more 
 than thirty years, led a republican movement by 
 proclaiming the republic of Yera Cruz. The coun- 
 try seemed to be on the eve of a protracted civil 
 war. It was averted, temporarily, by the abdication, 
 in March, of Iturbide. lie was exiled and a provis- 
 ional government established. A condition border- 
 ing on anarchy prevailed until October 4, 1824, when 
 a constitution, framed in imitation of the consti- 
 tution of the United States, was adopted. Under 
 that organic law the republic consisted of nineteen 
 states and five territories. The first president was 
 Victoria. Iturbide returned and attempted to re- 
 claim the throne. Ho was defeated, captured and 
 shot. 
 
 SANTA ANNA. 
 
 Affairs moved on tolerably smoothly until 1828, 
 when a presidential election gave rise to another civil 
 war, which resulted in the success of the insurgents. 
 In the year following, Spain so far bestirred itself as 
 to attempt to regain control of the country, but the 
 army sent over for that purpose was defeated in a 
 few months, disbanded and sent to Cuba. That was 
 the end of Spanish intervention in Mexico. 
 
 One insurrection followed another in quick suc- 
 cession for quite a long series of years until a new 
 world was added to the English vocabulary, Mexi- 
 canization becoming a synonym for elections which 
 lead to anarchy. In 1833 Santa 
 Anna came to the fore as presi- 
 dent. He ruled for two years, dur- 
 ing which time a new constitution 
 was adopted under which the au- 
 thority of the central government 
 was greatly increased. In the | 
 meanwhile that portion of Mexico j 
 north of the Rio Grande river re- } 
 
 volted and declared itself inde- 
 pendent, taking the name of 
 Texas. Without anticipating what properly comes 
 under the head of Texas, it may be said the success 
 of that secession had the effect to bring on a relapse 
 rnto anarchy. The president whom Santa Anna 
 had driven into exile, Bustamante, returned and be- 
 came president. That was in 1837. Before the year 
 expired Santa Anna returned and was able to regain 
 much of the reality of power. In 1839 he became 
 the recognized president. In July of the same year 
 General Bravo deposed him and usurped the reins 
 of government. His rule continued just one week. 
 
 Out of the confusion which followed arose a dic- 
 tatorial triumvirate, Santa Anna, Bravo and Canal- 
 izo, being the three rulers* A new constitution was 
 adopted in 1843, under which Santa Anna became 
 president again. Before the year closed ho was de- 
 posed and Canalizo put in his place, but in Decem- 
 ber following still another man. General Herrera, 
 was elevated to the presidency. A year later and 
 General Paredes succeeded him in the same revolu- 
 tionary way. 
 
 In the meanwhile the United States, without just 
 cause, had provoked war with Mexico. That war 
 brought Santa Anna back from exile to be the leading 
 general. The great republic found it an easy task to 
 overrun and override the little republic. In every 
 
 * 7 \ 
 
 58 
 
\e- 
 
 OL. 
 
 4 6 4 
 
 MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. 
 
 engagement the United States was victorious. In 
 1848 a treaty of peace was negotiated, by virtue of 
 which an immense area of country was taken from 
 Mexico and added to the United States, including 
 California, New Mexica, Nevada, and in general the 
 region known as the great mineral belt of this re- 
 public. A territory which had never been of much 
 value to Mexico soon developed such a wealth of 
 gold and silver as to be positively revolutionary to 
 the monetary system of the entire world. 
 
 contract, and the union of church and state abolished. 
 When the United States became involved in civil 
 war the three European powers, France, Spain and 
 England, conceived that the time had come to foist 
 upon Mexico a foreign-born emperor. Louis Napo- 
 leon was the prime mover in the plot. Enormous 
 claims against the Mexican government were pre- 
 sented. A Spanish force under General Prim occu- 
 pied Vera Cruz, soon reinforced by English and 
 French troops. It was arranged that those claims 
 
 * 
 
 0 
 
 ENTRY OF THE FRENCH TROOPS INTO THE CITY OF MEXICO. 
 
 Santa Anna was now in disgrace and once more 
 compelled to leave the country. Again revolutions 
 followed each other in quick succession. At last, in 
 1861, Benito Juarez gained possession of the govern- 
 ment, and succeeded in holding it long enough to 
 effect many radical reforms, and when he finally re- 
 tired from public life the country had aoquired 
 political stability. The power of fhe priesthood had 
 been the especial curse of Mexico. Under Juarez, 
 who was a full-blooded Aztec, the property of the 
 church, nearly one-half of the real estate of the re- 
 public, was confiscated. Monasticism was abolished, 
 also ecclesiastical courts. Marriage was made a civil 
 
 should be paid out of the customs revenue, and En- 
 gland and Spain withdrew. But the French forces 
 remained. The church party co-operated with the 
 French, and the native government was powerless. 
 The United States protested, but was in no condi- 
 tion to enforce its protest. An hereditary monarchy 
 was declared established July 10, 1863. The crown 
 was tendered to the Archduke of Austria, Maximil- 
 ian. With much pomp and circumstance he ac- 
 cepted, departing with his wife, “ poor Carlotta,” for 
 his empire, having first received the blessing of the 
 Pope and the farewell good wishes of the sovereigns 
 of France, England and Belgium. His formal en- 
 
MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. 
 
 try into the city of Mexico occurred June 12, 1864. 
 Having no child, he adopted as his heir the son of 
 the Emperor Iturbide. French bayonets propped the 
 throne, and he seemed to be master of the situation. 
 
 But when the United States settled its own trouble 
 it turned its attention to Mexico, demanding the 
 withdrawal of the foreign troops. The moral sup- 
 port of this government was of the greatest service 
 to Juarez and the Mexican patriots. The French 
 
 American continent. The bullet that terminated 
 the life of Maximilian and rendered his poor wife a 
 maniac, established that part of the “ Monroe doc- 
 trine” which means the non-intervention of foreign 
 governments in American affairs. The lesson was 
 severe, but the result was well worth the cost. 
 
 Mexico was substantially harmonious under the 
 restored rule of J uarez. He held the reins of gov- 
 ernment until his death hi 1872, having been re- 
 
 government was given distinctly to understand that 
 it must cease its intervention or prepare for war 
 with the United States. This protest had the de- 
 sired effect. Louis Napoleon sent an envoy to Max- 
 imilian urging him to abdicate. He refused to do 
 so. The French troops were withdrawn, the last 
 detachment leaving Mexican soil early in 1867. 
 
 Maximilian had fatally mistaken his strength. 
 Wholesale desertions followed, and in a few months 
 he was a prisoner. A court-martial tried him, and 
 very justly condemned him to be shot. On the 19th 
 of June, 1867, he and his two generals, Miramon 
 
 and Mejia, were executed. Thus ingloriouslv ended 
 the great test case of European intervention on the 
 
 elected in 1871. His successor was Chief Justice 
 Lerdo do Tejada, who was succeeded by General 
 Diaz. December 1, 1880, General Gonzales was in- 
 augurated President. 
 
 As now constituted, Mexico consists of twenty- 
 seven states and one territory, the latter being Lower 
 California. The city of Mexico, like the city of 
 Washington, belongs in a district which is under 
 the exclusive jurisdiction of the general government. 
 The Mexican District of Columbia is called the Fed- 
 eral District of Mexico. 
 
 There are several cities in Mexico of some impor- 
 tance, hut the onlv really large one is the capital. 
 That has a population of 250,000. Tradition has it 
 
3 
 
 
 [L 
 
 4 66 
 
 MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. 
 
 that it was founded about the middle of the four- 
 teenth century. Cortez destroyed the old city, and 
 laid out the new town with wide streets and on a 
 magnificent scale. It chief structure is a cathedral 
 which is thought to have cost not less than $2,500,- 
 000. The academy of San Carlos is remarkable as 
 containing the most valuable collection of paintings 
 in America. 
 
 Mexico is rich in undeveloped resources. Even 
 the mines have yielded but a very small per cent, 
 of their capacity. The eighteenth century witnessed 
 the most prolific yield of those mines. The long 
 period of civil disquietude operated very unfavorably 
 upon the mining interest. There are, however, 
 eleven mints in the country which coin annually 
 about $20,000,000, mostly silver. The total pro- 
 duction of the Mexican mines up to 1875 is esti- 
 mated at $4,300,000,000 ; the total coinage to that 
 date had been $3,063,660,068. About 95 per cent, 
 of all this was silver. 
 
 The agricultural resources of the country are very 
 great, but owing to the indolence of the people, and 
 the difficulties of transportation, very little is raised 
 for export. At the end of 1879 the total number of 
 miles of railway open to traffic was only 372, the 
 “National Mexican ” being the principal line. It ex- 
 tends from Vera Cruz to the City of Mexico. Other 
 lines are in process of construction. It is expected 
 that direct communication by rail between the 
 United States and Mexico will soon be established, 
 
 leading to a revolution in the commercial relations 
 of the two countries. At the present time there is 
 no paper money used in Mexico, except a little 
 United States money on the border. In January, 
 1882, a charter was granted for the “ Banco National 
 Mexicano,” with a minimum capital of $3,000,000 
 and a maximum capital of $20,000,000, with au- 
 thority to establish branches and issue $3 of paper 
 money for every $1 of coin in the treasury. 
 
 This chapter cannot be closed better than by giv- 
 ing, in a condensed form, Prescott’s description of 
 the great Coteocalli, or temple of Mexico, completed 
 in 1486, the most remarkable building ever erected 
 in America. It was “ a solid pyramidal structure of 
 earth and pebbles, coated externally with white hewn 
 stones. It was square, its sides facing the cardinal 
 points, and was divided into five stories, each of 
 which receded so as to be smaller than that below it. 
 The ascent was by a flight of 114 steps on the out- 
 side, so contrived that to reach the top it was neces- 
 sary to pass four times around the whole edifice. 
 The base of the temple is supposed to have been 300 
 feet square. The summit was a broad area covered 
 with flat stones. On it were two towers or sanc- 
 tuaries, and before each was an altar on which a 
 fire was kept continually burning.” Near this tem- 
 ple was garrisoned a guard of 10,000 soldiers. It 
 may well be doubted if the present Mexicans could 
 present any equally high evidence of civilization, in 
 any department of human effort. 
 
 "71 
 
 
CHAPTER L XXI 1 1 
 
 The South American Continent, as a Whole — Patagonia and the Patagonians — The Ar- 
 gentine Republic — The Paradise of Cattle and Indolence — Uruguay — Paraguay, Its 
 History and Melancholy Fate — From the Jesuits to Lopez — Brazil, the Only Empire 
 in America — The Amazon, Rio de Janeiro, Diamond-Beds and Coffee Raising — Portugal 
 and the Portuguese Dynasty in Brazil — National Independence without Conflict — 
 Guiana, English, French and Dutch — Venezuela — Bolivar, the Liberator— The Work 
 Accomplished by Bolivar— The United States of Colombia — Peru — Pizarro and the 
 Incas— Mountains and Mines— Guano-Beds and Railroads— Bolivia— Chili and the 
 Chilians— The Leading Nation of South America— The History and Condition of Chili 
 — The Late War Between Chili, Its Cause and Probable Result. 
 
 
 'HUS far in the history of 
 the world the only conti- 
 nental portion of America 
 really known to Columbus 
 has contributed very little 
 to the benefit of mankind, 
 and is still a land of great 
 possibilities, rather than 
 actual achievement. Until a com- 
 paratively recent period the entire 
 continent of South America, so far 
 as it was inhabited by civilized 
 man, was under the colonial yoke, 
 and that not of liberal and progres- 
 sive England, but of narrow and 
 repressive Spain and Portugal. Al- 
 most at the same time that Mexico 
 became independent the colonies of 
 Spain farther south broke their chains, and Portu- 
 gal’s one dependency, Brazil, changed from a colony 
 to an empire. Columbus landed at the mouth of the 
 Orinoco river, Venezuela, in 1498, taking possession 
 of the continent in the name of his august sover- 
 eigns, Ferdinand and Isabella. That was the shadow 
 
 cast before by a dominion which continued for 
 about three hundred and thirty years. 
 
 South America extends from the isthmus of Pan- 
 ama to Cape Horn, a distance of about 4,800 miles. 
 Its area is about 7,000,000 square miles, or 1,500,000 
 square miles less than North America. 
 
 The most notable general feature of the continent 
 is the mountain range known as the Andes, which 
 lies along the Pacific coast in almost a straight line 
 for over 4,000 miles. It is not wide, but high and 
 precipitate. In altitude it is unrivaled, except by 
 the Himalayas. The highest peak of the Andes is 
 the Sonata, 24,800, feet; of the Himalayas, Everest, 
 29,000 feet. The Andes lias no less than thirty 
 active volcanoes, the highest being the Saliama in 
 Peru. This vast mountain range is rich in precious 
 minerals. On the east side of it flows the largest 
 river in the world, the Amazon. Its capacious 
 mouth, 95 miles wide, is at the very equator. For 
 over two thousand miles the Amazon is navigable. 
 
 The equatorial portion of the continent is not so 
 warm, by any means, as the same latitude in the old 
 worlds, thanks to the snow-capped Andes, the trade 
 winds and other causes. The condor is the most 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 remarkable of the animate products of the coun- 
 try, whether bird or beast. That solitary dweller 
 in the least accessible portions of the Andes is the 
 largest bird in the world. Its body is from three to 
 three and a half feet long. In some portions of the 
 continent a great variety of small monkeys abound. 
 The other peculiarities of the continent will appear 
 in connection with the several countries. 
 
 The southern apex, Patagonia, is very nearly 
 worthless. The wild beasts and wilder men roam 
 over its barren rocks and frost-bound hills unmo- 
 lested by white men. It 
 was first visited in 1520 by 
 Magellan, who named it 
 Patagonia (Big-feet). The 
 inhabitants are large and 
 fierce. So far as now known, 
 that portion of the conti- 
 nent is incapable of being 
 made useful. The same is 
 true of a group of islands, 
 in that vicinity, the Archi- 
 pelago of Terra del Fuego. 
 
 North of Patagonia, and 
 adjoining it on the east side 
 of the Andes, lies the Ar- 
 gentine Republic, of which 
 Buenos Ayres, at the mouth 
 of the Rio de la Plata river, 
 is the capital. The wealth 
 of that country consists of 
 wool and hides. The meat 
 is hardly marketable at all, 
 so plenty is it. The skins of the cattle and the 
 clothing of the sheep can be exported to advan- 
 tage, and are the main source of revenue. The 
 annual export of wool averages over 200,000,000 
 pounds. The number of hides exported annually 
 is about 3,000,000. The exportation of horse hides 
 is also very considerable, although sensibly dimin- 
 ishing. Herds of liorses, thousands in number, 
 roam wild over the pampas, yet horses were unknown 
 there until introduced from Europe in 1530 by Men- 
 doza. Fourteen years later goats and sheep were 
 introduced, and seven years later cattle. Where na- 
 ture was best prepared for these most useful animals 
 they were not known until what might be called 
 human accident occurred (for no special pains were 
 taken in South America or any where else by 
 
 NATIVES OF PATAGONIA 
 
 the Spaniards to introduce European animals). 
 The La Plata was discovered in 1516 by Juan 
 Diaz de Salis. The climate is delightful, and to 
 those who seek ease the country is inviting. At the 
 present time it seems to be quite attractive to the 
 Italians. The republic is a federal union of fourteen 
 states. Some claim to authority over Patagonia is 
 asserted by the Argentine government. The Argen- 
 tine population is about 2,000,000, including the 
 40,000 in Patagonia. 
 
 A part of the La Plata country forms a distinct 
 republic, called Uruguay. 
 This small nation has an 
 area of 63,300 square miles, 
 and a population of about 
 500,000. It is indistinguish- 
 able, except ui a political 
 way, from the Argentine 
 Republic. The first settle- 
 ment was made there, and 
 in Paraguay which is far- 
 ther inland, hi 1622, by 
 Spanish Jesuits. When 
 Spain and Portugal be- 
 came distinct nations, after 
 their brief union, there was 
 a sharp rivalry for the 
 possession of both Para 
 guay and Uruguay, lying 
 as they do between the old 
 Spanish colony and state of 
 Buenos Ayres and Brazil 
 which was settled by emi- 
 grants from Portugal. In 1828 Brazil recognized 
 Uruguay as an independent republic; since then it 
 lias continued to vegetate without serious molestation. 
 
 Paraguay is a nominal republic, but in point of 
 fact it is under the mild dominion of the great 
 (geographically speaking) empire north of it. It 
 was first discovered by Sebas- 
 tian Cabot, the brave naviga- 
 tor, who accompanied his fa- 
 ther, John Cabot, to Canada in 
 the first fleet ever sent to the 
 new world by England. It 
 was in the year 1526 that Ca- 
 bot, searching for a passage 
 
 across the continent, sailed up SEBASTIAN CABOT. 
 
 the broad La Plata, as far as the confluence of the 
 
 <f 
 
ished dominion. In 1811 the foreign yoke was 
 thrown off, and for twenty-nine years the country 
 was strangely and completely isolated. During that 
 period it was ruled by that unique character, Jose 
 Caspar Rodriguez Francia. Speaking of his rule, 
 Hon. C. A. Washburne, late diplomatic representa- 
 tive of the United States at Paraguay, says, “ The 
 country being accessible only by way of the river, 
 he stopped all ingress and egress, allowing during 
 all this time only some half a dozen foreigners to 
 leave the country and none to enter it. The ship- 
 ping then in the river stayed there, rotted, and fell 
 to pieces.” At the death of Francia the country was 
 | without even the form of a government. Carlos 
 
 the Andes, we come to the one American monarchy, 
 the Empire of Brazil. It occupies nearly one-half 
 of the entire continent, extending from latitude 4° 
 
 23' north, to latitude 4° 44' south. Its area is 
 3,242,900 square miles. The country has some gold, 
 but its especial wealth of a mineral nature consists 
 of diamonds, found in river beds. But the sugar 
 and coffee productions of the empire arc of more 
 value each year than all the mining products of a 
 period of eighty years. The population is about 
 10,000,000, not including the shifting, vagabondish 
 aboriginal population, estimated at about 1 , 000 . 000 . 
 Brazil is the only part of America now where slav- k 
 cry has a legal existence, and it is being gradually 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 Paraguay and Parana rivers. He was iu the em- 
 ploy of Spain at the time. In 1536 the country 
 was settled, and early acquired very considerable 
 prominence. The Spaniards freely intermarried 
 with the natives, called Payaguas. The Jesuits 
 flocked thither as early as 1610 and acquired 
 almost absolute sovereignty over the natives. In 
 1767 they were expelled from there as from all the 
 Spanish colonies. They had erected splendid 
 churches and lofty mansions which attest their van- 
 
 Antonio Lopez finally succeeded to the dictatorship, 
 holding it until 1862, under the title of President. 
 At his death, his more illustrious son, Francisco 
 Solano Lopez, succeeded him. He set up as pro- 
 tector of the “ equilibrium ” of the La Plata region. 
 He soon inaugurated war with Brazil, the Argentine 
 Republic and Uruguay. For five years (1865-1870) 
 the war was waged. The country was nearly depopu- 
 lated before Lopez was killed and peace restored. 
 
 Proceeding farther north, still on the east side of 
 
47 ° 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 extinguished there. Brazil was discovered in 1500 
 by Pincon, a companion of Columbus. It was ear- 
 ly selected by the Portuguese as their favorite resort 
 in America. In 1808 the king of Portugal, John VI., 
 took refuge from the French in Brazil, accompa- 
 nied by his court. He remained there until 1820, to 
 the great benefit of the country. When Napoleon 
 fell, he took the title of King of Portugal, Algarve 
 and Brazil. A national congress was assembled at 
 Rio de Janeiro in 1822, when Dom Pedro, son of 
 John VI., was elected “ Perpetual Protector.” The 
 country was 
 declared inde- 
 pendent, and 
 Portugal ac- 
 quiescedwith- 
 out a mur- 
 mur." Consti- 
 tutional Em- 
 peror ” was 
 soon after 
 adopted. In 
 1831 Dom 
 Pedro I. ab- 
 dicated in fa- 
 vor of his son 
 Dom Pedro 
 II., the pres- 
 ent emperor. 
 
 Father, son, 
 and grandson 
 deserve high 
 credit for pa- 
 triotism and good ability, without brilliancy or great 
 force of character. The empire is divided into nu- 
 merous provinces for administrative purposes. In 
 nothing excepting its mighty river, the Amazon, its 
 diamond-beds and the extent of its area, is Brazil at 
 all above the dead level of uninteresting mediocrity. 
 r Ihe chief cities of Brazil are Rio de Janeiro, the 
 capital and metropolis, and the largest city of South 
 America, population nearly 300,000 ; Bahia, or San 
 Salvador, population, 180,000 ; Pernambuco, popu- 
 lation, 90,000 ; Maranhao, population, 40,000. 
 
 There are two geographical terms so nearly alike 
 as to be confusing, Guinea, a common name of a 
 large tract of country on the western coast of Africa, 
 and Guiana, a large territory of the northeastern part 
 of South America, between the Amazon andtheOri- 
 
 
 THE CITY OF CARACAS. 
 
 noco. The latter country is subject to several powers. 
 Great Britain, France, Holland, Brazil and Venezu- 
 ela. It is a tropical wilderness, valuable only for its 
 few large sugar plantations and its forests from 
 which are shipped various kinds of high-priced lum- 
 ber. French Guiana, with the island of Cayenne 
 just off the coast, is used as a penal colony. In the 
 early days of American discovery it was supposed 
 that that region was rich in gold, but the supposed 
 precious metals were only mica and quartzose rock. 
 
 North and west of Guiana stretches Venezuela, 
 
 of which Ca- 
 racas, on the 
 seaboard, is 
 the capital. It 
 has a popula- 
 tion of some- 
 thing less 
 than 2,000,- 
 000 and an 
 area of 403,- 
 261 square 
 miles. Coffee 
 is its chief 
 article of ex- 
 port, but cot- 
 ton, cacao, 
 sugar, tobac- 
 co and indigo 
 are also im- 
 portant pro- 
 ductions for 
 exportation. 
 The republic consists of twenty states and one ter- 
 ritory. The president is in effect almost dictator. 
 Diamonds, gold, silver, tin, zinc, quicksilver and 
 copper are believed to abound, but the mineral 
 wealtli has never been very much developed. The 
 capital, Caracas, has a population of about fifty 
 thousand souls, and is a somewhat thrifty seaport. 
 Its chief honor is, however, that it can boast being 
 the birthplace of the Great Liberator of South 
 America, Simon Bolivar, whose services may well be 
 narrated in this connection. 
 
 The Liberator was born July 25, 1783. ne in- 
 herited immense wealth from his father. His edu- 
 cation was completed at Madrid. In 1810 he joined 
 the patriot army. In three years he rose to emi- 
 nence as a soldier and entered Caracas in triumph. 
 

 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 47 1 
 
 But Jiis achievements were not hi the interest of that 
 particular part of the continent. All Spanish 
 America rebelled at about the same time, and the 
 South American colonies formed one power, much 
 as the thirteen colonies which afterwards became 
 the United States, did. The period of struggle, re- 
 sulting in independence for all continental Spanish 
 America, extended from 1810 to 1825. If Spain 
 had been free to concentrate its energies, wasted 
 though they were, upon any one colony, as now upon 
 Cuba, the uprising might have been suppressed ; but 
 there was either actual rebellion or the mutterings 
 of the coming storm all along the line from Pata- 
 gonia to the United States, and from ocean to 
 ocean. This simultaneousness was not the re- 
 sult of preconcerted action, to any considerable 
 extent, but rath- 
 er a notable il- 
 lustration of the 
 familiar truth 
 that “like causes 
 produce like ef- 
 fects.” The heel 
 of oppression 
 had become in- 
 tolerable. The 
 great island of 
 Cuba alone es- 
 caped the con- 
 tagion of liberty and missed its great opportunity 
 by waiting until it had become almost alone in its 
 colonial dependency. 
 
 General Bolivar was made first president of Co- 
 lombia in 1819. A few years later lie led an army 
 of liberation into Peru, and its independence was 
 also achieved. The portion of country between the 
 present Pern and Chili, extending much farther east 
 than either of them, was created a distinct republic, 
 named, in honor of the Great Liberator, Bolivia. 
 That was in 1825. 
 
 During those fifteen years Bolivar made many 
 enemies, and was accused of trying to consolidate 
 South America into a kingdom, himself to be the 
 founder of a dynasty of his own. lie may not have 
 been as free from personal ambition as our own 
 Washington, but he had a very different people to 
 deal with, and only oneof the many republics (Chili) 
 has thus far shown capacity for self government. 
 In 1830 General Bolivar died, not having the high 
 
 satisfaction of seeing the South American problem 
 solved. In him Venezuela furnished the liberator 
 of several states, but not the founder upon a solid 
 basis of free institutions. 
 
 It may here be added that the South American 
 republics have been rent and torn frequently with 
 civil wars and wars between each other, and as a 
 whole they have cast discredit upon the principle of 
 self-government. But the condition of those coun- 
 tries has been materially improved during the period 
 of independence, notwithstanding all hindrances. 
 
 We return now to the detailed consideration of 
 the nations of South America. 
 
 The United States of Colombia, formerly New 
 Granada, is the extreme northwestern portion of the 
 continent. It has an area of 357,179 square miles 
 
 and a popula- 
 tion of nearly 
 three millions. 
 The first Span- 
 ish colony was 
 established there 
 in 1510. The 
 Cauca valley is 
 believed to be 
 very rich in min- 
 erals and ca- 
 pacity for tropi- 
 cal production ; 
 but it is so malarious as to be a dangerous place 
 for any but natives to live. Some attempts have 
 been made to open up the valley and develop its 
 resources by Yankee enterprise, but without suc- 
 cess. Bogata, the capital, is an inland city, pleas- 
 antly situated on the San Francisco river. Ow- 
 ing to its high altitude, it enjoys a delightful 
 climate. It is an old city, dating back to 1537. 
 Its population is about 40,000. A few miles below 
 the city is the great cataract of Tequendama, with a 
 perpendicular fall of 600 feet. The United States 
 of Colombia has about the same sea-water frontage 
 on the Pacific Ocean as on the Caribbean sea. Car- 
 thagenais its principal seaport. Its principal com- 
 munication with the world is by way of the Pacific 
 and across the Isthmus of Panama, to the southeast 
 end of which it extends. 
 
 Directly south of Colombia, between it and 
 Peru, lies the republic of Ecuador, so called be- 
 cause it is beneath the equator. Its extent is from 
 
 
 ' 
 
 59 
 
■' a 
 
 47 2 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 1° 35' north to 5° 50' south. From east to west it 
 extends about 800 miles. The estimated area is 
 250,000 square miles. It might well be called the 
 home of the volcanos, for it has no less than sixteen 
 in good working order. The famous truncated cone, 
 Cotopaxi, towering to the height of 18,875 feet, and 
 the still loftier Chimborazo (21,424 feet high) are 
 the chief natural curiosities of the country. Earth- 
 quakes are common and often very severe. It is 
 supposed that its capital, Quito, was once the capi- 
 
 tion a trifle over 2,500,000. It is estimated that 57 
 per cent, of the inhabitants are Indians, and 23 per 
 cent. Creoles, or “ C halos.” In 1876 the capital, 
 Lima, had a population of 160,056 It is six miles 
 inland from the seaport town of Callao. Politically, 
 the republic is divided into seventeen departments and 
 has a constitution modeled after that of the U nited 
 States, or, rather, such was the case previous to the 
 late disastrous war with Chili, since which time the 
 government has been in a chaotic condition, with 
 
 ANCIENT PERUVIAN TEMPLE OF THE SUN. 
 
 tal of a flourishing Indian empire. The present 
 population is exceptionally uninteresting and the 
 country is peculiarly destitute of attractions. 
 
 We are now arrived, in our circuit around the 
 continent, at Peru, the country having the most in- 
 terest in history of any in South America. It is 
 the only one, in fact, which may be said to fill any 
 considerable space in history, while its most pros- 
 perous neighbor, Chili, alone seems to be on the 
 highway to an important future. 
 
 Peru lies between latitudes 30° 20' and 22° 20' 
 south and longtitudes 67° and 81° 26' west. The 
 area is about 503,000 square miles and the popula- 
 
 an uncertain future. Nature has divided it into 
 three parts. Between the ocean and the Andes lies 
 a narrow strip of fairly level land, varying in width 
 from 60 to 20 miles. This region is called the coast. 
 Except in the near vicinity of rivers and rivulets 
 the coast is a barren waste. Rains are unknown in 
 that region. There are two parallel ranges of the 
 Andes, and between them extends the best part of 
 the country. That second division is called the 
 Sierra. It is a series of valleys, somewhat broken 
 with mountain spurs, but in the main very fertile. 
 The average width of the Sierra is 100 miles. It is 
 described as “ a region diversified -with tropical val- 
 
 
 d 
 
3 
 
 
 T 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 473 
 
 leys and vast elevated plateaus.” Nine-tentlis of the 
 cultivated area and four-fifths of the population are 
 to be found in the Sierra. Beyond the second moun- 
 tain range lies the Montana, very little known. The 
 Indians of that region have never been seriously 
 disturbed, and they are more barbaric than those of 
 the Sierra ever were. 
 
 The fame of Peru early reached the Spaniards. 
 
 tured and plundered a city. The invaders built a 
 town which they called San Miguel. That was the 
 beginning of a conquest hardly if any less impor- 
 tant than the subjugation of Mexico by Cortez. 
 
 Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia then formed one na- 
 tion, ruled by the Inca dynasty, with Cuzco as its 
 capital. That remarkable city is 11,380 feet above 
 the level of the sea. The Incas claimed descent 
 
 They were told of a land in the southwest where gold 
 was as plenty as iron. In 1512 Balboa, governor- 
 general of the Darien colony, tried to find it. Tie 
 met with no success. Twelve years later an adven- 
 turous Spaniard, who had been a swineherd in youth 
 and was destitute of intelligence or character, Fran- 
 cisco Pizarro, made a voyage along the Peruvian 
 coast. Nothing seemed to be accomplished. But 
 in 1531 he made a second voyage, under commission 
 as governor and captain-general, to conquer and rule 
 whatever country he could find. He sailed south 
 from Panama fourteen days, when he landed, cap- 
 
 from the sun, which they worshiped as the god of 
 the world. Many architectural ruins, including 
 temples and palaces, attest a high degree of attain- 
 ments in the art of building. 
 
 Pizarro was received as a friend by the Inca Ata- 
 huallpa. In return for this kindness the gracious 
 sovereign was taken prisoner by the swineherd, lie 
 bought his liberty by an enormous ransom of gold 
 to the amount of over seventeen millions of dollars, 
 and even then he was not liberated. On the con- 
 trary, he was burned alive. Ilis half-brother was 
 placed upon the throne. Pizarro established his seat 
 
 
 - 
 
A 
 
 474 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 at Lima, which he founded in 1535. That low and 
 brutal wretch treated the natives with unspeakable 
 barbarity until the year 1541 when he was assassin- 
 ated. The King of Spain had dubbed him Marquis. 
 He married the Inca’s daughter. His descendants 
 are among the more aristocratic of the present Pe- 
 ruvian grandees. 
 
 Pizarro reduced the natives to slavery and made 
 them work assiduously in the mines. His successor 
 Yaca de Oastra, introduced some administrative re- 
 forms. It was not many years before African slavery 
 was introduced as a substitute for Indian slavery. 
 The latter was abolished in 1856. 
 
 Peru had an uneventful career for nearly three 
 centuries, during which time it contributed immense 
 quantities of gold and silver to the world’s stock. The 
 mines are still very rich and profitable. But upon the 
 shore and on neighboring islands of the Pacific isfound 
 an article of commerce which is the chief source of 
 Peruvian wealth, the excrement of birds, called gu- 
 ano. Speaking on this point, a recent writer says : 
 “ The guano-beds constitute government monopo- 
 lies of sufficient value to have paid for the construc- 
 tion of 1,000 miles of railways which traverse the 
 Andes in a zigzag way, connecting the Sierra with 
 the seaboard.” There are many millions of tons of 
 guano. The Incas protected the birds and the Pe- 
 ruvian farmers then, even more than now, used this 
 best of all fertilizers to enrich the soil. The coun- 
 try has over 2,000 miles of railway, costing about 
 1180,000,000. Their construction was a great tri- 
 umph of financial management and engineering 
 skill. F or the former, Mr. Meiggs deserves the cred- 
 it ; for the latter, the highest praise belongs to an- 
 other American, Mr. Thorndike. 
 
 We have now reached a point at which Chili and 
 Bolivia sustain such relations to Peru that it is best 
 to trace their respective lines of development until 
 they converge toward a point common to the three. 
 
 The southern boundary of Peru extends very 
 nearly to the northern extremity of Chili, but not 
 quite. Bolivia separates them, having a seaport, 
 Cabija, which, however, is cut off from the rest of 
 the republic by the desert of Atacama. In the days 
 of the Incas that desert was a favorite burial place, 
 the saltness of the soil preserving the body from de- 
 cay. The area of Atacama is 70,181 and the popu- 
 lation about 5,000. The entire republic of Bolivia 
 has an area of 535,000 square miles and a popula- 
 
 tion of 2,000,000. In the days of Spanish rule the 
 chief part of the country was called either Upper 
 Peru or Cliarcas, having very little if any in- 
 dividuality. In 1767 it was cut off from Peru 
 and made a part of the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres. 
 It is intermediate between the two, and peculiarly 
 isolated from the rest of the world, hedged in on 
 the east and south by Brazil and the Argentine Re- 
 public, on the west and south by Peru and Chili ; its 
 only seaboard having the Andes between it and any 
 habitable territory. Bolivia is a mountainous coun- 
 try, comprising as it does the Cordilleras at their 
 greatest altitude. From that range two chains 
 break off, the western, containing many volcanoes 
 and Mount Sajaina, 22,760 feet high ; and the east- 
 ern, to which belong Mounts Illampu and Illimano. 
 
 Lying as it does between southern latitudes 12° and 
 24°, Bolivia is tropical in climate, except as the 
 mountain tower into the regions of frost, and pos- 
 sesses every range of climate and productions. The 
 interior of the country is productive, but its greatest 
 wealth is mineral. All through the Bolivian Cor- 
 dilleras silver is found in large quantities, and gold 
 also, both placer and quartz. A railroad is in pro- 
 cess of construction along the banks of the Madeira 
 river for about 150 miles. That river empties into 
 the Amazon and is navigable, except as its rapids, 
 which extend for about 150 miles, impede it. With 
 that obstacle overcome, Bolivia might develop into 
 a great and rich country. The capital is the forti- 
 fied town of Oruro. Formerly it was La Paz. In 
 theory the government is a republic on the most 
 approved American plan, with a president elected 
 for four years ; practically the rulers are military 
 dictators, and civil wars have been almost a con- 
 stant quantity. From 1820 to 1839 Grand-Mar- 
 shal Santa Cruz ruled Bolivia. Insurrections, assas- 
 sinations, banishments and anarchy succeeded each 
 other, the last being the deposition of President 
 Campeio, who had been elected in June, 1880. He 
 was deposed for failure to resist successfully the su- 
 perior power of Chili. 
 
 From a mere glance at the map of South Amer- 
 ica one would infer that Chili was the least import- 
 ant part of the continent, being a narrow strip of 
 land between the Pacific Ocean and the Andes. Of 
 all the South American states on the Pacific coast 
 it alone has no territory east of the great mountain 
 range. As a matter of fact, however, it stands first 
 
 a 
 
 K 
 
 Ala- 
 
< 5 ) “ 
 
 ' 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 -* 9 t^ 
 
 P 
 
 475 
 
 in actual importance. It is about 1,200 miles long, 
 and in width varies from 90 to 130 miles. The 
 average height of the Chilian Andes is 14,000 feet 
 above the level of the sea. The highest peak is the 
 porphyritic Nevado of Aconcagua, 22,422 feet high. 
 There are several active volcanoes in this republic, 
 Antuco being the chief. The total area of the 
 country is 132,606 scpiare miles, the population a 
 little more tliau two millions. It has two large towns, 
 Santiago, the capital, and Valparaiso, the port. The 
 former is in the interior and has a population of 
 130,000 ; the latter is midway, nearly, as between 
 northern and southern boundaries, and has a popu- 
 lation of about 100,000. 
 
 The northern half of Chili is nearly worthless for 
 agriculture, and even the mineral wealth cannot be 
 developed to very good advantage. But the land 
 has rest, comparatively speaking, from civil strife. 
 Says an English Avriter, “The Chilians have made 
 the best of their advantages, instead of squandering 
 nature’s prodigal gifts in strife and indolence. Rail- 
 roads and telegraphs have been introduced, and a 
 thrifty foreign commerce established. Chili is pro- 
 verbial for its steady progress in all industrial en- 
 terprises, for the absence of political perturbation, 
 and for its punctuality in meeting its financial en- 
 gagements. Its securities rank among the foremost 
 on the London Stock Exchange, being usually held 
 for investment ; it builds its own railways and its 
 own telegraphs without much foreign help ; and the 
 money it borrows for such purposes is secured by 
 national and private bonds.” 
 
 Historically speaking, this portion of the Empire 
 of the Incas began to have a separate existence in 
 1535, when a Spanish expedition under Diego Al- 
 magro pushed southward from Peru as far as Copi- 
 apo into the territory of the Purumancians. The 
 natives drove back the intruders. Five years later, 
 Pedro de Valdivia repeated the experiment. He 
 established a permanent settlement, calling the city 
 he founded Santiago, in honor of the patron saint 
 of Spain. After securing his position there he 
 pushed southward to encounter the Araucanians, a 
 tribe never yet subdued, and who continue to occupy 
 a strip of Chilian territory 190 miles in length. The 
 city of Concepcion was founded by Valdivia in the 
 Araucanian country, but in 1559 it was destroyed 
 and Valdivia put to death. For over a century the 
 Spaniards and the Araucanians were at Avar. The 
 
 peace of 1665 acknowledged the independence of the 
 native tribe south of Bobio. Again, from 1723 to 
 1773, the Chilians Avere at war Avith their aboriginal 
 neighbors. 
 
 Chili Avas one of the first colonies to rebel against 
 Spain. The movement for independence began in 
 ,1810. The first step was to depose the Governor- 
 General, Carrasco, and vest the political authority 
 in a Junta, corresponding to the Continental Con- 
 gress. The Junta placed General Carrera in su- 
 preme authority. But he was unequal to the 
 demands of the case. He was not destined to be 
 the George Washington of his country. Before 1813 
 closed, Spain had re-established its authority. It 
 might have retained it perhaps, but harsh and op- 
 pressive measures folloAved, provoking a renewal of 
 rebellion hi 1816. Speaking of the struggle thus 
 renewed, a Chilian historian says, “ The patriots 
 now raised an army in the neighboring province of 
 La Plata, and made General San Martin its com- 
 mander. He marched into Chili and Avon an im- 
 portant victory over the royalist forces at Chacabu- 
 co, on the 12th of February, 1817. A provisional 
 government Avas set up by the patriots, and Don 
 Bernardo O’Higgins Avas placed at its head as su- 
 preme dictator. The Spaniards now rallied and 
 defeated the Chilians with heavy loss at Chauchar- 
 ayda; but Avere themselves utterly routed by the 
 patriots at Chilenos on the 5th of April, 1818. Not 
 more than 500 Spaniards escaped from the field. 
 This victory entirely destroyed the Spanish power 
 in Chili, Peru and Buenos Ayres, and secured the 
 independence of those states. The Spaniards re- 
 treated to the port of Valdivia, which they held until 
 1820, when they surrendered to the Chilian forces.” 
 During the next three years General O’Higgins Avas 
 virtual dictator, but he lost his popularity and had 
 to retire. 
 
 A stable government, a genuine republic, was not 
 adopted until 1828. Affairs moved on smoothly, 
 the country steadily growing in prosperity and en- 
 joying the substance and not the mere shadoAV of 
 republicanism, undisturbed by any serious difficul- 
 ties, apart from some Indian warfare, until 1864, 
 when Avar broke out between Spain and Peru. An 
 alliance Avas formed between Peru, Chili and Bo- 
 livia, in accordance Avith which the three republics 
 made common cause against the mother country, 
 justly looked upon us a common enemy. This alli- 
 
 
 _ Id 
 
 _•> . 
 
 V 
 
ance was not formal and recognized until 1867. 
 Before that time Chili had shown such strong sym- 
 pathy with Peru that her coast was blockaded by 
 the Spanish fleet. That blockade led to the cap- 
 ture of the Spanish steamer “ Covadonga” by the 
 Chilian steamer, “Esmeralda,” and later, to the 
 bombardment of Valparaiso by the Spanish Ad- 
 miral Nunez. That was a very impolitic thing to 
 do, for the actual loss fell upon foreign residents 
 mainly, and thus secured the ill-will of other na- 
 tions. The United States offered to mediate be- 
 tween the allies and Spain. The offer was accepted, 
 and in April, 1871, a treaty providing for a cessa- 
 tion of hostilities was signed at Washington. That 
 may well be called the last struggle of Spain to re- 
 cover its foothold in America. 
 
 In 1879 hostilities began between Chili and the 
 allied republics of Bolivia and Peru, growing out 
 of rival territorial claims and claims to Guano-beds, 
 and mineral deposits. Chili insisted that having 
 done more than either of the others to repel the 
 enemy, she was entitled to generous treatment. When 
 the war came she had an army of 22,000 and a navy 
 of ten small steamers and two powerful iron-clads. 
 With these land and naval forces she was an over- 
 match for the other two nations combined. The war 
 was conducted with great spirit and intrepidity. In 
 the spring of 1881 Callao and Lima were taken, and 
 the Chilians were absolute masters of the situation. 
 
 The final settlement of the questions in dis- 
 pute and of the relations of those countries to each 
 other still remains to be accomplished. The national 
 debts of Peru and Bolivia (especially the former) 
 cannot be ignored. Peru was virtually mortgaged 
 to non-resident capitalists before the last war, and 
 Chili will not be allowed to sacrifice those interests, 
 more especially the guano interests of foreign claim- 
 ants. It is a curious and appropriate fact that the 
 present question of supreme importance in the pub- 
 lic affairs of all South America relates to the excre- 
 ment of sea-fowls. 
 
 In the fall of 1881 the Secretary of State, Mr. 
 Blaine, with the approval of President Arthur, sent 
 two envoys-extraordinary to Peru and Chili for the 
 purpose of facilitating negotiations of amity and 
 protecting Peru from the apprehended unjust de- 
 mands of her victorious sister republic. Soon after, 
 Mr. Blaine was superseded by Mr. Frelinghuysen 
 who early made material changes in the instructions 
 issued to the chief envoy, Mr. Trescott. It is not 
 absolutely certain what negotiations have been en- 
 tered into, but it is supposed to be morally certain 
 that the following terms will be exacted and en- 
 forced : 
 
 First — The absolute annexation of Tarapaca and 
 a large strip of territory immediately north of it. 
 These include all the nitrates and the great bulk of 
 the guano. Second — Chili holds and occupies the 
 district of Arica and Tacna, nominally for ten 
 years, to be then released to Peru on payment of 
 $20,000,000, which they leave her no more power to 
 pay than if it were $20,000,000,000. Arica and 
 Tacna may therefore be considered permanently an- 
 nexed. Third — The Lobis Islands to be seized and 
 held by Chili so long as there is any guano on them. 
 
 Keferring to this ultimatum, and the sagacious 
 provision of the Chilians to protect the British in- 
 terest in Peru, Mr. Blaine declares that the United 
 States has lost a great opportunity to advance its 
 own commercial interest while enforcing the princi- I 
 pie of the Monroe doctrine. His words on this point 
 are, “By commercial interests I mean the entire inter- 
 change of commodities, the supplying of manufac- 
 tured articles and raw material, the concentration 
 in our commercial cities of a share of that which 
 will now go wholly to London and Liverpool. The 
 trade of the west coast of South America, from 
 this time forward, will be as much in the hands of 
 Great Britain as the trade of British India.” Evi- 
 dently that portion of the world is in a condition 
 of extreme incertitude both as to domestic and for- 
 eign relations. 
 
 < 2 - 
 
 
 47 6 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 

 CENTRAL AMERICA- 
 
 HERE is one unbroken 
 stretch of land from Behr- 
 ings Straits to the Straits 
 of Magellan, from Cape 
 Prince of Wales to Cape 
 Horn, to the hindrance of 
 commerce ; but from the 
 southern extremity of 
 North America to the northern ex- 
 tremity of South America, is a dis- 
 tance of about 800 miles. The link 
 that binds the two continents to- 
 gether, or, to put it in a more practi- 
 cal way, the barrier that divides the 
 ^Atlantic coast from the Pacific, is 
 that narrow ridge of land called 
 Central America, and which ex- 
 tends from the southern boundary 
 of Mexico to the southern bound- 
 ary of Panama. The width of Central America 
 varies from 20 to 400 miles. 
 
 The eastern shore of Central America was first 
 visited by Christopher Columbus in 1502, or rather 
 discovered, for he merely passed along it. The natives 
 and his crew were agreed in opposition to landing. 
 Twenty-one years later Cortez sent Pedro Alvarado 
 
 to explore and conquer the west coast. He was 
 absent two years. Almost incredible, yet hardly 
 too extravagant, stories were told by the Aztecs 
 and other natives of the abundance of gold and 
 silver in that region, and the splendor of the civ- 
 ilization existing there. Relics dug from the ruins of 
 Central America in our own day attest the essential 
 correctness of the representations made. Gold and 
 silver are found in many localities, and some mines 
 are in operation, but the climate is so hot and the 
 air is so fetid, the government so insecure and the 
 people so indolent, that no considerable amount of 
 mining is done. The only industry of any account, 
 apart from transportation, is lumbering. The dense 
 forests contain mahogany, logwood, lignum-vit®, 
 pimento, sarsaparilla, vanilla, black balsam, and 
 other trees valuable for bark, timber or gum. There 
 are said to be not less than ninety-seven varieties of 
 poisonous trees in that region fatal to animal life, 
 but they arc valuable for drugs. The sparce 
 population consists, it is estimated, of one- 
 twelfth whites, four-twelfths mixed races, and seven- 
 twelfths Indians. The country is mountainous, and 
 the mountains volcanic. There are several lakes, 
 Nicaraugua being the chief. Its outlet, the San .1 uan, 
 is the only considerable river of Central America. 
 
 Central America in General — Early Settlement — Political Divisions — Gautemala, the 
 Republics of Honduras and San Salvador — Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and British Hon- 
 duras — Panama — The West Indies in General — T nE Bahamas — The Antilles— Cuba and 
 Porto Rico — Cuban History — Havana — Hayti ; Spanish and French* Occupation of it — 
 Toussaint and Napoleon — Soulouque — San Domingo — Jamaica — The Lesser Antilles — 
 The Barbadoes — The Gulf-Stream — The Bermudas — The Azores — The Sandwich Islands 
 — The Fiji Islands— Samoan Isles. 
 
 CHAPTER LXXIV. 
 
 ( 477 ) 
 
i 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE ISLES OF THE SEA. 
 
 Politically there are five Central American repub- 
 lics and one European dependency, British Hondu- 
 ras. These republics are : Guatemala, Honduras, 
 San Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica. In 1823 
 the Spanish yoke was thrown off. The division of 
 the country into districts and states having no 
 unity occurred about ten years later. 
 
 The present constitution of Gautemala was 
 adopted in 1859. Santiago de Guatemala is the 
 
 principal seaport is La Libertad, distant fifteen 
 miles from the capital. The Indians of that state 
 are more industrious than those of any other part 
 of Central America. Indigo is their chief article 
 of export. 
 
 Nicaragua has a population estimated at 350,000. 
 Their chief occupation is cattle raising. The capital, 
 Managua, is built on the slope of an active volcano. 
 The old capital, Leon, ten miles from the Pacific 
 
 capital. It has a population of 45,000. Guatemala 
 de Cabelleros, once the capital, had a population 
 of 60,000, but earthquake and fire nearly de- 
 stroyed it in 1773, and it now has only about one- 
 third of that population. The republic of Honduras 
 is almost wholly peopled by Indians. Its capital is 
 the little town of Comayagua, on the Pacific coast. 
 San Salvador lias for its capital the city of the same 
 name, founded by Pedro Alvarado in 1528, or rather, 
 it did have, until repeated earthquakes and vol- 
 canic eruptions compelled a change of site. The 
 city of San Salvador was visited by destructive 
 earthquakes and volcanic eruptions in 1873. The 
 
 
 coast, was surrounded by five active volcanos. Costa 
 Rica is supposed to have a population of little less 
 than 200,000 souls. The Spanish portion of the 
 population clusters about the capital, San Jose, 
 which has a population of 26,000. Costa Rica is 
 trying to connect the Atlantic and Pacific oceans by 
 a railroad running from Alajuela to Limon, a dis- 
 tance of 114 miles. That portion of the line from 
 Alajuela to Cartago (42 miles) was finished early in 
 1873. Only a very little more work was done until 
 1879, when construction was resumed. Like all the 
 rest of Central America, Costa Rica abounds in vol- 
 canoes. 
 
CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE ISLES OF THE SEA. 
 
 479 
 
 British Honduras has a population of about 25,- 
 000, and is hardly more than a naval station, kept 
 up for the convenience of the British Empire and 
 to strengthen Great Britain’s supremacy on the high 
 seas of the world. 
 
 Panama is, politically speaking, a part of South 
 America, one of the states of the United States of 
 Colombia being the Isthmus of Panama (formerly 
 Darien) ; hut in reality is a part of the connectiug 
 link between the two continents. It has an area of 
 29,756 square miles 
 and a population 
 of 175,000 souls. It 
 varies in width 
 from 30 to 70 miles. 
 
 Its chief feature is 
 the Panama rail- 
 road, extending 
 from Aspinwall on 
 the Atlantic coast 
 to the city of Pan- 
 ama on the Pacific 
 coast. It was built 
 at tremendous cost, 
 
 §500,000 a mile, 
 and the loss of life 
 from the unwhole- 
 someness of the 
 climate was enor- 
 mous. That rail- 
 road is one of the 
 great triumphs of 
 modern enterprise. 
 
 Citizens of the 
 United States projected and accomplished the work. 
 Great numbers of Chinamen were employed in the 
 construction. The property has always been a very 
 profitable investment. It was recently purchased by 
 the company organized by M. de Lessepsto construct 
 a ship canal across the Isthmus of Panama, one of 
 the most gigantic and important undertakings of 
 the nineteenth century. The country is rocky and 
 mountainous on the Atlantic or Caribbean side, and 
 swampy on the Pacific side. The soil is all too 
 productive. Its yield of tropical plants is so very 
 luxurious that the decay incident thereto poisons the 
 atmosphere. The town of Panama has a popula- 
 tion of about 10,000, Aspinwall of 4,000. I lie 
 I Panama railroad was completed in 1855. W ith the 
 
 Panama ship canal completed (and it is a moral 
 certainty that it will be) engineering skill and enter- 
 prise will have supplied to the commerce of the 
 world the shortest passage to the Indies, which Co- 
 lumbus sought, the search for which opened to Eu- 
 rope a new world. 
 
 The West Indies is the general designation of 
 the archipelago which breaks the watery monotony 
 of the Caribbean sea, which is that portion of the 
 Atlantic Ocean extending from the southern ex- 
 tremity of the pe- 
 ninsula of Florida 
 to the northern 
 coast of Venezuela. 
 It consists of four 
 groups of islands, 
 the Bahama Isl- 
 ands, the Greater 
 Antilles, the Virgin 
 Islands, and the 
 Lesser Antilles. 
 
 The Bahamas 
 have, all told, only 
 about 40,000 in- 
 habitants, and a 
 total area variously 
 estimated at from 
 3,000 to 5,000 
 square miles. This 
 group consists of 
 12 islands, 661 
 keys, 2,387 reefs 
 and cliffs, and 
 3,060 islets. The 
 larger islands include 'the Grand Bahama, San Sal- 
 vador and New Providence. The latter contains 
 Nassau, the capital. San Salvador is supposed to 
 be the first land discovered by Columbus. Waling’s 
 Island lays some claim to that distinction. The ab- 
 origines were early exterminated by the Spaniards. 
 The English possession of the Bahamas dates from 
 1629. These islands furnish for export canella, 
 arrowroot, sponges, salt, conch-shells, cleuthera bark, 
 and pineapples. The soil and climate are especially 
 adapted to raising pineapple plants. 
 
 The term Antilles is often applied to all the West 
 Indies except the Bahamas. Tho Greater Antilles 
 comprise the four largo islands, Cuba, llayti, Ja- 
 maica and Porto Pico. 
 
k. 
 
 4S0 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE ISLES OF THE SEA. 
 
 Cuba and Porto Rico are the remaining American 
 possessions of Spain of any considerable import- 
 ance. The latter island lias an area of 3,530 square 
 miles and a population of about 600,000, one-half 
 white, one-third Creole, and the rest negroes. The 
 island produces a great deal of sugar, some coffee, 
 tobacco, cotton and cattle. It has a little mineral 
 wealth, gold, copper, iron, lead, coal and rock-salt. 
 Its capital is also called Porto Rico. Cuba has an area 
 of 43,220 square miles. It entire annual production 
 is estimated in value at $126,000,000, mostly sugar 
 and tobacco. The Cuban census of 1877 gave the 
 population as follows : whites, 764,164 ; free negroes, 
 3,444,050; 
 slaves, 227,- 
 902 ; Chi- 
 nese, 58, 400. 
 
 Columbus 
 gave to Cu- 
 ba the name 
 of Juana; 
 the original 
 name, how- 
 ever, finally 
 p revailed. 
 
 The first 
 Spanish col- 
 ony was es- 
 tablished in 
 1511. The 
 Captain - 
 
 General who ruled the colony in its infancy, 
 Hernando, was a monster of cruel rapacity. By 
 1553 the native population had been nearly 
 exterminated by their inhuman taskmasters, who 
 then resorted to the African slave trade to sup- 
 ply the labor market with slaves. In 1524 the French 
 destroyed Havana, and again twenty years later, but 
 they gained no substantial advantage thereby. I 11 
 1624 the Dutch took it. Later in the same century 
 piratical marauders, flying no national flag, seriously 
 ravaged the coast. In 1762 the English took Ha- 
 vana, restoring it, however, the next year in exchange 
 for Florida. Spain has always shown a desper- 
 ate resolution to maintain possession of Cuba. The 
 II nited States, prior to the abolition of slavery, cov- 
 eted it, offering Spain at one time $100,000,000 for it. 
 That was in 1848. Six years later an attempt was 
 made to intimidate the government at Madrid. 
 
 Three American ministers-plentipotentiary, Messrs. 
 Buchanan, Mason and Soule, met and went through 
 the solemn farce of issuing the Ostend manifesto, 
 claiming for the United States the right to take 
 possession of the island if Spain persisted in re- 
 fusing to sell it. This game of bluff failing, the 
 project of annexation was abandoned. 
 
 For a long time prior to the abolition of the Af- 
 rican slave trade (1845), Cuba was the center of an 
 immense traffic in fresh supplies of negroes from the 
 continent of Africa. The South American colonies 
 largely depended upon Cuba for servants, until their 
 independence and emancipation, and a great 
 
 many were 
 clandestine- 
 ly brought 
 to the Uni- 
 ted States 
 by way of 
 Cuba. Sev- 
 eral insur- 
 rections oc- 
 curred that 
 were crush- 
 ed out with 
 great cruel- 
 ty- 
 
 The most 
 resolute ef- 
 fort to ob- 
 tain inde- 
 pendence was begun in 1868. The leader of the 
 movement was Manuel Carlos Cespedes, afterwards 
 elected President of the “Republic,” or abortive gov- 
 ernment set up by the insurgents. The war was 
 maintained for several years, seriously interfering 
 with the prosperity of the island and resulting in 
 failure. 
 
 Havana is not only the chief city of the West 
 Indies, as well as the capital of Cuba, but it is one of 
 the best known centers of commerce in the world. It 
 has a most excellent harbor, and a population of 
 over 200,000 souls. Of the city, a recent traveler 
 says, “ The most prominent among the public 
 buildings are the opera house, one of the largest in 
 the world; the cathedral, built in 1724 and contain- 
 ing the ashes of Christopher Columbus, transferred 
 hither from St. Domingo in 1796 ; the palace of the 
 Governor-General, with apartments for the different 
 
 ■71 
 
s> 
 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE ISLES OF THE SEA. 
 
 481 
 
 government officers. None of the buildings, how- 
 ever, are very remarkable ; but with respect to its 
 public parks and promenades, Havana perhaps sur- 
 passes all other cities in the world, the Plaza de Ar- 
 mas, the Alameda de Paula, the Parque de Isabel 
 and the Pasco de Tacon being the more prominent.” 
 
 Hayti is second only to Cuba, from which it is 
 separated by the Windward Passage. It measures, 
 from east to west, 405 miles, and its greatest width 
 is 165 miles, comprising an area of 28,000 square 
 miles, inclusive of a few contiguous islets. The soil 
 is very rich and productive. Coffee, sugar and to- 
 bacco are raised in large quantities. The island is 
 divided into two 
 states, only the 
 western portion 
 being known, po- 
 litically, as Hayti. 
 
 The eastern part 
 is San Domingo. 
 
 The latter is 
 Spanish, so far as 
 concerns its Euro- 
 pean elements, the 
 former French. 
 
 Hayti was the 
 second American 
 place visited by 
 Columbus. It has 
 the distinction of 
 being the part of the New W orld first settled by w bite 
 men, receiving the appropriate name of Hispaniola. 
 The mines of the island were poor as compared with 
 those subsequently found in Mexico and Peru, but 
 rich as compared with any at that time known to the 
 Spaniards, and they were very eager in their develop- 
 ment. The native population, estimated at 2 , 000 ,- 
 000, was enslaved and soon literally used up and 
 worn out by excessive labor. Like all the West In- 
 dia aborigines they were unaccustomed to hard 
 work and soon succumbed beneath the lash of cruel 
 taskmasters. Negro slavery was introduced in 
 Hayti in 1522. Pedro, son of Christopher Colum- 
 bus, was viceroy at the time, and it was on his prop- 
 e:ty that the first consignment of African slaves 
 was set at work. By 1711 the aborigines had 
 dwindled to about 20,000. There are said to be a 
 few of their descendants still surviving in the mount- 
 ains of the island. 
 
 The discoveries of Mexico and Peru were almost 
 ruinous to Hispaniola. The population shrank to 
 utter insignificance. But in 1630 a new era dawned 
 upon the island. A French settlement was formed 
 in the northern part of it and flourished rapidly. 
 
 There was considerable trouble between the two 
 nationalities, but in 1699 by the treaty of Ryswick 
 Spain ceded the western part of the island to 
 France. The French proceeded to develop the agri- 
 cultural wealth of the country, sugar, coffee and 
 other tropical productions. Some idea of the growth 
 of San Domingo may be formed from the fact that 
 in the year 1790, 1,400 vessels and 30,000 men were 
 
 employed in the 
 commerce be- 
 tween France and 
 St. Domique, as 
 it is sometimes 
 given. 
 
 The French rev- 
 olution spread in 
 its ideas to Hayti 
 and had a some- 
 what unique out- 
 growth. The 
 wealth of the 
 country was not 
 confined to the 
 white people, but 
 all political rights 
 were. Besides the semi-French population and the 
 slaves there had grown up a third class, the Mulat- 
 toes, possessing frequently extensive plantations. 
 
 They demanded the extension to themselves of the 
 principles of universal brotherhood. Civil war re- 
 sulted. The Spaniards of the east side of the island 
 took advantage of the disturbed state of things to 
 make encroachments, and so did English adventur- 
 ers. The slaves rose in insurrection, and the con- 
 dition of affairs was simply desperate. In 1791 the 
 demands of the Mulattoes were complied with, and 
 two years later the slaves were emancipated. Com- 
 missioners from France decided that no other course 
 could be taken. 
 
 This ITaytian complication brought into promi- 
 nence that very remarkable man, Toussaint L’ Ou- 
 verture, an African of unmixed blood. He was born 
 in the island in 1743. Ilis father was a native of ^ 
 Africa, the son of a chief. Toussaint was favored 
 
 l& 
 
 ” - 
 
•Me- 
 
 A 
 
 k. 
 
 482 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE ISLES OF THE SEA. 
 
 with a kind master who taught him to read and 
 write. In the servile insurrection of 1791 and the 
 massacre attending it he was passive, except to pro- 
 tect his master and his family ; but a few years later 
 he appears in the negro army, first as a surgeon and 
 then as a general. In 1795 he rendered eminent ser- 
 vice as a soldier. When the French government 
 granted liberty to the slaves he threw his influence 
 in favor of France as against Spain and England. 
 He took the lead in expelling both the Spanish and 
 
 the English 
 
 intruders. He 
 showed a won- 
 derful genius 
 for war, also 
 for civil af- 
 fairs. The Mu- 
 lattoes, the 
 freedinen, the 
 French and the 
 other foreign- 
 ers came to 
 recognize him 
 as the supreme 
 authority in 
 every thing. 
 
 I 11 1800 he 
 
 took possession 
 of the entire 
 island in the 
 name of the 
 French Direc- 
 tory. He was 
 madepresident 
 for life. The 
 
 and died a prisoner in the castle of Joux, the vic- 
 tim of treachery and cruelty, including starvation. 
 The treatment of this great man was one of the 
 foulest blots upon the name of Napoleon, and a su- 
 preme calamity to Hayti. It seemed to be on the 
 highway to a large prosperity, but with Toussaint’s 
 fall it withered and shriveled. 
 
 Notwithstanding the fate of L’Ouverture, the 
 French had to abandon the idea of re-enslaving the 
 negro. In all the world’s history no act of emanci- 
 pation, once 
 
 BAY OP SAMANA. 
 
 whole island was at peace and prosperous under him. 
 But Napoleon, then consul of France, proposed to re- 
 store the old state of affairs, including the re-estab- 
 lishment of slavery. He sent Leclerc with 06 vessels 
 of war and 30,000 soldiers to carry out this purpose. 
 They arrived on the island early in 1802. Toussaint 
 issued a proclamation declaring loyalty to France but 
 death to the invaders. Leclerc in turn denounced him 
 as an outlaw. The forces of the island were utterly 
 inadequate to the resistance. Toussaint retired to 
 the mountains, but was induced to surrender on the 
 promise of personal immunity and the continued 
 freedom of the negroes. That pledge was shame- 
 fully broken. lie was carried to France in irons 
 
 effective, has 
 been practical- 
 ly and perma- 
 nently recalled. 
 Failing in this, 
 the army left 
 the island in 
 1804, and San 
 Domingo de- 
 clared itself a 
 free and inde- 
 pendentrepub- 
 lic. The first 
 president, Des- 
 salines, who 
 had proved a 
 worthy suc- 
 cessor to Tous- 
 saint in the 
 field, was ut- 
 terly unfitted 
 for the trust 
 reposed in him. 
 He attempted 
 to make himself emperor of all Hayti. Two years 
 later he was assassinated, but not until after the 
 island had been drenched in blood and the indus- 
 tries terribly crippled. With his death the eastern 
 part of the island returned to Spanish rule. An- 
 archy prevailed until 1822, when Boyer united the 
 entire island under one government. 
 
 For twenty years he remained in power. At 
 the expiration of that period he was banished 
 and the island once more divided. It remained so 
 until 1849, when Soulouque, a freedman who had 
 acquired some prominence in the civil wars which had 
 desolated the island, and had been elected president 
 of Hayti in 1847, declared himself emperor of the 
 
 r 
 
 rv 
 
0 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE ISLES OF THE SEA. 
 
 4 8 3 
 
 t 
 
 entire island. His pretentions were successfully re- 
 sisted by the San Domingans under the lead of 
 Santana, who from 1844 to 1861 was at the head of 
 public affairs in San Domingo, much of the time as 
 president. In 1855 Santana put an effectual termi- 
 nation by overwhelming superiority in the field, to 
 the pretensions of the Haytian rival. Santana died 
 in 1864 ; Soulouque in 1867. Between them what lit- 
 tle prosperity the island had previously enjoyed was 
 destroyed. A land which, a century ago, contributed 
 largely to the wealth of the world is now a mere 
 cipher. The only redeeming feature, or consola- 
 tion, is that the bulk of the people are now crudely 
 happy, while under the old regime they were excru- 
 ciatingly miserable. 
 
 During his first presidential term General Grant 
 was very desirous of annexing San Domingo to the 
 United States. He exerted all his influence to se- 
 cure its annexation. Everything was arranged, and 
 it was only necessary for the senate of the United 
 States to concur. But that concurrence could not 
 be secured. Senator Charles Sumner was as warmly 
 opposed to it as the president was in favor of it. The 
 controversy involved the two great men in personal 
 unpleasantness. Mr. Sumner carried his point, but 
 in punishment therefor the friends of the admistra- 
 tion deposed him from the chairmanship of the 
 Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs, a position 
 which he had long filled with pre-eminent ability. 
 An attempt to annex the small West Indian island 
 of St. Thomas was also defeated. The sentiment 
 of the United States was and is averse to the ac- 
 quisition of any outlying southern territory. 
 
 Jamaica, with an area of 4,473 square miles and 
 a population of 500,000, is one of the Antilles and 
 a colonial possession of Great Britain. It produces 
 in large quantities sugar and coffee. Much of the 
 former is distilled into rum lief ore exportation. This 
 island was visited by Columbus and settled by the 
 Spaniards in 1500. The English captured it in 1655. 
 For a century and a half it was managed as one 
 vast plantation, the supply of slaves being kept up 
 by importations from Africa. The slave trade was 
 abolished in 1807, and slavery itself in 1833. The 
 amount of sugar and coffee raised was very greatly 
 reduced by emancipation. It is governed by a cap- 
 tain-general appointed by the crown. The capital 
 is Kingston. 
 
 The Lesser Antilles are divided into two groups, 
 
 the Windward or South Carribee Islands, and the 
 Leeward or North Carribee Islands. The former are 
 Barbadoes, Granada, the Grenadines, Martinique, St. 
 Lucia, St.Vinceut, Trinidad and Tobago. They are 
 all British possessions, except Martinique, which be- 
 longs to France. The Leeward Islands are Anguilla, 
 Antigua, Barbuda, Deseada, Dominica, Gaudaloupe, 
 Marie Galante, Montserrat Nevis, Saba, St. Barthol- 
 omew, St. Christopher, St. Eustacius, St. Martin, 
 Santa Cruz, and a group of still smaller islands 
 called the Virgin Islands. All told, they are trivial 
 in importance. Their ownership is divided between 
 England, France, Sweden, Denmark, Holland and 
 Spain, the possessions of the latter, outside of Cuba 
 and Porto Rico, being utterly insignificant. The 
 Danish islands are St. Thomas, St. John and St. 
 Croix. These small islands are almost worthless, 
 except as they may be useful as coaling stations and 
 for other naval purposes. 
 
 The most eastern of these islands are the Barba- 
 does. That term was often used, in colonial times, as 
 applying to all the British possessions in the West 
 Indies. Slavery was abolished within the British 
 possessions about the same time that the Spanish 
 states became independent and freed their slaves. 
 At one time New England traded extensively in 
 slaves, rum and molasses with the British portion 
 of those tropical islands, especially the two latter 
 articles. Since the restrictions of trade were re- 
 moved the principal commercial intercourse of this 
 country and the world generally with those innu- 
 merable islands is carried on with Cuba at its business 
 and political capital, Havana, and the chief article 
 of trade is the cigar. Many parts of the tropical 
 world produce sugar, coffee, and even tobacco, but 
 the flavor of the Cuban tobacco-leaf is peculiar, 
 and preferred to that of any other. 
 
 In Central America and the West Indies there 
 are only two seasons of the year, instead of four, 
 wet and dry. During the cooler months it rains a 
 great deal, but when the sun is more vertical rain 
 hardly ever falls ; an earthquake or a hurricane is 
 more to be expected than a thunderstorm. 
 
 It may be added here that the waters of the Ca- 
 ribbean sea, flowing from it by an ocean current into 
 the Gulf of Mexico, find egress only through the 
 narrow passage between the Bahamas and Florida, 
 and thus is formed that incalculably important and 
 mighty ocean river, the Gulf-Stream. 
 
•V 
 
 
 4 8 4 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE ISLES OF THE SEA. 
 
 The Bermudas is a term suggestive of a group of 
 islets having far more prominence than import- 
 ance. They lie about 620 miles off Cape Hatter as, 
 the nearest land. Their number is 400, their area 
 only 24 square miles and their population only about 
 ten thousand. Juan Bermudez discovered them in 
 1522. The temperature is always mild and the ver- 
 dure perpetual. The English have some strong bat- 
 teries on the largest isle of the group. The only 
 thing for which the Bermudas are famous is onions, 
 which are exported in large quantities. 
 
 The Azores, situated in the North Atlantic about 
 500 miles west of Portugal, are a group of islands 
 which have been under Portuguese rule ever since 
 1449. For nearly half a century they were the ex- 
 treme western limit of the known world. Their 
 area is 1149 square miles, population about 250,000. 
 There are three groups, the Flores and Corvo form- 
 ing one ; Terceira, St. George, Pico, Fayal and Gra- 
 ciosa a second, and St. Michael and St. Mary the 
 third. The chief exports are wine, brandy and 
 oranges. The people are simple, superstitious and 
 uninteresting. 
 
 Leaving the Atlantic and visiting the Pacific, the 
 important group is the Sandwich or Hawaiian Isl- 
 ands. These islands were discovered by the Span- 
 ish in the 16th century, but they were soon lost 
 sight of. They may be said to have first become a 
 part of the world actual when visited by that great 
 English navigator, Captain Cook, in 1778, who was 
 killed by the natives the following year. The 
 people were indeed barbarians, but not downright 
 savages. Something approaching a civilization was 
 found. A system of government strongly resem- 
 bling medieval feudalism prevailed, with several 
 rulers of about equal dignity, each independent and 
 sovereign. But in the year 1790, Kamehamelia ex- 
 tended his sway to all Hawaii. When he died the 
 entire group formed one kingdom. In 1819 a civil 
 , war occurred which resulted, among other things, in 
 the destruction of the idols of popular worship. 
 
 Very soon after seven American missionaries, with 
 their wives, came among them to make known to 
 them the Gospel of Christ. They came at a very 
 opportune time. The ground was prepared for the 
 seed sown, and in an almost incredibly short time 
 the Hawaiians became Christians. In 1825 the Ten 
 Commandments were adopted and formally made a 
 part of the code of the country. Honolulu became 
 the capital. In 1829 the United States recognized 
 the government of the Hawaiian Islands as a treaty 
 power, and in 1843 and 1844 that goverment re- 
 ceived full and general recognition as a nation. 
 
 Captain Cook estimated the population at 400,- 
 000, but by the last census it had fallen to about 
 57,000. Commercial intercourse proved terribly de- 
 structive to life. The people on the coast contract- 
 ed diseases from contact with sailors which killed 
 them off with unprecedented rapidity. Sugar rais- 
 ing is the chief industry, and the greater part of 
 the product is exported to San Francisco. All these 
 twelve islands, of which Hawaii is the chief, are vol- 
 canic. There are two active volcanoes on Hawaii — 
 Kilauea and Manna Loa. 
 
 The Fiji Islands constitute a group in the South 
 Pacific Ocean numbering about 209, with a popula- 
 tion estimated at 200, 000'. The first European to 
 visit them was the Dutch navigator, Tasman, in 
 1643. There was no full exploration until two 
 centuries later, when an American by the name of 
 Wilkes visited them. There are only two islands of 
 any considerable magnitude, Yiti Levu and Vanua 
 Levu. The people were savages of the most pro- 
 nounced type, but the missionaries of the cross have 
 met with great success there. At least one-half the 
 population habitually attend Christian service on 
 the Sabbath. 
 
 Having now visited the more interesting Isles of 
 the Sea, it is time to return to the American conti- 
 nent and trace from many small beginnings to its 
 present magnificence, that grandest republic of all 
 the ages — the United States. 
 
CHAPTER LXX V. 
 
 The Subject in Hand — Origin op the Indian Race and the Name— Mounds and the Extinct 
 Mound Builders— The Land op the Pueblos — Cliff Houses— Cave Dwellers— The 
 Nations and Tribes Once on the Atlantic Coast — Testimony op Trumbull — Reserva- 
 tions — The Indian Bureau — Indian Territory — Wampum — Indian Opportunities and 
 Prospects — The Aboriginal Problem — Relation op the Indian to the History op the 
 United States. 
 
 ETWEEN the Republic of 
 Mexico and the British de- 
 pendency of Canada is situ- 
 ate the most important na- 
 tion on the globe, viewed 
 from the standpoint of the 
 actual. Its history covers a 
 comparatively short period, 
 but already it ranks with the 
 great powers of the earth, and its 
 growth is absolutely unprecedented. 
 The United States can best be studied 
 and understood by viewing it from a 
 variety of standpoints, and first of all 
 naturally from the aboriginal point of 
 view. 
 
 We use the term Indian to designate 
 all the peoples and tribes found by Eu- 
 ropeans on this continent, and whose 
 occupancy of the soil antedates history. It was origi- 
 nally a misnomer, given from the misapprehension 
 that the islands in the Caribbean sea were a part of 
 the country in and about the Indian Ocean of the 
 far East. Misnomer though it be, Indians is the 
 designation of all prehistoric Americans. 
 
 Many wild notions have been entertained relative 
 to the origin of the Indians. Some have tried to 
 
 trace them to the “ Lost Ten Tribes ” of Israel, oth- 
 ers to the “ Shepherd Kings ” who were expelled 
 from Egypt some four chiliads ago. All such con- 
 jectures are preposterous. As well try to trace the 
 origin of tobacco or wheat. It would be quite pos- 
 sible for the inhabitants of northern Asia or north- 
 ern Europe, especially the former, to make their way 
 from island to island to the western hemisphere, but 
 in the sands of time are no footprints. Behring’s 
 Strait and the Aleutian Islands, if they have a se- 
 cret, keep it well. 
 
 The Indian found upon the Atlantic coast, from 
 Labrador to Buenos Ayres, was a mere savage, 
 somewhat interesting as a novelty, but to all intents 
 and purposes a crude barbarian liko the prehistoric 
 man set forth in our third chapter. In the interior 
 and the west, however, he was found to have done 
 some remarkable things. There were and still are 
 vast mounds which attest the presence, in a buried 
 past, of a people possessing some real civilization. 
 Men of science have been richly rewarded for exca- 
 vating these earthworks. Regular and exact are 
 they, proving capacity for calculation and execution 
 above the level of barbarism. Indeed, it is evi- 
 dent that the Mound-builders understood somewhat 
 the principles of geometry. They may have had 
 their Archimedes or Euclid. If they had only had 
 

 4 86 
 
 NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 
 
 a Cadmus to give them letters, they might have fig- 
 ured among the historical peoples^ There is one 
 mound in the Miami valley, Ohio, laid out in the 
 form of a huge snake. Knives and other implements, 
 also pottery, have been found, all uncouth and 
 primitive, leaving no doubt that the continent was 
 once occupied by a people who “ knew enough to 
 know ” that by softening metal with fire it could be 
 made useful, and that clay could be moistened, fash- 
 ioned and baked with equally 
 
 good results. 
 
 It is thought probable that 
 the Aztecs of Mexico are de- 
 scended from the Mound-build- 
 ers, and that the Indian, as he 
 was found roaming the forests 
 by the Europeans who settled 
 this country and made it a part 
 of the civilized world, was him- 
 self an interloper, and not really 
 the aboriginal American. But 
 this is matter of conjecture. We 
 only know that the extent and 
 magnitude of these mounds 
 serve as an index-finger pointing 
 to a history never to be written 
 of a people who had ceased to 
 inhabit the country long before 
 the advent of the white man, 
 or if still the same, changed sadly 
 in character, and practically ex- 
 tinct. 
 
 Of the Canadian Indians, in- 
 cluding the Esquimaux, enough 
 has been said in previous chap- 
 ters, but Indian archaeology and present facts unite in 
 presenting other aborigines quite as interesting and 
 civilized as the Mound-builders, known as Cave- 
 dwellers and Cliff-dwellers. 
 
 The land of the Mound-builders is now under 
 cultivation, peopled by a race noted for what it can 
 do in the line of utility, but the land of the Cave 
 and Cliff dwellers is still, for the most part, undis- 
 turbed by white men. That land extends over a 
 large part of Colorado, Utah, Arizona and New 
 Mexico. That vast region is inconceivably rich in 
 precious metals, yields a growth of very nutritious 
 grasses for buffaloes, cattle and sheep. It may be 
 said to be at once the treasure-house and the pasture 
 
 GREAT SERPENT, ADAMS CO., OHIO. 
 
 of the United States. From the standpoint of pro- 
 ductive value it is those two and no more. But to 
 the student of the curious it is interesting as the 
 home of a more remarkable people, apparently, than 
 the Mound-builders. 
 
 The architectural remains and attestations of a 
 decayed civilization in the Rocky Mountains are 
 pueblos, casa grandes, cave-houses and cliff-houses. 
 A pueblo is sometimes inhabited, but often a desert- 
 ed village. The pueblo struc- 
 tures are made of stone, quite 
 large, sometimes two or three 
 stories in height. Within, the 
 building is divided into numer- 
 ous apartments, as many as a 
 thousand in some instances. 
 South of the pueblos are found 
 casa grandes, differing from the 
 other class of structure in mate- 
 rial, rather than size or object. 
 They were made of mud, or 
 adobe. For the most part these 
 are now shapeless ruins. 
 Cliff-houses are another highly 
 , interesting feature of the an- 
 tiquities of the interior of the 
 United States. A writer who 
 was on the ground and wrote 
 from actual observation, says in 
 describing one of these cliff- 
 houses, “ Over six hundred feet 
 from the bottom of the canon, 
 in a niche in the wall, is a 
 fine specimen of cliff-dwellings. 
 Five hundred feet of the ascent 
 to this aerial dwelling was comparatively easy, 
 but a hundred feet of almost perpendicular wall 
 confronted the party, up which they could never 
 have climbed but for the fact that they found 
 a series of steps cut in the face of the rock leading 
 up to the ledge upon which the house was built. 
 This ledge was ten feet wide by twenty feet in length, 
 with a vertical space between it and the overhang- 
 ing rock of fifteen feet. The house occupied only 
 half this space, the remainder having been used as 
 an esplanade, and once was inclosed by a balustrade 
 resting on abutments built partly upon the sloping 
 face of the precipice below. The house was but 
 twelve feet high and two-storied. Though the walls 
 
 it 
 
 
NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 
 
 ■vte 
 
 1 
 
 -i o 
 
 did not reach up to the rock above, it is uncertain 
 whether it ever had any other roof. 
 
 The ground plan showed a front room 
 of six by nine feet in dimensions, in 
 the rear of which were two smaller 
 rooms, each measuring five by seven 
 feet. The left-hand room projected 
 along the cliff beyond the front room 
 in the form of an L. The rock of 
 the cliff served as the rear wall of the 
 house. The cedar beams upon which 
 the upper floor rested had nearly all 
 disappeared. 
 
 “ The door opening upon the es- 
 planade was but twenty by thirty 
 inches in size, while a window in the 
 same story was but twelve inches 
 square. A window in the upper story 
 which commands an extended view 
 down the canon corresponds in dimen- 
 sions and position with the door below. 
 
 The lintels of the window were small, 
 straight cedar sticks laid close to- 
 gether, upon which the stones rested. 
 
 Opposite this window was another 
 one, opening in- 
 to a semi-circu- 
 lar cistern, form- 
 ed by a wall in- 
 closing the angle 
 formed by the 
 side wall of the 
 house against 
 the rock, and 
 holding about 
 two and a half 
 hogsheads. The 
 bottom of the 
 reservoir was 
 reached by de- 
 scending on a 
 series of cedar 
 pegs about one 
 foot apart, and 
 leading down- 
 ward from the 
 window. The 
 workmanship of 
 the structure was 
 
 ESQUIMAUX. 
 
 diculars were true ones and the angles carefully 
 squared. The mortar used was of a 
 grayish white color, very compact and 
 adhesive. Some little taste was 
 evinced by the occupants of this 
 human swallow’s-nest. The front 
 rooms were plastered smoothly with a 
 thin layer of firm adobe cement, col- 
 ored a deep maroon, while a white 
 band eight inches wide had been 
 painted around the room at both floor 
 and ceiling. An examination of the 
 immediate vicinity revealed the ruins 
 of half a dozen similar dwellings in 
 the ledges of the cliffs, some of them 
 occupying positions, the inaccessibility 
 of which must ever be a wonder when 
 considered as places of residence for 
 
 human beings.” 
 
 houses of the aboriginal 
 
 and smaller 
 
 CASA GRANDE OP THE GILA VALLEY. 
 
 of a superior order; the perpen- ! than their descendants. 
 
 The cave 
 
 American were substantially similar 
 to the cliff houses, except this, instead 
 of being constructed on a shelf of 
 the cliff, they seem to have been set 
 into openings in the cliffs. Caves a thousand feet 
 
 above the level 
 of the valley 
 have been found 
 which show evi- 
 dence of long 
 and populousoe- 
 cupaucy. Some 
 cave villages 
 havebeenfound. 
 This class of ex- 
 ploration is still 
 incomplete, but 
 enough isknown 
 to justify the 
 conclusion that 
 the older gener- 
 ations of In- 
 dians, no doubt 
 the real progen- 
 itors of those 
 now there, wore 
 far more capa- 
 ble and efficient 
 If not exactly “ thodogen- 
 

 
 488 
 
 NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 
 
 reate sons of noble sires,” there is certainly no doubt 
 about the de- 
 generacy. 
 
 The reader 
 may desire to 
 be informed 
 how many In- 
 dians there 
 probably were 
 on this conti- 
 nent when it 
 was first dis- 
 covered. There 
 is no way of 
 telling, but the 
 fairestestimate 
 is five millions, 
 one-fifth of the 
 number being 
 within the bor- 
 ders of the 
 United States. 
 
 Central gov- 
 ernments and the civilization implied, were confined 
 to Peru and Mexico, as those terms are used in his- 
 tory, and notin 
 the present re- 
 stricted sense. 
 
 According to 
 the classifica- 
 tion made by 
 J. Hammond 
 Trumbull and 
 other eminent 
 authorities on 
 this subject, 
 the Indians 
 west of the 
 Rocky Mount- 
 ains were divi- 
 ded into eight 
 nations, or con- 
 federations of 
 tribes, bound 
 loosely togeth- 
 er by a vague 
 sense of kin- 
 ship. They 
 
 Catawbas, Uchees, Natchez, Mobilians, Dakotas or 
 
 Sioux. The 
 vast section of 
 country ex- 
 tending from 
 Pennsylvania, 
 Virginia, Dela- 
 ware and New 
 Jersey, through 
 Southeastern 
 New York, 
 along the coast 
 of the Atlantic 
 off New En- 
 gland, thence 
 inland by the 
 St. Lawrence 
 to the lake re- 
 gion, embrac- 
 ing the area of 
 the states of Il- 
 linois, Indiana, 
 and sections of 
 
 Tennessee and Kentucky, formed the hunting- 
 grounds of the Algonquins. This distinct nation 
 
 was divided in- 
 to numerous 
 tribes, the most 
 of which were 
 decidedly no- 
 madic, moving 
 from one sec- 
 tion of their 
 vast territory 
 to another, as 
 their fancies 
 dictated or necessities demanded. Some 
 of the more important of the tribes be- 
 longing to the Algonquin nation were 
 the Narragansetts, Pequots, Mohegans 
 and Massachusetts who occupied South- 
 ern New England, while further south 
 of them were to be found the Shawnees, 
 Delawares and Powhattans, and some 
 less noteworthy branches of the nation. 
 The Miamis, Foxes, Illinois, Sacs, Kick- 
 apoos, Chippewas and Menominees, were 
 scattered throughout the West, and in 
 were the Algonquins, Huron-Iroquois, Cherokees, | the section of country bordering upon the great 
 
 Urn Sl^s 
 
 
 j 
 
-V|SL 
 
 
 NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 
 
 489 
 
 lakes. The Montagnais inhabited a region on 
 the banks of the St. Lawrence. They were objects 
 of great interest to the Jesuit priests of Quebec, who, 
 with a true missionary spirit, sought 
 their rude habitations in winter, 
 with a view of bringing them with- 
 in the pale of the church. The Al- 
 gonquin nation gave birth to many 
 noted warriors who left records long 
 remembered by the early settlers 
 of the country. Of these may be 
 named Massasoit, King Philip, Powhatan, Pontiac, 
 
 BLACKHAWK 
 
 Blackhawk and Tecumseh. 
 
 In the year 1600, the Algonquins were estimated 
 to number nearly two hun- 
 dred and fifty thousand. 
 
 The Indians of the Uni- 
 ted States are gradually be- 
 ing concentrated upon res- 
 ervations, and it will not be 
 very many years before 
 every Indian will be obliged 
 to adopt civilization or re- 
 move to and abide upon his 
 reservation. Not that a red 
 man is imprisoned and cannot go beyond certain 
 territorial limits in his individual capacity. Not 
 that at all. But simply the roving about of preda- 
 tory bands cannot be allowed where white folks live. 
 The office of Commissioner of Indian Affairs was 
 
 created by congress in 1832, and is in charge of the 
 bureau of Indian Affairs, a branch of the Depart- 
 ment of the Interior. It is his duty to superin- 
 tend the distribution of the appropriations which 
 congress makes yearly for the Indians, who are re- 
 garded as “ wards of the government.’’ There are 
 numerous agencies scattered over the western coun- 
 try, subject to the Indian Commissioner. During a 
 part of General Grant’s term, a real Indian, Captain 
 Parker, held this office, but the service is, and with 
 this exception always has been, altogether in the 
 hands of the whites. The aim is to protect the pio- 
 neers from depredations and enable the Indians them- 
 selves to evade the fundamental law that “ lie who 
 will not work shall not eat.” Some of these agen- 
 cies and reservations are within the limits of states, 
 or territories which will become states, but it is evi- 
 dent that before many years all settlements of 
 Indians will be concentrated in Indian Territory. 
 
 This fair portion of our continent, bordering on 
 Texas, Kansas, Arkansas, Colorado and Missouri, 
 contains an area of about 70,000 square miles. The 
 policy of removing the tribes of Indians to a territory 
 of their own originated in 1834. At first it was 
 somewhat vague in conception and legislative defini- 
 tion, but this policy has assumed precision at last, and 
 now the United States stands ready to guard and 
 protect “ the nation,” as Indian territory is popularly 
 called, from intruding whites. The principal tribes 
 there are Cherokees, Chicasaws, Choctaws, Creeks, 
 Quapaws, Seminoles and Poncas. The entire popu- 
 lation is not far from 100,000. A good deal of corn 
 and wheat are annually raised, and large herds of 
 cattle pastured. There are schools among them and 
 newspapers. It is not believed that the population 
 is decreasing". The old idea of ultimate Indian ex- 
 tinction is unfounded. 
 
 The general characteristics of the Indian are, a 
 copper-colored skin ; straight black hair ; high 
 cheek bones ; a tall, erect form ; stolidity and an 
 incorrigible aversion to work. Their speech is guttu- 
 ral, rasping and disagreeable. Many dialects there 
 are, as a matter of course, among a people widely 
 scattered, unsocial, and having nothing approaching 
 a literature nearer than a few rude pictures on birch- 
 bark. Some claim that there were at least ten dis- 
 tinct languages spoken in this country by the prim- 
 itive natives. There may have been a hundred. John 
 Eliot, the one Englishman who truly and sincerely 
 came to America early in the seventeenth century to 
 convert the heathen, faithfully mastered the lan- 
 guage of the Indians about him in Massachusetts. 
 
 With infinite pains he translated the Bible into it, 
 thinking: he had done for the Indians much the 
 same service that Wycliffe had done for the English. 
 
 The dreary difficulties of his mighty task were ren- 
 dered recreative by the anticipation of a redeemed 
 people. But a few generations passed and nothing was 
 left to attest the wisdom of his goodness. Indians 
 are numerous enough, in the far West, but it has 
 been a long, long time since any “ noble red man” 
 could read that curiosity of literature, or understand 
 it if read to him, however accurate the pronunciation. 
 
 A great deal of sentimental folly has been wasted 
 upon the Indian. He had an infinitely bettor 
 chance to become civilized than the negro had, but 
 he would not become a part of the industry of the 1 
 country. A little corn and tobacco would he raise, 
 
49 ° 
 
 NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 
 
 ► 
 
 and that is all. In the field of American pro- 
 duction he was, and still persists in being, a mere 
 thistle, fond of the baubles and hurtful inventions 
 of civilized life, without accepting anything which 
 is the just pride of progressive humanity. The skin 
 of beasts, a wigwam, war paint, bow and arrow, 
 tomahawk and scalping-knife are still the Indian’s 
 measure of improvement. In the midst of a most 
 productive continent the aboriginal American is a 
 constitutional pauper, supported by annuities, and 
 self-excluded from participation in the events of the 
 day. Originally sea-shells somewhat carved and 
 fashioned, constituted the Indian’s only object of 
 trade or standard of values. Wampum, as those shells 
 were called, was both commerce and coin. Their 
 stone hatchets, clay kettles, baskets, fish-nets, corn, 
 with a few beans and squashes added, might be 
 prized, but there was no traffic in them. Sometimes 
 copper or pipe-stone was exchanged for wampum. 
 Now that the white man feeds and clothes him, the 
 Indian will barter the skins of the beasts of the 
 chase for nothing else so readily as for alcohol. 
 
 The Indian proper has a certain individuality, de- 
 fying change which excites some admiration. He 
 worships God as a Great Spirit, accepts the inevitable 
 with stoical heroism, and if he does fight in ambush 
 and scalp his victim, he is not ungrateful. Revenge 
 is the sweetest bread an Indian ever tasted, but many 
 instances could be given of kindness rendered 
 at great peril to repay kindness. The Indian 
 has some sense of justice ; none at all of mercy. He 
 hopes at death to enter “the happy hunting grounds” 
 of the spirit land, but he expects to be welcomed to 
 heaven and made glad with the smiles of the blessed 
 in proportion as he was “ a mighty man of valor.” 
 The works mete for repentance, according to the 
 Indian’s religion, are the scalps of enemies. 
 
 History records numerous instances of the dis- 
 placement of one people by another. From the Red 
 Sea to the British channel the march of empire was 
 over the road of ruthless usurpation. The new 
 comers, from the Jordan to the Thames, assumed 
 that the original occupants had no rights which the 
 invaders were bound to respect. It is true that in 
 this country the aborigines have been crowded on 
 and off a good many reservations, and been fre- 
 quently cheated by dishonest agents — sometimes 
 cruelly murdered ; but the very fact of reservations, 
 
 agents, and annuities attests the exceptional human- 
 ity of the United States government. As compared 
 with the record of any other people, Jew or gentile, 
 ours may justly boast a century of honor. It is not 
 a pioneer prejudice, but an undeniable fact, that the 
 Indian is the wild partridge of humanity. The ne- 
 gro did his best to acquire civilization, and despite 
 the most persistent skepticism and hostility, rose to 
 the dignity of American sovereignty. There was 
 never a time when this country would not have 
 gladly taken the Indian by the hand if he had 
 shown a disposition to rise. It is “ Indians untaxed ” 
 who are discriminated against in the suffrage clause 
 of some organic laws. The United States government 
 has tried to solve this Indian problem — for it must be 
 admitted that with all our reservations, missions, and 
 annuities, this country has failed to civilize “ the 
 first families ” of America in a way ignoring the 
 necessary steps in passing from barbarism to civili- 
 zation. The attempt has been to convert the hunter 
 into a farmer, without any intermediate stage. The 
 shepherd, as shown in a previous chapter, is the con- 
 necting link between following the chase and follow- 
 ing the plow. No civilized people ever jumped at 
 one leap from hunting to agriculture. In the earlier 
 days of the republic, the raising of grain and live- 
 stock were inseparably blended ; but it is not so now. 
 There are vast tracts of land in the far West which 
 are exactly adapted to grazing, and nothing else. 
 Already millions of cattle roam those plains, run- 
 ning together, but none the less individualized prop- 
 erty. If the owner is absent, he has a superinten- 
 dent, and in either case employs “greasers” to assist 
 in the general care of the stock. This life on the 
 plains is half way between buffalo hunting and grain 
 raising. There is no good reason why the attempt 
 should not be made to utilize the Indians as herders, 
 and thus teach them the alphabet of civilization. 
 
 Having taken this general survey of the Indian 
 race, it is proposed to enter upon the history of the 
 United States and follow it chronologically, from 
 the earliest settlements to date. It may be added 
 that between Mexico and Canada, nothing of im- 
 portance to subsequent events occurred before the 
 seventeenth century. But from the time the first 
 English colony was established in North America 
 the Indian became of secondary and rapidly lessen- 
 ing importance. 
 

 N a certain vague sense it 
 might be said that the 
 United States dates from 
 1496, when Henry VII. of 
 E n g 1 a n d commissioned 
 John Cabot to sail to 
 America and establish there 
 a New England. There 
 was already a New Spain, with a New 
 France soon to follow. But that expe- 
 dition was fruitless. For about a cen- 
 tury England seemed to be singularly 
 oblivious of America. The last of the 
 Ilenrys, his son Edward and daughter 
 Mary, paid no heed to the new world. 
 
 The first Englishman to interest him- 
 self, thoroughly and to some purpose, 
 in America was Sir Humphrey Gilbert. 
 In 1583 Queen Elizabeth authorized him to form a 
 colony on this continent, lie set sail intending to 
 establish a permanent settlement for agriculture and 
 
 fishing, especially the latter, at or near Newfound- 
 land. Ilis ideal was radically different from that of 
 the Spanish adventurers who had preceded him on 
 this continent. Sir Humphrey was lost at sea. But 
 his melancholy fate did not discourage others from 
 adopting his plan. His half brother, the illustrious 
 Sir Walter Raleigh, took up the mantle of Gilbert, 
 and right royally did he wear it. His patent was 
 granted in 1584. He did not accompany the expe- 
 dition, but the explorers whom he sent out effected 
 a landing off Pamlico Sound, finding a country far 
 more inviting than either Newfoundland or New 
 Spain. It was named Virginia, in honor of the 
 Virgin Queen. Two attempts were soon after made 
 to found a permanent settlement, both of which 
 proved unavailing. 
 
 In 1602 Gosnold discovered and named Cape Cod. 
 The settlement there and then was soon given up. 
 Others came over on exploring expeditions, and the 
 English public became greatly interested in the sub- 
 ject of American colonization. In 1806 James I. 
 
 England and English America — Sir Humphrey Gilbert and Sir Walter Raleigh — Cape Cod, 
 Virginia and Plymouth — Capt. John Smith and Pocahontas — Introduction of Slavery 
 and English Wives — Indian Warfare — Lord Culpepper and the Royalists — Gov. Rerke' 
 ley and Nathaniel Bacon — Maryland and Lord Baltimore — New England and Capt. 
 Smith — Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers — The Pilgrims in Holland — Gov. Carver — 
 Massasoit and Canonicus — Other Massachusetts Settlements — Governors Wintiirop and 
 Endicott— Harvard College and the Printing Press — Connecticut and New Hampshire — 
 Rhode Island and Roger Williams— Boston and Quakers — Salem and Witchcraft- 
 King Philip’s War — New England Bigotry and the Charge against Roger Williams — 
 Other Notable Early New Englanders — New Netherlands and Henry Hudson— The 
 Patroons — Dutch Governors— New Sweden — William Penn and Pennsylvania— The 
 Carolinas and John Locke — The Huguenots and Scotch — Georgia and Oglethorpe— 
 Whitefield and Slaa - ery — Spanish and French Settlements in the United States — 
 Florida — Mississippi River and Valley — Pere Marquette and New France. 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 LXXVI. 
 
 " 7 <s 
 
 (A9 l ) 
 
EARLY COLONIAL UNITED STATES 
 
 402 
 
 divided the region claimed by England into North 
 and South Virginia, granting the first to the Ply- 
 mouth Company, and the second to the London 
 Company. Each company attempted to establish 
 a colony, but only the latter was successful, and that 
 success was the first permanent English settlement, 
 not only in Virginia, but America. The fleet was 
 under the command of Christopher Newport. It 
 sailed up the stately James River in 1607, and 
 founded Jamestown. 
 
 The colony had a hard struggle, and was saved 
 from ruin by Captain John Smith. On one occasion 
 Smith was 
 captured by 
 the Indians. 
 
 The chief, 
 
 Powhatan, 
 condemned 
 him to death 
 but Poca- 
 hontas, the 
 daughter of 
 the chief, 
 saved him. 
 
 At least, it 
 is the story 
 told, and 
 long im- 
 plicitly be- 
 lieved. It is 
 certain that 
 the daugh- 
 ter was an illustrious personage in the history of Vir- 
 ginia. She vis- 
 ited England, 
 received Chris- 
 tian baptism, 
 married an En- 
 glishman, Rolfe, 
 and became the 
 founder of a. 
 family which 
 has always been 
 very proud of 
 her. 
 
 Slavery was 
 introduced into 
 Virginia in 1619. The English never attempted to 
 enslave the natives, but they seemed to have no 
 
 scruples about dealing in African chattels. The 
 first negroes, twenty in number, were imported by a 
 Dutch trading-vessel. The next year the planters 
 bought a cargo of English wives, one hundred in 
 number, warranted to be respectable. The price 
 paid was 120 pounds of tobacco each, which was the 
 price of her passage. With wives and slaves the col- 
 onists were quite established. 
 
 The first serious Indian war occurred in 1622. 
 The massacre was very large, and the retaliation 
 still more wholesale. Hostilities were maintained 
 with more or less steadiness, until 1646, when peace 
 
 was effect- 
 ed, and for 
 the most 
 part ever 
 afterward 
 maintained. 
 
 The Lon- 
 don Com- 
 pany was 
 dissolved in 
 1624, upon 
 which Vir- 
 ginia be- 
 came a 
 province of 
 the crown. 
 
 It so re- 
 mained un- 
 til the year 
 1673, when 
 
 Charles II. ceded it for the period of thirty-one years 
 to Lord Culpepper and the Earl of Arlington, names 
 conspicuous in the geography 
 of the present Virginia. But 
 the colony received its great- 
 est impetus when the civil war 
 in England culminated in the 
 defeat of the rovalists. Vir- 
 ginia was settled by adherents 
 to the Established Church of 
 England, and many royalists 
 fled thither when the Com- 
 monwealth was established. 
 
 When Charles II. regained the pocahontas. 
 crown (1650) the population of Virginia was 30,000, 
 and several flourishing towns had been established, 
 including Richmond and Williamsburg. The 
 
 BUILDING JAMESTOWN 
 
 < 5 ” 
 
EARLY COLONIAL UNITED STATES. 
 
 493 
 
 first governor appointed by Charles II. was Gov- 
 ernor Berkeley. He had been in Virginia before, 
 and the colonists hated him. They had good rea- 
 son for their hatred. He was a detestable tyrant 
 and opposed to everything progressive. He discour- 
 aged education, prohibited the introduction of the 
 printing-press, and tried to conduct the colony as a 
 great tobacco plantation, and nothing else, on sub- 
 stantially the same plan as we have seen that the 
 Dutch have always managed Java. The leader of 
 the opposition to Berkeley was Nathaniel Bacon, the 
 first great patriot of English descent on American 
 soil. He put down an Indian uprising and curbed 
 the arrogance of Berkeley. “ Bacon’s rebellion ” oc- 
 curred about two 
 centuries ago, and 
 was a presage of 
 the Revolution- 
 ary War of one 
 hundred years 
 later. 
 
 The Virginia 
 Colony can now 
 be left to itself 
 until it came to 
 form a part of the 
 colonial confed- 
 eration, as the be- 
 ginnings of the 
 Union might be 
 called. It was not until the French and Indian 
 War, which began in 1653, that this colony had any 
 further experience worthy of note. Year after year 
 it continued to raise tobacco for exportation, and 
 acquire wealth in the business. Gradually a new 
 nationality was growing up beneath the genial sun 
 and the free air of young Virginia, as subsequent 
 events served to prove. 
 
 Maryland was carved out of Virginia during the 
 reign of Charles I. In 1629 that sovereign granted 
 the state of Maryland substantially to George Cal- 
 vert, Lord Baltimore. His lordship was a papist, 
 and designed the establishment of an asylum for 
 persecuted Romanists. So far was he from being a 
 papist of the Spanish type, however, that the colony 
 which he established was the most tolerant of any 
 in the new world. lie called the country Mary- 
 land in honor of the Virgin Mary. The chief city 
 bears his own name. 1 1 is colony became a refuge 
 
 for Episcopalians from New England, for dissenters 
 from Virginia, and other 
 victims of persecution. 
 
 So many Protestants 
 were there at one time 
 in Maryland, and so un- 
 grateful were they, that 
 they actually expelled 
 all Roman Catholics 
 from the colonial legis- 
 lature. In 1691 the pro- 
 prietary charter was re- 
 voked and remained in 
 suspense until 1715, when the Calverts regain- 
 ed their vested 
 rights. They con- 
 tinued to govern 
 the colony until 
 the Revolution- 
 ary War. 
 
 The name New 
 England was giv- 
 en to the region 
 around Cape Cod 
 by Captain John 
 Smith, who tried 
 assiduously in 
 1614 to plant 
 there an English 
 colony. He was a 
 man of broad views, great foresight, and a keen eye 
 to business. 
 
 The first permanent settlement m New England 
 dates from the landing of the Pilgrim Fathers on 
 Plymouth Rock, December 21, 1620. 
 
 James I. was then King of England. That nar- 
 row and bigoted sovereign was determined to make 
 all his subjects conform to the Established or Epis- 
 copal Church. The non-conformists were subject to 
 persecution. To enjoy their religion, a great many 
 of them crossed over to Holland, where the widest 
 latitude was allowed. But that did not suit them. 
 The free and easy Dutch ways were shocking to 
 them. What in the Low Country was thought to 
 be liberty merely, the Puritans looked upon as li- 
 cense, irreligious and immoral. Those who felt that 
 way the deepest returned to their former home, 
 (Plymouth, England) and prepared to sail for 
 the new world. By that time the Virginians had 
 
 CECIL. SECOND LORD BALTIMORE. 
 
494 
 
 EARLY COLONIAL UNITED STATES. 
 
 begun to prosper, and were well known to have 
 found a pleasant land. The Pilgrims took their fam- 
 ilies with 
 them, sail- 
 ing iii the 
 now fa- 
 mous ship, 
 the May- 
 flower, in 
 September. 
 
 It was near- 
 ly a three 
 months’voy. 
 age, and the 
 weather en- 
 countered 
 was more 
 frigid than 
 anything to 
 which they 
 had ever 
 been accus- 
 tomed, and utterly unlike the mild climate they had 
 expected to find. 
 
 These Pilgrims had no 
 really valid charter, but be- 
 fore landing they formed 
 themselves into a body politic, 
 or miniature state, electing 
 John Carver first governor 
 of the Plymouth Colony. 
 
 That first winter was terrible. 
 
 One-half the little company 
 died, including the governor. 
 
 But in the spring, when the 
 Mayflower returned to En- 
 gland, none of the Pilgrims 
 went with her. 
 
 The Pilgrims were wel- 
 comed by the Indians. The 
 latter knew something of the 
 fishermen who had visited the 
 N orth Atlantic coast in quest 
 of fish, and felt friendly. A 
 powerful chief, Massasoit, 
 negotiated a treaty <4 peace 
 with the new-comers which 
 continued uninterruptedly for a long period. The 
 chief of the N arragansetts, Canonicus, was disposed 
 
 to make trouble, but changed his mind. Governor 
 Bradford, who succeeded Carver, understood how to 
 
 deal with 
 the natives. 
 
 Plymouth 
 Colony re- 
 mained dis- 
 tinct until 
 1692, when 
 it became 
 mergedwith 
 the settle- 
 ments about 
 Boston in 
 the Colo- 
 ny of Mas- 
 sachusetts 
 Bay. Of 
 those other 
 settlements 
 one was 
 Salem, es- 
 tablished in 1629, with John Endicott as Governor. 
 
 That colony consisted of two 
 hundred Pilgrims. In 1630 
 John Winthrop brought over 
 a colony of 1,000, many of 
 whom were highly educated 
 and wealthy. They greatly 
 improved the general charac- 
 ter of the settlement, Win- 
 throp remaining the leading 
 man of all the region until 
 his death, a period of twenty 
 years. 
 
 In 1638 Harvard College 
 was founded. It was the first 
 institution of the kind in this 
 country. William and Mary’s 
 College, Virginia, was not 
 much later. The first presi- 
 dent of Harvard set up in 
 his own house the first print- 
 ing-press of the continent 
 north of Mexico the year fol- 
 lowing. 
 
 Gradually the Puritans ex- 
 tended their settlements to the Connecticut Valley 
 and Long Island Sound. Connecticut was thus 
 
 EMBARKATION OF THE PILGRIMS 
 
 

 EARLY COLONIAL UNITED STATES. 
 
 495 
 
 settled, as were New Hampshire and Maine, so far 
 as they were settled at all, as continuations of 
 Massachusetts. Vermont had no development until 
 long after. Connecticut early acquired a reputation 
 for being more puritanical than Massachusetts. 
 Its “ blue laws ” have long been held up to ridicule, 
 but there was no good ground for invidious com- 
 parison. 
 
 New Hampshire can point with pride to Dartmouth 
 College and Connecticut to Yale College, as evidence 
 of the high character of their early settlers. The 
 story of the Charter Oak is one of which the state 
 of Connecticut may well be proud. Charles II. at- 
 tempted to deprive the puritan colonies of their 
 charter, but the one granted to Connecticut was con- 
 cealed in an oak-tree, where it remained until it was 
 safe to bring it to light. The Charter Oak stood 
 until 1856. Its memorable use was in 1687. 
 
 In early colonial days the only peculiar part of 
 New England was Rhode Island, or Providence, 
 founded by Roger Williams, 
 a clergyman who was ban- 
 ished from Plymouth for his 
 liberal views, especially for 
 his opposition to persecution 
 and the union of church and 
 state. He founded Provi- 
 dence in 1636. Newport was 
 started by a few men of simi- 
 lar views as himself in 1638. 
 It was a long time before 
 the other New England col- 
 onies fraternized with “ the plantations on Narragan- 
 sett Bay.” 
 
 The settlers about Boston were particularly bigoted. 
 In 1656 the first Friends or Quakers arrived at Bos- 
 ton. They were persecuted shamefully. They were 
 ordered to leave. Some were whipped in public; 
 some imprisoned; four hanged on Boston Common, 
 and two little girls ordered sold as slaves in the Bar- 
 badoes, an order no sea captain could be found to 
 carry out. Boston has almost as much to be ashamed 
 of as Salem. One hanged a few Quakers, the other 
 burnt several witches. The account of Salem witch- 
 craft finds place in connection with witchcraft in 
 general. 
 
 The first Indian, as appears from a previous chap- 
 ter, to realize the conflict between the aborigines and 
 the pale faces about them, was Philip, son of Mas- 
 
 sasoit, chief of the Pokanokets. In 1674 he rallied 
 the savages for a war of extermination. For four 
 years King Philip’s war was waged. The Narragan- 
 setts were in the alliance ; many of the whites were 
 massacred. Peace was restored in 1678, after two 
 thousand Indians had been killed, including Philip 
 himself. The saintly John Eliot saw the work lie 
 had prosecuted for thirty years undone, and all hope 
 of incorporating the Indians of New England into 
 the body of civilized society destroyed. Philip’s only 
 son was sold into slavery in Bermuda, and the Indi- 
 ans of the region rendered helplessly weak. That 
 war rid New England forever of what had been the 
 especial peril and fear of the whites for half a cen- 
 tury. What the good Eliot had hoped to do by the 
 Gospel of Christ was superseded and rendered nu- 
 gatory by gunpowder. King Philip’s war determined 
 the Indian policy of the United States, notwithstand- 
 ing the pacific and just policy of Roger Williams in 
 Rhode Island, William Penn at Philadelphia and 
 the intermediate policy of other settlements. 
 
 During the ten years immediately succeeding the 
 arrival of Winthrop at Boston not less than 20,000 
 Puritans became pilgrims to America. The Boston 
 settlement was somewhat less rigidly puritanical 
 than the Separatists of Plymouth. It is a curious 
 fact that Roger Williams was banished from Massa- 
 chusetts Bay partly for advanced ideas and partly for 
 his bigotry. The sentence of the court rested on 
 these four indictments : first, teaching that the title 
 of the Massachusetts Company from the king to its 
 lands was not valid, but that the Indians were the 
 true owners ; second, that it was not lawful to call 
 a wicked person to swear or to pray, as being the 
 acts of God’s worship ; third, that it was wrong to 
 listen to any of the ministers of the Parish Assem- 
 blies of England ; fourth, that the civil power had 
 no authority over the opinions [religious] of men. 
 For the first and last he is revered, while the first part 
 of the second and all the third are generally ignored. 
 I f is memory is also revered for his great service in 
 1637, in saving the New England settlements from 
 a general Indian war. Owing to his influence the 
 Narragansetts and the Mohegans did not join the 
 Pequots in raiding the whites. The result was that 
 the latter tribe was exterminated without much 
 trouble. A few other illustrious names belong to 
 early colonial New England. Miles Standish, the 
 first soldier, John Alden, the friend whom he sent 
 
 62 
 
•*i<s 
 
 Li- 
 
 49 6 
 
 EARLY COLONIAL UNITED STATES. 
 
 to court the maiden whom both loved, and who 
 finally said, “Why don’t you speak for yourself, 
 John,?”are the three characters having romantic in- 
 terest. Cotton Mather was a powerful minister of the 
 gospel. Salem witchcraft has always been a reproach 
 to his otherwise fair name. Speaking of this point, 
 Poole says : “ While witchcraft raged in Europe thirty 
 thousand victims perished in the British Islands, 
 seventy-five thousand in France, one hundred thou- 
 sand in Germany, and corresponding numbers in 
 Italy, Spain, Switzerland, Sweden.” He puts the 
 number of executions in New 
 England at thirty-two, all 
 told. Mrs. Anne Hutchinson 
 was the “strong-minded” 
 woman in the colonies. She 
 had the honor of being asso- 
 ciated with Williams, Wil- 
 liam Coddington, John 
 Clarke, William Aspinwall, 
 and some others, in the pur- 
 chase of Rhode Island, for 
 which they paid the aborigi- 
 nes “ forty fathoms of white 
 beads.” In 1G42 she removed 
 with her family to New Neth- 
 erlands, where she was the 
 victim of an Indian massacre. 
 
 One child escaped the toma- 
 hawk. She was a second 
 cousin of the poet Urvden. 
 
 Thomas Hooker, long the 
 leading minister of Con- 
 necticut, as John Cotton and 
 Cotton Mather were of Massachusetts, was a man of 
 great intellectual strength. 
 He belonged to a family al- 
 ready illustrious in ministeri- 
 al annals, and which is still 
 nobly represented in the 
 pulpit. 
 
 L The Connecticut Puritans 
 early came into contact with 
 the Dutch. In 1G09 Henry 
 Hudson, an English sailor 
 who had already made two voyages to America, was 
 sent by the Dutch East India Company in quest of 
 a passage across the continent, in the hope of a short 
 cut to the Orient. In his search he sailed into New 
 
 HENKY HUDSON. 
 
 Y ork harbor, never before visited by white men, and 
 sailed up the river now bearing his name as far as 
 the present site of Albany, when he was obliged to 
 abandon his enterprise and turn back. His report 
 of the beauties of the country suggested the idea of 
 a Dutch settlement in America. In 1613 a trading- 
 post was established at New York, which was first 
 called New Amsterdam. The next year another was 
 established at Fort Orange, or Albany. 
 
 The settlement of New York for purposes of 
 cultivation dates from 1623, when the Dutch West 
 India Company established 
 colonists on the shores of the 
 Hudson river, on a plan 
 widely different from that of 
 any of the English colonies. 
 There was never any religious 
 persecution, nor was religion 
 considered in any way, appar- 
 ently. The early settlers of 
 New York may be ‘called 
 “Christian pagans.” But the 
 most remarkable feature of 
 New Netherlands, as the 
 region was called, was the 
 patroon system. Any man 
 bringing fifty persons with 
 him was allowed a tract of 
 land with sixteen miles of 
 river frontage and a depth as 
 great as “the situation of the 
 occupiers would permit.” The 
 patroon was allowed almost 
 absolute control within his 
 own domain. New England had its small farms and 
 farmers, Virginia and Maryland their spacious plan- 
 tations, tilled by slave labor, and New Netherlands 
 its lordly estates, cultivated by tenants. The latter 
 system was not adapted to a country of boundless 
 landed resources, still, it has not wholly disappeared 
 from New York yet. Two centuries and a half 
 have rolled by and the “ patroon ” may be found oc- 
 casionally. The Wadsworth estate in the Geneseo 
 valley is the largest still left. Those upon the Hud- 
 son and the Mohawk have nearly all disappeared. 
 “The Patroon War,” or rebellion of the tenants of 
 the Van Rensselaer estate, which occurred some two 
 generations ago, virtually removed the system from 
 the eastern part of the state. 
 
 Tv 
 
 

 4a 
 
 EARLY COLONIAL UNITED STATES. 
 
 497 
 
 PETER 8TUYVE8ANT . 
 
 The first Dutch governor was Wouter Van Twil- 
 ler, a singularly stupid man; the second, William 
 Kieft, a busy little despot, and the third and last 
 was the stalwart Peter Stuyvesant, a man of ex- 
 traordinary will power. 
 Many of the people 
 were English. Abso- 
 lute religious liberty 
 drew to the banks of the 
 Hudson a great variety 
 of people. In 1664 the 
 English fleet entered 
 .the harbor, passing Hell- 
 sAxgate and without seri- 
 ous opposition taking 
 possession of the coun- 
 try. Henceforth new 
 names were adopted, 
 New York being substituted for New Netherlands and 
 New Amsterdam, and Albany for Fort Orange. The 
 people took kindly to the change, for the mass of 
 the colonists were restless under the patroon system 
 as originally adopted, with its denial of all political 
 rights to the common people. This fact, rather 
 than any lack of courage on the part of Stuyvesant, 
 paralyzed the arm of that stout-hearted last of the 
 Dutch governors. 
 
 A little south of New York was the Swedish col- 
 ony projected by Gustavus Adolphus, but not es- 
 tablished until 1638. New Sweden comprised the 
 territory from Cape Ilenlopen to Trenton Falls. 
 The present state of Delaware and parts of New 
 Jersey and Pennsylvania belonged to the Swedes by 
 right of purchase from the Indians and of act- 
 ual occupancy. After an existence of seventeen 
 years New Sweden was annexed to New Netherlands, 
 almost without a struggle, the annexation including 
 all except that portion of it in or near Philadelphia, 
 which William Penn purchased of the Swedes. The 
 Dutch regained possession of New York after nine 
 years, retaining it for fifteen months only ; but 
 Sweden made no attempt to maintain control of its 
 colony, and the colonists themselves seemed quite 
 indifferent to political changes. 
 
 It was not until 1683 that William Penn estab- 
 lished his Quaker colony in the new world. This 
 illustrious Friend was the friend of Charles II. of 
 England, and the king owed his father, Admiral 
 Penn, a large sum of money. In discharge of that 
 
 WILLIAM PENN. 
 
 debt His Majesty gave the son a charter to a large 
 tract of land west of the Delaware river, and vested 
 in him full regal powers. 
 
 Penn established a “ free colony for the good and 
 oppressed of all nations,” 
 more particularly his co- 
 religionists. The city of 
 Philadelphia was the start- 
 ing-point of the settlement. 
 
 Among those who availed 
 themselves of the privileges , 
 of Pennsylvania, was a-' 
 company of Germans, who, 
 like the English Quakers, 
 were non-residents, very 
 simple in their tastes, demure in manner, and pure 
 in morals. Many of their descendants have main- 
 tained their national speech and old-time peculiari- 
 ties almost unchanged for two centuries. Pennsyl- 
 vania was never disgraced by an Indian war, by re- 
 ligious persecution, or any form of fanaticism. The 
 nearest approach to it was a trial for witchcraft 
 which resulted in acquittal. Penn was born in Lon- 
 don in 1644, educated at Oxford, and early converted 
 to Quakerism. He never resided long in the colony 
 which he founded. His last years were spent in 
 poverty and distress. He died in 1718. 
 
 The Carolinas came into view in 1630 when 
 Charles I. made a grant of “The Province of Car- 
 olina ” to Sir Robert Heath. But only a very little 
 was done in that part of the new world, beyond 
 some lumbering in the pineries, until a movement 
 was made at the head of which stands the illustrious 
 name of John Locke. The greatest of English 
 philosophers, Lord Bacon, had been a shareholder 
 in a company gotten up to make money out of Vir- 
 ginia, but his brother philosopher was actuated by 
 no mercenary motive. Locke and his associates un- 
 dertook to establish an ideal state in America. He 
 and Lord Shaftesbury drew up a grand model of an 
 aristocratic Utopia. The “ Model ” was utterly un- 
 suited to the purposes of the pioneers, Imt the settle- 
 ment grew and prospered. The Locke Grant was 
 issued in 1663. The first permanent colony was 
 planted in North Carolina. The first within the 
 limits of South Carolina dates from 1670. Before 
 that time French and Spanish representatives had 
 tried to gain a foothold on that coast. Much blood 
 had been shed, and all to no advantage, for the 
 
 <s 
 

 
 498 
 
 EARLY COLONIAL UNITED STATES. 
 
 country was neither French nor Spanish. But after 
 the English had fairly taken undisputed possession 
 many French Huguenots flocked thither from the 
 persecutions of France. Between the years 1686 
 and 1688 no less than a million Huguenots fled from 
 their native land, a few of them seeking asylum in 
 Carolina. From Scotland also came many victims 
 of persecution, Covenanters who were subject to most 
 cruel treatment at home. The Carolinas were not 
 so much established by Englishmen as by French- 
 men and Scotchmen. Many of the latter settled 
 in New Jersey, where Elizabethtown was founded 
 in 1670. 
 
 In a general way it deserves to be added, that the 
 seeds of the United States were sown by persecution, 
 and tiiat even where persecution was not the first 
 cause. 
 
 The latest distinct settlement in America to grow 
 into a separate state was effected at Savannah in 
 1733, under the auspices of the philanthropic Gov- 
 ernor Oglethorpe, 
 the father of Geor- 
 gia. This amiable 
 map excluded rum 
 and slaves, both be- 
 ing at that time 
 common to all 
 American colonies. 
 His influence was 
 counteracted, so far 
 as slavery was con- 
 cerned, by that 
 james edwahd OGLETHORPE. eminent evangelist, 
 George Whitefield. Oglethorpe’s primal idea was to 
 establish an asylum for insolvent debtors. In effect 
 it proved mainly a resort for the malcontents of the 
 Carolinas and Virginia. It grew rapidly, and early 
 became an important colony. It was named in 
 honor of George II. of England. 
 
 We have now spoken of the colonies which devel- 
 oped ultimately into the thirteen colonies and states, 
 each in its infancy. It may be well in this connec- 
 tion to refer to the other early settlements within 
 the present limits of the United States, but which 
 had no part or lot in achieving for these once widely 
 severed settlements national unity. 
 
 The earliest of these was Florida. Ponca de Leon 
 landed on the north side of the gulf-stream, opposite 
 the Bahamas, on Easter-day of 1513, naming the 
 
 country Pascua Florida. He was in search of the 
 fabled fountain of youth. No practical results fol- 
 lowed, de Leon receiving a wound in an encounter 
 with the natives which proved fatal to him in Cuba. 
 But in 1539 Fernando de 
 Soto, a Spanish nobleman 
 who had been with Cortez in 
 Mexico and Pizarro in Peru, 
 amassing a large fortune, was 
 commissioned to take posses- 
 sion of Florida. He fitted 
 out a large fleet. He had 600 
 men with him and a goodly 
 supply of domestic animals, 
 including bloodhounds. In 
 May of the next year he landed. For three years 
 he and his men wandered about in search of gold. 
 He was the first to discover the Mississippi River. 
 He finally perished in the wilderness. In 1565 Pedro 
 Menendez, another Spaniard, landed in Florida. He 
 had 3,000 men with him. They founded the city of 
 St. Augustine, which now has the honor of being 
 the oldest European town in the United States. 
 
 Three years before, a French settlement had been 
 effected at Port Royal, South Carolina. Admiral 
 Coligny, the great Huguenot statesman, was the real 
 father of the settlement. Carolina, it may be ob- 
 served, was named in honor of Charles of France, not 
 of England. This colony and the one at Florida were 
 far enough from each other, one would suppose, to 
 prevent clashing. But unfortunately a second French 
 settlement had been effected on the St. John’s River 
 in Florida, which served as a connecting link of hos- 
 tility. The Spaniards were intense papists, the 
 French hardly less bigoted Huguenots. They fell to 
 cutting each other’s throats. All the French at 
 Fort Caroline on the St. John’s were massacred by 
 Menendez, “ not as Frenchmen, but as heretics,” he 
 setup as his defense. Not long after a Frenchman 
 of great wealth, Dominique de Gourgues, fitted up a 
 fleet for revenge, and terrible was his success. Such 
 of the Spaniards as escaped in battle he hanged, in- 
 scribing over their heads, “Not as Spaniards, but 
 as traitors, robbers and murderers.” Such was the 
 tragic fate of “ New France ” and “ New Spain ” on 
 the Atlantic seaboard within the present limits of 
 the United States, for the French colony farther 
 north was destroyed in counter-revenge. 
 
 During the period of colonial infancy under con- 
 
 
■ ■Jo" 
 
 EARLY COLONIAL UNITED STATES. 499 
 
 than by quoting Mr. Francis Parkman’s very dis- 
 criminating comparison between the colonial aims 
 and purpose of New England and New France. 
 “ The growth of New England,” he says “ was a re- 
 sult of the aggregate efforts of a busy multitude, 
 each in his narrow circle toiling for himself, to 
 gather competence or wealth. The expansion of 
 New France was the achievement of a gigantic am- 
 bition striving to grasp a continent. It was a vain 
 attempt. Eong and valiantly her chiefs upheld 
 their cause, leading to battle a vassal popula- 
 tion, warlike as themselves. Borne down from 
 numbers from without, wasted by corruption from 
 within, New France fell at last; and out of 
 her fall grew revolutions whose influence, to this 
 hour, is felt throughout every nation of the 
 civilized world. 
 
 “ The French dominion is a memory of the past ; 
 and when we evoke its departed shades, they rise 
 upon us from their graves in strange romantic guise. 
 Again their ghostly camp-fires seem to burn, and 
 the fitful light is cast around on lord and vassal and 
 black-robed priest, mingled with wild forms of sav- 
 age warriors, knit in close fellowship on the same 
 stern errand. A boundless vision grows upon us ; 
 an untamed continent ; vast wastes of forest ver- 
 dure ; mountains silent in primeval sleep ; river, 
 lake, and glimmering pool ; wilderness oceans min- 
 gling with the sky. Such was the domain which 
 France conquered for civilization. Plumed helmets 
 gleamed in the shade of its forests, priestly vest- 
 ments in its dens and fastnesses of ancient barbar- 
 ism. Men steeped in antique learning, pale with the 
 close breath of the cloister, here spent the noon and 
 evening of their lives, ruled savage hordes with a 
 mild, parental sway, and stood serene before the 
 direst shapes of death. Men of courtly nurture, 
 heirs to the polish of a far-reaching ancestry, here, 
 with their dauntless hardihood, put to shame the 
 boldest sons of toil.” 
 
 sideration the French made some progress in the 
 interior of the country by way of the St. Lawrence 
 and the lakes. In 1G73 Pere Marquette, a Jesuit 
 of the better type, who had already spent several 
 years as a missionary hi Canada, set out with Louis, 
 Joliet and others, to explore the sources of the St. 
 Lawrence. They reached the Mississippi in J une of 
 the same year, going by way of Green Bay, Fox 
 river and the AVisconsin river. They descended the 
 Mississippi as far, at least, as Kaskaskia, Illinois, and 
 returned by way of the Illinois river. Joliet re- 
 turned to Quebec, but the good Father Marquette 
 remained hi the wilderness, dying two years later on 
 the east shore of Lake Michigan while engaged in 
 mission work. 
 
 Gradually, and undisturbed by English, Spanish 
 or Indian hostility, the French established settle- 
 ments on the prairie along the river-banks. Some 
 interesting relics and records attest very considera- 
 ble prosperity in those days ; but later they fell into 
 decay, and in the permanent settlement of that por- 
 tion of the United States north of what was once 
 Louisiana, the region purchased of France during 
 the sovereignty of Napoleon, those French settle- 
 ments exerted hardly a perceptible influence. In a 
 word, they belong to the historical, in distinction 
 from the actual, in the new world. 
 
 Louisiana received its name from LaSalle, the 
 illustrious French explorer. The term was designed 
 to embrace all the valley of the Mississippi. The 
 French built great expectations upon the develop- 
 ment of that valley, and of fur trade with the In- 
 dians of the interior. Mobile was established in 
 1702, New Orleans fifteen years later, and all seemed 
 prosperous, when suddenly the Mississippi bubble of 
 the visionary Law burst, whelming France in bank- 
 ruptcy, and preparing the way for English triumph 
 over her great continental rival in the possessions 
 of the North American continent. 
 
 This chapter cannot be closed more appositely 
 
vvvv v ^ t ,, - v ^ < 
 
 vvvv ..v., v y V V V. VV, »VVV» 
 
 hzzizizii; 
 
 AND OUTGROWTH 
 
 COLONIAL GROWTH 
 
 
 
 First Step Toward Union — “Board of Trade and Plantations’" — Intercolonial Wars — 
 The Floridans and the Georgians — Wars Between French and English Colonists — A 
 Century of Blood — Lieutenant-Colonel George Washington and Dr. Franklin — Rela- 
 tive Possessions of France, Spain and England in North America — Capture of Quebec 
 — New France and Old England — Colonial Debts and Money — Indirect Results of 
 the French War — Stamp Act — Boston and North Carolina — Smuggling and the Gaspee — 
 Boston Tea Party — Port Bill — First Continental Congress and Patrick Henry — Minute 
 Men and Paul Revere’s Ride— Battle of Lexington — Continental Army Organized — 
 Ethan Allen and the Green Mountain Boys — Battle of Bunker Hill — The Canadian 
 Expedition — Evacuation of Boston — Charleston Harbor and Moultrie — Declaration of 
 Independence — Eminent Men of the Period — Benjamin Franklin again. 
 
 
 N 1696 the English govern- 
 emrnent created a “ Board 
 of Trade and Plantations ” 
 for the administration of 
 colonial affairs. This Board 
 recommended a closer 
 union between the colonies. 
 Previous to that time the 
 Puritan colonies had developed very 
 considerable fellowship, and there had 
 been established a little communication 
 between New York, Boston and the in- 
 tervening towns accessible by water. 
 William Penn drew up the plan of a 
 close union which was not carried out 
 until long after. 
 
 The English policy was to restrict col- 
 onial trade to commerce with the moth- 
 er country alone. That “ mercantile system” was 
 embodied in the Navigation Act, and similar stat- 
 utes of Parliament. By every means posssible the 
 home government attempted to render the Ameri- 
 can colonies entirely subservient to the wealth of 
 the mother country. It was not until about the 
 
 beginning of the eighteenth century that England 
 realized the importance of America, and set about 
 making it tributary in right good earnest. The 
 policy which culminated in war for independence 
 may be said to date from the creation of the “ Board 
 of Trade and Plantations.” 
 
 But the great agency in making the colonists ac- 
 quainted with each other and binding them together 
 by a bond of common sympathy, was intercolonial 
 war, growing out of French and English rivalries in 
 the new world. The Georgians had a conflict with 
 the Floridans which resulted favorably to the for- 
 mer without requiring any help from more northern 
 colonies, but when the British lion met the French 
 unicorn in the wilderness, victory was not so easy. 
 
 There were four distinct wars between the French 
 and English colonists, culminating in what is known 
 as “ The old French and Indian War,” beginning in 
 1754 and continuing until 1763. The other three 
 were, King William’s War, 1689-97 ; Queen Anne’s 
 War, 1702-13; King George’s War, 1744-48. Treat- 
 ies of peace were signed or formal declarations of 
 hostility proclaimed by the home governments ac- 
 cording to the general situation in Europe, without 
 
 (50°) 
 
COLONIAL GROWTH AND OUTGROWTH. 50 1 
 
 much regard to the real state of affairs in Amer- 
 ica. For a century there was hardly any actual 
 cessation of hostilities for any considerable length 
 of time. It was only after France had lost Canada, 
 and England the United States, that permanent 
 peace was secured. From that time on, the conti- 
 nent was delivered from wars which were both 
 intercolonial and international. The melancholy 
 fate of Acadia, a part of Canadian history already 
 narrated, belongs to that series of wars. 
 
 By the middle of the eighteenth century French 
 and English pioneer enterprise began to touch and 
 clash in the 
 Ohio valley. 
 
 In 1753 Gov- 
 ernor Dinwid- 
 dieof Virginia, 
 sent George 
 Washington, 
 then only 21 
 years of age, 
 to Venango to 
 know his rea- 
 sons for invad- 
 ing the Brit- 
 ish dominions. 
 
 The reply was 
 that the whole 
 country west 
 of theAllegha- 
 nies belonged 
 to France by 
 right of discovery. The next year the young 
 Virginian, then a lieutenant-colonel of colonial 
 militia, established a fort at the forks of the 
 Ohio river. A South Carolina company came to his 
 assistance. The two commanders quarreled over the 
 leadership. The discussion was soon ended by a 
 successful attack by the French, who acquired pos- 
 session of the entire Ohio valley. The colonists were 
 alarmed, for everywhere the French secured Indian 
 alliance. 
 
 In 1755 Gen. Braddock, in command of the Brit- 
 ish and Colonial forces on the frontier, undertook 
 to capture Fort DuQuesne, the key to the Ohio val- 
 ley. They were attacked in the woods by the In- 
 dians. “ The British could only fire in platoons,” 
 says Thalheimer, “ hitting rocks and trees much 
 oftener than Indians, while the colonists, springing 
 
 behind trees, took aim with effect.” Braddock was 
 mortally wounded. The retreat of his regulars was 
 covered by the colonists with such gallantry that it 
 gave their commander, Washington, a reputation 
 throughout the colonies for coolness, bravery and 
 skill. It is probable that to Braddock’s defeat is 
 this country and the world indebted for the public 
 services of George Washington. 
 
 o o 
 
 The success of the French over the English in the 
 Ohio wilderness stimulated a movement for a closer 
 union. All the colonies north of the Potomac sent 
 delegates to a convention held at Albany. Benjamin 
 
 Franklin was 
 a delegate. He 
 presented a 
 plan of union 
 which the con- 
 vention accept- 
 ed. But the 
 English Board 
 of Trade, al- 
 though it had 
 at first been in 
 favor of union, 
 prudently veto- 
 ed the Frank- 
 lin plan. Many 
 of the colonists 
 were pleased 
 with the veto, 
 apprehensive of 
 losing colonial 
 individuality in a union of the colonies. The French 
 war was early transferred from the remote valley of 
 the Ohio to the east, especially to northern New 
 York. At this period eighty per cent, of North 
 America belonged to France, sixteen per cent, to 
 Spain, and four per cent, to England. 
 
 The great event of the culminating war between 
 the French and the English in the new world was 
 the capture of Quebec in 1759. That stronghold 
 was defended by the brave Montcalm and assailed 
 by the gallant General Wolfe. Gaining access to 
 “ the Plains of Abraham ” by a secret path and in 
 the night, Wolfe led a charge at daybreak. The 
 armies were about equal in number. Both generals 
 were mortally wounded. A noble monument has 
 been erected to mark the equal heroism of the two 
 commanders. 
 
 
•v 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 The next year, 1760, Montreal was captured, as 
 well as Quebec held, and in 
 1763 by the terms of the 
 peace of Paris, France sur- 
 rendered to England all the 
 
 SCALING THE HEIGHTS OF ABRAHAM. 
 
 GENERAL WOLFE. 
 
 country north of 
 
 the 
 
 St. Lawrence and east 
 of the Mississippi ; one 
 of the most important 
 cessions of all history. 
 
 It was, in effect, the a- 
 bandonment by France 
 of a colonial policy. It 
 was the beginning of 
 the total end of “ New 
 France.” What En- 
 gland did not secure 
 was to fall, ultimately, 
 to the United States. 
 
 The colonies found 
 themselves heavily in 
 debt when the last 
 French war was ended, 
 namely, $16,000,000. 
 
 Of this amount the 
 home government re- 
 imbursed the colonies 
 to the extent of $5,000,- 
 000. The first colonial 
 money, or medium of 
 exchange, was corn, 
 furs, tobacco, or the 
 like. Virginia early 
 drew' from England in 
 exchange for tobacco 
 money enough for all 
 practical purposes. The first mint was established in 
 1652 by Massachusetts, and the first coin was “ the 
 pine-tree shilling.” Paper money was first used hi 
 
 Massachusetts, its introduction dating from 
 
 belong 
 
 Dollars and cents 
 pendence. 
 
 Speaking of the relations 
 
 to the period of 
 
 1690. 
 
 inde- 
 
 of the French war to 
 
 the colonies, a historical writer says, “ The signifi- 
 cance of the war was in its being a preparation for 
 the impending struggle of the revolution. It was 
 a training-school for the generals and soldiers of the 
 colonies. It showed them war as conducted by the 
 
 best captains of Eu- 
 rope. Washington, Put- 
 nam, Gates, Montgom- 
 ery, Stark, Arnold, 
 Morgan, and others, 
 who acted in the revo- 
 lution, here learned the 
 tactics of war. It also 
 taught the colonies the 
 idea of consolidation, 
 and that ‘ in union there 
 is strength.’” It did 
 more than that. It se- 
 cured for the colonies, 
 when they came to 
 strike for liberty, the 
 sympathy of France, 
 which proved to be a 
 matter of incalculable 
 importance. 
 
 The French war was 
 a part, although a very 
 small part, of the Seven- 
 Years War in Europe. 
 That war involved the 
 great powers in heavy 
 debts, and besides sus- 
 taining their own bur- 
 dens, the colonies were 
 ultimately required to 
 contribute as never be- 
 fore to the English Ex- 
 chequer. About this 
 time (1760) George III. 
 came to the throne. 
 From the first he was 
 unfriendly to the Amer- 
 ican colonies. In 1765 was enacted the famous 
 Stamp Act in accordance with which all legal docu- 
 ments had to bear a stamp, costing from three- 
 pence to six pounds sterling, according to their 
 importance. Even newspapers had to be stamped. 
 The act called out intense hostility. The next 
 year it was repealed, but only to give place to a 
 
 COLONIAL GROWTH AND OUTGROWTH. 
 
COLONIAL GROWTH AND OUTGROWTH. 503 
 
 substitute in the way of a tax on tea, glass, paper 
 and other necessary imports. 
 British soldiers were quarter- 
 ed on the people. Boston 
 was foremost hi resisting the 
 encroachments of the home 
 government, but the brave 
 North Carolinians were not 
 much behind the patriots of 
 Boston. It was to escape 
 British tyranny that many 
 of the people of North Caro- 
 lina moved west, establishing what is now the state 
 of Ten- 
 nessee hi 
 1772. But 
 every part 
 of the 
 country 
 had its 
 grievance, 
 negativ e 
 and posi- 
 tive. The 
 restriction 
 upontrade 
 and man- 
 ufactures 
 was quite 
 as injuri- 
 ous as di- 
 rect taxa- 
 tion. Even 
 
 Pitt, the advocate in parliament of political justice, 
 declared, “If I could have my way, there would not 
 be so much as a hob-nail made in the colonies.’ 
 
 The iron of Pennsylvania and 
 the timber of the South and 
 of Maine could not be used at 
 all. Smuggling developed into 
 a respectable line of business, 
 especially in Rhode Island. 
 The British sent the schooner 
 Gaspee to Narragansett Bay 
 to lay in wait for smugglers. 
 Citizens of Providence set lire 
 to her, and all the people approved the act. 
 
 In 1773 all taxes were removed, except that on tea, 
 three-j>ence a pound, and this was only a matter of 
 
 form, for the actual cost of tea was less in America, 
 under this tax, than it was in England. The cargoes 
 brought to New York and Philadelphia were sent 
 back, but the British troops at Boston prevented 
 this from being done there. Hereupon a great meet- 
 ing for protestation was held at Faneuil Hall (well 
 called the cradle of American liberty), after which 
 a party of men in disguise boarded the ships in the 
 harbor and threw all the tea overboard. That fa- 
 mous “ tea-party ” created great excitement. Other 
 colonies were delighted, and the English were enraged. 
 Parliament passed the “ Boston Port Bill” by which 
 the port of Boston was closed. This act of petty 
 
 spite on 
 the part 
 of a great 
 nation ex- 
 cited the 
 wrath of 
 all the col- 
 onies, and 
 went far 
 to develop 
 a feeling 
 of com- 
 mon inter- 
 est. The 
 sentiment 
 of patriot- 
 ism found 
 expression 
 in the or- 
 ganization 
 
 of the “Sons of Liberty ” throughout the colonies. 
 It was to this society, very largely, that was due the 
 convocation of a deliberative and representative 
 body to consult over the grave situation. That 
 body met at Philadelphia, the most central 
 of all the cities at that time, in September, 1 774. 
 It proved to be something more than a convention, 
 nothing less than the beginning of a series of con- 
 vocations which were regular and of supreme impor- 
 tance. It is known as the First Continental Con- 
 gress. It consisted of fifty-three members. It was 
 opened with an eloquent address by the supreme 
 orator of Virginia and of the entire country, Pat- 
 rick Henry. The next year ho was elected governor 
 of Virginia, and ever after remained a provincial 
 statesman, in practical work ; but his advocacy of 
 
 A STAMP. 
 
3 
 
 
 1 
 
 Q 
 
 71 
 
 hL 
 
 5°4 
 
 COLONIAL GROWTH AND OUTGROWTH. 
 
 the rights of the colonies and denunciations of op- 
 pression entitle him to the profound gratitude of 
 the nation. He was born in 1736 and died in 1799. 
 The deliberations of the first congress were charac- 
 terized by prudence. There was no defiance, no 
 menace. A respectful petition was drawn up expres- 
 sive of unswerving loyalty to the king, but earnestly 
 protesting against quartering armies upon the colo- 
 nies against their consent. A resolution was also 
 adopted to the effect that no commercial intercourse 
 
 immortalized at Bunker Hill, learned what was to 
 be done, lie sent Paul Revere to rouse the surrounding 
 towns and call out the minute men. His ride has 
 been rendered illustrious by Longfellow’s thrilling 
 poem on the subject. In an incredibly short time 
 thirty thousand brave men were on their way in 
 hot haste to “ Boston town,” musket in hand. 
 
 The battle of Lexington was the first engagement 
 of the Revolutionary War. It was fought early in 
 the spring of 1775. General Gage sent 800 men to 
 
 should be held with England until a change of pol- 
 icy towards the colonies. From a British point of 
 view that resolution was almost a declaration of 
 war. 
 
 About this time the people formed themselves 
 into military companies, sworn to serve in the de- 
 fense of their rights at a moment’s notice, hence 
 “minute men.” There had been some premonitory 
 symptoms of war in the way of collisions and blood- 
 shed in the streets of Boston and New York, also 
 in North Carolina ; hut nothing approaching the 
 dignity of a battle. Actual hostilities were inaugu- 
 rated by the British at Boston. They cannonaded 
 the city. General Gage was in command of the 
 English forces. As soon as Dr. Warren, afterwards 
 
 destroy some military supplies at Concord. They 
 accomplished their object without very serious oppo- 
 sition, but on their return they were met by “ the 
 embattled farmers,” who had gathered to give them 
 a warm greeting. The British were routed in that 
 first encounter, the battle of Lexington. Thirty-one 
 towns were represented in that conflict. That 
 “ brush,” for it was hardly more, served to sharply 
 outline and distinctly presage the conflict which 
 was to close with the surrender of Cornwallis at 
 Yorktown. The war which began in the spring of 
 1775 was destined to end in the fall of 1781. Most 
 appropriately, what began in Massachusetts closed in 
 Virginia. 
 
 The second Continental Congress met at Phila- 
 
 RETREAT OP THE BRITISH FROM CONCORD AND LEXINGTON.'’ 
 

 
 COLONIAL GROWTH AND OUTGROWTH. 
 
 505 
 
 delphia about six months after the battle of Lexing- 
 ton. Loyalty to King George was still professed. 
 Our revolutionary fathers were slow to break abso- 
 lutely with the mother country. There were a great 
 many colonists who would have been shocked at the 
 idea then who soon embraced it. George Washing- 
 ton was of this number. Those who never ceased 
 to be in favor of British rule in the colonies were 
 called Tories ; the patriots, Whigs. A “ Continental 
 army” was organized by Congress for seven months, 
 and W ashington was elected commander-in-chief. It 
 was about this time that he wrote that he “ abhorred 
 the idea of independence,” an idea already boldly 
 advocated by the Adamses, Samuel and John, 
 and by some others. 
 
 After Lexington, the 
 first movement was 
 in the direction of se- 
 curing Canada. On 
 the west shore of Lake 
 Champlain stood two 
 strong forts, designed 
 for use in the old 
 French and I ndian 
 war. Without waiting 
 for orders or assist- 
 ance, Ethan Allen 
 and Seth Warner, who 
 lived in the sparsely 
 settled region between 
 that lake and the Con- 
 necticut river, rallied 
 a few fellow “ Green 
 Mountain Boys ” and 
 crossed Champlain, surprised the garrisons and 
 took the forts without firing a shot. Immense sup- 
 plies of war material were found there and captured. 
 It was a brilliant sortie, and justly entitled Vermont 
 to immediate recognition as a distinct colony, but 
 New York and New Hampshire both claimed juris- 
 diction over the region. Allen soon afterward made 
 an attempt on Montreal, was captured, and disap- 
 peared from the annals of the war. After his re- 
 lease he returned to Vermont, where he died in 1789, 
 fifty years of age. Ilis companion, Warner, re- 
 mained in the service throughout the war, but was 
 never again prominent. 
 
 The battle of Bunker Hill was fought June 16th of 
 the same year. It was a victory for the British, yet 
 
 it afforded the colonists great satisfaction. The 
 Americans were obliged 
 to surrender because their 
 powder gave out. They 
 
 had shown, however, that, 
 as General Gage wrote in 
 his report, “ The rebels are 
 not the despicable rabble 
 too many have supposed 
 them to be.” General 
 Warren fell in that battle. 
 
 Throughout the country 
 
 there was unbounded ad- general warren. 
 
 miration for the desperate heroism with which the 
 
 British were repulsed 
 until the ammunition 
 was spent. Washing- 
 ton, then on his way 
 to Boston, was greatly 
 encouraged. 
 
 Washington arrived 
 at Boston and took 
 actual command, July 
 3d. In the preceding 
 May the bold patriots 
 of N orth Carolina had 
 met in Charlotte, 
 Mecklenburg coun- 
 ty, and adopted the 
 “ Mecklenburg Reso- 
 lutions,” which were 
 similar in tone to the 
 Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence which came 
 more than a year later. But even with Bunker Hill, 
 Ticonderoga, Crown Point 
 and Lexington behind them, 
 the colonists were not quite 
 ready for the avowal of 
 separation. They wished to 
 secure the co-operation of 
 Canada, and unite all British 
 America in the struggle. To 
 this policy everything was 
 directed. General Montgom- 
 ery proceeded by way of Lake Champlain to capture 
 St. John’s and Montreal, while Benedict Arnold 
 reached Quebec by another route and demanded its 
 surrender. He was soon joined by Montgomery, 
 
 GENERAL MONTGOMERY. 
 
 
the latter taking the command. An assault was 
 made. The gallant commander lost his life, Ar- 
 nold was severely wounded, and the whole of the 
 expedition defeated forever. The battle of Quebec 
 was fought on the last day of 1775. In a short 
 time the British recaptured Montreal and St. John’s, 
 thus settling, at the outset, the northern boundary 
 of the United States, and binding Canada with colo- 
 nial handcuffs which are now worn as bracelets. 
 
 With the winter of 1775-76 begins Washington’s 
 great career. His first aim was to compel the Brit- 
 ish to evacuate Boston. 
 Works were erected at 
 Dorchester Heights which 
 forced General Howe, who 
 had superseded General 
 Gage, to evacuate. With 
 over a thousand Tories and 
 his own army, he sailed for 
 Halifax, which served as a 
 genekal moultrie. rendezvous for the British 
 during the war. Henceforth to the end the prob- 
 lem for Washington was to so conduct a defensive 
 warfare as to tire out the enemy and prevent, so far 
 as possible, the loss of life 
 and the destruction of prop- 
 erty. It was the F abian pol- 
 icy upon a continental scale. 
 
 What the next movement 
 would be, no one could tell. 
 Washington feared an at- 
 tack upon New York. It was 
 a very important point, al- 
 general lee. though smaller then than 
 Boston. But the British fleet steered farther south 
 when it sailed away from Halifax, appearing in 
 Charleston harbor in June. General Charles Lee, 
 who was in command of the southern department, 
 thought it hopeless to defend the city, hut Colonel 
 Moultrie resolved to try it, erecting a rude fort on 
 Sullivan’s Island. From that point he canonaded 
 the fleet before it could bombard the city. The 
 enemy was obliged to abandon the assault. General 
 Clinton, who was at the head of the expedition, then 
 set his sails for New York. The fort on that island 
 has ever since borne the name of Moultrie. 
 
 The next event of interest was the Declaration 
 of Independence. After some hesitation and with 
 great deliberation Congress decided to throw off all 
 
 disguise and boldly announce independence. A 
 committee for that purpose was appointed, consist- 
 ing of Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin 
 Franklin, Robert Livingston and Roger Sherman. 
 The declaration was submitted by Jefferson, who is 
 supposed to have written it. His was certainly “ the 
 pen of a ready writer.” The members signed it, 
 John Hancock, the Presi- 
 dent, leading off with his 
 bold sign manual. The 
 country was fairly electrified 
 by the declaration. It in- 
 spired the patriotism of all 
 sections, and for the time 
 obliterated provincial preju- 
 dices and converted thirteen 
 colonies into states. Hence- 
 forth there was no recogni- 
 tion of colonial obligations. State legislatures ana 
 governors were elected and the mechanism of local 
 self-government set up at once, and substantially as 
 now. There was no nation then, only the embry- 
 onic elements of one, but the states, like Minerva, 
 sprang forth fully armed. It is a curious fact that 
 the great act which originated and was completed on 
 a broadly national scale had the effect to create 
 states long before it bore fruit in the creation of a 
 nation, in a well-defined political sense of the term. 
 
 We have in this chapter followed the course of 
 British rule and American growth and outgrowth to 
 the point where the colonies emerge into states and 
 the corner-stone of the nation was laid. There are 
 a few great names and events which belong to that 
 period distinctively, and to which specific attention 
 should be called before proceeding further. 
 
 The captain-general of Massachusetts when the 
 Revolutionary War began was Artemas Ward. He 
 sustained much the same relation to that Avar that 
 General Scott did to the civil Avar of a century later. 
 He Avas elected major-general, but never served after 
 General Washington assumed command. William 
 Prescott Avas the American commander at Bunker 
 Hill (or Breed’s Hill, as that battle should have been 
 called). Later he fought in the ranks. He Avas 
 a brave and able man. The glories of Bunker 
 Hill, howeA'er, enshrined the name of Joseph War- 
 ren. He was a physician. Congress elected him a 
 major-general, but he Avas mortally Avounded in de- 
 fending the illustrious hill, and died while fighting in 
 
 5 06 
 
 COLONIAL GROWTH AND OUTGROWTH. 
 
 .k 
 
 (0 
 
 > 
 
 4 
 
 s> 
 
 
 <Sf 
 
COLONIAL GROWTH AND OUTGROWTH. 
 
 
 i 
 
 the ranks. “The Sword of Bunker Hill ” was a mus- 
 ket. James Otis was the first defender of the right of 
 separation and the duty of union between the colo- 
 nies. He was stricken down just before the 
 war began. He was not quite fifty years of age at 
 that time. Samuel Adams, a second cousin of John, 
 was hardly less useful in those preliminary days than 
 Otis. He was a man of great wisdom and high cour- 
 age. What he grandly began his younger cousin 
 
 an author and a discoverer. Born in Boston in 1706, 
 he survived until 1790. He was a printer by trade. 
 His career as a man began in Philadelphia, where in 
 1 730 he married and started the Pennsylvania Gazette 
 newspaper. Ho may be called the father of the press, 
 insurance, science and invention in America. His 
 experiments hi electricity and discovery of the 
 principle on which his great invention, the lightning- 
 rod, rests, made him famous at home and abroad. 
 
 worthily maintained to the end. The Adams family 
 
 is the most illustrious 
 in the political annals 
 of America. But the 
 supreme name of the 
 period was Benjamin 
 Franklin, lie lived, it 
 is true, to render im- 
 portant service to his 
 country at the French 
 court after the declar- 
 ation had been issued, 
 and in framing the con- 
 james otis. stitution, but his best 
 
 days were colonial. He early organized the postal 
 system of the country. Franklin was a philosopher, 
 
 England and France delighted to honor him. lie 
 was given the title of LL. 1)., F. R. S., and otherwise 
 recognized. As a writer his chief aim was to incul- 
 cate good habits, especially frugality. His “Poor 
 Richard’s Almanac,” published annually from 173;J 
 to 1757, made him familiarly known in this country 
 and largely in England to a class of people not ca- 
 pable of following his scientific treatises. lie filled 
 many positions of trust, the last being a member of 
 the convention which drafted the Constitution of 
 the United States. He was then over eighty years 
 of age. In him were united simplicity, dignity, pru- 
 dence, perseverance and philanthropy. To him, 
 more than to any one else, unless it he Thomas Jef- 
 ferson, is this nation indebted for the complete sep- 
 aration of church and state. When lie died the 
 

 k. 
 
 5°8 
 
 COLONIAL GROWTH AND OUTGROWTH. 
 
 wliole nation mourned. Washington was indeed the 
 father of his country, but Franklin is no less deserv- 
 ing of deathless honor and gratitude. It was 
 not without good reason that the learned men of 
 France, a century ago, 
 were accustomed to speak 
 of the United States as 
 “ Franklin’s Republic.” 
 
 During the period thus 
 far traversed, this coun- 
 try was almost wholly 
 agricultural. Its com- 
 merce was very consid- 
 erable, but clandestine. 
 
 Under the restraints of 
 colonial suppression, law- 
 ful com- 
 m e r c e 
 was con- 
 fined en- 
 tirely to 
 E nglisli 
 
 BRITISH FLAG. bottolUS, 
 
 and only the British 
 Hag allowed in American 
 waters. The pioneers of 
 American shipping were 
 smugglers, and the mer- 
 chant princes of the day 
 were largely engaged in contraband trade. Ship- 
 building, however, was tolerated, and throve greatly, 
 until the home government interfered, and checked 
 
 it. Ordinary manufactures were few and insignifi- 
 cant. For a century and a half the English hi 
 America were under colonial restraints, and succeed- 
 ed only in laying the foundations of a great future. 
 
 Speaking of the Amer- 
 ican people in this stage 
 of development, a recent 
 historian well observes, 
 “ These people, whose 
 ancestors had been driven 
 into exile by the exac- 
 tions of European gov- 
 ernments and the bigot- 
 ry of ecclesiastical power, 
 had become the rightful 
 proprietors of the New 
 World. They had fairly 
 won it from savage man 
 and savage nature. They 
 had subdued it and built 
 states within it. They 
 owned it by the claims 
 of actual possession ; by 
 toil and trial ; by the or- 
 deal of suffering ; by 
 peril, privation, and 
 hardship ; by the bap- 
 tism of sorrow and the 
 shedding of blood.” The 
 time had now fully come for the announcement 
 and establishment of the principles of Union and 
 Independence. 
 
CHAPTER LXXVIII. 
 
 Hessians— Battle op Long Island and the Disaster Resulting — The Spring op 1777- 
 Marquis de La Fayette— Battle op Brandywine — The War in the North — Valley 
 Forge — Congressional Action — Distinguished Foreigners in the American Army — 1778 — 
 1779 — 1780— Mutiny and Finance in 1781 — Arnold and New London— Lord Cornwallis 
 and Yorktown — Peace — The War Debt and TnE Union — The Constitution— The Great 
 Crisis and its Leading Features — From July 4, 1776, to March 4, 1789. 
 
 
 disguise was now thrown 
 off, all hesitation at an end. 
 Henceforth to the end of the 
 conflict it was treason in 
 America to sympathize with 
 Great Britain and in En- 
 to sympathize with the 
 rebellious colonies. The 
 British government freely spent money 
 in hiring mercenary troops from petty 
 German states (known in our history 
 as Hessians) and in securing Indian 
 allies. The number of Hessians were 
 seventeen thousand, many of whom de- 
 serted and became American citizens. 
 The only remaining military opera- 
 tions of that first year of the war were in New York 
 and New Jersey. Eight days after the Declaration 
 of Independence Lord IIowc sailed into New York 
 Bay. His brother, General Howe, was already on 
 Staten Island with a force of 50,000 men. The 
 Howes thought they were masters of the situation. 
 They offered pardon to all rebels who returned to 
 allegiance. They mistook public sentiment. On 
 the 20th of August the battle of Long Island 
 was fought, General Clinton at the head of the 
 
 GENERAL CLINTON. 
 
 rendered necessary 
 
 British forces. The Americans, under Gener- 
 als Sullivan and Sterling, 
 were routed. The dead on 
 our side were several hundred, 
 the prisoners nearly one thou- 
 sand. The latter were sent 
 on board of “prison ships,” as 
 Ethan Allen had been before 
 them. During the war no less 
 than 11,000 Americans perish- 
 ed on these floating bastiles. 
 
 The disaster of Long Island 
 the retreat of Washington. 
 
 He crossed East River and es- 
 tablished his headquarters on 
 Harlem Heights first. Howe 
 took possession of New York 
 City. A great conflagration 
 consumed about five hundred 
 houses. The battle of White 
 Plains followed, October 27, 
 in which Washington was de- 
 feated, hut not routed. He retired 
 North Castle. He now began to be apprehensive 
 for the safety of Philadelphia. He crossed to New 
 Jersey, intending to defend the city which was in 
 
 GENERAL SULLIVAN. 
 
 in good order to 
 
 (5°9) 
 
 
 
 
k_ 
 
 IO 
 
 INDEPENDENCE AND UNION. 
 
 effect the national capital. But lie was too late. It 
 was taken by the British, November 1G, and with 
 it 2,600 prisoners in arms. Congress was obliged to 
 take hasty leave for Baltimore. “ These are times 
 that try men’s souls,” wrote the brilliant patriot, 
 Thomas Paine. Cornwallis rapidly followed Wash- 
 ington who crossed the Delaware, taking care, how- 
 ever, to destroy the boats behind him. On Christmas 
 night he 
 took by sur- 
 prise and 
 captured a 
 tli on s and 
 Hessians at 
 Trenton. A 
 week later, 
 it being evi- 
 dent that 
 Cornwallis 
 intended to 
 fall on the 
 C out ment- 
 als, Wash- 
 ington, not 
 waiting for 
 the attack, 
 marched at 
 once upon 
 Princeton 
 where there 
 was some- 
 thing over 
 three regi- 
 ments of 
 the enemy. 
 
 At day- 
 break, Jan- 
 uary 3, 1777, he fell upon the town, and in 
 twenty minutes he had routed and dispersed the 
 British with a loss on that side of 200 killed and 
 wounded and 230 prisoners. The American loss 
 was slight. The moral effect of this victory was very 
 great. It revived the hopes of the country and led 
 to a series of operations which resulted in driving 
 the enemy out of the “ the Jerseys.” About this 
 time, however, both armies went into winter quar- 
 ters, the British at New Brunswick, the Americans 
 at Morristown. 
 
 Thus far Washington would seem to have been a 
 
 failure, yet Congress had no thought of displacing 
 him. On the contrary, he had grown in their good 
 opinion. That winter he was clothed with supreme 
 authority in all military matters, invested with 
 almost dictatorial powers. The winter was employed 
 in recruiting his thinned ranks. By spring he had 
 an army of ten thousand men. There was consid- 
 erable skirmishing during the winter and spring, 
 
 W ashington 
 obtaining 
 some advan- 
 tage, but 
 the mam ar- 
 mies did not 
 resume op- 
 erations un- 
 til June, 
 1777. Even 
 then the two 
 armies were 
 slow in com- 
 ing togeth- 
 er. The Brit- 
 ish General, 
 Burgoyne, 
 was moving 
 southward 
 from Can- 
 ada, re-tak- 
 ing Crown 
 Point and 
 Ticondero- 
 ga. Wash- 
 ington was 
 perplexed to 
 find out if 
 Howe in- 
 tended to co-operate with Burgoyne and sweep all 
 before them from New York har- 
 bor to St. John’s, or to swing 
 around and fall upon Philadel- 
 phia. He had to be on the alert 
 to meet either emergency. July , 
 
 23, Ilowe left General Clinton in 
 command at New York, and 
 with eighteen thousand soldiers 
 sailed for the Delaware. Wash- 
 ington made all haste with his 
 main army to succor Philadelphia. The condition 
 
 GENERAL LA FAYETTE. 
 
 V ■ 
 
 K 
 
INDEPENDENCE AND UNION. 
 
 of the country was critical in the extreme. Just 
 then came the Marquis de La Fayette. This young 
 French nobleman, of whom we heard in connection 
 with the subsequent French Revolution, met Wash- 
 ington July 31. He had been made a Major-General 
 by Congress a few days before. The reinforcements 
 
 the enemy at Germantown, but suffered defeat. 
 Soon after, Howe made Philadelphia the winter 
 quarters of his whole army, W ashington going into 
 camp fourteen miles distant, at White Marsh. 
 
 Turning now to the northern army, we find Gen- 
 eral St. Clair obliged to abandon the strongholds on 
 
 he brought were of incalculable importance. Now, 
 for the first time, the Com- 
 mander-in-chief was ready for 
 a pitched battle. It came 
 September 11, and is known 
 as the Battle of the Brandy- 
 wine. It was fought several 
 miles above Wilmington, Dela- 
 ware. It was a hard-fought 
 battle. La Fayette was wound- 
 ed. The Americans were 
 obliged to fall back toward 
 Philadelphia. Congress, which 
 had returned from Baltimore, 
 
 now made haste to seek a safe rattuh at tub 
 
 retreat, going first to Lancaster and then to York. | 
 In October Washington attacked the detachment of 
 
 the west shore of Champlain. The main body of 
 his army retreated toward Fort 
 Edward, New York. A de- 
 tachment crossed the lake un- 
 der Colonel Seth Warner. An 
 engagement occurred at Hub- 
 hard ton, Vermont, July 7, 
 1777, which resulted in tho 
 defeat of the Americans. 
 About that time Whitehall, 
 then Slcenesborough, was very 
 nearly destroyed by tho British, 
 who irero having everything 
 their own way. But August 16 
 bkanuywine. there was fought and won by 
 
 tho patriots the battle of Bennington, tho second 
 and last battle of the war on Vermont soil. Colonels 
 
 WASHINGTON CROSSING THE DELAWARE. 
 
 64 
 
INDEPENDENCE AND UNION. 
 
 Burgoyne served as a powerful aid in securing that 
 recognition. Other Europeans 
 besides La F ayette came to our 
 assistance. Baron Steuben, a 
 Prussian of thorough military 
 training, became Inspector- 
 General. He did much in the 
 way of disciplining the raw 
 recruits and volunteer officers 
 of our army. Another Ger- 
 man, Baron De Kalb, render- baron de kalb. 
 ed excellent service. Two gallant Poles, Count Pu- 
 laski, who died in our cause, and Thaddeus Koscius- 
 ko, who survived to lead his own country in unavail- 
 ing efforts at national restoration, also came to our 
 aid in the dark hour of our sorest need. 
 
 When General Clinton left Philadelphia to join 
 Howe in New York, Wash- 
 ington dogged his retreating 
 steps. At Monmouth an en- 
 gagement occurred. At first 
 the British were successful, 
 but General Washington 
 going to the front in person, 
 saved the day and turned de- 
 feat into victory. 
 
 , , a COUNT PULASKI. 
 
 lhat summer a band of 
 Tories and Indians from Western New York de- 
 scended upon the peaceful inhabitants of the lovely 
 Wyoming 
 valley in 
 Pennsyl- 
 vania, as 
 also Cher- 
 ry Valley, 
 in New 
 
 York, committing every outrage. The massacre was 
 avenged the following year by 
 General Sullivan. Howe’s fleet 
 was held in check by the 
 French fleet under D’Estaing. 
 
 On the whole, the British went 
 into winter quarters in New 
 York and the Americans at 
 Middlebrook, with the war no 
 nearer its close, apparently, 
 than it was when the first gun count d’estainq. 
 was fired. For the patriots, 1779 was a gloomy year. 
 The two fleets, French and English, sailed south- 
 
 BATTLE AT MONMOUTH. 
 
 GENERAL ST. CLAIR. 
 
 Forge. 
 
 John Stark and Seth Warner rallied there a brave 
 force of Yankees, and defeated 
 a detachment of the British 
 army. About that time the 
 enemy suffered defeat in the 
 Mohawk valley, General Ar- 
 nold being at the head of the 
 
 American forces. The English 
 general, Burgoyne, fixed his 
 camp near Saratoga, and Gen- 
 eral Gates of the Americans 
 established his camp not far from that of the 
 enemy. Two indecisive engagements followed, when 
 Burgoyne, despairing of reinforcements and short 
 of provisions, surrendered. That was a most en- 
 couraging turn in the tide of fortune. That may be 
 called the first really great victory of the war. 
 
 While the operations in the 
 North were thus brilliant, Wash- 
 ington’s movements farther 
 south were clouded with gloom. 
 December 11 he took up per- 
 manent winter quarters at Valley 
 That was a winter of 
 From White 
 Marsh to Valley Forge was nine- 
 teen miles, and the march was 
 stained with the blood of bleeding feet. The army 
 was almost naked and actually hungry. The hero- 
 ism which sustained them was a match for the hero- 
 ism which had triumphed at Saratoga. 
 
 It was in 1777 that Congress adopted the national 
 flag as we now have it, thirteen stripes of red 
 and white, and thirteen stars on a blue background, 
 the former representing the 
 states and the latter the 
 union. It also framed and 
 submitted to the several states 
 the Articles of Confederation, 
 which were not fully adopted, 
 however, until 1783. 
 
 The spring of 1778 opened 
 with revived hope. France 
 became the avowed ally of 
 the United States, thanks hi 
 part to the diplomacy of Dr. Franklin and in part 
 to the French hostility to England. The recog- 
 nition of American independence by the govern- 
 ment at Paris was all-important. The surrender of 
 
 horrible suffering. 
 
 GENERAL BURGOYNE. 
 
 BARON STEUBEN. 
 
-Ssfc 
 
 
 e> 
 
 "7T 
 
 INDEPENDENCE AND UNION. 
 
 5 X 3 
 
 GENERAL PICKENS. 
 
 ward, the former to attack British possessions in the 
 Caribbean sea, and the lat- 
 ter to defend them. The 
 war, so far as concerned 
 this country, was mostly in 
 the South that year, Georgia 
 and the Carolinas. Tories 
 were numerous, and the pa- 
 triotic militia had to bear 
 the brunt of the war with- 
 out dependence upon the 
 forces of the regular army. General Pickens and 
 General Marion rendered most excellent service. 
 It was in fu- 
 tile endeavor 
 to regain Sa- 
 vannah that 
 Count Pu- 
 laski lost his 
 gallant life. 
 
 The British 
 Parliamen t 
 showed great 
 determina- 
 tion to curb 
 the rebellious 
 colonies, and 
 the French, 
 on the other 
 
 WEST POINT 
 
 Point. While returning from the interview Andre 
 was taken prisoner on sus- 
 picion of being a spy, and 
 papers setting forth the plot 
 were found on his person, 
 lie was tried, convicted and 
 hanged. Arnold made good 
 his escape, only to live de- 
 spised and miserable, his name 
 a synonym for treachery. The 
 year 1781 opened with a mu- 
 tiny at Morristown. The general gates. 
 sufferings of the soldiers had become unendurable. 
 
 Fifteen hun- 
 dred of the 
 Pennsylvani- 
 ans threaten- 
 ed to march 
 on Philadel- 
 phia and “in- 
 terview” Con- 
 gress at the 
 point of the 
 bayonet. 
 
 They were 
 only prevent- 
 ed from so 
 doing by Con- 
 gress meeting 
 
 hand, showed signs of weakening. In 1780 the Brit- 
 ish were still successful at the South. Charleston 
 fell, and with it Lincoln and his three thousand 
 men. The battle of Camden was fought between 
 the English under Cornwallis, 
 and the Americans under 
 Gates, the hero of Saratoga. 
 Cornwallis won a complete 
 victory. In that battle fell 
 Baron De Kali). 
 
 In the North, Benedict Ar- 
 nold forfeited his hitherto 
 honorable name by basely 
 selling himself to the enemy. 
 His lietrayal of his country came very near proving 
 fatal. His treasonable design was to surrender the 
 stronghold of West Point to the British. The dc- 
 tails of the infamous business were arranged in an 
 interview between Major Andre, of Clinton’s staff, 
 and Benedict Arnold, then in command at West 
 
 GENERAL LINCOLN. 
 
 them with provision for their more pressing imme- 
 diate wants. For this mutiny bickerings in Con- 
 gress were more at fault than the soldiers them- 
 selves, but the chief cause, it must be conceded, 
 was the almost utter pros- 
 tration of the public means 
 of support. Every device 
 for raising revenue had 
 been exhausted and the 
 treasury was empty. Robert 
 Morris, one of the mer- 
 chant princes of Philadel- 
 phia, rendered th 
 est service in raisii 
 for Congress to employ in 
 the prosecution of the war. benedkt aknold. 
 
 The year which opened so inauspiciously proved 
 to lie the last one of the war. La Fayette’s influ- 
 ence secured the co-ojieration of a second French 
 fleet. That fleet had 7,000 men on board, under the 
 
 the great- ' J 
 
 ising funds *') 
 

 
 command of Count Rochambeau. In South Car- 
 olina General Greene was 
 in command, and won 
 the victory of Cowpens. 
 The enemy no longer 
 assumed the aggressive. 
 The battle of Guilford 
 Court-IIouse, North Car- 
 olina, was one of the 
 
 ROBERT MORRIS. 
 
 most severe of the war, but 
 it was a victory for neither 
 side. That battle was 
 fought in March, Cow- 
 pens in January. The 
 patriot army of the South 
 was under the command 
 of General Nathaniel 
 Greene, of Rhode Island, 
 one of the bravest and 
 most strategic of Ameri- 
 can soldiers. lie was one 
 of the few generals of the 
 revolution who thoroughly 
 understood the science of 
 war, and he was self- 
 taught. General Greene 
 was born in 1742. After 
 the war he engaged in cot- 
 ton raising in Georgia. 
 He died on his plantation 
 in 1786. 
 
 The British general at 
 Cowpens was Bannastre 
 
 Carle ton ; at Guilford, 
 Cornwallis himself was in com- 
 mand. The last battle of the 
 war in the Carolinas was fought 
 at Eutaw Springs on the 8th of 
 September. The Continentals 
 were repulsed. During the 
 summer Cornwallis committed 
 depredations in Virginia, now 
 for the first time during the 
 count de rochambeau. war become the field of actual 
 operations. La Fayette was in command of the 
 Virginia district. Washington planned a blow for 
 
 the recovery of New York, where Clinton still held 
 possession, but finding that 
 the French fleet would soon 
 enter the Chesapeake, he 
 changed his plan, still keep- 
 ing up the appearance of 
 preparations for New York. 
 
 In the meanwhile, Cornwallis 
 was fortifying himself at 
 
 COLONEL TARLETON. 
 
 Yorktown. When Clinton 
 discovered the design of 
 Washington, he attempted 
 to divert him from his 
 purpose by sending the 
 traitor •> Arnold against 
 New London, Connecti- 
 cut. The town was burnt, 
 its fort, Griswold, taken 
 and its gallant defenders 
 ruthlessly massacred after 
 they had surrendered. The 
 fall of Fort Griswold and 
 New London closed opera- 
 tions at the North. The 
 last move upon the chess- 
 board was about to be 
 made in Virginia. 
 
 The French fleet, under 
 Count De Grasse, block- 
 aded the York and James 
 rivers, wliile the French 
 and American forces on 
 the land completed the in- 
 vestiture of Yorktown. 
 Hemmed in on every side, 
 Cornwallis could not escape, and on the 9th of 
 October connonading com- 
 menced. The British held out 
 until the 19th day of the 
 month, when Cornwallis sur- 
 rendered to Washington his 
 sword and his army, about 
 10,000 men. 
 
 On both sides it was felt that 
 the end had come. Neither 
 army had any heart for fur- L0RD cornwallis. 
 ther bloodshed. Both may be said to have rested on 
 their arms for the negotiation of terms of peace. In 
 
INDEPENDENCE AND UNION. 
 
 
 November of the next year a provisional treaty was 
 signed. The cessation of hos- 
 tilities was formally announced 
 in April, 1783. On the third day 
 of the following September the 
 final treaty was signed at Paris, 
 nearly two years after the war 
 had virtually closed. In these 
 , days of electricity and steam 
 count DE GRASSE, everything would have been ar- 
 ranged in two months. 
 
 It was in December, 1775, that the Continental 
 Congress passed a bill creating a navy, with Ezekiel 
 Hopkins in command of it. Thirteen vessels were 
 authorized. They were built, 
 but were of no service. All 
 were captured by the British or 
 destroyed, to keep them out of 
 British hands. But American 
 waters swarmed with privateers. 
 
 Hundreds of British ships 
 were captured. The Raphael 
 Semmes of the Revolutionary 
 War was Paul Jones, who with 
 his Bon Homme Richard, car- 
 rying forty guns, captured the 
 British Serapis, carrying forty- 
 four guns. The engagement 
 occurred off the coast of Scot- 
 land in the fall of 1779. 
 
 The ratification of the ar- 
 ticles of confederation was completed the same year 
 that Cornwallis surrendered. But even then the 
 states did not form a nation, and it was a very grave 
 question whether the Union would be dissolved or 
 
 perpetuated. In the very 
 act of disbanding the army 
 this issue was raised in a 
 practical, if somewhat in- 
 direct, way. The order for 
 its disbandment was given 
 by Congress after the rat- 
 | ification of the final treaty, 
 and three weeks before the 
 British evacuated New 
 York. Washington took 
 leave of his comrades in a 
 very appropriate address on the 23d of December, 
 resigned his commission and retired to his planta- 
 
 SIEGE OP YORKTOWN, 
 
 iihTF' 
 
 JOHN PAUL JONES. 
 
 tion at Mount Vernon. All that was easy enough, 
 but what must be done to pay the arrearages of the 
 soldiers and defray the war debt ? Congress had no 
 power to levy the necessary taxes, and the experi- 
 ment of an irredeemable paper money had been car- 
 ried so far that the Continental currency was worth- 
 less. The individual states were asked to meet the 
 demand. This was found to be a very unsatisfactory 
 reliance. 
 
 The inadequacy of the confederation to the de- 
 mands of the country led to the holding of a conven- 
 tion called, theoretically, to amend the existing ar- 
 ticles of confederation, but practically, as it proved, 
 for the framing of a radically different organic law, 
 the constitution under which 
 these United States became 
 the United States. George 
 Washington presided over that 
 pre-eminently important de- 
 liberative body. It met at 
 Philadelphia, and completed 
 its work September 17, 1787. 
 In several states there was con- 
 siderable opposition to its rati- 
 fication, but it was adopted 
 and went into operation M arch 
 4, 1789, without having re- 
 ceived the indorsement of 
 North Carolina or Rhode 
 Island. 
 
 From July 4, 1776, to March 
 4, 1789, was the period during which the founda- 
 tions of the great republic were laid. During all 
 that time the statesmanship of the country was 
 severely tested, and the triumphs of peace were 
 greater than those of war. Other armies have fought 
 as bravely, but no land was ever blessed with such a 
 truly sublime array of great statesmen appearing 
 upon the stage of action at the same period. At its 
 head stood the venerable Franklin with the august 
 Washington at his side, while the youthful Hamil- 
 ton and Madison not only helped as leaders to frame 
 the Constitution, but by their pens in its advocacy to 
 secure its adoption. In all the history of mankind 
 can be found no crisis more critical and important 
 than the one through which the United States 
 passed in developing from thirteen colonies into a 
 Confederation, and then into a Union solemnly 
 declared to be perpetual. 
 
CHAPTER L X XIX. 
 
 The Youth of this Republic— Washington and His Inauguration — The Capital — Indians 
 and Whisky — The “Monroe Doctrine” — Finance — The National Bank— First Census — 
 New States and Slavery — John Adams’ Administration — Jefferson— Burr and Hamil- 
 ton — The Louisiana Purchase — War of 1812 — General Dearborn — Naval Battles — 
 Land Battles — Lundy’s Lane and Plattsburg — Jackson and New Orleans — Burning of 
 Washington — The Treaty — Algerine Piracy — Review of the Period. 
 
 AT I ONS, like individuals, 
 have their infancy, child- 
 hood, youth, majority and 
 senility. We have now 
 _ reached the adolescent pe- 
 riod of American history, 
 and are to trace in this 
 chapter the progress of the United 
 States in its teens, from March 4, 
 1789, to March 4, 1817. 
 
 George Washington was elected 
 the first President of the United 
 States, practically without opposi- 
 tion, to take the office March 4, 1789, 
 the day appointed for the Constitu- 
 tion to go into effect. John Adams 
 was elected Vice-President. Each 
 was re-elected four years later with- 
 out serious opposition. 
 
 Although the inauguration of Washington should 
 have occurred on the 4th of March, it was not 
 until April 30 that a quorum of the first Congress 
 under the Constitution had convened at New York, 
 the temporary capital, and it was on the latter date 
 that the oath of office was administed. 
 
 One of the first things to be done by Congress was 
 to select a permanent capital. It was decided to 
 
 avoid all the cities, and even all the states, by a novel 
 plan. A tract ten miles square on the Potomac 
 river, partly in Virginia and partly in Maryland, was 
 selected. It was ceded to the United States so far 
 as concerned jurisdiction, and became known as the 
 District of Columbia. The selection of the site was 
 virtually left to President Washington, in whose 
 honor the capital itself was named. To allow suit- 
 able buildings to be erected, Congress fixed the cap- 
 ital at Philadelphia for ten years. 
 
 During Washington’s administration occurred an 
 extensive Indian war between the Ohio and Wabash 
 rivers. The tribes in that region were somewhat 
 given to agriculture, but they were still savages and 
 bitterly hostile to the westward expansion of 
 the area of civilization. 
 
 Generals Harrison and St. 
 
 Clair were defeated by the 
 Indians, but General Wayne 
 finally won a complete victo- 
 ry. In 1795 a treaty was 
 made which quieted the In- 
 dian title to the Ohio valley. 
 
 About the same time occur- 
 red the Whisky Insurrection 
 in the Monongahela valley, general wayne. 
 
 Western Pennsvlvania. The distillation of whisky 
 
• 9 
 
 ^1 
 
 THE YOUNG REPUBLIC. 
 
 517 
 
 was a prominent industry in that section, and the tax 
 levied upon it during the administration of Wash- 
 ington was 
 
 strenuous- 
 ly resisted. 
 
 The milita- 
 ry was call- 
 ed out and 
 the insur- 
 gentsyield- 
 ed. W ash- 
 ington ex- 
 hibited re- 
 markable 
 firmness 
 and wis- 
 dom alsoin 
 preventing 
 the French 
 minister in- 
 volviugthis 
 country in 
 the interminable 
 “ Monroe 
 be 
 
 INAUGURATION OF WASHINGTON. 
 
 The so-called 
 
 wars of Europe. 
 
 Doctrine ” should 
 Known as “Washington’s 
 policy.” The fact that J antes 
 Monroe was minister to 
 France at the time connected 
 his name with the doctrine. 
 
 The facts are these : When 
 France, the great national 
 friend of America, was in- 
 volved in war with other 
 European powers, incident to 
 the French Revolution, there 
 was a very strong feeling in 
 this country in favor of help- 
 ing her. There was much 
 to be said in support of the 
 policy. But it was decided 
 that then and always this 
 republic would stand aloof 
 from complication in the 
 wars of other nations. Iso 
 foreign power must meddle 
 with our affairs, nor will we 
 interfere with theirs. The 
 
 wisdom of this policy was not apparent to all at the 
 time. On the contrary, it occasioned intense party 
 
 
 feeling. The Federalists, as the party of Washing- 
 ton, Adams, Hamilton and Jay was called, were 
 
 bitterly de- 
 nounced by 
 the Repub- 
 lican party 
 of Jeffer- 
 son, Burr 
 and Madi- 
 son. But 
 the sober 
 s e c ond- 
 thought of 
 the people 
 approved it. 
 The Feder- 
 alists sacri- 
 ficed the 
 political 
 advantages 
 of their po- 
 sition by 
 
 the passage of alien and sedition laws, the former to 
 restrict personal liberty, the 
 latter to restrain the liber- 
 ties of the press. The first 
 great problem, however, was 
 financial. Governeur Morris 
 and Alexander Hamilton 
 were the great financiers of 
 their day. It was assumed 
 that the Continental money, 
 the greenbacks of the Revo- 
 lution, could never be re- 
 deemed. That was an act of 
 repudiation unjustifiable, but 
 not inexplicable. The ties 
 of the Union were so frail 
 that it was feared that to 
 levy the tax necessary to the 
 redemption of the paper 
 money would snap them 
 asunder. All other debts con- 
 tracted by the Continental 
 Congress were faithfully 
 iiaid, also all state debts con- 
 tracted in support of the war. 
 
 The great me;isuro of Hamilton was the creation 
 of a national bunk ; not of a system of banks, such as 
 
±1 
 
 1 
 
 el 
 
 7T 
 
 Q 9 
 
 518 THE YOUNG REPUBLIC. 
 
 the country now has, but one stupendous institution, 
 modeled after the Bank of England. The IT nited 
 States Bank was located at Philadelphia. The 
 Bank of England went into operation in 1695, the 
 United States Bank was chartered in 1791, its char- 
 ter to hold for twenty years. It was not renewed at 
 its expiration, but Avas in 1816, to go into effect 
 January 1, 1817, this renewal occasioning but very 
 little controversy compared with the subsequent 
 Jacksonian agitation of the subject. 
 
 The first census was taken in 1790. It was found 
 that the population of the nation was 3,929,214. 
 Of these 700,000 were slaves. The census is taken 
 every ten years. It was during Washington’s ad- 
 ministration that John Jay negotiated a second 
 treaty with England, under which some things left 
 indefinite by the treaty of Paris were settled, but 
 others were still left open, destined to be settled at the 
 cannon’s mouth. It was also during his administra- 
 tion that Vermont, Kentucky and Tennessee were 
 added to the Union, and the Northwest territory or- 
 ganized under an ordinance forbidding the exten- 
 sion of slavery north of the Ohio River. 
 
 The administration of John Adams can hardly 
 be said to have had any individuality. His four 
 years were a continuation of Washington’s eight- 
 The Federalists averted war with England by what 
 seemed to the Republicans ingratitude and mean- 
 ness to France. Jefferson and Burr were the lead- 
 ers of the latter party, as Adams and Hamilton 
 were of the former. George Washington strongly 
 leaned toward Federalism, but he never stooped to 
 be a party leader. 
 
 In 1800 the people decided in favor of a change. 
 The Federalists had been in power all the twelve 
 years of constitutional gov- 
 ernment, and now the other 
 side had a chance. Jefferson 
 was elected President and 
 Burr vice-President. Jeffer- 
 son was re-elected in 1804 
 by an overwhelming major- 
 ity. Hitherto the government 
 had been aristocratic, but 
 Jefferson was perfectly sim- 
 ple and unostentatious in his 
 habits. He was a man of the 
 people. The duel between Burr and Hamilton, the 
 rival leaders in New York, was the culmination of 
 
 the party animosity of the time. Burr challenged 
 his rival, and according to the code of honor then 
 recognized, Hamilton could not do otherwise than 
 accept. The result was fatal to the life of Hamilton 
 and the reputation of Burr. Public indignation 
 was aroused much as it was by the assassination 
 of President Garfield by Guiteau. 
 
 The most notable feature of Jefferson’s adminis- 
 tration was the Louisiana Purchase. When this 
 nation came into national existence Spain and France 
 were in possession of Florida and Louisiana, the 
 latter including the region between the Mississippi 
 River and the Rocky Mountains. The acquisition 
 of all that area was secured by diplomacy and pur- 
 chase. To the French in their war with England 
 New Orleans and the Gulf of Mexico were a source 
 of weakness, and the emperor made the sale as a 
 stroke of military policy in 1803. It may be added 
 that the direct purchase money paid by the United 
 States for territorial acquisitions foots up as follows : 
 Florida, $5,000,000 ; Louisiana, $15,000,000 ; Cali- 
 fornia and other possessions from Mexico, $18,500,- 
 000; total, $38,500,000. 
 
 The English claimed the right to search Ameri- 
 can vessels, and impress into her service in time of 
 war British subjects found on board. In retaliation 
 the French claimed the same right. Our govern- 
 ment protested, and at last declared war against 
 England in support of the protest. That Avar Avas 
 not actually begun until June, 1812, near the close 
 of Madison’s first term as President, but it had been 
 imminent, almost certain, e\’er since the Republicans 
 came into poAver upon the overthrow of the Feder- 
 alists. When it finally came, the Federalists bitterly 
 resisted it. It never ceased to be somewhat of a 
 division line betAveen the parties, although it is a 
 Arell-established political fact 
 that no party can afford to 
 antagonize a Avar after it has 
 once been declared, and if it 
 does, even to a limited extent, 
 the result Avill be fatal to it. 
 
 The Federal party Avas utterly 
 destroyed by the Avar of 1812. 
 
 General Dearborn of Mas- 
 sachusetts Avas the first com- 
 mander-in-chief in that war, general dearborn. 
 under the President, Avho, by virtue of his office, held 
 that position. No President ever took the field in 
 
 AARON BURR. 
 
 (D 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 Fv 
 
 B 
 

 £ 
 
 of 
 
 ? 
 
 THE YOUNG REPUBLIC. 
 
 519 
 
 person. Dearborn’s policy was to take Canada, but 
 now, as in the Revolutionary War, that plan failed. 
 In the war of independence the colonies had no navy 
 of any consequence of their own, but in the second 
 British war the navy took a conspicuous part. A great 
 many English vessels were captured. The important 
 naval battle was fought on Lake Erie, and the victory 
 wonby the gallant young Commodore Perry, who sent 
 to General Harrison the memorable report, “We have 
 met the enemy and they are ours.” Commodore Law- 
 rence of frigate Chesapeake had an encounter with the 
 English frigate Shannon off 
 Boston which proved disas- 
 trous, but as the brave Com- 
 modore fell mortally wound- 
 ed, he shouted, “Don’t give up 
 the ship.” These two brief 
 sentences served to stimulate 
 the enthusiasm of the whole 
 nation. There were nineteen 
 naval battles, and in four- 
 teen of them the Americans 
 were successful. Commodore 
 Stewart, grandfather of the 
 great Irish land - leaguer 
 Parnell, with the American 
 frigate Constitution, success- 
 fully engaged two British 
 ships off Madeira. 
 
 There were twenty-two land 
 battles. The most humilia- 
 ting feature of the war was the 
 surrender of Detroit to the 
 British by General Hull, 
 
 August 16, 1812. By that 
 
 unnecessary cowardice the English gained con- 
 trol of Michigan, and if Perry had been beaten 
 on Lake Erie a year later, 
 they would have been masters 
 of the lakes and the cities 
 
 upon their shores. Of these 
 
 twenty-two battles the Amer- 
 icans won fourteen. For the 
 most part these battles were 
 near the lakes, extending 
 
 - from Plattsburg on Lake 
 
 captain Lawrence. Champlain and Sackett’s 
 
 Harbor on Ontario, to Detroit, then the extreme 
 limit of western civilization. But Fort McHenry, 
 
 which guards Baltimore, was subjected to a terrible 
 bombardment from sixteen British ships, September 
 13, 1814. The failure of that assault called out the 
 popular song, “ The Star Spangled Banner,” from 
 the pen of Francis S. Key, a Marylander, then de- 
 tained as a prisoner on one of the English vessels 
 of the bombarding fleet. It is worthy of remark that 
 the two most spirited and brilliant military songs in 
 American literature were written by Marylanders, 
 the second being “My Maryland” by Mr. Randall. 
 
 The only really eminent land engagement of that 
 war was the battle of New Or- 
 leans, January 8, 1815, some 
 time after the treaty of peace 
 had been signed, but before 
 it had become known in this 
 country. That battle, with 
 its prelude of December 31, 
 alone shed luster upon the 
 American army, in distinc- 
 tion from the navy. Had 
 it not been for New Orleans, 
 the second war with England 
 would have been accounted, 
 and justly, as an American 
 defeat. There were, however, 
 some brilliant feats of arms 
 before that post-treaty battle. 
 Two of them deserve special 
 notice — Lundy’s Lane and 
 Plattsburg. The former was 
 fought on the shore of Lake 
 Ontario, July 25, 1814. Gen- 
 eral Brown was in command, 
 witli General Winfield Scott 
 next in rank. The latter led the advance. He and 
 Brown were both wounded, but 
 the enemy were defeated, each 
 side losing about 800 men. 
 
 “That battle” says Ingersoll in 
 his historical sketches, “has 
 never teen appreciated as it 
 ought to be. The victory was 
 the resurrection, or birth, of 
 American arms. The charm 
 of British military invincibility 
 was as effectually broken by a Niagara frontier. 
 single brigade or that of naval supremacy by a 
 single frigate, as much as if a large army or licet 
 
 65 
 
A 
 
 a 
 
 5 2 ° 
 
 THE YOUNG REPUBLIC. 
 
 had been the agent.” 
 
 GENERAL BROWN. 
 
 Another writer says of the 
 battle of Plattsburg, fought 
 September 11th of the same 
 year : “ In September, Sir 
 George Prevost, at the head 
 of fourteen thousand men, 
 marched against Macomb, 
 who had only a few hundred 
 men, and, at the same time, the 
 British fleet on Lake Cham- 
 plain, 
 
 com- 
 manded by Commodore 
 Downie, sailed to attack 
 the American fleet under 
 Commodore MacDonough. 
 
 While the British, from 
 their batteries, commenced 
 on the land, their fleet en- 
 gaged MacDonough’s ves- 
 sels which were at anchor 
 in the bay of Plattsburg. 
 
 In a little more than two 
 hours MacDonough gained 
 a complete victory. The 
 fire from the land batteries 
 then slackened, and, at 
 nightfall, Prevost made a 
 hasty retreat, having lost in 
 killed, wounded and deser- 
 tions, about twenty-five 
 hundred men.” 
 
 Early in the war the En- 
 glish had secured the co- 
 operation of disaffected In- 
 dians in Alabama and Florida, especially the Somi- 
 noles, and General Andrew Jackson had been sent 
 south to hold the savages and their instigators in 
 check. Pensacola was then a Spanish port, but the 
 British had been allowed to occupy it the same as if 
 it were a part of the British empire. Finally, Jack- 
 son, who was in command at Mobile, marched upon 
 Pensacola with three thousand men, seized it and 
 drove out the English. That was late in 1814. Soon 
 after, he learned that the enemy proposed to take New 
 Orleans in retaliation. He lost no time in marching 
 to its defense. What followed is well told by Ander- 
 son, and we quote from him : “ Toward the middle 
 
 of December a British squadron entered Lake Borgne, 
 
 carrying 12,000 troops, commanded by Sir Edward 
 Pakenham, the first object of the expedition being 
 to capture New Orleans. On the 14th a flotilla of 
 American gunboats was compelled to surrender, and, 
 on the 23d Jackson made a spirited, though inef- 
 fectual, attack upon an encampment of the enemy’s 
 vanguard. On the 28th, and again on the first day 
 of the new year, the British were unsuccessful in 
 cannonading the intrenchments which Jackson had 
 thrown up four miles from the city. On the 8th 
 of January, 1815, the Brit- 
 ish made a general advance 
 against the enemy’s in- 
 trenchments ; but volley 
 after volley was poured up- 
 on them with such terrible 
 effect, that they were com- 
 pelled to flee. Pakenham 
 was slain, and two thousand 
 of his men were killed, 
 wounded, or taken prison- 
 ers. The Americans lost 
 only seven killed and six 
 wounded.” This was the 
 first and last time in the 
 world’s history that the su- 
 preme battle of a war was 
 fought after peace had been 
 negotiated. 
 
 One more incident of this 
 war as we pass on to the 
 treaty itself. The British, 
 under General Ross, took 
 the national capital, August 
 24, 1814, and fired the pub- 
 lic buildings. He had the same day defeated an 
 American force of 3,500 at Blandensburg, his 
 own army 
 numbering 
 5,000. The 
 American 
 forces were 
 under the 
 command 
 of General 
 Winder. In 
 his history 
 of this war 
 
 Ingersoll says of this vandalism, “ At a small beer- 
 
 BATTLE OP NEW ORLEANS. 
 
 FT 
 

 THE YOUNG REPUBLIC. 
 
 house opposite to the Treasury, fire was procured 
 with which the Treasury and then the President’s 
 house were fired. Before setting fire to the latter 
 building, it was ransacked for booty, especially for 
 objects of curiosity, to be carried off as spoils. After 
 incendiarism had done its worst, both at the Presi- 
 dent’s house and the Navy-Yard, indiscriminate pil- 
 lage closed the scene.” 
 
 The treaty of peace negotiated by John Quincy 
 
 with England, our country, then more than now 
 interested in the carrying trade upon the high seas, 
 turned its attention to Algerine piracy. The gal- 
 lant Decatur was seut to the Mediterranean with a 
 naval force to demand of the Dey of Algiers the re- 
 lease of the Americans captured and held for ran- 
 som. He captured two large Algerine vessels and 
 then secured the object of his misson, also treaties 
 of a satisfactory nature from the neighboring Bar- 
 
 JACKSON AT 
 
 Adams, Henry Clay and their associates, was abso- 
 lutely silent about the encroachments upon Ameri- 
 can commerce and the impressment of American 
 seamen, the two cardinal issues of the war. But 
 the country was in such good humor over the battle 
 of New Orleans, and so eager for peace, that the 
 treaty was ratified. Everybody felt that the United 
 States had amply demonstrated its prowess on land 
 and sea, that henceforth its rights would be respect- 
 ed by foreign governments, and this proved to be 
 the case. Substantially, then, the war of 1812 com- 
 pleted what the Tievolutionary struggle had begun. 
 
 After the second, and we may hope the last war 
 
 NEW ORLEANS. 
 
 bary States, Tunis and Tripoli, 
 cial nations were enthusiastic 
 in praise of the American navy. 
 Earlier in the century Tripoli 
 had declared war against the 
 United States and captured 
 and sold into slavery the crew 
 of the frigate Philadelphia. 
 The evil of Mediterranean piracy 
 was effectually cured by the 
 dauntless Decatur. This gal- 
 lant sailor fell, mortally wound- 
 ed, in a duel with Commodore 
 
 limropean eommer- 
 
 LIEL'TEN ANT DEC ATI' IL 
 
iL 
 
 eiiniiuiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiHiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiuiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 
 
 — = 3 ' 
 
 THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE. 
 
 ^IIIIIIIIIUUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUIUIIUIIIIIIUIIIIB 
 
 CHAPTER LXX X . 
 
 Non-Partisan and Non-Sectional Slavery— The Missouri Compromise — The Cotton Gin — The 
 Tariff Question — Clay, Webster and Calhoun — John Quincy Adams— General Jackson 
 and His Policy— His Protege and the Panic of 1837 — “Tippecanoe and Tyler Too” — 
 Annexation of Texas — The Mexican War— Taylor and Fillmore — The Omnibus Bill — 
 Scott and Pierce — Repeal of the Missouri Compromise — Seward, Sumner and Douglas 
 —Buchanan and Fremont — From Compromise to Conflict. 
 
 good sense to 
 
 HE war of 1812 went out in 
 sucli a perfect and unex- 
 pected blaze of glory that 
 when the excitement had 
 passed by, the Federal party 
 was missed. It has never 
 been found since. Mr. Mon- 
 roe, an amiable gentleman 
 of fair ability, a protege of Jeffer- 
 son, was elected to the presidency 
 two terms in succession. He was 
 indeed a Republican, but his elec- 
 tions were not party victories. Nei- 
 ther were they the result of a com- 
 2 promise. The two parties had come 
 to a final struggle over war with 
 England, and the one which had 
 suffered defeat had the grace and 
 step down and out,” not with any 
 
 blare of horns or waving of banners, but so very 
 quietly that “ no man knoweth of [its] grave to this 
 day.” It simply faded out. 
 
 The compromise did, indeed, begin during the 
 Monroe administration, but it related to the future 
 rather than the past, the future being that great 
 question of slavery, hitherto in no sense a political 
 
 issue. The Northwest Ordinance, a very important 
 anti-slavery measure, was neither partisan nor sec- 
 tional. The slaveholding state of Virginia volunta- 
 rily surrendered to the general government all claim 
 to the territory west of the Ohio River, and there was 
 hardly any objection to the prohibition of slavery 
 therein. That prohibition fairly represented the 
 opinion prevailing at that time throughout the coun- 
 try that the institution of involuntary labor was an 
 evil to be gradually removed by the voluntary action 
 of the states in which it existed. Originally the in- 
 stitution existed, to a limited extent, over nearly the 
 entire North, as well as South. 
 
 The question of slavery first came before Congress 
 in a way to provoke controversy in connection with 
 the admission of Missouri into the Union, 1820. 
 That state and Maine, the latter an offshoot from 
 Massachusetts, botli applied for admission into the 
 Union the same year. Previous to that time terri- 
 tories had been admitted to the Union and raised to 
 the dignity of states whenever their population war- 
 ranted it and admission was sought in due form, 
 Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio, Louisiana, Mississippi, 
 Indiana, Illinois and Alabama had knocked and 
 been admitted without controversy. Maine was ad- 
 mitted March 15, twelve days after the passage of 
 
THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE. 523 
 
 the Missouri Compromise Bill. Missouri itself came 
 into the Union in August of the year following, un- 
 der the operation of the compromise. 
 
 The raising of this issue was very largely due to 
 the cotton gin, a “ Yankee notion,” invented by Eli 
 Whitney. That great invention dates from 1792, 
 but its revolutionary effect was the work of time. 
 By its aid one man could gin, or free from seeds, as 
 much cotton as five hundred men could without it. 
 Under its influence labor in the cotton states became 
 highly profitable, and the institution of slavery 
 (without which, it was thought cotton could not be 
 raised in America so as to 
 compete with British India) 
 acquired a hold which it 
 had not before possessed 
 upon the people of the cot- 
 ton states. 
 
 After a great deal of agi- 
 tation it was agreed that 
 Missouri should come in, 
 but that slavery should not 
 be allowed in any territory 
 north of 36° 30', except in 
 the case of Missouri, a very 
 small part of which was 
 above that line. This corn-’ 
 promise was supposed to be 
 a final settlement of the 
 slavery question as a nation- 
 al issue. The compromise 
 was not disturbed until the 
 Nebraska bill of 1854 came 
 up. Sectionalism did not 
 die out, but was in abeyance until 1828, when the 
 tariff question revived it. 
 
 The North with its manufactures demanded pro- 
 tection ; the South witli its great staple of export, cot- 
 ton, demanded free trade. Webster, originally op- 
 posed to the tariff system, became a champion of it, 
 the interest of his state, Massachusetts, demanding it. 
 Henry Clay was the especial champion of protection, 
 which he called “the American system.” John C. 
 Calhoun, of South Carolina, was the leader of the 
 uncompromising Southern element. These three 
 names will be forever associated. They form the 
 great triumvirate of the compromise period. 
 
 Clay was born in Virginia in 1777. His early 
 education was meager. Natural eloquence drew him 
 
 into the legal profession, and as early as 1806 the 
 legislature of Kentucky, to which state he early 
 removed, sent him to the United States Senate. He 
 filled many places of honor, being in the public ser- 
 vice almost constantly until his death, 1852, for the 
 most part serving in Congress. He was speaker of 
 the House several times, ne was a candidate for 
 President repeatedly, being the father and favorite of 
 the Whig party. Webster was born in New Hamp- 
 shire in 1782. He received a collegiate education. 
 His political career began in 1812, when he was 
 elected to Congress. That was in his native state. 
 
 From 1816 to 1822 he prac- 
 ticed his profession at Bos- 
 ton, acquiring the highest 
 rank as a lawyer. From 
 that time until his death, 
 1852, he was almost wholly 
 devoted to public affairs, 
 most of the time in the 
 senate. He aspired to the 
 presidency, but never re- 
 ceived the nomination of 
 his party, the Whig. Cal- 
 houn was born in South 
 Carolina in 1782. lie 
 graduated at Yale College. 
 In 1808 his public life be- 
 gan, by his election to the 
 legislature of his native 
 state. He then served six 
 years in the National House 
 of Representatives. His next 
 position was that of Secre- 
 tary of War, followed by that of Vice-President. 
 He aspired to the presidency, but was not a 
 favorite with the autocrat of his party, Andrew 
 Jackson, and in the nullification movement in 
 South Carolina he rendered himself unpopular 
 to the country at large. He was the idol of his state, 
 and from that time until his death (1850) he was 
 content to represent that commonwealth in the sen- 
 ate of the United States. For about a year, how- 
 ever, lie served as Secretary of State under Presi- 
 dent Tyler. Calhoun was not a compromiser. lie 
 believed in slavery and the right of secession, never 
 hesitating to avow his sentiments and advocate 
 them. His private life was without a stain. Not 
 as persuasive as Clay nor as sublime as Webster, he 
 
I 
 
 1 
 
 THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE. 
 
 was in many respects tlieir intellectual peer. Ameri- 
 can politics reached its highest point of personal 
 ability in those Titans. 
 
 In the year 1824 occurred the presidential elec- 
 tion which resulted in the choice of John Quincy 
 Adams for President and John C. Calhoun for Vice- 
 President, a combination peculiarly incongruous in 
 the light of subsequent events. The electors did 
 not elect, and the matter was settled by Congress. 
 Adams had for his Secretary of State Henry Clay. 
 His administration was a most excellent one. Mr. 
 Adams was a very great statesman, but he was not 
 a politician, and he failed to build up a political 
 
 in, 
 
 party. The opportunity was peculiarly favorable 
 for so doing, but he lacked the qualifications of an 
 organizer. It was during his term of office that the 
 Erie canal was built, and the construction of rail- 
 ways began. The country prospered and every in- 
 terest developed rapidly. 
 
 The seventh President of the United States, An- 
 drew J ackson, was one of the most strongly individ- 
 ual characters in American annals. The hero of 
 New Orleans, his hold upon the popular heart was 
 peculiarly tenacious. Ignorant, rough, and often 
 unreasonable, he never faltered in what he con- 
 ceived to be his duty, nor did he hesitate to employ 
 freely the power of his office to build up a political 
 
 party with himself as its center. A patriot, but not 
 a statesman, he was the chief of politicians. 
 
 . The great features of Jackson’s administration 
 were, first, his unyielding and fatal opposition to a 
 renewal of the charter of me national banks ; sec- 
 ond, the crushing of nullification or secession, in 
 South Carolina ; third, the creation of the Demo- 
 cratic party ; fourth, the introduction into the civil 
 service of the pernicious practice of distributing of- 
 fices in reward, for partisan and personal services. 
 He did not originate the phrase, “ to the victors be- 
 long the spoils,” but he did establish the system. 
 
 JOHN C. CALHOUN. 
 
 and that so firmly that it has survived all the vicissi- 
 tudes of party. 
 
 Of all the many important events of Jackson’s 
 memorable career, the most remarkable was the 
 promptness with which he met nullification in the 
 Palmetto State. The additional duties on imports 
 which gave such grievous offense were levied in 
 1832. A state convention held at Charleston soon 
 after declared this act null and void, and prepared 
 to resist its enforcement. The state legislature made 
 no secret of a determination to secede if the law was 
 executed. A man-of-war, with General Scott and 
 a few soldiers on board, quelled the storm without 
 the shedding of blood. Soon after, Mr. Clay, true 
 
 IV 
 
 
 
THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE. 
 
 to his instincts as a pacifier, secured the passage of 
 a bill providing for a scaling down of duties. 
 
 The next president, Martin Van Buren, of New 
 York, was a wily politician, the convenient and 
 crafty lieutenant of Jackson in all his political 
 movements. In the first year of his administration, 
 1837, the country was whelmed in bankruptcy. That 
 panic was largely due to the refusal of Jackson to 
 sign the bill for renewing the charter of the national 
 banks. His pet scheme was the Independent Treas- 
 ury, or Sub-Treasury system, by which the govern- 
 ment should keep in its 
 own vaults the public 
 money. The hard times 
 had somewhat abated 
 when the next presiden- 
 tial election occurred 
 (1840), but the memory 
 of the panic was fresh, 
 and the demand for a 
 change was imperious. 
 
 The campaign of 1840 
 was very exciting. The 
 Whigs dropped their reg- 
 ular candidate, Clay, and 
 took up General Harri- 
 son. He had rendered 
 good service in the war 
 of 1812, but better still 
 in Indian warfare. He 
 was the hero of the bril- 
 liant affair at Tippeca- 
 noe, Indiana, near La- 
 fayette, which broke up 
 the confederacy of Tecuuiseh 
 prehension of an Indian 
 
 GENERAL SAM HOUSTON. 
 
 and ended the ap- 
 war. That was about 
 thirty years before ho was a candidate for President, 
 but it served the purposes of the campaign. 
 
 His death, one month after his inauguration, 
 brought to the presidency John Tyler, the first of 
 the Presidents elected by the Messenger of Death. 
 He proved unfaithful to the party which elected 
 him, and covered himself with reproach. The tariff 
 question was a leading issue of the campaign, 
 and he repudiated the protective policy which was 
 the distinguishing doctrine of the Whigs. The only 
 redeeming feature of Tyler’s administration was the 
 retention of Daniel Webster as Secretary of State, 
 and the negotiation by him of a treaty with England 
 
 which fixed amicably the boundaries between the 
 United States and British America, both in the 
 northeast and the northwest. 
 
 The bill annexing Texas to the Union was passed 
 three days before the Tyler administration closed, 
 but it was none the less the great issue in the presi- 
 dential election of 1844, which resulted in the defeat 
 of Clay and the election of James K. Polk, of Ten- 
 nessee. Texas was originally a part of Mexico. It 
 had been largely settled by citizens of the United 
 States. The people rebelled and seceded from Mex- 
 ico, General Sam Hous- 
 ton being the leader in 
 the Texan war of inde- 
 pendence. The battle 
 of San Jacinto, result- 
 ing in the capture of 
 Santa Anna, then Presi- 
 dent of Mexico, Houston 
 consented to release him 
 only on condition that 
 the independence of 
 Texas should be recog- 
 nized. The condition 
 was complied with. Not 
 long after Texas asked 
 to be annexed to the 
 United States. Nations 
 usually covet territorial 
 acquisition, but in this 
 case the North opposed 
 it because the area of 
 slavery would be extend- 
 ed thereby. The elec- 
 the matter affirmatively. 
 
 tion of Polk settled 
 It was during 
 the admi nistration 
 of Polk that the 
 war between Mex- 
 ico and the Uni- 
 ted States was 
 waged, growing 
 out of the annex- 
 ation of Texas, 
 largely, and the 
 desire of the South 
 for an enlarged 
 area. There were 
 thirteen battles during that war, the first beingfought 
 
 W1NKIKLD SCOTT IN 1805. 
 

 i 
 
 THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE. 
 
 5 2 <5 
 
 at Palo Alto, May 8, 1846, and the last at Huamantla, 
 October 9, 1847. In all the United States troops 
 were victorious. General Taylor won the victories of 
 Palo Alto, Monterey, Palma and Buena Vista ; Gen- 
 eral Scott 
 those of Ve- 
 raCruz,Cer- 
 ro Gordo, 
 Contreras, 
 Cherubusco 
 and Chapul- 
 
 tepec. Many of the names rendered famous in the 
 civil war appear among the 
 subordinate officers of 
 that campaign. Among 
 the volunteer generals of 
 that war was Franklin 
 Pierce, afterwards Presi- 
 dent of the United States. 
 
 The treaty of peace was 
 signed February 2, 1848. 
 
 By its terms all the terri- 
 tory north of the Rio 
 Grande, including New 
 Mexico and California, 
 should thereafter belong 
 to the United States. In- 
 stead of exacting, in ad- 
 dition to this, a sum of 
 money, as Germany did 
 of France a few years ago, 
 the victor agreed to pay the 
 vanquished $15,000,000 
 and assume debts amounting to about $3,000,000. 
 At a later period, there having arisen some dispute 
 as to the boundary, the United States paid Mexico 
 $10,000,000 more in final settlement of the whole 
 matter. 
 
 The Whigs had denounced the Mexican war in 
 severest terms, but no sooner was it over than they 
 took up General Taylor as their candidate for the 
 presidency, to the great chagrin of Clay and his es- 
 pecial friends. “ Old Rough and Ready,” as Taylor 
 was called, had for his opponent General Cass of 
 Michigan, and, on the Free-soil or Anti-slavery 
 ticket, ex-President Van Buren. The latter hoped 
 to so weaken Cass, whom he hated, that he would 
 be defeated. In this lie was successful, Taylor was 
 elected, and with him Millard Fillmore of New 
 
 York. The new, yet old, president died in the sum- 
 mer of 1850. His administration is almost a blank. 
 Not so with that of Fillmore, during whose term of 
 office the policy of compromise reached its cul- 
 mination. 
 
 The ill-feeling between the North and the South 
 on slavery and the questions growing out of it, was 
 such as to seriously threaten the Union. Henry 
 Clay, true to his life-work, came forward in 1850 
 with what was known as his “ Omnibus Bill,” pro- 
 viding, first, that California should be admitted as a 
 free state ; second, that if new states formed by the 
 
 division of Texas should 
 knock for admission they 
 should be admitted ; third, 
 Utah and Mexico to be 
 organized as territories ; 
 fourth, the claim of Texas 
 to New Mexico to be pur- 
 chased by the general gov- 
 ernment for $10,000,000 ; 
 fifth, the slave trade to be 
 forbidden in the District 
 of Columbia; sixth, slaves 
 escaping to free states to 
 be arrested and restored to 
 their masters. Thi meas- 
 ure received the s iport 
 of both of the twc .reat 
 parties. But it fade of 
 the desired effect. At clie 
 South the admission of 
 California was looked up- 
 on as the supreme feature of the bill, and the North 
 forgot everything else in fierce indignation over the 
 fugitive slave law. The two sections were thus all 
 the more unlriendly. Compromise had been the 
 ruling policy of the government for thirty years, 
 and all to no conciliatory purpose. 
 
 The next presidential election was the last in 
 which the Whig party was ever to take part. Born 
 of compromise, it died with it. In 1852 the Whigs 
 had for standard-bearer General Winfield Scott, the 
 hero of two wars, but he was utterly routed by Gen- 
 eral Pierce, who had nothing to recommend him 
 to the people. It was not in any sense a personal 
 campaign. The country was dissatisfied with both 
 parties, but of the two evils the people chose the 
 one least conspicuous for compromise. That was 
 
 ROUTE OF THE U. S. ARMY FROM VERA CRUZ TO MEXICO. 
 
 FT 
 
 
THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE. 
 
 5 2 7 
 
 the last national election ever held at which both of 
 the leading parties attempted to win the favor of 
 both sections of the country 
 
 There had long been a distinctively anti-slavery 
 party at the North, with now and then a represen- 
 tative in congress ; but its strength was inconsidera- 
 ble as compared with the other two parties. In 1840, 
 and again in 1844, the Abolitionists had cast their 
 votes for electors pledged to support James G. Bir- 
 ney for president. In 1848, under the lead of V an 
 Buren, and again in 1852, under the lead of John 
 P. Hale, the Free-Soil party had secured the anti- 
 slavery vote, gaining a little each time, but not much. 
 
 WILLIAM II. SEWARD. 
 
 The election of Pierce seemed to be the permanent 
 triumph of the pro-slavery party. 
 
 Early in 1854 Senator Douglas of Illinois, Chair- 
 man of the Committee on Territories, introduced 
 the Kansas-Nebraska Bill which was, in effect, the 
 repeal of the Missouri Compromise. A fierce con- 
 flict arose. The Whig party, as if conscious that 
 its mission of conciliation was over, went the way 
 of the Federal party, to which it had fallen heir. 
 It died of inanition, and with the passage of the 
 bill introduced by Mr. Douglas (for after a hotly 
 contested struggle in Congress it became a law) there 
 was born the Republican party of the present day. 
 It succeeded to the estate of the W big organization 
 without assuming its liabilities. 
 
 A new set of great men came to the front about 
 this time to take the place of Clay, Webster and 
 
 Calhoun. This triumvirate consisted of Wm. H. 
 Seward of New York, Charles Sumner of Massa- 
 chusetts and Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois. 
 
 Mr. Seward was a native of New York, born in 
 1801. He graduated at Union College and settled 
 as a lawyer in Auburn, New York. His public ca- 
 reer began in 1830, when he was elected to the State 
 Senate. Subsequently he served as governor of the 
 state. He was elected to the United States Senate 
 as a representative of the anti-slavery wing of the 
 Whig party, entering that body in time to take part 
 against the compromise of 1850. ne was the father, 
 
 CHARLES SUMNER. 
 
 more than any other man, of the Republican party. 
 In 1860 he was a prominent candidate before the 
 national convention of his party for the presidency, 
 but was defeated by Mr. Lincoln. Upon the elec- 
 tion of the latter Mr. Seward became Secretary of 
 State, a position he occupied eight years, when his 
 public career closed. Mr. Seward was at once a 
 great statesman and a great politician. Mr. Sum- 
 ner was the former, but not the latter. Happily, his 
 native state, Massachusetts, required no wire-work- 
 ing to place in the Senate and keep there her great- 
 est son, for such Mr. Sumner was for many years. 
 Born in Boston in 1811, he was elected to the Sen- 
 ate of the United States at the age of forty, his first 
 and only office. He remained in that body until 
 
THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE. 
 
 Iris death in 1874. During those twenty-three years 
 he was the unfaltering friend of the black man. He 
 was the most learned man ever identified with 
 American politics. His eloquence was of a lofty 
 nature and his character singularly free from taint. 
 
 Douglas was a very 
 different man 
 from either of the 
 other two. Uned- 
 ucated, coarse and 
 unscrupulous, he 
 was a master of 
 all the arts of pol- 
 itics. Born in 
 Vermont in 1813, 
 he entered Con- 
 gress at the age of 
 thirty as a Demo- 
 cratic representa- 
 tive from the state 
 of Illinois. In 1847 he entered the Senate, and 
 soon became the leader of his party in that body, 
 where he remained until his death in 1801. In the 
 fall of 1860 he was a candidate for the presidency. 
 When the civil war began he was appointed a Major- 
 General by President Lincoln. He was a staunch 
 friend of the Union. 
 
 Although carried by the current of these three 
 lives quite beyond the period of compromise, there 
 is one more administration belonging to it, that of 
 James Buchanan, the fifteenth President of the 
 United States. His election in 1856 over the Be- 
 publican nominee. Col. John C. Fremont, by a large 
 majority, showed that the old regime was still poten- 
 tial. At that election, for the first time in the history 
 of the republic, a presidential candidate nominated 
 on the anti-slavery issue received Electoral College 
 
 votes, and a good many of them, too, enough cer- 
 tainly to foreshadow plainly the result in 1860. The 
 Buchanan administration was characterized by an- 
 tagonism between the Executive and Congress on 
 
 all questions at issue between the two parties. Mr. 
 Buchanan was willing to carry the policy of conces- 
 sion to the South to almost any length, hi the hope 
 of thereby averting civil war, while the Republicans 
 scoffed at the threats of secession and braved all 
 peril rather than consent to any extension of the 
 area of slavery. Thus in that period, from 1857 to 
 1861, Compromise exhausted itself and developed by 
 a natural process into Conflict. 
 
 6 
 
 
Al 
 
 
 Tiiip w >jii^ « ' [ , w Ji 'p* r. ' ^r, i^ r. ' | ^ r, i^ ( i . «| ^ » l { | W'i'{ W i ^ ■ i ' ^ ^yw>' r yw p r' y wr : ' y ^f -i i y w r:^M w i,n ^< .ry wr : -iy r -T *** IT; 
 
 THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 
 
 
 MERRIMACK AND MONITOR. 
 
 I 
 
 'll 
 
 CHAPTER LXXXI . 
 
 Political Conflict — .John Brown— I860 — Secession — War Begun — Bull Run— McClellan on 
 the Potomac— Missouri — Close of 1861 — 1862 — Fort Donelson — Pea Ridge— Merrimack anii 
 Monitor — Pittsburg Landing— New Orleans — On the Potomac Again — Yorktown — 
 Before Richmond — Colored Troops — Gen. Pope — Antietam — Fredericksburg and Burn- 
 side — Emancipation — Gettysburg — Vicksburg — Chattanooga — New York Riots — Ander- 
 sonville — Grant Supreme — Fort Pillow — Battle of the Wilderness — Spottstlvania — 
 Atlanta — March to the Sea — Thomas and Hood — Presidential Election — Fall of Rich- 
 mond. and Surrender of Lee — Other Surrenders and TnE Capture of Davis— Assassin- 
 ation of Lincoln — Sinking of the Alabama, and Other Naval Engagements— Personal 
 Sketches of Union Heroes— Andrew Johnson — Reconstruction Conflict — Impeachment 
 of Johnson — Election of Grant — Ku-Klux-Klan — Close of the Great Conflict. 
 
 
 
 3 * 
 
 X an important sense the 
 great political conflict in 
 the United States began 
 with the organization of 
 the Republican party. The 
 Abolitionists, such as Wil- 
 liam Lloyd Garrison, Wen- 
 dell Phillips, Birney, Whit- 
 tier and Gerrit Smith, merely formed 
 a skirmish line. The lirst bloody field 
 was the territory of Kansas. Beyond 
 the Missouri border was really fought 
 the first campaign of the terrible war. 
 
 That Territory would have been 
 open to the introduction of slavery un- 
 der the Missouri Compromise, but the 
 South demanded more than that. Slav- 
 ery must be allowed in Nebraska also. 
 In grasping for both, it lost both. No sooner was 
 the old landmark of 1820 removed than Northern 
 immigration poured into Kansas, well knowing that 
 if the southern of those two territories was saved to 
 free labor the other would follow as a matter of 
 course. The South was no match for the North in 
 
 supplying pioneers, and slave labor is illy adapted 
 to frontier life. But the adjacent state of Missouri 
 was unfriendly to the “ Northern horde,” and that 
 was quite an advantage. There were numerous en- 
 counters between the two factions, and the Territory 
 fully earned the designation of “ Bleeding Kansas." 
 It was not until the general appeal to the sword in 
 18G1 that it ceased to be the especial victim of con- 
 flict, and even after that time it was subject to des- 
 olating raids. 
 
 Among those who flocked to Kansas to take part 
 in the struggle there was “John Brown of Ossawat- 
 tornic,” as he was known in connection with that 
 Territory. lie was an Abolitionist of the intensest 
 sort. Having remained in the far West until satis- 
 fied how the issue was to be decided, he came East 
 and undertook to organize a slave insurrection. It 
 was late in the fall of 1859 when he put his plan in 
 execution. Harper's Ferry, Virginia, a wild gorge in 
 the mountains, was selected as his rendezvous. W ith 
 him were associated a few kindred spirits. They 
 suceeded in causing a tremendous excitement and 
 alarm, but cannot be said to have struck a respon- 
 sive chord in the negro heart. The idea that the 
 
 ( 5 2 9 ) 
 
THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 
 
 530 
 
 colored people were ripe for insurrection was a mis- 
 take. Brown had embarked in an enterprise which 
 was utterly hopeless. He was soon taken prisoner, 
 tried, convicted and hanged. Many at the North 
 sympathized with him, and when the war between 
 the states came, he was canonized as a martyr to 
 liberty. The most popular and inspiring of all the 
 war songs of the period was a wild chant in his 
 honor. 
 
 The presidential election of 1860 was conducted on 
 both sides of Mason and Dixon’s line upon the theo- 
 ry that the time 
 for compromise 
 had gone by. 
 
 Mr. Douglas was 
 indeed the can- 
 didate of one 
 wing of the De- 
 mocracy, a wing 
 that still clung 
 tothehopeofrec- 
 onciliation, and 
 Mr. Bell, of Ken- 
 tucky, was the 
 candidate of a 
 movement to 
 galvanize into 
 life the dry 
 hones of the old 
 Whig party; but 
 the favorite can- 
 didate of the 
 South was John C. Breckenridge ; of the North, 
 Abraham Lincoln ; and they represented, each in 
 his way, what Mr. Seward very justly called “ the 
 irrepressible conflict.” The latter received no votes 
 at the South, the former carried no Northern state, 
 and consequently Mr. Lincoln was elected. 
 
 At the North it was supposed that the threats of 
 secession would not be executed ; at the South that 
 the threats of coersion would not be carried out. 
 Neither section really anticipated what was impend- 
 ing; still the spirit of hostility was so fully aroused 
 that no considerations of prudence could have had 
 weight and force. 
 
 The first state to pass an ordinance of secession was 
 South Carolina. Other Southern States adopted 
 the same measure early in the year following, and 
 in February the “ Confederate States of America” 
 
 was formed, with Jefferson Davis as President, 
 and Alexander H. Stephens as Vice-President. Be- 
 fore Mr. Lincoln became President the national 
 troops had withdrawn from Fort Moultrie to Fort 
 Sumter in Charleston harbor. Seven states had se- 
 ceded and a government in opposition to the United 
 States had been fully organized and fairly launched 
 at the South, President Buchanan doing nothing to 
 arrest the progress of the movement. Mr. Lincoln 
 was obliged to pass through Baltimore on his way to 
 the capital in disguise. Abraham Lincoln was inau- 
 gurated March 
 4th, and on the 
 twelfth of the 
 next month Fort 
 Sumter, Major 
 Robert Ander- 
 son command- 
 ant, was fired 
 upon. That was 
 the first shot of 
 the war. The 
 South Carolini- 
 ans were impa- 
 tient of delay, 
 and wished to 
 fire the South- 
 ern heart. The 
 same result fol- 
 lowed in both 
 sections. “ To 
 arms !” was all 
 the cry. Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers three 
 days after the first shot had been fired, and two 
 days later Davis issued 
 letters of marque and 
 reprisal, which were 
 at once followed by 
 the blockade of South- 
 ern ports by the Uni- 
 ted States navy. In 
 less than a month En- 
 gland had made haste 
 to acknowledge the 
 Confederate States as 
 belligerents, and not 
 mere insurgents and Robert anderson. 
 
 rebels. France, Spain and Portugal soon did the 
 same. The first direct personal encounter of the war 
 

 
 THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 
 
 53 1 
 
 was m the streets of Baltimore. That city fully sym- 
 pathized with the South, yet lay between the North 
 and the national capital. It was on the nineteenth 
 of April that some Massachusetts volunteers were 
 fired upon as they passed through the streets of that 
 city. The effect was to stimulate the patriotism of 
 the North, and render still more remote all hope of 
 reconciliation. 
 
 June 3 occurred a trivial battle at Philippi, which 
 was a Con- 
 federate rout, 
 and a week 
 later the Un- 
 ion troops 
 were repuls- 
 ed at Big 
 Bethel. Thus 
 did the for- 
 tunes of war 
 alternate for 
 overamonth, 
 the Confed- 
 erates routed 
 at Boones- 
 ville,the Fed- 
 erals at Car- 
 thage. In the 
 meanwhile 
 Congress had 
 met, July 4, 
 in extra ses- 
 
 sion, and both sides were eager for a battle upon a 
 large scale. Each seemed to think that one great 
 
 victory and all 
 would be over. 
 “ On to Rich- 
 mond” was the 
 cry of the North ; 
 “ On to Washing- 
 ton” of the South. 
 The impatient 
 public had not 
 long to wait. July 
 5il witnessed the 
 first great battle 
 of the war, the 
 Irwin m’dowbm.. first Bull Run, or 
 
 Manassas, as it is called in the South. A slight skir- 
 mish at Centerville three days before had occurred. 
 
 The Union forces were under the command of Gen- 
 eral McDowell ; the Confederates were led by General 
 Beauregard. Both armies fought desperately for 
 six hours, when reinforcements coming to the aid 
 of Beauregard, he won the day. The defeat was a 
 rout. The demoralized volunteers, when once put 
 to flight, became a frantic mob. But the victors 
 were too much exhausted and crippled to march 
 upon Washington, and no substantial and per- 
 manent ad- 
 vantage was 
 gained. Gen- 
 eral Winfield 
 Scott, who 
 had been the 
 master spirit 
 in planning 
 the battle, 
 and McDow- 
 ell, who had 
 executed the 
 plans, both 
 retired, and 
 General Mc- 
 Clellan, who 
 had achieved 
 some small 
 success in 
 West Virgin- 
 ia, came to 
 the fore as 
 Congress called for 500,000 
 
 commander-in-chief, 
 recruits, and 
 appropriated 
 $500,000,000 to 
 defray the ex- 
 penses of the 
 war. The se- 
 riousness of 
 the undertak- 
 imr now for f 
 the first time 
 dawned upon 
 the public mind 
 of the North. 
 
 At the South | 
 the effect was 
 deceptive. It 
 was supposed that secession was an assured fact, and 
 
 OEOIIUK 11. M'CLEIXAN. 
 
 , O' 
 
 'V 
 
•sJ<2- 
 
 THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 
 
 could not long be delayed in its complete triumph. 
 
 All the sto- 
 ries of North- 
 ern cowardice 
 were confirm- 
 ed. Thus vic- 
 tory was a 
 great injury 
 to the South- 
 ern cause, 
 and a bene- 
 fit, indirect, 
 but very real, 
 to the North. 
 It is claim- 
 john c. fremont. ed by the 
 
 Southern authorities that in the battle of Bull Bun 
 the Federal force was 60,000, the Confederate, 30,- 
 000. “The Confederate loss,” says Derry, “was 
 nearly three thousand killed and wounded, while the 
 Federal army lost nearly five thousand killed, 
 wounded and prisoners, twenty-eight cannon, ten 
 battle-flags, five thousand muskets and five hundred 
 thousand cartridges.” The Northern estimate of 
 the forces engaged places the number at about 
 40,000 each, and the losses at about 3,000 each. 
 Nothing important was done during the remainder 
 of that year at the East. Several minor battles 
 were fought with see-saw results. 
 
 The only other military events of much import- 
 ance during 1861 were in Missouri. A very deter- 
 mined effort was made to prevent that state from 
 going out of the Union. It never d'id secede, in the 
 regular way. An ordinance of secession was passed 
 
 by a portion of the 
 state legislature in 
 November, 1861, 
 but it was not bind- 
 even upon 
 who held 
 state fealty above 
 national loyalty. 
 In holding that 
 part of the country 
 in the Union, Gen- 
 erals Fremont, 
 Nathaniel lyon. Sigel, Lyon and 
 
 Grant bore prominent part, also the gallant Colonel 
 Mulligan. The battle of Belmont (November 7), on 
 
 mg, 
 
 those 
 
 the Cumberland Kiver, opposite Columbus, Missouri, 
 was the begin- 
 ning of Gen- 
 eral Grant’s 
 victories, but 
 it was a vic- 
 tory so far 
 turned into 
 defeat that he 
 was finally 
 glad to seek 
 the shelter of 
 his gun-boats. 
 
 The battle 
 of Wilson’s 
 Creek, where capt. chables wilkes. 
 
 the gallant Lyon fell, had occurred August 10, 
 and was the most destructive engagement of the 
 year, except Bull Bun. It terminated favorably to 
 the South, although very nearly an even thing. 
 
 The year 1861 closed with the South in possession 
 of several points of advantage, gained during the 
 season. On that side was an army of 350,000 ; on 
 the Northern, a force of 500,000. Missouri and 
 Maryland were saved from seceding. Both could 
 point to trophies, but neither had occasion for over- 
 weening confidence of ability to achieve final victory. 
 
 “ The Trent affair ” was the capture by Captain 
 Wilkes, of the United States navy, of Mason and 
 Slidell, representatives of the Confederacy, while on 
 board the British steamer the Trent. It occurred 
 November 8, and occasioned tremendous excitement 
 in this country and in England. War between the 
 two nations seemed imminent. But Secretary Sew- 
 ard calmed the waters by releasing the prisoners, 
 taking care in so doing to secure from England a 
 distinct repudiation of the right of search, the very 
 issue which the war of 1812 involved but did not 
 settle. American diplomacy won a brilliant victory, 
 completing what the treaty of Ghent had left un- 
 settled. 
 
 The first battle of 1862 was between a small force 
 under Humphrey Marshall and a brigade, or hardly 
 that, under Colonel James A. Garfield, at Preston- 
 burg, Kentucky. Garfield won the day, and was 
 promoted to the rank of brigadier-general on the 
 strength of his gallantry on that occasion. 
 
 With this year began formidable naval operations 
 in the West. 
 
 Commodore Foote had a large flotilla 
 
 
THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 
 
 under his command which had been fitted out at St. 
 
 Louis for ser- 
 vice on the 
 Mississippi 
 and its tribu- 
 taries Febru- 
 ary 6. Fort 
 Henry was 
 compelled to 
 surrender, and 
 ten days later 
 Fort Donel- 
 son was at 
 the mercy of 
 
 HUMPHREY MARSHALL. Foote aild 
 
 Grant, acting in concert. Grant being in command of 
 the department of West Tennessee. Buckner was 
 in command 
 
 OF FORT HENRY. 
 
 INTERIOR 
 
 of the fort. 
 
 He opened 
 negotiations 
 for capitula- 
 tion, when 
 Grant made 
 the memor- 
 able reply, 
 
 “No terms 
 except un- 
 conditional 
 and immedi- 
 ate surren- 
 der can be 
 
 accepted. I propose to move immediately on your 
 
 works.” The 
 terms were ac- 
 cepted and 
 fifteen thousand 
 prisoners fell in- 
 to the hands of 
 the captors. That 
 capture, the re- 
 sult largely of 
 Foote’s gun- 
 boats, was the 
 foundation of 
 Grant’s popular- 
 ity. It placed his 
 name in the head 
 prediction that he 
 
 raiiK and occasioned many a 
 
 would prove the supreme hero of the war. Fort 
 Donelson sur- 
 rendered Feb- 
 ruary 16. 
 
 The next im- 
 portant event 
 was the battle 
 of Pea Ridge, 
 or Elkhorn, 
 
 Missouri. Both 
 armies coneen - 
 trated, the Con- 
 federates under 
 Van Dorn, the 
 Federals un- 
 der Curtis. The EARL VAN DORN. 
 
 battle began March 7, and was not terminated uu- 
 
 til the next 
 
 morning. The 
 Confederates 
 were com- 
 pletely beat- 
 en, notwith- 
 standing they 
 fought with 
 great brav- 
 ery. The shat- 
 tered rem- 
 nants fled in- 
 to Tennessee, 
 joining Beau- 
 regard at 
 
 Memphis. Curtis took up his headquarters at Spring- 
 field, Mis- 
 souri. The 
 next day oc- 
 curred the 
 fierce duel 
 between the 
 Monitor and 
 the Merri- 
 iii ack in 
 H a m pton 
 Roads. The 
 former was a 
 magnificent 
 man-of-war, 
 formerly the 
 pride of the 
 
 JOHN KRICBflON. 
 
 American navy ; the 
 
 3 >> 
 
 j > 
 

 
 534 
 
 THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 
 
 newly devised iron-clad and almost ball-proof gun- 
 boat, the invention of that great genius, John Erics- 
 son. It is not too much to say that the success of 
 the little Monitor on that occasion revolutionized 
 naval architecture, for 
 it signed the death 
 warrant of modern 
 vessels of war. If the 
 Merrimack had not 
 been arrested in its 
 course it would have 
 strewn the North At- 
 lantic seaboard with 
 desolation and havoc. 
 
 The result of that 
 encounter was an infi- 
 nite relief to the na- 
 tional capital, which 
 had been in great apprehension 
 by water. 
 
 The battle of Shiloh, or Pittsburg Landing, oc- 
 curred April 6 and 7. Grant had over 30,000 men, 
 and Buell was advancing from Nashville to his sup- 
 port. The Confederates were commanded by the 
 
 brave and bril- 
 liant Gen. A. 
 S. Johnston. 
 He decided to 
 attack Grant 
 at Pittsburg 
 Landing be- 
 fore he could 
 be joined by 
 Buell. Early 
 in the morn- 
 
 THE LEVEE AT NEW ORLEANS. 
 
 Davis placed the very highest estimate upon the 
 greatness of the calamity. 
 
 April 25 New Orleans fell into the hands of the 
 Federals. It was well fortified, and thought to be 
 
 almost impregnable. 
 The fleet which suc- 
 ceeded in forcing the 
 surrender consisted of 
 eight steamships, six- 
 teen gunboats and 
 twenty - one mortar- 
 vessels. This large 
 force liad for co-oper- 
 ative support General 
 Butler at Southwest 
 Pass with 9,000 troops. 
 The Confederate de- 
 fense consisted of sev- 
 
 from an assault 
 
 mg 
 
 the 
 
 fight 
 
 DON CARLOS BUELL. 
 
 began, and at 
 nightfall the 
 Eederals had been pushed very nearly into the river. 
 It looked as if Grant was about to be completely 
 used up. That night Buell arrived. It was another 
 instance of “ night or Blvlcher.” There were no 
 corresponding recruits for the attacking army, and 
 the next morning the Confederates were compelled 
 to fall back on Corinth. The losses on both sides 
 were very heavy. Those on the Federal side were 
 about 13,000. Among the Confederates who fell was 
 Gen. A. S. Johnston himself. Alexander II. Ste- 
 phens pronounced the loss irreparable, and Jefferson 
 
 eral strong fortifications and seventeen vessels, in- 
 cluding several rams. The forts surrendered, the few 
 vessels of the defense were destroyed, and the city 
 was at the mercy of the assailants. General Butler 
 took possession of the city. His administration 
 of affairs in New Orleans gave great satisfaction 
 at the North 
 and aroused still 
 greater indigna- 
 tion at the South. 
 
 He was accused 
 of robbing the 
 people even of 
 their spoons, and 1 
 of playing the, 
 despot generally.^ 
 
 The real secret 
 of Butler’s un- 
 popularity was 
 an order issued 
 to the effect that any woman who should insult the 
 flag, or show contempt for the Union, should be as- 
 sumed to be a woman of the town plying her vocation. 
 
 It is now time to revisit the mud-bound army of the 
 Potomac. The pressure of Northern public opinion 
 was such that early in March President Lincoln or- 
 dered McClellan to move on Richmond. An abor- 
 tive movement was made on the 10th of that mouth. 
 About that time the Burnside expedition was sent 
 to capture Newberg, North Carolina, a port on the 
 Neuse river. A fortnight later McClellen changed 
 
 BENJAMIN F. BUTLER. 
 
 ) 
 

 THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 
 
 his base of operations against Richmond to Fortress 
 Monroe. The Peninsula campaign may be said to 
 have begun with the evacuation of Yorktown, 
 May 3. The Confederates were behind “Quaker,” or 
 wooden guns. McClellan was deceived. He sup- 
 posed the army then there under Magruder to be 
 very large. He expected a long siege and a des- 
 perate resist- 
 ance. Instead 
 of that, the 
 Confederates 
 withdrew to 
 William s- 
 burg without 
 firing a shot. 
 
 Two days 
 later the bat- 
 tle of Wil- 
 liamsbu rg 
 was fought. 
 
 The Feder- 
 al army of 
 the Potomac 
 had long 
 been impa- 
 tient for ac- 
 tive service, 
 and pursued 
 the retreat- 
 ing Confed- 
 erates with 
 the utmost 
 
 zeal, led by Generals Hooker, Kearney and Stone- 
 
 man. Early in the 
 morning of the 5th 
 of May the fight- 
 ing began The 
 swollen condition 
 of the streams im- 
 peded reinforce- 
 ments and the for- 
 wardingof supplies. 
 Hooker’s division 
 bore the brunt of 
 the battle early in 
 the day, but Kear- 
 
 J. BANKHEAD MAUBUDEK. nCy CUH1C to the TCS- 
 
 cue when most needed. Hancock ordered a bayonet 
 charge that was promptly made, when a complete vic- 
 
 FO KTRESS MON KO I'. IN lSbl. 
 
 tory was won, and McClellan was able to move into 
 Williamsburg. Instead of following up his advantage 
 with vigor, he allowed J. E. Johnston to retire in 
 good order to the opposite bank of the Chickahom- 
 iny. On both sides it was thought that the decisive 
 hour had come. There was the gravest apprehen- 
 sion at Richmond, the wildest exultation at Wash- 
 ington. But 
 J ohnstou 
 was equal to 
 the emergen- 
 cy. lie or- 
 dered Stone- 
 wall Jack- 
 son, then in 
 the Shenan- 
 doah valley, 
 to make a 
 demonstra- 
 tion upon 
 Washington. 
 This diver- 
 sion had an 
 importantef- 
 fectincheck- 
 ing the fur- 
 ther progress 
 of the main 
 army. Banks 
 and his army 
 were driven 
 out of the 
 
 valley by Jackson, and fell back to the Potomac. 
 McClellan was 
 within a few 
 miles of Rich- 
 mond. There 
 was a battle at 
 Hanover Court 
 House, May 27. 
 
 That, however, 
 was hardly 
 more than a 
 skirmish as 
 compared with 
 the battles 
 which were to 
 follow, begin- ramr keai^st. 
 
 ning with Fair Oaks, May 31, and closing with Mal- 
 
 6 7 
 
 "v 
 
\ <i_ 
 
 A 
 
 9 
 
 
 53 6 
 
 THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 
 
 vern Hills, July 1. 
 
 That was a terrific period. Fair 
 Oaks came very 
 near being an 
 overwhelming 
 U nion defeat. 
 McClellan’s ar- 
 my was on both 
 sides of the 
 Ghickahominy, 
 and the swamps 
 were flooded. 
 Johnston’s plan 
 was to destroy 
 the portion of 
 the army on the 
 nathanikl p. banks. Fair Oaks side 
 
 of the river, and he would have done it if it had not 
 been for Gen- 
 eral Sumner 
 and the re- 
 cruits he 
 brought to- 
 ward even- 
 ing from the 
 opposite side. 
 
 The loss on 
 either side 
 was about 
 7,000, and 
 J ohnston, 
 then the 
 
 leading sol- 
 dier of the 
 
 Confederacy, 
 
 was seriously wounded. 
 
 That wound 
 
 brought Gen- 
 
 eral Lee to the 
 front, a posi- 
 tion which he 
 kept to the 
 very last. 
 
 Both armies 
 were so badly 
 crippled that 
 ueither felt 
 like taking 
 the initiative. 
 The North 
 greatly cen- 
 sured McClellan for remaining quietly in the malarial 
 
 EDWIN V. SUMNER. 
 
 swamps of the Chickahominy, and the South re- 
 gained confidence. This confidence showed itself 
 in the gallant but uneventful dash of Confederate 
 cavalry under General Stuart within the very 
 lines of the main Federal army. The battle of Oak 
 Grove was fought June 25. It was a comparatively 
 small battle, but it was a victory for the Confeder- 
 ates, and McClellen then gave up all aggressive 
 plans. It was no longer “ On to Richmond,” but 
 the problem was “ How not to do it.” The next day 
 Jackson and A. P. Hill were directed by Lee to at- 
 tack the Federal right. All day the battle raged, 
 with indecisive results. The next day at the battle of 
 Games’ Mills. Lee had hopes of capturing McClel- 
 lan, and the latter sought to fall back upon the 
 James river in good order and with his supplies. 
 During the 27th Porter held the enemy at bay. The 
 
 next day Gen. 
 Sumner ren- 
 dered sub- 
 stantiallythe 
 same service 
 at the battle 
 of Savage 
 Station. The 
 third day 
 the battle 
 of Frazier’s 
 Farm served 
 the same 
 negative pur- 
 pose, and 
 
 during that night the army of the Potomac was 
 re-united for the first time since the Chickahom- 
 iny flowed between it. And now came the climax 
 of the campaign — the battle of Malvern Hill, 
 July 1. That conflict raged until nine o’clock 
 in the evening, when the Confederates aban- 
 doned the idea of capturing the Federals. McClel- 
 lan fell back upon the James, Lee to the entrench- 
 ments at Richmond, both sides beaten, with losses 
 on either side variously estimated at from 15,000 to 
 25,000. The loss by sickness during the heated term 
 was tei*rible. Of the splendid army of 100,000 
 which had entered the Peninsula only a small pro- 
 portion could be mustered as “ present and fit for 
 service.” The public sentiment at the North was 
 so strongly against General McClellan that he was 
 relieved, practically, and General Pope called from 
 
 
G) 
 
 THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 
 
 537 
 
 
 the West to take his place. The army of the Poto- 
 mac was re-organized late in July, and early in 
 August Pope assumed the aggressive. “ On to 
 Richmond ” was once more the cry. The battle 
 
 of Cedar 
 Mountain was 
 fought Au- 
 gust 8, in 
 which Jack- 
 son punished 
 Bauksunmer- 
 cifully. Lee 
 now prepared 
 to attempt 
 to capture 
 Pope’s whole 
 army, and 
 the latter took 
 fitz john porter alarm. The 
 
 swollen condition of the Rappahannock baffled 
 both retreat and attack. Pope was gradually forced 
 back toward Washington. The second battle of 
 Bull Run, or Manassas, was fought August 30. At 
 one time it looked as if 
 the Federals were about 
 to win the day, but Fitz 
 John Porter failing to 
 co-operate with the 
 main army, the day was 
 lost and Pope obliged 
 to fall back upon Cen- 
 terville. By this time 
 Pope was ready to re- 
 turn West, a confessed 
 failure in Virginia, a 
 failure more due, how- 
 ever, to the jealousy of 
 leading subordinate of- 
 ficers than to any lack 
 of soldierly qualities. 
 
 It was now Lee’s turn 
 to assume a still more 
 decidedly aggressive attitude. Not content with push- 
 ing the enemy to the wall, he moved into Maryland, 
 intending to strike Baltimore and Washington. 
 Several minor battles were fought, and September 
 17 came the great battle of Antietam. The Con- 
 federates under Lee numbered 60,000 ; the Federals, 
 under McClellan, who was given one more oppor- 
 
 SCEN'E IN FREDERICKSBURG, DECEMBER 13, 1882. 
 
 tuuity to fail, numbered 00,000. Three days before, 
 Harper’s Ferry had fallen into the hands of the 
 Confederates and the battles of South Mountain (in 
 which the gallant Reno fell), and of Crapton’sGap 
 were fought. 
 
 But both ar- 
 mies were 
 eager for a 
 decisive vic- 
 tory. “Fight- 
 ing Joe” 
 
 Hooker be- 
 gan the firing 
 at daybreak, 
 when Stone- 
 wall Jackson 
 swept his 
 corps from 
 
 Off the field, AMBROSE e. burnside. 
 
 Hooker himself being wounded. All day the firing 
 was kept up. Both sides claimed a victory. It was 
 a substantial triumph for the Federals, for Lee 
 
 abandoned for a time his aggressive policy and retired 
 _ up the Shenandoah 
 
 valley to Winchester. 
 
 One more great bat- 
 tle was fought in 1862. 
 It was before the 
 
 heights of Fredericks- 
 burg, Virginia. Burn- 
 side, who had now been 
 promoted to the com- 
 mand of the army of 
 the Potomac, attempted 
 the capture of that 
 stronghold, lie sacri- 
 ficed about 15,000 men 
 in the unavailing as- 
 sault. He took com- 
 mand November 5, and 
 the battle of Freder- 
 icksburg was 
 
 fought 
 
 December 13. It was a fearful, fruitless and un- 
 necessary slaughter. 
 
 In the Southwest the Federals held every strong- 
 hold except Vicksburg and Port Hudson, but those 
 were important exceptions. \\ bile we have been fal- 
 lowing the fortunes of the army of the Potomac sev- 
 eral important events were occurring in the Mississip- 
 

 538 
 
 THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 
 
 pi Valley. Bragg invaded. Kentucky in the hope of 
 ; aiding that state to the Confederacy, and making 
 Tennessee solid for the same cause. He had an 
 army of 60,000. Buell was in command of the op- 
 posing Federal forces, having an army of 100,000. 
 Brag's: did not succeed in establishing Confederate 
 rule in that region, but he did manage to capture 
 and carry off vast stores of provisions which were 
 greatly needed by the South. 
 
 General Grant began in 1862 his movement upon 
 Vicksburg, but lie accomplished nothing. He found 
 himself checkmated. His supplies at Holly Springs 
 were captured by the enemy. Corinth, Iuka and 
 Murfreesboro were claimed as Federal victories in 
 the West, but Bragg had much whereof to boast and 
 the South a 
 happierNew 
 Year than 
 the North. 
 
 The year 
 1862 saw the 
 peace party 
 at the Nor th 
 called Cop- 
 perheads at 
 its strongest. 
 
 Many doubt- 
 ful Congres- 
 sional dis- 
 tricts were 
 
 carried by them, and some states, notably New York. 
 
 The discon- 
 tent was gen- 
 eral. Some 
 wanted more 
 fighting, and 
 others less, 
 and no one 
 seemed to be 
 satisfied with 
 the conduct 
 of the war. 
 
 The proc- 
 lamation of 
 Emancipation, 
 
 JOSEPH HOOKER, the lllOSt liot- 
 
 able American document since the Constitution, was 
 President Lincoln’s New Year’s greeting. It was 
 issued September 22, 1862, to take effect the first 
 
 day of January following. That declaration of 
 freedom was confined in its immediate operation to 
 territory not then within the actual jurisdiction of 
 the United States, while careful not to disturb the 
 institution of slavery within the Federal lines. But 
 everybody understood that henceforth the real poli- 
 cy of the government would be liberty to all. From 
 that time on, both sides were more determined than 
 ever before to win the day, feeling the gravity of the 
 stake involved. 
 
 The first day of the year 1863 was a day of vic- 
 tory for the Confederates. They captured the im- 
 portant city of Galveston, the key to communica- 
 tion by water with Texas. The next day the Fed- 
 erals gained a victory at Murfreesboro, and a few 
 
 days later 
 they captur- 
 ed Arkansas 
 Post. But 
 these were 
 not mat- 
 ters of very 
 much im- 
 portan ce. 
 On both 
 sides the Po- 
 tomac was 
 the center 
 of attrac- 
 tion. Burn- 
 side asked to be relieved, and was succeeded by 
 “Fighting Joe Hooker,” of whom much was ex- 
 pected. He crossed the Rappahannock and fought 
 Lee at Chancellorsville early in May. The result 
 was a victory for the Confederates. The Union loss 
 was over 11,000. Hooker recrossed the river. 
 
 About a month later, Lee took his splendid army 
 of 100,000 men northward into Maryland and Penn- 
 sylvania, boldly assuming the aggressive. Now for 
 the first time the war was actually transferred in 
 part to the North. On the 28th of June Hooker 
 was superseded by General Geo. G. Meade, of Penn- 
 sylvania. Presently the battle of Gettysburg was 
 fought. That was probably the supreme battle of 
 the war. Gettysburg is just over the Maryland line 
 in Pennsylvania. The battle began July 1, and did 
 not close until the third day. The decisive moment 
 was when, in the afternoon of the third day, Lee 
 opened on Hancock’s position with one hundred and 
 
 IL 
 
 (D 
 
 
 K 
 
 <o 
 
THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 
 
 54 1 
 
 fifteen, guns. The shock did not break the line. It 
 is estimated that about fifty thousand men were lost 
 in that desperate encounter. Lee was obliged to aban- 
 don the offensive and retire to the Potomac. The 
 field of Gettysburg is now a national cemetery. It 
 
 is estimated 
 by Derry 
 that in the 
 Pennsylva- 
 nia cam- 
 paign the 
 Southern 
 loss was a- 
 bout 18,000 
 killed and 
 w ouniled 
 and 10,000 
 prisoners. 
 He places 
 the North- 
 ern losses at about the same approximate figures. 
 
 Among those who fell at Gettysburg was General 
 John F. Reynolds, of Pennsylvania. A rifle-ball 
 struck him during the first day of the battle, killing 
 him instantly, while in active command of the First 
 Corps. lie was a very popular, brave and efficient 
 officer. General Sickles, of New York, it may be 
 added, lost a leg at Gettysburg. 
 
 While Lee and Meade were mowing down each 
 other’s soldiers in winrows at Gettysburg, General 
 
 men, 172 cannon, and no less than 15 generals. 
 Four days later Port Hudson surrendered to Banks, 
 and the Mississippi was restored to the Union. 
 The summer of Federal prosperity was undisturbed 
 by any serious counter-disasters. The desperate 
 Morgan dashed 
 into Ohio and 
 Indiana with 
 four thousand 
 Confederate cav- 
 alry, but no sub- 
 stantial advan- 
 tage was gained. 
 
 On the contrary, 
 the state militia 
 of Ohio proved 
 an overmatch 
 for the raiders. 
 
 In the fall 
 
 there ivas irn- John f. REYNOLDS, 
 
 portant fighting farther south, in the mountain- 
 ous region of northern Georgia and southern 
 Tennessee. Upon the banks of the Tennessee stood 
 the little town of Chattanooga, almost at the very 
 foot of Lookout Mountain and near Missionary 
 Ridge. These are names conspicuous in the military 
 annals of the country. In the summer General 
 Rosecranshad won important victories in Tennessee, 
 but in September 
 lie was defeated 
 with great loss 
 at Chickamauga 
 River. He was 
 hemmed in and 
 his forces near- 
 ly starved out by 
 Bragg. General 
 Thomas grandly 
 came to his res- 
 cue and saved 
 his army from 
 overwhelm ing 
 disaster, from ir- daniki. e. «i< klks. 
 
 retrievable ruin. General Grant was sent to super- 
 sede him, and given ample resources. His first 
 care was to relieve the wants of the army. General 
 Thomas, who had prevented the defeat of Chicka- 
 mauga from being a rout, was in command of the 
 Army of the Cumberland. General Hooker came 
 
 GENERAL MEADES HEADQUARTERS AT GETTYSBURG. 
 
 Grant was persistently pushing his way into \ icks- 
 burg. The siege began May 10 and ended almost 
 simultaneously with the retreat of Ijee. I he two 
 events formed one piece of intelligence. General 
 Pemberton was in command of the beleaguered 
 force. On the 3d of July he proposed to surrender, 
 and the next day the surrender was made — 31,600 
 

 A 
 
 iL. 
 
 54 2 
 
 THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 
 
 WILLIAM S. ROSECRANS. 
 
 down from Virginia with 23,000 men, and Sherman 
 
 was at the 
 head of four 
 divisions of the 
 Army of the 
 Tennessee. In 
 a month from 
 the time Grant 
 arrived every 
 preparation 
 had been made 
 for a general 
 enga go m e nt. 
 November 24. 
 Hooker charg- 
 ed up Lookout 
 Mountain, “ above the clouds,” and won a brilliant 
 victory. The 
 next day the 
 great battle 
 of Chatta- 
 nooga was 
 fought and 
 won, mainly 
 by General 
 Thomas and 
 the gallant 
 Army of the 
 Cumberland. 
 
 Burnside had 
 rendered ef- 
 fective ser- 
 vice by drawing Longstreet away from re-inforcing 
 Bragg. He could not meet him on the open field, 
 but he could prevent him putting his army where it 
 would do the most good for the Confederate cause. 
 When Bragg was compelled to break camp and flee 
 northward, Burnside, then at Knoxville, was re-in- 
 forced and Longstreet marched away. 
 
 The fighting of the year 1863 was now at an end. 
 It only remains to speak of two features of the year, 
 the riot in New York and Andersonville. The gov- 
 eminent felt compelled to draft for more soldiers 
 during that summer. Nearly everywhere the people 
 submitted graciously ; but the “ baser sort ” in New 
 York City rebelled and raised a most disgraceful 
 riot. The mob wreaked its vengeance on all colored 
 persons found, and even destroyed an asylum for 
 colored orphans. The riot began July 13 and raged 
 
 three days. It is believed that a thousand persons 
 were killed or 
 wounded. The 
 military were 
 obliged to inter- 
 pose and put it 
 down. 
 
 The Confeder- 
 ate prison pen at 
 Andersonville, 
 
 Georgia, dates 
 from Novem- 
 ber 27, 1863. 
 
 The whole num- 
 ber of prisoners 
 registered there 
 was 49,485. 
 
 WILLIAM T. SHERMAN. 
 
 The full number of deaths recorded 
 were 12,462. 
 The superin- 
 tendent, one 
 Henry Wirz, 
 wastried, con- 
 victed and 
 hanged, after 
 the war, for 
 murderous 
 cruelty. 
 
 Duringthe 
 months of 
 January and 
 February no 
 event of im- 
 portance transpired. On the fourth of March, 1864, 
 Grant was made Lieutenant-General, and placed in 
 command of all the forces of the United States. 
 Then for the first time the army was so unified that 
 it could be handled to the best advantage. Grant was 
 given unlimited scope, and leaving Sherman, Thomas 
 and others of less note in the West, took command 
 in person of the army of the Potomac. He placed 
 General Sheridan, hitherto in obscurity, at the head 
 of the cavalry service, and sent him to scour the 
 Shenandoah Valley. He rendered brilliant service, 
 notably in winning the battle of Winchester, im- 
 mortalized bv T. Buchanan Read’s poem, “ Sheridan’s 
 Ride.” 
 
 The massacre at Fort Pillow occurred April 13. 
 That was the most cruel episode of the war. There 
 were a great many colored troops at the fort and the 
 
 i'U 
 
 r 
 
£ 
 
 o 
 
 UGUSTA 
 
 UNION POlMv 
 
 MADiSor 
 
 >LUMPKINI ON 
 
 SPARTA 
 
 VNMLLtN 
 
 
 SANDERs, 
 
 MILIEDGEAV l LLEjX x * 
 
 ipniNoncLD 
 
 GORDON, 
 
 FOPSYTI 
 
 CAVALRY 
 
 MACON^s; 
 
 FTMcALIjfrt-K 
 
 THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 
 
 PHILIP H. SHERIDAN . 
 
 object seems to have been to intimidate the blacks 
 and deter them from enlisting. Generals Forrest 
 and Chalmers share the dishonor of that massacre. 
 
 The battle of the 'Wilderness was fought May 5 
 and 6. It was a part of Grant’s comprehensive plan 
 
 for crushing 
 the enemy. 
 He evident- 
 ly thought 
 that the 
 time had 
 come to put 
 an end to 
 the war by 
 
 war 
 
 one great 
 battle before 
 Richmond. 
 In this he 
 was mistak- 
 en. Sher- 
 man was ordered to advance on Atlanta the same 
 day that Grant crossed the Rapid Anna to engage 
 Lee. For two days the battle raged and the slaughter 
 was terrible. Grant lost 20,000 men ; Lee 10,000. 
 Neither gained any advantage. 
 
 But Grant was not disheartened or shaken in his 
 purpose. With dogged perseverance he followed up 
 
 that battle 
 
 with another, 
 the battle of 
 Spottsylvania 
 Court House, 
 fought May 
 10, 11 and 12. 
 
 In that great 
 battle fell 
 General John 
 Sedgwick of 
 New York, 
 commander of 
 the Sixth 
 Corps. On tbe 
 
 things, at Cold Harbor, Petersburg, and elsewhere. 
 His losses were enormous and constant. Before 
 J uly, Grant had lost, it is estimated, 80,000, and Lee 
 half that number. 
 
 The great success of the season was Sherman s 
 campaign 
 
 Georgia. 
 
 m 
 He 
 
 captured At- 
 lanta Septem- 
 ber 1. It was 
 in this battle 
 that General 
 M’Pherson fell 
 wounded mor- 
 tally. Includ- 
 ing the several 
 engagements 
 
 which culmin- 
 ated in the siege of 
 
 lltli inst. General Grant sent to the War Department 
 the famous dispatch, “ I propose to fight it out on 
 this line if it takes all summer.” In those words 
 were revealed the character of the man and the secret 
 of his power. “All summer” stretched into and 
 through the next winter, and it was not “on this 
 line” that final victory was won. He kept pushing 
 
 Spottsylvania Court House. 
 
 j. Atlanta, Sherman lost ;U),0U() 
 men ; the Confederates under Hood and J. E. John- 
 ston, 40,000. He next organized and executed his 
 famous March to the Sea, which was intended to 
 cut off the supplies and sever the railway connections 
 of the Confederacy. The plan was successfully car- 
 ried out. The march from Atlanta to Savannah 
 was practically unimpeded. 
 
 A presidential election occurred at the North dur- 
 ing the year 
 1804. On the 
 Rep u blica n 
 side President 
 Lincoln was 
 the candidate, 
 witli Andrew 
 Johnson on 
 the ticket as 
 V i c e-P resi- 
 dent. The lat- 
 ter was put 
 forward as a 
 representative 
 of Southern 
 Unionists. On the Democratic side the candidates 
 were General McClellan and Geo. II. Pendleton of 
 Ohio. At the time McClellan was nominated the 
 Union cause was under a thick cloud. The fall of 
 Atlanta came just after that. The platform on which 
 the Democratic candidates were placed pledged them 
 to secure peace at almost anv cost. Of course the 
 
states which had seceded and belonged to the Con- 
 federacy could not vote, and Mr. Lincoln received 
 an overwhelming majority of the votes cast. 
 
 Sherman’s March to the Sea began November 15, 
 and on the morning of the 21st of December he 
 entered Savannah. It was during that period that 
 General Thomas outgeneraled Hood completely in 
 Tennessee, and almost crushed his army. Hood as- 
 sumed the offensive at Franklin November 30, and 
 was rejmlsed. He planned another assault on 
 Thomas at Nash- 
 ville, but before he 
 could put it into exe- 
 cution he had been 
 attacked (December 
 15) and in a battle 
 which raged two 
 days, so crippled that 
 he had to flee to the 
 mountains of Ala- 
 bama. That virtu- 
 ally ended the war 
 in the interior. 
 
 The war was not 
 projected far into 
 1865. It was obvi- 
 ous that Richmond 
 could not hold out 
 long. The only ques- 
 tion was whether to 
 surrender or take a change of base. The latter was 
 prevented by the cutting of Lee’s railway commu- 
 nication by 
 Sheridan’s 
 cavalry, and 
 the gradual 
 closing in 
 upon the 
 Southern ar- 
 my of the 
 Federal for- 
 ces. Causes 
 not known 
 at the North, 
 and disclos- 
 ed in the 
 george h. tuomas. next chap- 
 
 ter, conspired to render resistance impossible. 
 
 Grant carried Petersburg by assault, and there be- 
 
 ing no other alternative, Lee surrendered April 9, 
 1865, at Appomattox Court House. The war was 
 over ; the occupancy of Richmond had already oc- 
 curred. Davis and his cabinet had left the capital a 
 week before. Johnston surrendered the Confederate 
 forces in North Carolina to Sherman, who had 
 moved northward from Savannah, April 18. Gen- 
 eral Taylor, commanding in Alabama, surrendered 
 to General Terry May 4, and Kirby Smith in Miss- 
 issippi the 26th. The total number of Confederates 
 
 who surrendered was 
 about 150,000. 
 
 The most tragic 
 event of the war was 
 yet to come, the one 
 which caused the 
 profoundest grief. 
 That was the assas- 
 sination of President 
 Lincoln. He was 
 shot by J. Wilkes 
 Booth while attend- 
 ing a theatrical en- 
 tertainment given 
 at Ford’s theater, 
 Washington, on the 
 evening of April 14. 
 Before morning the 
 wound had proved 
 fatal. Secretary Sew- 
 ard narrowly escaped being killed by a conspirator. 
 The shock was terrible and the loss incomparable. 
 A great statesman, one who could have harmonized 
 the nation, and restored the reign of law at the 
 South satisfactorily to both sections, gave place to 
 a politician singularly unsuited to the great task in 
 hand. The passions of the war had not had time to 
 cool when that assassination occurred, but it was 
 evident that the South sincerely deprecated the great 
 crime. At first the impression prevailed that the 
 assassin was the agent of Jefferson Davis and other 
 Confederates, but there was no good ground for the 
 suspicion, and it soon faded from the public mind. 
 
 Nothing in all the history of the Republic was 
 more creditable than the good behavior of the sol- 
 diers after disbandment. More than a million men, 
 North and South, were at once released from mili- 
 tary duty and remanded to the walks of civil life. 
 Many of them had long been accustomed to camp 
 
 
 £ 
 
 54 6 
 
 THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 
 
 FT 
 
 
 & 
 
THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 
 
 
 5+9 
 
 * 
 
 HENRY W. BELLOWS, D.l). 
 Founder IT. S. Sanitary Commission. 
 
 and field, but they took up the duties of peace in a 
 quiet, orderly manner, resolved into the general 
 mass of the population without any of the horrors 
 usually experienced in such cases in other lands. 
 The immense increase in the productive power of the 
 
 nation was ab- 
 solutely phe- 
 nomenal. 
 
 The records 
 of the army 
 medical de- 
 partment give 
 the number 
 treated as 5,- 
 825,000 includ- 
 ing field and 
 hospital both. 
 Of these the 
 fatal cases were 
 1GG,623. The 
 wounded were 
 273 , 175 ; deaths among them, 33,777. Perhaps 
 the most creditable feature of the entire period 
 of conflict was the provision made during the war 
 for the comfort of the sick and wounded. The 
 Sanitary Commission and the Christian Commission, 
 distinct but kindred organizations, raised many 
 millions of dollars which were expended in amelior- 
 ating the condition of the sick and wounded soldiers. 
 
 The Sanitary 
 Commission dis- 
 bursed $5,000,000 
 and supplies 
 valued at about 
 three times that 
 amount, and the 
 Christian Com- 
 mission is believed 
 to have cxjKmded 
 not less than $6,- 
 000,000 in the 
 same way, the 
 only difference 
 
 VINCENT COLTER. J 
 
 Chairman U. S. Christian Commission. being that the 
 
 latter Commission looked after the religious and 
 literary wants of the soldiers as well as their phys- 
 ical requirements. 
 
 When the war began, the navy of the United 
 States numbered less than 8,000 men, and at the 
 
 ® ■■■■ 
 
 7 ® — » 
 
 close it numbered over 50,000. The idea of block- 
 ading the South Atlantic coast was ridiculed by the 
 British, and it certainly was the most memorable 
 blockade of history. 
 
 During the war there were twenty naval engage- 
 ments, counting 
 those sieges and 
 assaults in which 
 land forces took 
 the chief part, 
 but required for 
 success naval co- 
 operation. 
 
 The independ- 
 ent naval battle 
 was the success- 
 ful attempt of 
 the Confederate 
 ram Merrimac 
 
 to sink the Fed- admiral farraout. 
 
 eral frigates Cumberland and Congress in Hampton 
 Roads. That occurred March 8, 1862. It caused 
 great consternation at the North and rejoicing at the 
 South. The very next day, as we have seen, the Fed- 
 eral gunboat Monitor engaged the Merrimac and 
 disabled her. In January of the following year the 
 Confederate privateer, the Alabama, sunk the "United 
 States steamer Hatteras. June 19, 1865, the Kmr- 
 s mje sunk the Alabama off Cherbourg, France. It 
 may be added 
 that the most 
 brilliant na- 
 val operation 
 was the cap- 
 ture of Mobile 
 by a fleet un- 
 der Admiral 
 Farragut, on 
 August 5th, 
 
 1864, and the 
 most impor- 
 tant the cap- 
 ture of Fort 
 
 Fisher, Janu- commodore porter. 
 
 ary 15, 1865, by the combined land forces under Gen- 
 eral Terry and naval forces under Commodore 
 Porter. Confederate privateers captured no less 
 than two hundred and eighty-five Federal vessels, 
 and the number of blockade-runners and privateers 
 
captured by the Federal navy during the entire war 
 was no less than thirteen hundred and fifty. 
 
 Before leaving the battlefields and following the 
 period of conflict in its political phases, it may be 
 well to add a few biographical sketches. 
 
 General Robert Anderson, the first officer on the 
 Union side to attract general attention, was born 
 in Kentucky in 1805, and died in France in 
 1871. Hardly had he become prominent by virtue 
 of the attack on Sumter, before he sank out of 
 sight, owing to physical inability to take the field. 
 
 General B. F. Butler was an eminent lawyer and ex- 
 treme Democrat when the war began, lie promptly 
 laid aside his profession and his prejudices and went 
 to the front. But his strictly military operations were 
 inglorious. It was as a radical Republican Con- 
 gressman during the period of Reconstruction that 
 lie rendered the main service of his life. Of late 
 years he has been devoted to his profession, being 
 out of sympathy with either political party. He 
 has been a candidate for governor of Massachusetts 
 several times. 
 
 General H. W. Halleck was at one time the su- 
 preme officer of the army, virtually commander-in 
 chief. He was a native of New York. He was 
 born in 1815, and died in 1872. His opportunities 
 were good and his prospects flattering for being the 
 greatest hero of the war, but he was a failure as a 
 practical soldier on a truly national scale. 
 
 “Fighting Joe Hooker” was born at Hadley, 
 Mass., in 1815. He was a gallant soldier and ren- 
 dered truly great service in several important battles. 
 He was not quite equal to the demands of the first 
 rank, but as a corps commander he was brilliant. 
 Lookout Mountain and the battle above the clouds 
 will always be associated with his name. He died in 
 1872 after a long period of suffering. 
 
 General George B. Meade first attracted conspic- 
 uous attention at Gettysburg. He superseded 
 Hooker in time to be the hero of that memorable 
 battle. He held important commands and acquitted 
 himself creditably at South Mountain, Antietam, 
 Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville and elsewhere. 
 General Meade was a native of Cadiz, Spain, where 
 he was born in 1815, but he was a Pennsylvanian, 
 and died in Philadelphia in 1872. 
 
 General Pope was born at Kaskaskia, Illinois, in 
 1823. His career in the Western army was so very 
 successful that he was transferred to the Potomac 
 
 to succeed McClellan, where, as we have seen, he 
 was very unfortunate. General Pope is still in the 
 service. General W. S. Rosecrans, who was early 
 conspicuous hi the Southwest, was born in Ohio in 
 1819. He retired from the army in 1866. In 1868 
 President Johnson appointed him Minister to Mex- 
 ico. He shortly afterwards retired to private life in 
 California. In 1880 he was elected to Congress as a 
 Democrat. He was a warm supporter in that po- 
 litical campaign of General W. S. Hancock, as 
 against his former chief of staff, General Garfield. 
 General Hancock was born in Pennsylvania in 1824. 
 His entire life, it might be said, lias been spent in the 
 army. From 
 the time he 
 entered West 
 Point as a 
 cadet until 
 now he has 
 been devoted 
 to the mili- 
 tary. service. 
 
 His presiden- 
 tial candidacy 
 was thrust 
 upon him, 
 and that 
 mainly for general Hancock. 
 
 the conservatism of liis course as military com- 
 mander at New Orleans during the period of recon- 
 struction. Gettysburg was his most important 
 battle. 
 
 General Geo. H. Thomas, like General Lee, was 
 a native of Virginia, but to him national loyalty 
 was paramount to state fealty. Born in 1816, he 
 had seen service in the Seminole and Mexican wars, 
 and been a professor at West Point. In the valley of 
 the Shenandoah, in Kentucky, Mississippi, Tennessee 
 and Georgia he showed himself to be a grand genius 
 for war. Had he been pushed forward by influen- 
 tial friends, he might have proved the supreme hero 
 of the war ; but his state was in hostility to the 
 cause in which he was engaged, and that was a seri- 
 ous hindrance to his promotion. He died a major- 
 general in the regular army, at San Francisco, in 
 1870. 
 
 General W. T. Sherman was born in Lancaster, 
 Ohio, in 1820. He is a brother of John Sherman. 
 We have already spoken of his more notable ex- 
 
 
 55 ° 
 
 THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 
 
 9 
 
THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 
 
THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 
 
 553 
 
 (0 
 
 ploits. When General Grant was elected to the 
 presidency General Sherman succeeded him at the 
 head of the army, the position which he still main- 
 tains. Next to him, holding since 1869 the rank of 
 lieutenant-general, is Philip H. Sheridan. Grant, 
 Sherman and Sheridan are the names most illustri- 
 ous in connection with the Union cause, and all 
 three were born in Ohio, Grant in 1822, Sherman in 
 1820 and Sheridan in 1831. Sheridan was an ob- 
 scure cavalry ollicer until Grant was placed in com- 
 mand of all the armies, when he was made chief of 
 cavalry, and amply justified the confidence reposed 
 in him. Especial mention should also be made of 
 General McPherson who was killed before Atlanta 
 in 1864. He too was a native of Ohio, horn in 1828. 
 His death was a great loss to the army. He had 
 proved him self a great soldier in many a hard-fought 
 battle, from Corinth to Kenesaw and Atlanta. Gen- 
 eral 0. O. Howard, now at the head of the Military 
 Academy at West Point, is a native of Maine. He 
 was equally eminent as a soldier and a Christian. 
 Pious and brave, he bore a prominent part in the 
 battle of Fair Oaks where he lost an arm, also in the 
 battles of Chancellorsville, Gettysburg, Chattanooga 
 and Atlanta. He was at the head of the Freedman’s 
 Bureau, after the war. 
 
 The administration of Andrew Johnson belongs 
 to the period of conflict. It was during his term of 
 office, which extended from April 15, 1865, to March 
 4, 1869, that the work of restoring the Union was 
 all virtually performed, and it may be said that 
 when that task had been accomplished the present 
 period of the United States began. 
 
 In a political way very little was done at the North 
 after the war had closed until December, 1865, when 
 Congress convened. The states which had formed 
 the Confederacy for the most part repealed their 
 several ordinances of secession, repudiated their 
 state war debts and formally ratified the abolition 
 of slavery. Mississippi led the way, August 22. 
 Alabama followed her example September 10; 
 South Carolina, September 13 ; North Carolina, 
 October 2 ; Florida and Georgia, October 25. The 
 position of Virginia was anomalous. As early as 
 1863 a state government, loyal to the Uniop, was 
 formed in counties under Federal control, and Pres- 
 ident Johnson recognized that government as valid 
 for the whole state, and prohibited the meeting of 
 the more general legislature of the state, called for 
 
 the purpose of repealing the ordinance of secession 
 and abolishing slavery. As early as February, 1864, 
 the legislature which Mr. Johnson recognized as 
 valid for the whole state of Virginia had abolished 
 slavery. 
 
 When Congress convened, the Southern states 
 presented themselves for admission, hut their repre- 
 sentatives were denied admission, with the exception 
 of Tennessee, which was re-admitted during 1866. 
 The position of the Republican party was that the 
 states which had gone out of the Union should re- 
 main out until the necessary safeguards against se- 
 cession in the future should have been provided. 
 Thaddeus Stevens of Pennsylvania was the virtual 
 leader of the party at that time. He was a member 
 of the House of Representatives. President Johnson 
 insisted that the seceded states should be restored as 
 soon as they had repealed their ordinances of seces- 
 sion and duly elected representatives to Congress. In 
 this position he was sustained by a few Republicans 
 and all the Democrats. But he was utterly power- 
 less. The Republican majority was so large that 
 any party measure could be passed over his veto by 
 a two-thirds majority. Instead of accepting the 
 situation and yielding his personal views to the inev- 
 itable will of the majority, he persisted throughout 
 his entire term of office in keeping up the conflict. 
 In the meanwhile the states which had seceded were 
 under provisional government and their restoration 
 to prosperity seriously impeded. 
 
 The Thirteenth Constitutional Amend ment abol- 
 ishing slavery, was the first important step toward 
 reconstruction. That was officially declared adopted 
 December 18, 1865. An elaborate Reconstruction 
 Act became a law March 2, 1867, and the same day 
 Congress passed over the President’s veto the Ten- 
 ure-of-Office bill, which greatly restricted the re- 
 moving power of the Executive. The Fourteenth 
 Amendment to the Constitution, which was an elab- 
 orate embodiment of the principles of the Republi- 
 can party on reconstruction, became a part of the 
 organic law of the Republic, July 28, 1868. It was 
 not until March 30, 1870,thattho Fifteenth Amend- 
 ment, virtually conferring the right of suffrage upon 
 the negro, was adopted. 
 
 The longer the conflict between Congress and the 
 President was continued, the more radical and bold 
 did the dominant party become. During all this 
 period of post-war contest, the Southern States were 
 
£ 
 
 554 
 
 THE PERIOD OF CONFLICT. 
 
 in a condition of suspended political animation. By 
 July, 1870, the restoration of all the states had been 
 effected, and the period of conflict may be said to 
 have come to a close. 
 
 In the meanwhile had occurred the impeachment, 
 trial and acquittal of Andrew Johnson, and the 
 election of his successor. General Grant. That im- 
 peachment was the culmination of the feud between 
 the legislative and executive departments of the 
 general government. It requires a two-tliirds ma- 
 jority of the Senate, sitting as a high court of im- 
 peachment, to convict. One more vote against him, 
 and President Johnson would have been deposed. 
 That great state trial occurred in the spring of 1868. 
 Just after its termination the National Republican 
 Convention met at Chicago and nominated General 
 Grant for President by acclamation, and Schuyler 
 Colfax for Vice-President. Their opponents were 
 Horatio Seymour, of New York, who as Governor of 
 that state had opposed the military draft, and Gen- 
 eral Francis P. Blair. All the states took part in 
 tire election except Virginia, Georgia, Mississippi 
 and Texas, which had not been reconstructed at that 
 time. Grant and Colfax received 214 electoral 
 votes, and Seymour and Blair 71. The popular 
 
 majority of the Republican party was nearly 
 3,000,000. That election settled forever the 
 validity of the amendments to the Constitution 
 adopted subsequent to the war, including universal 
 suffrage. 
 
 Early in 1868 there was organized at the South a 
 secret order known as the Ku-Klux-Klan, with Gen- 
 eral Forrest at its head. Its object was to thwart by 
 intimidation the enfranchisement of the colored peo- 
 ple and prevent the complete triumph at the South 
 of the Northern cause, or, as the members would ex- 
 press it, the design was to “ redeem the South.” 
 That was the last flicker of the flames which had 
 reddened the whole horizon of the nation. Many 
 of the members were brought to trial, convicted 
 and sentenced to the penitentiary for their acts of 
 violence. After the excitement had died away and 
 the punishment was supposed to have had its due 
 effect in breaking up the organization. President 
 Grant pardoned the prisoners, and now the last em- 
 ber of the war, kindled in 1854, seems to be dead. 
 Before passing on, however, to the present United 
 States it will be well to devote a chapter to the dis- 
 tinctively Southern features of the period which has 
 been under consideration in this chapter. 
 
 
 > v 
 
CHAPTER L XXX 1 1 
 
 The Purpose of the Chapter — Causes of the Confederacy — The Election of Lincoln— The 
 Doctrine of State Sovereignty — The Right of Revolution— Ordinances of Secession 
 — At Montgomery — The Confederate Constitution — Virginia and the Peace Conven- 
 tion — Sumter and the First Call for Troops— General Lee— Semmes and the “Ala- 
 bama” — Population, Black and White, of the South— Results at the Close of First, 
 Second and Third Years of the War— Derry on the Two Armies— Stephens on Fort 
 Fisher— Another Comparison of the Two Armies— Causes of the Failure of the Con- 
 federacy — Testimony of Davis— Davis on Southern Finance— Exhaustion of the South 
 — Testimony of the Confederate Commissary General— False Hope— The Cause Lost — 
 Penalties — Persons and States — The End of the War — Biographical Sketches. 
 
 century is too near the present to be treated dispas- 
 sionately by the historians of the country. In this 
 connection those whose sympathies were with the 
 Southern cause will be allowed, as it were, to tell 
 their own story without interruption or contradic- 
 tion, only with such abbreviation as the general 
 scope of this volume may require. 
 
 Jefferson Davis in his elaborate work, “ The Rise 
 and Fall of the Confederate Government,” begins 
 his first chapter with a discussion of “the institu- 
 tion of negro servitude.” In his famous first speech 
 in defense of the Confederacy, Alexander H. Ste- 
 phens declared slavery to bo the corner-stone of the 
 new government. We thus have the two highest 
 officers under that govermexit, the President and 
 Vice-President, uniting on this point, disagreeing as 
 they did and do on many others. Beyond a doubt 
 secession was the culmination of the struggle over 
 slavery and the election of Mr. Lincoln upon a 
 platform pledging him to oppose the further exten- 
 sion of the institution was the immediate occasion 
 of it. The new President took every opportunity 
 to allay apprehensions as to his policy, but the 
 spirit which would not brook the Tariff Act of the 
 
 55 ) 
 
 T is customary in histories 
 of the United States, 
 whether brief or long, to 
 consider the Confederate 
 States only so far as they 
 relate to the great conflict 
 which engaged our atten- 
 tion in the chapter im- 
 mediately preceding this one. It is 
 difficult to form a distinct conception of 
 the subject from that merely side view 
 of it. The purpose of the chapter now 
 in hand is to set forth the actual apart 
 from the argumentative in the rise and 
 fall of that stupendous political organ- 
 ization which, without gaining recogni- 
 tion as an independent government 
 from any of the nations, performed all 
 the functions of a confederate republic for about 
 four years, and must ever stand in history as one of 
 the more memorable of national episodes. 
 
 It is no part of the present purpose to either dis- 
 cuss principles, analyze motives, or even to sift evi- 
 dence. The first half of the sixth decade of this 
 
 (5 
 
si 
 
 1 
 
 { 
 
 e) 
 
 7 
 
 55 6 RISE AND FALL OF THE CONFEDERACY. 
 
 Jacksonian period became absolutely irrepressible 
 in the presence of a great political victory, which was 
 the first in the history of the Union won by a party 
 avowedly hostile to slavery, and tolerant of it only 
 so far as compelled to be by the constitution. 
 
 Still another cause, the one which was in point of 
 fact the corner-stone of the movement, was the doc- 
 trine of state sovereignty. That issue was older than 
 the constitution and entirely independent of slavery 
 in its origin, if not in its development. “ Govern- 
 ments,” says the Declaration of Independence, “de- 
 rive their just powers from the consent of the 
 governed,” but the government of the United States 
 derived its powers from 
 the consent of the 
 states which in the dele- 
 gation of authority re- 
 served all rights not 
 specifically vested in 
 the general govern- 
 ment. Even before its 
 adoption so true a pa- 
 triot as Patrick Henry 
 denounced the consti- 
 tution as an infringe- 
 ment upon the rights of 
 the states. The issue 
 thus raised was not sec- 
 tional. And in later 
 years there were not 
 wanting those at the 
 North who denounced 
 the Union and the Constitution. The systematic 
 inculcation of the doctrine that states were sov- 
 ereign and the Union a partnership liable to be 
 changed by the withdrawal of any partner, may 
 be fairly attributed to John C. Calhoun. But as 
 early as 1798 a convention was held in Kentucky 
 which adopted the same theory of the Union. 
 That manifesto was the formal expression of the 
 fundamental political principle of the Confederate 
 States. 
 
 The right of secession was also defended upon 
 the broad ground that when nearly ten millions of 
 people, occupying a correspondingly large area, unite 
 in a political movement, however revolutionary, they 
 have a right to make the proposed change. In oth- 
 er words, the cause was based on the doctrine 
 of popular sovereignty, or the right of revolution in 
 
 distinction from constitutional limitations. This 
 position was maintained in the debates of Congress 
 and in the various discussions of the day. 
 
 Such were the doctrines of the Southern cause. 
 The first act, however, of secession was the passage 
 by the legislature of South Carolina of the ordi- 
 nance of separation, December 20, 1860. It was 
 passed without a dissenting vote. Five other states 
 followed the same course, but not with the same 
 unanimity, during the month following, namely, 
 Mississippi, January 9, 1861; Florida, the 10th; 
 Alabama, the 11th; Georgia, the 19th, and Louisi- 
 ana, the 26th. Texas delayed only until the first 
 
 day of February. 
 
 These seven states 
 alone constituted the 
 original Confederacy. 
 They met in a repre- 
 sentative and collective 
 body at Montgomery, 
 Alabama, February 4, 
 and organized a new 
 Union, framed a new 
 constitution and pro- 
 claimed a new federa- 
 tion, calling it “The 
 Confederate States of 
 America.” From that 
 time on, such was the 
 official name of the 
 Confederacy then and 
 thus formed. This con. 
 stitution was modeled closely after that of the 
 United States. 
 
 In the appendix to the first volume of his work, 
 Mr. Davis prints these two documents in parallel 
 columns, italicizing the passages and parts peculiar 
 to the later of the two. The new features of the 
 Confederate constitution worthy of any note are 
 these : First, the favor and guidance of Almighty 
 God were invoked ; second, Congress was specifically 
 authorized to grant by law to the principal officer in 
 each of the executive departments a seat upon the 
 floor of either House, with the privilege of discussing 
 any measure appertaining to his department ; third, 
 the President might approve a part of an appropria- 
 tion bill and veto a part ; fourth, Congress was for- 
 bidden to grant any bounties from the treasury or 
 levy a tariff except for revenue only ; fifth, no aj>- 
 
 s 
 
 » 
 
 > 
 
 Is 
 
 c 
 
•** <? 
 
 St 
 
 RISE AND FALL OF THE CONFEDERACY. 
 
 propriations could be made for internal improve- 
 ments ; sixth, a bankruptcy law could be passed, 
 but not to apply to any debt contracted prior 
 to its passage ; seventh, the expenses of the postal 
 service must not exceed the revenue derived there- 
 from ; eighth. Congress could prohibit the introduc- 
 tion of slaves from any state not a member of the 
 Confederacy ; ninth, no law could be passed denying 
 or impairing the right of property in negro slaves ; 
 tenth, a tariff could be levied upon exports, but only 
 by a vote of two-thirds of both houses; eleventh, 
 “ Congress shall appropriate no money from the 
 treasury, except by a vote of two-thirds of both 
 houses, taken by yeas and nays, unless it be asked 
 and estimated for by some one of the heads of de- 
 partments, and submitted to Congress ; or for the 
 purpose of paying its own expenses and contingen- 
 cies ; or for the payment of claims against the Con- 
 federate states, the justice of which shall have been 
 judicially declared by a tribunal for the investigation 
 of claims against the government, which it is hereby 
 the duty of Congress to establish;” twelfth, “all 
 bills appropriating money shall specify in Federal 
 currency the exact amount of each appropriation, 
 and the purposes for which it is made ; and Congress 
 shall grant no extra compensation to any public 
 contractor, officer, agent or servant after such con- 
 tract shall have been made or such service rendered ;” 
 thirteenth, “every law, or resolution having the force 
 of law, shall relate to but one subject, and that shall 
 be expressed in the title ; ” fourteenth, in the im- 
 provement of rivers and harbors the states might 
 singly or in concert levy taxes for that purpose, 
 any surplus raised to be covered into the general 
 treasury; fifteenth, the term of office of the Presi- 
 dent and Vice-President to be six, instead of four 
 years, tbe President being ineligible to re-election ; 
 sixteenth, civil officers, except cabinet officers and 
 the diplomatic corps, removable during their term 
 of office only for cause, the same to be reported to 
 the senate in all cases of removal ; seventeenth, the 
 right to carry slaves from one state to another 
 without impairment of property therein fully 
 guaranteed; eighteenth, new states could be admit- 
 ted by a two-thirds vote of Congress and new terri- 
 tory acquired, but in all cases andeverywhere through- 
 out the Confederacy tbe right of property in slaves 
 should be preserved intact; nineteenth, upon the 
 ratification of the constitution by five states it 
 
 557 
 
 should be binding, a presidential election should be 
 held and the provisional government at Montgomery 
 should give place to the permanent one chosen in 
 accordance with constitutional requirements. 
 
 The constitution took effect February 22, 1862. 
 Jefferson Davis continued as President and Alex- 
 ander H. Ste- 
 phens as Vice- 
 President. 
 
 Wemustnow 
 go back a lit- 
 tle. The state 
 of Virginia was 
 reluctant to se- 
 cede, and made 
 special effort 
 to bring about 
 a reconcilia- 
 tion. A Peace 
 Convention at 
 the instance of 
 that state, in which thirteen Northern and seven 
 Southern states were represented, ex-President 
 Tyler presiding, accomplished nothing. Three 
 commissioners were sent from Montgomery to 
 Washington to treat for an amicable division 
 of the Union and settlement of all claims in- 
 cident to separation. That was during the presi- 
 dential term of Mr. Buchanan. He received them 
 as private citizens, refusing to entertain any prop- 
 osition for disunion. A week after Mr. Lincoln be- 
 came President the Confederate commissioners tried 
 to open negotiations through the Secretary of State, 
 Mr. Seward. All hope of success in that direction 
 was abandoned when it was known that a squadron 
 of seven ships had been fitted out to reinforce Fort 
 Sumter. It only remained then to abandon the 
 Confederate movement or resort to arms. 1 1 there 
 was any hesitation as to which course to pursue, the 
 firing on Sumter, April 12, put an end to it, and 
 its fall the next day produced the wildest enthusiam 
 throughout the South. The call of Mr. Lincoln 
 for 75,000 volunteers, issued two days after the fall 
 of Sumter, was met at Montgomery by a call lor 
 volunteers to repel oppression. Two days later, 
 April 17, Virginia held a convention and withdrew 
 from the Union. Arkansas followed May 6, North 
 Carolina May 20, and Tennessee Juno 8. The 
 other slave-holding states on the border, Maryland 
 
 JEFFERSON DAVIS. 
 
 
■v 
 
 Kentucky, Missouri and Delaware, never formally 
 withdrew from the Union, and were said to have 
 contributed their quota to both armies. 
 
 An election for President and Vice-President of 
 the Confederacy was held November 6, 1862, with 
 
 the result stated. 
 The choice was 
 unanimous. At 
 the same time 
 General Robert 
 E. Lee, who at 
 first hesitated as 
 to which side to 
 espouse, was ap- 
 pointed to take 
 command of 
 the Confederate 
 forces on the 
 coast of Georgia 
 
 ROBERT E. LEE. and South Car- 
 
 olina. lie was a native of Virginia, born in 
 1807. He was a colonel in the regular army at 
 the time Virginia seceded. He felt that the state 
 had a higher claim upon him than the United 
 States, and resigned his commission, lie was a 
 man of superb physique, high moral character 
 and great ability. He was early second in impor- 
 tance among the Confederate army, and after Gen- 
 eral Joseph E. 
 Johnston was 
 wounded and 
 succeeded by 
 him at Fair 
 Oaks (May 31, 
 1862) he was the 
 first. When Lee 
 died, October 12, 
 1870, he was the 
 most popular 
 man in the 
 South. 
 
 JOSEPH E. JOHNSTON. Tile fi rgt year 
 
 of the war was in its net results favorable to the 
 Confederacy, both on land and water. The Con- 
 federate privateers crippled Northern commerce 
 very seriously, and captured merchandise upon 
 the high seas to the value of many millions of 
 dollars. In these operations one name stands 
 out conspicuous, Raphael Semmes of Alabama, 
 
 who began his privateering in command of the 
 Sumter, but who became best known in connec- 
 tion with the famous Alabama which he commanded, 
 and which was built for privateering by 260 English 
 merchants. The second year of the war was still 
 more favorable to 
 the. Confederate 
 cause than the first. 
 
 There is wide di- 
 vergence of opin- 
 ion between South- 
 ern and Northern 
 writers as to the 
 number of men on 
 either side and the 
 result of many of 
 the engagements in 
 which no very de- 
 cided advantage 
 was gained by eith- Raphael semmes. 
 
 er army ; but there is agreement as to the general 
 fact that the first and second years of the war made 
 exhibits in their balance sheets in favor of the 
 Confederacy. 
 
 It is stated that there were about 3,000,000 slaves 
 within the limits of the Confederate states when 
 the Proclamation of Emancipation was issued. The 
 white population was about 5,000,000, as against 
 22,000,000 whites and 1,000,000 blacks within the 
 Union. From the beginning of 1863 the Confeder- 
 
 ate army dwindled in size and the Union army aug- 
 mented. It is agreed on all sides that 1863 was a 
 year of great advantage to the Federal army. Not- 
 withstanding some defeats, the United States had 
 control of the Mississippi River and the state of 
 Tennessee, while the aggressive movement of Lee 
 upon Pennsylvania had been repulsed. Derry sets 
 
 RISE AND FALL OF 
 
 THE CONFEDERACY. 
 
RISE AND FALL OF THE CONFEDERACY. 
 
 559 
 
 the number of the Federal armies at that time at 
 1,000,000 ; of the Confederate army at 250,000. 
 The same authority claims that a year later the 
 Federal army was still a million strong while the 
 Confederate forces had been reduced to 150,000. 
 
 The capture 
 of Fort Fisher 
 at the entrance 
 of Cape Fear 
 River, North 
 Carolina, by 
 General Terry, 
 
 January 15, 
 
 1865, did not 
 attract very 
 much atten- 
 tion at the 
 North, but 
 speaking of 
 its importance, 
 
 Alexander H. 
 
 Stephens says, 
 
 “ the closing of 
 the port of 
 Wilmington 
 [the result of 
 that capture] 
 was the com- 
 plete shutting 
 out of the Con- 
 federate states 
 from all inter- 
 course by sea 
 with foreign 
 countries. The 
 respiratory 
 functions of 
 external trade, 
 so essential to 
 the vitality of 
 all communi- 
 ties, had been 
 performed for 
 the whole Confederacy mainly for nearly three 
 years through the small aperture of the little port, 
 choked to wheezing as it was by a cordon ol 
 armed ships drawn around its neck.’ 
 
 Another Southern authority, Blackburn and Mc- 
 Donald’s history of the United States, places the 
 
 BOMBARDMENT OF FORT FISHER. 
 
 number of battles fought at 220 ; the number of the 
 Confederate troops surrendered at the close of the 
 war at 174,223 ; and the Confederate debt at 
 $2,000,000,000. Derry asserts that when Lee sur- 
 rendered he had only 8,000 soldiers capable of bear- 
 ing arms, con- 
 fronting an 
 army of 180,- 
 000. Mr. Ste- 
 phens furnish- 
 es the follow- 
 ing facts in 
 regard to the 
 depreciation of 
 the Confeder- 
 ate currency, 
 the gold dollar 
 being the unit 
 of measure- 
 ment and the 
 time being the 
 first of each 
 year : 1862, 
 
 $1.20; 1863, 
 
 $3.00 ; 1864, 
 
 $21.00; 1865, 
 $50.00. By the 
 first of April, 
 nine days be- 
 fore the sur- 
 render of Lee, 
 $100 in Con- 
 federate cur- 
 rency was es- 
 timated to bo 
 equivalent to 
 $1 in coin. 
 
 In discuss- 
 ing the cause 
 of the Con- 
 federate fail- 
 ures, Black- 
 burn and Mac- 
 Donald allege five reasons, first, lack of una- 
 nimity at the South ; second, number and wealth 
 of the Federals ; third, mismanagement of tho 
 finances; fourth, retention of inefticieut officers; 
 fifth, endeavor to protect too many points at once 
 when the war began. As thoir history soon 
 
■i: 
 
 
 5 6 ° 
 
 RISE AND FALL OF THE CONFEDERACY. 
 
 reached eleven editions, the sale almost wholly con- 
 fined to the South, this verdict may be presumed to 
 accord with that of the court of popular Southern 
 opinion. Jefferson Davis briefly observes that the 
 war showed the right of secession to be impracti- 
 cable. It is universally conceded that the decision 
 was a finality, and even Mr. Davis, the most persist- 
 ent and elaborate defender of the right to secede, 
 closes his great work with the hope that there may be 
 written upon the arch of the Union, Esto Perpetua. 
 
 Jefferson Davis defends the financial policy of the 
 Confederate government as the best possible under 
 the circumstances. The government, he says, entered 
 upon its second year without any floating debt, and 
 the total expenditures were $170,000,000 up to the 
 time that the permanent government came into oper- 
 ation, February 1, 1862. The latest official statement 
 of the public debt of the Confederacy bears date of 
 October 1, 1864. Mr. Davis places the amount at 
 that time of the total debt at $1,126,381,095. Of this 
 amount $541,340,000 consisted of funded debt and 
 the balance unfunded debt, or treasury notes. This 
 statement is exclusive of the foreign debt, which, he 
 adds, amounted to £2,200,000, provided for by about 
 250,000 bales of cotton collected by the government. 
 To this statement Mr. Davis adds in a foot-note, 
 “ These bales were the security for the foreign cotton 
 loan, and were seized by the United States govern- 
 ment. Was it not liable to the bondholders?” He 
 also makes the following statement : “ The earliest 
 proposals on which this debt was contracted were 
 issued in London and Paris in March, 1863, [as the 
 result of the missions of Mason and Slidell.] The 
 bonds bore interest at seven per cent, per annum in 
 sterling, payable half-yearly. They were exchange- 
 able for cotton on application, at the option of the 
 holder, or redeemable at par in sterling, in twenty 
 years, by half-yearly drawings, commencing March 
 1, 1864. The special security of these bonds was 
 the engagement of the government to deliver cotton 
 to the holders. Each bond, at option of the holder, 
 was convertible at its nominal amount in cotton at 
 the rate of six-pence sterling for each pound of cot- 
 ton, say 4,000 pounds of cotton to each bond of 
 £100, or 2,500 francs; and this could be done at 
 any time not later than six months after the ratifi- 
 cation of a treaty of peace between the belligerents. 
 An annual sinking fund of five per cent, was pro- 
 vided for, whereby two and a half per cent, of the 
 
 bonds unredeemed by cotton should be drawn by lot 
 half-yearly, so as to finally extinguish the loan in 
 twenty years from the first drawing. The bonds 
 were issued at ninety per cent., payable in install- 
 ments. The loan soon stood hi the London market 
 at five per cent, premium. The amount asked for was 
 three million pounds. The amount of applications 
 in London and Paris exceeded £15,000,000.” Such 
 was the financial system of the Confederacy, as set 
 forth by the highest Southern authority. 
 
 While the resources of the North were such that 
 production was far more rapid than consumption 
 all through the war, and the more the army used of 
 every necessary of life, the more the country seemed 
 to have, the Southern supplies of food had to be kept 
 up by importation. The condition of the Confeder- 
 acy was stated to the Confederate Congress, Decem- 
 ber 14, 1864, by the commissary-general of subsist- 
 ence to be as follows : “ First, there was not meat 
 enough in the Southern Confederacy for the armies 
 it had in the field ; second, there was not in Virginia 
 meat or bread enough for the armies within her lim- 
 its ; third, the bread supply from other places de- 
 pended absolutely upon the keeping open of the rail- 
 road connections of the South ; fourth, the meat 
 supply must be obtained from abroad through a sea- 
 port and by a different system from that which pre- 
 vailed ; fifth, the bread could not be had by impress- 
 ment, but must be paid for in market rates ; sixth, 
 the payment must be paid in cash which, so far, had 
 not been furnished, and from present indications 
 could not be, and, if possible, in a better medium than 
 at present circulating ; seventh, that the transporta- 
 tion was not adequate, from whatever cause, to meet 
 the demands of the service; eighth, the supply of fresh 
 meat to General Lee’s army was precarious, and if 
 the army fell back from Richmond and Petersburg, 
 there was every probability that it would cease alto- 
 gether.” 
 
 Such being the condition of the Confederacy, the 
 surrender of Lee, the departure of Davis with the 
 remnants of his government from Richmond, fol- 
 lowed as matters of course. The only surprise is 
 that it was delayed so long. The eighth item in the 
 foregoing resume explains the fact that no attempt 
 was made to prolong the conflict by a change of 
 base. Mr. Davis had contemplated resort to that 
 expedient. 
 
 At the very last moment a deceptive gleam of 
 
 -71 
 
 17 - 
 

 
 RISE AND FALL OF THE CONFEDERACY. 
 
 5 6 * 
 
 hope illumined the darkness at Richmond. On the 
 5th of April Mr. Davis, then at Danville, Rich- 
 mond being in Federal possession, issued an 
 address which closed with the words, “ Let 
 us, then, my countrymen, not despond, but rely 
 upon God, meet the foe with fresh defiance 
 and with unconquered and unconquerable hearts.” 
 The very next day commenced the correspondence 
 between Grant and Lee which culminated in the sur- 
 render at Appomattox Court House, April 9, hi ac- 
 cordance witli which each officer and man was 
 allowed to return home, not to be disturbed by the 
 United States authorities so long as he observed 
 his parole and the laws. 
 
 Thus the great war 
 closed with no one so 
 much as imprisoned for 
 bearing arms against the 
 victor. President Davis 
 and Vice-President Ste- 
 phens were arrested. The 
 former was kept in For- 
 tress Monroe some two 
 years, the latter in Fort 
 Warren only a short time. 
 
 Practically, the partici- 
 pants in the Confeder- 
 acy were not punished, 
 except in so far as the for- 
 tunes of war and the abolition of slavery were 
 calamitous. The great mass of the people were 
 
 allowed to vote at 
 once, the same as 
 if the relations be- 
 tween the states 
 had always been 
 amicable and those 
 who were disfran- 
 chised nearly all 
 regained the right 
 of suffrage in a 
 few years. Mr. Ste- 
 phens and many 
 others high in 
 authority under 
 the Confederacy, were long ago admitted to Con- 
 gress as members. The attempt to re-enfranchise 
 Mr. Davis, however, was the occasion of intense 
 feelings of hostility, and ho is still deprived of the 
 
 CAPITOL AT RICHMOND. 
 
 ALEXANDER II PTEPHKNf*. 
 
 highest privilege of citizenship. The states which 
 seceded were kept, as we have seen in a pre- 
 vious chapter, in a provisional condition for 
 several years, all of them, except Tennessee, which 
 re-entered the Union the next summer. During 
 that period military governors were in command. 
 And when the states were restored, so many of the 
 white people were under political disability that the 
 colored people aud their few political allies, mostly 
 from the North, had control of the offices. That 
 condition of things was a part of the results of the 
 attempt to establish an independent Southern Con- 
 federacy, but the war itself was carried to such an 
 
 extreme of exhaustion 
 that when once over, that 
 was the end of it. The 
 little battle, if such it 
 may be called, of Brazos, 
 Texas, May 13, 18G5, in 
 which the Confederates 
 were an overmatch for 
 the Federal troops op- 
 posed, was the last shot, 
 as Sumter was the first, 
 of the Confederacy. 
 
 It only remains now 
 to supplement this chap- 
 ter with a little further 
 biographical information. 
 
 The first military commander at the South to at- 
 tract attention was General 1\ G. T. Beauregard. 
 He was a native of 
 Louisiana, where 
 he was born in 
 1818. He was ed- 
 ucated at West 
 Point and served 
 in the Mexican 
 war. He resigned 
 his commission in 
 the United States 
 army to enter the 
 Confederate ser- 
 vice at the begin- 
 ning of the war. 
 
 He commanded at the firing upon Sumter, also in 
 the battle of Manassas, or Bull Hun. He was less 
 prominent after that, owing in part to poor health. 
 He remained in the service until the war closed. 
 
 T. BEAUREGARD. 
 
 TTV — 
 
3 
 
 
 £- 
 
 5 62 
 
 RISE AND FALL OF THE CONFEDERACY. 
 
 When Gen. A. S. Johnston was killed he took the 
 command and was at the head of the army which 
 Halleck drove out of Corinth in 1862. His last ser- 
 vice was the command of the division of Georgia and 
 South Carolina. He was among the officers who 
 surrendered to Sherman. After the war he became 
 a civil engineer at the South. 
 
 General John C. Breckenridge took a somewhat 
 prominent part in the war. He was a major-general. 
 
 He was also Secretary 
 of W ar in the last days 
 of the Confederacy. 
 But his prominence was 
 prior to the war. Born 
 in Kentucky in 1821, 
 he became Vice-Presi- 
 dent of the United 
 States in 1857. He 
 had previously seen 
 service in the Mexican 
 war. He was the reg- 
 john C. breckenridge. u lar Democratic can- 
 
 didate for the presidency hi 1860. He died at his 
 home in Kentucky in 1875. 
 
 General J. T. Jackson, best known as “ Stone- 
 wall ” J ackson, was 
 one of the most bril- 
 liant soldiers of the 
 war. A native of 
 Virginia, and edu- 
 cated at West Point, 
 he received his prac- 
 tical trainingin Mex- 
 ico. The war be- 
 tween the states 
 found him a profes- 
 sor in a military 
 school in his own 
 state. He entered 
 the service at the 
 was in the field pre- 
 cisely two years, falling at Chancellorsville May 2, 
 1868. He was shot by a party of his own sol- 
 diers, he and his staff being mistaken for the 
 advance-guard of Federal cavalry. He was the 
 idol of the army, and his loss was mourned as a 
 great calamity. He was brilliant and dashing, know- 
 ing neither fear nor fatigue. He was withal a very 
 devout Christian. 
 
 J. T. (Stonewall) jackson. 
 
 beginning of the war, and 
 
 General James Longstreet, born in South Caro- 
 lina in 1820, 
 a West Pointer 
 and a soldier 
 in the Mexican 
 war, bore a 
 prominentpart 
 in the Confed- 
 erate a r m y, 
 from Bull Run 
 to Appomat- 
 tox. He came 
 very near shar- 
 ing the fate of 
 Jackson, for 
 he was severe- james longstreet. 
 
 ly wounded by the blundering of his own men in one 
 of the battles of the Wilderness. After the war, 
 Longstreet accepted the political situation and be- 
 came a Republican. In 1880 he was appointed 
 U. S. minister at the Turkish court. 
 
 There were two Johnstons in the war on the Con- 
 federate side who rivaled Lee and Jackson in pop- 
 ularity, Albert Sidney and Joseph E. The war 
 found the former in command of the Federal forces 
 at San Francis- 
 co. He was a 
 native of Ken- 
 tucky, born in 
 1803, a gradu- 
 ate of West 
 Point, and a 
 Mexican veteran. 
 
 When he resign- 
 ed to join the 
 Confederacy he 
 was a brigadier- 
 general in the 
 regular army. 
 
 He Was killed in albert Sidney Johnston. 
 
 the battle of Shiloh, early in 1862. Jefferson Davis 
 and Alexander H. Stephens unite hi pronouncing 
 his death a great calamity to the Southern cause. 
 General J. E. Johnston was a native of Virginia, 
 which state he now represents in Congress. He too 
 was a West Point graduate and Mexican veteran. 
 
 He was born in 1807. At the battle of Manassas he 
 was the ranking officer, but waived his right to 
 command in favor of Beauregard. He won more 
 
RISE AND FALL OF THE CONFEDERACY. 
 
 credit, however, by holding Patterson in check than 
 Beauregard did by winning the victory thus made 
 possible. In the Peninsula campaign he was the 
 commander of the Confederate forces. But Mr. 
 Davis conceived a dislike for him which culminated 
 in his being relieved of his command for several 
 months. The popular pressure for his restoration 
 to active service was so great that he was given 
 another command. When the war closed he was in 
 command of the army in the Carolinas and practi- 
 cally second only to General Lee. To what has 
 already been said of the latter need only be added 
 that the last years of his life were spent in the pres- 
 idency of W ashington College, Virginia. One of the 
 latest utterances of Lee were these words addressed 
 to the widow of a Confederate soldier, “ Madame, 
 do not train up your children in hostility to the gov- 
 ernment of the United States.” 
 
 Wade Hampton, now the most popular man in 
 South Carolina and a member of the Senate of the 
 
 United States, held a 
 command in the bat- 
 tle of Bull Run. He 
 was wounded during 
 that battle, also at 
 Gettysburg and Seven 
 Pines. He remained 
 in the service to the 
 end of the war. He 
 has been more promi- 
 hampton. nent as a Democratic 
 
 politician than he was as a soldier. His grand- 
 father, the first Wade Hampton, served under 
 Sumter and Marion in the Revolutionary War. He 
 was a man of immense wealth, owning at one time 
 3,000 slaves and a correspondingly large amount of 
 cotton lands. 
 
 General Hardee, author of Hardens Tactics, a 
 Georgian, was commandant at West Point when his 
 state seceded. He resigned his commission and 
 cast his fortunes with the Confederacy. He rose to 
 the rank of lieutenant-general, but in the field did 
 not prove specially brilliant. He was brave and 
 scientific, but not fertile in invention. 
 
 There were two Hills of some prominence, A. P. 
 and D. H. The former received the surrender of 
 
 Harper’s Ferry, and then rendered his side most 
 timely aid at Antietam. He fell just as Richmond 
 was surrendered. D. H. Hill was born in South Car- 
 olina in 1822, was educated at West Point, and ren- 
 dered good service in the Mexican war. For some- 
 thing over ten years thereafter he was an educator and 
 author of con- 
 siderable note 
 at the South. 
 
 When his state 
 seceded he ten- 
 dered his ser- 
 vices to the Con- 
 federacy. He 
 held important 
 commands at 
 Big Bethel, York- 
 town, Mechan- 
 icsville, Cold 
 Harbor, Mal- 
 vern Hill, SeC- W. J. HARDEE. 
 
 oiul Bull Run, South Mountain, Antietam and 
 Fredericksburg. Since the war he has been devoted 
 to literary pursuits. 
 
 General Hood was a native of Kentucky. He 
 served cred 
 itably, work- 
 ing up from 
 first lieuten- 
 ant to lieu- 
 tenant-gen 
 eral in the 
 army of 
 Virginia. 
 
 The second 
 Manassas, 
 
 Antietam, 
 
 Gettysburg, 
 and Chicka- 
 
 maugaform »• " ,,n ». 
 
 apart of his record. He lost a leg in the latter 
 battle. Appointed in 1804 to succeed General John- 
 ston in the West, lie failed to meet the demands 
 of the position, and after the disasters of Franklin 
 and Nashville he was sujiersedcd by General Rich- 
 ard Taylor, a sou of President Taylor. 
 
 
<311=3] ony 
 
 CHAPTER L XXXI 1 1 . 
 
 General Grant Becomes President Grant — Pacific Railroad — “ Alabama'’ Claims — Chicago 
 Fire — Grant and Greeley — The Panic of 1873 — The Centennial — Hayes and Tilden — 
 Southern Policy of Hayes — H is Administration— Great Railway Strike — Presidential 
 Campaign, 1880 — Garfield’s Administration — Assassination — Arthur — Constitutional 
 Amendments — Area and Public Domain — Population — Geographical Peculiarities. 
 
 & 
 
 uu 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 HE last hope of a Southern 
 Confederacy must have 
 been dispelled by the elec- 
 tion to the presidency of 
 General Grant, the chief 
 representative of the force 
 which maintained the 
 Union. He was at the head of 
 the government from March 4, 
 1869, to March 4, 1877. Those 
 eight years witnessed great pros- 
 perity followed by most distress- 
 ing depression in business. 
 
 The first event of note was the 
 completion of the Pacific Railroad, 
 May, 1869. The work of con- 
 struction was in progress six years. 
 The Central Pacific extends from 
 San Francisco to Ogden, in Utah, a distance of 882 
 miles, where it meets the Union Pacific, which ex- 
 tends to Omaha, Nebraska, a distance of 1,032 
 miles. 
 
 The next year, as we have seen, the work of re- 
 construction was completed by the readmission to 
 Congress of all the Southern states, and the adoption 
 of the Fifteenth Amendment to the constitution. 
 Early in the next year a joint high commission met 
 
 at Washington to settle the claim of the United 
 States against Great Britain, growing out of the 
 depredations of the Alabama and other Confederate 
 privateers fitted out in England. The result was 
 the payment of an indemnity of $15,000,000 to this 
 government by the British Government. 
 
 Late in the same year, October 9, 1871, occurred 
 the most memorable conflagration of modern times, 
 the Chicago Fire. The entire business portion of 
 the city was destroyed and a great portion of the 
 residence part. The number of lives lost could 
 never be ascertained and was variously estimated at 
 from 50 to 200. Not less than 100,000 people were 
 rendered homeless, and many who were in affluence 
 were rendered penniless. The loss of property was 
 not less than $200,000,000. The immediate wants 
 of the people were nobly met by a charity as wide 
 as the civilized world and absolutely prodigal in its 
 generosity. The next year another fire of vast, if 
 greatly less proportions, visited Chicago. In 1872 
 Boston, too, had its “burnt district.” It may be 
 added that both cities long since rebuilt fully and 
 upon a grand scale. 
 
 In the year 1872 occurred another presidential 
 election. The first ticket in the field was headed by 
 Horace Greeley, who for thirty years had been a 
 leading journalist and ardent opponent of the Dem- 
 
 N 
 
 (S 6 4) 
 
THE PRESENT UNITED STATES. 
 
 ocratic party. He was nominated by the Liberal 
 Convention. The Democratic National Convention 
 accepted him as the candidate of the Democracy in 
 the hope that he would draw enough Republican 
 votes to elect him, and he did ; but the Democrats 
 failed to fulfill their part of the contract. Many 
 of them stayed away from the polls altogether. 
 Some of them united in supporting for the presi- 
 dency that eminent Democratic lawyer of New 
 
 which continued until after resumption in 1879, 
 nearly six years. Notwithstanding good crops, hard 
 times continued year after year. The general de- 
 pression of business gave rise to a political party 
 which demanded a large increase in the volume of 
 the currency, and deprecated any attempt to re- 
 sume specie payments. T his Greenback party was 
 especially hostile to the national bank system. 
 
 The year 1876, which completed the first century 
 
 CHICAGO IN FLAMES. 
 
 York, Charles O’Conor. General Grant was re- 
 elected by an overwhelming majority, and with him 
 Henry W ilson for Vice-President. Mr. Greelej made 
 a very remarkable campaign upon the policy of 
 reconciliation and good feeling between the sections. 
 After the popular election and before the meeting 
 of the electoral colleges of the several states, lie 
 died, and the nation was once more in mourning. 
 No American was better known or more profoundly 
 respected as a pure patriot than the founder of the 
 New York Tribum:, well called our second Franklin. 
 
 In the following October occurred the panic of 
 1873, which inaugurated a period of hard times, 
 
 of American independence, was celebrated by a 
 grand exposition at Philadelphia, at which were rep- 
 resented all the countries of the world, civilized and 
 uncivilized, the most successful affair of its kind ever 
 projected. 
 
 The year 1876 was also the year of another presi- 
 dential election. Two governors were the standard- 
 bearers of the two great parties, Rutherford 11. 
 Hayes, then Governor of Ohio, and Samuel Til- 
 den, then Governor of New York. The former was 
 nominated as a compromise candidate after a con- 
 vention of memorable excitement. Many wanted 
 General Grant nominated for a third term, but his 
 
 'SI'V 
 
Q. 
 
 THE PRESENT UNITED STATES. 
 
 name was not presented in the convention. The 
 strongest candidate in the field was J ames G. Blaine, 
 at that time Speaker of the House of Representa- 
 tives. It was to defeat him that the friends of the 
 rival candidates united, a large 
 majority of them, upon Mr. 
 
 Hayes, who was the first choice 
 of Ohio only. With him upon 
 the ticket was associated Wil- 
 liam A. Wheeler, of New York. 
 
 The Democratic nominee, Gov- 
 ernor Tilden, was from the first 
 the leading candidate before 
 that convention, and the Vice- 
 Presidential candidate, Governor 
 Hendricks, of Indiana, was his 
 chief competitor. 
 
 The campaign was so very 
 close that each party claimed the 
 victory. Charges and counter- 
 charges of fraud were freely and 
 fiercely made. The Republicans 
 conceded that 
 Mr. Tilden had 
 lacked only 
 one electoral 
 vote of a ma- 
 jority. There 
 was very seri- 
 ous danger of 
 civil war. Both 
 parties seemed 
 ripe for blood- 
 shed, but final- 
 ly the patriot- 
 ism and sa- 
 gacity of a few 
 men in Con- 
 gress, notably 
 Senators Ed- 
 munds of Ver- 
 mont (Repub- 
 lican) and Thurman of Ohio (Democrat), secured 
 the passage of a law creating a commission of ar- 
 bitration. That extra-constitutional and national 
 returning-board decided in favor of Ilayes and 
 Wheeler, who were duly declared elected and peace- 
 ably installed in office. 
 
 One of the first acts of President Hayes was to 
 
 WILLIAM A. WHEELER. 
 
 withdraw the Federal troops from the South, which 
 was, in effect, turning out the Republican govern- 
 ors of Louisiana and South Carolina and turning 
 the entire South over, politically, to the Democratic 
 party. There was, thenceforth, 
 a “ Solid South.” 
 
 Mr. Hayes was never popular 
 with his party, nor did the op- 
 position cease to denounce him 
 as a fraudulent President. He 
 succeeded, however, in so con- 
 ducting the civil service as to 
 command the confidence of the 
 country and greatly strengthen 
 the Republican party. During 
 his term of office prosperity re- 
 turned to the country. 
 
 In the summer of 1877 occur- 
 red the great railway strike. 
 What began as a protest against 
 an unjust reduction of wages on 
 one particular railroad spread 
 almost instan- 
 taneously in 
 every direc- 
 tion, far and 
 near. Trans- 
 portation was 
 very nearly 
 suspended and 
 the country 
 filled with the 
 wildest appre- 
 hension of a 
 general cru- 
 sade of labor 
 against capi- 
 tal. Some lives 
 were lost and 
 a areat deal of 
 ^ property de- 
 stroyed. But 
 
 soon all was quiet, and business of every kind re- 
 sumed its customary channels and ways. 
 
 The spring of 1880 inaugurated another presi- 
 dential campaign. The first convention held was 
 the Republican gathering at Chicago. Mr. Blaine 
 was again a leading candidate, with General Grant 
 as his chief competitor. Day after day the conven- 
 
CENTENNIAL BUILDING, PHILADELPHIA. 
 
•vl<s 
 
 k_ 
 
 THF. PRESENT UNITED STATES. 
 
 5 6 9 
 
 tiou was in session, and after numerous ballots it 
 became evident that neither of the prominent can- 
 didates could bear off the prize. There were several 
 compromise candidates in the field, in the hope of 
 being what was called “ the dark horse ” in the race. 
 But the convention went outside of them all and took 
 up one of its own members, James A. Garfield of 
 Ohio. General Garfield had been the recognized 
 leader of the anti-Grant faction in the convention 
 without being the champion of Mr. Blaine. His 
 nomination created the wildest enthusiasm. Asso- 
 ciated with him upon the ticket was Chester A. Ar- 
 thur of New York, nominated as a representative 
 of the Grant wing of the convention. 
 
 The Democrats placed in the field General Win- 
 field S. Hancock, of the regular army, an officer of 
 honorable record, who had rendered specially good 
 service at Gettysburg. With him was nominated 
 for Vice-President, Wm. II. English, a capitalist of 
 Indiana. For two or three months the indications 
 were that the Democrats had at last come to the 
 turning of the tide, but the longer the campaign 
 progressed the more evident did it become that a 
 majority of the people were for continuing, if not 
 perpetuating, the Republican party in power. The 
 election was not dubious in its result. On the con- 
 trary, the election of Garfield and Arthur was 
 promptly and frankly conceded. 
 
 General Garfield entered upon liis office under pe- 
 culiarly favorable auspices. All the signs pointed to 
 a harmonious and prosperous administration. But 
 hardly had he begun the discharge of the duties of 
 his great office before the spirit of faction showed 
 itself. So trivial a matter as the appointment of a 
 collector of customs at the port of New York served 
 to kindle the flames of a most senseless war of fac- 
 tions. The press of the country entered upon it 
 with the utmost enthusiasm, as if the fate of the 
 nation depended upon the personnel of that office. 
 The two United States Senators from New York re- 
 signed their seats and became candidates for re-elec- 
 tion. It was very soon apparent that the legislature 
 of the state, then in session at Albany, would not 
 re-elect them, and that served as oil upon the fire. 
 While the country was being inflamed by such irra- 
 tional and causeless factiousness, came the report of 
 a pistol. It was fired July 2, by Charles J. Guiteau, 
 in a railway depot at Washington. Hardly had the 
 sound died away before the terrible news was flashed 
 
 wherever hi this land or any other electricity is a 
 medium of intelligence that President Garfield had 
 been shot by an assassin. The shock was even greater 
 than when Lincoln fell at the hands of Booth, for 
 the passions of the war had died away and the people 
 were not accustomed, as in 1865, to the flow of blood. 
 
 Mr. Garfield lingered in great agony for many 
 days. Day after day and week after week the pub- 
 lic watched with the agony of suspense at his bed- 
 side, and when at last death brought relief to the 
 heroic patient, September 19, all sections and both 
 parties united in profound grief. If there were any 
 to sympathize with the assassin, there were certainly 
 none ready to acknowledge such sympathy. In due 
 time the assassin was brought to trial, when the ques- 
 tion raised was whether he was sane or insane. The 
 verdict of the jury was that he was sane, and public 
 sentiment very generally commended the jury. It 
 was felt that acquittal on the plea of insanity would 
 be contrary to public policy. It may be remarked 
 that the Guiteau case added the word crank to the 
 English language, to designate a person of naturally 
 unsound mind, neither sane nor insane, strictly 
 speaking. 
 
 President Arthur entered upon the duties of his 
 office September 22, with the promise to carry out 
 the policy of his predecessor, and with the public 
 hopeful as to his success. It is too early now to set 
 forth what has been done by his administration. No 
 bill of any importance has yet been presented to him 
 for signature, except the Chinese bill, which he 
 vetoed, and the mere distribution of offices bolongs 
 to the trade and handicraft of the politician, and 
 not to the profession and lofty art of the statesman. 
 
 It is now time to dismiss from the mind the po- 
 litical aspects of the country and devote the remain- 
 der of this chapter to the actual condition of the 
 United States, reserving industry, literaturo and in- 
 vention for separate consideration. 
 
 The constitution of the United States has been 
 amended fifteen times, the last three amendments 
 being a part of reconstruction, as we have seen. The 
 first ten were added as early as December, 1791, and 
 grew out of the discussion of the constitution as 
 originally submitted to the states. The eleventh 
 amendment, which in effect exempts a state from 
 being made a defendant in a court of justice, was the 
 result of a suit brought in the U nited States Court to 
 recover a debt due an individual from tlio state of 
 
 
 <5" 
 
A e. 
 
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 57 ° 
 
 THE PRESENT UNITED STATES. 
 
 Georgia. That pernicious amendment has borne 
 fruit in the repeated and enormous repudiation of 
 state debts. The twelfth amendment provides some 
 changes in the method of electing presidents and 
 vice-presidents, and grew out of the Jefferson -Burr 
 election. This amendment was adopted September 
 25, 1804. 
 
 The total area of the United States is about 4,000,- 
 000 square miles, inclusive of Alaska, which is value- 
 less for all purposes of agriculture. Without Alaska, 
 the area is, in round numbers, 3,000,000 square miles. 
 A writer in a recent number of the North American 
 Review gives the following analysis of the public 
 lands of the country, exclusive of Alaska : 
 
 “ The public domain of the United States, ac- 
 quired by cession from the several states and by 
 treaty from France, Spain, and Mexico, Texas and 
 Russia, amounts to 2,894,235.91 square miles, or 
 about 1,852,310,000 acres, and its cost was, in round 
 numbers, $322,000,000, of which sum the Govern- 
 ment has received back about $200,000,000 for lands 
 sold. Down to July, 1880, the Government of the 
 United States had disposed by sale of about 110,- 
 000,000 acres ; by act of donation, 3,000,000 acres ; 
 in bounties for military and naval service, 61,000,- 
 000 acres ; for internal improvements, 1,000,000 
 acres ; by grants of saline lands to states, 560,000 
 acres ; for town sites and county seats, 150,000 ; by 
 patent to railway companies, 45,000,000 ; canal 
 grants, 4,000,000 ; for military reads, 1,300,000 ; by 
 sale of mineral lands (since 1866), 148,000 ; home- 
 steads, 55,000,000 ; scrip, 2,900,000 ; coal lands, 10,- 
 150 ; stone and timber lands (act of 1818), 21,000 ; 
 swamp and overflowed lands given to states, 69,000,- 
 000; for educational purposes, 18,000,000 ; under 
 Timber-culture Act, 9,350,000 ; Graduation Act of 
 1854, 25,000,000. Mineral and timber lands are 
 now our most valuable assets. The pasturage lands 
 are of nominal value apart from the mineral under- 
 lying them. Our remaining public lands, exclusive 
 of Alaska, were, in June, 1880, estimated as 
 follows : Timber lands, 85,000,000 ; coal lands, 
 
 defined, 5,530,000 ; precious metal bearing lands, 
 64,000,000 ; but this area will be increased as 
 the pasturage andtimber lands are explored ; 
 lands in Southern states, agricultural, timber and 
 mineral, 25,000,000 ; lands irrigable from streams, 
 
 30,000,000 ; pasturage, desert, including certain lands 
 in Indian reservations and barrens, 556,000,000.” 
 
 There have been ten censuses of the United 
 States, the first having been taken in 1190, and all 
 at regular intervals of ten years. The population 
 when first ascertained was 3,929,322, and ninety 
 years later it was 50,152,559. No other country 
 could ever make such an exhibit of growth. From 
 the time the War of the Revolution began (1115) 
 until the close of the last war with England (1815), 
 a period of forty years, the increase by immigration 
 was very small. In 1816 and 1811 there was a fam- 
 ine in Europe, and a vast number of people crossed 
 the ocean to seek homes in this land of plenty. All 
 immigration came from Europe until some years 
 after the discovery of the gold-fields of California, 
 since which time a few drops from the great ocean of 
 Chinese population have fallen upon the Pacific coast. 
 The Chinaman does not bring his family, and is sure 
 to return to his native land. Even his bones, if he 
 dies, are taken back there. The permanent popu- 
 lation of the country is wholly European in its ori- 
 gin, with the exception of the African and the abo- 
 riginal Americans. All other details of population 
 and area are given in tabular form later on. 
 
 The United States is often divided into North 
 and South, or East and West, but the really natural 
 divisions are three, the Atlantic states, extending 
 westward so as to include the Appalachian, or Alle- 
 ghany, Mountain region ; the Mississippi Valley ; 
 Pacific Highlands and slope, the latter including the 
 Rocky Mountains, the Pacific plateau, Sierra Ne- 
 vada and Cascade ranges and the Pacific slope. 
 The Appalachian range extends from the Gulf of 
 St. Lawrence to Alabama. Instead of a system of 
 mountains for its main feature, the Mississippi Val- 
 ley has the great twin river, Mississippi-Missouri, 
 4,200 miles long, the grandest stream in all the 
 world, not excepting the broader but shorter Ama- 
 zon. The Rocky Mountains are vast table-lands. A 
 little gold and silver may be found in the Atlantic 
 states, none in the Mississippi valley, but an abun- 
 dance in the Rocky Mountains and the region 
 between that plateau and the Pacific ocean. 
 Further details on these points will appear in 
 connection with the consideration of States and 
 Territories of the United States. 
 
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 CHAPTER L X X X I V . 
 
 Federal Relations — Constitutional Limitations — Legislative Branch op the Government 
 — The President and the Senate — Presidential Qualifications and Functions — The 
 Cabinet and Departments — Secretary of State and Foreign Relations— The Treasury 
 Department and its Bureaus — The War Department Secretary and the Army — The 
 Navy; Ericsson and the Naval Department — Secretary of the Interior; Public 
 Lands, Pensions, Patents, Census, Education and Agriculture — Post-Offices and Post 
 Routes — Franklin and Armstrong — Department of Justice— The Judiciary of the 
 United States — Territorial Government — Appointments and Confirmations — Right of 
 Suffrage — Mode of Electing Presidents and Vice-Presidents. 
 
 
 HE most curious feature 
 and intricate problem in 
 American government is 
 the relation of the United 
 States to the several states. 
 It is complicated in a way 
 quite foreign to the usual 
 experience of nations and out of 
 it, no less than the institution of 
 slavery, grew the war between the 
 North and the South. It is not 
 within the design of this volume 
 to discuss constitutional law, but 
 simply to point out the undisputed 
 practical facts in the case. 
 
 The broad ground of the consti- 
 tution in restricting the general 
 government to functions specified 
 
 in the organic law itself covered a great deal of ter- 
 ritory. It follows that the ordinary purposes of gov- 
 ernment, such as the prevention and punishment o I 
 crimes, the enforcement of contracts and the gen- 
 eral relation of public affairs, belong, as a rule, to 
 the state. The United States may be said to be 
 
 supplemental to the state, designed to prevent all 
 clashing and injustice between the people of differ- 
 ent states and to obviate the vexatious restrictions 
 upon the liberty of person and traffic within the 
 country which would be inevitable if eacli state were 
 absolutely independent. The Federal system has 
 the further advantage of the removal of all danger 
 of interstate wars which, in view of European ex- 
 perience, was certainly a wise precaution on the part 
 of the constitutional fathers. 
 
 The general government is divided into tlireo 
 branches, legislative, executive and judicial. The 
 legislative has three subdivisions, the Senate, the 
 House of Representatives and the President, the 
 first two, constituting Congress, having the power by 
 a two-thirds majority to pass a bill over the Presi- 
 dent’s veto. The third branch is therefore not coe- 
 qual with the other two, while they are co-ordinate. 
 The signature of the President must lie attached to 
 a bill before it can become an act of Congress, or it 
 must receive, subsequent to the veto, the two-thirds 
 majority specified. The power to originate bills of 
 taxation belongs to the House, which body can elect 
 its own presiding officer — speaker — while the Senate 
 
 
 
 ( 57 1 ) 
 
I 
 
 GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 is presided over by the Vice-President, unless that 
 officer is called upon to act as President, in which 
 case the Senate elects its own President, pro as 
 he is called. Otherwise the powers of the two 
 branches of Congress are equal. 
 
 The Senate consists of two members from each 
 state, the term being six years. The senators are 
 elected by their respective state legislatures. In case 
 of a vacancy during the adjournment of the legis- 
 lature the governor of the state can fill the vacancy 
 until the legislature convenes and elects a successor 
 to fill the unexpired term. A senator must be at 
 least thirty 
 years of age 
 and a citi- 
 zen of the 
 state he rep- 
 resents. A 
 member of 
 the House 
 must be at 
 least twen- 
 ty-five years 
 of age and 
 a resident of 
 the state. 
 
 Congress fix- 
 es a basis of 
 representa- 
 tion in that 
 body upon 
 a basis of 
 population, 
 
 for which purpose a census is taken once in ten years. 
 Every state has at least one member of the lower 
 house. The territories are represented therein by 
 delegates empowered to speak but not to vote. The 
 term of a member of the House is two years. Each 
 senator, representative and delegate receives a salary 
 of $5,000 a year, the speaker, like the Vice-President, 
 receiving $8,000. 
 
 The Executive Department consists of the Presi- 
 dent and the executive offices under him, and the 
 Senate when in executive session. Such sessions are 
 held in secret. Their objects are to ratify or reject 
 treaties with other nations and confirm or reject ap- 
 pointments to federal offices. In the exercise of a 
 veto power the Senate is a part of the executive. 
 Some appointments are regarded as too trivial to 
 
 THE CAPITOL AT WASHINGTON. 
 
 come before the Senate. The classification is fixed by 
 law and has never occasioned difficulty or contro- 
 versy. The exercise, however, of executive func- 
 tions by the Senate has often given rise to bitter 
 controversy. Such conflicts of opinion (for that is 
 all they are or can be) have always been temporary in 
 their effect. The legislative functions of the Presi- 
 dent are trivial, comparatively. The great burden 
 of his duty is to administer the laws. He is the 
 chief executive, most emphatically. 
 
 To be President of the United States or Vice- 
 President, one must be a native citizen. Naturalized 
 
 citizens are 
 barred from 
 the presi- 
 dency, in- 
 cluding the 
 vice -presi- 
 dential con- 
 tingency, 
 and from no 
 other politi- 
 cal prefer- 
 ment. The 
 President 
 must be 
 thirty-five 
 years of age, 
 or over. The 
 term is four 
 years, be- 
 ginning on 
 March 4 
 
 There is no law against repeated re-elections, except 
 the unwritten law of custom, which has restricted 
 every President so far to two terms, at the most. 
 The salary of the President is $50,000 a year. It was 
 half that until 1873. The proper title of the Presi- 
 dent in addressing him is “ Mr. President.” The 
 Executive Mansion, familiarly called the “ "White 
 House,” is both office and residence. It is located 
 one mile from the capitol at "Washington. The 
 President is provided with a small corps of private 
 secretaries for subordinate routine duties, at the pub- 
 lic expense, and the mansion is furnished by Ihe 
 government. 
 
 The President has for his chief assistants in the 
 discharge of his duties a body of advisers and 
 high functionaries called a Cabinet. That body 
 
 (*T 
 
GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 573 
 
 consists of the Secretaries of State, Treasury, War, 
 the Navy, and the Interior, together with the Post- 
 master-General and the Attorney-General. The de- 
 partments over which they respectively preside are 
 indicated by their titles. Originally the idea was 
 that the Secretary of State should be a premier, in 
 the English sense, but practically, he is simply the 
 head of foreign af- 
 fairs, having super- 
 vision over all dip- 
 lomatic and con- 
 sular matters. Each 
 cabinet officer re- 
 ceives a salary of 
 $8,000 a year, is 
 appointed by the 
 President, the Sen- 
 ate consenting. The 
 cabinet forms an 
 official household, 
 with the President 
 as its head. In 
 many of the details 
 the duties of the 
 different depart- 
 ments vary with 
 the enactments of 
 each Congress ; but 
 in fundamental du- 
 ties and divisions 
 of responsibility 
 the departments 
 remain unchanged. 
 
 The Cabinet has 
 grown in numbers 
 with the growth of 
 the nation and the 
 necessities of the 
 general government. Originally there were but three 
 ministers — Secretary of State, of the Treasury, and 
 of War. In 1798 the portfolio of the Navy was 
 added. During Jackson’s administration the 
 Postmaster-General was made a member of the 
 cabinet, and during Tyler’s the Attorney-General 
 was admitted into the political family of the Presi- 
 dent. Before those promotions they were mere 
 heads of bureaus. In 1849 the Department of the 
 Interior was created, since which time there have 
 been no changes, except that during the administra- 
 
 tion of President Grant the functions of the Attor- 
 ney-General were materially enlarged by the creation 
 of the Department of Justice. Prior to that time 
 the Attorney-General was simply the legal adviser of 
 the President and the Cabinet. The Constitution 
 does not distinctly recognize the Cabinet, excepting 
 by the nominal distinction of “heads of departments.” 
 
 The Secretary of 
 State was designed 
 originally to be the 
 head secretary of 
 the government, 
 including both 
 Congress and the 
 President. To him 
 is intrusted the duty 
 of promulgating 
 the laws. In his 
 office are kept the 
 original hills and 
 joint resolutions, 
 the seal of the 
 United States, and 
 all treaties, postal 
 conventions and 
 other state papers, 
 properly so called. 
 But the especial 
 department of state 
 is Foreign Affairs. 
 All communica- 
 tions with foreign 
 frovernments, di- 
 rector indirect, and 
 all diplomatic and 
 consular matters, 
 are within the ju- 
 risdiction of this 
 secretary. Any American citizen going abroad is 
 entitled to a passport issued by the Secretary of 
 State, which document will servo as his credential 
 of citizenship in case ho may have occasion to want 
 the protection of his government. r l lie Secretary 
 of State is supposed to ho the most intimate polit- 
 ical friend the President has — his most trusted 
 advisor on all points, lie makes no departmental 
 report to Congress, as the other secretaries and the 
 Postmaster-General do. Ho is frequently called 
 upon to make special reports, and the voluminous 
 
<a 
 
 
 diplomatic correspondence is published. 
 Department also is- 
 sues monthly con- 
 sular reports, giving 
 commercial and in- 
 dustrial information 
 in regard to the 
 countries and cities 
 with which this gov- 
 ernment sustains 
 consular relations. 
 
 The representa- 
 tives of the United 
 States are called en- 
 voys extraordinary 
 and ministers plen- 
 ipotentiary ; min- 
 isters resident; 
 charge d’ affairs ; 
 consul generals, con- 
 suls and consular 
 agents, according to 
 their several ranks 
 and duties. The im- 
 portant ministers 
 have secretaries of 
 legation. Treaties 
 may be negotiated 
 by ministers, by 
 commissions ap- 
 pointed especially 
 
 for the purpose of settling some specific matter of 
 an international 
 nature, or by the 
 Secretary of 
 State and the 
 representative at 
 W ashington of 
 the other high 
 contracting par- 
 ty. Extradition 
 treaties are the 
 arrangements 
 made for the 
 surrender of 
 persons accused 
 of crime who 
 have fled from 
 one country to the 
 
 The State [ have such treaties with each other. The Secretary 
 
 of the Treasury has 
 charge of the finan- 
 cial affairs of the 
 government, under 
 such laws as Con- 
 gress may enact. 
 He receives the 
 money of the gov- 
 ernment and makes 
 its disbursements. 
 No money can be 
 paid out unless there 
 is warrant for it in 
 an appropriation by 
 Congress. In a 
 Treasury, or fiscal, 
 point of view, July 1 
 is new year’s day. 
 All annual reports 
 and estimates of the 
 government receipts 
 or disbursements 
 are for the year end- 
 ing June 31. 
 
 This Secretary has 
 under him several 
 heads of bureaus 
 and two associated 
 secretaries. The 
 Com ptroller. Second 
 lave charge of disburse- 
 ments; the Com- 
 missioner of In- 
 ternal Revenue 
 and the Com- 
 missioner of 
 Customs look 
 after the collec- 
 tions, although 
 one of the assist- 
 ant secretaries 
 is virtually chief 
 of customs. The 
 Treasurer has 
 the control of 
 the funds. The 
 Comptroller of 
 the national banks, the 
 
 HALL OF REPRESENTATIVES, WASHINGTON. 
 
 Comptroller and five auditors 
 
 THE WHITE HOUSE 
 
 >ther. Nearly all civilized nations | the Currency supervises 
 
 574 
 
 GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ht 
 
 K 
 
 
GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 575 
 
 Director of the Mint has charge of the coining of 
 money. The Independent Treasury is the term ap- 
 plied to the system of sub-treasuries or branch 
 offices of the Treasury in the larger cities of the 
 country at which the actual receipts and disburse- 
 ments of the government are largely transacted. 
 The head of a sub-treasury is called Assistant Treas- 
 urer. The Sub-Treasury at New York contains very 
 much more money 
 than the Treasury at 
 Washington. Minute 
 daily reports must 
 be made to the Sec- 
 retary of the Treas- 
 ury and the Treas- 
 urer, and the varia- 
 tion of a penny in 
 the account would 
 be detected at head- 
 quarters and call for 
 an explanation. 
 
 During the late 
 war nearly every 
 conceivable method 
 of taxation was re- 
 sorted to. Before 
 that time the receipts 
 from customs or the 
 tariff and from the 
 sale of public land 
 amply sufficed to 
 meet the demands of 
 the government. At 
 one period the rev- 
 enue was excessive 
 and Congress was 
 sorely jmzzled to 
 know what to do with the surplus. The exigencies 
 of war rendered necessary the creation of the 
 Bureau of Internal Revenue. Since the restor- 
 ation of peace the domestic taxation has been great- 
 ly reduced and simplified, until now it is almost 
 wholly confined to spirits, distilled and brewed, and 
 to tobacco. The tax on highwines was per gal- 
 lon for several years and the temptation to defraud 
 the government was so great that the enormous 
 combination was formed known as the Whisky 
 Ring. It was a case of spontaneous production. 
 The evil spread and seemed to be incurable until il 
 
 was exposed, prosecuted and crushed during the two 
 last years of Grant’s last term of office. The most 
 complicated and elaborate feature of the Treasury 
 Department is the one having to do with the col- 
 lection of duties on imports. Nearly every Congress 
 “ tinkers ” the tariff, and it takes a rare expert to be 
 master of the subject in its practical workings. The 
 objects of these levies are twofold, the raising of 
 
 revenue and the fos- 
 tering of domestic 
 interests, productive 
 and manufacturing. 
 Those who insist 
 that a tariff should 
 be for revenue only 
 are called free-trad- 
 ers. As a rule, the 
 protective policy has 
 prevailed in this 
 country. The Secre- 
 tary of the Treasury 
 has no voice in de- 
 termining the policy 
 to be adopted ; but 
 the rules and regu- 
 lations promulgated 
 by him bear to the 
 statutes much the 
 same relation that 
 the decisions of the 
 courts do to law in 
 general. This re- 
 mark applies, only 
 less conspicuously, 
 to the other depart- 
 ments. There is a 
 tax on the tonnage, 
 or carrying capacity, of vessels, and out of the 
 relations of the Treasury Department to t ransporta- 
 tion by water grow many complications. The con- 
 stitution contemplates the regulation by the general 
 government of commerce between the states, lint 
 that part of the organic law has thus far remained 
 very nearly a dead letter. The constitution forbids 
 the imposition of duties upon exports, also upon 
 trade between the states, and therein it has never 
 been violated. 
 
 '[’he Secretary of the Treasury is forbidden by 
 law, as arc his subordinates, to be in any way inter- 
 
GOVERNMENT OF 
 
 ested in any branch of business which might come 
 before them for official action. 
 
 The Secretary of War became, under E. M. Stan- 
 ton during the great Conflict, virtual commander- 
 in-chief of the army, a position assigned by the con- 
 stitution to the President. In time of peace the 
 standing army is so small that this department in 
 less important than any one of the several bureaus 
 of the Treasury. Small as is the army, it might 
 
 THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Pierce, and a son of President Lincoln was appoint- 
 ed to the position by President Garfield, but the one 
 great reputation made in the Department was that 
 of Edwin M. Stanton, who sustained that great bur- 
 den from 1862 to 1868, doing as much to preserve 
 the Union as any one man. The office was con- 
 spicuously disgraced by Secretary Belknap, who held 
 it from 1869 to 1876. Besides strictly military mat- 
 ters, the War Department has charge of public works 
 
 ~~~ 
 
 THE NEW DEPARTMENT OF STATE 
 
 be much smaller if it were not for troubles with 
 the Indians of the far west. The military officers 
 are : general, lieutenant-general, major-general, brig- 
 adier-general, colonel, lieutenant-colonel, major, 
 captain, first lieutenant, second lieutenant. These 
 are regularly and formally commissioned, and for 
 the most part are graduates of the military acade- 
 my at W est Point, New York, the only institution 
 foi instruction in the science of war maintained by 
 the government. The Secretary of War has a super- 
 \ isory charge of that academy, also of depots of 
 wai material, arsenals, military hospitals and asy- 
 lums. Jefferson Davis was Secretary of War under 
 
 involving civil engineering. The erection and care 
 of United States buildings belong to the Treasury 
 Department, but river and harbor improvements 
 are made through the Department of War. 
 
 The least of all the Departments is the Navy. 
 The President sustains the same relation to the navy 
 that he does to the army. There are, besides pay- 
 masters, nine grades of naval officers, correspond- 
 ing in rank with major-general and the lower grades 
 in the army. These are: rear-admirals, vice-ad- 
 mirals, commodores, captains, commanders, lieuten- 
 ant commanders, lieutenants, masters, ensigns. The 
 government has one naval academy. It is located at 
 
GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 577 
 
 Annapolis, Maryland. Like the military academy 
 at West Point, this naval school is expected to have 
 one student from each congressional district and ten 
 appointed by the President, without regard to local- 
 ity. The course of study in both covers a period of 
 four years and has special reference to the profes- 
 sion in view. The students are educated at the ex- 
 pense of the government, and must give at least four 
 years to the service after graduation, unless specially 
 relieved or dismissed. There are several navy-yards 
 and one naval observatory, the latter being in Wash- 
 ington. All coast surveys belong to the Navy De- 
 partment, but lighthouses, buoys and beacons, de- 
 signed to protect the shipping interest, and marine 
 hospitals for sick or disa- 
 bled seamen, are attach- 
 ed to the Treasury De- 
 partment. The present 
 navy of the United States 
 is almost a nonentity. 
 
 In the event of war with 
 any foreign power laying 
 the slightest claims to 
 naval preparations, it 
 would be necessary to 
 make vast expenditures 
 for meu-of-war. 
 
 No splendid reputation 
 was ever made in the 
 office of Secretary of the Navy, but besides the 
 brilliant achievements of Paul Jones, Perry, Decatur, 
 Foote and Porter, this country can boast a citizen, 
 John Ericsson, whose genius for invention revolution- 
 ized naval architecture, and rendered obsolete the 
 navies of the world. 
 
 The Interior Department, once the least of all the 
 portfolios, has steadily risen in importance until it 
 is hardly inferior to that of the Treasury. It was 
 designed originally as a relief to the State Depart- 
 ment. It has several bureaus of great responsibil- 
 ity. Indian Affairs is the chief of these. The 
 agents, inspectors and others employed in this 
 branch of the sendee, as explained in the chapter 
 on the American Indian, are under the Commis- 
 sioner of Indian Affairs. The Pension Bureau is in 
 that department, and it is no exaggeration to say 
 that the Army and the Navy Departments com- 
 bined are not in time of peace as important and dif- 
 ficult of administration as this one bureau has been 
 
 since the war of 1861-65. Only sick or crippled 
 soldiers of the Federal army or their widowed still 
 unmarried, or those actually dependent for support 
 upon the soldier w ho died in the service, are entitled 
 to pensions, but the disbursements are so immense 
 and the liabilities to fraud so very great that the 
 highest order of executive ability is required, and 
 even then enormous frauds are inevitable. No 
 other branch of the service is so open to abuse. The 
 actual payments are made by local pension agents, 
 who handle no money, but have credits from time 
 to time at a sub-treasury and check against it. 
 
 The public lands of the country, an elaborate 
 statement in regard to which will be found in the 
 
 chapter on The Present 
 U nited States, are 
 under the care of a 
 bureau of the Interior 
 Department. Besides 
 the commissioner at 
 Washington there are 
 surveyors-general and 
 registers and receivers 
 of public money for 
 lands. The former di- 
 vide the land and define 
 boundaries, so that the 
 government can con- 
 vey a title, and the reg- 
 isters and receivers attend to the business incident to 
 such conveyance. A section is the unit of measure- 
 ment. It contains 640 acres, or a mile square, and 
 thirty-six sections make a township. Even since the 
 organization of the first territory, the Northwest Ter- 
 ritory, the government has set aside one section m 
 each township for the support of public schools. 
 
 The original policy of the government was to sell 
 the public land, and that in large quantities only. 
 Later it adopted the plan of encouraging pur- 
 chases by actual settlers. This pioneer policy was 
 supplemented in 1862 by the homestead act, under 
 which the actual settler can, by the payment of fees 
 hardly adequate to pay the cost to the government of 
 doing the business, secure a farm, only lie must re- 
 side on it long enough to give assurance of good 
 faith. If the homesteader served in the Federal 
 army and was honorably discharged, the time spent 
 in the sendee will reduce that much the time re- 
 | quired to perfect a homestead title. The period re- 
 
 al 
 

 GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 quired is five years, and the amount of land that 
 can be taken up in that way is 1G0 acres, or a quar- 
 ter-section. Public land can also be secured by pre- 
 emption, or purchase, the price varying from $1.25 
 to $2.50 per acre. 
 
 All letters patent designed to stimulate invention 
 and secure to the in- 
 ventor his right of prop- 
 erty therein, are issued 
 by the Patent office, 
 which is a bureau of 
 the Interior Depart- 
 ment. Patents are 
 granted for seventeen 
 years, and cannot be 
 renewed. It is often 
 difficult to determine 
 whether an application 
 for a patent should be 
 granted or denied, and 
 
 much litigation grows 
 out of this branch of the government. The census is 
 taken by the Interior Department. The original 
 idea of a census was simply the ascertainment once 
 in ten years of the actual population of the country, 
 with the details of locality, with a view to determin- 
 ing the apportionment of members of the House of 
 Representatives. Each 
 new census has been 
 more elaborate and 
 varied than its prede 
 cessor, and under Gen- 
 eral F. A. Walker, who 
 tookthecensusesof 1870 
 and 1880, the range of 
 statistical information 
 afforded by the reports 
 of this bureau is most 
 exhaustive. It is a 
 marvel of complete- 
 ness and accuracy. 
 
 The bureau of railroads has been created to ascer- 
 tain and conserve the interest of the government in 
 the railways of the country which received subsidies, 
 land or bonds, in aid of their construction. The 
 bureau of education is hardly more than a bureau 
 of educational information. The bureau of agricul- 
 ture is another branch of the Interior Department 
 which has a high-sounding name without having ac- 
 
 I'ATENT OFFICE. (South Front.) 
 
 The 
 
 UNITED STATES POSTOFFICE. 
 
 complished much real good. Congress maintains it 
 at considerable expense. It should be a department 
 on a plane of equality with the other cabinet offices. 
 The obligation owed it, thus far, by the agricultural 
 interest of the country is infinitesimally small. 
 
 The Postoffice Department is devoted to one line 
 
 of duty, the transmis- 
 sion of mail matter 
 from one place and 
 person to another place 
 and person. Distance 
 is not taken into ac- 
 count in determining 
 the charge for this ser- 
 vice, but there are sev- 
 eral classes of mails, 
 with rates accordin 
 to classification. 
 Postmaster-General has 
 a great army of assist- 
 ants, superintendents, 
 postmasters, postal-clerks, route agents and others 
 under him. The real paternity of the postoffice 
 of this country belongs lo Benjamin Franklin, who 
 organized it nearly a generation before independence 
 was declared. It should be a strictly business in- 
 stitution, as much so as an express company or a 
 
 railroad enterprise ; but 
 as a matter of fact it 
 has long combined poli- 
 tics with postal mat- 
 ters. The most notable 
 improvement made in 
 this branch of the ser- 
 vice was not due to any 
 postmaster-general, but 
 to a subordinate officer, 
 George B. Armstrong 
 of Chicago, the father 
 of the railway mail 
 service, which was es- 
 tablished during the civil war. Other improve- 
 ments have been made within a comparatively 
 short time, such as the registration of impor- 
 tant letters, the issuance of postal money orders, 
 and the distribution of mail in large cities by 
 carriers. The dead-letter office is located at Wash- 
 ington, and is designed to return to the writer 
 letters which have for anv reason failed to reach 
 
•v 
 
 
 GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 579 
 
 their destination. In due time all such waifs reach 
 the morgue of the mail and the sender is no- 
 tified. It is exceedingly difficult in many cases to 
 arrive at the proper allowance to be made for carry- 
 ing the mail, especially by routes off the line of rail- 
 roads. All such routes are called “ star routes.” For 
 the most part these lines of mail, are on the frontier 
 and in out-of-the-way places where they are indis- 
 pensable aids to settlement. They are often the 
 veritable harbingers of civilization and development. 
 
 The Attorney- General is the head of the Depart- 
 ment of Justice, and as such, has a general supervis- 
 ion over the attorneys and marshals of the United 
 States in the several judicial districts. He is often 
 called upon to render an opinion upon the interpre- 
 tation of a statute of the United States. The gov- 
 ernment has in him its “ senior counsel.” 
 
 Besides these two branches of the government, 
 the legislative and the executive, is one more, the 
 judiciary. The constitution provides for one Su- 
 preme Court, and such inferior courts as Congress 
 might create. In addition to the Supreme Court 
 with one chief justice at a salary of $10,500, and 
 eight associate justices with a salary of $10,000, 
 there are nine circuits, presided over sometimes by 
 a member of the supreme bench and sometimes by 
 the judge of that particular circuit. The salary of 
 the circuit judge is $6,000 a year. The number of 
 the district judges varies from time to time, and 
 their compensation is not uniform. There are now 
 60 districts. All these judges are appointed for life 
 or good behavior. The judges appoint their own 
 clerks, and generally for life. The United States 
 marshals are appointed by the President and con- 
 firmed by the Senate, for terms of four years. The 
 same is true of district attorneys. 
 
 It remains to speak of the territories, from a gov- 
 ernmental point of view. The governor, secretary, 
 and judge, or judges, as the case may be, are ap- 
 pointed by the President, the people being allowed 
 to elect their own legislatures. A territorial gover- 
 nor or judge receives a salary of $2,600, the secre- 
 tary $1,800. Besides the regular territories, which 
 are prospective states, is the District of Columbia. 
 
 Its affairs are under the control, in the main, of 
 three commissioners, appointed by the President, 
 and entitled to a salary of $5,000 per annum. 
 
 It may be added in this connection that in 
 almost all cases appointments are for four years in 
 the Presidential offices, as those are called which 
 require the President to submit the name to the Sen- 
 ate, while subordinate positions are subject to the 
 caprices of politics, the mutations of friendship or 
 the freaks of personal whim. As a matter of fact 
 the great bulk of the civil service is performed by 
 officers, clerks and employes who are retained on 
 their merits by their respective chiefs. Since 1861 
 women have been freely and satisfactorily employed 
 in the public service of the United States. 
 
 In concluding this chapter it may be well to define 
 the rights of suffrage and mode of election in this 
 country. No one can be debarred from this right 
 on account of race, color, or previous condition of 
 servitude. The details on this subject are given in 
 tabular form, the conditions of elective franchise 
 being different in different states. 
 
 In choosing a President and Vice-President the 
 mode required is for each state to elect by the people 
 or appoint by the legislature (the latter is now no- 
 where done) as many electors as the state has mem- 
 bers of both houses of Congress. Those electors are 
 all chosen on the same day, the first Monday in the 
 November preceding the expiration of a presidential 
 term. The electors of each state meet on the first 
 Wednesday of December at the state capital, form- 
 ing an Electoral College, and casting their ballots 
 for President and Vice-President, and send the re- 
 turns to the President of the Senate the first Wednes- 
 day in January. The second Wednesday in February 
 both houses of Congress meet as one body and the 
 President of the Senate opens and declares the vote. 
 If no candidate has received a majority of all the votes 
 cast, the House proceeds to elect a President, the 
 Senate a Vice-President. In the House the voting 
 must be by states, and only the candidates having 
 the three highest Electoral College votes are eligible. 
 
 Such is the government of the United States in 
 the more important of its many ramifications. 
 
T is proposed in this chap- 
 ter to give brief biographies 
 of the Presidents of the 
 United States and present 
 specifically the several pres- 
 idential elections. As some 
 of our Presidentswereelect- 
 ed twice and others again 
 were only elected to the vice-presidency, it 
 is thought best to keep the two branches 
 of the subject distinct. In both cases the 
 chronological order will be followed, be- 
 ginning with the Presidents themselves 
 and closing with the elections. Care 
 will be observed not to repeat what has 
 been brought out in previous chapters, 
 so far as possible. 
 
 George Washington was born in Vir- 
 ginia, February 22, 1732. His death occurred Decem- 
 ber 14,1799. He was a planter with some knowledge 
 of surveying and experience in the Virginia House of 
 Rurgesses, or Legislature. His military career and 
 presidential service belong to history rather than to 
 biography. When the war closed he retired to his 
 plantation at Mount Vernon until called to serve as 
 president of the constitutional convention, and 
 later, of the United States. He refused a third 
 term. His private life was without reproach. The 
 
 management of his estate was more to his taste 
 than the cares and perplexities of office. In man- 
 ner he was courtly. He never fully identified him- 
 self with any political party, but leaned strongly to- 
 ward Federalism. 
 
 John Adams was born in Massachusetts, October 
 19, 1735, and died July 4, 1826. He was a gradu- 
 ate of Harvard College, a lawyer by profession, and 
 by temperament an imperious partisan. His public 
 career may be said to date from the passage of the 
 Stamp Act by Parliament. He early and eloquently 
 advocated the union and independence of the colo- 
 nies. From 1778 until 1788 he represented the 
 United States at either the French or English court. 
 He sympathized with the aristocratic tastes of 
 Washington rather than the democratic ideas of 
 Jefferson. He attributed his defeat for re-election 
 to the presidency quite as much to Hamilton’s luke- 
 warmness as to republican opposition, and retired to 
 private life embittered and unhappy. He lived to 
 witness the election of his son to the presidency. 
 
 Thomas Jefferson was born in Virginia, April 13, 
 1743, and died July 4, 1826. The family was of 
 Welsh extraction. Educated at William and Mary’s 
 College, he adopted the profession of law. Ilis ser- 
 vice in the Continental Congress was brief. The 
 Revolution fairly inaugurated, he returned to Vir- 
 ginia and devoted himself to the establishment of 
 
 ( 5 8 °) 
 
 CHAPTER LX XXV. 
 
 Tub Presidents op the United States — Biographical Sketch op Each op the Twenty-one 
 Presidents, in the order op their Respective Terms op Office — Historical Sketch op 
 Each op the Twenty-podr Presidential Elections in Chronological Order. 
 
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 PRESIDENTS AND PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. 
 
 583 
 
 republican institutions in that state. He represented 
 this country at the French court from 1784 to 1780. 
 During Washington’s administration lie was Secre- 
 tary of State. After he retired from public life, at 
 the close of his second presidential term, Jefferson 
 devoted himself to the advancement of the cause of 
 education and the interest of agriculture. He was 
 a voluminous writer, and his works constitute a 
 storehouse of political wisdom. 
 
 James Madison, also of Virginia, was born March 
 16, 17§1, and died June 28, 1836. He was a gradu- 
 ate of Princeton College, and remarkable for his 
 studious habits. He had no gifts of oratory. He 
 first distinguished himself as an advocate of relig- 
 ious liberty in Virginia. He served a short time in 
 the Continental Congress, but not conspicuously. 
 His supreme service was in the convention which 
 framed the Constitution of the United States, where 
 his profound learning and thorough republicanism 
 made him greatly useful. He was a member of the 
 first four Congresses. He might have been a formid- 
 able rival of Jefferson’s, but preferred to bide his 
 time. Jefferson made him his Secretary of State 
 and secured his acceptance by the Republican party 
 as heir to the presidency. In private life he was 
 hardly less useful to education and agriculture than 
 Jefferson. His life was serene and faultless. 
 
 James Monroe was born in Virginia, April 28, 
 1758, and died in New York, July 4, 1831. He was 
 the first poor man in the presidential office. He in- 
 herited no estate, and was too continuously in public 
 life to accptire wealth. He served in the Continen- 
 tal Congress from 1783 to 1786 ; in the United States 
 Senate from 1790 to 1794 ; as governor from 1799 to 
 1802, and again in 1811 ; as minister to France, 
 Spain and England from 1802 tol808;as Secretary 
 of State from 1811 to 1817, and as President from 
 1817 to 1825. He was a justice of the peace in Vir- 
 ginia for some time after the expiration of his pres- 
 idential term. His last years were clouded with the 
 perplexities of poverty. His ability was hardly above 
 mediocrity. The “machine” set up by Jefferson 
 made him President. 
 
 John Quincy Adams was born in Massachusetts, 
 July 11, 1767, and died at the national capital Feb- 
 ruary 23, 1848. Although a graduate of Harvard 
 College, the second Adams was mainly educated 
 abroad. He was a ripe scholar, a tireless worker, 
 and a great orator. He had none of the tact of 
 
 the politician. His best services before the presi- 
 dency were diplomatic. I 11 the Senate from 1805 
 to 1808 he failed to give satisfaction to his constitu- 
 ents. His state was strongly Federal, but he joined 
 the Republican party. Monroe made him his Sec- 
 retary of State, and he was on the “ slate ” for 
 President. He won the prize, but it was a victory 
 which left him without the support of any party. His 
 great life-work was wrought in the House of Repre- 
 sentatives from 1830 to 1848, where his advocacy of 
 freedom won him the appellation of “ The Old Man 
 Eloquent.” He was stricken down by paralysis in 
 his seat in Congress and died two days thereafter. 
 
 Andrew Jackson was a native of North Carolina, 
 of Scotch-Irish descent, born March 15, 1767, and 
 died in Tennessee June 8, 1845. Jackson was the 
 first President chosen from the humblest ranks in 
 life. His father was a poor farm-laborer, and his 
 education was sadly neglected. A lawyer by pro- 
 fession, his life was mainly spent in war and poli- 
 tics. In both he was a brilliant success. No man 
 ever exerted a deeper and more enduring influence 
 upon the politics of this country than he. As Jef- 
 ferson was the father of the first Republican party, 
 so Jackson was of the Democracy. lie was rough, 
 quarrelsome, headstrong and outspoken. Tlis elec- 
 tion to the presidency was the triumph of the com- 
 mon jieople, and formed an era in politics. To him 
 belongs the bad pre-eminence of having inaugu- 
 rated the policy of parceling out the offices as the 
 reward of political service. He fought several duels, 
 but finally died in the odor of Presbyterianism. 
 
 Martin Van Bureu, a representative of the Dutch 
 of New York, was born December 5, 1782, and died 
 July 24, 1862. lie was a politician of the most par- 
 tisan character and a remarkable adept in the arts 
 of politics. He began the study of law at the age of 
 fourteen and entered the legislature of his state in 
 1812. In 1821 he was elected to the United States 
 Senate. He served later as Governor of New York, 
 Secretary of State under Jackson, and during the 
 second term of the latter he was Vice-President. 
 The favor of Jackson and his own adroitness made 
 him President. He did not abandon the hope of a 
 second term when beaten by Harrison in 1840, and 
 was the choice of a majority of the delegates to the 
 National Convention of 1844, but failing to secure 
 a two-thirds majority, ho was defeated. That closed 
 his public career, except the inglorious episode of 
 
 r 
 
 ~ 7 [ 
 
 73 
 
(0 
 
 1 
 
 5 8 4 
 
 PRESIDENTS AND PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. 
 
 
 1848. In retirement he wrote a history of political 
 parties in the United States. 
 
 William Henry Harrison was a citizen of Ohio 
 when elected to the presidency, but a native of Vir- 
 ginia. He was born February 9, 1773, and died 
 April 4, 1841. He was the first President to die in 
 office. Ilis father was Governor Benjamin Harri- 
 son, and his grandson of the same name is now a 
 senator from Indiana. He entered the army in 1791 
 and was stationed at Fort Washington, now Cincin- 
 nati. He was secretary of the Northwest Territory, 
 a delegate to Congress, and later governor of Indi- 
 ana. He was in the Ohio State Senate ; both 
 houses of Congress; minister to Colombia, South 
 America, and a county clerk during the twelve years 
 immediately preceding his election to the presidency. 
 His success at the Indian battle of Tippecanoe really 
 made him President. Harrison was charged by the 
 Democrats with living in a log cabin and drinking 
 hard cider. Ilis political friends turned the accusa- 
 tion into an element of enthusiastic popularity. 
 
 John Tyler was born in Virginia March 29, 1790, 
 and died in Richmond January 17, 1862. He was 
 educated at William and Mary’s College and early 
 entered public life. His career was such as to make 
 him singularly unpopular. He was a member of 
 the United States Senate when South Carolina 
 passed the nullification act, and approved its pas- 
 sage. He was an intense anti-Jackson man, and 
 that endeared him to the V higs, who nominated 
 him for Vice-President because he had resigned his 
 seat in the Senate rather than obey the behests of 
 the Democratic legislature of Virginia. He was 
 not in accord, throughout, with any party, and he 
 went out of office the most unpopular man who ever 
 filled that position, not excepting the other vice- 
 presidential Presidents of a later date. His last ap- 
 pearance in public was as President of the Peace 
 Convention of 1861. He aspired to the presidency 
 in 1844, but found himself a candidate without a 
 party or a following. 
 
 James K. Polk, like the two other Presidents of 
 the United States furnished by Tennessee, Jackson 
 and Johnson, was a native of North Carolina. He 
 was born November 2, 1795, and died June 19, 1849. 
 He was educated at the University of Nashville. 
 Ilis Congressional life began in 1824. He served as 
 Speaker of the House two terms, and governor of 
 his state one term. Polk was a staunch supporter 
 
 of Jackson and all his measures. Like Abraham 
 Lincoln, he had aspired to the vice-presidency four 
 years before his election to the presidency. He was 
 not a candidate for re-election in 1848. The issue 
 on which he was elected, the annexation of Texas, 
 was settled by Tyler before he came into the presi- 
 dency, but the Mexican war which followed was the 
 natural sequence of that annexation. Polk was a 
 Presbyterian in religion, and his life was consistent 
 with his professions. 
 
 Zachary Taylor was born hi Virginia September 
 24, 1 784. His family residence when elected to the 
 presidency was in Louisiana. He died in the Exec- 
 utive Mansion, Washington, July 9, 1850. General 
 Taylor remained upon his father’s plantation until 
 1808, when he was appointed an officer in the reg- 
 ular army, and he remained in the service until his 
 elevation to the presidency on the strength of his 
 record in Mexico. He was a slaveholder, but not in 
 sympathy with the prevailing Southern eagerness 
 for more slave territory. Some suspicion of foul 
 play and poison lingers about his death which 
 was attributed to an attack of bilious fever. He 
 was father-in-law to Jefferson Davis and father of 
 General Richard Taylor of the Confederate army. 
 
 Millard Fillmore, who came to the presidency in 
 consequence of the death of General Taylor, was a 
 native of New York, born January 7, 1800, and died 
 at Buffalo March 8, 1874. His early education was 
 meager, but being of a studious disposition, he be- 
 came a well-informed man. He was a lawyer by 
 profession. Fillmore entered Congress as a Whig 
 in 1833, and gradually rose in influence until he be- 
 came chairman of the committee of Ways and 
 Means in 1842. He was the Whig candidate for gov- 
 ernor of New York in 1844, but was defeated. When 
 nominated and elected for the vice-presidency he 
 was comptroller of the state. He aspired to the 
 presidency by election, but the Whig party may be 
 said to have died upon his hands. His last years 
 were spent in the practice of law in Buffalo. He 
 was an elegant gentleman and an honest man. 
 
 Franklin Pierce was a native of New Hampshire. 
 He was born November 23, 1804, and died October 
 8, 1869. Ilis father, Benjamin Pierce, had been 
 governor of the state. Bowdoin College was his 
 alma mater, where Nathaniel Hawthorne was his 
 classmate. They became and remained warm 
 friends. Pierce was hi the lower house of Congress 
 
PRESIDENTS AND PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. 
 
 from 1833 to 1837, and in the Senate from 1837 to 
 1842. Polk offered him a seat in his cabinet, but 
 he preferred to accept a brigadier-generalship in the 
 army during the war with Mexico. lie did not dis- 
 tinguish himself, but acquired availability, as it 
 proved, for the presidency to which he was elected in 
 1852. He was always strongly Southern in his sym- 
 pathies. After his retirement from the presidency 
 he lived quietly at Concord, New Hampshire. He 
 made a feeble effort to secure a re-nomination in 
 1856. 
 
 James Buchanan was a native of Pennsylvania 
 and never changed his residence. He was born 
 April 23, 1791, and died June 1, 1868. He was edu- 
 cated at Dickinson College. He began his long po- 
 litical career as a Federalist, but rallied around the 
 standard of General Jackson. In 1828 he was 
 elected to Congress. Three years later he was ap- 
 pointed minister to Russia. Two years later he was 
 elected to the United States Senate and served cred- 
 itably in that body twelve years. In 1853 he was 
 appointed minister to England. It was while he 
 was holding that position that he was nominated 
 for the presidency. His election in 1856 was the 
 last national triumph of the Democracy. In 1866 
 he published in self-defense a volume entitled, “ Mr. 
 Buchanan’s Administration.” As an attempt at 
 vindication it was a failure. 
 
 Abraham Lincoln was born in Kentucky Febru- 
 ary 19, 1809, and died at the hand of the assassin, 
 J. Wilkes Booth, April 15, 1865. Like Jackson 
 and his immediate successor, Johnson, he sprang 
 from the very humblest rank. His education 
 was almost wholly self-procured. His early life was 
 spent upon a pioneer farm. He was elected to the 
 legislature of Illinois in 1834 and studied law. He 
 removed to Springfield and gradually rose to con- 
 siderable eminence in his profession and as an effect- 
 ive political speaker. In 1846 he was elected to 
 Congress as a Whig and served one term. When 
 the Republican party was organized he was its recog- 
 nized leader in Illinois. He received 110 votes as 
 candidate for the vice-presidency in 1856. In 1858 
 he canvassed Illinois in a joint debate with Douglas, 
 acquitting himself so grandly that his nomination 
 for and election to the presidency was his reward. 
 From that time to his tragic death the life of Lin- 
 coln was historical rather than biographical. 
 
 Andrew Johnson was born December 29, 1808, and 
 
 585 
 
 died July 31, 1875. A tailor by trade, he was taught 
 to read and write by his wife. His first office was 
 that of alderman. He drifted into politics natur- 
 ally, being always very popular with the industrial 
 class. He entered Congress in 1843 as a Democrat, 
 where he remained until chosen governor of Ten- 
 nessee in 1853. In 1857 he was elected to the Sen- 
 ate. When secession came he was a staunch sup- 
 porter of the Union, and that gave him a popularity 
 at the North which secured him the vice-presiden- 
 tial nomination in 1864, and ultimately the presi- 
 dency. His presidential term was one long struggle 
 against the party which elected him. He made two 
 unsuccessful attempts to get back into the United 
 States Senate, and finally, in 1875, his wish was grat- 
 ified, but he died before taking his seat. 
 
 Ulysses S. Grant was born in Ohio, April 27, 1822. 
 His father was a sagacious business man, and the 
 son was educated at West Point. He took part in 
 the Mexican war and served for a time upon the 
 frontier. In 1854 he resigned his position in the 
 army and devoted himself to business. His career 
 from 1861 to 1877 forms a consjiicuous part of 
 American history. In the spring of 1877 he started 
 on a trip around the world, and was everywhere re- 
 ceived with distinguished honors. He returned to 
 America in the fall of 1879. Tie became a promi- 
 nent but unsuccessful candidate for the Republican 
 nomination for the presidency in 1880. General 
 Grant now resides in New York City. 
 
 Rutherford B. Hayes was born in Ohio. He was 
 educated at Kenyon College and adopted the profes- 
 sion of law, entering upon its practice in Cincinnati. 
 When the civil war came he entered the service and 
 was a very creditable hut not very conspicuous Briga- 
 dier-General. After the war he served one term in 
 Congress and was elected to the governorship of his 
 state, which office he occupied at the time of his elec- 
 tion to the presidency. Since the expiration of his 
 term of office, March 4, 1881, he has lived in retire- 
 ment at his home in Fremont, Ohio. 
 
 James A. Garfield was born in Ohio November 19, 
 1831, and died at the hand of the assassin Guiteau 
 September 19, 1881. Young as he was, his public 
 life had been long and eventful. Ho graduated at 
 Williams’ College in 1856 and adopted teaching as a 
 profession. In 1859 lie was elected to the State Sen- 
 ate of Ohio. He studied law and prepared to enter 
 the legal profession. When the war came ho entered 
 
•vk 
 
 
 4 - 
 
 586 
 
 PRESIDENTS AND PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. 
 
 the military service. He rose to the rank of Major- 
 General. In 1862 he was elected to Congress. He 
 remained in that body until elected to the presidency 
 in 1880. In the previous winter he had been chosen 
 United States Senator for the term beginning March 
 4, 1881. His election was the triumph of genius and 
 goodness over calumny, and he entered upon the 
 office of chief magistrate with every prospect of a 
 great future. 
 
 Chester A. Arthur, the third Vice-President to 
 reach the presidency, was born in Vermont. He is 
 a graduate of Union College. Choosing the law as 
 his profession, he made New York City his home. 
 His first public effort was the defense of a fugitive 
 slave, and he acquitted himself with great credit. 
 During the gubernatorial term of Governor Morgan 
 he was Adjutant-General of the state of New York, 
 rendering important service during the first year 
 and a half of the war in that capacity. Late in the 
 second term of President Grant, General Arthur was 
 appointed Collector of the port of New York. He 
 was removed by President Hayes, but not upon any 
 charge of malfeasance. His removal was due to a 
 difference of opinion upon the political features of 
 the civil service. He was a member of. the National 
 Republican Convention of 1880, in which body he 
 supported General Grant for a third term. 
 
 Having finished what may be called a key to the 
 presidential group introductory to this chapter, we 
 turn to the elections which have been held. The 
 United States has had twenty-one Presidents and 
 twenty-four presidential elections. 
 
 During the Revolutionary War this country was 
 without an executive head in distinction from a leg- 
 islative body, the Continental Congress exercising 
 all the political functions of a national nature. The 
 President of that body was its presiding officer and 
 nothing more. 
 
 The first presidential election occurred the first 
 Wednesday in January, 1789. It was held by order 
 of the Continental Congress. The electors were 
 chosen that day in accordance with the Constitution 
 which had been duly ratified during the previous 
 summer, taking the place of the Articles of Confed- 
 eration. On the Wednesday next following, the 
 electors met, those of each state by themselves, in 
 their respective state capitols, to vote for President 
 and Vice-President. So perfectly harmonious and 
 well understood was the whole matter that the elec- 
 
 tions of George Washington to the presidency and 
 John Adams to the vice-presidency were unanimous. 
 The same law of the Continental Congress which 
 provided for the presidential election also provided 
 that a new Congress should be elected when the 
 electors were chosen, and that body is known as the 
 First Congress. It was further provided that both 
 Congress and the President should enter upon their 
 official duties the first Wednesday in the following 
 March (which fell upon the fourth day of the 
 month) in the city of New York. Washington and 
 Adams were on hand in time, but it was April 30 be- 
 fore a quorum of Congress convened and the new exe- 
 cutive actually came into power. North Carolina and 
 Rhode Island had not ratified the constitution and 
 took no part in the first election of a President. The 
 second presidential election was also unanimous, the 
 President and Vice-President being re-elected without 
 opposition. Fifteen states took part in it, Vermont 
 and Kentucky, as well as the original thirteen. 
 
 Washington refused a third term. The candidates 
 balloted for, with their electoral votes, were these : 
 John Adams, Massachusetts, 71 ; Thomas Jefferson, 
 Virginia, 69 ; Thomas Pinckney, South Carolina, 
 59; Aaron Burr, New York, 38. As the constitu- 
 tion then stood, the second choice of the people for 
 President became Vice-President. Tennessee was 
 added to the list of states by that time, 1796, and 
 the existence of two well-defined political parties 
 was manifest. Washington was not a partisan, but 
 leaned toward Federalism, or a strong central gov- 
 ernment. John Adams, Pinckney and Alexander 
 Hamilton were the leaders of the Federalists; 
 Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr were the leaders 
 of the Republicans, or State-rights party. 
 
 In 1804 the same candidates were in the field as 
 in 1796, and the election resulted, Jefferson and 
 Burr 73 votes each, Adams 64 and Pinckney 63. 
 There was thus a tie and a tangle which threatened 
 very serious consequences. The election was thrown 
 into the House. After balloting seven days that 
 body chose Jefferson President and Burr Vice-Presi- 
 dent. Before another election was held, the con- 
 stitution was so amended that the electors have since 
 voted directly for presidents and vice-presidents. 
 With that defeat Adams and his party went out of 
 power forever. It continued to exist and vainly 
 strive for the ascendancy until after the war of 1812, 
 when, with the election of Monroe, it ceased to exist. 
 
 r 
 

 PRESIDENTS AND PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. 
 
 The fifth election brought another member of the 
 Pinckney family, Charles C., to the front as the can- 
 didate of the Federalists, with Rufus King of New 
 York as candidate for Vice-President. The duel 
 between Burr and Hamilton, resulting in the latter’s 
 death, had made the name of Burr second in odium 
 only to Arnold, and in his place New York furnished, 
 as second to Jefferson, George Clinton. It may 
 be remarked that if Virginia is the Mother of Pres- 
 idents, New York is of Vice-Presidents. Jefferson 
 and Clinton received 162 votes ; their opponents only 
 14. Ohio had been admitted to the Union in 1802. 
 
 Following the example of Washington, Jefferson 
 retired to private life at the close of his second term. 
 James Madison of Virginia came to the front as the 
 leader of the Republican forces, with Clinton still 
 second. Pinckney and King were again the candi- 
 dates of the Federalists. 'They received 47 each, to 
 123 for Madison and 113 for Clinton. 
 
 Four years later Madison was re-elected, but George 
 Clinton had died in office, and Elbridge Gerry of 
 Massachusetts took his place as Vice-President. The 
 Federal candidates were DeWitt Clinton (nephew of 
 George) of New York and Jared Ingersoll of Penn- 
 sylvania. By that time Louisiana had been admitted 
 to the Union. The Republican candidates received 
 128 electoral votes each, Clinton 89 and Ingersoll 57. 
 The second war with England was fought during 
 that seventh administration. 
 
 The election in 1816 stood, James Monroe of Vir- 
 ginia for President and Daniel D. Tompkins of New 
 York for Vice-President, 183 votes each; and Rufus 
 King of New York and John E. Howard of Mary- 
 land, 34 votes each. Indiana took part in that elec- 
 tion. The Federalists who had carried the second 
 presidential election, and struggled vainly for the 
 mastery in the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh and 
 eighth, now at last gave up the contest, accepting the 
 inevitable. 
 
 The condition of the country was one of measure- 
 less content. Monroe and Tompkins were re-elected 
 in 1820 without opposition. Four new states had 
 been added to the Union, Illinois, Alabama, Maine, 
 and Mississippi. The Republicans had been in 
 power twenty-four years, and selected the President 
 all the time from Virginia. 
 
 Before 1824 the contest over Missouri had been 
 waged, resulting in the compromise which was in 
 reality the first battle of the war between the states. 
 
 5 8 9 
 
 In that, the tenth election, there were four candi- 
 dates for President, none of them representing a 
 party. The persistence of the Federalists in hold- 
 ing together had been, as it proved, the cohesive 
 power of Republicanism. The four candidates in 
 1824, and their respective votes, were as follows : 
 Andrew Jackson, 99; John Quincy Adams, 84; 
 Wm. H. Crawford, 41; Henry Clay, 31. The num- 
 ber necessary to a choice was 131, consequently the 
 election of a President devolved upon the House. 
 The result was the selection of Adams for the presi- 
 dency. John C. Calhoun of South Carolina had 
 received 182 electoral votes for the vice-presidency. 
 Adams and Clay combined their forces against the 
 hero of the battle of New Orleans. Bein<r a great 
 statesman but no politician, Adams failed to rally 
 to his support a party organization, and the time 
 came for another presidential election. Hitherto no 
 national conventions had been held. The candi- 
 dates for President and Vice-President had always 
 been selected by congressional caucuses. The year 
 1824 saw the last of “King Caucus” as presidential 
 dictator. 
 
 The eleventh election, 1828, was a clear-cut, bit- 
 ter and exciting contest between President Adams 
 and Richard Rust of Pennsylvania on one side and 
 Jackson and Calhoun on the other. It was culture 
 and the Northeast against uncouth vigor and the 
 South and West. The result was that out of 261 
 electoral votes Jackson received 178, Calhoun 171, 
 and Adams and Rush 83 each. Jackson was not 
 particularly skilled in the arts of the politician, but 
 he was the material out of which to construct 
 an ideal leader in those times, and served as the 
 nucleus of a new party, the Democracy. This or- 
 ganization really dates from Jackson’s accession to 
 power. During that first term of Jackson the abor- 
 tive nullification movement in South Carolina oc- 
 curred. It was countenanced by Calhoun and 
 crushed by Jackson, and thus was the former ren- 
 dered unavailable as a national candidate for any 
 office, while the latter was immensely strengthened 
 
 by it. 
 
 In 1832 Jackson was re-elected, receiving 219 out 
 of 288 electoral votes. With him was elected to the 
 vice-presidency Martin Van Buren of New York. 
 There were several opposing candidates. Clay, Wil- 
 liam Wirt and John Floyd, but “Old Hickory,” as 
 his friends delighted to call him, was invincible. 
 
 q) 
 

 
 59 ° 
 
 PRESIDENTS AND PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS. 
 
 In 1836 Van Buren was the candidate of the 
 Democratic party, with Richard M. Johnson of 
 Kentucky on the ticket with him for Vice-President. 
 The opposition was still fragmentary. William H. 
 Harrison of Ohio, Daniel Webster of Massachusetts, 
 W. P. Mangum of North Carolina, and Hugh L. 
 White of Tennessee, were all in the field, but A"an Bu- 
 ren received 170 out of 294 electoral votes. Johnson 
 was elected Vice-President by the Senate, no choice 
 for that office having been made by the electors. 
 
 The importance of political organization was now 
 so well established that in 1840 the opposition, 
 which had gradually come to be known as Whigs, 
 held a national convention. In the meanwhile the 
 panic and hard times of 1837 had occurred. Van 
 Buren and Johnson were the nominees of the De- 
 mocracy. The Whigs chose as their candidates Gen- 
 eral Harrison and John Tyler of Virginia. The 
 campaign was very exciting. It resulted in a bril- 
 liant Whig victory. Out of 294 votes cast, Harrison 
 and Tyler received 224. Harrison died almost im- 
 mediately, and April 6 John Tyler became acting 
 President. That was the first time in the history 
 of the country that the Angel of Death elected the 
 President. 
 
 In 1844 the Democrats nominated James K. 
 Polk of Tennessee, and George M. Dallas of Penn- 
 sylvania, as their standard-bearers ; the Whigs 
 selected Henry Clay and Theodore Frelinghuysen of 
 New Jersey. Out of 275 votes cast, Polk and Dallas 
 received 170. The Abolitionists had by this time 
 become something of a power in the North, just 
 enough to draw from the Whigs sufficient votes to 
 give the victory to the Democracy. 
 
 Before the next or sixteenth election, the Mexican 
 war had been fought and gold discovered in Cali- 
 fornia. The Whigs chose as their presidential can- 
 didate General Zachary Taylor, nominally of Louis- 
 iana, but really a soldier with no civil life. He had 
 never voted in his life. On the ticket with him was 
 Millard Fillmore of New York. The Democratic 
 candidates were Lewis Cass of Michigan and Win. 
 0. Butler of Kentucky. “ Old Rough and Ready ” 
 was the popular name for Taylor, and he swept the 
 country, aided by the fact that Martin Van Buren, 
 out of hatred for Cass, ran as Free-soil candidate, 
 drawing off votes enough to give Taylor the state of 
 New York. The vote stood : Taylor and Fillmore, 
 163 ; Cass and Butler, 127. 
 
 The seventeenth presidential election (1852) 
 found both parties eagerly disavowing anti-slavery 
 sentiments and vying in subserviency to the South. 
 The Democratic candidates were Franklin Pierce of 
 New Hampshire and William R. King of Alabama. 
 The Whig candidates were General Winfield Scott, 
 of military renown, and William A. Graham of 
 North Carolina. The disparity in the popular vote 
 was not very great, but in the electoral vote the 
 Democratic ticket stood 254, the Whig 42. There 
 were, by that time, 31 states, the latest being Cali- 
 fornia. 
 
 In 1856 the slavery question became more promi- 
 nent than ever, owing to the repeal of the Missouri 
 Compromise. The Whig party died with the defeat 
 of Scott. The modern Republican party came into 
 existence, as a national organization, June 17, 1856, 
 at Philadelphia, at which time John C. Fremont of 
 California, and William M. Dayton of New Jersey, 
 were nominated for President and Vice-President. 
 Fifteen days before, the Democrats had put in the 
 field Janies Buchanan of Pennsylvania, and John 
 C. Breckenridge of Kentucky. The “Know-Noth- 
 ing,” or American, party had a ticket in the field, 
 headed by ex-President Fillmore. The latter had 
 8 electoral votes ; Fremont, 114; Buchanan, 174. 
 Fillmore’s votes came from Maryland, Fremont’s 
 from the North, he being the first candidate of any 
 prominence to furnish the occasion of sharply de- 
 fined sectionalism. 
 
 In 1860 there were four candidates, if we include 
 the insignificant candidacy of Bell and Everett 
 (American party). The Democrats were divided in 
 their support between Stephen A. Douglas and 
 J olin C. Breckenridge. The Republicans put in the 
 field Abraham Lincoln of Illinois, and Hannibal 
 Hamlin of Maine. The contest was fierce and close. 
 The popular vote of the two wings of the Democ- 
 racy were several hundred thousand in excess of 
 the Republican vote, but being divided, the result 
 was that Lincoln had 180 votes ; Douglas, 12 ; 
 Breckenridge, 72 and Bell 39. Douglas had sub- 
 stantially the same popular vote as Breckenridge 
 and Bell combined. 
 
 The twentieth election occurred during the civil 
 war, and was the triumph of the war party at the 
 North. The Republicans re-nominated Abraham 
 Lincoln, and placed Andrew Johnson of Tennessee 
 upon the ticket with him. The Democrats ran 
 
 
 
General George B. McClellan on his military record 
 with George H. Pendleton of Ohio second upon the 
 ticket. The vote stood, Lincoln, 212 ; McClellan, 
 21. In little over a month after his second inaugu- 
 ration Mr. Lincoln was assassinated, and Andrew 
 Johnson came to the presidency in his place. John- 
 son became so very unpopular that he was finally 
 impeached, and only by one vote escaped conviction. 
 Had he been convicted, B. F. Wade of Ohio would 
 have filled out the balance of the second Lincoln term. 
 
 In 1868 occurred the twenty-first national elec- 
 tion. The candidates were Ulysses S. Grant of Illi- 
 nois and Schuyler Colfax of Indiana, on the Repub- 
 lican side ; Horatio Seymour of New York and 
 Frank P. Blair of Missouri, on tiie Democratic side. 
 Three states, Virginia, Texas, and Mississippi, had 
 not been restored to the Union, and took no part in 
 the election. Grant received 214 votes ; Seymour, 80. 
 Grant’s popular majority was about half a million. 
 
 By 1872 a great deal of disaffection had developed 
 within the Republican party, owing to long contin- 
 uance in power. This discontent found expression 
 in the assembling of the National Liberal Conven- 
 tion in Cincinnati which nominated Horace Greeley 
 of New York for the presidency, and B. Gratz 
 Brown of Missouri for the vice-presidency. The 
 Democrats in their national convention put the 
 same ticket in the field. The Republicans re-nom- 
 inated General Grant, putting Henry Wilson of 
 Massachusetts upon the ticket with him. The Re- 
 publicans carried 286 electoral votes, the opposition 
 only 47. Mr. Greeley died between the popular 
 
 election and the meeting of the electoral colleges. 
 Vice-President Wilson died during his term of office. 
 The Liberal movement was abandoned and the 
 Democracy returned to its trenches and general line 
 of battle. 
 
 The centennial, or twenty-third, presidential cam- 
 paign was peculiar in the fact that it was continued 
 almost to the very day of inauguration. The Re- 
 publican candidates were Rutherford B. Hayes of 
 Ohio, and William A. Wheeler of New York; the 
 Democratic candidates were Samuel J. Tilden of 
 New York, and Thomas A. Hendricks of Indiana, 
 all, except Wheeler, being governors of their respec- 
 tive states. No other candidates received any elec- 
 toral votes. It was conceded that Tilden had 184 
 votes out of a total of 369. The votes of South 
 Carolina, Florida and Louisiana, especially the lat- 
 ter, were stoutly claimed by both parties. Finally, 
 it became necessary for the conservative element in 
 both parties to agree upon a plan of arbitration. A 
 bill was passed which created an Electoral Commis- 
 sion to decide the matter in dispute. The result 
 was that Hayes received 185 votes and was duly de- 
 clared elected. 
 
 The last election held was the twenty-fourth, in 
 1880. James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur 
 were the nominees of the Republican party ; General 
 Winfield S. Hancock, of the regular army, and 
 William H. English of Indiana, were the nominees 
 of the Democracy. The vote stood, Garfield, 214 ; 
 Hancock, 155, and the validity of the election was 
 not questioned. 
 
 t V £ 
 
 61 ' 
 
 £ 
 
 PRESIDENTS AND PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONSo 
 
 59 1 
 
 l 
 
 
THE STATES AND TERRITORIES 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 HE United States consists 
 of thirty-eight states, eight 
 territories and two dis- 
 tricts, the latter being 
 Alaska and the District of 
 Columbia. It is proposed 
 in this connection to give 
 the more important and interest- 
 ing facts, historical and actual, 
 about each state aud territory, 
 taking them up in their alphabet- 
 ical order, omitting such informa- 
 tion as may be found either in 
 preceding chapters or in subse- 
 quent statistical tables. In giving 
 longitudes and latitudes it will be 
 unnecessary to add “north” to one 
 and “ west from Greenwich ” to 
 the other, this being understood as a matter of course. 
 The seal of each state will be given. The states are 
 older than the United States. There is no limit 
 fixed to the number of states which may be admitted 
 by Congress. No provision is made for dividing a 
 state, except in the case of Texas, which, it is con- 
 templated, may eventually be several states; but 
 any instance occurring of an attempt of that kind 
 could be decided upon its merits. 
 
 ALABAMA. 
 
 Alabama was the twenty-fifth state, in the order 
 of its admission to the Union. The name is Creek 
 (Indian) for “Here we rest.” It is situated between 
 latitudes 30° 15' and 35, and longitudes 84° 
 56' and 88° 48'. It is 336 miles long and from 148 
 to 200 miles wide. The soil is easily tilled and q uite 
 productive. Its principal rivers are, the Tennessee, 
 the Mobile, Tombigbee, Alabama, Coosa, Black 
 Warrior, Perdido and Chattahoochee. The north- 
 ern portion of the state is somewhat mountainous, 
 and the farther south you go the lower is the aver, 
 age level. It is a great cotton-growing state. It 
 has one good seaport, and only one, Mobile. The 
 bay of that name is about 30 miles long and from 
 three to four miles wide. The main manufacturing 
 industry carried on there has iron for its base; but 
 some cotton cloth is made. For a long time it 
 raised more cotton than any other state in the 
 Union. With the exception of Mobile, the state can 
 
 ( 592 ) 
 
 CHAPTER LXXXVI. 
 
 The Scope op this Chapter — The States and Territories in their Alphabetical Order — 
 The Original Thirteen States, from the Date op their Emergence from Colonies 
 into Independent Commonwealths — Productions, Resources and other Features op 
 each State, and Territory, Actual and Prospective. 
 
4s 
 
 i 
 
 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 593 
 
 hardly be said to have a city, and its prosperity is 
 almost wholly industrial rather than commercial. 
 
 In 1819 the territory of Alabama was organized, 
 and two years later the state, having a population of 
 127,901, was admitted into the Union. It was at 
 Montgomery, the capital of Alabama, that the 
 Southern Confederacy was organized. It remained 
 the Confederate capital until the July following, 
 about six months. Several battles were fought 
 within the borders of that state during the civil 
 war, the naval action in Mobile Bay, August, 1864, 
 being the chief. The land engagements were com- 
 paratively trivial. After the close of the war, June, 
 1865, President Johnson appointed a provisional 
 governor. The state rescinded the ordinance of 
 secession in September following and sought re- 
 admission to representation in Congress. It was not 
 reconstructed until 1868. It was Republican in poli- 
 tics for several years, but with nearly all political 
 disabilities removed, it reverted to the Democracy. 
 It suffered less probably from the ravages of war 
 than any other Confederate state. 
 
 ALASKA. 
 
 Alaska was known as Russian -America until the 
 United States purchased it from Russia in 1867. 
 The price paid was $7,200,000. Win. 11. Seward 
 was Secretary of State at that time, and was very 
 eager for the acquisition. Some very absurd reports 
 were widely circulated representing the country to 
 have some agricultural value. It may possibly have 
 some valuable mines, but the soil isfrostbound and 
 sterile. It extends north as far as the Arctic Ocean, 
 between latitudes 54° 40' and 71° 23'. Behring 
 Strait separates it from Asia. Its only intrinsic 
 value lies in its seal fisheries. From these the gov- 
 ernment derives some revenue and the world some 
 furs. The peninsula, sometimes known as Sitka, 
 is about 350 miles long and 25 miles wide on an 
 average. It is a strip of land between British Colum- 
 bia and the main body of Alaska, having Mt. Saint 
 Elias on the north. New Archangel, the capital 
 of Alaska, if capital it may be said to have, is 
 on an island which virtually forms a part of 
 this peninsula. The United States does not main- 
 tain a regular territorial government there. The 
 population consists mostly of Esquimaux. It forms 
 a collection district for the protection of the gov- 
 ernment interest in the seals. Alaska has a vol- 
 
 cano of grand proportions, Mount Saint Elias. It 
 has othexs of less altitude. St. Elias is about 18,000 
 feet in height. 
 
 ARKANSAS. 
 
 Arkansas was organized as a territory in 1819. 
 It had once formed a part of Louisiana. Its first 
 settlement was by the French in 1670, at or near 
 the point where the St. Francis River empties into 
 the Mississippi. In 1812, when Louisiana became a 
 state, Arkansas was made a part of Missouri. It 
 had a long territorial existence, not having been ad- 
 mitted to the Union until 1836. Its growth was 
 slow until 1850, when Southern planters began to 
 go there in large numbers, attracted by its rich soil 
 and adaptability to cotton raising. It was in full 
 sympathy with secession and passed the ordinance, 
 taking itself out of the Union on the very day 
 that Lincoln was inaugurated. As early as January, 
 1864, steps were taken in the direction of restoration 
 to the Union, but it was not until the summer of 
 1868 that Congress passed the bill for its restoration 
 to representation, and it was not until 1874 that 
 the state had rest from reconstruction. 
 
 Arkansas has several kinds of mineral wealth. 
 Its zinc ore is said to be equal to that of Silesia. 
 Copper, manganese, iron and coal aie abundant, es- 
 pecially the latter. The most remarkable feature 
 of the state is its cluster of hot springs, widely 
 famed for healing properties. Rheumatism yields 
 more readily to those waters than to drugs. Hot 
 Springs, the town, is about 60 miles southwest of 
 Little Rock, the capital. The state is admirably 
 adapted to grazing. Its hay crop is important. Its 
 area of arable land is very large. It is a fine country 
 for fruit. The navigable waters of the state exceed 
 3,000 miles in length. Its principal rivers are the 
 Arkansas, the St. Francis, the White and the Oua- 
 chita (pronounced Washitaw). In the order of its 
 admission Arkansas is the twenty-fifth state in the 
 Union. The climate is fine. The mean tempera- 
 ture for the year is about 62°, and except in the 
 malarial marshes the state is remarkably healthful. 
 
594 
 
 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ARIZONA. 
 
 Arizona Territory was organized from New Mex- 
 ico early in 1863. Tucson is the capital. That city 
 is the center of quite an important mining region. 
 This territory is at once old and new, having a com- 
 paratively remote past, and yet in its actual devel- 
 opment and attitude toward civilization it is almost 
 entirely prospective rather than retrospective. It 
 is highly probable that New S]>ain, as established by 
 Cortez, took in, definitely, the most of Arizona. 
 Certain it is that there were Jesuit missionaries and 
 other Spaniards in that vicinity, as permanent set- 
 
 CALIFORNIA. 
 
 California may be called the reward of demerit. 
 The United States waged a war with Mexico which 
 had in it no redeeming feature. It was a strong 
 nation, taking mean advantage of a weak neighbor 
 
 VIEW OF SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA. 
 
 tiers, as early as 1600. Imposing and interesting 
 ruins attest the zeal of those propagandists of the 
 faith. There are many mines there which were 
 worked two hundred years ago, and abandoned 
 from the lack of machinery requisite to deep min- 
 ing. There is not much tillage, nor hardly any 
 possible, except by irrigation. Other minerals be- 
 sides gold and silver are found there in great 
 abundance. High mountains and deep canons 
 prevail. It has immense tracts of good grazing land 
 which are largely occupied by vast herds of cattle. 
 
 The flourishing mining town of Tombstone, so 
 named on account of the natural aspect of the 
 immediate country, is in this territory. That por- 
 tion of the mineral belt is largely peopled, and 
 developed by enterprise from the Pacific Slope. 
 
 in a cause which was bad in itself. But the result 
 was an acquisition of incalculably greater value to 
 the country than any one could have anticipated. 
 California was the chief, but by no means the sole, 
 territorial acquisition of the United States from 
 Mexico. 
 
 As eariy as the sixteenth century, that great 
 English navigator. Sir Francis Drake, coasted along 
 the Pacific Slope. In 1578 he landed in California 
 and took possession in the name of the British sover- 
 eign, calling the land New Albion. But the English 
 never attempted to establish their claim. The bay of 
 San Francisco was discovered in 1769. A Jesuit mis- 
 sion was founded therein 1776. For fifty years quite 
 extensive missions were maintained in that vicinity 
 by the Franciscan monks. When Mexico became 
 
a - 
 
 i 
 
 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 595 
 
 independent the missions declined, and in 1845 the 
 government confiscated the Franciscan property. 
 When the country fell into the hands of the United 
 States it was almost a virgin wilderness, for practi- 
 cal purposes. 
 
 Except that 
 some tracts of 
 land are held 
 under old Mex- 
 ican titles, Cal- 
 ifornia hardly 
 has a vital 
 trace of Span- 
 ish occupancy. 
 
 It can hardly 
 be said to have 
 had a territori- 
 al existence at 
 all. There were 
 military gover- 
 nors, martial 
 law, lynch law 
 and no law at 
 all in those 
 early days, but 
 hardly had the 
 tide set in 
 when Califor- 
 nia found it- 
 self with a pop- 
 ulation amply 
 entitling it to 
 admission into 
 the Union. It 
 was admitted 
 in 1850. 
 
 California is 
 700 miles long, 
 and has an 
 average width 
 of 200 miles. 
 
 Beside its gold, 
 it is a very rich 
 state agriculturally. The corn and wheat, the 
 wool and fruit, the wine and cattle, yield more real 
 wealth than the mines, many times over. Southern 
 California is especially favorable to grape and orange 
 raising. The climate is delightful. The gold prod- 
 uct of the state during the first quarter-century 
 
 of its development was $990,600,000. The most 
 prolific year was 1853, $65,000,000. 
 
 San Francisco is, and always has been, the chief 
 city of California. There are, however, several 
 
 other cities of 
 very consider- 
 able import- 
 ance, Sacra- 
 mento, the cap- 
 ital, Stockton, 
 Los Angeles, 
 i Oakland, San 
 Diego, Marys- 
 ville and San- 
 ta Cruz. The 
 great misfort- 
 une of the 
 state is that its 
 great proper- 
 ties are largely 
 held by a 
 few monopo- 
 lists who spend 
 their money 
 elsewhere. An- 
 other misfort- 
 une is the class 
 of menial la- 
 borers, the Chi- 
 nese. From the 
 standpoint of 
 economy, M on- 
 golian labor is 
 beneficent, but 
 the very gen- 
 eral opinion of 
 the people is 
 that the state 
 would have 
 been better off 
 if no Asiatic 
 had ever cross- 
 ed the Pacific, 
 natural curiosities. The 
 most remarkable valley in 
 Lake Tahoe is a marvel of 
 Nowhere else does the 
 There are 
 v trees 
 
 THE YOSEMITE VALLEY. 
 
 California has many 
 Yosemite Valley is the 
 the world for grandeur, 
 purity and transparency, 
 pine reach such stupendous proportions, 
 several .<rroves in which may be found 
 
 
 73 
 
 ■*> 
 
 > 
 

 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 < 
 
 over 100 feet in circumference. The most notable 
 wild beast of that region is the bear — grizzly, brown 
 and black. 
 
 Colorado receives its name from the Rio Colorado 
 river and its Grand Canon between longtitudes 112° 
 and 115°, where the 
 river flows for three 
 hundred miles be- 
 tween perpendicular 
 walls of rock, some- 
 times 6,000 feethigh, 
 forming one of the 
 greatest natural cu- 
 riosities. The state 
 itself, the thirty- 
 eighth member of 
 the Union, lies be- 
 tween latitudes 378 
 and 41° and longi 
 tudes 102° and 109°. 
 
 Like Arizona, it is 
 one mighty treasure- 
 house of gold and 
 silver, with no a- 
 daptation to agricul- 
 ture, except as the 
 land is irrigated. The 
 valleys and plateaus 
 yield nutritive grass 
 sparcely, but abund- 
 antly for the encour- 
 agement of grazing 
 as an industry. The 
 state has these two 
 industries — mining 
 and herding- — which 
 furnish its exports. 
 
 It is comparatively 
 easy to irrigate the 
 land and secure bountiful harvests, but the state 
 is too far from the seaboard to raise grain for 
 
 the general market. Besides, the home prices are 
 high, making the profits of agriculture satisfactory. 
 The discovery of gold in paying quantities was made 
 in 1858, and the next year the reports of rich mines 
 of free gold near Pike’s Peak created a perfect furor. 
 Thousands of people rushed thither, expecting to 
 find a second California. A great deal of suffering 
 ensued and disappointment. Still the report had a 
 substantial basis. By 1861, when the territory was 
 formed, the population was 35,000. It was admitted 
 as a state in 1876. Denver is the capital and chief 
 city. Colorado is a great resort for invalids, 
 especially those affected with pulmonary diseases 
 
 and throat troubles. 
 Leadville sprang up 
 about the time the 
 territory became a 
 state. It was born 
 of anew-mining dis- 
 covery of very great 
 richness. It is far- 
 ther south and high- 
 er than Denver. The 
 air is rarified and 
 light. The area of 
 mineral development 
 is steadily enlarging, 
 and the business now 
 rests upon a legiti- 
 mate basis. TheGun- 
 nison country and 
 the San Juan coun- 
 try are terms used 
 to designate distinct 
 and important min- 
 eral regions in the 
 southern portion of 
 the state. In its 
 yield of gold and 
 silver, Colorado is 
 the leading state in 
 the union. It has 
 three colleges, all 
 small, but fraught 
 with happy omen 
 for the future of the 
 state. The mere min- 
 ing camp of territorial days is fast giving place to 
 villages and cities filled with families. 
 
 >9 
 
STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 597 
 
 CONNECTICUT. 
 
 Connecticut is the first of the old thirteen colo- 
 nies to come before us in this connection. It had 
 won some renown as a colony, by its preservation of 
 its royal charter and the strictness of its religious ob- 
 servances. In the Revolutionary War its most illus- 
 trious soldier 
 was General Is- 
 rael Putnam. 
 
 He was bom in 
 1718, and was 
 rather old for 
 the service when 
 the war began, 
 but he entered 
 upon it with 
 great enthusiasm. 
 
 Roger Sherman 
 was the most 
 conspicuous rep- 
 resentative of 
 that colony in 
 the Continental 
 Congress. Gov- 
 ernor J onathan 
 
 Trumbull was a 
 
 trusted counselor and devoted friend of General 
 Washington, who was accustomed to address him 
 as “Uncle Jonathan,” since then the typical name 
 for the American people. 
 
 The war of 1812 found Connecticut largely en- 
 gaged in commerce, much more so than it is at the 
 present time. That war was a great calamity to its 
 commerce, and although the state did its part fully 
 in the way of supplying men and means, the pol- 
 icy of peace-at-any-price had a great many ardent 
 advocates there. A convention was held at Hart- 
 ford for the purpose of denouncing the war just be- 
 fore the news of the battle of New Orleans was re- 
 ceived, which became historic from its unpopularity, 
 as soon as the good news came. The especial pride 
 of Connecticut is Yale College, one of the truly 
 
 YALE COLLEGE, NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT 
 
 great universities of the world. It was founded as 
 early as 1701. It is located at New Haven. Orig- 
 inally a college only in the restricted sense of the 
 term, it is now an institution fully equipped for all 
 higher educational purpose. There are other col- 
 leges of some importance in the state, but they are 
 not to be compared to Yale. 
 
 Insurance, fire and life, is a very prominent feat- 
 ure of Connecticut business. In no other state is 
 there so much surplus capital devoted to underwrit- 
 ing. New Haven and Hartford are the chief cities 
 of the state, and insurance their chief business. 
 There are, however, a great many branches of man. 
 
 ufacturing car- 
 ried on exten- 
 sively in the 
 state. It is the 
 native soil of- 
 “ Yankee no- 
 tions.” Besides 
 raising the farm 
 products com- 
 montothenorth- 
 ern part of the 
 country, it raises 
 large quantities 
 of excellent to- 
 bacco. The low- 
 er valley of the 
 ConnecticutRiv- 
 er is admirably 
 adapted to this 
 plant. The state 
 
 had two capitals, New Haven and Hartford, for 
 a long time, but now Hartford alone has that 
 honor. Connecticut laid claim under its colonial 
 charter to a tract of land nearly GO miles wide and 
 extending to the Pacific Ocean. After the Revolu- 
 tion that claim wasquieted and disposed of by grant- 
 ing to the state the fee simple as property (but not 
 the political control) of a large tract of land in the 
 vicinity of Lake Erie. It was called “ The Western 
 Reserve.” Most of it is now in the State of Ohio. 
 The proceeds of that land form the basis of the 
 public school fund of Connecticut. It it due to the 
 good name of this state to add that its reputation 
 for exceptional austerity is unjust, resting upon a lit- 
 erary fraud perpetrated by a clergyman named Peters, 
 who published a bogus volume of “ Blue Laws.” 
 

 k. 
 
 59 8 
 
 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 DAKOTA TERRITORY. 
 
 Dakota Territory is the most populous of all the 
 territories, and the largest in area. It was organized 
 in 1861. The census of 1880 showed a population 
 of over 130,000, and later enumerations and esti- 
 mates jdace the population in 1882 at 150,000. The 
 cities of Yankton and Sioux Palls, the largest in 
 the territory, have each a population nf 3,500. The 
 number of the cattle has increased, it is estimated, 
 800 per cent during the last two years. The yield 
 of gold bullion for 1881 was $4,500,000 ; of silver, 
 $2,000,000, taken from the famous Black Hills 
 mines. The territory is also rich in copper, lead, 
 mica, coal and gypsum. But wheat is the supreme 
 source of wealth in Dakota. It may be called a con- 
 tinuation, in this regard, of Minnesota. The popu- 
 lation is largely made up of Swedes and Norwegians, 
 with a very considerable population drawn from the 
 native population of the North. It is expected that 
 the territory will be divided, and the southern por- 
 tion admitted into the Union as the State of Dako- 
 ta, and the northern portion organized as a separate 
 territory. 
 
 DELAWARE. 
 
 From the great Territory of Dakota to the little 
 State of Delaware there is a long stride. This least 
 important of all the states is one of the original 
 thirteen. It was being governed as a part of Penn- 
 sylvania at the time the war for independence was 
 declared, but promptly demanded recognition as a 
 “sovereign ” state. Pennsylvania consented, and the 
 “ three lower countries on the Delaware ” became an 
 independent political unity.' In the war then in prog- 
 ress for national freedom the citizens of Delaware 
 won distinction for bravery, and on account of the 
 peculiar Hag of the state were known as “The Blue 
 Hen’s Chickens.” When the war was over and in 
 the progress of political events there was a tie vote 
 between Jefferson and Burr, it was Delaware (a 
 strongly Federal state) which decided the matter, its 
 leading senator, James A. Bayard, preferring Jeffer- 
 
 son as the less of two evils. The present Senator 
 Bayard is a grandson of the elector of Jefferson. 
 The senatorship seems to be an heirloom in that 
 family. James A. Bayard, Jr., was for many years 
 a senator. When it is added that Delaware is 
 famous for its peaches and its garden products, in- 
 cluding berries, the entire record of interest is dis- 
 closed. It is singularly lacking in enterprise. The 
 people do not push westward nor establish skilled 
 industries to any considerable extent. Dover, 
 the capital, is a sleepy inland village, and Wilming- 
 ton, its chief seaport, has only a very small com- 
 merce. The state is divided into three counties, 
 Kent, New Castle and Sussex. Before the war there 
 were a few slaves there. A majority of the people 
 were friendly to the Union. Delaware furnished 
 10,000 volunteers to the Union army. 
 
 FLORIDA. 
 
 The chief interest of Florida belongs to its colo- 
 nial history. Apart from that, it presents very few 
 points of attraction. It was ceded to the United 
 States by Spain in 1821. The first census taken was 
 in 1830, and at that time the population was only 
 34,730. By the census of 1860 the population was 
 140,424, about one-half of the number being slaves. 
 The first territorial governor was General Jackson. 
 He acquired much of his popularity, especially in 
 the South, by his successful warfare upon’the blood- 
 thirsty Seminole Indians, who were finally eradicated 
 from the territory, with a few exceptions, and trans- 
 planted in Indian Territory. Those still remaining 
 are peaceable. Florida was admitted as a state in 
 in 1845. It seceded in January, 1861, and was read- 
 mitted in June, 1868. The peninsula portion is 
 nearly 400 miles long. The soil is very largely either 
 sandy or swampy. Its rivers and lakes are many 
 and well supplied with a great variety of fishes and 
 reptiles. The forests abound in timber which would 
 be of great value if it could be marketed. The 
 chief attraction of Florida, and its great source of 
 wealth, is its vast extent of orange orchards. It also 
 
 7T 
 
 IK* 
 
p 
 
 
 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 599 
 
 produces rice and a fine quality of tobacco. It is 
 a favorite resort in winter for invalids and others 
 from the North. Jacksonville is the largest city. 
 Tallahassee is the capital. Key West, on the island 
 of the same name, is strongly fortified, and is a 
 United States naval station. St. Augustine, the 
 oldest city in the United States, was founded by 
 the Spanish freebooter Menendez. in 1565. 
 
 GEORGIA. 
 
 Georgia is well called the Empire State of the 
 South. It was one of the original thirteen states. 
 Its colonial history is indeed brief, but it is, as has 
 been seen, exceptionally creditable. Its extent north 
 and south is 320 miles, and its extreme breadth east 
 andwest 254 miles. From its colonial birth to the 
 present time it has been exceptionally prosperous. It 
 did suffer, and that severely, it is true, from British 
 soldiers during the Revolution, and from Northern 
 soldiers, especially those under General Sherman, in 
 the late war between the states, but it has shown 
 great recuperative powers. It combines in its soil 
 and climate the advantages of the North and South, 
 producing with equal prodigality cereals and cotton. 
 It is also rich in iron, which is being mined on a 
 large and profitable scale. 
 
 Georgia has several flourishing cities. Savannah 
 was long the chief town in the state. Atlanta is 
 now the most flourishing. It is the capital. It has 
 been called, and with reason, the Chicago of the 
 South. Augusta, Milledgeville, Macon, Columbus 
 and Athens are among its more important centers 
 of population and capital. It has several fairly 
 good institutions of learning. 
 
 IDAHO TERRITORY. 
 
 Idaho Territory is the least thrifty of all the ter- 
 ritories of the United States. It has Wyoming and 
 Montana on the east; British Columbia on the 
 north; Washington Territory and Oregon on the 
 west, and Nevada and Utah on the south. Gold was 
 first found there in any considerable quantities in 
 
 1860. The next year there was quite a large influx 
 of miners from both the East and the West. The 
 placer-diggings, or free gold, yielded richly. The ter- 
 ritory was organized in 1863 and re-organized in 
 1864. In a few years the rich gold-bearing sand had 
 been washed and the population fell off. The diffi- 
 culty of reaching the quartz mines with adequate 
 machinery has delayed the development of those re- 
 sources. The country is well adapted to grazing, 
 and vast herds of cattle and flocks of sheep roam 
 over the plains and valleys of the territory. It lies 
 between the 42°. and the 49° of latitudes, laying 
 mainly in the basin of the Upper Columbia River. 
 The climate is delightful, and eventually Idaho will 
 be a prosperous state. 
 
 ILLINOIS. 
 
 The first white settlement in Illinois dates back to 
 the seventeenth century. The first settlement in 
 distinction from Jesuit missions, was made by the 
 French at Kaskaskia in 1700. But in the present 
 development of Illinois the French can hardly be 
 said to have taken an appreciable part. It requires 
 the skill and patience of the antiquary to discover 
 even the faintest trace of the first settlers. The ter- 
 ritory of Illinois was organized in 1809, when a ter- 
 ritory of that name was cut off from Indiana. The 
 southern part of the state was settled first, the course 
 of pioneer enterprise being along rivers, especially 
 down the Ohio and up the Mississippi. Then, too, 
 the Indians of the north were particularly trouble- 
 some. A military post was early established at the 
 mouth of the Chicago River on the site of the pres- 
 ent city of that name. It was called Fort Dearborn. 
 In 1812 the fort was taken by the Indians and the 
 whites cruelly massacred. This massacre led to the 
 expulsion of the Indians from the vicinity, and 
 prepared the way for the jiermanent settlement of 
 the northern portion of the territory. 
 
 Illinois was admitted into the Union in 1818. 
 The population at that time was 35,220. Nearly all 
 of it is level and arable. It is the “ Prairie State,” 
 
 
■v 
 
 
 6oo 
 
 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 most emphatically. The soil is rich and easily tilled. 
 The coal area is estimated at 45,000 square miles. 
 This inexhaustable supply of fuel is bituminous. 
 Illinois can boast more miles of railroad than any 
 other state in the Union, and the coal-fields have 
 had much to do with the development of this in- 
 terest. Illinois has several large cities, the chief 
 being Chicago, with a population of over 500,000, 
 according to the census of 1880. It is the com- 
 mercial capital of the West, or Interior, more proper- 
 ly speaking. It became a city in 1837. Early in 
 
 A. Douglas was the first Illinoisan to reach eminence, 
 and Abraham Lincoln, General Grant and Robert 
 G. Ingersoll followed, each in his way the foremost 
 man of the nation — one as statesman, one as soldier, 
 and one as orator. The state adopted in 1870 a 
 new constitution containing many radical changes, 
 and which proved to be a landmark in the constitu- 
 tional history of the country, many states, since 
 then, having adopted its more important features, 
 the chief being the restriction of the power of muni- 
 cipalities to incur debts, and of railways to make un- 
 
 
 the evening of October 8, 1871, a fire broke out in 
 the southwestern part of the city, and raged with 
 increasing and ungovernable fury that night and 
 the next day, sweeping over 2,124 square acres, in- 
 cluding the heart of the city, and leaving only shape- 
 less ruins in its track. It is more particularly refer- 
 red to in the chapter on The Present United States. 
 
 Springfield is the capital. It is a thrifty inland 
 city, ranking next to Quincy on the Mississippi River, 
 and Peoria on the Illinois River, in size. The latter 
 has long been famous for its higliwines, being in the 
 very heart of the corn belt. Cairo became somewhat 
 famous during the war. The state has more occa- 
 sion to be proud of its men than its cities. Stephen 
 
 just transportation charges. It was a test case from 
 Illinois which secured from the supreme court of 
 the United States a decision to the effect that a 
 railway is a highway, and that railroad companies 
 are subject to all the limitations, as to uniformity of 
 charges, of other common carriers. 
 
 Illinois contains about three hundred rivers and 
 creeks, not counting the mere streams. Drouths 
 are almost unknown, of late years, in nearly the 
 entire state. It is the foremost commonwealth in 
 the Union in the production of corn, wheat, rye 
 and oats, also in the number of its horses, the man- 
 ufacture of higliwines and agricultural machinery 
 and utensils. 
 
3 
 
 1 
 
 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 601 
 
 INDIANA. 
 
 Indiana is surrounded by Illinois, Kentucky, Ohio 
 and Michigan. Like all the prairie states, it has no 
 
 tional scale. The state was greatly depressed by the 
 reaction, and cannot be said to have recovered from 
 it until the prosperity of the war period brought re- 
 lief. The capital, Indianapolis, is the principal city 
 in the state, and second only to Chicago as a West- 
 ern railway center. Evansville, Terre Haute, Fort 
 \\ ayne, South Bend, New Albany, Jeffersonville and 
 Vincennes are all prosperous towns. The state 
 furnished the third Republican Vice-President, 
 Schuyler Colfax, and, in the person of Senator Mor- 
 
 INDIANAPOLIS FROM THE COURT HOUSE. 
 
 mountains nor any under-ground wealth except coal. 
 It has a greater variety of valuable lumber than Illi- 
 nois. It was admitted into the Union in 1810. A 
 French settlement had been effected at Vincennes 
 as early as 1702, which flourished and withered away, 
 much as the Kaskaskia settlement did. Early in 
 the third decade of this century an era of wild spec- 
 ulation was inaugurated in Indiana, culminating in 
 the crash of 1837. No other state in the Union was 
 so deeply affected by that revulsion. Railroads and 
 canals, especially the latter, were projected and un- 
 der process of construction on a grand and irra- 
 
 ton, the greatest parliamentary leader in the senate 
 since the days of Douglas. 
 
 INDIAN TERRITORY. 
 
 Indian Territory is not a territory at all, in the 
 ordinary sense of the term. It is not dependent 
 upon the national government, but is a nation with- 
 in a nation. It has been considered in a previous 
 chapter in connection with the American Indians, 
 and it is enough to add in this connection that it 
 dates from 1832, and is one of the best portions of 
 the continent for grazing and grain-raising. 
 

 ■L 
 
 602 
 
 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 IOWA. 
 
 Iowa lies between the two great rivers, the Miss- 
 issippi and the Missouri, with Minnesota on the 
 north and Missouri on the south, extending north 
 and south about 200 miles, and east and west, 300 
 miles. There is hardly a foot of waste land within 
 its border. Its agricultural capacity is almost incal- 
 culable. It has no important river or lake. Its 
 cities are comparatively small, Chicago being the 
 great center for the entire state. The capital, Des 
 Moines, is a thrifty inland city, and so is Iowa City- 
 Several river towns of some importance are found 
 along the Mississippi, Dubuque, Muscatine, Daven- 
 port, Burlington and Keokuk, also Sioux City on 
 the Missouri. Iowa was created a territory in 1838, 
 and admitted into the Union as a state in 1846. Its 
 growth has been uninterrupted and prodigious, but 
 almost exclusively agricultural. It has very little 
 timber, a great deal of coal, and some lead in the 
 vicinity of Dubuque, as Illinois has across the Miss- 
 issippi near Galena. It also has some gypsum, and 
 is beginning to manifest manufacturing enterprise 
 to a very considerable degree. 
 
 KANSAS. 
 
 Kansas is a striking example of the advantages of 
 advertising. The politics of the country, as has been 
 seen, served to make the public familiar with the 
 name and interested in the settlement of Kansas. 
 This territory and Nebraska were organized in 1854. 
 Almost immediately the North and South started 
 on a race for the ascendancy in Kansas. It was not 
 long before there were people enough to justify its 
 admission as a state. A majority came from the 
 North and wore utterly opposed to slavery, and re- 
 
 peatedly framed and adopted constitutions prohibi- 
 tory of it. The Southern influence in Congress pre- 
 vented its admission. A constitution framed by a 
 minority convention held in Lecompton in 1857 pro- 
 tected slavery. It received only 2,000 votes. Mr. 
 Douglas favored the admission of Kansas as a free 
 state, that being the practical outcome of his favorite 
 doctrine of “ squatter sovereignty,” and that position 
 made him obnoxious to a large party of the Democra- 
 cy, and caused the schism in favor of Breckenridge 
 for the Presidency in I860. It was in January, 1861, 
 that Kansas was admitted. In the period from 1824 
 to 1861 the territory had amply earned the title of 
 “ Bleeding Kansas.” During the four years of war 
 it was the scene of much bloodshed and destruction. 
 Lawrence was twice burned, and several other towns 
 partially destroyed by border ruffians, or guerillas. 
 After the war the influx of population was without 
 parallel in pioneer history, and that notwithstand- 
 ing drouth and grasshoppers conspired to discourage 
 immigration. The soil is rich, and the people pros- 
 perous. Topeka is the capital, and the chief city of 
 the state. Leavenworth and Lawrence have not 
 fulfilled the promise of their infancy. Across the 
 state line in Missouri is the commercial capital of 
 the state, Kansas City, which is almost wholly in- 
 debted to the State of Kansas for its great prosper- 
 ity. At the present time Kansas has the most 
 stringent prohibitory liquor law of any state in the 
 Union. The coal field of the state is supposed to 
 have an area of over 22,000 square miles. It is the 
 most central state of the Union, having Missouri 
 on the east, Indian Territory on the south, Colorado 
 on the west and Nebraska on the north. It has no 
 lakes of any magnitude nor any considerable rivers. 
 Its railway system is extensive, secured at the cost 
 of enormous municipal indebtedness. The princi- 
 pal institution of learning is the University of Kan- 
 sas, at Lawrence, but the chief educational facilities 
 afforded are an admirable system of public schools 
 for elementary instruction. The western portion of 
 the state has suffered much from drouth, but every 
 year is adding to the volume of rainfall, and grad- 
 ually the “ desert,” as it was once supposed to be, 
 is being brought into subjugation to the plow. 
 Herding is carried on upon a large scale, both 
 cattle and sheep. The state has a great variety of 
 vegetation, not less than twelve hundred species of 
 plants being indigenous to its soil. 
 
 FT- 
 
 T 
 
(0 
 
 G 
 
 1 
 
 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF 
 
 Kentucky traces its origin to Daniel Boone, a 
 famous hunter who established himself at what is 
 now Boonesboro’ in 1769. It was then a part of 
 Virginia, and so remained until 1790, when it was 
 created into a separate territory. For fourteen years 
 it had been the County of Kentucky. In 1792 it 
 was admitted as a state, having a population of 
 75,000. It was the “ out west ” of Virginia for 
 many years. It formed for a long time the extreme 
 southwest of the United States, boundaries between 
 French and Spanish America and the United States 
 being vague. It was supposed that Aaron Burr 
 contemplated seizing the region in dispute and erect- 
 ing there a Southwest Empire. That was the “ trea- 
 son ” for which Burr and Blennerhasset were tried. 
 The evidence of guilt was strong but insufficient 
 for conviction. Kentucky suffered seriously from 
 hostile Indians in the early day, and the people have 
 always been noted for their martial spirit. From 
 1861 to 1865 it furnished, as has been aptly said, 
 its quota for both armies. Politically it was a 
 stronghold of the Whig party during the period of 
 that organization. Since then it has been over- 
 whelmingly Democratic. It is noted for the chivalry 
 i of its men, the beauty of its women, the excellence 
 and abundance of its whisky and horses. It 
 has only one city of any considerable magnitude — 
 Louisville. 
 
 Frankfort is the capital. The eastern portion of 
 the state is mountainous, the western a rich table- 
 land. The soil is adapted to grain and tobacco. Its 
 famous blue-grass is the finest of pasturage. There 
 is some iron and a great deal of coal in Kentucky. 
 Of its mineral wealth, mostly undeveloped as yet, 
 Professor Shaler says : “ The coal resources of Ken- 
 tucky are only exceeded by those of Pennsylvania, 
 and the quantity of iron ore is probably not exceeded 
 by any American state.” The state contains twelve 
 colleges and universities, none of which are heavily 
 endowed. The chief of these is Kentucky University, 
 located at Lexington. 
 
 _ — *t 
 
 THE UNITED STATES. 603 
 
 LOUISIANA. 
 
 Louisiana originally included not only the present 
 state of that name, but Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, 
 Minnesota, Dakota, Nebraska, the greater part of 
 Kansas, Indian Territory, a small part of Colorado, 
 all of Montana, Oregon and Idaho, and the greater 
 part of Wyoming. That vast region was first 
 penetrated by European adventure in 1541, when 
 De Soto, a Spaniard, discovered the Mississippi 
 River. The first actual settlement was made by 
 the French in 1699. For over a century it was, 
 in effect, a part of New France. In 1803, the 
 United States, through President Jefferson, bought 
 that imperial area of Napoleon Bonaparte, while 
 lie was First Consul of France, for 815,000,000, 
 including what are known as “ French Spoliation 
 Claims.” The next year the southern portion was 
 organized as the Territory of Orleans. Original 
 Louisiana did not include, however, that portion of 
 the state between the Mississippi, Amite and Pearl 
 Rivers. That was ceded to the United States in 1810 
 by Spain in exchange for undisputed title to Florida. 
 In 1812 Orleans was admitted to the Union as a 
 state under the name of Louisiana. The local customs 
 and state laws have never ceased to bear the marks 
 of France, and the Code Napoleon may almost be 
 said to form the common law of the commonwealth. 
 The state seceded in December, 1860, but the ordi- 
 nance was adopted by the close vote of 117 to 113. 
 Louisiana was restored to the Union in the summer 
 of 1868. The great staple of Louisiana is sugar. 
 Cotton is also raised to good advantage. About 
 one-fifth of the state is beneath the high-water level 
 of the Mississippi- River, and has to be protected from 
 inundation by levees, maintained at great cost by 
 the state government. There are about 1,500 miles 
 of levees within its border. It would require an 
 annual expenditure upon them of 81,000,000 to 
 afford thorough protection. New Orleans, with 
 a population of over 200,000, is the one city of 
 any magnitude in the state. It is also the political 
 capital. 
 
s 
 
 1 
 
 e 
 
 Before and during the Revolutionary War the 
 northern boundary of Massachusetts was uncertain. 
 By the treaty of peace with England it was fixed so 
 as to include the State of Maine, long known as “the 
 District of Maine.” From the first Maine demanded 
 independence, but it remained a “district” until 1820. 
 During that period a great deal of ill feeling existed 
 between Massachusetts proper and Maine. The 
 treaty of 1783 had not, as it proved, settled the 
 boundary question with precision, and it remained 
 an occasion of diplomatic controversy until 1842, 
 when, by the terms of the Ashburton treaty, the St. 
 Johns and St. Francis Rivers were agreed upon as 
 the northern and northeastern boundaries between 
 the Province of Quebec and the State of Maine. The 
 state is largely covered with pine-trees, and most of 
 the soil is almost worthless for cultivation. A very 
 considerable revenue is derived from granite quar- 
 ries on the seaboard. There are a good many Cana- 
 dian French in the State, and a colony of Scandi- 
 navians occupy a tract by themselves. The Indian 
 population has not wholly disappeared. The woods 
 still abound in game, and many of the streams are 
 still well-stocked with fish. Portland, the chief city, 
 is an important seaport. Augusta, the capital, is 
 little more than a village. The state has reason to be 
 proud of one great statesman to whom it gave birth, 
 Pitt Fessenden, and a still greater, who is a native 
 of Pennsylvania, but for many years a citizen of 
 Maine, J ames Gr. Blaine, the fourth great parliamen- 
 tary leader the United States has produced, Clay, 
 Douglas and Thaddeus Stevens being the other 
 members of the quartet. It gave birth and educa- 
 tion to America’s laureate, Henry Wadsworth Long- 
 fellow. Bowdoin College, from which he graduated, 
 was founded in 1794, and has long ranked among 
 the more illustrious higher institutions of learning 
 in the country. It is in the forests of Maine that 
 the moose must be sought. That state became fa- 
 mous in 1851 for its stringent prohibitory liquor law, 
 to which it has tenaciously held ever since. 
 
 The early history of Maryland belongs to the colo- 
 nial period. The boundary line between that colo- 
 ny and Pennsylvania, run in 1750 by the two com- 
 missioners, Mason and Dixon, settled a long and 
 troublesome dispute. The term “ Mason and Dix- 
 on’s line ” came afterwards to be used to designate 
 the boundary between the free and slave terri- 
 tory throughout the United States. In the war for 
 independence the “Maryland line” bore conspicuous 
 and effective part. In the late war the state would 
 doubtless have cast in its lot with the South had not its 
 chief city, Baltimore, been placed under military su- 
 pervision. Many of its sons joined the Confederate 
 army. The great battle of Antietam was fought on 
 the soil of Maryland. Slavery was abolished by 
 constitutional law in 1864. Baltimore is a very im- 
 portant seaport, not only for this state, but for the 
 South and West. The Baltimore & Ohio railroad, 
 one of the great trunk lines of the country, has that 
 city for its eastern terminus. A little more than 
 one-lialf the state is under cultivation, grain and 
 tobacco being the chief productions. Bituminous 
 coal is found in the northwestern portion of the 
 state, and in small quantities gold and silver. The 
 climate is delightfully mild. The oysters of the 
 Chesapeake Bay form an important source of reve- 
 nue. Annapolis is the capital. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 Of all the states in the Union none has had greater 
 prominence in American history than Massachu- 
 setts. The early American chapters were largely 
 occupied with its establishment and growth. From 
 its first settlement to date its importance has been 
 maintained. Beginning this record with the emer- 
 
 < 5 " 
 
IN- 
 
 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 gence of the state from its colonial dependence we 
 find that its first governor was John Hancock, elect- 
 ed in 1780. From 1775 to 1780 the executive de- 
 partment of the state was in the hands of The 
 Council. 
 
 That small yet great commonwealth has several 
 important rivers, the Connecticut, Merrimack, Hou- 
 satonic and Iloosic being the chief. Along its 
 streams of sufficient magnitude to form water-pow- 
 
 merce and wealth, but in the higher ranges of activ- 
 ity there has been no falling back. Among the 
 other cities of the state may be named Worcester, 
 Lowell, Cambridge, Lawrence, Lynn, Springfield 
 and Fall River. Harvard College dates back to 
 1636 ; Williams College to 1793 ; Amherst to 1827; 
 Andover Theological Seminary to 1808, and Tuft’s 
 College to 1852. It has a highly creditable list of 
 institutions for special education, such as schools for 
 
 er, mills of almost every conceivable kind are found, 
 the manufacturing interest being largely in excess 
 of the agricultural. Its great achievement in en- 
 gineering is the Iloosic Tunnel, begun in 1855, com- 
 pleted in 1874, at a cost of 19,000,000. But the 
 proudest achievements of the state have been in the 
 line of political and intellectual superiority. In the 
 cause of human rights and mental improvement it 
 has always been foremost. Its list of statesmen, from 
 Winthrop to Sumner, is long, and of its authors and 
 inventors is still longer and more creditable. Bos- 
 ton lias indeed been eclipsed by New Y ork in com- 
 
 TUE CITY AND HARBOR OF BOSTON. 
 
 deaf mutes, the blind, idiots and young criminals. 
 
 This home of the Puritans is gradually becoming 
 the home of the foreigner. The bleak and rocky 
 farms of Massachusetts are being deserted by the 
 Yankees, and going into the hands of Irishmen and 
 Canadians to an almost revolutionary extent. There 
 are a few of the original Indians left in the state — 
 not far from two thousand, including ( lie niuluttocs 
 with whom they have intermarried. “Shay’s Rebell- 
 ion” was a Massachusetts episode. It occurred in 
 1806. It was a popular uprising against the “boss 
 system” in state politics. 
 
-3\f 
 
 606 
 
 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Tlie first settlement 
 
 MICHIGAN. 
 
 The name of Michigan was derived from the Indian 
 words meaning Lake Region, 
 was a Jesuit mis- 
 sion at the falls 
 of the St. Mary, 
 
 1641. Detroit was 
 founded by the 
 French in 1701. 
 
 The silver and 
 copper mines were 
 discovered and 
 worked as early as 
 1772. Michigan 
 was regarded as a 
 
 part of Canada university 
 
 during the Revolutionary W ar. Its status after peace 
 had been declared was uncertain until 1796, when 
 England ceded it to the United States, and it 
 
 held that position and was also military command- 
 er when, early in the war of 1812, the British 
 demanded the surrender of Detroit, to which he 
 yielded, for which he was severely censured, and 
 from which the city was rescued by the victory of 
 Lake Erie (Commodore Perry), in 1813. General 
 Lewis Cass was soon after appointed governor of the 
 territory. Michigan was admitted into the U nion in 
 1837. Lake Michigan and the Straits of Mackinaw 
 divide the state into two peninsulas, the lower and 
 
 the upper. The 
 
 latter comprises 
 about one-third of 
 the state, and is 
 rich in copper, 
 lead, iron and 
 timber ; the for- 
 mer is devoted 
 to agriculture. 
 Michigan is not 
 a prairie state. It 
 was made arable 
 
 of Michigan. by the same hard 
 
 process as the Eastern States. Forests had to be felled 
 and roots of trees grubbed out. The farms are usual- 
 ly small and carefully tilled. The farmers raise a 
 
 VIEW OF GRAND RAPIDS 
 
 formed a part of the Northwest Territory from 
 that time until 1800, when it was included in In- 
 diana. Michigan Territory was organized in 1805, 
 and General Hull appointed first governor. He 
 
 great variety of products, and in the aggregate real- 
 ize handsome returns for their industry. Lansing 
 is the capital, and Detroit and Grand Rapids are its 
 chief cities. The State University, at Ann Arbor, 
 
 FT 
 
■i 
 
 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ranks with Yale, Harvard, and Cornell, as a really 
 great seat of learning. It lias several flourishing 
 denominational colleges also. It has furnished one 
 poet of very considerable reputation, Will M. Carle- 
 
 ton. 
 
 MINNESOTA. 
 
 Minnesota is very largely peopled by Scandina- 
 vians, and in view of its great staple might well 
 
 607 
 
 in 1823. A Swiss settlement was effected near there 
 a short time after. The territory was organized by 
 Congress in 1849, with Alexander Ramsey, who was 
 Secretary of War under President Hayes, as first 
 governor. It was admitted to the Union as a state 
 in 1858. 
 
 In 1862 occurred the horrible Sioux massa- 
 cre, in which not less than 1,000 whites, mostly 
 women and children, were killed. The Sioux were 
 removed from the state, aud no trouble has since 
 been experienced from the aborigines. There are 
 many friendly Chippewas still in Minnesota. St. 
 Paul and Minneapolis, only a few miles apart, are 
 both large and rapidly growing cities, the former 
 being more commercial, and the latter more devoted 
 
 VIEW OF ST. PAUL. 
 
 Id 
 
 r 
 
 4 
 
 have been called Wheatland. Its name was bor- 
 rowed from that of one of the rivers which drain 
 the southwest portion of it. Minnesota has a navi- 
 gable water-line of about 15,000 miles. It abounds 
 in beautiful lakes. The state has a length from 
 north to south of 380 miles, and a width of 337 
 miles, extending from Iowa to Canada one way, and 
 from the Mississippi to the Missouri the other. The 
 Falls of St. Anthony, to which Minneapolis with its 
 flouring mills and saw mills is indebted for its 
 growth, were discovered by Hennepin, a French 
 Jesuit, in 1680. A fur-trading post was established 
 there, but the traders gradually lapsed into the 
 surrounding barbarism. The first steamboat ascend- 
 ed the Mississippi as far as the Fallsof St. Anthony 
 
 to manufactures. Duluth has great expectations. 
 St. Paul is the capital. 
 
 MISSISSIPPI. 
 
 That part of Mississippi now known as the Great 
 Yazoo Bottoms was visited by Do Soto in 1539. 
 
 He is supposed to have remained there about a year. 
 
 That region is still largely undeveloped. A territory i 
 bearing the name of Mississippi was organized in 
 
 I 1*> 
 
 
 
 
6o8 
 
 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1798, but it was by no means the present state bear- 
 ing that name. Its boundaries were fixed as now in 
 1817, when it was admitted as a state. It was one 
 of the first states to secede, and did not regain state 
 rights until 1870. Nearly all of its area is capable 
 of cultivation, but only a small part is actually im- 
 proved. It is densely wooded. Cotton is the great 
 staple. The state is well adapted to general farm 
 products, including livestock. Jackson is the cap- 
 ital and Vicksburg the chief city. It has produced 
 
 south, stretches the great State of Missouri. Its 
 chief city, St. Louis, grew out of a fur-trading post, 
 and as early as 1775 had acquired considerable prom- 
 inence. After the Louisiana purchase and the or- 
 ganization of the Territory of Orleans the unorgan- 
 ized portion of the purchased possession was known 
 as the District of Louisiana, and in 1805 as the Ter- 
 ritory of Louisiana, with St. Louis as its capital. 
 The name was changed to Missouri in 1812. It ap- 
 plied for admission to the Union as early as 1817. 
 
 . e>. 
 
 ^7 
 
 VTEW OP 
 
 only one man of great note, Jefferson Davis, the first 
 and only President of the Southern Confederacy. 
 
 MISSOURI. 
 
 With Illinois on the east, Kansas and Nebraska 
 on the west, Iowa on the north, and Arkansas on the 
 
 ST. LOUIS. 
 
 The contest over slavery to which that application 
 led is already known to the reader. Like Kansas, it 
 occasioned controversy and conflict, but unlike its 
 border state, it was not the actual field of conflict. 
 Immigration came in accordance with the nat- 
 ural progress of events, and there was no clashing 
 between the representatives of different sections. 
 The Southern element predominated and Missouri 
 became a slave state, without, however, being wholly 
 dependent upon slave-labor. On the contrary, the 
 state was always indebted to free white labor for its 
 development. TV hen the civil war came, the people 
 were very nearly evenly divided in sympathy. It 
 
STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 never seceded, but many of its citizens were to be 
 found in both armies. For the most part Missouri 
 is very rich soil. The iron deposits are of incalcula- 
 ble value. Copper is found, but not in quantities to 
 compete with the Lake Superior Region. The coal 
 supply is abundant. Lead is mined in immense 
 quantities. The timber of the state is excellent and 
 abundant. The products of the state embrace the 
 usual cereals, also tobacco and grapes. The latter are 
 raised in large quantities and the wine manufactured 
 
 by Wyoming and Idaho, and on the west by Idaho. 
 It is well named, but its mountains abound in nutri- 
 tious grasses and rich beds of gold and silver. The cli- 
 mate is milder than that in the states further east 
 and on the same lines of latitude. The placer-dig- 
 gings have yielded richly, and the quartz mines are 
 now being developed to great profit. The territory 
 was organized in 18G4. Virginia City is the capital, 
 but Helena is the chief city. Fort Benton, the head 
 of navigation on the Missouri River, is in Montana. 
 
 forms a prominent brand in the market. Jefferson 
 City is the capital. Kansas City is often called a 
 second Chicago. It is greatly prosperous. Missouri 
 has a good common school system, but gangs of 
 rough outlaws infest the western part of the state 
 and commit train robberies with impunity, shel- 
 tered by the dense forests and the barbarism of 
 the sparse settlers. The only great name in the an- 
 nals of Missouri is that of Thomas II. Benton, 
 thirty years senator from that state. 
 
 MONTANA TERRITORY. 
 
 Montana Territory is bounded on the north by 
 British America, on the east by Dakota, on the south 
 
 In its sheltered valleys immense herds of cattle and 
 flocks of sheep are grazed the year round, and to 
 much profit. What was formerly a hunting-ground 
 for trappers and hunters is now about equally di- 
 vided between mining and herding. 
 
 NEBRASKA. 
 
 By the terms of the Missouri Compromise, slavery 
 could have been extended to Kansas, but not to 
 
STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 6lO 
 
 Nebraska. The latter was therefore the bone of 
 contention upon the original reopening of the ques- 
 tion of “squatter sovereignty.” In the progress of 
 events, however, it was almost lost sight of, and has 
 never shared in the benefits derived by Kansas from 
 political notoriety. In the far West the rainfall is 
 inadequate, but the quantity is gradually increasing. 
 The majestic Platte and Niabrara are its chief 
 rivers, and there are numerous streams. The live- 
 stock of Nebraska is the main reliance of the far- 
 mers for income. The cost of marketing grain in its 
 natural form is such as to render it impracticable to 
 rely upon grain-raising alone. The territory was 
 created at the same time that Kansas was, 1854, 
 but it was not admitted into the Union until 1867. 
 Lincoln is the capital, and Omaha its principal city. 
 There are several Indian reservations in the State. 
 There is some coal in the State, but the strata for 
 the most part are too thin to be worked with profit. 
 
 NEVADA. 
 
 Nevada is an offshot from California. It is a 
 rugged mining region with Oregon and Idaho on 
 the north, Utah and Arizona on the east, and Cali- 
 fornia on the west. The State is wedge-shaped^ 
 running to a peak in the south. Of all the states in 
 the Union Nevada is most dependent upon its gold 
 and silver resources for wealth. 'I' he re is a little good 
 agricultural land within its border, but not much. 
 The silver and gold are found together, the former 
 in great abundance. The famous Comstock lode, or 
 vein, is in Nevada. From it was taken in one year as 
 high as $22,000,000. The Sutro Tunnel penetrates 
 that vein. Virginia City and Gold Hill are mining 
 camps grown into cities above the Comstock, and 
 in consequence of it. Nevada was organized as a 
 territory in 1861, and admitted as a state in 1864. 
 In population it is the least of all the states. Carson 
 City is the capital. From the standpoints of church 
 and school, Nevada cannot be said to make a favor- 
 able exhibit. From the standpoint of crime, how- 
 ever, the exhibit is highly favorable to the miners. 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE. 
 
 The first settlement within New Hampshire was 
 made at Portsmouth in 1623. Its growth was slow. 
 In 1714 it only had eight towns, and they were very 
 small. Colonially it had a varied political expe- 
 rience. Much of the time it was a part of Massa- 
 chusetts; later it belonged to New York, and final- 
 ly it was a separate colony. When it separated from 
 New York the region now comprising Vermont was 
 in dispute and was known as the “ New Hampshire 
 Grants.” Concord was made the capital in 1807, 
 and so remains. Manchester is the largest city in 
 the state ; Portsmouth its only seaboard. Its most 
 notable features are Mount Washington, or the White 
 Mountains, and Dartmouth College. The grand 
 and sublime scenery of its mountains attract sum- 
 mer tourists from all parts of the country, and 
 Dartmouth, established in 1770, is in reality a uni- 
 versity, ample in all its educational provisions. The 
 land of the state is poor, much of it absolutely worth- 
 less. About three-fifths of the state is included in 
 farm lands. The climate is very cold. Some iron 
 is found in paying quantities ; also mica, isinglass 
 and graphite. Building granite is an important 
 source of revenue. There are several thrifty manu- 
 facturing towns in New Hampshire. The state has 
 given birth to several great men, the most famous 
 of her sons being Daniel Webster. 
 
 NEW JERSEY. 
 
 New Jersey has the Atlantic Ocean on the east and 
 the States of New York, Pennsylvania and Delaware 
 on its north, west and south. In the southeast are 
 large marshes, and so there are on the Jersey side 
 of the Hudson Kiver. Three mountain ranges traverse 
 the state. But there is a very considerable area of ex- 
 

 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 6l I 
 
 cellent agricultural land. It is under a high state 
 of cultivation. There are several important manu- 
 facturing towns, Newark, Jersey City, and Pater- 
 son being the chief. Trenton is the capital. The 
 state is largely a suburb of New York City. Its 
 early history as New Sweden belongs to the colonial 
 period. New Jersey, as a distinct colony bearing 
 that name, dates from 1708. Its first royal gov- 
 ernor was Louis Morris, and its last, William Frank- 
 lin, natural son of Benjamin Franklin, and a pro- 
 nounced Tory. He was appointed in 1763. A 
 state constitution was adopted July 2 , 1776, under 
 which the state was 
 governed until 1844. 
 
 Gov. Franklin was 
 deposed and sentwitli- 
 in the British lines. 
 
 During the Revolu- 
 tionary war New Jer- 
 sey suffered severely, 
 but its patriotism nev- 
 er faltered. Female 
 suffrage prevailed 
 there until 1807. The 
 state has numerous 
 higher schools of 
 learning, two of which 
 were founded in the 
 eighteenth century, 
 namely, the College of 
 New Jersey, at Prince- 
 ton, 1740, and Rutgers 
 College, New Bruns- 
 wick, 1770. Both are now universities, and the 
 former is very richly endowed. 
 
 NEW MEXICO. 
 
 New Mexico was visited by the devastating Span- 
 iards before the middle of the sixteenth century. It 
 had quite an advanced native civilization, Aztec or 
 Toltec. The destroying visitors cared only for gold 
 and silver, and that region abounds in both. Aban- 
 doned mines attest the operations of long ago. 
 When the republic of Mexico ceded a large part of 
 its territory to the United States, New Mexico was 
 included. It had been conquered by Gen. Kearney 
 in 1848. He raised the American llag over Santa 
 Fe, then as now its chief town. The territory was 
 organized in 1850. Slavery was recognized and 
 
 protected in 1859, but hi 1861 it was abolished, and 
 with it peonage, a modified system of slavery which 
 had existed there for two and a half centuries. The 
 population is still mainly Indian and Mexican. 
 The language employed in legislative debate is the 
 Spanish. Gradually the influx of miners and cat- 
 tle-men from the North and East is Americanizing 
 the territory. The herding business is carried on 
 upon a large scale, and very rich mines have been 
 so far developed as to establish their high grade. 
 The climate varies widely. In the vicinity of Santa 
 Fe the great altitude renders the winters severe. 
 
 Very little rain falls 
 in that region. The 
 Apache Indians hin- 
 der development by 
 their cruel hostilities ; 
 but the Pueblos are a 
 peaceable and some- 
 what civilized people. 
 Theymaintain schools 
 and have been de- 
 cided by the courts to 
 be citizens of the 
 United States. They 
 are not disposed to 
 avail themselves of 
 the rights of citizens, 
 preferring to adhere 
 closely to their tradi- 
 tional tribal or village 
 form of government. 
 The Puebjos are less 
 in the way of civilization, in that remote region, 
 than are the Mexicans, called “Greasers.” 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 New York is the Empire State of the Union, first 
 in population and wealth, but it is not much over 
 one-third the size of New Mexico. It has a small 
 strip of Canada on the north, but for the most part 
 its north and west boundaries are the St. Lawrence 
 River and Lake Ontario with Lake Champlain, and 
 
 76 
 
6l2 
 
 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the States of Vermont, Massachusetts, and Con- 
 necticut along the east, and New Jersey and 
 Pennsylvania along the south. With the excep- 
 tion of the John Brown tract of the Adirondacks the 
 greater part of the state is capable of and actually 
 under a high state of cultivation. In the northeast 
 iron ore is found in paying quantities, and lumber- 
 ing is conducted upon a large scale. 
 
 It is a great dairying state. It has two col- 
 leges dating back to the eighteenth century, 
 Columbia, formerly King’s College, New York 
 City, 1754, and Union College, Schenectady, 1795; 
 but it was not until Cornell University was estab- 
 lished, 1868, that the state could boast a really great 
 
 university. The great name in the history of New 
 York is Clinton. It appears among the list of roy- 
 al governors (1743-1753) and twice among the state 
 governors. The great Clinton was De Witt, the 
 father of the Erie Canal. He was governor of the 
 state sixteen years. His prescience and energy 
 secured for New York City a connection with the 
 Northwest, by a canal from Lake Erie to the Hud- 
 son River, which gave it a pre-eminence over Bos- 
 ton, Philadelphia, and all other possible rivals. 
 Among its statesmen of renown were also Hamilton, 
 Jay, Van Buren, Marcy and Seward, the least of 
 them all, Van Buren, being the only one to realize 
 the great goal of American ambition. 
 
 This great state is noted for its prosperous cities. 
 Its greatest city bearing the same name as the state, 
 is the commercial and financial capital of the New 
 World, surely destined to rival London. It dates 
 
 from 1614. Its first name was New Amsterdam. 
 Originally a sleepy Dutch town, it had only about 
 60,000 inhabitants when this century began. It now 
 has more Irish than Dublin and more Yankees than 
 Boston. It has a history which is, in the main, 
 highly creditable. But in 1872 there was disclosed 
 a condition of corruption in its government unpar- 
 alleled in municipal politics anywhere or at any 
 time. That was known as the “ Tweed Ring.” After 
 years of persistent effort reform was effected, the 
 leader of the ring brought to justice, and a reign of 
 comparative integrity established. 
 
 Brooklyn is the second city in size. It is just 
 across the river from New York, of which it is a 
 
 suburb. It is almost entirely composed of resi- 
 dences, the men of Brooklyn being occupied in New 
 York during the day. It is sometimes called The 
 City of Churches. Its most popular preacher is 
 Henry Ward Beecher, but it has many great preach- 
 ers and large and well-filled houses of worship. Buff- 
 alo, the head of lake navigation, has been an import- 
 ant city ever since the Erie Canal was constructed. It 
 is opulent and beautiful. Rochester owes its existence 
 to inexhaustible water-power, the richness of the Gen- 
 esee Valley, and the Erie Canal. Of late years it has 
 been famous for the excellence of its adjacent seed 
 farms and nurseries. The soil and climate of that 
 portion of New York are admirably adapted to both 
 vegetable raising and fruit growing. Syracuse owes its 
 existence and prosperity to its salt-works which 
 yield at least 7,000,000 bushels yearly. The other 
 manufactures of that city are numerous and prosper- 
 
STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ous. Albany, the capital of the state, is an old and 
 populous city, the head of navigation on the Hud- 
 son River. Five miles above it is Troy, which is a 
 great center for stove manufactures and lumber. 
 Utica, Lockport, Binghamton, Elmira, Auburn, 
 Poughkeepsie, Oswego, Saratoga Springs, Ogdens- 
 burg, Yonkers, Newburg, Schenectady, Rome, East 
 New York, Kingston, Cohoes and Flushing are 
 thrifty minor cities. But with all its urban splendor, 
 the State of New York is greatest and best as 
 the home of a vast and highly intelligent agricult- 
 ural population. 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 North Carolina claims to have sounded the key- 
 note of American Independence, and the claim lias 
 foundation. The Mecklenburg Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence dates back more than a year prior to the 
 declaration adopted by the Continental Congress. 
 It was hi effect a petition to Congress in favor of 
 nationality. The action of Congress was ratified 
 by North Carolina in less than a month. A state 
 organization was effected in December following. 
 The constitution of the United States was rejected 
 by North Carolina once, but later it concurred in its 
 ratification. The secession movement found the 
 “ Old North” much divided in sympathy, and it re- 
 quired several efforts to secure a vote in favor of 
 secession. The ordinance was passed in May, 1861. 
 The state was restored to the Union in the summer 
 of 1868. Its principal city is Wilmington on the 
 seaboard. Raleigh is the capital. Before the war 
 the University of North Carolina, founded at Chapel 
 Hill, in 1793, was a flourishing institution, but it 
 has been feeble ever since. It was closed from the 
 outbreak of the war until 1875. The state produces 
 rice, tobacco, cotton, peanuts, tar and turpen- 
 tine. Before the discovery of the California mines 
 its gold-mines were worked to a considerable ex- 
 tent. Coal and iron are abundant in some por- 
 tions of the state, but the people are sadly lacking 
 in energy. 
 
 Oregon is the most remote state of the Union, and 
 the least frequented. It is between the parallels of 
 42° and 46° 18' of latitude, and longitudes 116° 33' 
 and 124° 25'. The voyage from San Francisco to 
 Portland, its commercial capital, as Salem is its po- 
 litical, is long and dangerous. The state has three 
 well-defined divisions, the western, middle and east- 
 ern. The western or coast division is well watered 
 and arable ; the middle division is arid and uninvit- 
 ing, and the eastern abounds in high mountains and 
 fertile valleys. The best part of the state is the de- 
 lightful Willamette Valley. Considerable gold has 
 been washed from the sands of Oregon and some 
 quartz-mining carried on. It is an excellent coun- 
 try for wheat and livestock. It has several colleges, 
 the Pacific being the oldest and the Willamette the 
 largest. The Territory of Oregon was organized in 
 1849, including then the present Territory of Wash- 
 ington. Ten years later it was admitted as a state. 
 The war with the Modoc Indians in 1872 was fought 
 within the limits of Oregon. 
 
 OHIO. 
 
 Ohio was once peopled by Indians possessing some 
 civilization. They lived by bread, rather than game, 
 and cultivated the soil in preference to following the 
 trail. They built mounds which still attest theii 
 skill in engineering and the largeness of t heir con- 
 ceptions. But by the time the region began to bo 
 settled by white pioneers the inhabitants were sav- 
 ages, with only faint traces of civilization. 1 he first 
 settlement was made at Marietta in 1 i8.s by a colony 
 from New England. Cincinnati was founded later m 
 the same year. Virginia, Massachusetts, New ^ ork 
 and Connecticut all laid claim to the country, the for- 
 
6 14 
 
 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 mer having the best claim, the latter the least. They 
 all surrendered their claims, except Connecticut, which 
 held on, partially, to the northwest corner of Ohio, 
 known as the Western Reserve. The Northwest Ter- 
 ritory was organized in 1788, with General St. Clair 
 who had been President of the Continental 
 Congress, as first governor. The ordinance es- 
 tablishing the Territory forever prohibited slavery, 
 and set apart for educational purposes a portion of 
 the public domain, on a policy which has always been 
 
 dependence of the people. In some portions of the 
 state grapes are raised in immense quantities, espe- 
 cially in the vicinity of lake Erie. There is a great 
 deal of manufacturing industry. The large cities, 
 Cincinnati and Cleveland especially, are extensively 
 engaged in all sorts of manufactures using iron and 
 wood. The state has a very large number of col- 
 leges, most of them merely academies, Oberlin and 
 Antioch being best known. The state has produced 
 some eminent men, Thomas Corwin, the great ora- 
 
 VIEW OP CINCINNATI. 
 
 adhered to in the organization of territories. The 
 state, under the name of Ohio, was admitted to the 
 Union in 1803. Prom a geographical point of view 
 Kansas is the central state of the Union, but in 
 practical matters Ohio is really the central state. 
 It is rich and prosperous in a pre-eminent degree. 
 It has no mountains, neither is it a prairie state. It 
 is a rolling tableland, admirably adapted, for the 
 most part, to agriculture. It abounds in coal, and 
 in the southern part are found immense deposits of 
 iron. Petroleum has also been found in large quan- 
 tities. Wheat, corn and livestock are the main 
 
 tor, Salmon P. Chase, statesman and jurist, Joshua 
 It. Giddings, statesman, and James A. Garfield, sol- 
 dier and statesman. It is also the home of Ex-Presi- 
 dent Hayes and the birthplace of the three great 
 soldiers of the Union, Grant, Sherman and Sheridan. 
 Columbus is the capital. Politically it is almost 
 evenly divided, but generally goes Republican. The 
 native American element is largely composed of 
 New Englanders, or descendants of the Puritans. 
 Between this part of the population and the large 
 German element there is a sharp antagonism on 
 sumptuary and Sabbatic legislation. 
 
STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 In importance, historical and actual, the great State 
 of Pennsylvania is the peer of Virginia, Massachu- 
 setts and New York. It has a large area and the re- 
 gions not adapted to agriculture abound in coal,plati- 
 
 is the capital. The Wyoming Valley is picturesque, 
 fertile and populous. Philadelphia was, for the 
 most part, the capital of the country during the 
 period of struggle with England. The great battle 
 of Gettysburg was fought on the soil of Pennsyl- 
 vania. The state is more famous for its prominence 
 in public affairs and for its wealth than for its influ- 
 ence upon the intellectual development of the nation. 
 In the domain, however, of professional treatises, 
 legal and medical, especially the latter, it has excelled. 
 Girard College, the munificent gift of Stephen Gi- 
 rard, is the most notable of its institutions. It has 
 
 GIRARD AVENUE BRIDGE. PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 num or iron, which greatly enhance the value of the 
 surrounding arable land. Nearly 70 per cent, of the 
 entire land area of the state is under cultivation, 
 including the fenced woodland. Anthracite coal is 
 a Pennsylvania monopoly. From twenty-five to 
 thirty millions of tons are consumed every year, all 
 from a few eastern counties. In Western Pennsyl- 
 vania bituminous coal is found and mined. Petro- 
 leum is found in a few places in Ohio, and a little 
 in New York, but the supply nearly all comes from 
 Western Pennsylvania. Philadelphia, once the most 
 important city on the continent, is now second only 
 to New York. It is largely devoted to manufactur- 
 ing now. Pittsburgh in the western portion of the 
 state is the iron capital of the country. Harrisburg 
 
 an endowment, including the cost of the buildings, 
 of $2,000,000. The oldest college in the state is 
 the University of Pennsylvania, which dates from 
 1749. Like Girard College, it is located at Phila- 
 delphia. When the Revolutionary War began, that 
 city was an important center of scientific research, 
 David Rittenhouse being hardly less famous at that 
 time for his astronomical observations and calcula- 
 tions than Franklin for his experiments in electricity. 
 Political and military exigencies arrested scientific 
 progress. There are sections of the country where 
 the inhabitants speak only German, although their 
 ancestors came to this country several generations 
 ago. They are called Dunkers. They are simple in 
 habits and singularly free from vice and indigence. 
 
G) 
 
 6 16 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Rhode Island is the smallest state in the Union, 
 but Narragansett Bay extends in such a way as to 
 give the state a water frontage of 350 miles. The 
 soil is not very good. About one-fourth of it is still 
 covered with forests. The state is largely devoted 
 to manufactures, more especially cotton, woolen 
 and worsted goods, also jewelry. Providence is its 
 leading city. Newport is famous as a summer resort 
 for the wealthy of New York, Boston and other parts 
 of the country. Its villas are noted for their elegance 
 and luxury. Newport aspired, a century ago, to rivalry 
 in commercial importance with Boston and New 
 York. The commodore appointed by the Continental 
 Congress to take charge of the American navy was 
 Hopkins of Rhode Island. Paul Jones was a Rhode 
 Islander. So too was General Greene, one of the 
 bravest and ablest of the Revolutionary generals. 
 The state was the last of the thirteen to accept the 
 national constitution, not coming into the Union 
 until May 29, 1790. In the war of 1812 a Rhode 
 Islander won renown, Commodore Perry, and most 
 of his men were from the same state. In both wars 
 with England Rhode Island privateers rendered im- 
 portant service. The constitution of the state re- 
 stricts suffrage to property holders and tax payers or 
 those who may have performed military service dur- 
 ing the year. The legislature meets twice a year. 
 Brown University is the only college in the state. 
 It dates from 1765. It is under the auspices of the 
 Baptist denomination, and is liberally endowed mid 
 largely patronized. 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA. 
 
 South Carolina is triangular in shape, lying be- 
 tween North Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee and the 
 
 Atlantic Ocean. It has an area of 34,000 square 
 miles. It is well adapted to grain-raising and cot- 
 ton-planting. The islands along the coast are nu- 
 merous and produce peculiarly good cotton. Rice 
 is raised on a very large scale in the lowlands of the 
 state. The palmetto, a species of the palm, is the 
 distinguishing tree of the state. There are three 
 ports of entry in South Carolina, Charleston, Beau- 
 fort and Georgetown. The former was once a more 
 important city than Philadelphia or New York, 
 but it lost its pre-eminence long ago. Columbia 
 is the capital, and it is there that the State 
 University, the only prosperous higher institution of 
 learning in the state, is located. South Carolina 
 was effective in support of the patriot cause in the 
 Revolutionary War, prompt to ratify the constitu- 
 tion and join in cementing the Union, but it was the 
 first state to secede. In 1833 it attempted to break 
 up theUnionandon the very day that President Lin- 
 coln was elected the governor of the state issued a 
 call for a meeting of the legislature for the purpose 
 of seceding. The ordinance of secession was passed 
 December 20, 1860, and in June, 1868, the state was 
 restored to the Union. 
 
 TENNESSEE. 
 
 Tennessee first conies to view as Washington 
 County, North Carolina, in the Revolutionary period. 
 In 1785 the settlers concluded to organize as a state 
 under the name of Franklin. North Carolina re- 
 fused to sauction this movement, but in 1789 it 
 ceded the region to the United States, and the next 
 year the Territory of Tennessee was organized. In 
 1796 it was admitted into the Union as a state. 
 Knoxville was the first capital. The state seceded 
 in May, 1861. It was restored to the Union in 
 1866. The state is well supplied with coal, iron 
 and marble. The latter is black, gray, red and 
 variegated, very beautiful and abundant, but diffi- 
 cult of access. The country is uneven, often mount- 
 ainous, but the soil is usually good and the crops 
 liberal. Memphis, on the Mississippi River, is the 
 
STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES, 
 
 617 
 
 largest city in the state, and Nashville, the capital, 
 ranks next. The principal seat of learning is Van- 
 derbilt University at Nashville, founded by Corn- 
 
 tried to prevent the secession of the state, but failed. 
 It went out of the Union in 18G1 and did not 
 get back again until nine years later. During the 
 
 modore Vanderbilt in 1875. It has an annual in- 
 come of $42,000. 
 
 TEXAS. 
 
 From 1827 to 1829 Sam Houston was governor 
 of Tennessee. He then pushed off into the wilds of 
 the Southwest and was lost sight of. But in 183G 
 he came to the front as President of the Republic of 
 Texas. The year before he had been appointed 
 commander of the little army raised in Texas to 
 achieve independence of Mexico. The decisive bat- 
 tle was fought at San Jacinto in the spring of 183G, 
 Santa Anna being taken prisoner. He purchased 
 liberty by signing a treaty acknowledging the in- 
 dependence of the revolting republic. The Lone 
 Star, as it was called, remained independent until 
 1846, when it was admitted into the Union as a 
 state, with the privilege of forming five states. It 
 has an area of 274,365 square miles. Gen. Hous- 
 ton represented the state in the Senate many years, 
 and then in 1859 was elected governor. He held 
 the office when the confederacy was organized, and 
 
 last decade the state has made wonderful progress 
 in population. Texas and Kansas may fairly claim 
 unrivaled pre-eminence in this regard. The state 
 is especially well adapted to herding. Austin is the 
 capital and Galveston the chief port 011 the Gulf of 
 Mexico. San Antonio is a prosperous town. The 
 state has an immense amount of land at its dis- 
 posal, and recently contracted for the erection of a 
 capitol, to be paid for in land. 
 
 UTAH TERRITORY. 
 
 Utah Territory has Arizona on its south, Col- 
 orado on the east, Nevada on the west, Idaho and 
 Wyoming on the north, lying mainly in the Wali- 
 satoh basin, between the Rocky Mountains and the 
 Sierra Nevada. It lias numerous lakes, none of 
 which have any apparent outlet, although fed by 
 very considerable rivers. One of the bodies of water 
 contains twenty-two per cent, of pure salt, and is 
 known as Salt Lake. No fish can live in it. It is 
 100 miles long and fifty miles wide. But this natural 
 phenomenon is less remarkable than the ]>ooplc 
 
k- 
 
 61 8 
 
 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 who constitute the main body of the inhabitants. 
 They are Mormons, or ‘‘Latter-day Saints,” be- 
 lieving in polygamy as a divine institution and 
 Joseph Smith, a native of Vermont, as an inspired 
 guide. They have a bible which they received 
 through him. He attempted to establish a commu- 
 nity in Nauvoo, Illinois, which should be independent 
 of the state. He was killed in 1844, and his fol- 
 lowers driven out of the state. They crossed the 
 Mississippi and pushed westward to Council Bluffs, 
 opposite Omaha, intending to establish themselves 
 there, remote from white settlements. But after de- 
 liberation and investigation it was decided to leave 
 the United States and found a theocracy in the 
 wilds of Northern Mexico. The valley about Salt 
 Lake was chosen as their retreat, and in 1847 they 
 took up their residence there. Hardly had they 
 done so before the region became a part of the 
 United States, and Congress organized the Terri- 
 tory of Utah. That 
 
 great tabernacle of the Mormons, with a seating 
 capacity of 7,000 or 8,000. Utah is very rich in 
 precious minerals, but the Mormons confine their 
 industry to agriculture. The land has to be irriga- 
 ted. The Mormons are very anxious to be admitted 
 as a state, thus escaping from Federal control. 
 Utah has applied for admission as Deserett. Wo- 
 men are allowed to vote in that territory. 
 
 Brig- 
 
 was in 1850. 
 ham Young, the suc- 
 cessor of Smith, was 
 made governor. He 
 held the office four 
 years. Since then the 
 government has ap- 
 pointed “gentile” gov- 
 ernors and there has 
 always been bitterness 
 between the few gen- 
 tile inhabitants and 
 the Mormons. The 
 latter number nearly 
 100,000. In 1857 oc- 
 curred the Mountain 
 Meadow massacre, by 
 which a large number 
 of pioneers on their 
 way to California, 
 men, women and chil- 
 dren, were slain by the Mormon “Danites,” and 
 their Indian allies. The Government lias tried to 
 eradicate polygamy by prohibitory law, but without 
 success, and recruits are being gathered all the 
 time from the lower classes in England, Wales, and 
 the Scandinavian countries. The Territory derives 
 its name from the Ute tribe of Indians. Salt Lake 
 City, the capital, is a thrifty city. It contains the 
 
 VERMONT. 
 
 Vermont deserved to be one of the original thir- 
 teen states, but was not admitted to the Union until 
 
 March, 1791. It be- 
 gan to be settled im- 
 mediately after the 
 French war of 1755 
 -58, by pioneers from 
 New Hampshire. In 
 a few years there were 
 settlements from New 
 York, also from Mas- 
 sachusetts. From 1777 
 until admitted to the 
 Union, Vermont may 
 be said to have been 
 entirely independent. 
 The people were de- 
 voted patriots. Ethan 
 Allen and Seth War- 
 ner with their “Green 
 Mountain Boys,” dis- 
 tinguished themselves 
 
 SALT LAKE CITY — Mormon Temple on the Right 
 
 at Ticonderoga. 
 
 The 
 
 battle of Bennington 
 also attests the bravery of the Vermonters. The 
 state is almost wholly given to agriculture ; man- 
 ufacturing being little cultivated. The Green 
 Mountains constitute its backbone. The state 
 has two colleges of some standing among the higher 
 institutions of learning, the University of Vermont 
 at Burlington, and Middlebury College, Middlebury. 
 Rutland, St. Albans and St. Johusbury are the 
 
 TT 
 
 
3 
 
 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 principal towns of the state, and Montpelier the cap- 
 ital. It has the honor of being represented in the 
 Senate of the United States by Geo. F. Edmunds. 
 It was the birthplace of the poet Saxe. 
 
 VIRGINIA. 
 
 If no specific mention were made in this connec- 
 tion of Virginia, or the “ Old Dominion,” it would 
 
 of breaking the political solidity of the South. When 
 Richmond ceased to be the capital of the Confed- 
 eracy, and Lee gave up his sword, Virginia sub- 
 sided. On the 17th of April, 1861, it seceded, and 
 it did not regain its foothold in the Union as an in- 
 dependent, self-governing state until January, 1870. 
 Richmond is the state capital and the chief city of 
 the state, with Norfolk and Petersburg next. As 
 early as 1693, the college of William and Mary was 
 founded; Washington and Lee University in 1749; 
 Hampden Sidney in 1775, and University of Vir- 
 ginia in 1825. The state has always taken com- 
 mendable interest in education. The plantations 
 were so large and the population so scattered as to 
 render impracticable the common school system 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA. 
 
 still fill a large place in the American department of 
 this volume, so prominent was it in Colonial and 
 Revolutionary days, and during the first century of 
 the Republic. From 1607, when the first perma- 
 nent English settlement was made on American 
 soil upon the banks of the James River, until the 
 close of the war between the North and the South, 
 nearly two hundred and sixty years later, Virginia 
 was almost constantly at the front. Since that time 
 it has not been specially prominent, except as made 
 conspicuous in politics by the “Readjusters,” led by 
 Senator Mahone, who is urged forward in the hope 
 
 of the North, but as the land is being divided, and 
 the negroes are now a part of “ the people,” public 
 schools are beginning to flourish. The state contains 
 some coal and iron. The soil is generally good, and 
 the climate mild. Tobacco has always been the 
 leading staple of the state. General farming can 
 be carried on to advantage, as nearly all grains and 
 grasses thrive there. Gold has been discovered in 
 rich quartz within the limits of the state ; but, thus 
 far, the mines have never been worked to advantage. 
 Virginia is very proud of its record, and justly so- 
 It is familiarly known as “The Old Dominion.” 
 
 77 
 

 ° - 
 
 620 
 
 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 WASHINGTON TERRITORY. 
 
 Washington Territory is the extreme northwest 
 (except Alaska) of the United States, having Brit- 
 ish Columbia on the north, Idaho 011 the east, Ore- 
 0011 on the south and the Pacific Ocean on the west. 
 
 ft t 
 
 It was once known as the Puget Sound Kegion. It 
 was visited by Lewis and Clark in 1815. The Hud- 
 son Bay Company tried to seize and appropriate it 
 in 1828. The territory was organized in 1853. Its 
 present boundaries were fixed ten years later. It 
 contains some gold and a great deal of coal, but its 
 chief attractions are its fertile wheat-lands and broad 
 pastures. The climate on the coast is softened by 
 warm sea breezes. Olympia is the capital. With 
 the Northern Pacific railroad completed, it is ex- 
 pected that Washington Territory, thus far slow to 
 develop, will rapidly fill up with agriculturists. 
 
 people in the mountainous northwest portion of the 
 state remained loyal to the Union. They had long 
 wanted to escape from Virginia and form a separate 
 state, and the opportunity was then afforded for do- 
 ing so. In June, 1861, steps were taken for effect- 
 ing a state organization, and two years later West 
 Virginia came into the Union. Nearly two-thirds 
 of the state is covered witli the original forest. 
 Wheeling, the capital and chief city, is a great cen- 
 ter for iron works. The state is largely indebted to 
 its iron and coal for its prosperity. The state of Vir- 
 ginia insists that West Virginia should assume its 
 proportion of the old state debt, but West Virginia 
 is not disposed to entertain the proposition, and there 
 is 110 way to compel the state to pay any part of that 
 obligation, nor is there the slightest prospect of any 
 change of opinion on the subject. 
 
 WEST VIRGINIA. 
 
 West Virginia is an offshoot from Virginia. When 
 the latter joined the Confederacy a majority of the 
 
 WISCONSIN. 
 
 As early as 1636 a white settlement was made at 
 Green Bay. That was the beginning of civilization 
 
 bj*V 
 
 Vis- 
 
STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 in Wisconsin. But no present connection can be 
 traced between the French missions of the 17tli 
 century and the modern state. The territory was 
 organized in 1836, and included the extreme north- 
 west, in a somewhat vague way. Two years later 
 Wisconsin was admitted to the Union with its pres- 
 ent boundaries. It has Illinois on the south, Lake 
 Michigan and the State of Michigan on the east. 
 Lake Superior on the north, and Minnesota and 
 Iowa on the west. The state is very uneven in the 
 character of its soil, having much good farming 
 land and some barren sand-fields. The lumber 
 tracts are extensive and very valuable. Milwaukee, 
 once a rival of Chicago and still an important city, is 
 the principal center of business in the state. Madi- 
 son is the capital. The population, originally, was 
 composed of pioneers from New England and New 
 York. Of late years a great many Scandinavians 
 and Germans have settled in the state. Lakes of 
 great beauty abound. The country is rolling. The 
 state has at its capital a university under state con- 
 trol which ranks among the great institutions of 
 learning. Wisconsin has several important rivers, 
 which have been and are still of great advantage 
 for milling and commercial purposes. The chief of 
 these are the Wisconsin, the Chippewa, and the 
 Fox. The former and latter are connected by a 
 canal. Immense quantities of pine logs are floated 
 down these rivers and manufactured into lumber 
 upon their banks. 
 
 621 
 
 WYOMING TERRITORY. 
 
 Wyoming Territory is at the foot of the fist of 
 states and territories in every respect. With an area 
 of nearly 100,000 square miles, it has almost no laud 
 at all adapted to agriculture. The sparse bunch- 
 grass of its plains affords pasturage for cattle. Chey- 
 enne, its capital, is the only town within its limits of 
 any considerable magnitude. It is a great center 
 for the cattle trade and shipment of the plains. 
 The territory was organized in 1868. There is some 
 coal along and near the Union Pacific railroad. The 
 National Park forms the extreme northwest corner 
 of Wyoming. That is the region of geysers so 
 wonderful that Congress by specific legislation 
 reserved the tract as a public domain forever. It 
 comprises an area of 3,575 square miles. No 
 other equal area contains so many natural phenom- 
 ena of interest. “ There are more hot springs and 
 geysers in this area,” says Hayden, “than in all the 
 remainder of the world besides.” 
 
 Having now considered alphabetically the several 
 states and territories of the United [States, it only 
 remains to add that the combining of so many es- 
 sentially independent commonwealths in one nation 
 is no longer an experiment, and every vestige of hos- 
 tility to the union of the states has disappeared, be- 
 longing exclusively to historical, in distinction from 
 actual America. 
 

 
 xxtt xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx* 
 
 ************************* ^** 
 
 AMERICAN 
 
 INVENTIONS AND<* 
 
 INVENTORS. 
 
 , ***************** ************ / 
 
 lt ******** 
 
 
 , V 
 
 ryr 
 
 CHAPTER LXXXVII. 
 
 The Constitution and Patent Rights— The Patent System in England — Colonial Patents 
 — Steamships and Robert Fulton — The Patent Office — Whitney and the Cotton Gin — 
 “Assembling” and the American Watch— Jethro Wood and the Plow — The First 
 Locomotive and Peter Cooper — The Lathe — Guns and Revolvers— Fire Engines and 
 Alarm— Air-Brake— American Presses — Scales and Safes — Electricity — The Sewing 
 Machine — Mowers and Reapers — Goodyear and India-Rubber— Anaesthetics — John 
 Ericsson — Eads and the St. Louis Bridge— The Boot Crimper— The Steam Hammer— 
 The Brass Clock. 
 
 ' HE constitution of the Uni- 
 ted States provides that “the 
 Congress shall have power 
 to promote the progress of 
 science and useful arts, by 
 securing, for limited times, 
 to authors and inventors 
 the exclusive right to their respect- 
 ive writings and discoveries.” To 
 that recognition of the right of 
 property in ideas is the United 
 States very largely indebted for its 
 present pre-eminence among the 
 nations of the earth. 
 
 Mr. Charles Reade was not ro- 
 mancing, but stating moderately a 
 great fact, when he said, “ Europe 
 teems with the material products 
 of American genius. American patents print En- 
 glish newspapers and sew Englishmen’s shirts. A 
 Briton goes to his work by American clocks and is 
 warmed by American stoves. In a word, America 
 is the leading nation in all matters of material in- 
 vention and construction, and no other nation rivals 
 or approaches it.” The reference here is solely to 
 the United States, and the same, it may be added, 
 
 will be true throughout the current chapters. 
 The patent system is very old. Faint traces of 
 it are to be found in ancient history, but so very 
 faint as to be almost indistinguishable. In modern 
 times it is first found in England. Tne common 
 law grants to the sovereign the right to issue letters 
 patent for monopolies in inventions and other 
 things. What is called in the written law of En- 
 gland the “ Statute of Monopolies,” designed to 
 check abuses of a grievous nature in the exercise of 
 the royal prerogative herein, is regarded as the basis 
 of patent law in this country also. The earliest 
 recorded patent in the world goes back to the times 
 of Edward III. That king granted a patent to 
 “ two friars and two aldermen ” for a philosopher’s 
 stone. Thus curiously blended are the absurd con- 
 ceits of the past with the solid acquisitions of the 
 present. 
 
 The earliest patent in America was issued in 1641 
 by the General Court of the Colony of Massachusetts. 
 It granted to Samuel Winslow the exclusive right 
 for ten years to use a certain specified process 
 in making salt. The next patent was eleven years 
 later. One John Clark was allowed a royalty of ten 
 shillings from every family which should use his 
 method of “ saving wood and warming houses at 
 
 ( 622) 
 
 ■— 
 
G> 
 
 
 "7t 
 
 AMERICAN INVENTIONS AND INVENTORS. 
 
 623 
 
 little cost.” Governor Winthrop’s son, John, took 
 out in 1656 a patent for a process for making salt. 
 
 Connecticut has a very creditable patent record. 
 In 1672 that colony passed a law that, “ there shall 
 be no monopolies granted among us but of such 
 new inventions as shall be judged profitable and for 
 the benefit of the country, and for such time as the 
 General Court shall judge meet.” Under this law 
 a monopoly in steel-making was granted to two per- 
 sons in 1728. Very little attention was paid to pat- 
 ents, however, during the colonial period, and the 
 only great American inventor of 
 that period, Franklin, never 
 sought any monopoly on his light- 
 ning rod. 
 
 The first patent of the United 
 States, under the first law based 
 on the constitutional provision 
 quoted, bears date of July 31, 
 
 1790, the same year in which the 
 law itself was enacted. It ran to 
 Samuel Hopkins, and related to 
 making pot and pearl ashes. 
 
 There were two other patents, also 
 of trivial importance, granted 
 that year. At the present time 
 the issue is at the rate of more 
 than 20,000 per annum. It is 
 in 1791, that we are afforded a 
 glimpse of the great future in 
 store for American ingenuity. 
 
 The number of patents granted 
 rose to thirty-one, and included six patents to 
 James Rumsay and one to John Fitch of Philadel- 
 phia, relative to steam-engines and steamships. 
 From that point dates, properly, America’s entry 
 upon the field of steam utilization. We find in a 
 reference book issued by the Scientific American a 
 brief statement of the history of the steam-engine 
 which may well find place here. It is as follows: 
 
 “ Papin, of France, was the first (in 1690) to oper- 
 ate a piston by steam, which acted only on one side 
 of the piston. He also invented the safety-valve. 
 He was bom 1650, died 1710. Savory, 1697, first 
 employed steam power in doing useful work. Ilis 
 piston, like Papin’s, took steam on one side only, 
 the pressure of the atmosphere being admitted to 
 the other side. James Watt was the first to make 
 the complete steam-engine, or the existing forms in 
 
 YOUNG FRANKLIN 
 
 which steam acts on both sides of the piston. He 
 also made the steam-condenser, the governor, the 
 walking-beam, applied the fly-wheel, and nearly all 
 the parts of the modern engine. He was born 1 736, 
 died 1819. He made a rotary steam-engine in 1782, 
 and patented a locomotive engine in 1784. In 1804. 
 Trevithick and Vivian operated a locomotive which 
 traveled five miles an hour, with a load of ten tons. 
 Cook, in 1808, used fixed engines with ropes to draw 
 railway-cars. Blachett and Hedley, in 1813, discov- 
 ered that smooth locomotive wheels might be used 
 on railways, instead of toothed 
 wheels and toothed rails before 
 required. George Stevenson, 1825, 
 made railway locomotion success- 
 ful by adapting the locomotive to 
 variable speeds and loads, by 
 means of his blast-pipe, and by 
 introducing the tubular boiler, 
 which latter was suggested to him 
 and invented by Booth, 1829. 
 October 6, 1829, the famous com- 
 petitive trial of locomotives on 
 the Liverpool and Manchester 
 railway took place, which estab- 
 lished the superiority of Steven- 
 son’s locomotives, and inaugu- 
 rated the art of railway commu- 
 nication. The first steamboat 
 actually employed in business was 
 a small vessel built by John Fitch 
 of Pennsylvania, 1790, worked 
 on the Delaware ; speed, 7£ miles per hour. Robert 
 Fulton’s steamboat, the Clermont, made her first 
 trip from New York to Albany, August, 1807 ; 
 speed, five miles per hour.” 
 
 The first steam -vessel to cross 
 the Atlantic was the Savan- 
 nah, in 1819, from Savannah - 
 to Liverpool, 26 days. Robert 
 Fulton was the first to dem- 
 onstrate the practicability 
 of the idea. He was the introducer rather than the 
 inventor of steam navigation. Fulton was born at 
 Little Britain, Pennsylvania in 1765, and died in 1825. 
 His early life was spent at the easel and the brush. 
 1 1 is last achievement was the construction of the 
 first steam war-vessel. 
 
 In those primitive days of the republic the peti- 
 
 FULTON’S STEA1LBOAT. 
 
AMERICAN INVENTIONS AND INVENTORS. 
 
 624 
 
 tion for a patent was made to the Secretary of 
 State, the Secretary of War, or the Attorney-Gen- 
 eral, and the patent could be issued by the Presi- 
 dent upon the recommendation of two of the three 
 officers named. The State Department came to be 
 the patent office of the government, in effect, until 
 after the creation of the Interior Department, when, 
 in 1849, Congress transferred the Patent Bureau to 
 the new department, where it has developed from a 
 beginning so small as to be almost beneath notice 
 into one of the most impor- 
 tant branches of the nation- 
 al government employing 
 many hundred clerks, who 
 are, or must become, ex- 
 perts in mechanism and 
 chemistry, for patents ex- 
 tend to medicines and other 
 ingredients which involve 
 chemical science no less 
 than to mechanism. The 
 models on file in the Patent 
 office form a very interest- 
 ing collection, and afford 
 an ample field for study. 
 
 The first great American 
 invention in mechanism was 
 Eli Whitney’s cotton gin, 
 which dates from 1794. 
 
 Whitney was a Yankee 
 schoolmaster at the South. 
 
 By a simple process, the use 
 of teeth and slats, he con- 
 trived to separate the seeds 
 from the cotton, which 
 before his day had to be 
 done by hand. He trebled the value of all cotton 
 lands, yet realized nothing from this invention, so 
 easily and generally was his right infringed. He 
 afterwards acquired a fortune in the manufacture 
 of improved firearms. Whitney was horn in West- 
 borough, Massachusetts, December 8, 1765, and died 
 in New Haven, Connecticut, December 8, 1825. 
 
 Sir Richard Arkwright, an English barber, orig- 
 inally, is justly regarded as the founder of the fac- 
 tory system, if not the inventor of the spinning- 
 jenny. Others had invented machinery for weaving, 
 but he utilized the mule spinner and the various ap- 
 pliances for converting raw cotton into cloth. It 
 
 was not, however, until the cotton mills of Waltham, 
 Massachusetts, were set up (1813) that machines for 
 all the processes which convert the raw cotton into 
 cloth were combined in one establishment. The 
 mechanism for weaving,dyeing,and the like, received 
 a great many improvements from time to time from 
 American artisans. 
 
 What is called the system of “assembling” is a 
 conspicuous feature of American ingenuity. Knight 
 defines it as “ the system of making the component 
 parts of a machine or imple- 
 ment in distinct pieces of 
 fixed shape and dimensions, 
 so that corresponding parts 
 are interchangeable.” The 
 first watch made in this 
 country was the “American” 
 of Waltham, Massachusetts, 
 and in regard to it Knight 
 observes, “ The American 
 system of watch-making, by 
 gathering all the operations 
 under one roof, making the 
 parts as largely as possible 
 by machines, each part 
 being made in quantities by 
 gauge and pattern, and 
 pieces afterwards ‘ assem- 
 bled,’ dates back to 1852.” 
 A. L. Denison is the name 
 associated with the pioneer 
 operations in this line. 
 
 The plow early engaged 
 the attention of American 
 talent. President Jefferson 
 devoted a great deal of 
 thought to its construction, and so did Timothy 
 Pickering, another leading statesman of tire re- 
 public in its infancy. But the inventor of the 
 modern plow was Jethro W T ood, of Scipio, New 
 York, of whom Wm. H. Seward once wrote, “No 
 citizen of the United States has conferred greater 
 economical benefits on his country than Jethro 
 Wood — none of her benefactors have been more 
 inadequately rewarded.” Mr. Wood’s great in- 
 vention dates from 1819. It was the beginning of 
 a new era in husbandry. This great benefactor not 
 only realized no profit from his invention, but lost a 
 fortune in trying to secure his rights. His only re- 
 
AMERICAN INVENTIONS AND INVENTORS. 
 
 62^ 
 
 
 ward was the consciousness of having lightened the 
 toil of the farmer and increased the productiveness 
 of the soil tilled. Wood, like Whitney, was a native 
 of Massachusetts. He was born at Dartmouth, 
 March 16, 1774. He died in 1834. 
 
 The first locomotive used outside of England was 
 manufactured in that country for use in this coun- 
 try in 1829. It was not suited to the purpose, and 
 Mr. Peter Cooper, the venerable philanthropist of 
 New York City, then a young man, devised and 
 constructed an engine which met the requirements 
 of the case. That was in 1829. Mr. Cooper thus 
 belongs in the list of great 
 inventors. He was born 
 in 1791. This noble phil- 
 anthropist must rank 
 among the best products 
 of American civilization. 
 
 In 1876 he was the Green- 
 back candidate for Presi- 
 dent, and as late as 1880 
 took an active interest in 
 politics. Cooper Institute, 
 
 New York, with its munif- 
 icent endowment, is a mon- 
 ument of his goodness. 
 
 One of the grand and 
 fundamental improve- 
 ments of modern times is 
 the lathe, the invention of 
 Thomas Blanchard. He 
 was born at Sutton, Mas- 
 sachusetts, in 1788. He 
 survived until 1864. His inventions were somewhat 
 numerous, the first being a tack machine in 1806. 
 It was in 1843 that he patented the lathe, now in 
 almost universal use the world over for turning 
 every sort of wooden device, from an axe-helve to 
 a gunstock. 
 
 Although this country lias been engaged but little 
 in war during the century since independence was 
 achieved, and its standing army is trivial in the ex- 
 treme, it has excelled in firearms, from pocket- 
 pieces to siege guns. The pistol is old, but the revol- 
 ver is American and modern. Its inventor was Sam- 
 uel Colt, born at Hartford, Connecticut, July 19, 
 1814. The principle itself was not wholly unknown, 
 but its application and introduction are attributable 
 to Colt. Ho made an immense fortune out of the 
 
 manufacture of these arms, expending on his works, 
 including cottages for the workmen, not less than 
 $3,000,000. He died January 10, 1862. 
 
 Speaking of firearms in general, an eminent 
 authority remarks, “ With a single exception, the 
 main features of all the prominent military rifles 
 originated in the United States.” That exception is 
 the needle-gun. Fire engines, both water and chemi- 
 cal, attest the superior ingenuity of the American 
 mind. The system of fire-alarms is also American. 
 
 The atmospheric brake for railroad cars is one of 
 the great American inventions. The most impor- 
 tant of the numerous de- 
 vices in that line is the 
 Westinghouse air-brake, 
 which has proved im- 
 mensely profitable and of 
 incalculable benefit in 
 lessening the perils of 
 travel by rail. Air is 
 used in operating the 
 brake. Knight attempts 
 to make the brake intelli- 
 gible to the general read- 
 er by the following de- 
 scription : “Air is con- 
 densed to the required 
 extent into a reservoir by 
 a steam-pump upon the 
 locomotive. From the 
 reservoir it is conducted 
 back beneath the cars of 
 the train by pipes con- 
 nected beneath the train by flexible tubes and valve- 
 couplings. Under each car is a cylinder to which 
 the compressed air is admitted forward of a piston, 
 the stem of which is connected with a bell-crank 
 attached to the brake lovers by rods, so that when 
 air is admitted by the engineer to the pipes connect- 
 ed to the cylinders under each car, the brakes of 
 each aro simultaneously applied.” This explana- 
 tion has been given because the mere observer of 
 this brake can really see nothing, while an inspection 
 in the case of ordinary inventions is to some extent 
 instructive. 
 
 In the art of printing, especially press-work, this 
 country can also claim pre-eminence. Franklin 
 made some improvements in presses, but tho lloe, 
 Adams, l'ottcr, Campbell, and several other recent. 
 

 L. 
 
 626 
 
 AMERICAN INVENTIONS AND INVENTORS. 
 
 I 
 
 presses in use, whereon printing is done, testify most 
 eloquently to the skill of 
 America in devising 
 and executing mechan- 
 ical plans. 
 
 The substitution of 
 scales for steelyards was 
 the invention of Thad- 
 deus Fairbanks. From 
 the same rural town of 
 Brimfield, Massachusetts, 
 came two highly impor- 
 tant contributions to 
 modern civilization, Fair- 
 banks’ scales and Her- 
 ring’s safes. The Fair- 
 banks brothers, Tliad- 
 deus and Erastus, estab- 
 lished their factory, how- 
 ever, at St. Jolmsbury, 
 
 Vermont. Erastus was 
 governor of the state 
 at two widely different 
 times. The American 
 safe has no equal any- 
 where, and the American 
 scales no competitors. 
 
 In electricity this 
 country stands unrivaled, 
 lightning; Morse made it 
 our errand-boy ; Gray, Bell 
 and Edison may be said to 
 have imparted to it the pow- 
 er of speech. The lightning- 
 rod robbed the thunderbolt 
 of its terrors ; the telegraph 
 almost annihilates distance 
 as a barrier to communica- 
 tion, and the telephone trans- 
 mits the voice itself. With 
 Franklin, Morse, Edison, 
 
 Gray, and Bell ranks also 
 Cyrus W. Field, who, if he 
 did not invent submarine 
 telegraphy, achieved that 
 marvel of all ages, the suc- 
 cessful laying of a cable 
 across the Atlantic ocean. 
 
 S. F. B. Morse was bom in Charlestown, Massachu 
 
 PETER COOPER. 
 
 Franklin tamed the 
 
 SAMUEL COLT. 
 
 setts, April 20, 1791. He was an artist and a lec- 
 turer on the literature 
 of art. In 1832 he de- 
 vised and put into prim- 
 itive use the system 
 of telegraphy. Eleven 
 years later Congress 
 made an appropriation 
 for an experimental 
 line from Washington 
 to Baltimore. The same 
 year he suggested a 
 marine cable. He re- 
 alized a fortune from 
 his invention, and sur- 
 vived to see a bronze 
 statue of himself erect- 
 ed in Central Park, 
 New York. He died 
 in 1872. 
 
 We turn now. to the 
 sewing machine. That 
 was the invention of 
 Elias Howe. Some ap- 
 proaches were made to 
 the discovery of the 
 principle of this won- 
 derful and revolution- 
 ary piece of mechanism by Thomas Saint of En- 
 
 gland in 1790, and Themon- 
 
 nier of Paris in 1830, Adams 
 and Dodge of Vermont in 
 1818, Greenough of New 
 York in 1842, and Walter 
 Hunt in 1832-35, contributed 
 to the invention. Howe does 
 not appear to have had any 
 acquaintance with these ex- 
 periments which hovered 
 upon the verge of success. 
 He was born in Spencer, 
 Massachusetts, in 1819. The 
 use of two threads, a shuttle 
 and a curved needle with the 
 eye near the point, especially 
 the latter, were the solution 
 of the problem over which he 
 pondered for years. He took 
 For eight years he suffered 
 
 out his patent in 1846. 
 
 
 
AMERICAN INVENTIONS AND INVENTORS. 
 
 
 the most extreme poverty, being engaged in trying 
 to introduce his machines or 
 defend his patent rights. A 
 decision of the court in 1854 
 established Howe’s claim to 
 priority, and from that time 
 until his death, 1867, he was 
 in the enjoyment of a prince- 
 ly revenue from the royalty 
 on his patent. Not much if 
 any less than 3,000 sewing 
 machine patents have been 
 taken out in this country, but 
 until the expiration of his 
 monopoly Howe received a 
 royalty on every machine 
 made, his patent being funda- 
 mental. He was an ardent 
 patriot, and in 1851 enlisted 
 as a common soldier in de- 
 fense of the Union. 
 
 The use of horse power 
 and mechanism in mowing, 
 harvesting and husbandry generally may be set down 
 as an American idea. The 
 mowing machine exhibit- 
 ed by Cyrus H. McCor- 
 mick of Chicago at the 
 World’s Fair, London, in 
 1851, was one of the more 
 attractive features of that 
 exposition. It brought to 
 the attention of mankind 
 a substitute for the scythe 
 and snath, and marked a 
 new era in farming. Mr. 
 
 McCormick was born in 
 Virginia in 1809. His first 
 machine was constructed 
 as early as 1831. Of a 
 kindred nature are the 
 harvesters of the country, 
 almost endless in variety 
 and inestimable in value. 
 
 The plow of Jethro Wood 
 needed to be supplement- 
 ed by machinery for put- 
 ting in and taking off the 
 crop, 
 
 THADDEUS FAIRBANKS. 
 
 ery for separating seed from straw, and American 
 ingenuity fully supplied the 
 demands of the case, includ- 
 ing elevators for storage. 
 The elevator system is indis- 
 pensable to the proper hand- 
 ling of grain, and for it the 
 world is indebted to the Uni- 
 ted States. 
 
 In 1800 was born at New 
 Haven, Connecticut, Charles 
 Goodyear to whom mankind 
 owes the vulcanization of 
 India rubber and the con- 
 version of that material into 
 numberless practical uses. 
 It was a discovery by accident 
 rather than an invention, 
 properly speaking, but the 
 details of the idea were 
 worked out only by long and 
 patient toil. For six years 
 Goodyear experimented until 
 at last he ascertained the right way to vulcanize 
 rubber, namely by mixing 
 with it sulphur, and treat- 
 ing them properly. The 
 uses of this material are 
 constantly widening. Mr. 
 Goodyear died in 1860. 
 
 The use of ether as an 
 anaesthetic was introduced 
 by two Boston physicians, 
 Drs. Jackson and Morton, 
 in 1846. Chloroform was 
 discovered by Dr. Simp- 
 son the year following. 
 The use of anaesthetics in 
 surgical and dental opera- 
 tions and in obstetrics 
 has lessened the volume 
 of human agony incalcu- 
 lably. Mechanical dentis- 
 try, it may be added, is 
 one of the prominent glo- 
 ries of American skill. 
 One of the greatest of 
 s. c. iierrino. inventors is John Ericsson, 
 
 There was also need of horse power machin- j a Swede by birth, an American by citizenship and 
 
 78 
 
628 
 
 AMERICAN INVENTIONS AND INVENTORS. 
 
 lung residence 
 
 s. r. B. MORSE. 
 
 He was born in 181)3. He made 
 many improvements in steamers and railway loco- 
 motives, but his greatest 
 achievements were naval. 
 He may be said to have rev- 
 olutionized the navies of 
 the world. The ironclads 
 which he invented and built 
 for the United States navy 
 in the late war proved the 
 of a radical 
 naval architect- 
 ure. He is said to have 
 recently invented a new and 
 almost invulnerable war ship which is likely to effect 
 
 still another rev- 
 olution 
 navies 
 world. 
 
 The 
 
 which spans the 
 Mississippi river 
 at St. Louis is 
 pronounced by 
 competent judg- 
 es the grandest 
 structure in the 
 world of a strict- 
 ly practical na- 
 ture. It was 
 planned and 
 built by James 
 B. Eads, who was born in 1820, and who had 
 been second only to Ericsson in usefulness to the 
 
 in 
 
 of 
 
 the 
 
 the 
 
 bridge 
 
 ELIAS HOWE. 
 
 United States in naval construction from 1861 to 
 1865. The St. Louis bridge has three spans, one is 
 515, and the other two 497 feet, each. Its middle 
 arch has only one companion piece of work, the one 
 of Kuilinburg, Holland. The following descrip- 
 tion gives some faint idea of the work: “Each 
 span consists of four arches having two members 
 each, an upper 
 and a lower one. 
 
 Each member is 
 of two-paneled 
 cast-steel tubes 
 nine inches in 
 exterior diame- 
 ter set closely 
 together, and 
 each made in 
 four segments 
 whose junctions 
 form ribs. The 
 upper and lower 
 members are 
 eight feet apart. 
 
 The whole fab- 
 ric is stiffened by 
 systems of diagonal, vertical and horizontal braces.” 
 
 The boot crimper, invented by Moore in 1812, 
 proved a great help in the manufacture of boots, as 
 did the pegging machine invented by Gallahue in 
 1858. The steam hammer dates from 1838, ten 
 years after the planing machine invented by Wood- 
 worth. The first brass clock was invented in Amer- 
 ica by Chauncey Jerome, and proved a benefit to 
 the entire civilized world. 
 
 CYRUS H. M’CORMICK. 
 
 RAILROAD BRIDGE ACROSS TllE MISSISSIPPI RIVER AT ST. LOUIS. 
 
 TT 
 
 ~ 7 \ 
 
CHAPTER LXXXVIII. 
 
 General Facts — Agriculture— Fisheries— Silk Culture — Cotton, Infant and King — Iron 
 and Steel — Wool and Woolens — Manufactures, 1880 — American Cereals — Mineral Pro- 
 ductions — Beef, Livestock and Provisions— Railroads and Shipping — Insurance— Ameri- 
 can Monet; Historical and Actual — American Art and Artists. 
 
 £ 
 
 
 NVENTION and industry, 
 if not absolutely insepara- 
 ble, are certainly greatly 
 helpful to each other. It 
 would be impossible to pre- 
 sent, whether in detail or 
 in a general way, American 
 inventions without throw- 
 ing much light upon the industrial de- 
 velopment of the country ; but such 
 incidental information serves rather to 
 sharpen than to satisfy the appetite, 
 and it is proposed in this chapter to 
 set forth the beginnings of the 1( ad- 
 ing skilled industries of America, and 
 the present condition of the country 
 from the standpoint of industry, as 
 shown by the census of 1880. It would 
 be tedious to follow the development itself step by 
 step, for each footprint is a column of statistics, and 
 at best this chapter will be burdened with figures. 
 
 Agriculture is the great industry of the world, 
 more especially of America. It is the foundation of 
 all prosperity, and it is the employment of the great 
 bulk of the population. Lord Beaconsfield was ac- 
 customed to insist that land owning was the only 
 basis of a genuine aristocracy, and he might have 
 added that when tillage and ownership were com- 
 
 1 ' 
 
 bined the highest ideal of aggregate life was real- 
 ized. Herein the United States leads the world. 
 This country has no peasant class, unless it be the 
 negroes who work the plantations at the South. 
 The American farmer is at once a laborer and in its 
 best sense an aristocrat. In the area of cereal cul- 
 tivation Russia alone can equal the United States, 
 and in agriculture as a whole America has no rival. 
 
 It may be said that fishing was the first industry 
 of this country. Our English ancestors made a 
 business of catching cod before they even attempted 
 to settle upon the continent. The cod is unknown 
 in the Mediterranean sea, and several choice varieties 
 are peculiar to the American coast. The English 
 and the Dutch found the cod-fisheries near Holland. 
 Scotland, Norway and Iceland profitable as early as 
 the fourteenth century, but the fisheries off New- 
 foundland and New England yielded more bounti- 
 fully. Although this industry has greatly declined, 
 there are several thousand V3Fsels engaged in the 
 business at the present time, and to Maine and 
 Massachusetts this is still a prominent and profita- 
 ble industry. The American population supjiorted 
 by fishing is said to lie about 1,000,000. Whaling, 
 which was once a flourishing business, has almost, 
 disappeared. 
 
 The first land industry contemplated, not count- 
 ing tobacco-raising, (the prominence of which was 
 
 (629) 
 

 63° 
 
 AMERICAN INDUSTRY AND ART. 
 
 brought out iu connection with colonial history) 
 was silk culture. The founders of Virginia 
 thought that the mulberry and the silk-worm 
 would flourish on this continent, and that the 
 great staple of luxurious clothing, then confined as 
 a production to the far East, and to the northern 
 coast of the Mediterranean as a manufacture, could 
 he prodmted in America. In 1623 the legislature 
 of Virginia jiassed a statute directing all settlers to 
 plant mulberry trees. At one time a mania for silk 
 
 The mania referred to dates from 1829 to 1840. 
 During that period the feasibility of silk-raising on 
 this continent was thoroughly tested, and received 
 fatal discouragement. Some revival of the interest 
 in this industry was shown in 1872, but in its manu- 
 facture rather than its cultivation. The domestic 
 fabric, at first quite inferior, is now an excellent 
 article, and the manufacture is thrifty. Paterson, 
 New Jersey, is the great center of this industry. 
 
 The Indians discovered by Columbus were clothed 
 
 culture took possession of the people. It may be 
 traced as far south as Louisiana, as far west as Illinois, 
 and as far north as Vermont. Kepeated failures at- 
 test perseverance. The first export of raw silk to Eu- 
 rope was a small consignment of cocoons raised in 
 Georgia and taken to England by Governor Ogle- 
 thorpe in 1734. Thirteen years later Governor Law 
 of Connecticut had a suit of clothes made from silk 
 raised, spun and woven in that colony. That was a 
 year before the first bale of cotton was exported 
 from this country. In 1792 dress silk was first pro- 
 duced in this country. It was a strictly domestic 
 industry for several years. In 1810 machine-made 
 silk was produced in Connecticut on a small scale. 
 
 
 sparsely with cotton cloth it is claimed, but the cot- 
 ton industry may be traced to the first seed sown on 
 the soil of Virginia in 1621, although the first ex- 
 port was in 1748, and as late as 1784 eight bales ex- 
 ported to England were confiscated on the ground 
 that “ so much cotton could not be produced in the 
 United States.” The cotton-gin of the previous 
 chapter may be said to have given this industry its 
 real start. The first cotton-mill of the country was 
 erected at Beverley, Massachusetts, in 1788. The 
 consumption of raw cotton in the United States in 
 1880 was 911,000,000 pounds. During the last de- 
 cade cotton was the textile industry which developed 
 the most rapidly iu this country. 
 
 
 <9 
 
AMERICAN INDUSTRY AND ART. 
 
 Iron is an industry which dates, so far as concerns 
 America, from 1620. Bog ir un-ore, found near 
 Jamestown, was used. In 1643 bog-iron was util- 
 ized in Massachusetts. The manufacture of iron 
 received quite an impetus in 1652, and now this 
 country makes one-fourth of the steel and one- 
 fourth of the iron of the whole world. The iron 
 production of 1880 in this country was 3,220,000 
 tons, and the steel 800,000 tons. The United States 
 is second only to Great Britain in this great branch 
 of industry. Our ore beds are so rich that bog iron 
 is almost as obsolete as hand-made cloth. 
 
 Sheep were introduced into New York in 1625, 
 and into Massachusetts in 1633. In 1777 the mak- 
 ing of wool-card teeth by machinery instead of by 
 hand, was invented by Oliver Evans. These three 
 beginnings may be called the foundation of the 
 woolen interest in America. The clip of 1879 in the 
 United States amounted to 165,000,000 pounds, and 
 the textile production of 1880 was 258,000,000 
 pounds. 
 
 The foregoing are the great staples of manufac- 
 ture. In a discussion of the balance-sheet of this 
 country, Mulhall says, “ It would be impossible to 
 find in history a parallel to the progress of the U ni- 
 ted States in the last ten years,” referring to the de- 
 cade from 1870 to 1880. The aggregate of indus- 
 tries was in round numbers $10,020,000,000 during 
 the year 1880. Of this amount $4,440,000,000 must 
 be set down to the credit of manufactures, while 
 agriculture can claim $2,625,000,000, leaving the 
 remainder to be divided between commerce, mining, 
 transportation, banking and sundries. 
 
 Of agriculture Mulhall observes that it has not 
 kept pace with population, as regards value, but in 
 amount of production it has increased more rapidly 
 than population. The grain of 1880 was 2,390,000,- 
 000 bushels ; the hay, 24,150,000,000,000 tons ; the 
 cotton, 2,773,000,000 pounds. The census of that 
 year gave the number of farming stock thus : 
 horses, 12,550,000 ; cows, 33,600,000 ; sheep, 38,000,- 
 000; hogs, 35,000,000, making a grand total of 
 
 119.150.000 head, or 2.39 head per inhabitant. This 
 is surely a very satisfactory showing. 
 
 The mineral production makes a very favorable 
 showing for the same year, namely : iron ore, 
 
 9.500.000 tons ; copper, 20,300 tons ; coal, 55,000,- 
 000 tons ; petroleum, 860,000,000 gallons. As for 
 gold and silver, one-half of the world’s supply came 
 
 from this country. Of all the mining industries of 
 the world, this country represents thirty -six per cent. 
 Great Britain comes next and represents thirty-three 
 per cent. During the ten years ending with 1880 
 the United States coined nearly one-fourth of the 
 gold and one-sixth of the silver turned out by all 
 the mints of the world. 
 
 The shipment of American fresh beef to England 
 began in 1875, and has become a great branch of 
 commerce ; but for the most part, American meats 
 are exported cured or cooked. Pork is salted and 
 the hams smoked, but the beef is cooked and then 
 canned. This industry has its chief center in Chi- 
 cago, the central point for cattle shipments from 
 the whole West. In 1880 the meat supply of the 
 country was reported thus : cattle slaughtered, 
 5,600,000 ; sheep slaughtered, 12,666,000 ; hogs, 
 14,480,000, making the following tons of meat: 
 beef, 2,100,000 ; mutton. 424,100 ; pork, 1,291,560. 
 It is estimated that the American people, who are 
 the best fed of all the peoples of the earth, consume 
 on an average 125 pounds of meat per inhabitant 
 a year. The total production is 3,815,660 ; the total 
 home consumption is 2,740,000 tons, leaving 1,070,- 
 000 tons for export. 
 
 Turning now to railroads, it may be observed, upon 
 the threshold, that the first railroad charter was 
 given in this country to the Mohawk and Hudson 
 River Company, the parent of the New York Cen- 
 tral trunk line of the Vanderbilt combination and 
 monopoly. The first railroad in the land was 
 built to transport from Quincy the granite used in 
 the erection of Bunker Ilill monument. That 
 was in 1827. It was a horse railroad, originally. 
 The first spadeful of dirt in the grading of the Bal- 
 timore and Ohio railroad was thrown up, with great 
 ceremony, July 4, 1824, by Charles Carroll of Car- 
 rollton, who proved to bo the last survivor of the 
 signers of the Declaration of Independence. The 
 mileage of railroads in the country is constantly in- 
 creasing, and is now about 110,000 miles. The increase 
 during the last decade was 41,883 miles, or more 
 than that of all Europe combined, and an average of 
 twelve miles a day. It is a moderate estimate to 
 say that during the first two years of the current 
 decade the increase was 10,000. During the last 
 decade many railroads became bankrupt, the total 
 number being 128, and their aggregate mileage, 13,- 
 120, representing a cost of about $1,150,000,000. 
 
 Ll 
 
 6 33 
 
 < 5 " 
 
3 
 
 
 AMERICAN INDUSTRY AND ART. 
 
 -A. 
 
 .1 
 
 ► 
 
 Since the more prosperous times which followed the 
 resumption of specie payments (1879) the stock 
 and bonds of these roads have greatly increased in 
 value. The total cost of the railroads built up to 
 1880 were $5,000,000,000. Many of the roads built 
 have penetrated the prairies in adyance of home- 
 seeking enterprises, and the locomotive has been 
 “ the voice of one crying in the wilderness.” The 
 shipping interest has steadily declined ever since 
 1860, except as regards shipping on the lakes and 
 great rivers, and even there, especially on the rivers, 
 rail competition has been de- 
 pressing, and often absolute- 
 ly destructive. The total 
 traffic of the country for 1880 
 was 3 10,000,000 tons, of 
 which 210,000,000 went by 
 railways, 80,000,000 by in- 
 land water ; 34,000,000 tons 
 by coast traffic, and the re- 
 mainder, 16,000,000, is set 
 down as “entirely by sea.” 
 
 An important branch of 
 business, one interwoven with 
 every industry and all sec- 
 tions of the country, is insur- 
 ance. The first American 
 insurance was marine. It 
 was inaugurated at Philadel- 
 phia by John Copson in 1721. 
 
 Fire insurance dates from 
 1752. Benjamin Franklin 
 was the President of the first 
 company. Its headquarters 
 were Philadelphia. That cor- 
 poration was organized on the mutual plan and is 
 still in existence. Marine insurance did not really 
 flourish until the latter half of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury. Philadelphia also took the lead in life insur- 
 ance. Franklin was prominent in its promotion. 
 It began business in 1769. That was confined to 
 Episcopal clergymen. The first general life insur- 
 ance company was the Philadelphia of 1812. For 
 a long time there was a superstitious prejudice 
 against all insurance, as resistance to the will of 
 Providence. Insurance against accident dates from 
 1864, and was started at Hartford, Connecticut, 
 then and now specially devoted to insurance. 
 
 The banking system of the United States rests 
 
 upon a solid foundation, and no country can boast 
 so convenient and complete a medium of exchange 
 as this country. The history and present condition 
 of American money will serve to conclude this in- 
 dustrial survey of America. 
 
 Alexander Hamilton has many claims to the per- 
 petual gratitude of the American people, but his 
 chief claim is the service he rendered in organizing 
 the national treasury and establishing American 
 finances upon a substantial basis. The present 
 monetary system of this country is, in its funda- 
 mental principle, whatever 
 may be said of its details, 
 Hamiltonian. 
 
 The year 1690 witnessed 
 the establishment of the first 
 American newspaper, the 
 first paper-mill and the issue 
 of the first paper money. 
 The colony of Massachusetts 
 issued bills of credit to the 
 amount of £40,000 in pay- 
 ment for an expedition to 
 Quebec. Pennsylvania issued 
 £45,000 of paper money in 
 1722, and Maryland followed 
 the same example in 1773, 
 greatly to its disadvantage 
 Paper money is so easily 
 made that it is very difficult 
 to prevent an over-issue. In 
 the Revolutionary War the 
 Continental Congress put so 
 much paper money in circu- 
 lation that it depreciated and 
 finally became worthless. During the latter part 
 of the Revolutionary War the system of banks 
 and bank notes was inaugurated. The first ex- 
 periment was tried in Philadelphia under Con- 
 gressional auspices. The Bank of Pennsylvania 
 was chartered early iu 1780, the Bank of North 
 America, also a Philadelphia institution, was started 
 early in 1782, and proved of great usefulness. 
 It is still iu existence, changed into a national 
 bank. Others followed and gradually filled the 
 land with bank-notes. Every considerable town 
 had its bank with its bills redeemable in coin on de- 
 mand. For the greater part of its existence this 
 republic has done business upon a bank-note basis. 
 
PITTSBURGH. THE CHIEF SEAT OF THE IRON MANUFACTURES. 
 
AMERICAN INDUSTRY AND ART. 
 
 6 37 
 
 o 
 
 no other medium of exchange being much em- 
 ployed. The system was very objectionable, for the 
 reason that many bills were never redeemed at all, 
 and entailed loss upon the holder. But no substi- 
 tute was devised until military necessity, during the 
 late civil war, compelled the government to issue 
 notes of its own, a legal tender for all payments 
 except duties on imports and intei’est on the public 
 debt. These greenbacks, as they came to be called, 
 were supplemented by a system of national banks, 
 under which the holder of bank-notes is absolutely 
 protected from loss, even if the bank itself should 
 fail, and so for about twenty years the industries of 
 this country ha\e had as a medium of exchange the 
 best system of paper 
 money the world has 
 everseen. Since 1879 
 all this paper money 
 has been equal in pur- 
 chasing power to its 
 face in coin. Industri- 
 al stability and pros- 
 perity demands mon- 
 etary stability and a 
 convenient medium of 
 exchange. 
 
 The outlook for the 
 material thrift of 
 America, from what- 
 ever point viewed, is 
 most encouraging. 
 
 The record of American art is brief. In the long 
 list of famous painters the first American name is 
 John S. Copley, a historical painter, born in Boston 
 in 1737. Ilis work attracted attention in England 
 as early as 1760. The greater part of his life was 
 spent in London, where he died at the age of seven- 
 ty-eight. Benjamin West, a Pennsylvania Quaker, 
 is better known. lie was born in 1738, and studied 
 his profession in Rome, the first American painter 
 enrolled as a student in the Italian school. In 1792 
 he was elected to succeed Sir Joshua Reynolds as 
 president of the Royal Academy, London. I n his life- 
 time West was ranked among the foremost artists of 
 all time, but his posthumous reputation is somewhat 
 less conspicuous. Gilbert C. Stuart, a native of 
 Rhode Island, born in 1756, was a great portrait 
 painter. He painted three portraits of Washington, 
 
 and the standard portraits of many of the eminent 
 men of that period have came down to us from his 
 easel. Stuart died in Boston in 1828. 
 
 John Trumbull of Connecticut, was born in 1756. 
 lie was the son of Governor Trumbull, “ Uncle 
 Jonathan.” Many of his paintings are commemo- 
 rative of American independence and the strug- 
 gle through which it was achieved. Trumbull did 
 much for art in connection with his alma mater, Yale 
 College. He died in 1843. In 1777 Edward G. 
 Mai bone first saw the light of day. This famous 
 miniature painter was a native of Newport, Rhode 
 Island. As a colorist he was especially excellent. 
 He died at the early age of thirty. Another name 
 
 is conspicuous in the 
 annals of American 
 art, Washington All- 
 ston, a native of South 
 Carolina, where he 
 was born in 1779. 
 Allston was a charm- 
 ing poet and a bril- 
 liant artist. He was 
 most at home in delin- 
 eating biblical scenes. 
 Allston died in 1843. 
 He deserves special 
 consideration as a 
 happy blending of art 
 and literature. Ilis 
 manhood home was 
 m Cambridge, and he was a conspicuous illustra- 
 tion of “ Boston culture.” Among modern paint- 
 ers of fame on both sides of the Atlantic may 
 be mentioned Church, Beard, Hart, Ilealy, Bier- 
 stadt, Shirlaw, Dyer, Hope. 
 
 In sculpture, Hiram Powers and W. W. Story, 
 both New Englanders long resident In Rome, are 
 unsurpassed in the use of the chisel. Powers was 
 born in Vermont in 1805. His“ Greek Slave,” fin- 
 ished at Rome in 1843, secured for the sculptor a 
 rank among the master workers in marble. Storey, 
 a son of the great American jurist, Justice Story of 
 the Supreme Bench, was born in Boston in 1819. 
 He early took up his residence in Rome, where lie 
 did not fail to acquire recognition not only as a 
 poet, but as an artist of rare accomplishments 
 and power. 
 
 No 4 
 
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 £S&I%9 
 
 Six 2)0££ r AftS. 
 
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 SIX SPANISH MILLLD 
 DOLLA-RS, or i\\e 
 Value there of in Cold 
 
 Or SILVER- accord inf to 
 a Resolution of CO A£ 
 GRESS pull, <Uat Phi ■ 
 taJelpiiV. Nov-2.- '7/6 • 
 
 SIX DOLLARS 
 
 'Vs-hviC! XI 
 
 A BILL OP CREDIT, OR CONTINENTAL MONEY. 
 
 3 
 
 <9 
 

 ik 
 
 ★ AMERICAN LITERATURE. ★ 
 
 ® — 
 
 S jhE frt >'■ ^ >Al*i^iAL*L' . At ^ , / , ±* L >. > JltfrLl ^Lki,; lAiJtLg lAlfc-la m toLt , a i*L ~ iM*L> 
 
 .'if ^)/if l,4 i) f^l 4' - f /i t^T-'N; JT1 ,#C.i;POii 
 
 CHAPTER LXXXIX. 
 
 English Literature and America — First American Author — Eliot and His Indian Bible — 
 First Authoress in America — John Woolman — Jonathan Edwards — Cotton Mather — 
 Benjamin Franklin and Poor Richard — Revolutionary Literature — Common Sense and 
 the Crisis — Poetry of the Period — The Federalist — Madison State Papers — A Sterile 
 Age— Minor Poems— Poe and Dana— Cooper and his Novels— N. P, Willis and G. P. 
 Morris — “Fanny Forrester,” Mrs. Sigourney and Mrs. Willard — Washington Irving — 
 Jared Sparks — Margaret Fuller and R. W. Emerson — Kent and Story — Webster 
 and Worcester— Theological Controversy— Great American Historians — The Scientists 
 — The Journalists — The Great Poets — American Humor — Hawthorne and Others — The 
 Noted Writers now at their Desks — Pulpit Literature. 
 
 ~ 
 
 NGLISH literature, in the 
 broad sense of the term, is 
 something more than the 
 literature of England, and 
 includes the literary pro- 
 duction of all the English- 
 speaking peoples ; hut the 
 writings of American authors form so 
 important a branch of this greatest of 
 all literatures that it may well be hon- 
 ored with a distinct classification. 
 
 The first literary effort in the En- 
 glish language in the new world, apart 
 from mere reports, was a translation of 
 Ovid’s Metamorphosis by George San- 
 dys, in 1621. Prvden was greatly 
 pleased witli the versification. Sandys was treasurer 
 of the Virginia colony. Several publications de- 
 signed to stimulate emigration from England to 
 America appeared about that time, penned by colo- 
 nists, but they had no special merits. The first 
 printing press in the colonies was set up in the house 
 of the president of Harvard College in 1639, and the 
 first book printed in this country was the “Bay 
 
 
 Psalm Book” (1640) prepared for use in Puritan 
 churches by John Eliot and others. 
 
 The first really great literary work in America 
 was performed by Eliot in reducing the language 
 spoken by the Indians of Massachusetts to writing. 
 He not only made a translation of the Bible in the 
 language of the Mohegans, but a grammar, besides 
 translating several religious books of high repute in 
 that day. Eliot’s Bible was printed on the Har- 
 vard press in 1658-63, and was the first Bible printed 
 in America. 
 
 The first strictly American authoress was Mrs. 
 Anne Bradstreet, wife of Governor Bradstreet, 
 of Massachusetts. She was born in 1612 and died in 
 1672. “ The Tenth Muse ” was an appellation be- 
 stowed upon her. From her the Danas, to be men- 
 tioned later, were descended. The most illustrious 
 name in the literary annals of America in the sev- 
 enteenth century was Mather, father, son, grandson 
 and great grandson, the third, Cotton Mather, being 
 the chief. He was a man of many wonderful gifts. 
 His Magnalia Christi Americana was a historical and 
 biographical memorial of primitive New England, 
 a book showing fine powers of characterization. But 
 
 to 
 
 7 
 
 (638) 
 
< 3 \ ' 
 
 < 
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE. 
 
 he was greater as a man and a preacher than he was 
 as an author. His account of witchcraft in Salem 
 and Boston has proved a monument to his own dis- 
 honor, giving him more prominence in that disrep- 
 utable episode of colonial history than he actually 
 deserves. 
 
 The first American book of real genius came from 
 
 the pen of a native of New Jersey and a member of 
 the Society of Friends, to whom Charles Lamb paid 
 this high tribute, “ Get the writiugs of John Wool- 
 man by heart, and learn to love the early Quaker.” 
 The best of his writings is his Journal. Wool- 
 
 man was born 
 in Burlington 
 County, New 
 Jersey, 1720, 
 and died of 
 the small-pox, 
 in York, En- 
 gland, whither 
 he had gone to 
 attend a quar- 
 terly meeting, 
 in 1772. Con- 
 temporaneous 
 with Woolman, 
 equally relig- 
 ious, but other- 
 wise widely dif- 
 ferent from 
 him, was Jona- 
 
 •JONATHAN EDWARDS. til all EdwaiJs, 
 
 who was born in East Windsor, Connecticut, 1703, 
 and died, also of small-pox, at Princeton, New 
 Jersey, 1758. Edwards was at the time of his 
 death president of Princeton College. He was 
 a metaphysician of wondrous powers of logic. 
 Accepting the dogmas of Calvinism, he carried 
 them to their logical conclusions with a clear- 
 ness and thoroughness baffling refutation, if only 
 his premises are conceded. II is treatise on the 
 Will and the History of Redemption are still standard 
 text-books of orthodoxy. “The English Calvinists,” 
 wrote Sir James Mackintosh, “ have written noth- 
 ing to be put in competition with it” [the treatise 
 on the Will] Jonathan Edwards is the only colo- 
 nial author to achieve and maintain a place among 
 the great authors of the world. 
 
 The next name of note in American literature is 
 
 Benjamin Franklin. He too attracted attention 
 upon the other side of the Atlantic, and was ac- 
 corded rank among the best intellects of the period. 
 But his fame rested upon his discoveries in science 
 rather than upon his merits as a writer. Ilis pen 
 was plodding and commonplace. He wrote much 
 and wisely, with good taste, but not brilliantly. 
 Born at Boston in 1706, his manhood home was in 
 Philadelphia, where he died in 1790. He was a man 
 of science and politics, writing with a view to practi- 
 cal results. With theology he never meddled. 
 Without any polemical disposition, he was purely 
 and uniformly secular. Many of his wise sayings 
 have passed into proverbs. For many years 
 he publish- 
 ed “ Poor 
 Richard’s 
 Almanac,” 
 an annual 
 so full of 
 homely wis- 
 dom as to 
 acquire a 
 great hold 
 upon the 
 public. For 
 a long time 
 he publish- 
 ed and edit- 
 edthe Penn- 
 sylvania Ga- 
 zette, the t ™ OMA8 PAINE 
 
 most influential journal in all the colonies. He did 
 more by his pen for the promotion of colonial union 
 and resistance to English despotism than any other 
 man. His Autobiography is the best of his literary 
 remains, and will always be valued as a storehouse of 
 history and sage observations. Mirabeau paid this 
 deserved tribute to Franklin: “Antiquity would 
 have raised altars to this mighty genius, who, to t he 
 advantage of mankind, compassing in his mind the 
 heavens and the earth, was able to restrain alike 
 thunderbolts and tyrants.” 
 
 Franklin’s great reputation made him especially 
 available as a representative of the colonies at the 
 British court. If the authorities were contemptuous 
 of the colonies as such, they would surely listen to 
 the great Dr. Franklin on any subject. For this 
 reason lie was much abroad, both in England before 
 
 
 
 V 
 
*k. 
 
 640 
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE. 
 
 Ql 
 
 "71 
 
 the conflict actually begun, and in France during 
 the progress of the war. While in England he 
 formed the acquaintance of Thomas Paine, the son 
 of a Quaker, a corset-maker, a sailor and a reve- 
 nue official in a small way. The quick eye of Frank- 
 lin saw the genius of the man, and advised him to 
 cast his fortunes witli the American colonies. He 
 emigrated to this country in 1774, in the forty- 
 fourth year of his age. He had shown facility with 
 the pen in a pamphlet criticising the service with 
 which he was connected. That pamphlet cost him 
 his office and served to introduce him to Franklin. 
 In this country lie wrote several publications of some 
 merit. His claim to recognition in this connec- 
 tion rests upon the series of short papers issued 
 at irregular intervals during the Revolutionary 
 War, entitled Common Sense and the Crisis. The 
 appeals of the former series for union and republi- 
 canism produced a great effect upon the thought 
 and purpose of the people. The Crisis served to 
 stimulate the patriotism of the country, and was 
 almost universally read, both by the fireside and in 
 the camp. They were issued as the cause of inde- 
 pendence required. Two subsequent works from 
 the same pen, llie Rights of Man, and the Age of 
 Reason, can hardly be classed as a part of American 
 literature. Paine died at Rochelle, New York, in 
 1809. 
 
 Thomas Jefferson wrote much, as the posthumous 
 publication of his writings attest, and wrote admir- 
 ably well, but his life was one of activity, and apart 
 from state papers (including the Declaration of In- 
 dependence) he never contributed much to the cur- 
 rent thought of his day. The Revolutionary period 
 may be said to have had its laureate, Philip Freneau, 
 a thorough Frenchman in style and temperament, 
 having that honor. He was born in New \ T ork, 
 1752, and perished in a New Jersey snowstorm at 
 the age of eighty -two. Joel Barlow, of Connecticut, 
 attempted to be a poet, and for a time passed for 
 one, but he was long since pronounced a failure. 
 
 The Federalist, which was for the most part the 
 joint product of Alexander Hamilton, John Jay and 
 James Mad ison, consists of a series of essays in advo- 
 cacy of the Constitution of the United States. It 
 did much to secure its adoption, and will always be 
 of value in its interpretation to statesmen and jurists. 
 Madison also rendered the country highly impor- 
 tant literary service by making extended reports of 
 
 the debates in the convention which framed the 
 constitution. Those reports, known as the Madi- 
 son State Papers,” were not made public until after 
 the distinguished reporter’s death. 
 
 There was a long period of barrenness in Ameri- 
 can literature. A few theologians rose to eminence 
 as writers on subjects connected with their profes- 
 sion, notably Samuel Hopkins, Dr. Emmons, Dr. 
 Bellamy and Moses Stuart, but none of them could 
 at all compare with J onathan Edwards, or be said to 
 have contributed any really new element to theolog- 
 ical thought. Their published works are merely elab- 
 orately drawn out doctrinal sermons. They never 
 passed beyond the range of professional text-books. 
 
 Edgar A. Poe was really the pioneer poet of 
 America, and Washington Irving the pioneer of 
 American prose, as a recognized feature of the helle 
 lettres literature of theEnglish language. Before their 
 day were composed a few stray bits of poetry which 
 are justly treasured and widely read. -These are 
 “ The Star Spangled Banner,” by Francis S. Key ; 
 “ The Old Oaken Bucket,” by Samuel Woodworth ; 
 and “ The Culprit Fay,” by Joseph Rodman Drake. 
 The “ Thanatopsis ” of Bryant belonged to that peri- 
 od, but the subsequent poetry of the same writer gives 
 him rank with the later poets. During this period 
 of comparative sterility, one branch of knowledge 
 received exception- 
 al attention, orni 
 thology. Alexander 
 Wilson, a native of 
 Scotland, and John 
 James Audubon, a 
 Louisianian (1780- 
 1851) made a thor- 
 ough study of A- 
 merican birds, and 
 duly recorded their 
 observations. Poe 
 was born in 1811( 
 and died in 1849. 
 
 His was an unhap- 
 py lot, a life-strug- 
 gle against poverty and all the ills attendant upon in- 
 temperance. The less said of his private life the 
 better for him. Ilis “ Bells,” “ Raven,” and other 
 poems are familiar. He is one of the household 
 poets, open to criticism, but attractive to the great 
 bodv of readers. 
 
 EDGAR A. POE. 
 
 
AMERICAN LITERATURE. 
 
 Contemporaneous with Poe may be classed Fitz 
 Greene Halleck, who was born in Guilford, Connect- 
 icut in 1795, and died there in 1867. His life was 
 a pleasant episode. He was admired and courted for 
 
 his person- 
 al charms 
 m> less than 
 for his ex- 
 quisite ge- 
 nius. He 
 was not a 
 voluminous 
 writer. An- 
 other con- 
 temporary 
 was R. H. 
 Dana, the 
 elder, born 
 in 1787 and 
 living until 
 1879. Mr. 
 
 FITZ GREENE HALLECK. DailU b0- 
 
 longed to the aristocracy of Boston, and wrote with el- 
 egance not only poetry but short stories and critiques. 
 He, even more than Poe, might be called the shadow 
 
 RICHARD II. DANA. 
 
 cast before by coming American literature. His 
 Paul Fulton is a powerful romance, and his lectures 
 on Shakspcare are in refreshing contrast with the 
 inane lectures on the same subject by John Quincy 
 
 Adams, delivered when that great statesman was a 
 college professor. Dana lived to see the bud of his 
 own promise blossom in others. 
 
 James Fenimore Cooper was the first great nov- 
 elist of America and the first American writer after 
 Franklin and 
 Edwards, to 
 gain Euro- 
 pean recog- 
 nition. He 
 was a truly 
 national nov- 
 elist, for he 
 wrote of life 
 on the fron- 
 tier, of In- 
 d ians, trap- 
 pers and the 
 sea. He cast 
 a halo about 
 the Indian 
 characterand JAME< fenimore coofkr. 
 
 American scenery. Cooper lived in Cooperstown, 
 
 New York. He was born in 1789 and survived 
 until 1851. On much the same plane stands Miss 
 Sedgwick (1789-1867), a novelist who enjoyed a wide 
 popularity in her day. Neither are much read at 
 the present time. 
 
 In his day N. 
 
 P. Willis was a 
 noted member of 
 the literary guild. 
 
 He was a journal- 
 ist and poet of 
 the more esthet- 
 ic character. He 
 was born in 1806, 
 and died in 1867. 
 
 1 hiring his early 
 manhood he was 
 a great pet with 
 a large class o 
 readers. His best "• r W,LL "'- 
 
 work was done on the New York: Mirror and the 
 Home Journal, two fireside weeklies of large circula- 
 tion. He wrote nothing which deserves to lie men- 
 tioned specifically. Ilis friend, George P. Morris, 
 wrote, less and generally not as well ; but his “ Wood- 
 man, Spare that Tree,” is a gem of rare beauty. 
 
A 
 
 6 
 
 
 J 
 
 T 
 
 Q (V. 
 
 642 AMERICAN LITERATURE. 
 
 Mrs. Sigourney also stood very high as a poetess in 
 her time. She was a prolific writer of verse, being 
 often called upon to grace special occasions. She 
 was born in Connecticut in 1791 and died in 1865. 
 
 Washington Irving is the supreme landmark in 
 American prose. He was horn in New York in 1783 
 and died in 1859. He begun his literary career as 
 the anonymous writer of a comic history of New 
 York under the primitive Dutch. It was a very 
 brilliant success. That was in 1809, when he was 
 young and rich. He wrote simply as a recreation. 
 
 WASHINGTON IRVING. 
 
 But about ten years later his fortune disappeared, 
 and he took up literature as his life-work. Others 
 had made it a trade: he took it up as a profession. 
 He was not a literary artisan, hut an artist. His 
 sketches and tales attracted the attention of Sir 
 Walter Scott and others in the old world. It was 
 then admitted by the British critics that perhaps 
 some good tiling could come out of republican 
 America. He wrote several elaborate histories, his 
 Columbus being the first and his Washington the 
 last. His fine style could invest any subject with 
 interest. Irving was a very fortunate man in his 
 temperament. For many years he was the most 
 popular man in the country, always praised and 
 never dazed by adulation. 
 
 As a historian Irving lacked the critical faculty 
 which is necessary to the very highest merit in that 
 
 department of literature. But America can justly 
 boast of her contributions to historical literature. 
 Several names present themselves in this connection. 
 Jared Sparks (1794-1866) did a great work in bring- 
 ing out twenty-five volumes of American biography. 
 Several of the volumes were from his own pen and 
 all were under his editorial supervision. Sparks 
 was followed by John G. Palfrey and several minor 
 historians. But it was not until a later period that 
 the great galaxy of American historians appeared 
 in the heavens. 
 
 Two other names come to the front at this point 
 of our sketch, 
 
 Margaret Ful- 
 ler and Ralph 
 Waldo Emer- 
 son. The for- 
 mer was born 
 in 1810 and 
 was lost at sea 
 in 1850, while 
 the latter, born 
 in 1803, died 
 in 1882. In life 
 they were warm 
 friends. Mar- 
 garet Fuller 
 (for the Mar- 
 chioness D’Os- 
 soli is best 
 
 RALPH WALDO EMERSON. 
 
 known by her 
 
 maiden name) was a brilliant critic. Her young 
 life had in it the promise of a great future. She 
 is remembered more for what she was than for 
 what she had already accomplished. Emerson 
 combines the philosopher, poet and critic. Edu- 
 cated for the ministry, he was adapted rather to 
 the life of a student untrammeled by any pro- 
 fessional obligations. He did a very great work in 
 elevating the general tone of American literature. 
 Writers and readers were alike lifted by his genius 
 into higher ranges of thought. Without ridiculing 
 or condemning the vapid productions which held 
 the field in his younger days, he set about the culti- 
 vation of better ideals and tastes. Therein was his 
 chief work. Emerson may be said to have not only 
 introduced Thomas Carlyle to America, but to his 
 own countrymen. He long ago won recognition the 
 world over as one of the great thinkers of our age- 
 
 
 i 
 
 l£) 
 
 C> 
 
 pr 
 
AMERICAN LITERATURE. 
 
 Chancellor Kent of, New York (1763-1847), de- 
 serves prominent mention for his great legal work 
 on American law. He is the Blackstone of the 
 United States. His commentaries have been a text 
 book with law students for fifty years and have lost 
 
 none of their 
 value. Judge 
 Story, of the 
 Supremebench 
 of the United 
 States (1779- 
 1845), produced 
 a work on 
 the constitu- 
 tion which is 
 an indispensa- 
 ble manual for 
 every states- 
 man in this re- 
 public. A good 
 many valuable 
 noah webster. legal treatises 
 
 have been produced in this country, but Kent and 
 Story are the only really great and immortal names 
 in the annals of American law literature. The 
 name of Abbott deserves honorable mention. There 
 were two brothers of note, Jacob, the author of the 
 “ Rollo Books” and a long list of works designed to 
 instruct and entertain the young, and John S. C. 
 
 Abbott, two years younger, 
 whose histories of Napoleon 
 and other famous characters 
 were received with favor. 
 
 1 n lexicography America 
 has two great names, Noah 
 Webster (1758-1843) and 
 Joseph E. Worcester ( 1 784- 
 1865). Either is good au- 
 thority on both spelling and 
 pronunciation, and that not 
 only in America, but wher- 
 j. e. Worcester. ever the English language is 
 spoken. Webster began as the mere maker of a 
 spelling-book for the school-room. He was a grad- 
 uate of Yale College, and so, too, was A\ orcester. 
 They were independent workers in the great 
 field of lexicography, but not rivals in any in- 
 vidious sense. Webster’s great work first appear- 
 ed in 1828, Worcester’s in 1860. Each has passed 
 
 through numerous editions, and been improved 
 and enlarged many times. America has brought 
 the art of preparing text-books for the school-room 
 to a degree of perfection unknown in the old world, 
 and in that line Noali Webster was the pioneer. 
 He may t be called 
 thefather of Amer- 
 ican school books. 
 
 In the first half 
 of this century 
 there arose a tem- 
 pestuous contro- 
 versy in Massachu- 
 setts over the doc- 
 trine of the trinity. 
 
 On one side were 
 Prof. Moses Stuart 
 and his compeers 
 of Andover The- 
 ological Seminary, 
 and the orthodox 
 
 ministers of the GEORGE BANCROFT. 
 
 Congregational church generally, and on the other 
 side were Dr. Channing (1870-1842) and the M ares, 
 Henry and William, with their Unitarian sympa- 
 thizers. This controversy was mainly carried on 
 in the pulpit and 
 through the jour- 
 nalistic press, but 
 some of the litera- 
 ture forms a part of 
 a great intellectual 
 contest. The most 
 illustrious product 
 of it, however, was 
 Theodore Parker, 
 who was so very 
 liberal that even 
 Unitarians could 
 not tolerate him. 
 
 Parker’s works are 
 not widely read, 
 but they have been 
 merits. 
 
 The historians of America besides those already 
 named, and who are really second to none in any 
 land or time, are Prescott, Hildreth, Bancroft, Mot- 
 ley and Parkman, all natives of Massachusetts and 
 graduates of Harvard College. 
 
 JOHN LOTII KOI* MOTLKY. 
 
 uglily praised for their literary 
 
 Wn:. II. Prescott 
 

 A 
 
 i 
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE. 
 
 O44 
 
 was born in 1796 and died in 1850. He wrote the 
 history of Ferdinand and Isabella, also of the con- 
 quests of Mexico and Peru. They were at once rec- 
 ognized as the productions of a genius. Richard 
 Hildreth (1807-1865) was the author of an elaborate 
 history of the United States, which has only one 
 rival, and that is the great work of George Bancroft. 
 Mr. Bancroft was born m 1800 and still survives. 
 He was Secretary of the Navy in 1845, and he held 
 several other high positions under the government. 
 Fifty years ago he began his history of the United 
 States, and a new volume has been hailed from time 
 to time as an event. His style, however, is heavy 
 and his volumes dull. John Lothrop Motley was 
 
 born in 1814 and died 
 in 1877. He devoted 
 his life to the Rise and 
 Fall of the Dutch Re- 
 public, and in that field 
 never had a peer. His 
 style is elegant and 
 fascinating. Mr. Mot- 
 ley wrote several dis- 
 tinct yet kindred vol- 
 umes. He represented 
 1 lie United States at the 
 Austrian court under 
 Mr. Lincoln, and at the 
 English court under a 
 part of General Grant’s 
 first term. I 11 diplomacy lie was not a success, but 
 in history he won the admiration of Europe and 
 America. Francis Parkman was born 1823. The 
 field which he has cultivated with a success which 
 gives him rank with Prescott and Motley, is New 
 France and the early settlement of the West. 
 
 I 11 scientific literature this country can boast sev- 
 eral names of note, Silliman, Hitchcock, Agassiz, 
 Dana, Winchell, Gray, Baclie, Maury and Draper, 
 besides those early lights of America. Dr. Franklin 
 and Count Rumford (1753-1814). The latter was a 
 great natural philosopher who did much good work 
 in his department of thought, but being a Tory in 
 the Revolutionary period, he had to leave the coun- 
 try and was almost lost sight of. Of these latter- 
 day scientists, Benjamin Silliman (1779-1864) is 
 best known as the founder of Silliman’s Journal of 
 Science and Art. He was professor of chemistry, 
 mineralogy and geology in Yale College from 1804 
 
 to 1855. Edward Hitchcock was born in 1793 and 
 died in 1864. He was professor of geology hi Am- 
 herst College for many years, and later President of 
 that institution. He was among the greatest geol- 
 ogists of his day. Louis Agassiz was a native of 
 Switzerland, born in 1807. He came to this coun- 
 try in his early manhood and became connected with 
 Harvard College. Zoology was the branch of sci- 
 ence to which his life was devoted. He died in 
 1873. Janies D. Dana, born in 1813, ranks very 
 high as a geologist and mineralogist. His writings 
 gave him a high reputation among scientists. Prof. 
 Alexander Winchell, born in 1824. may be said to 
 have brought geol- 
 ogy down to date. 
 
 The venerable Pro- 
 fessor Asa Gray, of 
 Harvard College, 
 has long ranked as 
 the foremost botan- 
 ist in America. He 
 has written much 
 ujion the flora of 
 this country. He 
 was born in 1810. 
 
 Alexander D. Baclie, 
 who was born in 
 1806 and died in 
 1867, was a grand- 
 son of Benjamin DR - J - w - draper. 
 
 Franklin. His great achievement was the super- 
 intendence of the United States Coast Survey, 
 which position he held for nearly a quarter of 
 a century. His annual reports on the Coast' Sur- 
 vey constitute a treasury of scientific information. 
 Commodore Maury, who was born in Virginia in 
 1806, was an eminent physicist. He is known the 
 world over by his “Wind and Current Charts,” and 
 his “ Physical Geography of the Sea.” Dr. J. W. 
 Draper (1811-1881) is equally famous as a scientist 
 and a historian. He was master of a remarkably ele- 
 gant style of composition and profoundly learned in 
 natural history. He was a native of England, but 
 was educated in this country. For many years 
 Dr. Draper was professor of chemistry in the L T ni- 
 versity of New York. 
 
 I 11 the department of journalism America can 
 boast some great names besides Franklin. The high- 
 est rank is now generally given to Horace Greeley, 
 
 k 
 
 > 
 
 i 
 
 <5" 
 
AMERICAN LITERATURE. 
 
 6 45 
 
 3 
 
 the founder of the New York Tribune. 
 was a native of New 
 Hampshire, born in 
 1811. His ideal of a 
 newspaper was one 
 which should exert a 
 great and wholesome 
 influence. The more 
 typical journalist of 
 his time was James 
 Gordon Bennett (1800- 
 1872) whose only am- 
 bition was to furnish 
 the latest and fullest 
 news. Herein his jour- 
 nal, the New York 
 Herald, became the 
 model of journalistic 
 enterprise. The Amer- 
 ican press, as a whole, 
 is more enterprising 
 and versatile than that 
 of any other country, 
 and the American 
 people devote more 
 attention to newspa- 
 per reading than do 
 any other people. The 
 absolute freedom of the American press has favored 
 the enlargement of its sphere. 
 
 Closely allied to the newspaper 
 press, yet not by any means 
 confined to it, was Bayard Tay- 
 lor. This remarkable man be- 
 gan his career of eminence as a 
 traveler. He went from land to 
 land, contributing his observa- 
 tions to the New York Tribune 
 and diffusing knowledge among 
 the people, becoming one of the 
 best known of our countrymen. 
 
 Later he achieved success as a 
 novelist, and latest as a poet. 
 
 At the time of his death he 
 was the representative of the 
 United States at the German 
 capital. Born in 1825, he died 
 in 1878. His translation of 
 Fans/ is the most enduring monument of liis genius. 
 
 American literature has a galaxy of poets worthy 
 
 to be classed among 
 the classics of the 
 world, Longfellow, 
 Bryant, Whittier, Low- 
 ell and Holmes. The 
 first and second have 
 ceased from their la- 
 bors, and the three 
 others cannot long 
 survive. Mr. Long- 
 fellow, born in 1807, 
 died early in 1882, 
 and was mourned by 
 the nation as the lau- 
 reate of the people. 
 Descended from an 
 old New England 
 family, nurtured in 
 luxury, and cultured 
 to the last degree, he 
 seemed the veryimper- 
 sonation of all which 
 is tender, beautiful 
 and pure. There was 
 in his genius no sug- 
 gestion of the organ, 
 but rather of the 
 piano. The merest touch brought a melodious re- 
 sponse. Mr. Bryant, who was 
 born in 1794 and died in 1878, 
 retained his mental faculties to 
 the last, and did some of his 
 best work in the winter of 
 his days. But his masterpiece, 
 Thanalopsis , was written when 
 ho was only eighteen years of 
 age. William Cullen Bryant 
 was the poet of nature in her 
 more tranquil moods. John G. 
 Whittier, born in 1807, spent 
 his early days on a farm, amid 
 the calm of a Quaker house- 
 hold, with no encouragements 
 to the cultivation of poetry. 
 They belt ng, however, to much 
 the same school of poets, being 
 exquisitely refined and artistic 
 in every touch and tone. Whittier wrote much in 
 
 Air. Greeley 
 
AMERICAN LITERATURE. 
 
 the interest of the anti-slavery cause, but he is 
 none the less a notable example of the highest 
 
 HENRY W. LONGFELLOW. 
 
 ican humor ever received such high praise in En- 
 
 WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT. 
 
 art in poetry. 
 
 James It. Lowell, now American 
 minister at 
 the English 
 court, be- 
 came first 
 known as 
 a writer 
 of grotesque 
 and humor- 
 ous poetry 
 in the Yan- 
 kee dialect. 
 That was 
 at the time 
 of the Mex- 
 icanwar. lie 
 signed him- 
 self as “Ho- 
 sea Biglow.” 
 Those pa- 
 pers were 
 
 strongly anti-slavery in sentiment and gave the 
 author great reputation as a humorist. No Amer- 
 
 J. G. WHITTIER. 
 
 gland as the “ Biglow Papers.” But Lowell is some- 
 thing more 
 than a humor- 
 ist. His poet- 
 ry is beautiful 
 and pathetic. 
 
 In p rose he 
 excels as a 
 critic. His es- 
 says, published 
 originally in 
 the North A- 
 meric an Review, 
 on literary top- 
 ics, attracted 
 wide and ad- 
 miring atten- 
 tion in En- 
 gland. As an 
 essayist he has 
 only one equal james russell lowell. 
 
 in the country, E. P. Whipple, of Boston. Dr. 
 Oliver Wendell Holmes combines prose and poetry 
 
AMERICAN LITERATURE. 
 
 AVhile Longfellow and Whittier never venture out- 
 side of verse, and Lowell only entered the smaller 
 field of criticism, Dr. Holmes boldly launched out 
 upon the broad ocean of 
 romance and the exceed- 
 ingly perilous gulf of pro- 
 fessional wit. His Elsie 
 Vennor is an admirable 
 story, and his Autocrat of 
 the Breakfast Table is a 
 well of wit untainted by 
 any coarseness. Holmes 
 has the greatest versatil- 
 ity of genius of any Amer- 
 ican author. This prince 
 of magazinists was born 
 in 1809. What Goethe 
 and Schiller and their 
 compeers were to the court 
 of Weimar, are Longfel- 
 low, Whittier, Lowell and 
 Holmes to the literary 
 capital of America, Bos- 
 ton, and its immediate 
 vicinity. There are bril- 
 liant and somewhat illustrious representatives of 
 the younger and more active school, or set of mag- 
 azinists, but their glory fades and pales in compar- 
 ison with the 
 poets who have 
 lifted American 
 literature from 
 the dust of con- 
 tempt and made 
 this country the 
 companion in 
 literary renown 
 of Greece, En- 
 gland, Germany 
 and France. 
 
 On a recent 
 occasion an En- 
 glish lecturer in 
 this country in- 
 charles p. browne. quired, “ Whydo 
 
 all American journalists try to be humorists? As 
 compared with any other country American writers 
 with reputations to make are especially given to 
 humor. Some attempts in this line have met with 
 
 signal success. The Mrs. Partington and her son Ike, 
 of Benjamin P. Shillaber, dates from 1847. Now 
 and then a new joke would come out and gain wide 
 circulation until at length 
 “ Mrs. Partington ” has 
 come to have a distinct 
 place in the thought of 
 the reading public. John 
 G. Saxe, a poet of rare 
 gifts, was so very humor- 
 ously inclined that his 
 verse sparkles with laugh- 
 ter-provoking wit. C. F. 
 Browne, as “ Artemus 
 Ward,” may be set down 
 as the first of our native 
 humorists who aimed sole- 
 ly at the ludicrous. He 
 has no underlying pur- 
 pose. His preposterous 
 spelling and grotesque con- 
 ceits were more highly ap- 
 preciated after his death 
 (1867) than during his 
 life. “Mark Twain,” Mr. 
 Clemens, began as a journalist upon the Pacific 
 Coast. But ever since his “ Innocents Abroad ” 
 (1868) he has been a resident of the East, and 
 has been 
 recognized 
 as the 
 greatest of 
 American 
 humorists. 
 
 Under his 
 cap and 
 bells may 
 begeneral- 
 lv discern- 
 ed an ear- 
 nest and 
 commend- 
 able pur- 
 pose. He 
 has been 
 
 sharply criticised by English critics, but others 
 again do not scruple to place him at the head 
 of contemporaneous humor not only, but to claim 
 for him rank among the immortal wits. 
 
 HAMUKI. R. CRKMKN8. 
 
 'v 
 
\ GL. 
 
 648 
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE. 
 
 recognition 
 great genius. 
 
 NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE. 
 
 If Cooper was the first American novelist to at- 
 tract attention abroad, Nathaniel Hawthorne was 
 
 the first to gain 
 as a 
 Born 
 
 in 1804, he was not 
 swift to make his 
 mark upon litera- 
 ture. His Twice- 
 told Tales were well 
 received, but it was 
 between the years 
 of 1846 and 1852 
 that he achieved 
 greatness. H is Scar- 
 let Letter and other 
 long stories are 
 among the few novels destined to be read and ad- 
 mired by future generations. Mr. Hawthorne died 
 in 1864. His son, Julian, has written some good 
 but not great novels. 
 
 Of a very different type is J. T. Headley, who was 
 born in 1814. He was educated for the ministry, but 
 his taste took him to literature as a profession. In 
 word-painting he has a most admirable facility. Na- 
 poleon and His Marshals, published in 1840, was an 
 exceedingly popular book, and so too, was Washington 
 and His Generals. Both continue to be in considerable 
 demand, especially the former. Mr. Headley met a 
 popular demand very creditably. His younger 
 brother, P. C. Headley, is the author of several 
 hardly less well received publications. 
 
 George William Curtis (1824) is a rare combina- 
 tion of high talent. During the first half of the 
 fifth decade of this century, he published several 
 books which excited high hopes of a brilliant future. 
 The best of these was his Potiphar Papers. But he 
 abandoned the field of book-making and devoted 
 himself to the writing ol brief essays on current 
 subjects and to lecturing. He is a fascinating 
 speaker and a charming writer. Through the 
 Easy Chair of Harper’s Monthly and the Editorial 
 department of Harper’s Weekly he has wrought a 
 great work in educating the public mind on polit- 
 ical, social and other subjects. Mr. Curtis has been 
 and is a great lever for the elevation of public sen- 
 timent. 
 
 J. G. Holland, whose sudden death in the fall of 
 1881 was felt to be a national calamity, was one of 
 
 G. HOLLAND. 
 
 the few writers who steadily grew in power and favor. 
 Born in 1819, 
 he first won 
 renown as 
 the author of 
 the immense- 
 ly popular 
 Timothy Tit- 
 comb Letters. 
 
 A few years 
 later the mor- 
 alizer devel- 
 oped into a 
 poet ( Bitter 
 Sweet). Still 
 a few years 
 later, and Dr. 
 
 Holland entered the list as a novelist, and won dis- 
 tinction. His Arthur Bonnicastle was well received 
 by the most critical readers and very popular with 
 the many. 
 
 Walt Whitman is one of America’s most remark- 
 able men of letters. The Edinburgh Peview and 
 a very considerable class of British critics, pro- 
 nounce him our greatest poet. Many fail to see any 
 poetry and much indecency in his Leaves of Grass. 
 He is as defiant of rules as Carlyle. Many of his 
 leaves should have been left out, while some of them 
 are very tender and will always be green. Whitman 
 was born in 1819. 
 
 The most widely read book ever produced in 
 America is Uncle Tom’s Cabin, by Mrs. Harriet 
 Beecher Stowe. It was accepted as a faithful pen 
 picture of African slavery in America, and as such, 
 read with the utmost avidity. It was published in 
 1852, and had a success absolutely unparalleled in 
 all the annals of literature. Millions of copies were 
 sold in America and England alone, and translations 
 speedily made of it into every language of the world 
 which might be said to possess a popular literature. 
 Mrs. Stowe is the daughter of the great preacher, 
 Lyman Beecher, and sister of the still greater pulpit 
 orator, Henry Ward Beecher. She has written sev- 
 eral other stories of considerable merit, but her first 
 stands upon an elevation of its own. 
 
 There are several American authors of great 
 promise now in the midst of their career, BretHarte 
 and Joaquin Miller in poetry, J. D. Howells and 
 Henry James, Jr., in romance, who have done much 
 
 
 rr~ 
 

 AMERICAN LITERATURE. 
 
 and have in them the promise of many years of 
 usefulness. 
 
 Mr. Ilarte combines humor and pathos. He can 
 strike with deft fingers the chords of sentiment, or 
 he can make the waters dance with ripples of laugh- 
 ter. His tribute to Dickens and his “Heathen Chi- 
 nee ” are conspicuous examples of his splendid pow- 
 ers. Joaquin Miller is nearly always the same, 
 whether he writes prose or poetry, cuts an intaglio 
 or rears a monument, his mood and attitude is ever 
 that of a pre-Raphaelite, more plaintive than joy- 
 ous. Miller was never popular in America, but 
 attained an enviable reputation in England. Mr. 
 Howells has written several stories of great fascina- 
 tion, and he is still in the midst of his labors. He 
 shares with Henry James, Jr., the honor of being 
 the most conspicuous representative of the latest 
 mode in romance. They are exquisitely esthetic 
 and are doing much to cultivate in the public mind 
 a taste for the purely artistic in literature. 
 
 In no other part of Christendom is the pulpit so 
 important a factor and potent an influence as in 
 America, for here sermons, rather than rites, are the 
 main reliance of the clergy for the accomplishment 
 of religious purposes. The success of a discourse 
 cannot be measured by a distinctively literary stand- 
 ard, and without implying any comparative dispar- 
 agement of others, it is proper in this connection to 
 refer specifically to the three American preachers 
 whose every sermon, as soon as preached, becomes a 
 part of current literature. These three pulpiteers 
 are — Henry Ward Beecher, T. De Witt Talmage, 
 and David Swing. 
 
 Mr. Beecher was born in 1813, and is one of sev- 
 eral brothers who have attained eminence in the 
 clerical profession. His collegiate career gave no 
 promise of a great future. His first pastorate was 
 in a rural town in Indiana. He soon removed to 
 the capital of that state, where he built up a flour- 
 ishing church and delivered a course of lectures to 
 the young which were published and attained a 
 wide circulation. Over thirty years ago a small 
 church of anti-slavery proclivities was organized in 
 Brooklyn as an offshoot from the Church of the 
 Pilgrims, Rev. Dr. Storrs pastor, and to that new 
 church, called Plymouth, Mr. Beecher was called- 
 He accepted the call, and soon found himself the 
 most popular preacher on the continent. The his- 
 
 ' —4 
 
 649 
 
 tory of Plymouth Church is a prominent chapter in 
 the history of this country, more especially of the 
 anti-slavery movement. For many years his ser- 
 mons have been reported in full and published regu- 
 larly. He has written several books, including a 
 novel of some small merit, but his fame rests upon 
 his pulpit efforts. He is still in full vigor, his dis- 
 courses betraying no senility. 
 
 Mr. Talmage was born in 1832. His first settle- 
 ment was in Belleville, New Jersey, thence to Svra- 
 cuse, New York, Philadelphia, and finally to Brook- 
 lyn, where he became and remains pastor of the 
 Brooklyn Tabernacle. He has immense audiences 
 always, and his sermons are at once published in no 
 less thau twenty-three newspapers, exclusive of the 
 daily press. These papers may be said to gird the 
 globe, issued as they are in New York, London, 
 Melbourne, San Francisco, and other great cities of 
 the English-speaking world. 
 
 The last name to be mentioned in this list is David 
 Swing, a native of Ohio, but for many years a resi- 
 dent of Chicago. For fen years and more all of his 
 sermons have been published in full, and his regu- 
 lar audience upon the Sabbath, large as it always 
 is, is yet a mere handful as compared with the mul- 
 titudes to whom he preaches through the Monday 
 morning press. He is a poet who very rarely writes 
 poetry, but whose every prose effort is melodious. 
 The profound grief of the American people over the 
 loss of President Garfield found its best expression 
 in a dirge from the pen of this eminent preacher, 
 and this chapter could have no more fitting close 
 than these tender lines: 
 
 Now all ye flowers make room : 
 
 Hither we come in gloom 
 To make a mighty tomb. 
 
 Sighing and weeping. 
 
 Grand was the life he led ; 
 
 Wise was each word he said , 
 
 But with the noble dead 
 We leave him sleeping. 
 
 Sofi may his body rest 
 As on his mother’s breast, 
 
 Whose love stands all confessed 
 'Mid blinding tears; 
 
 But may his soul so white 
 Rise in triumphant flight, 
 
 And in God’s land of light 
 Spend endless years. 
 
—A 
 
 _© 
 
 
 REFERENCE TABLES. 
 
 Embracing Miscellaneous Tables, Showing Contemporaneous History and Literature from B. C. 1500 to A. D. 1880; 
 The Industries, Manufactures, Railroads, Food Supply, Gold and Silver Production, Capital, Wealth, Earnings and 
 Legislatures, of the Countries of the World; The Financial, Political, Military and Naval History of the United States, 
 from 1789 to the Present Time, inclusive. Also other Tables, forming an inexhaustible mine of Important Facts. 
 
 
 TATISTICS present facts in 
 their most condensed, exact 
 and convenient form. 
 
 It is neither exaggeration 
 nor boasting to say that in the 
 Keference Tables given here- 
 with may be found the very 
 quintessence of knowledge. 
 Such is the nature of all tabular 
 matter. The aim in this connection 
 1 has been to group together such sta- 
 tistics as the broad title of the book 
 itself called for, gleaned from many 
 sources. Some good tables are as 
 common as wise proverbs, while others 
 again are covered by copyright. There 
 are both classes in the following 
 pages. Without going into useless 
 details it is sufficient to say on this point that 
 for its statistics The World, Historical and 
 Actual, is under great obligation to “Haskell’s 
 Compendium of Forms” and the three great statis- 
 ticians, Michael G. Mulhall, F. S. S., John Niehol, 
 LL.l)., and General Francis A. Walker. 
 
 It will be observed that the historical and the ac- 
 tual are accorded about equal space, including in 
 the latter the tables of events so recent as to be- 
 long really to the present. The several tables are a 
 panoramic view of the past. Beginning with Egypt 
 when it emerges from the sands of obscurity, the 
 Hebrews when they were transformed from slaves 
 to citizens of a nation having Jehovah for its kiug, 
 and Greece with the founding of Thebes by Cad- 
 mus, all in the fifteenth century before the Christian 
 era, the panorama moves on until the year 1880 is 
 reached. In this broad field of nearly twelity-f our 
 hundred years, embracing all lands, it is believed 
 that no great historical event, person or work has 
 escaped attention. Each may be found, and be held 
 
 
 in correlation to other events, persons or works. 
 Literature has been given more prominence than 
 war or any other feature for the reason that it alone 
 is both historical and actual. A good book is in- 
 stinct with a life which takes no note of time. Lit- 
 erature deserves the prominence given it, and so 
 does America deserve the prominence given it in the 
 series of modern tables, for, although not so much 
 as known until the evening of the fifteenth century 
 it is the heir of all Europe, rich in the inheritance 
 of its best estate, divested, for the most part, of the 
 incumberances of ancient wrongs and immemorial 
 blunders. 
 
 Having taken a historical survey of the globe its 
 present condition is presented in tables which are 
 distinct and each complete in itself, but which form 
 a grand unity. The whole world as it is passes be- 
 fore us, and of each country we may note its 
 population, area, religion, government, capital, 
 debt, standing army and navy, railways, commerce, 
 manufactures, mining, agriculture, banking and 
 money. Then follows a survey of the world from a 
 somewhat different standpoint, with a view to ascer- 
 taining the industries, productions, manufactures, 
 commerce, etc., of the world, each by itself. In one 
 set of tables the country is foremost; in the other, the 
 topic is given the preference. It is only by shifting 
 the camera and taking several views that a complete 
 photograph of an object can be obtained. 
 
 In the later part of the tables much space is de- 
 voted to American statistics, for which, certainly, 
 no apology is needed. The recent completion of 
 the tenth census renders the present a favorable 
 time for the issuance of tabular information relat- 
 ing to the United States. The more important 
 features of the census are herewith presented to the 
 public. It will be nearly ten years before these ta- 
 bles will be superseded and moved from the ground 
 lloor of the actual to the attic of the historical. 
 
 ~ 7 ] 
 
 ( 6 5 °) 
 
 •i 
 

 TABLES OF ANCIENT LITERATURE AND HISTORY. 
 
 6 5 X 
 
 TABLES OF ANCIENT LITERATURE AND HISTORY. 
 
 Table I. B. C. 1500 to B. C. 750. The World Before Rome. By Centuries. 
 
 Note. — The following dates have been assigned to important events or traditions previous to b. c. 1500:— 
 
 I. BIBLICAL The Deluge, 2348 b. c. Birth of Abram, 1996; of Esau and Jacob, 1837. Joseph in Egypt, 1729-1635. Birth of 
 
 Moses, 1571. 
 
 II. ASSYRIA AND EGYPT. ..Babel. Nimrod. Asshur, 2230. Babylon, 2200. Nineveh. Ninus. Semiramis, 2180. Menes, first Egyptian 
 
 King, 2700. Egyptian Thebes founded, 2280. Hyksos in Egypt, 1802-1600. 
 
 III. GREECE Foundation of Sicyon, 2088; of Argus (Inachus), 1856; of Athens (Cecrops), 1556; of Sparta (Lelex), 1516. 
 
 Deucalion, 1503. 
 
 IV. PHCENICIA Foundation of Tyre and Sidon, 2750. 
 
 1300 
 
 Egypt and Many' Lands. 
 
 Rameses III., Sesostris, or 
 Ammon, 19th Egyptian 
 Dynasty 1485 
 
 Pharaohs powerful, 
 
 Eglon, King of Moab. 
 
 Assyria and Babylonia 
 united 1250-772 
 
 Conquest of Babylon by the 
 
 Assyrians 1250 
 
 Latinus in Italy 1240 
 
 Proteus in Egypt. 
 
 A 3 neas in Italy. 
 
 Alba Longa Founded 1 152 
 
 Palestine. 
 
 The Exodus 1491 
 
 Deaths of Moses, Aaron and Miriam, 
 
 Joshua divides Canaan --1445 
 
 First Judge in Israel (Othniel) 1402 
 
 Ehud, second Judge 1394-1354 
 
 Wars with Amalekites, Jebusites, 
 Moabites. 
 
 Ruth 1320 
 
 Literature. 
 
 The Vedas. 
 
 Book of Job. (Ewald.) 
 
 Sanchuniathon. 
 
 Wars with Philistines. 
 
 Barak and Deborah 1 1296-1256 
 
 Jael and Sisera - 1296 
 
 War with Midianites. 
 
 Gideon — 1249-1209 
 
 Abimelech* ....1209-1206 
 
 Eli, High Priest 1171-1165 
 
 War with Ammonites 1 161-1143 
 
 Shibboleth of Gilead. 
 
 Jephthah ,I 43- ,, 37 
 
 Wars with Philistines. 
 
 Samson .ii4o- ,, *o 
 
 SAMUEL 1141-1x12 
 
 Mythical Ilymnology 
 (Linus) 1280 
 
 Early Minstrelsy (Orpheus), 
 1260 
 
 Greece. 
 
 Foundation of Thebes (Cadmus), 
 
 N93 
 
 Dardanus J 1480 
 
 Danaus in Argos 1460 
 
 Foundation of Ilium 1425 
 
 Eleusinian Mysteries. 1383 
 
 War of Erectheus and Eumolpus. 
 
 Foundation of Myceme 1344 
 
 Perseus. Cyclopes. 
 
 Dawn of Religious Epic 
 (Muslims) ”80 
 
 Pelops ,..1283 
 
 Calydonian Chase (Atalanta). 
 Hercules. 
 
 Minos in Crete 1256 
 
 Argonautic Expedition, 1260-1240 
 
 Theseus in Athens 1234 
 
 Seven against Thebes 1220-1210 
 
 Agamemnon. Menelaus. 
 
 The Trojan War 1192-1183 
 
 Returns of the Chiefs 1183-1170 
 
 Orestes In Argos 1176 
 
 Lydians on the sea... .... 1169 
 
 TKolinn Migration 1124 
 
 Thessaly settled ...1124 
 
 Dorian Migration. Return or 
 IIkhaclid.e ..1104 
 
 Mclunthus in Athens 1104 
 
 
 
 8l 
 
652 
 
 TABLES OF ANCIENT LITERATURE AND HISTORY. 
 
 TABLES OF ANCIENT LITERATURE AND HISTORY.— Continued. 
 Table I. B. C. 1500 to B. C. 750. The World Before Rome. By Centuries. 
 
 750 
 
 Egypt and Many" Lands. 
 
 Sidon and'Tyre 1095 
 
 Cheops (Gt. Pyramid)... 1082 
 
 Mycerinus (Egypt). 
 
 Sidon subdued by the 
 Philistines 1050 
 
 Hiram of Tyre 1014 
 
 Queen of Sheba. 
 
 Tyre great -1000-586 
 
 Shishak (Egypt) invades 
 Judea 972 
 
 Tartessus founded by Tyre. 
 
 Benhadad I. (Damascus) al- 
 lied with Asa. 
 
 Benhadad II. 
 
 “ besieges Samaria, 
 901-892 
 
 Jezabel of Sidon marries 
 Ahab. 
 
 Palestine. 
 
 CARTHAGE founded by the 
 Tyrians 878 
 
 Sardanapalus 875 ? 
 
 Revolt of Arbaces the Mede. 
 
 Hazael att icks Israel 860 
 
 Phoenicia under Benhaded 
 III 840 
 
 Syria tributary to Israel. 
 
 Egyptians on the sea, 787-751 
 
 Pul of Assyria in vades Israel, 
 770 
 
 Etruscans in Campania.. 760 
 
 Foundation of ROME... 753 
 Ethiopia independent 750 
 
 SAUL (1st King) — 1095-1055 
 
 DAVID (kingdom greatly enlarged), 
 
 1055-1015 
 
 SOLOMON (greatest extent of the Jewish 
 kingdom) 1015-975 
 
 Building of Temple 1012-1005 
 
 Revolt of Ten Tribes 975 
 
 JUDAH. 
 
 Rehoboam, 975-958 
 
 Abijah 95 8 “955 
 
 Asa 955-914 
 
 Jehosaphat. 914-889 
 
 Jehoram ...889-885 
 
 Ahaziah 885-884 
 
 Athaliah ...884-878 
 
 Jehoash 878-839 
 
 Amaziah ...839-810 
 
 Uzziah (or Azariah) 
 810-758 
 
 Jotham 758-742 
 
 ISRAEL. 
 
 Jeroboam I., 975-954 
 
 Nadab 954-953 
 
 Baasha 953 “ 93 ° 
 
 Elah 930-929 
 
 Zimri 929 
 
 Omri 929-918 
 
 Ahab 918-897 
 
 Elijah 910-896 
 
 Ahaziah 897-896 
 
 Jehoram 896-884 
 
 Elisha 896-838 
 
 Jehu 884-856 
 
 Jehoahaz 856-839 
 
 Joash 839-826 
 
 Jeroboam II. 825-784 
 
 Interregnum. 
 
 Zechariah — -773 
 
 Shallum 772 
 
 Menahem 772-761 
 
 Pekahiah 761-759 
 
 Peka h 759-739 
 
 Literature. 
 
 Greece. 
 
 Psalms of David. 
 
 Proverbs of Solomon. 
 
 Song of Solomon. 
 
 HOMER fl. 962-927 
 
 Iliad and Odyssey ...940-927 
 
 Creophylus (Samos). 
 
 Jonah (I.) c. 862 
 
 Hesiod (Ascra) 850 
 
 Joel (J.) .............. 800 
 
 Amos (I.) c. 787 
 
 Hosea (I.) ...c. 785 
 
 Agias of Troezen 776 
 
 Stasinus (Cyprus). 
 
 Arctinus (Miletus). ..775-740 
 
 Cinaethon (Lacedaemon), 
 
 fl. 765 
 
 Eumelus (Corinth)... 760-730 
 
 Pelasgi on the sea... ...1077 
 
 Aletes in Corinth ...1074 
 
 Colony from Chalcis to CuMAe, 1050 
 
 Codrus in Athens 1045 
 
 Ionic Migration 1044 
 
 Settlement of Poloponnesus, 
 
 War between Chalcis and Eretria. 
 
 Thracians on the sea 992 
 
 Alexas in Thessaly. 
 
 Rhodians on the sea 913 
 
 Phrygians on the sea 890 
 
 Olympic Games 884 
 
 Lycurgus in Sparta 884 
 
 Settlement of Lacedaemon .. 884-776 
 
 Cyprians on the sea 865 
 
 Phcenicians on the sea 832 
 
 Foundation of Rhegium 812 
 
 ^Eolian colonies 800 
 
 Ionian colonies 794 
 
 Victory of Coriebus 776 
 
 Argos heads a Confederacy 774 
 
 Pandosia and Metapontum 
 founded 774 
 
 Pheidon of Argos 780-740 
 
 Miletus powerful. Colonies. .750 
 
 Decennial Archons at Athens.. 753 
 
TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 
 
 6 53 
 
 TABLES OF 
 
 Table II. B. C. 750 to B. C. 500. 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 
 
 From Foundation of Rome to Beginning of Roman Republic. By Periods of Twenty- 
 Five Years. 
 
 675 
 
 650 
 
 Palestine, Asia and Egypt. 
 
 Nabonassar (Babylon independ- 
 ent) 747 
 
 Persians besiege Nineveh 747 
 
 Pekaand Rezon of Syria besiege 
 
 Jerusalem 742 
 
 Ahaz, of Judah 742-726 
 
 Tilgath Pileser destroys Syria, 
 and carries 2% tribes captive, 
 
 740 
 
 Interregnum in Israel. 
 
 Hoshea, of Israel 730-721 
 
 Shalmaneser (Assyria) invades 
 
 Israel 7 s8 
 
 Hezekiah, of Judah 726-698 
 
 CAPTIVITY OF ISRAEL. ...721 
 
 Gyges in Lydia 716-679 
 
 Sennacherib invades Judah 713 
 
 “ destroyed 710 
 
 Deioces in Media 709-657 
 
 Manasseh -..697-642 
 
 Babylon subject to Assyria 680 
 
 Idolatry in Judah 
 Esarhaddon colonizes Samaria, 
 
 677 
 
 Psammeticus (Egypt) 671-617 
 
 Colony of Naucratis 665 
 
 Phraortes (Media) ...656-635 
 
 War of Holof ernes (Palestine) 656 ? 
 Judith? 
 
 Persian Monarchy founded 650 
 
 Amon 642-640 
 
 Cyrene founded 641 
 
 JCBIAH 640-609 
 
 Cyaxares 634-595 
 
 Scythians in Asia 634-607 
 
 Nineveh taken by the Modes. ..625 
 
 Assyrian Empire ends 625 
 
 Eclipse in reign of Alyattes 
 
 (Lydia) 625 
 
 Josiaii repairs the Temple 624 
 
 Greece. 
 
 Rise of Corinth 
 
 745 
 
 First Messenian War ... 
 
 -.. 743-723 
 
 Chalcis founds Naxos... 
 
 735 
 
 Corinthian Colonies — Corcyra . . 734 
 
 Philolaus of Thebes.. 
 
 
 Achaeans found Sybaris. 
 
 721 
 
 War between Sparta and Argos, 
 
 7.8 
 
 Aclueans found Croton . 
 
 
 Annual ARCHONS at Athens. .683 
 
 Second Messenian War. 
 
 ...685-668 
 
 Rise of Megara 
 
 
 Sea-fight, Corinth and Corcyra, 665 
 
 Byzantium founded 
 
 657 
 
 Orthagoras in Sicyon ... 
 
 657 
 
 Cypselus at Corinth 
 
 655 
 
 Bacchiadae expelled 
 
 655 
 
 Voyages of Coloeus and Corobius. 
 
 Colony of Battus to Cyrene 641 
 
 Sinope founded ..640 
 
 Periandek ut Corinth 625-585 
 
 Italy and Sicily. 
 
 Romulus 753-716 
 
 War with Sabines 750 
 
 Union “ 747 
 
 Romulus and Acron, 1st Spolia 
 Opima. 
 
 Syracuse founded* 734 
 
 Leontium and Catana founded, 
 
 Numa Pompilius 716-673 
 
 Religious Laws. 
 
 Tarentum founded (Phalanthus), 
 708 
 
 Tullus Hostilius 673-640 
 
 Destruction of Alba 665 
 
 Messana founded 660 
 
 Zaleucus in Locri <60 
 
 Ancus Martius 640-616 
 
 Ostia founded 640 
 
 Literature and Art. 
 
 Micah (J.) c. 750-710 
 
 ISAIAH ... fl. 747-698 
 
 Nahum C. 720-69 
 
 Leeches (Lesbos) 710 
 
 Archilochus (Paros) 708 
 
 Simonides (Amorgus).. 693-662 
 
 Tyrtaeus (Sparta) 685 
 
 Callinus 678 
 
 Terpander (Lesbos) crowned 
 at Musical Contest 676 
 
 Aleman (Sparta) 670 
 
 Thalctas (Pyltrric songs)... 670 
 
 Kucheir and Eugrammus . . .660 
 Temple of Zeus at Elis 660 
 
 BUDDHA ? 
 
 Zepiiamah fl. 640-609 
 
 JEREMIAH fl. 628-586 
 
 Thales 644-548 
 
 Mlmnermus (Smyrna) 079 
 
654 
 
 TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 
 
 TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 
 
 Table II. B. C. 750 to B. C.500. From Foundation of Rome to Beginning of Roman Republic. By Periods of Twenty- 
 
 Five Years. 
 
 Palestine, Asia and Egypt. 
 
 Greece. 
 
 Italy and Sicily. 
 
 Literature and Art. 
 
 Hilkiah finds the book of the Law, 
 624 
 
 Passover. Ark restored 623 
 
 Pharaoh Necho circumnavi- 
 gates Africa -..615? 
 
 Pharaoh Necho invades Judah, 610 
 War between the Medes and 
 
 Lydians 610 
 
 Jehoahaz 609 
 
 Jehoiakim 609-597 
 
 CAPTIVITY OF JUDAH, 
 
 seventy years 606-536 
 
 Pharaoh defeated by Nebuchad- 
 nezzar 605 
 
 Draco gives laws to Athens 624 
 
 Cylon at Athens 620 
 
 Pittacus at Mitylene 611 
 
 Cleisthenes at Sicyon 600-560 
 
 Tarquinius Priscus 616-578 
 
 Massilia founded 600 
 
 Era of Seven Sages — 
 
 [Thales, Bias, Pittacus, So- 
 lon, Cleobulus, Periander 
 Chilon.] 
 
 Arion 625-610 
 
 Stesichorus (Himera) 612 
 
 SAPPHO (Lesbos) 610 
 
 Habakkuk fl. 612-598 
 
 Jechoniah 597 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar sacks Tyre.. -586 
 “ takes Jerusalem. .606-598 
 
 Sardanapalus? 
 
 Zedekiaii ‘97-586 
 
 Pharaoh Hophra (or Apries), 
 
 595-570 
 
 Astyages or Ahasucrus 595-560 
 
 Siege of Sidon. 
 
 First Sacred War 595-585 
 
 Solon at Athens 594 
 
 Alcams exiled 590 
 
 Gypselid dynasty ends 581 
 
 Servius Tullius 578-534 
 
 Census. Comitia Centuriata at 
 
 Rome. 
 
 Epimenides in Athens 597 
 
 AlCjEus (Lesbos) 684 
 
 Anaximander 611-547 
 
 Anacharsis in Athens 592 
 
 DANIEL fl. 606-534 
 
 Oeadiah fl. 588-583 
 
 Susarion fl. 578 
 
 Later Psalms. 
 
 Civil War in Egypt. 
 
 Periplus of Hanno 570? 
 
 Voyage of Himilco 570? 
 
 Crcesus in Lydia 568-546 
 
 Phrygia conquered by the Lydians. 
 
 CYRUS King of Persia 559-529 
 
 “ defeats Astyages 558 
 
 Medes and Persians united 558 
 
 Cyrus conquers Lydia 554 
 
 Amasis (Egypt) 570-526 
 
 Elis subdues Pisa 572 
 
 Peisistratus at Athens. ..560-527 
 
 Nile opened to Greeks 
 
 Phalaris of Agrigentum 570-554 
 
 EZEKIEL fl. 595-536 
 
 The Daedalidae 570 
 
 Chersiphron fl. 560 
 
 CONFUCIUS. ZOROASTER? 
 
 dEsop fl. 560 
 
 Eugamon (Cyrene) 560 
 
 Anacreon (Teos) 560 
 
 Pherecydes and Phocylides. 
 Anaximenes fl. 548 
 
 Belshazzar or Labynetus. Baby- 
 lon taken by Cyrus 538 
 
 Restoration of the Jews by Cyrus, 
 536 
 
 Zerubbabel, Governor Judea... 536 
 Mago. Carthaginian Colonies. 
 
 Second Temple built 534-516 
 
 Cambyses (Ahasuerus) 529-522 
 
 Cambyses’ Conquest of Egypt.. 525 
 Psammeticus (Egypt) 525 
 
 Polycrates at Samos 532-522 
 
 Pythagoras at Croton 540-510 
 
 Tarquinius Suiereus 534-509 
 
 Roman Kingdom extended over 
 Latium. 
 
 Theognis (Megara) 541 
 
 Xenophanes (Colophon) 538 
 
 Ibycus (Rhegium) 540 
 
 PYTHAGORAS fl. 531 
 
 Thespis (Attica) 535 
 
 Haggai fl. 520-518 
 
 Zechariah fl. 520-518 
 
 Smerdi8, Persia, a usurper 522 
 
 Darius I. deposes Smerdis 522 
 
 “ Hystaspes 522-486 
 
 Periplus of Scylax. 
 
 Carthage a Republic. 
 
 Sea-fight with Phocica. 
 
 Siege of Naxos by Aristagoras, 501 
 Ionian Revolt in Asia Minor.. .501 
 
 Insurrectional Athens; Hippar- 
 chus slain 514 
 
 Hippias rules 514 
 
 Expulsion op Peisistratidjs, 
 
 510 
 
 Hippias expelled from Athens. 510 
 
 Cleisthenes at Athens 510 
 
 Cleomenes at Sparta 519-490 
 
 Embassy of Aristagoras 500 
 
 Wars of Syracuse and Gela. 
 
 Croton destroys Sybaris 510 
 
 Tarquinus expelled; Era of the 
 Republic 509 
 
 Porsena at Rome 509 
 
 Commercial Treaty with 
 Carthage 508 
 
 ist Valerian Laws 508 
 
 Phrynichus fl. 412 
 
 PARMENIDES fl. 505 
 
 Heraclitus (Ephesus). .fl. 505 
 
 Corinna (Tanagra) 500 
 
 Myrtis 500 
 
TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 
 
 655 
 
 TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 
 
 Table III. B. C. 500 to B. C. 325. From Foundation of Roman Republic to Death of Alexander. By Periods of 
 
 Twenty-Five Years. 
 
 Greece. 
 
 War between Athens and .Egina ..491 
 
 Sicily, Asia, Africa. 
 
 Siege of Naxos 501 
 
 475 
 
 Heralds from Darius 491 
 
 Persian Fleet wrecked off Athos..-49 
 
 Miltiades, Gr fl. 515-489 
 
 “ at Athens ...493-489 
 
 Battle of Marathon, Gr 490 
 
 Aristides, Gr.. fl . 489-483 and 479-468 
 THEMISTOCLES, Gr. (514-4471, 
 
 fl. 480-471 
 
 Athenian Fleet built, 481; Walls. .478 
 Leonidas at Thermopylae, S. Gr 480 
 
 Artemisium, Salamis, Gr 480 
 
 Pi.at.ea, S. Gr., and Mycale, Cr..479 
 Pausanias, S. Gr fl. 479-471 
 
 Growth of Athenian Empire, Gr., 
 
 478-445 
 
 Persia recovers Cyprus, Per 49S 
 
 Histiaeus sent to the Coast 496 
 
 Ionian Revolt subdued 495 
 
 Battle of Lade. Miletus taken, 
 
 Per 494 
 
 Mardonius subdues Macedonia, 
 
 Per 492 
 
 Carthaginians in Sicily, P. C. 
 
 Xerxes I. reigns. Per 485-465 
 
 Egyptian Revolt 486-484 
 
 Gelon at Syracuse, S. Gr.. 485-477 
 
 Battle of Himera, S. Gr 480 
 
 Therou at Agrigentum 488-472 
 
 Hiero I. at Syracuse, S.Gr., 478-475 
 Pausanias at Byzantium —477 
 
 Ostracism of Themistocles. . 
 
 47 1 
 
 Death of Pausanius 
 
 47 1 
 
 Argives takes Mycenae 
 
 468 
 
 Athenians at Naxos 
 
 4*6 
 
 Battle of Eurymedon 
 
 
 Revolt of Thasos 
 
 ...465-463 
 
 Revolt of the Helots 
 
 464 
 
 Third Messenian War, S. 
 
 Gr., 
 
 464-455 
 
 Itliome taken 455 
 
 Cimon, Gr fl. 466-461 and 454-449 
 
 Laws of Pericles and Ephialtes — 461 
 
 Long Walls built ...457-456 
 
 Athenian Victory at (Enophyta 456 
 
 Tolmides sails round Malea 455 
 
 Five Years’ Truce 45 ° 
 
 Victories of Cimon, Gr 476 
 
 Naval Victory of Hiero, S. Gr., 
 over Tuscans 474 
 
 Syracuse free, S. Gr 466-405 
 
 Artaxerxes I., Per. (Ahasuerus), 
 
 465-425 
 
 Story of Esther 461-451 
 
 Themistocl^p in Persia 465-447 
 
 Egyptian War with Persia, Per., 
 
 460-455 
 
 Athenians in Egypt ..462 
 
 Agrigentum powerful, S. Gr., 
 
 470-405 
 
 Ezra, Governor in Judea. .458-449 
 
 Literature and Art. 
 
 J E 3 CHYLUS 524-456 
 
 Ageladus (Argos), S. A., fl. 500 
 
 Hecataeus fl. 500 
 
 Epicharmus (Sicily) fl. 490 
 
 Simonides (Ceos) fl. 490 
 
 Pherecydes (historian). .fl. 480 
 
 PINDAR 522-442 
 
 Hegesias and Hegias, S. A. 
 Leucippus— Atomic Theory. 
 
 Hellanicus (Mitylene). .496-411 
 
 Anaxagoras 500-428 
 
 Diogenes of Apollonia-.fl. 468 
 
 Zeno of Elea 11 . 464 
 
 SOPHOCLES 495-406 
 
 “ Tragic Victory. .468 
 
 Polygnotus (Stoa Poicile), PI.. 
 
 11. 460 
 
 Ion of Chios 11 . 451 
 
 Baccbylides fl. 450 
 
 Archelnus (Physicus) fl. 450 
 
 Phormio fl. 450 
 
 Crates, Cratinus, Eupolis. 
 
 11. 450 
 
 Phrynis, M fl. 456 
 
 Democritus (Abdera) . fl. 450 
 
 Rome. 
 
 Consular Government at 
 Rome, Rom 508-60 
 
 Battle of Lake Regillus 498 
 
 1st Secession to Mons Sacer, 
 
 494 
 
 Tribunes of the Pkbs, Rom., 
 494 
 
 Spurius Cassius 494-483 
 
 Latin League 493 
 
 Volscian War (Coriolanus), 
 Rom ---489 
 
 Ilernican League 488 
 
 Agrarian Law of Cassius. .486 
 
 Wars with Veil 481-475 
 
 Expedition of the Fabii, Rom., 
 477 
 
 Fabii destroyed at Cremera, 475 
 
 1st Publilian Laws 471 
 
 Antium taken 470 
 
 Suicide of Appius Claudius, 470 
 
 Tercntilian Bill 462 
 
 .Equian War (Cinciunatus), 
 Rom ---458 
 
 Icilian Law... 454 
 
 Commissioners to Greece.. -453 
 
 The Decemvirate, Rom., 
 
 45'-449 
 
 The Twelve Tables 450 
 
 PERICLES, Cir (499-429) 
 
 “ in power 469-429 
 
 Second Sacred War... 448 
 
 Athenian defeat at Coronea 447 
 
 Thirty Years’ Truce 443 
 
 Revolt of Euboea and Megara 445 
 
 Decline of Athenian Empire ...443-404 
 
 War of Corinth and Corcyra 435 
 
 Congress of Lacedaemon --433 
 
 Peloponnesian War 43 i- 4°5 
 
 Invasion of iVttica by Archidamus. .431 
 
 Plague at Athens 430-429 
 
 Death of Pericles 429 
 
 Siege of Platica 429-427 
 
 Naval Victories of Phormio... 429 
 
 Corcyrman Massacre 427 
 
 Demosthenes in A 3 tolia 426 
 
 Sphactcria taken - 425 
 
 Athenian Victory at Salamis in 
 Cyprus, Gr 449 
 
 Syracuse subdues Agrigentum, 446 
 
 “ defeats Etruscans 446 
 
 Athenian Colony lo Thurii 444 
 
 Carthaginian Voyages. 
 
 Nehemiaii, Governor in Judea, 
 
 445-420 
 
 The Samian War, Gr 440-439 
 
 Carthaginians in Sicily, /'. 6'. ..431 
 
 Revolt of Lesbos 4>8 
 
 Fall of Mitylene 427 
 
 41 Ships from Athens to Sicily, 426 
 
 Phidias (Parthenon), S. A., 
 
 fl. 448-440 
 
 roiyc iuiiuf? aim .uyiun, .i., 
 
 i> 440 
 
 HERODOTUS 484-408 
 
 EURIPIDES 480-406 
 
 Melissus (Samos) II. 444 
 
 EMPED0CLEs(Agrigentum),444 
 
 Alcamenes, S. A... fl. 44° 
 
 Meton (astronomer) 11. 433 
 
 Era of the Sophists. 
 
 Protagoras 11 . 444 
 
 Prodicus ... fl. 444 
 
 Gorgias fl. 430 
 
 Mai. A rm. Judicn .11. 436-420 
 Erechtheiiim rebuilt, S. A., 
 
 432-393 
 
 Diagoras (atfsof) 11 425 
 
 Cinesias, M. 1 ). 425 
 
 Appius Claudius (Virginia), 
 
 Rom. (Dentatus) 449 
 
 2d Secession to Mons Sacer, 448 
 
 Valerian anil lloratian Laws, 
 Rom 448 
 
 3d Secession to Mods Sneer, 44s 
 
 Cunuleiaii Laws 445 
 
 Consular Tribunes, Rom., 
 
 444 
 
 Censors at Rome 443 
 
 Famine at Romo 440 
 
 Death of Spurius Mirlius..-439 
 
 Cornelius fossils mid I.ars 
 Tolitinnius, 2d Spolia 
 Opima 437 
 
 Des traction of Fidenm 426 
 
TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 
 
 TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 
 
 Table III. B. C. 500 to B. C. 325. From Foundation of Roman Republic to Death of Alexander. By Periods of 
 
 Twenty-Five Years. 
 
 B. C. 
 
 Greece. 
 
 Sicily, Asia, Africa. 
 
 Literature and Art. 
 
 Rome. 
 
 425 
 
 Cleon, Gr fl. 425-422 
 
 Alcibiades, Gr., fl. 424-413 and 411-404 
 Nicias takes Cythera and Thyrea .424 
 
 Revolution at Megara 424 
 
 Battle of Delinm . 424 
 
 Brasidas, S. Gr., at Amphipolis.. 422 
 
 Peace of Nicias 42 1-4 15 
 
 Battle of Mantinea 418 
 
 Alcibiades at Argos 416 
 
 Affair of Melos. 416 
 
 Agis occupies Decelea 413 
 
 Fleet destroyed at Syracuse 413 
 
 The 400 at Athens 411 
 
 Caliicratidas. S. Gr., defeated at 
 Arginusse Gr. Generals executed, 406 
 
 Battle of vEgospotami, Gr 405 
 
 Lysander, S. Gr., enters Athens. .404 
 Critias and Thirty Tyrants 404 
 
 Darius 11 .. Per., Nothus ..424-405 
 Congress of Sicilians at Gela .424 
 
 Athenians at Delos 422 
 
 Alcibiades and Nicias off Sicily, 
 
 Gr 415 
 
 Fleet winters at Naxos and 
 
 C a tan a 415 
 
 Syracusan Expedition. .415-413 
 Gyi.ippus arrives at Syracuse, 
 
 S. Gr 413 
 
 Athenian Allies revolt ... 412-41 1 
 Persian Treaties with Pelo- 
 ponnesus .412-411 
 
 Revolt at Samos. Alcibiades, 
 
 412-411 
 
 Thrasybulus with Athenian 
 
 Fleet, Gr -.411 
 
 Battle of Cynossema, Gr 41 1 
 
 Artaxeiixes II., Per 405-359 
 
 Expedition of Cyrus the 
 Younger 401 
 
 Antiphon 480-4 1 1 
 
 Philolaus? 
 
 THUCYDIDES -...471-402 
 
 Zeuxis, Pt 450-400 
 
 SOCRATES 468-399 
 
 Lysias 459-380 
 
 ARISTOPHANES .... 444-3S0 
 
 “The Clouds” 423 
 
 Andocides 440-390 
 
 Agathon 11 . 415 
 
 HIPPOCRATES 460-357 
 
 Callimachus. S. A fl. 412 
 
 XENOPHON 444-362 
 
 Parrhasius, Pt fl. 400 
 
 Melanippides, M fl. 400 
 
 Twenty Years Truce with 
 
 Veii, Pom 425 
 
 Capua taken by the Samnites, 
 423 
 
 Four Quaestors in Rome. .421 
 zEquian Wars 419-409 
 
 Colonies — Bola, Lavici, Fe- 
 rentinum, Anxur. 
 
 Victories over Volscians, 
 
 409-406 
 
 Plebeian Quaestors 409 
 
 Pay in Army 406 
 
 Siege of Veii (Camillus), Pom,, 
 405-396 
 
 400 
 
 375 
 
 Democracy restored (Thrasybulus), 403 
 
 Socrates condemned 399 
 
 Coalition against Sparta _ 395 
 
 Lysander slain 395 
 
 Corinthian War 394-392 
 
 2d Battle of Coronea, S. Gr 394 
 
 Long Walls restored by Conon, Gr. . 394 
 
 Battle of Lechieum 383 
 
 Agesilaus in Acarnania, S. Gr 391 
 
 Olyntiiian War 383-379 
 
 Height of Spartan Power, S. Gr. 
 
 Victories of Pelopidas 378-364 
 
 Athenians allied with Thebes 378 
 
 EPAMINONDAS, Gr 371-362 
 
 Return of the 10,000 Greeks, 
 
 S. Gv 400 
 
 Dionysius I. of Syracuse, S. 
 
 Gr 405-368 
 
 Agesilaus in Asia, S. Gr... 396-395 
 
 Conon at Cnidus, Gr 394 
 
 Victory of Dionysius at Helorus,389 
 
 Peace of Antalcidas, Per 387 
 
 Cyprian War 385-375 
 
 Defeat of Evagoras, Per 385 
 
 Wars of Syracuse and Car- 
 thage, P. C 410-340 
 
 Ilamilcar and Mago, P. C. 
 
 Bithy'nian Kingdom 378-75 
 
 Carthaginians in Italy, P. C 379 
 
 Timotheus in Asia, Gr 372 
 
 Euclid of Megara __fl. 400 
 
 Antisthenes 426-371 
 
 Aristippus 400-365 
 
 PLATO 429-347 
 
 Isocrates 436-338 
 
 Timanthes, Pt.. fl. 385 
 
 Timotheus, M. 446-357 
 
 Scopas, S. A c. 395-350 
 
 Isaeus 420-350 
 
 Diogenes the Cynic 419-324 
 
 Xenocrates 396-314 
 
 Speusippus d. 319 
 
 Embassy to Delphi 398 
 
 Battle of the Allia 390 
 
 ROME BURNT by the Gauls 
 vBreunus; 390 
 
 M. F. Camillus, Dictator, 
 Rom 390 
 
 Rome Rebuilt, Rom 389 
 
 Execution of M. Manlius. . .384 
 
 Recovery of Revolted Towns . 
 — Tusculum, Pnencste.An- 
 tium, etc 383-377 
 
 Licinian Laws, Pom.. 377-367 
 
 Battle of Leuctra, Gr 371 
 
 Supremacy of Thebes, Gr. 
 
 Agesilaus in Arcadia 370 
 
 Alexander of Pherie in Thessaly --.370 
 
 Theban Invasions of Laconia, 
 
 369, 368, 362 
 
 Pelopidas in Thessaly 368 
 
 The Tearless Victory 367 
 
 Battle of Mantinea, Gr 362 
 
 PHILIP II. of Macedon, Mac.. 359-336 
 
 Social War 357-355 
 
 1st Sacred or Phocian War. .. 355-346 
 Siege of Methone 353 
 
 Plato in Sicily 370 
 
 Embassy of Pelopidas, Gr., to 
 Persia 367 
 
 Dionysius II., S. Gr., of Syracuse, 
 368-343 
 
 Joshua slain by High Priest 366 
 
 Plato's id Visit to Sicily 361 
 
 Samaritans build Temple at 
 
 Gerizim 360 
 
 Kingdom of Pontus 360-66 
 
 Artaxerxes III., Per., Ochus, 
 
 359-338 
 
 Revolt of Artabazus 354 
 
 Dion at Syracuse, S. Gr... 357-354 
 Sidon destroyed, Per 351 
 
 Archytas (Tarentum) d. 370 
 
 Eudoxus (mathematician), 
 
 fl. 360 
 
 Phocion 402-317 
 
 “Ludi Sccnici” at Rome. -365 
 
 Praxitiles, S. A fl. 360 
 
 Pamphilus, Pt.. fl. 360 
 
 ^Eschines 389-314 
 
 DEMOSTHENES . .382-322 
 
 yEneas Tacticus 11 . 360 
 
 ARISTOTLE 384-322 
 
 Pu.-f.tors and Curule yEdiles 
 at Rome 366 
 
 1st Plebeian Consul 366 
 
 Plague at Rome. Death of 
 Camillus 365 
 
 Legend of M. Curtius 365 
 
 Wars with Gauls, Etruscans 
 and Ilernicans 362-346 
 
 Legends of Manlius Torqua- 
 tus and Valerius Corvus. 
 
 Laws of Debt 357, 352, 347 
 
 C. Marcius Rutilus, 1st Ple- 
 beian Dictator 356 
 
 C. Marcius Rutilus, 1st Ple- 
 beian Censor. . 351 
 
 350 
 
 325 
 
 Olynthus taken by Philip, Mac 348 
 
 Philip of Macedon in Thrace 341 
 
 2d Sacred or Locrian War 339 
 
 Battle of Ch^ronea, Mac 338 
 
 ALEXANDER III., Mac 336-323 
 
 Destruction of Thebes 335 
 
 Macedonian Empire, Mac 334-143 
 
 Battle of Granicus 334 
 
 “ Issus 333 
 
 “ Arbela, Mac 331 
 
 Exile of Demosthenes 324 
 
 Death of Alexander 323 
 
 Timolkon at Syracuse, S. Gr., 
 
 345-337 
 
 II anno in Carthage, P. C 340 
 
 Darius III., Per 336-330 
 
 Fall of Tyre, Mac 332 
 
 Foundation of Alexandria, Mac., 
 33 2 
 
 Babylon taken by Alexander, 
 
 Mac 331 
 
 Persepolis burnt by Alexander.. 331 
 Judsea subject to Alexander... 330 
 
 Darius slain by Bessus 330 
 
 Alexander at the Hvphasis, Mac., 
 3*7 
 
 Alexander at Susa 325 
 
 Voyage of Nearchus 324-323 
 
 Cleomenes, S. A fl. 350" 
 
 Plirotogenes (Rhodes), Pt., 
 
 360-300 
 
 Lycurgus (Athens) fl. 340 
 
 Lysippus, S.-A fl. 335 
 
 Apelles (Cos), Pt 350-308 
 
 Pyrrho .fl. 350 
 
 Hypereidcs fl. 346 
 
 Demades fl. 330 
 
 Deinarchus fl. 324 
 
 Theopompus (historian), 
 
 378-305 
 
 Diphilus and Philemon. . 11 . 330 
 MENANDER 342-291 
 
 Treaty with Carthage 348 
 
 1st Samnite War. 343-341 
 
 Battle of Mt. Gaums, Pom . - 343 
 
 Mutiny at Lautula; 542 
 
 Genucian Laws.. 342 
 
 Latin War 340-338 
 
 Battle of Mt. Vesuvius, Rom. 
 (Devotion of P. Decius 
 
 Mus. I.) 340 
 
 2d Publilian Laws 339 
 
 1 st Plebeian PnEtor 337 
 
 Settlement of Latium, Pom., 
 
 338-328 
 
 Servitude for Debt abolished, 
 
 326 
 
TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 
 
 6 57 
 
 TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE.-Continued. 
 
 Table IV. B. C. 323 to B. C. 146. 
 
 From Death of Alexander to End of Third Punic War. By Periods of 
 Twenty-Five Years. 
 
 Rome and Carthage. 
 
 300 
 
 2d Samnite War 326-304 
 
 Caudine Forks 321 
 
 C. Pontius of Telesia ..fl. 321-292 
 
 Battle of Lautulse 315 
 
 Roman Victory at Cinna 314 
 
 Etruscan War 311-309 
 
 L. Papirius Cursor Dictator 310 
 
 Q. Fabius crosses Ciminian Hills; de- 
 feats Tuscans at Vadimon, Rom. 
 
 Bomilcar at Carthage, P. C 308 
 
 April's Claudius Censor, Rom... 312-308 
 
 Bovianum taken 303 
 
 Ogulnian Law.. 300 
 
 3d Samnite War (Samnites, Etrus- 
 cans, Umbrians, Gauls) 298-290 
 
 Gellius Egnatius, Samnite Leader. 
 
 Battle of Sentinum, Rom. (D. Mus. II.), 
 
 295 
 
 Execution of C. Pontius 292 
 
 Last Secession (Janiculum) 286 
 
 Hortensian Law 286 
 
 Renewed Etruscan and Gallic War 283 
 
 2d Battle of Lake Vadimon 283 
 
 War with Tarentum 281 
 
 Pyrrhus, Gr., invades Italy 281-273 
 
 Battle of Heraclea 280 
 
 Battle of Aseui.um, Gr. (D. Mus. III.), 279 
 Rome and Carthage allied, P. C 279 
 
 Battle of Beneventum, Rom 275 
 
 Tarentum taken 272 
 
 SouTn Italy subdued, Rom 270-266 
 
 1st PUNIC WAR 264-241 
 
 Hiero of Syracuse joins Rome, S. Gr... 263 
 
 Agrigentum taken, S. Gr 262 
 
 Romans build a Fleet 261 
 
 Victory of Duilius at Mykc. Rom 260 
 
 Roman Naval Victory at Ecnomus 256 
 
 Regulus, Rom., invades Africa 256 
 
 “ defeated by Xanthippus, P. C . 255 
 Carthalo, P. C., recovers Agrigen turn.. 254 
 Roman Victory at Panormus 250 
 
 Carthaginian Victory at Drepana 249 
 
 Sieges of Lilybseum and Drepana. .250-246 
 IIamilcar Barcas, P. C., in Sicily 248-241 
 Victory of thevEAGTES (Catulus), Rom. 241 
 War of Carthaginians and Mercenaries, 
 
 P. C. 241-238 
 
 Sardinia and Corsica seized 238 
 
 Temple of Janus closed 235 
 
 Agrarian Law of Flaminius 232 
 
 Illyrian War (Queen Teutal .. 229 
 
 IIasdkubal, P.C., founds Carthagena .229 
 Gallic invasion (Boii and Insubrcs). 
 
 Battle of Telamon, Rom- 225-223 
 
 Clastidium. Viridomarus and Marcellus 
 3d Spolia Opima 222 
 
 Literature and Art. 
 
 EUCLID (Alexandria). .fl. 325 
 Manetho, Egyptian Histo- 
 rian fl. 320? 
 
 Pytheas, navigator? 
 
 Philippides fl. 320 
 
 Chares (Lindus), S. A... fl. 320 
 
 Euhemerus fl. 300 
 
 Polemo, Crates, Crantor, fl. 315 
 Tim.ecs (Tauromenium), .)/., 
 252-357 
 
 Diodes, Roman Historian 
 (Peparethas) ? 
 
 Appian Way and Aque- 
 duct, A .1 312 
 
 Demetrius Phalereus. . 345-283 
 Eudemus fl. 300 
 
 Theophrastus ...374-287 
 
 Capitoline Wolf, S. A 296 
 
 ZENO, the Stoic (Cittium), 
 
 366-264 
 
 EPICURUS 341-270 
 
 Appius Claudius Caecus, 1st 
 Roman Orator fl. 280 
 
 Zoilus and Zenodotus...fl. 280 
 
 Ilegesias (Cyrene). fl. 280 
 
 THEOCRITUS fl. 280 
 
 Bion and Moschus fl. 270 
 
 Aristarchus (Astronomer), 
 
 11. 280-264 
 
 SEPTUAGINT 277 
 
 Greece. 
 
 P 5 Perdiccas Regent ..323-321 
 g Antipater, Mac., in Mace- 
 
 0 donia 323-3*8 
 
 2 Lysimachus, Mac., in 
 
 ^ Tiirace 323-381 
 
 tg Cassander, Mac. , In Greece, 
 gj 317-296 
 
 The Lamian War (Leosthenes), 
 323-322 
 
 Death of Demosthenes 322 
 
 Cassander takes Athens 317 
 
 Philip III. (Arrhkheus) 
 
 killed 317 
 
 Olympias killed by Cassander. 
 
 316 
 
 Roxana and Son killed 311 
 
 Demetrius Poliorcetes, at 
 Athens, G*?’.. 308-304 a- 295-290 
 Demetrius Poliorcetes at 
 Thebes 393'30* 
 
 Philip IV. of Macedon, Mac., 
 297-296 
 
 Demetrius Poliorcetes in 
 
 Macedon 294-287 
 
 Pyrrhus, Gr., of Epirus, 
 
 318-272 
 
 “ reigned 306-272 
 
 “ in Macedon, 287-286 
 
 “ in Italy and Sicily, 
 
 281-275 
 
 Death of Demetrius Polior- 
 cetes 283 
 
 Gauls in Greece.. 280, 279,278 
 
 Brennus at Delphi 278 
 
 HStolian League, S.Gr., 
 
 284-167 
 
 Lycophron c. 285-247 
 
 Aratus (Astronomer) fl. 270 
 
 Hieronymus (Cardia) ...fl. 270 
 
 Arcesilaus (New Academy), 
 300-241 
 
 Callimachus (Alexandria) 
 
 fl. 260 
 
 Columna Rostrata, S.A... 260 
 
 Monumenta Scipionum, 8 .A., 
 260 
 
 Cleanthes 30C-220 
 
 ARCHIMEDES, 8 . A. .287-212 
 
 Eratosthenes 276-196 
 
 Chrysippus 280-207 
 
 Livius Andronicus, fl. 240-214 
 1st Tragedies at Rome.. 240-235 
 CM N1KVIU8 fl. 235-202 
 
 Sosilus and Silanus 
 
 Ach-ean League, Gr.. 280-146 
 
 Antigonus Gonatus, Mac . , 
 recovers Macedon ...272 
 
 Antigonus Gonatas takes 
 Athens 268 
 
 Aratus, Gr (271-213) 
 
 “ at Sicyon 251 
 
 Aratus, General of Achaian 
 League 245 
 
 “ at Corinth and Megara, 
 *43 
 
 Agis IV. killed at Sparta . 241 
 
 Antigonus Doson in Macedon, 
 233-221 
 
 Athens joins Achaian League. 
 Gr 219 
 
 Roman Embassy to Greece, 248 
 
 War between Clcomenes 
 of Sparta and Achaian 
 League .... .... 227-222 
 
 Reforms of Clcomenes, 8 . 
 
 Gr 226-215 
 
 Sicily, Asia, Egypt, etc. 
 
 Ptolemy, Mac., in Egypt, 
 g 322-285 
 
 35 Antigonus, Mac., in Syria, 
 m 323-3°* 
 
 g Eumenes, Mac. , (Cappa- 
 
 U docia -323-315 
 
 U Sek-ucus, Mac., al Babylon, 
 
 321 & 312-280 
 
 Ptolemies in Egypt, Mac., 
 
 322-30 
 
 Ptolemy I. (Soter) takes 
 
 .Jerusalem 320 
 
 War of Antigonus and Eu- 
 
 menes 320-315 
 
 Agathocles, 8 . Gr., at 
 
 Syracuse 317-289 
 
 Agathocles defeated at Hi- 
 
 mera 310 
 
 Naval War at Cyprus and 
 
 Rhodes ...307-305 
 
 Battle of Irsus 301 
 
 SEi-EUCiDyE in Syria, Mac.. 
 
 312-64 
 
 Sandracottus' Indian Empire, 
 312-160 
 
 Rhodes powerful. -S'. ftp., 
 
 300-200 
 
 Kingdom of Pergamus, 283-133 
 
 Lysimachus defeated and 
 slain by Seleucus at Coru- 
 peuion ....281 
 
 Ptolemy II. (Philadelphus), 
 
 Mac 285-247 
 
 Gauls settled in Galatia 277 
 
 Great Wall op China? 
 
 Extension of Alexandrian 
 Commerce. 
 
 Egyptian Embassy to Rome, 
 
 Hiero II., 8 . Gr.,ot Syracuse. 
 
 2119-219 
 
 Rise of Partiiia. 
 
 The Arsacida;.. 256 to a.d. 226 
 Kingdom of Bactria. .254-12' 
 
 Dynasty of Tsin in Chinn, 
 
 250-206 
 
 Ptolemy III. (Euergetes), 
 Mac 247-222 
 
 Attalus I. (Pegnmus)... 241-197 
 “ defeats Galatians. .341 
 Sicily 1st Roman Province. .341 
 
 Gallia Cisalpinn a Roman 
 Province 222 
 

 k- 
 
 658 
 
 TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 
 
 TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE.-Continued. 
 
 Table IV. B. C. 323 to B. C. 146. From Death of Alexander to End of Third Punic War. By Periods of 
 
 Twenty-Five Years. 
 
 >75 
 
 Rome and Carthage. 
 
 HANNIBAL, P. C. (247-183) 
 
 Siege of Saguntum 219 
 
 2d Illyrian War 219 
 
 2d PUNIC WAR.' .218-202 
 
 Hannibal crosses the Alps 218 
 
 Ticinus and Trebia 218 
 
 Battle of Trasimene 217 
 
 Battle of Cann-e, P. C -216 
 
 Revolt of Capua 216-211 
 
 Fabius and Marcellus, Bom. Noia 215 
 
 Scipios defeated by Hasdrubal, P. C .. 212 
 
 Hannibal before Rome 211 
 
 B ittle of Metaurus. Nero. Bom 208 
 
 P. Cornelius Scipio in Africa, Bom.. 204 
 
 Syphax and Massinissa 204 
 
 Hannibal leaves Italy. 203 
 
 Battle of Zama, Bom 202 
 
 1st Macedonian W ar 200-197 
 
 T. Quintius Flaminius, Bom fl. 197 
 
 Hannibal with Antiochus, P. C 196 
 
 Ligurian Wars 200, 193, 181, etc. 
 
 War with Antiochus 191-190 
 
 H 2 tolian War 191-190 
 
 Deaths of Hannibal and Scipio 183 
 
 Encroachments of Massinissa 182-174 
 
 Villian Law 181 
 
 M. Porcius Cato, Bom (234-149) 
 
 T. Sempronius Gracchus in Spain, Bom., 
 
 179 
 
 Eumenes II. comes to Rome 172 
 
 2d Macedonian War 171-168 
 
 1,000 Achaeans in prison at Rome .167-151 
 
 L. oEmilius Paulus, Bom fl. 168 
 
 Romans intervene in Egypt... 161 
 
 Embassy of Carneades, Diogenes and 
 Critolaus --155 
 
 War in Spain 153-152 
 
 War with Andriscus 148 
 
 3 d PUNIC AVAR 149-146 
 
 ACHiAN WAH 147-146 
 
 P. Cornelius Scipio Minor, Bom fl. 146 
 
 DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE, 
 Bom., P. C ...146 
 
 Literature and Art. 
 
 Q. Fabius Pictor.. 
 Cincius Alimentus. 
 
 fl. 220 
 
 Apollonius Rhodius 238-188 
 
 PLAUTUS 253-184 
 
 Greek Works of Art. S. A., 
 brought to Rome 212 
 
 ENNIUS 239-169 
 
 CjEcilius Statius d. 168 
 
 Rise of Pharisees and 
 
 Sadducees. 
 
 Hermippus (Smyrna)? 
 
 Philinus of Agrigentum..fl. 200 
 
 Rosetta Stone, S'. A 197 
 
 Pacuvius 220-130 
 
 Afrantus fl. 175 
 
 Titinius. Trabea. Atilius. 
 
 Cato fl. 170 
 
 Carneades (Cyrene) . .213-129 
 POLYBIUS - ..207-122 
 
 TERENTIUS Afer (Carthage), 
 I 95 -1 59 
 
 Zeno (Historian) fl. 160 
 
 HIPPARCHUS fl. 160 
 
 Cnlpurnius Piso fl. 160 
 
 Sempronius Tuditanus..fl. 160 
 
 Cassius Hemina fl. 160 
 
 Cn. Gellius fl. 160 
 
 Aristarchus (Grammarian), 156 
 Apollodorus (Grammarian), 146 
 
 Greece. 
 
 Battle of Sellasia, Mac 221 
 
 Aratus and Antigonus take 
 Sparta 221 
 
 Philip V., Macedon, Mac., 
 
 221-179 
 
 Philip and Achaeans against 
 yEtolians 221-217 
 
 Philip allied with Hannibal, 
 Mac 216 
 
 Rome allied with yEtolians, 211 
 
 Philopcemen, Gr., General 
 of Achajan League. ..208-183 
 
 Peace with yEtolians and 
 Rome 205 
 
 Philip’s War with Rome, 
 
 200-197 
 
 Battle of CynoscephaLjE 
 Bom 197 
 
 Flaminius proclaims free- 
 dom of Greece at the 
 Isthmian Games 196 
 
 Philopoemen defeats Nabis 
 of Sparta 192 
 
 Sparta joins Achaean League, 
 192 
 
 Antiochus in Greece 192 
 
 Philopoemen abrogates Laws 
 of Lycurgus, Gr ...188 
 
 Lycortas General of Achae- 
 an League 183 
 
 Embassy of Callicrates 179 
 
 Perseus of Macedon, Mac., 
 
 179-168 
 
 War of Perseus and Rome, 
 
 171-168 
 
 Battle of Pydna, Bom., Mac., 
 168 
 
 Athenians attack Oropus. 
 
 “ fined by Rome.. 155 
 
 Andriscus in Macedonia 149 
 
 Achaean War with Rome, 
 
 147-146 
 
 Diaeus defeated at Leucopetra. 
 
 146 
 
 Destruction of Corinth, 
 Bom. (Mummius), Gr 146 
 
 Greece constituted a Roman 
 Province (Achaia) Bom.. 
 
 146-145 
 
 Sicily, Asia, Egypt, etc. 
 
 Antiochus the Great (Syria), 
 Mac.. 224-187 
 
 Ptolemy IV. (Philopater), 
 
 Mac 222-205 
 
 Hasdrubal assassinated in 
 Spain, P. C ...220 
 
 First Commercial War — 
 Byzantium and Rhodes. .214 
 
 Siege of Syracuse, Bom., 
 
 214-212 
 
 Battle of Anitorgis, P. C... 212 
 “ Elinga, Bom 208 
 
 Ptolemy V. , Mac 205-181 
 
 Attalus and Rhodians war 
 with Philip 203 
 
 Antiochus conquers Palestine, 
 203 
 
 Prusias of Bithynia 200-180 
 
 Eumenes II., Pergamus, 197-158 
 
 Dynasty of Han in China. 
 
 Battle of Magnesia, Bom.. 190 
 
 Hannibal at Court of Pru- 
 sias, P. C —.183 
 
 Ptolemy VI., Mac 181-146 
 
 Pharnaces of Pontus cedes 
 Paphlagonia to Rome 179 
 
 Antiochus Epiphanes, Mac., 
 
 176-165 
 
 War of Antiochus and Egypt, 
 172-168 
 
 Revolt of Jews under Mat 
 tathias 168 
 
 Asmon^eans in Judaea... 168-37 
 
 Cyrene and Libya separate 
 from Egypt 164 
 
 Judas Maccabeus 166-161 
 
 “ allies with Rome, Bom., 
 
 161 
 
 Bactrians in India 160 
 
 Jonathan Maccabeus, 161-143 
 
 Demetrius Soter and Alex- 
 ander Balas. 
 
 Judaea free with tribute to 
 Syria. 
 
 S' 
 
 “3 
 
TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 
 
 6 59 
 
 TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LI TERATURE.— Continued. 
 
 Table V. B. C. 146 to B. C. 0. From Destruction of Carthage to Christian Era. By Periods of Twenty-Five years. 
 
 i 5 o 
 
 Rome. 
 
 Lusitanian War 150-138 
 
 Death of Viriathus 140 
 
 Scipio Africanus (Minor) Censor. .142 
 
 Numantine War... >43-133 
 
 Scipio takes and destroys Numantia, 
 >33 
 
 Tiberius Gracchus (164-133) 
 
 Servile War in Sicily 134-132 
 
 Sempronian Laws... .133-123 
 
 Gaius Gracchus (154-121) 
 
 Latin Literature. 
 
 C. Ladius (phil.) 186 
 
 A. Postumius Albinus (hist.), 
 
 ft. 150 
 
 P. Sempronius Asellio (hist.), 
 
 fl. > 3 ° 
 
 Attins (dramatist) 170-76 
 
 The Gracchi (orators). 
 
 L. Cadi us Antipater (jurist), 
 
 11. 125 
 
 M. .'Kmilius Scaurus (orator) 
 
 163-90 
 
 Lucilius 148-103 
 
 Fulvius Flaccus and L. Drusus, 
 
 popular leaders 125 
 
 Death of C. Gracchus 121 
 
 Q. Metellus. leader of Senate. 
 Sumptuary Laws. 
 
 Cimbrian War 113-101 
 
 Jugurthine War m-106 
 
 Jugurtha captured ...i°6 
 
 2nd Servile War 103-101 
 
 Marius conquers Teutons, Aquae 
 Sextiae - 102 
 
 Marius conquers Cimbri, Vercellae.. 101 
 C. MARIUS (157-86), 6th Consulship, 
 
 L. App. Saturninus Tribune ioo 
 
 Glancia Prator ioo 
 
 Laws of Drusus. His death 91 
 
 Social or Marsic War 90-88 
 
 L. CORNELIUS SULLA (138-78) 
 
 “ expels Marius 88 
 
 First Civil War 88-86 
 
 First Mithridatic War 88-84 
 
 China at Rome 87-84 
 
 Return of Marins, 87; his death. . 86 
 
 “ Sulla 83 
 
 Second Civil War. Battle of Colline 
 
 Gate 82 
 
 Second Mithridatic War 83-81 
 
 Sulla Dictator. Proscriptions. ..81-79 
 Cornelian Laws. 
 
 War with Sertorius 78-72 
 
 Other Nations. 
 
 Other Literature and Art. 
 
 Polybius legislates for the 
 Acbaian Cities 145 
 
 Demetrius Nicator (Syria). 145-141 
 
 Simon Maccabeus 143-136 
 
 Jud.ha independent. 
 
 Macedon formally absorbed by 
 Rome. 
 
 Hyrcanus governs Judasa.. 136-106 
 in Parthia 131 
 
 Demetrius Nicator restored. 130-126 
 
 Attalus m. leaves Pergamus to 
 Rome 130 
 
 Hyrcanus subdues Idumea and 
 Samaria, and destroys Tem- 
 ple at Gcrizim 129 
 
 Antipater of Tarsus (Stoic). 
 
 Panaetius d. hi 
 
 Olycon (sculptor). 
 
 Blossius of Cum® (philoso- 
 pher). 
 
 Risk of the Essenes. 
 
 Antonius (orator) 143-7° 
 
 Crassus (orator) 140-91 
 
 P. Rutilius Rufus (historian), 
 
 fl. ICO 
 
 Q. Claudius Quadrigarius 
 (hist.), fl 100 
 
 Roman Province In Transal- 
 pine Gaul. 
 
 1 ‘ Colony sent to Cartilage, 
 
 123 
 
 Parthians subdue Bactria. 120 
 
 Ptolemy Lathyrus and Alexander, 
 
 1 17-81 
 
 First Northern Migrations. 
 
 Pharisees and Sadducecs politi- 
 cal factions, civil contests in 
 J udauu 
 
 MITHRIDATES (Pontus).. . 120-63 
 “ conquests on Black 
 
 112-110 
 
 Artemidorus (Ephesus), 11 . 100 
 
 C. Licinius Macer (historian) 
 
 fl. 80 
 
 Valerius Antias (historian), 
 
 fl. 80-70 
 
 L, Cornelius Sisenna (hist.) 
 
 1 18-67 
 
 Q. Roscius (actor) d. 62 
 
 M. TERENTJLTUS V ARRO.l 16 28 
 Hortcnsius (onitor). .. .111-50 
 
 LUCRETIUS 99-55 
 
 Sea . 
 
 takes Galatia 102 
 
 Ptolemy Apion leaves Cyrene to 
 Rome - 96 
 
 Sulla 011 the Euphrates 92 
 
 Revolt and Siege of Egyptian 
 Thebes - 86 
 
 Sulla, til course of ist Mitliri- 
 dutic War, tukes Athens ... ...86 
 
 Tic ranks (Armenia) 95-60 
 
 “ at War with Rome, 85-66 
 Pompey in Africa 81 
 
 Archins (poet) fl. >02 
 
 Hlerodes (fabulist) fl. 103 
 
 Antipater of Sidon (epigram- 
 matlst). 
 
 Asclcpiades (physician). 
 Library of Apclllcon to Romo. 
 
 Dionysius Thrax (gramma- 
 rian A- 80 
 
 Diotimus tlio Stoic... fl- 80 
 
 Ciceroni Alliens 79 
 
 r 
 
 ■w & 
 
 82 
 
66o 
 
 TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 
 
 TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 
 
 Table V. B. C. 156 to B.C. 0. From Destruction of Carthage to Christian Era. By Periods of Twenty-Five Years. 
 
 Rome. 
 
 Latin Literature. 
 
 Other Nations. 
 
 Other Literature and Art. 
 
 POM PE Y (106-48) 
 
 War with Spartacus 73-7 1 
 
 Third Mithridatic War 74-63 
 
 1st Consulship of Pompey and 
 
 Crassus 70 
 
 Pompey defeats the Pirates 67 
 
 Catiline's Conspiracies 65-63 
 
 Cicero Consul 63 
 
 M. Porcius Cato (95-46) 
 
 Pompey’s Great Triumph 61 
 
 Caesar in Spain 60 
 
 Coalition of Pompey, Caesar, Cras- 
 sus (First Triumvirate) 60 
 
 1st Consulship of Ciesar ,.59 
 
 Caesar in Gaul 58-51 
 
 “ in Britain 55-54 
 
 2d Consulship of Pompey and 
 Crassus 55 
 
 C. JULIUS C- 333 AR (100-44) 
 
 MARCUS ANTONIUS (83-30 
 
 Civil War 49-48 
 
 Battle of Pharsalia 48 
 
 “ Thapsus 46 
 
 “ Munda.. 45 
 
 Assassination of Caesar ---44 
 
 Second Triumvirate — Lepidus, 
 Antony, Octavianus 43 
 
 War with Brutus and Cassius. 
 
 Battle of Philippi 42 
 
 War of Perusia 41-40 
 
 Lepidus expelled from Triumvirate-36 
 War of Octavianus and Antony. 33-31 
 
 Battle of Actium 31 
 
 Gateway of Janus closed 29-25 
 
 OCTAVIANUS (AUGUSTUS), 
 
 (63-A. D. 14) 
 *• Emperor. .. 27-A. D. 14 
 
 Cantabrian Wars 25, 19, 13 
 
 Augustus invested with Tribunicia 
 potestas 23 
 
 Death of Marcellus 23 
 
 Embassy from India 20 
 
 Parthians restore standards 20 
 
 German War. Roman defeat under 
 Lollius 16 
 
 Tiberius and Drusus defeat the 
 Rhseti and Vindelici 15 
 
 Deaths of Agrippa and Lepidus 12 
 
 Augustus Pontifex Maximus 12 
 
 Drusus in Germany 12-9 
 
 Death of Drusus ) 9 
 
 Tiberius defeats Germans.. 8-6 
 
 Atticus 109-32 
 
 Laberius (mimes) 107-43 
 
 CICERO ...106-43 
 
 ‘ 1 against V erres 70 
 
 Lucullus founds Library 
 at Rome 63 
 
 Metellus (orator), Consul 60 
 
 CATULLUS 87 (or 84P54 
 
 P. Ter. Varro (poet) b. 82 
 
 Calvus (poet) 82-47 
 
 C.ESAR IOO-44 
 
 Sallust 86-34 
 
 Vitruvius (architect) 80-n 
 
 C. Asinius Pollio (orator 
 and poet) 76-4 
 
 Gallus (poet) 66-26 
 
 First Year of Julian Calendar. 
 
 45 
 
 \ IRGIL 70-19 
 
 Cornelius Nepos d. 14 
 
 Criticism of the best Attic 
 Literature at Rome 30 
 
 M.ecenas (b. 74-64) d. 8 
 
 HORACE 65-8 
 
 Mess ala 64-A. d. 9 
 
 Tibullus 54-18 
 
 Propertius 51-irt 
 
 M. A. Seneca (rhetorician), 
 
 60-A. D. 30 
 
 Labeo (jurist) fl. 18 
 
 LIVY 59-A. d. 17 
 
 OVID ..... 43-A. D. 17 
 
 Nicomedes III. leaves Bithyni a 
 
 to Rome 75 
 
 Victories of Lucullus in Asia, 
 
 74-66 
 
 Scythians expelled from India. 
 Hyrcanus II. and Aristobulus 
 at War. 
 
 Rome interferes in Palestine 
 
 (Antipater) 69 
 
 Antiochus Asiaticus dethroned 
 by Pompey. 
 
 Syria a Roman Province 65 
 
 Pompey subdues Phcenici a and 
 
 takes Jerusalem 63 
 
 Jud.ea tributary to Rome 63 
 
 Cyprus a Roman Province 57 
 
 End of the Seleucidse... 57 
 
 Conquest of Gaul — 
 
 Helvetii and Ariovistus de- 
 feated 58 
 
 TheBelgae and Nervii defeated 57 
 
 Treviri defeated ---54 
 
 Caesar crosses the Rhine... 55-53 
 Vercingetorix and Alesia 
 
 taken. 52 
 
 Gaul a Roman Province 50 
 
 Battle of Carrhie, in Parthia; 
 Crassus killed 53 
 
 Caesar in Pontus conquers 
 Pharnaces 47 
 
 Caesar in Africa 47 
 
 Cleopatra (69-30) 
 
 End of the Lagidae 43 
 
 Antony and Cleopatra on Cydnus, 
 4 2 
 
 Herod the Great in Judaea. 37-4 
 
 Agrippa crosses the Rhine 37 
 
 Antony fails in Parthia 36 
 
 “ invades Armenia 34 
 
 Egypt a Roman Province 30 
 
 Poseidonius (phil.) 86-62 
 
 Jinesidemus (phil.) fl. 80-50 
 
 Themison (physician) ..123-43 
 
 Dioscorides (Mosaics). 
 
 Indian Drama flourishes. 
 
 Timagenes the Syrian (hist.) 
 
 Tiridates seeks Roman Court ..25 
 
 Romans fail in Arabia 24 
 
 Spain finally subdued. 
 
 Agrippa in Asia 17 
 
 Cappadocia Roman 17 
 
 British Commerce with Italy 
 and Gaul. 
 
 NATIVITY- Jesus 4 
 
 Quintus Sextius (stoic). 
 
 Cratippus (phil.) 
 
 Library of Pergamus to 
 Alexandria 40 
 
 Pantheon dedicated by 
 Agrippa 27 
 
 Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 
 d. 18 
 
 Babrius (poet). 
 
 Diodorus Siculus (hist.) 
 
 fl. B.C. 8 
 
TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 66 1 
 
 TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 
 Table VI. A. D. I to A. D. 200. By Periods of Twenty Years. 
 
 do 
 
 Rome. 
 
 Other Nations. 
 
 Tiberius commands on the Rhine .....4 
 
 Destruction of Army under Varus by t tie* Germans.. -9 
 
 Death of Augustus .14 
 
 Tiberius C.esar 14-37 
 
 Germanicus in Germany 14-16 
 
 “ in the East 17 
 
 “ Death . 19 
 
 M. JSlius Sejanus dominant 20-31 
 
 Praetorian Camp at Rome 23 
 
 Tiberius retires to Capreae 26-37 
 
 Fall of Sejanus 3 1 
 
 Macro Prefect of Praetorians... 3 I- 37 
 
 Agrippina I. banished, 30; died 33 
 
 Caligula .-.37-41 
 
 “ Expedition to Gaul 39 
 
 “ Assassinated 4' 
 
 Claudius, Emperor 4 I_ 54 
 
 Conquest of Mauretania 42 
 
 Claudius invades Britain, 43, War 43 - 5 1 
 
 Execution of Messalina 48 
 
 Claudius marries Agrippina II. and adopts Nero 50 
 
 “ poisoned by “ 54 
 
 Nero, Emperor 54-68 
 
 Britannicus poisoned. Parthian and Armenian 
 Wars. Agripp.na murdered 59 
 
 Insurrection in Britain subdued 61 
 
 Rome Burnt. Christians persecuted 64 
 
 Conspiracy of Piso. Deaths of Lucan and Seneca.. 65 
 
 Nero at Olympic Games, 67; Death 68 
 
 Galba, 68; murdered in the Forum 69 
 
 Othd. Vitellius 69 
 
 Civil War. Otho kills himself. Vitellius killed. 
 
 Vespasian 70-78 
 
 Batavian, 69-70; British, 61-84 ; Jewish Wars 65-70 
 
 Gates of Janus closed; Philosophes expelled ...71 
 
 Reform of Treasury. 
 
 Titus, Emperor - 79- 81 
 
 Herculaneum and Pompeii destroyed 79 
 
 Judsea a Roman Province under Syria 6 
 
 Pannonia, Dalmatia, '.Rluetia and Noricum 
 Roman. 
 
 Chcrusci under Abminius defeat Romans 9 
 
 Artabanus (Parthia). 14-44 
 
 Germanicus in Parthia S...17 
 
 War between Arminius and Marbod .... 19 
 
 Pontius Pilate in Judaia ..25 
 
 CRUCIFIXION, according to Eusebius 
 Lactantius.. 30 
 
 Literature and Art. 
 
 Lycia a Roman Province 43 
 
 Judaea and Samaria directly Roman 44 
 
 Thrace “ “ 47 
 
 London founded by the Romans 47 
 
 Frisians subdued 47 
 
 Colonia Agrippina - 5 ° 
 
 Caractacus Prisoner 50 
 
 South Britain a Roman Province 51 
 
 Corbulo in Parthia 56-64 
 
 Ovid banished 9 
 
 PH.EDRUS fl. 14 
 
 Celsus (physician) 17 
 
 Velleius Paterculus (historian), 
 
 b.c. 19-31 
 
 Strabo (geographer) b.c, 66-22 
 
 Cicsius Bassus (poet) d. 79 
 
 Philo Jud.eus.. c. B.c. 20- ? 
 
 Valerius Maximus (hist.)? 
 
 Petronius Arbiter d. 66 
 
 Apollonius of Tyana b. b.c. 4- 
 
 Josepbus 37-97 
 
 Philo, Senior Ambassador to 
 Rome 40 
 
 SENECA 3-65 
 
 Lucan 39-65 
 
 Plinv Major 23-79 
 
 Annaeus Cornutus fl. 55 
 
 A. 1 ’ersius Flaccus 34-62 
 
 Columella (husbandry) “ 50 
 
 Pamphila (female historian). .“ 55 
 
 St. Paul at Malta 
 
 60? 
 
 Boadicea in Britain 
 
 61 
 
 Revolt of the Jews 
 
 
 Josephus governor of Galilee 
 
 66 
 
 Titus destroys Jerusalem 
 
 
 Civilis leads Batavian revolt 
 
 
 Agricola subdues Britain 
 
 78-85 
 
 Domitian 81-96 
 
 War against the Chatti 82 
 
 Agricola recalled to Rome — - 85 
 
 Unsuccessful Wars with Gcta;, Quadi and Marcomanni. 
 
 Insurrection of Antonins repressed 9 1 
 
 Persecution of Jews and Christians.... — ..... 95 
 
 Domitian killed 96 
 
 Nerva, Emperor 96-98 
 
 Relief of Taxes. Distribution of Lands. 
 
 Galoacus at Mons Grampius 84 
 
 Dercebal, King ol Geta:, defeats Romans. .86-90 
 
 Silius Italicus (poet) 25-100 
 
 Colosseum built 70-80 
 
 Papinius Statius (poet) 61-96 
 
 Snleiu8 Bassus (poet) fl. 75 
 
 Stoics banished by Vespasian. 
 
 The Lnocoon. 
 
 Amphitheatre of Vcronu. 
 
 Dcmonax the Cynic fl. 80 
 
 Paris (Pantomime), killed 83 
 
 Valerius Flaccus (poet) fl. 88 
 
 JUVENAL 47-130! 
 
 Martial 43 lo 4 
 
 Quintilian 42 118 
 
 TACITUS T 35->'7 
 
 Punt Minor 61-105 
 

 662 
 
 TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 
 
 TABLES OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 
 Table VI. A. D. I to A. D. 200. By Periods of Twenty Years. 
 
 160 
 
 180 
 
 Rome. 
 
 TRAJAN, Emperor 98-116 
 
 Free Constitution. Judicia Majestatis abolished. 
 Elective Power lo Comitia. Free Speech in Senate. 
 
 Trajan conquers the Daci 101-103, 103 
 
 Parthian War 114-116 
 
 Trajan takes Ctesiphon and sails down Tigris 116 
 
 3d Persecution of Christians. 
 
 Hadrian 117-138 
 
 Surrender of Eastern Conquests 117 
 
 4th Persecution of Christians... 118 
 
 Hadrian visits Gaul aud Britain... 120, 125, 130 
 
 Extension of Commerce throughout the Empire. • 
 
 Quadratics and Aristides at Athens present 1st 
 Apology for the Christians 125 
 
 ANTONIUS PIUS, Emperor 138-160 
 
 Faustina I fl. 138-141 
 
 Development of the Civil Law. 
 
 Establishment of Schools in Provinces. 
 
 Insurrections in Provinces quelled. 
 
 Christianity tolerated. 
 
 Dacia a Roman Province 106 
 
 Armenia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Roman 
 Provinces 114 
 
 Greatest Extent of Roman Empire. 
 
 Earthquake at Antioch 115 
 
 Piets invade Britain 117 
 
 Euphrates eastern boundary of the Empire.117 
 
 MARCUS AURELIUS sole Emperor.. 169-180 
 
 L. Vcrus associated in the Government 161-169 
 
 Faustina II fl. 145-175 
 
 Pestilence and Famines at Rome 161-166 
 
 Wars with Parthians 162-166 
 
 War with Marcomanni, Quadi, etc 167-174, 178-180 
 
 Greek Philosophers patronized. 
 
 Rebellion in Syria quelled i 7S 
 
 Christians in Gaul persecuted 17 , 
 
 Other Nations. 
 
 Hadrian’s Walls — Newcastle to Carlisle 121 
 
 “ “ Rhine to Danube 121 
 
 Hadrian rebuilds Jerusalem 130 
 
 Revolt of the Jews under Barcochab 132 
 
 Dispersion of the Jews 135 
 
 Prosperity in Britain under Hadrian. 
 
 Wall of Antoninus 138 
 
 Vallum Am onini in Britain 140 
 
 Rome applied to as an Arbiter by various 
 nations, 
 
 Verus in Armenia and Syria... 161-165 
 
 Seleucia demolished 165 
 
 Death of Verus 169 
 
 Advance of the Goths. Attacks on Dacia. 
 
 Commodus, Emperor 180-192 
 
 Commodus takes the name of Britannicus 184 
 
 Perennis Prefect of Praetorians 180-186 
 
 Oleander “ “ 186-189 
 
 Commodus as Gladiator. Killed. ... 
 
 Pertinax killed 
 
 Didias Julianus buys Empire. Killed i 93 
 
 Septimus Severus 194-210 
 
 Defeat and -Death of Niger 
 
 Battle of Lyons. Death of Albinus 
 
 Severus invades Britain, 208-209; dies at York 211 
 
 Successes of Marcellus in Britain 183 
 
 Byzantium taken by Severus 196 
 
 Parthians defeated by Romans... 198 
 
 End of Arsacidie 1 
 
 > 226 
 
 Beginning of Sassanidae (Persians).. 1 
 
 Literature and Art. 
 
 Forum Ulpianum; Column of 
 Trajan 103 
 
 Dion Chrysostom (rhetorician), 
 
 50-117 
 
 Plutarch, fl. 98 40-120 
 
 Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna. 96-166 
 
 Suetonius ...68- 
 
 Statues of Antinous (Hadrian’s 
 Page). 
 
 Epictetus fl. 117-138 
 
 Moles Hadriani (St. Angelo). 
 
 Edictum Perpetuum of Hadrian, 
 
 132 
 
 ^lian (the rhetorician). 
 
 Aulus Gellius (‘'Attic Nights”), 
 
 fl. 143 
 
 Justin Martyr 103-166 
 
 Herodes Atticus (antiquarian, 
 etc.) 104-180 
 
 Fronto (antiquarian) ..fl. 153, d. 166 
 
 Appian (hist.) fl. 147 
 
 Galen 130-200 
 
 Gaius (jurist) fl. 160 
 
 Appuleius — 130-174 
 
 Celsus (philosopher) fl. 160 
 
 Marcus Aurelius 121-180 
 
 Lucian - 120-200 
 
 Irenaeus (Bishop of Lyons). 120-200 
 
 Pausanias (geographer) fl. 174 
 
 Polycarp suffers martyrdom 166 
 
 P. vElius Aristides (rhetorician), 
 
 fl. 170 
 
 Ilermogenes (rhetorician) fl. 170 
 
 Statue of Aurelius. _ 180 
 
 Dion Cassius (hist.) 155- 
 
 Clement of Alexandria d. 213 
 
 Origen 185-253 
 
 Julius Paulus (jurist)? 
 
 Diogenes Laertius (biographer). 
 Temple of Sun at Baalbcc 197 
 
 ATHEN 2 EU 8 fl . 200 
 
 IIlPPOLYTUS d. 230 
 
 Tertullian.. 190-240 
 
 Sextus Empiricus (phil) fl. 225 
 
 "S 
 
TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 
 
 663 
 
 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 
 
 Table VII. From A. D. 200 to the Norman Conquest. By Centuries. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 History op Rome and Other 
 
 English and Scotch History. 
 
 English Literature. 
 
 Literature on the Continent 
 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Caracalla, Rom 
 
 
 Wall of Severus 210 
 
 
 Lucian died (poet) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Roman Citizenship extended to the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 whole Empire 
 
 
 
 
 Sextus Empiricus (phil.) ... 
 
 -fl. 225 
 
 
 Gallienus and the Tyrants, Rom., 
 
 
 Papinian at York. 
 
 Ulpian died (lawyer) 
 
 
 
 
 25,9-208 
 
 
 Roman authors read. 
 
 
 
 Aureiian, Rom 
 
 - 270-275 
 
 Dalriada? 
 
 
 Plotinus (phil.) 
 
 204-274 
 
 
 Diocletian, Rom 
 
 .284-305 
 
 
 
 Origen (theo.) 
 
 -d. 253 
 
 
 CONSTANTINE, Rom., (274-337 
 
 Carausius revolts ...286 
 
 
 
 
 3 o6 “337 
 
 
 Ossian? ? 
 
 Zenobia at Palmyra (queen) 
 
 270 
 
 300 
 
 Proclaims Christianity 
 
 3 11 
 
 Britain subdued 313 
 
 
 Council of Nicsea 
 
 
 
 JULIAN, Rom 
 
 . 361-363 
 
 
 
 Ulphilas. Moeso-Gothic Gospels, 
 
 
 Paganism restored . 
 
 361 
 
 Early Christian Martyrs. 
 
 
 Gregory Nazijnzen (theo.) 
 
 337 
 
 
 Great popular migrations begin 375 
 
 • 
 
 ---379 
 
 
 Theodosius I. Paganism 
 
 pro- 
 
 
 
 Ambrose of Milan (theo.).. 
 
 39 * 
 
 
 scribed. Rom 
 
 The Empire divided 
 
 .....391 
 
 Incursions of Piets and Scots. 
 
 
 St. Jerome (theo.) 
 
 340-420 
 
 
 394 
 
 
 
 
 ALARIC (Visigoth). 
 
 
 
 Pelagius. 
 
 St. Augustine (theo.) 
 
 354-430 
 
 400 
 
 At Rome.. 
 
 
 Romans leave Britain 409 
 
 St. Patrick. 
 
 Orosiu8. 
 
 
 
 Attila at Chalons, Fr 
 
 45 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Genscric at Rome 
 
 45 S 
 
 
 Tlie Traveler’s Song. 
 
 St. Martin of Tours. 
 
 
 
 Succession of Western Emperors 
 
 
 St. David. 
 
 Proclus (phil.) 
 
 .412-485 
 
 
 ends 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CLOVIS (Merovingian), Fr.. 
 
 
 Ilengistand Horsa.449 Kent. 
 
 Beowulf. 
 
 
 
 
 Becomes Christian 
 
 496 
 
 Ella, Saxons 477 Sussex. 
 
 The Culdees? 
 
 
 .470-526 
 
 
 Theodoric (Ostrogoth), at Ravenna. 493 
 
 Cerdic, “ 495 Wessex. 
 
 
 Boethius 
 
 500 
 
 
 
 Saxons 530 Essex. 
 
 Aneurin. 
 
 St. Benedict 
 
 -480-543 
 
 JUSTINIAN, Rom 
 
 
 King Arthur? 
 
 ( Anglia. 
 
 Merlin? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 iO 
 
 1 
 
 Belisarius 
 
 
 Angles 5504 Deira. 
 
 ( Mercia. 
 
 Taliesin. 
 
 Institutes and Pandects 
 
 of 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 Four Masters? (pub. 1634). 
 
 Justinian 
 
 
 (0 
 
 K 
 
 Chilperic. Brunebault, Fr 
 
 
 Fergus More II.? Scot. 
 
 History of Gildas 564? 
 
 Dares Phrygius. 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 Gregory of Tours ......... 
 
 
 
 Lombards in Italy 
 
 ..570-770 
 
 St. Columba 521-615 
 
 -544-550 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cussiodorus. 
 
 
 O 
 
 MAHOMET 
 
 (570-632) 
 
 Ethelbert (Kent) Christian. 598 
 
 St. Austin in England.. 597-610 
 
 Gregory I., Pope 
 
 
 600 
 
 The Hegira 
 
 
 Edwin (Northumbria), Rex 
 
 Fragment of Judith. 
 
 Laws of Rotharis. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Anglorum 627 
 
 C.KDMON? 
 
 
 
 
 No Romans after Heraclitus, Ilom., 
 
 
 
 The Koran published .... 
 
 
 
 
 6IO-64I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Devon subdued 647 
 
 
 
 
 
 n M TT l.i. | •_ /t nr ,l 
 
 r,?,j 
 
 
 Lawn of Ina. 
 
 Omar at Alexandria 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 MOORS in Spain 
 
 
 Ina of Wessex 689-726 
 
 Aidhelm 650-710 
 
 
 
 
3 
 
 664 
 
 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 
 
 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 
 Table VII. From A. D 200 to the Norman Conquest. By Centuries. 
 
 History of Rome and Other 
 Countries. 
 
 Death of Roderick. Sp 711 
 
 Charles Martel at Tours, Fr. 732 
 
 Pepin the Short, Fr 752-768 
 
 Death of St. Boniface 755 
 
 Roland at Roncesvalles 778 
 
 Irene (Constantinople) 780-803 
 
 Haroun-al-Raschid 780-808 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE, (742-814) 771-814 
 
 English and Scotch History 
 
 Cornwall subdued. 
 
 1 st Landing of Danes 786 
 
 Offa of Mercia 790 
 
 English Literature. 
 
 Bede. 
 
 .672-735 
 
 Cynwulf , 
 
 .715-780 
 
 Alcuin 735-804 
 
 Literature on the Continent. 
 
 Schools at Fulda and St. Gall, 
 Ireland. 
 
 Benedict d’Aniana 750-821 
 
 Saracens in Sicily. 
 
 Treaty of Verdun (division of 
 Empire) 844 
 
 Rolf Ganger in Neustria, Scan. 841-876 
 
 NORMANS in France. 
 
 Egbert (Wessex) 827-836 
 
 Kenneth II., Scot. Piets 
 and Scots united. 
 
 2d Danes. Ragnar Lodbrog. 
 
 866 
 
 ALFRED .... ... ..871-901 
 
 History of Nennius? 
 
 Joannes Scotus ERIGENA..875 
 
 Brelion Law in Ireland. 
 
 Alfred's Translations 
 
 Eginhard 840 
 
 Otfried’s Krist c. 870 
 
 Heliand 870 
 
 Archbishop Hincmar 882 
 
 Old High German Alliterative 
 Poetrv. 
 
 2 « 
 <2 
 
 Magyar invasions. 
 
 Henry I. (The Fowler), Ger.. 913 
 
 Otho the Great, Ger 936 
 
 Hugh Capet, Fr 987 
 
 DANES in England. 
 
 Athelstane 925 
 
 Battle of Brunanburg 937 
 
 Edwy (contest with Church), 
 955 
 
 Malcolm I., Scot. Strath- 
 clyde 944-9 52 
 
 3d Danes. Sweyn. 
 
 CANUTE, Scan 1014 
 
 Asser’s Life of Alfred 910 
 
 War Poems; Brunanburgh, 
 Maldon. 
 
 St. Dunstan. 
 
 .Elfric’s Homilies 995 
 
 The Grave? 
 
 Gerbert. Silvester II., Pope, 
 
 999-1003 
 
 Hroswitha c. 980 
 
 Schools of Cordova and Seville, 
 Spain. 
 
 Avicenna 980-1037 
 
 The Cid (Ruy Diaz) in Spain, 
 
 (1040-1099) 
 
 Malcolm II., Scot 1003-1033 
 
 Edward the Confessor. 1042 
 
 Macbeth defeated and slain, 
 
 Scot 1058 
 
 Malcolm III. Canmore, 
 
 Scot — ...... ......1058 
 
 HAROLD 1065 
 
 “ defeats Norwegians. 1066 
 
 Annals of Innisfallen: 
 
 Annals of Tighernach? 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 
 
 875-1154 
 
 Translation of Psalms at St. 
 Gall. 
 
 Icelandic Sagas. 
 
 Lambert of nerzfeld 1060 
 
TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 
 
 66 
 
 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE. — Continued. 
 Table VIII. From Conquest to Middle of Fourteenth Century. By Periods of Fifty Years. 
 
 Continental History. 
 
 English and Scotch History. 
 
 English Literature. 
 
 Literature and Art on the 
 Continent. 
 
 1050 
 
 HILDEBRAND, or Gregory 
 VII., Pp 1073 
 
 Norman Kingdom of the Two 
 Sicilies 1071 
 
 Comneni at Constantinople, Rom. 
 
 Henry IV 1066-1106 
 
 Urban II., Pp 1088 
 
 First Crusade 1095-1099 
 
 THE CRUSADES 1095-1270 
 
 WILLIAM I., The Conqueror, 
 
 1066-1087 
 
 Battle of Hastings 1066 
 
 Edgar Atheling to Scotland... 1068 
 
 Hereward in the Isle of Ely... 1071 
 
 Conquest of England completed, 
 1073 
 
 Domesday Book 1086 
 
 William II., Rufus 1087-1100 
 
 Henry I.. — 1100-1135 
 
 Lanfranc.. ... fl. 1070-1089 
 
 Anselm fl. 1089-1109 
 
 Chanson (le Roland. 
 
 Bruno founds Carthusians.. 1084 
 
 Scholasticism. 
 
 Roscelin. 
 
 Peter Lombard. 
 
 Peter the Hermit. 
 
 Verse Edda compiled. 
 
 Orders of Knights— 
 
 Of St. John, or Rhodes 1048 
 
 The Templars 1118 
 
 Teutonic Order 1190 
 
 Persecution of Jews. 
 
 Hohenstaufen Dynasty, Ger., 
 
 1138-1254 
 
 Guelfs and Ghibellines, It 1140 
 
 Secon d Crusade 1147-1149 
 
 SALADIN (1137-1:93) 
 
 Conquest of Normandy. .1101-H07 
 
 Alexander I., Scot 1:07-1124 
 
 Shipwreck of Prince William. :i2o 
 
 David I., Scot 1:24-1:53 
 
 Stephen (Blois) and Matilda, 
 
 U35-”54 
 
 Battle of the Standard ..1138 
 
 Henry II. (Plantagenet). 1:54-1 189 
 
 Ordericus Vitalis :07s-: 142 
 
 William of Malmesbury, 
 
 1095-: 142 
 
 Euclid translated 1 1 16 
 
 Play of St. Catherine at 
 Dunstable 1:19 
 
 Hilarius :::o-::6o 
 
 Geoffrey Gaimar. 
 
 Wace’s Brut’ d’Angleterre. 
 
 FREDERICK I. (Barbarossa), 
 Ger n 5 J 
 
 Conquest of Ireland 1:56 
 
 Malcolm IV., Scot 1153-1165 
 
 Constitutions of Clarendon ...7:54 
 
 Adrian IV., Pp i’54 
 
 Arnold of Brescia 1 : 32-1 1 55 
 
 Battle of Legnano 117^ j Eleanor and Rosamund 
 
 Dandolo at Venice 1203 
 
 Philip H., Augustus, Fr ::8o 
 
 Third Crusade. 1190-1192 
 
 Innocent III., Pp ”9 8 
 
 William the Lion, Scot . , 
 
 1165-1214 
 
 Murder of Bucket 1170 
 
 Assizes of Clarendon and 
 Northampton 1166-1 1 76 
 
 Glanvil, Chief Justice 1180 
 
 Richard* I 1189-1194 
 
 Massacre of Jews. 
 
 John 1 1199-1216 
 
 Arthurian Legends, 
 
 University of Oxford 1190 
 
 Giraldus Cambrensis. 1147-1216 
 Layamon’s Brut. 
 
 Luc de Gast 1154-1189 
 
 John of Salisbury 1130-1180 
 
 Walter Mupcs 1143-1200 
 
 Josephus Iscanua c. 1190 
 
 Anglo-Norman Ballads. 
 
 William of Guienne. 1st Trou- 
 badour. 
 
 Universities. 
 
 University of Bologna... 1116 
 
 Study of Civil Law. 
 
 Pandects at Amalfi ......1137 
 
 Abelard ... .. ......1079-1142 
 
 Anna Comnena 1083-1148 
 
 Reineke Fuchs f 
 St. Bernard 
 
 Study of Canon Law. 
 
 Aveiiroes 1120- 
 
 Nibelunoen Lied. 
 
 University of Paris 1169 
 
 Joachim of Flore 1130-1203 
 
 Troubadours and Minne- 
 singers. 
 
 Vidal. Bertrand de Born. 
 
 Waller von-iler Vogclwoldo. 
 
 Poem of Tiik Cid. 
 
 Gndrun. 
 
 St. Dominic 1170-1321 
 
 Ln 
 
666 
 
 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 
 
 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 
 Table VIII. From Conquest to Middle of Fourteenth Century. By Periods of Fifty Years. 
 
 Continental History. 
 
 Fourth Crusade 12&0-1204 
 
 Attack on Constantinople 1204 
 
 Latin Empire 1204-1261 
 
 Albigensian Crusade 1207-1229 
 
 Battle of Bovines, Fr 1214 
 
 FREDERICK II., Ger. (1194-1250) 
 12x2 
 
 Fifth Crusade 1216-1220 
 
 Frederick King of Jerusalem .. 1229 
 
 Alphonso the Wise in Spain, 
 
 1226-64 
 
 Gregory IX., Pp 1227 
 
 Retreat of Moors to Granada .1240 
 Sixth Crusade 1249-1250 
 
 LOUIS IX., Fr 1226-1270 
 
 Richard of Cornwall, Eng., 
 Emperor of Germany.. 1256-1271 
 
 End of Caliphate at Bagdad. ..1258 
 
 Seventh Crusade 1270 
 
 Rudolf of Hapsburg, Ger. 1273-1292 
 
 Genoa powerful under Doria, 
 
 1270-1283 
 
 Fra Dolcino 1275-1304 
 
 Sicilian Vespers 1282 
 
 War between Genoa and Pisa. 1284 
 
 Ugolino 1288 
 
 Colonnas and Orsinis at Rome. 
 BONIFACE VIII., Pp.. 1294-1303 
 Swiss League 1295 
 
 Charles of Valois in Italy 1301 
 
 Philip IV., The Fair, Fr., 
 
 1285-1314 
 
 Clement V. at Avignon, Pp... 1305 
 
 Fall of the Templars 1305-1310 
 
 Henry VII. Luxemburg, Ger., 
 
 1308-1313 
 
 Rutli (William Tell?) 1307 
 
 Morgarten 1315 
 
 Election to Empire declared in- 
 dependent of Papacy 1338 
 
 Louis the Bavarian, 6-'er. 1314-1347 
 
 Philip VI. Valois, Fr. 1328-1350 
 
 Dugueeclin (1314-1330) 
 
 English and Scotch History. 
 
 Stephen Langton and Barons. 
 
 Interdict removed 1213 
 
 Magna Charta 1215 
 
 “ confirmed and renewed 
 
 thir: y times.. 1216-1608 
 
 Alexander II., Scot 1214-1249 
 
 Henry III ....1216-1272 
 
 Fall of Hubert de Burgh 1232 
 
 Unsuccessful Wars in France. 
 
 Provisions of Oxford 1259 
 
 Alexander III., Scot... 1249-1286 
 
 Battle of Largs 1263 
 
 Barons’ War 1262-1266 
 
 De Montfort’s Parliament 1264 
 
 Battle of Lewes 1264 
 
 Battle of Evesham 1265 
 
 EDWARD I ...1272-1307 
 
 Statute of Mortmain 1279 
 
 Wales subdued ...1283 
 
 Margaret and Baliol, Scot., 
 
 1286-1292 
 
 William Wallace ..fl. 1296-1298 
 Expulsion of Jews. 
 
 Battle of Falkirk 1298 
 
 Edward II 1^07-1^27 
 
 The Lords Ordainers 1310 
 
 ROBERT I. (BRUCE), Scot., 
 
 1306-1329 
 
 Battle of Bannockburn, Scot.. 1314 
 
 EDWARD III... 1327-1377 
 
 David II., Scot 1329-1371 
 
 Battle of Halidon Hill 1333 
 
 Battle of Cressy 1346 
 
 Battle of Neville’s Cross 1346 
 
 Calais taken 1347 
 
 English Literature. 
 
 Robert Grostete 1175-1253 
 
 Story of Genesis and Exodus. 
 The Ormulum? 
 
 “Owl and Nightingale.” 
 University of Cambridge.. 1231 
 “Ancren Riwle.” 
 
 Matthew Paris 1222-1275 
 
 Romances 
 
 Thomas of Erceldoune, the 
 Rhymer. 
 
 Michael Seot d. 1293 
 
 ROGER BACON 1215-1292 
 
 Telescope, Gunpowder, “Opus 
 Majus.” 
 
 Henry Bracton c. 1260 
 
 Surtees’ Psalter. 
 
 Peter Langtoft. 
 
 Robert of Gloucester. ..c. 1280 
 
 Duns Scotus 1265-1308 
 
 “ Land of Cockayne.” 
 
 Robert (Manning) of Brunne. 
 
 R. Higden, “ Polychronicon,” 
 1328 
 
 “Cursor Mundi”. 1320 
 
 Humpole’s “ Prick of Con- 
 science.” 
 
 William Occam d. 1347 
 
 Chester Plays. 
 
 Fordun’s “ Scotichronicon,” 
 1350 
 
 Laurence Minot .....1300-1352 
 Sir John Mandeville. 1300-1370 
 
 Literature and Art on the 
 Continent. 
 
 University of Salamanca 1200 
 
 Gottfried of Strasburg’s Tristran. 
 Raymond in Languedoc, 
 
 Albert of Stade’s Troilus. 
 
 The Inquisition begun 1229 
 
 St Francis of Assisi 1182-1230 
 
 Mendicant Orders. 
 
 Sordello fl. 1260 
 
 Chretien de Troyes 1140-1227 
 
 Snorro Sturlasson 1178-1241 
 
 Albertus Magnus 1193-1280 
 
 Trojumanna Saga. 
 
 Prose Edda 1241 
 
 William of Lorris. 
 
 Roman de la Rose. 
 
 Earliest Plays in Spain and 
 National Lyrics. 
 
 Benoit de St. More. 
 
 Thomas Aquinas 1227-1274 
 
 ClMABUE, Pt ....1240-1308 
 
 Tableau of Marie of France. 
 
 Raymond Lully 1235-1315 
 
 Marco Polo 1255-1325 
 
 Gesta Romanorum. Berchorius. 
 
 Guido de Columns 1287 
 
 Nicholas TV., Pope 1288 
 
 Giotto, Pt ...... 1276-1337 
 
 DANTE 1265-1321 
 
 Meister Eckhard d. 1329 
 
 Jean de Meun. 
 
 J. Tauler 1290-1361 
 
 Theologia Germanica. 
 
 Orcagna, Pt 1320-1389 
 
 PETRARCH 1304-1374 
 
 University of Prague 1348 
 
 Gonsalez de Bercio. 
 

 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE. 
 
 667 
 
 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 
 Table IX. From Middle of Fourteenth to End of Fifteenth Century. By Periods of Twenty-Five years. 
 
 Continental History. 
 
 RlENZI 1343-1354 
 
 Marino Faliero at Venice 1352 
 
 John II., Fr 1350-1364 
 
 Aurea Bulla 1356 
 
 The Jacquerie in France 1358 
 
 Hanseatic League 1140-1723 
 
 The Free Companies. 
 
 I Visconti, Milan 
 
 Tyrants in Italy... Scala, Verona 
 { Este, Ferrara 
 
 Charles V., Fr 1364-1380 
 
 Gregory XI. at Rome, Pp 1370 
 
 The Schism. — 1378-1439 
 
 Charles VI., Fr 1380-1422 
 
 Joan of Naples executed 1382 
 
 Decline of Genoa. 
 
 Philip Van Artevelde, Dtch 1382 
 
 Austro-Swiss War 1385-1470 
 
 Winkelried at Sempach 1386 
 
 Margaret of Norway 1389 
 
 Union of Calmar 1397 
 
 Florence powerful. 
 
 Council of Pisa 1409 
 
 Sigismund, Emperor, Oer 1410 
 
 Council of Constance... 1414-1418 
 
 Pope John XXIII. deposed, /71..1415 
 
 Executions of IIuss and Jerome ..1415 
 
 Frederick of Hohenzollern, Mar- 
 grave of Brandenburg, I ‘run 1417 
 
 Hussite Wur, Ziska 142.-1436 
 
 Charles VII., Fr.. 1422-1462 
 
 English and Scotch History. 
 
 War with Spain, Scotland and 
 France. 
 
 The Black Death ..1349, 1361, 1369 
 Battle of Poitiers 1356 
 
 Peace of Bretigny 1360 
 
 Law Pleadings in English 1362 
 
 Robert II. (Stuart), Scot., 
 
 1371-1390 
 
 Death of the Black Prince 1376 
 
 Richard II i377-‘399 
 
 W at Tyler’s Insurrection 1381 
 
 John of Gaunt in Spain... 1386 
 
 Raid of Otterburne 1388 
 
 Robert HI., Scot 1390-1406 
 
 Priemunire Statute 1393 
 
 English Literature. 
 
 Langland’s “Piers Plow- 
 man ” 1369 
 
 Chaucer’s “ Romaunt of 
 Rose.” 
 
 Wyclipfe 1324-1384 
 
 Barbour 1316-1396 
 
 Gower 1325-1408 
 
 CHAUCER d. 1400 
 
 Henry IV. (Bolingbroke), 
 
 1399-1413 
 
 Percy Rebellion. Shrewsbury, 
 
 1403 
 
 Prince James of Scotland cup- 
 tured 1405 
 
 Albany, Regent, Scot 1406-1423 
 
 Battle of Ilarlaw 1 4 1 * 
 
 HENRY V 1388-1422 
 
 Persecution of the Lollards. 
 
 Battle of Agincourt 1415 
 
 Cobbam burnt ‘4*7 
 
 Treaty of Troyes <420 
 
 Henry VI 1422-1461 
 
 JAMES I. reigns, Scot. 
 
 “ Legend of Good Women,” 
 
 after 1382 
 
 Trevisa fl. 1387 
 
 Andrew Wyntoun... 1350-1420 
 
 The Canterbury Tales,” 
 1390-1398 
 
 Wakefield and Towneley 
 Mysteries. 
 
 University of St. Andrews. 141 
 
 James I., " King’s Qualr.” 
 
 Uccleve 1370-M54 
 
 Literature and Art on the 
 Continent. 
 
 BOCCACCIO 1313-1375 
 
 Gerhard Groot 1340-1380 
 
 Brethren of Common Lot, 
 at Deventer. 
 
 Pedro Lopez Ayala . 1332-1407 
 
 Froissart 1337-^01 
 
 Poggia and Laurentius Valla. 
 
 Fra Angelico, Pf... 1387-1448 
 
 Amadis d« Gaul 1390 
 
 Ghiberti, A. and S, 
 
 1381-1455 
 
 Jeun Gerson 1363-1425 
 
 Embassy of Ray Gonzalez 
 to Tamerlane. 
 
 H. Van Eyck, Pt 1360-1426 
 
 J. Van Eyck, Pt — 1390-144' 
 
 Masaccio, Pt 1402-1428 
 
 Thomas a Kempls... 1380-147' 
 Donatello, A. and .9. .1383 146* 
 
 
 83 
 
668 
 
 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.-Continued. 
 
 Table IX. From Middle of Fourteenth to End of Fifteenth Century. By Periods of Twenty-Five Years. 
 
 Continental History. 
 
 Joan op Arc, Fr 1429-1431 
 
 French recover Paris 1436 
 
 Council of Basle 1433-1449 
 
 Florence 1439 
 
 Alphonso V. at Aragon, Sp 1449 
 
 The Sforzas at Milan 1449 
 
 Hapsburg Emperors, Get. . 1438 et seq. 
 The Medici at Florence, 1430 et seq. 
 Nicholas V. Single Pope 1447-1454 
 
 Mahomet II. 
 
 1500 
 
 Constantinople taken 1453 
 
 Belgrade resists the Turku. 
 
 Hungary powerful. 
 
 The Foscari at Venice. 
 
 Pius II. (.Eneas Sylvius), Pp 1458 
 
 LOUIS XI., Fr 1461-1483 
 
 Wars with Charles the Bold. 
 
 Poland powerful. 
 
 Battle of Murten 1476 
 
 Duchy of Burgundy merged in 
 France. 
 
 Death of Charles the Bold 1477 
 
 Maximilian’s Marriage with Mury.1477 
 
 FERDINAND AND ISABELLA, Sp., 
 
 1479-1512 
 
 Prince Henry of Portugal. 
 
 Charles VIII., Fr 1483-1498 
 
 Provence joined to France 1487 
 
 Charles marries Anne of Brittany. 1491 
 
 “ invades Italy 1494 
 
 B. Diaz rounds C. of Good Hope.. i486 
 
 The Moors driven from Spain 1491 
 
 ( OLUMBUS (*436-1505) 1492 
 
 Alexander VI., Pp I49f 
 
 Maximilian I., Ger 1493 
 
 Swiss Confederacy Independent. .1499. 
 
 Louis XII., Fr 1493-1515 
 
 Vasco da Gama, Port 1497- 
 
 English and Scotch History. 
 
 War between Scotland and 
 England 1436 
 
 James II., Scot 1437-1460 
 
 Duke of Gloucester murdered. 1447 
 
 Jack Cade’s Insurrection 1450 
 
 Civil Wars of the Roses, 
 
 *452-1485 
 
 English expelled from France. 1453 
 Battle of St. Albans 1455 
 
 James III., Scot 1460-1488 
 
 Edward IV 1461-1483 
 
 Warwick, King-maker 1471 
 
 Battleof Tewkesbury. 1471 
 
 Queen Margaret at the Court of 
 R6n6 of Provence 1475 
 
 Duke of Clarence murdered. ..1478 
 
 Edward V —1483 
 
 RICHARD HI 1483-1485 
 
 Rattle of Bosworth Field 148s 
 
 HENRY VII. (Tudor)... 1 485-1 509 
 
 James IV., Scot 1488-1513 
 
 Poynings’ Act in Ireland 1495 
 
 Sebastian Cabot 1497 
 
 English Literature. 
 
 Humphrey, Duke of Glou- 
 cester 1430 
 
 Lydgate 1375-1461? 
 
 Chevy Chase, and 
 Early English Ballads. 
 
 Thomas of Walsingliam..i44o 
 
 Mysteries and Moralities. 
 
 University of Glasgow 1451 
 
 Peacock’s “ Repressor,”.. 1449 
 
 Littleton 1481 
 
 Sir John Fortescue ..1475-1480 
 Sir Thomas Malory.. 1433-1475 
 
 The Morte d’Arthur. 
 
 The Coventry Mysteries . . 1468 
 
 Caxton’s Press in England, 
 1474 
 
 The Paston Letters. .1425-1506 
 Blind Harry’s Wallace. 
 
 Revival of Letters, Classical 
 Studies and Theology. 
 Grocyr, Colet, Warham, 
 More, etc. 
 
 Erasmus in England 1497 
 
 II. Boyce 1470-1536 
 
 DUNBAR 1450-1530 
 
 Douglas — 1474-1 522 
 
 Ilenryson fl. 1490-1500 
 
 Literature and Art on the 
 Continent. 
 
 University of Florence 1438 
 
 Fra Filippo Lippi, Pt., 
 
 1412-1469 
 
 Culture in Aragon and the 
 Sicilies. 
 
 Della Robbia, A. and S., 
 
 1400-1482 
 
 INVENTION OF PRINTING, 
 *445 
 
 Cozzoli, Pt 1408-1478 
 
 John of Goch ... 1451 
 
 Memling, Pt 1425-1495 
 
 Giovanni Bellini, Pt., 
 
 1426-1516 
 
 John Wessel — 1420-1459 
 
 The Mazarin Bible 1453 
 
 Francois Villon 1431- 
 
 De Imitations 1471 
 
 Boiardo 1434-1494 
 
 Philip de Comines 1445-1509 
 
 University of Upsala 1476 
 
 Pico della Mirandola. 1463-1494 
 
 Mabuse, Pt 1499-1562 
 
 Francia, Pt ......1450-1518 
 
 Ghirlandajo, Pt 1449-1498 
 
 LORENZO DE MEDICI, 
 
 fl. 1470-1492 
 Sodoma, Pt 1479-1554 
 
 Pulci fl. 1480 
 
 Ficinus, Politian. 
 
 Perugino, Pt 1446-1521 
 
 Arabian Nights. 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci, PI..R. 1490 
 
 Sebastian Brandt, “ Nar- 
 renschiff ” 1494 
 
 Savonarola ........fl. 1494-1508 
 
 Giorgione, Pt 1477-1511 
 
 Albrecht Durer, ^-1471-1528 
 RAPHAEL, Pt 1482-1520 
 
 MICHAEL ANGELO, A. 
 and S ...1473-1456 
 
TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE. — Continued. 669 
 
 Table X. The Sixteenth Century. In Decades. 
 
 1510 
 
 1520 
 
 > 53 ° 
 
 Continental History 
 
 JULIUS II., Pp I503 
 
 League of Cambray. Pope. Prance, 
 and Empire against Venice. 
 
 Portugal powerful in East. 
 
 Spain conquers Cuba. 
 
 Don Manuel of Portugal, (1469-1521) 
 
 LEO X . , Pp 1513 
 
 Vasco Nunez at Darien, Port.. 1513 
 
 Bayard 1524 
 
 Francis, I., Fr 1515 
 
 Magellan (navigator) . 
 
 .1470-1521 
 
 Adrian VI., Pp 1522 
 
 ( 1516 Spain. 
 
 CHARLES V. Empire. 
 
 t 1530 Italy. 
 
 Gustavus Vasa, Port 1523 
 
 Peasants' War, Ger 1525 
 
 REFORMATION in Germany, 
 
 I 5 , 9 ~ 3 ° 
 
 Confession of Augsburg 1530 
 
 Cortez in Mexico 1520 
 
 Clement VII., Pp 1523 
 
 Battle of Pavia, Sp.. 1525 
 
 Constable Bourbon at Rome.. 1528 
 Turks before Vienna 1529 
 
 Pizarro in Peru, Sp 1531 
 
 Brittany annexed to France. . . 1532 
 
 Ivan I., Russian Czar 1533 
 
 Anabaptist at Munster 1534 
 
 Calvin at Geneva 1532-1535 
 
 Foundation of JESUIT Order, 1534 
 
 Council of Trent >545-1563 
 
 Smalcaldic War 1547 
 
 Henry II., Fr 1547 
 
 English and Scotch History. 
 
 Perkin Warbeck executed 1499 
 
 James IV. of Scotland marries 
 Margaret, daughter of Henry 
 V II 1 502 
 
 Arthur, Prince of Wales, mar- 
 ries Catherine of Aragon 1501 
 
 Henry VIII 1509-1547 
 
 Battle of Flodden 1513 
 
 War with France... 1513 
 
 Battle of Spurs 1513 
 
 Margaret, Regent of Scotland. 
 
 WOLSEY (1471-1530) 
 
 “ Cardinal 1515 
 
 Field of Cloth of Gold 1520 
 
 Futile Scotch invasion of Eng- 
 land 1522 
 
 Sir Thomas More (1480-1535) 
 
 Chancellor 1529 
 
 James V. reigns, Scot 1528-1542 
 
 Archbishop Cranmer pro- 
 nounces divorce 1533 
 
 REFORMATION in England. 
 
 Act of Supremacy 1534 
 
 Cromwell, Vicar General 1535 
 
 Suppression of Monasteries. 
 
 > 535->536 
 
 Execution of More 1535 
 
 Pilgrimage of Grace 1537 
 
 The Six Articles 1539 
 
 Execution of Cromwell 1540 
 
 Solway Moss 1542 
 
 Mary nominally succeeds... .1542 
 
 Deuth of Beaton, Scot 1546 
 
 Edward VI > 547->553 
 
 Somerset, Protector ■ 547- , 549 
 
 Economic distress. 
 
 Battle of Pinkey >547 
 
 English Literature. 
 
 Stephen Hawes. 1483-1512 
 
 “Pastime of Pleasure”. .1506 
 “Nut Browne Maid.” 
 
 Skelton 1460-1528 
 
 Scholarship. 
 
 Linacre, Smith, and Cheke. 
 Ballads and Moralities. 
 
 More’s “Richard III.’ 
 
 First English Prose History. 
 
 “ Utopia 1516 
 
 First Original Romance. 
 
 Barclay (Ship of Fools, Satire 
 and Eclogues) 1490-1535 
 
 Berner's Froissart 1523 
 
 Tyndale's New Testa- 
 ment 1526 
 
 Wyatt — 1503-1542 
 
 Surrey > 5 > 7 ->S 47 
 
 Literature and Art on the 
 Continent. 
 
 ERASMUS 1467-1536 
 
 Berni 1490-1536 
 
 Bembo 1470-1547 
 
 Reuchlin 1455-1522 
 
 ARIOSTO 14-4-1533 
 
 Andrea del Sarto, Pt 1488-1530 
 
 Voyages of Amerigo Vespucci, 1507 
 TITIAN, Pt i 477->576 
 
 Machiavelli 1469-1527 
 
 CORREGGIO, Pt > 493-<534 
 
 Mantuan rs>3 
 
 Pa racelsus > 493 - 1 54 ■ 
 
 “Epistolse Obscurorum Viro- 
 
 rum”— >5'6 
 
 C. Agrippa and Cardan. 
 
 Ulrich von Hutten 1488-1523 
 
 G. Agricola... >494“>565 
 
 LUTHER ..1483-1546 
 
 Sir David Lynds ay. 1490- 1556 
 
 Elliot’s “Governor” 1531 
 
 Coverdalk’s Bible 1535 
 
 Latimer 1472-1555 
 
 Leland — 1552 
 
 Cranmer. Anglican Liturgy. 
 
 Hall’s Chronicles 1548 
 
 Haywood's Interludes. 
 Akciiam, “Toxophllus " .. 1 545 
 
 • “Schoolmaster”. ..1563 
 
 U. Crowley d. 1588 
 
 Gascoigne >J 4°*'577 
 
 Rabelais W9°->553 
 
 Zwingle «484 > 53 l 
 
 Melancthon >497->S' 8 
 
 Holbein. Pt i49 8 ->559 
 
 COPERNICUS > 473->543 
 
 Palissy, A. and S 1499-1589 
 
 Boscan (Spain)... 
 
 Hans Sachs (Germany). 
 
 . .11. 1530 
 
 Jardin des Pluntes. 
 
 Vittoria Colonna 1490-1547 
 
 Margueretof Navarre ...1492-1558 
 
 CALVIN , 5 ° 9-«564 
 
 J. Everts (Joannes Secundus), 
 
 1511-1536 
 
 Vesalius. first Scientific Anato- 
 mist. 
 
 Ignatius Loyola. 1491-1550 
 
 Francis Xavier 1506-1552 
 
 St. C. Borromco >538-1576 
 
 Mendoza (Hist, of Moors), 
 
 >5°3->J75 
 
 Benvenuto Cellini, A. and S. 
 
 1500-1572 
 
 Vasari, Pt i5>>->37> 
 
 Palladio, A. and S 1518-1580 
 
 Telesios 1509 1588 
 
 Sicilian 1506-1556 
 
 TINTORETTO. /V 1512 >594 
 
 
■sjfe 
 
 i 
 
 4 
 
 670 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 
 
 Table X. The Sixteenth Century. In Decades. 
 
 ( ONTINENTAI, HISTORY. 
 
 1560 
 
 1580 
 
 Metz taken by France 1552 
 
 Servetus burnt by Calvin 1553 
 
 Religions Peace of Augsburg. . 1555 
 Philip II., S p 1556 
 
 Catherine de Medici, and the 
 Guises. 
 
 Francis II., Fr 1559 
 
 Charles IX., Fr 1560 
 
 Civil Wars in France 1562-1595 
 
 Soliman II. in Hungary 1566 
 
 Pius V., Pp 1566 
 
 Alva in the Netherlands 1567 
 
 Cosmo de Medici, Duke of 
 Tuscany. 
 
 Don John of Austria 1569 
 
 Hungary annexed to Austria.. 1570 
 
 Battle of Lepanto, Sp 1571 
 
 Poland an Elective Monarchy, 1572 
 Massacre of St. Bartholomew, 1572 
 
 Revolt of Netherlands 1572 
 
 Henry III. Fr 1574 
 
 The League 1576-1593 
 
 Union of Utrecht 1579 
 
 WILLIAM THE SILENT (Or- 
 ange), Dutch. 
 
 Independence of Netherlands 
 Declared 1581 
 
 William of Orange assassi- 
 nated 1584 
 
 Sextus ~V.,Pp 1585 
 
 The Duke of Guise assassi- 
 nated 1588 
 
 Alexander of Parma 1571-1592 
 
 HENRY IV., Fr 1589-1610 
 
 Battle of Arques 1589 
 
 Battle of Ivry, Fr 1590 
 
 Henry IV., Catholic 15 
 
 Sigismund of Poland in Sweden. 
 
 1592-1600 
 
 1600 The Edict of Nantes 1598 
 
 English and Scotch History. 
 
 Mary' Tudor ..1553-1558 
 
 Lady Jane Grey beheaded 1553 
 
 Mary op Guise in Scotland.. 1554 
 
 Reconciliation with Rome 1554 
 
 Latimer, Ridley, and Cranmer 
 burnt 1555-1556 
 
 Gardiner and Pole in power. 
 
 Calais lost 1558 
 
 ELIZABETH 1558-1603 
 
 William Cecil, Secretary 1559 
 
 REFORMATION in Scotland. 
 
 MARY STUART, Scot., reigns 
 
 1562-1568 
 
 Murder of Rizzio 1566 
 
 Murder of Darnley 1567 
 
 Northern Rebellion 1569 
 
 Murray, Regent, Scot 1570 
 
 Morton, Regent, Scot 1572 
 
 Burgliley, Lord Treasurer 1572 
 
 Walsingham. Secretary 1573 
 
 Elizabeth declines the Nether- 
 lands 1575 
 
 Drake sails round the World.. 1577 
 
 James VI., Scot 1578-1625 
 
 Risings in Ireland 1580 
 
 Raleigh in Virginia 1584 
 
 Leicester in the Netherlands: 1584 
 
 Battle of Zutphen 1586 
 
 Babington’s Plot 1586 
 
 Execution of Mary 1587 
 
 Drake at Cadiz 1587 
 
 THE ARMADA 1588 
 
 War with Spain and Portugal, 
 
 1589-1600 
 
 Tyrone’s Rebellion in Ireland. 
 
 1 595-1601 
 
 Capture of Cadiz by Easex 1596 
 
 Gowrie Conspiracy 1600 
 
 English Literature. 
 
 Marlowe '564-1593 
 
 Lodge _d. 1625 
 
 Hakluyt ..... 1513-1616 
 
 Coke ...1550-1634 
 
 Camden ........ 1557-1623 
 
 Lyly (Euphues) and Comc- 
 
 lies 1554-1603 
 
 Shakspeare’s Poems. 
 
 Bacon's Essays 1597 
 
 Globe opened after 1594 
 
 Bodleian founded 1598 
 
 Gilbert (Magnetism). 1540-1603 
 
 Literature and Art on the 
 Continent. 
 
 Udal. Earliest Comedy... 1550 
 
 Wilson’s Art of Rhetoric.. 1551 
 
 Sannazaro and Montmajor 
 (Diana). 
 
 Socinus ....1539-1604 
 
 Mirror for Magistrates. 
 
 Bale’s King John. 
 
 Sackville (1527-1608) Ear- 
 liest Tragedy 
 
 Stephens and the Scaligers. 
 
 1484-1609 
 
 Gesner’s Mithridates 1555 
 
 Peter Ramus — 1572 
 
 Fox’s “Martyrs”... 
 
 1553 
 
 Palestrina, M. 
 
 I524-I594 
 
 Tottel’s Miscellany. 
 
 1 557 
 
 P. VERONESE, Pt .... 
 
 I S28-I588 
 
 John Knox 
 
 I 5 0 5 “ I 57 2 
 
 CAMOENS 
 
 1 52 7 - 1 579 
 
 Buchanan 
 
 The Geneva Bible... 
 
 I506-I582 
 
 I 560 
 
 St. Teresa 
 
 iS'S-'sSa 
 
 The Book of Common Prayer, 
 1560 
 
 Beza 
 
 . 1519-1605 
 
 Tusser’s Bucolics 
 
 
 Ronsard 
 
 I524-I586 
 
 
 
 Silvester’s Du Bartas. 
 
 
 Bishops’ Bible 
 
 
 Kochanowski 
 
 1530-1584 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 MGNTATGNF. 
 
 
 
 
 Puttenham and Coxe. 
 
 Isaac Casaubon 
 
 -1559-1614 
 
 Sir Phwp Sidney. 
 
 1554-1586 
 
 University of Leyden... 
 
 1575 
 
 Southwell 
 
 .1560-1596 
 
 Bodin 
 
 -! 530-1596 
 
 
 
 Cynthio and Bandello’s Tales. 
 
 Chronicles of Hollinshed 
 and Stowe. 
 
 Mariana 
 
 . 1536-1623 
 
 K no lies 
 
 1545-1610 
 
 TASSO 
 
 - 1 544 _I 595 
 
 University of Edinburgh.. 1581 
 
 Francis de Sales 
 
 .1567-1622 
 
 Hooker 
 
 i 553 -i 6oo 
 
 Albericus Gentilis at Oxford.. 1582 
 
 Raleigh 
 
 1552-16x8 
 
 Gregorian Calendar 
 
 1583 
 
 SPENSER 
 
 1 553“ '599 
 
 Guarini’s Pastor Fido.. 
 
 '585 
 
 Warner 
 
 1558-1609 
 
 Tycho Brahe 
 
 1546-1601 
 
 Peele 
 
 1 — 1598 
 
 The Caracci, Pt 
 
 1560-1605 
 
 Nash 
 
 1558-1601 
 
 Paolo Sarpi 
 
 1552-1623 
 
 Greene 
 
 ? — 1592 
 
 Giordano Bruno 
 
 — 1600 
 
 Charron and Vanini. 
 
 Fludd and Bohem. 
 
 CERVANTES 1547-1616 
 
 University of Barcelona 1596 
 
 Lope de Vega 1562-1635 
 
 P. Ilooft 1583-1652 
 
 KEPLER 1571-1630 
 
 Is 
 
 SFT 
 
TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 671 
 Table XI. The Seventeenth Century. In Decades. 
 
 Continental History. 
 
 BARNEVELI). Dutch — 1590-1618 
 
 Philip III.. Sp 1598-1621 
 
 Biron’s Conspiracy - 1602 
 
 Dutch powerful in the Indies. 1607 
 
 Maurice, Dutch 1584-1625 
 
 Spinola 1604-1625 
 
 Truce between Spain and 
 Netherlands 1609 
 
 Moors expelled from Spain. ..1609 
 
 Henry IV. assassinated ..1610 
 
 British History. 
 
 English Literature. 
 
 Patent to East India Company 1600 
 
 Execution of Essex 1601 
 
 James I ...1603-1625 
 
 Gunpowder Plot 1605 
 
 Hampton Court Conference 1604 
 
 Emigrations to Virginia 1608 
 
 Ulster Settlements, Ire 1608 
 
 Hawkins at Mogul Conrt 1609 
 
 SHAK3PE ARE. 1564. 1616 
 
 Hall and Marston’s Satires. 
 
 Burbage, Act ? -1619 
 
 Dekkar ? ->639 
 
 Chapman 1557-1634 
 
 Daniel 1562-1619 
 
 Drayton 1563-1631 
 
 Davies 1570-1626 
 
 Donne 1573-1631 
 
 W otton 1 568-1 639 
 
 BACON 1561-1626 
 
 1610 
 
 LOUIS XIII., Fr 1610-1643 
 
 Mary de Medici, Regent. 
 
 Romanoffs in Russia 1613 
 
 Execution of Barneveld 1619 
 
 Frederick, King of Bohemia . 1619 
 
 Ferdinand II., Sp 1619-1637 
 
 Battle of Prague 1620 
 
 THIRTY YEARS’ WAR. 
 
 1618-1648 
 
 1620 
 
 1630 
 
 1640 
 
 Carr (afterwards Somerset), favorite. 
 
 x6ii 
 
 Death of Prince Henry 1612 
 
 Marriage of Princess Elizabeth to 
 Frederic, Elector Palatine 1613 
 
 Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, 
 favorite 1615 
 
 Execution of Raleigh 1618 
 
 The Pilgrim Fathers 1620 
 
 GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS, 
 
 1611-1632 
 
 Wallenstein, Oer 1583-1634) 
 
 New York founded by the Dutch, 
 1624 
 
 Huguenot Rising 1625 
 
 Boston founded 1627 
 
 Rochelle taken 1628 
 
 Philip IV., Sp 1621-1665 
 
 Edict of Restitution >629 
 
 RICHELIEU, Fr — (1585-1642) 
 
 “ supreme.. 1624-1642 
 
 Fall of Magdeburg 1631 
 
 Battle of Lutzen, Scan I--1632 
 
 Christina, Scan 1632-1654 
 
 Oxenstiem (1583-1624) 
 
 Death of Wallenstein 1634 
 
 Peace of Prague .-1635 
 
 France and Spain at War. 1635-1659 
 
 Independence of Portugal 1640 
 
 Cinq Murs and De Thou 1642 
 
 War between Portugal and 
 Holland. 
 
 Louis XIV. accedes 1643 
 
 Anne of Austria, Regent 1643 
 
 Turenne on the Rhine 1643 
 
 Conde at Rocroy >643 
 
 Masaniello >647 
 
 Peace op Westphalia 1648 
 
 Frederick William the Great, 
 Elector, Pr 1640-1688 
 
 MAZARIN, Minister, 1^.1643-1661 
 
 Bacon's overthrow, Virginia 1621 
 
 Seldon and Pym imprisoned 1622 
 
 Spanish Marriage broken 1623 
 
 War with Spain declared 1624 
 
 Charles I... 1625-1645 
 
 Eliot sent to the Tower 1628 
 
 Massachusetts Bay settled 1628 
 
 Buckingham assassinated 1628 
 
 PETITION OF RIGHT 1628 
 
 Arrest of Five Members 1629 
 
 Ship Money levied 1634 
 
 Laud and Wentworth in power. 
 
 Trial of Hampden 1637-1638 
 
 Prynne fined by Star Chamber 1637 
 
 Nathaniel Ward, American Author 
 
 1570-1653 
 
 Covenant in Scotland 1638 
 
 First Printing Press in America.. 1639 
 
 LONG PARLIAMENT 1640-1653 
 
 John Cotton, Am 1638-1652 
 
 English Bible 1611 
 
 Napier’s Logarithms 1614 
 
 Harvey. Circulation of Blood, 
 1616 
 
 Beaumont 1586-1616 
 
 Fletcher 1576-1625 
 
 Ford 1586-1639 
 
 W ebster 1582-1652 
 
 Massinger 1584-1640 
 
 Inigo Jones, C 1572-1652 
 
 T. Heywood 1570-1650 
 
 BEN JONSON 1574-1637 
 
 G. and Ph. Fletcher. .1585-1650 
 
 First Edition of Shakspeare, 
 
 1623 
 
 Burton 1576-1640 
 
 Chillingworth 1602-1644 
 
 Herbert i593->633 
 
 Herrick 1591-1674 
 
 Quarles 1592-1644 
 
 Crawshaw 1615-1650 
 
 Alexander, E., of Sterling, 
 
 1580-1640 
 
 J. Florio 1545-1625 
 
 Middleton 1570-1626 
 
 Usher 1581-1656 
 
 First American Book '640 
 
 Pym, Leader of the House. 
 
 Execution of Strafford.... — 1841 
 
 Massacre of English in Ireland 1641 
 
 CIVIL WAR, 1642-51; Edgchill..i642 
 
 Self-denying Ordinance 1644 
 
 Mars ton Moor, 1644. Naseby — 1645 
 
 Execution of Laud '645 
 
 Pride’s Purge , 6 3 8 
 
 Execution of the King >649 
 
 Execution of Montrose, Scot '650 
 
 Dunbar, Scot., and Worcester, 
 
 1650 and 1651 
 
 Shirley (End of Old Drama), 
 
 1594-1666 
 
 The Cavalier Poets — 
 
 Drummond 1 585-1649 
 
 Carew 1589-1639 
 
 Randolph 1605-1634 
 
 Suckling 1609-1641 
 
 Davenant 1605-1668 
 
 Cartwright 1611-1643 
 
 Lovelace ...1618-1658 
 
 Denham 1615-1668 
 
 Cleveland 1613-1659 
 
 Montrose 1612-1650 
 
 Cowley 1618-1667 
 
 Waller 1605-1687 
 
 Hobbs' “ Leviathan " 1642 
 
 Leighton 1611-1684 
 
 Wither 1588-1667 
 
 Marvell 1620-1678 
 
 Royal Society founded 1645 
 
 G. Fox. Quakerism 1647 
 
 Confession of Faith 1649 
 
 Icon Basil ike 1649 
 
 MILTON 1608-1674 
 
 Literature and Art on the 
 
 Continent. 
 
 GALILEO 1564-1640 
 
 "Don Quixote," 1605 
 
 Malherbe 1555-1628 
 
 Guido Reni, Pt 1575-1642 
 
 Quevedo 1580-1645 
 
 Rubens, Pt — 1577-1626 
 
 Douay Bible 1609 
 
 Honore d’Urfe (Astnea), 
 
 1567-1625 
 
 Opitz 
 
 i595- ,6 37 
 
 Andreini | 
 
 
 and > 
 
 (Sacred Plays) 
 
 Marini, j 
 
 
 Van Helmont.. 
 
 »577-'644 
 
 Teniers, Pt 
 
 
 Kepler’s Laws. 
 
 
 Vanini burnt.. 
 
 
 Campanella 
 
 1568-1639 
 
 Hugo Grotius 
 
 1583-1645 
 
 Gassendi 
 
 1592-1655 
 
 Davila 
 
 I576-163I 
 
 Vandyck, Pt.. 
 
 1599-1641 
 
 Velasquez, Pt 
 
 i 5 99- *66° 
 
 Guercino, Pt 
 
 1590-1666 
 
 The Elzevirs 
 
 1582-1652 
 
 Vaugela* 
 
 1586-1650 
 
 J. Balzac 
 
 1594-1654 
 
 Voiture and Hotel 
 
 Kam- 
 
 bouillet. 
 
 
 French Academy 
 
 1635 
 
 Corneille's “Cid” .. 
 
 ...... 1636 
 
 DESCARTES 
 
 1596-1650 
 
 Andreas Gryphius .. 
 
 .1616-1664 
 
 
 
 University of Utrecht 
 
 
 C'laius' Play of Creation. 
 
 V ondcl 
 
 .1587-1679 
 
 CORNEILLE 
 
 . 1606-1684 
 
 Jesuits and Janscnlsts at 
 
 War. 
 
 
 Bollandus... 
 
 .1596-1665 
 
 "Acta Sanctorum”. 
 
 *643 
 
 Sal muni us* 
 
 
 Torricelli’* Barometer — 1643 
 
 Claude Lorraine, 
 
 ” t .. 
 
 
 1600-1682 
 
 Rembrandt, /V — 
 
 . 1600-1689 
 
 The* 1 'oiiHHinH ami Salvator 
 
 Rosa, Pt 
 
 . 1600-1670 
 
 Murillo, Pt 
 
 . 1618-1682 
 
 Zaluzinnski 
 
 
 St. Simon and Mm®- de 
 Scvtgne. 
 
6y 2 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE . — Continued. 
 
 Table XI. The Seventeenth Century. In Decades. 
 
 Continental History 
 
 British History. 
 
 English Literature. 
 
 Literature and Art on the 
 Continent. 
 
 Cardinal de Retz (1614-1679) 
 
 War of the Fronde 1648-1653 
 
 East Prussia free from Poland, 
 
 1656 
 
 LOUIS XIV. reigns. Fr 1655 
 
 Peace of the Pyrenees 1659 
 
 Colbert, Minister 1661-1683 
 
 Navigation Act 1651 
 
 Barebones Parliament 1651 
 
 Van Tromp in the Thames 1652 
 
 CROMWELL, Protector 1653-1658 
 
 John Eliot, Am 1604-1690 
 
 Dutch defeated by Blake and Monk. 
 
 •653 
 
 Jamaica conquered 1656 
 
 Death of Blake... 1657 
 
 Richard Cromwell .1658-1659 
 
 CHARLES II., RESTORATION, 
 
 1^60-1685 
 
 Fuller 1608-1661 
 
 HOBBES 1588-1679 
 
 Selden 1584-1654 
 
 Harrington's “ Oceana ”.-1656 
 
 J. Taylor 1613-1667 
 
 I. Walton 1593-1683 
 
 Sir T. Browne -1605-1682 
 
 Sir M. Hale 1609-1676 
 
 Boyle 1627-1691 
 
 Wallis .1616-1703 
 
 Calderon 1600-1683 
 
 Pascal 1623-1662 
 
 Scarron 1610-1660 
 
 Arnauld and Port Royal. 
 
 Delphin Editions. 
 
 M. de Scudery 1607-1701 
 
 Rochefoucauld .1613-1680 
 
 MOLIERE 1622-1673 
 
 Versailles built 1661 
 
 French India Companies 1664 
 
 Charles 11 . of Spain — 1665-1700 
 
 Spanish Netherlands invaded 1666 
 
 Peace of Breda 1667 
 
 The Triple Alliance— England, 
 Holland and Sweden 1668 
 
 Peace of Lisbon 1668 
 
 Roger Williams, Am 1606-1683 
 
 Corporation Act 1661 
 
 First Standing Army. 
 
 Act of Uniformity 1662 
 
 Secession of Puritans. 
 
 2d Dutch War, Van Ruyter in the 
 
 Thames 1666 
 
 Great Plague of London 1665 
 
 Great Fire of London 1666 
 
 The Cabal 1668 
 
 South Carolina settled 1669 
 
 S. Butler. 1612-1680 
 
 Restoration Drama, 
 
 1 063-1 700 
 
 Clarendon 1608-1674 
 
 “London Gazette” 1665 
 
 Baxter 1615-1691 
 
 BUNYAN 1628-1688 
 
 Barrow 1630-1677 
 
 Para dise Lost. 1677 
 
 Tillotson 1630-1694 
 
 South 1633-1715 
 
 Algernon Sidney 1617-1683 
 
 Sir Peter Lely, Pt 1617-1680 
 
 Bossuet 1627-1704 
 
 Bourdaioue « — 1632-1704 
 
 “ Journal desSavans” 1665 
 
 La Fontaine 1621-1695 
 
 Boileau 1636-1711 
 
 Puffendorf 1632-1694 
 
 SPINOZA ....1632-1677 
 
 Turenne and Conde invade 
 Holland 1672 
 
 The De Witts assassinated 1672 
 
 William Stadholder, Dtch., 
 
 1672-1702 
 
 Battle of Fehrbellin, Pr 1675 
 
 First Russo-Turkish War 1678 
 
 Peace of Nimeguen 1678 
 
 “Reunions” in Elsass .1680-1681 
 
 Lauderdale in Scotland 1671 
 
 The Test Act 1673 
 
 Charles pensioned by Louis 1674 
 
 Oates Plot. Murder of Godfrey. .1678 
 
 Habeas Corpus Act 1679 
 
 Sharpe murdered. Drumclog and 
 Bothwell, Scot 1679 
 
 Exclusion Bill. Origin of Whig 
 and Tory 1680 
 
 Cudworth 1617-1688 
 
 H. More -1614-1687 
 
 Sydenham 1624-1689 
 
 Ray 1628-1705 
 
 Evelyn 1620-1706 
 
 Pepys 1632-1703 
 
 Pilgrim’s Progress 1678 
 
 Otway 1651-1685 
 
 Stair 1619-1695 
 
 DRYDEN — 1631-1700 
 
 Aphra Behn 1642-1689 
 
 Buckingham -1628-1684 
 
 La Bruyere 1644-1696 
 
 RACINE 1639-1699 
 
 Paris Academy of Music.. 1672 
 
 Filicaya 1642-1707 
 
 Spener 1635-1705 
 
 C. Maratta, Pt 1625-1713 
 
 Malebranche 1638-1715 
 
 Abbe Fleury 1640-1723 
 
 Mme. Dacier 1654-1720 
 
 Strasburg seized in time of peace, 
 168 ( 
 
 Sobieski repels the Turks at 
 Vienna 1683 
 
 Revocation of Edict of Nantes, 
 
 1685 
 
 French in the Palatinate 16S8 
 
 PETER THE GREAT, Pus., 
 
 1689-1725 
 
 Stafford executed, 1680; Shaftes- 
 bury acquitted... 1681 
 
 Pennsylvania settled 1682 
 
 Itye-House Plot. Russell and Sid- 
 ney executed 1683 
 
 JAMES II 1685-1689 
 
 Argyle executed, Scot 1685 
 
 Monmouth Rebellion. Sedgemoor. 
 
 Monmouth executed 1685 
 
 Trial of Seven Bishops 1688 
 
 BILL OF RIGHTS 16S9 
 
 Cotton Mather 1663-1728 
 
 William Penn 1644-1718 
 
 Rochester 1647-1680 
 
 Etheridge 1670 
 
 Dorset 1637-1706 
 
 Sedley 1639-1701 
 
 Roscommon 1634-1684 
 
 LOCKE 1632-17^4 
 
 Purcell, M. 1658-1695 
 
 Sir W. Temple 1628-1698 
 
 Jeremy Collier 1650-1726 
 
 NEWTON 1642-1727 
 
 Fenelon 1651-1715 
 
 Madame Guyon and the 
 Quietists persecuted. ..1687 
 
 LEIBNITZ 1646-1716 
 
 Bossuet’s “Variations ”...1688 
 
 Massillon 1663-1742 
 
 J. F. Regnard 1665-1709 
 
 France and England at War, 
 
 1689-1697 
 
 Battle of Steinkirk 1692 
 
 Battle of Landen 1692 
 
 Namur taken 1695 
 
 Treaty of Ryswick 1697 
 
 The Czar in England 1697 
 
 Treaty of Carlowitz 1699 
 
 End of House of Austria in 
 Spain 1700 
 
 WILLIAM III 1689-1702 
 
 Toleration Act 1689 
 
 Siege of Londonderry .1690 
 
 Killiecrankie, Scot., and the Boyne, 
 
 Ire 1690 
 
 National Debt begun 1692 
 
 Glencoe Massacre, Scot 1692 
 
 Death of Queen Mary 1694 
 
 Abolition of Censorship of Press. . 1695 
 
 Darien Expedition 1698-1700 
 
 Second East India Company 1698 
 
 Partition Treaties 1698-1700 
 
 Sir C. Wren, A 1632-1723 
 
 Wycherley 1640-1715 
 
 Buruet — - 1643-1715 
 
 Congreve 1669-1 728 
 
 Bentley 1661-1742 
 
 Halley - 1656-1742 
 
 Vanbrugh 1666-1726 
 
 Farquhar 1678-1707 
 
 Sir Godfrey KnEller, Pt.. 
 
 1648-1723 
 
 University of Halle 1694 
 
 Dictionary of French Academy, 
 1694 
 
 Bayle’s Dictionary 1695 
 
 Fontenelle 1656-1756 
 
 Fenelon's “Telemaque M ...i699 
 
 Rollin 1661-1741 
 
 Rapin 1661-1725 
 
TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 673 
 
 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 
 Table XII. The Eighteenth Century, to the American Revolution. In Decades. 
 
 CHARLES XII., Scan... 1697-1 718 
 
 Battle of Narva 1700 
 
 Jesuits in China 1700 
 
 War of Spanish Succession. 
 
 1701-1713 
 
 The Grand Alliance 1701 
 
 Frederick I., of Prussia 1701 
 
 St. Petersburg founded 1703 
 
 Defeat of Allies at Almanza. Fr., 
 
 > 7°7 
 
 Death of Aurunzebe 1707 
 
 Battle of Pultowa, It us 1709 
 
 Foreign History. 
 
 Archduke Charles, Emperor, 
 
 Ger 17” 
 
 Peace of Utrecht 1713 
 
 Frederick William of Prussia 1713 
 
 Louis XV. succeeds, Fr 171s 
 
 Duke of Orleans, Regent, Fr.. 1715 
 
 Cardinal Dubois, Minister, 
 
 Quadruple Alliance against 
 Spain > 7 l8 
 
 Peter, Emperor of all the Rus- 
 sias - * 7 22 
 
 Louis XV. reigns, Fr 1723-1774 
 
 Cardinal Fleury, Minister 1726 
 
 Catharine I., Czarina, Fits., 
 
 1725 -> 7 2 7 
 
 Peace of Vienna J 7 2 5 
 
 Victor Amadeus of Savoy re- 
 signs to hie son, King of Sar- 
 dinia. 
 
 War of Polish Succession, 
 
 1 733~ * 1 735 
 
 Peace of Versailles 1735 
 
 Peace of Vienna > 73 8 
 
 Peace of Belgrade 1739 
 
 FREDERICK II., Prus., 
 
 1712-1740-1786 
 
 British History. 
 
 Halifax and Somers impeached, 
 
 1701 
 
 Act of Settlement 1701 
 
 Death of James I 1701 
 
 ANNE 1702-1714 
 
 Irish Parliament petitions for 
 Union 1703 
 
 MARLBOROUGH 1 702-1 71 2 
 
 Battle of Blenheim 1704 
 
 Sir G. Rooke takes Gibraltar.. 1704 
 
 Battle of Ramilies . 1706 
 
 THE UNION with Scotland.. 1707 
 
 Battle of Malplaquet 1709 
 
 Harley and Bolingbroke, Tory 
 Ministers 1710 
 
 Sacheverell Trial 1710 
 
 GEORGE 1 1714-1727 
 
 Oxford, Ormond, and Boling- 
 broke impeached... 1715 
 
 Rebellion of 1st pretender, 
 
 1715-1716 
 
 Sheriffmuir i 7«5 
 
 Septennial Bill tji 6 
 
 Walfole 1721-1742 
 
 English Literature. 
 
 Defoe ..1661-1731 
 
 Mandeville - 1670-1733 
 
 Hamilton's “De Gram- 
 mont" 1704 
 
 Prior .....1664-1721 
 
 Shaftesbury 1671-1713 
 
 SWIFT 1667-1745 
 
 Addison 1672-1719 
 
 Steele 1671-1729 
 
 South Sea Bubble 1720-1721 
 
 Atterbury banished i 7 2 3 
 
 Wood’s Halfpence 1723 
 
 Period of Peace and Prosperity, 
 and Rise of Great Towns. 
 
 Guy’s Hospital founded 1724 
 
 War with Spain 1726 
 
 GEORGE II 1727-1760 
 
 Queen Caroline 1727-1741 
 
 Georgia colonized, Am 173 2 
 
 Portcous Mob 1736 
 
 “Jenkins’ Ear” 1738 
 
 Publication of debates pro- 
 hibited >739 
 
 Whiteflcld (1714-177°) 
 
 Wesley (i 7 ° 3 -' 79 i) 
 
 Methodism begins — 1739 
 
 Literature and Art on the 
 Continent. 
 
 “The Tatler” 
 
 
 Arbuthnot 
 
 1675-1735 
 
 The Spectator 
 
 17” 
 
 Cibber — 
 
 1671-1757 
 
 Gay 
 
 I688-X732 
 
 Parnell 
 
 1679-I7X8 
 
 POPE 
 
 .1688-1744 
 
 Pope's Homer 
 
 17*4 
 
 Bolingbroke 
 
 1678-1751 
 
 Toland, Collins, Etc 
 
 1718 
 
 LadyM. W. Montague, 
 
 1 690- x 762 
 
 Allan Ramsay 
 
 .1686-1757 
 
 “ Robinson Crusoe ” 
 
 * 7 X 9 
 
 
 1657-1733 
 
 -1675-1739 
 
 Clarke 
 
 Young 
 
 1686-1765 
 
 “Gulliver” 
 
 1726 
 
 Berkeley 
 
 .1684-1753 
 
 M odern H istory at Oxf ord. 1 724 
 
 Hutcheson 
 
 -1694-1747 
 
 Wm. Cullen 
 
 .1712-1790 
 
 “Dunciad" 
 
 *729 
 
 Maclaurin 
 
 . 1698-1746 
 
 “Essay on Man” 
 
 
 Jonathan Edwards, Am.. 
 
 1703-1758 
 
 Savage 
 
 1698-1743 
 
 C. Middleton 
 
 . 1683-1750 
 
 Blair 
 
 .1699-1746 
 
 Hartley 
 
 .1705-1757 
 
 Bradley 
 
 1692-1762 
 
 Bishop Butler 
 
 .i 694-!753 
 
 Warburton 
 
 .1698-1779 
 
 Thomson 
 
 .I7OO-I748 
 
 D. Mallet 
 
 .I7OO-I765 
 
 J. B. Rousseau, Fr 1670-1741 
 
 Berlin Academy 1702 
 
 University of Moscow 1705 
 
 Discovery of Herculaneum, It.. 1708 
 
 Buddseus ..1667-1729 
 
 Vico 1668-1744 
 
 Maffei 1675-1755 
 
 Stahl 1660-1734 
 
 Boerhaave 1668-1738 
 
 Le Sage’s “Gil Bias” 1715 
 
 Watteau, Pt 1684-1721 
 
 The Bernouillis. 
 
 Holberg .... 1684-1754 
 
 J. C. Wolf ............1679-1754 
 
 Muratori 1672-1750 
 
 Tiraboschi and Dcninn. 
 
 Academy of Science, St. Peters- 
 burg 1725 
 
 Maupcrtuis 1698-1759 
 
 Laurent « 7 * 5-'773 
 
 Bach, il. 1685-1750 
 
 Handel, M 1685-1759 
 
 Pcrgolesi, M 1707 -' 739 
 
 Montesquieu 1689-1755 
 
 LlNNAtUS A- 1735 
 
 “Lettres PhiloBophiquee" burnt 
 by the hangman. 
 
 Qucsnny 1694-1774 
 
 Gottucbcd.. ... 1700-1766 
 
 Bodmer (Zurich) 1698-1783 
 
 Metastasio 1698-1782 
 
 VOLTAIRE 1694-1778 
 
674 
 
 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY 
 
 AND LITERATURE. 
 
 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued 
 Table XII. The Eighteenth Century to the American Revolution. In Decades. 
 
 Foreign History. 
 
 British History. 
 
 English Literature. 
 
 Literature and Art on the 
 Continent. 
 
 Maria Theresa, Queen of Hun- 
 gary, Ger 1740-1780 
 
 Charles of Bavaria, Ger 1742 
 
 War of Austrian succession, 
 
 1741-1748 
 
 Francis I., Ger . 1745 
 
 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 
 Louis XV. invades Holland. ..1744 
 Dupleix at Pondicherry 1748 
 
 Walpole resigns 1742 
 
 Pelham 1743 
 
 Battle of Dettingen 1743 
 
 Anson’s Voyage 1740-1744 
 
 Battle of Fontenoy, Ire 1745 
 
 Rebellion of Charles Edward, 
 Scot ....1745-1746 
 
 Prestonpans, 1745. Culloden..i746 
 
 Clive in India 1750-1760 
 
 Richardson 1689-1761 
 
 Fielding 1707-1754 
 
 Sterne 1713-1768 
 
 Arne ... 1710-1779 
 
 Hogarth, Pt 1697-1764 
 
 Garrick, Act 1716-1779 
 
 Lord Monboddo 1714-1799 
 
 Shenstone 1714-1762 
 
 Akenside 1721-1770 
 
 Chesterfield 1694-1773 
 
 Swedenborg fl. 1740 
 
 Gellert 1715-1769 
 
 Condillac ...... 1715-1780 
 
 Helvetius 1715-1771 
 
 Vauvcnargue 1715-1747 
 
 Klopstock’s Messiah 1747 
 
 Malesherbes 1721-1791 
 
 Lomonossoff .... 1711— 1 765 
 
 ROUSSEAU . 1712. 1779 
 
 Paoli's Corsican Revolt 1754 
 
 Earthquake at Lisbon 1755 
 
 Seven Years War 1756-1763 
 
 England allied with Prussia. 
 
 Damiens executed 1757 
 
 Battles of Rosbach and Leuth- 
 en, Prus — .1757 
 
 Battle of Zorndorf, Prus 1758 
 
 French defeated at Minden 1759 
 
 {New Style of Dates in Great 
 Britain .] 
 
 Duke of Newcastle’s Ministry. 1754 
 
 Braddock’s defeat, Am 1755 
 
 PITT (Chatham) 1756-1761 
 
 Admiral Byng shot 1756 
 
 Battle of Plassey 1757 
 
 English Naval Victories.. 1758-1759 
 Wolfe’s Victory and Death at 
 
 Quebec, Am 1759 
 
 Conquest of Canada complet- 
 ed, Am ...1760 
 
 HUME .1711-1776 
 
 Churchill ...7731-1764 
 
 Gainsborough, Pt 1727-1788 
 
 Reynolds, Pt 1723-1792 
 
 Woolman, Am..<. 1720-1772 
 
 Simson 1700-1761 
 
 Smollet ..1 721-17 71 
 
 JOHNSON 1 709-1 784 
 
 Foote, Act 1721-1777 
 
 H. Walpole 1717-1787 
 
 J. Macpherson 1738-1796 
 
 Buffon 1707-1788 
 
 Discovery of Pompeii 1750 
 
 Marmontel and Laharpe. 
 
 B. de St. Pierre 1737-1814 
 
 Goldoni ... 1707-1792 
 
 Diderot ) ,, , ... 
 
 y Encyclopedic. 
 
 D’Alembert l I 75i 
 
 M. Mendelssohn 1729-1786 
 
 LESSING — 1729-1781 
 
 1760 
 
 Catharine II., Czarina, Bus., 
 
 1762-1796 
 
 The Philippines to England. . .1763 
 
 Treaty of Hubertsburg 1763 
 
 Treaty of Paris 1763 
 
 Corsica to France, Fr 1769 
 
 Napoleon and Wellington born. 
 
 1769 
 
 GEORGE III 1760-1720 
 
 Lord Bute. 1762. G. Grenville. 1763 
 
 Wilkes’ Agitations 1762-1772 
 
 Rockingham and Grafton. 1765-1766 
 
 American Stamp Act 1765 
 
 Riots at Boston, Am 1768-1773 
 
 Letters of Junius 1769-1772 
 
 Arkwright’s Jenny. Watt 
 Engine 1769 
 
 Lord North’s Ministry. ..1770-1782 
 Bruce's Travels 1768 
 
 ADAM SMITH 1723-1790 
 
 Reid 1710-1796 
 
 Robertson 1721-1793 
 
 Hutton 1726-1797 
 
 Wm. Hunter 1718-1785 
 
 J. Watt 1730-1819 
 
 GIBBON .... 1737— 1794 
 
 Percy’s Reliques 1765 
 
 Collins .1721—1756 
 
 Gray 1716-1771 
 
 Beattie ......... 1735— 1802 
 
 Black 1728-1799 
 
 Academy of Arts 1768 
 
 Euler 1707-1783 
 
 Lavoisier ... 1743-1794 
 
 Affair of Calas 6712 
 
 CoNDORCET 1743-1794 
 
 Winckelmann fl. 1764 
 
 Scheele ... 1742-1786 
 
 Beaumarchais fl. 1764 
 
 Lavater 1740-1800 
 
 Lichtenberg 1741* 1799 
 
 Ewald (Dane) 1743-1781 
 
 Parliament of Paris abolished-1771 
 
 First Partition of Poland 1772 
 
 Hyder-Ali in India .1767-1780 
 
 LOUIS XVI., Fr 1774-1793 
 
 English Debates reported 1771 
 
 Warren Hastings in India, 
 
 1772-1785 
 
 Suicide of Lord Clive 1774 
 
 Cook’s V oyages 1 770-1779 
 
 WAR OF AMERICAN INDE- 
 PENDENCE. 
 
 Cavendish 1731-1810 
 
 Goldsmith 1728-1774 
 
 Blackstone 1723-1780 
 
 Chatterton 1 752-1 770 
 
 COWPER. 1731-1800 
 
 T. Warton .1729-1790 
 
 Alfieri 1749-1803 
 
 Turgot 1727-1781 
 
 Gluck, M ....1714-1787 
 
 Beccaria 1 735-1794 
 
-ilS 
 
 9 
 
 k- 
 
 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE. — Continued. 675 
 Table XIII. From the War of the Revolution to 1880 . In Periods of Five Years. 
 
 >780 
 
 Colonial and United States 
 History. 
 
 Cargoes of Tea Ships, Boston, thrown 
 into the harbor by masked men. 1773 
 
 Boston Port Bill 1774 
 
 First Continental Congress 1774 
 
 Declaration of Rights 1774 
 
 Union of Colonies formed 1775 
 
 Washington, Commander-in-chief, 
 
 •775 
 
 Continental Fast —1775 
 
 Falmouth burnt 1775 
 
 Norfolk destroyed 1776 
 
 British evacuate Boston 1776 
 
 Declaration of Independence, i 776 
 
 French Commissioners sent 1776 
 
 Congress adjourns to Baltimore. . 1776 
 Philadelphia in hands of British.. 1777 
 
 Alliance with France 1778 
 
 Treaty with France Feb. 6, 1778 
 
 Philadelphia evacuated 1778 
 
 Savannah taken by British 177S 
 
 New Haven plundered 1778 
 
 1785 
 
 Charleston taken by British 1780 
 
 New London burnt by Arnold 1781 
 
 Lord Cornwallis surrenders 1781 
 
 Independence acknowledged by 
 Holland 1782 
 
 Independence acknowledged by 
 Sweden, Denmark, Spain and 
 Prussia 1783 
 
 Independence recognized 1783 
 
 Peace with Great Britain 1783 
 
 Treaty of Peace ratified by Congress, 
 1784 
 
 John Adams, First Ambassador to 
 England '785 
 
 Cotton introduced into Georgia .. 1 786 
 
 Constitution of the United States 
 adopted — 1787 
 
 Constitution ratified by all the 
 States, except Rhode Island and 
 North Carolina 1788 
 
 Emancipation of Slaves by the 
 Quakers of Philadelphia 1788 
 
 Government organized under the 
 Constitution 1689 
 
 Ten Amendments added to the 
 Constitution 1789 
 
 George Washington, President. 1789 
 
 Departments of State, War and 
 Treasury created 1 789 
 
 John Carroll, First Catholic Bishop 
 in U. 8 >789 
 
 Other Countries. 
 
 Royal Marriage Act, Eng 1777 
 
 Death of Chatham, Eng 1778 
 
 Neckar, Er., Minister 1776-1781 
 
 “No Popery” Riots 1782 
 
 Rodney’s Victories 1779-1782 
 
 Elliot at Gibraltar 1779-1782 
 
 Tippoo Saib in India 1779 
 
 Lord George Gordon Riots 1780 
 
 Settlement of Upper Canada.. 1784 
 
 Lord Rockingham’s 2d Minis- 
 try, Eng - 1782 
 
 Lord Shelburne 1782 
 
 Grattan's Irish Constitution.. 1782 
 
 Coalition Ministry 1783 
 
 Wm. Pitt (1759-1806) 
 
 C. J. Fox (1749-1806) 
 
 E. Burke (1730-1797) 
 
 Wilberforce, Anti-Slavery, 
 
 (1759-1833) 
 
 Russia takes Crimea 1783 
 
 England wars with Tippoo Saib, 
 
 1783-1799 
 
 Erskine, Eng (1750-1823) 
 
 English and American 
 Literature. 
 
 B. Franklin 1706-1790 
 
 J. Adams 1735-1826 
 
 “Wealth of Nations." De- 
 
 Cline and Fall 
 
 1776 
 
 B. West, Pt 
 
 
 Priestley 
 
 -1734-1804 
 
 Sir J. Banks 
 
 
 Ph. Freneam 
 
 
 J. Trumbull.. 
 
 .1757-1804 
 
 Burns 
 
 
 Sir A. Ferguson 
 
 .. I723-1816 
 
 H. Mackenzie 
 
 • '745-1834 
 
 “Thb Crisis” and 
 mon Sense.” 
 
 “ Com- 
 
 Literature and Art of 
 other Countries. 
 
 Herder. Oer 1744-1803 
 
 Linnsenus 1707-1778 
 
 Heyne 1729-1812 
 
 Mozart, Mu*., Ger. 1756-1792 
 
 Kant, Ger 1724-1804 
 
 Lessing, Ger 1726-1781 
 
 Gall, Ger ....1758-1828 
 
 Dr. Hahnemann, fier. 1755-1843 
 Alfieri, It .1749-1803 
 
 Pestalozzi .... 1749-1827 
 
 | Metastasio, It 1698-1782 
 
 Attempted assassination of the 
 King. Eng >786 
 
 ltusso-Turkish Wars 1787-1790 
 
 Assembly of Notables, Er 1787 
 
 Trial of Warren 1 tastings .1788-1795 
 
 Assembly of States General, Er., 
 1789 
 
 Nationul Assembly, Er. 1789 
 
 Bastile stormed 1789 
 
 Ritson 1752-1803 
 
 H. Blair 1718-1800 
 
 Sir Wm. Jones 1740-1794 
 
 E. Darwin 1732-1801 
 
 Sheridan 1751-1817 
 
 Dibdin 1745-1814 
 
 Paley 1743-1805 
 
 Dugald Stewart 1753-1828 
 
 Hayley 1745-1820 
 
 Joel Barlow 1755-1812 
 
 S. Hopkins 1721-1803 
 
 J. Bellamy i7i9-‘79° 
 
 R. T. Paine 1773-1811 
 
 Horne Tooke 1736-1812 
 
 Hannah More >745-1833 
 
 J. Jefferson 1743-1826 
 
 J. Madison i75i-i83 6 
 
 A. Hamilton 1757-1804 
 
 Bcckford 1760-1844 
 
 John Jay >745-'8>9 
 
 T. Dwight 1752-1817 
 
 S. Peters «73S->8» 6 
 
 B. Rush ... i745-*®«3 
 
 London "Times” founded, 
 
 1788 
 
 Chateaubriand 1768-1848 
 
 Lavater 1741-1801 
 
 Oerster 1777-1851 
 
 Schiller, Ger 1759-1805 
 
 Niemcewicz c. 1780 
 
 Mallet... 1730-1807 
 
 Haydn, Mus... 1732-1809 
 
 WlELAND 1733-1813 
 
 Burger 1748-1794 
 
 Jacobi 
 
 .1740-1813 
 
 Goethe, Ger 1749-1832 
 
 Bcrthollet 1748-1822 
 
 Laplace 1749-1827 
 
 David, PI 1748-1825 
 
 Legendre 1752*1833 
 
 Parny »7S3- ,8, 5 
 
 •The memorable battles, military and nav 
 
 al, are omitted from this table, and will be found In Tables of Military and Naval History of the U. 8 . 
 
 
 rv 
 
 84 
 
67 6 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 
 
 Table XIII. From the War of the Revolution to 1800. In Periods of Five Years. 
 
 Colonial and United States 
 History.* 
 
 Virginia and Maryland cede Dis- 
 trict of Columbia 1790 
 
 Benjamin Franklin d. 1790 
 
 First Census U. S. taken 1790 
 
 First Patent for Threshing Machines, 
 1790 
 
 Bank of the U. S. established 1791 
 
 Vermont admitted into the Union. 1791 
 
 Washington City chosen as the 
 Capital of the Republic 1792 
 
 Kentucky admitted 1792 
 
 United States Mint established 1792 
 
 Coal Mines discovered in Pa 1793 
 
 Steam first applied to Saw Mills in Pa., 
 
 • 1793 
 
 Invention of the Cotton Gin, Whitney, 
 1793 
 
 George Washington’s 2d election.. 1793 
 
 Mad Anthony Wayne defeats Indi- 
 ans in Ohio 1794 
 
 First Sewing Thread ever made of 
 Cotton produced 1794 
 
 1800 
 
 .Jay’s Treaty with Great Britain 
 ratified 1795 
 
 First Glass Factory built, at Pitts- 
 burgh .... 1795 
 
 Tennessee admitted 1796 
 
 Washington’s Farewell Address ..1796 
 
 First Cutlery Works established in 
 U. S 1797 
 
 N. Y. Commercial Advertiser estab- 
 lished .................. .... 1797 
 
 John Adams, President 1797 
 
 Difficulties arise with France. Con- 
 gress convened preparatory to 
 war ..1797 
 
 Geo. Washington appointed Com- 
 mander-in-chief of the American 
 Armies, with the rank of Lieut.- 
 General 1798 
 
 Alien and Sedition Laws passed 
 Congress i 79 8 
 
 Death of Washington ...1799 
 
 U. S. Frigate Constitution cap- 
 tures the French Frigate l’lnsnr- 
 gente 1799 
 
 Three Commissioners sent to France, 
 
 Other Countries. 
 
 Suwarrow takes Ismail 1790 
 
 Death of Mirabeau 1791 
 
 Canada is given a Constitution -1791 
 Legislative Assembly, Fr.. 1791-92 
 
 The Revolution, Paris 1791-92 
 
 Escape and arrest of the King. 1791 
 
 Birmingham (Eng.) Riots 179I 
 
 Paine and “People’s Friend,” 
 
 1791-1792 
 
 Conference at Pilnitz 1792 
 
 Battle of Jcmappes 1792 
 
 The French Convention 1792 
 
 First Coalition 1792-1797 
 
 Execution of Louis XIV. and 
 
 Marie Antoinette 1793 
 
 Fall of Gironde. La Vendee.. 1793 
 
 Reign of Terror, Paris 1793 
 
 Death of Marat 1793 
 
 England begins War with France. 
 
 J 793 
 
 Dumauriez joins the Allies 1793 
 
 2d Partition of Poland 1793 
 
 Toulon taken by the French. .1793 
 Toronto made the Capital of 
 
 Ltpper Canada 1794 
 
 Suspension Habeas Corpus Act, 
 
 Eng 1794 
 
 Defeat of the Poles under Kos- 
 ciusko 1794 
 
 Corsica conquered ...1794 
 
 English Expedition to Dunkirk, 
 
 1794 
 
 Execution of Danton. Fall of 
 Robespierre --1794 
 
 English and American 
 Literature. 
 
 3d Partition of Poland 1795 
 
 The Directory', Fr 1795 
 
 Cape of Good Hope doubled- -1795 
 
 Disaster of Quiberon 1795 
 
 Carnot ( I 753 -I S23) 
 
 Moreau (1763-1813) 
 
 Bonaparte in Italy 1796 
 
 Battle of Lodi, Arcolo 1796 
 
 Spice Islands taken by English. 1796 
 
 J enner ’s Vaccination j 796 
 
 Cash Payments suspended, Eng., 
 
 1797 
 
 Iloche fails in Ireland 1797 
 
 Battle of St. Vincent 1797 
 
 Sea Fight of Camperdown 1797 
 
 Peace of Campo Fermio 1797 
 
 End of Republic of Venice 1797 
 
 Bonaparte in Egypt. Aboukir.1798 
 
 Battle of the Nile 1798 
 
 Great Irish Rebellion 1798 
 
 Habeas Corpus Act again sus- 
 pended 1798 
 
 Pope Pius VI. deposed by Na- 
 poleon 1798 
 
 Parthenopean Republic 1799 
 
 Second Coalition 1799-1802 
 
 NAPOLEON (1768-1821) 
 
 The Consulate 1799-1804 
 
 Sidney Smith at Acre 1799 
 
 1799 I Nelson (1758-1805) 
 
 Boswell’s Johnson.. 1790 
 
 Bentham 1748-1832 
 
 Werner 1750-1817 
 
 Porson 1758-1808 
 
 Parr ...1747-1825 
 
 Gifford .... ......1756-1826 
 
 Bloomfield 1766-1823 
 
 Fi.axman,.-!. and . 9 .. 1755-1826 
 J. P. Kemble, Act... 1757-1823 
 Mrs. Siddons, Act.. 1755-1831 
 
 M me. d’Arblay 1752-1840 
 
 Godwin 1756-1836 
 
 Mrs. Inchbald 1753-1821 
 
 Crabbe 1754-1832 
 
 Literature and Art of 
 other Countries. 
 
 Blake, Ft 1779-1827 
 
 Tannahill 1774-1816 
 
 R. Hall... 1764-1831 
 
 The “Anti-Jacobin” 1797 
 
 Dr. T. Brown 1778-1820 
 
 Playfair 1749-1819 
 
 Sir H. Davy 1778-1829 
 
 Dalton 1767-1844 
 
 Lawrence, Ft 1769-1830 
 
 Bowles 1762-1852 
 
 Sir Walter Scott.. 1771-1832 
 
 Galvanism discovered 1791 
 
 F. A. Wolf 1759-1824 
 
 GOETHE..... ....1749-1833 
 
 Canova, A. and S... 1757—1822 
 SirWm. Herschel.. 1738-1822 
 Schiller.... ........1759—1803 
 
 Kotzebue 1761-1819 
 
 Talma, Act ...1763-1826 
 
 W. Humboldt 1767-1835 
 
 A. Humboldt 1769-1859 
 
 Beethoven, Mus 1770-1827 
 
 Weber, Mus. 1786-1826 
 
 J. Paul Richter 1763-1825 
 
 Hauy ....1743-1822 
 
 Voss 1751-1826 
 
 Derzhavin 1743-1816 
 
 Karamzin 1765-1826 
 
 SCHLEIRMACHER 1768-1834 
 
 Werner 1768-1823 
 
 Baggesen 1764-1826 
 
 Novalis . — . — 1772-1801 
 
 Malte Bran 1775-1826 
 
 Hoffman ...1776-1822 
 
 A. W. Schlegel 1767-1845 
 
 F, Schlegel 1772-1819 
 
 Lamarck ...1744-1829 
 
 Jussien 1748-1836 
 
 Cuvier 1769-1839 
 
 A. M. Ampere.. 1775-1836 
 
 ♦The memorable battles, military and naval, are omitted from this table, and will be found in Tables of Military and Naval History of the U. S. 
 
TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 677 
 Table XIV. From A. D. 1800 to A. D. 1825. In Ferlods of Five Years. 
 
 United States History. 
 
 iSoc N. Y. Post established 1800 
 
 Important Treaty concluded 
 with France. 1800 
 
 [ A General Bankruptcy Law 
 passed 1800 
 
 j Removal of Government to 
 I Washington 1800 
 
 Thos. Jefferson. 3d President. 
 
 1743-1826 
 
 Internal Revenue Law repealed, 
 
 The “Whisky Rebellion" in 
 Pa... ...1801 
 
 Tripoli declares War against 
 U. S ... 1801 
 
 First Patent for making Potato 
 and Com Starch... 1802 
 
 Ohio admitted— 1802 
 
 West Point Military Academy 
 founded 1802 
 
 Louisiana purchased of France, 
 
 1803 
 
 Com. Preble sent to Algiers and 
 Tripoli 1803 
 
 Alexander Hamilton killed in 
 a Duel by Aaron Burr 1804 
 
 Amendment to the Constitu- 
 tion adopted— 1804 
 
 The Lewis and Clark exploring 
 Expedition 1804 
 
 1805 
 
 Other Countries. 
 
 Hatfield attempts to assassinate the 
 King, Enrj... r 1800 
 
 Battle of Marengo 1800 
 
 Battle of Hohenlinden 1800 
 
 Malta taken 1800 
 
 Armed neutrality of Northern Pow- 
 ers 1800 
 
 Union of Great Britain anu 
 Ireland 1801 
 
 Nelson’s Victory at Copenhagen . 1801 
 
 Peace of Laneville 1801 
 
 Alexander I., Russia... 1801 
 
 The Italian Republic. 1802 
 
 St. Domingo conquered 1802 
 
 Peace of Amiens 1802 
 
 Mahratta War. Battleof Assay. ..1803 
 
 Emmett’s insurrection, Ire 1803 
 
 Camp at Boulogne. Volunteers. . .1803 
 
 English and American 
 Literature. 
 
 “ Edinburg Review ” estab- 
 lished 1802 
 
 Malthus on Population— 1 803 
 
 Alison 1757-1839 
 
 Coleridge 1772-1834 
 
 Wordsworth 1770-1850 
 
 Southey 1774-1843 
 
 Landor 1775-1864 
 
 S. Rogers 1762-1856 
 
 • 
 
 Isaac Disraeli 1766-1848 
 
 C. Lamb '775-1835 
 
 J. R. Drake, Am 1795-1820 
 
 Slavery abolished in Canada, 
 
 1803 
 
 W Allston, Am... .1779-1843 
 
 Peace declared between Tripoli 
 and U. S 1805 
 
 Burr charged with Treason, ac- 
 quitted 1806 
 
 England persists in the right of 
 searching American Vessels. 1806 
 
 Rob’t Fulton, 1st Steamboat on 
 the Hudson 1807 
 
 Congress declares an Embargo 
 on all Vessels in American 
 Ports 1807 
 
 First Wooden Clocks made by 
 Machinery 1807 
 
 Trouble with England respect- 
 ing the rights of Neutrals.. .1807 
 
 First Printing Office west of 
 the Mississippi River, at St. 
 Lonis 1808 
 
 Abolition of the Slave Trade.. 18:8 
 
 Repeal of Embargo Act 1809 
 
 .James Madison, 4th President. 
 
 > 75 * - ' 836 
 
 Italian and Neapolitan Kingdoms, 
 
 1805-J 
 
 Third Coalition. - 1805 
 
 Battle of Trafalgar 1805 
 
 Russia Extends East and South... 1805 
 
 Capitulation of Ulm 1805 
 
 WELLINGTON 1768-1852 
 
 Coalition Ministry. 
 
 Battleof Austerlitz 1805 
 
 Deaths of Pitt and Fox 1806 
 
 Dutch and Westphalian Kingdoms. 
 
 1806-7 
 
 Fourth Coalition 1806 
 
 Battle of Jena 1806 
 
 German Empire Dissolved 1806 
 
 Confederation of Rhine 1806-1813 
 
 Francis I., Austria. 
 
 Eylan Friedland 1807 
 
 Peace of Tilsit. 1807 
 
 Danish Fleet captured 1807 
 
 Abolition of Slave Trade, Eng 1807 
 
 Madeira taken '807 
 
 Joseph, King of Spain 1808 
 
 New Nobility of France created.. .1828 
 
 Coruna and Walchcrin 1809 
 
 Ionian Islands. Collingwood 1809 
 
 Wellesley passi.s the Duro 1809 
 
 Battle of Taiavera 1809 
 
 Finland taken from Sweden 1809 
 
 Rattle of Wagram 1809 
 
 Pius VII. imprisoned 1809 
 
 Literature of the 
 Continent. 
 
 Voltaic Battery.. —1801 
 
 J. B. Say 1767-1820 
 
 Madame DeStael... 1767-18 17 
 
 MlCKIKWICK 1798-1843 
 
 Oehlenschlager.. 1777-1850 
 
 Fichte ...1762-1814 
 
 Pestalozzi 1746-1827 
 
 Kriroff 1768-1844 
 
 Chateaubriand 1769-1848 
 
 The Code Napoleon 1804 
 
 Tieck 1773-1858 
 
 Do Maistre 1754-1821 
 
 Fouqll6 1777-1843 
 
 Cobbett 1762-1835 
 
 Huzlitt 1778-1830 
 
 Miss Austen 1775-1818 
 
 Miss Edgeworth 1767-1849 
 
 W M. Wltford 1744-1327 
 
 T. Campbell 1777-1844 
 
 "Quarterly Review” 1809 
 
 Sir J. Mackintosh ...1765-1835 
 
 James Mill 1773-1836 
 
 BYRON 1788 1824 
 
 Washington Irving, Am.. 
 
 1783-1859 
 
 J. Fenlmore Cooper, Am., 
 
 1789-1851 
 
 T. 8. Key, Am 1779.1843 
 
 Chamisso 1781-1838 
 
 Rask - 1787-1814 
 
 Arndt ..—1769-1864 
 
 K timer 1790-1813 
 
 Amim ............... 1781-1831 
 
 Slimondl 1773-4841 
 
 Bnttina Briftitano 1777-1842 
 
 Varhngen Von Euse.. 1785-1858 
 
 Hegel 1770-1831 
 
 Neander 1789-1*50 
 
678 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 
 Table XIV. From A. D. 1800 to A. D. 1825. In Periods of Five Years. 
 
 English and American 
 Literature. 
 
 SHELLEY 
 
 1792-1822 
 
 William Roscoe 
 
 -1753-183 1 
 
 Keats 
 
 -1795-1821 
 
 Moore 
 
 .! 779 -i 852 
 
 Jeffrey 
 
 “ r 773 ~ I ^ 5 ° 
 
 Sir C. Bell 
 
 .1774-1842 
 
 J. Montgomery 
 
 .1771-1854 
 
 R. Heber 
 
 I783-1826 
 
 Sidney Smith 
 
 .1772-1845 
 
 Leigh Hunt 
 
 1784-1859 
 
 T. Hook 
 
 I788-I84I 
 
 A. Wilson, Am 
 
 I766-1813 
 
 Waverley Published 
 
 
 Edmund Kean, Act 
 
 .1790-1833 
 
 Hogg 
 
 1772-1835 
 
 Professor Wilson... 
 
 1785-1854 
 
 Wilkie, Pt 
 
 1785-1841 
 
 Haydon, Pt.. 
 
 I786-I846 
 
 Joanna Baillie 
 
 I762-I85I 
 
 Motherwell 
 
 1798.1835 
 
 E. Elliott 
 
 178 l-l 849 
 
 D. Ricardo 
 
 1772-1823 
 
 J. C. Calhoun. Am. 
 
 I782-185O 
 
 Daniel Webster, Am 
 
 1782-1852 
 
 1825 
 
 United States History. 
 
 Am. Board Foreign Missions 
 
 organized . 1810 
 
 Manufacture of Steel Pens com- 
 menced ... 1810 
 
 First Agricultural Fair in U. S., 
 
 at Georgetown, D. C 1810 
 
 Battle of Tippecanoe. Defeat 
 of Indians by Gen. Harrison-i8ii 
 Reparation made by England for 
 the attack on the Chesapeake, 181 1 
 Additional force of 35,000 men 
 
 authorized 1812 
 
 Detachmentof Militia not exceed- 
 ing 100,000 men authorized.. 1812 
 Gen. Henry Dearborn appoint- 
 ed Commander-in-Chief. 
 
 War declared against Great 
 
 Britain ...1812 
 
 Louisiana admitted 1812 
 
 Gen. Hull invades Canada 1812 
 
 “ surrenders to Gen. Brock. 1812 
 James Madison's 2d Presiden- 
 tial Term 1812-1817 
 
 Massacre of Americans by the 
 
 Indians at Rever Raisin 1313 
 
 The Power Loom introduced 
 
 into U. S 1813 
 
 Oswego taken by British 1814 
 
 Treaty of Peacesigned at Ghent, 1814 
 Washington City Burned by the 
 
 British .. 1814 
 
 Hartford Convention 1814 
 
 J ethro Wood patents Iron Plow, 1814 
 
 Treaty of Ghent ratified by 
 
 Congress 1815 
 
 Congress declares War against 
 
 Algiers 1815 
 
 U. S. Bank re-chartered for 20 
 
 years 1816 
 
 Indiana admitted _. 1816 
 
 The Erie Canal 1817-1825 
 
 James Monroe, 5th President, 
 
 1758-1831 
 
 Mississippi admitted 1817 
 
 Illinois admitted 1818 
 
 Gen. Jackson defeats the Sem- 
 
 inoles in Florida 1818 
 
 U. S. Flag adopted by Law ...1818 
 Foundation of New Capital 
 
 laid ..1818 
 
 Alabama admitted 1819 
 
 Lithography introduced into the 
 
 U. S 1819 
 
 The Savannah, first Steam 
 Packet crosses the Atlantic . . 1 8 19 
 
 James Monroe's 2d Presiden- 
 tial Election 1820 
 
 Passage of the Missouri Com- 
 promise 1820 
 
 Florida Ceded to United States 
 
 by Spain 1820 
 
 Percussion Caps for Guns first 
 
 used 1820 
 
 Maine admitted 1820 
 
 Stephen Decatur killed in a duel 
 
 by Com. Barron 1820 
 
 Missouri admitted 1821 
 
 Gas first used for illuminating 
 
 purposes 1822 
 
 Boston incorporated as a City. 1822 
 Independence of South Ameri- 
 can Republics acknowledged 
 
 by the U. S 1822 
 
 Com Porter suppresses piracies 
 
 in the West Indies 1823 
 
 The Monroe Doctrine 1823 
 
 Gen. La Fayette re-visits the 
 
 Ur. S -1823 
 
 Pins first made by Machinery. 1824 
 
 Other Countries. 
 
 Insanity of the King, Eng ..1810 
 
 Tyrol subdued. Ilofer 1810 
 
 Annexation of Holland 1810 
 
 Wellington at Tores Vedras 1810 
 
 The Regency, Eng 18 11 
 
 Soult and Massena in Spain 181 1 
 
 Stein 1757-1831 
 
 Invasion of Russia. Moscow burnt, 
 
 1812 
 
 Salamanca 1812 
 
 English Storm Cindad, Rodrigo, 
 
 and Badajos 1812 
 
 Perceval shot by Bellingham 1812 
 
 Lord Liverpool, Premier ...1812 
 
 Battle of Leipsic 1813 
 
 Lord Eldon, Chancellor, Eng. 1807-1827 
 
 Battle of Vittoria 1813 
 
 First Peace of Paris 1814 
 
 Abdication at Fontainebleau 1814 
 
 Louis XVIII., Fr 1814 
 
 Talleyrand, Fr (1754-1838) 
 
 Congress of Vienna 1814 
 
 Sir S. Romilly .(1757- 1818) 
 
 Napoleon returns from Elba and 
 
 ico days 1815 
 
 Battle op Waterloo 1815 
 
 Norway united with Sweden 1815 
 
 Holy Alliance 1815 
 
 Second Peace of Paris 1815 
 
 United Netherlands 1815 
 
 METTERNICH. -..(1773-1830) 
 
 Sir George Sherbroke, Governor 
 
 Lower Canada 1816 
 
 Agricultural and Weaver Riots, 
 
 Eng — 1816-1817 
 
 The Family of Napoleon forever 
 
 excluded from France 1816 
 
 Howe's Trial and acquittal 1817 
 
 Death of Princess Charlotte 1817 
 
 Specie payments resumed 1817 
 
 Republics in South America.. 1817-1830 
 
 Francia in Paraguay ...1816-1840 
 
 Bolivar in Bolivia 1817-1830 
 
 Duke of Richmond, Governor of 
 
 Lower Canada 1818 
 
 Peel's Currency Act 1819 
 
 Parry’s Voyages 1819 
 
 George IV., Eng ........ 1762-1830 
 
 Victoria born 1819 
 
 Inquisition abolished in Spain 1820 
 
 Cato Street Conspiracy, Eng 1820 
 
 Trial of Queen Caroline 1820 
 
 Death of Napoleon 1821 
 
 Austria maintains Despotisms in 
 Italy. 
 
 Antagonism between the French 
 and English Inhabitants Lower 
 Canada 1822 
 
 Castlereagh’s Suicide 1822 
 
 “ replaced by Canning. 1823 
 First Mechanics’ Institute, Eng 
 Agitation about Test and Corpora- 
 tion Acts, Eng 1823 
 
 English-Burmese War... ..1824 
 
 Charles X 1824 
 
 W elland Canal . Canada Charter ..1824 
 
 Brazil Independent 1825 
 
 Greek War of Independence. . 1822-1829 
 Nicholas I., Russia 1825-1855 
 
 Lockhart 1794-1854 
 
 Galt 1779-1839 
 
 Wm. Ettt,PY 1787-1798 
 
 Mrs. Hemans 1793-1835 
 
 Pollok 1799-1827 
 
 Barham (Ingoldsby). 1788-1845 
 George Stephenson ..1781-1848 
 
 LlNGARD 1771-1851 
 
 Thomas Hood 1799-1845 
 
 Chautrey , A. and S. 1781-1841 
 Davidson Sisters, Am. 1808-1838 
 
 W. Wirt, Am 1772-1834 
 
 Audubon, “ 1780-1851 
 
 J. Kent. * 1 1763-1847 
 
 Literature or other 
 Countries. 
 
 Uuiversity of Berlin 1810 
 
 C. Ritter . 1779-1859 
 
 Berzelius.... ..1779-1848 
 
 Gay Lussac 1778-1856 
 
 Thorwaldsen, A. and S., 
 
 1770-1844 
 
 SCHELLING ..1775-1854 
 
 Ugo Foscolo 1778-1827 
 
 Savigny 1779-1861 
 
 NIEBUHR 1776-1831 
 
 Schopenhauer 1788-1860 
 
 Heeren 1760-1842 
 
 Pousckin, Bus 1799-1837 
 
 Lacordaire 1802-1861 
 
 Lammenais ...1782-1854 
 
 Tegner 1782-1846 
 
 A. Be Tocqueville.. 1805-1859 
 
 Platen 1796-1835 
 
 Uhland 1787-1862 
 
 Paganini (Mus.) 1784-1840 
 
 Beranger 1780-1857 
 
 Neander 1789-1850 
 
 HEINE 1800-1856 
 
 Borne (Immermann) .1796-1840 
 
 Jouffray 1796-1842 
 
 Cousin 1792-1867 
 
 Guizot 1787-1874 
 
 Manzoni 1784.1873 
 
 Lerinontoff 1814-1840 
 
 Boyle, H. (Stendhal).. 1783-1842 
 
 Turgenieff 1784-1845 
 
 Silvio Pellico 1789-1854 
 
 Rossini, Mus 1792-1868 
 
 Malibran (Garcia) Act., 
 
 1808-1836 
 
JsL 
 
 4 
 
 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 679 
 Table XV. From A. D. 1825 to A. D. 1845. In Periods of Five Years. 
 
 1825 
 
 1830 
 
 United States History. 
 
 J. Q. Adams, 6th President. . 1767-1848 
 
 Corner Stone Bunker Hill Monu- 
 ment laid by Lafayette 1825 
 
 Babcock makes first Piano 1825 
 
 Convention with Great Britain con- 
 cerning Indemnities 1826 
 
 John Adams died ..1826 
 
 Thomas Jefferson died —.1826 
 
 Duel between Henry Clay and John 
 Randolph 1826 
 
 Intense Anti-Masonic excitement- . 1826 
 
 First Railroad in the U. S., from 
 Quincy to Boston 1827 
 
 Sand and Emery Paper first made. 1828 
 
 Passage of Tariff Bill. Woolen 
 Manufacturers protected 1828 
 
 Tariff Bill a law. Opposed by Cot- 
 ton States 1828 
 
 Andrew Jackson, 7th President, 
 
 1767-1845 
 
 “ opposes the project to re- 
 charter Bank of U. S..1829 
 
 Daniel Webster’s great speech 
 against nullification 1829 
 
 Samuel Colt made his first Revolver, 
 
 1829 
 
 Treaty with Turkey 1830 
 
 The Mormon Church founded by 
 
 Jos. Smith 1830 
 
 Death of ex-President Monroe 1831 
 
 Establishment of the Liberator... 1831 
 First Mowing Machine patented. .1831 
 Chloroform discovered by Gustino. 1 83 1 
 Steam Knitting Machinery first 
 
 used .-.1831 
 
 Pres. Jackson vetoes the Bank 
 
 Bill <832 
 
 New Tariff Measures passed 1832 
 
 Rubber Shoes first made I..1832 
 
 South Carolina Nullification Move- 
 ment - 1832 
 
 First appearance of Asiatic Cholera, 
 
 1832 
 
 The Black Hawk War 1832 
 
 State’s Rights Doctrine dates from 1832 
 President Jackson's Nullification 
 
 Proclamation 1832 
 
 Prof. Morse invents the Magnetic 
 
 Telegraph 1832 
 
 Removal of the Public Deposits 
 
 from the Bunk of the U. S 1833 
 
 Andrew Jackson's 2d Presidential 
 
 Term 1833 
 
 Tariff Controversy settled .... 1833 
 
 The N. Y. Sun, first penny paper 
 
 established 1833 
 
 First Double-Cylinder Press made. 1833 
 
 Caloric engine invented 1833 
 
 Gen. Thompson killed in Seminole 
 
 War 1834 
 
 Lucifer Matches first made In U. S.1834 
 Cyrus McCormick's Reaper patented, 
 1834 
 
 Other Countries. 
 
 First Railway in England 1825 
 
 Thames Tunnel 1825 
 
 Canning, Minister, Eng 1827 
 
 Battle of Navarino 1827 
 
 Palmerston. Foreign Secretary, 
 Eng 1827 
 
 O’Connell’s Agitations in Ireland, 
 
 1828 
 
 Wellington, ’’rime Minister... 1828 
 
 Peace of Adrianople 1829 
 
 Contest between Dom Pedro 
 and Prince Miguel in Portu- 
 gal 1826-1834 
 
 Catholic Emancipation, Eng.. 1829 
 
 First agitation for responsible 
 government in Upper Canada, 
 
 1829 
 
 English and American 
 Literature, 
 
 July Revolution in France . 1830 
 
 Lord Aylmer, Governor of Lower 
 Canada 1830 
 
 Charles X. abdicates in favor of 
 Duke of Bordeaux 1830 
 
 Insurrection in Poland. 1830-1831 
 
 Louis Philippe, Fr 1830-1848 
 
 William IV., Eng 1830-1837 
 
 Earl Grey's Ministry, Eng 1831 
 
 Leopold, King of Belgians — 1831 
 The Reform Bill, Eng... 1830-1832 
 Dutch thrown back on Holland, 
 
 1832 
 
 Imperial Duties surrendered to 
 
 the Canadian Asrembly 1832 
 
 Russia takes remains of Poland, 
 
 1832 
 
 Otho of Bavaria, King of Greece, 
 1832 
 
 Negro Slavery abolished in 
 
 British Colonies 1833 
 
 The Zollverein, Oer 1834 
 
 Trades-Union and Repeal Riots, 
 
 Eng >834 
 
 Lord Melbourne's Ministry, Eng.. 
 
 1834 
 
 Don Carlos in Spain 1833-1840 
 
 Quadruple Alliance 1834 
 
 Lord John Russell, Whig 
 
 Leader, Eng 1834 
 
 Maria Christina, Sp, , Regent, 
 
 1833-1840 
 
 Lord Brougham, Whig Orator, 
 
 1834 
 
 Tracturluh Movement, Eng., 
 
 >833-184 t 
 
 Sir William Hamilton, 
 
 1788-1856 
 
 Dr Chalmers 1786-1847 
 
 L. E. Landon 1802-1838 
 
 Miss Mitford 1787-1855 
 
 Edward Irving 1792-1834 
 
 Sheridan Knowles . . . 1 784- 1 862 
 
 Procter (Barry Cornwall), 
 
 1798-1862 
 
 De Quincey 1785-1860 
 
 Macaulay 1800-1859 
 
 II. Hallam 1778-1859 
 
 CARLYLE 1795-1881 
 
 Story, Am. law 1779-1845 
 
 Marshall, “ 1755-1835 
 
 Emmons, Am. </i«>f..i745-'84° 
 
 Literature and Art op 
 other Countries. 
 
 Whately 1787-1863 
 
 P. F. Tytler 1791-1849 
 
 Dr. Arnold >795‘>84 2 
 
 Macready, Act.. 1793-1873 
 
 Sir F. Palgrave 1788-1861 
 
 Broughum 1778-1868 
 
 Charles Napier 1786-1861 
 
 William Napier 1785-1861 
 
 Turner, Vl «77S-« 8 5> 
 
 David Cox, I't I793- |8 59 
 
 Ilalleck, Am >795->8 6 7 
 
 R. 11. Dana, Am 1787 1879 
 
 J. Pierpont “ 1785 1866 
 
 Perclval, “ ... .1793-1856 
 
 Donizetti, Mus 
 
 .I798-1848 
 
 Schubert, Mus 
 
 . I797-1828 
 
 Bellini, Mus 
 
 , 1806-1835 
 
 Mendelssohn, Mus . 
 
 1809-1847 
 
 Meyerbeer, Mus 
 
 .1794-1864 
 
 A. Scheffer, PI 
 
 .>795-1858 
 
 I)ELA ROCHE. Pt 
 
 .>797-1852 
 
 Augustin Thierry 
 
 ■i795->8j6 
 
 Balzac 
 
 .>799-1850 
 
 Comte 
 
 .1798-1857 
 
 Lenan 
 
 .l80a-l850 
 
 Arago 
 
 .1786-185* 
 
 mi 
 
 
 Lamartine 
 
 . I 790- I 869 
 
 Michelet 
 
 .1798-1874 
 
 Victor Hugo 
 
 . 1802 
 
 Leopardi 
 
 .1798-1837 
 
 Giuuti 
 
 
 Becker 
 
 .1816-1845 
 
 F. Bremer 
 
 . 1801 - I865 
 
 Oernted 
 
 
 II. C. Andersen 
 
 
 l.lpsius 
 
 1818 1853 
 
 Kwuld 
 
 .. 1803- 1875 
 
 ,1. II Dumas. FV — 
 
 
 7>PV 
 
680 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 
 Table XV. From A. D. 1825 to A. D. 1845. In Periods of Five Years. 
 
 United States History. 
 
 Great Fire in New York; 674 build- 
 ings burned 1835 
 
 Seminole Indian War, under Osceola, 
 
 1835 
 
 Creek Indians in Georgia removed 
 beyond the Mississippi 1835 
 
 N. Y. Herald founded by James G 
 Bennett 1835 
 
 The National Debt paid 1835 
 
 Post and Patent Offices, Washing- 
 ton, burned 1836 
 
 Alpaca first made 1836 
 
 Arkansas admitted 1836 
 
 Electric Telegraph 1837 
 
 Martin Van Buren, 8th President, 
 
 1782-1862 
 
 Independence of Texas acknowledged, 
 
 1837 
 
 Great Financial Crisis 1837 
 
 Extra session of Congress called to 
 devise relief ; 1837 
 
 Riot at Alton, 111. Rev. E. P. Love- 
 joy killed 1837 
 
 The Mormons driven from Missouri, 
 
 1838 
 
 The Banks suspend specie payments, 
 
 '839 
 
 Goodyear invents Vulcanized Rubber, 
 
 1839 
 
 Log Cabin and Hard Cider Campaign, 
 
 1840 
 
 Jerome manufactures Brass Clocks, 
 
 • 1840 
 
 William Henry Harrison. 9th 
 President 1 773-184 1 
 
 President Harrison died in office. .1841 
 
 N. Y. Tribum founded by Horace 
 Greeley 1841 
 
 U. S. Bank failed, followed by 
 banks generally 1841 
 
 Webster’s Dictionary appeared... 1841 
 
 Troubles with Canada 1841 
 
 All the members of Cabinet resign 
 but Mr. Webster 1841 
 
 John Tyler, Vice-President, be- 
 comes President 1841 
 
 The Webster- Ashburton Treaty... 1842 
 
 Seminole War terminated 1842 
 
 The “Dorr Rebellion,” Rhode 
 Island ,g 42 
 
 Settlement of the N. B. Boundary 
 question ,g 43 
 
 U. P. Upsher, Sec. of State, and 
 T. W . Gilmer killed by bursting 
 of a gnn on steamer Princeton.. 1843 
 
 Fremont Explores the Rocky 
 Mountains ,g 43 
 
 First Patent for Fireproof Safe. ..1843 
 
 First Telegraph — Washington to 
 Baltimore.... ,g 44 
 
 Other Countries. 
 
 English and American 
 Literature. 
 
 H. Taylor 1800 
 
 J. H. Newman 1801 
 
 E. B. Pusey 1800 
 
 Keble .,1792-1866 
 
 A. W. Pugin, A. and S., 
 
 1811-1852 
 
 Isaac Taylor 1787-1865 
 
 D. Jerrold 1803-1857 
 
 Milman 1791-1868 
 
 Thirl wall 1797-1875 
 
 Grote ...... 1794-1871 
 
 J. S. Mill ...1806-1873 
 
 J. F. Cooper, Am. novelist , 
 
 1789-1851 
 
 Mrs. Sedgwick, “ 1789-1867 
 
 Paulding, “ 1778-1860 
 
 Literature and Art op 
 other Countries. 
 
 ■835 
 
 The Jupineau party advocate 
 Canadian separation from 
 Great Britain 1835 
 
 Mehemet Ali 1 
 
 > 1832-1848 
 
 Ibrahim Pasha ) 
 
 Ecclesiastical Commission, Eng., 
 1836 
 
 Louis Napoleon at Strasburg.i836 
 
 VICTORIA 1837 
 
 Ernest Augustus of Hanover.. 1837 
 
 Coersive measures of the British 
 Parliament 1837 
 
 House of Assembly, Lower 
 Canada, refuses to transact 
 business 1837 
 
 Insurrection in Canada.. 1837-1838 
 
 Anti-Corn-Law League, Eng.. 1838 
 
 Lord Durham in Canada 1838 
 
 Union of Upper and Lower 
 Canada. Lord Sydenham, 
 Governor 1839 
 
 Clergy Reserve’s question set- 
 tled, Canada 1840 
 
 Death of Lord Sydenham 1840 
 
 Queen Victoria’s Marriage 1840 
 
 Penny Postage, Eng., established, 
 1840 
 
 Sir William Peel in power, 
 
 1841-1846 
 
 Opium War in China 1839-1842 
 
 Afghan War in Cabul 1838-1842 
 
 Louis Napoleon at Boulogne. .1840 
 
 Espartero in Spain 1840-1843 
 
 Abd-el-Kader 1835-1847 
 
 Frederick William IV 1840 
 
 War in Scinde 1843 
 
 Free-Church Secession 1843 
 
 Isabella II. of Spain. ..1843-1868 
 
 Canadian Government removed 
 to Montreal 1844 
 
 Charles Albert, Sardinia. 1831-1849 
 
 Trial of O’Connell, Ire 1844 
 
 Montalembert 1810-1870 
 
 A. Dumas (Pere) 1803 871 
 
 Zschokke 1771-1848 
 
 Mine. Dudevant (George Sand), 
 1804-1876 
 
 Eugene Sue 1804-1857 
 
 Lenancourt (Obermann)? 
 
 Azeglio 1800-1866 
 
 Quinet 1803-1875 
 
 Chopin, Mus .1810-1849 
 
 J. L. Grimm 1785-1863 
 
 W. K. Grimm 1786-1859 
 
 1840 
 
 1845 
 
 T. M. Kemble 1807-1857 
 
 Moxon tried for “ Queen 
 Mab” 1841 
 
 Stanfield, Pt 1798-1867 
 
 Channing 1780-1842 
 
 Miss Martineau 1801-1876 
 
 Sir A. Alison 1790-1867 
 
 J W. Donaldson 1811-1861 
 
 Sir E. L. Buhver 1805-1873 
 
 E. B. Browning 1805-1861 
 
 B. Disraeli 1805-1881 
 
 W. E. Gladstone 1809 
 
 Sir D. Brewster, <Sfct.. 1781-1868 
 Faraday, “ ..1791-1867 
 
 Noah Webster, A m .1758-1843 
 N. P. Willis, 11 .1806-1867 
 G. P. Morris, “.1802-1864 
 Burton, Ad., “ .1804-1860 
 Woodworth, “ .1812-1859 
 D. P. Thompson, “ .1795-1868 
 Mrs. Sigourney, “ .1791-1865 
 
 Dahlmann 1785 
 
 Gervinus 1805-1871 
 
 Verdi, Mus ...1814 
 
 Mdle. Grisi, Ad 1812 
 
 Rachel, Ad 1821-1858 
 
 Jenny Lind, Singer. 1821 
 
 Strauss, Mus 1808-1874 
 
 J. Bunsen ... 1791-1860 
 
 Lappenberg 1795-1865 
 
 F. C. Schlosser -1861 
 
 Ranke... 1795 
 
 Ddllinger 1799 
 
 M. d’Aubigne.. 1794 
 
TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 681 
 Table XVI. From A. D. 1845 to A. D- 1865. In Periods of Five Years. 
 
 United States History. 
 
 1845 
 
 James K. Polk, nth President, 
 
 „ . . , . 1 795 ~i 839 
 
 Mexico declares war against the 
 U. S ! 1845 
 
 Texas admitted ,845 
 
 Thornton and party captured by 
 Mexicans i8 4 6 
 
 Congress declares “ War existed by 
 the act of Mexico" ,8 4 6 
 
 Gun Cotton invented 1846 
 
 Ether first used as an anaesthetic. -1846 
 
 Iowa admitted. 4846 
 
 Elias Howe Sewing Machine patented, 
 
 „ T. l8 46 
 
 Oregon Dispute 1845-1846 
 
 Smithsonian Institute founded.... 1847 
 
 American Army enters City of 
 Mexico ,8 47 
 
 Treaty of Peace with Mexico 1848 
 
 Wisconsin admitted 1848 
 
 Gold first discovered in California. 1848 
 
 Zachary Taylor, 12th President, 
 
 1784-1850 
 
 President Taylor forbids the fitting 
 out of filibusting expeditions 
 against Cuba i8 4 q 
 
 U. S. Gold Dollars first coined 1849 
 
 The Frencn Ambassador dismissed 
 from Washington 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 Death of President Taylor 1850 
 
 N. Y. Times established... 1850 
 
 Vice-President Fillmore be- 
 comes President 1800-1874 
 
 California admitted 1850 
 
 Fugitive Slave Act passed 1850 
 
 Treaty with England for a transit- 
 way across Panama 1850 
 
 Kossuth, a Hungarian patriot, 
 arrives in New York 1851 
 
 Congressional Library destroyed by 
 
 fire 1851 
 
 Dispute with England about the 
 
 fisheries 1852 
 
 Death of Daniel Webster and Henry 
 
 Clay... 1852 
 
 Expedition to Japan 1852 
 
 First Street Railroad in New York 
 
 City 1852 
 
 First Steam Fire Engine used 1853 
 
 Exploration for a Pacific Railroad. 1853 
 Franklin Pierce, 14th President, 
 
 1804-1869 
 
 Greytown, Central America, bom- 
 barded for Spanish insult to U. S. 
 
 Consul 1853 
 
 World’s Fair, or Crystal Palace, 
 opened in New York 1853 
 
 Dr. Kane sails for the Arctic Sea.. 1853 
 “ Kansas-Nebraska Bill” passed.. 1854 
 
 Treaty with Japan 1854 
 
 Reciprocity Treaty with England. 1854 
 Repeal of the Compromise of 1820. . 1854 
 Massachusetts Aid Society send out 
 
 Settlers to Kansas 1854 
 
 A. H. Reeder appointed Governor 
 of Kansas 1854 
 
 Other Countries. 
 
 Great Fire at Quebec 1845 
 
 Sir John Franklin's last voyage. 
 
 1845 
 
 Cobden and Bright flourish.. 1845 
 
 Irish Famine 1846 
 
 Austrians seize Cracow 1846 
 
 Pius IX., Pp 1846 
 
 Corn Laws abolished 1 846 
 
 Lord Elgin, Governor of Canada, 
 
 * 1847 
 
 Financial Panic in England... 1847 
 
 Sikh Wars 1845-46, 1S4S-49 
 
 Caffre Wars with England, 
 
 1847-1848 
 
 Rajah Brooke in Borneo 1847 
 
 Joseph Story -1847 
 
 3d French Revolution 1848 
 
 2d French Republic 1848 
 
 Louis Napoleon, President 1848 
 
 Mazzini at Rome — 1848 
 
 Chartist Riots, Eng 1848 
 
 Kossuth in Hungary 1848 
 
 Smith, O’Brien and Mitchell.. 1848 
 
 Battle of Novara 1849 
 
 Canadian Annexation agitated .1849 
 Great Riots in Montreal 1849 
 
 Palmerston, Prime Minister, 
 Eng 1850-1865 
 
 Death of Peel ..1850 
 
 Coup d’Etat and Massacre at 
 Paris 1851 
 
 Gold discovered in Australia.. 1851 
 
 Lord Derby, Conservative 
 Leader, Eng.. 1851-1860 
 
 Death of Wellington 1852 
 
 Goobertio in Ituly (1801-1852) 
 
 Aberdeen Ministry, Eng. 1852-1855 
 
 Great Fire at Montreal 1852 
 
 Manteuffel in Russia. . .(1805-1858) 
 Burmese War with England.. 1852 
 
 Napoleon III... 1852-1870 
 
 Crimean War 1853-1856 
 
 Russians cross the Priitli 1853 
 
 Turkish Fleet at Sinope 1853 
 
 Battles of Alma, Buluklava, 
 Inkermann.... 1854 
 
 Siege of Sebastopol 1854-1855 
 
 English and American 
 Literature. 
 
 Literature and Art op 
 other Countries. 
 
 Mrs. Sojnerville 
 
 .1780-1872 
 
 
 
 Whcwell 
 
 .1794-1866 
 
 Liebig 
 
 
 R. Murchison 
 
 .1792-1871 
 
 
 
 C. Lyell 
 
 -1797-1875 
 
 Helmholtz 
 
 
 Hugh Miller 
 
 • 
 
 1802-1856 
 
 
 
 Samuel Brown 
 
 .1817-1856 
 
 Discovery of Neptune 1846 
 
 Sir J. Herschell 
 
 1792-1871 
 
 
 
 R. Owen 
 
 .1804 
 
 A. Herzen 
 
 
 J.P. Nichol 
 
 .1804 
 
 
 
 Sir W. R. Hamilton.. 1805-1865 
 
 Wm. Cullen Bryant, Am., 
 
 1784-1878 
 
 Edward Everett, .1m. 1794-1865 
 
 Wm. H. Prescott, “ .1796-1854 
 
 Schwanthaler, A. 
 
 Rauch, A. ami S 
 
 and <$., 
 
 1802-1848 
 
 ... 1777-1857 
 
 George Bancroft, “ 
 
 1800 
 
 
 
 R. W. Emerson, “ 
 
 1803-1882 
 
 
 
 N. Hawthorne, “ 
 
 1804-1864 
 
 Mommsen, tier.. 
 
 
 H. Powers, S 
 
 1805-1873 
 
 
 
 L. M. Child*. Am 
 
 Mrs. Judson, “ 
 
 1802 
 
 1817-1854 
 
 Curtius, Ger 
 
 
 Washington Irving 
 
 , Am., 
 1783-1859 
 
 
 
 Edgar A. Poe, Am. 
 
 18H-1840 
 
 
 
 M. Stuart, “ 
 
 I780-1852 
 
 
 
 W. W. Story, 
 
 1819 
 
 
 
 H. D. Thoreau, “ .. 
 
 l8l7-l8(2 
 
 
 
 J. R. Lowell. “ .. 
 
 1819 
 
 
 
 F. E. Church, Pt... 
 
 1826 
 
 
 
 C. Darwin 
 
 1809-1882 
 
 
 
 Sir C. Eastlake, Pt. 
 
 1793-1865 
 
 Overbeck, Pt 
 
 
 Harriet Beecher Stowe. Am. % 
 1812 
 
 A. Tennykon i8cg 
 
 Kaulbach, Tt 
 
 
 T. Graham 
 
 I805-1869 
 
 
 
 Charles Dickens . 
 
 1812-1870 
 
 Jules Junin, J<y.. 
 
 ....1804-1874 
 
 Wm. M. Thackeray 
 
 l8ll-l863 
 
 
 
 
 1816-1855 
 
 18H-1865 
 
 
 
 Mr«. Coftkcll 
 
 
 
 J. F. Fcrrler 
 
 i8o8-i8f'4 
 
 
 
 Landseer, Pt 
 
 1802-1873 
 
 
 
 C. Mcrlvolc 
 
 1808 
 
 
 
 David Scott, l*t 
 
 1806-1849 
 
 
 
682 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Continued. 
 
 Table XVI. From A. D. 1845 to A. D. 1865. In Periods of Five Years. 
 
 English and American 
 Literature. 
 
 W. E. Avtoun ... 
 
 
 II. McCulloch, Pt 
 
 1806-1867 
 
 E. M. Ward, Pt.. 
 
 ....1816 
 
 Philip Bailey 
 
 
 Svdney Dobell... 
 
 1824-1874 
 
 Alexander Smith. 
 
 
 Ruskin 
 
 1819 
 
 A. H. Clough 
 
 
 Norman Macleod 
 
 1811-1873 
 
 Sir G. C. Lewis.. 
 
 1806-1863 
 
 I. D. Maurice 
 
 
 J. Hill Burton ... 
 
 00 
 
 0 
 
 vO 
 
 Dr. J. Brown 
 
 
 Robert Browning 
 
 1812 
 
 J. Sparks. Am. .. 
 
 
 Palfrey, “ ... 
 
 — 1796 
 
 Goodrich, “ 
 
 
 E. K. Kane, 44 ... 
 
 
 United States History. 
 
 1855 
 
 1865 
 
 Territorial Legislature of Kansas 
 
 meets at Shawnee 1855 
 
 Free State men meet at Topeka. . . 1855 
 Anti-Slavery excitement in Kansas, 
 1855 
 
 Sioux Indians defeated by Gen. Howe, 
 
 1855 
 
 Suspension Bridge over Niagara 
 
 completed 1855 
 
 President Pierce recognizes the Fili- 
 buster Gen. Walker as President 
 
 of Nicaraugua 1856 
 
 Mr. Crampton, British Minister at 
 
 Washington, dismissed 1856 
 
 Severe Fighting in Kansas 1856 
 
 James Buchanan, 15th President, 
 
 1791-1868 
 
 The Dred-Scott decision rendered 
 
 by Chief Justice Taney 1857 
 
 Troubles with the Mormons 1857 
 
 Great Financial Panic 1857 
 
 Great religious revivals... --1857 
 
 Dispute with England respecting 
 the right of completion of the 
 Atlantic Telegraph, 1858; Search, 
 
 1858 
 
 Minnesota admitted .1858 
 
 Mount Vernon purchased by the 
 
 ladies 1858 
 
 Oregon admitted 1859 
 
 Oil first discovered at Titusville, Pa.. 
 
 1859 
 
 Alexander A. Stephens advocates a 
 
 Southern Confederacy 1859 
 
 Prince of Wales visits the U. S 1859 
 
 Abraham Lincoln, 16th President, 
 
 1809-1865 
 
 South Carolina passes Ordinance of 
 
 Secession i860 
 
 Cabinet Officers, U. S. Senators, 
 and Members of Congress from 
 
 Southern States resign i860 
 
 New York Banks suspend Specie 
 
 Payment 1861 
 
 Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, 
 Georgia, Tennessee, Arkansas, 
 North Carolina, Louisiana, and 
 
 Texas secede 1861 
 
 Provisional Government of Con- 
 federate States adopted at Mont- 
 gomery 1861 
 
 Jefferson Davis, President 1861 
 
 Bombardment of Fort Sumter 1861 
 
 Virginia divided into two States. .1861 
 
 Call for 75,000 Volunteers 1861 
 
 Non-intercourse Proclamation 1861 
 
 General Scott resigns Command of 
 
 Army !86 i 
 
 Gen. George B. McClellan appoint- 
 ed Commander-in-Chief 1861 
 
 The Trent affair 1861 
 
 President Lincoln calls for 300,000 
 
 more men 1862 
 
 Confederate Congress meets in Rich- 
 mond 1862 
 
 Kansas admitted .. .1862 
 
 Proclamation of Emancipation 1862 
 
 West Virginia admitted 1862 
 
 ist U. S. Colored Regiment enrolled, 
 
 1863 
 
 Anti-draft Riots in New York City . 1863 
 
 Proclamation of Amnesty 1863 
 
 Draft of 500,000 men ordered 1864 
 
 Nevada admitted 1864 
 
 Gen. U. S. Grant appointed Com- 
 
 munder-in-Chief 1 1864 
 
 President Lincoln calls for 200,000 
 
 men ,864 
 
 Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 repealed, 
 
 1864 
 
 Chambersburg, Pa., burned 1864 
 
 Other Countries. 
 
 Death of Nicholas --1855 
 
 Alexander II., Emperor of Russia, 
 .855 
 
 Russia grants Amnesty to Poles, 
 
 1856 
 
 Annexation of Oude 1856 
 
 Panama R. R. to Aspinwall 
 opened 1856 
 
 Persian War 1856-1857 
 
 Indian Mutiny, East Indies, 
 
 1857-1858 
 
 Government of India transfer- 
 red to Crown 1858 
 
 Second ChineseWar. TheCon- 
 cha Arrow 1856-1860 
 
 Conspiracy Bill. Volunteers, Eng., 
 1858 
 
 Cavour in Italy.. (1810-1861) 
 
 Franco-Austrian War 1859 
 
 Solferino, Savoy and Nice to 
 France 1859 
 
 Lord Palmerston resigns and 
 returns 1859 
 
 Stanley, Secretaryfor India. 1859 
 
 Commercial Treaty England 
 and France ..i860 
 
 Garibaldi in Sicily i860 
 
 William I., King of Prussia. .1861 
 
 Victor Emanuel, King of Italy. 1861 
 
 Otlio expelled from Greece 1861 
 
 Queen Victoria proclaims neu- 
 trality 1861 
 
 Napoleon III. proclaims neu- 
 trality 18 1 
 
 Confedrate Alabama sails from 
 
 England 
 
 
 1862 
 
 H. Buckle 
 
 
 Cotton Famine in England, 
 1862- 
 
 1 863 
 
 M. Fuller, Am.. 
 
 
 George, King of Greece 
 
 
 1863 
 
 H. Reed, “ .. 
 
 
 Insurrection in Poland... 
 
 
 1863 
 
 P. Benjamin, “ .. 
 
 
 French in Mexico 
 
 
 1864 
 
 J. Q. Adams. “ .. 
 
 T. H. Benton," .. 
 
 I767-1848 
 
 Schleswig-Holstein War 
 
 
 1864 
 
 Wheaton. * 4 .. 
 
 - .I785-1848 
 
 Bismarck 
 
 1814 
 
 
 Silliman, “ .. 
 
 - -i779-*864 
 
 Ionian Islands surrender. 
 
 
 1864 
 
 E. Hitchcock," .. 
 
 ...1793-1864 
 
 Sir A. Helps 1817-1875 
 
 Froude 1818 
 
 Kingsley 1819-1875 
 
 Layard 1817 
 
 Kinglake 18 n 
 
 G. II. Lewes 1817-1878 
 
 J. W. Colenso 1814 
 
 B. Jowett 1817 
 
 A. P. Stanley... 1815 
 
 M. Arnold 1822 
 
 Literature and Art of 
 other Countries. 
 
 Sainte-Beuve 1804-1869 
 
 De Musset 1810-1857 
 
 v 
 
 J. J. Ampere 1800-1864 
 
 Littre 1801 
 
 P. Mer m6e 1803-1870 
 
 Wagner, Mus 1813 
 
 R. Schumann, Mus... 1810-1856 
 
 Ristori, Act ...1821 
 
 Rosa Bonheur, Pt ..1822 
 
 Millet, Pt 1815-187; 
 
 Spectrum Analysis . .1861 
 
 Geibel 1815 
 
 Freiligrath 1810-1 876 
 
 Gutzkow 1811-1878 
 
 Frey tag. Oer 1 788-1861 
 
 Renan, Fr 1823 
 
TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE. — Continued. 683 
 Table XVII. From A. D. 1865 to A. D. 1880. In Periods of Five Years. 
 
 United States History. 
 
 1865 
 
 Gen. Lee surrenders 
 
 Other Countries. 
 
 1865 
 
 Gladstone in power 
 
 President Lincoln assassinated 
 by Wilkes Booth 1865 
 
 Seven-Weeks War. 
 
 American Literature. 
 
 1865-1874 
 1866 
 
 J. E. Worcester 
 
 J. P. Marsh 
 
 Albert Barnes .. 
 
 1784-1865 
 
 1801 
 
 1798-1870 
 
 Yice-Pres. Andrew Johnson 
 becomes President 1808-1875 
 
 Booth, the assassin, mortally 
 wounded and captured. 1865 
 
 15th Amendment submitted . .1865 
 
 Atlantic Cable successfully laid. 
 
 1866 
 
 The Freedmen's Bureau Bill, 
 and Civil Rights Bill passed 
 over President Johnson’s 
 
 veto 1866 
 
 Nebraska admitted 1867 
 
 Horace Greeley and others sign 
 Jefferson Davis’ bail bond. -1867 
 
 Alaska purchased from Russia. 1867 
 
 President Johnson impeached 
 by the House and acquitted.. 1868 
 
 Battle of Sadowa 1866 
 
 North German Confederation, 
 
 1866 
 
 Venice falls to Italy 1866 
 
 Lord Russell’s Reform Bill, Eng.. 1866 
 
 » 
 
 Fenianism in Ireland and United 
 
 States 1867 
 
 Mr. Disraeli’s Reform Bill 1867 
 
 Maximilian shot in Mexico ..1867 
 
 The Dominion of Canada formed. -1867 
 
 Francis Joseph crowned at Pesth, 
 
 1867 
 
 Gladstone Ministry, Eng - 1868 
 
 H. W. Longfellow. 
 
 1807 
 
 J G. Whittier 
 
 1807 
 
 W. D. Whitney 
 
 1827 
 
 T. B. Read 
 
 1825-1872 
 
 J. G. Saxe 
 
 1816 
 
 F. Way land 
 
 Journalists: — 
 
 1796-1865 
 
 G. D. Prentice 
 
 1802-1870 
 
 Horace Greeley 
 
 1811-1872 
 
 H. J. Raymond... 
 
 1820-1869 
 
 Thurlow Weed 
 
 1797 
 
 J. W. Forney 
 
 1817 
 
 J. G. Bennett 
 
 1795-1872 
 
 J G. Holland 
 
 .1819 
 
 C. Anthon 
 
 1797-1867 
 
 Haliburton (Sam. Slick), 
 
 1802-1865 
 
 Hildreth 
 
 .1807-1865 
 
 Rev. Dr. McClintock 
 
 .1814-1870 
 
 Mrs. Parton (Fanny Fern), 
 
 1811-1870 
 
 J. T. Field 
 
 1820 
 
 I). G. Mitchell (Ik Marvel), 
 
 1822 
 
 English and other Foreign 
 Literature. 
 
 J. P. Joule, Scientist. 1818 
 
 J G. Stokes, ” .1820 
 
 W. Tyndall, “ 1820 
 
 Sir Wm. Thompson. 
 
 Scientist. 1824 
 T. H. Huxley, “ .1825 
 
 M. Taine, Fr 1828 
 
 E. Angier, “ 1820 
 
 T. Gautier, “ 1811-1872 
 
 G. Dor£, “ Art 1852 
 
 O. Feuillet, “ 1822 
 
 Dumas (HI), Fr 1824 
 
 A. Trollope, novelist.. 1815 
 
 C. Reade “ ..1814 
 
 W. Collins, “ ..1824 
 
 Mrs. Cross (George Eliot), 
 novelist 1822 
 
 Mrs. Oliphant, novelist, 
 
 1820-1857 
 
 Mrs.L. Linton, novelist. 1822 
 
 Ulysses S. Grant, 18th Presi- 
 dent - 1869 
 
 Death of Geo. Peabody (Phil- 
 anthropist) 1869 
 
 1870 
 
 Death of Gen. Robert E. Lee.. 1870 
 
 CongTess repeals the Income Tax, 
 1871 
 
 Great Riot (Chinamen’s) in San 
 
 Francisco — -.1871 
 
 Orange Riot (attacked by Catho- 
 lics) in New York - 1871 
 
 The Great Chicago Fire. .. 1871 
 Great Forest Fires in Wiscon- 
 sin and Michigan 1871 
 
 W. M. Tweed and others ar- 
 rested for fraud in New York 
 
 City 1871 
 
 Great earthquake and loss of 
 
 life in California 1872 
 
 The World’s Peace Jubilee, 
 
 Boston 1872 
 
 The Great Boston Fire 1872 
 
 Barnum’s Museum destroyed 
 
 by fire in New York 1872 
 
 Settlement of the Alabama 
 
 Claims 1872 
 
 U. S. Troops defeated by Mo- 
 doc Indians 1873 
 
 Gen. Canby and Rev. Dr. 
 Thomas murdered by Modoc 
 
 Indians --*873 
 
 Failure of .Jay Cooke & Co. 
 
 and others 1873 
 
 Capt. Jack and other Modoc 
 
 Indians executed --'873 
 
 Payment of the Geneva Award. 1873 
 
 Death of Charles Sumner 1874 
 
 Mill River (Mass.) Reservoir 
 
 disaster... — 1874 
 
 Kalakaua, King of Hawaiian 
 Islands, visits the U. S 1874 
 
 Abyssinian Expedition 1868 
 
 Isabella II. of Spain deposed 1868 
 
 Dis-establishment of Irish Church. 1869 
 
 Manitoba joins the Dominion of 
 Canada 1870 
 
 Land Bill of Ireland ...1870 
 
 Franco-Prussian War 1870-1871 
 
 British Columbia joins Dominion 
 
 of Canada 1871 
 
 Napoleon surrenders Sedan 1870 
 
 English Educational Bill 1870 
 
 Paris, Metz, and Straslnirg surren- 
 der 1871 
 
 Meeting of the Alabama Claims 
 
 Commission at Geneva 1871 
 
 William I., Emperor of Germany ..1871 
 
 Rome the Capital of Italy 1871 
 
 3d French Republic 1871 
 
 University Tests abolished, Eng. .1871 
 Army Purchase abolished, Eng.. .1871 
 
 War in Cuba 1871 
 
 The Ballot passed, Eng 1871 
 
 Lord Dufferin Governor General of 
 
 Canada 1872 
 
 Prince Edward Island joins Canada. 
 
 1872 
 
 The Jesuits expelled from Germany, 
 
 1872 
 
 Russia quarrels with Khiva 1872 
 
 Scotch Educational Bill 1872 
 
 Murshal McMahon, President of 
 
 France ‘S72 
 
 France pays the War Indemnity to 
 
 Germany *873 
 
 The German Stamp Tax 
 
 Irish Educational Bill fails 1874 
 
 Disraeli, Prime Minister 1874 
 
 Amadeus. Spanish Republic. Don 
 Curios, Alphonso, Sp .1870-1875 
 
 J. S. C. Abbott 1805-1877 
 
 J. G. Motley 1814-1877 
 
 C. F. Browne (Artemus Ward), 
 1834-1867 
 
 Cary Sisters died 1871 
 
 J. Parton 
 
 
 S. A. Allibone 
 
 
 O. W. Holmes . . . 
 
 
 E. P. Whipple ... 
 
 
 R. II. Stoddard .. 
 
 X825 
 
 W. Whitman 
 
 ...18.9 
 
 T. W. Higginson. 
 
 1823 
 
 J. T. Trowbridge 
 
 
 G. W. Curtis 
 
 
 W. C. Tyler 
 
 ..-1835 
 
 It. G. White 
 
 
 
 
 It. II. Dana, Jr. . . 
 
 l8l5 
 
 Herbert Spencer. .-1820 
 
 Geo. MacDonald .. 
 
 Cousin, Fr., Phil. 
 
 
 Swinburne 
 
 — I837 
 
 Holman Hunt, Pt.. 
 
 .. 1827 
 
 D. G. Rossetti 
 
 ...1828 
 
 Millais, Pt 
 
 
 E. A. Freeman 
 
 
 J. Foster 
 
 
 Flaubert, Fr 
 
 
 Lubouluy£ 
 
 
 < astelnr, Sp 
 
 ... 1832 
 
 II. V. Sybi l, (ter.. 
 
 1817 
 
 Bayard Taylor 1825 1878 
 
 W. L. Garrison 1805-1876 
 
 Rev. Dr. Bushnell. . . 1802 1876 
 
 J. W. Draper .1811 
 
 Dr. Austin Flint 1812 
 
 Son, 1836 
 
 G. S. Hillard 1808 1879 
 
 Rev. Dr. Hodge 1797 1878 
 
 Hartmunn, “ 1821-1872 
 
 M. Thierry, Fr. , His.. 1797 1873 
 
 Tulloch. Iter., I'heol .1822 
 
 M. Guizot, Fr 17H7-1874 
 
 Hans Christian Andersen, 
 
 Dan 1805-1875 
 
684 TABLES OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE.— Concluded. 
 
 Table XVII. From A. D. 1865 to A. D. 1880. In Periods of Five Years. 
 
 1875 
 
 United States History. 
 
 East River spanned by an Ice Bridge, 
 1875 
 
 100th Anniversary of the battles of 
 Concord and Lexington 1875 
 
 Centennial Celebration of Bunker 
 Hill 1S75 
 
 Death of Vice-President Henry 
 Wilson 1875 
 
 William B. Astor died 1875 
 
 A. T. Stewart died 1876 
 
 Dom Pedro, Emperor of Brazil, 
 visits U. S 1876 
 
 Whisky Ring broken up 1875-1876 
 
 Opening of Centennial Exhibition, 
 Philadelphia 1876 
 
 Gen. Custer and 31 1 U. S. Troops 
 slain by Sioux Indians, led by 
 Sitting Bull 1876 
 
 Colorado admitted 1876 
 
 First Wire of East River Bridge.. 1876 
 
 Brooklyn Theater burned 1876 
 
 Ashtabula (Ohio) Railroad disaster, 
 
 Death of Cornelius Vanderbilt- . 
 
 1876 
 
 .1877 
 
 1880 
 
 The Electoral Commission Bill passed, 
 1877 
 
 Electoral Commission Count declare 
 the election of R. B. Hayes 1877 
 
 Rutherford B. Hayes. 19th Presi- 
 dent ._ _ 1877 
 
 Great Railroad Strikes and Riots.. 1877 
 
 Gen. Miles whips Nez Perces Indians, 
 1877 
 
 Extradition Treaty with Spain ...1877 
 
 Wm. M. Tweed died 1878 
 
 Wm. Cullen Bryant died 1878 
 
 Yellow Fever rages at Vicksburg, 
 Memphis, etc 1878 
 
 Gold at Par for the first time 
 since 1862 1878 
 
 Specie Payment resumed 1879 
 
 Anti-Chinese Bill vetoed 1879 
 
 Extra Session of Congress called.. 1879 
 
 Proclamation warning settlers from 
 the Indian Territory 1879 
 
 Yellow Fever at Memphis 1879 
 
 Relief ordered by U. S. Government 
 in uid of sufferers 1879 
 
 Steam Yacht Jeannette sent out 
 by James Gordon Bennett to dis- 
 cover theN. W. passage 1879 
 
 Arrival at San Francisco of Gen. 
 Grant, homeward bound on his 
 2% years' tour around theWorld. 1879 
 
 The French Transatlantic Cable 
 landed ,879 
 
 Other Countries. 
 
 Re-opening of the Eastern Ques- 
 tion 1875 
 
 Prince of Wales visits India... 1875 
 
 French Legislative Body re-or- 
 ganized ..1875 
 
 English Channel Tunnel Bill 
 passed, Fr 1875 
 
 Japan Cedes Territory to Russia, 
 
 1875 
 
 Russia Conquers Khiva 1876 
 
 Meeting of New French Cham- 
 bers 1876 
 
 England purchases the Suez 
 Canal 1876 
 
 Victoria proclaimed Empress 
 of India 1876 
 
 Disraeli elevated to the Peerage, 
 
 1876 
 
 New Marriage Law, Austria.. 1876 
 
 The German the Official Lan- 
 guage in Prussian Poland. ..1876 
 
 Deposition of Catholic Bishops 
 in Germany 1876 
 
 Russo-Turkish War 1877-1878 
 
 England neutral in Russo-Turk- 
 ish War 1877 
 
 Death of M. Thiers 1877 
 
 Marquis of Lome, Viceroy of 
 Canada 1878 
 
 Treaty of San Stefano and Berlin, 
 
 1878 
 
 Great Commercial depression 
 in England 1878 
 
 British-Afghanistan War 1878 
 
 International Exposition at Paris, 
 1878 
 
 Marriage of King Alfonso, Sp. 1878 
 
 Death of Victor Emanuel 1878 
 
 Death of Pope Pius IX 1878 
 
 Leo XIII. elected Pope 1878 
 
 Austria occupies Bosnia 1878 
 
 The Zulu War 1879 
 
 M. Julius Grevy, President of 
 France 1789 
 
 American Literature. 
 
 Bret Harte 1837 
 
 Joaquin Miller.. 1841 
 
 W. D. Howells 1837 
 
 Edward Eggleston 1837 
 
 Miss Dodge (Gail Hamilton), 
 .838 
 
 W. T. Adams (Oliver Optics), 
 1822 
 
 Judge Tourgee, “Fool’s Er- 
 rand ’’ 
 
 S. L. Clemens (Mark Twain), 
 •835 
 
 D. R. Locke (Petroleum V. 
 Nasbyi 1833 
 
 II. W. Shaw (Josh Billings). 
 
 1818 
 
 E. E. Hale.... ............ 1822 
 
 Miss Phelps, “Gates Ajar,” 
 
 1844 
 
 T. B. Aldrich 1836 
 
 W. Greene 1811 
 
 II. W. Beecher... 1813 
 
 Guyot 1807 
 
 Clara Louise Kellogg, Singer. 
 
 1842 
 
 Charles March 1825 
 
 Thos. Nast, Caricaturist .1840 
 
 E. C. Stedman 1833 
 
 C. D. Warner 1829 
 
 Henry James, Jr 
 
 A. Winchell 1824 
 
 L. M. Alcott.... .......... 1833 
 
 English and other Foreign 
 Literature, 
 
 Virchow, Ger 1821 
 
 Mcssonier, Fr., Ft 1822 
 
 Zeller, Fr., His 1820 
 
 Auerbach, Ger 1812 
 
 Figuier, Fr 1819 
 
 Oscar Wilde, Esthete 1857 
 
 Du Bois Raymond, Ger 1818 
 
 Ewald, Ger 1802-1875 
 
 Flaubert, Fr 1821 
 
 Cassagnac, Fr 1806 
 
 Dudevant (George Sand), Fr., 
 
 1804-1876 
 
 Du Chaillu, Fr 1835 
 
 Haeckel, Ger 1834 
 
 Holse, Han 1811 
 
 Victor Hugo, Fr 1802 
 
 Jacoby, Ger .1805-1877 
 
 Janauschek, Act 1830 
 
 Pasteur, Fr., Chemist 1822 
 
 Patti. Singer, Spain 1843 
 
 Reclus, Fr 1830 
 
 Remusat, Fr.'. 1797-1875 
 
 Lord Lyttcn (Owen Meredith!. 
 
 1831 
 
 indirntvrFnrc the same^ J®;®* *500 to A. D, 1880 . As several of the abbreviations used in the two series of tables 
 
 Maeed?mUn- P C Ph^nieTii 1 *! ?, to ,P" t P- . Th ‘T e abbreviations are as follows:— Or., Greek; S. Gr.. Spartan or Sicilian; Per., Persian; 
 Scandinavian- fd iv J Carthaginian; Rom.. Roman; Ger., German; Fr.. French; Sp.. Spanish; Rus., Russian; Prtis.. Prussian; 
 Snter S JfH d Mna PiaT^ 4 Sort., Scotch; Ire., Irish; Dtch.. Dutch; Port.. Portuguese; It. Italian; Am.. American; Pp.. Pope; Ft.. 
 
 P Where Z S’ A . rchlte ' t and Sculptor; Act.. Actor; Theol., Theologian; Phil., Philosopher; His., Historian, 
 
 rulers.'date of teginSng and endTng o? r- ^ e ?" 1 . n ?. 1 . n lP” d ? d | ‘ s ’ ln the . of £<P e ™* facts, comme 
 Jt. stands for flourished, and o 
 
 of Hebrew prophets, the dates muicaie me supposed period of prouhesviiiL'. With these remarks it fa Relieved that the tahlea will he intelligible. 
 
 commencement and termination; in the case of 
 
THE PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD 
 
 685 
 
 Showing their Population, Area, Religion, Government, Capital, Debt, Standing Army, Navy, Miles of Railroad, and Trade 
 
 with the United States. 
 
 Country. 
 
 Popula- 
 
 tion. 
 
 Area in 
 
 English 
 
 Square Miles. 
 
 Population to 
 
 Square Mile. 
 
 v 
 
 .5 S £ 
 
 If! 
 
 (0 Ch 
 < 
 
 Navy, No. 
 
 of Vessels. 
 
 Miles of 
 
 Railroad. 
 
 National 
 
 Debt. 
 
 Chinese Empire. .. 
 
 433 *000,000 
 
 3,924,627 
 
 r 10 
 
 270,000 
 2V), 450 
 
 3 s 
 
 10 
 
 Unknown 
 
 British Empire 
 
 237.39'. 7SS 
 
 7.788,347 
 
 8,404.767 
 
 30 
 
 53' 
 
 26, 9SS 
 
 3, 888,907, 080 
 
 Russian Empire. . . . 
 
 86,952,347 
 
 10 
 
 768,427 
 
 223 
 
 >2,945 
 
 2,840,597.635 
 
 United States 
 
 50,155.783 
 
 3,026,504 
 
 10 
 
 25,000 
 
 140 
 
 S>, 955 
 
 1,942,172,295 
 
 German Empire 
 
 42,727,260 
 
 208,744 
 
 201 
 
 4'9.73S 
 
 74 
 
 19,020 
 
 3,000,000,000 
 
 Austria-Hungary . . 
 
 37,700,000 
 
 240,940 
 
 >58 
 
 292,166 
 
 43 
 
 i i,i6S 
 
 1,625,096,042 
 
 France 
 
 36,905.73s 
 
 204,096 
 
 1S2 
 
 502,697 
 
 492 
 
 14,100 
 
 3,513,724,650 
 
 Japan 
 
 Great Britain & Ire- 
 
 
 156,604 
 
 214 
 
 7S.512 
 
 >7 
 
 67 
 
 145,000,000 
 
 land ... 
 
 34,160,000 
 
 31,669,147 
 
 121,230 
 
 860,562 
 
 26s 
 
 >35 452 
 
 222 
 
 17,092 
 
 t.SSS, 007,080 
 
 Turkey 
 
 >7 
 
 459,36o 
 
 170 
 
 1 ,200 
 
 1,212,772,200 
 
 Italy 
 
 27,769.47s 
 
 1 14,406 
 
 243 
 
 >99,557 
 
 151,668 
 
 Si 
 
 13S 
 
 5,000 
 
 ',977,117,84s 
 
 Spam 
 
 i0,S35,5o6 
 
 195.775 
 
 92 
 
 4, "2 
 1,364 
 
 2,401,612,001 
 ^bS, 35 1,139 
 
 Brazil 
 
 9930,478 
 
 3,286,110 
 
 3 
 
 16,055 
 
 63 
 
 Mexico 
 
 0,276,079 
 
 761,640 
 
 12 
 
 21,146 
 
 4 
 
 403 
 
 395,000,000 
 
 Persia 
 
 6,500,000 
 
 648,000 
 
 IO 
 
 30,000 
 
 none 
 
 none 
 
 No debt 
 
 Morocco 
 
 600,000 
 
 260,000 
 
 23 
 
 20,000 
 
 none 
 
 none 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 Siam 
 
 5,700,000 
 
 3 10,000 
 
 23 
 
 none 
 
 none 
 
 none 
 
 No debt 
 
 Roumania 
 
 5,376,000 
 
 49,262 
 
 105 
 
 18,000 
 
 9 
 
 79> 
 
 90,000,000 
 
 Belgium 
 
 5.336, 1S5 
 
 >>.373 
 
 469 
 
 46,383 
 
 10 
 
 2,300 
 
 232,684,553 
 
 Egypt 
 
 5,250,000 
 
 212,600 
 
 24 
 
 14,000 
 
 >4 
 
 >,■63 
 
 450,000,000 
 
 Portugal 
 
 4 44',037 
 
 35.8i2 
 
 121 
 
 62,920 
 
 34 
 
 709 
 
 428,977,613 
 
 Norway & Sweden . 
 
 4.429.7 13 
 
 170,980 
 
 2.5 
 
 36,495 
 
 42 
 
 3,05' 
 
 39,241,142 
 
 112,248,37s 
 
 Canada 
 
 Holland or Nether- 
 
 3,602,321 
 
 3.483,95 2 
 
 I 
 
 3,000 
 
 7 
 
 4.929 
 
 lands 
 
 Abyssinia 
 
 3*579.5*9 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 12,680 
 
 i 5 S,ooo 
 
 2S2 
 
 61,803 
 
 >05 
 
 1 ,262 
 
 391,242,322 
 
 Columbia 
 
 Madagascar 
 
 2,951,21 1 
 2,900,000 
 
 432,400 
 
 228,570 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 2,600 
 
 none 
 
 42 
 
 >5,390,304 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 2.776,035 
 
 >5.90' 
 
 1S1 
 
 106,102 
 
 none 
 
 1,500 
 
 6,225,000 
 
 Peru 
 
 2,699,945 
 
 502,760 
 
 5 
 
 13,200 
 
 iS 
 
 744, 
 
 213,482,680 
 
 Chili 
 
 2.375,971 
 
 130,977 
 
 16 
 
 3,5oo 
 
 12 
 
 977 
 
 60,741,469 
 
 Denmark 
 
 1,912,142 
 
 >4.553 
 
 >3' 
 
 35703 
 
 33 
 
 S19 
 
 52.000,000 
 
 Norway 
 
 1,806,900 
 
 122,280 
 
 >4 
 
 1 S,ooo 
 
 32 
 
 5>° 
 
 13,526,128 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 ',784. '97 
 
 36S.235 
 
 5 
 
 5,494 
 
 none 
 
 39 
 
 62,659,687 
 
 Bolivia 
 
 '.742,352 
 
 500, S70 
 571,000 
 
 4 
 
 4,025 
 
 37 
 
 none 
 
 17,500,000 
 
 Argentine Republic 
 
 1,715.6s 1 
 
 2 
 
 S.2-S3 
 
 25 
 
 1,466 
 
 68,4 16, cm 3 
 
 Servia 
 
 1,720,270 
 
 '8,787 
 
 S7 
 
 14,150 
 
 none 
 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 Greece 
 
 >,457,894 
 
 >9.94' 
 
 73 
 
 >2,397 
 
 21 
 
 7 
 
 9S, 012, 000 
 
 Guatemala 
 
 >, >90,754 
 
 40,778 
 
 29 
 
 3,200 
 
 none 
 
 none 
 
 3.877,384 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 1,100,000 
 
 2lS,984 
 
 3 
 
 1,200 
 
 3 
 
 75 
 
 17,500,000 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Liberia 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 29,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 6,82s 
 
 2 
 
 none 
 
 548.022 
 
 San Salvador 
 
 600,000 
 
 9.5oo 
 
 1,000 
 
 none 
 
 none 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 455.000 
 
 70,000 
 
 6 
 
 4,060 
 
 3 
 
 340 
 
 43,615,000 
 
 Nicaragua 
 
 300,000 
 
 49,000 
 
 5 
 
 6,000 
 
 none 
 
 none 
 
 9,000,000 
 
 Paraguay 
 
 Honauias 
 
 *221,000 
 
 57.223 
 
 4 
 
 2,000 
 
 none 
 
 47 
 
 12,09s, (17 
 
 35 ',700 
 
 47.092 
 
 l 
 
 1,500 
 
 none 
 
 56 
 
 37,000,000 
 
 Costa Rica 
 
 185,000 
 
 21,495 
 
 900 
 
 none 
 
 29 
 
 12,000,000 
 
 3,780,000 
 
 San Domingo 
 
 150.000 
 
 20,000 
 
 s 
 
 4,000 
 
 5 
 
 none 
 
 Hawaii 
 
 60,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 8 
 
 none 
 
 none 
 
 none 
 
 450,000 
 
 Capital. 
 
 Pekin 
 
 London 
 
 St. Petersburg. 
 Washington . . 
 
 Berlin 
 
 Vienna 
 
 Paris 
 
 Tokio 
 
 London 
 
 Constantinople. 
 
 Rome 
 
 Madrid 
 
 Riode Janerio. . 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Teheran 
 
 S Morocco 
 
 1 Fez-Mequinez 
 Bangkok. . . . 
 Bucharest.. . 
 Brussels ..... 
 
 Cairo 
 
 Lisbon 
 
 Stockholm . . 
 Ottawa 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Magdala 
 
 Bogota 
 
 Antananarivo 
 
 Berne 
 
 Lima 
 
 Santiago 
 
 Copenhagen . . . 
 
 Christiana 
 
 Caraccas 
 
 Chuquisaca 
 Buenos Ayres. . 
 
 Belgrade 
 
 Athens ........ 
 
 Guatemala 
 
 Quito 
 
 Port an Prince. 
 
 Monrovia 
 
 San Salvador . , 
 
 Montevidio 
 
 Nicaragua .... 
 Assumption. . . . 
 
 Comayagua 
 
 San Jose 
 
 San Domingo. 
 Honolulu 
 
 Prevailing 
 
 Religion. 
 
 Buddhic 
 
 Protestant 
 
 Greek Church. 
 
 Protestant 
 
 Protestant . . . . 
 
 Catholic 
 
 Catholic 
 
 Buddhic 
 
 Protestant 
 
 Mahomedan . . 
 
 Catholic 
 
 Catholic 
 
 Catholic 
 
 Catholic 
 
 Mahomedan . . 
 Mahomedan . . 
 
 Buddhic 
 
 Greek Church . 
 
 Catholic 
 
 Mahomedan . . 
 
 Catholic 
 
 Protestant 
 
 Protestant 
 
 Protestant 
 
 Coptic Chris’ns 
 Catholic 
 
 Protestant 
 
 Catholic 
 
 Catholic 
 
 Protestant 
 
 Protestant 
 
 Catholic 
 
 Catholic 
 
 Catholic 
 
 Catholic 
 
 Greek Church . 
 
 Catholic 
 
 Catholic 
 
 Catholic 
 
 Protestant . . . . 
 
 Catholic 
 
 Catholic ... .. . 
 
 Catholic 
 
 Catholic 
 
 Catholic 
 
 Catholic 
 
 St. Catholic. . . 
 Protestant .... 
 
 Government. 
 
 Monarchy . . . 
 Monarchy . . . 
 Monarchy . . . 
 
 Republic 
 
 Empire* 
 
 Monarchy 
 Republic 
 Monarchy . . . 
 
 Monarchy . . . , 
 Monarchy 
 
 Monarchy 
 
 Monarchy . . . 
 Monarchy. .. 
 Republic 
 Monarchy . . . 
 Monarchy . . . 
 
 Monarchy . . . 
 Monarchy . . . 
 Monarchy . . . 
 
 Monarchy 
 
 Confederation 
 Colony 
 
 Monarchy . . . 
 
 Monarchy 
 
 Republic ..... 
 Monarchy . . . 
 
 Republic 
 
 Republic 
 
 Republic 
 
 Monarchy 
 
 Confederation 
 
 Republic 
 
 Republic 
 
 Republic 
 
 Monarchy . . . 
 Monarchy . . . 
 
 Republic 
 
 Republic 
 
 Republic 
 
 Republic 
 
 Republic 
 
 Republic 
 
 Republic 
 
 Republic .... 
 
 Republic 
 
 Republic .... 
 Republic .... 
 Monarchy . . . 
 
 U. S. Commerce 
 with 
 
 Foreign Countries 
 1 $79. 
 
 Imports. Exports. 
 
 16,565.979 
 
 See note 
 662,750 
 
 35.565.J'7 
 3 '5.8i3 
 55.o9S.7oS 
 
 9,894.884 
 
 111,971 ,760 
 656,646 
 
 30.385.63S 
 
 14.cvt7.S19 
 
 none 
 
 none 
 
 none 
 
 none 
 
 4,209,232 
 
 See 
 
 4S4.3 s 5 
 
 2>3.924 
 
 27.856,914 
 
 10,037,059 
 
 7.iS7."3 
 
 none 
 
 2,370,557 
 
 642,715 
 
 863,856 
 See N’w’y 
 5.249.7 '7 
 
 3,5'9.'05 
 none 
 409,32s 
 Sec note 
 See note 
 3.S77.S24 
 63,360 
 See note 
 1,780,140 
 See note 
 Sec note 
 See note 
 See note 
 657, 509 
 3,264,56* 
 
 4.661,957 
 See note 
 16,725,463 
 
 57,412,277 
 
 2,631,707 
 
 92.55S,736 
 
 2,676,924 
 
 363,013,646 
 
 4.7'9,302 
 
 8,658,233 
 
 27,910,942 
 
 25,522,401 
 
 0,761,284 
 
 none 
 
 none 
 
 none 
 
 28,522,401 
 
 Turkey. 
 
 4,927! 161 
 
 2,147,252 
 
 32,048,314 
 
 16,461,262 
 
 5.77'.454 
 
 none 
 
 1,305,362 
 
 1,256,023 
 
 3.194.57s 
 
 & Sweden. 
 
 2.05M35 
 
 2.128,01 2 
 none 
 285,019 
 See note 
 Sec note 
 
 3,262,64a 
 130,929 
 See note 
 939.3b* 
 See note 
 See note 
 See note 
 See note 
 
 2,509, 
 
 Europe 
 
 America 
 
 Asia 
 
 Australasia . 
 
 Africa 
 
 Total ... 
 
 PoPULA- 
 
 HON. 
 
 Commerce. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 1 
 
 Exports. 
 
 289,000,000 
 
 S4,840,000 
 
 So 6,700,000 
 
 1,800,000 
 
 80,000,000 
 
 $9*97b,ooo,ofr) 
 
 2. 140.000. 000 
 
 1.131., 000, 000 
 
 462.000. 000 
 
 291 .000. 000 
 
 $5,650,400,000 
 
 972.800.000 
 489,000,000 
 237,^00,000 
 
 134.400.000 
 
 $ 1,316,200,00c 
 
 1, 167,200,00^ 
 641 ,600,000 
 224,400,01x1 
 
 1 56/’OO.ooc 
 
 1,262, 340, OOO 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 $7*474.4 00 .6 r)0 
 
 $'>, 526,000, oon 
 
 1867-68 
 
 1869-70 
 
 »*7* 73 
 
 1*71*75 
 
 1876 
 
 These figures carry with them their own importance. 
 
 Ann 1 m 
 
 I M TOR TS. 
 
 85 ,Sa8,6oo,oor 
 6,081 ,300, ouo 
 7,772,000,000 
 
 7,251,400,000 
 
 7.17 
 
 
 Note.— T rade with the British Possessions, Great Britain and Ireland excluded, was— Imports, 20,128,494; Exports, 29,373,079. \5 it h South 
 American Ports not given above— Exports, 92,747. With the Central American States— consisting of San Salvador, Nicaraeuajf Honduras , G 1“ ■ 
 
 and Costa Rica— Imports, 2,497,134; Exports, 1,4.83,389. * The Empire forms a Customs League named Zollvcrcin. t Inc greater part ol this trade 
 
 is with Cuba. X A Province of Turkey, yet practically independent 
 
 THE COMMERCE OF THE WORLD. 
 
 The following tabic shows a comparison of the Commerce, Population. Annual Imports and Exports of the several geographical 
 
 divisions of the world for 1876 — the latest published statistics. 
 
 The following shows the variations in the total imports and 
 
 Annual 
 
 I MIS. 
 
 $5,225,orx>,ooo 
 5»VM*boo,°00 
 0,<rf*i,joo,ooo 
 6,448, 400, (HO 
 6,$j6,C XXI.OOO 
 
686 
 
 LEGISLATURES OF THE WORLD 
 
 
 Upper House. 
 
 
 Lower House. 
 
 
 Countries. 
 
 HOW CHOSEN. 
 
 LENGTH 
 
 TERM. 
 
 NO. 
 
 HOW CHOSEN. 
 
 LENGTH 
 
 TERM. 
 
 NO. 
 
 Argentine Republic 
 Austria 
 
 Belgium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 253 
 
 136 
 
 Crown and hereditary. 
 
 Citizens, property test. 
 
 1 Crown and indirect i 
 | election j 
 
 Governor General 
 
 Life 
 
 8 yrs. 
 
 Life 
 
 104 
 
 68 
 
 77 
 
 58 
 
 Property-holding citizens 
 
 Property-holding ci tizens 
 
 Indirect election 
 
 3 yrs. 
 
 4 
 
 
 Life 
 
 Popular suffrage 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Colombia (U.S.) 
 
 Denmark 
 
 State Legislatures 
 
 Hereditary andelect’v -j 
 Popular suffrage 
 
 Life or 
 
 9 y rs - 
 
 27 
 
 j- 66 
 
 18 
 
 Popular suffrage 
 
 Citizens 30 years old 
 
 Popular suffrage 
 
 3 
 
 66 
 
 102 
 
 3° 
 
 538 
 
 397 
 j" 658 
 
 
 Indirect election j 
 
 Life or 
 
 j-3°° 
 
 59 
 
 537 
 
 188 
 
 Popular suffrage 
 
 
 
 Appointed by States., 
 j Hereditary, crown 1 
 | and church j 
 
 Elected by the people.. 
 Hereditary and church. 
 
 Hereditary and crown. 
 
 State Legislatures 
 
 9 yrs. 
 
 Popular suffrage. 
 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 Life 
 
 Household suffrage — j 
 
 Until 
 
 dissolu- 
 
 tion 
 
 
 Life 
 
 705 
 
 270 
 
 54 
 
 39 
 
 39 
 
 45 
 
 Popular vote 
 
 
 445 
 
 508 
 
 33 i 
 
 86 
 
 
 Popular vote 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 Popular vote 
 
 
 
 States, from rich 
 
 
 People, property test 
 
 Popular vote 
 
 
 
 British Crown 
 
 Life 
 
 
 
 
 British Crown 
 
 Life 
 
 
 
 88 
 
 
 Popular vote 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 86 
 
 
 Districts 
 
 6 
 
 44 
 
 133 
 
 
 
 no 
 
 99 
 
 433 
 
 
 Hereditary 
 
 Life 
 
 People, property test 
 
 
 
 Mostly Hereditary 
 
 
 
 
 British crown 
 
 Life 
 
 30 
 
 76 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 Indirect election 
 
 
 
 
 
 Popular election 
 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 Spain 
 
 t Hereditary, elective { 
 
 | and crown j 
 
 Popular election 
 
 10 or 
 life 
 
 l 
 
 x 37 
 
 44 
 
 16 
 
 36 
 
 
 J 
 
 Sweden 
 
 
 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Cantons 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tasmania 
 
 Elected, property test.. 
 
 10 
 
 j Elected, smaller prop- I 
 j erty test j 
 
 3 
 
 32 
 
 86 
 
 Western Australia. 
 
 Appointed 
 
 
 United States 
 
 State Legislatures 
 
 6 
 
 7 r> 
 
 Popular vote 
 
 2 
 
 325 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Compensation, $3,500 per annum. 
 
 Elected at different times, as the crown 
 may order. 
 
 Only natives eligible. One Representative 
 to 40,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Senators must be 40 years old; Deputies 
 Catholics; both natives. 
 
 Slight property qualification required of 
 
 voters. 
 
 One Representative for 20,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Each State has 43 Senators. Representa- 
 tives according to population. 
 
 Members of either house must be at least 25 
 years old. 
 
 Congress meets annually, September 15. 
 
 Senators must be 40 years old; Deputies 25. 
 
 Prussia has 17 members Upper House; 236 
 of the Lower House. 
 
 The election is by ballot. A member of the 
 House must be 21 years of age. No com- 
 pensation is allowed. 
 
 Only one body, called Boule. 
 
 The citizens of full age may vote, if they 
 pay taxes amounting to $4 a year. 
 
 A voter must be 25 years of age, and tax- 
 payer to the extent of $8 a year. 
 
 Senators must be 30 years of age; Repre- 
 sentatives 25. 
 
 Property test for voters exceptionally high. 
 Clergymen disfranchised. 
 
 No property test for voters, and the elec- 
 tion is by ballot. 
 
 A moderate property test required of voters 
 and legislators. 
 
 No property test is required. 
 
 Slight property test for voters, who must be 
 25 years of age. 
 
 The ratio of representation is one member 
 for 20,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Besides a property test, there are several 
 personal tests applied. 
 
 Electors must be at least 25 years of age. 
 
 Voters may vote where they have property 
 and where they reside. 
 
 The people elect the Electors and they 
 choose the Legislators. 
 
 Members of the Upper House must be 30 
 years of age; of the Lower, 21. 
 
 The Senate has no fixed number of mem- 
 bers, nor uniform method of designation. 
 
 Senators receive no pay; Representatives, 
 small salaries. 
 
 Any voter, except a clergyman, is eligible 
 to either house. 
 
 Besides elected Legislators, are ex-officio 
 members holding other important offices, 
 and resident subjects possessing degrees 
 
 Clergymen and felons are ineligible as 
 legislators. 
 
 Slight property test for voters. A legislator 
 must hold real estate to the value of $5,000. 
 
 A Senator must be 30 years of age; a Rep- 
 resentative 25. Each house sole judge 
 of the election and qualification of its 
 members. 
 
 Note.— In the preparation of the above tables, reliance has mainly been placed upon the Statesman's Manual for 1881. No country which 
 does not enjoy any of the rights of self-government, however important in other respects, has a place in this connection. Of the several States of 
 the United States it may be added, that each has two legislative bodies, both elected by popular vote, and that, under the 14th amendment to the 
 Constitution of the United States, no citizen can be deprived of the right of suffrage on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 
 No State allows female suffrage, nor does any require an intelligence test. 
 
 CONGRESSIONAL APPORTIONMENT. 
 
 The number of Representatives in the popular branch of the Congress of the United States to which each State will be entitled, from March 4 
 1883, to March 4, 1893. based on the tenth census, is as follows: 
 
 Alabama 8 
 
 Arkansas 5 
 
 California . 6 
 
 Colorado 1 
 
 Connecticut 4 
 
 Delaware 1 
 
 Florida 2 
 
 Georgia 10 
 
 Illinois 20 
 
 Indiana 13 
 
 Iowa..... , 11 
 
 Kansas 7 
 
 Kentucky n 
 
 Louisiana 6 
 
 Maine . 4 
 
 Maryland 6 
 
 Massachusetts ...11 
 
 Michigan n 
 
 Minnesota 5 
 
 Mississippi 7 
 
 Missouri 14 
 
 Nebraska 3 
 
 Nevada 1 
 
 New Hampshire 2 
 
 New Jersey 7 
 
 New York 34 
 
 North Carolina 9 
 
 Ohio 2 i 
 
 Oregon 1 
 
 Pennsylvania 28 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 South Carolina 7 
 
 Tennessee 10 
 
 Texas u 
 
 Vermont 2 
 
 Virginia 10 
 
 West Virginia 4 
 
 Wisconsin 9 
 
 Total. .....325 
 
INDUSTRIES AND MONEY OF ALL NATIONS 
 
 687 
 
 INDUSTRIES OF NATIONS, IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS, IN 1870 AND 1880. 
 
 
 Commerce. 
 
 Manufactures.] 
 
 Mining. 
 
 Agriculture. 
 
 Carrying 
 Trade, etc. 
 
 Banking. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 1S70 
 
 1SS0 
 
 187° 
 
 1SS0 
 
 1S70 
 
 1SS0 
 
 1870 
 
 1SS0 
 
 1S70 
 
 1SS0 
 
 1S70 
 
 1SS0 
 
 1S70 
 
 1SS0 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 2601 
 
 3467 
 
 3 ,2 3 
 
 37SS 
 
 224 
 
 3' 6 
 
 1265 
 
 1168 
 
 544 
 
 7S3 
 
 3S9 
 
 525 
 
 S206 
 
 10047 
 
 United States 
 
 s.37 
 
 1464 
 
 33'S 
 
 4320 
 
 ■83 
 
 350 
 
 2019 
 
 2554 
 
 642 
 
 S08 
 
 ■95 
 
 253 
 
 7'96 
 
 9749 
 
 France 
 
 12! I 
 
 1615 
 
 2136 
 
 2360 
 
 44 
 
 5S 
 
 2004 
 
 ■946 
 
 204 
 
 302 
 
 146 
 
 165 
 
 5715 
 
 6446 
 
 Germany 
 
 ■3*4 
 
 1S6S 
 
 ■659 
 
 2077 
 
 68 
 
 102 
 
 150s 
 
 1654 
 
 204 
 
 336 
 
 122 
 
 ■36 
 
 4 S 75 
 
 6173 
 
 Russia 
 
 535 
 
 929 
 
 997 
 
 I I 14 
 
 39 
 
 54 
 
 ■703 
 
 1S00 
 
 ■3<5 
 
 214 
 
 58 
 
 73 
 
 3(6S 
 
 4184 
 
 Austria 
 
 404 
 
 6S1 
 
 S9O 
 
 1002 
 
 24 
 
 34 
 
 1 168 
 
 1280 
 
 78 
 
 I l8 
 
 68 
 
 83 
 
 2632 
 
 3 '98 
 
 Italy 
 
 360 
 
 467 
 
 5°i 
 
 559 
 
 IO 
 
 10 
 
 632 
 
 70s 
 
 54 
 
 73 
 
 24 
 
 29 
 
 ■ 5 s ' 
 
 'S43 
 
 Spain 
 
 ■S' 
 
 ■85 
 
 375 
 
 42S 
 
 24 
 
 34 
 
 462 
 
 530 
 
 34 
 
 5S 
 
 IO 
 
 ■5 
 
 ■056 
 
 1250 
 
 Belgium 
 
 3'* 
 
 5°' 
 
 355 
 
 414 
 
 29 
 
 39 
 
 ■65 
 
 170 
 
 34 
 
 39 
 
 ■5 
 
 >5 
 
 009 
 
 1 178 
 
 Holland 
 
 345 
 
 535 
 
 1S0 
 
 204 
 
 
 
 199 
 
 224 
 
 ■9 
 
 24 
 
 63 
 
 6S 
 
 S06 
 
 ■055 
 
 Sweden and Norway. . . 
 
 ■3' 
 
 *75 
 
 ■75 
 
 195 
 
 IO 
 
 10 
 
 229 
 
 253 
 
 44 
 
 73 
 
 ■5 
 
 ■ 5 
 
 604 
 
 72'. 
 
 Denmark 
 
 73 
 
 92 
 
 6S 
 
 88 
 
 
 
 122 
 
 ■ 3' 
 
 5 
 
 IO 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 273 
 
 326 
 
 Portugal 
 
 49 
 
 <53 
 
 49 
 
 54 
 
 
 
 I 1 2 
 
 122 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 218 
 
 249 
 
 Turkey, etc 
 
 404 
 
 306 
 
 3S9 
 
 321 
 
 
 
 25S 
 
 jSo 
 
 ■5 
 
 29 
 
 ■5 
 
 ■5 
 
 10S1 
 
 s 5' 
 
 Australia 
 
 277 
 
 433 
 
 44 
 
 63 
 
 41 
 
 29 
 
 170 
 
 253 
 
 5 
 
 ■5 
 
 24 
 
 49 
 
 564 
 
 842 
 
 Canada 
 
 l6l 
 
 170 
 
 ■ 70 
 
 224 
 
 
 
 24S 
 
 292 
 
 24 
 
 44 
 
 IO 
 
 ■9 
 
 613 
 
 749 
 
 South America 
 
 4'4 
 
 438 
 
 S8 
 
 ■ 07 
 
 34 
 
 39 
 
 34° 
 
 389 
 
 ■ 5 
 
 29 
 
 ■9 
 
 24 
 
 910 
 
 1026 
 
 South Africa 
 
 39 
 
 83 
 
 IO 
 
 ■5 
 
 IO 
 
 19 
 
 24 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 
 
 S3 
 
 ■5' 
 
 The World 
 
 9677 
 
 ■3472 
 
 ■4527 
 
 ■7333 
 
 745 
 
 ■094 
 
 I262S 
 
 ■3685 
 
 2060 
 
 2960 
 
 1183 
 
 ■491 
 
 poSio 
 
 5003 s 
 
 Note. — T he average production of human industry per head is $100, an increase of 12 per cent, since 1S70. 
 
 Increase. 
 
 1S41 
 
 2553 
 
 701 
 
 '29 s 
 
 716 
 
 162 
 
 ■94 
 
 269 
 
 249 
 
 ■'7 
 
 S 3 
 
 3 ' 
 
 278 
 ■36 
 1 16 
 
 68 
 
 944 s 
 
 MONEY OF ALL NATIONS COMPARED WITH POPULATION AND TRADE. 
 
 United States 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 France 
 
 Germany . 
 
 Russia 
 
 Austria 
 
 Italy.. 
 
 Spain and Portugal. . . 
 
 Holland 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Norway and Sweden. 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Greece, Turkey, etc.. 
 
 South America 
 
 Australia 
 
 Canada 
 
 Japan - 
 
 Tick World. 
 
 ed: 
 
 v .5 
 
 ion Dollars. 
 
 lcrcase, Mill- 
 ion Dollars. 
 
 tual Gold Cur- 
 ency, Million 
 Dollars. 
 
 Iver Currency, 
 lillion Dollars. 
 
 V ri 
 
 'v j Si 
 
 f U 
 
 C« £ 
 
 C 
 
 5 c ~ 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 -I 
 
 „cS 
 
 o.| 
 
 C.-S 
 
 Paper per In- 
 ibitant, in Dol- j 
 lars. 
 
 otal Specie and 
 
 iper per Inhab- 
 itant. 
 
 pecie Ratio to 
 Commerce. 
 
 Paper Ratio to 
 Commerce. 
 
 Tot: 
 
 il. 
 
 doncy Ratio to 
 
 All Industries. 
 
 1S70 
 
 18S0 
 
 M 
 
 < 
 
 c n''- 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 686 
 
 642 
 
 
 375 
 
 ■ 5 ' 
 
 u6s 
 
 10. c6 
 
 u.89 
 
 23-35 
 
 36 to 100 
 
 44 to 100 
 
 So to 
 
 OO 
 
 12 to too 
 
 199 
 
 219 
 
 20 
 
 60 3 
 
 93 
 
 9'5 
 
 20.19 
 
 6.32 
 
 26.51 
 
 21 “ 
 
 7 “ 
 
 28 
 
 
 9 “ 
 
 345 
 
 438 
 
 93 
 
 7*5 
 
 4' 4 
 
 'S 67 
 
 50.40 
 
 1 1.91 
 
 42-32 
 
 7. •• 
 
 2S “ 
 
 99 
 
 
 24 “ 
 
 219 
 
 204 
 
 
 32' 
 
 209 
 
 734 
 
 1 1.6S 
 
 4.62 
 
 16.30 
 
 28 
 
 ; 1 “ 
 
 39 
 
 
 .12 “ 
 
 569 
 
 866 
 
 207 
 
 107 
 
 5 s 
 
 1031 
 
 2.19 
 
 10.95 
 
 13- *4 
 
 iS “ 
 
 9.3 “ 
 
 56 
 
 
 -*4 
 
 195 
 
 3 '» 
 
 1 16 
 
 44 
 
 29 
 
 384 
 
 '.95 
 
 7-79 
 
 9-74 
 
 1 1 “ 
 
 45 “ 
 
 
 
 253 
 
 3 
 
 73 
 
 63 
 
 39 
 
 49 
 
 4°4 
 
 3 1 ° 
 
 10.95 
 
 ■ 4-35 
 
 21 “ 
 
 70 “ 
 
 9 ' 
 
 
 
 39 
 
 34 
 
 ■ 95 
 
 83 
 
 35 ' 
 
 13.86 
 
 3-65 
 
 ■ 7 - 5 ' 
 
 124 •• 
 
 3.3 “ 
 
 ■57 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 73 
 
 ■9 
 
 ■9 
 
 58 
 
 ■ 5 ° 
 
 ■9 4 <5 
 
 18.25 
 
 37 - 7 ' 
 
 ■5 “ 
 
 14 “ 
 
 29 
 
 
 >5 “ 
 
 44 
 
 63 
 
 ■9 
 
 ■ 07 
 
 ( 'i 
 
 233 
 
 30.89 
 
 "•43 
 
 4232 
 
 34 " 
 
 ■3 “ 
 
 47 
 
 
 
 39 
 
 44 
 
 5 
 
 44 
 
 10 
 
 9 S 
 
 6.32 
 
 5 -'o 
 
 I 1 .4 2 
 
 IS ** 
 
 ■5 " 
 
 33 
 
 
 9 " 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 ■5 
 
 5 s 
 
 34 
 
 
 33-o8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 1C7 
 
 83 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 "7 
 
 •49 
 
 4.86 
 
 5-35 
 
 4 “ 
 
 ,|0 “ 
 
 44 
 
 
 14 
 
 *75 
 
 326 
 
 ■ 5 ' 
 
 ■5 
 
 41 
 
 385 
 
 2.19 
 
 12.40 
 
 ■ 4-59 
 
 ■3 “ 
 
 74 “ 
 
 87 
 
 
 3 J 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 44 
 
 5 
 
 (%) 
 
 17.27 
 
 7-30 
 
 24-57 
 
 IO “ 
 
 4 " 
 
 •4 
 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 39 
 
 ■9 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 49 
 
 2.19 
 
 9-25 
 
 11.44 
 
 2.65 
 
 6 “ 
 
 24 “ 
 
 3 ° 
 
 
 
 
 ■27 
 
 ■27 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 I36 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2881 
 
 388s 
 
 1066 
 
 2.701 
 
 ■ 3'4 
 
 7901 
 
 8.76 
 
 8 . 5 ' 
 
 .7.27 
 
 30 to IOO 
 
 29 to 100 
 
 59 
 
 
 16 to 100 
 
 Note. — T he estimate, of gold and silver coin are mainly from the Washington Mint Report. India is not included; say about 5*1 million 
 dollars of silver, 49 of gold and 58 of paper. 
 
6 ) 
 
 1 
 
 Q 
 
 688 
 
 THE ART OF WAR — CAPITAL AND EARNINGS OF NATIONS. 
 
 THE ART OF WAR. 
 
 Increase or Decrease of Armaments since 1869, 
 
 
 Countries. 
 
 
 
 Cost of Army. 
 
 ooo’s are supVd. 
 
 Cost of Navy. 
 
 ooo’s suppressed 
 
 Total Exp’d’t’re 
 
 ooo's suppressed 
 
 Total 
 
 Force 
 
 Total 
 
 Force, 
 
 Rauo to 
 
 Popula’n . 
 
 
 
 
 
 1S69 
 
 isso 
 
 1S69 
 
 1SS0 
 
 1869 
 
 1SS0 
 
 in 1S69. 
 
 1880. 
 
 1S69 
 
 iSSO 
 
 United States 
 
 
 
 
 77.S40 
 
 38,920 
 
 19,460 
 
 13,622 
 
 97,300 
 
 52,542 
 
 64,000 
 
 33,000 
 
 0.17 
 
 0.07 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 
 
 
 7-2,975 
 
 75.S49 
 
 55.661 
 
 50,596 
 
 1 28,636 
 
 1 26,490 
 
 21)8,700 
 
 258,000 
 
 0.S7 
 
 0.74 
 
 France 
 
 
 
 
 82,705 
 
 109,463 
 
 38,920 
 
 30,65° 
 
 121,625 
 
 140,113 
 
 493,000 
 
 523,000 
 
 1.30 
 
 t.41 
 
 Germany 
 
 
 
 
 58,38° 
 
 85,13s 
 
 4 379 
 
 14,109 
 
 62,759 
 
 99,247 
 
 3So,ooo 
 
 44S,ooo 
 
 1 .00 
 
 I .OI 
 
 Russia 
 
 
 
 
 87.570 
 
 141, 0S5 
 
 17,028 
 
 20,947 
 
 ■04,598 
 
 162,032 
 
 876,000 
 
 835,000 
 
 ■ •■9 
 
 I .04 
 
 Austria . 
 
 
 
 
 46/21S 
 
 60,326 
 
 4.379 
 
 3,892 
 
 50,597 
 
 64,21s 
 
 283,000 
 
 298,000 
 
 0.S1 
 
 0.78 
 
 Italy 
 
 
 
 
 30, I63 
 
 42,812 
 
 6,325 
 
 ■0,703 
 
 36,488 
 
 53,5 >5 
 
 199,000 
 
 216,000 
 
 0.76 
 
 0.77 
 
 Spain 
 
 
 
 
 20,433 
 
 23,839 
 
 5,838 
 
 5.352 
 
 26,271 
 
 29,191 
 
 174,000 
 
 120,000 
 
 1.08 
 
 0.80 
 
 Holland 
 
 
 
 
 S,S 3 8 
 6, Si 1 
 
 9>73° 
 
 6,325 
 
 5,838 
 
 12,163 
 6,81 1 
 
 ■5,568 
 9,2 24. 
 
 82.000 
 
 73.000 
 
 56.000 
 
 46.000 
 
 2 -34 
 1.46 
 
 2*15 
 
 0.8l 
 
 Denmark 
 
 
 
 
 1,946 
 
 2,433 
 
 973 
 
 1,460 
 
 2,919 
 
 3,893 
 
 44,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 2 50 
 
 2.02 
 
 Sweden und Nor wav. 
 
 
 
 
 3,40rt 
 
 6,81 1 
 
 1,460 
 
 1,946 
 
 4.S66 
 
 8,757 
 
 60,000 
 
 62,000 
 
 1 .00 
 
 0-95 
 
 Portugal 
 
 
 
 
 3.406 
 
 3.S92 
 
 1,460 
 
 1,460 
 
 4,S66 
 
 5,352 
 
 26,000 
 
 34,000 
 
 0.65 
 
 0 80 
 
 Turkey 
 
 
 
 
 iS,ooi 
 
 9,730 
 
 4,865 
 
 2,433 
 
 22, S 66 
 
 12,163 
 
 jSS,ooo 
 
 103,000 
 
 1 .70 
 
 2. IO 
 
 Greece 
 
 
 
 
 973 
 
 1,460 
 
 4S7 
 
 4S7 
 
 ’,460 
 
 ■,947 
 
 9,000 
 
 24,000 
 
 0.60 
 
 1 -5° 
 
 Brazil 
 
 
 
 
 7.298 
 
 7,29s 
 
 3,892 
 
 4,865 
 
 1 1,190 
 
 12,163 
 
 7,200 
 
 21,000 
 
 o.So 
 
 0.21 
 
 The World 
 
 
 
 ... . . . . . ..... 
 
 
 523.963 
 
 628,075 
 
 »7 J *452 
 
 168,360 
 
 695.415 
 
 796,435 
 
 3.291700 
 
 3147000 
 
 0.93 
 
 0.76 
 
 CAPITAL, OR WEALTH OF NATIONS. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Million Doll- 
 ars. 
 
 Increase 
 
 Million$ 
 
 Ratio per 
 Inhabitant. 
 
 Ratio free 
 
 of National 
 Debt. 
 
 1870 
 
 iS'O 
 
 1S70 
 
 1SS0 
 
 1870 
 
 1SS0 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 40,42s 
 
 43,590 
 
 3,162 
 
 $1,284 
 
 $1,265 
 
 $1,158 
 
 $■,■53 
 
 France. 
 
 34,649 
 
 36,084 
 
 ■,435 
 
 910 
 
 97S 
 
 847 
 
 878 
 
 United States 
 
 30,747 
 
 38,336 
 
 7,589 
 
 798 
 
 769 
 
 735 
 
 730 
 
 Germany 
 
 26,028 
 
 29,555 
 
 3,527* 
 
 686 
 
 657 
 
 667 
 
 632 
 
 Russia 
 
 16,006 
 
 17,222 
 
 I,2l6 
 
 214 
 
 214 
 
 200 
 
 x 75 
 
 Austria 
 
 ■3,768 
 
 ■ 4,838 
 
 1,070+ 
 
 384 
 
 379 
 
 336 
 
 326 
 
 Italy 
 
 3,514 
 
 9,049 
 
 535 
 
 321 
 
 3'6 
 
 253 
 
 229 
 
 Holland 
 
 5,254 
 
 5,497 
 
 243 
 
 ■.474 
 
 >,377 
 
 1 ,362 
 
 ■,275 
 
 Belgium 
 
 4,379 
 
 4,573 
 
 ■94 
 
 866 
 
 817 
 
 837 
 
 759 
 
 Spain 
 
 6,033 
 
 6,680 
 
 647 
 
 370 
 
 399 
 
 287 
 
 24S 
 
 Portugal 
 
 1,241 
 
 ■>323 
 
 82 
 
 311 
 
 316 
 
 23s 
 
 219 
 
 Sweden and Norway. 
 
 3-371 
 
 3,590 
 
 219 
 
 560 
 
 55° 
 
 555 
 
 535 
 
 Denmark . . 
 
 ',654 
 
 1,703 
 
 49 
 
 924 
 
 866 
 
 890 
 
 842 
 
 Turkey, Greece, etc.. 
 
 3.648 
 
 3,697 
 
 49 
 
 ■5' 
 
 ■5' 
 
 127 
 
 92 
 
 Australia 
 
 ■,683 
 
 2,484 
 
 701 
 
 924 
 
 837 
 
 827 
 
 681 
 
 Canada 
 
 2,549 
 
 3,094 
 
 545 
 
 671 
 
 720 
 
 752 
 
 6S1 
 
 South Africa 
 
 345 
 
 477 
 
 132 
 
 3S9 
 
 35° 
 
 379 
 
 3'6 
 
 South America 
 
 4.379 
 
 4,62 1 
 
 242 
 
 ■75 
 
 180 
 
 146 
 
 190 
 
 The World 
 
 204,676 
 
 226,313 
 
 21.637 
 
 545 
 
 $ 550 
 
 $ 496 
 
 46 1 
 
 ♦Including: $1,362,000,000 for Alsace and Lorraine, flncluding $267,- 
 575,000 for Bosnia. 
 
 EARNINGS OR INCOME OF NATIONS.* 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Million 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1! 
 
 is 
 
 Ratio per 
 
 Inhabitant. 
 
 Ditto free 
 
 of Taxes. 
 
 1870 
 
 18S0 
 
 1S70 
 
 .880 
 
 1S70 
 
 1S80 
 
 United States 
 
 5,167 
 
 7,327 
 
 2,160 
 
 $i34-'8 
 
 $■35.82 
 
 $116.23 
 
 $123.03 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 4,675 
 
 5,624 
 
 949 
 
 ■4855 
 
 ■63.05 
 
 129.1 1 
 
 143.66 
 
 France 
 
 3,834 
 
 4,5'o 
 
 676 
 
 100.S6 
 
 1 12. 14 
 
 85.66 
 
 90-59 
 
 Germany 
 
 3,415 
 
 4,140 
 
 725 
 
 90.04 
 
 91.10 
 
 81.85 
 
 80. 19 
 
 Russia 
 
 2,754 
 
 3,075 
 
 321 
 
 38.34 
 
 3S.43 
 
 32.5' 
 
 32.23 
 
 Austria 
 
 1,961 
 
 2,238 
 
 277 
 
 54-44 
 
 57-32 
 
 45-49 
 
 47-44 
 
 Italy 
 
 ',■34 
 
 1,226 
 
 92 
 
 42.S5 
 
 43-2' 
 
 30.67 
 
 29-5' 
 
 Spain 
 
 774 
 
 905 
 
 ■31 
 
 46.99 
 
 54-86 
 
 36.S5 
 
 43-58 
 
 Belgium 
 
 49' 
 
 574 
 
 si 
 
 97-79 
 
 102.98 
 
 86.72 
 
 89.71 
 
 Holland 
 
 433 
 
 5°6 
 
 73 
 
 123.67 
 
 126.77 
 
 107.74 
 
 109.60 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 433 
 
 5' ■ 
 
 78 
 
 72.16 
 
 78-59 
 
 66.95 
 
 71-31 
 
 Denmark 
 
 '85 
 
 214 
 
 29 
 
 107.08 
 
 102.52 
 
 97-34 
 
 99.29 
 
 Portugal 
 
 ■56 
 
 170 
 
 ■4 
 
 36.00 
 
 39-0? 
 
 3 '-94 
 
 30.36 
 
 Turkey, Greece, etc. 
 
 457 
 
 404 
 
 — 
 
 20.68 
 
 19.46 
 
 17.64 
 
 16.87 
 
 Australia 
 
 307 
 
 433 
 
 126 
 
 ■68.33 
 
 * 5 '- 3 ° 
 
 141.81 
 
 123.58 
 
 Canada 
 
 457 
 
 574 
 
 ”7 
 
 121.95 
 
 ■34.72 
 
 1 13.S4 
 
 124.46 
 
 South Africa 
 
 63 
 
 88 
 
 25 
 
 70.54 
 
 65.20 
 
 65. 28 
 
 52.06 
 
 South America 
 
 803 
 
 920 
 
 "7 
 
 32.62 
 
 37 34 
 
 2538 
 
 29.94 
 
 The World 
 
 27,499 
 
 33.439 
 
 R-9 39 
 
 $ 70.01 
 
 $ 7^*T> 
 
 $ 62.15 
 
 S 66.94 
 
 ♦Computed on a uniform basis in relation with the tables, “Industries 
 of all Nations/’ 
 
 Note.— During: the decade from 1S70 to 18S0, the aggregate debt of nations was increased from $7,875,000,000, or $920,000,000 less than the 
 cost of new railways during the same length of time. The net earnings of the world have increased, but the relative burden of taxation has 
 increased. The paper money of the world, a form of debt, rose from $2 960,000,000 in 1870 to $3,995,000,000 in 18S0, an increase of 34 per cent. 
 The actual amount of gold and silver coin in 1S80 is set down as $4, 1 15,000,000, 6S per cent, gold and 32 per cent, silver. The total production of 
 silver during the decade was $798,000,000; of gold, $1,006,000,000. In the transaction of the world’s commerce the mediums of exchange were as 
 follows: 19.93 per cent, in gold ; 9.61 in silver; 27.81 in bank notes; and 42.65 in checks, drafts and bills of exchange. 
 
•V 
 
 RAILROADS 
 
 FOOD AND FOOD SUPPLY OF ALL NATIONS. 
 
 689 
 
 INCREASE OF RAILROADS* SINCE 1870; TOTAL COST AND TRAFFIC. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Miles Open. 
 
 Increase, 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Cost of New 
 
 Lines, 
 
 Million $ 
 
 1 
 
 Total Cost, 
 
 Million $ 
 
 Passengers, 
 
 Millions. 
 
 Goods, Mill- 
 ion Ions. 
 
 Cost of Con- 
 
 struction 
 per mile. 
 
 Actual Re- 
 
 ceipts per 
 mile. 
 
 Working 
 
 Expenses. 
 
 Net Earn 
 
 ings per mile 
 
 Profit on 
 
 Capital. 
 
 
 
 
 
 i$7o* 
 
 1SS0. 
 
 1S70. 
 
 >879- 
 
 1S70. 
 
 1S79. 
 
 United States 
 
 44,614 
 
 S 6.497 
 
 4 >,SS 3 
 
 2,181 
 
 4,821 
 
 1 10 
 
 •98 
 
 > 5 ° 
 
 210 
 
 56,239 
 
 6,2oS 
 
 3,634 
 
 2,574 
 
 4.62 % 
 
 Great Britain v 
 
 > 5.537 
 
 17.696 
 
 2, >59 
 
 910 
 
 3.4S9 
 
 34 s 
 
 629 
 
 170 
 
 2'5 
 
 197,227 
 
 >6,327 
 
 S,' 5 t 
 
 S >73 
 
 4 'S “ 
 
 France 
 
 10,851 
 
 > 5,375 
 
 4,524 
 
 613 
 
 2,048 
 
 HO 
 
 l6o 
 
 52 
 
 70 
 
 '33.05s 
 
 >3,140 
 
 6,699 
 
 6,441 
 
 4-85 “ 
 
 Germany 
 
 •M 57 
 
 2 '.275 
 
 9,SiS 
 
 >,>87 
 
 2,150 
 
 <36 
 
 196 
 
 9 s 
 
 >30 
 
 100,657 
 
 12,052 
 
 7 , 36 ' 
 
 4 . 7 " 
 
 4-65 “ 
 
 Russia 
 
 7 . 09 s 
 
 •4,69s 
 
 7,600 
 
 70s 
 
 ',323 
 
 >4 
 
 3s 
 
 8 
 
 35 
 
 89,729 
 
 11,112 
 
 6,714 
 
 4,389 
 
 4.S2 «* 
 
 Austria 
 
 5 . 9 o 6 
 
 12,160 
 
 6,254 
 
 642 
 
 1,241 
 
 21 
 
 42 
 
 25 
 
 45 
 
 102,019 
 
 8,562 
 
 4 , 66 d 
 
 3,896 
 
 3 -S 6 “ 
 
 Italy 
 
 3 .S 2 S 
 
 S.096 
 
 1,271 
 
 107 
 
 4S2 
 
 24 
 
 29 
 
 6 
 
 S 
 
 93,797 
 
 6,276 
 
 4, >84 
 
 2,091 
 
 2.22 “ 
 
 Spain and Portugal 
 
 3,820 
 
 5,260 
 
 1,440 
 
 « >7 
 
 414 
 
 IO 
 
 2 S 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 79,737 
 
 5.960 
 
 2.505 
 
 3,455 
 
 4.4O “ 
 
 Norway and Sweden .... 
 
 >- 7 s 3 
 
 5 , '67 
 
 3 . 3 S 4 
 
 "7 
 
 170 
 
 s 
 
 17 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 33 , 39 S 
 
 3,016 
 
 >,95 > 
 
 1.065 
 
 3.38 “ 
 
 Belgium and Holland 
 
 2,6S4 
 
 3 , 9 >o 
 
 1,226 
 
 >36 
 
 409 
 
 47 
 
 67 
 
 29 
 
 32 
 
 99 , 6.35 
 
 9 , >95 
 
 5 , 9 " 
 
 3.2S4 
 
 3.21 “ 
 
 Switzerland * 
 
 ss 5 
 
 I,6y> 
 
 765 
 
 73 
 
 160 
 
 >5 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 97,319 
 
 6, 105 
 
 4 ,oS 7 
 
 2,0 16 
 
 3.10 '* 
 
 Turkey, Greece, etc 
 
 451 
 
 1,870 
 
 I,4l6 
 
 1 12 
 
 146 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 78,083 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — “ 
 
 Canada 
 
 4,010 
 
 6,145 
 
 2 , >35 
 
 122 
 
 355 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 57 , 74 S 
 
 3.697 
 
 2,967 
 
 729 
 
 1.26 “ 
 
 Australia 
 
 1,170 
 
 4,350 
 
 3, >So 
 
 2'4 
 
 292 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 67,oSS 
 
 4,2Si 
 
 2,238 
 
 2,043 
 
 3 -<H “ 
 
 India 
 
 4,780 
 
 8,6l I 
 
 3 . 83 > 
 
 2S7 
 
 59 s 
 
 22 
 
 43 
 
 5 
 
 s 
 
 69.594 
 
 6,354 
 
 3,313 
 
 3.041 
 
 1 37 “ 
 
 South America 
 
 2,160 
 
 6,830 
 
 4,670 
 
 345 
 
 462 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 s 
 
 6S,i 10 
 
 4,622 
 
 2,627 
 
 1.989 
 
 3.00 “ 
 
 Africa, etc 
 
 966 
 
 5.897 
 
 4 , 93 ‘ 
 
 5 S 
 
 315 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 58,380 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 “ 
 
 . The World 
 
 122,000 
 
 222,487 
 
 I 0 O. 4 S 7 
 
 7.926 
 
 18,905 
 
 879 
 
 ',497 
 
 566 
 
 793 
 
 84,846 
 
 8,222 
 
 4.6S5 
 
 3,537 
 
 4 . 1 $ “ 
 
 Note.- The tariff returns per mile show a decrease of 4 per cent, for passengers and 22 per cent, for freight since 1S70. 
 
 FOOD SUPPLY OF ALL NATIONS. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Grain — Million 
 Bushels. 
 
 Meat — Thousand 
 Tons. 
 
 Production of 
 
 Production. 
 
 li 
 
 c — 
 c 
 
 0 
 
 Surplus. 
 
 Deficit. 
 
 Production, j 
 
 Consump- 
 
 tion. 
 
 | Surplus. 
 
 VC 
 
 V 
 
 S 
 
 I Wine, Mill- 
 | ion Gals. 
 
 I Bee. M il 
 
 1 ion Gals. 
 
 Spirits. Mill- 
 1 ion Gals. 
 
 United States 
 
 2390 
 
 2020 
 
 370 
 
 
 
 3,Si6 
 
 2,740 
 
 1076 
 
 — 
 
 20 
 
 360 
 
 76 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 410 
 
 690 
 
 
 2S0 
 
 1.205 
 
 i,SoS 
 
 — 
 
 603 
 
 0 
 
 1 1 10 
 
 3 ' 
 
 France 
 
 740 
 
 910 
 
 — 
 
 170 
 
 1,002 
 
 1,228 
 
 — 
 
 226 
 
 660 
 
 192 
 
 33 
 
 Germany 
 
 950 
 
 1065 
 
 — 
 
 "5 
 
 1,340 
 
 1,700 
 
 - 
 
 360 
 
 90 
 
 SSo 
 
 01 
 
 Russia 
 
 1620 
 
 1440 
 
 180 
 
 — 
 
 2,1 16 
 
 1,925 
 
 191 
 
 — 
 
 20 
 
 50 
 
 i°S 
 
 Austria 
 
 560 
 
 530 
 
 3 ° 
 
 — 
 
 960 
 
 <475 
 
 — 
 
 '5 
 
 290 
 
 245 
 
 
 Italy 
 
 270 
 
 275 
 
 — 
 
 5 
 
 224 
 
 2>5 
 
 9 
 
 — 
 
 660 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 Spain 
 
 305 
 
 300 
 
 5 
 
 — 
 
 196 
 
 iSS 
 
 8 
 
 — 
 
 260 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 Belgium 
 
 95 
 
 120 
 
 — 
 
 25 
 
 92 
 
 I4O 
 
 — 
 
 4S 
 
 0 
 
 170 
 
 •s 
 
 Holland 
 
 50 
 
 65 
 
 — 
 
 '5 
 
 '44 
 
 87 
 
 57 
 
 — 
 
 0 
 
 35 
 
 1 
 
 Denmark 
 
 74 
 
 62 
 
 12 
 
 — 
 
 1 12 
 
 52 
 
 60 
 
 — 
 
 0 
 
 25 
 
 8 
 
 Swed., Nor... 
 
 78 
 
 So 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 213 
 
 I46 
 
 67 
 
 — 
 
 0 
 
 35 
 
 2/ 
 
 Portugal 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 — 
 
 5 
 
 54 
 
 47 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 SS 
 
 0 
 
 I 
 
 Tur., Greece.. 
 
 90 
 
 So 
 
 10 
 
 — 
 
 25 ° 
 
 250 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 24 
 
 O 
 
 
 Australia 
 
 58 
 
 4 ' 
 
 >7 
 
 — 
 
 990 
 
 '52 
 
 838 
 
 — * 
 
 2 
 
 O 
 
 4 
 
 Canada 
 
 170 
 
 l60 
 
 IO 
 
 — 
 
 287 
 
 270 
 
 '7 
 
 — 
 
 0 
 
 O 
 
 I 
 
 River Plate . . 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 i, 3 '° 
 
 272 
 
 103S 
 
 — 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Algeria 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 — 
 
 1 IO 
 
 82 
 
 28 
 
 — 
 
 9 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 •The World 
 
 7916 
 
 789. 
 
 22 
 
 — 
 
 14,421 
 
 12,277 
 
 2141 
 
 
 2114 
 
 3"3 
 
 4 l 6 
 
 •There are, moreover, 200 million bushels of wheat grown in India 
 of which one-tenth is exported; and besides the wine crop here given 
 the Cape produces 4 l /J million gallons, and Madena, Canaries, etc., 5 
 millions. 
 
 FOOD OF ALL NATIONS. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Australia. 
 
 Grain per inhabi- 
 tant. 
 
 River Pintle 
 
 Algeria. . 
 
 General average 
 
 Meat per inhabitant. 
 
 Liquor per inhabi- 
 tant. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wine. 
 
 
 IA 
 
 c . 
 
 tion 
 
 
 
 j 
 
 a 
 
 c 
 
 0 
 
 IA 
 
 X 
 
 1 A 
 
 X 
 
 6 _ 
 
 C r 
 
 c 
 
 0 
 
 ~r. 
 
 be 
 
 r*. - 
 3-5 
 ■g 3 
 
 b 
 
 Consump 
 
 Bushels 
 
 Surplus 
 
 Bushel 
 
 Deficit 
 
 V 
 
 x 
 
 Ui 
 
 C 
 
 U <A 
 
 ax 
 
 'O — 
 
 0 
 
 u 
 
 Oh 
 
 a • 
 Ex 
 
 3 — 
 
 c 
 
 0 
 
 O 
 
 Surplus, 
 
 Z 
 
 VC 
 
 a 
 
 I Gallons p 
 1 duction 
 
 0 C 
 
 : c. 
 
 ■3 | 
 
 O 5 
 
 ■5 
 
 be 
 
 & 
 
 I 
 
 0. 
 
 tr . 
 
 4S.10 
 
 40.66 
 
 7-44 
 
 
 
 171.00 
 
 120.00 
 
 51.00 
 
 
 
 0.40 
 
 0.60 
 
 7.30 
 
 '.52 
 
 1 1.90 
 
 20.02 
 
 — 
 
 s. 
 
 12 
 
 7S.26 
 
 1 19. 10 
 
 — 
 
 10.84 
 
 — 
 
 0.51 
 
 32.18 
 
 0.90 
 
 19.94 
 
 24.02 
 
 — 
 
 4 
 
 oS 
 
 68.06 
 
 8 ,S8 
 
 — 
 
 13.82 
 
 17.S0 
 
 1S.60 
 
 S -*5 
 
 0 SS 
 
 21.15 
 
 23-71 
 
 - 
 
 2 
 
 56 
 
 66.63 
 
 84.51 
 
 — 
 
 17.8s 
 
 2.10 
 
 3.20 
 
 19.44 
 
 '■35 
 
 20.22 
 
 ' 7-97 
 
 2-25 
 
 
 — 
 
 59-34 
 
 54.05 
 
 5.29 
 
 — 
 
 0,02 
 
 0.03 
 
 0.65 
 
 1.30 
 
 14.35 
 
 ' 3-57 
 
 0.78 
 
 
 — 
 
 5 S-'o 
 
 56,03 
 
 — 
 
 0.93 
 
 7-55 
 
 7.50 
 
 6.25 
 
 0.60 
 
 9-45 
 
 9.62 
 
 — 
 
 O 
 
 ‘7 
 
 21.54 
 
 20.80 
 
 0.74 
 
 — 
 
 * 3-44 
 
 22.57 
 
 0.75 
 
 O 3O 
 
 '798 
 
 17.68 
 
 0.30 
 
 
 — 
 
 26.00 
 
 2504 
 
 0.96 
 
 — 
 
 15.40 
 
 12.50 
 
 
 0.25 
 
 17.25 
 
 22.S4 
 
 — 
 
 5 
 
 59 
 
 37 , 6 o 
 
 57.10 
 
 — 
 
 19.50 
 
 — 
 
 0.72 
 
 30.70 
 
 2. So 
 
 12.50 
 
 l6.25 
 
 — 
 
 3 
 
 75 
 
 80.75 
 
 4S.40 
 
 32 35 
 
 — 
 
 
 0.76 
 
 8-75 
 
 » 90 
 
 
 30.83 
 
 5-97 
 
 
 — 
 
 125.S0 
 
 58.15 
 
 67.65 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 0.25 
 
 12.50 
 
 4 20 
 
 ' ' -75 
 
 12.05 
 
 - 
 
 O 
 
 3 ° 
 
 72.SO 
 
 51.10 
 
 21.70 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 0.25 
 
 5-40 
 
 4.20 
 
 7.14 
 
 8-33 
 
 — 
 
 1 
 
 >9 
 
 28.82 
 
 25.20 
 
 3.62 
 
 — 
 
 20.42 
 
 lO.fo 
 
 “ 
 
 O 20 
 
 7 - 5 ° 
 
 6.66 
 
 0.84 
 
 
 — 
 
 45.00 
 
 15 00 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 2.00 
 
 I. So 
 
 — 
 
 O. IO 
 
 21.10 
 
 ■ 4-59 
 
 6.51 
 
 
 — 
 
 790.00 
 
 120.00 
 
 ^70. 00 
 
 — 
 
 075 
 
 1.30 
 
 ? OO 
 
 '•36 
 
 40.30 
 
 38 ." 
 
 2.19 
 
 
 — 
 
 ' 53-00 
 
 120.00 
 
 3 3 00 
 
 — 
 
 7 “ 
 
 0.1 1 
 
 ? OO 
 
 0 30 
 
 2.02 
 
 2.02 
 
 - 
 
 
 — 
 
 1 183.00 
 
 2a). 00 
 
 9S3.OO 
 
 — 
 
 0.3.1 
 
 6.20 
 
 2.00 
 
 0.25 
 
 
 4-95 
 
 1.65 
 
 
 — 
 
 88.00 
 
 66 in 
 
 22.00 
 
 — 
 
 3.10 
 
 2 95 
 
 ? on 
 
 O. IO 
 
 20.23 
 
 20.19 
 
 0.04 
 
 - 
 
 77.00 
 
 0S.S7 
 
 s.13 
 
 
 6.56 
 
 6.51 
 
 S.02 
 
 1 .06 
 
 •The total length of telegraphs in 1S70 was 3137650; in i8So, 604,010, an increase 
 of about </) per cent, in the decade. 
 
 
690 
 
 AGRICULTURE, POPULATION, AND MANUFACTURES OF ALL NATIONS 
 
 AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL INDUSTRIES 
 OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Grain Cultivation 
 
 Pastoral Farming. 
 
 Acres under 
 Grain, 
 ooo’s sup • 
 pressed. 
 
 Acres per 
 Adult Male. 
 
 Bushels per 
 
 Acre. 
 
 Horn’d Cat- 
 
 tle. 
 
 coo's are 
 
 suppressed. 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 ooo’s are 
 
 suppressed. 
 
 I Horn’d Cat. 
 
 pr. 100 inh’s. 
 
 Sheep per 
 iooinhab’ts. 
 
 United States 
 
 102500 
 
 10.25 
 
 2 3-3° 
 
 335°° 
 
 38000 
 
 67 
 
 76 
 
 Grea Britain 
 
 11260 
 
 1.63 
 
 36.40 
 
 9912 
 
 32174 
 
 29 
 
 93 
 
 France 
 
 40300 
 
 5 -45 
 
 18.50 
 
 11315 
 
 23674 
 
 3° 
 
 64 
 
 Germany 
 
 43 200 
 
 4-75 
 
 22.05 
 
 15S00 
 
 25200 
 
 35 
 
 55 
 
 Russia 
 
 158000 
 
 9-95 
 
 10.25 
 
 2S000 
 
 64000 
 
 35 
 
 80 
 
 Austria 
 
 37300 
 
 4.78 
 
 15.04 
 
 13131 
 
 21418 
 
 33 
 
 55 
 
 Italy 
 
 19560 
 
 3-43 
 
 13. So 
 
 3490 
 
 7150 
 
 12 
 
 25 
 
 Spain 
 
 25000 
 
 7-5° 
 
 12.20 
 
 1SS0 
 
 14000 
 
 9 
 
 84 
 
 Belgium 
 
 2910 
 
 2.65 
 
 32.72 
 
 1242 
 
 586 
 
 22 
 
 10 
 
 Holland 
 
 '73° 
 
 2.l6 
 
 28.S0 
 
 1466 
 
 941 
 
 37 
 
 24 
 
 Denmark .... 
 
 2670 
 
 6.70 
 
 27.72 
 
 1348 
 
 1720 
 
 6S 
 
 ss 
 
 Sweden and Norway. 
 
 4380 
 
 3-37 
 
 17.80 
 
 3205 
 
 3276 
 
 49 
 
 50 
 
 Portugal 
 
 *57° 
 
 2.84 
 
 1 1.64 
 
 S23 
 
 2417 
 
 12 
 
 55 
 
 Greece 
 
 6lO 
 
 2.90 
 
 15.20 
 
 58 
 
 2100 
 
 3 
 
 130 
 
 Australia 
 
 3400 
 
 6.10 
 
 17.10 
 
 7879 
 
 65914 
 
 2S7 
 
 2402 
 
 Canada 
 
 8500 
 
 9.90 
 
 20.00 
 
 2702 
 
 3331 
 
 63 
 
 77 
 
 River Platte 
 
 330 
 
 0.60 
 
 I9.OO 
 
 1885O 
 
 76000 
 
 630 
 
 25S0 
 
 South Africa 
 
 600 
 
 2.40 
 
 9.90 
 
 1730 
 
 1 1700 
 
 130 
 
 S9O 
 
 The World 
 
 464820 
 
 6.44 
 
 17.02 
 
 ISS703 
 
 393601 
 
 43 
 
 109 
 
 Note — During 1 the period from 1870 to 1880 the agricultural wealth of 
 the world increased 8. 58 per cent. 
 
 INCREASE OF POPULATION SINCE 1870. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Populr tion in 
 1S70, 
 
 In thousands. 
 
 Excess Births 
 over Deaths, 
 
 In thousands. 
 
 Net Emigra- 
 tion, 
 
 In thousands. 
 
 Net Immigra- 
 tion, 
 
 In thousands. 
 
 | Population ill 
 18S0, 
 
 ! In thousands. 
 
 Increase 
 
 In thousands. 
 
 Ratio of In- 
 crease. 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,192 
 
 ^oic;2 
 
 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 31205 
 
 4265 
 
 965 
 
 34505 
 
 3300 
 
 '0.57 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 612 
 
 
 
 
 5288 
 
 03*7 
 
 
 
 
 
 Russia ( Europe) 
 
 73725 
 
 6565 
 
 130 
 
 
 So 160 
 
 6435 
 
 8-73 
 
 
 
 216S 
 
 
 *1103 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16551 
 
 386 
 
 305 
 
 
 16632 
 
 81 
 
 0.50 
 
 
 
 
 Belgium 
 
 5052 
 
 527 
 
 
 40 
 
 5619 
 
 567 
 
 11.23 
 
 
 3574 
 
 452 
 
 60 
 
 
 3960 
 
 386 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sweden and Norway... 
 
 6028 
 
 724 
 
 202 
 
 
 6550 
 
 522 
 
 8.66 
 
 
 1785 
 
 223 
 
 44 
 
 
 1964 
 
 179 
 
 10.03 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 Turkey, etc 
 
 23648 
 
 16,5 
 
 1.205 
 
 
 24088 
 
 440 
 
 2.01 
 
 Australia 
 
 1829 
 
 45° 
 
 
 584 
 
 2863 
 
 1034 
 
 56.50 
 
 Canada 
 
 3763 
 
 307 
 
 
 228 
 
 4298 
 
 535 
 
 14-23 
 
 
 582 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 South America 
 
 24700 
 
 516 
 
 
 270 
 
 25483 
 
 786 
 
 3.18 
 
 The World 
 
 375129 
 
 3033' 
 
 
 
 41172s 
 
 36599 
 
 9 7b 
 
 
 
 
 CONSUMPTION OF COTTON, WOOL, FLAX, 
 JUTE, ETC. 
 
 Countries 
 
 | Cotton, mill- 
 
 | ion lbs. 
 
 Wool, mill- 
 
 «7 
 
 £> 
 
 C 
 
 0 
 
 Flax, jute, 
 
 etc., million 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Total, mill- 
 
 ion lbs. 
 
 Increase, 
 
 mill. lbs. 
 
 1S70 
 
 1SS0 
 
 1870 
 
 1SS0 
 
 1870 
 
 18S0 
 
 00 
 
 N 
 
 O 
 
 18S0 
 
 
 United States 
 
 530 
 
 911 
 
 204 
 
 258 
 
 54 
 
 23 
 
 788 
 
 1 192 
 
 404 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 1 101 
 
 1404 
 
 342 
 
 401 
 
 660 
 
 766 
 
 2103 
 
 2571 
 
 468 
 
 France 
 
 210 
 
 270 
 
 292 
 
 350 
 
 360 
 
 402 
 
 862 
 
 1022 
 
 160 
 
 Germany 
 
 26S 
 
 390 
 
 155 
 
 265 
 
 226 
 
 305 
 
 649 
 
 960 
 
 3 ” 
 
 Russia 
 
 93 
 
 133 
 
 130 
 
 ■65 
 
 170 
 
 220 
 
 393 
 
 5'S 
 
 1*5 
 
 Austria 
 
 103 
 
 130 
 
 7° 
 
 80 
 
 9° 
 
 95 
 
 263 
 
 305 
 
 4* 
 
 Italv 
 
 55 
 
 90 
 
 30 
 
 34 
 
 iS 
 
 25 
 
 IOO 
 
 149 
 
 49 
 
 Spain 
 
 60 
 
 76 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 14 
 
 26 
 
 109 
 
 142 
 
 33 
 
 Belgium 
 
 36 
 
 48 
 
 94 
 
 105 
 
 146 
 
 .48 
 
 276 
 
 3°1 
 
 25 
 
 Holland 
 
 1 1 
 
 ■3 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 5° 
 
 55 
 
 67 
 
 75 
 
 8 
 
 Scandinavia 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 17 
 
 19 
 
 60 
 
 67 
 
 7 
 
 Switzerland, Greece, etc. . . . 
 
 78 
 
 70 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 s 
 
 20 
 
 I l6 
 
 IIO 
 
 
 British Colonies, etc 
 
 7° 
 
 i°5 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 So 
 
 5° 
 
 '5° 
 
 190 
 
 40 
 
 The World 
 
 2635 
 
 3665 
 
 '431 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 00 
 
 1S70 
 
 2154 
 
 5936 
 
 7602 
 
 1666 
 
 Note. - During the period from 1870 to 1SS0 the increase in the manu- 
 factures of the world was 18.60 per cent. 
 
 MANUFACTURES OF ALL NATIONS IN MILLIONS 
 OF DOLLARS, IN 1870 AND 1880. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Textiles. 
 
 Hardware. 
 
 Ifi 
 
 . 0 ) 
 
 *0 
 
 e 
 
 c 7 . ; 
 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 Increase. 
 
 1870 
 
 1SS0 
 
 #| 
 
 18S0 
 
 1870 
 
 18S0 
 
 1S70 
 
 18S0 
 
 
 United States 
 
 428 
 
 559 
 
 268 
 
 53° 
 
 2622 
 
 3230 
 
 33 'S 
 
 4319 
 
 1001 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 944 
 
 1036 
 
 603 
 
 754 
 
 1576 
 
 1S97 
 
 3123 
 
 36S7 
 
 564 
 
 France 
 
 6is 
 
 652 
 
 156 
 
 199 
 
 1362 
 
 iqc8 
 
 2136 
 
 2359 
 
 223 
 
 Germany 
 
 34' 
 
 462 
 
 199 
 
 3O2 
 
 1 1 19 
 
 13H 
 
 ■659 
 
 2078 
 
 419 
 
 Russia 
 
 219 
 
 263 
 
 SS 
 
 73 
 
 720 
 
 778 
 
 99' 
 
 1 1 14 
 
 117 
 
 Austria 
 
 156 
 
 175 
 
 49 
 
 73 
 
 6S0 
 
 754 
 
 891 
 
 1002 
 
 in 
 
 Italy 
 
 88 
 
 122 
 
 '9 
 
 24 
 
 394 
 
 4'4 
 
 5°i 
 
 560 
 
 59 
 
 Spain 
 
 83 
 
 107 
 
 24 
 
 29 
 
 268 
 
 292 
 
 375 
 
 428 
 
 53 
 
 Belgium 
 
 136 
 
 146 
 
 44 
 
 63 
 
 175 
 
 204 
 
 355 
 
 4>3 
 
 58 
 
 Holland 
 
 24 
 
 29 
 
 10 
 
 '5 
 
 146 
 
 l6l 
 
 :So 
 
 205 
 
 »5 
 
 Norway and Sweden.. 
 
 34 
 
 34 
 
 24 
 
 34 
 
 199 
 
 219 
 
 . 257 
 
 287 
 
 3 ° 
 
 SwitzerPd, Greece, etc. 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 ‘S 
 
 *5 
 
 3S4 
 
 345 
 
 423 
 
 384 
 
 
 British Colonies 
 
 I46 
 
 165 
 
 68 
 
 97 
 
 97 
 
 I46 
 
 3 ” 
 
 40S 
 
 97 
 
 The World 
 
 324 ' 
 
 3774 
 
 ■537 
 
 220S 
 
 974s 
 
 11262 
 
 14526 
 
 >7244 
 
 2751 
 
 * Annexation of Bosnia. 
 
INCREASE OF COMMERCE AND BALANCE OF TRADE 
 
 Countries 
 
 United States 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 France 
 
 Germany 
 
 Russia 
 
 Austria 
 
 Italy 
 
 Holland 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Spain and Portugal. . 
 Norway and Sweden 
 Turkey, Greece, etc. . 
 
 Australia 
 
 Canada 
 
 South Africa 
 
 India 
 
 West Indies 
 
 South America 
 
 The World 
 
 Guoss Trade. 
 
 
 Average of 
 
 Ten Years. 
 
 Current of Bullion. 
 
 ooo’s are 
 suppressed, 
 i Syr. 
 
 ooo’s are 
 suppressed. 
 1SS0. 
 
 ooo’s arc 
 suppressed. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 1S7C. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 1SS0. 
 
 Surplus Im- 
 ported 
 since 1S70. 
 
 Surplus Ex- 
 ported 
 since 1S70 . 
 
 837,000 
 
 1,464,000 
 
 627,000 
 
 535 .°°°,°°° 
 
 589,000,000 
 
 
 241,304,000* 
 
 2,661,155 
 
 3,336.580 
 
 675,425 
 
 i,vSo^,oi5,ooo 
 
 1 , 35 M 7 °> 0 °o 
 
 122,476,375 
 
 1,211,385 
 
 i,6i5,iSo 
 
 i,S6S,i6o 
 
 403,795 
 
 758,840,000 
 
 671,370,001 
 
 662,61 5,000 
 
 
 '> 3 ' 3 , 5 S° 
 
 554.610 
 
 817,320,000 
 
 773 . 535 ,°°° 
 
 
 > 
 
 535 . 15 ° 
 
 929,215 
 
 394,065 
 
 301,650,0^0 
 
 272,440,000 
 
 
 98,759,5°° 
 
 408,600 
 
 6Si,ioo 
 
 272,500 
 
 350,375,000 
 
 320,090,000 
 
 
 6, Si 1,000 
 
 360,010 
 
 467,040 
 
 564,335 
 
 107,030 
 
 248,1 15,000 
 
 228,655,000 
 
 . 
 
 2,5 2 9,So 1 
 
 345 , +1° 
 
 218,925 
 
 238,385,000 
 
 189 , 735 ,°°° 
 
 51,569,000 
 
 3 ' ',36° 
 
 5 ° 5 , 9 S 5 
 
 194,595 
 
 248,1 15,00 . 
 
 104,600,000 
 
 221,746,700 
 
 
 199.465 
 
 248,115 
 
 48,650 
 
 1 16,760,00:) 
 
 107 , 030,000 
 
 209,195,00 > 
 18,487, coo 
 
 
 201,300 
 
 4OS,6O0 
 
 267,575 
 
 306,485 
 
 432.985 
 
 63,275 
 
 155.380.000 
 
 126.490.000 
 
 199.465.000 
 
 121,630,000 
 
 1 1 1 ,S95,oco 
 'S9, 735 , 000 
 
 
 2 77 . 3°5 
 
 155, 6S0 
 
 
 225 . 970 , 25 o 
 
 100,450 
 
 170,270 
 
 9,S2o 
 
 87,570,000 
 
 72,975,000 
 
 
 5 ..- 94 , 7 oo 
 
 38,920 
 
 82,710 
 4 S 1,635 
 
 43,79° 
 
 19,460,000 
 
 24,325,000 
 
 9.121,875 
 
 4 i 3 . 5 2 5 
 
 6S, 1 10 
 
 170,270^000 
 48,650,00 ) 
 
 277,305,002 
 
 335,052,55° 
 
 
 9 M 10 
 
 102,160 
 
 9,720 
 
 48,650,000 
 
 2,091,650 
 
 
 4 i 3 , 5 2 5 
 
 437 , 85 0 
 
 24,325 
 
 20 5,300,000 
 
 22 3 » 790 .ooo 
 
 
 3S1.902.500 
 
 10,192,150 
 
 13,961,350 
 
 3,871,31s 
 
 6,430,930,000 
 
 5,769,230,000 
 
 1,632,353.15° 
 
 962, SS ,750 
 
 * Down to iSTSthe United States had exported $379,465,000, but in the years 1879 and 1SS0 the net importation was about $138,166,000. On the 
 other hand great Britain no longer imports bullion, but exported $34,055,000 since 1879. 
 
 GOLD AND SILVER COINS OF THE UNITED 
 STATES AND CHANGES IN COINAGE. 
 
 Gold Coins Authorized by Law. 
 
 Double-eagle March 3, 1849 
 
 Eagle, April 2, 1792 
 
 Eagle, June 28, 1834 
 
 Eagle, January 18, 1837 
 
 Half-eagle, April 2, 1792 
 
 Half-eagle, June 28, 1834.-4. 
 
 Half-eagle, January 18, 1S37 
 
 Three-aollar piece, Feb. 21, 1853.. 
 
 Quarter-eagle, April 1, 1792 
 
 Quarter-eagle, June 28, 1834 
 
 Quarter-eagle, January 18, 1S37 
 
 Dollar, March 3, 1849 
 
 Silver Coins. 
 
 Dollar, April 2, 1792 
 
 Dollar, January, 1837 
 
 Fine- 
 
 ness. 
 
 Weight 
 
 Grains. 
 
 Total ain't coined 
 tojan. 30, 1876. 
 
 9 ~o 
 
 516 
 
 . $765,656,74° 00 
 
 916 y 3 
 
 270 
 
 1 
 
 890 Yx 
 
 258 
 
 V . . 56,651,12000 
 
 900 
 
 25° 
 
 ) 
 
 si6% 
 
 '35 
 
 1 
 
 899 Ti 
 
 129 
 
 > . . 69,344,980 to 
 
 900 
 
 129 
 
 
 900 
 
 77-4 
 
 ... 1,295,56s 00 
 
 916% 
 
 67 H 
 
 1 
 
 §9954 
 
 64 Af 
 
 r.. 26,789,970 00 
 
 900 
 
 64 Vi 
 
 i 
 
 900 
 
 25.8 
 
 .... 19. 343,2 iS 00 
 
 892.4 
 
 4l6 
 
 t 
 
 9)0 
 
 412*4 
 
 ( . . 8,045,83s CO 
 
 [Coinage Discontinued by act of February 12, 1873.] 
 
 Trade Dollar, February 12, 1873. .. 
 
 Half-dollar, April 2, 1792 
 
 Half-dollar, January iS, 1837 
 
 Half-dollar, February 21. 1853 
 
 Half-dollar, February 12, 1S73 
 
 Quarter-dollar, April 2, 1792 
 Quarter -dollar, January 18, 1837... 
 Quarter-dollar, February 21, 1853.. 
 Quarter-dollar, February 13, 1873.. 
 Twenty -cent piece, March 3, 1675. 
 
 Dime, April 2, 1792 
 
 Dime, January 18, 1837 
 
 Dime, February 21, 185.; 
 
 Dime, February 12, 1873 
 
 Half-dime, April 2, 1792 
 
 Half-dime, January 18, 1837 
 
 Half-dime, February 21, 1853 
 
 900 
 
 420 
 
 892.4 
 
 20S 
 
 900 
 
 20614" 
 
 900 
 
 192 
 
 9CO 
 
 192.9* 
 
 892-4 
 
 104 
 
 900 
 
 i °354 
 
 900 
 
 9 ° 
 
 900 
 
 </i' 4 S 
 
 900 
 
 77.16 
 
 892.4 
 
 41 .6 
 
 900 
 
 4154 
 
 900 
 
 384 
 
 900 
 
 38.58 
 
 892.4 
 
 20.8 
 
 900 
 
 20% 
 
 900 
 
 19.2 
 
 15,4*8,450 00 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 r .. 109,123,190 5° 
 
 27,189,946 5° 
 J ( 6 1 / grams ) 
 
 (5 grms)269,4i8 co 
 
 ! 
 
 [.. 14,086,71630 
 
 J grams) 
 
 i . . 4,906,946 90 
 
 [Coinage discontinued by act of February 12, 1873.] 
 
 Threc-cent piece, March 3, 1850. I 75 ° ,2 H I I 
 
 Three-cent piece, March 3. 1 853 ... [ 900 11.9 it. 1,181,850 * 3 
 
 * The half-dollar authorized by the law of February 12, 1873, weighs 
 1 2 V 4 grams, and equals half the value of the five-franc pieces of France, 
 Belgium and Switzerland, the five-lire of Italy, five-peseta of Spain, 
 five-drachma of Greece, and equals the florin of Austria. 
 
 COIN MINTED SINCE 1870. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 39 !, 146,000 
 
 197,5 > 9.003 
 I 53 » 5 ° I ,°oo 
 424,228,000 
 
 ■52,858,300 
 
 31,622,500 
 
 
 
 
 Australia 
 
 133.301,000 
 
 526,879,500 
 
 
 102.651.500 
 
 72.975.000 
 93,894.5°° 
 
 48.650.000 
 46,217,500 
 
 973,000 
 
 39,596,250 
 
 10.216.000 
 
 114.327.500 
 
 22.379.000 
 184,870,000 
 
 
 
 156,409,75° 
 
 121,630,0:0 
 SO, 27 2 50O 
 
 2 V 1,304,350 
 
 1 70,2S<),000 
 126,490,000 
 39 - 353.000 
 47 , 185,650 
 20,919,000 
 ,2 b 543 . 5 °° 
 2 7 . 73 °. 5 °o 
 
 185,356,50° 
 
 
 
 
 Italv 
 
 Norway and Sweden 
 
 Mexico, Peru, etc 
 
 Japan 
 
 7.589,400 
 
 l(),703,000 
 
 10,216,000 
 
 5 , 35 '. 5 °° 
 
 .486,50° 
 
 
 The World 
 
 1 ,02 1 , 557/>50 
 
 021,231,050 
 
 2,542.788,700 
 
 PRECIOUS METALS, PRODUCTION SINCE 1870. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 383,363,000 
 337 t o 3 i,ooo 
 24,325,000 
 -• \ L 520,1 mo 
 
 321 8.874.000 
 
 374.605.000 
 72,975,000 
 
 712,236,000 
 * 32^3 *»ooo 
 
 398,9 ?o,ooo 
 306,495,000 
 
 Australia 
 
 Mexico, Peru, etc 
 
 Russia, etc 
 
 The World 
 
 978,83.8,00° 
 
 776,454,000 
 
 !, 755 , 202 ,030 
 
 Production of Iron and Steel Works in United States. 
 
 Iron ani> Stkki. Products. 
 
 Census year 
 
 i"... 
 
 Census year 
 1870. 
 
 Pig iron and castings from furnace 
 
 Net Tons. 
 3,781,021 
 
 Net Tons. 
 
 All products of iron rolling mills.,.. 
 
 2,553.24'' 
 
 ',141,824 
 
 Bessemer steel finished products 
 
 889,890 
 
 19.403 
 
 Open-hearth steer finished products 
 
 93, '43 
 
 28,061; 
 
 Crucible steel finished products 
 
 7 °, 3>9 
 
 
 4 , 95 ° 
 
 2.* S 5 
 
 Product* of forges and blomurics 
 
 72.557 
 
 IIO,8o8 
 
 
 7 , 265 , M° 
 
 . 4 . 655.215 
 
692 
 
 THE FINANCIAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 THE FINANCIAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 From Washington to Hayes, Showing the Public Debt, Gross Revenues, Expenditures, Imports and Exports. 
 
 Y’r 
 
 President 
 
 Public 
 
 Debt. 
 
 Revenues 
 
 Expend- 
 
 itures. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Y’r 
 
 President. 
 
 Public 
 
 Debt. 
 
 Revenues. 
 
 Expendi- 
 
 tures. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 17S9 
 
 Washingt’n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 iS 37 
 
 VanBurcn.. . 
 
 1,878,223 
 
 27,883,853 
 
 37,265,037 
 
 117 , 419 , 3/6 
 
 1 40,989,2 1 7 
 
 I 79 0 
 
 Washington 
 
 
 
 
 20,205,156 
 
 23,000,000 
 
 1S3S 
 
 VanBuren... 
 
 4 - s 57 , 66 o 
 
 39,019,382 
 
 39,455,437 
 
 I08,486,6l6 
 
 113,717,404 
 
 1791 
 
 Washingt’n 
 
 75 , 463,476 
 
 I 0 , 2 I 0 , 02 £ 
 
 7,207,539 
 
 19,012,041 
 
 29,200,000 
 
 1S39 
 
 VanBuren.. . 
 
 h, 983,737 
 
 33,881,242 
 
 37,614,936 
 
 121,088,416 
 
 162,092,132 
 
 1792 
 
 Washingt’n 
 
 77,227,924 
 
 8,740,766 
 
 9, >41,569 
 
 2o,7S3,o9S 
 
 31,500,000 
 
 1S40 
 
 VanBuren. . 
 
 5,125,077 
 
 25,032,193 
 
 28,226,533 
 
 132,085,936 
 
 107,641,519 
 
 1793 
 
 Washingt’n 
 
 80,382,634 
 
 5,720,624 
 
 7,529,575 
 
 26,109,572 
 
 31,000,000 
 
 1S41 
 
 W. Harrison 
 
 6 , 737,398 
 
 30 , 519,477 
 
 31,797,530 
 
 121,851,803 
 
 > 27 , 946,177 
 
 >794 
 
 Washingt’n 
 
 78,427,404 
 
 10,041,101 
 
 9,302,124 
 
 33,026,233 
 
 34,000,000 
 
 1842 
 
 J. Tyler 
 
 15,028,486 
 
 34 , 773,744 
 
 32,936,876 
 
 104,691,531 
 
 100,152,087 
 
 >795 
 
 Washingt’n 
 
 8o , 747 .S 87 
 
 9,419,802 
 
 >0,435,069 
 
 47 , 9 S 9.472 
 
 69,756,268 
 
 1S43 
 
 J. Tyler 
 
 27,203,45° 
 
 20,7S2,4IO 
 
 12,118,105 
 
 84,346,450 
 
 64 , 753,799 
 
 1796 
 
 Washingt’n 
 
 83 . 762 .> 7 2 
 
 8,740,329 
 
 8,367,776 
 
 67,064,097 
 
 8i, 436,164 
 
 18+4 
 
 J. Tyler 
 
 24,74s, 1 SS 
 
 3 i,' 98 , 55 S 
 
 33,642,0 m 
 
 I I 1,200,046 
 
 108,435,035 
 
 >797 
 
 Tohn Adams 
 
 82 , 064,479 
 
 8,758,916 
 
 8,626,01 2 
 
 56,850,206 
 
 75 » 379 > 4°6 
 
 1845 
 
 J. K.Polk... 
 
 17 , 093,794 
 
 29 , 941,853 
 
 30,490,408 
 
 1 14,646,606 
 
 " 7 , 254,564 
 
 1798 
 
 John Adams 
 
 79,228,529 
 
 8,209,070 
 
 s, 613, 517 
 
 61 , 527,097 
 
 6S, 55 i, 7 co 
 
 1846 
 
 J. K. Polk. . . 
 
 16,750,926 
 
 29,699,967 
 
 27,632,282 
 
 113,488,516 
 
 121,691,797 
 
 >799 
 
 Tohn Adams 
 
 7S,40S,6C9 
 
 12 , 621,459 
 
 11,077,043 
 
 78,665,522 
 
 79,089,148 
 
 1S47 
 
 J. K. Polk... 
 
 38,956,623 
 
 55,338,168 
 
 60,520,851 
 
 1 58,648,622 
 
 146,545,638 
 
 1S00 
 
 Tohn Adams 
 
 S 2 , 976,294 
 
 12,451,184 
 
 >1,989,7 39 
 
 70 , 970,780 
 
 91, 252,76s 
 
 1S4S 
 
 J. K.Polk... 
 
 4S, 526,379 
 
 56 , 992,479 
 
 60,655,143 
 
 154,032,131 
 
 154,998,928 
 
 1S01 
 
 T. Jefferson. 
 
 83,038,050 
 
 > 2 , 945,455 
 
 12 , 273,376 
 
 94 , 115,925 
 
 ” 1 , 363,513 
 
 1S49 
 
 Z. Taylor.... 
 
 64,704,693 
 
 59,796,892 
 
 56,386,422 
 
 145 , 755,820 
 
 i 47 ,S 57,439 
 
 1 So 2 
 
 T. Jefferson. 
 
 SO,7l2,632 
 
 > 5 ,o°>, 39 i 
 
 13,276,084 
 
 72,483,160 
 
 76 , 333,365 
 
 1S50 
 
 M. Fillmore. 
 
 64,22S,23S 
 
 47 , 649 , 38 S 
 
 44,004,718 
 
 151,898,790 
 
 178,138,318 
 
 1S03 
 
 T. Jefferson. 
 
 77 , 054.686 
 
 I 1 , 064,097 
 
 11,258,983 
 
 55,Soo,oS3 
 
 64,666,613 
 
 1851 
 
 M. Fillmore. 
 
 62,560,395 
 
 52,762,704 
 
 48,476,104 
 
 218,388,011 
 
 216 , 224,932 
 
 1S04 
 
 T. Jefferson. 
 
 86,427,120 
 
 >1,835,840 
 
 12,624,646 
 
 77,699,074 
 
 iS5,ooo,ooo 
 
 1852 
 
 M. Fillmore. 
 
 65,131,692 
 
 49,893,115 
 
 46,712,608 
 
 209,658,366 
 
 212,945,442 
 
 1 805 
 
 T. Jefferson. 
 
 82,312,150 
 
 13,689,508 
 
 > 3 , 727,>24 
 
 95,566,021 
 
 1 20,600,000 
 
 1853 
 
 F. Pierce. . . . 
 
 67,340,62s 
 
 61,500,102 
 
 54,577,061 
 
 230,976,157 
 
 267,97s, 647 
 
 l806 
 
 T. Jefferson. 
 
 75,723,270 
 
 i5,6oS,S28 
 
 15,070,093 
 
 101,536,963 
 
 129,410,000 
 
 1S54 
 
 F. Pierce. . . 
 
 47 , 242,206 
 
 73,802,291 
 
 75,473,119 
 
 27S,24I,064 
 
 304,562,381 
 
 lS07 
 
 T. Jefferson. 
 
 69 , 2 lS ,398 
 
 16,398,019 
 
 I 1,292,292 
 
 ioS,343,i5i 
 
 138,500,000 
 
 'S 55 
 
 F. Pierce . . . 
 
 39 , 969 , 73 ' 
 
 65 , 351,374 
 
 66,164,775 
 
 275,156,846 
 
 261,468,520 
 
 1S08 
 
 T. Jefferson. 
 
 65, > 96 , 3>7 
 
 17,062,544 
 
 16,704,584 
 
 22,430,960 
 
 56,990,000 
 
 1856 
 
 *F. Pierce. . . 
 
 31 , 972,537 
 
 74,056,899 
 
 73,185,644 
 
 326,964,908 
 
 314,639,942 
 
 1809 
 
 J. Madison. 
 
 57,023, 192 
 
 7 , 773,473 
 
 13,867,226 
 
 52,203,333 
 
 59 , 400 ,OOC 
 
 iS 57 
 
 J. Buchanan. 
 
 28,699,S3 I 
 
 68,969,2 1 2 
 
 71,071,713 
 
 362,960,608 
 
 360,890,141 
 
 1S10 
 
 J. Madison . 
 
 53 , > 73 , 217 
 
 12,144,206 
 
 > 3 , 3 > 9 , 9 S 6 
 
 66,657,970 
 
 85,406,000 
 
 185S 
 
 J. Buchanan. 
 
 44,91 i,8Si 
 
 70,372,665 
 
 81,690,521 
 
 324,644,421 
 
 282,613,150 
 
 1811 
 
 J. Madison. 
 
 48,005,587 
 
 > 4 , 43 >, 8 3 S 
 
 13,601,800 
 
 61,316,883 
 
 53,400,000 
 
 1S59 J . Buchanan . 
 
 58,496,837 
 
 81,758,557 
 
 83,756,020 
 
 356,789,461 
 
 338,768,130 
 
 1812 
 
 J. Madison. 
 
 45,209,737 
 
 22,639,032 
 
 22,279,121 
 
 38,527,236 
 
 77 >O 3 O,OO 0 
 
 i860 J. Buchanan . 
 
 64,842,287 
 
 76,841,407 
 
 76,984,84s 
 
 400,122,297 
 
 362,166,254 
 
 1813 
 
 J. Madison. 
 
 55,962,827 
 
 40,524,844 
 
 39,190,520 
 
 27,855,927 
 
 22,005,000 
 
 1S61 
 
 A. Lincoln. . 
 
 90,580,873 
 
 83,371,640 
 
 85,283,744 
 
 243 , 97',277 
 
 335 , 650,153 
 
 1814 
 
 J. Madison. 
 
 81,487,846 
 
 34 , 559 , 536 . 
 
 3S,028,230 
 
 6,927,44' 
 
 12,965,007 
 
 1S62 
 
 A. Lincoln. . 
 
 524,176,412 
 
 581,679,915 
 
 570,859,141 
 
 210,688,675 
 
 2 oS, 77',729 
 
 1815 
 
 J. Madison. 
 
 99,833,660 
 
 50,961,237 
 
 39 , 582,493 
 
 52 , 557,753 
 
 1 13,041,200 
 
 1863 
 
 A. Lincoln. . 
 
 1,119,772,138 
 
 889,379,652 
 
 $95,822,360 
 
 241 , 997,474 
 
 252,919,920 
 
 1816 
 
 J. Madison. 
 
 > 27 , 334,933 
 
 57 ,> 7 >, 42 > 
 
 48 , 244,495 
 
 81,920,452 
 
 i 47 >i° 3 >° 4 ° 
 
 1864 
 
 A. Lincoln. . 
 
 1,815,784,370 
 
 1,392,500,716 
 
 1,295,894,656 
 
 243,977,589 
 
 329,562,895 
 
 1817 
 
 J . Monroe . . 
 
 >23,491,965 
 
 33 , 833,592 
 
 40,877,646 
 
 87,671,560 
 
 99 , 250,000 
 
 1865 
 
 A. Lincoln. . 
 
 2 ,6So, 647,869 
 
 1,805,939,345 
 
 1,907,171,366 
 
 2 oi,S 5 8 ,372 
 
 248,555.652 
 
 1818 
 
 J. Monroe 
 
 103,466,633 
 
 21 , 593,936 
 
 35.104,875 
 
 93,281,133 
 
 121,750,000 
 
 1S66 
 
 A. Johnson . . 
 
 2,733,236,173 
 
 1,270,884,173 
 
 1,141,072,776 
 
 420,161,476 
 
 44 S, 5 ' 2 ,isS 
 
 1819 
 
 J. Monroe. . 
 
 95 , 529,648 
 
 24,605,665 
 
 24 , 004,199 
 
 70,141,501 
 
 87,125,000 
 
 1S67 
 
 A. Johnson.. 
 
 2,67s, 126, 103 
 
 1,131,060,920 
 
 ',093,070,655 
 
 43 S, 577.312 
 
 417,833,575 
 
 1820 
 
 J. Monroe. 
 
 91,015,566 
 
 20,881,493 
 
 21,763,024 
 
 69,661,669 
 
 74,450,000 
 
 186S 
 
 A. Johnson.. 
 
 2,611,687,851 
 
 ',030,749,516 
 
 1,270,884,173 
 
 454 , 30 i, 7 i 3 
 
 371,624,80s 
 
 1821 
 
 J. Monroe. 
 
 89,987,427 
 
 19 , 573,703 
 
 19,090,572 
 
 64 , 974,382 
 
 62,585,724 
 
 1869 
 
 U. S. Grant.. 
 
 2,588,452,213 
 
 609,62I,82S 
 
 5S4.777.996 
 
 413,961,115 
 
 437 , 314,255 
 
 1S22 
 
 J. Monroe. . 
 
 93 , 546,676 
 
 20 , 232,427 
 
 >7,676,5 92 
 
 72,160,281 
 
 83,241,541 
 
 1870 
 
 U. S. Grant.. 
 
 2,480,672,427 
 
 696,729,973 
 
 702,907,842 
 
 499,092,143 
 
 462,377,587 
 
 1S23 
 
 J. Monroe. . 
 
 90,875,877 
 
 20,540,666 
 
 > 5 , 3 ' 4 ,' 7 > 
 
 74,699,030 
 
 77 , 579,267 
 
 1871 
 
 U. S. Grant.. 
 
 2,353,211,332 
 
 652,092,468 
 
 691,680,858 
 
 562,518,651 
 
 54 '. 493 , 70S 
 
 1S24 
 
 J. Monroe. . 
 
 90,269,777 
 
 24,381,212 
 
 3 ',898,538 
 
 75,986,657 
 
 89,549,007 
 
 1S72 
 
 U. S. Grant.. 
 
 2,253,251,32s 
 
 679,153,921 
 
 682,525,270 
 
 549 , 2 i 9 , 7 i 8 
 
 640,338,766 
 
 1S25 
 
 I. Q. Adams 
 
 83,788,432 
 
 26,840,85s 
 
 23,585,804 
 
 99 , 535 > 3 S 8 
 
 96,340,075 
 
 1873 
 
 U. S. Grant.. 
 
 2,234,482,933 
 
 548,669,221 
 
 524,044,597 
 
 £07,088,496 
 
 663,617,147 
 
 1826 
 
 J. Adams 
 
 81,054,059 
 
 25,260,434 
 
 24,103,398 
 
 77 , 595,322 
 
 84 , 974,477 
 
 1S74 
 
 U. S. Grant.. 
 
 2,251,690,46s 
 
 728,751,291 
 
 709,19s, 933 
 
 654 , 913,445 
 
 595,861,248 
 
 1827 
 
 1 . CL Adams 
 
 73 , 987,357 
 
 22,966,363 
 
 22,656,764 
 
 82,324,727 
 
 79,484,068 
 
 1S7S 
 
 U. S. Grant.. 
 
 2,232,284,531 
 
 675,971,607 
 
 682,000,885 
 
 605 , 574,853 
 
 553,906,153 
 
 1S2S 
 
 J. Q. Adam. 
 
 67 , 475,043 
 
 24,763.629 
 
 25 , 459,479 
 
 72,264,6S6 
 
 88,509,824 
 
 1876 
 
 U. S. Grant.. 
 
 2,180,395,066 
 
 691,551,673 
 
 714,446,357 
 
 596,890,973 
 
 476,677,871 
 
 1S29 
 
 A. Jackson. 
 
 58,421,413 
 
 24,827,627 
 
 2 S,o 44 , 35 S 
 
 72,358,671 
 
 74 , 492,527 
 
 1S77 
 
 R. B. Hayes. 
 
 2,205,301,392 
 
 630,278,167 
 
 565,299,89s 
 
 658 , 637.457 
 
 492 , 097,540 
 
 1S30 
 
 A. Jackson. 
 
 48,565,406 
 
 24,844,116 
 
 24,585,281 
 
 73 , 849,505 
 
 70,876,920 
 
 1S7S 
 
 R. B. Hayes. 
 
 2,256,205,892 
 
 662,34 5, 0S0 
 
 590,641,271 
 
 728,605,891 
 
 466,872,846 
 
 1 S3 1 
 
 A. Jackson . 
 
 39,123,191 
 
 2S,526,820 
 
 30,038,446 
 
 81,310,583 
 
 103,191,124 
 
 1879 
 
 R. B. Hayes. 
 
 2,245,495,072 
 
 1 ,066,634,827 
 
 966,393,692 
 
 735 , 436 ,SS 2 
 
 466,073,77 s 
 
 1S32 
 
 A. Jackson. 
 
 24,322,235 
 
 31,865,561 
 
 34,356,69s 
 
 87,176,943 
 
 101,029,266 
 
 18S0 
 
 R. B. Hayes. 
 
 2,143,260,917 
 
 545 , 340.713 
 
 700,233,238 
 
 8 S 2 , 78 i ,577 
 
 760,989,056 
 
 >833 
 
 A. Jackson. 
 
 7,001,032 
 
 33 , 94 S , 4 26 
 
 24, 2S7.29S 
 
 90,140,443 
 
 108,118,311 
 
 1SS1 
 
 J.A.Garfield 
 
 2,120,415,370 
 
 486,949,423 
 
 438,281,819 
 
 921,784,193 
 
 753,240,125 
 
 >834 
 
 A. Jackson. 
 
 4,760,0s 1 
 
 2 >, 79>,935 
 
 24,601,982 
 
 '04,336,973 
 
 126,521,332 
 
 ISS 2 
 
 C. A. Arthur 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 183$ 
 
 A. Jackson. 
 
 35 >. 2 S 9 
 
 35 , 430,087 
 
 > 7 , 573 ,' 4 > 
 
 121,693,577 
 
 149 , 895,742 
 
 ISS3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >836 
 
 A. Jackson. 
 
 2Q 1 .oSo 
 
 50 ,S 26,796 
 
 30.S6S, 164 
 
 I2S,663,040 
 
 iS9,9So,oS5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * The figures given from 185b to 1879, inclusive, are from the report of John Sherman, Secretary of the Treasury, to the Senate of the U. S., June 10’ 
 18S0, and can be relied upon as correct. The amounts given under head of Public Debt, represent all outstanding principal. The cash in Treasury 
 has not been deducted from amount. % 
 

 4 
 
 A POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 693 
 
 Showing the Number of Votes Cast, both Popular and Electoral, tor each of the Candidates for President and Vice President, from the Foundation of the 
 Governmentto the Present Time: Together with an account of the Number of States Voting at Each Election. 
 
 17S9 
 
 1792 
 
 ■70 
 
 15 >35 
 
 '3 s 
 
 1504 
 
 1505 
 
 1S1 2 
 
 1816 
 
 1820 
 
 ■3 s 
 
 >7 <76 
 
 18 
 
 176 
 
 218 
 
 19 221 
 
 *4 *35 
 
 824,24 261 
 
 Candidates 
 
 for 
 
 President. 
 
 F. 
 
 F. 
 
 F. 
 
 F. 
 
 F. 
 
 A. F. 
 A. F. 
 F. 
 
 A. F. 
 A. F. 
 F. 
 
 A. F. 
 
 F. 
 
 F. 
 
 K. 
 
 R. 
 
 R. 
 
 F. 
 R. 
 F. 
 R. 
 R- . 
 A. F. 
 R. 
 F. 
 
 F. 
 
 F. 
 
 F. 
 
 F. 
 
 F. 
 
 R. 
 
 R. 
 
 F. 
 
 F. 
 
 F. 
 
 R. 
 
 F. 
 
 R. 
 
 F. 
 
 R. 
 
 R. 
 
 F. 
 
 R. 
 
 F. 
 
 R. 
 
 O. 
 
 Geo. Washington . 
 
 John Adams 
 
 John Jay. 
 
 R. H. iJarrison... 
 
 John Rutlege 
 
 John Hancock 
 
 Geo. Clinton 
 
 S. Huntingdon... 
 
 John Milton 
 
 J. Armstrong 
 
 Benj. Lincoln 
 
 Edw’d Telfair.. . . 
 
 Vacancies 1 
 
 R. 
 
 C. 
 
 R. 
 
 R. 
 
 Geo. Washington . 
 
 John Adams 
 
 Geo. Clinton 
 
 Thos. Jefferson.. . . 
 
 Aaron Burr 
 
 Vacancies® 
 
 John Adams 
 
 Thos. Jefferson. . . 
 Thos. Pinckney . . 
 
 Aaron Burr 
 
 Sami. Adams 
 
 Oliver Ellsworth. 
 
 Geo. Clinton 
 
 John Jay 
 
 James Iredell 
 
 Geo. Washington 
 
 John Henry 
 
 S. Johnson 
 
 C. C. Pinckney . . . 
 Thos. Jefferson 3 . . 
 
 Aaron Burr 
 
 John Adams 
 
 C. C. Pinckney . . . 
 
 John Jay 
 
 Thos. Jefferson . . . 
 C. C. Pinckney. . . 
 James Madison. . . 
 C. C. Pinckney. . . 
 Geo. Clinton 
 
 Vacancy 6 . . . 
 James Madison. 
 Dewitt Clinton. 
 
 V acancy 7 .... 
 
 James Monroe 
 
 Rufus King. . 
 
 Vacancies*-. . . . 
 James Monroe. . . 
 J. Adams 
 
 Vacancies*. 
 
 And’ w Jackson 10 . 
 
 J. Q. Adams 
 
 W. H. Crawford 
 Henry Clay 
 
 Vaca ncy 11 . 
 
 Candidates 
 
 for 
 
 Vice President. 
 
 Q 3 
 •o c 
 • c '3 
 Jsc 
 
 s 52 
 
 111 
 — il 
 >4 H ^ 
 
 rt £ 
 
 v 
 
 > O'Ji 
 
 ’Swja 
 
 >7; ~ 
 
 V.’CTZ 
 
 V 
 
 C >c 73 
 
 o *3 - 
 
 ■O y </5 — 
 
 ”7) ^ 2‘5 
 
 I 
 
 U » U 
 
 u <n o u 
 
 ,0 u ts 3 
 
 > o.s'm 
 
 0.5- - 
 ~0 «£■ 
 2: rt „ CO 
 
 ^ Etc 
 
 C O — 
 
 VI U 
 
 ir c 
 £ C U *2 
 O > .H 
 ‘-'<5 W r 
 
 ^ -r* • ® 
 
 I w « '55 
 . u c y 
 
 Si ho 
 
 o §-2 
 
 ■S C.O 
 
 1 55.87* 
 103,3*1 
 
 44,282 
 
 46.887 
 
 69 
 
 73 
 
 28 
 
 C o 
 
 > u u 
 
 :|5 
 
 <£ c >> 
 
 o x 3^' 
 c 
 
 > 3 w 
 
 of g 
 
 J-Sii 
 
 <u bc~ 
 
 •g2 c 
 
 S.S.. 
 
 CJ 
 
 ° e h . 
 
 =11 ‘ 
 
 o ifl'O 
 
 •- V yj 
 
 £ ji* p 
 
 °r|i? : 
 
 psSii. 
 
 1 3 f-2 ' 
 
 C rt w 
 
 f 3 <— * 
 
 Geo. Clinton 4 
 
 Rufus King 
 
 Geo. Clinton 
 
 Rufus King 
 
 John Langaon. . . 
 James Madison. . 
 James Monroe. . . 
 
 E. Gerry* . 
 J . Ingcrsol . 
 
 D. D. Tompkins. 
 
 J. E. Howard 
 
 James Ross 
 
 J. Marshall 
 
 Robt. G. Harper. 
 
 D. D. Tompkins. 
 Rich. Stockton. . . 
 Dan’l Rodney . 
 Robt. G. Harper 
 Richard Rusn. . 
 
 J. C. Calhoun. 
 Nathan Sanford. 
 Nat’l Macon. 
 Andrew Jackson. 
 M. Van Buren. 
 Henry Clay. ... 
 
 
 States 
 
 Total Elect. V. . 
 
 Party 
 
 Candidates 
 
 for 
 
 President. 
 
 States 
 
 Vote — Popular. 
 
 TT 
 
 0 
 
 c 
 
 Candidates 
 
 for 
 
 \ r ice President. 
 
 R 
 
 n 
 
 0 
 
 -1 
 
 £1 i 
 
 < 
 
 IS2S 
 
 2i 
 
 20l 
 
 D. 
 
 Andrew Jackson.. 
 
 ■5 
 
 647, *3" 
 
 ■ 7-1 
 
 J. C. Calhoun. . . . 
 
 •7 1 l 
 
 
 
 
 R. 
 
 J. Q. Adams 
 
 9 
 
 509.097 
 
 83 
 
 Richard Rush ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■S3* 
 
 *4 
 
 2SS 
 
 D. 
 
 Andrew Jackson.- 
 
 >5 
 
 687,932 
 
 219 
 
 M. Van Buren. . . 
 
 ■4 
 
 
 
 
 R. 
 
 Henry Clay 
 
 
 530, ■ S9 
 
 49 
 
 John Sargent 
 
 49 
 
 
 
 
 A M. 
 
 jjohn Floyd 
 
 1 
 
 
 I I 
 
 Henry Lee 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( \Y m. YV irt 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Amos Ellmaker.. 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Win. YY’ilkins 
 
 .30 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 Vacancies 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 1S36 
 
 26 
 
 *94 
 
 D. 
 
 M. Van Buren. 13 
 
 >5 
 
 76". 549 
 
 17° 
 
 R. M. Johnson 13 . 
 
 >47 
 
 
 
 
 
 , YY r . II . Harrison 
 
 
 
 73 
 
 Fr. Granger 
 
 77 
 
 
 
 
 
 j Hugh L. White 
 
 2 
 
 ) . 
 
 26 
 
 John Tyler 
 
 47 
 
 
 
 
 
 ) Dan’l YY r cbster.. 
 
 1 
 
 f 736,636 
 
 *4 
 
 Wm. Smith 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 XV. P. Mangum 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 1S4O 
 
 26 
 
 *94 
 
 w. 
 
 YV. H. Harrison 14 
 
 ■9 
 
 1,275.017 
 
 2.34 
 
 John Tvler 
 
 
 
 
 
 D. 
 
 M. Van Buren... . 
 
 
 1,128,702 
 
 (0 
 
 R. M. Johnson. . . . 
 
 
 
 
 L. 
 
 Jas. G. Birney 
 
 
 7.059 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 L. W. Tazewell . . 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jas. K. Polk 
 
 1 
 
 1S44 
 
 26 
 
 *75 
 
 D. 
 
 Jas. K. Polk 
 
 ■5 
 
 '.337. *43 
 
 170 
 
 Geo. M. Dallas .. 
 
 170 
 
 
 
 
 w. 
 
 Henry Clay 
 
 1 1 
 
 1,299,068 
 
 «°5 
 
 T. Frelinghuyscn 
 
 10 5 
 
 
 
 
 L. 
 
 Jas. G. Birney 
 
 
 62,300 
 
 
 
 
 1S4S 
 
 3° 
 
 290 
 
 w. 
 
 Zach. Taylor 16 . . . 
 
 15 
 
 1,360,101 
 
 163 
 
 M. Fillimore. ... 
 
 •63 
 
 
 
 
 I). 
 
 Lewis Cass 
 
 '5 
 
 1 .**0,544 
 
 127 
 
 Wm. O. Butler. . . 
 
 >27 
 
 
 
 
 F. S. 
 
 M. Van Buren — 
 
 
 291,263 
 
 
 Chas. F. Adams. 
 
 
 1852 
 
 3 1 
 
 2q6 
 
 D. 
 
 Franklin Pierce.. 
 
 
 >,601,471 
 
 254 
 
 Wm. R. King 16 . . 
 
 *51 
 
 
 
 
 W. 
 
 Winfield Scott.. . . 
 
 4 
 
 >,386,578 
 
 42 
 
 Wm. A. Graham. 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 
 F. D. 
 
 John P. Hale 
 
 
 IC6,I49 
 
 
 Geo. YV. Julian... 
 
 
 ■856 
 
 3 1 
 
 296 
 
 D. 
 
 Jas. Buchanan .... 
 
 '9 
 
 i.StS.ifx) 
 
 >74 
 
 J. C. Breckinridge 
 
 '74 
 
 
 
 
 R. 
 
 J. C. Fremont.. . . 
 
 I 1 
 
 M4‘,*64 
 
 114 
 
 Wm. L. Dayton.. 
 
 1 '4 
 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 M. Fillmore 
 
 1 
 
 874,534 
 
 8 
 
 A. J. Donelson. . . 
 
 8 
 
 
 33 
 
 
 R, 
 
 
 
 1.866.31:2 
 
 
 H. Hamlin 
 
 1S0 
 
 
 
 
 D. 
 
 J.C. Breckenridge 
 
 1 1 
 
 '845,763 
 
 72 
 
 Joseph Lane 
 
 7* 
 
 
 
 
 c. u. 
 
 John Bell 
 
 3 
 
 589,58! 
 
 39 
 
 Edw. Everett .... 
 
 39 
 
 
 
 
 I. D. 
 
 S. A. Douglas. . . 
 
 2 
 
 ',375,' 57 
 
 12 
 
 11. V. Johnson . . . 
 
 12 
 
 1S64 
 
 3" 
 
 314 
 
 R. 
 
 A. Lincoln 17 
 
 22 
 
 2,216,067 
 
 212 
 
 Andrew Johnson . 
 
 212 
 
 
 
 
 D. 
 
 G. B. McClellan.. 
 
 3 
 
 >,SoS,725 
 
 21 
 
 G. 1 1. Pendleton 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8l 
 
 
 Si 
 
 1S6S 
 
 37 
 
 317 
 
 R. 
 
 U. S. Grant 
 
 26 
 
 3.015.0 7 1 
 
 214 
 
 Schuyler Colfax . . 
 
 214 
 
 
 
 
 D. 
 
 Horatio Sevmour 
 
 S 
 
 *,709,613 
 
 So 
 
 F. P. Blair, Jr. . .. 
 
 So 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 1S72 
 
 37 
 
 366 
 
 R. 
 
 U. S. Grant 
 
 i' 
 
 3* 597.07* 
 
 2S6 
 
 Henry Wilson 20 . 
 
 2S6 1 
 
 
 
 
 D .iVL. 
 
 1 lorace Greelev. . . 
 
 6 
 
 2.»34,<>79 
 
 
 B. Gratz Brown . . 
 
 47 
 
 
 
 
 I). 
 
 Chas. O’Connor. . 
 
 
 29,40s 
 
 
 Geo. W. Julian. . . 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 T. 
 
 James Black.-. . . . 
 
 
 5, CoS 
 
 
 A. H. Colquitt. . . 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 T. A. Hendricks. 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 Jno. M. Palmer. . . 
 
 .3 
 
 
 
 
 
 B. Gratz Brown.. 
 
 
 
 >8 
 
 T. E. Bramlcttc. . 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 C. J. Jenkins 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 YV. S. Grocsbcck. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 XV. B. Markin. . 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >4 
 
 1876 
 
 3S 
 
 K>9 
 
 R 
 
 R.B. Haves 33 .. .. 
 
 21 
 
 4,033,295 
 
 •85 
 
 W. A. Wheeler. . 
 
 >85 
 
 
 
 
 D. 
 
 S.J.Tilden 
 
 •7 
 
 4, *84, 265 
 
 ‘ s 4 
 
 1 . A. Hendricks . 
 
 ■84 
 
 
 
 
 G. 
 
 Peter Cooper. ... 
 
 
 81,740 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 P. 
 
 G. C. Smith.. ... 
 
 
 9,5** 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 iSSc 
 
 3S 
 
 ’/« 
 
 R 
 
 Jas. A ( • irfi< Id** 
 
 >9 
 
 4.150.9*' 
 
 U*4 
 
 Chester A .Arthur 
 
 *'■» 
 
 
 
 
 I) 
 
 W. S. 1 1.mcock. . 
 
 '9 
 
 4,447,888 
 
 '55 
 
 Wm. II: English. 
 
 '55 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 James B. Weaver. 
 
 
 307,74c 
 
 
 B. J. t himtx 
 
 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 Neal Dow 
 
 
 >0,305 
 
 
 II. A. Thompson 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Scattering 
 
 
 1,69c 
 
 
 
 
 Note, — j n the column showing to which party the various candidates be- 
 ^•d, we have only used the initial letter: K stands for Federalist: A. F. t 
 
 i- Federalist; R., Republican; O., Opposition ; C., Coalition; A. M., Anti 
 
 Mason; D., Democratic; W., Whig; L., Liberty; 1* .S., Free Soil ; A., Ameri- 
 can; C. U., Constitutional Union; I D , Independent Democrat; DAL., 
 Democratic and Liberal ; 1 . 1 empcranci*; G., Greenback, and P^_Proh>bitjon«_ 
 
 longed, 
 
 Ant 
 
 1 Electoral votes not cast: Va., 2 ; Md., 2. 
 
 2 Electoral votes not cast: Md., 2; Vt., 1. 
 
 a The vote for Thos. Jefferson and Aaron Burr 
 being a tie, the election devolved upon the House 
 of Representatives, resulting, on the 36th ballot, 
 in the choice of Jefferson as President Burr, re- 
 ceiving the next highest number of votes, was 
 declared Vice President. „ . . tt 
 
 4 George Clinton, Vice President; died April 
 20, 1813. 
 
 8 Electoral vote not cast: Ky ., 1. 
 
 * Elbridgc Gerry, Vice President: died Nov. 
 23, 1813. . 
 
 7 Electoral vote not cast: Ohio, 1. 
 
 8 Electoral votes not cast: Md.,3; Del., t 
 
 i;rs 
 
 ° Elect’l votes not cast.Miss., 
 
 1 ; Tcnn.,1. 
 
 There being no choice for President, the elec 
 tion devolved upon the House of Representatives, 
 a choice being made at the first ballot, Adams 
 receiving the vote of 13 States, Jackson 7 States, 
 and Crawford 4 States. 
 
 11 Elect’l vote not cast for Vice Pres.: R. I., 1. 
 
 13 Electoral vote not cast: Md., 2. 
 
 18 No candidate having received a majority of 
 the electoral votes for Vice President, the Senate 
 elected R M. Johnson, by a vote of 33 to 16 for 
 Francis Granger. c in 
 
 1 4 President Harrison died April 4, 1841. vice 
 President John Tyler became President. 
 
 i® President Taylor died July 9, 1850. Vice 
 President Fillmore became President. 
 
 >« W. R. King, Vice Pres’t; died April 18, 1853. 
 
 1 7 President Lincoln assassinated byj. Wilkes 
 Booth, April 15, 1865. Vice President Johnson 
 became President. 
 
 1® Electoral votes not cast: Nevada, 1; States 
 in rebellion So, viz.: Ala. 8. Ark. 5, Fla. i, Ga. 9, 
 La. 7, Miss. 7, N. C. 9, S. C. 6,Tcnn. 10, Texas 6, 
 Va. 10. 
 
 >• Electoral votes not cast: Miss., 71 Texas, 0; 
 
 Jo’Honry Wilson, Vice President; died Nov. 
 
 >> Electoral votes thrown out: 3 of Ga for 
 Greeley, thin deceased ; Ark. 6, La. 8, because of 
 double returns from both States. 
 
 33 Decided by an Electoral Commission ap- 
 pointed by Congress. 
 
 -7 
 
 9S AiMAilnaUd July 9, 1M1 1 dM Mpl. I®, 1M1. 
 
694 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, 
 
 Showing all the Battles of the War of the Revolution, War of 1 81 2, Mexican War, and Civil War 1861-’65. 
 
 THE PRINCIPAL BATTLES OF THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 Date. 
 
 J 777' 
 
 April 19, 1775. 
 May 10, 
 
 June 17, 
 
 Dec. 6-31 
 
 Dec. 9, 
 
 M’ch 17, 1776. 
 
 June 28, 
 
 Aug. 26, 
 
 Sept. 16, 
 
 Oct. 2S, 
 
 Nov. 16, 
 
 Dec. 26, 
 
 Jan. 3, 
 
 July 7. 
 
 Aug. 6, “ 
 
 Aug.15,16 “ 
 Sept, n, “ 
 Sept. 19. “ 
 
 Oct. 4, “ 
 
 Oct. 4-6, “ 
 
 Oct. 7, “ 
 
 Oct. 22, “ 
 
 Oct. 22, “ 
 
 Nov. 1 6, 
 
 June 28, 
 
 July 2, 
 
 July 3, 
 
 Aug. 29, 
 
 Dec. 29, 
 
 Jan 9, 
 
 March 3, 
 
 June 20, “ 
 
 July 16, “ 
 
 Aug. 13, “ 
 Aug. 29, “ 
 
 Oct. 9, 
 
 May 12, 17S0. 
 May 29, “ 
 
 June 2}, “ 
 
 July 30, “ 
 
 Aug. 7, “ 
 
 Aug. is, “ 
 Aug. 18, “ 
 
 Oct. 7, “ 
 
 Nov. 12, “ 
 Nov. 20, 
 
 Jan. 17, 
 
 Feb. 25, 
 
 March 15, “ 
 April 25, “ 
 May -June/ 4 
 June 1-4, “ 
 
 Sept. 6, “ 
 
 Sept. 8, “ 
 
 Oct. 16-19, “ 
 
 1778. 
 
 J 779- 
 
 17S1. 
 
 Names and Places of 
 Battles. 
 
 Lexington, Concord. . . 
 
 Ticonderoga 
 
 Bunker Hill 
 
 Quebec 
 
 Norfolk, Va 
 
 Boston 
 
 Charleston (Ft. Moultrie.) 
 
 Brooklyn, L. I 
 
 Harlem Plains, N . Y 
 
 White Plains, N.Y, . . . . 
 Fort Washington, N. Y. . 
 
 Trenton, N. J 
 
 Princeton, N. J 
 
 Hubbardton, Vt 
 
 Fort Schuyler, N.Y 
 
 Bennington, Vt 
 
 Brandywine, Pa 
 
 Bemis Heights, N.Y... 
 
 Germantown, Pa 
 
 j Forts Clinton and | 
 
 | Montgomery f 
 
 Stillwater (Saratoga) 
 
 Fort Mercer, N.J 
 
 Red Bank, N.J 
 
 Fort Mifflin, Pa 
 
 Monmouth, N.J 
 
 Schoharie, N. Y 
 
 Wyoming, Pa 
 
 Quaker Hill, R. I 
 
 Savannah, Ga 
 
 Sunbury, Ga 
 
 Brier Creek, Ga 
 
 Stony Ferry, S. C 
 
 Stony Point, N. Y 
 
 Penobscot, Me 
 
 Chemung, N. Y 
 
 Savannan, Ga. . . 
 
 Charleston, S. C 
 
 Waxhaw, S. C, 
 
 Springfield, N.J 
 
 Rocky Mount 
 
 Hanging Rock, S. C. . . . 
 j Camden, S. C. (San- I 
 
 I der’s Creek) f 
 
 Fishing Creek 
 
 King’s Mountain, S. C. 
 
 Fishdam Ford. S. C 
 
 Blockstock’s, S. C 
 
 Cowpens, S. C 
 
 Battle of the Haw 
 
 Guilford C. H., N. C. ... 
 
 Hobkerk's Hill, Va 
 
 Fort 96, N. C 
 
 Augusta, Ga 
 
 New London, | n 
 Fort Griswold, f L onn --- 
 
 Eutaw Springs, S. C 
 
 Yqrktown, Va 
 
 COMMANDERS. 
 
 American. 
 
 j Col. Barret and Major I 
 
 I Buttrick f 
 
 j Col. Ethan Allen and ( 
 
 "j Col. Eaton* j 
 
 j Gens. Warren, Pres- ( 
 1 cott, and Putnam. . . j 
 j Schuyler, Montgomery, I 
 
 j and Arnold. ( 
 
 Col. Woodford. 
 
 The British Evacuate the 
 ( Moultrie, Lee, and Arm- f 
 
 ) strong* f 
 
 Gens. Greene and Sullivan. 
 
 Washington 
 
 Washington 
 
 Col. Magaw 
 
 Washington* 
 
 Washington* 
 
 Warner, Francis and Hale. 
 J Gen. Herkimer and Col. I 
 
 j Gansevoort* i 
 
 Gens. Stark and Warner*.. 
 
 Washington 
 
 Gates* 
 
 Washington 
 
 James Clinton 
 
 Gates* 
 
 Col. Greene* 
 
 Col. Greene* 
 
 Major Thayer 
 
 Washington* 
 
 Col. Brown* 
 
 Col. Z. Butler 
 
 Sullivan* 
 
 Robert Howe 
 
 Lane 
 
 Gen. Ashe 
 
 Gen. Lincoln 
 
 Gen. Washington* 
 
 Lovell 
 
 Sullivan* 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 Col. Abr. Buford 
 
 Gen. Greene* 
 
 Sumter 
 
 Sumter* 
 
 Gen. Gates 
 
 Sumter 
 
 Campbell* 
 
 British. 
 
 Sumter*. 
 
 Sumter* 
 
 Gen. Morgan * . . 
 
 Col. Lee* 
 
 Gen. Greene 
 
 Gen. Greene 
 
 Gen. Greene 
 
 Maj. Eggleston*. 
 
 Col. Ledyard 
 
 Gen. Greene 
 
 Washington*. . . . 
 
 j Col. Smith and Lord / 
 ( Percy* ) 
 
 Capt. Delaplace 
 
 Gens. Howe and Pigot* 
 
 M'Lean and Carleton* 
 
 Lord Dunmore 
 
 City and Harbor. 
 
 Gen. Clinton 
 
 j Gens. Howe, Clinton and 1 
 I Cornwallis* f 
 
 American. 
 
 En 
 
 Howe* 
 
 Gen. Howe* 
 
 J Lord Cornwallis & Col. ( 
 
 I Rahl ( 
 
 Col. Mawhood 
 
 Gen. Frazer* 
 
 Gen. St. Leger 
 
 Cols. Baum and Beyman. . , 
 
 Howe* 
 
 Burgoyne 
 
 Howe* 
 
 Sir H. Clinton* 
 
 Burgoyne 
 
 Donop 
 
 Sir William Howe. 
 
 Gen. Howe* 
 
 Sir Henry Clinton. . 
 
 Indians 
 
 John Butler* 
 
 Pigot 
 
 Campbell* 
 
 Prevost* 
 
 Prevost* 
 
 Col. Maitland* 
 
 Clinton 
 
 McLean*.*. 
 
 Brant 
 
 Prevost* 
 
 Clinton* 
 
 Tarleton* 
 
 Gen. Knyphausen.. 
 
 Turnbull* 
 
 Col. Brown 
 
 Cornwallis* 
 
 Tarleton* 
 
 Ferguson. 
 
 Wemyss 
 
 Tarleton 
 
 Cornwallis and Tarleton. . . 
 
 Col. Peyle 
 
 Cornwallis* 
 
 Rawdon*. 
 
 Col. Cruger* 
 
 Col. Brown 
 
 { Benedict Arnold & Col. 
 
 I Eyre* 
 
 Lord Rawdon 
 
 Cornwallis 
 
 83 
 
 3,000 
 
 400 
 
 10,000 
 
 1,600 
 
 3,000 
 
 2,400 
 
 3.000 
 700 
 
 2.000 
 1 1,000 
 
 2,500 
 
 11.000 
 600 
 
 8.000 
 
 4 So 
 
 400 
 
 12,000 
 
 400 
 
 5.000 
 900 
 200 
 
 1,200 
 
 Soo 
 
 1,200 
 
 900 
 
 4.000 
 4,500 
 3>7 00 
 
 400 
 
 3.000 
 600 
 600 
 
 3,000 
 
 700 
 
 900 
 
 500 
 
 500 
 
 900 
 
 4,400 
 
 1,200 
 
 1,000 
 
 150 
 
 2,000 
 
 16,000 
 
 Loss. 
 
 50 k. 34 w 
 
 sp. 
 
 . . 450 k. & w. 
 . . 160 k. & w. 
 
 10 k. 22 w. 
 
 2 ( ooo k. w. & p. 
 
 300 k. & w. 
 
 . . . 100 k. & w. 
 
 ... .2 k. 2 froz. 
 . . . 100 k. 300 p. 
 ... 324 k. &' w. 
 . . 150 k. & w. 
 
 200 k. & w. 
 
 300 k. 600 w*40op. 
 
 152 k.52iw.40op. 
 
 8 k. 28 1 
 
 ... 67 k. 160 w. 
 ... . 14 k. 10 w. 
 
 Massacre. 
 
 30 k. 132W. 440 m. 
 .... 100k. 453 p. 
 
 150 k. 162 p. 
 
 I46k.&w. 155 m. 
 15 k. 83 w 
 
 113 k. 150W. 53 p. 
 13 k. 58 w. 
 
 12 k. 41 w. 
 
 .20 k. 
 
 70 k. & w. 
 
 none. 
 
 . . . 1 ,300 k. <fc w. 
 . .266 k. w. & m. 
 . . 150 k. w. & m. 
 23 k. 28 w. 
 
 16 k. 10 w. 12 m. 
 
 152 k.355w.4o m. 
 . . . . 300 k. & w. 
 
 British. 
 
 En 
 
 gag’d 
 
 48 
 
 4, Soo 
 
 4,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 5.000 
 
 1.000 
 1,800 
 1,200 
 
 1,200 
 
 18,000 
 
 3.000 
 
 15.000 
 
 3.000 
 
 6.000 
 
 2.000 
 
 mix’d 
 
 1,000 
 
 1.000 
 
 5.000 
 
 2.000 
 2,000 
 1,800 
 
 2.000 
 600 
 
 3. 000 
 1,500 
 2,900 
 
 9.000 
 
 5,000 
 
 500 
 
 500 
 
 2,200 
 
 3»5oo 
 
 1,100 
 
 45 o 
 
 400 
 
 1,100 
 
 2,400 
 
 900 
 
 550 
 
 800 
 
 2. 500 
 
 7.500 
 
 Loss. 
 
 65 k. 180 w. 28 p. 
 48 p. 
 
 1. os°- 
 
 . 20 k. & w. 
 .62 k. & w. 
 
 . . . 225 k. & w. 
 
 400 k. 
 
 . ..18 k. 90 w. 
 . 300 k. & w. 
 1,000 k. & w. 
 
 .36 k. 1,000 p. 
 
 . . . 183 k. & w. 
 
 unknown. 
 
 200 k.34 w.900 p, 
 Soo k. 
 
 . . . 100 k. 400 w. 
 
 5.79i P* 
 
 500 R. 
 
 400 k. & w. 
 
 3Qok.3oow. loop . 
 
 222 k. & w. 
 . . 20 k. & w. 
 
 . 100 k. & w. 
 
 •63 k. S43 p. 
 
 • 150 P- 
 
 ..5 k. 15 w. 
 • 3S k. 50 p. 
 
 .150 k. 
 
 . .Soo k. w. & p. 
 
 .600 k. & w. 
 .25S k. & w. 
 
 • -52 k. 334 w. 
 . . .52 k. 20 w. 
 
 ..187 k. & w. 
 
 . .693 k.w. & m. 
 7,5ook.w.m.&p. 
 
 The British sent 134,000 soldiers and sailors to this war. The Colonists met them with 230,000 Continentals and 50,000 militia. The British let 
 loose Indians and Hessians. The colonies had for their allies the brave Frenchmen. The leading battles ot the war particularly worthy of 
 celebration are printed in small capital letters. 
 
 The * denotes the successful army; k., killed; w., wounded; p., prisoners; m., missing; s., surrendered. 
 
 CHIEF COMMANDERS OF THE ARMY. 
 
 The following is a complete list of the various officers who have com- 
 manded the army of the United States since the foundation of our service 
 to the present time, giving the rank held by each, with the period of 
 command: General and Commander-in-Chief, George Washington, 
 June 15, 1775. to the close of the Revolution. From that date to Sep- 
 tember, 17SQ, the army consisted of eight companies of infantry ana a 
 battalion of artillery (act of September, 17S5), when Brevet Brigadier- 
 General Josiah Harmer, Lieutenant- Colonel commandant of the infantry, 
 was assigned, and held until March, 1791. Major-General Arthur St. 
 Clair, March, 1791, to March, 1792, when he resigned. Major-General 
 Anthony Wayne, March, 1792, to December 15, 1796, when he died at a 
 hut on the bank of Lake Erie, in Pennsylvania, while en route from 
 Maumee to the East. Brigadier-General James Wilkinson, December 
 
 16, 1796, to July 2, 1798. Lieutenant-General George Washington, July 8, 
 179S, till his death, December 4, 1799. Brigadier-General James Wil- 
 kinson (again), June, 1S00. to January, 1812, when he was promoted to 
 Major-General. Major-General Henry Dearborn, January, 1812, to June, 
 1S15, when he was mustered out. Major-General Jacob Brown, June, 
 1815, till his death, February 24, 1828. Major-General Alexander 
 Macomb, May, 1828, until his death, in June, 1841. Major-General 
 Winfield Scott, June 25, 1S41, to November 1, 1861, being also Brevet 
 Lieutenant-General from May, 1S61. Major-General Geo. B. McClellan, 
 November 1, 1S61, to March 11, 1862. Major-General Henry W. Halleck, 
 July 23, 1S62, to March 12, 1S64. Lieutenant-General U. S. Grant 
 (appointed General July 25, 1S66), March 12, 1S64, to March 4, 1S69. 
 General William T. Sherman, March 8, 1S69, to present date. 
 
 6 " 
 

 
 PRINCIPAL BATTLES OF THE WAR OF 1812. 
 
 695 
 
 Dates. 
 
 Aug. s, 1S12. 
 Aug. 9, 
 
 Aug. IS, 
 
 Oct 13, 
 
 Oct. at, 
 
 Jan. 22, 18 
 April 27, 
 
 May 5, 
 
 May 27, 
 
 May 27, 
 
 May 29, 
 
 June 8, 
 
 Aug. 2, 
 
 Oct. 5, 
 
 Nov. 11, “ 
 Mar. 30, 1814. 
 April 25, “ 
 
 } u |y 5 . 
 
 July 25. 
 
 Aug. 13, 
 
 Aug. 24, 
 
 Sept. 11, 
 
 Sept. 12. 
 
 Sept. 13, 
 
 Sept. 15, 
 
 Sept. 17, 
 
 Dec. 19, 
 
 Dec. 23, 
 
 Jan. 8, 1S15. 
 
 PRINCIPAL BATTLES OF THE MEXICAN WAR. 
 
 The Americans were victorious in every battle. 
 
 Dates. 
 
 846. 
 
 May 8, 
 
 May 9, 
 Sept. 24, “ 
 
 Dec. 23, “ 
 
 Feb. 23, iS4‘ 
 Feb. 28, “ 
 
 Mar. 27, “ 
 
 April 18, “ 
 
 Aug. 20, “ 
 
 Sept. 8, “ 
 
 Sept. 13, “ 
 
 Sept. 14, “ 
 
 Oct. 9, “ 
 
 Names and Places of 
 Battles. 
 
 Palo Alto 
 
 Resaca de la Palina. 
 
 Monterey 
 
 Bracite 
 
 Buena Vista 
 
 Sacramento 
 
 Vera Cruz 
 
 Cerro Gordo 
 
 j Contreras 
 
 1 Churubusco 
 
 Moline del Key 
 
 Chapultepec 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Huamantha 
 
 COMMANDERS. 
 
 American. 
 
 Taylor 
 
 Taylor 
 
 Taylor 
 
 Doniphan. 
 
 Taylor 
 
 Doniphan. 
 
 Scott 
 
 Scott 
 
 Scott 
 
 Scott 
 
 Worth 
 
 Scott 
 
 Scott 
 
 Dane 
 
 Mexican. 
 
 En- 
 
 gag'd. 
 
 Arista 
 
 Arista 
 
 Ampudia 
 
 Ponce de Leon . 
 
 Santa Anna 
 
 Trias 
 
 Morales 
 
 Santa Anna. . . . 
 
 Valencia 
 
 San til Anna 
 
 Alvarez 
 
 Bravo 
 
 Santa Anna. . . . 
 Santa Anna 
 
 American. 
 
 2,300 
 
 2.000 
 6,600 
 
 500 
 
 4,700 
 
 900 
 
 12.000 
 8,500 
 
 4.000 
 
 8.000 
 
 7,200 
 
 6.000 
 500 
 
 Loss. 
 
 En- 
 
 gag M 
 
 4 k. dr 40 w 
 
 . ... 120 k. dr w 
 . 120 k. dr 36S w 
 
 723 k. dr w 
 
 . . 19 k. d: w. 
 . 500 k. dr w. 
 
 Slight. 
 
 . 700 k. dr w 
 . 7S7 k. dr w. 
 Slight 
 
 . 24 k. & w, 
 
 Mexican. 
 
 6.000 
 
 5.000 
 
 10.000 
 1,200 
 
 17.000 
 
 4.000 
 
 12.000 
 
 7.000 
 
 25.000 
 
 14.000 
 
 25.000 
 
 1,000 
 
 Loss. 
 
 .500 k. dr w. 
 
 . .2,000 k. St w. 
 
 .2,000 k. & w. 
 . ..500 k. dr \v. 
 .2,500 k. dr w. 
 . . .700 k. dr w. 
 . . .230 k. dr w. 
 
 Heavy. 
 
 . . . Surrender. 
 . . . Unknown. 
 
 The only naval engagements of importance during the war with Mexico was the bombardment of V era Cruz, Commodore Connor, which 
 lasted four days, and tne city compelled to surrender, and the bombardment of Monterey, by Commodore Sloat. 
 
 LENGTH AND COST OF AMERICAN WARS. 
 
 
 Length. 
 
 Cost. 
 
 1. War of the revolution 
 
 2. Indian War in Ohio Ter 
 
 3. War with the Barbary States. 
 
 4. Tecumseh Indian War 
 
 7 years — 1775 — 1 782 
 
 ^-,804 
 181 1 
 
 * 1 35 , ' 93,703 
 
 5. War with Great Britain 
 
 6. Algerine War 
 
 7. First Seminole War 
 
 8. Black Hawk War.. 
 
 9. Second Seminole War 
 
 3 years — 1812—1815 
 18.5 
 
 1817 
 
 1832 
 
 ■&15 
 
 107,159,003 
 
 10. Mexican War 
 
 11. Mormon War . . 
 
 2 years — 1.846 — 1848 
 
 1856 
 
 96,000,000 
 
 t2. Civil War 
 
 4 years — 1861 — 1865 
 
 6,500,000,000 
 
 FEDERAL PRISONERS RECEIVED AT ANDERSONVILLE, GA. 
 
 First detachment of prisoners received Feb. 15, 1S64. Total number of prison- 
 rs received, 49,485. largest number imprisoned at one date (Aug. 9. 1804), 
 ;,oo6. 
 
 Total No. Deaths}!" 
 
 Average number of deaths per month, for the thirteen months 9|?S 
 
 Largest number of deaths in one day (Aug. 23, 1864) *>7 
 
 Number of escapes 3*8 
 
 PRINCIPAL DISEASES RESULTING IN DEATH. 
 
 Diarrhoea 
 
 
 Pneumonia 
 
 
 Rheumatism 
 
 Scurvy 
 
 • • - 3*574 
 
 Debility 
 
 ..19s 
 
 V arioloid . . . 
 
 Dysentery 
 
 ... 1 ,648 
 
 Intermit’tdf remit’t f* s 
 
 ..177 
 
 Gangrene . . 
 
 Unknown 
 
 . . . 1,208 
 
 Gunshot wounds 
 
 ■ • 1 49 
 
 Catarrh 
 
 Anasarca 
 
 • • • 377 
 
 Pleurisy 
 
 . • IOQ 
 
 Ulcer. 
 
 Typhoid fever.. .. 
 
 . . 22Q 
 
 Bronchitis 
 
 ■ 21 
 
 Phthisis 
 
 •63 
 
 .63 
 
 •55 
 
 .51 
 
 INDIAN WARS. 
 
 1676. King Philip’s War. 
 
 1704. Deerfield, Massachusetts, burned. 
 
 1708. Haverhill, Massachusetts, burned. Capture and escape of Mrs. 
 Hannah Dustan. 
 
 1713. The Tuscaroras expelled from North Carolina. 
 
 1755. Brad dock defeated by the French and Indians. 
 
 1761. Conspiracy of Pontiac. 
 
 177*$. Massacre of Wyoming. 
 
 1794. Treaty with the Six Nations. 
 
 1804: Treaty with the Delawares. 
 
 1813-’ 14. War with the Creeks in Florida. 
 
 1817. War with the Scminoles. 
 
 1832. War with Black Hawk. Stillman’s defeat on Rock River. 
 
 commission- 
 
 Names and Places of 
 Battles. 
 
 COMMANDERS. 
 
 American. 
 
 British. 
 
 American. 
 
 British. 
 
 En- 
 
 gag’d. 
 
 Loss. 
 
 En- 
 
 gag’d 
 
 Loss. 
 
 Brownstown, Canada. . . 
 
 Van Horn 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Miller* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Detroit 
 
 Hull 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Clay* 
 
 
 1,200 
 
 
 2,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 LaCoell Mill 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Riall 
 
 
 6S k. . 67 w. & p. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S4 k. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S k. & w. 
 
 Mix’d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,500 
 
 
 
 
 
 6,000 
 
 . . .71 k. w. & p. 
 
 12,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 835* , 42. War with the Scininoles. 
 
 1837. Capture of Osceola. 
 
 1855. Defeat of the Rogue River Indians. . 
 
 1856. War with the Indians in Oregon and W ashington Territories. 
 1862. Indian war and massacres in Minnesota. 
 
 1864. (Nov. 29.) “ Chivington's massacre ” near Fort Lyon; over 500 
 
 Indians, men, women and children put to the sword. 
 
 1873. (April 2.) Gen. Canby and Rev E. Thomas, peace 
 ers trcacnerously slain by the Modoc*. 
 
 1S73. (Oct. it.) Execution of the Modoc murderers ol Messrs. < anhy 
 and Thomas — Captain Jack, Schonkin, Boston Charley and Black 
 
 1S76. (June 25.) The command of Gen. Custer defeated by the Indians 
 on Big Horn River, and Gen. Custer and the greater portion of 
 his force slain. 
 
 ~ 7 [ 
 
 T» \ 
 
696 
 
 PRINCIPAL BATTLES OF THE LATE CIVIL WAR 
 
 Date. 
 
 Names and Places of 
 Battles. 
 
 Apr.i2,iS6i 
 
 “ 
 
 June 20 
 
 July 5 
 
 Aug. 10 
 Sept. 12-14 
 
 Nov. 7 
 
 “ 7 
 
 “ 8 
 
 Dec. iS 
 
 Jan. 19, 1862, 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Apr. 6-7 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 Aug. 
 
 *7 
 
 Sept. 
 
 .30 
 
 29-30 
 
 14 
 
 >5 
 
 J 7 
 
 19-20 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Jany. 
 
 Feby. 
 
 May 
 
 27-29 
 
 1863 
 
 2-3 
 
 *4 
 
 16 
 
 18*22 
 
 June 
 
 Bombardm’t Ft. Sumpter 
 
 Riot Baltimore 
 
 Big Bethel, Va 
 
 Carthage, Mo 
 
 Rich Mountain, W. Va. 
 Bull Run, Va 
 
 Wilson’s Creek, Mo 
 Cheat Mountain, W. Va 
 
 Lexington, Mo 
 
 Ball’s Bluff, Va. ... 
 Belmont, Mo 
 
 Pt. Royal, S. C 
 
 Piketon, Ky 
 
 Milford, Mo. 
 
 Mill Spring, Ky 
 
 Roanoke Island, N. C. 
 
 Ft. Henry, Tenn 
 
 Ft. Donelson, Tenn. . . 
 
 Pea Ridge, Ark 
 
 Newbern, N. C 
 
 Winchester, Va 
 
 Pittsburg Land’g, Tenn, 
 Island No. 10 
 
 Williamsburg, Va 
 
 Winchester, Va 
 
 Hanover C. H., Va 
 
 Corinth, Minn 
 
 Fair Oaks, Va 
 
 Fair Oaks, Va 
 
 Cross Keys, Va 
 
 Port Republic, Va. . . . 
 Chickahominy, Va. . . . 
 
 Gaines Mills, Va 
 
 Malvern Hill, Va 
 
 Baton Rouge, La 
 
 Cedar Mountain, Va. . 
 
 Gallatin, Tenn 
 
 Kettle Run, Va 
 
 Groveton, Va 
 
 Bull Run 2nd 
 
 Richmond, Ky 
 
 Chantilly, Va 
 
 South Mountain, Md. . 
 Harper’s Ferry, 3 days’ 
 
 siege 
 
 Antietam, Md. 
 
 Iuka, Miss 
 
 Corinth, Miss 
 
 Perry ville, Ky 
 
 Prairie Grove, Ark. 
 
 Fredericksburg, Va. . . 
 
 Vicksburg 
 
 Stone River, Tenn . 
 Fort Hindman, Ark.. . , 
 
 Fort Donelson, Tenn.. , 
 
 Suffolk, Va 
 
 LaGrange, Ark 
 
 Fredericksburg, Va. . . . 
 Chancellorville, Va 
 
 Jackson, Miss 
 
 Champion I lills, Miss . . 
 Big Black River, Miss. 
 
 Vicksburg, Miss 
 
 Port Hudson 
 
 Milliken’s Bend, Miss. . 
 
 Beverly Ford, Va 
 
 Winchester, Va 
 
 Shelbyvillc, Tenn 
 
 COMMANDERS. 
 
 Federal. 
 
 Maj. Anderson 
 
 6th Regt. Mass. Vols. 
 
 Brig. Gen. Price 
 
 Col. Sigel* 
 
 Gen. McClellan* 
 
 Gen. Irwin McDowell. 
 
 Gen. Lvon* 
 
 Gen. J. j. Reynolds. . 
 
 Col. Mulligan 
 
 Col. E. D. Baker 
 
 Gen. Grant* 
 
 j Com. Dupont & Gen 
 1 W. T. Sherman* . f 
 
 Gen. Nelson*,. . . 
 t Col.J. C. Davis and / 
 
 ) Gen. Steele* 
 
 Gen. Thomas* 
 
 j Com.Goldsborough, I 
 j Gen. Burnside* . . f 
 Surrendered to Com 
 ( Com. Foote & Gen. / 
 
 J Grant* 
 
 Gen. Curtis* 
 
 Gen. Burnside* 
 
 Gen. Shields* 
 
 Gen. Grant and Buell* 
 j Com. Foote & Gen. I 
 
 l Pope* f 
 
 j Gen. Kearney and < 
 
 l Hooker* f 
 
 Gen. Banks 
 
 Gen. Morrell* 
 
 Gen. Halleck* 
 
 Gen. McClellan 
 
 Gen. McClellan* 
 
 Gen. Fremont 
 
 Gen. Shields 
 
 Gen. McClellan* 
 
 Gen. Porter. . 
 
 Gen. McClellan* 
 
 Gen. Williams* 
 
 Gen. N. P. Banks* 
 
 Gen. Johnson 
 
 Gen. Hooker* 
 
 J Gens. Hooker, Sigel, / 
 
 I Kearney, Reno*. . \ 
 
 Gen. Pope 
 
 Gens. Mason & Craft*.. 
 Gen. Pope 
 
 Gens. Hooker & Reno* 
 
 Col. Miles 
 
 Gen. McClellan* 
 
 Gen. Rosencrans* 
 
 t Gens.Ord,Hurlburt, { 
 
 I and Veatch* ) 
 
 Gen. Buell* 
 
 Gens. Blunt and Heron* 
 
 Gen. Burnside. 
 Gen. Sherman.. 
 
 Gen. Rosencrans* 
 
 j Adin. Porter & Gen. I 
 
 I McClernand*. \ 
 
 Col. Harding 
 
 Col. Nixon* 
 
 Capt. DeHuff 
 
 Gen. Sedgwick 
 
 Gen. Hooker* 
 
 Gen. Grant* 
 
 Gen. Grant* 
 
 Gen. Grant* 
 
 j Gen. Grant, Adml’s. 1 
 ) Porter <&Farragut. 1 
 
 Gen. Banks 
 
 Gen. Thomas* 
 
 Gens. Buford & Gregg. 
 Gen. Milrov 
 
 1 Gen. Rosencrans* . . 
 
 Confederate. 
 
 Gen. Beauregard. 
 
 Maj. Gen. MacGruder.. 
 Price and Jackson . 
 
 Col. Pegram 
 
 Gen. Beauregard* 
 
 Gens. Price& McCulloch 
 
 Gen. R. E. Lee 
 
 Gen. Price* 
 
 Gen. Evans* 
 
 KIL'D, WOUND’D, PRIS’RS 
 
 Federal. Confederate. 
 
 Gen. Drayton. 
 
 Gen. Zollicoffer 
 
 Gen. Wise 
 
 Foote, byGen.Tilghman. 
 Gen. Buckner 
 
 Gens. VanDorn & Price. 
 
 Gen. Branch 
 
 Gen. T.J. Jackson 
 j Gens. Johnston and 
 I Beauregard.. 
 
 Gen. Makad 
 
 ind 
 
 Gen. Longstreet 
 
 Gens. Ewell & Johnson* 
 
 Gen. Branch 
 
 Gen. Beauregard 
 
 Gen.J. E. Johnston*.. .. 
 
 Gen. J. E. Johnston 
 
 Gen. T.J. Jackson* 
 
 Gen. T.J. Jackson* 
 
 Gen. R. E. Lee 
 
 Gen. R. E. Let* 
 
 Gen. R. E. Lee 
 
 Gen.J. C. Breckcnridge. 
 
 Gen. Jackson 
 
 Gen. Morgan* 
 
 Gen. Ewell 
 
 j Gens. Jackson and I 
 
 I Longstreet j 
 
 Gen. Lee* 
 
 Gen. Kirby Smith* 
 
 Gen. Lee* ... 
 
 Gen. Lee 
 
 Gen. A. P. Hill* .... 
 
 . .no one hurt. 
 
 3 k. 7 w. 
 
 16 k. 34 w. 6 m, 
 .. ..13 k. 31 w. 
 ... 1 1 k. 33 w. 
 4500 k. w.p. 28 c. 
 481k. ionw.7oop 
 22}k.72IW.292m. 
 13 k. 20 w. 60 p. 
 -j2k.ioS w.i624p. 
 220 k.266w.5oop. 
 84 k. 2SSW.2S5111. 
 
 S k. 23 w. 250 p. 
 
 . . ..6 k. 24 w. 
 ....2 k. 17 w. 
 ..39 k. 207 w 
 . .50 k. 150 w. 
 
 5 w. 
 
 7 k. & 8 w. 
 
 no report. 
 
 250 k. & w. 
 
 140 k. 150 w. 
 
 .... 1852 k. & w. 
 
 421 k. 1317 w. 3m. 
 100 k. & w. 20 p 
 
 25 k. 75 w, 
 
 36 k. 264 w. 2 p. 
 261k.427w.278m. 
 ' k. & \v. no 1 
 report 2500 p V 
 42gunscapd ) 
 400 k . & w. 2000 p. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 446k. 1 735 w. 1 50 p 
 . 1351 k. w. & m. 
 
 91 k. 466 w 
 
 — 100 k. 400 w 
 ..1614 k. 7721 w 
 3963 m- 
 
 2073 k & W.623P, 
 ..53 k. 526 m. 
 
 890^3627 W 1 222p 
 . 5739 k- & w. 
 . 125 k. 500 w. 
 67 k. 361 W.5741T1. 
 
 So k. 150 w. 
 
 7500 k. w. & m. 
 1000 k. w. & m. 
 
 . . 250 k. w. & m. 
 
 . 1500 k. w. & m. 
 64 k. 100 w. 2oop. 
 ,Soo k. w. & m. 
 
 . . .6000 k. & w. 
 
 Gen. R. E. Lee 
 
 Gen. Price 
 
 j Gens. Price, Van- I 
 | Dorn and Lovell. . f 
 Gen. Bragg 
 Gens. Hindman 
 Marmaduke, 
 sons and Frost 
 Gen. R. E. Lee*. 
 
 Gen. Johnston*. . 
 
 nan, 1 
 , Par- l 
 3 St. . . ) 
 
 Gen. Bragg 
 
 Gen. Churchill 
 
 Wheeler and Forrest. . . 
 
 Gen. Longstreet* 
 
 Gen. R. E. Lee 
 
 Gen. Johnston 
 
 Gen. Pemberton 
 
 Gen. Pemberton 
 
 Gen. Pemberton* 
 
 Gen. Gardner 
 
 Gen. McCullough 
 
 Gens. J. E. B. Stuart < 
 & F. Hugh Lee... f 
 Gen. Ewell* 
 
 Gen. Bragg 
 
 Sook 4000 w^ooop 
 200 k. 700 W. 2000 p 
 . 1300 k. & w 
 
 443 k. iSo6\v.76m 
 Sok.i2ow. 115S3P 
 
 12500 loss 
 
 ••-•135 k. S 27 w. 
 
 3iSk.iSi2\v233m 
 3300 k. w. & m. 
 
 495 k. 600 w. 
 
 I 1512 k. 6000 / 
 '< w. 2078 p. f 
 191k.9S2w.756m. 
 
 .1533 k. 6000 w. 
 . 1000 k. w. & m. 
 
 12 k. 20 w. 
 
 130 k. 71SW. 5 m. 
 20Q0 k. w. & m. 
 
 2000 k. & w. 
 
 ( 15000k.* w. | 
 
 1 17000 p f 
 
 40 k. 240 w. 6 m. 
 . . .426 k. 1S42 w. 
 
 29 k. 242 w. 
 
 2500 loss. 
 
 . .900 k. w. & in. 
 127k.2S7w.157m. 
 . .3S0 k. w. & m. 
 2000 k. w. & m. 
 S5k. 46S w. 13 m. 
 
 !3°° P 
 
 .... 192 k. 140 p. 
 30 k. 50 w.25oop. 
 
 ( 23 1 k. 1007 w. | 
 
 ) 150009.... f 
 
 j 1 100 k. 2500 / 
 
 ) w. 1600 p. ) 
 50 k.200 w. 200 p. 
 000 k. * \v. 300 p. 
 J 1728 k. 8012 I 
 | w. 959 m. j 
 17 k. 6300 p. 
 
 ( 700 k. 1000 ) 
 I w. 300 p. f 
 
 400 k. & W.6OO p. 
 
 . .2800 k. 3897 w. 
 
 8000 k. & w. 
 
 600 k. & w. 
 
 1000 k. w. & m. 
 
 1000 k. & w. 
 About the same. 
 . . . .Nearly 5000. 
 . .600 k. w. & m. 
 ..1000 k. 1500 w. 
 
 1 10 k. & w. 
 
 8ook.& w.iooop. 
 
 1 2000 k. w. & m. 
 
 700 k. 3000 w. 
 .250 k. 500 w. 
 .Soo k. & w. 
 
 ) 500 k. 2343 | 
 
 I w. 1500 p. f 
 1500 k. & w. 
 
 15000 loss. 
 263 k. 400 w.6oo p. 
 1423 k. 226S l 
 P. 5^ w. \ 
 1300 k. 3000 / 
 w. 200 p. j 
 
 . . 1500 k. &;w. 
 
 . . . 1800 k. & 
 no report. 
 
 9000 k. w. iooo;p. 
 1 55 ° & w* ' 
 
 ) 5000 p. . . . 
 
 100k.400w.300j). 
 . . 1500 k. w. & m. 
 
 j iSoook.& w. I 
 
 ( 5000 p f 
 
 400 k. & w. 
 
 400 k. w. & m. 
 2,600 k. w. & in. 
 
 no report. 
 
 . .600 k. w. m. 
 . . ..200 k. 500 w. 
 . .750 k. w. & m. 
 
 . .>850 k. w. <£: m. 
 j 1634 p. no * 
 
 | rep't.k.&w. f 
 
 150 p. and loss of camp, 
 j Beauregard’s report. 
 1 Federal 
 Gen. Lyon killed. 
 
 Col. Baker killed. 
 
 70 wagons with stores 
 and equipage. 
 
 Gen. Zollicoffer killed, 
 1200 horses and mules, 
 100 large wagons, and 
 2000 inusk’ts were capd. 
 
 6 Forts, 65 guns, 17500 
 small arms captured. 
 
 Gen. Buckner captured; 
 Gens. Floyd and Pillow 
 escaped. 
 
 Gens. McCulloch, McIn- 
 tosh, and Slack, killed. 
 
 6 forts captured. 
 
 Confed. report. 
 
 Fed. retreated. 
 
 2000 p. and large amount 
 of supplies captured. 
 Fed. were driven back. 
 
 Gen. Williams killed. 
 Confeds. repulsed. 
 
 Gen. Johnson captured. 
 
 Feds, lost Gens. Kearney 
 and Stearns. 
 
 Gen. Reno killed. 
 
 Col. Miles killed. 
 
 Confed. repulsed. 
 
 29 cannon captured. 
 17 cannon captured. 
 
 Cavalry fight. 
 

 lL 
 
 PRINCIPAL BATTLES OF THE LATE CIVIL WAR.— Continued. 
 
 697 
 
 Dates. 
 
 Names and Places of 
 Battles. 
 
 July 12-3 
 
 “ 5 
 
 44 8 
 “ 18-19 
 
 Sept. 9 
 44 19-20 
 
 >4 
 4 
 
 41 23-25 
 
 “ 25 
 
 44 27 
 
 “ 27-30 
 
 1864 
 
 Mar. 25 
 8^9 
 
 Gettysburg, Pa 
 
 Vicksburg surrenders . . 
 
 Helena, Ark 
 
 Bolton, Miss 
 
 Port Hudson, surrender. 
 
 Ft. Wagner, S. C 
 
 Cumberland Gap 
 
 Chickamauga 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Apr. 
 
 May 
 
 17-20 
 
 5-7 
 
 12-15 
 
 «3*»5 
 
 Bristow Sta., Va 
 
 Knoxville, Tenn. 
 
 Chattanooga I 
 
 Missionary Ridge. .. . f 
 
 Ringold, Ga 
 
 Locust Grove, Va 
 
 Paducah, Ky # 
 
 Mansfield, La 
 
 Plymouth, N. C 
 
 Wilderness, Va 
 
 Spotsylvania, Va 
 
 Spotsyl vania, Va 
 
 Ft Darling, Va 
 
 Resaca, Ga 
 
 COMMANDERS. 
 
 KIL’D, WOUND’D, PRISONERS. 
 
 Confederate. 
 
 Gen. Meade* 
 
 Gen. Grant* 
 
 Gen. Prentiss* . . . 
 
 Gen. Grant* 
 
 Gen. Banks* 
 
 Gen. Gilmore 
 
 Gen. Burnside*.. 
 
 Gen. Rosencrans. 
 Gen. Warren* 
 Gen. Burnside* . . 
 
 Gen. Grant* 
 
 Gen. Hooker* 
 Gen. Hooker* 
 Gen. Meade 
 
 June 
 
 25-2^ 
 
 1 
 
 Cold Harbor, Va 
 
 15-is 
 
 Petersburgh, Va 
 
 « 
 
 22 
 
 Weldon R. R., Va 
 
 ** 
 
 27 
 
 Kennesaw Mt., Ga 
 
 July 
 
 9 
 
 Moriocracy, Md 
 
 20 
 
 Peach Tree Creek, Ga. 
 
 <4 
 
 22 
 
 Atlanta, Ga 
 
 44 
 
 27-30 
 
 Petersburgh, Va 
 
 Aug. 
 
 5-20 
 
 Mobile Bay, Ala 
 
 « 
 
 is- iS 
 
 Deep Bottom, Va 
 
 •« 
 
 19 
 
 6 Mile Station, Va 
 
 «« 
 
 25 
 
 Weldon R. R., Va 
 
 <* 
 
 3> 
 
 Atlanta, Ga. . . 
 
 Sept. 
 
 19 
 
 Winchester, Va 
 
 21 
 
 Fisher’s Hill 
 
 
 26 
 
 Ironton, Mo 
 
 20 Oct. I 
 
 Petersburg, Va 
 
 Oct. 
 
 *9 
 
 Cedar Creek, Va 
 
 20 
 
 Nims’ Creek, Mo 
 
 *« 
 
 27 
 
 Hatcher’s Run, Va 
 
 Nov. 
 
 30 
 
 Franklin, Tenn 
 
 Dec. 
 
 ■s 
 
 Nashville, Tenn 
 
 Jan. 15 
 
 Ft Fisher 
 
 <• 
 
 20-22 
 
 Wilmington, N. C 
 
 Feb. 
 
 27 
 
 Waynesboro’, Va 
 
 «* 
 
 
 Kingston, N. C 
 
 «« 
 
 
 Averasboro’, N. C 
 
 Mar. 
 
 >9 
 
 Benton ville, N. C 
 
 
 25-27 
 
 Petersburg, Va 
 
 Apri 
 
 1 
 
 Five Forks, Va 
 
 <1 
 
 2 
 
 Selma, Ala 
 
 .. 
 
 2-3 
 
 6 
 
 Petersburg & Richmond 
 Farinville and Sailors 
 Creek 1 
 
 *« 
 
 9 
 
 Surrender of Gen. Lee’s 
 
 *< 
 
 11 
 
 Ft. Blakely, Mobile. . . 
 
 « 
 
 12 
 
 Surrender of 
 
 *4 
 
 12 
 
 Salisbury, N. C 
 
 44 
 
 26 
 
 Surrender of 
 
 May 
 
 I 
 
 Surrender of 
 
 4 
 
 Surrender of 
 
 it 
 
 10 
 
 Surrender of 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 Near Boco, Chico, Tex 
 
 44 
 
 10 
 
 Capture of 
 
 
 26 
 
 Surrender of 
 
 Gen. R. E. Lee 
 
 Gen. Pemberton 
 
 Gens. Price, Holmes I 
 and Marmaduke.. j 
 
 Gen. Joe Johnston 
 
 Gen. Gardner 
 
 Gen. Beauregard* . . 
 
 Gen. Frazier 
 
 Gen. Bragg* 
 
 Gea. A. P. Hill 
 
 Gen. Longstreet 
 
 Gen. Bragg 
 
 Gen. Bragg 
 
 Gen. Hardee 
 
 Gen. Lee 
 
 Col. Hicks* 
 
 Gen. Banks* 
 
 Jen. Wesseils 
 
 Gen. Grant 
 
 Gen. Grant 
 
 Gen. Grant 
 
 Gen. Butler* 
 
 Gen. Sherman* 
 
 Gen. Sherman* 
 
 Gen. Grant 
 
 Gen. Grant 
 
 Gen. Meade 
 
 Gen. Sherman* 
 
 Gen. Wallace 
 
 Gen. Sherman* 
 
 Gen. Sherman* 
 
 Gen. Grant 
 
 j Adm. Farragut and I 
 ] Gen. Granger* . . . ' 
 
 Gen. Grant 
 
 (Jen. Warren* 
 
 Gen. Grant. 
 
 Gen. Sherman* 
 
 Gen. Sheridan 
 
 Gen. Sheridan* 
 
 Gen. Ewing* 
 
 Gen. Grant 
 
 Gen. Sheridan* 
 
 Gen. Pleasanton* 
 
 Gen. Grant . 
 
 Gen. Schofield* .... . 
 Gen. Thomas* 
 
 Gen. Terry* 
 
 \ Adm. Porter and I 
 l Gen. Schofield* . . f 
 
 Gen. Sheridan* 
 
 Gen. Schofield* 
 
 Gen. Sherman 
 
 Gen. Sherman* 
 
 Gens. Grant & Meade* 
 
 { Gens. Sheridan and I 
 
 Warren* I 
 
 oen. Wilson* 
 
 Gen. Grant. . 
 
 Gen. Sheridan 
 
 total loss 2S19S. 
 245 k.36SS w.303 p. 
 250 k. w. & m. 
 
 Gen. Forrest 
 
 Gen. Kirby Smith 
 
 Gen. Hoke* 
 
 Gen. Lee 
 
 Gen. Lee 
 
 Gen. Lee 
 
 Gen. Beauregard 
 
 Gen. Joe Johnston. 
 
 Gen. Longstreet 
 
 Gen. Lee* 
 
 en. Lee* 
 
 Gen. Lee* 
 
 Gen. Johnston 
 
 Gen. Early* 
 
 Gen. Hood 
 
 Gen. Hood 
 
 Gen. Lee* 
 
 j Gen. Page & Adm. 
 
 Buchanan 
 
 Gen. Lee* 
 
 Gen. Pickett 
 
 Gen. Lee* 
 
 Gen. Hood 
 
 Gen. Early 
 
 Gen. Early 
 
 Gen. Price 
 
 Gen. Lee* 
 
 Gen. Early. 
 
 Gen. Price 
 
 Gen. Lee* 
 
 Gen. Hood 
 
 Gen. Hood 
 
 . . 14 k. 46 w. 
 500 k. & w. 1500 p, 
 
 . 150 k. 1700 p 
 . . . loss 30,00c 
 . . . loss 10,000 
 
 Gen. Bragg 
 
 Gen. Early 
 
 Gen. Bragg 
 
 Gen. Johnson 
 
 Gen. Johnson 
 
 Gen. Lee 
 
 Gen. Lee. 
 
 Gen. Forrest 
 
 Gen. Lee 
 
 Army at Appomattox 
 ) Adm. Thatcher and 
 I Gen. Canby .... 
 
 Montgomery, Ala., to 
 
 Gen. Stonetnan* 
 
 Gen. Joe Johnston's .... 
 
 Gen. Morgan's 
 Gen. Dick Tavlor with. 
 
 Tallahassee, Fla Gen. McCook, Sr... 
 
 Con. Barrett Oen. Slaughter ... 
 
 [Jefferson Davis at Irwinsville, Ga. . . 
 
 Gen. Kirby Smith and his army 
 
 Gen. Lee 
 
 C. II., to Gen. Grant 
 Gen. Taylor 
 
 Gen. Wilson 
 
 Gardner 
 
 Army to Gen. Sherman 
 old command to Gen . . . 
 ;ili forces west of Miss, 
 
 Federal. 
 
 . 700 k. w. & m. 
 
 1644 k. 9262 w. 1 
 
 4945 m 1 
 
 .... 51 k. 329 w. 
 . . . . Coo k. & w. 
 . . . .4000 k. & w. 
 
 . .Soo k. w. & m, 
 . 1000 k. w. & in. 
 
 Confederate. 
 
 . . total loss 37000. 
 9000 k. & W.30000P. 
 500 k. & w. 1000 p. 
 
 4000 p. 
 
 • 55°° P- 
 
 500 k. ^31 w. 
 
 2000 p. 
 
 . . 17000 k. w. & m. 
 
 1200 k. & w. Soo p. 
 
 1600 p. 
 
 ..16000 k. w. & in. 
 
 Rear guard Johnston’s 
 army. 
 
 . 5000 k. w. & in. 
 
 . . .700 k. 2S00 w, 
 
 1S00 k. & w, 
 
 . 9000 k. w. & m. 
 
 loss 10,000 
 
 Coo k. & w. 12^0 p. 
 
 1000 k. & w. 
 
 .... 1000 k. & w, 
 1713 k. w. & m. 
 
 3521 k. & w. 
 
 5000 k. w. & in. 
 
 . . . 120 k. SS w. 
 
 loss 4000 
 
 3000 k. & w 
 
 1000 k.& W.3000P 
 50 k. 50 m. 439 w 
 
 3000 k. & w. 
 
 ..... Coo k. & w. 
 
 9 k. 60 w 
 
 . . 5000 k. & w. 
 4000 k.& w. 1300 p. 
 2000 p. 1000 k. A' w 
 Soo m. 400 k. 1500 w 
 189 k. 1033 w. 1104m 
 6500 k. w. & m. 
 
 . . 1 10 k. 536 w 
 . . . 250 k. & w 
 .... 60 k. & w 
 
 loss iooc. 
 
 . ..74 k. 774 w 
 
 loss 1646 
 
 iSok. 1 240 w. 990m. 
 loss 3000, 
 
 P 
 
 . . . 2500 k. w. & p. 
 
 1000 k. & w. 
 
 2000 p, 
 
 1500 k. & w. 
 . loss 30000. 
 . loss 1 0000. 
 
 4000 p. 
 
 ..no report. 
 ..no report. 
 300 p. 4000 k. k w. 
 Sooo k. w. & ni. 
 . .no report. 
 ..no report 
 . .no report. 
 ..no report. 
 5000 k.& w. looop. 
 .. 10000 k. & w, 
 1200 k. w. & in 
 no report k. & I 
 w. 1756 p... f 
 
 loss 2500. 
 
 . 1 500 p, 
 
 .... 1 500 k. & w 
 .... 5000 k. & w 
 500K.4000W. 2500P 
 \oo k. & w. 1100 p, 
 
 1 500 k. S: w 
 
 2*>oo k. & w 
 
 2S00 k.&w. noop 
 
 900 k. 38C0 p 
 
 . . 1600 k. w. & in 
 1 750 k.3Soo w.702 p 
 . . 23000 k. w. & m 
 
 . . .Sooo k. w. & m. 
 
 .2000 k. & w. 
 
 Hobson, 
 
 River to Gen. 
 
 .. .., 70 k. Adm, 
 
 440 k. & w. 2500 p 
 1072 p 
 
 5 k - >352 P 
 
 1200 k.& W.2400P. 
 
 327 k - 373 P 
 
 167 k. 1625 p, 
 
 2200 k. k w. 2S00 p, 
 
 5ooo P 
 
 3000 p 
 
 . . 9000 k. w. & in 
 
 6000 p. 
 
 26115 p, 
 
 500 k. & w. 4300 p. 
 
 ... 2700 p. 100 g. 
 
 1S00 p. 
 
 2/50° P- 
 
 1200 p. 
 
 Canby 10000 p 
 
 .... Jones, 8000 p. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 Longstreet wounded. 
 
 2 Confed. Gens. 30 guns 
 captured. 
 
 Johnson flanked. 
 
 McPherson killed. 
 1 50 guns captured. 
 
 Con r eds. repulsed. 
 
 Confed. Gens. Rhodes 
 md Gordon killed. 
 
 Feds, captured 26 pieces 
 artillery. 
 
 Gens. Marmaduke and 
 Cabell captured. 
 
 Gen. Johnson captured 
 and 47 guns. 
 
 Fort and 72 g. captur’d. 
 
 All of Early’s guns. 
 
 , joooo p. 
 
 All of Lee’s artillery 
 captured. 
 
 Gen. Forrest & Rhoddy 
 captured. 
 
 Richmond captured. 
 
 Confed. Gens. Ewell, 
 Kershaw, Corse, and 
 Cuslis Lee captured. 
 
 32 guns captured. 
 
 14 guns. 
 
 This was the last en- 
 gagement of the Civil 
 War. 
 
 * In addition to the battles given above there were 42 
 
 Book of American Progress, published by E. B. Treat, 757 Broadway. N. V . 
 
 I battles, engagements, and skirmishes; a complete list can be lound in the"National Hand- 
 
 Date of President’! 
 
 mation. 
 
 April 15, 1S61 
 May 3, 1861 
 
 ^ly 22 and 25, 1S61 
 
 4ay and June, 1862 
 
 July 2, 1862 
 
 August 4, 1862 
 
 June 15, 1863... 
 
 Number 
 
 Period of 
 Service. 
 
 Number 
 
 Obtained. 
 
 Date of President's Procla- 
 
 mation. 
 
 \ l M HER 
 
 Called for. 
 
 I KK IOD OF 
 
 Service. 
 
 
 3 months. 
 
 93 . 32 '’ 
 
 
 300.000 I 
 
 200.000 ( 
 
 j years. 
 
 75.000 
 
 
 C74S 1 
 
 
 7 > 4 . 23 ' 
 
 
 
 3 years. 
 
 10O days 
 
 500,000 1 
 
 3 months. 
 
 
 85,000 
 
 500.000 
 
 300.000 
 
 2.942.74* 
 
 ' 5.°°7 
 
 16,361 
 
 
 1, 2, 3 years 
 
 300,000 
 
 3 years. 
 
 
 1, 2, 3 years. 
 
 300.000 
 
 100.000 
 
 9 months. 
 
 6 months. 
 
 
 This does not 
 
 include the militia that were brought into service during the various invasion, of Gen. Lee" into Maryland and Pennsylvania. 
 
 374.^7 
 
 284,011 
 
 3S4.88J 
 
 204,568 
 
 2, '*10,401 
 
 sr 
 
698 
 
 COST OF THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 The statement of the Secretary of the Treasury of the amount of money expended for all 
 purposes necessarily growing out of the Civil War, brought down to Jan. 1, 1880, will prove 
 an interesting and remarkable exhibit of the cost of war. The footings as reported are 
 $6,189,029,908.00; this does not include expenditures from 1861 to 1S80 of the Government for 
 expenditures of the general Government other than for the war; the latter item was $654,641,522. 
 
 Expenses of National loan and 
 
 currency $ 51,522,730 
 
 Premiums 59*73^, *67 
 
 Interest on public debt 1,761,256,19s 
 
 Subsistence of the army 381,417,548 
 
 Quartermaster’s Department 299,481,917 
 
 Incidental expenses of Quarter- 
 master’s Department 85 > 34 2 >733 
 
 Transportation of the army 336,793,3^5 
 
 Transportation of officers and 
 
 their baggage 3,025,219 
 
 Clothing of the army 343»543>SSo 
 
 Purchase of horses for cavalry 
 
 and artillery 126,672,423 
 
 Barracks, quarters, etc 31,070,846 
 
 Heating and cooking stoves 448,731 
 
 Pay, mileage, general expenses, 
 
 etc., of the army 97,084,729 
 
 Pay of two and three years* vol- 
 unteers 1,040,102,702 
 
 Pay of three months* volunteers. 868,305 
 
 Pay, etc., of 100-days* volunteers. 14,386,778 
 
 Pay of militia and volunteers 6,126,952 
 
 Pay, etc., to officers and men in 
 Department of the Missouri . . . 844,150 
 
 Pay and supplies of 100- day vol- 
 unteers 4,824,877 
 
 Bounty to volunteers and regulars 
 
 on enlistment 38,522,046 
 
 Bounty to volunteers and their 
 
 widows and legal heirs 81,760,345 
 
 Additional Bounty Act of July 28, 
 
 18 66 69,99s, 7S6 
 
 Collection and payment of bounty , 
 etc., to colored soldiers, etc. . . . 268,158 
 
 Reimbursing States for moneys 
 expended for payment of mili- 
 tary service of United States. . . 9 , 635 , 5 12 
 
 Defraying the expenses of min- 
 utemen and volunteers in Penn- 
 sylvania, Maryland, Ohio, In- 
 diana, and Kentucky 597,178 
 
 Expenses of recruiting 1,297,966 
 
 Draft and substitute fund 9 > 7 * 3 >S 73 
 
 Medical and Hospital Departing. 45,108,770 
 
 Medical and Surgical History and 
 
 Statistics 196,04s 
 
 Providing for comfort of sick, 
 wounded, and discharged sol 
 
 dicrs 2,232,785 
 
 Freedmen’s Hospital & Asylum. 123,487 
 
 Artificial limbs and appliances.. 509,283 
 
 Ordnance service 4 > 553 > 53 1 
 
 Ordnance, ordnance stores, and 
 
 supplies . ... . . . S 5 . 933.932 
 
 Armament of fortifications 10,218,472 
 
 National armories, arsenals, etc. 23,603,489 
 
 Purchase of arms for volunteers 
 
 and regulars 76 , 373,935 
 
 Payment of expenses under Re- 
 construction acts 3,128,905 
 
 Secret service 681,587 
 
 Medals of honor 29,890 
 
 Support of National Home for 
 disabled volunteer soldiers .... 8,546,184 
 
 Publication of official records of 
 
 War of the Rebellion 170,09s 
 
 Contingencies of the army and 
 
 Adjutant- General’s Departm’t. 2,726,69s 
 
 Preparing register of volunteers. 1,015 
 
 Army-pensions 407,429,192 
 
 Telegraph for military purposes. 2,500,085 
 
 Maintenance of gunboat fleet 
 
 proper 5,244,684 
 
 Keeping, transporting, and sup- 
 plying prisoners of war 7>659,4 !I 
 
 Construction and maintenance of 
 
 steam-rams 1, 37°, 73° 
 
 Signal service 1 43,797 
 
 Gunboats on the Western rivers. 3 » 2 39 * 3 I 4 
 
 Supplying, transporting, and de- 
 livering arms and munitions 
 of war to loyal citizens in States 
 in rebellion agninst the Govern- 
 ment of the United States 1,649,596 
 
 Collecting, organizing, and drill- 
 ing volunteers 29,091,6 66 
 
 Tool and siege trains 702,250 
 
 Completing the defenses of Wash- 
 ington 912,283 
 
 Commutation of rations to prison- 
 ers of war in Rebel States 320,636 
 
 National cemeteries 4,162,848 
 
 Purchase of Ford’s Theater 88,000 
 
 Headstones, erection of head- 
 stones, pay of Superintendents, 
 and removing the remains of 
 officers to National cemeteries. 1,080,185 
 
 Capture of Jeff Da vis 97,031 
 
 Support of Bureau of Refugees 
 
 and Freedmen n, 454» 2 37 
 
 Claims for Quartermaster's stores 
 
 and commissary supplies 850,220 
 
 Claims of loyal citizens for sup- 
 plies furnished during the Re- 
 bellion 4,170,304 
 
 Horses and other property lost in 
 
 military service 4,281,724 
 
 Fortifications on the Northern 
 
 frontier 683,74s 
 
 Pay of the navy 74,462,304 
 
 Provisions of the navy 16,368,623 
 
 Clothing of the navy 1,594,790 
 
 Construction and repair 134,178,096 
 
 25.174.614 
 
 31.422.c94 
 
 1.937.744 
 
 30,300,302 
 11,340,232 
 898,252 
 49,297,318 
 2,526,247 
 499,662 
 404.531 
 7 , 757,615 
 1,862,132 
 8,123,7 66 
 2,614,044 
 6,590,043 
 2,821,530 
 
 271,309 
 
 289,025 
 
 Equipment of vessels 
 
 Ordnance 
 
 Surgeons’ necessaries 
 
 Yards and docks 
 
 Fuel for the navy 
 
 Hemp for the navy 
 
 Steam machinery 
 
 Navigation I 
 
 Naval Hospitals 
 
 Magazines 
 
 Marine Corns, pay, clothing, etc. 
 
 Naval Academy 
 
 Temporary increase of the navy. 
 Miscellaneous appropriations . .. 
 
 Naval pensions 
 
 Bounties to seamen 
 
 Bounties for destruction of ene- 
 mies’ vessels .. 
 
 Indemnity for lost clothing. . 
 
 Expenditures in the District of Columbia from 1790 to 1876. 
 
 The total amount of money expended by the Government in the District of Columbia for all 
 purposes from July i6, 1793, to July 30, 1S76, is $92,112,395. This sum was divided as follows: 
 
 Capitol $17,184,691 
 
 Library of Congress* *,575,847 
 
 White House 1,040,449 
 
 Purchase of wonks of art 602,569 
 
 Botanic Garden * 722,813 
 
 Department of State, etc 4,989,948 
 
 Treasury Department 7,062,942 
 
 War Department 2,044,065 
 
 Navy Department 3,899,136 
 
 Post-Office Department 2,124,504 
 
 Department of Agriculture 3,174,192 
 
 Smithsonian Institution 2,305,420 
 
 Patent Office 13, 197,90s 
 
 Benevolent institutions 4»73 2 ,448 
 
 Penal institutions 4,418,329 
 
 Courts 78,486 
 
 Aqueduct 4,000,822 
 
 hire Department 104 299 
 
 £ a . nals 5974 >S 
 
 g ri ,u? es 1,290,568 
 
 Public grounds *,867,537 
 
 Streets and avenues 5 .975,294 
 
 Loans, reimbursements, etc 4,927*299 
 
 Miscellaneous*!- 3.5C5»400 
 
 * hirst appropriation for Congressional Li- 
 brarv, 1800. 
 
 ^ * r j St a PP ro P** at ‘ on for the support of Public 
 
 The Federal Army During the Civil War ot 
 1861-65. 
 
 The following statement shows the number 
 of men furnished by each State: 
 
 Maine 
 
 New Hampshire. 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Massachusetts. . . 
 Rhode Island . . . 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 New York 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Pennsylvania. . . . 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Maryland 
 
 West Virginia. . . 
 Dist. of Columbia 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 North Carolina. . 
 
 California 
 
 Nevada 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Washington Ter. 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Florida 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Texas 
 
 Dakota 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 Total. 
 
 Men furnish 
 
 ed under Act 
 of April 15, 
 1861, for75,ooo 
 militia for 
 months. 
 
 771 
 
 71,745 
 
 779 
 
 34,605 
 
 782 
 
 35,246 
 
 3,736 
 
 152,048 
 
 3, >47 
 
 23,711 
 
 2,402 
 
 57,374 
 
 13,906 
 
 467,047 
 
 3,123 
 
 79 , 5 ” 
 
 20,175 
 
 366,326 
 
 775 
 
 ' 3,651 
 
 
 49,731 
 
 900 
 
 32,003 
 
 4,720 
 
 16,872 
 
 12,357 
 
 3 ' 9,659 
 
 4,686 
 
 197-147 
 
 4,820 
 
 258,217 
 
 7S1 
 8*7 
 930 
 96S 
 10,501 
 
 650 
 
 2,576 
 
 1,290 
 
 8,224 
 
 545 
 
 *,965 
 
 *, 5 *o 
 
 93,326 
 
 Aggregate 
 No. of men 
 furnished un- 
 der all calls. 
 
 90,110 
 96,118 
 25,034 
 75,860 
 > oh, 773 
 78.540 
 20,097 
 
 'IX 
 
 3,156 
 
 >5 
 
 216 
 
 617 
 
 895 
 
 1,279 
 
 1,762 
 
 >81 
 
 2.395 
 
 2,688,523 
 
 The Provost Marshal General’s report shows 
 
 that there were killed in action or died of their 
 wounds while in service: Commissioned offi- 
 cers, 5,221; enlisted men, 90,868. Died from 
 disease or accident: Commissioned officers, 
 2,321. Enlisted men, 182,329; a total loss in 
 service of 280,739. Deaths, from wounds or dis- 
 ease contracted in service which occurred after 
 the men left the army are not included in these 
 figures. 
 
 Losses of the Government for Every Adminis- 
 tration from 1789 to 1876. 
 
 The following table exhibits the losses of the 
 Government through frauds, carelessness and 
 from all causes, and the amount of loss on 
 each thousand dollars, for every Administra- 
 tion from the beginning of the Government 
 till the end of President Grant’s Administra- 
 tion, ns follows: 
 
 
 Period 
 
 of ser- 
 vice, 
 years. 
 
 Total 
 
 Losses. 
 
 Loss on 
 $1,000. 
 
 Washington 
 
 8 
 
 $ 250,970 
 
 $ 2.22 
 
 Adams 
 
 4 
 
 235.4” 
 
 2-59 
 
 Jefferson 
 
 8 
 
 603,467 
 
 2 -75 
 
 Madison 
 
 S 
 
 2,191,660 
 
 4.16 
 
 Monroe 
 
 8 
 
 3,229,787 
 
 s.53 
 
 Adams 
 
 4 
 
 885,374 
 
 4-39 
 
 Jackson 
 
 s 
 
 3,761,111 
 
 7-5 2 
 
 Van Buren 
 
 4 
 
 3,343,792 
 
 ".71 
 
 Harrison i 
 
 Tyler ) 
 
 4 
 
 ',565,003 
 
 6.4 0 
 
 Polk 
 
 4 
 
 ',73 2 >85' 
 
 4.0s 
 
 lavlor ( 
 
 Fillmore j 
 
 4 
 
 1, Si 4, 409 
 
 4.19 
 
 Pierce 
 
 4 
 
 2,l67,9S2 
 2,6^9, 107 
 
 3-^6 
 
 3.81 
 
 Buchanan 
 
 4 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 4 
 
 7,200,984 
 
 76 
 
 Johnson 
 
 4 
 
 4,6i9,599 
 
 57 
 
 Grant 
 
 8 
 
 2,846,192 
 
 34 
 
 Total 
 
 
 $39 ,ioS, 6 os 
 
 $ 1.29 
 
THE NAVAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 699 
 
 Showing Navy of the Revolution, Naval Battles of the War of 1812, Mexican War, Civil War, the Number of Vessels 
 Captured and Destroyed for Violation of the Blockade, and Federal Vessels Captured or 
 Destroyed by Confederate Cruisers. 
 
 THE NAVY OF THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 In December, 1775, Congress passed an Act ofdering the building of 
 thirteen vessels, three of 24 guns, five of 28, five of 32, with Ezekiel Hop- 
 kins as Commander-in-Chief, as follows : — 
 
 Name. 
 
 Hancock . 
 
 Congress. 
 
 Montgomery . 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Randolph 
 
 Washington . 
 
 Effingham... 
 
 Raleigh 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Warren 
 
 Prov dence . 
 
 Boston 
 
 Trumbull . 
 
 History. 
 
 Captured by the British in 1777. 
 
 Destroyed in the Hudson River to avoid cap- 
 ture in 1777, never having been to sea. 
 
 Do. do. do. 
 
 Captured in the Delaware River 1777. 
 
 Blown up in action with the British Ship Yar- 
 mouth, 64 guns, in 1778. 
 
 Destroyed in the Delaware by the British 
 before getting to sea, in 1778. 
 
 Do. do. _ do. 
 
 Captured by the British in 1778. 
 
 Captured by the British in 1778, off the capes 
 of the Delaware, before getting to sea. 
 
 Burned in the Penobscot River in 1779, to pre- 
 vent falling into the enemy’s hands. 
 
 Seized by the Biitish at the capture of Char- 
 leston, S. C-, in 1780. 
 
 Do. do. do. 
 
 Captured by the British ship Watt, in 1781. 
 
 Owing to the superiority of England on the sea, and the great difficulties 
 with which Congress had to struggle during the war, it was impossible to 
 give any great attention to our naval armament ; but, notwithstanding this, 
 the waters swarmed with American privateers, and many hundreds of 
 British merchantmen were captured. Probably the mo«-t daring naval ex- 
 ploit during the war was fought off the coast of Scotland, September* 23, 
 1779, between the Bon Homme Richard, of 40 guns, Paul Jones, com- 
 mander, and the Serapis, a British frigate of 44 guns, Captain Pearson, 
 The Serapis surrendered, with a loss of 150. Jones lost 300 in killed and 
 wounded, and while his ship was sinking transferred his crew to the Serapis. 
 
 The navy was disbanded at the close of the war, the few remaining 
 vessels were sold. 
 
 In addition to the “thirteen” vessels above named, about ten other 
 vessels, ranging from 24 guns down to 10, were purchased and fitted out as 
 cruisers while the others were building. 
 
 1799 — The Frigate Constitution captured the French Frigate LTnsurgente. 
 
 1803 — The Frigate Philadelphia captured by the Tripolitans. 
 
 1804— Commodore Decatur destroyed the Frigate Philadelphia. 
 
 NAVAL BATTLES, WAR OF 1812 . 
 
 WHERE FOUGHT. 
 
 1812, Aug, 13 
 Aug. 19 
 Oct. 18 
 Oct. 25 
 Dec. 29 
 
 1813, Feb. 24 
 June 1 
 Aug. 14 
 Sept. 5 
 Sept. 10 
 Oct. 5 
 
 1814, Mar* 28 
 Apr. 20 
 Apr. 29 
 
 Off Newfoundland 
 
 Off Massachusetts 
 
 Off North Carolina 
 
 Near Canary Islands ... 
 
 Off San Salvador 
 
 Off Demerara 
 
 Massachusetts Bay 
 
 British Channel 
 
 Off Coast of Maine 
 
 Lake Erie 
 
 Lake Ontario 
 
 Harbor of Valparaiso... 
 
 Off Coa?t of Florida 
 
 June 28 
 
 Near British Channel.. . 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Stonington, Ct 
 
 Near Africa 
 
 Sept. 11 
 
 Lake Champlain 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Mobile Bay 
 
 Dec. 9 
 
 Lake Borgue 
 
 1815, Jan. 15 
 
 Off New Jersey 
 
 Feb. 20 
 
 Off Island of Madeira.. 
 
 Mar. 23 
 
 Off Brazil........ 
 
 AM. VESSELS AND COMMANDERS. 
 
 Sloop Alert, Laugharne. 
 Frig. Guerriere, pacres. 
 Frig. Frolic, Whinyates.t 
 Frig. Macedonian, Carden. 
 Frig. Java, Lambert. 
 
 Brig Peacock, Peake. 
 
 Frig. Shannon, Broke*. 
 Sloop Pelican, Maples*. 
 Brig Boxer, Blythe. 
 
 9 vessels 54 guns, Perry* 6 vessels 63 guns, Barclay. 
 
 Commodore Cnancey captures British Flotilla. 
 
 T 3 rig Phccbe Hillyar*. 
 
 Sloop Cherub, Tucker. 
 Brig. Orpheus. 
 
 Brig Epervicr, Wales. 
 
 Sloop Reindeer, Manners. 
 
 Frig. Essex, Porter* 
 
 Frig. Constitution, Hull* 
 
 Sloop Wasp, Jones*t 
 
 Frig. United States, Decatur* .. 
 Frig. Constitution, Bainbridge* 
 
 Sloop Hornet, Lawrence* 
 
 Frig. Chesapeake, Lawrence 
 
 Brig. Argus, Allen 
 
 Brig. Enterprise, Burrows* 
 
 Frig. Essex, Porter 
 
 Sloop Frolic 
 
 Sloop Peacock. Warrington* 
 
 Sloop Wasp, Blakely* 
 
 BR. VESSELS AND COMMANDERS. 
 
 British fleet attack the town ; are repulsed. 
 
 Sloop Wasp, Blakely* 
 
 14 vessels 86 guns, McDonough* 
 
 Fort Boyer, Maj. Lawrence* 
 
 66 gunboats, Jones ......... 
 
 Frig. President, Decatur........ 
 
 Frig Constitution, Stewart*.... 
 
 -doop Hornet, Biddle* 
 
 Sloop Avon, Arbuthnot. 
 
 17 vessels 95 guns, Downie. 
 
 4 ships, 9oguns, Col. Nichols. 
 40 barges, Lockyer*. 
 Squadron, Hayes*. 
 
 Ship Cyane, Falcon. 
 
 Skip I evant, Douglas. 
 
 Brig Penguin, Dickenson. 
 
 ♦Indicates the victorious party. 
 
 t Afterwards captured, with her prize, by the Poictiers, a British 74. 
 
 PRINCIPAL NAVAL BATTLES OF THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 1862, Feb. 6— Fort Henry, Tenn., captured by Commodore Foote. 
 
 Feb. 8 — Roanoke Island, N. C., captured by Commodore Goldsborough 
 and Gen. Burnside. 
 
 Feb. 16 — Fort Donelson, Tenn., combined forces of Gen. Grant and 
 Commodore Foote. 
 
 Mar. 8— Confederate Ram Merrimac “sinks” U. S. Frigates Cumber- 
 land and Congress, Hampton Roads, Va. 
 
 Mar. 9 — Federal Monitor disables the Merrimac. 
 
 April 6— Pittsburgh Landing. 
 
 April 8 — Capture of Island No. 10. 
 
 April 11— Fort Pulaski, Ga., captured by land and naval forces. 
 
 April 24 — Forts Jackson, St. Phillip and New Orleans. 
 
 May 13 — Natchez, Miss., captured by Admiral Farragut. 
 
 July 1 — Malvern Hill. 
 
 1863, Jan. 11 — Fort Hindman, Ark., Admiral Porter. 
 
 Jan. 11 — U. S. Steamer Hatteras sunk by Confederate Alabama. 
 
 'an. 17 — Monitor Weehawken captures Confederate Ram Atlanta, 
 lay 18 — Vicksburg, Miss., Admiral Porter. 
 
 July 8— Port Hudson, Miss., captured. 
 
 July 8 — Natchez, Miss. 
 
 1864, June 19 — U. S. Steamer Kearsage “sinks the Alabama” off Cher- 
 
 bourg, France. 
 
 Aug. 5 -Mobile, Ala., Admiral Farragut. 
 
 1865, Jan. 15 — Fort Fisher, N. C., captured by Gen. Terry and Commodore 
 
 Porter. 
 
 During the Civil War the Federal Navy was increased in two years 
 to over 400 vessels, the greater part of which were used in blockading 
 Southern ports ; notwithstanding their vigilance and effectiveness, many 
 Confederate cruisers managed to escape the blockade and destroy the 
 Northern merchant vessels. 
 
 At the present tjme (1880) not one-half the vessels belonging to the navy 
 are in active service ; the greater portion of those in commission are em- 
 ployed in what is called squadron service. There are seven squadrons, 
 viz., the European, the Asiatic, the North Atlantic, the South Atlantic, 
 the North Pacific, the South Pacific and the Gulf Squadrons. These 
 squadrons are under command of a high naval officer of the rank of com- 
 modore or rear admiral, whose ship is called the fDg-ship of the squadron. 
 
 FEDERAL VESSELS CAPTURED OR DESTROYED BY 
 CONFEDERATE “CRUISERS.” 
 
 Ships ...... — — — — ........ 80 
 
 Brigs .... ...... 46 
 
 Barks - 84 
 
 Schooners 67 
 
 Steamboats - 4 
 
 Gunboats — — ------ — 3 
 
 Cutter 1 
 
 Tug x 
 
 VESSELS CAPTURED OR DESTROYED 
 FOR VIOLATION OF THE BLOCKADE, 
 OR IN BATTLE, FROM MAY, 1861. TO 
 MAY, 1865. 
 
 Schooners 735 
 
 Sloops 155 
 
 Steamers ..... .......... 262 
 
 Barks - - 27 
 
 Brigs 30 
 
 Ships - 13 
 
 Ironclads and Rams.... 16 
 
 Brigantines ....... .............. 2 
 
 Gunboats 3 
 
 Propellers 4 
 
 Pilot Boats 2 
 
 Boats - - 8 
 
 Yachts a 
 
 l ugs 3 
 
 Barkatine 1 
 
 Pungy 1 
 
 Miscellaneous .... ........ 86 
 
 The British vessels captured during the war 
 of 1812 were 1.740, the American.! ,683. 
 
 The only naval engagements of importance dur- 
 ing the war with Mexico was the bombardment 
 of Vera Cruz, Commodore Connor, which lasted 
 four days, and the city compelled to surrender, 
 and the bombardment of Monterey by Commo- 
 dore Sloat, July 6, 1846, and the capture of Mon- 
 terey on the California coast, by Commodore Sloat. 
 
 Oct. 25, 1846— Tobacco captured and Mexican 
 vessels in port destroyed. 
 
 7 
 
 

 700 
 
 UNITED STATES PAPER MONEY AND PENSION STATISTICS. 
 
 AMOUNT OF PAPER MONEY AND FRACTIONAL CURRENCY OUTSTANDING IN THE UNITED STATES AT 
 THE CLOSE OF EACH FISCAL YEAR FROM 1860 TO 1881 INCLUSIVE. 
 
 Prepared at the Treasury Department, July i, 18S1. 
 
 Year end 
 ing June 
 3 °- 
 
 State Bank 
 Circulation. 
 
 1S60 
 
 $ 
 
 207,102,477 
 
 1S61 
 
 202,005,767 
 
 1S62 
 
 183,792,079 
 
 1S63 
 
 238,677,21s 
 
 1864 
 
 ■ 79 . I 57 . 7 I 7 
 
 ■ 865 
 
 142 , 919,633 
 
 i 860 
 
 19,996,163 
 
 1867 
 
 4,484,112 
 
 180S 
 
 3 ,i 6 , 3 , 77 i 
 
 1S69 
 
 2 . 558 .S 74 
 
 lS70 
 
 2 , 222,793 
 
 1,968,058 
 
 ■ s 7 > 
 
 ■872 
 
 ■,700,935 
 
 ■873 
 
 1,294,479 
 
 ■S 74 
 
 1,009,02 1 
 
 ■N 5 
 
 786,844 
 
 1S76 
 
 658,938 
 
 ■877 
 
 52I,6iI 
 
 ■878 
 
 426,504 
 
 ■879 
 
 iSSo 
 
 352,452 
 
 299 , 7 QO 
 
 1SS1 
 
 242,967 
 
 National 
 
 Bank 
 
 Circulation. 
 
 .V,-* 35 > 2 7 ° 
 146,137,800 
 2S 1, 479, 90S 
 298,625,379 
 299,762,855 
 299,929 624 
 299,766,984 
 318,261,241 
 337, ^4 >795 
 347,267,061 
 351,981,032 
 334,408,008 
 332,998,336 
 317,048,872 
 324,514,284 
 329,69 1 ,697 
 344,505,427 
 355 , 042,075 
 
 Legal 
 
 Tender 
 
 Notes. 
 
 96,620,000 
 297 , 7 < 57, 1 '4 
 431,178,671 
 432,687,966 
 
 |O0,6l9,206 
 
 37', 78.3, 597 
 356,000,000 
 356,000,000 
 356 , 000,000 
 356,000,000 
 357»5 00 > 0C0 
 
 356.000. 000 
 
 382.000. 000 
 >75,77 1 >5®° 
 369,772,284 
 .359,764,332 
 
 346,6s 1,0 1 6 
 346,681,016 
 
 346.681.016 
 
 346.681.016 
 
 Demand 
 
 Notes. 
 
 One and two 
 Year Notes 
 of 1S63. 
 
 (See Note 1) 
 
 53,040,000 
 
 3,351,020 
 
 780,999 
 
 472,603 
 
 272,162 
 
 208,432 
 
 141,723 
 
 ■23,739 
 
 06,256 
 
 96,505 
 
 55.296 
 
 79,967 
 
 76,7.32 
 
 70,107 
 
 66,917 
 
 63,962 
 
 62.297 
 61,470 
 60,975 
 60,435 
 
 Compound 
 
 Interest 
 
 Notes. 
 
 (See Note 1) 
 
 S9,S79,475 
 
 ■ 53 , 47 i ,450 
 
 42,3.38,710 
 
 3,454,2.30 
 
 1,123,630 
 
 555,492 
 
 347,772 
 
 248,272 
 
 ■9S.572 
 
 167,522 
 
 142,105 
 
 127,625 
 
 ■ 13-375 
 
 104,705 
 
 95,725 
 
 90,485 
 
 86.185 
 
 82.185 
 79,985 
 
 15,000 OOO 
 
 ■9,3>756, 0S0 
 
 159 , 012,140 
 
 122,394,480 
 
 28,l6l,8lO 
 
 2,871,410 
 2,152.910 
 708, 500 
 593 , 5 2 <> 
 
 479,400 
 415,210 
 307,390 
 328,760 
 29^,030 
 274,920 
 259,090 
 242,590 
 230,2 50 
 
 Fractional 
 
 Currency, 
 
 Paper. 
 
 20,192,456 
 
 22,894,877 
 
 25,005,829 
 
 27.070.s77 
 
 28,307,524 
 
 32,626,952 
 
 32,114,637 
 
 39.s7s.6s4 
 
 40,582,874 
 
 40,855,035 
 
 44,799,365 
 
 45,881,296 
 
 42,129,424 
 
 34,446,595 
 
 20,403,137 
 
 ■6,547,769 
 
 15,842,606 
 
 7.214,954 
 
 7,105,953 
 
 Fractional 
 
 Currency, 
 
 Sliver. 
 
 (See Note 
 
 10,926,938 
 
 33,185,273 
 
 39.155.633 
 
 39 , 360,529 
 
 24,061,449 
 
 19,974,897 
 
 Total 
 amount in 
 Currency. 
 
 207,102,477 
 
 202,005.767 
 
 333,452,079 
 
 649,867,283 
 
 833 , 718,984 
 
 983.318.686 
 
 891.904.686 
 826,927,154 
 720,412,603 
 693 , 946,057 
 700,375,899 
 
 717.s75.75 1 
 
 738.570,903 
 
 750,062,369 
 
 781,490,916 
 
 773,646,729 
 
 749.303,474 
 
 731,379.543 
 
 729,215,50s 
 734 , 801,995 
 735 522,956 
 
 780,584,809 
 
 Amo’t 
 
 per 
 
 Capita 
 
 6.58 
 
 6.30 
 
 10.19 
 
 19.44 
 24,48 
 28.29 
 
 25.14 
 2 2. S3 
 
 19. 45 
 
 ■8.37 
 
 18.16 
 iS 14 
 
 15.15 
 17.9s 
 
 1S.23 
 
 ■7-55 
 
 16.53 
 
 15.68 
 
 ■5-19 
 
 14.S7 
 
 14.46 
 
 Valueof 
 
 Paper 
 Dol. as 
 compar- 
 ed with 
 Coin, 
 July 1 of 
 each yr. 
 
 o 86.6 
 
 o 7 6.6 
 o 3S.7 
 o 70.4 
 o 66.0 
 o 71-7 
 o 70.1 
 0 7.3-5 
 o S4.6 
 o 89.0 
 o 87. s 
 o 86.4 
 o 91.0 
 o 87.2 
 0 89.5 
 o 94.7 
 
 0 99.4 
 
 I -00.0 
 
 1 00.0 
 I 00.0 
 
 Value of 
 Currency in 
 Gold. 
 
 288,769,500 
 
 497,798,339 
 
 322.649.247 
 692,256,45s 
 588,657,093 
 
 592.906.769 
 505,009,235 
 510,050,352 
 
 599 . 521.770 
 
 638,909,418 
 646,249 541 
 648,053 SS7 
 
 71 1,156,734 
 674,619,947 
 671,773,938 
 
 694.375.247 
 
 725,083.925 
 
 734,801,995 
 
 735,522,956 
 
 780,384,809 
 
 Note i. — The one and two-year notes of 1S63, and the compound interest notes, though having a legal-tender quality for their face-values, were in 
 fact interest-bearing securities, payable at certain times, as slated on the notes. They entered into circulation but for a few days, if at all, and, since 
 maturity, those presented have been converted into other interest-bearing bonds, or paid for in cash, interest included. 
 
 Note 2. — The amount of fractional silver in circulation in 1S60, 1861, and iS 52 , cannot be stated. The amounts stated for 1876, 1S77, 1878, and 1S79, 
 are the atnounts coined and issued since Januarv 1876. To these amounts should be added the amount of silver previously coined which has come into 
 circulation. 
 
 PENSION STATISTICS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 List of Pension Agencies , Names of Petition Agents, number of Pensioners on the roll of each Agency, ‘June 30, 188I, and the amount disbursed for 
 pensions during the year, together rvith a comparative statement of the number of pensioners on the roll at the beg i titling and close of the year ending 
 June 30, 1881. 
 
 From the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Pensions for 1SS1. 
 
 Local’n of Age’y. 
 
 Name of Pen- 
 sion Agent. 
 
 Army. 
 
 Navy. 
 
 War of 1S12. 
 
 Disbursements on account of pensions during the 
 year. 
 
 Whole number 
 
 of pensioners on 
 the roll. 
 
 Invali’s 
 
 Wid’s. 
 
 Invalids 
 
 Will’s 
 
 Survi- 
 
 vors. 
 
 Wi’ws 
 of, &c. 
 
 For regular 
 pensions. 
 
 For Arrears 
 of Pensions. 
 
 Salaries 
 and expen- 
 ses of pen- 
 sion ag’ts. 
 
 Total dis- 
 bursements. 
 
 June 30, 
 1881. 
 
 June 30, 
 1880. 
 
 Boston, Mass 
 
 Chicago, 111 
 
 Columbus, Ohio. . 
 Concord, N. II. 
 Des Moines, la. . . 
 
 Detroit, Mich 
 
 Indianapolis, Ind. 
 Knoxville, Tenn.. 
 Louisville, Kv. . . . 
 Milwaukee, wis.. 
 New York, N.Y.. 
 Philadelphia, Pa.. 
 Pittsburgh, Pa... 
 
 St. Louis, Mo 
 
 S. Francisco, Cal. 
 Syracuse, N. Y.. . 
 W ash ington, D. C . 
 
 D. W. Gooch. . . 
 Ada C. Sweet. . 
 A. T. Wikoff.. . 
 
 E. L. Whitford 
 
 Jacob Rich 
 
 Samuel Post. . . . 
 Fred. Knefler . . 
 
 D. T. Bovnton. . 
 R. M. Kelly.... 
 
 E. Ferguson . . . 
 Chas. R. Coster 
 II. G. Sickel ... 
 W. A. Herron . 
 N. A. Adams .. 
 Henry Cox .... 
 
 T. S. Poole 
 
 Theo. Gaines . . 
 
 10.156 
 >3,997 
 14,070 
 10,482 
 9,676 
 7.52 ■ 
 >0,740 
 
 4,699 
 
 2,594 
 
 8,201 
 
 7 384 
 
 ■0,417 
 
 9,175 
 
 9,432 
 
 i,3°' 
 
 ■O.SS3 
 
 ■2.597 
 
 7,oS6 
 
 5,9H 
 
 7,5i5 
 
 6,88 f 
 
 2 ,747 
 
 2,761 
 
 4,47s 
 
 4,561 
 
 2,7So 
 
 3. ”3 
 5,S26 
 5,569 
 4,109 
 
 2,998 
 
 252 
 
 5,946 
 
 4, '44 
 
 500 
 
 83 
 
 5° 
 
 ■49 
 
 24 
 
 77 
 
 9 
 
 28 
 
 473 
 
 3'5 
 
 49 
 
 34 
 
 5' 
 
 345 
 
 429 
 
 52 
 
 74 
 
 "5 
 
 22 
 
 16 
 
 23 
 
 404 
 
 32' 
 
 5' 
 
 21 
 
 30 
 
 358 
 
 716 
 
 405 
 
 720 
 
 1,161 
 
 21S 
 
 326 
 
 219 
 
 1,921 
 
 3SS 
 
 2'S 
 
 545 
 
 23S 
 
 235 
 
 3°9 
 
 55 
 
 S69 
 
 358 
 
 2,074 
 
 1,030 
 
 2,104 
 
 3, i6 4 
 
 547 
 
 IVe 
 
 6,390 
 1,01 1 
 416 
 
 L337 
 
 I, coo 
 
 III 
 
 ■05 
 
 2,3 ■ I 
 1,36s 
 
 $3, 604,673.6s 
 
 4,637,481.6s 
 
 4,352,166.21 
 
 3,407,494-23 
 
 3,220,988.82 
 
 2.024.640.30 
 3,002,155.2s 
 2,667,932.69 
 1,007.906.60 
 2,806,721.05 
 2,609,984.41 
 3,172.870.0s 
 
 2,731,350-38 
 
 2,853,226.37 
 
 361,320.39 
 
 3.364.960.30 
 
 3,896 975-05 
 
 $29,647.03 
 
 6 i, 602.SS 
 
 63.381.22 
 40,178.64 
 33,449-55 
 30.2S5.46 
 
 54.442.78 
 
 50.15s.74 
 
 24.131.22 
 25,985-68 
 
 41.398.79 
 
 37,oio.34 
 31,219.82 
 45 S5S.85 
 5,272.96 
 
 43,9.28.60 
 
 57,723-i7 
 
 $14,883.22 
 ■5,752-7' 
 iS, 144.96 
 16,911 59 
 11,721.16 
 io,533-54 
 ■ 2,587.94 
 13 144.60 
 7,255- '7 
 9,859-99 
 ■7.43'-Ss 
 15.2S1.60 
 12,630.23 
 11,636. IT 
 4.99I.8S 
 
 ■5.439-83 
 
 l6.49S.S7 
 
 $3,649,203.93 
 
 4,714,837-27 
 
 4.433-692.39 
 
 3,464.584.46 
 
 3,266,159,53 
 
 2,065,459.3° 
 
 3 069,486.00 
 2 .73 ',236.03 
 1,039,292.99 
 
 2.842.566.72 
 2,671,815.05 
 3,125.162.02 
 2,775,200.43 
 2,910.721.33 
 
 371,585.23 
 
 3.424.338.73 
 3, 97'. '97-09 
 
 20,961 
 21 4S1 
 
 24,533 
 
 21,955 
 
 ■3,188 
 
 ■',375 
 
 '6,253 
 
 ■7,746 
 
 6,798 
 
 11,996 
 
 ■5.969 
 
 17,860 
 
 ■4,4'4 
 
 13,628 
 
 ',794 
 
 ■9,709 
 
 19,170 
 
 I9,SS6 
 ■9,37° 
 23-368 
 21,031 
 H.337 
 10 8,8 
 ■5.'4S 
 17,192 
 6,701 
 10,652 
 ■5,308 
 16,584 
 12,919 
 12,472 
 ■.595 
 iS, 46S 
 ■7.956 
 
 Total number of pensioners on roll 
 
 ■53-o ’5 
 
 76,683 
 
 2,187 
 
 2,008 
 
 8,898 
 
 26.029 
 
 49,723- '47-52 
 
 67S.6S5 73 
 
 224,705.26 
 
 50.626,538.51 
 
 26S S30 
 
 250, S02 
 
 Increase during the year 
 
 Decrease during the year. .. 
 
 ■9,813 
 
 2.0S9 
 
 ■27 
 
 138 
 
 1,240 
 
 ■ ,279 
 
 $12,676,961.63 
 
 $19,291,485,10 
 
 $S2i.S4 
 
 6,614,001.63 
 
 18,028 
 
 
 Amount paid for pensions during the past2i years .$506,345,044.21. Average annual pension to each pensioner, $107.01. 
 
 During the year 28,740 new names were added to the roll, 1,344 °f* which had formerly been on the roll, but dropped for various causes. During same 
 period the name's of 10,712 pensioners were dropped. The salaries of pension agents under the existing laws are $4,000 per annum , and an extra allowance 
 or perquisite of 15 cents for each pension voucher above 4,000 issued in any year. Out of this, however, pension agents must pay all clerk hire, office rent, \ 
 postage, and contingent expenses of their offices. 
 

 RIGHT OF SUFFRAGE IN STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 7 
 
 or 
 
 State. 
 
 Alabama... 
 Arizona ... 
 Arkansas 
 California _ . 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Dakota 
 
 Delaware . . . 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas 
 
 RESIDENCE IN 
 
 THE STATE. 
 
 RESIDENCE IN 
 
 THE COUNTY. 
 
 0 
 
 » z . 
 or H 
 z fc v 
 
 W ~ Z 
 
 S P £ 
 z 
 
 
 i yr. 
 
 3 mos. 
 
 30 ds. 
 
 
 i yr. 
 
 IO ds. 
 
 
 
 i yr. 
 
 6 mos. 
 
 30 ds. 
 
 
 i vr. 
 
 90 ds. 
 
 30 ds. 
 
 
 6 mos. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i yr. 
 
 
 
 6 mos. 
 
 
 go ( 18 . 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 i yr. 
 
 1 1110. 
 
 — 
 
 
 i yr. 
 
 6 mos. 
 
 
 
 
 i yr. 
 
 6 mos. 
 
 — 
 
 
 4 mos. 
 
 to ds. 
 
 ... 
 
 
 i vr. 
 
 go ds. 
 
 to ds. 
 
 
 6 mos. 
 
 60 ds. 
 
 30 ds. 
 
 
 6 mos. 
 
 60 ds. 
 
 10 ds. 
 
 
 6 mos. 
 
 .... 
 
 30 ds. 
 
 
 State. 
 
 z 
 
 M 
 
 5 < 
 
 Z 5- 
 Z x 
 
 2 s 
 
 x — 
 
 5 H 
 
 z k - 
 a £ 
 z P 
 §8 
 
 RESIDENCE 
 
 IN THE VOTING 
 
 PRECINCT. 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 2 yrs. 
 
 i yr. 
 
 60 ds. 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 1 yr. 
 
 
 10 ds. 
 
 Maryland 
 
 1 yr. 
 
 6 mos. 
 
 6 mos. 
 
 Maine 
 
 3 mos. 
 
 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 1 yr. 
 
 6 mos. 
 
 
 Michigan 
 
 3 mos. 
 
 
 10 ds. 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 4 mos. 
 
 
 10 ds. 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 6 mos. 
 
 1 1110. 
 
 
 
 Missouri 
 
 I yr. 
 
 60 ds. 
 
 
 Nebraska. 
 
 6 mos. 
 
 40 ds. 
 
 10 ds. 
 
 Nevada 
 
 6 mos. 
 
 30 ds. 
 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 mos. 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 » yr- 
 
 5 mos. 
 
 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 6 mos. 
 
 3 mos. 
 
 30 ds. 
 
 
 
 
 
 State. 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Texas 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Utah 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 z 
 
 “ w 
 
 K H 
 
 O < 
 
 Z H 
 
 W x 
 
 2 a 
 x S 
 
 S H 
 
 Z a* 
 
 - r" 1 
 
 Mg 
 z 5 
 
 S 3 
 
 x 2 
 
 RESIDENCE 
 
 IN THE VOTING 
 
 PRECINCT. 
 
 1 yr. 
 
 4 inos. 
 
 30 ds. 
 
 x yr. 
 
 30 ds. 
 
 
 
 1 yr. 
 
 30 ds. 
 
 20 ds. 
 
 6 mos. 
 
 90 ds. 
 
 
 
 x yr. 
 
 
 
 6 mos. 
 
 I yr. 
 
 60 ds. 
 
 
 
 I yr. 
 
 6 mos. 
 
 
 
 i yr. 
 
 6 mos. 
 
 
 
 6 mos. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 yr. 
 
 
 3 mos. 
 
 i yr. 
 
 6 mos. 
 
 
 1 yr. 
 
 30 ds. 
 
 
 
 I yr. 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 90 ds. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Note.— In the abbreviations above, yr. stands for year, mos. for months, ds. for days. Registration is required in all the States except Delaware, Indiana, 
 Kentucky, Michigan, Texas, Tennessee and Vermont. Rhode Island, North Carolina, Delaware, Massachusetts, Connecticut and New Hampshire require a property 
 qualification. In Georgia, delinquent taxpayers are disfranchised. Delinquency for two years disfranchises in Pennsylvania. The payment of a poll-tax is required 
 in Tennessee. Paupers or Indians not taxed are not allowed to vote in Delaware, Massachusetts, Maine, Texas, Virginia, West Virginia or Wisconsin. Women 
 can vote In the Territories of Utah and Wyoming. Chinamen are expressly denied the right of suffrage in California, and do not vote in any State. Women 
 are allowed, by statute law. to vote in school elections in some of the States. Foreigners who have gained a residence, even if they have not been naturalized, can 
 vote at State and local elections in Indiana, Iowa, Michigan and Minnesota. In Congressional and Presidential elections, Federal Supervisors of Elections are author 
 ized by Congress in certain emergencies, and under the general direction of the U. S. Courts, to prevent intimidation at the polls and fraud in counting the I 'allots 
 In Kentucky alone the voting is not by ballot, but rive rore. Where no time of residence is specified in the foregoing table, the Constitution of tho State or Laws of 
 the Territory are silent, or the time for the county and the town are the same. 
 
 NEW TESTAMENT CANON. 
 
 
 Acts. 
 
 Phil. 
 
 1 Thes. 
 
 2 Thes. 
 
 He- 
 
 brews. 
 
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 2 
 
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 2 John. 
 
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 .... 
 
 
 
 
 Westminster Assembly, 1647 
 
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 .. . , 1 , inserted • om omitted ■ d doubtfuL The Council of Trent settled tho Canon for tho Roman Cnjhollc Churrli i tlio Council of 
 
 Constantinople* f or^the^reek 1 Church^ StaiSiS for tho Protestants. They all agree us to what writings constitute tho Now l,*ment. 
 
 THE CHINESE EMPIRE. 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 AREA. 
 
 POPULA- 
 TION • 
 
 POP. PER 
 HQ. MILE. 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 AREA. 
 
 POPULA- 
 
 TION. 
 
 POP. PER 
 HQ. MILK. 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 AREA. 
 
 POP. PER 
 
 HQ. MILK. 
 
 POP! 1 L* 
 TXOSf. 
 
 Chihli 
 
 Shantung 
 
 Shansi 
 
 Honan 
 
 Kiangsu 
 
 Anhwei 
 
 Kiangsi 
 
 58,949 
 
 65,104 
 
 55,268 
 
 65,104 
 
 44.50° 
 
 48,461 
 
 72,176 
 
 27.990,871 
 
 28,958,764 
 
 14,004,210 
 
 23,037.171 
 
 37.843.s01 
 
 34,168,059 
 
 23.046,999 
 
 475 
 
 444 
 
 253 
 
 354 
 
 850 
 
 705 
 
 320 
 
 Chelikiang .. 
 
 Fukien 
 
 Hupeh 
 
 Hunan 
 
 391**0 
 
 53 . 48 o 
 
 70.450 
 
 84,0c© 
 
 67,400 
 
 86,608 
 
 166,800 
 
 26,256,784 
 
 14.777.410 
 
 27,370,098 
 
 18,652,507 
 
 10,207,256 
 
 15,193,125 
 
 *'.435.678 
 
 671 
 
 276 
 
 389 
 
 933 
 
 * 5 » 
 
 *75 
 
 138 
 
 Kwangtung . 
 Kwungsl ... 
 Kweichow . . 
 Yunnan 
 
 Totals.. 
 
 79.456 
 
 78,250 
 
 64.554 
 
 107,969 
 
 * 9 . * 74.030 
 
 7 . 3 * 1. 8 95 
 
 5,288,319 
 
 5,561,330 
 
 341 
 
 ll 
 
 5 ' 
 
 Kansu 
 
 Szechuen 
 
 1,307.836 
 
 360,379.079 
 
 *77 
 
 W^F“ 
 
 'r 
 
 

 Ul 
 
 702 
 
 THE PRESIDENTS AND THEIR CABINETS. 
 
 THE PRESIDENTS AND THEIR CABINETS FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE GOVERNMENT. 
 
 President. 
 
 Geo. Washing-ton.. 
 Geo. Washington.. 
 
 John Adams. 
 
 Thomas Jefferson . 
 Thomas J efferson . 
 
 James Madison. 
 James Madison. 
 
 James Monroe. 
 James Monroe. 
 
 John Q. Adams. 
 
 Andrew Jackson . 
 Andrew Jackson. 
 
 Martin Van Buren. 
 
 Win. H. Harrison. 
 John Tyler 
 
 James Knox Polk. 
 
 Zachary Taylor.. 
 Millard Fillmore. 
 
 Franklin Pierce. 
 
 James Buchanan. 
 
 Abraham Lincoln. 
 
 Abraham Lincoln. 
 Andrew Johnson. . 
 
 Ulysses S. Grant. 
 Ulvsses S. Grant. 
 
 Rutherford B. Hayes. 
 
 James A. Garfield... 
 Chester A. Arthur.. 
 
 Of 
 
 "TpF 
 
 1789 
 
 1793 
 
 n?7 
 
 1S01 
 
 1805 
 
 1809 
 
 1813 
 
 1817 
 
 1821 
 
 1825 
 
 1829 
 
 is.w 
 
 1337 
 
 1841 
 
 1841 
 
 >845 
 
 1849 
 
 1S50 
 
 >853 
 
 ■S57 
 
 1861 
 
 .S6 5 
 
 1865 
 
 1S69 
 
 ■873 
 
 1877 
 
 1SS1 
 
 1SS1 
 
 V ice-President 
 
 John Adams. 
 John Adams. 
 
 Thomas Jefferson. 
 
 Aaron Burr . .. . 
 George Clinton. 
 
 George Clinton. 
 Elbridge Gerry. 
 
 Dan. D. Tompkins. 
 
 John C. Calhoun. 
 
 John C. Calhoun. . . 
 Martin Van Buren. 
 
 Richard M. Johnson. 
 
 John Tyler. 
 
 George M. Dallas.. 
 
 Millard Fillmore. 
 
 William R. King. 
 
 J. C. Breckenridge 
 
 Hannibal Hamlin.. 
 
 Andrew Johnson . 
 
 Schuyler Colfax. . 
 Henry Wilson. . . . 
 
 VVm. A. Wheeler. 
 
 Chester A. Arthur. 
 
 1789 
 
 ■793 
 
 Thomas Jefferson . 
 Edm. Randolph.. 
 Tim. Pickering.. . 
 
 1797 
 
 Tim. Pickering. 
 John Marshall.. 
 
 iSoi 
 
 1S05 
 
 James Madison. 
 
 1809 
 
 1813 
 
 Robert Smith. . . 
 James Monroe. 
 
 1S17 
 
 1825 
 
 1529 
 
 1^33 
 
 1837 
 
 1S41 
 
 1S4S 
 
 1849 
 
 1S53 
 
 1857 
 
 1861 
 
 1S65 
 
 1S69 
 
 >873 
 
 1S77 
 
 issi 
 
 Secretary of State. 
 
 John Q. Adams . 
 
 Henry Clay. 
 
 Martin Van Buren. 
 Ed. Livingston. . . . 
 Louis McLane.... 
 John Forsyth 
 
 lohn Forsvth.. 
 
 Daniel Webster.. 
 Hugh S. Legare.. 
 Abel P. Upshur.. 
 John Nelson . 
 John C. Calhoun. 
 
 James Buchanan. 
 
 John M. Clayton. 
 Daniel Webster. . 
 Edward Everett. . 
 
 William L. Marcy. 
 
 Lewis Cass . 
 
 Jeremiah S. Black. 
 
 Wm. H. Seward . 
 
 E. B. Washburne. 
 Hamilton Fish.... 
 
 Wm. H. Evarts. 
 
 James G. Blaine 
 
 F. T. Frelinghuysen . 
 
 17S9 
 
 ] 79T 
 
 1795 
 
 1797 
 
 1S00 
 
 Oliver Wolcott. 
 S. Dexter 
 
 1S01 
 
 S. Dexter 
 
 Albert Gallatin. 
 
 1S09 
 
 1811 
 
 Albert Gallatin. . 
 G. W. Campbell. 
 Alex.J. Dallas.. 
 
 1817 
 
 1825 
 
 1829 
 1 S3 1 
 
 1S33 
 
 1834 
 
 1837 
 
 1S41 
 
 '843 
 
 1845 
 
 1S44 
 
 1844 
 
 ■845 
 
 1S49 
 
 1850 
 
 1852 
 
 iS<>3 
 
 1S57 
 
 i860 
 
 1S61 
 
 1869 
 
 1S69 
 
 1877 
 
 1SS1 
 
 1SS1 
 
 Secretary of Treasury. 
 
 Alex. Hamilton.. 
 Oliver Wolcott. . 
 
 W. H. Crawford. 
 
 Richard Rush. 
 
 Samuel D. Ingham. 
 Louis McLane. 
 William J. Duane... 
 Roger B. Taney. . . . 
 Levi Woodbury. . . 
 
 Levi Woodbury. 
 
 Thomas Ewing. . . 
 Walter Forward. 
 John C. Spencer. 
 George M. Bibb. . 
 
 Robt. J. Walker. 
 
 W. M. Meredith. 
 Thomas Corwin.. 
 
 James Guthrie. 
 
 Howell Cobb 
 
 Philip F. Thomas. 
 John A. Dix 
 
 Salmon P. Chase.. 
 W. P. Fessenden. 
 Hugh McCulloch. . 
 
 Alex. T. Stewart. . 
 Geo. S. Boutwell... 
 W. A. Richardson. 
 Benj. H. Bristow.. 
 L. M. Morrill 
 
 John Sherman. 
 
 William Windom.. 
 Charles J. Folger 
 
 1789 
 
 ■795 
 
 ■79 7 
 
 1S00 
 
 1S01 
 
 1802 
 
 1S09 
 
 1814 
 
 1814 
 
 1817 
 
 1825 
 
 1829 
 
 *831 
 
 '833 
 
 ■833 
 
 •S.,4 
 
 >837 
 
 1841 
 
 1841 
 
 <843 
 
 1844 
 
 *845 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 ■853 
 
 1S47 
 
 1860 
 
 1861 
 
 1861 
 
 1S64 
 
 1865 
 
 1869 
 
 1S69 
 
 1S74 
 
 1874 
 
 1S76 
 
 1877 
 
 1SS1 
 
 1SS1 
 
 
THE PRESIDENTS AND THEIR CABINETS 
 
 7°3 
 
 THE PRESIDENTS AND THEIR CABINETS FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE GOVERNMENT. Concluded. 
 
 
 
 Secretary of War. 
 
 o 
 
 .5 
 
 c. 
 
 <f 
 
 Secretary of Nava*. 
 
 I Appointed. 
 
 Sec’y of Interior. 
 
 r d 
 
 0 
 
 a 
 
 c 
 
 a 
 
 c. 
 
 < 
 
 Postmaster General. 
 
 | Appointed. 
 
 Attorney General. 
 
 Appointed. 
 
 Henry Knox 
 
 T. Pickering 
 
 J. McHenry 
 
 17S9 
 
 1794 
 
 1790 
 
 '797 
 
 iS^o 
 
 1500 
 
 1501 
 
 Henry Knox 
 
 T. Pickering 
 
 '7S9 
 
 1704 
 
 1796 
 
 179s 
 
 1798 
 
 Interior Department 
 created 1S49. 
 
 
 Samuel CL good 
 
 T. Pickering 
 
 17S9 
 
 1791 
 
 '795 
 
 E. Randolph 
 
 Win. Bradford 
 
 17S9 
 
 *794 
 
 ‘795 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J. McHenry 
 
 
 
 
 Jos. Habersham 
 
 '797 
 
 
 ‘797 
 
 S. Dexter 
 
 
 
 
 
 John Marshall 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rog. Griswold 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1501 
 
 1502 
 1S05 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H. Dearborn 
 
 1S01 
 
 
 
 
 
 1501 
 
 1502 
 
 
 1S01 
 
 1801 
 
 1S05 
 
 180s 
 
 1807 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1S09 
 
 .S.3 
 
 1S14 
 
 •Sis 
 
 •f *7 
 1817 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lS09 
 
 1813 
 
 1814 
 
 
 
 
 1809 
 
 1S14 
 
 
 1S09 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1S14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1S17 
 
 1S23 
 
 
 
 
 B.W. Crowinshield. . . 
 
 , S17 
 1S1S 
 '823 
 1S23 
 
 
 
 lt.J. Meies 
 
 
 1S1 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1825 
 
 1S2S 
 
 
 1S25 
 
 
 
 
 1S2S 
 
 William Wirt 
 
 1S25 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lS29 
 
 183I 
 
 
 1829 
 1S3 I 
 1S34 
 
 
 
 
 1S20 
 
 'S35 
 
 J. M. Berrien 
 
 lS29 
 
 183I 
 
 '834 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ft. B. Taney 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B. F. Butler 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J. R. Poinsett 
 
 1S37 
 
 M. Dickerson 
 
 ). K. Paulding 
 
 >837 
 
 iS,S 
 
 
 
 Amos Kendall 
 
 John M. Niles 
 
 ■837 
 
 1S40 
 
 B. F. Butler 
 
 Felix Grundy 
 
 11. D. Gil pi 
 
 '8.(8 
 
 1840 
 
 
 1S4 I 
 1S4 I 
 
 'S43 
 
 1844 
 
 
 1.841 
 
 1841 
 
 '843 
 
 IS44 
 
 IS44 
 
 1841 
 
 1S46 
 
 
 
 Francis Gr nger 
 
 1S4 1 
 184 1 
 
 J.J. Crittenden 
 
 1841 
 
 1.N41 
 
 1S44 
 
 
 
 
 
 C. A. Wickliffe 
 
 1 1. 8. I.egare 
 
 John Nelson 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 John Y. Mason 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■845 
 
 
 
 
 Cave Johnson 
 
 ■845 
 
 I. Y. Mason 
 
 '845 
 
 1846 
 
 1S4S 
 
 '849 
 
 1S50 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Isaac Toucey . 
 
 G. \V. Crawford 
 
 Winfield Scott.. . 
 
 1849 
 
 iS^O 
 
 IS5O 
 
 Wm. B. Preston 
 
 Win. A. Graham 
 
 1549 
 
 1550 
 1S52 
 
 Thomas Ewing 
 
 A. If. If. Stuart 
 
 1849 
 
 1850 
 
 Jacob Collamer 
 
 Nathan K. Hall 
 
 1849 
 
 1S50 
 
 1852 
 
 R. Johnson 
 
 J.J. Crittenden 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1»53 
 
 1S57 
 
 1SO0 
 
 1 861 
 IS64 
 
 Jefferson Davis 
 
 '853 
 
 James C. Dobbin 
 
 '853 
 
 It. McClelland 
 
 >853 
 
 James Campbell 
 
 ■85 1 
 
 Caleb Cushing 
 
 John B. Floyd 
 
 ■857 
 
 i860 
 
 Isaac Toucey 
 
 '857 
 
 J. Thompson 
 
 1S57 
 
 Aaron V. Brown 
 
 Joseph Holt 
 
 Iloratio King.. 
 
 '857 
 
 ' s 59 
 1861 
 
 l86l 
 
 I 864 
 
 J.S. Black 
 
 U. Mi Stonto id* . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S. Cameron 
 
 1861 
 
 1S61 
 
 Gideon Welles 
 
 l86l 
 
 Caleb B. Smith 
 
 1861 
 
 1863 
 
 1865 
 
 Montg. Blair 
 
 Wm. Dennison ... 
 
 Edw. Bates 
 
 James Speed 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ulysses S. Grant 
 
 1867 
 
 1868 
 186S 
 
 
 
 (). If. Browning 
 
 i80<) 
 
 A. W. Randall 
 
 1S66 
 
 H. F. Stanberrv 
 
 O. 11. Browning 
 
 !*/> 
 
 iS/»8 
 
 1 St 8 
 
 J. M. Schofield 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J. M. Schofield 
 
 J. A. Rawlins 
 
 W. W. Belknap 
 
 Jas. D. Cameron 
 
 l*X> 
 
 1869 
 
 1S69 
 
 I876 
 
 ■877 
 
 Adolph E. Boric 
 
 G. W. Robeson 
 
 1869 
 
 1S69 
 
 j. n. Cox 
 
 C. Delano....- 
 
 Zacli. Chandler • 
 
 1869 
 
 '57" 
 
 1875 
 
 J. A. J. Cress well 
 
 Jas. W. Ma shall 
 
 Marshall Jewell 
 
 Jas. N. Tyner 
 
 1869 
 
 '874 
 
 ,s 7t 
 
 1871 
 
 E. R. Hoar 
 
 A. T. Ackerman 
 
 E. S. Pierrepont 
 
 G. H. w lUlara .. 
 
 A. Tuft 
 
 18/9 
 
 1S70 
 
 ' s 75 
 
 1576 
 |S,6 
 
 1577 
 
 G. W. McCrary 
 
 R. W. Thompson 
 
 Nathan Goff, Jr 
 
 & 
 
 1881 
 
 Carl Schurz 
 
 •877 
 
 D. M. Keys.. . 
 
 .877 
 
 IT. Devcns 
 
 Hobt.T. Lincoln 
 
 iS8i 
 
 Wm. 11. Hunt 
 
 Sam'l J. Kirkwood 
 
 18S1 
 
 Thomas L. James 
 
 Timothy O. Howe 
 
 1SS1 Wavnc Vnc Veagh 
 
 1 11. 1 ■ ■ Ur.. 
 
 |S8l 
 
 |H8l 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • Before the accession of Andrew Jackson to the Pit sidi n< y the Postmai ter f« n. . al was looked upotraa the lu ad ol a lj*reau. | ," 1, “j 
 Jackson invited Mr. Barry to a seat in his cabinet meetings, since which tune the Postmaster General has been considered a rc K ular member ol 
 the Cabinet. 
 
704 
 
 DISTANCES AND STANDARDS OF TIME OF THE PRINCIPAL CITIES OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Air-Line Distances from Washington to various parts of the World. 
 
 MILES. 
 
 Alexandria, Egypt 5- 2 75 
 
 Amsterdam, Holland 3-555 
 
 Athens, Greece — - 5- 0o 5 
 
 Auckland, N. Z 8,290 
 
 Algiers, Algeria 3,425 
 
 Berlin, Prussia 3,847 
 
 Berne, Switzerland 3-73° 
 
 Brussels, Belgium 3,515 
 
 Batavia, Java — 11,118 
 
 Bombay, Hindostan 8,548 
 
 Buenos Ayres, A. C 5,013 
 
 Bremen, Prussia 3, 500 
 
 Constantinople, Turkey.. 4,880 
 
 Copenhagen, Denmark 3,895 
 
 Calcutta, Hindostan 9,348 
 
 Canton, China 9,000 
 
 Cairo, Egypt 5,848 
 
 Cape Town, Cape Colony 6,684 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 7,380 
 
 Carracas, Venezuela 1,805 
 
 Charlotte Town, P. E. 1 820 
 
 Dublin, Ireland 
 
 — 3,076 
 
 Delhi. Hindostan 
 
 ..... 8,368 
 
 Edinburgh, Scotland 
 
 3- 2 75 
 
 Fredericton, N. B 
 
 
 Gibraltar, Spain 
 
 3,150 
 
 Glasgow, Scotland 
 
 3-2*5 
 
 Halifax, N. S. 
 
 
 Hamburg, Germany 
 
 3-575 
 
 Havana, Cuba 
 
 1,139 
 
 Honolulu, S. I 
 
 4,513 
 
 Jerusalem, Palestine 
 
 5-495 
 
 Jamestown, St. Helena 
 
 7- *5° 
 
 Lima, Peru .. 
 
 3-5 '5 
 
 Lisbon, Portugal 
 
 3-*9° 
 
 Liverpool, England 
 
 3- 228 
 
 London, “ 
 
 3-3*5 
 
 City of Mexico, Mexico... 
 
 — i, 85 7 
 
 Montevideo, Uraguay 
 
 5,0c 3 
 
 Montreal, Canada 
 
 47* 
 
 Madrid, Spain 
 
 — 3,485 
 
 Moscow, Russia 
 
 
 miles. 
 
 Manilla, Phil. Islands 9,360 
 
 Mecca, Arabia 6,598 
 
 Muscat, “ ... 7,600 
 
 Monrovia, Liberia 3,645 
 
 Morocco, Morocco 3,305 
 
 Mourzouk, Fezzan ... 5,525 
 
 Mozambique, Moz 7-348 
 
 Ottawa, Canada 462 
 
 Panama, New Granada 1,825 
 
 Parana, A. C _ 4,733 
 
 Port au Prince, Hayti 1.425 
 
 Paris, France 3-485 
 
 Pekin, China 8,783 
 
 Quebec, Canada 60 1 
 
 Quito, Ecuador .... 2,531 
 
 Rio Janeiro, Brazil 4,280 
 
 Rome, Italy 4,365 
 
 St. Petersburg, Russia 4,296 
 
 Stockholm, Sweden 4 055 
 
 Shanghai, China 8,600 
 
 Singapore, Malay 11,300 
 
 MILES. 
 
 St. John’s, N. F 1,340 
 
 San Domingo, S. D 4,300 
 
 San Juan, Nicaraugua 1,740 
 
 San Salvador, C. A 1,650 
 
 Santiago, Chili 4,970 
 
 Spanish Town, Jamaica 1.446 
 
 Sydney, C. B I.- 975 
 
 Sydney, Australia 8,963 
 
 St. Paul de Loanda 5.578 
 
 Timbuctoo, Soudan ... 3.395 
 
 Tripoli. Tripoli 4,425 
 
 Tunis, Tunis 4,240 
 
 Toronto, Canada 343 
 
 Venice, Italy 3,835 
 
 Vienna, Austria 4,1 15 
 
 Valparaiso, Chili 4,934 
 
 Vera Cruz, Mexico 1,680 
 
 Warsaw, Poland 4,010 
 
 Yeddo, Japan 7.630 
 
 Zanzibar, Zanzibar 7,078 
 
 Distances by Water from New York to various parts of the World. 
 
 MILES. 
 
 Alexandria, Egypt 5,075 
 
 Aspinwall 2 -338 
 
 Amsterdam, Holland 3,510 
 
 Azores 2,240 
 
 Bilize, Balize 1.790 
 
 Batavia., Java 13,066 
 
 Belfast, Ireland - 2,895 
 
 Bermudas, West Indies 660 
 
 Bombay, India n.574 
 
 Bordeaux, France .... 3-3 IC> 
 
 Botany Bay, Australia 13,294 
 
 Bremen - 3-575 
 
 Bristol — 3010 
 
 Brussels, Belgium 3,420 
 
 Buenos Ayres, S. A 6,120 
 
 Callao 3,5°° 
 
 Cape of Good Hope, Africa.. 6,838 
 Cape Horn, S. A. 7,000 
 
 MILES. 
 
 Chagres. New Granada 2.328 
 
 Cherbourg 3,125 
 
 Columbia River *5-965 
 
 Constantinople. Turkey 5,140 
 
 Copenhagen, Denmark 3,640 
 
 Calcutta, India 12,500 
 
 Canton, China 14,090 
 
 Galway ......... 3,000 
 
 Gibraltar, Spain 3.300 
 
 Glasgow, Scotland 2,926 
 
 Guayaquil, Equador .... 2,800 
 
 Halifax, Nova Scotia 555 
 
 Havre, France 3,325 
 
 Hamburg Germany 3-775 
 
 Havana, Cuba 1,280 
 
 Hong Kong ... 6,488 
 
 Kingston, Jamaica 1,635 
 
 Lima, Peru 11,310 
 
 MILES. 
 
 Lisbon, Portugal 3,175 
 
 London, England 3 375 
 
 Liverpool, “ 3.' 84 
 
 Madras, British India n 850 
 
 Malta 4,325 
 
 Manilla, PhilipPe Islands ...10,750 
 
 Melbourne, A stralia 11.165 
 
 Monrovia, Liberia...... 3 850 
 
 Mozambique, Moz 6,900 
 
 Nagasaki 9,800 
 
 Naples, Italy 4-33° 
 
 Panama, New Granada 2,066 
 
 Pekin, China 15-325 
 
 Pernambuco, Brazil 4,780 
 
 Quebec, Canada 1.400 
 
 Rio Janeiro, Brazil 5,920 
 
 St. John, New Foundland 800 
 
 St. Petersburg, Russia 4,420 
 
 MILES. 
 
 San Diego 4,500 
 
 Sandwich Islands, S. I 7,15 7 
 
 San Francisco, Cal 18,850 
 
 San Juan, Nicaraugua 2,270 
 
 Shanghai, China ; 14,500 
 
 Smyrna, Asia Minor 5,000 
 
 Southampton 3,156 
 
 Stockholm, Sweden 4 050 
 
 Tahiti, S. I 7,865 
 
 Trieste, Austria 5.130 
 
 Valparaiso, Chili 4.800 
 
 Vera Cruz, Mexico 2.200 
 
 Victoria, Australia 12,825 
 
 Vienna, Austria 4,100 
 
 Yokohama, Japan.... 7-520 
 
 Distances from London, England, to various parts of the World. 
 
 MILES. 
 
 Amsterdam, Holland 290 
 
 Baltimore, Md - 3,700 
 
 Barbadoes, W. I 3.780 
 
 Batavia, Java — 11,812 
 
 Bermudas, W. 1.... 5, 195 
 
 Bordeaux, France 758 
 
 Boston, M ass 3,125 
 
 Botany Bay, Australia 8,040 
 
 Bombay, India 11,320 
 
 Buenos Ayres, S. A 6,685 
 
 Calcutta, India 12,160 
 
 Canton, China 1^,650 
 
 Cape Horn, S. A /, 50 
 
 Cape of Good Hope, Africa.. 6,580 
 
 MILES. 
 
 Chagres, New Granada 4,650 
 
 Charleston, S. C 4,3*5 
 
 Columbia River 16,130 
 
 Constantinople, Turkey 3.260 
 
 Copenhagen, Denmark 710 
 
 Dublin, Ireland ...... 590 
 
 Gibraltar, Spain 1,380 
 
 Halifax, N. S 2,750 
 
 Hamburg, Germany ... 420 
 
 Havana, Cuba.. 4,610 
 
 Havre, France ..... 275 
 
 Kingston, Jamaica ..... 4,560 
 
 Lima, Peru 10,730 
 
 Lisbon, Portugal 1,100 
 
 MILES. 
 
 Liverpool, England 650 
 
 Madras, British India 11,580 
 
 Malta 4,212 
 
 Manilla, Philipine Islands 12,425 
 
 Monrovia, Africa 3-475 
 
 Naples, Italy 2,420 
 
 New Orleans, La 5,115 
 
 New York, N. Y 3-375 
 
 Panama, New Granada 4,700 
 
 Pekin, China 15,100 
 
 Pernambuco, Brazil 4-450 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa .... 3,-40 
 
 Quebec. Canada 3-010 
 
 Rio Janeiro, Brazil 5,400 
 
 MILES. 
 
 Sandwich Islands, S. 1 15,100 
 
 San Francisco, Cal 8,200 
 
 St. Petersburg, Russia *-375 
 
 Singapore, China *2,475 
 
 Smyrna, Asia Minor 3, 120 
 
 Stockholm, Sweden 1,120 
 
 Tahiti, S. I 11,800 
 
 Trieste, Austria 3,220 
 
 Valparaiso, Chili.... 9-475 
 
 Vera Cruz, Mexico 5-140 
 
 Victoria, Austialia *2,575 
 
 Washington, D. C. 3-775 
 
 Standards of Time in the Principal Cities of the World, compared with 12:00 noon at Washington, D. C. 
 
 Albany, N. Y., 12 13 p. m 
 Amsterdam, Holl’d, 528 p. m 
 Angra, India, 3 19 p. m 
 Atchison, Kan., 1047 a - m 
 Athens, Greece, 6 43 p. m 
 Atlanta, Ga., zi 40 a. m 
 Augusta, Ga., 11 40 a. m 
 Augusta, Me., 12 29 p. m 
 Baltimore, Md., 1202 p. m 
 Bangor, M e. , 12 33 p. m 
 Bath, Me., 1229 P- m 
 Berlin, Germany, 6 02 p. m 
 Bombay, India, 1000 p. m 
 Boston, Mass., 12 24 p. m 
 Brussels, Belgium, 5 25 p. m 
 Buffalo, N. Y. , 11 52 a. m 
 Cape Town, Africa, 6 22 p. m 
 Cairo, Egypt. 7 13 p. m. 
 Calcutta, t ndia, 1 1 01 p. m 
 Cant'n, China, 12 41 a. m 
 Cambridge, Mass., 12 29 p. m 
 Charleston, S. C., 11 43 a. m 
 Charlottet’n.P.E.I. 12 58p.n1 
 Chicago, 111., 11 17 a. m 
 
 Cincinnati., O., 11 30 a. m 
 Cleveland. O., 11 41 a. m 
 Constantinople, 7 04 p. m 
 Columbia, S. C., 11 44 a. m 
 Columbus, O., 11 36 a. m. 
 Danville, Va., 11 50 a. m 
 Denver, Col., 1008 a. m 
 Des Moines, la., 10 53 a. m 
 Detroit, Mich., 1 x 36 a. m. 
 Dubuque, la., 11 05 a. m 
 Dublin, Ireland, 4 43 p. m 
 Edinburg, Scotland, 4 55 p. m 
 Frankfort, Ky.,ix 29 a. m 
 Galveston, Tex., 10 49 a. m 
 Halifax, N. S., 12 54 p. m. 
 Hamilton, Ont., 11 49 a. m 
 Hannibal, Mo., 11 07 a. m. 
 Hartford, Ct., 12 17 p. m 
 Houston, Tex., 10 44 a. m. 
 
 1 ndianapolis., Ind. , 11 24 a. m 
 Jacksonville, 111., 11 07 a. m 
 Jefferson City, Mo., 10 59 a m 
 Kalnma. Wash. T., 8 58 a m 
 Kansas City, Mo., 10 49 a. m 
 
 Key West, Fla., 11 41 a. m 
 Knoxville, Tenn., 11 32 a. m 
 Laramie, Wy. T., 10 12 a. m 
 Leavenworth, Kan., 1049 a. m 
 Lisbon, Portugal, 4 31 p. m 
 Lincoln, Neb., 10 41 a. m 
 Little Rock, Atk., 10 59 a. m 
 London, England, 5 07 p. m 
 Louisville. Ky. 11 26 a. m 
 Macon, Ga , 11 37 a. m 
 Melbourne, Aus., 2 48 a. m 
 Memphis, Tenn., 11 08 a. m 
 Meridian, Miss., 11 14 a. m 
 Milwaukee, Wis., n 16 a. m 
 Minneapolis, Minn., 1055 a m 
 Mobile, Ala., 11 16 a. m 
 Montgomery, Ala., 11 23 a m 
 Monoton, N. B., 12 48 p. m 
 Montreal, Que., 12 14 p. m 
 Moscow Russia, 7 38 p. m 
 Nashville, Tenn., 11 21 a. m 
 New Havtn, Ct., 12 16 p. m 
 New London, Ct., 12 20 p. m 
 New Orleans, La., 11 08 a. m 
 
 New York, N. Y., 12 12 p. m 
 Omaha, Neb., 10 44 a. m 
 Ottawa, Ont., 12 05 p. m 
 Paris, France, 5 17 p. m 
 Paducah, Ky., 11 16 a. m 
 Pensacola, Fla., 11 19 a. m 
 Philadelphia, Pa., 1207 P- m 
 Pittsburgh, Pa , 11 48 a. m 
 Port Hope, Ont., 11 54 a. m 
 Port Huron. Mich.. 11 34 a.m 
 Portland, Me., 1227 p. m 
 Portland, Or# gon, 8 56 a. m 
 Portsmouth, Va., 12 03 p. m 
 Providence, R. I., 12 22 p. m 
 Quebec, Que., 12 23 p. m 
 Quincy, 111., 11 07 a m 
 Raleigh, N C., 11 50 a. m. 
 Richmond, Va , 1 1 58 a. m 
 Rio Janeiro, Brazil, 2 15 p. m 
 Rome, Italy, 5 58 p. m 
 Rome. Ga., 11 32 a. m 
 St. John, N. B., 12 44 p. m 
 St. John, N. F., 1 37 ). m. 
 
 St. Joseph, Mo., 10 50 a. m 
 
 St. Louis, Mo., 11 07 a. m 
 St. p aul, Minn., 10 56 a. m 
 Salt L. City, U. T. 9 40 a. m 
 Santa Fe, N. Mex., 1004 a.m 
 San Francisco, Cal., 8 58 a. m 
 Sault St. Marie, M.,11 31 a.m 
 Savannah, Ga., 11 44 a. m 
 Selma, Ala., 11 20 a. m 
 Shreveport, La , 10 57 a. m 
 Sioux City. , la., 10 42 a. m 
 Terre Haute, Ind., 11 18 a. m 
 Topeka, Kan., 10 45 a. m 
 Toronto, Ont., 11 51 a. m. 
 Trenton, N. J., 12 09 p. m 
 Vicksburg, Miss., 11 05 a. m 
 Vienna, Austria, 6 14 p. m 
 Vincennes, Ind .11 17 a. m 
 Virginia City, M. T.,940 a.m 
 Wilmington, Del., 12 06 p. m 
 Wilmington, N. C., 11 58 a.m 
 Winona, Minn., 1101 a. m 
 1 Wheeling, W. Va., 11 45 a. m 
 Yankton, D. T., 10 38 a. m 
 
•V s 
 
 705 
 
 HISTORY OF THE SEVERAL STATES AND TERRITORIES. 
 
 Showing Population of 1370 and 1880: When Admitted to the Union, Public Debt, Area, Where and By Whom First Settled, 
 National Electoral Vote, Salaries, Term of Office of Governor and Members of Legislature, Number of Senators 
 and Representatives comprising the Legislature, Miles of R. R. in operation January I, 1880. 
 
 ' 0 .2 
 £ <= 
 
 IP 
 
 States and 
 Territories. 
 
 1820 
 *1788 
 
 1791 
 *1788 
 * 1 79 "> 
 *1788 
 *1788 
 *1787 
 *1787 
 *1787 
 *1738 
 *1783 
 *1789 
 *1788 
 *1788 
 
 1845 
 
 I8X9 
 
 1 8 1 7 
 18*2 
 
 1845 
 
 1836 
 1796 
 
 1792 
 
 1863 
 1803 
 
 1837 
 1816 
 
 1818 
 1848 
 
 1858 
 
 1846 
 
 1821 
 1861 
 
 1867 
 1876 
 
 1864 
 1850 
 
 1859 
 Organ- 
 ized. 
 
 1863 
 1861 
 1853 
 
 1864 
 1850 
 1850 
 '853 
 
 1868 
 1799-91 
 
 1834 
 1 368 
 
 Maine . 
 
 N. Hampshire 
 
 Vermont 
 
 M a^sachusetts 
 Rhode Island 
 Connecticut .. 
 
 New York 
 
 New Jersey.. 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Virginia 
 
 N. Carolina.. 
 S. Carolina... 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Florida 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Mississippi ... 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Texas 
 
 Arkansas - 
 
 Tennessee — 
 Kentucky . . . 
 West Virginia 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Indi tna 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Iowa.... 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Kansas .. — . 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Nevada 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Arizona 
 
 Dakota 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Montana . — 
 New Mexico 
 Utah 
 
 Dis. Col.** 
 Indian Ter 1 
 Alaska * * 
 
 Capitals. 
 
 | Electoral Vote. 
 
 Augusta 
 
 6 
 
 Concord 
 
 4 
 
 Montpelier 
 
 4 
 
 Boston 
 
 *4 
 
 Prov. & N’port 
 
 4 
 
 Hartford 
 
 6 
 
 Albany 
 
 36 
 
 1 renton 
 
 9 
 
 Harrisburg 
 
 30 
 
 Dover 
 
 3 
 
 Annapolis 
 
 8 
 
 Richmond 
 
 12 
 
 Raleigh 
 
 11 
 
 Columbia 
 
 9 
 
 Atlanta 
 
 12 
 
 Tallahassee 
 
 4 
 
 Montgomery — 
 
 10 
 
 Jackson 
 
 9 
 
 New Orleans. . . 
 
 b 
 
 Austin 
 
 *3 
 
 Little Rock 
 
 7 
 
 Nashville 
 
 12 
 
 Frankfort 
 
 '3 
 
 Wheeling 
 
 (, 
 
 Columbus - . 
 
 23 
 
 Lansing 
 
 >3 
 
 Indianapolis 
 
 '5 
 
 Springfield 
 
 22 
 
 Madison 
 
 I I 
 
 St. Paul 
 
 7 
 
 Des Moines 
 
 >3 
 
 J efferson City . . 
 
 16 
 
 
 9 
 
 Lincoln - 
 
 5 
 
 
 3 
 
 Carson City 
 
 3 
 
 Sacramento 
 
 s 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Santa Fe 
 
 
 . Salt Lake City 
 
 
 . Olympia 
 
 
 . Cheyenne 
 
 
 * Tahlaquah.. . . 
 
 .. 
 
 Sitka 
 
 
 33,040 
 
 9,305 
 
 9,56? 
 8,3 ■ 5 
 1,250 
 
 4.990 
 49 , > 7 ° 
 
 7,815 
 
 45, 215 
 2,050 
 12,210 
 42.450 
 
 52.250 
 .30,570 
 
 59.475 
 
 5 5.050 
 
 52.250 
 46,810 
 48,720 
 
 265,780 
 
 53,850 
 
 42.050 
 40,400 
 24,780 
 41,060 
 5 S >9'5 
 
 3 6 . 35 o 
 
 56,650 
 
 f 6 , 0^0 
 
 3,365 
 
 C 6 . 02 C 
 
 69,415 
 
 82,080 
 
 76.85s 
 
 >03,925 
 
 1 10,700 
 158,360 
 96,030 
 
 1 1 3,020 
 149,100 
 84,800 
 1 46,080 
 122,580 
 
 84,970 
 
 69,180 
 
 97,890 
 
 70 
 
 64,690 
 
 577,390 
 
 648,936 
 
 346,991 
 
 332,286 
 
 >,783,085 
 
 202,538 
 622,700 
 5,082,871 ’ 
 1,131,116 
 4,282,891 
 1446,608 
 934.933 
 i, 5 > 2 , 5 6 5 
 >, 399.780 
 995.577 
 1,542,180 
 
 269,493 
 1 ,262,505 
 •,> 3>.597 
 
 939,940 
 
 1 , 591,749 
 
 802,525 
 
 1.542,349 
 
 1,648,690 
 
 618,417 
 
 3,198,062 
 
 ',636,937 
 
 1, 97 s , 301 
 
 3.077.S71 
 
 >, 3 ' 5-497 
 7 * 0,773 
 1,624 «*5 
 2, 166,380 
 996,096 
 452,402 
 *94,327 
 62,266 
 864,692 
 174,76s 
 
 626.915 
 318,300 
 
 330355* 
 
 1, 457>35* 
 ?*7,353 
 537.434 
 4,382,759 
 906,096 
 3,52*.95* 
 126,015 
 780,894 
 1,225,163 
 1,071,361 
 653 410 
 1,184,109 
 187,748 
 906.992 
 827.922 
 
 726.915 
 808 579 
 481,471 
 
 1,258,520 
 
 1,321,011 
 
 442.014 
 2,665,260 
 -. 84.059 
 1,680.637 
 2.536.891 
 1,054.670 
 
 433.706 
 ,194,020 
 1,721 265 
 
 364.399 
 
 122.015 
 39,864 
 
 42.49' 
 
 560,247 
 
 99-923 
 
 40,440 
 
 135.177 
 
 32,610 
 
 39,159 
 
 119,565 
 
 143.963 
 
 75.116 
 
 20,789 
 
 177,624 
 
 9.626 
 14,181 
 14 99° 
 20.595 
 9°,565 
 
 86 786 
 
 22.626 
 9 752 
 131.700 
 8,785 
 661 
 
 Public Debt. 
 
 First Settled at 
 
 £ 
 
 0 
 
 x 
 
 > 
 
 pa 
 
 c 
 
 0 
 
 X 
 
 State Government. 
 
 Limit of Session 
 
 in days. 
 
 Miles of R. R. in 
 
 operation, 1880. | 
 
 Jovernor | 
 
 Legislatu 
 
 re. 
 
 Salary. 
 
 Term, yrs; 
 
 c 
 
 V 
 
 r. 
 
 6 
 
 £ 
 
 ►1 
 
 - 
 
 3 
 
 < 
 
 6 
 
 £ 
 
 | Term, yrs 
 
 $1,848,000 
 
 Bristol 
 
 French. 
 
 1625 
 
 $* ,500 
 
 2 
 
 3* 
 
 1 
 
 *5* 
 
 1 
 
 nonet 
 
 1 .009 
 
 3-5734550 
 
 Little Harbor .. 
 
 English 
 
 1623 
 
 1. 000 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 2 
 
 280 
 
 2 
 
 none^ 
 
 1,019 
 
 59, "6 1 
 
 Fort Dummer. . 
 
 English 
 
 1764 
 
 1,000 
 
 2 
 
 3° 
 
 2 
 
 232 
 
 2 
 
 none} 
 
 873 
 
 ^^4020,464 
 
 Plymouth 
 
 English 
 
 1620 
 
 5,000 
 
 1 
 
 4 f 
 
 1 
 
 240 
 
 z 
 
 nonet 
 
 1,870 
 
 2.534,500 2 
 
 Providence 
 
 English 
 
 1636 
 
 4,oco 
 
 1 
 
 3 : 
 
 1 
 
 72 
 
 1 
 
 nonet 
 
 210 
 
 4,967,600 
 
 Windsor 
 
 English 
 
 1635 
 
 2, coo 
 
 2 
 
 21 
 
 2 
 
 245 
 
 1 
 
 nonet 
 
 922 
 
 9,111.0^4 3 
 
 New York 
 
 Dutch . 
 
 1614 
 
 io,cco 
 
 3 
 
 32 
 
 2 
 
 128 
 
 1 
 
 ncnct 
 
 6 008 
 
 2.096,000 4 
 
 Bergen 
 
 Dutch . 
 
 1620 
 
 5. coo 
 
 3 
 
 2 1 
 
 3 
 
 6c 
 
 1 
 
 nenet 
 
 1 ,663 
 
 22,190,088 
 
 Philadelphia . .. 
 
 English 
 
 1682 
 
 10, coo 
 
 3 
 
 eo 
 
 4 
 
 201 
 
 2 
 
 ncnel 
 
 6068 
 
 974,000 « 
 
 Cape Henlopen. 
 
 Swedes. 
 
 1027 
 
 2,0CC 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 21 
 
 2 
 
 ronet 
 
 280 
 
 6,037,088 
 
 St. Mary 
 
 English 
 
 1634 
 
 4»5 co 
 
 4 
 
 26 
 
 4 
 
 85 
 
 2 
 
 90* 
 
 §966 
 
 See Note 6 
 
 Jamestown 
 
 English 
 
 1^07 
 
 5«occ 
 
 4 
 
 40 
 
 4 
 
 99 
 
 2 
 
 90 f 
 
 1,672 
 
 26,850.227 7 
 
 Chowan River . 
 
 English 
 
 1650 
 
 3, coo 
 
 4 
 
 CO 
 
 2 
 
 120 
 
 2 
 
 60 j 
 
 1.446 
 
 6.146,595 
 
 Ashley River 
 
 English 
 
 1670 
 
 4’5 C ° 
 
 2 
 
 34 
 
 4 
 
 124 
 
 2 
 
 nonet 
 
 *.425 
 
 10,844,500 
 
 Savannah 
 
 English 
 
 >733 
 
 4,000 
 
 2 
 
 44 
 
 4 
 
 >75 
 
 2 
 
 4 t 
 
 2,460 
 
 1,150,000 8 
 
 St. Augustine.. 
 
 Span’ds 
 
 >565 
 
 3’5 CC 
 
 4 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 2 
 
 Cot 
 
 I' 9 
 
 8,596,000 
 
 Mobile 
 
 French. 
 
 1711 
 
 2,0c c 
 
 2 
 
 33 
 
 4 
 
 ICO 
 
 2 
 
 50 1 
 
 x 832 
 
 752i*5o 
 
 Natchez 
 
 French 
 
 1716 
 
 4,0c 0 
 
 4 
 
 37 
 
 4 
 
 120 
 
 2 
 
 nonet 
 
 1,140 
 
 12,136,166 
 
 Iberville 
 
 French. 
 
 1699 
 
 4,ccc 
 
 4 
 
 36 
 
 4 
 
 99 
 
 4 
 
 90 1 
 
 544 
 
 3.581 663 
 
 San Antonio — 
 
 Span ’ds 
 
 1692 
 
 4 »ccc 
 
 2 
 
 3> 
 
 4 
 
 93 
 
 2 
 
 t>o$ 
 
 2-59* 
 
 4,73 6 ,5°° 
 
 Arkansas Post.. 
 
 Fn nch . 
 
 R85 
 
 3-500 
 
 2 
 
 31 
 
 4 
 
 93 
 
 2 
 
 60 f 
 
 8c 8 
 
 20,057,150 
 
 Fort London . . 
 
 English 
 
 *757 
 
 4,coc 
 
 2 
 
 2: 
 
 2 
 
 75 
 
 2 
 
 75 1 
 
 1,70* 
 
 I,85O.C08 
 
 Boonesboro 
 
 Fnrlish 
 
 *775 
 
 5, coo 
 
 4 
 
 3S 
 
 4 
 
 ICO 
 
 2 
 
 60 x 
 
 *i595 
 
 See Note 0 
 
 Wheeling 
 
 English 
 
 *774 
 
 2,70c 
 
 4 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 65 
 
 2 
 
 45* 
 
 694 
 
 6.477.840 
 
 Marietta 
 
 Engli.h 
 
 1 7 fc8 
 
 4.00c 
 
 2 
 
 3 6 
 
 2 
 
 120 
 
 2 
 
 nonet 
 
 5'5 2 * 
 
 890.0001 0 
 
 Detroit 
 
 French 
 
 1650 
 
 1 ,occ 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 ICO 
 
 2 
 
 no ej 
 
 3.673 
 
 1.093,3951 1 
 
 Vincennes 
 
 French 
 
 1730 
 
 6.000 
 
 4 
 
 
 4 
 
 100 
 
 2 
 
 (0% 
 
 4 336 
 
 282,700 1*.' 
 
 Kaskaskia 
 
 French 
 
 1682 
 
 6.00c 
 
 4 
 
 5* 
 
 4 
 
 ■53 
 
 2 
 
 nonet 
 
 7 .‘78 
 
 2,252,057 
 
 Green Bay 
 
 French 
 
 i66f 
 
 5>occ 
 
 2 
 
 3? 
 
 2 
 
 ICO 
 
 X 
 
 ncnct 
 
 2 8q6 
 
 430, cool!! 
 
 Red River 
 
 Amer . 
 
 8:2 
 
 3,00c 
 
 2 
 
 4* 
 
 2 
 
 106 
 
 1 
 
 60$ 
 
 3,008 
 
 545.435 
 
 Burlington 
 
 English 
 
 1830 
 
 3-ccc 
 
 2 
 
 50 
 
 4 
 
 T07 
 
 2 
 
 nonej 
 
 4i779 
 
 i7,co8,ocol4 
 
 St. Genevieve. . . 
 
 Frer-ch. 
 
 1764 
 
 5 ecc 
 
 4 
 
 34 
 
 4 
 
 IC 3 
 
 2 
 
 70 1 
 
 3-740 
 
 1,181,97510 
 
 
 Amcr . . 
 
 
 
 2 ,00c 
 
 2 
 
 40 
 
 4 
 
 129 
 
 2 
 
 5°t 
 
 3 >°3 
 
 499,267 
 
 
 Amer - . 
 
 
 
 2,500 
 
 2 
 
 3 f 
 
 2 
 
 84 
 
 2 
 
 4°t 
 
 1.634 
 
 125,000 
 
 
 Amer .. 
 
 
 
 3,000 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 4 
 
 49 
 
 2 
 
 4°i 
 
 
 436,400 
 
 Genoa 
 
 Amer . 
 
 1851 
 
 6,oco 
 
 4 
 
 25 
 
 4 
 
 5° 
 
 2 
 
 604 
 
 720 
 
 3,2oo,rool0 
 
 San Diego 
 
 Span ’ds 
 
 1769 
 
 6,oco 
 
 4 
 
 40 
 
 4 
 
 80 
 
 2 
 
 60 i 
 
 2,209 
 
 588.843 
 
 Astoria 
 
 Amcr . 
 
 181 1 
 
 1,50c 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 4 
 
 60 
 
 2 
 
 40 i 
 
 295 
 
 
 
 
 
 2, Coo 
 
 4 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 4<4 
 
 *83 
 
 
 
 
 1859 
 
 2,6co 
 
 4 
 
 *3 
 
 7 
 
 26 
 
 2 
 
 4° X 
 
 4(0 
 
 
 
 
 1842 
 
 2,6co 
 
 4 
 
 *3 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 2 
 
 4° I 
 
 220 
 
 
 
 
 1852 
 
 2/00 
 
 4 
 
 *3 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 2 
 
 4° ; 
 
 IO 
 
 
 
 
 *537 
 
 2.6<0 
 
 4 
 
 *3 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 2 
 
 404 
 
 Il8 
 
 
 Salt Lake City.. 
 
 Amer . 
 
 1847 
 
 2/ CO 
 
 4 
 
 1 4 
 
 2 
 
 27 
 
 2 
 
 40T 
 
 593 
 
 
 
 Amer . . 
 
 181 1 
 
 2 600 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 30 
 
 3 
 
 4C ! 
 
 212 
 
 
 
 
 1867 
 
 2,6co 
 
 4 
 
 *3 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 2 
 
 40 + 
 
 472 
 
 21,688,323 
 
 
 English 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s cMd 
 275 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 •Original thirteen States, and date of ratification of the Constitution. (Official. tThe Legislature meets annually. JThe Legislature meets bi- 
 ennially ° includes the District cf Columbia. »* No Territorial Government. •••This does not include 383,71a Indians, estimated. 
 
 I. Cash on hand, $79,203 ; surplus, $20,087. 2. Sinking Fund, $596, .90 ; net debt, $.,938,3.0. 3. Canal Sinking Fund. $. ,451.628 ; net debt. ? 7.659 - 
 
 426. 4. Sinking Fund, $1,379-797 1 net debt, $7x6,503. 5. The State holds railroad mortgages, etc., in excess of this debt, $.65,799. 0- ^wm* 1 ' re- 
 funding and chaotic condition of finances, .he exact indebtedness cannot be given. About $30,000,000 worth of bond, are issued, of which Uc t Mrg.ma 
 i, charged wilh $15.239 370. as her portion of the State debt at the time of separation. 7 . An act of . ho 1 'K» >tu» providing for a comprom.se of the 
 Slate debt was passed March 4, .879- 8. $435,000 worth of bond, are held by .he Stale Educational Fund. 0. No State debt except her port, on cf the old 
 
 Virginia debt, which ha, never been adju-ted. 10. The Sinking Fund it now more than sufficient to extinguish the entire debt. 11. In addition to this, 
 the State is indebted to the School Fund $3,904,783. for which negotiable bonds have been issued. 12. \\ a, pa,d January > 88 .. 13. ^ewhole 
 
 amount is held by the Educational Trust Funds. 14 . $2,900,000 of this belong to the State’s permanent School Fund. 15 . Of .In, the permanent . chool 
 Fund holds $607,925. the Sinking Fund holds $94,275, 'he Stale University. $9,800, the Normal School. $1,600. 10. Against this the State owns $2,700.- 
 
 000 in School Funds* and has $1,000,000 on har.d, leaving a surplus of §500,000. 
 
 77 
 
 -6 K 
 
.is 
 
 4 
 
 •/ 
 
 706 
 
 POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1880. 
 
 THE POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1880 
 
 AS ISSUED BY THE U. S. GOVERNMENT. 
 
 The following table presents the final official figures of the population of the United States at the Tenth Census, 
 with a column showing, for comparative purposes, the population of 1870. 
 
 The figures for Indian Territory and Alaska are omitted, as their inhabitants are not considered citizens. All Indians 
 not subject to taxation are also omitted, in conformity with the census law. 
 
 The column headed “ Colored” comprises onlv persons of African descent. 
 
 TOT A I. 
 
 POPULATION'. 
 
 1880 . 
 
 States and Territories. 
 
 1880 . 
 
 1870 . 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female. 
 
 Native. 
 
 C 
 
 "5 
 
 u 
 
 0 
 
 fa 
 
 YVhite. 
 
 Colored. 
 
 Chinese. 
 
 Japanese. 
 
 U) 
 
 a 
 
 .2 
 
 *3 
 
 c 
 
 The United States 
 
 So.i 55 . 7 s 3 
 
 3 S, 5 SS, 37 i 
 
 25,518,820 
 
 24,636,963 
 
 43,475,84° 
 
 6,679,943 
 
 43,402,970 
 
 6 , 5 So ,793 
 
 105,465 
 
 148 
 
 66,407 
 
 The States 
 
 47 . 37 1 . 34 ° 
 
 3 S, 155,505 
 
 25.075,619 
 
 24,295,721 
 
 42,871,556 
 
 6,499.784 
 
 42,714,479 
 
 6,51s, 372 
 
 93,782 
 
 141 
 
 44.566 
 
 Alabama . 
 
 1,262,505 
 
 996,992 
 
 622,629 
 
 639,876 
 
 380,246 
 
 1,252,771 
 
 9,734 
 
 662,185 
 
 600,103 
 
 4 
 
 
 213 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 802,525 
 
 484,472 
 
 416.270 
 
 792,175 
 
 10,350 
 
 591,531 
 
 210,666 
 
 6,018 
 
 ■33 
 
 
 *95 
 
 California 
 
 864,69^ 
 
 560,247 
 
 518,176 
 
 346,51s 
 
 571,820 
 
 292, S74 
 
 767, 18 1 
 
 75,132 
 
 S6 
 
 16,277 
 
 Colorado 
 
 I 94 . 3 2 7 
 
 39 .S 64 
 
 I 2 Q.I 3 I 
 
 6 <, 196 
 316,918 
 
 ' 54,537 
 
 39,790 
 
 191,126 
 
 2,435 
 
 6l2 
 
 
 154 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 622,700 
 
 537,454 
 
 305,782 
 
 492 , 70 S 
 
 129,992 
 
 610,769 
 
 ”,547 
 
 123 
 
 6 
 
 25s 
 
 Delaware 
 
 146,608 
 
 125,015 
 
 74,'oS 
 
 72,500 
 
 137,140 
 
 9 , 46 S 
 
 120,160 
 
 142,605 
 
 26,442 
 
 I 
 
 
 5 
 
 Florida 
 
 269.493 
 
 iS 7,748 
 
 136,444 
 
 '33,049 
 
 259,584 
 
 9,909 
 
 126,690 
 
 18 
 
 
 ■as 
 
 Georgia 
 
 1,542,180 
 
 1,184,109 
 
 762,981 
 
 779,199 
 
 i,53i,6i6 
 
 10,5' 4 
 
 816,900 
 
 725,133 
 
 '7 
 
 
 124 - 
 
 Illinois 
 
 3 . 077 .S 7 * 
 
 2,519,89' 
 
 1,586,523 
 
 1,491,448 
 
 2 , 494,295 
 
 5 S. 3,576 
 
 3, 031.15' 
 
 46,36s 
 
 209 
 
 3 
 
 140 
 
 Indiana 
 
 i, 97 s . 3 01 
 
 i ,680,637 
 
 I,OIO,36l 
 
 967,940 
 
 1,834,123 
 
 144,178 
 
 1,938,79s 
 
 39,228 
 
 29 
 
 
 246 
 
 Iowa 
 
 I,624,6l5 
 
 1,194,020 
 
 84S, 136 
 
 776,479 
 
 1,362,965 
 
 261,650 
 
 1,614,600 
 
 9,516 
 
 33 
 
 .... 
 
 466 
 
 Kansas 
 
 99'), 096 
 
 364,399 
 
 536,667 
 
 459,429 
 
 8S6,oio 
 
 no,oS6 
 
 952.155 
 
 43,107 
 
 '9 
 
 
 815 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 1,648,690 
 
 1,321,01 1 
 726,915 
 
 832,590 
 
 816,100 
 
 1,589,173 
 
 59,517 
 
 1,377,179 
 
 271,451 
 
 IO 
 
 
 50 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 939.946 
 
 468,754 
 
 471,192 
 
 324,878 
 
 885,800 
 
 54,146 
 
 58,883 
 
 454,954 
 
 483,655 
 
 489 
 
 
 848 
 
 Maine 
 
 648,946 
 
 626,915 
 
 324,058 
 
 590,053 
 
 646,852 
 
 1,451 
 
 8 
 
 
 623 
 
 Maryland 
 
 934.943 
 
 '.7S3.0SS 
 
 7 So,S 94 
 
 462,187 
 
 558,440 
 
 472,756 
 
 852,137 
 
 82,806 
 
 724,693 
 
 210,230 
 
 5 
 
 
 '5 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 1 , 457 , 35 ' 
 
 1,184,059 
 
 924.645 
 
 ', 339.594 
 
 443,491 
 
 1,763,782 
 
 18,697 
 
 229 
 
 S 
 
 369 
 
 Michigan 
 
 1,646,037 
 
 862,355 
 
 774,582 
 
 1 , 248,420 
 
 38s, 508 
 
 1,614,560 
 
 15,100 
 
 27 
 
 I 
 
 7.249 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 7So,733 
 
 439,706 
 
 419,149 
 
 361,624 
 
 51 . 3.097 
 
 267,676 
 
 776,884 
 
 1,564 
 
 24 
 
 I 
 
 2,300 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 i,i 3'.597 
 
 827,922 
 
 567,177 
 
 564,420 
 
 1,122,388 
 
 9,209 
 
 479,398 
 
 650,291 
 
 S' 
 
 
 '.857 
 
 Missouri 
 
 2,168,380 
 
 1,721,295 
 
 1,127,187 
 
 1,041.193 
 
 1 , 956 ,S 02 
 
 211,578 
 
 2,022,S26 
 
 145,350 
 
 91 
 
 
 ”3 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 452,402 
 
 122,993 
 
 24 Q. 24 I 
 
 203,161 
 
 354.988 
 
 97,414 
 
 449,764 
 
 2,385 
 
 18 
 
 
 235 
 
 Nevada 
 
 62,266 
 
 42491 
 
 42.019 
 
 20,247 
 
 36,613 
 
 25,653 
 
 53,556 
 
 488 
 
 5 , 4 i 6 
 
 3 
 
 2,803 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 346,991 
 
 318,300 
 
 170,526 
 
 176,46.5 
 
 300,697 
 
 46,294 
 
 346,229 
 
 6S5 
 
 '4 
 
 
 63 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 1,131,1 l6 
 
 906,096 
 
 559,922 
 
 571,194 
 
 909,416 
 
 221,700 
 
 1,092,017 
 
 38,8.53 
 
 170 
 
 2 
 
 74 
 
 New York 
 
 5.082,871 
 
 4,582,750 
 
 2,505.322 
 
 2,577 540 
 
 3 . 871,492 
 I, 396 ,OOS 
 2,804,1 19 
 
 ', 2 ii ,379 
 
 5,016,022 
 
 65,104 
 
 909 
 
 '7 
 
 819 
 
 North Carolina . 
 
 1 , 399,750 
 
 1.071,361 
 
 6 S 7,908 
 
 711,842 
 
 3,742 
 
 867,242 
 
 531,277 
 
 
 1,230 
 
 Ohio 
 
 3,198,062 
 
 2,665,260 
 
 1.613,936 
 
 1,584.126 
 
 394-943 
 
 3 , 117,920 
 
 79,900 
 
 109 
 
 3 
 
 '30 
 
 Oregon 
 
 174,76s 
 
 4,2S2,S9I 
 
 90.923 
 
 '03.381 
 
 7 ', 3 S 7 
 
 M4.265 
 
 30,503 
 
 '63 075 
 
 487 
 
 9 > 5 '° 
 
 2 
 
 1,694 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 3,521.951 
 
 2,136,655 
 
 2,146,236 
 
 3,695,062 
 
 587,829 
 
 4, 197,016 
 
 85,535 
 
 I4S 
 
 8 
 
 1S4 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 276 , 53 ' 
 
 217,353 
 
 133,030 
 
 143,501 
 
 202, q 48 
 
 73.993 
 
 269,939 
 
 6,4SS 
 
 27 
 
 
 77 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 995.577 
 
 705,606 
 
 490,408 
 
 5 ’ 5 , '60 
 
 987,89' 
 
 7,686 
 
 39', '°5 
 
 6 <H ,332 
 
 9 
 
 
 • 3 ' 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 1 , 542,359 
 
 1,258,520 
 
 769,277 
 
 773.082 
 
 1,525,657 
 
 16,702 
 
 1,138,831 
 
 403 , 15 ' 
 
 25 
 
 
 IS* 
 
 Texas 
 
 Vermont 
 
 i, 59 i ,749 
 
 332,280 
 
 818,579 
 
 330,551 
 
 837,840 
 166, S87 
 
 753.909 
 
 165,399 
 
 1.477,133 
 
 291,327 
 
 I I4,6l6 
 
 40,959 
 
 ', 197,237 
 
 33 ', 2'8 
 
 393,384 
 
 1,057 
 
 136 
 
 
 992 
 
 11 
 
 Virginia 
 
 i, 5 ' 2.565 
 
 1,225,163 
 
 74 S.SS 9 
 
 766,976 
 
 1,497,869 
 
 14,696 
 
 18,265 
 
 SSo,SsS 
 
 631,616 
 
 6 
 
 
 85 
 
 AY est \ irgini.i 
 
 618,457 
 
 442,014 
 
 3 ' 4,495 
 
 303,962 
 
 600,192 
 
 592.537 
 
 25,886 
 
 5 
 
 
 29 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 1 , 315.497 
 
 1,054,670 
 
 080,069 
 
 635,428 
 
 910,072 
 
 405,425 
 
 1,309,618 
 
 2,702 
 
 l6 
 
 
 3 ,' 6 i 
 
 The Territories 
 
 7 S 4,443 
 
 402,866 
 
 443,201 
 
 341,242 
 
 605 ,284 
 
 180,159 
 
 6SS.49I 
 
 62,421 
 
 ii,6S3 
 
 7 
 
 21,841 
 
 Arizona tT 
 
 40,440 
 
 9,65s 
 
 2S,202 
 
 12 , 2^8 
 
 24,391 
 
 16,049 
 
 35 ,' 6 o 
 
 155 
 
 1,630 
 
 2 
 
 3,493 
 
 Dakota 
 
 135.177 
 
 14,181 
 
 82,296 
 
 52,881 
 
 83 . 3 S 2 
 
 51,795 
 
 133,'47 
 
 401 
 
 238 
 
 
 1 . 39 1 
 
 District of Columbia 
 
 177 624 
 
 131,700 
 
 83.57s 
 
 94.046 
 
 160,502 
 
 17,122 
 
 118,006 
 
 59 , 5 o'> 
 
 '3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 Idaho 
 
 32,610 
 
 ' 4,999 
 
 21,818 
 
 10,792 
 
 22,636 
 
 9,974 
 
 29,013 
 
 35 , 3^5 
 
 S 3 
 
 3,379 
 
 
 165 
 
 Montana 
 
 39,159 
 
 20,595 
 
 28,177 
 
 10,982 
 
 27,638 
 
 11,521 
 
 346 
 
 1,765 
 
 
 1.663 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 ' 19.565 
 
 91 , 8/4 
 
 64,496 
 
 55,069 
 
 111,514 
 
 8,051 
 
 108,721 
 
 i,oi 5 
 
 57 
 
 
 9.772 
 
 Utah 
 
 ' 43 , 96 < 
 
 S 6 . 7 S 6 
 
 74-509 
 
 69,454 
 
 99,969 
 
 43,994 
 
 15,803 
 
 142,423 
 
 232 
 
 SO' 
 
 
 807 
 
 YVashington 
 
 75 .no 
 
 23.055 
 
 45.973 
 
 29,143 
 
 59 , 31.3 
 
 67,199 
 
 325 
 
 3,186 
 
 1 
 
 4.40s 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 20,789 
 
 9,1 1S 
 
 14,152 
 
 6,637 
 
 14,939 
 
 5,85° 
 
 ' 9,437 
 
 29S 
 
 914 
 
 
 140 
 
 
POPULATION OF THE PRINCIPAL CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES AND THE WORLD. 7°7 
 
 POPULATION OF THE 100 PRINCIPAL CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES. IN ALPHABETICAL ORDEF— CENSUS OF 1880. 
 
 
 
 Total Popula’n. 
 
 
 1SS0. 
 
 
 
 
 fetal Popula’n. 
 
 
 1SS0. 
 
 
 Cities. 
 
 State. 
 
 1SS0. 
 
 1S70. 
 
 u 
 
 % 
 
 • J 
 
 y — 
 
 ^ E 
 
 — d 
 
 zS 
 
 L c 
 . c .rf 
 
 Cities. 
 
 State. 
 
 1SS0. 
 
 1S70. 
 
 JU 
 
 • V 
 
 £ 
 
 H 
 
 i c 
 ©be 
 
 Albany 
 
 .. .N. Y... 
 
 90.755 
 
 69,422 
 
 43.770 
 
 46,9SS 
 
 516,993 
 
 23,765 
 
 Mobile 
 
 ...Ala.... 
 
 29,132 
 
 32, ^34 
 
 13.189 
 
 '5,943 
 
 26,195 
 
 2,937 
 
 Allegheny 
 
 Atlanta 
 
 ....Pa 
 
 ....Ga 
 
 7$,6Sa 
 
 37,409 
 
 53.1S0 
 
 2 ',789 
 
 38,489 
 
 17,677 
 
 40,193 
 ■9 732 
 
 59,245 
 
 35.993 
 
 19*437 
 
 1,416 
 
 Nashville 
 
 Newark 
 
 • ..N.J 
 
 43vT50 
 
 IT6.508 
 
 25.S05 
 
 105,059 
 
 20,912 
 
 66,077 
 
 22,43s 
 
 70,43' 
 
 40.325 
 96, 178 
 
 •V 25 
 40,130 
 
 Aub irn 
 
 . ,.N. Y... 
 
 21,024 
 
 17,225 
 
 10.940 
 
 10,984 
 
 16,981 
 
 4.943 
 
 New Bedlord... 
 
 . . . Mass. . . 
 
 26,845 
 
 2 **3 2 0 
 
 12,37' 
 
 30,462 
 
 M,474 
 
 2^,922 
 
 5,923 
 
 15,668 
 
 Augusta 
 
 .. ..Ga 
 
 21,891 
 
 15.389 
 
 9,827 
 
 12,064 
 
 20,693 
 
 1,198 
 
 New Haven 
 
 
 62,S32 
 
 So.St 1 ' 
 
 32,420 
 
 47.214 
 
 Baltimore 
 
 . . . . Md . . . . 
 
 33 2 ,3'3 
 
 267,354 
 
 '57,393 
 
 174,920 
 
 276,177 
 
 56,1.36 
 
 New Orle ins.. . . 
 
 ...Li 
 
 2 1 5.090 
 
 191,41s 
 
 100,892 
 
 115,19s 
 
 174.933 
 
 41,157 
 
 Bay City 
 
 . . . . Mich. . . 
 
 20,69 3 
 
 7,064 
 
 ii,3' s 
 
 9,375 
 
 ",389 
 
 9,304 
 
 Newport 
 
 ...Ky 
 
 •o,43t 
 
 >5,087 
 
 9.925 
 
 10,508 
 
 •5.422 
 
 5,01 1 
 
 Boston 
 
 Bridgeport 
 
 . . ..Mass... 
 
 36 2 339 
 
 27,643 
 
 250,526 
 
 18,909 
 
 172,268 
 
 *3.42' 
 
 *90,57' 
 
 14,222 
 
 248,043 
 
 O.204 
 
 "4.796 
 
 7,439 
 
 New York 
 
 Noriolk 
 
 ...N. Y... 
 
 . ..V 1 
 
 1,200,299 
 
 21,966 
 
 942,292 
 
 19,229 
 
 590,5'4 
 
 10,069 
 
 615, 7S5 
 ' 1,897 
 
 16,4 S 
 
 727,029 
 2*, *3* 
 
 478/70 
 
 S35 
 
 Brooklyn 
 
 ....N. Y... 
 
 566,663 
 
 396,099 
 
 272,24s 
 
 294,415 
 
 388.969 
 
 ■77,694 
 
 51,268 
 
 15,668 
 
 Oakland 
 
 
 34-555 
 
 30,518 
 
 10,50 
 
 jS,i 17 
 
 20,fsS 
 
 1 1,021 
 
 Buffalo 
 
 .. ...V. Y... 
 
 '55, '34 
 
 "7,714 
 
 70,904 
 
 78,230 
 
 104,866 
 
 Omaha 
 
 
 16,083 
 
 17,104 
 
 *3,4*4 
 
 9,930 
 
 Cambridge 
 
 .... Mass. ... 
 
 52,669 
 
 39 634 
 
 25,024 
 
 27.645 
 
 37.001 
 
 Oswego 
 
 ...N. Y... 
 
 21,1 l6 
 
 20,910 
 
 10,055 
 
 1 1, 61 
 
 '5,555 
 
 5.561 
 
 Camden 
 
 
 41,659 
 
 20,045 
 
 19.923 
 
 21,736 
 
 37,'64 
 
 4 495 
 
 Paterson 
 
 
 51,031 
 
 33,579 
 
 24,765 
 
 26,2' 6 
 
 14,692 
 
 32.329 
 
 18,7-2 
 
 Charleston 
 
 . . ..S. C.... 
 
 49,9541 
 
 .iS,9n6 
 
 22.5SS 
 
 27,399 
 
 46,034 
 
 .3,950 
 
 Peoria 
 
 
 29 259 
 
 22,049 
 
 14,507 
 
 22,134 
 
 7."5 
 
 Chelsea 
 
 
 21,782 
 
 18.547 
 
 IO 02 
 
 ",759 
 
 ■7,167 
 29S, 326 
 183, 4^0 
 100,7.37 
 
 4,595 
 
 Petersburg 
 
 . .Va 
 
 2 1 ,656 
 
 1S.950 
 
 9,779 
 
 ",877 
 
 2',3<» 
 
 356 
 
 
 111.. 
 
 
 298.977 
 
 256,905 
 
 246,280! 
 
 129,647! 
 
 79.972 
 
 204,849 
 
 7',659 
 
 59,409 
 
 
 
 847, '7° 
 
 i n6, t8q 
 
 674,022 
 
 86.O76 
 
 405,975 
 
 441,195 
 
 77.91S 
 
 18,058 
 
 |642,535 
 
 1 H.784 
 
 204.335 
 
 44,605 
 
 6,902 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cleveland 
 
 ....Oho... 
 
 160, 146! 
 
 92^829 
 
 So' 1 74 
 
 Portland 
 
 ...Me. . 
 
 33,810 
 
 3* *4 *3 
 
 '5,752 
 
 26,908 
 
 Columbus 
 
 
 5' ,647 
 
 31,274 
 
 26,400 
 
 25,2.38 
 
 42,576 
 
 9,071 
 
 Poughkeepsie. . . 
 Providence 
 
 .. ..N. Y... 
 
 20,207 
 
 20,' So 
 
 9 270 
 
 49,787 
 
 13,289 
 
 10,937 
 
 16,413 
 
 3.794 
 
 Covington 
 
 
 29,720 
 2 1 .S3 I 
 
 35.675| 
 
 24,505 
 
 20,038 
 
 30,473 
 
 *4,*9 2 
 
 15.528 
 
 11,227 
 
 2.3,233 
 
 14.93 6 
 
 6487 
 
 6,S95 
 
 7,246, 
 
 ..R. I.... 
 .. Ill 
 
 *o 4,$57 
 
 27,260 
 
 43,278 
 
 63,600 
 Sq, 366 
 
 65,904 
 
 24.052 
 
 33,930 
 
 51,038 
 
 62,386 
 
 55.o7»| 
 13.979 
 22,179 
 34.1 '7 
 46,978 
 
 70,782 
 
 20,70C’ 
 
 28,075 
 6,562 
 3.624 
 3* MO 
 
 
 
 18^969 
 
 
 
 39,654 
 
 60,260 
 
 62,743 
 
 
 Colo . 
 
 
 26,924 
 
 *S,205 
 
 
 
 29:481 
 
 42,388 
 
 Des Moines 
 
 
 22,40s 1 
 
 12,035 
 
 "I53 1 
 
 1 
 
 4,203 
 
 Rochester 
 
 .. ..N. Y. .. 
 
 26,622 
 
 Detroit 
 
 
 I 16,340 
 
 79.577 
 
 56 763 
 
 59,577 
 
 70,695 
 
 45,643 
 
 Sacramento 
 
 ....Cal.. .. 
 
 21,420 
 
 16,283 
 
 12,271 
 
 9, '49 
 
 '4.372 
 
 7.04 s 
 
 Dubuque 
 
 
 22,253 
 
 18,434 
 
 10,855 
 
 ",399 
 
 16,107 
 
 6,147 
 
 St. Joseph 
 
 .. ..Mo.. . 
 
 32,431 
 
 '9.565 
 
 17,832 
 
 '4,599 
 
 20.775 
 
 5,656 
 
 Elizabeth 
 
 .....V.J.... 
 
 28,229 
 
 20,S32 
 
 13,60s 
 
 1 4,02 I 
 
 20,644 
 
 7.5S5 
 
 St. Louis 
 
 . . Mo 
 
 350 5 lS 
 
 3 '0,804 
 
 179,520 
 
 170,9,8 
 
 245 5°5 
 26,398 
 
 105,013 
 
 Elmira 
 
 . ...N. Y... 
 
 2 °»54 l 
 
 '5,86.3 
 
 9,749 
 
 10,7 92 
 
 16,967 
 
 3,574 
 
 St. Paul 
 
 . . . Minn. . . 
 
 41,473 
 
 20,030 
 
 22, {6j 
 
 19 112 
 
 15.075 
 
 744s 
 
 Erie 
 
 . . ..Pa 
 
 2 7, 737 
 
 29,2>0 
 
 IO.646 
 
 13,752 
 
 14,228 
 
 ■ 3.985 
 
 20,031 
 
 7,706 
 
 Salem 
 
 . . ..Mass... 
 
 27.563 
 
 24,1.7 
 
 12,58c) 
 
 '4974 
 
 20,115 
 
 Evansville 
 
 
 21,5.30 
 
 15,052 
 
 23,177 
 
 6,103 
 
 Salt Lake City. . 
 
 . . . . U tah . . . 
 
 20 768 
 
 12,854 
 
 993 
 
 10,8 if 
 
 9.877 
 
 >3, <-95 
 
 7.673 
 
 Fall River 
 
 . . . . Mass. . . 
 
 45,961; 
 
 26,766 
 
 23,163 
 
 25.79s 
 
 25,386 
 
 23.575 
 
 San Antonio 
 
 . . . 1 exas . . 
 
 20 550 
 
 *2,250 
 
 43936 
 
 23,170 
 
 *4,952 
 
 5.598 
 
 Fort Wayne. . . . 
 
 . . . . Ind 
 
 26, S^o 
 
 17 718 
 3,513 
 16,507 
 
 *3*7*7 
 
 13,163 
 
 21 02S 
 
 S.S52 
 
 5,04 6 
 
 1 ,000 
 
 San h rancisco. . 
 
 . . . . Cal 
 
 2 33.9S9 
 T\7 9 
 
 149 473 
 2S.23; 
 
 101,3s* 
 *6,773 
 22 680 
 
 * 2 9«7'5 
 
 .•771c 
 
 104,244 
 
 »-994 
 
 Grand Rapids. . . 
 
 . . . . Mich. . . 
 
 32,oi6| 
 
 16' S3 
 
 15,833 
 
 22,OlC 
 
 28,446 
 
 Scranton 
 
 
 45,850 
 
 35 <"92 
 
 29,993 
 
 .5857 
 
 5,681 
 
 Harrisburg 
 
 ....Pa 
 
 30,76 
 
 2 3,104 
 
 14,760 
 
 16,002 
 
 2,ti6 
 
 Somerville 
 
 . . Mass. . . 
 
 24.933 
 
 14.685 
 
 ".873 
 
 13,060 
 
 19,252 
 
 Hartford 
 
 
 42,015 
 
 3N999, 
 
 21.915 
 
 .37,' 80 
 20,297 
 1 .733 
 
 2C» f 1 46 
 
 21,869 
 
 3l f 4 2 0 
 
 >0,593 
 
 Springfield 
 
 ....Ill 
 
 '9713 
 
 '7.364 
 
 9, So- 
 
 9 938 
 
 >5-459 
 
 25,807 
 
 4.2S4 
 
 
 V 1 
 
 >5,254 
 
 10.308 
 
 '5.745 
 
 1 1,607 
 
 
 
 
 
 33 31° 
 20 730 
 
 26,703 
 1 2,652 
 
 1 5 767 
 
 * 7*573 
 
 7.533 
 
 Holyoke 
 
 . . . Mass. . . 
 
 1 1,000 
 62,446 
 
 1-5915 
 
 Springfield 
 
 . . . Ohio.. . . 
 
 10.563 
 
 1 0, 1 67 
 
 17,646 
 
 3084 
 
 Ind anapolis 
 
 .... Ind 
 
 75 05* 
 
 48, -44 
 82,546 
 
 36 '803 
 
 38,'9! 
 
 12,610 
 
 Syracuse 
 
 'I aunton 
 
 .. .N. Y. . . 
 
 5 '.792 
 
 43 05 
 
 24.67' 
 
 10,328 
 
 27,117 
 
 
 *3,°*S 
 
 Jersey Citv 
 
 ....N.J... 
 
 12 ,722 
 
 59,919 
 
 6 ',803 
 
 81,464 
 
 39,25S 
 
 
 21 213 
 
 lS ( 62g 
 
 io,SS5 
 
 *0,084 
 
 5.129 
 
 Kan as City .... 
 
 . . Mo 
 
 55,785 
 
 25.76c) 
 TO. 1 5 1 
 
 32,26) 
 
 20,233 
 
 23,921 
 
 31,999 
 
 23,786 
 
 46,384 
 
 9,3oi 
 
 Terre Haute 
 
 .. . . Ind 
 
 26,012 
 
 i6 f i< 3 
 
 13,128 
 
 12,914 
 
 22,050 
 
 3 992 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 22, TOC 
 
 3*379 
 
 17,266 
 
 I oledo 
 
 
 5 ' '37 
 
 T.cS.| 
 
 25 034 
 
 25,104 
 
 35»7°S 
 
 14.349 
 
 
 
 '7.78 
 
 2 1,366 
 
 21.885 
 
 Trenton 
 
 ... N.J... 
 
 29 9 . r 
 
 22 S74 
 
 1 j.921 
 
 14.989 
 
 21. >9' 
 
 5,719 
 
 
 .. ..Ky 
 
 123,748 
 
 k 0,753 
 
 58,982 
 
 63,776 
 
 100,602 
 
 23,156 
 
 Troy 
 
 . . . . N. Y. . . 
 
 56.747 
 
 ■l64'5 
 
 27.'5I 
 
 29 593 
 
 39.809 
 
 10 038 
 
 
 
 29.475 
 
 38,274 
 
 4^,928 
 
 26,853 
 
 32,622 
 
 36,321 
 
 23,054 
 
 Utica 
 
 . . .. N. V. . . 
 
 33,914 
 
 28,80 
 
 i c,666 
 
 24 58' 
 
 9.333 
 
 
 
 28,233 
 
 18,2 43 
 
 20,031 
 
 31,234 
 
 7,040 
 
 Washington 
 
 D. C. .. 
 
 147.293 
 
 ICQ >99 
 
 68.310 
 
 78 9 s . 3 
 
 133.05 
 
 1 1 242 
 
 Manchester 
 
 . ..N. H... 
 
 32,630 
 
 23,556 
 
 14.698 
 
 17.932 
 
 20,151 
 
 '2,479 
 
 Wheeling 
 
 . ...W. Va. 
 
 30.737 
 
 19,280 
 
 15.127 
 
 '5.6 'O 
 
 2.4,623 
 
 6,1*4 
 
 
 . . . .Tenn. . . 
 
 33.592 
 
 40,226 
 
 16,302 
 
 17,290 
 
 29,62 I 
 
 3,97' 
 
 Wilkesbarrc.. . . 
 
 . . .. Pa 
 
 23 339 
 
 10, 74 
 
 " 45‘ 
 
 1 i,8S8 
 
 1 7.039 
 
 6,301 
 
 Milwaukee 
 
 .. ,.\Vis.... 
 
 1 1 5.4 
 
 7* >44° 
 
 57,475 
 
 58.112 
 
 60,514 
 
 46,073 
 
 Wilmington. . .. 
 
 Del 
 
 42.47S 
 
 308* 
 
 20 751 
 
 21,727 
 
 36 S04 
 
 4/74 
 
 Minneapolis . . . . 
 
 
 46.8S7 
 
 13,066 
 
 25,291 
 
 21,596 
 
 31,874 
 
 15,013 
 
 Worcester 
 
 .... Mass. . . 
 
 58 291 
 
 41.1 r 
 
 28,927 
 
 29 361 
 
 42,667 
 
 15,624 
 
 POPULATION OF THE CITIES OF THE WORLD HAVING OVER 100.000 INHABITANTS. 
 
 Aberdeen, Scotland 
 
 . 105,8 iS 
 
 Adrianople, Turkey 
 
 1 00, coo 
 
 Agra, India 
 
 . 125.0-0 
 
 Ahmedabad, India 
 
 120 OOO 
 
 Alexandria, Egypt 
 
 i So, 000 
 
 Amoy, China 
 
 . 270,000 
 
 Amsterdam, Holland 
 
 . 263,204 
 
 Antwerp, Belgium 
 
 . 104,628 
 
 Bahia, Brazil 
 
 . 1,80,000 
 
 Baltimore, Md 
 
 . 332.313 
 
 Batavia. Java 
 
 140,00) 
 
 Bangkok, Siam 
 
 . 300,0:0 
 
 Barcelona. Spain 
 
 . 20 J, 165 
 
 Baroda, India 
 
 . 1 10,0* O 
 
 Belfast, Ireland 
 
 iSo.oco 
 
 Benares. India 
 
 . 600,000 
 
 Berlin, Prussia 
 
 . I,20*>,00° 
 
 Bhurtpoor, India 
 
 . 100,000 
 
 Birmingham, England .. 
 
 . 360,000 
 
 Bombay, India 
 
 . 898,218 
 
 Bordeaux, France 
 
 . 215,000 
 
 Boston, Mass 
 
 ■ 362,839 
 
 Bradford, England 
 
 . 160,000 
 
 Breslau, Prussia 
 
 . 187,650 
 
 Bristol, England 
 
 .. 180,060 
 
 Brooklyn, N. Y 
 
 • 566.663 
 
 Brussels, Belgium 
 
 . 32^.0 O 
 
 Bucharest, Turkey 
 
 . 1 50,000 
 
 Buenos Avres, S. A ..... . 
 
 . 150. OCX) 
 
 Buffalo, N.Y 
 
 . 155.134 
 
 Cairo, Egypt 
 
 . 300, COO 
 
 Calcutta, India 
 
 . 600, 00 
 
 Canton, China 
 
 . 800,000 
 
 Cawnpore, India .. ....... 
 
 
 Chang-Choo-Foo, China.. 1,000,000 
 
 Chicago, 111 5 ° 3> ,s 5 
 
 Cincinnati, Ohio 255**39 
 
 Cologne, Prussia 150,000 
 
 Cleveland, Ohio 160,146 
 
 Constantinople, Turkey... 1,000,000 
 Copenhagen, Denmark .... 2CO,coo 
 
 Damascus, Turkey 180,000 
 
 Delhi, India 180,000 
 
 Dhar, India 105.000 
 
 Dresden, Germany 150,000 
 
 Dublin, Ireland 33 a « 5 °° 
 
 Detroit, Mich 116,340 
 
 Dundee, Scotland 125*0°° 
 
 Edinburgh. Scotland 184,000 
 
 Florence, Paly 150,00* 
 
 Foo ChooFoo, China 1,000,000 
 
 Hyzabad, India 100,000 
 
 Genoa, Italy 150,000 
 
 Ghent, Belgium 1 30 000 
 
 Glasgow, Scotland ■ ' ■ 1 
 
 Greenwich, Fngland * 35 » no ° 
 
 Hamburg, Germany 2 15,00} 
 
 Hang Tchcou, China 1,000,000 
 
 Havana, Cuba .. 225.000 
 
 Hue, or Hucfo, Anam 132,000 
 
 Hull, England 130,000 
 
 I lyderabad, India 200.001 
 
 Joodpoor Marwar, India.. 100,000 
 
 Jersey. City, N.J 120,722 
 
 Deeds, Kngfand 354 / 00 
 
 Liege, Belgium 120,0*0 
 
 Lille, or Lisle, France 150,000 
 
 Lima, Peru 100,000 
 
 Lisbon, Portugal 
 
 240,(0) 
 
 Liverpool, England 
 
 640,000 
 
 London. England 
 
 3.814.571 
 
 Louisville, Ky 
 
 123.758 
 
 Lucknow, India. 
 
 325,000 
 
 Lyons, France 
 
 329,000 
 
 Madras, India . 
 
 MS* 0 
 
 Madrid, Spain 
 
 400,000 
 
 Manchester, England 
 
 380,000 
 
 Manilla, Philippine Is 
 
 *S 5 »© 0 
 
 Marseilles, France 
 
 • 3 5- 2 0 
 
 Maranhao, Brazil ... 
 
 1 0,000 
 
 Melbourne, Australia 
 
 * 47 * 19 
 
 Mexico, Mexico 
 
 2 1 2 (XX) 
 
 Miako, Japan 
 
 400,000 
 
 Milan, Italy. ... 
 
 200 COO 
 
 Milwaukee, Wis 
 
 1*5,586 
 
 Montreal, Canada 
 
 115,000 
 
 Moscow, Russia 
 
 . 
 
 Munich, Bavaria 
 
 ■ » 7 f»..S°° 
 
 Nagpoor, India 
 
 115,000 
 
 Nanking, China .... 
 
 500,000 
 
 Nantes, France 
 
 11500*) 
 
 Naples. Italy 
 
 |67,SOO 
 
 Newark, N. J 
 
 • 156,506 
 
 Newcastle- on *Tync, Eng. 
 
 
 New Orleans. La 
 
 216(90 
 
 New York. N. Y 
 
 .1,206 2 (Jt) 
 
 Ningpo, China 
 
 . 2 O OOO 
 
 Odessa. Russia 
 
 120,0 O 
 
 Palermo. Italy 
 
 175.000 
 
 Paris, France 
 
 , 2,225, 01 • 
 
 Patna, India 
 
 300,000 
 
 Pekin, China 
 
 . **850,000 
 
 Pesth, Hungary 
 
 131.735 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa 
 
 847.170 
 
 Pittsburgh, Pa 
 
 ■56,359 
 
 Portsmouth, England, 
 
 1 20,000 
 
 Prague, Bohemia 
 
 150,000 
 
 Providence, R. I 
 
 ■04.857 
 
 Riga. Russia 
 
 102,000 
 
 Rio Janeiro, Brazil 
 
 370,000 
 
 Rome, Italy 
 
 3O.3.OOO 
 
 Rotterdam, Holland 
 
 140,000 
 
 Rouen, France 
 
 1 10,000 
 
 Saigon, Cochin, China .... 
 
 200 , OCX) 
 
 St. Louis, Mo 
 
 35 °. 5 ' s 
 
 St. Petersburg, Russia 
 
 (*>S,ooo 
 
 San Francisco, Cal 
 
 233.959 
 
 Santiago, Chili 
 
 100 000 
 
 Seville, Spain 
 
 1 60,0c 0 
 
 Shang hai, China 
 
 160,000 
 
 Sheffield, England 
 
 17 000 
 
 Smyrna, Asia Minor 
 
 1 eo.ixx) 
 
 Stockholm, Sweden 
 
 
 Sydnev, Australia 
 
 '87,381 
 
 Tiffin, Russia in Asia 
 
 104,024 
 
 Tokio, Japan 
 
 594.283 
 
 Toulouse. France 
 
 *30,433 
 
 Trieste, Austria 
 
 100,000 
 
 Tunis, Africa 
 
 150,000 
 
 Turin, Italy 
 
 200,000 
 
 Valencia, Spain 
 
 100,000 
 
 Venice, Italy 
 
 1 15,000 
 
 Vienna, Austria 
 
 726,105 
 
 Warsaw, Poland 
 
 237,560 
 
 Washington, D. t 
 
 147,393 
 
 Yeddo, Japan 2,100,000 
 
 G 
 
■s, a 
 
 * 
 
 ^71 
 
 708 EDUCATIONAL AND RELIGIOUS. 
 
 Tables showing’, according to report of 1S7S, the salaries of teachers, expenditures, school ages, school population, enrollment, attendance, etc., of 
 public schools, colleges and universities; also, giving value of buildings, grounds, apparatus, etc., of those owning such: 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 
 
 STATES AND TERRITO- 
 RIES. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arizona 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Dakota 
 
 Delaware 
 
 District of Columbia 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indian 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Montana 
 
 N ebraska 
 
 Nevada, 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oregon.. 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas 
 
 Utah 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Washington 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 sen L 
 AGE. 
 
 Total 14,608,406 
 
 7-21 
 
 6-21 
 
 6-21 
 
 r 7 
 
 4- 16 
 
 5- 21 
 
 5- 21 
 
 6- 17 
 4-21 
 6-1S 
 
 £ lS 
 
 6-21 
 
 6-21 
 
 5-21 
 
 5- 21 
 1.6-20 
 
 6- 21 
 4-21 
 5-20 
 5 
 
 5-20 
 
 5-21 
 
 5- 21 
 
 6 - 20 
 4-21 
 
 5- 2* 
 
 6- 1S 
 
 4- 21 
 
 5- I o 
 
 •7-18 
 
 5- 21 
 
 6- 21 
 6-21 
 
 4- 20 
 6-21 
 
 5- 15 
 
 6- 16 
 6-1S 
 8-14 
 6-16 
 5-20 
 
 5- 21 
 
 .4-21 
 
 6- 21 
 4-20 
 .7-21 
 
 SCHOOL 
 
 POPULA- 
 
 TION. 
 
 NO. EN- 
 ROLLED. 
 
 AV. DAILY 
 ATTEND- 
 ANCE. 
 
 AV. 
 
 DAYS 
 
 IN 
 
 YEAR 
 
 SALARIES 
 
 OF 
 
 TEACH- 
 
 ERS. 
 
 370» 2 45 
 
 3.0S9 
 
 216,475 
 
 205,485 
 
 26,473 
 
 138,407 
 
 12,201 
 
 35.649 
 
 3»,Soo 
 72,985 
 433.444 
 4,942 
 1,002,421 
 49.213 
 699.IS3 
 575.474, 
 266,57. 
 b. 572,80? 
 274,406 
 214,797 
 276,120 
 297,202 
 476, S06 
 271,428 
 346,61, 
 688,24: 
 
 5.315 
 104,030 
 9,922 
 73,785 
 322,166 
 d. 29,312 
 1,615,256 
 422,380 
 1,027,248 
 53,462 
 1,200,000 
 
 53,316 
 
 228,128 
 
 448,9*7 
 
 *94,353 
 
 33,604 
 
 92,831 
 
 4^3,70 1 
 b. 12,997 
 209,532 
 478,692 
 
 *59,659 
 
 2,740 
 
 33,747 
 
 *54,069 
 16,641 
 1 19,828 
 7, *56, 
 26,730 
 22,842 
 36,964 
 
 209,872 
 
 706,723 
 
 12,222 
 
 5».5?5 
 
 428, ^62 
 177,806 
 >. 248,000 
 
 83,047 
 
 *55.150 
 
 *56,274 
 
 3*0, is 1 
 359,702 
 167,825 
 205,978 
 
 448,033 
 
 3,277 
 
 62,785 
 
 7,6l2 
 66,023 
 202,634 
 [. 5,151 
 
 1,032,052 
 228,092 
 740,194 
 26,902 
 936, 7S0 
 45,629 
 >16,239 
 261, 1 5 1 
 146,946 
 21,710 
 73,081 
 202,244 
 
 • 5,385 
 *30, 184 
 297,502 
 . 1,690 
 
 98,534 
 
 890 
 
 94,696 
 
 9,699 
 
 75,565 
 
 *,342 
 
 18,133 
 
 23,933 
 
 *30,605 
 
 420.03 1 
 4,142 
 
 3*5.893 
 
 256.9*3 
 
 io\9°3 
 
 160.000 
 
 54.390 
 
 108,940 
 
 8l,S29 
 
 228,447 
 
 210.000 
 
 115,970 
 
 182,000 
 
 4,666 
 
 48,4*2 
 
 1*3,604 
 
 577,606 
 
 132,553 
 
 465,372 
 
 21,464 
 
 603,825 
 
 28,756 
 
 172,198 
 
 14,949 
 
 48,63s 
 
 116,464 
 
 86.768 
 
 90 
 
 129 
 
 146 
 
 **3 
 
 no 
 
 80 
 
 118 
 
 182 
 
 176 
 
 14° 
 
 85 
 
 79 
 
 99 
 
 *94 
 
 132 
 
 179 
 
 46 
 
 *75 
 
 94 
 
 l M 
 
 9* 
 
 77 
 
 9,375,440 
 
 4,265,742 
 
 *37 
 
 *24 
 
 *07 
 
 *30 
 
 96 
 
 l6l 
 
 $ 350,633 
 *4,947 
 121,397 
 2,272,557 
 153,089 
 
 1,041,041 
 
 30,489 
 
 125,859 
 
 237,189 
 
 85,36 
 
 TOTAL 
 
 EXPENDI 
 
 TURES. 
 
 23,082 
 
 4,445,657 
 
 3,065,968 
 
 *3,011,230 
 
 980,435 
 
 g. 1,000,000 
 426,839 
 830,670 
 ,122,414 
 
 h. 871,851 
 f. 1,920,239 
 
 878,980 
 5*5 >393 
 2,3 2 o>43 0 
 
 444, 5°° 
 106,301 
 410,21 ~ 
 
 *,528,9' 
 i- 15,432 
 7,756,844 
 292,893 
 4,956,5*4 
 
 *94,57* 
 
 4,755,620 
 
 427,44: 
 291,26' 
 692,198 
 656,977 
 84,230 
 407, S35 
 
 7*4,65* 
 
 501,705 
 
 1,601,252 
 
 16,400 
 
 $ 358,697 
 21,396 
 132,620 
 
 3,155,815 
 
 243,050 
 
 1,506,477 
 
 57,793 
 
 216,540 
 
 373.606 
 130,880 
 4*2,453 
 
 23,082 
 
 7,526,109 
 
 373.606 
 
 ?,65*,9* 
 4,692,53s 
 1,541,4*7 
 g;.i, 130,000 
 
 558.231 
 
 1,050,709 
 
 1,593,260 
 
 5,166,988 
 
 3,1*6,579 
 
 1,494,685 
 
 592,805 
 
 2,406,133 
 
 65,505 
 
 75 0 ,52o 
 
 204,137 
 
 636,635 
 
 2,004,048 
 i. 18,890 
 
 *0,755,730 
 324, 2S7 
 7,99S,*25 
 275,106 
 8 ,iS 7,977 
 
 679,770 
 
 3*9,030 
 
 794.232 
 747,534 
 i*3,i93 
 5*1,101 
 
 963,89s 
 
 COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES WITH THE 
 PREPARATORY SCHOOLS. 
 
 687,275 
 2,1*7,535 
 j. 16,400 
 
 551,780,630 $8 >. '7 ,58 1 
 
 No. 
 
 Col- 
 
 leges 
 
 IN- 
 
 STRUCT- 
 
 ORS. 
 
 STU- 
 
 DENTS 
 
 VOLUMES 
 IN LI- 
 BRARIES. 
 
 VALUE OF 
 
 build’gs, 
 
 GROUNDS 
 
 & appar’s 
 
 INCOME 
 
 FROM 
 
 FUNDS. 
 
 INCOME 
 
 FROM 
 
 TUITION. 
 
 4 
 
 55 
 
 5*7 
 
 12,400 
 
 $ 505,000 
 
 $ 24,000 
 
 $ 2,000 
 
 5 
 
 22 
 
 333 
 
 *,*65 
 
 42,000 
 
 1,900 
 
 5,100 
 
 12 
 
 19s 
 
 2,246 
 
 43,610 
 
 1,42s, 000 
 
 **6,055 
 
 103,400 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 **7 
 
 2,000 
 
 130,000 
 
 15,000 
 
 
 3 
 
 120 
 
 k. 942 
 
 136,275 
 
 472,884 
 
 42,709 
 
 93,221 
 
 1 
 
 IO 
 
 106 
 
 6,500 
 
 75,000 
 
 4,980 
 
 54° 
 
 4 
 
 47 
 
 452 
 
 45,000 
 
 770,000 
 
 8,500 
 
 8,000 
 
 6 
 
 50 
 
 662 
 
 32,2*3 
 
 610,000 
 
 43,300 
 
 20,900 
 
 28 
 
 272 
 
 5,016 
 
 1*0,893 
 
 2,498,020 
 
 128,766 
 
 75,6So 
 
 l 6 
 
 *93 
 
 2,868 
 
 58,872 
 
 1,185,000 
 
 47,700 
 
 18,043 
 
 19 
 
 *73 
 
 3, *52 
 
 48,5*0 
 
 1,197,000 
 
 53,7oo 
 
 41,380 
 
 8 
 
 73 
 
 93* 
 
 20,300 
 
 499,000 
 
 4,7*3 
 
 7,123 
 
 *3 
 
 94 
 
 *,647 
 
 36,7*9 
 
 642,500 
 
 2 5,47° 
 
 37,4*3 
 
 7 
 
 39 
 
 560 
 
 22,500 
 
 170,000 
 
 19,458 
 
 4,677 
 
 3 
 
 35 
 
 k. 422 
 
 39,900 
 
 730,000 
 
 26,050 
 
 *6,576 
 
 8 
 
 73 
 
 *,34* 
 
 39,100 
 
 380,500 
 
 *81,734 
 
 9,902 
 
 7 
 
 *39 
 
 2,081 
 
 267,990 
 
 1,250,000 
 
 3°4> io 7 
 
 213,850 
 
 7 
 
 123 
 
 2,040 
 
 50,240 
 
 1,068,450 
 
 79,95s 
 
 20,089 
 
 5 
 
 58 
 
 685 
 
 19,604 
 
 206.870 
 
 49.0S1 
 
 5, *39 
 
 5 
 
 36 
 
 683 
 
 9,600 
 
 421,000 
 
 3,960 
 
 3,200 
 
 *7 
 
 196 
 
 2,436 
 
 84,425 
 
 *>149,50° 
 
 155,125 
 
 S', 555 
 
 3 
 
 33 
 
 3*9 
 
 3,700 
 
 218,000 
 
 
 5,9°° 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 I. 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 k. 3*5 
 
 54,83s 
 
 100,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 21,400 
 
 4 
 
 63 
 
 702 
 
 53,200 
 
 1,220,600 
 
 81,003 
 
 23,765 
 
 26 
 
 45* 
 
 5, *88 
 
 229,841 
 
 6,353.653 
 
 477,942 
 
 341,775 
 
 7 
 
 47 
 
 1,081 
 
 28,000 
 
 481,000 
 
 10,500 
 
 iSjOO 
 
 34 
 
 346 
 
 6,39° 
 
 N 
 
 00 
 
 1 
 
 2,973,336 
 
 177,101 
 
 S3.7S6 
 
 7 
 
 42 
 
 989 
 
 8,120 
 
 277,000 
 
 *5, 6°o 
 
 11,238 
 
 27 
 
 3*5 
 
 3,844 
 
 *65,596 
 
 4,479,500 
 
 *8i,439 
 
 *3°,349 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 k. 243 
 
 51,000 
 
 
 38,070 
 
 28,032 
 
 7 
 
 44 
 
 7S2 
 
 21,780 
 
 220,000 
 
 31,116 
 
 6,200 
 
 21 
 
 >63 
 
 3,305 
 
 48,837 
 
 1,247,500 
 
 75,89° 
 
 28,954 
 
 1 1 
 
 80 
 
 1,984 
 
 14,460 
 
 409,000 
 
 J ,900 
 
 38,850 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 15 
 
 k. 192 
 
 33,86s 
 
 368,000 
 
 *3, 010 
 
 7,576 
 
 
 73 
 
 1,105 
 
 79,5'° 
 
 1,605,000 
 
 21,858 
 
 26,062 
 
 2 
 
 *s 
 
 241 
 
 *,*43 
 
 ICO, COO 
 
 5°° 
 
 2, COO 
 
 4 
 
 28 
 
 382 
 
 9,290 
 
 455,000 
 
 9,Soo 
 
 5,396 
 
 8 
 
 1 10 
 
 *■5*2 
 
 44,33* 
 
 843,500 
 
 52,292 
 
 64,639 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 358 
 
 3,885 
 
 57,977 
 
 2,187,932 
 
 $36,871, 2!’ 
 
 $2,548,324 
 
 $',555,484 
 
 a. In the counties, b. Report of 1877. c. Report of 1S75. d. Reportof 1876. e. Not including average attendance in five civilized tribes, f. Sal- 
 aries of superintendents included. g In 1S77. h. Partial Report, i. In 1S75. j. In 1S77. k. No preparatory schools included. 1. In preparatory school. 
 Massachusetts is accredited in this report with but one preparatory school. 
 
 I able showing, according to census of 1S70, the number of organizations, members, edifices, sittings, and the value of church property of the 
 several denominations in the United States; also their theological seminaries, according to report for 1S7S: 
 
 DENOMINATIONS. 
 
 Baptist (Regular) 
 
 Baptist (Others) 
 
 Christian 
 
 Congregational 
 
 Episcopal f Protestant) 
 
 Evangelical Association 
 
 Friends 
 
 Jewish 
 
 Lutheran 
 
 Methodist 
 
 Moravian (Unitas Fratrum) 
 
 New Jerusalem (Swedenborgian) ! 
 
 Presbyterian (Regular) 
 
 Presbyterian (Other) ! . . . ] 
 
 Reformed Church in America (once Dutch Reformed). . . 
 Reformed Church in the U. S. (once German Reformed) 
 
 Roman Catholic 
 
 Second Advent 
 
 Shaker 
 
 Spiritualist 
 
 Unitarian 
 
 United Brethren in Christ 
 
 Universalist * 
 
 Union, Un knowr and Miscellaneous 
 
 •Partial RcporU 
 
 Church 
 
 Organiza- 
 
 tions. 
 
 Church 
 
 Edifices. 
 
 Church 
 
 Sittings. 
 
 Church 
 
 Property. 
 
 8 b 
 js 3 
 Hi n 
 
 oc_ 
 
 £ £ 
 HH 
 
 Theol'g 
 
 Stud’ts. 
 
 *4,474 
 
 12,857 
 
 3,997,1*6 
 
 $ 39,229,221 
 
 10 
 
 65 
 
 S05 
 
 * ,35^ 
 
 1,105 
 
 2,822 
 
 2,7*5 
 
 2,601 
 
 641 
 
 662 
 
 *52 
 
 2,776 
 
 363.0IQ 
 865,602 
 I, I 17,212 
 991,051 
 
 193,796 
 
 224,664 
 
 73,265 
 
 977,332 
 
 2,378,977 
 
 *2 
 
 * 10 
 
 *4* 
 
 2,835 
 
 8*s 
 
 692 
 
 189 
 
 6,425, 137 
 25,069,695 
 
 36,5*4,549 
 
 2,301,650 
 
 3,939,560 
 
 5,155,234 
 
 *4,9*7,747 
 
 69,854,121 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 & 
 
 78 
 
 359 
 
 268 
 
 3,032 
 
 *3 
 
 38 
 
 265 
 
 25,27s 
 
 2>,337 
 
 6,528,209 
 
 1 1 
 
 63 
 
 4S0 
 
 72 
 
 90 
 
 % 
 
 6 l 
 
 25,700 
 
 *§,755 
 
 709,100 
 
 869,700 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 28 
 
 6,262 
 
 5,683 
 
 2,I9S,900 
 
 47.S2S.732 
 
 *5 
 
 79 
 
 652 
 
 ',562 
 
 1,388 
 
 46S 
 
 499,344 
 
 5,436,524 
 
 5 
 
 *5 
 
 69 
 
 47* 
 
 227,22S 
 
 *0,359,255 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 32 
 
 1,256 
 
 *,'45 
 
 3.S06 
 
 140 
 
 is 
 
 22 
 
 431,700 
 
 5,775,2*5 
 
 60,955,560 
 
 306,240 
 
 86,900 
 
 100,150 
 
 6,282,675 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 58 
 
 4, *27 
 
 "A 
 
 95 
 
 1,990,5*4 
 
 3 m 
 
 6,970 
 
 *7 
 
 9* 
 
 932 
 
 33* 
 
 3*o 
 
 *55,47* 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 *,445 
 
 937 
 
 205,025 
 
 i,Si9,Sio 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 3° 
 
 7*9 
 
 602 
 
 2 io,SS4 
 
 5.692,325 
 
 2 
 
 IO 
 
 49 
 
 462 
 
 596| 
 
 172,062 
 
 '.369.745 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 IOI 
 
UNITED STATES CIVIL, ARMY AND NAVY PAY TABLES. 
 
 7 09 
 
 FOREIGN EXCHANGE. 
 
 Estimate of the values in U. S. money of account of the Standard Coins 
 of other Nations and proclaimed by the Secretary of the Treasury, Jan. 1, 1S80. 
 
 COUNTRY. 
 
 MONETARY UNIT. 
 
 STANDARD. 
 
 Value in 
 
 U. S. 
 money. 
 
 STANDARD COIN. 
 
 
 
 Silver 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .836 
 
 
 
 
 Gold 
 
 •54S 
 
 
 British Possessions 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Silver 
 
 .836 
 
 
 Chili ! . 
 
 
 Gold 
 
 .912 
 
 Condor, doubloon & escudo. 
 
 
 
 Gold 
 
 .268 
 
 10 and 20 crowns. 
 
 
 
 Silver 
 
 .S36 
 
 Peso. 
 
 
 
 Gold 
 
 4*074 
 
 5, 10, 25 and 50 piasters. 
 
 
 
 Gold and Silver 
 
 •193 
 
 5, 10 and 20 francs. 
 
 
 
 Gold 
 
 4.866^ 
 
 
 Greece 
 
 Drachma 
 
 Gold and Silver 
 
 .19.5 
 
 5, 10, 20, 50 & 100 drachmas 
 
 
 Mark 
 
 
 .238 
 
 5, 10 and 20 marks. 
 
 
 
 Silver 
 
 •397 
 
 
 
 
 Gold and Silver 
 
 .193 
 
 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 lire. 
 
 
 Yen (Gold) 
 
 Gold and Silver 
 
 •997 
 
 1, 2,5, 10 and 20 ven. 
 
 
 
 Gold 
 
 1 .00 
 
 
 
 Dollar 
 
 Silver 
 
 .909 
 
 Peso or dollar, 5, 10, 25 and 
 
 
 
 
 50 centavo. 
 
 
 
 Gold and Silver 
 
 .402 
 
 
 
 
 Gold 
 
 .268 
 
 10 and 20 crowns. 
 
 
 Sol 
 
 Silver 
 
 .836 
 
 Sol. 
 
 
 
 Gold 
 
 1 .(3 
 
 2, 5 and 10 milreis. 
 
 Russia 
 
 Rouble of 100 copecks 
 
 Silver 
 
 .669 
 
 % and 1 rouble. 
 
 
 
 Gold 
 
 1 .00 
 
 
 Spain.. 
 
 Peseta of 100 centimes 
 
 Gold and Silver 
 
 .19.) 
 
 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 pesetas. 
 
 
 
 
 .268 
 
 10 and 20 crowns. 
 
 
 
 Gold and Silver 
 
 
 5, 10 and 20 francs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gold 
 
 • OH 
 
 25, 5o, 100, 250 and 500 pi- 
 
 
 
 
 asters. 
 
 United States of Co- 
 
 
 
 
 
 lombia 
 
 Peso 
 
 Silver 
 
 .836 
 
 Peso. 
 
 United States Navy. — Active Service. 
 
 LINE— AT SEA 
 
 No. 
 
 Admiral. i 
 
 Vice Admiral i 
 
 Rear Admirals 1 1 
 
 Commodores 25 
 
 Captains 50 
 
 Commanders 90 
 
 Lieut -Commanders .... 80 
 
 Lieuts 2S0 
 
 Masters 100 
 
 Ensigns 100 
 
 Midshipmen 40 
 
 Cadet Midshipmen 334 
 
 Mates 42 
 
 Salary. 
 
 §13,000 
 
 9.000 
 
 6.000 
 
 5.000 
 
 4*500 
 3.500 
 
 3.000 
 2,600 
 
 1,800 to 2,000 
 ,200 to 1,400 
 
 2,SoO to 
 2,400 to 
 
 500 to 
 
 1,000 
 
 950 
 
 900 
 
 STAFF. 
 
 Medical Directors 
 
 Pay Directors 
 
 Chief Engineers 
 
 Surgeons 
 
 Paymasters. . . 
 
 Passed or Asst.Surgeons 
 Passed Asst. Paymasters 
 
 Asst. Paymasters 
 
 Passed Asst. Engineers 
 
 Asts. Engineers 
 
 Chaplains 
 
 Naval Constructors 
 
 Asst. Constructors. ..... 
 
 Profs, of Mathematics. . 
 
 Civil Engineers 
 
 Cadet Engineers 
 
 $2,800 to 4,400 
 2,800 to 4,200 
 2,Soo to 4,200 
 2,800 to 4,200 
 
 2.500 to 4,200 
 1,900 to 2,200 
 2,000 to 2,200 
 1,700 to 1,900 
 2,000 to 2,200 
 1,700 ta 1,900 
 
 2.500 to 2,Soo 
 *3,200 to *4,200 
 *2,000 to *2,600 
 
 2,400 to 3,5°° 
 2,400 to 3,500 
 500 to 1,000 
 
 Marine Corps. — Active Servtce. 
 
 Colonel Commandant.. 
 
 Colonel 
 
 Lieut. -Colonels 
 
 Major 
 
 Captains. 
 
 1st Lieuts 
 
 2d Lieuts 
 
 Pay Table of the Leading Civil Officers of the United States. 
 
 President of the United States, per annum, $50,000. 
 
 Vice-President of the United States, per annum, §10,000. 
 
 Cabinet Ministers, per annum, $10,000. 
 
 Chief Justice Supreme Court, per annum, $10,500. 
 
 Justices of the Supreme Couit,j>er annum, $10,000. 
 
 Senators and Representatives in Congress, with mileage, per annum, 
 $5,000. 
 
 Speaker House of Representatives, with mileage, per annum, $10,000. 
 Secretary of the Senate, per annum, $5,000. 
 
 Clerk House of Representatives, per annum, $5,000. 
 
 Assistant Secretaries of Departments, per annum, $6,000. 
 
 Heads of Bureaus, per annum, $1,000 to $5,000. 
 Superintendent Coast Survey, per annum, $6,000. 
 
 judges District of Columbia, per annum, $3,000. 
 
 Secretary Smithsonian Institution, per annum, $t,ooo. 
 
 Ministers Plenipotentiary to Great Britain, France, Germany and Rus- 
 sia, per annum, $17,500. . . . -I 1 Xf * 
 
 Ministers Plen potentiary to Spain, Austria, China, Italy, Mexico, 
 
 Brazil and Japan, per annum, $12,000. 
 
 Ministers Resident and Plenipotentiary to Chili, Peru, Uruguay, 
 Guatemala, Costa Rica, Honduras, Nicaragua and San Salvador, per 
 annum, $10,000. ^ . .. n 1 
 
 Ministers Resident to Portugal, Belgium, Netherlands, Denmark, 
 Sweden and Norway, Switzerland, Turkey, Hawaiian Islands, II ay ti , 
 Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Argentine Republic, Paraguay, Bolivia 
 and Greece, per annum, $7,500. . 
 
 Interpreter and Secretary of legation to China, per annum, $5,000. 
 Dragoman and Secretary of Legation to Turkey, per annum, $3,000. 
 
 Co.isul-General to Cairo', per annum, $4,000. 
 
 Consul-General to London, Paris, Havana and Rio Janeiro, per an- 
 num, $6,000. ~ 
 
 Consul General to Calcutta and Shanghai, per annum, $5,000. 
 Consul-General to Melbourne, per annum, $4.5°°- 
 
 Consul-General to Kanagawa, Montreal and Berlin, per annum, 
 
 ^ Consul-General to Vienna, Frankfort, Rome and Constantinople, per 
 annum, $3,000. e 
 
 Consul-General to Turkey and Egypt, per annum, $3.5°°- 
 Consul-General to St. Petersburg and Mexico, per annum, $2,000. 
 Consul -General to Liverpool, per annum, $6,000. 
 
 Secretaries of legation, from $1,500 to $2, 625- 
 Consuls, from $1,000 to $7,000. 
 
 The Postmasters, Collectors of the Revenue, Territorial Governors 
 and Judges, and other officers employed throughout the country, arc 
 too numerous to be designated in this place. 
 
 Pay Roll United States Army. 
 
 No. 
 
 General 
 
 Lieut. -General 
 
 Major-Generals 
 
 Brig'r-Generals 
 
 CAVALRY. 
 
 Colonels 
 
 Lieut. -Colonels 
 
 Majors 
 
 Captains 
 
 Adjutants 
 
 Reg. Qrs 
 
 1st. Lieuts 
 
 2d Lieuts 
 
 Chaplains 
 
 ARTILLERY. 
 
 Colonels 
 
 Lieut. -Colonels 
 
 Majors... 
 
 Captains 
 
 Adjutants 
 
 Reg. Qrs 
 
 1st Lieuts 
 
 2d Lieuts 
 
 Salary. 
 $13,500 
 1 1,000 
 
 7.500 
 
 5.500 
 
 S 3,500 
 3,000 
 
 2.500 
 2, coo 
 1,800 
 1,800 
 1,600 
 1,50 
 
 1.500 
 
 S 3.5CO 
 
 3.000 
 2,5CO 
 
 2.0 o 
 1,800 
 1,800 
 1,600 
 i*5°° 
 
 INFANTRY. 
 
 Colonels 25 $ 3..1 00 
 
 Lieut. -Colonels 25 3,000 
 
 Majors 2? 2, too 
 
 Captains 250 1,800 
 
 Adjutants 25 1,800 
 
 IU-K.Qrs 25 1,800 
 
 1st Lieuts 250 1,500 
 
 2d Lieuts 250 1, ,00 
 
 Chaplains 2 i,5°° 
 
 STAFF. 
 
 Aidcs-dc-Camps, 29: 6 of them the 
 pay of a Colonel, A.-de-C. to Gen- 
 cral of the army; 2 of them the pay 
 of a Lieut. -Colonel, A.-dc C. to 
 Lieut. -General; 8 of them $200 in 
 addition to pay in line, A.-dc-C. 
 to Major-Generals; 13 of them 
 $150 in addition to pay in line, 
 A.-dc-C. to Brigadier Generals. 
 
 No. Salary. 
 S 3.500 
 
 3.5 00 
 3,000 
 
 2.500 
 
 1.500 
 
 1.500 
 1,400 
 
 STAFF. 
 
 Majors I 3 |$ 2,500 
 
 Captains | 2 | 2,000 
 
 RETIRED LIST.— NAVY. 
 
 Brig'r- General 1 
 
 Lieut. -Colonel I 
 
 Majors .* 3 
 
 Captains 4 
 
 1 st Lieuts 2 
 
 2d Lieuts 3 
 
 Enlisted file of Marine Corps 1,500 
 men. 
 
 The enlisted persons in the United 
 States Navy consist of 8,500 seamen, 
 ordinary seamen, jlandsmcn and boys. 
 * Shore duty. 
 
 The Different Departments of 
 the Army. Vo Salarf . 
 
 Brig'r Generals 8 $ 5,500 
 
 Colonels *2 3»3°° 
 
 Lieut Colonels 
 
 Majors 
 
 Captains 
 
 1st Lieuts 
 
 BNOINKRR CORPS. 
 
 Brig’r-Gencral 
 
 Colonels 
 
 Lieut - Colonels 
 
 Majors 
 
 Captains 
 
 SIGNAL OFFICE. 
 
 Colonels I 
 
 Lieutenants 
 
 Post Chaplains * 3° 1 
 
 RETIRED LIST.— ARMY. 
 
 Major Generals 5 
 
 Brig’r- General s. *8 
 
 Colonels 59 
 
 Licut.-Coloncls 34 
 
 Majors 5° 
 
 Captains *3* 
 
 ist. Lieuts 7 J 
 
 2d Lieuts *5 
 
 Chaplains 8 
 
 Professors 
 
 3.000 
 
 2.500 
 
 2.000 
 1, 600 
 
 t 5.5°° 
 3*5°° 
 
 3.000 
 
 2.500 
 1,800 
 
 [S 3.5°° 
 
 1.500 
 1,500 
 
7io 
 
 METRIC AND STANDARD SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 MEl rc ,c am swim system of weight s and ^ 
 
 M'Sm ....TU TABLES OF EOUIVAl^ru*r^ 
 
 with tablesj>f^equivalents. 
 
 
 iHE Metric System is the whole 
 assemblage of measures derived 
 from a fundamental standard called 
 Meter.” 
 
 The metric system of weights and 
 measures originated in France about 
 1790. In 1799 an international com- 
 mission assembled at Paris on the 
 invitation of the government to set- 
 tle, from the results of the great Meridian 
 Survey, the exact length of the “definitive 
 meter.” Representatives were present from 
 France, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Swit- 
 zerland, Spain, Savoy and the Roman Re- 
 publics. A committee from the Assembly 
 of Sciences had spent several years of labo- 
 rious determinations, upon which were to 
 be the standard units of the new metro- 
 logical system. As the result of the inves- 
 tigations of this international commission, a 
 ten millionth part of the earth’s quadrant 
 was chosen, and called a meter. 
 
 To determine the unit of weight a cube of pure water at 
 its greatest density, each edge of which is one hundredth of 
 a meter, was taken and called a gramme or gram. The mul- 
 tiples and subdivisions were made to correspond to the 
 decimal scale, hence its great simplicity. 
 
 Probably no influence had contributed, previous to the 
 adoption of this system, more largely to embarrass trade 
 among the different nations of the world, than the endless 
 diversity of instrumentalities employed for the purpose of 
 determining the quantities of exchangeable commodities. It 
 is to this long-felt necessity for one common system of 
 weights and measures throughout the world, that this sys- 
 tem, after a lapse of but three-quarters of a century, has 
 been adopted by nearly two-thirds of the inhabitants of the 
 civilized and Christian world. In 1866 an act to authorize 
 the metric system in the United States was passed by Con- 
 gress. The utility of this system will commend itself even 
 at a glance, and hence the importance of every person be- 
 coming acquainted with it. 
 
 All metric measures arc uniformly multiplied and divided 
 by ten, which causes the system to be also called decimal 
 system of weights and measures. 
 
 The metric system comprises only five standard units, or 
 six, including the units of moneys. The names, uses, and 
 values of these units are : 
 
 The Meter, which is the unit of length and the basis of 
 all the other metric measures. 
 
 The Are, which is the unit of land measure, and is the 
 square of ten meters. 
 
 The Liter, which is the unit of measure of capacity 
 (both liquid and dry), and is the cube of a tenth part of a 
 meter. 
 
 The Stere, which is the unit of solid or cubic measure, 
 and equal to one cubic meter. 
 
 The Gram, which is the unit of measures of weights 
 represented as previously stated by the weight in vacuum of 
 one-hundrcdlh part of the meter. 
 
 The Franc, which is the unit of metric money, repre- 
 sented by a silver coin weighing five grains, and of which 
 nine-tenths are fine metal. 
 
 Each unit has its decimal multiples and sub-multiples, 
 i. c., weights and measures ten times larger or ten times 
 smaller than the principal unit. These multiples and sub- 
 multiples are indicated by seven prefixes placed before the 
 several fundamental units. The following arc the prefixes : 
 
 The multiples are taken from the Greek, the sub-multi- 
 ples from the Latin. 
 
 MVLTIPLES. 
 
 1. Doha , which means Ten. 
 
 2. Hecto , “ “ Hundred. 
 
 3. Kilo, “ “ Thousand. 
 
 \. Myria ,* “ “ TenThous'd. 
 
 SUB -MULTIPLES. 
 
 Decty which means Tenth. 
 Cenli, “ “ Hundredth. 
 
 Alilli, “ “ Thousajidth. 
 
 Thus with the meter we have 
 
 The Met^-, - i 
 
 “ Peckameter, or io 
 
 “ Hectometer, “ 100 
 
 “ Kilometer, “ 1000 
 
 meter. 
 
 The Meter 
 “ Decimeter, 
 “ Centimeter, 
 “ Millimeter, 
 
 0.1 
 - 0.01 
 
 0.001 
 
 Note — A similar series may be obtained with any other unit, such as 
 the Gram, one Kilogram, one thousand grains; the Liter, one Hecto- 
 liter, one hundred liters. The unit of money the Franc, admits no 
 multiplying prefixes. Its divisions are termed Dccime, Centime, Mill- 
 ime, instead of Decifranc, Centilranc, MUlifranc, although Dccime and 
 Millime are seldom used. 
 
 The formation of the tables can be seen at a glance by 
 the following: 
 
 VALUE. LENGTH. SURFACE. 
 
 10,000 Kyriameter*. 
 
 i,ODo Milometer. Kilarc.* 
 
 100 Hectometer. Hectare. 
 
 10 Decameter. Dccare.* 
 
 UNIT. METER. ARE. 
 
 .1 Decimeter. Dcciare. 
 
 ..Centimeter. Centiare. 
 ..Millimeter. Milliare.* 
 
 .01 . 
 .odi 
 
 CAPACITY. SOLIDITY. WEIGHT. 
 
 Kiloliler. 
 
 Hectoliter 
 
 Dekaliter. 
 
 LITER. 
 
 Deciliter. 
 
 Centiliter. 
 
 Milliliter. 
 
 Kilosterc.* 
 .1 Iectostere, 
 Decastcre. 
 
 STERRE. 
 Decistere. 
 Centi stere 
 Millistcre. 
 
 Kilogram. 
 ♦Hectogram. 
 Decagram. 
 GRAM. 
 Decigram. 
 .* Centigram. 
 * Milligram. 
 
 ♦ Are not in use. 
 
METRIC AND STANDARD SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 711 
 
 NAMES. 
 
 PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 ABR. 
 
 Millimeter 
 
 Mill' -e-mee' -ter 
 
 mm. 
 
 Centimeter 
 
 Sent '-e-mee' -ter 
 
 cm. 
 
 Decimeter 
 
 Des’ -e-mee '-ter 
 
 dm. 
 
 Meter 
 
 Mee'-ter 
 
 m. 
 
 Decameter 
 
 Dek'-a-mee'-ter 
 
 dkm. 
 
 Hectometer 
 
 Hec ' -to-mee ' -ter 
 
 km. 
 
 Kilometer 
 
 Kill '-o-mee' -ter 
 
 km 
 
 Myriame'er 
 
 Mir'-e-a-mee'-ter 
 
 mym. 
 
 Milliare 
 
 Mill' -e-are 
 
 ?na. 
 
 Centiare 
 
 Sent' -e-are 
 
 ca . 
 
 Deciare 
 
 Des '-e-are 
 
 da . 
 
 Are * 
 
 Are 
 
 a. 
 
 Decare 
 
 Dek ' -are 
 
 dka. 
 
 Hectare 
 
 Hec ' -tare 
 
 ha. 
 
 Kilare 
 
 Kill '-are 
 
 ha. 
 
 Myriare 
 
 Mir ' -e-are 
 
 mya. 
 
 Millistere 
 
 Mill' -e-steer 
 
 ms. 
 
 Centistere 
 
 Sent '-e-steer 
 
 cs. 
 
 Decistere 
 
 Des '-e-steer 
 
 ds. 
 
 Stere 
 
 Steer 
 
 s. 
 
 Decastere 
 
 Dek'-a-steer 
 
 dks. 
 
 Hectostere 
 
 Hec '-to- steer 
 
 /is. 
 
 Kilostere 
 
 Kill'-o-steer 
 
 hs. 
 
 Myriastere 
 
 Mir'-e-a-steer 
 
 nys. 
 
 Milliliter 
 
 Mill' -e-li ' -ter 
 
 ml. 
 
 Centiliter 
 
 Sent'-e-li'-ter 
 
 cl. 
 
 Deciliter 
 
 Des'-e-li'-ter 
 
 dl. 
 
 Liter 
 
 Li '-ter 
 
 1. 
 
 Decaliter 
 
 J)ek'-a-li'-ter 
 
 dkl. 
 
 Hectoliter 
 
 Hec'-to-li'-ter 
 
 hi. 
 
 Kiloliter 
 
 Kill '-o-li' -ter 
 
 hi. 
 
 Mvrialiter 
 
 Mir'-e-a-li’-ter 
 
 myl. 
 
 Milligram 
 
 Mill ' -e-gram 
 
 mg. 
 
 Centigram 
 
 Sent' -e-gram 
 
 Cff- 
 
 Decigram 
 
 Des '-e-gram 
 
 dg- 
 
 Gram 
 
 Gram 
 
 g • 
 
 Decagram 
 
 Dek'-a-gram 
 
 dkg. 
 
 Hectogram 
 
 Hec'-to-gram 
 
 kg. 
 
 Kilogram 
 
 Kill'-o-gram 
 
 kg- 
 
 Myriagram 
 
 Mir'-e-a-gram 
 
 myg. 
 
 Quintal 
 
 Quin' -tal 
 
 1- 
 
 Tonneau 
 
 Tun '-no 
 
 T. 
 
 * The a in deca and myria, and the o in hecto and kilo are dropped 
 
 when prefixed to Are. 
 
 Tables of Standard English Measures and Weights, and the 
 Metric System. 
 
 LONG MEASURE. 
 
 •> lines or 3 barleycorns make 1 I S'A yards make 1 rod or pole. 
 
 inch. 40 rods make 1 furlong. 
 
 3 feet make 1 yard. I ^ furlongs 1 mile. 
 
 Cloth Measure.* 
 
 2 sixteenths - 1 eighth. I 2 quarters - 1 half 
 
 2 eighths — 1 quarter. | 4 quarters — 1 yard. 
 
 Other Measures. 
 
 3 inches make i palm. 
 
 4 “ “ 1 nand. 
 
 6 “ “ 1 span. 
 
 18 u ** 1 cubit. 
 
 21.8 “ “ 1 Bible cubit 
 
 2% feet make i military pace. 
 3 “ “ 1 common pace. 
 
 3.28 ** tl 1 meter. 
 
 6 “ “ 1 fathom. 
 
 8S0 fathoms make i mile. 
 
 1 knot or geographical mile is 
 of a degree. 
 
 3 knots make i marine league. 
 
 60 | 
 
 6954 statute miles V i degree. 
 
 99 1 12 miles ) 
 
 ■Sg part of an inch, a hair’s breadth. 
 A ships cable is a chain usually 
 about 120 fathoms or 720 feet 
 long. 
 
 • The old system of measuring cloth by nails and ells is not now used 
 in this country. 
 
 One minim equals one drop. 
 
 Scale of Comparison’. 
 
 fur. 
 
 S 
 
 Table of Equivalents as between Metric and Standard Meas- 
 ures. 
 
 rod. 
 
 yd. 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 320 — 
 
 1760 C=> 
 
 5280 — 
 
 63360 
 
 40 — 
 
 220 = 
 
 660 = 
 
 7920 
 
 
 s'A - 
 
 16^ _ 
 
 19s 
 
 
 
 3 ~ 
 
 36 
 
 1 in. «= 25^ m. m. (nearly). 
 1 ft. = 305 “ “ 
 
 1 yd. = 914 “ “ 
 
 1 rd. = 5,029 “ “ 
 
 1 mi. = 1609.35 m - 
 1 cm. = .3937 in. (nearly). 
 
 1 m. = 39.37 in. =» 1.093 yd. 
 
 1 km. = .62137 mi.= 19S rds. 13 ft 
 10 in. 
 
 . ft. 
 yd. 
 
 1 cu. m 
 1 cu. ft. 
 
 1 cu. yd. 
 
 1 cord 
 1 fluid oz. 
 1 gal. 
 
 1 bus. 
 
 1 oz. troy 
 1 lb. troy 
 1 lb. apoth. 
 x oz. avoir. 
 1 lb. avoir. 
 
 6.5 sq. cm. 
 9.3 sq. dm. 
 .835 sq. m. 
 40.47 a. 
 
 Square Measure. 
 
 1 sq. cm. 
 
 sq. m. =» 
 
 are. = 
 
 ha. =» 
 
 Cubic Solid Measure. 
 
 16.3S7 cu. centm. 
 j 2S.34 liters, 
 j .02S3 steres. 
 .76531 steres. 
 3.6281 steres. 
 .02958 liters. 
 3.786 liters. 
 
 35.24 liters. 
 
 J 
 
 1 liter = 
 1 hecto- 
 liter 
 1 kiloli- 
 ter 
 
 1 cu. me- 
 ter 
 
 1 stere 
 
 Weight. 
 
 1 ton avoir. 
 1 gram. 
 
 .155 sq. in. 
 
 \ 1550 sq. in. 
 1 10.76 sq. ft. 
 1 19.0 sq. yd. 
 2.471 acres. 
 
 1.0567 qt. liq. meas. 
 .gcS qt. dry meas. 
 2.S37 bu. dry meas. 
 26.417 gal. liq. meas. 
 35 - 3 l6 cu. ft. 
 
 1.30S cu. yd. 
 
 2A4. 17 g-.il. liq. 
 meas. 
 
 .2759 cord. 
 
 31.1 grams. 
 
 373-2 “ 
 
 2S.3S “ 
 
 453.6 “ 
 
 Angular Measure. 
 
 kilogram 
 
 tonneau 
 
 .=. 907.2 kilos, 
 j 15-432 fT- tro y. 
 
 I .5643 dr. avoir. 
 
 — 2.2046 Jb. avoir. 
 
 — 2204.6 lb. avoir. 
 
 100 grades. 
 
 1 J grades. 
 
 1.85 minutes (’cen.). 
 3.0S seconds ( cen.). 
 
 cir. 
 grade 
 ' ccn. 
 
 ” cen. 
 
 400 grades. 
 9 deg. 
 
 5 - 4 *. 
 
 3 - 24 '. 
 
 2 pints (pt.) 
 8 quarts. 
 
 4 necks 
 36 bushels 
 
 Pry Measure. 
 
 1 quart, 
 
 1 peck, 
 
 1 bushel, 
 
 1 chaldron, 
 
 Scale ok Comparison. 
 
 P t 
 
 bu- 
 
 cald- 
 
 cald. 
 
 bu. 
 
 36 - 
 
 pks. 
 
 144 
 
 4 
 
 qts. 
 
 1.5a 
 
 3 ! 
 
 pts. 
 
 J 3 °f 
 
 
 Note.— The standard bushel is the Winchester, which contains 
 2150.42 cubic inches, or 77.627 lbs. avoirdupois of distilled water at its 
 maximum density. 
 
 Its dimensions are i 8 J 4 inches diameter inside, 19J4 inches outside, and 
 8 inches deep. 
 
 Liquid or Wine Measure. 
 
 4 gills make 1 pint, pt. | 3'M gallons make 1 barrel, bbl. 
 
 pints 
 4 quarts " 
 
 quart, 
 
 1 gallon, 
 
 qt 
 
 gal. 
 
 2 barrels 
 63 gallons 
 
 ^ u 1 hogshead, hh. 
 
 Surveyors' Measure. 
 
 25 links make i rod. 
 
 4 rods “ 1 chain. 
 
 80 ch. ** 1 mile. 
 
 Surveyors’ Square Measure. 
 
 625 sq. links make i sq. rod, 
 
 16 sq. rods “ i sq. chain, 
 
 10 sq. ch. ** 1 acre, 
 
 640 A. “ * sq. mile, 
 
 36 sq. miles (six milt sq.) make i township, 
 
 sq rd. 
 sq. ch. 
 
 A. 
 sq. mi. 
 Tp. 
 
 Square Measure. 
 
 144 sq. in. make i square foot. 
 
 9 sq. ft. “ 1 square yard. 
 
 30& sq. yds. “ i square rod. 
 
 40 sq. rds. make i rood, or qr. acre. 
 4 R. "1 acre. 
 
 640 A. 11 1 sq. mile or sec- 
 
 tion. 
 
712 
 
 METRIC AND STANDARD SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 Scale of Comparison. 
 
 A. R. 
 
 i = 4 
 
 rds. 
 
 sq. yds. 
 
 sq. ft. 
 
 sq. in. 
 
 =, 160 = 
 
 4840 = 
 
 43“i<» = 
 
 6272040 
 
 = 40 = 
 
 1210 = 
 
 10S90 = 
 
 156S160 
 
 1 = 
 
 30V — 
 
 272^ = 
 
 39 2 °4 
 
 
 
 9 - 
 
 1 =■ 
 
 1296 
 
 144 
 
 Cubic or Solid Measure. 
 
 172S cu. in. make 1 cubic foot. 
 
 27 cu. ft. 
 
 40 cu. ft. of round timber or { 
 50 cu. ft. of hewn timber f 
 8 cu. ft. 
 
 16 cd. ft. or | 
 
 128 cu. ft. J 
 
 24^ cu. ft. 
 
 cubic yard. 
 
 1 ton or load. 
 
 1 cord foot. 
 
 1 cord of wood. 
 
 ( perch of 
 i-< stone, or 
 ( masonry. 
 
 24 grains (gr.) 
 20 pwt. 
 
 12 OZ. 
 
 grains 
 
 lb. 
 
 1 
 
 20 grains (gr.) 
 3 scruples 
 8 drams 
 12 ounces 
 
 Weights. 
 
 Troy Weights. 
 
 make 1 pennyweight, 
 
 “ 1 ounce, 
 
 “ 1 pound, 
 
 “ 1 carat (diamond wt.), 
 
 Scale of Comparison. 
 
 dwt. 
 
 
 Scale of Comparison. 
 
 
 
 T. cwt. qr. 
 
 lb. 
 
 oz. 
 
 dr. 
 
 
 1 = 20 = 80 = 
 
 2000 = 
 
 32000 = 
 
 512000 
 
 
 1=4 = 
 
 100 = 
 
 4000 = 
 
 25600 
 
 
 1 = 
 
 25 = 
 
 400 == 
 
 6400 
 
 
 
 6 = 
 
 16 = 
 
 256 
 
 
 
 
 I = 
 
 l6 
 
 
 United States money is a 
 
 decimal cutrency. 
 
 
 
 Table. 
 
 
 
 pwt. 
 
 10 mills (m.) 1 cent, ct. 
 10 cents 1 dime, d. 
 
 
 
 
 oz. 
 
 100 mills. 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 10 dimes i dollar, $ 
 
 IOOO “ 
 
 100 cents. 
 
 
 k. 
 
 10 dollars i eagle, E. 
 
 I OOOO “ 
 
 1000 “ 
 
 100 dimes. 
 
 oz. 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 240 
 
 20 
 
 1 
 
 ik. 
 
 Apothecaries’ W eight. 
 
 make 1 scruple, 
 
 “ 1 dram, 
 
 “ 1 ounce, 
 
 “ 1 pound, 
 
 Scale of Comparison. 
 
 lb. 
 
 1 
 
 oz. 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 dr. 
 
 96 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 sc. 
 
 2S8 
 
 24 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 gr- 
 
 5760 
 
 480 
 
 2 4 
 
 3r 
 
 sc. or 3 
 dr. or § 
 oz. or 3 
 lb. or lb. 
 
 gr- 
 
 5760 
 
 480 
 
 60 
 
 20 
 
 Table of Miscellaneous Weight. 
 
 make 1 barrel of flour. 
 
 1 “ beef, pork or fish. 
 
 1 “ salt at N. Y. Salt Works. 
 
 1 bushel of oats. 
 
 1 “ barley. 
 
 1 “ corn, rye or flax seed. 
 
 1 “ blue-grass-seed. 
 
 1 “ castor- beans. 
 
 1 “ hemp-seed. 
 
 ,, ( wheat, beans, clover- 
 
 'll seed, peas or potatoes. 
 
 1 “ timothy-seed. 
 
 1 “ onions. 
 
 1 “ apples or peaches dried. 
 
 1 “ salt. 
 
 A sack of -wool is 22 stone, that is, 14 lbs. to the stone, 
 308 lbs. 
 
 A pack of zvool is 17 stone 2 lbs =240 lbs. — a pack load 
 for a horse. 
 
 A truss of hay is, new, 60 lbs.; old, 50 lbs.; straw, 40 lbs. 
 A load of hay is 36 trusses. A bale of hay is 300 lbs. 
 
 A firkin of butter was formerly 56 lbs., but is now generally 
 put up in 50 or 100 lb. firkins. 
 
 A bale of cotton is 400 IBs., but it is put up in different 
 States varying from 280 to 720 lbs. Sea Island cotton is 
 put up in sacks of 300 lbs. 
 
 196 lbs. 
 
 200 
 
 U 
 
 280 
 
 u 
 
 32 
 
 u 
 
 48 
 
 u 
 
 56 
 
 u 
 
 14 
 
 u 
 
 46 
 
 a 
 
 44 
 
 u 
 
 60 
 
 u 
 
 45 
 
 t< 
 
 57 
 
 (t 
 
 28 
 
 (4 
 
 5 ° 
 
 44 
 
 Avoirdupois Weight. 
 
 16 drams (dr.) 1 ounce, oz. 
 
 16 oz. 1 pound, lb. 
 
 25 lb. 1 quarter, qr. 
 
 4 qr. 1 hundredweight, cwt. 
 
 20 cwt. 1 ton, T. 
 
 100 lb. 1 cental, c. 
 
 1 eagle (gold) weighs 25S troy grains. 
 
 1 dollar (silver) “ 412.5 “ 
 
 1 cent (copper) “ 168 “ 
 
 23.2 grains of pure gold=$i.oo. 
 
 Note. — The gold coins are the double-eagle, eagle, half- 
 eagle, quarter-eagle , three-dollar piece and dollar. 
 
 Table of Comparison of the Measures of Capacity. 
 
 1 gallon or 4 qt. wine measure contains 231 cubic inches. 
 y z pk. or 4 qt. dry measure “ 2_68| “ 
 
 1 gallon or 4 qt. beer measure “ 282 “ 
 
 1 bushel dry measure “ 2150)^ “ 
 
 In England the following weights and measures are 
 sometimes used: 
 
 WEIGHT. 
 
 3 pounds = 1 stone, butchers’ 
 meat. 
 
 7 pounds = 1 clove. 
 
 2 cloves . - 1 stone common 
 articles. 
 
 2 stone -- 1 tod of wool. 
 
 6 l A tods = 1 wey “ 
 
 2 weys 1 sack “ 
 
 12 sacks = 1 last “ 
 
 240 pounds ■= 1 pack “ 
 
 CLOTH MEASURE. . 
 
 2 l A inches = i nail. 
 
 4 nails = 1 quarter. 
 
 4 quarters ---- 1 yard. 
 
 3 quarters = i Flemish ell. 
 
 5 quarters = 1 English ell. 
 
 6 quarter = i French ell. 
 
 2 quarts 
 2 bushels 
 2 strikes 
 
 2 cooms 
 
 S quarters 
 
 3 bushels 
 36 bushels 
 
 DRY MEASURE. 
 
 = i pottle. 
 
 - 1 strike. 
 
 = 1 coom. 
 
 == 1 quarter. 
 =. 1 load. 
 
 = 1 sack. 
 
 = 1 chaldron. 
 
 tierce. 
 
 WINE MEASURE. 
 
 18 U. S. gal. = 1 runlet. 
 
 24 Eng. gal. or I 
 42 U. S. Gal. ! 
 
 2 tierces = 1 puncheon. 
 
 ifu n l:|ai: or h. ,ho “ shead - 
 
 2 hogsheads = i pipe. 
 
 2 pipes = 1 tun. 
 
 7 1 / 2 Eng. gal. = 1 firkin of beer. 
 
 4 firkins = i barrel “ 
 
 4l 2 5 quarters = i Scotch ell. 
 
 Table of Comparison of Weights, &c. 
 
 1 U. S. pound Troy«=576o grs. Troy 
 1 Eng. pound Troy= ^760 “ “ 
 
 1 pound Apoth. =-5760 “ “ 
 
 1 U. S. pound Av.=7ooo “ " 
 
 1 Eng. pound Av. =7000 “ “ 
 
 144 pounds Av. = 175 lb. Troy. 
 1 French gram -=15 *433 STs. “ 
 
 1 U. S. yard =36 inches. 
 
 1 English yard=36 inches. 
 
 1 French meter=39.368+inches. 
 1 U. S. bushel =2i5o.42-j-cu. in. 
 1 Eng. “ =2218.194- ** 
 
 1 U. S. gallon =231 “ 
 
 1 Eng. “ =277.26-+- “ 
 
 1 French liter =61.533-)- “ 
 
 1 French are =1 19.664 sq. yds. 
 
 French, English and United States Money 
 Reduced into United States, English and French money. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Pounds Sterling. 
 
 Shillings. 
 
 Pence. 
 
 1 
 
 = 0.1930 
 
 
 0.0396S =■ 
 
 0.7936 
 
 = 9523 
 
 5 „ , 
 
 = 0.9648 
 
 
 0.19S40 = 
 
 3.968 
 
 - 47.62 
 
 5.1826 
 
 =« 1 . 
 
 — 
 
 0 . 2056 = 
 
 4. 11 
 
 - 49- 
 
 25-9t3 
 
 “ 5 *o, 
 
 — 
 
 1 .02 So = 
 
 20.56 
 
 - 247. 
 
 25.20 
 
 — 4.S63 
 
 — 
 
 1 . «=■ 
 
 20.00 
 
 « 240. 
 
 126.00 
 
 - 24.315 
 
 — 
 
 5- - 
 
 100.00 
 
 — 1200. 
 
 
 k 
 
 FT 
 
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 EDUCATIONAL, SOCIAL, LEGAL AND COMMERCIAL. 
 
 An Elegantly Illustrated Quarto Volume 
 of 506 Pages. 
 
 By PROF. C. A. CASKELL, 
 
 Principal Bryant & Stratton's Business Colleges at Manchester, 
 N. //., and Jersey City , A’. J. 
 
 The Compendium embraces a self-teaching course of Penman- 
 ship and Bookkeeping and aid to English Composition, including 
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 etc. Together with 
 
 ELEVEN DICTIONARIES OF REFERENCE. 
 
 Synonyms; Pronunciation; Words of Similar Pronunciation 
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 Glossary of Legal and Commercial Terms; Abbreviations; 
 Foreign Words and Phrases; Language of Flowers, and Poeticai 
 Selections. 
 
 This book has just been issued, and embraces a great many 
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COMMENDATIONS FROM NEWSPAPERS, EMINENT PERSONS AND EDUCATORS, 
 
 ON CASKELL'S COMPENDIUM OF FORMS. 
 
 Rev. E. C. RAY , Late d Elizabeth, N. J., now of Hyde Park , 111 . 
 
 It gives me pleasure to testify to the value of this remarkable book. 
 The statistical tables toward the end of the volume, are a storehouse of 
 valuable information for scholars, public men, and all needing accurate 
 statements. I have tried in vain to find some of these things elsewhere. 
 The book draws on one who uses it; nothing but use can disclose its 
 curious fullness and variety. It differs in toto from other books of eti- 
 quette which I have examined, in its practical and common sense advice 
 and information. 
 
 Prof. JAS. II. LANS LEY, Principal Business College. Elizabeth , N.J. 
 
 It will prove of great practical value to the subscribers. The young 
 especially will find in its pages much to improve their minds and please 
 the imagination, while their parents will not be less interested in a care- 
 ful perusal of the entire volume. 
 
 I commend it to my pupils and friends as a good investment. 
 
 Prof. M. J. GOLDSMITH , Prof. Penmanship Southern Business 
 University , Atlanta , Ga. 
 
 Embodies\he most practical and useful amount of information of any 
 book I ever saw. It is a perfect business library in itself. 
 
 JAMES S. BOYNTON , Pres. Georgia State Senate. 
 
 It contains a vast amount of valuable information presented in an 
 attractive form. It will be found useful to a business man, and valuable 
 in a family of young people. 
 
 B. F. MOORE , A. M., Pres. Southern Business University , Atlanta , 
 Georgia. 
 
 I can recommend ‘ Gaskell’s Compendium of Forms’’’ as a useful book 
 of reference, for business and professional men, and is more complete 
 than any work of the kind previously published. 
 
 BOSTON HERALD. 
 
 Its pages are so well stocked with useful knowledge, that few will 
 hesitate to give it the second place, at least, among the volumes in 
 daily use. 
 
 BOSTON COURIER. 
 
 One of the most useful books for reference, or study, recently issued, 
 is undoubtedly “Gaskell’s Compendium of Forms.” 
 
 Gov. JOHN D. LONG , of Massachusetts. 
 
 It contains a vast amount of valuable information. 
 
 Gov. NATT HEAD , of New Hampshire. 
 
 It surpasses any book of the kini I have ever seen; it is a complete 
 library in itself. 
 
 EX- VICE PRESIDENT SCHUYLER COLFAX. 
 
 I have found “Gaskell’s Compendium of Forms ” such a valuable 
 work, and embodying so many desirable facts, forms and instructions 
 that I have not only subscribed for a copy for my own library, but also 
 very cheerfully recommend it to those of every business and calling. 
 
 Hon. MARCUS L. WARD , Ex- Gov. of New Jersey. 
 
 It supplies a much needed want, and will benefit all who consult its 
 pages. 
 
 Hon. THEODORE F. RANDOLPH , U. S. Senator of New Jersey. 
 
 Contains very much valuable information. 
 
 Prof. H. E. HIBBARD , Principal Bryant di Stratton Commercial 
 School , Boston. 
 
 I have examined it carefully, and with great interest to myself. 
 Would not part with it for ten times its cost. Should find its way into 
 every home. 
 
 Prof. S. S. F ACKARD, Packard' s Business College, New York. 
 
 It meets a very aggressive sort of demand. The amount of valuable 
 information it contains is simply bewildering. 
 
 Hon. J. W. ENGLISH, Mayor of Atlanta , Ga. 
 
 To all business and professional men, “ Gaskell’s Compendium of 
 Forms ” will be found a most excellent book for reference and study. 
 
 J. H. SMART, A. M., President National Teachers' Assembly {1881), 
 Atlanta, Ga. 
 
 I know of no more valuable book than “ Gaskell’s Compendium of 
 Forms,” and commend its use to all business and professional men. 
 
 JAS. A. WESTON, Ex- Gov. of New Hampshire. 
 
 I have examined your “ Gaskell’s Compendium of Forms” with 
 much interest and satisfaction; while the book is of great value in fam- 
 ilies, the business man — in fact, everybody, — will derive profit by a 
 perusal of its pages. 
 
 Hon. WM. H. SPENCER, C. S. C., Georgia State Senator, from 
 Harris Co., Ga. 
 
 The work is practical in its nature, is systematically arranged, and all 
 who consult its pages will be greatly benefited thereby. It is a book of 
 great value. # 
 
 Hon. ALFRED IT. COLQUITT, Governor State of Georgia. 
 “Gaskell’s Compendium of Forms” contains a great many valuable 
 matters of both business and social utility, and is a compilation of a 
 surprising amount of forms and information. 
 
 Hon. W. F. HEMP HILL, Publisher of the Daily Constitution, 
 Atlanta. Ga. 
 
 We find it to bo one of the most useful books for reference or study in 
 our library. 
 
 Prof. J. E. SOULE, Principal Bryant dc Stratton Colleges, Philadel- 
 phia, Pa. 
 
 It is one of the most useful books in my library. It contains a world 
 of information, carefully arranged, classified and indexed. The work 
 is eminently practical, and cannot fail to be a valuable book of refer- 
 ence and instruction to students and business and professional men. It 
 is full of good things. 
 
 Prof. W. II. SADLER, Principal Bryant, Stratton dc Sadler Colleges, 
 Baltimore, Md. 
 
 It is decidedly the best and only complete work of the kind. I want 
 six copies to present to my teachers. 
 
 Prof. W. A. DRAKE, Ptincipal Hillsdale {Mich.') College. 
 
 It is superior to any similar work which has preceded it, being pre- 
 pared upon a more liberal plan, and evincing more care and scholarship 
 in its compilation. Those who possess it will be spared many cash dis- 
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 by having access to it. 
 
 Rev. KENDALL BROOKS, D. D., Pres. Kalamazoo ( Mich.) College . 
 In mar.y families it will take the place of a whole library. 
 
 SAM UEL DICKIE, A. M., Librarian Albioti {Mich.) College . 
 
 A rare collection of valuable information, intelligently compiled and 
 elegantly printed. 
 
 D. W. C. DURGIN, Pres. Hillsdale {Mich.) College. 
 
 If one wants an item and doesn’t know whereto find it, let him go to 
 “ Gaskell’s Compendium.” The “Compendium of Reference” (32 
 pages) is alone worth the price of the work. 
 
 Prof. L. C. AT LW ORTH, Pres. Commercial College , Battle Creek , 
 Mich. 
 
 An Encyclopaedia of valuable information for all who mingle in busi- 
 ness and society. 
 
 DALLAS BOUDEM AN, Esq., Attorney at Law, Kalamazoo, Mich. 
 
 The legal forms are such as are in general use in the profession— the 
 most complete work of its kind I have ever seen. 
 
 II. E. WINS OR, Esq., Attorney at Law, Marshall, Mich. 
 
 A book demanded by the times. Should be in every farmer’s family 
 especially. 
 
 ZELOTES TRUESDEL, Supt. Schools, Pontiac , Mich. 
 
 No family can afford to be without it. 
 
 C. N. WALDRON , Vice- Pres. First National Bank, Hillsdale, Mich. 
 
 The best book of the kind with which I am familiar, and deserves a 
 large circulation. 
 
 Hon. W. F. MASON, Supt. Atlanta {Ga.) City Schools. 
 
 One of the most useful books in my library — for reference and study. 
 Hon. WM. A. HARRIS {Sec. Senate of Georgia), Attorney at Law • 
 I unhesitatingly pronounce it a valuable book of reference, as regards 
 business, social and legal forms. I have a copy which I appreciate 
 very highly, and would not part with it for five times its cost.