^ 
 
 O \^ CY<iL>v-i. 
 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF ILLINOIS 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 385 
 
 K6355 
 
 1916 
 
 v.ia
 
 ENGINEERS* AND FIREMEN'S 
 HANDBOOK 
 
 THIS VOLUME IS A PRACTICAL MANUAL FOR ENGINEERS AND FIRE- 
 MEN TREATING OF THEIR DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES AND 
 THE DETAILS NECESSARY TO BE OBSERVED BYTHEM IN THE 
 OPERATION AND HANDLING OF SIMPLE, COMPOUND 
 AND OIL BURNING LOCOMOTIVES, AND INCLUDING 
 FULL PROGRESSIVE EXAMINATIONS (QUES- 
 TIONS AND ANSWERS) FOR THOSE SEEK- 
 ING TO QUALIFY AS LOCOMOTIVE 
 ENGINEERS. PROFUSELY ILLUS- 
 TRATED WITH MANY DRAW- 
 INGS MADE EXPRESSLY 
 FOR THIS WORK. 
 
 FORMING ONE OF THE SERIES OF VOLUMES COMPRISED IN THE 
 REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION O^ 
 
 "Kirkman's Science of Railways" 
 
 NOTE: The author of ''Tlie .''eienro of Railways" served fur fifty years as a 
 railway offlcer aiul employe; the last twenty years as vieepresirlent of the company. 
 However, In writing "The Science of Railways." ami in its many sul)sequent editions 
 and'' revisions (to meet the ever changinj? conditions of tlie service), he and those 
 interested in the publication of the work have had throughout tlie active advice and 
 aid of practical experts from every branch of railway operation — men who know, 
 who have themselves soh'ed the problems Incident to their particular line of work. 
 Tho books are, therefore, authoritative, and as valuable to railway men as standard 
 text-books are to lawyers, doctors, cirtl engineers and other representative men. 
 
 REVISED AND ENLARCiED EDITION 1916 
 
 CHICAGO 
 
 CROPLEY PHILLIPS COMPANY 
 
 1917
 
 * 
 
 COPYRIGHT BY 
 
 CROPLEV PHILLIPS "COMPANY 
 
 1917 
 
 Also Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. England 
 
 All Rights Reserved.
 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introduction 5 
 
 Chapter I. The Locomotive the Key to the Railroad 
 World. Questions Regarding Selection, Trial and 
 Work of those in Charge. The Value of Systematic 
 Study and Careful Examinations to those who would 
 become Efficient Engineers 13 
 
 Chapter II. Duties and Responsibilities of Engineers and 
 
 Firemen : 27 
 
 Chapter III. Steam and its Application to the Locomo- 
 tive 41 
 
 Chapter IV. Firing — Combustion the Source of Energy 
 in the Locomotive 47 
 
 Chapter V. Pointers for Firemen 65 
 
 Chapter VI. A Chapter of "Don'ts" for Engineers and 
 
 Firemen 139 
 
 Chapter VII. The Locomotive Superheater 151 
 
 Chapter VIII. Valves and Valve Gears 188 
 
 Chapter IX. Compound Locomotives — Introductory 323 
 
 Chapter X. Compound Locomotives — General Description 
 — Comparison with Simple Locomotives 327 
 
 Chapter XI. Classes of Compound Locomotives and their 
 General Construction — Different Types 339 
 
 Chapter XII. Progressive Examinations for Firemen — 
 their Utility — Questions and Answers in Detail 497 
 
 Chapter XIII. How Oil is Used for Fuel on Locomotives 613 
 
 Index 667 
 
 .58.'?^08
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The books that make up the "Science of Rail- 
 ways," of which this is a part, have much to 
 say, directly and indirectly, about the Equip- 
 ment and Train Service of railways. Both these 
 subjects bear directly on the duties and respon- 
 sibilities of engineers and firemen. It is as im- 
 possible to afford a separate and connected 
 account of such duties as it is to afford such an 
 account of the duties of superintendents or 
 comptrollers. Railway service laps and inter- 
 laps in every direction, and the engineer and fire- 
 man to fully understand their duties must also 
 understand the things that are germane thereto. 
 This requires that they should study railroading 
 not piecemeal, but as a whole. 
 
 It w^as the impossibility of separating the 
 duties of particular departments of the service 
 and describing them apart that first constrained 
 me to take up the subject as a whole. I started 
 out to describe particular branches of the serv- 
 ice, but quickly found that their connection 
 with the others was so close as to render a de- 
 scription of the whole necessary. Thus I was 
 led reluctantly and contrary to my original in- 
 tention to take up the subject in its entirety. 
 
 (6)
 
 6 DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 
 
 What I have been compelled to do, others, who 
 seek to fully inform themselves in regard to par- 
 ticular branches of the service, will also be com- 
 pelled to do. 
 
 While there are many engineers and firemen 
 who take this comprehensive view of the sub- 
 ject, others believe their field lies more apart 
 and that, therefore, it is susceptible of separate 
 delineation and study. There is much interest- 
 ing and valuable literature extant on the subject 
 of the duties of engineers and firemen, but for 
 the reason stated, it only partially' explains their 
 offices. This does not, however, lesson its value, 
 so far as it goes. It is simply incomplete. 
 
 Knowledge of the locomotive and how it is 
 operated is only one of many things engineers 
 and firemen must know. They must also be 
 familiar with train regulations, signals, methods 
 of dispatching trains and kindred knowledge. 
 Such things are fundamental. Moreover, as 
 their duties bring them in daily contact with 
 the equipment, they must know something of 
 its construction, care and maintenance. The 
 wider their knowledge, the greater the prob- 
 ability that they may some day become depart- 
 ment directors instead of operatives merely. 
 Nor need their ambition be thus restricted. 
 The nature of their duties affords an admirable
 
 OF THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER. 1 
 
 opportunity for acquiring the knowledge re- 
 quired by superintendents and managers of 
 railroads. All that is needed is that he who sets 
 out to familiarize himself with the locomotive 
 shall keep on until he becomes acquainted with 
 the needs of other branches of the .service. The 
 task is difficult, but not insurmountable. The 
 knowledge may be acquired by experience, 
 study, observation, inquiry and the thousand 
 and one devices ambitious men adopt to further 
 their ends. 
 
 A man who seeks merely to be a fireman, and 
 then an engineer, and afterward perhaps, a fore- 
 man, may be satisfied with a mechanical or per- 
 functory knowledge of the railway world, but 
 such knowledge is not sufficient even for this 
 limited field. However, he can possibly get on 
 thus without scandalizing the service, or seriously 
 jeopardizing the interest of his employer, but if 
 he expects to occupy a position of greater power 
 and influence, he must study railroading as a 
 whole. Only thus can he comprehend the spirit 
 and practices that animate the service, or cope 
 with the many men of talent who fill its offices. 
 
 To be an officer of a railroad, or to fill a posi- 
 tion of responsibility in connection therewith, 
 requires that the incumbent shall understand the 
 science of government. This science is in essen- 
 tial things alike as regards public and private
 
 8 DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 
 
 corporations. To know how to govern a country 
 or city well, is to know how to govern a great 
 railroad well with its vast army of employes and 
 widely extended and complicated interests. The 
 man who seeks preferment in either must under- 
 stand how governments are formed and how best 
 carried on for the common good. He must know 
 much about the checks and safeguards that expe- 
 rience proves to be needed in ordei to secure a 
 strong and pure government. Such knowledge, 
 as I have said, constitutes a part of the science of 
 railroads, and no man is fully capable of being 
 an officer of a railroad or of holding a position 
 where he must come in contact with the public, 
 without possessing it. This feature of the situ- 
 ation I have sought to explain in my books as 
 conscientiously as I have the basis of rates, safe 
 conduct of traffic, or the faithful handling of a 
 company's money, but the information is not to be 
 found in any particular chapter or book. It per- 
 meates every part of the service and it is impos- 
 sible to discuss any question without more or less 
 reference to it. It is this fact which makes men 
 familiar with the magnitude and homogeneous- 
 ness of the subject, so impatient of those who 
 think that there are departments and branches 
 of the service that may be considered apart from 
 the rest. 
 
 Those who work for railroads, no matter where, 
 are interested in acquiring knowledge of every 
 department of the service, and this not perfunc- 
 torily, but systematically. Their personal inter-
 
 OF THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER. 9 
 
 ests not only require that they should possess this 
 knowledge, but the interests of their employer 
 as well. The more the subject is studied, the 
 more this truth will be apparent. I am not so 
 presumptuous as to believe I have exhausted the 
 science of railways in my books. If a book could 
 be made exhaustive, there would never be but 
 one written. The greatest value that any book 
 possesses is the suggestions it affords the person 
 .who reads it. He may find many things upon 
 perusing it, that he did not know before, or only 
 surmised; others again that he had overlooked. 
 He w^ill be refreshed as by a bath, even though 
 he has only acquired a morsel of original infor- 
 mation from what he has read, for the reason 
 tliat his knowledge will have been expanded by 
 the thoughts to which his reading has given rise. 
 Let raihvay men keep this in mind in reading 
 books on railway and other subjects. 
 
 I have sought to treat my theme as fully as 
 circumstances permitted. Where I do not wholly 
 enlighten, I may be pardoned for believing that I 
 have at least pointed the way. 
 
 There are few of the books that make up the 
 "Science of Railways" that do not contain mat- 
 ter of more or less general interest and value to 
 those who seek to be firemen and afterward engi- 
 neers. How^ever, if the latter position is the 
 height of their ambition, then some of the books 
 will not possess as much value as they would 
 under other circumstances, but in every book 
 may be found some account of the practices and 
 
 2 vol 12
 
 10 DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 
 
 philosophy of railroading with which it is desir- 
 able every one should be familiar. 
 
 Much of the information that books on the 
 general subject of railroads contain is not neces- 
 sary to a fireman to enable him to creep up to 
 the place of engineer, any more than salt is 
 absolutely necessary to a potato; but he like 
 every railway man, if lacking in the niceties of 
 his profession (that only general knowledge can 
 supply), will lack flavor and will seek in vain to 
 reach the highest positions in the service. 
 
 From the foregoing it will be seen that a 
 consecutive and separate account of the duties 
 of engineers and firemen is impossible. How- 
 ever, there are particular duties imposed upon 
 them that may be described apart. These I shall 
 embody here. While incomplete, the matter is 
 not the less valuable on that account, as it is re- 
 plete with suggestions. This I may say with the 
 greater freedom, as I am the editor, rather than 
 the author. What I shall have to say is probably 
 known to accomplished railroad .engineers, but it 
 is not kno^\Ti to those less favored, and yet they 
 should be familiar -with it, in order to be able to 
 look forward with confidence to preferment in 
 their calling. Furthermore, if instead of treating 
 what I have to say as final, the student in search of 
 knowledge will look upon it as rudimentary only 
 and supplement it mth acquisitions of his own, 
 he will not only add greatly to his prospects as a 
 railway man (by adding greatly to his value to 
 his employer), but he will increase immeasurably
 
 OF THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER. \\ 
 
 his ability to secure a position, if through any 
 untoward circumstances, he finds himself with- 
 out employment.
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE LOCOMOTIVE THE KEY TO THE RAILROAD WORLD. 
 QUESTIONS REGARDING SELECTION, TRIAL AND 
 WORK OF THOSE IN CHARGE. THE VALUE OF 
 SYSTEMATIC STUDY AND CAREFUL EXAMINATIONS 
 TO THOSE WHO WOULD BECOME EFFICIENT ENGI- 
 NEERS. 
 
 As the engine is the key of the railway world, 
 so those who operate it share in its supreme im- 
 portance. While admirable in outline and use- 
 fulness, it is after all only an aggregation of 
 metal fashioned into many curious forms, but 
 dead and incomplete without the guidance of the 
 engineer and fireman. Like the world in the 
 beginning when clothed in stillness and death, 
 awaiting the light of day, so the locomotive 
 stands apart, cold and dead, but under the in- 
 spiring influence of the Engineer and Fireman 
 pulsates Avith life, forming not only a magnifi- 
 cent picture in itself, but one of the most useful 
 implements ever designed by men for the use of 
 men. 
 
 The locomotive is still in a state of evolution, 
 and, sympathetically, those round about it are 
 changing not only in the particulars of their 
 duties, but in their aspirations and lives. The 
 engineers and firemen of early days bore little 
 resemblance to their brothers of the present 
 
 (13)
 
 14 DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 
 
 period. The latter have not only personally 
 acquired greater skill, but they possess also the 
 accumulated experience of those who have gone 
 before them. It is no exaggeration to say that 
 the fireman of to-day, even if a novice, is much 
 superior in capacity to the engineers who had 
 charge for a long time after railways were first 
 operated. The first enginemen were by trade, 
 blacksmiths and mechanics, who understood 
 something about metals and machinery, but 
 were ignorant of the uses of steam or the future 
 possibilities of the locomotive. It was necessary 
 to train men for the position. This process has 
 been going on with ever accelerated speed from 
 the first day up to the present moment. There 
 is no end to the road. It grows wider and the 
 horizon expands with each advancing step. 
 
 The firemen and engineers of railways consti- 
 tute as highly a trained class of men as there are 
 connected with the technical world of trade at 
 the present time. Their knowledge and useful- 
 ness will increase with time and further expe- 
 rience. It is only reasonable to believe this be- 
 cause we know that possession of knowledge only 
 intensifies the desires of men in this direction. 
 Its acquisition by an ambitious man creates an 
 unquenchable thirst for further light. His mind 
 expands with his opportunities in this direction 
 until the vacuum of the brain appears so much 
 greater than its filled space that the wisest man 
 becomes despondent at the meagerness and super- 
 ficiality of his knowledge.
 
 OF THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER. 15 
 
 It is only the supremely ignorant man whose 
 mind is at rest. 
 
 With each passing day, knowledge becomes 
 more and more a necessity to men. The advan- 
 tages the informed man has over his ignorant 
 brother, are so great that the latter must likewise 
 acquire knowledge or confine himself to the com- 
 mon drudgeries of life. This is what competition 
 is doing, and it is thus showing itself as useful in 
 this department of life as it has in the production 
 and interchange of material commodities. 
 
 Men have no inherent love of study, but the 
 taste grows, and if one man studies, all must 
 eventually study or be outstripped in the race of 
 life. Thus the ambition of a particular man 
 starts the whole forward. When men acquire a 
 desire to learn, moreover, their ingenuity sup- 
 plements the efforts of others, and in this way 
 accomplishes a double purpose, at once encour- 
 aging and beneficent. 
 
 As the driftwood carried to the coast of Spain 
 suggested to Columbus the unknown world of 
 America, so the questions and answers embodied 
 further on herein will suggest a host of collateral 
 ideas of great value both to the student and his 
 employer. These inquiries measurably dispel 
 the darkness, but do not fully light up the hori- 
 zon. And so it is generally in reference to 
 books. A great good that they serve is the 
 thoughts they give rise to in the minds of 
 readers. The capillary attraction of the human 
 mind thus exemplified, if I may thus character-
 
 16 DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 
 
 ize it, has this attractive feature, that above the 
 water line of acquired knowledge it ever attracts 
 to itself, all that is necessary to nourish or ex- 
 pand it. It is this feature of the brain reaching 
 beyond original limits, that has made man the 
 arbiter of the world, and that makes all things an 
 open book to him. The only difficult thing in his 
 case is to get his mind in motion; once under 
 way, it never ceases its inquiries until death 
 silences its action. 
 
 In the case of engineers and firemen many 
 methods have been devised for adding to their 
 knowledge so that they may better serve them- 
 selves and the great industries with which they 
 are connected. In some of the old countries of 
 Europe, and particularly in France, technical 
 schools have been established near the great 
 shops by railroad companies, so that the children 
 of employes may early in life be instructed in the 
 trade they design following, and this under the 
 immediate eye of their father. Thus, as they 
 grow up, they associate themselves with him and 
 afterward, when he is too old to work, succeed 
 him in his calling. In this way, the child is 
 brought at the most receptive period of its life 
 into direct contact with the things that are after- 
 ward to occupy its mind exclusively. The 
 advantage of this cannot be overestimated, for 
 we all know that there is a particular period in 
 life that is illuminated more brightly than any
 
 OF THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER. 17 
 
 other, when what we learn we do not forget nor 
 undervalue. This period, to a great extent, 
 forms the groundwork of every man's life. Con- 
 sequentl}', if during such period light :s thrown 
 on the work that is afterward to occupy him, it 
 exceeds in value knowledge acquired at any other 
 period. For this reason, the benevolent inten- 
 tions of the corporations in providing schools for 
 the children of employes, will, it is reasonable to 
 believe, be followed by the best possible results 
 to themselves. However, the schools are not 
 intended for the children of firemen and engi- 
 neers alone, but for all employes engaged about 
 the shops. 
 
 Usually the effort to educate men for engi- 
 neers and firemen does not commence until the 
 men have entered the service. This is where the 
 great bulk of the railroads of the world take up 
 the work of instruction. The method they fol- 
 low in carrying out their object is as diversified 
 as it is in other things connected with the ser- 
 vice. 
 
 Formerly, applicants were put on the locomo- 
 tive, and told to go to work, their preparatory 
 instruction being of the simplest possible kind. 
 In other cases, the fireman is compelled to serve 
 a brief apprenticeship in the roundhouse. In 
 still other cases, the preparatory period is more 
 extended and the labor prolonged. Some com- 
 panies go so far as to require a man who seeks 
 to become a fireman to commence emptying 
 clinker pits, cleaning and wiping engines, and
 
 18 DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 
 
 performing such mechanical duties in connec- 
 tion with the locomotive as occasion requires. 
 If he shows adaptability and industry, he is after 
 a while given an opportunity by being put on 
 the Extra Firemen list. Here his action is care- 
 fully scrutinized. If he meets just expectation, 
 he is in due course made a regular fireman, the 
 assistant and second self of the engineer. Here, 
 while he has his own work to do, and plenty of 
 it, he has an opportunity to familiarize himself 
 with the work of the engineer. The facility with 
 which he does this, will depend upon his ability 
 to learn and his desire to get on in the world, 
 but assuming that he, not less than his older 
 brother the engineer, is animated by an acute 
 intelligence and a laudable ambition, he must 
 also have, like the latter, good health, a strong 
 body, and be free from intemperate habits. 
 These latter qualities are ^more necessary to 
 those connected with locomotives than to others 
 in the service, although they are necessary to 
 every man who expects to achieve success in life. 
 
 It goes without saying, that every man who 
 seeks to be a fireman, or who expects to become 
 an engineer, must have a good character. 
 
 The practice of examining into the qualifica- 
 tions of applicants before hiring them grows in 
 popular practice every year. Men are scrutin- 
 ized more carefully than formerly, and once hav- 
 ing entered the service, greater intelligence is 
 exercised in ascertaining their capacity and use- 
 fulness. This is especially true of those branches
 
 OF THE LOCOMOTIVE EXGIXEER. ig 
 
 of the service where technical skill is required 
 and perfect trustworthiness needed. In the early 
 days it was suflBcient that an applicant for the 
 place of fireman was able to perform the work, 
 which, under the most favorable circumstances, 
 is very severe. Afterward, as experience taught 
 the necessity of it, railroad companies began ta 
 inquire into the antecedents of aspirants. By and 
 by they got to inquiring about their habits, but 
 railroads had been operated in America sixty 
 years before it occurred to them to test the men- 
 tal capacity and disposition of applicants by care- 
 ful examinations. As this could not very well 
 be done before applicants entered the service, it 
 had to be done afterward. It took, in a general 
 way, the shape of examinations such as charac- 
 terize those of students of law and medicine. 
 Meanwhile, the general trustworthiness of the 
 employe was scrutinized and his mode of life, 
 morals, temperament, steadfastness and general 
 fidelity to duty carefully studied. If deficient in 
 these latter respects, intellectual and physical 
 endowments were not sufficient to outweigh 
 objections. On the other hand, if he possessed 
 all the moral qualities, and yet was deficient 
 mentally and physically, life was not considered 
 as affording good material for a fireman, and, 
 prospectively, an engineer. Accordingly, if dur- 
 ing the probationary period he broke down, or 
 failed to answer the requirements of the service, 
 he was told to go his way and in some field where 
 his capabilities would be sufficient for the occa-
 
 20 DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 
 
 sion fix his life occupation. This, instead of being 
 a hardship or injustice, has been found to be a 
 kindness to applicants, because it anticipates 
 subsequent failure and saves them the waste of 
 time and mortification that would otherwise 
 ensue. 
 
 It also saves the company, and incidentally the 
 public, from the mishaps that attend the service 
 of men inferior in mental and moral qualities. It 
 not only enables the employer to promptly 
 separate the capable from the incapable, but 
 throws around the general public a measure of 
 safety that carriers are always bound to con- 
 sider. ^ 
 
 In order to pass the examinations, careful study 
 and preparation, and experience as well, are 
 required. Applicants must at least have a good 
 common scliool education, because this is required 
 of engineers. Once having entered the service it 
 is manifest that the efficiency of the incumbent 
 may be greatly heightened by requiring him to 
 commence at once systematically to study the 
 problems of the business with which he is identi- 
 fied, and not solely, be it remembered, with a 
 view of performing his present duties properly, 
 but with the further view of his being promoted 
 to the responsible position of engineer, at a given 
 time, or thereafter when opportunity occurs. 
 Methods of procedure vary on different roads, 
 according to men's views of the subject. Some 
 roads do not make any examinations at all, but 
 the tendency is more and more in that direction
 
 OF THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER. 21 
 
 as their value becomes more and more apparent. 
 The system which is elucidated further on, and 
 which meets with the approval of some of the 
 most experienced and talented Master Mechanics 
 and Superintendents of Motive Power in the 
 world, contemplates a careful and systematic 
 course of study. First, however, the habits and 
 antecedents of applicants are carefully inquired 
 into, as I have intimated. Once the applicants 
 have passed this ordeal, the full confidence of 
 the company is accorded them and every facility 
 afforded them to pursue the-r inquiries and stud- 
 ies so as to fit themselves for present and future 
 work. Every official of the machinery depart- 
 ment holds himself ready to answer questions or 
 respond in other directions so far as it may be 
 proper to aid applicants in this way. 
 
 After the applicant for the position of fireman 
 has passed through the preliminary stages, what- 
 ever they may be, he is given a series of question? 
 bearing directly on his future duties and respon- 
 sibilities as an engineer. These he is expected to 
 carefully study, and at the end of the time desig- 
 nated, go before the master mechanic or other 
 authorized officer and answer them categorically, 
 with such other questions of an incidental nature, 
 as are pertinent to the occasion. However, the 
 list of questions given him and the answers 
 thereto constitute the examination in the main. 
 
 Having passed the first examination success- 
 fully, he is furnished a further list of questions he 
 will be expected to answer. This constitutes the
 
 22 DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 
 
 second examination. Following tliis he is fur- 
 nished the interrogatories which close the course 
 of study. 
 
 In regard to the last examination, no one is ever 
 sent for to take it, whom the master mechanic 
 above him is not willing to accept as an engineer 
 provided he successfully passes it. Another con- 
 dition and a very proper one is that men sent for- 
 ward for this examination shall be in their order 
 of service, other things being equal. The final 
 examination, which is so important, is usually 
 conducted by a board appointed for the purpose. 
 This insures impartiality and thoroughness, 
 though the same thing can, it is apparent, be 
 secured by an examination made by the master 
 mechanic and his associates. 
 
 All the examinations having been passed and 
 the applicant's work meanwhile having proven 
 satisfactory, he is ready to take charge of a loco- 
 motive — is an engineer in fact, ready to fill the 
 first position of the .kind that offers. This is the 
 goal he has sought. Such is the procedure.* 
 
 D-iiferent roads vary the details. Its merit is 
 that it affords a course of study, which, with the 
 practical experience of the fireman meanwhile. 
 
 *It will not be forgotten, in this connection, that the appli- 
 cant has long before this demonstrated his moral and physical 
 fitness for the position of engineer. Sometimes the physical 
 examination is conducted by the machinery department, and 
 at other times by the surgical department of the railroad. As 
 ■will be noticed farther on, each applicant before being passed 
 is examined with a view to ascertaining whether he is perfectly 
 familiar with the time table, or not; also with the signals. The
 
 OF THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER. 23 
 
 makes of him a trustworthy engineer. This is 
 what every fireman strives for and what his em- 
 ployer requires of him, for it is thus engineers 
 are made. 
 
 If during the progress of the examinations can- 
 didates are unable to pass or answer the questions, 
 it is generally thought well to extend the time a 
 reasonable period. 
 
 If at the expiration of the time allotted the 
 applicant is unable to pass, then the expediency 
 of his seeking other employment naturally sug- 
 gests itself, and this last for two reasons, as I 
 have already intimated: First, that the service 
 may not be clogged by .men who cannot ulti- 
 mately be promoted; and second, that applicants 
 shall not be allowed to waste their time upon 
 work not destined to be of lasting advantage to 
 them. And in this connection it is not considered 
 too much by those versed in such matters that 
 applicants shall answer satisfactorily, both in 
 writing and orally, eighty per cent of the ques- 
 tions asked them in each of the examinations. 
 
 And in regard to applicants, every assistance 
 
 examinations in regard to these last are sometimes conducted 
 by the machinery department, but more frequently, perhaps, 
 by the operating department. Upon many lines, the superin- 
 tendent is not satisfied until he personally ascertains that 
 those taking charge of engines are familiar with the rules, 
 familiar with the time table, and familiar with the signals. 
 The machinery department looks especially to the technical 
 fitness of those in charge of locomotives: the operating depart- 
 ment requires in addition to this, perfect familiarity with the 
 the rules governing the movement of engines and trains oTer 
 the road.
 
 24 DUTIES AXD RESPONSIBILITIES 
 
 possible is rendered them, as already intimated, 
 and they are at liberty to go to master mechanics, 
 foremen and others for information in regard to 
 those things they do not fully understand. 
 
 It will be seen from the foregoing that in no 
 sense will the course of study be forestalled by the 
 questions that are propounded and the answers 
 thereto that are contained herein. Both the ques- 
 tions and the answers applicants will find it use- 
 ful to critically study, as students pursue their 
 studies at universities; but they must not only 
 know the correct answers to the various inter- 
 rogatories (because every engineer must under- 
 stand them), but must Understand their purport, 
 so that they can reply to each question in their 
 o^\^l language and according to their understand- 
 ing of it. They cannot use the answers embraced 
 herein — these are intended to be merely instruc- 
 tive. They must frame answers for themselves. 
 Thus it will be seen that, while the assistance this 
 Manual affords will save them much inconven- 
 ience and many inquiries, it will not save them 
 from the necessity of studying and framing an 
 answer of their own to each inquiry that the 
 examinations contain. 
 
 Parallel with the examinations, and along the 
 same lines, it is a growing practice on many well 
 managed railroads to maintain schools of instruc- 
 tion for the purpose of teaching train men, and 
 particularly engineers and firemen, in regard to 
 the construction, use and maintenance of the air- 
 brake, steam-heating apparatus, use of gas and
 
 OF THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER. 25 
 
 electricity for lighting, and other implements of 
 an intricate or scientific nature that are used on 
 trains. The expense of this systematic course of 
 instruction is more than offset by the increased 
 efficiency of those thus instructed. The efforts of 
 railway companies in this direction are everywhere 
 actively seconded by their employes, as it adds to 
 their usefulness and renders more certain their 
 promotion, or if not promotion, then successful 
 competition in the strife for place and its reten- 
 tion. Accurate and extended knowledge of their 
 duties, aside from its present value, cannot, it is 
 also apparent, but be of the greatest possible use 
 to those who possess it, should they, through the 
 cutting down of a force or otherwise, find it nec- 
 essary to seek employment elsewhere. 
 
 The examination of firemen and engineers has 
 been disregarded on many roads, but it needs 
 little discernment to see that this state of affairs 
 cannot continue always. Companies lacking this 
 element of strength will not be able in the long 
 run to make a showing as against companies 
 whose force throughout has been carefully 
 instructed in technical knowledge of the highest 
 order in regard to their duties. The omissions 
 and mistakes of the inefficient and the scandals 
 they will create, to say nothing of the extra 
 expense such men entail, will compel the compa- 
 nies employing them to adopt a more compre- 
 hensive plan of selection and instruction, first 
 with a view of preventing inefficient men from 
 entering their service, or in case they have such,
 
 ?6 ' DUTIES AND RE8PUNSIBILITIEH 
 
 to weed them out as soon as possible in the event 
 they prove to be incompetent. In making these 
 examinations the railroads will only forestall the 
 act of the state, for it is only a question of time, 
 and a short time at that, when firemen and engi- 
 neers will be compelled to go before a State 
 Board for examination as to their fitness, the 
 same as steamboat engineers are required to do, 
 unless the railroad companies forestall such 
 action by themselves making the examination. 
 
 The questions that it is proper to propound to 
 applicants for the position of engineer are many 
 and intricate. The answer to each question, it 
 will be observed, is of a nature to familiarize the 
 applicant with his work and to make him of 
 greater present usefulness, to say nothing of 
 the future. The sooner, therefore, the applicant 
 familiarizes himself with his present and pro- 
 spective duties the better for him and his em- 
 ployer. The quality of service that the fireman 
 renders while fitting himself for promotion, also 
 operates for or against him finally. His work 
 during this period is compared with that of 
 others, as is also' the care arid intelligence he 
 exercises in the use of oil, fuel and other sup- 
 plies. 
 
 The position of fireman, it is proper to say, is 
 not only one exacting hard work, but consider- 
 able knowledge of detail, so that he has an 
 opportunity to show fitness in this respect, which 
 is all-important in the positions that he aspires 
 to fill.
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF ENGINEERS AND 
 FIREMEN. 
 
 The examinations set forth in this book with 
 what follows, prepared with a view to ascertain- 
 ing the fitness of firemen to become engineers, 
 treat of things that it is desirable engineers 
 should know — should have at their fingers' ends 
 — in order to fill their places to the best advan- 
 tage. If they are not familiar with them they 
 should lose no time in becoming so. They are 
 primary in their nature.* 
 
 The vast resources at the engineer's disposal, 
 the result of experience, while much of it may be 
 particularized in print, much of it cannot be. 
 The beginner does not possess this fund of infor- 
 mation and it is not expected of him. He is, 
 
 ♦While we must believe that it is clesirable that the engi- 
 neer should not only understand his own duties perfectly, but 
 those of the fireman as well, it is nevertheless true that this 
 universality of knowledge is not possessed by all engineers. 
 This renders manuals all the more necessary. One reason why 
 engineers do not possess the knowledge in question is that 
 methods change after they cease to be firemen; thus we will say, 
 the kind of fuel may have changed, from wood to coal. What- 
 ever the occasion of the lack of knowledge, the lack exists and 
 is recognized by railroad companies and excused becatrse 
 unavoidable, but in so far as engineers are deficient in the 
 knowledge of the duties of firemen, manuals that throw light 
 on the duties of the fireman are not only of value to the latter 
 but to the engineer as well. 
 
 (27)
 
 28 DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 
 
 however, expected to attain it as quickly as pos- 
 sible. If he is ambitious and adaptable he will 
 soon acquire it. The time required will be 
 dependent upon the thought that he gives the 
 subject and his ability to learn. Nothing con- 
 nected with his business will be too small to 
 escape his observation; nothing too trifling if it 
 affords him information; he will avail himself of 
 the literature, however scant, that dwells upon 
 his duties or that has any relation to the train 
 service; he will observe and study the actions of 
 those about him; question with untiring zeal, all 
 from whom he can gain light. He will not be 
 satisfied with the fact that he has been found 
 worthy to have charge of an engine; he will not 
 stop until he understands the anatomy of his 
 machine and its working as the surgeon does that 
 of his patient. 
 
 After his examinations he will go on witli even 
 greater zeal than before, because his ambition 
 will by this time have led him to aspire to even 
 higher things. For these and other reasons 1 
 have thought it well to supplement what I have 
 said with other things that relate to the respon- 
 sibilities of engineers, and that must be known 
 to firemen in order to enable them to run an 
 engine. What I add is not new nor especially 
 ingenious. It is, however, useful to engineers 
 and a help to others. I cannot claim to be more 
 than the compiler and editor, for others before 
 me have given it expression in one form or 
 another. It is of the common sense kind, and
 
 OF THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER. 29 
 
 partakes, like all corporate regulations, of a prac- 
 tical nature. 1 shall try to avoid as much as pos- 
 sible repeating anything concerning the duties 
 and responsibilities of engineers already given.* 
 
 With this explanation, I proceed to enumerate 
 such things as occur to me at this time as form- 
 ing a part of the subject. 
 
 To begin, then, it may be said of engineers, that 
 amiability, quickness of perception, skill and 
 promptness of action mark those of the highest 
 attainments. The fireman who hopes to become 
 a ^ood engineer must possess similar character- 
 istics. 
 
 It is also a characteristic of such engineers that 
 they are stirred by an ambition to excel in every 
 way. 
 
 While the fireman is the subordinate of the 
 engineer, the latter should seek to further his 
 advancement by teaching him everything con- 
 nected with the construction, maintenance and 
 operation of the locomotive that his time and 
 capacity for learning permits of. 
 
 The fireman on his part should show his appre- 
 ciation of the kindness and interest of the engi- 
 neer by his industry, amiability and willingness 
 to obey orders. 
 
 The engineer and fireman must work together, 
 each recognizing his dependence upon the other, 
 if the best results are to be attained. 
 
 *I shall, liowever, be only partially successful in this, but 
 while there ■\viU be move or less goirfg over ground already 
 traversed, it will be in connection with new ideas and a fuller 
 development of old ones.
 
 80 DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 
 
 In reference to details, it is becoming more 
 and more the practice for the engineer to have 
 charge of both injectors. This notwithstanding 
 the efficiency of the fireman in this direction. If, 
 however, the fireman miscalculates in regard to 
 the requirements of the engine, and, in conse- 
 quence, finds his fire too low, and the steam press- 
 ure dropping unduly because of it, he must call 
 the engineer's attention to the fact, that the in- 
 jector may be shut off and the supply of water 
 reduced so that the pressure may be the more 
 quickly regained. 
 
 Among many other things appertaining to en- 
 gineers, the study of friction and the knowledge 
 of what is dependent thereon is essential. Eco- 
 nomical and effective use of oil cannot be attained 
 without it. 
 
 Aside from information relative to more prac- 
 tical things, the engineer and fireman must know 
 what clothing to wear, and the food best suited 
 to their requirements. 
 
 They must study particularly the best methods 
 of doing repair work: packing glands, cellars and 
 boxes; removing brasses; keying rods; setting 
 wedges, and work of a like nature about the en- 
 gine and tender. 
 
 No one is qualified, it may be said, to operate 
 an engine, who does not know in advance what 
 to do in every emergency of train service. He 
 must be able to act quickly and in the light of 
 the best practices. In the cases of delays and 
 mishaps, there is no time to study up questions
 
 OF THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER. 31 
 
 or situations. The man in charge must be able 
 to act instantlj\ There are, in the generality of 
 cases, preferred methods of procedure in the case 
 of break-downs and other mishaps. With these 
 the engineer should be familiar. He is also 
 expected to be able to make such repairs on the 
 road as are possible under the circumstances; to 
 be able to temporarily adjust eccentrics or the 
 front-end appliances, set wedges, and disconnect 
 the engine; to be skillful in the treatment of hot 
 journals or bearings, and have an ear so trained 
 as to be able to detect and locate a blow or a 
 pound that may cause a break-down. 
 
 The faculty of observation is to be cultivated 
 by engineers and firemen. Some men, without 
 apparent effort, are ever conscious of what is 
 going on about them, while others see nothing. 
 It is necessary that the defect of the latter should 
 be corrected if they would become valuable in 
 their places. Everyone aml)itious of preferment 
 should seek information from the better informed 
 men about them, and should not l)e rebuffed or 
 discouraged if replies to their questions are not 
 always courteous or direct. Practice and reading 
 will do the rest. 
 
 In the operation of railroads, men engaged for 
 years on a particular class of engine, have been 
 known to remain in ignorance of other classes 
 about them. This may be remedied by study 
 and observation. Certainly any engineer thus 
 handicapped labors under great possible disad- 
 vantages.
 
 32 DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 
 
 It is a duty required of engineers, in many 
 cases, that they shall reach the engine-house 
 while their engine is over the pit, that they may 
 thus be enabled to examine it from underneath, 
 to better advantage. They are also expected to 
 inspect the packing of truck cellars, see that the 
 bolts and nuts are tight, look after the eccentrics 
 and see that the oil holes are clear and oil cups 
 filled. As the engineer is responsible for the 
 fulfillment of the fireman's duties, he is also 
 required to see that they are not neglected. 
 
 When the engineer does not know in advance 
 the engine he is to run (that is, when the en- 
 gines are pooled or worked in common), he must, 
 upon taking charge, exercise greater care than 
 he would otherwise, to see that it is provided 
 with necessary tools, blocking and other appli- 
 ances. He should also examine the work-book 
 in such cases, to see what repairs were last 
 reported as being necessary and what has actually 
 been done. Parts that have been repaired always 
 require more attention than others, because of 
 the friction that intervenes in such cases. The 
 inspection of the engine and tender by the en- 
 gineer, it is apparent, is the first thing to be done 
 on taking charge. The work should be system- 
 atic and thorough. In those instances where the 
 roundhouse forc^ looks after the packing of the 
 driving boxes, tank boxes, truck cellars, and so 
 on, the engineer must still see that the work has 
 been done properly. Many engineers insist on 
 doing it themselves, as they feel greater confi-
 
 OF THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEEtt. 83 
 
 deuce that they will get over the road promptly 
 and without mishap than they would if the work 
 was performed by an employe of the roundhouse. 
 Among the further duties of the engineer these 
 may be briefly summarized: To see that the 
 water supply in the boiler is ample — this he 
 does by trying the gauge cocks and noting the 
 indication in the water glass; to try the gauge 
 cocks frequently wlien on the road, using the 
 water glass as an auxiliary or indicator merely; 
 to look from time to time into the fire-box for 
 leaks, and if the engine has an arch, to see that 
 it is in place; to inspect the air pump and its 
 lubricator, the guides, guide bolts, crosshead and 
 piston rod packing, bearings, rods and rod bolts, 
 keys and set screws, wedges and wedge bolts; to 
 see in tilling oil cups that the amount of oil 
 required indicates that there is no stoppage of 
 the feed or oil hole; to examine the wheels and 
 flanges for In-eaks, chips or cracks, and the driv- 
 ing wheel centers and tires to see that they are 
 not working loose; to see that the sand pipes are 
 open, that the headlight is filled and trimmed 
 and the reflector cleaned, that the cinder hopper 
 is tight and that no leaks appear in the front end; 
 to blow out the steam heating pipes in winter lest 
 they be clogged with ice; to ring the bell a suffi- 
 cient length of time before starting to enable 
 any one who may be working under or about the 
 machine to escape;* to see before leaving the 
 
 ♦Numerous accidents to life and limb have resulted from % 
 neglect to observe this precaution.
 
 34 DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 
 
 engine house that the cylinder cock is opened; to 
 start the engine slowly and under no circum- 
 stances to slip the engine for the purpose of 
 throwing the water out of the cylinders; in back- 
 ing the engine to the train, to see that the lubri- 
 cator is started and all parts of the engiue work- 
 ing in good order; to lubricate all parts of the 
 engine before starting a train; to place the 
 reverse lever in starting in the "corner" and 
 open the throttle slowly and carefully so as to 
 avoid jerking the train or slipping the wheels; to 
 be particular if the rails are slippery or the load 
 requires it; to sand the track before the wheels 
 begin to slip; to be careful not to "catch" the 
 engine when slipping on sand, as it is a severe 
 strain to the machinery, and pins and rods fre- 
 quently break under such circumstances; to use 
 in sanding the rail only so much sand as is neces- 
 sary to keep the wheels from slipping, as a train 
 pulls harder on a sanded rail; to see when head- 
 way is attained that the reverse lever is pulled 
 back to prevent unnecessary waste of steam and 
 undue disturbance of the fire by too strong a 
 draft; in starting (and also at other times) to look 
 back and exchange such signals with the rear end 
 ot the train as may be necessary to be assured 
 that the train is intact and in proper working 
 order; to use full opening of the throttle except 
 where a simple engine can do the work required 
 with less than one-fourth cut-off, in which 
 latter event it is economical to leave the cut-off 
 at one-fourth and regulate the steam by the
 
 OF THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER. 36 
 
 throttle;* to see that water is supplied the boilers 
 in as nearly a continuous flow as possible, to see 
 that the water is, so far as practicable, kept at a 
 uniform height, not losing sight of the fact that 
 water in the boiler at a high temperature (or 
 indeed warm water in the tank) represents so 
 much heat energy available when the normal 
 capacity of the boiler is inadequate to supply the 
 demand ;f to remember that the time to favor an 
 engine by reducing or entirely stopping the sup- 
 ply of water to the boiler is when moving rapidly 
 towards an ascent or heavy grade ;t to see, when 
 approaching dangerous places, drawbridges, rail- 
 road crossings, interlocking switches, yards, etc., 
 that the train is under such control that a stop 
 may be made, if necessary, before reaching the 
 
 ♦To illustrate: It ■would not be economical to use one-Half to 
 two-thirds cut-off and throttle the steam pressure when the 
 work could be done with one-fourth or one-third cut-off with a 
 full throttle opening, while one-eighth cut-off with full throttle 
 is less economical than one-fourth throttled, due to increased 
 cylinder condensation, where the temperature of the cylinder 
 has too wide a range. 
 
 fThe capacity of water for storing heat is great, and this 
 fact should be taken advantage of. When it is not, engines 
 will too often be found standing at stations or descending 
 grades with light throttle, and with steam blowing off; or blow- 
 ing off when the water in the tank is cold, or there is but half a 
 glass of water in the boiler. At such times the injector should 
 be at work or the surplus heat should be used to warm the 
 water in the tank. 
 
 f After speed hae been reduced (even though the reTecse 
 lever has been dropped down) , the engina is using a less amount 
 of steam and the injector may then be sterted.
 
 36 DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 
 
 danger point;* to see, in stopping, that steam is 
 shut off a sufficient distance to permit slowing 
 down easily; to see that the link is hooked down 
 to give the valves more travel and keep the valve 
 seats in better condition.! 
 
 It is the duty of the engineer to see that the 
 air brake is used with care, bearing in mind that 
 it requires the nicest judgment and skill at all 
 times to prevent mishap or jarring of the train. 
 In the event the water in the boiler gets low 
 (through failure of the pumps, or otherwise) the 
 fire must be banked or drawn. :J: It may be neces- 
 sary in some instances to detach an engine and 
 proceed to the nearest station for water when 
 the supply is exhausted. It can, however, some- 
 times be dipped from pools or streams along the 
 track, or, in winter, snow may be shoveled into 
 the tank and melted. Everything should be done 
 in such cases that is consistent with safety to 
 
 *The speed limit in such cases is usually placed at six miles 
 an hour, or as fast as a man can walk a short distance. 
 
 f This will also prevent the raising of the valves by com- 
 pression from the cylinders, and where there are no relief 
 valves on the steam chest, it will partially prevent the draw- 
 ing of the smoke and hot gases from the front end into the cyl- 
 inder. With some engines, having very long eccentric blades, 
 it is unsafe to hook the links down to the lowest point while 
 running fast, as in such cases a broken eccentric strap might 
 follow. 
 
 X" Banking" a fire usually means covering it with fine coal, 
 well wet down, but sometimes it is advisable to cover with 
 ashes or sand, which will practically extinguish it. "Drawing'- 
 or " dumping " the fire means knocking it through the grates 
 and extinguishing it entirely.
 
 OF THE LOCOMOTIVE EXOIXEER. 37 
 
 keep the engine alive, but it is considered highly 
 discreditable to " burn" an engine. 
 
 If the engine is priming or foaming, the cause 
 thereof must be ascertained and the necessary 
 remedies applied.* 
 
 In the care of the locomotive it must be re- 
 membered, among other things, that water pro- 
 jected from the smoke stack injures the paint on 
 both the engine and cars. It looks bad moreover. 
 In summer, after filling the tank with cold water, 
 the heater should be applied long enough to pre- 
 vent the tank sweating. Failure to observe this 
 simple precaution may greatly injure the paint 
 on the tank. 
 
 An important duty of the engineer is to see 
 that the safety valves are regulated according to 
 the steam pressure allowed the engine. Many 
 companies undertake to make periodical tests of 
 safety valves, gauges and air governors independ- 
 ently of the engineer. It should be a duty of 
 the latter, however, to order a special test made 
 
 * Priming is generuny caused by keeping the boiler too full 
 of water. This can, as a rule, be prevented. Foaming is due to 
 foreign matter in the boiler and may be relieved by a surface , 
 cock, or a blow-off cock, with which most engines are supplied. 
 If the water used is of poor quality, the tank may be cleansed 
 by flushing at the water station. In cases of priming or foam- 
 ing, the true water level can only be determined by shutting off 
 the engine and letting the water supply in the boiler settle. 
 This should be done frequently under such circumstances. 
 From an economical standpoint, the effect of working water 
 into the cylinders (aside from the liability of knocking out a* 
 cylinder head and cutting the valves) may be appreciated by 
 remembering that a cubic inch of water (which is not expan- 
 sive) will make one cubic foot of steam, which is expansive.
 
 38 DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 
 
 whenever he may have reason to believe there is 
 anything defective therewith. 
 
 At water and coaling stations, the engineer 
 should utilize the time to inspect the bearings 
 and running gear of the engine and tender and 
 supply needed lubrication. 
 
 It is a duty of engineers to carefully inspect 
 their engines at terminals, and notify the oflBcial 
 at the engine-house what work is required to fit 
 them for economical and effective use. Hot bear- 
 ings should also be reported so that they may be 
 examined at the shop, and in the event another 
 person is put in charge of the engine, that he may 
 , be notified of the same. 
 
 Returns giving an account of delays, overtime, 
 accidents, and for other purposes, should be made 
 and transmitted to the proper officer as soon after 
 arrival at the terminal station as possible. 
 
 In order that there may be no unnecessary loss 
 of time in communicating with engineers and fire- 
 men when off duty, their addresses should be left 
 with the foremen of engine-houses, or other desig 
 nated officials. 
 
 In closing these instructions, it will be proper 
 to again call attention to the necessity of wise and 
 economical use of tools and supplies. Engineers 
 and firemen cannot hope to make satisfactory 
 records otherwise. Questions affecting the use of 
 tools and supplies grow more and more important 
 every year because measures for ascertaining the 
 care exercised are becoming more and more effect- 
 ive each year. The subject is therefore, it will be
 
 OF THE LOCOMOTIVE ESGINEER. 39 
 
 seen, one of supreme importance to the emplo3'e 
 as well as to the employer.* 
 
 •The foregoing account of the duties and responsibilities of 
 Engineers and Firemen, while complete so far as it goes, is 
 necessarily limited, bui taken with the examinations (questions 
 and answers) and other matters treated of in this book, together 
 with other A-olumes of The Science of Kailwavs Series relat- 
 ing to the mechanical department of railways, will be found to 
 cover all salient matters relating to the duties of Engineers and 
 Firemen.
 
 CHAPTER Til. 
 
 STEAM AND ITS APPLICATION TO THE LOCOMOTIVE. 
 
 Books and lengthy treatises have been written 
 on the subject, but, stripped of padding and un- 
 necessary words, thFre is very little to be said if 
 we omit other matters relating to the locomo- 
 tive, including that of the art of firing, which 
 things I point out elsewhere. What I wish to 
 say here, therefore, relates simply to the process 
 cf getting the locomotive under way. 
 
 The power that imparts motion to the locomo- 
 tive is the expansive force of steam. This force, 
 which has been known for thousands of years, 
 was first utilized for purposes of carriage in the 
 early part of the nineteenth century. 
 
 As stated elsewhere, steam is the vapor of 
 water generated by heating water above the boil- 
 ing point. Hence steam is water in a gaseous 
 state and is colorless and imperceptible to the 
 eye. Saturated steam is steam either in contact 
 with the water from which it was generated or, 
 if separated therefrom, is kept at the same tem- 
 perature and pressure. Wet steam is steam not 
 only saturated, but also holding in suspension 
 unevaporated water in the form of minute drops; 
 it holds this water in suspension mechanically, 
 due either to the ebullition of the water from 
 which it is generated or else from a rapid flow 
 of steam from near the surface of the water, in a 
 similar manner as the wind off a rough body of 
 
 (41)
 
 42 STEAM. 
 
 water is noticed to carry drops of spray. Dry 
 steam is the term usually used for saturated steam 
 in distinction from wet steam. Superheated 
 steam is steam removed from contact with water 
 and heated above the temperature of the water 
 from which it was generated; it is variously called 
 steam-gas, surcharged steam, or anhydrous steam. 
 Steam more closely resembles a perfect gas when 
 superheated than in any other state, and it is for 
 this reason that in the locomotive the attempt is 
 made to superheat the steam. The boiler has a 
 dome from which, and at quite a distance above 
 the usual water level, reasonably dry steam is 
 taken, passed through a pipe called the "dry pipe," 
 and branching in the smoke-box or front end 
 of the locomotive where the escaping hot gases 
 have a tendency to superheat it, passes into the 
 two cylinders in which its energy becomes useful. 
 
 In steam, as in other gases, there is a natural 
 repulsion between its various particles, each par- 
 ticle trying to separate itself from the others, so 
 that it will fill the receptacle in which it is placed, 
 regardless of the quantity of steam or size of the 
 vessel holding it. Its natural tendency is to 
 expand and thus push out whatever resists expan- 
 sion. If the steam is enclosed and superheated, 
 therefore, as in the case of a locomotive boiler, the 
 natural tendency of its particles to separate is 
 intensified and we thus obtain, according to its 
 quantity or volume, the steam pressure required. 
 
 The vapor seen escaping from a vessel of boil- 
 ing water, or rolling in clouds from the exhaust 
 pipe of a locomotive, is only a modification or
 
 STEAM. 48 
 
 diluted agent of the mighty force that does so 
 much of the world's work. This vapor is steam 
 that is resolving itself back into water; the 
 change or condensation which is visible is caused 
 by its contact with the cold air. Real steam, as 
 just stated, is an invisible gas, or, rather, a trans- 
 parent fluid, really water changed into gas by 
 the action of heat. Accordingly, to make the 
 steam that an engine requires water must be 
 boiled. To hasten this and to lessen the cost, 
 the boiler is permeated with tubes, or flues, con- 
 necting with the fire-box, into which the flames 
 therefrom are drawn, thus multiplying the heat- 
 ing surface and, in so far as this is done, hasten- 
 ing the boiling of the water and the generation 
 of steam.* As the water is transformed into 
 steam it rises into the dome, as will be seen by 
 reference to the diagram of the locomotive. From 
 there it is released by opening the throttle valve 
 and is thence conveyed, through what is known 
 as the dry pipe and steam pipes, through the 
 steam chest, thence to the cylinders. 
 
 It is, as is well known, the expansive power of 
 the steam operating through the mechanism of 
 the cylinders that affords the propelling power 
 of the locomotive.f 
 
 In order to utilize this power there is connected 
 with the cylinders a steam box which is com- 
 
 *Thi3 as well as other matters relatinpf to the construction 
 and appliances of locomotives is illustrated and described else- 
 where herein. 
 
 fFor diagrams of the various cylinders and the action of the 
 steam therein, see various cuts contained in this work, both of 
 the simple and compound patterns.
 
 44 STEAM. 
 
 monly termed the steam chest, in which there is 
 a slide valve, under which are three ports or open- 
 ings, one leading to each end of the cylinder, and, 
 the third leading to the atmosphere. The slide 
 valve has a reciprocating movement whereby 
 these ports are opened or closed. Motion to the 
 valve is imparted by the revolving driving-wheel 
 axles in various ways, the most common of which 
 is by means of eccentrics and links with connec- 
 tions to the valve stems, as fully explained and 
 illustrated elsewhere herein. The cylinder is 
 fitted with a piston. This is movable bacK and 
 forth from one end of the cylinder to the other. 
 Thus the steam from the boiler is introduced 
 through the steam chest into one end of the 
 cylinder and forces the piston to the opposite 
 end; then the valve opens the port at the other 
 end of the steam chest and allows the steam to 
 enter at the opposite end of the cylinder, and at 
 the same time connecting the other side of the 
 piston with the atmosphere, thus allowing the 
 steam just used to escape; this reversal of pressure 
 upon it forces the piston iDack to the place whence 
 it first started. The escape to the atmosphere 
 takes place through the smokestack in order to 
 create a greater draught on the fire. This action 
 back and forth, at first slow, is almost incon- 
 ceivably rapid when the locomotive is under full 
 headway. The piston described is in its turn, 
 attached to a rod which works through a closely 
 fitting opening in the back end of the cylin- 
 der. In this way the motion is carried out- 
 side of and beyond the cylinder. To the end
 
 STEAM. 45 
 
 of the piston rod just referred to is attached 
 the connecting rod which, in turn, is attached 
 to the crank or revolving shaft of the driver. 
 The backward and forward motion of the 
 piston (called "reciprocating motion") is 
 thus converted into a revolving or rotary motion. 
 It is observed, however, that the connecting rod, 
 when it has carried the crank backward or for- 
 ward as far as it will go, loses its reciprocating 
 motion and the piston will no longer produce a 
 rotary motion. These positions of the crank are 
 called its dead points. In the stationary engine 
 this is overcome by a fly wheel, the momentum 
 of which carries the crank past the dead points; 
 then, too, stationary engines of one cylinder are 
 not required to frequently stop and start with a 
 load, as are locomotives. In the case of a loco- 
 motive the obstacle is obviated by having two 
 cylinders with cranks, placed at right angles to 
 each other and on the same axle; also, as the 
 service demands the movement of the locomotive 
 in either direction, backward or forward, the 
 valve motion is so constructed that the engine is 
 reversible. 
 
 It is thus that the steam is generated and its 
 power applied.* 
 
 •I would in this connection refer the reader to the chapter 
 on "Description of the Locomotive" in the volume I'elating to 
 motive power.
 
 45 
 
 STEA^f 
 
 W 
 
 II 
 
 !» S 
 
 It ^ 
 
 §».....-§... .lis^l .|. . . . . . 
 
 4 
 
 IP 
 
 II 

 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 FIRING — COMBUSTION THE SOURCE OF ENERGY IN THE 
 LOCOMOTIVE. 
 
 The fireman and his art are jirime factors in 
 locomotive running. No matter how well designed 
 and perfectly constructed the engine may be, if 
 the fuel is not manipuhited according to scientific 
 rules desired results will not be attained. It is 
 not to be understood by tliis however that the 
 fireman must be a chemist in order to be success- 
 ful but it is certainly essential that he should 
 know something about the fire he is tending so 
 that he may treat it understandingly and bo ena- 
 bled to extract from every ounce of coal he throws 
 on to it the energy that it should yiekl, thus re- 
 ducing his own hibor to the minimum and ren- 
 dering the most efficient service possible to his 
 employer. Moreover "a knowledge of the laws of 
 combustion," says that i)ractical writer Angus 
 Sinchiir, "teaches a man to go straight to the 
 correct method and the information })ossessed ena- 
 bles him to deal intelligently with the numerous 
 difficulties which are constantly arising owing to 
 inferior fuel, obstructed draft due to various 
 causes, and to viciously designed fire-boxes and 
 smoke-boxes. The nature of fuel, the composition 
 of the air that fans the fire, the character of the 
 gases fonned by the burning fuel and the proper 
 proportion of air to fuel for producing the great- 
 est degree of heat are the principal things to be 
 
 (47)
 
 48 FIRING. 
 
 learned in the study of laws relating to combus- 
 tion." 
 
 Combustion is tbe power which transports all 
 trains on railroads, steamboats on the ocean, and 
 turns 99 per cent of the wheels of commerce in 
 all branches of trade. It is the most expensive of 
 all powers for commercial purposes outside the 
 power of vital action, and, in railroading, cuts 
 the largest hole in the bill of expense. 
 
 Consider the large amount of money exi^ended 
 every year by railroad companies for coal, oil, 
 and other fuels, and how much ot this fuel may 
 be wasted if the men whose duty it is to use it 
 are careless and indifferent in its use. It has 
 been estimated that when steam escapes at the 
 safety valves the loss amounts to about one-fourth 
 of a pound of coal each second or about a shovel- 
 ful of coal per minute, or as an- authoritv has 
 graphically stated it, ''It is the same or worse 
 than throwing a shovelful of coal off the engine 
 each minute."* 
 
 To get a proper understanding of the fuel econ- 
 omy question, many things must be considered. 
 
 First, a well-designed engine, properly adjusted 
 draught appliances, with properly proportioned 
 cylinders ; second, a well-kept engine ; third, prop- 
 
 *By an actual test on a locomotive at tbe Purdue Univer- 
 sity, it was found that, by blowing off steam through the 
 safety valve for four consecutive minutes, six cubic feet of 
 water, 336 pounds, was converted into steam and blown away, 
 being at the rate of 84 pounds of water per minute, 1 2-5 
 pounds per second. In ordinary work. 6 pounds of water are 
 converted into steam for each pound of coal consumed, and ^ 
 about 12 pounds per pound of crude oil. The amount of coal ' 
 wasted in four minutes was 56 pounds, 14 of a pound per 
 second. In forty seconds, 10 pounds, or one shovelful of coal, 
 would be wasted.
 
 FIRING. 49 
 
 erly supplying the boiler with water and the fire 
 with fuel; fourth, smooth, steady running; and 
 last, but not least, unity of action between the 
 engineer and fireman. 
 
 If an engine's cylinders are too large for the 
 boiler, the boiler too large for the fire-box and 
 heating surfaces, the draught appliances improp- 
 erly adjusted, cylinders, valves, steam pipes, and 
 joints blowing, valve motion out of order, it is 
 next to impossible for any kind of engineer or 
 fireman to make a good record with her. Tw^o- 
 thirds of a good coal record can always be traced 
 to the engineer wiio by intelligence and interest 
 in performing his duties accomplishes smooth, 
 steady running. If the engineer takes no interest, 
 the fireman will be com})elled to take things as 
 they are and may be blamed for the engineer's 
 ignorance or carelessness. 
 
 There are two kinds of engineers, and two kinds 
 of firemen ; therefore, there are two ways of ran- 
 ning and two ways of firing a locomotive. Some 
 :nen would not make good, economical engineers 
 with unlimited experience; some will try to make 
 up all the time they are behind in the first two or 
 three miles, or before they get out of the yard 
 limits ; some will leave on time, on a moderately 
 fast run, and will run as fast as they can to the 
 next town, but finding they are going to arrive 
 too soon, shut off, regardless of the high steam 
 pressure and big fire, and away goes the steam 
 through the pop, rei>eating the process between 
 ever}" station. In this ease the fireman through 
 the conduct of the engineer has to fire the engine 
 so that when leaving a town he will have a fire 
 that will stand the conditions ; be is detenuined to
 
 50 FIRING. 
 
 keep her hot, if it takes all the coal in the coalpit ; 
 then, when the throttle is again shut off, the 
 safety valve screams with joy. 
 
 Again an engineer may let the balance-packing 
 blow, pistons and rods leak, steam pipes and 
 joints leak, nozzles get loose or choke up, and so 
 on, and should the fireman make suggestions as to 
 the cause or cure, the engineer may tell him he 
 is firing her too heavy, the first is full of holes, 
 or something else; perhaps he will be informed 
 he is not paid for running tlie engine, or he knows 
 too much. 
 
 Such an engineer will be afraid to make a re- 
 port, for he may not know what to report. His 
 engine runs down and becomes a poor steamer, 
 and will burn all the coal a fireman can shovel 
 into the fire-box. Other engineers may have no 
 confidence in themselves, or their engine's ability, 
 and on a hill or heavy train will want her popping 
 all the time, claiming they can not pull cars with 
 cold water ; or they may make a run for a hill like 
 a boy running a mile to jump over a two^board 
 fence, and are out of wind when they get there. 
 The economical engineer is one who will do the 
 right thii g at the right time with the least pos- 
 sible amount of steam going through the cylinders, 
 and has confidence in his engine's and his own 
 ability, never gets in a hurry and is generally on 
 time; he reads and keeps up with the times, and 
 is not afraid to discuss questions with his fireman. 
 
 Fuel and Comhustion. Coal is composed of sev- 
 eral ingredients, as follows:— Carbon, oxygen, 
 nitrogen, hydrogen, sulphur, ash or incombustible 
 iiubstances. In bituminous coal the proportions
 
 FIRING. 61 
 
 vary as the coal varies, but, in good soft coal, are 
 about as follows: — 
 
 Carbon, 50 per cent (gases) ; moisture, 35 per 
 cent; ash, etc., 15 j>er cent. 
 
 Carbon forms the solid portion of the coal, and 
 is the chief element in its composition. It is one' 
 of the most abundant elements in nature, and is 
 found in various states or conditions, such as 
 graphite, charcoal, the diamond, and so on. The 
 difference between graphite and a diamond in 
 appearance is as day to night, but, wheu analyzed, 
 they are found to contain nothing but pure carbon. 
 
 In burning carbon, if the process of combus- 
 tion is comi)lete, it will give out 14,5(J0 heat units. 
 Next to carlx)n comes hydrogen, which exists only 
 in a gaseous state. It is the lightest known sub- 
 stance in nature. Two atoms of hydrogen gas 
 uniting with one atom of oxygen gas produces 
 water, and, in the burning of a fire, forms the 
 moisture which, together with the other gases, 
 fonns the gaseous substances in the coal. One 
 pound of hydrogen gas yields 62,032 units of 
 heat, and is the greatest heat known produced 
 by the combustion of one ijound of any known 
 substance. The ashes, or incombustible matter in 
 the fuel, come from the imjmrities contained in 
 the vegetation from which the coi.l or fuel orig- 
 inated. Sulphur is one of the elements of coal, 
 and is the chief element in the formation of 
 clinkers. It exists only in a solid state. 
 
 Combustion, or fire, is the result of the rapid 
 union of oxygen with carbon wheu uniting at a 
 high degree of temperature, producing light and 
 heat. It simply means decay in a rapid form. 
 For example, take two pieces of wood, coal, or
 
 52 " FIRING. 
 
 any other substance that will burn, set one piece 
 an fire ; in a few minutes it is all consumed, leav- 
 ing nothing but a few asi.es. The other is thrown 
 on the ground, and remains there to rot or decay ; 
 it may take years before the second piece is re- 
 duced to ashes, but the process is identical, and 
 the heat units produced are exactly the same in 
 both cases. The first we call fire; the second, 
 decay. In reality, it is all decay, the first being 
 the rapid process caused by the rapid union of 
 oxygen with carbon, or fuel at a high degree of 
 temperature. The- second, the slow process of 
 decay on account of the slow union of oxygen 
 with the carbon or fuel, producing no light and 
 no perceptible heat, but heat is produced just the 
 same. 
 
 Combustion, as we understand it, is produced 
 by the rapid union of oxygen with carbon, and 
 is always accompanied by light and heat. It has 
 been found upon examination that not only is the 
 heat of combustion a fixed quantity whether the 
 union of oxygen with carbon takes place slowly 
 or rapidly, but that the heat evolved in any given 
 chemical reaction is always the same, and is al- 
 ways accompanied by an evolution of heat. 
 
 Any substance which has the power to unite 
 with other substances has power to do work and 
 possess chemical energy ; therefore all combustible 
 material can do work. By uniting with^ oxygen, 
 it produces heat, and the heat in turn is trans- 
 formed into motion. Thus we see the source of 
 power in the steam engine is chemical energy 
 produced by the burning fire in the fire-box. 
 
 Wliere does this power or combustion or pent 
 up energy come from, or how and where did it
 
 FIRING. 53 
 
 originate? In ages gone by, no one knows how 
 long, the rays or heat of the sun caused the trees 
 and plants to grow and flourish in the atmos- 
 phere, which was abundantly supplied with car- 
 bonic acid gas ; this acid or gas in the atmosphere 
 entered into the growing trees and vegetation, and 
 was stored there for man's use and benefit; as 
 time went by, the vegetation, tlirough the action 
 of the elements, took a new form ; just how or 
 what was the cause is not known, but the result 
 is coal. 
 
 The sunbeams building up the trees and plants 
 expended a great amount of heat, and the heat 
 expended equal to the amount of work done in 
 producing the growth ; the heat i)roduced by one 
 pound of coal is no more and no less than the 
 amount of heat stored in the coal when in the 
 form of growing vegetation. It absorbed the heat 
 from the sun, consequently all motion produced 
 by combustion through caloric or heat engines 
 comes from the sun and planets. Having arrived 
 at the source of power in all caloric engines, we 
 will endeavor to utilize the power to the best of 
 our ability. 
 
 One unit of heat equals 722 foot-pounds of 
 work, or, to put it a little more clearly, will raise 
 722 pounds one foot high; 140,000 units of heat, 
 which is the result of the perfect combustion of 
 ten pounds of coal (one shovel full) will raise 772 
 pounds 100,000,000 feet high, or 100 tons 526 feef 
 high; 33,000 pounds raised one foot high equals 
 one horse power; 100 tons raised 526 feet equals 
 3, 187 H. P.* 
 
 *In practice it is impossible to obtain these results even 
 with our best mechanical appliances, on account of the many
 
 54 FIRING. 
 
 When a fire is lighted in a locomotive fire-box, 
 tlie burning is slow at first, and shortly after the 
 fire begins to burn, water is seen to ooze out of 
 the cracks, and joints in the front end very often. 
 Thus we say the front end is sweating; this is a 
 mistake. Webster defines sweating as moisture 
 issuing from the skin. This water we see coming 
 out of the front end is the result of the process 
 of combustion going on in the fire-box.* 
 
 Great care should be taken when starting a fire 
 to prevent this formation of water in the front 
 end, as it j^revents the fire raising steam by 
 stopping up the netting, thereby shutting off the 
 draught and supply of air necessary for good 
 combustion, and is also a source of much waste 
 of fuel. 
 
 When steam has been' raised, and the engine 
 being prepared for the trip, care should be taken 
 to have as much water in the boiler as it will hold 
 without priming when the throttle is opened; in 
 this a great amount of heat is stored; then, when 
 starting out, it will not be necessarv^ with the in- 
 
 avenues of waste connected with the operation of a locomo- 
 tive, such as unskilful running and firing, loss by radiation, 
 condensation, loss of heat, loss by smoke and unconsumed 
 gases, passing out of the smoke-stack as a result of imperfect 
 combustion caused by bad or unskilful firing, poorly designed 
 fire-boxes, and ash-pan appliances, and badly adjusted draught 
 appliances, etc. 
 
 *When oxygen unites with the fuel and hydro-carbons at 
 a certain degree of temperature, it produces hydrogen gas, 
 one atom of hydrogen gas combining with one atom of oxy- 
 gen produces water, and this water passes off from the fire 
 In the form of vapor. This gaseous vapor passing along 
 through the flues of the front end condenses as it comes in 
 contact with the cold sheets of iron, forming little pools of 
 water, which find their way out through the joints.
 
 FIRING. 55 
 
 jector on, which would have to be the case with 
 low water. The engine can run along for some 
 distance before the injector is started thereby 
 giving the fire a chance to burn good ^\'ithout 
 crowding it. Care should also be taken to have 
 a good fire in before starting, so that when the 
 engine is working hard it will not be necessary to 
 open the fire-box door, but the fireman can wait 
 until the lever is cut back and a light exhaust act- 
 ing on the fire; then, when the door is open, there 
 will not be such a rush of cold air going in the 
 fire-box through it. 
 
 In a fire-box one or two gases are being formed 
 at all times during the process of combustion, and 
 it is very essential that we know which of these 
 two gases is being formed, as the formation of one 
 is accompanied by great loss of fuel, while the 
 other makes the hottest and most successful fire 
 that can be produced by the burning of fuel in a 
 locomotive fire-box. 
 
 When the fire is light and the proper amount 
 of air is being admitted to it, so that one atom 
 of carbon imites with two atoms of oxygen, the 
 result of their union is carbonic acid gas. In 
 burning carbonic acid gas, one pound of carbon 
 yields 14,500 heat units. When this process is 
 going on, the fire will have an incandescent ap- 
 pearance, and the inside of the fire-box will have 
 a whitish gray color. When the fire is heavy or 
 clogged by ashes or clinkers, so that the supply 
 of air is restricted, and two atoms of oxygen are 
 not present to unite with one atom of carbon, then 
 one atom of oxygen will combine with one atom 
 of carbon, and the result is carbonic oxide gas. In 
 burning carbonic oxide gas, one pound of carbon
 
 56 FIRING. 
 
 yields only 4,550 units of heat. In this case the 
 fire will have a heavy^ dull appearance, and the 
 inside of the fire-box will have a black, sooty ap- 
 pearance, and heavy clouds of smoke will roll out 
 of the smokestack.* 
 
 The practical duties of the fireman are to see 
 that the grates and appurtenances of his engine 
 are in proper order and that the full complement 
 of tools is on hand before starting; that the flue 
 sheets are cleaned of clinkers before his engine 
 is fired up, and that the fire is evenly placed over 
 the entire grate surface ; that a bed of fire covers 
 the forward portion of the grate next the flue 
 sheets before the blower is used; that the blower 
 be used as lightly as possible; that there is suffi- 
 cient fuel on the fire before starting the locomo- 
 tive to hold it and keep up steam while the engine 
 is getting under way so as to permit the fireman 
 to give his attention wholly to the signals and 
 switches; that opening the fire door while the 
 exhaust is strong should be avoided as much as 
 possible; that coal is broken (if necessary) into 
 pieces as near egg size as possible; that in firing 
 under the ''spreading" system the coal is broken 
 into the proper size and scattered over the surface 
 of the fire evenly, giving the sides and corners 
 the preference.t 
 
 When the train is under way and normal pres- 
 sure of steam has been attained two or three 
 shovelfuls of coal should be placed in the fire-box 
 
 *T. J. Henderson. 
 
 fCoal broken into pieces of the proper size offers greater 
 surface area to the heat and permits of being scattered more 
 uniformly over the fire.
 
 FIRING. 57 
 
 at a time, liglitly and frequently and the door 
 kept open only as long as may be absolutely neces- 
 sary ; the coal having been broken in advance, the 
 shovel should be filled and draAMi forward within 
 reach ready for the coal to be placed on the fire 
 — this before the fire-box door is opened.* 
 
 Except in very cold weather coal should be 
 wetted to prevent dust and dirt. This gives in- 
 creased weight to the fine particles which other- 
 wise would be dra^\^l directly into the. flues caus- 
 ing not only waste of fuel, but stoppage of the 
 flues. 
 
 If the locomotive is supplied with a smoke 
 burner, it should be carefully looked after, and if 
 there are any flues in the sides or rear of the 
 fire-box for admitting air above the fire, they 
 should be kept open, as it will tend to more per- 
 fect combustion and help to abate the smoke 
 nuisance. Care should be taken not to throw the 
 coal so that it will strike the flues or fall on top 
 of the arch, if the engine has one. 
 
 A fire requires to be frequently replenished 
 ^^^tll small quantities of fuel in order to keep it 
 bright. Heat is greatest when there is a rapid 
 state of combustion. If there are clouds of 
 smoke in the fire-box, heat will not readily pene- 
 trate them, and so poor results will be attained. 
 
 In ease it is foimd necessary to maintain a 
 
 ♦Another method of firing is known as the "banking" sys- 
 tem used principally with certain grades of coal having few 
 or no clinkers. In this case the coal is piled up at the back 
 part of the fire-box, sloping down toward the front where the 
 layer of coal being thin, is in a high state of incandescence — 
 wtien the heap of coal at the back of the fire-box is thor- 
 oughly coked it is pushed forward and a fresh supply of fuel 
 put in its place to undergo the same process.
 
 58 • FIRING. 
 
 very heavy fire in order to generate sufficient 
 steam, it indicates that there is something wrong 
 ■with the iront end of the engine; either the nozzle 
 is too small or may have become choked, or the 
 draft appliances are not properly adjusted. 
 
 The temperature required to ignite carbon (of 
 which coal is chiefly composed) is about eighteen 
 hundred degrees. If, thereiore, a large amount 
 of coal is placed on the fire at one time, the tem- 
 perature is reduced until the coal supplied can 
 be brought up to tlie required temperature. The 
 result is, first, contraction of the metal surround- 
 ing tlie fire-box, followed by expansion, thus sub- 
 jecting the boiler to a great and unnecessary 
 strain. 
 
 The- importance of making proper use of the 
 dampers is not always appreciated. With single 
 part ash-pans, one damper, and that ordinarily the 
 rear one, will be found most economical. By 
 opening both dampers when the engine is working 
 lightly with a thin fire, too much air will be 
 admitted, and as air drawn through a fire in excess 
 of the amount required for combustion tends to 
 cool the gases below the point of ignition, waste of 
 fuel results. Closing the dampers prevents the 
 admission of air through the fire. This stops 
 combustion and leaves the fire-box and flue sheets 
 to gradually cool off. Opening wide the fire-box 
 door will only partially prevent the draft through 
 the fire, while it admits cold air directly onto the 
 flues and sheets surrounding the fire-box, thereby 
 cooling them so suddenly as to cause leaks. 
 
 In firing, the requirements of the service should 
 be anticipated. A heavy fire should not be main- 
 tained when steam is to be shut off wholly or par-
 
 FIRING. 69 
 
 tially. A hard pull, on the other hand, should be 
 anticipated. 
 
 In starting, the coal should be well ignited so 
 that there will be no occasion for opening the fire- 
 box door until the train has gained considerable 
 headway and the lever has been hooked up, with 
 consequent lighter pull from the exhaust. 
 
 On aiJi)roaching a stopping poinj:, the dampers 
 should be shut down, and if bituminous coal is 
 used, but little, if any, fresh fuel supplied to the 
 fire. If, however, fresh coal has been applied 
 through misjudgment or otherwise, the blower 
 should l3e opened and the fire-box door left slight- 
 ly ajar to prevent smoke and injurious gases es- 
 caping. 
 
 Choking volumes of coal smoke and gases often 
 find their way into passenger cars, causing great 
 discomfort, when careless or unskillful firing is 
 exercised. 
 
 It should.be borne in mind, in approaching a 
 stopping place, that a saving of fuel will result 
 from letting the steam drop back a few pounds, 
 rather than to allow it to escape through the 
 safety valves. "When it is found necessary to 
 reduce the steam pressure, the dampers should 
 be closed, rather than the fire-lx)x door opened. 
 The injector may also be started if the boiler is 
 not already too full ; if it is, the steam may, in 
 many cases, be utilized by turning it into the tank 
 to warm the water therein.* 
 
 The ash-pan and the front end should be cleaned 
 
 ♦Practical experiment has demonstrated that every 11 de- 
 grees (Fahr.) increase in the temperature of the feed water 
 produces about one per cent economy in the locomotive boiler.
 
 60 FIRINO. 
 
 whenever opportunity presents itself. A set rule 
 cannot be laid down as to the frequency with 
 which these duties should be perfoiTued. No great 
 amount of labor will be required in cleaning the 
 front end of cinders if the draft appliances are 
 good and there are no steam leaks. 
 
 In regard to the ash-pan, it will fill up more or 
 less quickly according to the grade of coal and 
 the amount used. With a poor grade of coal, it 
 may become necessary to clean the ash-pan on 
 the road. The better steaming of the engine will 
 more than compensate for time thus lost, and it 
 may result that failure to perform this duty will 
 necessitate the consumption of two or three ad- 
 ditional tons of coal on a trip. 
 
 When sufficient air is not admitted through the 
 body of the fire, there is a loss through the smoke- 
 stack of about two-thirds, or more, of the heating 
 properties of coal. This shows the importance of 
 keeping as thin a fire as is consistent with the 
 working of the engine. 
 
 Grates are to be shaken lightly as frequently as 
 required. 
 
 If clinkers accumulate they should be removed 
 at the first opportunity. 
 
 The steam pressure should be kept within the 
 prescribed limits and not permitted to change 
 rapidly either way. 
 
 The blower should be used while the injector is 
 working, so as to prevent change of temperature 
 of the boiler. 
 
 It is a truism that economical firing is impossible 
 where the engine and injector are started simul- 
 taneously or both shut off at the same time on ap- 
 proaching stations. The cause of leaky boilers is
 
 FIRING. '61 
 
 not necessarily the result of ovei'working the en- 
 gine but is often due to iK)or management of the 
 fire and injectors combined with injudicious use 
 of the throttle.* 
 
 To prevent or stop the engine blowing off, the 
 supply of water should be increased or the damper 
 dropi)ed. 
 
 If necessary to oi)en the door of the fire-lx)x 
 while the engine is working, it is to be done slight- 
 ly or swung open and shut. 
 
 So far as practicable the smoking or drumming 
 of the engine while at stations, or when attached 
 to or in the vicinity of a passenger train, is to be 
 prevented. 
 
 Ash-i)aus and fires should not be cleaned near 
 a biidge, culvert, depot, or buildinar, or on a frog 
 or switch, and the fire should Ix? extinguished with 
 water before leaving it. 
 
 At the close of a run, when the fire has been 
 removed, the damjiers and fire doors should be 
 kejit closed while the engine is l^eing handled. 
 
 AVliile it is possible for a man to become an 
 adept without having studied the laws of combus- 
 tion, it is nevertheless true that if he be thus 
 skilled, he is obeying those laws. To such a one 
 the study of combustion may be more interesting 
 than beneficial, but to others study will open up 
 an avenue to the knowledge they should possess 
 if they would serve their employer acceptably. 
 Men ignorant of the laws of combustion, who 
 
 *In relation to the promotion of a fireman to tbe position 
 of engineer, it is claimed by many experts that a fireman who 
 has been out of freight service for several years should not 
 be promoted to the position of engineer without again firing 
 a freight engine for three or four months.
 
 62 FIRING. 
 
 stumble into the right path, would attain it much 
 easier and more quickly by study. All, therefore, 
 should study the subject, and this both practically 
 and scientifically. 
 
 Extended observation leads to the knowledge 
 that lack of steam-making power in the engine 
 is too often the result of over-firing. Especially 
 is this true in the case of new firemen, or where 
 the engine has a reputation of making steam 
 poorly. 
 
 As already pointed out, perfect firing means" 
 the admission of fuel and air in exactly proper 
 proportions, but as no fixed rale can be accu- 
 rately followed, the fireman may hope to approxi- 
 mate it by watching closely the results of different 
 methods of firing, remembering that, in many 
 cases, by saving the shovelfuls of coal, the ton is 
 saved.* 
 
 The following are practical hints to firemen: 
 If using soft coal do not carry over ten or twelve 
 inches of fire in the center of the fire-box ; keep 
 the sides and corners a little higher; aim to fire 
 in the corners and sides more than in the center. 
 If the boiler will not steam well with a light fire, 
 more air is probably needed at the front of the 
 box. Leave the fire door open a little way for a 
 
 ♦While the foregoing instructions In regard to firing apply- 
 In the main to all classes of fuel, yet it is true they refer par- 
 ticularly, in several instances to bituminous coal. Where 
 anthracite coal or wood is used therefore, modifications will 
 be required according to the nature of the fuel and the class 
 of fire-box and engine. However the general rule requiring 
 that the fuel shall be so used as to burn most freely and 
 create the maximum intensity of heat with the least fuel 
 possible, applies in every case. This is also true in regard 
 to keeping the grates free of clinkers and ashes.
 
 FIRING. 63 
 
 few seconds after putting in coal, it helps to con- 
 sume the smoke. Two shoA'elfuls is enough at 
 one time if put on the briglit spots. No boiler 
 will steam well with the fire-box and flues full of 
 smoke. If you have occasion to use the hook, be 
 careful not to mix the green coal with that partly 
 consumed. Do not use a slash bar if it can be 
 avoided and be careful not to get green coal on 
 the grates. If the box has an arch, keep a good 
 space open between the arch and the fire. If the 
 engine has a heavy train, it will need a heavier 
 fire than with a light train and a fast run ; always 
 make calculations to fire according to train and 
 speed. Hook out all clinkers from the fire as 
 soon as you find them. Do not fire nmch while 
 pumi)s or injectors are on full. If tlie engine has 
 ash pan dampers use them when necessary. If 
 there is more steam than is needed the dampers 
 should be closed; a certain amount of air is neces- 
 sary to make a fire burn as it should ; if too much 
 air is admitted the gases will be chilled; if too 
 little they will not ignite ; no rule can be made 
 for the exact amount of air required, because 
 different kinds of coal require var^Mng (piantities 
 of air; only keep a bright fire low in the center 
 of the box whore the most air is needed and wat<:'h 
 when the greatest flame appears in the fire-box 
 with the least smoke going out of the stack; at- 
 tend to the fire often, and do not use lumps of 
 coal larger than an egg. Keep the ash-pan clean 
 or the grates will burn out. If firing an .engine 
 hauling a passenger train, on approaching a sta- 
 tion, as soon as the throttle is closed, put the 
 btower on lightly and open the fire door about half 
 an inch ; when nearing the end of the trip let the
 
 64 
 
 FIRING. 
 
 fire run low. Do all you can to help the engineer, 
 but do nothing wdthout first knowing that he 
 wishes it done. Keep all tools and cans clean and 
 be ready and willing to aid him. Try to learn 
 what he does and how he does it, trying to antici- 
 pate his wishes. 
 
 The following illustrations show graphically 
 the effect of different methods of firing : 
 
 Fig. 1 shows the system of heavy firing at the 
 door, resulting in a light fire over only a portion 
 of the grate sur- 
 face as plainly 
 shown by the 
 path of the 
 flame. This 
 method of firing 
 shuts otf the 
 proper supply of 
 air to the back 
 portion of the 
 fire, with a consequent reduction in fire-box tem- 
 perature, and forces the forward portion of the 
 grate surface to perform the work that was in- 
 tended to be distributed over the whole grate area. 
 Fig. 2 shows a system of light and level cross 
 
 firing with slight 
 building up 
 around the edges, 
 producing a bright 
 fire with high tem- 
 perature through- 
 out the whole fire- 
 Fig. 2. box. 
 
 Fig. 1.
 
 FIRING. 
 
 64a 
 
 Fig. 3 shows good firing and the effect of a tem- 
 porary reduction in fire-box temperature when a 
 shovelful of coal i 
 is introduced. p 
 
 Fig. 4 ^ -■ ' 
 
 shows F-[^ 
 peratureU| 
 
 1 h e temp 
 in the front end 
 of the fire-box re- 
 stored at the time 
 a shovelful is put 
 into the back end 
 as would be done ^^^th the system of cross firing, 
 and a consequent reduction of temi)erature when 
 
 tlie coal is put 
 into the back 
 end of fire-box. 
 Fig. 5 shows 
 an end view of 
 the fire-b o x 
 with a slight 
 building up of 
 the fire on the 
 
 sides, as would be the result of 
 the system of cross firing. 
 
 Fig. 6 shows an end view of 
 the action of the draft in thin- 
 ning the fire along the sheets of 
 the fire-box unless the coal is 
 introduced as per Fig. 5. 
 
 P^ig. 7 shows the method 
 known as cross firing. In this 
 system a shovelful of coal is 
 spread near one of the front corners (at 1), 
 next shovelful is put in the back and opposite 
 
 the 
 
 side
 
 64& 
 
 FIRING. 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 (at 2), thus alternating the 
 places where each shovelful is 
 l^ut between the corners and the 
 middle of the grates, first on one 
 side and then at the other. This 
 method tends to keep the fire 
 nearly level, except a little 
 heavier next to the sheets to pre- 
 vent too much air entering at 
 these points, as the air will not 
 be heated to the igniting point until it gets near 
 the middle of the fire-box on account of the tem- 
 perature near the 
 sheets being held 
 down by amount 
 absorbed by the 
 water on the op- 
 posite side of the 
 sheets. It is 
 claimed to be good practice to fire on one side or 
 end, then at the other, in order that the bright fire 
 in one place may help to burn the gases liberated 
 from coal introduced at the other. 
 
 Pis. 8. 
 
 Fig. 8 shows the cooling effect from a hole being 
 allowed to get in the fire, admitting a large volume 
 of cold air into the fire-box.
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 POINTERS FOR P'IREMEN.* 
 
 When a young man enters the locomotive ser- 
 vice his success depends on his own efforts. He 
 should endeavor to reach the round house, if pos- 
 sible in ami>le time to get the engine ready for 
 the trip, dust off the boiler head, sweep off the 
 deck, and, if at night, have the cab lamps lighted, 
 lubricators and oil cans filled and ready for use, 
 wipe off the front window of the cab, if neces- 
 sary, that the engineer may be able to see through 
 the glass. If a night run, the cab lamps should 
 be kept burning brightly so that the engineer can 
 read the steam and air gauges correctly and tell 
 the pressures. Engineers appreciate these little 
 things and will very likely make it as pleasant for 
 the fireman as they can and take an interest in him. 
 "When approaching stations where stops are made 
 to oil, kee}) the coal out of the gang-way and if 
 there is anything to do, such as a rod cup to fill or 
 a truck to pack, anticipate the requirements and 
 have the tools handy that the work may be done 
 with as little delay as possible. Assist the engi- 
 neer all you can and thereby obtain a more prac- 
 tical knowledge of the manner of doing the work. 
 Alter you leave the station and the pressure is 
 near the popping point, if the engineer's atten- 
 
 *The author is indebted for this eminently practical chap- 
 ter, invaluable to firemen, to Mr. W. G. Wallace. 
 
 (65)
 
 66 FIREMEN. 
 
 tion is taken up with something else, a jerk on 
 the fire-door chain or opening the door will cause 
 him to put on the injector at a time when you are 
 ready for him. He will be quick to take advantage 
 of this if he desires to save a little coal that would 
 otherwise be wasted by allowing the engine to pop. 
 
 When doing switching, if you are pulling out 
 over a switch with a string of cars and the sig- 
 nals are given on your side, when you get a sig- 
 nal to stop say tO' the engineer "that will do"; 
 don't ride on the seat until the stop is made, but 
 get down and drop in the amount of coal neces- 
 sary and get back on the seat m time to get the 
 signal to back up and transmit it to the engineer' 
 without delay. Brakemen, as a rule, are left- 
 handed when doing switching, but there may be a 
 train waiting for you to pull out of the yard and, 
 of course, j^ou want to get over the road. Get- 
 ting signals promptly .applies to all kinds of 
 trains, but . especially tO' passenger and way- 
 freights. There is nothing that will spoil a train 
 crew so quickly as to have them hustle to get 
 their work done at a station and then have to wait 
 from 20 to 40 seconds before the signal to go 
 reaches the ongine. If you receive the signals 
 promptly you will soon make a record with the 
 train crews. They will be glad to work with you, 
 as well as to say, there is a man we never have to 
 wait for when we give a signal. 
 
 Superintendents, traveling engineers and train 
 masters ride these trains sometimes and obsei've 
 these things. They also remember them in case 
 you should get into trouble later on and should 
 have occasion to go intO' their offices. 
 
 Firemen have been known in manv instances
 
 FIREMEN. 67 
 
 to have a good influence on engineers by some- 
 times taking more interest in their work than the 
 engineer himself. Some engineers are not as at- 
 tentive to their work as they might be at all times, 
 but that kind of a man is usually a good fellow. 
 "When he finds that you are a worker and taking 
 an interest in getting over the road he will try to 
 help you, often a friendliness will spring up be- 
 tween you. If he should be a little careless with 
 the injector and knock the steam back and you 
 think you can improve on the immping, ask him to 
 let you try the left injector for a while to see how 
 it works. If he does, you can ])erhaps give him an 
 object lesson. The result will be that he will al- 
 low you to i)um]) her if you can do better, or he 
 may get the left injector changed to his side and 
 pump her himself. It should not- be the fireman's 
 work to pumj) the engine, as a rule, but if he can 
 do it better than the engineer he should l)e allowed 
 to do so. But you do not want to think that this 
 is putting work on you if you do have to pump the 
 engine. It will give you practice and confidence 
 in your ability when you are promoted. You all 
 know that the good pumi)er that handles his water 
 nicely is the best man to fire for, makes the l^est 
 time, does less doubling on hills and earns moref 
 money for the com])any. Try and be that kind of 
 a man when you go over to the right side. Your 
 work is hard, but do not make it harder for your- 
 self and others by growling about it. Sometimes 
 you have hard trips and the engine will not steam 
 properly. When you have a trip of this kind try 
 and study the cause and fire the engine in differ- 
 ent ways if you can. Sometimes dropping the 
 front dami^er will help, or the back one, as the
 
 68 FIREMEN. 
 
 case may be; see that the drop grate is up where 
 it should be. 
 
 A fireman was noticed firing an engine with a 
 mixture of fine and lump coal. He put the fine 
 coal where it would burn on the grate surface 
 back of the drop grate and the lump coal was 
 thrown to the forward end of the box on the drop 
 grate. When asked why he handled his fire in 
 that manner he said ''You know that I cannot 
 shake my drop grate, and if I put the good coal 
 up ahead that will not clinker as much as the fine 
 coal. If the fire clinkers on the other grates I 
 can shake them and break the clinker up." He 
 had plenty of steam at the time and fire in nice 
 shape, due to his intelligent method of handling 
 the fire. Although the person who asked the ques- 
 tion had years of experience on a locomotive he 
 had never thought of that before. That fireman 
 had his head working and it is needless to say 
 that he was a good one. 
 
 It frequently happens that an engine is stopped 
 near a telegraph office for orders and allowed to 
 blow off, conductor and engineer in the office per- 
 haps waiting for the "correct" or "0. K." from 
 the train dispatcher, or to have the order repeated. 
 Try and keep her cool. The operator can read 
 the instrument better and will get the order that 
 much quicker for you. 
 
 If the boiler is full of water to the working 
 level, put the heater on and get the steam back 
 into the feed water in the tender. You will keep 
 down the noise and increase the temperature of 
 the water. Feed water heaters are used in sta- 
 tionary practice. Must be something in it. This 
 can be practiced when you get over the hard pull
 
 FIREMEN. 69 
 
 and shut off to drift down hill, or at any time 
 when the pop would open and the escaping steam 
 bo wasted. 
 
 A unit of heat is a quantity of heat that will 
 raise the temperature of one i)Ound of water one 
 degree, and you can evaporate water from 90 de- 
 grees temperature with less coal than you could 
 if your feed water was at a temperature of 60 or 
 70 degrees. One gallon of water weighs eight and 
 one-third poimds. Figure it out for yourself. 
 Try it sometime when you are on a hard steamer, 
 for an experiment. It does not take long to put 
 the heater in and you will save the heat that will 
 come in handy when you are taking a run for the 
 kill. You will, at least, keep the tank from sweat- 
 ing in warm weather, and that will add to the 
 appearance of the engine. You may say that the 
 injector will not work hot water. That may be 
 true, but you can safely increase the tempera- 
 ture to the heat of a summer day. If you do, it 
 ought to show up at the end of the month on the 
 coal report. 
 
 Another thing that is often noticed, and is an- 
 noying, where bituminous coal is used, is the 
 drumming noise made by an engine at times when 
 standing at a station. It makes every \nndow 
 in the coaches rattle and some of the passengers 
 shiver. This can be avoided by dropping a damper 
 or opening the fire-door on the latch. Trj^ it, and 
 save the nerves of the nervous passenger or per- 
 haps a sick friend of yours in the Wcinity. This 
 is caused by the hydrogen expelled from the coal 
 combining in certain proportions with the oxygen 
 present forming oxyhydrogen gas, an explosive 
 compound, which, when subjected to a high tern-
 
 70 FIREMEtJ. 
 
 perature, produces a series of minute explosions 
 in the fire-box. 
 
 Try and keep your fire in its best possible con- 
 dition by firing the best you can from the time 
 you leave the terminal until you arrive. Avoid 
 heavy firing and slugging. You will have less 
 clinkers, get more air through your fire and have 
 more steam. 
 
 Study the arrangement of the front end and 
 adjustment of same. Note the results of certain 
 changes. When you get an engine to run you 
 will be able to report what you want done to make 
 her above the average on the coal performance 
 and not say on your report, "engine don't steam 
 a little bit, fix her," and expect the man in the 
 round house to know what to do to make her 
 steam when he has had no chance to see how she 
 burns her fire. The engineer that makes that kind 
 of a report needs attention ; he often has the front 
 end changed when he should have the flues bored 
 out, or steam pipe joints ground in, or valves and 
 cylinder packing repaired. 
 
 As you study these things you will be able to 
 determine the defect and it will not worry you so 
 much, as you will know where the trouble is. If 
 you have your fire in good condition when start- 
 ing out, and put the coal in the fire-box as it is 
 burned and when needed, with the engine handled 
 properly, if she does not steam it is not your 
 fault. Worrying over it will not raise the pres- 
 sure and does no good. 
 
 As for the black smoke problem, fire your en- 
 gine as light as you can and keep her hot. Have 
 the blower on just before the throttle is closed. 
 Use your dampers and fire door to avoid it all you
 
 FIREMEN. 71 
 
 can. Conditions vary so that you cannot fire all 
 kinds of engines and trains without some of it. 
 Your officers are reasonable enough to allow ^for 
 the difference between necessary black smoke and 
 carelessly made black smoke. If you are careless 
 and smother tlie town or the passengers, you may 
 expect to liear from it. Sometimes this is more 
 the fault of the engineer than the fireman. In 
 order to have smokeless firing you must have a 
 smokeless engineer. Without an eugfineer who will 
 help 5'ou and work to that end you are up against 
 a ))roi)Osition that you should not be held respon- 
 sible for. Kiglit here is where harmony in the cab 
 imi)rov98 the service. There should also be har- 
 monv with the train crew. If the conductor stays 
 too long at the register, or kills time visiting 
 around stations being a good fellow, you may be 
 safe in getting ready to make black smoke when 
 you get the signal to go or lose some of your 
 })ressure. A slow conductor or train crew can 
 make more black smoke and bum more coal than 
 the best fireman can save or jirevent. 
 
 If your engine is not equipped with an air 
 or steam bell-ringer do not wait until the engineer 
 whistles for a crossing and then get down to |)ut 
 in a fire to avoid ringing the bell. If you should 
 strike something on a crossing you will have a 
 hard enough time to prove that the heW was ring- 
 ing. Be sure of it and get in the habit. It is a 
 good thing on an engine to be sure. 
 
 Learn the time table signals and orders. You 
 will be better able to fire your engine with econ- 
 omy. Sometime you mav be able to prevent an 
 accident by saying "they are not there yet" or, 
 at least, you can select a good place to get off.
 
 72 
 
 FIREMEN. 
 
 Many an accident has been prevented by fireman 
 and brakeman knowing the orders. 
 
 All these little things go to make a good man 
 for an engineer to have with him, with all due 
 respect to the engineer. He may have never 
 gotten by an order but he is liable tO' forget. 
 It is only when they all forget that we hear about 
 it. If a case of this kind should happen to you, 
 treat it confidentially, and do not say ''if it had 
 not been for me there would have been an acci- 
 dent last night" at such a place. Keep that to 
 yourself. That is one reason that they have two 
 men in the cab, and it is part of your duty to 
 assist in the safe and proper handling of trains. 
 
 Do your best. 
 
 ENGINE NOT STEAMING — WHY? ADJUSTMENT OF 
 FRONT END ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 One of the first problems that would naturally 
 appeal tO' a fireman, if the engine does not steam 
 
 ^ 
 
 M: J 
 
 
 kP^^ 
 
 properly, is to reason the cause. Figure 1 will 
 serve to illustrate this. It does not matter wheth- 
 er the diaphragm is back or forward of the ex- 
 haust pipe, providing it is not set too close to 
 the flue sheet at the top ; if it is, the draft through 
 the upper flues will be impaired.
 
 FIREMEN. 73 
 
 In starting out with clean grates and flues, you 
 should note if the fire is burning evenly on the 
 grates ; if not the diaphragm should be changed 
 to equalize the draft through the flues and fire. 
 Raising the diaphrag-ui increases the draft through 
 the upper flues and on the fire in the back of the 
 box, and lowering it increases the draft through 
 the bottom flues and the front end of the fire box. 
 This is the purpose of the diaphragm and when 
 you get it in position to burn the fire evenly on 
 the grates you have done all that you can with 
 it. 
 
 Now your engine may burn the fire evenly but 
 does not make the steam, and you may want to 
 make her sharper on her fire. You should first ob- 
 sei've if the stack, exhaust i)iiie and nozzle are in 
 line. A quick waj' to determine this is, to take a 
 stick and stand on the boiler shell between the 
 headlight and stack, or behind the stack, and hold 
 the end of the stick over the inside, passing it 
 around the top when the engine is working. If 
 the exhaust steam strikes it harder on one side 
 than the other you will know that the stack is not 
 in line, or not filled by the exhaust steam, and the 
 partial vacuum is not sufficient to produce the 
 necessaiy draft on the fire. Of course you may 
 observe this from the cab when the engine is work- 
 ing, and the stack may l)e filled sidewise and look 
 all right and may not be filled front or back. If 
 you try the stick method you will be sure of itJ 
 Sometimes engines have come from the builders 
 with the stacks set back or ahead three inches. 
 If it had been three inches out sijiewise it would 
 have been noticed ven^ quickly. Now if we have 
 our diaphragm adjusted properly, our stack in line
 
 74 
 
 FIREMEN. 
 
 with the exhaust steam, and the engine is not 
 sharp enough on her fire, raising the pipe or low- 
 ering the sleeve, or both, will increase her draf£ 
 on the fire within certain limits. If then you do 
 not get results the exhaust pipe from the air pump 
 should be examined to see that it does not strike 
 the flare on the pipe, or the steam pipes are leak- 
 ing. If they are in good condition, as a last re- 
 sort, you may have to decrease the size of the 
 nozzle. But you should aim to run with as large 
 a nozzle as possible, consistent with steam making, 
 in order to reduce the back pressure in the cylin- 
 ders. It is true that all engines will not steam 
 
 riff. 2 
 
 alike, although they may have front end arrange- 
 ments set the same. But if the flues are clean, 
 and the stack and exhaust pipes are in line, you 
 can use the adjustment of the best steamers as 
 a guide to set the others by, and the changes 
 necessary will be slight, jiroviding the valve gear 
 and cylinders are taking care of the steam after 
 it is generated. A little study on this subject 
 and the results obtained by the changes will make 
 you familiar with the boiler and draft appliances. 
 To make this clear observe the figures 2 and 3. 
 Figure 2 is over drawn for this purpose and is 
 shown with a pipe and sleeve that extends from
 
 FIREMEN. 
 
 75 
 
 the base of the stack to the base of the exhaust 
 pij^e, the dotted and broken lines representing tlie 
 steam and gases passing to the stack. Tliis is 
 not a very large opening for the exhaust steam to 
 expel the smoke and gases from the front end; 
 and they are not thrown out, the vacuum is not' 
 formed and the air is not drawn through the 
 grates to fill the vacuum in the front end. In 
 
 Figure ?> we have the pipe raised aljo^o the nozzle 
 tip and the sleeve lowered from the base of the 
 stack so that the exhaust steam will expel the 
 gases from the front end and a greater volume 
 o-f air will tiow through the grates and fire, pro- 
 moting combustion. Consider that the nozzle, i>et- 
 ticoat pipe, sleeve, and stack should do business 
 in the front end the same as the tubes and the 
 nozzle of the injector, and adjustments can be ob- 
 tained that will be satisfactory. If the draft 
 cannot be made strong enough in this manner 
 then the nozzle should be bushed, but on account of 
 the effect of the back pressure in the cylinders 
 this should only be done when changing the pi^ie 
 or sleeve will not produce it. If you have an 
 engine without a petticoat or draft pipe, the noz- 
 zle tip should be as high as the center line of the 
 boiler. If it is not an extension should be placed
 
 •76 FIREMEN. 
 
 between the tip and exhaust pipe- to bring it up 
 to the required height. Engines without petti- 
 coat pipes are imiDroved by raising the nozzle tip 
 to this height. 
 
 "VMien the draft appliances have been adjusted 
 to give the best results they should not be changed 
 to remedy other defects, such as poor coal, bad 
 weather, leaky flues, valves and cylinder packing 
 blowing, poor pumping or manipulation of the 
 throttle and reverse lever, or to shield a poor or 
 indifferent fireman. It is very convenient for the 
 engineman if he will make a sketch mentally or 
 on paper of the adjustment of the front end. 
 Know the size of nozzle, height of pipe above the 
 nozzle tip, distance from sleeve to base of stack 
 and height of diaphragm. Then if they are 
 changed or become loose they can be replaced in 
 their former position without guess work. This, 
 of course, would apply only where men are as- 
 signed to engines regularly. If in pool service 
 a similar record should be kept at the round house 
 by the men having charge of the adjustment of 
 same. 
 
 WHEEE THE STEAM GOES AFTER IT IS GENEEATED, AND 
 HOW DISTEIBUTED. 
 
 Assuming that the adjustment of the draft ap- 
 pliances is such that the boiler is at its maximum 
 efficiency, when the throttle valve is opened the 
 steam enters the dry pipe and steam pipes and is 
 admitted to the steam chest or chamjer. Where' 
 the admission to and the exhaust from the cylin- 
 der is controlled by the valve, as it opens and" 
 closes the ports for the admission and exhaust of 
 the steam. Fix this in your mind by cutting a
 
 FIREMEN. 
 
 77 
 
 valve and seat out of cardboard or wood, or 
 marking the valve seat, steam jwrts and exhaust 
 port on iDaper and using the valve made of card- 
 board to move over the drawing. After you have 
 
 made the drawing of the valve seat, cut your 
 first valve to size as shown in Fig. 4 without 
 lap. You will observe as you move this valve 
 over the seat that as soon as one steam port is 
 oj^en for the admission of steam the other i)ort 
 is open to the exhaust cavity. This was the first 
 form of the 1) slide valve, and steam followed the 
 piston to the end of the stroke. In other words, 
 each cylinder was filled with steam from the boil- 
 er twice every revolution. With a valve like this 
 the eccentric was set at right angles to the i)in. 
 
 /^.J 
 
 fi<f.6 
 
 One of the questions often asked is: ''Wliat is 
 lapl" The answer is that it is the amount of 
 valve that extends over the outside edges of the 
 steam port when the valve is in the center of its 
 seat. See Fig. 5. By cutting a valve as shown,
 
 78 FIREMEN. 
 
 you will now see that in order to have the steam 
 port open when the piston is at the beginning of 
 its stroke, the valve must be moved to the posi- 
 tion shown in Fig. () and given lead. Lead is the 
 amount of opening of the steam port when the 
 piston is at the beginning of its stroke. In order 
 to get the valve in that position, you will have 
 to change the position of the eccentric on the 
 shaft. If the top and bottom rocker arms are of 
 equal length, the large part of the eccentric should 
 be moved toward the pin the amount of lap and 
 tlie desired lead opening. With this valve having 
 lai>, the steam can be admitted to the cylinder for 
 a portion of the stroke, when the valve closes the 
 I3ort or cuts off the steam. This is called the point 
 of cut off. 
 
 Now if the cylinders in each of the above cases 
 were of 2-i-inch stroke, by applying the valve 
 with the lap and cutting off the steam at 12 
 inches, or when the piston had moved 12 inches 
 from the end of its stroke, we would have the 
 steam confined in the cylinder to> push the j^iston 
 to the end of its stroke by its expansive force, 
 without filling the cylinder its full length with 
 steam taken from the boiler, thereby using one- 
 half the steam that we would with a valve like 
 that shown in Fig. 4. The advantage of lap is 
 that you can work steam expansively. By study- 
 ing this out and in making the sketch of the 
 valve and seat yourself, you will become familiar 
 with construction of the valves and seats. 
 
 Observing the D valve, you will note that we 
 have steam chest pressure on top of the valve, 
 forcing it downward onto its seat. If the lip of 
 the valve is covering the steam port or just closed
 
 FIREMEN. 
 
 79 
 
 it, the steam in the cylinder is exerting a pres- 
 sure upward or tending to lift the valve from its 
 seat. We also have the pressure of the exhaust 
 steam helping to lift the valve against the pres- 
 sure of the live steam that is holding the valve 
 down. The live steam being the greater, caused 
 friction on the valve and seat, thereby using 
 energy that absorbed some of the power of the 
 engine. As the locomotive increased in size, high- 
 er pressures were carried, and larger ports and 
 valves were necessary to admit and exhaust the 
 steam to and from the cylinders. To reduce the 
 friction between the valve and seat as much as 
 possible, the back of the valve was relieved from 
 the steam chest pressure by introducing a bal- 
 
 n^.^ 
 
 anced valve and pressure plate, whereby a por- 
 tion of the back of the valve was enclosed by 
 strips or rings, preventing the steam from exert- 
 ing a downward pressure on the part of the 
 valve inside of the strips or rings. See Figs. T 
 and 8. Holes were drilled through the back of the 
 valve to the exhaust cavity to • allow the steam 
 that might leak past the strips or rings to es- 
 cape to the exhaust passage and not accumulate 
 a pressure on that part of the valve. The strips
 
 80 FIREMEN. 
 
 are held up against the pressure plate by the 
 tension of the springs under them, and the rings 
 are held up by reason of being cut and the 
 inside edge of the ring beveled to fit the beveled 
 seat on the back of the valve, and the pressure on 
 the outside of the ring has a tendency to force the 
 ring tight to its beveled seat and fill in the 
 space between the back of the valve and the 
 pressure jilate. If a sirring or ring should break, 
 the live steam would come inside the part of the 
 valve that was enclosed by the strips or rings and 
 escape to the exhaust passage through the holes 
 in the back of the valve, causing a blow. 
 
 Which side is it that is blowing! We will 
 determine that by placing the piston at half 
 stroke on the side we wish to test. Open the 
 throttle a little and move the lever from full gear 
 forward to full gear backward, and repeat this 
 operation on the other side of the engine. The 
 side that is at half stroke, or with the pin on 
 quarter, when the lever is the hardest to move 
 from forward to backward motion, is usually the 
 valve that has the broken spring or ring. By 
 placing the engine on the quarter you get the 
 greatest travel of the valve in that position- when 
 the lever is moved from front to back notch. 
 
 If we measure the area of the back of the valve 
 in inches, then measure the area of the back of 
 the valve that is inside of the balance strips or 
 rings in inches, and divide the small area by the 
 large one we have the per cent that the valve is 
 said to be balanced. It is readily seen that you 
 could not get a perfectly balanced valve of this 
 style, as when working steam at a long cut-off the 
 cylinders are filled with high pressure and the
 
 FIREMEN. 81 
 
 pressure of the exliaust-steam coming in contact 
 with the under side of the valve tends to lift the 
 valve from its seat, causing a blow. This usually 
 occurs when starting out of a station or when 
 working hard. This may also be caused by the 
 valve closing the port too early and preventing 
 the exhaust steam from getting out, and the steam 
 thus confined in the cylinder is compressed to a 
 higher pressure than that in the steam chest, when 
 the valve will be raised from its seat and steam 
 will escape to the exhaust passage. Of course the 
 valve can only lift until it comes up to the pres- 
 sure plate, but that will be sufficient to cause a 
 bad blow when a valve is overbalanced. 
 
 We will now fix five important things in our 
 mind before we get to the piston valve. 
 
 (1) Steam entering the cylinder when the port 
 is opened by the valve, is the admission. 
 
 (2) When the valve closes the port it is said to 
 cut off the steam, or is known as cut-off. 
 
 (3) Steam thus confined in the cylinder, forcing 
 the piston to the end of its stroke by its expansive 
 force, is called expansion. 
 
 (4) "VVlien the steam port is opened to the ex- 
 haust passage it is called the exhaust. 
 
 (5) But as the steam has been expanded in vol- 
 ume it has a lower pressure, and the amount of 
 steam that failed to get out before the port was 
 closed to the exhaust passage is compressed by the 
 piston on its return stroke and is called compres- 
 sion. 
 
 If an engine had excessive compression from 
 any cause and the valve did not lift to relieve it, 
 cylinder heads would be liable to be broken. 
 
 You will now observe that a piston valve can be
 
 82 
 
 FIREMEN. 
 
 more evenly balanced than the slide valve. Some 
 of them are made hollow so that the exhaust steam 
 can escape through the valve to the exhaust pas- 
 sage at the other end of the cylinder as well as to 
 the exhaust passage at the end of the cylinder it 
 is coming from. See Fig. 9. As the piston valve 
 is a neat fit in the valve chamber bushing, there is 
 
 v-^^^^ 
 
 
 no chance for it to lift to relieve compression in 
 the cylinders and they are provided with relief 
 valves or by-pass valves. If by-pass valves are 
 used they are connected to the admission ports 
 and the live steam chamber between the piston on 
 each end of the valve. The valves are shown in 
 Pig. 10 with one of the by-pass valves broken. 
 
 Each side of the engine has two exhausts every 
 revolution and you remember that steam was ad- 
 
 «9.// 
 
 mitted, then cut off and expanded until the piston 
 had' nearly reached the end of its stroke, and is 
 then allowed to escape to the atmosphere through 
 the exhaust port and stack. If the engine is lame,
 
 FIREMEN. 83 
 
 note which side of the engine the piston is at the 
 end of its stroke when the heavy exhaust occurs. 
 That will indicate to you that there was too much 
 steam admitted to one end of the cylinder and not 
 enough at the other, and that the valve is travel- 
 ing farther on one side of a line drawn through 
 the center of the valve and the center of the seat 
 (See Fig. 11) than it should, giving you a larger 
 l>ort opening to one end and not opening the jDort 
 enough at the other end. This can be overcome 
 and the engine made to sound square by lengthen- 
 ing or shortening the eccentric rod or rods to get 
 the valve to travel the same distance each side of 
 the line and give the same port opening for each 
 end of the cylinder. If both exhausts on one side 
 
 are heavier than on the other, that would indicate 
 that the valve on the heavy side is traveling far- 
 ther than the one on the light side. To overcome 
 this you can rai»e the box on the end of the tum- 
 bling shaft on the heavy side by placing shims be- 
 tween the box and frame, or lower the box on the 
 other end of the tumbling shaft whichever is the 
 most convenient. This is only advisable when 
 there is slight difference in each side, as the trou- 
 ble may be due to various causes, such as unequal 
 length of link hangers, tumbling shaft arms 
 sprung, engine low on one side, engine truck
 
 84 
 
 FIREMEN. 
 
 spring broken, or loose bolt in eccentric trap al- 
 lowing it to open. To illustrate the difference in 
 the slide and piston valves we will refer to Fig. 
 12, which shows the slide valve with the front 
 port slightly opened and the marks on the valve 
 
 /V^./eJ 
 
 rod made with a tram from a tixed point on the 
 cylinder casting that indicate to the valve setter 
 tiie position of the valve at all tim6s, after the 
 cover has been placed on the steam chest, in which 
 1 and 2 represent the admission edges of the 
 valve, and 3 and 4 represent the exhaust edges. 
 Fig. 13 represents a i)iston valve with inside or 
 internal admission which changes the position of 
 the edges of the valve, also the direction of its 
 
 /?^/<^ 
 
 movement, which is directly opposite that of the 
 slide or piston valve with outside admission, as 
 shown in Figs. 12 and 14. It will be observed 
 that the marks on the valve rod are also changed 
 in their position. The inside edges of rings 3 and
 
 FIREMEN. 
 
 85 
 
 4 are the admission edges of the valve and the 
 outside edges of rings 1 and 2 are the exhaust 
 edges of the valve. The valve in" Fig. 13 could be 
 given the same movement as in Figs. 12 and 14 
 by changing the position of the eccentrics on the 
 shaft and still use the indirect rocker or motion. 
 But it is usually more convenient to employ a 
 rocker with the valve arm turned down opposite 
 the link arm. This leaves the eccentrics in the 
 same joosition as they were with the outside admis- 
 sion valve and indirect rocker, but gives a direct 
 motion to the valve with internal admission as the 
 valve rod and the eccentric rod are both traveling 
 
 /^./J 
 
 in the same direction, then we Iiave a direct mo- 
 tion valve gear for this style of piston valve. Fig. 
 15 shows a piston valve and cylinder, internal ad- 
 mission. The arrows indicate the passage of the 
 steam. Fig. 16 shows a valve chamber bushing 
 for a piston valve. The longitudinal strips or 
 bridges are not to make separate ports as is some- 
 times inferred. Their purpose is to strengthen
 
 86 FIREMEN. -^ 
 
 the bushing and prevent the packing rings in the 
 valve from springing past the edges of the ports 
 ■while traveling over them. The bridges in the 
 lower side of the bushing are wider than the oth- 
 ers to insure sufficient bearing where the ends of 
 the rings are held in ])lace by dowels or stops that 
 are i)laced in the packing ring groove in the valve 
 to prevent the rings from turning. 
 
 As the piston valve can not lift from its seat as 
 the D-valve can when compression is greater than 
 the initial pressure, provision is made to relieve 
 
 oanaoQ 
 
 the strain and prevent the fracture of cylinder 
 heads by placing compression or relief valves in 
 the cylinder heads adjusting the springs to the de- 
 sired pressure. When the pressure exceeds the 
 resistance of the spring the valve is unseated and' 
 the pressure relieved. Fig. 15 shows relief valves 
 in cylinder heads, also a style of by-pass valve that 
 opens when the compression exceeds the pressure 
 that is admitted into the valve chamber between 
 the pistons of the piston valve, when the compres- 
 sion opens the valve, instead of the steam escap- 
 ing to the atmosphere it flows through the passage 
 into the valve chamber and effects that much econ- 
 omy. Various styles of by-pass valves are used 
 on piston valve simple and comi^ound engines. By- 
 pass and relief valves of adequate proportions are 
 beginning to be appreciated on this class of power.
 
 FIREMEN. 
 
 87 
 
 POSITION OF ECCENTRICS. 
 LAP AND LEAD. 
 
 The preceding has explained the functions 
 of the valve; How to make the valve travel 
 over the ports, admit and exhaust the steam from 
 
 >^./Z 
 
 the cylinder is our next problem. Fig. 17 shows, 
 the position of eccentric with valve as shown in 
 Fig. 4 with indirect rocker. When lap was added 
 to edges of the valve the eccentrics were advanced 
 toward the pin the amount of lap and lead de- 
 sired to bring the valve in proper position to ad- 
 mit steam to the cylinder, when the rocker arms 
 
 /2j?./<9 
 
 are of equal length, the advance of the eccentric 
 on the shaft is equal to the lap and lead of the 
 valve. See Fig. 18. 
 
 If the piston valve is used with outside admis- 
 sion, no change in eccentrics is necessary, Fig. 19. 
 When the ]uston valve is used with inside admis- 
 sion the valve would have to move in the opposite
 
 88 
 
 FIREMEN. 
 
 direction to open and close the port with this in- 
 direct rocker and the eccentrics would be changed 
 tO' the position shown in Fig, 20. 
 
 Instead of being advanced toward the pin the 
 amount of lap and lead they would be set at right 
 
 /v^.i*^ 
 
 angles to pin and advanced away from the pin the 
 same distance, as is shown in Fig. 20 ; this is all 
 indirect motion because the eccentric rod is travel- 
 ing in one direction and the valve rod in the op- 
 posite direction. By a direct motion we mean 
 that eccentric rod and valve rod are both moving 
 in the same direction, as in Fig. 21. Fig. 22 
 shows an indirect and a direct rocker. Note that 
 
 /}^^/ 
 
 ri£,.22 
 
 the direct rocker has the valve ann turned down 
 opposite the link ann and moves in the same di- 
 rection, while the indirect rocker, link arm and 
 valve arm move in opposite directions. 
 
 The foregoing diagrams show how the motion 
 of the valve may be changed by placing the eccen-
 
 FIREMEN. 89 
 
 tries on the shaft in relation to the pin or by the 
 use of the direct rocker. ^Vith direct rocker, in- 
 ternal admission, the eccentrics are in the same 
 position as with the indirect rocker and outside 
 admission valve. 
 
 The marks shown on the valve rod or stem are 
 simply to show the position of the valve after it is 
 placed in the steam chest or valve chamber. With 
 the slide valve the mark is usually made from a 
 prick punch mark on the cylinder casting and 
 scribed on the rod or stem when the valve is 
 Ijushed up against a piece of tin placed in the 
 steam port before the cover is put on the chest. 
 "With a piston valve the edge of the ring on the 
 admission side is taken as the edge of the valve. 
 Hence the difference in the marks for inside and 
 outside admission piston valves. Note that they 
 are reversed, usually plugs are tapped into the 
 valve chamber so the edges of the rings of the 
 valve can be seen when they are opposite the 
 loorts. AMien tlie plugs are removed, when setting 
 valves or obtaining marks for this purpose, a few 
 explanations are next in order. Lap is the amount 
 of valve that extends over the edges of the steam 
 ports when the valve is in the center of its seat 
 and allows us to work steam expansively. Lead 
 is the amount of opening of the steam port when 
 the piston is at the beginning of its stroke and is 
 increased as the lever is hooked up in the cjuad- 
 rant in proportion to the radius of the link. See 
 Fig. 19 and note that the link block is moved far- 
 ther away from the axle when it is near the mid- 
 dle of the link, than when at the ends. This shows 
 how the lead is increased by hooking the engine 
 up or working in a short cut off.
 
 90 FIREMEN. 
 
 Inside lap of a valve would be the portion of 
 the valve that extends over the inside edges of 
 the steam ports when the valve is in the center of 
 its seat, and delays the exhaust or prevents the 
 steam from getting out of the cylinder, and would 
 increase the eomi)ression or back pressure. Inside 
 clearance of a valve is the amount of opening of 
 the steam ix)rts to the exhaust cavity, when the 
 valve is on the center of its seat, and hastens the 
 release or exhaust. When the valve is line and 
 line it means that the inside or exhaust edges of 
 the valve are in line with inside edges of the steam 
 ports when the valve is in the center of its seat, 
 just the same as the outside edges of the valve 
 were line and line in Fig. 4. 
 
 Now the eccentrics are secured to the axle in a 
 certain position in relation to the pin and move 
 the valve in proportion to the throw of the eccen- 
 tric and length of rocker ann, this gives what is 
 termed the travel of the valve. If the valve trav- 
 els farther on one side of a line drawn vertically 
 through the center of the valve and its seat the 
 travel should be adjusted by lengthening or short- 
 ening the eccentric rods, as the case may require, 
 but the throw of the eccentric and its relation to 
 the pin will remain the same until the position of 
 the eccentric is changed on the shaft. If the lead 
 is desired to be increased the eccentric must be 
 moved in the direction to hasten the admission of 
 steam to the cylinder, which will haLten all other 
 functions of the valve accordingly. Eemember 
 that lead is the opening of the jwrt when the pis- 
 ton is at the beginning of its stroke, and the open- 
 ing of the port, after the piston has commenced its 
 stroke is the port opening. If the valve does not
 
 FIREMEN. 91 
 
 open the port, when the piston is at the beginning 
 of the stroke, the engine is said to be blind or set 
 with negative lead, the amount that the valve ex- 
 tends over the edge of the port in that jxDsition. 
 If .the port was open 1-32 of an inch it would be 
 teiined 1-32 inch lead i^ositive and if the valve 
 edge extended over the edge of the port 1-32 of 
 au inch she would be blind 1-32 inch or said to 
 have 1-32 inch negative lead. Xo rule can be given 
 to set valve on all classes of engines, as the lead 
 varies in proi>ortion to the radius of the link, and 
 if the radius is a long one, the lead would not in- 
 crease to the extent that it would with a short ra- 
 dius link; therefore, it is usually left to those in 
 charge to set the valves to obtain the highest effi- 
 ciency from the engine. 
 
 It is found that 5-32 to 3-16 lead opening in the 
 running cut off, or where the engine does most of 
 her work is a desirable motion if cutting off at 5, 
 6 or 7 inches of steam; but on the other hand, it 
 has been demonstrated that an engine without lead 
 is preferred for the reasons that the lead hastens 
 the admission cut-off exhaust and compression and 
 if the engine is on the center on one side the lead 
 opening that she may have will retard the piston 
 in completing its stroke and when at the end of 
 the stroke will exert no rotative force to the crank 
 until it has moved from the end of the stroke far 
 enough to get the pin below or above the axle, and 
 the exhaust will take place earlier on the other 
 side or the side that is on the quarter, thereby 
 losing the advantage of the steam behind the pis- 
 ton on one side and blocking ahead of the piston 
 on the other, which condition will not increase the 
 draw bar pull or tractive power of the engine.
 
 92 FIREMEN. 
 
 Where practicable in freight service, engines 
 should be set nearly the same in both motions and 
 in passenger service it is advantageous to set 
 eacli motion different, for instance: the forward 
 motion may be set with lead or blind and the back 
 motion line and line. 
 
 Various reasons have been advanced why valves 
 should be set with lead but the tendency is to re- 
 duce it and in some instances to have the forward 
 motion set blind or with negative lead from 
 1-16 to 7-32 inch, and the back motion line and 
 line. A comparison of two engines of the same 
 class set as above would be necessary to determine 
 the merit of one over the other, but it is worth 
 the expense of making the test. 
 
 The above is not written with a view of having 
 the enginemen set the valves on the engines, but 
 as a subject well worthy of their consideration and 
 thorough understanding of the distribution and 
 effective steam pressure. 
 
 Before leaving the subject of valves and eccen- 
 trics, it may be of interest to note that as the ec- 
 centric rod is brought opposite the link block, the 
 more work is perfonned by that eccentric and the 
 greater is the travel of the valve. 
 
 A word of explanation why the lever should not 
 be placed in or near full gear, when throttle is 
 closed at high speed. If we take a modern engine 
 with a valve travel of 5Vo inches, the valve will 
 possibly weigh 150 pounds; a wheel 72 inches in 
 diameter will make 280 revolutions per minute at 
 a speed of 60 miles per hour. When the lever is 
 in the corner the eccentric must push and jmll the 
 valve over its seat 280 times 5i - inches or over 
 128 feet i^er minute, in addition to stopping and
 
 FIREMEN. 93 
 
 starting the valve 560 times per minute. By 
 keeping the lever notched up where it feels easy 
 when the throttle is closed the valve will not travel 
 as far and the work will be divided on both eccen- 
 trics in proiDortion to the iX)sition of the link block 
 in the link, and may prevent hot and broken eccen- 
 trics, broken valves and yoRes and excessive wear 
 on the valve gear. There will be time enough to 
 get the lever down as the speed is reduced and the 
 advantage gained is obvious. 
 
 EODS AND WEDGES. 
 
 With a boiler of steam generating capacity, and 
 a valve motion that will distribute the steam prop- 
 erly when the lever is hooked down in starting the 
 train, if there is lost motion in the rods and boxes, 
 it develops into "a pound that is annoying tO' the 
 enginemen and detrimental to the machinery. In 
 order to improve conditions we should first ascer- 
 tain its location and apply the remedy. In keying 
 the rods on an engine, if you will place her on the 
 center on the side you wish to key, the other side 
 will be on the quarter. Key all the rods on the 
 center except the front end of the main rod. That 
 should be keyed on the quarter. If you have an 
 engine on the right foi'ward center you can key 
 the front end of the left main rod, then key all the 
 rods on the right side, except the front end of the 
 main rod. Move the engine to foi-ward center on 
 the left side and key the front end of the right 
 main rod and all other rods on the left side in 
 that position. "Wliy? If the main pin is round it 
 does not matter in what position the engine is 
 placed to key the back end of the main rod, but
 
 94 
 
 FIREMEN. 
 
 the tendency is for the pin to wear out of round, 
 and if keyed on the center so it can be moved on 
 the pin it will be keyed so it is loose on the largest 
 l)art, therefore, it is readily seen that by keying 
 the back end of the main rod and all side rods on 
 the center you are keying so they will not pinch 
 or seize the pin, and the front end of the main rod 
 should be keyed on the quarter for the same rea- 
 son. If the side rods are free when passing the 
 dead centers you need not fear hot bearings on 
 account of improper keying. 
 
 When the pin is on center and steam is admit- 
 
 Fi^.23 
 
 Fi^.S'f 
 
 ted to the cylinder, the pressure on the piston is 
 exerted on the pin but does not exert any rotative 
 force on the wheels until the pin is above or below 
 the center line, the rotative force increasing from 
 the center to the quarter and decreasing from the 
 quarter to the center If the engine is always run- 
 ning in one direction, the pin will wear out of 
 round on one side of the pin only, but if running 
 in both directions the ]nn will wear on both sides 
 and become oval. A good way to prove this is to 
 make a mark on the pin and watch the rod push it
 
 FIREMEN. 
 
 95 
 
 while the piston is making one stroke and pull it 
 while making the other, but the pressure is on one 
 side of the pin when running in either direction 
 and is wearing that side only. See Fig. 23 show- 
 ing small diameter when keyed on quarter. See 
 Fig. 24 showing large diameter when keyed on 
 center. 
 
 The reason for taking down the side rods on the 
 opposite side, when one is broken, is apparent; 
 also why the top guide wears most when the en- 
 gine is mnning ahead. 
 
 The engineman that puts the engine on the quar- 
 ter and has the fireman work the lever with steam 
 in the cylinder while he drives down the key to 
 take out the pound in the back end of a main rod 
 is taking long chances on melting the babbitt or 
 causing a pin to mn hot, if the pin is not round. 
 
 Some Baldwin engines have the front end rod 
 straps as shown in Fig. 25 and the strap bolt must 
 be loosened to key up the brass. If you desire to 
 
 key up an engine with this kind of a strap, loosen 
 u]) the bolt before you try to key it, or make a 
 report to have the front end of main rod brass 
 filed. Engineers have often reported brasses filed 
 because they did not understand how to key this 
 kind of a rod.
 
 96 
 
 FIREMEN. 
 
 By keeping up the, wedges so the driving boxes 
 will not pound, the rods will run longer without 
 the brasses getting loose in the straps. If setting 
 wedges up is a i>art of the engineer's duty, a very 
 convenient method of setting them up without get- 
 ting them too tight is to place the engine near the 
 top quarter on the right side, the lever in forward 
 motion, cut out the driver brake, and set tender 
 
 brake or block the drivers, then by opening the 
 throttle a little, steam will enter the back end of 
 the cylinder and pull the crank pin ahead (s^e 
 Fig. 26), thereby pulling the driving box up 
 against the shoe and leaving a space between the 
 back of the box and jaw free to push up the wedge. 
 Loosen the wedge bolt and with a small bar as a 
 lever on the binder or pedestal braces, push up 
 the wedge until it has filled the space between the 
 box and the jaw. Tighten up the wedge bolts and 
 move the engine aliead one-fourth of a revolution 
 and repeat the oj^eration on the left side. Simple, 
 isn't it? The reason that the top quarter is speci- 
 fied is because the work may be done without get- 
 ting under the engine and the counter balance will
 
 FIREMEN. 97 
 
 not interfere with getting at the wedge bolts. ,Be- 
 fore setting up the wedges it is advisable to have 
 the binder bolts tight, as the loose binder bolt will 
 often cause a i^ound of the box same as a loose 
 wedge. 
 
 LUBEICATOBS, PKINCIPLE OF WORKING AND DEFECTS. 
 
 It is good practice to oil the engine systematic- 
 ally before leaving a terminal. But before taking 
 up the subject of lubrication let us familiarize 
 ourselves with the construction, operation and de- 
 fects of the lubricator and briefly consider the 
 •principle on which it works. 
 
 If we take the ordinary lubricator and cut it in 
 two, we have it as shown in Fig. 27. When filled 
 with oil and the filling plug screwed to its seat and 
 water valve closed at the back of the cup, there is 
 no opening for the oil to get out cf the oil reser- 
 voir only through the pipe leading to the sight- 
 feed glass past the regulating valves, and we have 
 no pressure to force the oil out until the water 
 valve is opened. The water from the condensing 
 chamber flows past the water valve down the pipe 
 to the bottom of the cup. The oil being the light- 
 er, floats on the water and flows into the pipe lead- 
 ing to the sight-feed glass as fast as the openings 
 at the regulating valves would relieve the oil, and 
 the water being supplied by the steam condensing 
 in the chamber above the cup and flowing into the 
 oil reservoir as fast as the oil is fed out. 
 
 The small pocket at the end of the pipe leading 
 from the condensing chamber is to prevent the 
 water from being all drawn out of the cup when it 
 is drained before refilling, and also to keep the oil
 
 98 
 
 FIREMEN. 
 
 I'ram backing up in the pipe when the cup is being 
 filled, as the oil floats on the water in this pocket. 
 The pocket directly above it is for the purpose of 
 providing an air chamber by trapping the air that 
 is above the oil when the oil level comes in contact 
 
 with the lower «}dge of the partition, when the cup 
 is being filled. 
 
 This makes an air or expansion chamber and 
 prevents damage to the lubricator when it is filled 
 with cold oil and left with the valves closed. The 
 oil exi)anding, as it becomes warm, might bulge or 
 break the cup if there was no provision made for 
 the expansion.
 
 FIREMEN. 
 
 99 
 
 Now, if we had a lubricator, as shown in Fig. 
 28 opening the steam valve on the connection at 
 the condensing chamber and the water valve, we 
 would have a pressure to force the oil out of the 
 cup equal to the steam pressure and the weight of 
 the water in the condenser above the level of the 
 oil in the cup, which would allow the oil to flow out 
 of the feed valve nipples in a stream as soon as 
 
 there was the least opening at the regulating 
 valves. This is similar to the conditions when the 
 lubricator has an enlarged choke plug or an equal- 
 izing tube stopped up.
 
 100 
 
 FIREMEN. 
 
 In order to complete the illustration, we now 
 refer to Fig. 29 and find that the pipes that lead 
 from the condensing chamber to the small cham- 
 bers at the top of the sight-feed glasses and the 
 connection to the oil pii^ is obstructed by a plug 
 
 'T.Simm ctjtit 
 
 FiQ.30 
 
 or choker (see Fig. 30) with a very small hole in 
 it. This plug is to prevent the steam that flows 
 from the condenser through the pipe or equalizing 
 tube to the chamber above the sight-feed glasses 
 from escaping too rapidly. 
 
 The choke plug, or choker, only allows a small 
 jet of steam to escape and the pressure in the
 
 t'lREMEl^. 101 
 
 lubricator is equalized. Therefore, we have the 
 ditTerence in the pressure equal to the head of 
 water in the condenser to force the oil through the 
 sight-feed nipples. This difference in pressure 
 and the buoyancy of the oil causes the oil to rise 
 through the water in the sight-feed glasses and 
 chamber at the top of same to the level of the 
 water which is as high as the hole in the choke 
 plug. 
 
 The steam from the condensing chamber flowing 
 through the equalizing tube and choke plug car- 
 ries the oil to the oil pij^e and forces it to the 
 steam chest as long as the pressure at the lubri- 
 cator end of the pipe is the greatest. This is the 
 principle on which the sight-feed lubricator works 
 and the action is practically the same with the 
 equalizing tubes on the outside or inside of the 
 condensing chamber. 
 
 Now, if we fill our lubricator and open the 
 steam valve to the condensing chamber wide open, 
 the steam will flow into the condensing chamber 
 and equalizing tulles. The steam around the out- 
 side of the tubes will condense until the water 
 rises to the top of the pipe and the steam that has 
 passed down the tubes will condense and fill the 
 sight-feed glasses and chambers above them with 
 water, level with the hole in the choke plugs. The 
 small jet of steam that flows through the opening 
 in the choke plug will carry the water produced 
 from the condensation to the oil j^ipe. 
 
 Xow, if we open the water valve wide, the 
 water from the condensing chamber will flow into 
 the oil reservoir and force the oil to the top and 
 into the pipes leading to the chambers under the 
 sight-feed glasses. The regulating valves are for
 
 102 FIREMEN. 
 
 the purpose of adjusting the openings in the nip- 
 ples to allow 'the oil to feed up through the water 
 in the sight-feed glasses fast enough to meet the 
 requirements or the service. 
 
 If we find that the oil is feeding very much 
 faster through one of the sight-feeds than the 
 other with the same opening at the regulating 
 valves the reason for it must be that there is less 
 ]iressure in.the chamber above that glass, due very; 
 likely to the equalizing tube on that side being 
 partly stopped uj) or the hole in the choke plug 
 worn so large that the steam from the equalizing 
 tube would not maintain an equal pressure on the 
 water in the glass and chamber above it. If the 
 choke plug was loose or missing, the same results 
 would be obtained. But it is clear that the trouble 
 is in that part of the lubricator. 
 
 Should the oil escape out of the cup in any 
 other manner than through the sight-feed glasses, 
 the trouble would veiy likely be found in the par- 
 tition that separates ^he condenser from the oil 
 resei'voir, or a sand hole leading into the water 
 passage above or below the water valve, or the 
 plug above the i)ipe leaking. If such is the case, 
 the oil would rise to the top of the water in the 
 condensing chamber and flow through the equaliz- 
 ing tubes, through the chokers to the oil pipes 
 leading to the steam chests. This would cause 
 the loss of oil and its disappearance would be 
 noticeable only by the observance of the oil gauge 
 glass. 
 
 When this defect exists, and you fill the lubri- 
 cator several hours before you go out, if the oil is 
 all gone when you come to the enaine, do not think 
 that some one has drained your lubricator to make
 
 FIREMEN. 103 
 
 an oil record. Better have it tested and tlie defect 
 remedied. 
 
 If the lubricator feeds for a short time after 
 being filled and then water flows up through the 
 glass instead of oil, this defect is due to a hole iri 
 the oil pipe leading to the chamber under the nip- 
 ple, or a loose pipe, and oil is fed until the dis- 
 placement of oil in the reservoir allows the water 
 to come up to the opening in the pipe, when the 
 water is fed through the glass. The only thing to 
 do in this case is to use the auxiliary oilers, or 
 drain the cup partly and refill with oil, which will 
 last until the water again raises to the defect in 
 the passage or pipe. Have it repaired when you 
 get in. 
 
 If the choke plug becomes stopped up, it can 
 usually be blown out by closing the steam valve on 
 the lubricator, opening the drain cock and then 
 opening the throttle. The steam from the steam 
 chest will flow up through the pipe and blow the 
 obstmction out of the plug. If the nipple above a 
 sight-feed regulating valve is stopped up, close all 
 other regulating valves and water valve. Leave 
 the regulating valve, that will not feed, open. 
 Open the drain cock and steam will flow from the 
 condensing chamber through the equalizing tube, 
 forcing the water in the glass down through the 
 nipple past the regulating valve, thereby removing 
 the obstruction. It is best to always open the 
 steam valve first and close it last; the water in 
 the glasses will remain clearer and less trouble 
 will be experienced with the lubricator. 
 
 "Wlien the cup becomes warmed up, keep the 
 steam and water valve wide open and see that the 
 steam pipe from the boiler to lubricator connec-
 
 104 FIREMEN. 
 
 tions is as large as the specificatiors call for, and 
 that oil pipes leading to the steam chest connec- 
 tions have no abrupt bends that will choke the 
 opening in the i>ipe or form pockets for oil or 
 water. 
 
 LUBRICATING VALVES AND CYLINDERS. 
 
 Valve oil has a fire test of 600 degrees and 
 should never be used as a lubricant on a cold 
 bearing as the bearing will have to be warmed 
 before the oil will feed. It should, therefore, be 
 used only for where it was originally intended, 
 valves, cylinders, and air pumps. To get the best 
 results we should know the amount necessaiy to 
 proi3erly lubricate the parts. This is the point 
 where the enginemen and the mechanical officers 
 sometimes ditfer in opinion and where confidence 
 in judgment is to be displayed. 
 
 One pint of valve oil contains about 6,600 drops 
 when fed through a lubricator. Five drops per 
 minute fed to each cylinder and one drop per min- 
 ute to the air pump usually ought to properly lu- 
 bricate them. At this rate a pint of valve oil 
 would last about ten hours. There are a great 
 number of engines that are able to be run on less 
 very successfully, while on some of the heavier en- 
 gines or compounds it may be necessary to increase 
 that amount. 
 
 Is it not reasonable to suppose that the oil sup- 
 plied to the valve seats and cylinders of a locomo^ 
 tive a,bove the amount tliat adheres to the valve 
 seats, cylinder walls and packing ring is thrown 
 out of tiie stack and serves to clog up tlie exhaust 
 pipes and is of no value as a lubricant? 
 
 With a high steam chest pressure, steam con-
 
 FIREMEN. 105 
 
 denses in the oil pipe and the pressure from the 
 lubricator does not always force the oil into the 
 steam chest as it goes up through the sight-feed 
 glass drop by drop, but the oil is held in suspen- 
 sion with the water in the oil pipe until the steam 
 chest pressure is reduced, when the pressure from 
 the lubricator forces it to the surfaces it is in- 
 tended to lubricate. 
 
 Some enginemen, making long runs without 
 shutting off steam or when the valves begin to 
 get dry, ease off on the throttle to reduce the 
 steam chest pressure and allow the oil to go to 
 the valvG seat. It takes but an instant and, 
 more frequently, time is gained rather than lost 
 by doing so. Try it and satisfy yourself if it is 
 a good practice. When the throttle is wide operi 
 and the valve travel is short, the steam port 
 openings are not sufficient to cause fluctuations in 
 the steam chest pressure and the oil is held in the 
 oil pipes, but when the throttle is partly closed 
 the pressure in the steam chest is less than the 
 lubricator pressure and the oil is forced into the 
 chest. 
 
 In oiling the other parts of the engine the rod 
 oil cups should be filled with clean oil and care 
 should be taken to keep the spout of the oil can 
 clean while doing so. If the spout of the can is 
 used to stir up the waste on the top of the driving 
 box, or to scrape dirt from an oil hole, and is 
 then introduced to the rod cup there is liability 
 ot grit or foreign matter getting into the cup that 
 will stop the feed and cause trouble from hot pins. 
 The cups should be filled before leaving the ter- 
 minal or at least looked at so as to know that they 
 will not feed out before reaching the end of the
 
 106 
 
 FIREMEN. 
 
 trip, and should be adjusted to feed as near uni- 
 formly as possible without throwing the oil all 
 over the rods. The greatest difficutly is to get 
 the feed regulated fine enough and still have it 
 positive. A pin will run with very little oil if the 
 
 feed is only constant. Get the feed set as fine as 
 you can and run the pin cool. The same rule ap- 
 plies to the guide cups. 
 
 Starting in with a system of oiling and as- 
 suming that the lubricator and rod cups are filled, 
 if convenient place the engine on the forward cen- 
 ter with the lever in the back notch. This will 
 make it easy to get the oil to the wedges and driv- 
 ing boxes on that side and the greater part of the 
 valve gear on both sides. Commence at the back 
 driving box and bring the spout of the can around 
 the face of the wedge with a streak of oil. If 
 the box is made as shown in Fig. 31 drop a little 
 in the oil pocket that leads to the face of the 
 wedge; put a sufficient amount in the center
 
 FIREMEN, 107 
 
 pocket that leads to the journal, and treat the shoe 
 and oil pocket on the front side of the box in the 
 same manner, being careful to put the oil intend- 
 ed for lubricating the journal well over in the 
 box as the cinders from the ash pit will accumu- 
 late around the axle on that side. As there is 
 nothing to hold the oil in or keep the dirt out this 
 is usually the side of the box that i first to get 
 dry and then hot. The wheel center hub on the 
 outside of the box will prevent the dirt from get- 
 ting in on that side and also sei'A^es to help retain 
 the oil. It is a little more trouble to get farther 
 in with the oil can but it pays. 
 
 Be reasonably liberal with the amount on your 
 first oiling as your time may be short at your 
 next oiling place and, by giving a good oiling on 
 the start, ymi will not need to do so much oiling 
 aftei'wards. Xow go to the next box, treat it as 
 you did the back one, oil the eccentrics, tumbling 
 shaft, rocker boxes, links, hangers, and all other 
 connections to the valve motion, set the feeds 
 on the guide cups but do not fill them full so 
 the oil will slop out; two-thirds or three-fourths 
 will run them all right and it will look better than 
 to have the top of the guide bars covered with oil. 
 If the bottom guide looks dry, make a streak of 
 oil crosswise and that will lubricate it as well as 
 if you made the map of a small river running 
 the leng-th of the guide. The cross head will 
 push the surplus oil up to the end of its travel 
 and benefit will be derived only from the amount 
 that adhered to the surface. If you are running 
 ahead the bottom guide will require but very lit- 
 tle oil at any time. 
 
 Now give the engine trucks attention and go to
 
 108 FIREMEN. 
 
 the other side of the engine oiling back to the 
 front driving box, including the valve gear on 
 that side. Then move her ahead one-fourth of a 
 revolution and leave the lever in forward notch. 
 Oil the boxes and eccentrics on that side the same 
 as the other. If it was impossible to oil all the 
 valve gear when the lever was in back motion it 
 can now be reached with the lever in the forward 
 motion, for instance, the lower end of the link on 
 some classes of engines. The engine has now re- 
 
 ceived a thorough and systematic oiling. The fire- 
 man no doubt will appreciate the can being wiped 
 off before it is placed on the shelf. 
 
 If the tender trucks need attention, do not use 
 up a can of oil if the waste is oily. A packing 
 iron pushed into the box clear to the back end 
 and then given a rolling motion away from the 
 journal will bring the oily waste at the bottom of 
 the box up to the journal and there will be oil 
 enough in it to run some time longer and still 
 lubricate the journal. 
 
 At any time it is necessary to pack a journal 
 box, first twist up a bunch of waste and push it 
 hard against the back of the box ; this to serve as 
 a retainer to the oil and assist as a dust guard.
 
 ^ FIREMEN. 109 
 
 Then place the packing under the journal, as 
 shown in Fig. 32, with a sufficient amount of pack- 
 ing in front of the journal to fill the space and 
 keep the waste from working out. The sponging 
 or packing under the journal should not extend 
 above the center of the axle on the sides of the 
 box or outside of collar on the end of the journal. 
 The bunch of waste placed at the end of the jour- 
 nal simply serves as a block to keep the packing 
 in place and should have no thread contact with 
 the packing. Thus it serves the purpose of pre- 
 venting the waste from being crowded out of the 
 box by the collar when it is working endwise. 
 
 This method has been found very satisfactory 
 and the boxes will run cool. 
 
 The sponging or packing in the boxes is for the 
 purpose of bringing the oil up to the journals. 
 See that it is kept in contact with them. 
 
 CAKLYING WATER IN BOILERS. — EFFECT OF TOO MUCH 
 OF A GOOD THfNG. — SPEED. 
 
 Men who have been accustomed to small power 
 and low pressure have found some difficulty in 
 getting into the habit of keeping the water level 
 down to insure dry steam being admitted to the 
 cylinders with the modern high pressure engine, 
 for the reason that with the old style boiler the 
 dome was placed well back on the boiler over the 
 fire box and the throttle being opened had a ten- 
 dency to raise the water in the glass above its 
 true level in the boiler when the engine was work- 
 ing steam. Figs. 33 and 34 show this style of 
 boiler at work and at rest, while Figs. 35 and 36 
 show a boiler of modem type with the throttle
 
 110 
 
 FIREMEN. 
 
 open and closed. The dome being placed forward 
 of the fire box and the steam and water at the 
 higher pressure being more elastic. When the 
 throttle is opened it forms a current of pressure 
 
 /^. 33 
 
 J^. 3^ 
 
 and tends more to lower the water in the glass 
 than to raise it. If the water is carried as high in 
 both of the boilers when the engines are work- 
 
 Enin 
 
 IL- 
 
 n^^)^wi 
 
 n^. 55 
 
 /^. 36 
 
 ing, water will pass out with the steam and tlie 
 efficiency of the engine is reduced. More water 
 and coal will be consumed in performing the same 
 amount of T.ork than if dry steam was used. 
 
 The reason why valves get dry in some cases is 
 also apparent. The old saying that you could 
 burn the boiler but could not drown it is out of 
 date. The time is fast now and the steam must be 
 dry in order to make it. The question of working 
 the engine with or without a wide open throttle 
 and a long or short cut-off should be detennined 
 by the engineman, who should regulate them to 
 the positions to obtain the best results. When 
 the summit or the top of a hill is reached, if the
 
 FIREMEN. Ill 
 
 descending grade is several miles in length, keep 
 your speed within the limits of the engine, and 
 when the level is reached you will be in better 
 shape to go right along. It is advisable to crack 
 the joint on the throttle open when drifting down 
 a long hill on either a simple or a compound en- 
 gine, as it prevents the gases and cinders from 
 getting into the cylinders, keeps the circulation 
 up in th-e boiler and the fire in better shape. It 
 is not necessary to use much steam to do this; 
 enough to hold the relief valves shut is all that is 
 required. Time can be made without falling down 
 the hill on freight trains even if the engine will 
 stand the sj^eed. 
 
 In summer there may be some of the boxes in 
 the car trucks that are not in as good a condition 
 as the others, or in winter the oil may not get to 
 the journal before the box gets hot, and if the ex- 
 cessive rate of speed down the hill changes the oc- 
 cupation of the brakeman to that of a car repairer 
 time would have been made by descending the hill 
 at a slower speed. Use your best judgment in the 
 question of speed.
 
 PROPER LUBRICATION OF JOURNALS. 
 
 The increase in size of locomotives and tenders, 
 as well as cars, necessitates the carrying of greater 
 weight upon each journal. To accominodate these 
 great weights the engineering department has pro- 
 gressed from light iron rails of 35 pounds per yard 
 to heavy steel rails of 100 j^ounds per yard. 
 
 From a weight on each driving wheel of eight to 
 ten thousand poimds formerly, we now find an in- 
 crease barely escaping twenty-five thousand pounds. 
 
 The locomotive tender has also kept pace with 
 the engine itself, but with no addition in the num- 
 ber of wheels carrying this greater weight. Even 
 though track tanks are used on many trunk lines, 
 still the miles of railroads thus equipped would 
 bear a very small ratio to the total American rail- 
 road mileage. Hence it is necessary to carry a large 
 supply of water in the tender to supply the im- 
 mense locomotive boilers of present construction. 
 Where 2,000 to 2,500 gallons was formerly consid- 
 ered ample, we now find tenders of 5,000 to 7,000 
 gallons capacity on fast express and heavy freight 
 locomotives. The coal capacity has been increased 
 proportionately and we no longer find a coal space 
 provided for five or six tons, but for twelve to 
 fifteen tons. Thus it is that we have come to the 
 requirements of carrying a tender which, loaded, 
 
 (112)
 
 FIREMEN 113 
 
 weighs considerably in excess of one liiindred thou- 
 sand pounds, all to be supported by two bogie 
 trucks, or eight wheels and the same number of 
 journals. 
 
 The proper method of packing the driving boxes 
 and their cellars is very important, and a matter 
 with which every railroad man in the mechanical de- 
 partment should be familiar ; yet when the exercise 
 of great care is enjoined upon those whose duties it is 
 to clean off the top of the driving boxes, keep the oil 
 holes open and see that the cellars are well packed 
 with clean, spongy waste, and similar instructions 
 are given in the care of the engine truck cellar, it still 
 remains that the proper care and packing of journal 
 boxes on the tender and cars of the train is less un- 
 derstood than it should be from a scientific stand- 
 point. 
 
 Hence it is believed that the careful discussion of 
 this subject will be not only interesting, but exceed- 
 ingly instructive, to every practical railroad man. 
 
 THE PROPER CARE OF PACKING IN JOURNAL BOXES. 
 —ITS IMPORTANT RELATION TO SUCCESSFUL LUB- 
 RICATION. 
 
 **An attempt to curtail the proper care of journal 
 boxes at once affects the service and its successful 
 and thoroughly safe operation, the effects of which 
 extend from the president down through the entire 
 management until it reaches the men assigned the 
 duty of the care of packing and oiling the journal 
 boxes. It would, therefore, be a reasonable claim 
 that this branch of the work on railroads is one of 
 the most important, if not the most important, as a 
 
 *FroTn a paper presented before the Central Railway Club.
 
 114 
 
 FIREMEN 
 
 car or locomotive can be run that has not been thor- 
 oughly cleaned or repainted or varnished, but it can- 
 not be run with a hot journal, which may be due in a 
 groat measure to the neglect in this branch of the 
 work. 
 
 "Too much importance cannot be attached to this 
 branch of railway work, in having systematic meth- 
 
 FlG. 1. 
 
 Galvanized Iron Box for Demonstrating Effect of Various 
 Metliods of Loosening Up Paeliing. 
 
 ods and intelligent and reliable men to perform this 
 service. To accomplish these ends it would appear 
 as a wise and up-to-date policy to make a specialty of 
 following up all the details of this work, as well as 
 the care in the selection of intelligent men, as in all 
 branches of the mechanical sphere the most success-
 
 F I REM EX 115 
 
 ful are those that make a specialty of some one of 
 the several branches. 
 
 "In this connection, it would seem proper to re- 
 fer to the volume of the work in the care of packing 
 in journal boxes. When we refer to recent statistics 
 which show that the number of cars in the United 
 States at the present time has reached 1,300,000, 
 making 10,400,000 journal boxes to maintain, a gen- 
 eral idea of the magnitude of this work can possibly 
 be realized, and in view of this the officers of the 
 railways who can give more than passing attention to 
 this branch of the service by fully providing the best 
 known facilities for the work, and rendering such 
 assistance to the men responsible in this depart- 
 ment, will, it is certain, find it greatly to the interests 
 of the railway with which they are connected. 
 
 "As abetter means of interesting the men direct- 
 ly engaged in the care of packing and oiling cars and 
 locomotives, especially at terminals, yards and en- 
 gine houses, where opportunity is given to give spe- 
 cial attention to the packing prior to oiling, I desire 
 to call attention to a model journal box which is 
 shown here (see Fig. 1), the special object of which 
 is to educate the men up to the most efficient means 
 of thoroughly maintaining the packing in boxes, 
 which is of greater importance than the mere adding 
 of oil to the box without regard to the condition of 
 the packing. The principle of the box is such as to 
 enable the men to make a practical demonstration 
 of the exact effect of their method of stirring up the 
 packing in a box, and if their methods are in any 
 respect deficient, they may also observe the effects 
 of a proper treatment of the packing, especially on
 
 116 
 
 FIREMEN 
 
 the sides and rear of box, which portions are quite 
 commonly neglected, and by thus practically demon- 
 strating the bad and good effects with suitable pack- 
 ing tools, the interest of the average man may be 
 awakened and the effects of his work greatly im- 
 
 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 Showing Proper Height of Packing. 
 
 '■•c3^<S%^^ 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 Showing Bad Condition of Packing at Back End. 
 
 proved. Efforts in this or some direction of this 
 kind are a necessity if we may hope to improve and 
 secure more satisfactory service, as it is feared that 
 on many roads the details of this work have not 
 been given sufficient serious and personal attention.
 
 FIREMEN 117 
 
 *'Fig. 2 illustrates the height of packing in a box 
 that has been found to produce the most satisfactory 
 results. It will be seen that this illustrates the top 
 line of packing to correspond about with the center 
 line of the journal, thus leaving the packing entirely 
 clear of the lower edges of the brass, which is also a 
 desirable condition, and it also shows the packing in 
 the front end of the box to be slightly below the 
 opening in the box, the object being to prevent 
 waste of oil out the front of the box ; and, further, 
 any additional packing in excess of this in the front 
 of the box will be practically of no value. 
 
 **Fig. 3 illustrates the shape packing will assume 
 in the rear of the box when not properly maintained 
 at terminals where opportunity is given for this 
 work. From this it will be seen that the packing is 
 not in contact with journal at rear end of same ; this 
 is caused, in some cases, by not packing the back end 
 of box firmly enough, and also, more especially, 
 owing to improper treatment of thg packing on the 
 sides and rear portions of box at terminals prior to 
 oiling, in combination, also, in some cases, with a 
 lack of packing tools well adapted for accomplish- 
 ing effective results in the least possible time. This 
 condition of packing is further shown in the model 
 box, the object of which, as previously stated, is to 
 demonstrate beyond question the effects of proper 
 and improper treatment of the packing, and serve as 
 a better means of interesting and educating the men 
 engaged in this work. It will be observed that by 
 the use of glass sides in the model box the entire 
 journal is exposed to view, and also clearly shows 
 the condition of the packing the entire length of the
 
 lis FIREMEN 
 
 journal and at the back of tlie box. A more impor- 
 tant feature, however, is that it clearly shows to 
 the man to be instructed in this work the exact effect 
 of his method of stirring up the packing prior to 
 oiling. If the practice he has followed does not 
 restore the packing on the sides and rear of box to 
 proper relation with the journal, this will be clearly 
 and positively demonstrated to him, as well, also, 
 as the effect of such slight change that may be 
 necessary in his methods to produce desirable 
 results, and effect the most elastic condition of the 
 packing, so that the oil in the box may be freely con- 
 veyed to the journal. As this is a practical demon- 
 stration, I think it will be conceded that it will serve 
 as a superior means of interesting the men in their 
 work, as compared to verbal or written instructions 
 concerning the same. If this is the case, it is quite 
 logical that the men will become more expert in the 
 performance of this work, and better results can be 
 reasonably looked for. 
 
 "The necessity for treating the packing in this or 
 a similar manner, we think will be quite apparent 
 to any one who will make the most casual observa- 
 tions of the solid, non-elastic condition the jDacking 
 assumes through a failure to give it proper atten- 
 tion at the back end of the box, as previously 
 described ; and when in this condition it not only fails 
 to convey oil to the journal, but actually becomes in 
 time hardened and glazed, the effect of which is to 
 wipe or scrape off any oil that may reach the jour- 
 nal from the forward part of the box. The lubri- 
 cation, therefore, is so retarded as to, in a short 
 time, result in the heating of the journal. At the 
 same time that this condition exists in the back of
 
 FIREMEN 
 
 119 
 
 the box, the appearance of the packing near the 
 front of the box may be very good, and a man that 
 gave attention to the packing just prior to journal 
 heating would be under the impression that the 
 treatment he gave it was all that possibly could be 
 done. It is, therefore, considered that the treatment 
 of the packing as demonstrated by the model box, 
 and also described, is of much greater importance 
 than the mere adding of oil to the box. 
 
 ''Fig. 4 illustrates a journal box having an exces- 
 sive quantity of packing, which is not only a waste- 
 ful practice, resulting in a loss of oil out of the ends 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 Showing Excessive Quantity of Packing. 
 
 of the box, but is also detrimental to good results, 
 as by this method of so completely filling up the box 
 with packing a condition is caused that frequently 
 results in threads or small particles of packing 
 becoming caught between brass and journal. This 
 occurs by violent shocks produced in switching and 
 application of brakes when the relation between 
 brass and journal is sufficiently disturbed to permit 
 small particles of waste being caught under the 
 edge of brass and journal. This is particularly true 
 when the packing is pressed up close around the
 
 120 FIREMEN 
 
 brass, as in Fig. 4. This is not an infrequent cause 
 of very serious cases of hot driving boxes on 
 engines. The effect is that the oil is wiped off the 
 journal and the surface thus becomes dry, resulting 
 in heating in a comparatively few minutes. It is 
 therefore apparent that in stirring up packing, the 
 top portion should be entirely below the edge of the 
 brass. In stirring uj) packing as described it should 
 be understood clearly that all that is required is 
 a slight loosening up of the top surface of the pack- 
 ing on each side of the journal, keeping the back of 
 the box well closed up by maintaining packing at 
 the proper height. The top layer of packing will 
 thus be kept in a light, elastic condition next to the 
 journal, which is most desirable in order that the 
 oil may be freely conveyed to the journal from the 
 more solid portions of packing underneath. A gen- 
 eral disturbance of the packing should be avoided, 
 as no good results can be secured by this method. 
 
 **As suitable tools for this work are as essentia) 
 as competent and skillful men, a packing tool (see 
 Fig. 5) is here shown, made of steel, that has been 
 found well adapted for the work of slightly stir- 
 ring up packing in journal boxes at terminals where* 
 time is given for this work. This will apply to both 
 passenger and freight cars and locomotive tenders. 
 By reason of the custom of some men with other 
 forms of packing tools they may not at first appre- 
 ciate the value this form of tool will be to them, but 
 it is thought that by some consideration and trial 
 it will be found very efficient. Its efficiency depends 
 in a great measure in following out the practice cf 
 stirring up packing as described. For illustration: It 
 will not be desirable for the practice of placing it
 
 FIREMEX 121 
 
 down under the entire bulk of the packing at the 
 sides of the box, as some men follow. This practice 
 is questionable for the reason that when this is done 
 the entire bulk of packing on the side of the box 
 is raised bodily from the bottom of the box, and it 
 should be considered carefully, if this is the case, 
 how long it will likely remain up in that condition 
 
 jo ">= HiS oc: 
 
 -•— r" 
 
 V^ 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 Tool for Loosening Up Packing in Journal Boxes. 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 I 
 
 Tool for Packing Journal Boxes in Sliops and Shop Yards. 
 
 after the train is in motion, when the journal box 
 is subjected to innumerable blows from frogs and. 
 switches. It is quite logical reasoning that it wil? 
 all settle back in a short time in a non-elastic cor- 
 dition. This tool can be known as the combination 
 packing tool, as it combines the features of the com-
 
 122 
 
 FIREMEN 
 
 monly known packing iron and hook. It is, there- 
 fore, only necessary for the men to carry the one 
 tool in performing this work at terminals, the hook 
 side of the tool being necessary to remove particles 
 of dry packing when found, or, in many cases, sur- 
 plus packing. 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 Showing Position of Packing Tool When Used to Loosen Up 
 
 Packing in Each Side of Journal. 
 
 Fig. S. 
 
 Showing Position of Packing Tool When Used to Remove 
 
 Surplus Packing. 
 
 *'In Fig. 6 there is shown a set of packing tools 
 intended for use in shops or shop yards, where the 
 entire repacldng of boxes is done, and we therefore 
 consider this operation entirely distinct from that 
 of stirring up packing by ins]")ectors at terminals, 
 and consequently a slightly different form of tool
 
 FIREMEN 123 
 
 for the work will be found desirable, as is the case 
 ■with the gi-eat variety of tools required by skilled 
 mechanics in their various occupations. As the prac- 
 tice of some is to have a hook about eight inches 
 from the handle end of the packing tool to facilitate 
 the opening and closing of box lids, it should, of 
 course, be understood that when this feature is a 
 desirable one, it should be added to the tool. The 
 *^V" shaped end of these tools affords a ready and 
 effective means to lightly loosen up the top layer of 
 packing, which is the end most desired, so that this 
 portion of the packing may be in the most elastic 
 condition possible. Figs. 7 and 8 show the position 
 of packing tool when used as described. 
 
 ' ' In this connection it is well to consider the quan- 
 tity of waste and oil in a journal box when joacked 
 in the usual manner. Each box contains from I14 
 to 214 pounds of waste and from 4i4 to 10 pints of 
 oil, depending upon the size of box, varying from 
 3% X 7 inches up to the 51/2 x 10 inch box. It will 
 thus be seen and aj^preciated, I believe, that to 
 properly utilize the oil that is in the box, the pack- 
 ing next to the journal should be maintained in as 
 elastic condition as possible. It should be further 
 understood that the oil as it passes between the 
 surfaces of the brass and journal is not actually 
 consumed, but is deposited to a degree again on the 
 - opposite side of journal from which it ascended for 
 use again an indefinite number of times. 
 
 *'In numerous tests made by various responsible 
 railways a very unusual high mileage has been made 
 from the one re-packing of the box or boxes without 
 the addition of any oil during the test. In some of
 
 124 FIREMEN 
 
 these tests the mileage has been from six to twenty 
 thousand miles. During the test the packing was 
 examined daily and maintained in an elastic condi- 
 tion, as i:)reviously described, no oil, however, hav- 
 ing l3een added during the test. Eeference to these 
 tests and results is only for the purpose of illustrat- 
 ing the possible mileage in the oil contained in a 
 journal box when subjected to a special test as 
 referred to, and is not for the purpose of conveying 
 the idea that such results are obtainable under the 
 average conditions and treatment on the best regu- 
 lated roads, but, instead, to indicate under rea- 
 sonable conditions, which are readily obtainable 
 through careful and systematic methods, results, 
 far superior to what are now being obtained under 
 the average practices." 
 
 It should be enjoined upon 'those whose duty it is 
 to inspect and care for journal boxes that in stirring 
 up the packing or in pushing the packing down 
 in the front of the box, where there is always a 
 tendency for it to work out, the top waste (which 
 contains more or less sand and dirt) should be 
 crowded first toward the front of the box, and then 
 down under the cleaner oily waste, which latter will 
 thus be brought up to the journal. 
 
 One who has given much time and study to the 
 subject strongly advises the following practice in 
 the packing of a journal box on either a car or loco- 
 motive tender : The first packing put into the box 
 should be twisted up into a roll and shoved clear 
 to the back of the box and up against the axle, thus 
 forming an effective dust guard, as well as a pre- 
 ventive to oil running out of the back of the l30X. 
 Then small bunches of waste, that have been satu-
 
 FIREMEN 125 
 
 rated in oil for at least twenty-four hours and sub- 
 sequently drained of superfluous oil, should be 
 packed under the journal until the box is filled the 
 whole length of the journal. Complete the opera- 
 tion as begun by a twisted roll having no fibre con- 
 nection with the other packing, placed in the front 
 of the box for the purj^ose of preventing the good 
 packing from working out from under the journal. 
 It is desired, in conclusion, to emphasize the fact 
 that the most important part of the work of lubri- 
 cation is the skillful and proper maintenance of the 
 packing in the box, so that the most elastic condi- 
 tion may be secured and maintained.
 
 126 
 
 FIREMEN 
 
 JOURNAL BOX DUST GUARDS. 
 
 In order to retain the oil in the journal box and 
 at the Scune time exclude the dust, sand and dirt it 
 has long been customary to employ some form of 
 wooden or metal dust guard, the former being fre- 
 quently faced with plush or felt. Manj' improve- 
 ments upon this older form of solid board guard 
 have been devised, one of the best known being 
 here illustrated. 
 
 HARRISON DUST GUARDS. 
 
 The Harrison dust guard is constructed from 
 hard wood, well oiled, and made in two sections. 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 Harrison Dust Guard. 
 
 Through each of these sections there is formed an 
 orifice adapted to receive bolts. In the upper sec-
 
 FIREMEN 127 
 
 tion of the "top part the orifices are enlarged in order 
 to receive springs. Said springs are compressed 
 with jammed hexagon nuts whereby the sections are 
 held yieldingly together, constantly encircling the 
 car axle journal at all times, and in both of the sec- 
 tions there is three-sixteenths of an inch taken out 
 of the center, thereby allowing three-eighths of an 
 inch wear before sections are closed together. 
 
 In each of the sections there is formed a groove 
 three-eighths of an inch wide and three-sixteenths 
 of an inch deep. Into this groove there is inserted 
 packing striiDS. The packing strip in the uj^per sec- 
 tions is sufficiently shortened to allow the packing 
 strip in the lower section to telescope into groove in 
 the upper section, thereby closing the joints between 
 the two sections, not only making this guard dust 
 proof, but, as the packing is cut out of heaw^^ belting 
 leather, insuring great ser\'ice owing to the fact that 
 under tests of upwards of fifty-five thousand miles 
 no indication of wear was observable. 
 
 BALDWIN LOCOMOTIVE WORKS. EULES AND DATA. 
 
 TRACTIVE POWER, HOW TO FIGURE WHAT 
 
 WILL S(HE PULL. 
 
 With the engine adjusted to steam freely, a 
 valve motion that will insure a good steam distri- 
 bution and the machine properly lubricated, the 
 next problem is the capacity of the engine to 
 move tons of freight or passenger trains over the 
 road. It costs money to operate a railroad and 
 the revenue is obtained from the sale of transpor-
 
 128 FIREMEN. 
 
 tation. Assuming that the locomotive is of mod- 
 ern design and assigned to the class of service 
 best adapted to it, the next i:)oint to determine is 
 the draw bar pull or how much tractive power 
 will be de\'eloped to overcome the train resis- 
 tance. First the adhesion or weight placed on 
 the drivers must be greater than the resistance 
 of the train, and this weight is usually limited 
 by the condition of the road bed, weight of rails 
 and strength of bridges. Here is where the en- 
 gineering dei>artment specify to the mechanical 
 officers the number of pounds that may be placed 
 on the driving wheels of the locomotive. The 
 diameter of the driving wheels, diameter of cylin- 
 ders, length of stroke of the piston in inches and 
 the nu '>\hev of pounds steam pressure per square 
 inch carried on the boiler will enable us to ap- 
 proximateliy determine the tractive power, when 
 tlie use of a dynamometer car is not available. 
 The tractive power, developed by a single ex- 
 pansion locomotive at slow speed may be ascer- 
 tained by assuming that 85 per cent of the boiler 
 pressure will equal tlie mean effective pressure 
 in the cylinders and using the fonnula: 
 
 C2 X S X P 
 
 = T 
 
 D 
 
 Now this is not at all hard and a little time 
 will make this and other fonnulas easy to figiire. 
 
 C- indicates that the diameter of the cylinder 
 should be multiplied by itself, or squared. 
 
 S equals the stroke of the piston in inches, 
 
 P equals the mean effective jiressure in pounds 
 or 85 per cent of the boiler pressure.
 
 FIREMEN. 129 
 
 D equals tlie diameter of the driving wheels in 
 inches and placed under the line mean^ that when 
 the diameter of the cylinder is multiplied by 
 itself or squared, that number multiplied by 
 the number of inches of stroke and then by the 
 number of pounds mean effective pressure all this 
 above the line should be divided by D or the 
 diameter of the driving wheel in inches will equal 
 T or the tractive power. 
 
 EXAMPLE : An engine 20x26'' cylinders, 56'" 
 wheels, 200-lb. boiler pressure. 
 
 C2=20 s 20 
 
 20 
 
 
 20 
 
 S=26" 
 
 400 
 
 
 26 
 
 200 
 
 2400 
 
 P= .85 
 
 800 
 
 1000 
 
 10400 
 
 1600 
 
 170 
 
 170.00 738000 
 10400 
 
 Diam. of Driver 56) 1768000 (31,571 Pounds, Tractive Force 
 
 820 
 280 
 
 400 
 
 392 
 
 80 
 56 
 
 4 
 
 C2 X S X P 
 
 T= or 31,571 Pounds. 
 
 I) 
 
 31.571 pounds tractive power developed by the 
 engine that can be used to overcome the resist- 
 ance of the locomotive and train. This rule is 
 applicable to any size single expansion engine.
 
 130 
 
 FIREMEN. 
 
 Por a two-cylinder compound use this formula: 
 
 C=xSx 2,p 
 
 1 u 
 
 using two-thirds of the boiler pressure and con- 
 sidering the high pressure cylinder only. 
 
 EXAMPLE : Wliat is the tractive power of a 
 two-cylinder comjwund : 
 
 Cyls. H X 26 " Drivers 63 ' 
 
 Boiler Pressure 210 lbs. 
 
 44 
 44 
 
 484 
 26 
 
 D- 
 
 2904 
 
 968 
 
 12584 
 140 
 
 503;360 
 12584 
 
 ) 1761760 (27,964 Pounds, Tractive Force 
 126 
 
 501 
 441 
 
 607 
 567 
 
 406 
 378 
 
 280 
 252 
 
 28 
 
 K of 210 = 140 lbs. 
 
 The tractive power of a four-cylinder compound 
 may be ascertained by the following formula: 
 
 CxSx'a'P C^kSxHP 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 Work this out separately for the high and the 
 low pressure cylinders the same as was done for 
 the simple and add the quotients.
 
 FIREMEN. 131 
 
 EXAMPLE: AMiat is the tractive power of a 
 four-cylinder compound : 
 
 Cyls. 25 ^ 26 " Drivers 73 " Boiler Pressure 220 lbs. 
 
 High Pressure Cylinder. Low Pressure Cylinder. 
 
 15 25 
 
 15 25 
 
 75 185 
 
 15 50 
 
 225 625 
 
 28 26 
 
 1350 3750 
 
 450 1250 
 
 5850 16250 
 »i of 220 = 146 • « of 220 = 55 
 
 35100 81250 
 
 23400 81250 
 
 6850 
 
 85 
 73 
 
 12 
 73 
 
 51 
 511 
 
 73 ) 893750 ( 12,243 
 73 ) 854100 ( 11,700 73 
 
 163 
 
 124 146 
 
 177 
 511 146 
 
 315 
 00 292 
 
 230 
 219 
 
 11,700 + 12,^3 = 23,943 T. 11 
 
 TKAIX EESISTAXCE OE LOCOMOTm: RATING, 
 
 To overcome the resistance of one ton, 2,000 
 lbs., on a straight and level track at a speed ot 
 ten miles per hour or less, careful tests have dem- 
 onstrated that it varies from 5 to 8 lbs. per 
 ton, or an average of 6I/2 lbs. per ton. It is safe 
 to allow 8 lbs. per ton for train resistance on a 
 level, and by dividing the tractive power by 8 it 
 would give the number of tons rating. Tliis rule 
 covers the axle or journal and rolling friction 
 only. If on a grade, multiplying the feet per
 
 132 FIREMEN. 
 
 mile rise in grade by .3788 will give the resistance? 
 due to grade per ton and will be sufficiently cor- 
 rect to establish a rating in the absence of a 
 regular test or a dynamometer car; or if pre- 
 ferred, add % lbs. = to .375 per ton for each 
 foot per mile rise in the grade. Either of. the 
 above decimals will answer for grade resistance. 
 Cur^^e resistance may be figured as 9-16 lbs. per 
 ton for every degree of curve, 9-16=.5625. Us- 
 ing this decimal and multiplying by the number 
 of degrees in the curve we get the curve resis- 
 tance. 
 
 EXA^IPLE : AVhat is the resistance per ton 
 of train on a grade of 100 feet per mile with -i 
 degree curve. 
 
 Allowinij 8 lbs. for friction. 
 100 X .375= 37.5 lbs. for },'rade. 
 4 X .5625= 2.25 lbs. for curve. 
 
 47.75 
 
 we have 47.75 lbs. resistance per ton. 
 
 These figures are not given as absolutely cor- 
 rect in establishing a rating, but will sen^e to 
 work from in making up trains for test. The 
 only correct method to rate an engine is to take 
 several engines of the same class and make actual 
 tests in service to get the hauling capacity, then 
 reduce the tonnage of train to meet the recj[uire- 
 ments of the service and leave a sufficient margin 
 of power to insure proper time being made under 
 average conditions. The old method of the last car 
 she will pull has lost out long ago, and the most 
 economical rating at the jiresent time is a train 
 that can be handled and gotten over the road with- 
 out tying up opposing or following trains.
 
 FIREMEN. 133 
 
 Handy Kules in Arithmetic. 
 
 To find the circumference of a circle multiply its 
 diameter by 3.1416. 
 
 To find the diameter of a circle multiply its cir- 
 cumference by .31831. 
 
 To find the area of a circle multiply the square 
 of its diameter by .7854. 
 
 To find the cubic inches in a ball multiply its 
 cube of diameter by .5236. 
 
 To find the revolutions of drivers per mile divide 
 1680 by the diameter of the wheel in feet. 
 
 To find revolutions per minute multiply the 
 speed in miles per hour by 28 and divide the prod- 
 uct by the diameter of the driving wheel in feet. 
 
 To find piston speed in feet per minute multiply 
 revolutions per minute by twice the stroke of pis- 
 ton in feet. 
 
 To find the sj^eed of train per second multiply 
 speed in miles per hour by 22 and divide by 15. 
 
 To find time when rate of speed and distance is 
 given multiply distance by 60 and divide by rate 
 of speed. 
 
 To find rate of speed when distance and time are 
 given, distance multiplied by 60 and divided by the 
 time in minutes. 
 
 To find the distance when the time and rate of 
 s]3eed are given, multiply the time by the rate of 
 speed and divide by 60. 
 
 To find the number of tons of coal in a bin: 
 Length, height and width of pile in feet multiplied 
 together, divide by 30 for hard coal, by 35 for soft 
 coal, by 128 for cords of long wood, ^d by 135 for 
 cords of sawed wood.
 
 134 FIREMEy 
 
 » 
 
 To find the pounds of coal used \)er 100-ton mile 
 multiply pounds of coal by 100 and divide by tons 
 multiplied by the miles hauled. 
 
 To find the pressure in ])ounds per square inch 
 of a column of water multiply the height of the 
 column in feet by .434. 
 
 Fig. No. 37 
 
 shows Baldwin Locomotive Works curve repre- 
 senting the revolutions ]>er mile of driving wheels 
 of various diameters. The diameter of the wheels 
 is designated by the numbers at the top of the 
 chart, and the revolutions per mile by the numbers 
 at the left margin. A i>eri3endicular line from 
 any number representing the diameter of the 
 wheel followed to its intersection with the cui-ve, 
 then out on the horizontal line to the marginal 
 number on the left, will give the number of revolu- 
 tions for the diameter of wheel. 
 
 Fig. No. 38 
 
 gives piston speed in feet per minute for drivers 
 of different diameters and various strokes at a 
 speed of 10 miles per hour; for greater speeds 
 they must be multiplied by the factor represent- 
 ing the speed. In using the plate follow the per- 
 pendicular line from the number representing the 
 driver wheel in inches until it intersects the cur\^e 
 representing the stroke of piston; following the 
 horizontal line to the marginal number at the left 
 will give the piston speed in feet per minute for 
 the given wheel and stroke.
 
 BALDWIN LOCOMOTIVE WORMS 
 Revolutions of Driving Wheels per Mile. 
 
 t>fv^*t of Driving ^ 
 . SOffla* 
 
 !«ts io Incbe*.
 
 BALDWIN LOCOMOTIVE WORKS. 
 
 Piiton Spe<dt in F«<t p<r Minutg «t Engine Speed of Ten Milei pM H<n»- 
 
 Diameter of Driving WbceU in lochea.
 
 FIREMEN. 
 
 137 
 
 SECONDS PER MILE IN MILES PER HOUR. 
 
 DECIMAL EQFR'ALENTS. 
 
 1-64 in. 
 
 .015625 
 
 1 23-04 in. 
 
 .359375 
 
 11-16 in. 
 
 .6875 
 
 l-3i 
 
 .03125 
 
 1 3 8 
 
 .375 
 
 45-64 
 
 .703125 
 
 3 64 
 
 0468T5 
 
 , 25-64 
 
 .390625 
 
 23-32 
 
 .71875 
 
 1-16 
 
 .0625 
 
 13-32 
 
 .40625 
 
 47-64 
 
 .734375 
 
 5-fi4 
 
 .078125 
 
 27-64 
 
 .421875 
 
 3-4 
 
 .75 
 
 3-33 
 
 09375 
 
 7-16 
 
 .4375 
 
 49-64 
 
 .765625 
 
 T-64 
 
 .109375 
 
 29-64 
 
 .453125 
 
 25-.32 
 
 .78125 
 
 1-8 
 
 .125 
 
 15 32 
 
 .4 87.5 
 
 51-64 
 
 .796875 
 
 9-64 
 
 .140625 
 
 31-64 
 
 .484375 
 
 13-16 
 
 .8125 
 
 5^32 
 
 .15625 
 
 12 
 
 .a 
 
 5:^-64 
 
 .828125 
 
 11-&4 
 
 .171S75 
 
 33-64 
 
 .515fi25 
 
 27 32 
 
 .84375 
 
 3-16 
 
 .1875 
 
 17-32 
 
 .53125 
 
 55-64 
 
 .859.375 
 
 :3-6-l 
 
 .203125 
 
 35-64 
 
 .546875 
 
 7-8 
 
 .875 
 
 7 32 
 
 .21875 
 
 9-16 
 
 .5025 
 
 57-64 
 
 .890625 
 
 15-64 
 
 .234S75 
 
 37-64 
 
 .578125 
 
 29-32 
 
 .90625 
 
 1-4 
 
 .25 
 
 19-32 
 
 .59375 
 
 59-64 
 
 .921875 
 
 17-64 
 
 .265625 
 
 39-64 
 
 .609375 
 
 15-16 
 
 .9375 
 
 9-32 
 
 .2'<125 
 
 5-8 
 
 .625 
 
 61-64 
 
 95.3125 
 
 19-64 
 
 .296875 
 
 41-64 
 
 .640625 
 
 31-32 
 
 .96875 
 
 5-16 
 
 .3125 
 
 21-32 
 
 .65625 
 
 63 fr4 
 
 .984375 
 
 21 64 
 
 .328125 
 
 43-64 
 
 .6;]875 
 
 A 
 
 1 
 
 11 32 
 
 .34375 
 
 
 

 
 138 
 
 FIREMEN. 
 
 WIIEEL6. 
 Diameter, Cii'cumference and Revolutions per Mile. 
 
 Diameter 
 
 Circumfer- 
 
 Revolutions 
 
 Diameter 
 
 Circumfer- 
 
 Revolutions 
 
 in Inches. 
 
 ence in Feet. 
 
 per Mile. 
 
 in Inciies. 
 
 ence in Feet. 
 
 per Mile. 
 
 18 
 
 4.712 
 
 1119.76 
 
 48 
 
 12.57 
 
 420.0 
 
 20 
 
 5.236 
 
 1008.4 
 
 50 
 
 13.00 
 
 403.4 
 
 22 
 
 5.759 
 
 916.8 
 
 52 
 
 13.61 
 
 387.9 
 
 24 
 
 6 283 
 
 838 4 
 
 54 
 
 14.14 
 
 373.4 
 
 26 
 
 6.81 
 
 775.3 
 
 56 
 
 14.66 
 
 360.2 
 
 28 
 
 7.36 
 
 720.3 
 
 58 
 
 15.18 
 
 347.8 
 
 30 
 
 7.85 
 
 672.6 
 
 60 
 
 15.71 
 
 836.1 
 
 32 
 
 8.377 
 
 630.3 
 
 62 
 
 16.23 
 
 325.3 
 
 33 
 
 8.64 
 
 611.1 
 
 64 
 
 16.75 
 
 315.2 
 
 34 
 
 8 901 
 
 593.2 
 
 66 
 
 17.28 
 
 305.5 
 
 36 
 
 9.42 
 
 560.5 
 
 68 
 
 17 80 
 
 2%. 6 
 
 37 
 
 9.686 
 
 545.1 
 
 70 
 
 18.36 
 
 288.1 
 
 38 
 
 9.95 
 
 530.6 
 
 72 
 
 18.85 
 
 280.1 
 
 40 
 
 10.47 
 
 504.2 
 
 78 
 
 20.42 
 
 258.6 
 
 42 
 
 11.00 
 
 480.0 
 
 84 
 
 21.99 
 
 240.1 
 
 44 
 
 11.52 
 
 458.3 
 
 90 
 
 23.56 
 
 224.1 
 
 46 
 
 12.04 
 
 438.5 
 
 % 
 
 25.16 
 
 210.1 
 
 TEMPERATURE OF STEAM AT VARIOUS BOILER PRESSURES. 
 
 Boiler 
 
 Decrees 
 
 Boiler 
 
 De^rrees 
 
 Boiler 
 
 Deffrees 
 
 Pressure. 
 
 Falir. 
 
 Pressure. 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 Pressure. 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 
 
 213 
 
 110 
 
 344 
 
 165 
 
 372.8 
 
 5.3 
 
 228 
 
 115 
 
 347 
 
 170 
 
 • 375.1 - 
 
 15 3 
 
 250.4 
 
 120 
 
 349.9 
 
 175 
 
 377.3 
 
 25.3 
 
 2rt7.3 
 
 125 
 
 352.8 
 
 180 
 
 379 5 
 
 .35 3 
 
 281 
 
 130 
 
 355.5 
 
 185 
 
 381.5 
 
 45 3 
 
 292.7 
 
 135 
 
 358.2 
 
 190 
 
 383.7 
 
 55.8 
 
 302.9 
 
 140 
 
 360.8 
 
 195 
 
 383.8 
 
 66.3 
 
 312 
 
 145 
 
 363.3 
 
 200 
 
 387.8 
 
 
 320.2 
 
 150 
 
 365.8 1 
 
 205 
 
 389.7 
 
 fi6 3 
 
 327.9 
 
 155 
 
 368.1 
 
 210 
 
 391.7 
 
 100 
 
 a37.8 
 
 ICO 
 
 370.6 
 
 215 
 
 393.6 
 
 lU.) 
 
 340.9 
 
 
 

 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 A CHAPTER OF " DON'tS " FOR ENGINEERS AND 
 FIREMEN. 
 
 "First. DojiH think because you are only one 
 engineer or fireman, that what you do does not 
 amount to much. It is the little drops of water 
 that make the mighty ocean, and the little grains 
 of sand that make up this earth of ours; so each 
 individual, in the aggregate, can do a great deal. 
 If each engine crew saves one-quarter of a ton or 
 five hundred pounds of coal, this on a thousand 
 locomotives would result in a daily saving of two 
 hundred and fifty tons, or in round figures $157,- 
 000 a year. 
 
 • ''Second. DonH neglect being at roundhouoe in 
 ample time to examine the firing tools on the 
 engine before leaving the roundhouse. See that 
 your ashpan, grates and flue-sheets are in good 
 condition to make the run. 
 
 "Third. Don't fill the boiler full of water as 
 soon as you get out of the house. Leave a space 
 so the injector can be worked to prevent pop- 
 ping while air pump exhaust is fanning the fire, 
 pumping air to make the terminal air brake test. 
 If you do this your fire will be in better condi- 
 tion to pull out with. The noise of open pop 
 prevents trainmen from locating leaks. 
 
 "Don't forget to start the lubricator a few min- 
 utes before leaving a terminal. Set it to feed 
 
 (139)
 
 140 DUTIES AND ItESPONSIBILITIES 
 
 regularly. The proi^er lubrication of valves and 
 cylinders saves coal. 
 
 "Fourth. DonH forget, when starting trains, 
 to do so carefully, thus preventing damage to 
 drawbars and draft rigging. By so doing you 
 will save serious delays to your own as well as 
 other trains. All delays mean extra fuel con- 
 sumption to make up time lost. 
 
 *''Do7iH neglect using the blow-off cock, as it 
 keeps the boiler clean and water in good condi- 
 tion, and insures better circulation in boiler. 
 Result: Better steaming engine and a saving in 
 coal. 
 
 "Fifth. Don^t allow the engine to slip. This 
 is an unnecessary waste of coal, wears out tires 
 and rails, causes great damage to pins, axles and 
 runuing gear, and generally results in spoiling a 
 fire. 
 
 "Sixth. Doti't pull out of a station ^,vith. a 
 train (after engine has stood for a while, and fire 
 was allowed to get low) without first giving the 
 fireman a chance to build up the fire. The time 
 lost waiting to do this will save coal, and can 
 better be made up before reaching the next sta- 
 tion. Remember this when you get a time order. 
 
 "Seventh. Do)iH leave the reverse lever down 
 in corner longer than necessary when pulling out 
 of stations. No rule can be made to govern how 
 the throttle and reverse lever should be used. 
 This must be acquired by practice and observing 
 the performance of the engine. Bring the lever 
 up gradually as speed is acquired. The lever 
 hooked well towards center of quadrant, with
 
 OF THE LOCOMOTl VE ENGINEER. 141 
 
 throttle well open, usually gives better results 
 than using the throttle to govern the speed. Up 
 to five years ago we considered it good practice 
 with our smaller power to run with wide open 
 throttle, and as short a point of cut-off as possi- 
 ble consistent with weight of train; but in our 
 heavier and larger engines we find that it is bet- 
 ter at many times to throttle the engine. Par- 
 ticular attention is called to all wide fire-box type 
 of locomotives. The engineer can permit the 
 reverse lever in these engines to remain low in 
 the quadrant when starting from a station for a 
 greater length of time than with the other types 
 of locomotives without pulling the fire or losing 
 steam. When you are running on short time, 
 it would be good judgment for the engineer to 
 take advantage of this when pulling out from a 
 station. In this engineers will use their best 
 judgment. 
 
 "Eighth. DonH put four or five or more shov- 
 elfuls of coal into the fire at once. One or two 
 shovelfuls will give better results, and these two 
 should not be thrown in the same spot. It is 
 good practice to fire on one side of the box at 
 one time, and the next time on the other side of 
 the box, in order that the bright fire on one side 
 may take up the gases from the fresh coal on 
 the other side. This will reduce the smoke and 
 give more steam. 
 
 "Always fire as light as possible consistent with 
 your work. Very heavy firing will make your 
 flues and staybolts leak, and in time will crack 
 your fire-box sheets. The reason for this is that
 
 142 DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 
 
 when you have a very heavy fire the air will not 
 pass up through it readily, and the gases pass ofE, 
 because there is not sufficient oxygen to unite 
 with them to produce combustion, and as the gases 
 must get air from somewhere, the air is then 
 pulled through the fire-door, causing the chilling 
 of flues and sheets as referred to above. 
 
 **NiNTH. DonH allow steam to escape at pops 
 unnecessarily. Frequent blowing off at pops 
 shows improper judgment, and implies that the 
 engine crew is not practicing economy. Tests 
 have demonstrated that i lb. per second, or 15 lbs. 
 per minute, is wasted. This amounts to about 
 one ordinary scoopful, and in most cases may as 
 well have been thrown on the ground as into the 
 firebox. There are only 133 scoopfuls in a ton of 
 coal, so you can see that you would only have to 
 have your pops open one hundred and thirty- 
 three minutes in a whole day in order to throw 
 a ton of coal away. 
 
 "Tenth. DonH open the firebox door to prevent 
 steam blowing off at pops when engine is work- 
 ing; dropping dampers is a better practice. The 
 supply of air is cut off, and combustion is par- 
 tially suspended. When engine stops blowing 
 off, open dampers again before putting in coal. 
 This method keeps fire in better condition and 
 saves coal. You have no doubt noticed that on a 
 certain class of locomotives, when working hard 
 on a hill, you have to shut your dampers in order 
 to keep your fire from turning over. This is be- 
 cause the exhaust pulls too much air up through 
 the grates, and causes your coal to be too active,
 
 OF THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER. 143 
 
 and to prevent this activity of coal, as well as 
 increased combustion which follows, we consider 
 it a ^ood thing to drop your dampers, as per 
 above. 
 
 ''Eleventh. DonH insist upon having the max- 
 imum steam pressure with pops opening occa- 
 sionally when handling light trains, when less 
 pressure will handle the train on time, thus 
 avoiding the opening of pops. 
 
 "Twelfth. Don''t forget, when engine is shut 
 off for stations, to drop your dampers, opening 
 the firebox door slightly, if necessary, and using 
 the blower to carry off the black smoke. 
 
 "Thirteenth. DofiH blame the engine or coal 
 if engine is not steaming properly, before you 
 have ascertained whether or not both of you are 
 doing your duty. Talk it over; see if injector is 
 not supplying more water than is being used, or 
 that fireman is not firing too light or too heavy. 
 Heavy firing is responsible for more poor steam- 
 ing engines than the lighter method. You all 
 know some engine crews have better success than 
 others, with same engines and conditions. Think 
 a little; there must be some cause for this. 
 
 *^DonH wait until you get the sisjnal to pull out 
 before building up the fire. This should be done 
 gradually until the proper thickness has been 
 reached. A good fire to start with is essential 
 to maintain the proper steam pressure, while en- 
 gine is working hard getting train under way, 
 Afterwards distribute the coal evenly on sides, 
 ends and corners. Do this systematically, keep- 
 ing in mind where you have placed the last
 
 144 DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 
 
 shovelful, thus avoiding getting holes in fire, and 
 prevent piling up coal all in one place. En- 
 deavor to keep the steam pressure uniform, with 
 as little black smoke as possible. Experience 
 has taught that engines v^^'ith draft appliances 
 properly adjusted require very little coal in cen- 
 ter of firebox. 
 
 ''Fourteenth. DonH permit the water to get 
 so high in boiler that it is carried over into the 
 valves and cylinders. This usually occurs when 
 pulling out of stations, and the water carries off 
 the oil, which not only results in cut valves and 
 cylinders, but the extra friction damages the en- 
 tire valve motion, to the detriment of the power 
 of engine and the coal record. 
 
 ^^DonH gauge the amount of water an engine 
 will safely carry by water coming out of stack. 
 Keep it low enough to insure dry steam being 
 used, because moist steam has the same effect as 
 water. Usually one-half glass or two gauges 
 give best results. Be careful, however, that 
 when ascending a grade, and you are about to 
 pitch over the other side, that you have sufficient 
 water to keep your crown-sheet thoroughly cov- 
 ered. If your custom has been to carry high 
 water, try less and note results in better handling 
 of tonnage, also saving in coal and oil. 
 
 ^'Fifteenth. DunH neglect to take advantage 
 of your excess steam before your engine is about 
 to pop off, by making a heater of your injector, 
 blowing steam back into the tank to warm the 
 cold water, but avoid getting it so hot that the 
 injector will not lift the water. By doing this
 
 OF TEE LOCOMOTIVE EXGINEEE. 145 
 
 you will keep your engine from blowing off at 
 pops when standing at stations after the boiler is 
 filled up. You have all tried warming the watei 
 in the tank to help a poor steaming engine, with 
 good results. What is good for a poor steaming 
 engine will surely help a good steaming engine 
 do better. Try it and you will find that it 
 will not only save w^ork for the fireman, but will 
 make a better coal record for the engine crew, 
 besides keeping the tank from sweating, which 
 you are aware spoils paint. 
 
 ''Sixteenth. Don^t think the fireman alone to 
 blame for your coal record. The best and most 
 economical fireman cannot make a showing with 
 an engineer who supplies more water to boiler 
 than is being used, and who shuts injector off 
 only when boiler is pumped full. The proper 
 handling of the injector is one of the most im- 
 portant matters in saving coal. Feed water to 
 boiler according to demands. If on through train 
 keep water level as possible. If on way freight 
 or switch trains, lose a little water between sta- 
 tions. Fill up again while drifting into, stand- 
 ing or switching at station. The advantages of 
 supplying less water than is being used between 
 stations are: It requires less coal to keep up 
 steam pressure when running; also leaves a space 
 so injector can be worked to avoid pops opening, 
 and heavier fire can also be maintained to do 
 switching, without the possibility of the fire being 
 pulled.. 
 
 ''Don^t pull out after making a stop with injec- 
 tors working. The cool water introduced during
 
 146 DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 
 
 period throttle was shut off is put in circulatioD 
 throughout the boiler, and pointer on gauge 
 drops back from five to twenty-five pounds. 
 The fireman must then fire heavier to regain the 
 lost steam, and naturally will use more coal. 
 This condition exists also when engine has gone 
 down grade with throttle shut or slightly open. 
 Shut the injector off before opening the throttle. 
 If this is not your practice, try it and note the 
 difference. 
 
 ''Seventeenth. DonH wait for the pops to open, 
 and use this as a signal to put on the injector. 
 Keep an eye on the air gauge, steam gauge and 
 water glass. You all know this can be done 
 without distracting your attention from the track 
 ahead. A look for an instant every mile or two 
 will keep you informed, and is a good habit. Do- 
 ing this will also keep you posted on air pressure, 
 and may avoid difiiculties should the air pump 
 stop. The fireman should also keep an eye on 
 the water glass, as the engineer is sometimes 
 compelled to keep the injector at work to pre- 
 vent the engine blowing off. When glass is full, 
 the fireman should fire lighter, to give the en- 
 gineer a chance to shut off the injector, and not 
 have engine blow off. However, this condition 
 should only exist when injector cannot be worked 
 fine enough to just supply amount used. This 
 sometimes occurs when card time is slow, or on 
 down grade, or when running with light train. 
 
 ''Eighteenth. DonH put too much coal under 
 the arch of engines with sloping fireboxes, be* 
 cause these engines naturally pull the coal ahead.
 
 OF TEE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER. 147 
 
 which results in forward section of grates becom- 
 ing stuck and clinkered over, and fire is pulled 
 in back end of firebox. Experience and obser- 
 vation will teach you to put most of the coal in 
 back end of firebox. 
 
 "Nineteenth. DonH think engine having two 
 firebox doors requires twice the quantity of coal 
 it w^ould if engine had but one. The extra door 
 is for the purpose of distributing the coal more 
 evenly over the grate surface, with less effort on 
 the part of the fireman. 
 
 "Twentieth. DouH shovel large chunks of coal 
 into firebox, because you find them on the tank. 
 The coal house men have instructions to break it 
 the size of an apple. Tf not properly broken, re- 
 port it to Road Foreman of Engines or to Master 
 Mechanic, instead of fellow engineers or firemen, 
 but don't think it a hardship to break some oc- 
 casionally. Better break it than to throw in 
 large chunks. They are foundations for clinkers. 
 
 "Twenty-first. Do^iH expect the fireman to 
 fire the engine with one or two scoops to each 
 fire, and also ring the bell for highway crossings 
 and stations. Some engineers expect this. If 
 engine is equipped with an air bell-ringer, get 
 into the habit of starting the bell-ringer when 
 blowing the whistle. By so doing, the habit will 
 become as fixed as whistling for crossings and 
 stations. Besides, it is just as important. Re- 
 member the engineer is responsible. 
 
 "Twenty-Second. Don't put in a heavy fire 
 about the time the engine is shut off for a station 
 or down-grade. The heavy cloud of black smoka
 
 148 DUTIES AND RESPONSIBlLITIEa 
 
 is evidence the engine crew is not working in 
 harmony or practicing economy. If on train 
 that stops at all stations, the fireman should 
 guard against it and learn when to stop firing. 
 He will be governed by grade, service and weather 
 conditions. If train does not make all station 
 stops, the engineer should keep the fireman in- 
 formed of intended stops. 
 
 "Twenty-third. DonH forget that different 
 qualities of coal and different make of grate used, 
 govern the shaking of grates. Coal that fills up 
 and clinkers, requires more attention than the 
 better grade. The object is to keep the grates 
 free, so the proper amount of air can be admitted, 
 
 "Twenty-fourth. DonH neglect cleaning your 
 fire on trains that are long hours on the road. 
 Make use of the first opportunity. You will get 
 better results with less labor and coal, and avoid 
 leaky fiues. Better clean out a small amount 
 two or three times than not clean it at all. 
 
 *'DonH take coal or water oftener than neces- 
 sary, as it requires an extra amount of coal to 
 /again get a heavy train in motion, especially on a 
 grade. Good judgment is required, in order not 
 to run short before getting to next coal chute or 
 water tank. Where possible take water only 
 from tank containing good water, and as little as 
 you can from tanks containing poor water. 
 
 "Twenty-fifth DonH forget that leaks in the 
 air pressure are being kept up by an equal 
 amount of steam pressure. As it takes coal to 
 make steam, air leakage means a waste of coal. 
 Keep apparatus on your engine tight, and insist 
 on trainmen doing their part.
 
 OF THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER. 149 
 
 •'Twenty-sixth. Dont try to put more coal on 
 tank than will lay on it securely. All coal 
 dropped off by overloading is wasted. Also keep 
 coal from falling out of gangway when running. 
 This may be only a little each day, but it all 
 counts against your coal records besides it looks 
 badly when strewn along the tracks. You can 
 not save coal by the ton ; it must be in pounds, 
 which in time makes tons. 
 
 "Twenty-seventh. DonH forget to make an in- 
 telligent report on your work slip on arrival at 
 Round House. Consult your fireman in regard 
 to any defect that has come to his notice, es- 
 pecially with grates, dampers or firing tools. 
 
 "Twenty-eights. DonH neglect reporting the 
 pop valves ground in when leaking or when they 
 blow back eight or ten pounds before seating. 
 Also report leaky piston rod and valve stem pack- 
 ings, or if cylinder packing or valves are blow- 
 ing. All these leaks draw on the coal pile un- 
 necessarily ; it takes coal to generate the wasted 
 steam. This also applies to leaky steam heat 
 appliances, cylinder cocks, etc. 
 
 "Twenty-ninth. DonH neglect looking at coal 
 report each month to see how you stand in re- 
 lation to others in same service with whom you 
 are comparable. The other crews get the same 
 pay you do, and it should be your aim to be as 
 economical with both fuel and supplies as they 
 are, other things being equal. Keep posted and 
 be with the average. It will be to your credit 
 and interest some time ; therefore aim to be at 
 the top.
 
 150 DUTIES AND RESPONSIBTLITIES. 
 
 "Thirtieth. Don't think when coal report 
 shows you using only two pounds more per 100 
 ton mile than other crews in same service, it is 
 close enough. This means two pounds more 
 used for every mile you hauled 100 tons — or an- 
 other way, two pounds for every 100 tons hauled 
 one mile. Figure this up and you will tind in 
 hauling 1,000 tons 100 miles, a difference of 2,000 
 pounds or one ton. This method of showing up 
 the individual record is more equitable to all 
 than on basis of mile run per ton of coal. 
 
 "Thirty-first. Don't think, after reading over 
 this chapter of ''' DonHs^^ you should save coal to 
 the detriment of the service. The actual amount 
 required to make up time, keep on time, or handle 
 tonnage, is not what we are trying to save ; it is 
 the waste."* 
 
 *H. Quayle.
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE LOCOMOTIVE SUPERHEATER. 
 
 In the progress made, looking toward a more 
 complete utilization of steam in tlie locomotive, 
 the line along which developments were made for 
 many years was that of compounding the cylinders 
 and thus expanding the steam in two stages in- 
 stead of one. In recent times, however, exhaus- 
 tive tests have been made both abroad and in this 
 country with what is known as the "superheater," 
 which is an attachment to the locomotive designed 
 primarily to reduce cylinder condensation by 
 superheating the steam. It is claimed that this 
 superheating results in economy of water con- 
 sumption and also economy of fuel. Superheated 
 steam also affects an economy by reason of its 
 increased volume. Speculation has been made as 
 to which development — Compound Cylinders or 
 the Superheater — will prove to add most largely 
 toward locomotive capacity. Possibly a combina- 
 tion of the two may some day be effected with 
 advantage. 
 
 The advantages of high degree superheating as 
 applied to simple engines at the present time has 
 passed the experimental stage, and has now been 
 adopted as standard by some of the largest rail- 
 roads in this country and abroad. It is, therefore, 
 safe to say that highly superheated steam is recog- 
 nized by a steadily increasing number of railroad 
 men as being of the greatest practical value. 
 
 The theory of superheating contains several 
 
 (151)
 
 152 SUPERHEATER 
 
 important points, and witliont .^oing into the realm 
 of tlierniod3'namic's, we are able^to explain the 
 advantages which are claimed for superheated 
 steam. In the first place, superheated steam con- 
 tains a greater amount of energy per pound than 
 dry, saturated steam, if both are at the same pres- 
 sure. This increased energy in the form of stored 
 heat units enables the superheated steam to do 
 ■more work in the cylinder than saturated steam 
 could do, if both were exhausted at the same 
 pressure. 
 
 The reason for this is that dry, saturated steam 
 is always on the point of giving up some of its 
 heat and turning into water. Such a loss not only 
 reduces the volume and pressure in the cylinder,"' 
 but it gives up the store of latent heat contained 
 in the particles of steam which are thus turned to 
 water, and as the latent heat is a large percentage 
 of the total heat required to produce saturated 
 steam, for instance — at atmospheric pressure 
 965.8 heat units as compared with 1146.6 heat units 
 totally, it is evident that the loss owing to conden- 
 sation is very considerable. If now, by super- 
 heating, we give to the steam, which is so ready to 
 fall back into the form of water, a temperature 
 greater than that due to its pressure, condensation 
 will not take place until the superheated steam has 
 given up the whole of the heat represented by this 
 extra temperature. There is, of course, a reduc- 
 tion in temperature when superheated steam 
 strikes the comparatively cold walls of a cylinder, 
 but there is no condensation. This is practically 
 the principle upon which the value of superheating 
 depends. 
 
 The increase of temperature in superheated 
 steam augments its volume and all the moisture
 
 superheat'er 
 
 153 
 
 which is sure to be contained in saturated steam 
 and any particles of water which may have been 
 entrained as the steam entered the throttle valve, 
 are evaporated, and thus the action of the steam 
 in the cylinders, that is, its expansion, nearly fol- 
 lows the laws which apply to a perfect gas. 
 
 A satisfactory reduction in the amount of water 
 consumed is claimed when superheating is carried 
 out. This amounts to from about 15 to 35 per 
 cent for superheated steam receiving 150 to 250 
 degrees Fahrenheit of superheat. A reduction of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 ■---. 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 BOIL 
 
 Lf?PI 
 
 'ESS 
 
 ;re=i 
 
 iO* 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 DEG 
 
 ?EE( 
 
 iFSL 
 
 PERf 
 
 lEAT 
 
 F' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ** 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 
 FIG. I 
 
 the fuel used is also one of the advantages of 
 superheating, which follows from the fact that 
 less water has to be evaporated to do a given 
 amount of work. 
 
 Figure 1 illustrates very clearly the advantages 
 of high degree superheating as compared "with the 
 use of moderate degrees of superheat. The curve 
 which has been reproduced from the paper entitled 
 ^'Locomotive Performance Under Different De- 
 grees of Superheat," and was presented before 
 the American Railway Master Mechanics' Associ-
 
 154 
 
 SUPERHEATER 
 
 ation in 1910 by Professors Benjamin and Ends- 
 ley, shows that the saving in fuel increases at a 
 higher rate than the amount of superheat; for 
 example, with saturated steam, 'SV2 pounds of coal 
 were required to develop one horse power hour; 
 with 80 degrees of superheat, the quantity of coal 
 required was 3.4 pounds. This represents an 
 
 Fig. lA. Schmidt Superheater with Outside Steam Pipes. 
 
 economy of 2.8 per cent. With just the double 
 amount of superheat, that is, 160 degrees, the coal 
 consumption was reduced to three pounds, which 
 meant a sa^dng of 14.8 per cent; in other words, 
 doubling the amount of superheat resulted in five- 
 fold increase in economy. In the paper presented
 
 SUPERHEATER 155 
 
 by Professor Bndsley during the 1911 convention 
 of the American Railway Master Mechanics' 
 Association, the economies obtained with steam 
 ha\dng more than 160 degrees of superheat were 
 brought forth and practically confirmed the dia- 
 gram given in Fig. 1. It was shown that with 240 
 degrees of superheat the economy was approxi- 
 mately 32 per cent ; thus, when compared with the 
 economy at 80 degrees of superheat, we find that 
 by increasing the superheat three times that we 
 increased the percentage economy about 9 4-10 
 times. No better illustration of the advantages of 
 highly superheated steam from a practical stand- 
 point can be given. 
 
 A lower boiler pressure can be used with super- 
 heated steam and the cost of boiler maintenance 
 is thereby reduced, keeping the engine less time 
 out of service, owing to fewer boiler troubles. A 
 part of the heat of the flue gases, which would 
 otherwise be wasted, is taken advantage of and 
 applied in the interests of economy to the steam 
 as it circulates through the pipes and flues of the 
 superheater. 
 
 There are several types of the Fire Tube Super- 
 heater now in use which differ principally in the 
 arrangement and location of the header castings. 
 
 SCHMIDT, TOP HEADER, SUPERHEATER. 
 
 On referring to Fig. 2 it will be seen that the superheater 
 proper consists of a number of superheater units, each unit being 
 ■made up of four pieces of seamless steel tubing about lYz inches 
 O. D., and all of which are located in the upper portion of the 
 boiler, having their back end swaged down to 4^4 inches 0. D. to 
 secure better circulation of water next to the tube sheet. The seam- 
 less steel tubes are connected by cast steel return bends to form a 
 continuous tube, as shown in Fig. 4. To ensure the proper flow 
 of steam through these units, the special Superheater Header, 
 shown in Fig. 5, is provided, which takes the place of the ordinary 
 "' Tee " or " Nigger ' ' Head.
 
 156 
 
 SUPERHEATER
 
 SUPERHEATER 
 
 157
 
 158 SUPERHEATER 
 
 This header is so designed with internal walls that the steam 
 entering it from the drypipe must pass through the passages 
 marked "W" to the tubes of the superheater units where it is 
 superheated. On leaving the units, the superheated steam is 
 returned to the header, on the opposite side of the partition walls, 
 to the passages marked "S, " connecting it with the steam pipes 
 and steam chests. 
 
 The direction of the steam flow in a superheater locomotive 
 is indicated by arrows in the drypipe, header, superheater units 
 and steam pipes of Figs. 2 and 3 and in the header, Fig. 5. 
 
 The Ball Joint Connection between the superheater unit and 
 the lower face of the header is made with a single bolt centrally 
 located, as shown on Figs. 2, 3 and 4. In making these ball joints, 
 the ends of the superheater tubes are machined, and the bored 
 collars which form the ball joints driven out. They are then 
 welded and turned to their spherical form. The ball joints and 
 their seats in header are ground steam tight. 
 
 To protect the ends of the superheater tubes next to the fire 
 against overheating when there is no steam flowing through them, 
 especially when the blower is on, it is necessary to stop the flow 
 of hot gas through the large flues. This result is secured by 
 separating the front end of the superheater units from the rest 
 of the smoke box by means of a vertical partition plate located 
 just in front of the superheated body, extending across the smoke 
 box and from the top of the smoke Idox down to the back edge of 
 the table plate. From the bottom edge of this partition a horizontal 
 plate, reaching across the smoke box, extends back to the tube- 
 sheet just below the large flues. 
 
 This horizontal plate contains an opening which is closed by 
 the superheater damper, Fig. 6. 
 
 The vertical partition is so designed that the portion between 
 the header and table plate consists of three or four plates. These 
 plates are equipped with handles, and by raising them slightly 
 they may be removed and thus permit free access to the super- 
 heater units and header. Hand holes are also provided in the sides 
 of smoke box for inspection of superheater parts from the outside 
 without opening the smoke box door. 
 
 The superheated damper is held open by pressure of steam from 
 the steam chest acting on the piston in the damper cylinder, and 
 permits hot gases to flow through the superheater flues. It is 
 closed by a weight or a spring as soon as the steam is out of the 
 steam chest, and stops the flow of hot gases through the large 
 flues. 
 
 On opening the throttle, the steam passes through the dry- 
 pipe and, on reaching the header, is forced through the passage 
 "W" to the various units forming the superheater. On leaving 
 the superheater units the steam is delivered to the passages "S," 
 from which it passes to the steam pipes and steam chests. On 
 reaching the steam chests, it passes automatically to the super-
 
 SUPERHEATER 
 
 159 
 
 heater damper cylinder through the connecting pipe. The steam 
 pressure acting on the piston of the superheater damper cylinder 
 opens the damper, and this permits the free flow of hot gases 
 from the fire to the smoke box through the large boiler flues which 
 contain the superheater tubes. 
 
 A part of the heat of the gases flowing through the large flues 
 is absorbed by the surrounding water. Another portion is absorbed 
 by the tubes of the superheater units and transmitted by them to 
 the steam passing through them and superheating it. 
 
 In order that the gases with the cinders which they carry with 
 them may meet with the minimum of obstruction in their flow 
 through the large flues, the return bends of the superheater units 
 are provided with lugs which raise the tubes of the superheater 
 units from the bottom of the flues and permit a practically free 
 and unobstructed flow of the gases under and between the tubes 
 forming the unit. 
 
 On closing of the throttle the steam passes from the steam chest 
 and at the same time from the superheater damper cylinder through 
 
 Fig. 4. Schmidt Superheater Unit. 
 
 the pipe connections, allowing the weight on the damper shaft arm 
 to automatically close the damper, thus stopping the flow of hot 
 gases through the large flues when there is no steam passing 
 through the superheater imits. 
 
 Under certain conditions of service, such as switching, etc., 
 where service is intermittent, another form of the automatic acting 
 superheater damper cylinder is sometimes used. This form permits 
 the superheater damper to remain open at all times except when 
 the blower is on, when it is closed by steam from the blower pipe. 
 
 The amount or degree of superheat is the increase of the final 
 temperature of the steam leaving the superheater over that of the 
 steam and water in the boiler. For example, steam at 200 pounds 
 gauge pressure has a temperature of 387.5 degrees F. on entering 
 the drypipe. On leaving the superheater suppose it has a temper- 
 ature of 600 degrees F. In that case it has been superheated in
 
 160 
 
 SUPERHEATER 
 
 its passngp through the superheater by an amount equal to the 
 diflference of GOO and 387y2, i. e., 212% degrees F. 
 
 To secure the best results the quantity of heat absorbed by 
 the superheater units should be suthcient to superheat tlie steam 
 to an average temperature of 600 degrees F. 
 
 For cleaning the flues the use of air of at least 100 pounds 
 pressure should be used. It should be applied through a %-inch 
 gas pipe, which is inserted at the back end of the flue and gradu- 
 ally worked forward under the superheater unit, blowing the dirt 
 out of the front end of the flue. The use of air for blowing out 
 the boiler flues is recommended in preference to steam or water. 
 
 In case steam is used instead of air for blowing out the flues, 
 the boiler should be under steam to avoid the condensation of 
 water in the flue, as it would be liable to mix with the ashes, etc., 
 and form a coating on the inside of the large flues. The super- 
 heater damper should be open in all cases while cleaning the 
 flues. 
 
 The superheater units and header are in the top portion of 
 the boiler, symmetrically located, and will not interfere with work 
 in the smoke box. 
 
 0-0 
 
 Fig. 5. Schmidt Superheater Header. 
 
 The design of the unit and arrangement of the front end 
 presents the least obstruction to the free flow of gas from the 
 fire through the smoke box to the stack. 
 
 The design permits the use of external steam pipe conrieetions 
 to the cylinders, and this reduces the obstruction offered by the 
 ordinary type of saturated engines. 
 
 When necessary to remove the small flues in the bottom portion
 
 SUPERHEATER 
 
 161 
 
 of the boiler, they may be taken out ■without removing the 
 superheater parts. 
 
 No extra joints are required in the steam pipes and the existing 
 joints are rendered more accessible than on a saturated engine. 
 
 Each individual unit can be disconnected from the header by 
 loosening a single bolt. 
 
 The joint between the unit and header is the ball joint, which 
 permits easy removal and replacement of units. 
 
 The minimum number of shapes of superheater tubes is re- 
 quired, as every unit in each horizontal row is exactly alike. 
 
 The usual stresses in the cylinder casting, due to difference in 
 temperature between the live and exhaust passages, are reduced 
 through the use of external steam pipe connections, which remove 
 the hot steam from the saddle. 
 
 /Da/»\p<-/v- CLO^tp 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 - " II 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1] 
 
 
 tt 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 . 
 
 ^^Q^ 
 
 i 
 
 i... 
 
 
 i ' ^^^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 ^\^ 
 
 \rn 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 vU'l 
 
 \ CONKECTIONTO 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 % 
 
 \^ STtAM CrtEsr 
 
 ■£3^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^-#^ 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 tt^ 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 ^-i^^UW 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Da-npCR Ope 1^ 
 
 Fig. 6. Schmidt Superlieater Damper. 
 
 Inspection of the superheater tubes and joints, boiler flues 
 and front tube sheet, which can be made without removal of any 
 of the superheater parts, should cover examination for air and 
 steam leaks in front end, for any accumulation of cinders and 
 ashes or deposits on return bends in boiler flues. 
 
 All air and steam leaks should be stopped. In the case of 
 steam leaks between the header and the superheater units, joints 
 should be immediately tightened, if necessary regrinding ball 
 joints or applying a new gasket to flat joints. In case a new
 
 162 SUPERHEATER 
 
 gasket is applied the joint should be tightened again after the 
 gasket has \)von uiulor steam lieat the first time. 
 
 Suital)le handhoios are ])rovided in the sides of the smoke 
 box so that the superlieater can be inspected by means of an 
 electric Hash lifjht witliout opening the smoke box door. 
 
 Tiie lines can be easily inspected from the front while a light 
 is held at tlie firebox end. 
 
 At regular intervals the boiler flues should be blown out the 
 same as the boiler tubes are blown out, and thoroughly cleaned of 
 all ashes, cinders and soot. At the same time any deposit which 
 may have accumulated on the return bends nearest the firebox 
 should be broken off and removed. 
 
 Every two months the superheater, the steam and exhaust pipes 
 should be tested with warm water of about working pressure to 
 make sure that all joints, etc., are tight in front end. The return 
 bends at firebox end should be examined from firebox end at this 
 test. In setting the flues the prosser is used in preference to the 
 roller whenever possible in working over the superheater flues. 
 The prosser should not have less than twelve sections, and the 
 rollers not less than five rolls. Inserting plugs in the regular tubes 
 surrounding superheater flues when using roller has proved good 
 practice 
 
 The superheater damper and rigging should work freely, and 
 the damper should be wide open when the throttle is open and 
 there is steam in the damper cylinder. With no steam in the 
 damper cylinder the damper should be closed. 
 
 The damper should be closed when the blower is used for 
 firing up. 
 
 The piston rod extension should be inspected at regular inter- 
 vals, and have extension guide adjusted to maintain the piston 
 central in the cylinder. 
 
 \\Qien handling the engines about the engine house, yards, etc., 
 before the cylinders are warmed, the cylinder cocks should be 
 kept open until dry steam appears. 
 
 Operation. — The general oi)eration of the superheated steam 
 locomotive is the same as the ordinary saturated steam locomotive. 
 
 Cylinder cocks should be kept open when starting until dry 
 steam appears. 
 
 In starting, the reverse lever should be put in full gear to 
 insure oil distributing the full length of the valve bushing. 
 
 In general, superheated steam locomotives should be operated 
 •with full throttle and short cut off, when working conditions will 
 permit. 
 
 On account of the larger diameter of cylinders used in super- 
 heater engines, the throttle must be opened slowly and special 
 care taken to prevent slipping of the drivers. 
 
 The firing should be light and regular to produce as high a 
 flame temperature and as perfect combustion as possible in the 
 firebox.
 
 SUPERHEATER 163 
 
 A smoky fire has a lower flame temperature, reduces the degree 
 of superheat and uses more coal. 
 
 The engineer should know that the superheater damper is open 
 while using steam and closed when steam is shut off. 
 
 If the engine does not steam freely make sure that the super- 
 heater damper is open. 
 
 Leaks in the front end or superheater units, flues stopped up 
 and derangement of draft appliances not only affect the steaming 
 of the engine, but reduce the degree of superheat and should be 
 reported and corrected at once. 
 
 Blows in cylinder and valve packing should be reported and 
 receive proper attention, as they will cause scoring, due to removal 
 of oil from wearing surfaces. 
 
 Kepairing. — When the engine is in for general repairs the 
 superheater parts should be carefully cleaned, examined and all 
 defective parts should be repaired or replaced. 
 
 The superheater units should be painted with a thin coat of 
 hot tar as soon as cleaned to prevent rusting. 
 
 The ball joints should be reground and joint should show a good 
 continuous bearing all around the ball. 
 
 With the flat gasket type of joint between header and super- 
 heater units the flange on the unit should come up parallel to the 
 face of header so that the gasket has only to make the joint and 
 does not have to take care of any angle between the flange and 
 header. 
 
 In replacing the superheater units it is essential that they be 
 properly located in the top of the flue to prevent obstruction to 
 the flow of gases through the flue. 
 
 In locating the superheater header, its face for superheater 
 unit joints should be square with the tube sheet, parallel to the 
 top row of flues and the correct distance above them to insure 
 correct position of the superheater unit in the flue. It should be 
 firmly supported at the ends by Header, Supports securely fastened 
 to the sides of the smoke box. 
 
 The Joint Ring between the header and drypipe should have 
 a flat and ball face to permit free adjustment of the header. 
 
 On reassembling, the superheater should be subjected to same 
 water tests as boiler. 
 
 COLE, SIDE HEADER, SUPERHEATER. 
 
 The Cole Superheater shown in Fig. 7 differs from the Schmidt 
 in that headers are provided for each cylinder and located 
 at the side of the smoke box instead of at the top. The internal 
 construction of the headers is similar to that shown in Fig. 5. 
 With this design it is generally found necessary, in order to 
 secure the best results, to apply a cross-over pipe for the super- 
 heated steam between the two headers.
 
 164 
 
 SUPERHEATER
 
 SUPERHEATER 
 
 165
 
 166 
 
 SUPERHEATER 
 
 VAUGHAN-HORSEY, COMB HEADER, SUPERHEATER. 
 
 In the Vaughan-Horsey Superheater, shown in Fig. 8, the satu- 
 rated and superheated steam headers are completely separated, each 
 header having a main body extending transversely across the 
 front end. The upper, or saturated steam header, is connected to 
 the drypipe as usual, and has subheaders extending downward. 
 The header for superheated steam is located with its main body 
 down and subheaders extending upward provided at both ends 
 with flanges connecting with the steam pipes. 
 
 Fronl Vevi 
 
 Nantem Pxilic Fai/wat/. £mer6cr> Superheater. 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 SuperhKTted 
 Steam 
 
 LongirmJimi Section at Header, 
 
 The headers are located so that the subheaders extend past 
 each other alternately, and are in front of and between the lines 
 of the large flues. Into the front face of these subheaders, steel 
 fittings are screwed. The fittings have, as j-equired. two or four 
 openings to which the superheater units are attached. The joint 
 between the fitting and the superheater unit is formed by a copper 
 gasket, and nut locks are attached to prevent nuts working loose.
 
 SUPERHEATER 
 
 167
 
 168 SUPERHEATER 
 
 EMEESON SUPERHEATER. 
 
 The Emerson superheater (Figs. 9 and 10) is of the smoke-tube 
 type. It consists of a system of small return tubes arranged within 
 fire tubes of larger diameter. The large fire tubes are about 5 
 inches in diameter and are distributed over the entire flue-sheet 
 space. Each large tube contains four superheater pipes arranged 
 in the shape of an elongated coil made up by screwing into steel 
 return bends, forming a continuous double-looj)ed tube. The 
 front ends are fastened to headers by the usual method of expand- 
 ing with rollers, the roller in this case being inserted in a hole 
 at the front of the header, which is afterwards closed with a 
 screw plug. 
 
 The steam from the drypipe enters headers which, in general 
 form and position, are similar to the usual steam pipes. Each 
 header is divided vertically into compartments, forming the front 
 compartment for saturated steam and the rear compartment for 
 superheated steam. Hollow lugs are cast on either side of the 
 headers and the superheater tubes fastened to these. When the 
 throttle is opened steam enters the front header and passes through 
 the small tubes and return bends to the rear or superheated steam 
 header, and thence to the steam chests, 
 
 JACOBS SUPERHEATER. 
 
 The Jacobs superheater (Figs. 11. and 12) is of the smoke-box 
 fire tube type, and of such design that its application can be readily 
 made to locomotives of the usual type without radical changes to 
 the boiler or front end. The principal feature in its operation is 
 the utilization of waste heat in the combustion gases without a 
 sacrifice of effective heating surface in the boiler. 
 
 In its form and construction, the Jacobs superheater consists 
 of two steel drums, fitted with a series of horizontal fire tubes 
 between the heads and with steam pipe connections. The rear 
 drum is made oval in cross section to provide for passage of 
 drypipe extension to the front drum and is placed directly before 
 the front flue sheet of the boiler. The forward drum of the 
 superheater is circular in cross section and placed just ahead of 
 the exhaust pipe. For facilitating repair work on boiler tubes, 
 the rear drum is placed about 24 inches ahead of the front flue 
 sheet, and a manhole, provided in the bottom of the smoke-box, 
 gives access to a boilermaker. A 20-inch return flue in the front 
 drum and a 6-inch central flue in the rear drum are lined up so 
 that leaky or defective flues may be cut out of the boiler and 
 removed through the front end without the necessity of taking out 
 the superheaters. 
 
 The tubes in the rear drum of the superheater are inserted 
 without copper ferrules, then rolled and expanded, after which 
 they are welded at both ends. The tubes in the front drum are
 
 SUPERHEATER 
 
 169 
 
 Jacobs Smoke-Box Superheater.
 
 170 
 
 SUPERHEATER 
 
 Fig. 12. Jacobs Superheater Applied to Tandem Compound Engine.
 
 SUPERHEATER 171 
 
 rolled, expanded and beaded, similar to common practice with 
 boiler flues. The drums are held in place by Z-shaped brackets. 
 
 When the throttle is opened steam passes from the drypipe to 
 the rear head of the front superheater, where baffle plates of thin 
 steel are arranged to direct the steam in a somewhat spiral course 
 over all tlie tubes, thence to the rear superheater, which is arranged 
 with baffle plates similar to the front superheater, and out of the 
 drum through steam pipe connection to tlie steam chests. 
 
 In all types of Jacobs superheaters the flue gases pass from 
 the boiler flues through the tubes of the rear superheater. This is 
 accomplished by deflector plates placed around the back end of the 
 rear drum and front end of the forward drum of the superheater, 
 except for a space of 18 inches at the bottom. These plates 
 extend from the outer shell of the superheater drums to the smoke- 
 box shell. Upon leaving the rear drum the gases in the central 
 and top flues are deflected around the petticoat pipe and elbow, 
 which serves to connect the large cylindrical flue in the forward 
 drum to the petticoat pipe. The exhaust nozzle extends through 
 this elbow and the exhaust steam travels up and out of the stack 
 through the petticoat pipe without circulating through the smoke- 
 box or coming in contact with the superheater drums. After the 
 gases pass through the rear drum and are partially deflected as 
 above described, they travel forward through the tubes of the 
 front drum and are drawn back through central return flues in 
 the front drum to the petticoat pipe and out of the stack. 
 
 With this design of superheater any desired degree of super- 
 heat may be obtained by setting the front flue sheet back farther 
 in the boiler and utilizing this space for superheating surface.
 
 172 SUPERHEATER 
 
 FOSTER LOCOMOTIVE SUPERHEATER 
 
 Following the lines of simplicity generally found in Ameri- 
 can locomotive design, a new fire tube type of locomotive 
 superheater has been designed which eliminates a number of 
 the parts generally found in the designs now in use. It is so 
 arranged that any required number of double loop pipes may 
 be entered in the enlarged boiler flues set in a horizontal row 
 across the upper two-thirds of the boiler in accordance with 
 the practice which has developed the highest degree of super- 
 heat for the smallest amount of superheating surface. The 
 two ends of each individual unit are connected to a steel plate 
 header located near the top of the front end and integral with 
 the front tube sheet, by an expanded joint in the same way 
 that the boiler tubes are joined to the frcfht tube sheet. This 
 header has two compartments, one for saturated and the 
 other for superheated steam and one end of each unit connects 
 to each compartment. The entire superheater is encased in 
 a steel plate box provided with a damper in the bottom to 
 divert the gases from the superheater portion as desired. 
 
 The construction provides for a superheater which is 
 integral with the boiler, and is applied and maintained by 
 means common to boiler construction and may be properly 
 maintained by a class of labor skilled only in boiler work. 
 There are six features of special interest to be noted in this 
 construction. These are the use of a compact steel plate 
 header which does not require the use of stays; the connect- 
 ing of the ends of the unit pipe to the header by means of the 
 usual tube expanded joint; the substitution of welded returned 
 bends at the ends of the loops in the unit pipes for cast steel 
 return bends; the arrangement of units so that any one can 
 be removed without moving any other; the construction which 
 permits the removal of the dry pipe without disturbing the 
 superheater header or units, and the arrangement for tighten- 
 ing the unit pipes to the header without disturbing any of the 
 front end apparatus or appliances. 
 
 The header is of open hearth forged steel and is secured in 
 place on the front tube sheet in the location occupied by a
 
 SUPERHEATER 
 
 173
 
 174 SUPERHEATER 
 
 tee head in a saturated steam locomotive. It has a steam 
 tight connection at the end of the dry pipe as is shown in the 
 illustration. The plate dividing it in two compartments is 
 welded in place and contains an opening or manhole of a 
 size to permit the dry pipe to pass through it. This opening 
 is closed by a specially constructed diaphragm plug, which 
 can be removed when the cover plate has been taken off. 
 Steam pipes connect direct to the header and thus one less 
 ground joint is required in this construction than in a satu- 
 rated locomotive. The header being riveted to the tube -sheet 
 becomes a permanent part of it and can be left in its position 
 as long as the sheets last. The holes in the bottom of the 
 header for connection to the unit pipes are formed the same 
 as the boiler tube holes in the front tube sheet and the unit 
 pipes are connected to them in the same manner as 'boiler 
 tubes by means of a Prosser or roller expander. Beading, of 
 course, is not necessary, as there is but little tendency for 
 them to pull out and it is only necessary to make a steam 
 tight joint. There are hand holes in the upper part of each 
 of the compartments, that are closed by a special type of 
 hand hole plug which can be inserted from the outside and is 
 sealed by a copper gasket or ring. This type of plug has been 
 in successful use on superheaters in stationary practice for 
 many years. Above the whole header a section of the front 
 end sheet is cut out and fitted with a removable cover plate 
 which will give access to the top of the header from the out- 
 side of the locomotive. This direct accessibility reduces the 
 time required for inspection and tightening" element connec- 
 tions very greatly. 
 
 The method of inserting a unit is to remove one of the hand 
 holes from the openings directly opposite the tube joints. An 
 expanding tool can then be operated easily through the open- 
 ings in the top of the smoke box. A roller expander has proved 
 the best for this work. An air drill or hammer can then be used 
 on the outside and the joints properly made. 
 
 When it is necessary to remove a unit, either of two 
 methods can be used. A flue cutter can be inserted in the 
 same manner as the expander and the pipe is cut off even
 
 SUPERHEATER ^ 175 
 
 "With the joint, or a flue pusher can be used, pushing the flue 
 from the sheet. The ends, in the latter case, are swedged 
 down to a gauge below the size of the hole before being 
 replaced. 
 
 As will be seen in the illustration, the vertical sections of 
 each of the unit pipes at the front are offset to each side and 
 so arranged that it is possible to remove any unit independently 
 of the others. The elements are anchored in place by a simple 
 clamp and bolt which does not in any way interfere with the 
 removal of the individual element without loosening others. 
 If a unit is removed by cutting off, the slight loss in length is 
 made up by changing the position of one of the bends slightly. 
 The flue pusher method of removal, however, is to be pre- 
 ferred. 
 
 In place of using cast steel return bends with the unit 
 pipes screwed or welded in place, this design employs a 
 ■Relded joint between the two sections of pipes. This joint 
 is made by first bending the ends of the pipe to an angle of 
 about 45 degrees and then sawing them off on a line parallel 
 to the axis. These two parts are then brought together and 
 electrically welded. This construction is used at all of the 
 return bends. 
 
 The damper operating mechanism is of the customary 
 form which closes the damper by means of a counter weight 
 when the throttle is closed and opens it -only by steam pressure 
 on the opening of the throttle. 
 
 Removable plates are arranged in the front of the damper 
 box to facilitate cleaning and the removal or examination 
 of any of the connections.
 
 17C SUPERHEATER 
 
 PYROMETER FOR SUPERHEATER LOCOMOTIVES 
 
 DESCRIPTION AND INSTRUCTIONS FOR PYROMETER USED ON LOCO- 
 MOTIVES EQUIPPED WITH SUPERHEATERS 
 
 General. The electric pyrometer or temperature indica- 
 tor, as applied to superheater locomotives, is a device which 
 indicates the actual temperature of the steam in the steam 
 chest. The readings are in Fahrenheit degrees. The dial of 
 the indicator is graduated between the range of 250 degrees 
 and 750 degrees. Its purpose is to assist engineers and fire- 
 men to obtain the highest degree of efficiency in the operation 
 of their locomotives. A full description of the details, and 
 the way in which they are to be connected to each other, and 
 how they should be attached to the locomotive, is given below. 
 
 "When the engine is standing, or drifting, with the throttle 
 closed, the pointer of the instrument should be towards the 
 left hand side of the dial, reading between 350 degrees and 
 390 degrees, on engines operating with a boiler pressure of 
 200 pounds or less. As the engine starts to work steam the 
 pointer should move from left to right along the scale on 
 the indicator, showing an increased temperature in the steam 
 chest, as the engine is worked harder, until when working 
 under average conditions, it should register between 600 de- 
 grees and 650 degrees. 
 
 When the locomotive is working under these average con- 
 ditions, and a perceptible drop in the temperature is noted, 
 some of the following defects, either in the operation or the 
 condition of the locomotive may be looked for: 
 
 First: It may be that the water in the boiler is being 
 carried too high and that priming occurs (water carried over 
 into the superheater). The superheater then has to evaporate 
 this water, and the final temperature of the steam is reduced. 
 
 Second: The fire may not be in proper condition, due to 
 heavy firing or holes in the fire; either condition will reduce 
 the fire-box temperature and consequently the final tempera- 
 ture of the steam.
 
 SUPERHEATER 
 
 177
 
 178 SUPERHEATER 
 
 Third: A portion, or all, of the superheater flues may be 
 stopped up. 
 
 Fourth: Leaks in the front end will interfere with the 
 drafting of the locomotive and prevent the free passage of 
 gases through the large flues containing the superheater units, 
 thus preventing the proper temperature of the steam. (This 
 applies to the Schmidt type of fire tube superheater.) 
 
 Fifth: Failure of the damper to operate properly inter- 
 fei'es with the circulation of the gases through the flues and 
 results in a reduction of superheat. (This applies to the 
 Schmidt type of fire tube superheater.) 
 
 The first two of these conditions can be prevented by the 
 enginemen; the last three should be reported for attention at 
 the terminal. 
 
 With working pressure on the boiler and the cylinders com- 
 paratively cold (such as would be the case if the locomotive 
 had been standing for some time and the cylinders cooled be- 
 low the temperature of saturated steam) the pointer should 
 be at the extreme left end of the scale and show the lowest 
 reading. 
 
 In making a terminal start the pointer should move up 
 rapidly to the temperature of saturated steam corresponding 
 to the pressure carried (at 200 pounds boiler pressure the 
 reading should be 388 degrees). From this reading it should 
 move to the right less rapidly until the maximum tempera- 
 ture of from 600 degrees to 650 degrees is reached. It should 
 be borne in mind that the rapidity with which the tempera- 
 ture increases depends, to a great extent, upon the height of 
 the water in the boiler, and the condition of the fire. 
 
 If the instrument fails to operate in the manner indicated, 
 the tests described below should be applied. 
 
 Description. — The complete pyrometer consists of five 
 parts: 
 
 1. Indicator, located in the cab. 
 
 2. "Thirty-five-foot Lead" connecting indicator to satu- 
 rated steam fixture. 
 
 3. Saturated steam fixture, located in the boiler above the 
 ■water line.
 
 SUPERHEATER , 179 
 
 « 
 
 4. Twelve-foot Extension Piece, connecting saturated steam 
 fixture with superheated steam fixture. 
 
 5. Superheat Steam Fixture, located either in steam pipe 
 or steam chest. 
 
 Location. — The general arrangement of the pyrometer on 
 a locomotive is as follows: 
 
 1. Indicator should be firmly supported on the boiler, and 
 be in easy view of the engineer. It should be six inches or 
 more from the boiler. Less distance may result in inaccurate 
 reading of the indicator, due to the heat from the boiler. 
 
 2. The "Thirty-five-foot Lead" should be protected from 
 rough handling and firmly clamped in position. Usually this 
 may conveniently run along the hand rail. 
 
 3. The Saturated Steam Fixture should be screwed into 
 the boiler shell, so that the end of the thermo couple will pro- 
 ject into the steam space. 
 
 4. The Twelve-foot Extension Piece between the saturated 
 and superheated steam fixture, should be protected against 
 damage or rough handling, and firmly clamped in position. 
 
 5. Superheated steam fixture is to be screwed into the 
 steam chest (or steam pipe, if outside connected pipes are 
 used). When located in a horizontal position, it should be 
 firmly braced against vibration. 
 
 Installation — 1. The Indicator should be placed in a vertical 
 position, and attached to a rigid bracket. Three lugs on the 
 case are provided for this purpose. The bracket should be se- 
 curely attached to the boiler shell, and braced to prevent vibra- 
 tion. The sealing wire on the larger cover should not be broken. 
 If the indicator is damaged, or is not operative, when tested 
 out, one that is in proper working order should be applied 
 and the defective instrument returned to the manufacturers. 
 
 2. The Saturated Steam Fixture should be screwed steam 
 tight into the 114-inch pipe tap hole in the boiler shell by a 
 wrench applied to the hexagon G. The cap A then removed, 
 after taking out the locking screw B. The set screw H then 
 loosened and the casing T taken off. The hexagon nut J then 
 loosened, after which the block E may be rotated until the 
 arrow marked "CAB" points in the direction from the "35-
 
 180 SUPERHEATER 
 
 foot lead" (from the indicator) will enter the fixture. When 
 the block is properly located, tighten the nut J, care being 
 taken to prevent the block E from turning, while this is being 
 done. This casing T may then be replaced. In putting this 
 on, the opening in the side (which gives access to the hexagon 
 nut J) should be downward, so that water and dirt will not 
 collect in this space. The two holes in this casing, for the 
 lead and the extension piece, are the same size, so that no 
 difliculty will be experienced in connecting them, whether the 
 fixture be on the left or right hand side of the engine. The 
 set screw H should then be tightened. The space around the 
 block E should be packed with asbestos rope packing. After 
 the lead and extension piece have been connected (as de- 
 scribed below) the cap A should be replaced, and the locking 
 screw B inserted. (See Fig. 1.) 
 
 3. The Superheated Steam Fixture should then be applied 
 In the same general way, as the saturated steam fixture. The 
 opening in the casing T in this fixture should be turned so 
 that as much protection will be provided against the weather 
 as possible. 
 
 4. The "35-/oof Lead" from the indicator to the saturated 
 steam fixture protected by a %-inch metal armor, and at the 
 ends provided with brass ferrules marked "IND." at the end 
 connected to the indicator, and "SAT. END" at the end con- 
 nected to the saturated steam fixture. In connecting this lead 
 to the indicator, the cover of the terminal box M is removed, 
 the gland P unscrewed, and the packing in the stuffing box N 
 removed. The nuts and jam nuts from the binding posts K 
 and L should be removed, the socket wrench furnished with 
 the pyrometer being used for this purpose. The end D of 
 the lead should be slipped through the gland P and the stuffing 
 box N, into the terminal box M. The terminal marked + 
 should be put over the binding post marked in the same way. 
 The other end of the lead over the opposite binding post. The 
 + wire of the lead is indicated by a plus mark on the brass 
 ferrule near the end of the lead. The nuts and jam nuts on 
 the binding posts should then be put on and tightened securely. 
 The packing then inserted in the stuffing box N, and the gland 
 P screwed up tightly. The lock screw Z should then be tight-
 
 SUPERHEATER 181 
 
 ened securely, entering the hole in the ferrule D. Any strain 
 on the binding posts will be prevented, if the lead is pulled. 
 The cover on the terminal box is then to be replaced. To con- 
 nect the other end of the lead to the saturated steam fixture, 
 remove the nuts and jam nuts from binding posts Ri and R3. 
 Attach the ends of the lead, re-apply the nuts and jam nuts, 
 and tighten the set screw Cj into the hole in the ferrule Di, in 
 the same general way as described above for connecting the 
 lead to the indicator. 
 
 5. The Twelve-foot Extension Piece should then be con- 
 nected in the same manner to the binding posts R2 and R4 
 of the saturated steam fixture, and to R5 and Re of the super- 
 heated steam fixture. The ends of this extension piece are 
 marked "SAT. END" and "SUP. END," and should be con- 
 nected to the saturated and superheated steam fixtures re- 
 spectively. Be sure that ends of the extension (marked +) 
 are connected to the proper binding post. Care to be taken 
 that the set screv/s C. and C3 hold tfie ferrule firmly so as 
 to prevent any strain coming on the binding posts and the 
 connections. 
 
 6. Caps A of the saturated and superheated steam fix- 
 tures should then be replaced, and the locking screws B 
 tightened. 
 
 7. Under no circumstances should the length of the 35-ft. 
 lead or the 12-ft. extension piece be changed. No splices nor 
 joints to be made in these parts, as inaccuracy in readings 
 of the instrument may result. 
 
 8. See that the hexagon nuts J in both fixtures are tight 
 before steam pressure is applied. In tightening them see 
 that block E does not turn. 
 
 Adjustment: — 1. To adjust the indicator after the en- 
 tire apparatus has been assembled and connected properly as 
 described above, the short-circuiting screws U (on the ter- 
 minal box of the indicator) should be turned upward, until 
 they bear solidly against the binding posts K and L. This 
 cuts the indicator out of circuit. 
 
 (Note: Some of the first instruments made had a short- 
 circuiting device employing only one screw, and which oper-
 
 182 SUPERHEATER 
 
 ated in a manner opposite to the one described. Where such 
 instruments are found, it is necessary to turn down the short- 
 circuiting screw, in order to cut the indicator out of circuit.) 
 2. The pointer of the indicator should now stand at the 
 temperature of saturated steam at the working pressure of 
 the boiler. This will not be affected by the temperature of 
 the two thermo-couple ends, as they are not now in circuit 
 with the indicator. The following table gives pressures and 
 temperatures, through the range of ordinary locomotive prac- 
 tice: 
 
 Pressure 
 
 Temperature 
 
 Pressure 
 
 Temperature 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 170 
 
 375 
 
 195 
 
 386 
 
 175 
 
 378 
 
 200 
 
 388 
 
 180 
 
 380 
 
 205 
 
 390 
 
 185 
 
 382 
 
 210 
 
 392 
 
 190 
 
 384 
 
 215 
 
 394 
 
 If the indicator does not show the proper temperature 
 under these conditions, remove the cap screw O and, with a 
 screw driver, turn the adjusting screw V (Fig. 1) until the 
 pointer stands at the proper place. When the pointer is thus 
 set, the cap screw O should be replaced. Short circuiting 
 screws U should then be turned downward until they are 
 tight, thus placing the indicator in circuit. If working steam 
 pressure is, at this time, on the boiler, the pointer will move 
 BO as to indicate the temperature existing at the end of the 
 superheated steam fixture. If the pressure on the boiler is 
 below working pressure, or if no pressure at all exists, the 
 pointer may move either to the right or left, depending on the 
 temperature in the steam chest. 
 
 4. A sealing wire should then be run through the short 
 circuiting screws U, and the locking posts W. Sealing wire 
 should now be applied to the cap screw O, covering the adjust- 
 ing device. Sealing wire on the cover of the terminal box 
 M should be applied. Also to the locking screws B in the 
 saturated and superheated steam fixtures, as well as to the 
 locking screws H, holding the casing T. Sealing wires should 
 be run through set screws Cj, Cj, C3 and C4. 
 
 The pyrometer is now ready for service.
 
 SUPERHEATER 183 
 
 REMOVAL OF SATURATED OR SUPERHEATED STEAM FIXTURE 
 
 1. Remove locking screw B. 
 
 2. Remove cap A, 
 
 3. Remove jam nuts and nuts from binding posts. 
 
 4. Loosen set screws holding ferrule of the lead or ex- 
 tension piece, and withdraw the latter. 
 
 5. Loosen set screw H and remove the casing T. 
 
 6. Unscrew hexagon nut I, thus loosening thermo-couple 
 in the body G. The block E and the thermo-couple, as well as 
 the piece Ej and the protecting piece Ej, may then be removed 
 together. 
 
 7. The hexagon nut J may then be unscrewed from the 
 piece Ej. 
 
 8. To re-assemble the fixture proceed in the reverse order. 
 (Note: — Removal of the block E and the thermo-couple 
 
 from the hexagon piece G should only be made when leakage 
 has occurred and it is necessary to clean the ground seat be- 
 tween the piece G and the piece Ej. The hexagon nut I 
 tightens these two pieces. If well tightened when the fixture 
 is first applied, there will rarely be any cause for taking the 
 fixture apart.) 
 
 MAIXTEXAXCE AND OPEBIATIOX 
 
 1. The pyrometer should have attention similar to that 
 given to air and steam gauges. It should be tested by some 
 responsible man at frequent intervals, in order to find out if 
 correct readings are being shown. To determine this, all that 
 is necessary is to short-circuit the indicator, and note if the 
 pointer stands at the proper place. This can be done at any 
 time, either on the road or in the shop, and adjustment and 
 correction can be made if found necessary, without any delay 
 to the engine. 
 
 2. In testing the instrument by short-circuiting as referred 
 to, only the sealing wire on the short-circuiting screws U need 
 be broken. 
 
 3. If found necessary to adjust the pointer, remove the 
 cap screw O, and turn the adjusting screw V, until pointer 
 stands at the proper place. The cap screw O should then be 
 replaced, and the sealing wire put on.
 
 184 SUPERHEATER 
 
 4. If the apparatus is not in working order, tlie pointer 
 will not move when the engine is running under steam. If 
 this condition be found, the instrument should be reported 
 as "not working." To find the cause of this condition, careful 
 inspection of the binding posts should be made, to see that 
 the connections are not loose, and that the circuit is not broken 
 at any other point. Dirty or loose connections may sometimes 
 be found. Leaky fixtures permitting moisture to collect be- 
 tween the nut J and the block E will cause incorrect readings. 
 Careless application of lead and extension-piece may break 
 insulation on the wires and cause a short-circuit. 
 
 5. If the saturated or superheated steam fixture should 
 be found leaking around the hexagon nut J, this may be easily 
 tightened up by a wrench applied through the opening in the 
 casing T. In tightening the nut J, care should be taken to see 
 that the nut I does not turn; also in tightening the nut J care 
 should be taken to see that the block E does not turn. 
 
 6. If the indicator, the saturated, or the superheated steam 
 fixture i? found to be out of order, it should be replaced by 
 one which is in proper working condition, and the defective 
 piece reported to the manufacturers. No attempt should be 
 made to take apart or repair the indicator or thermo-couple 
 under any condition. 
 
 NAMES OF PARTS— FIG. 1 
 A— Cap. 
 
 B — Locking Screw. 
 C„ Cj, C3, C— Set Screw, 
 D, Dj, D2, D3 — Ferrule. 
 E— Block. 
 E, — Piece. 
 
 Ej — Protecting Piece. 
 G — Hexagon, or Body. 
 H— Set Screw. 
 I — Hexagon Nut. 
 J — Hexagon Nut. 
 K — Binding Post. 
 L — Binding Post. 
 M' — Terminal Box.
 
 SUPERHEATER 
 
 185
 
 riG-i
 
 SUPERHEATER 
 
 185 
 
 N— Stuffing Box. 
 
 O^Cap Screw. 
 
 P— Gland. 
 
 R, Ri, Ro, R3, R^, R5, Re— Binding Posts. 
 
 T— Casing. 
 
 U — Short Circuiting Screw. 
 
 V — Adjusting Screw. 
 
 W — Locking Post. 
 
 Z — Lock Screw. 
 
 ]\roDGE-SLATER IMPROVED SPARK ARRESTERS 
 
 The Kludge-Slater spark arrester is entirely new in the 
 art in several respects. This is particularly so in its re- 
 movable feature. In construction, it is an irregular box — the 
 top, bottom and back of which are of sheet steel, the sides 
 
 and front of perforated metal or netting; all assembled and 
 reinforced with angle irons. It has been called, on account 
 of this formation, the "Box Front End," and takes the place 
 of the netting in other types of front end arrangements.
 
 186 SUPERHEATER 
 
 The sheets forming the spark arrester are made to tem 
 plate and they are assembled complete in the shop before 
 being placed in the locomotive smoke box. All fitting in 
 forming the box can be accurately done and inspected, in- 
 suring against any opening larger than the mesh of the net- 
 ting (which has proven most difficult in the ordinary front 
 end -spark-arrester arrangement where the netting has to be 
 fitted to the curvature of the smoke box). It is then placed in 
 position, bolted at the top to the smoke stack or smoke stack 
 extension and at the bottom to the exhaust stand. Three angle 
 
 irons, supporting the box in place at the top, complete the 
 installation. The steam and the blower pipes do not enter the 
 box, so that no fitting is required after- the box is placed 
 in position. This does away with the most prevalent cause 
 of spark emission; namely, poorly fitted joints and warped 
 plates. 
 
 Where suits are brought against railway companies for 
 damages on account of fire — as is oftentimes done without 
 justification — it is a difficult matter to take the old-style net- 
 ting out of the locomotive and produce it in court in the con-
 
 SUPERHEATER 187 
 
 dition and form in which it performed its function in the 
 engine. It is well known that the removal of the ordinary 
 style of netting disarranges it so much, that the average jury- 
 man can hardly be convinced that while in place it was spark 
 proof. The Mudge-Slater spark arrester can be removed bodily 
 without disarranging or damaging a single part of it and thus 
 can be produced in court just as it was in the engine, so that 
 no question can be raised as to its previous condition. 
 
 It can clearly be seen that it is possible to inspect all 
 around the spark arrester without removing various plates, 
 nettings, etc. This results in a considerable saving of labor 
 and insures reliable and constant inspection. Any defective 
 or worn netting plates can be quickly removed and replaced 
 without damaging or destroying any other part of the box. 
 
 It is possible to open up the nozzle somewhat with this con- 
 struction, due to the fact that a larger netting area is obtained, 
 which tends toward a better draft. The increase in square 
 inches of netting area per flue with this arrangement, as com- 
 pared with the ordinary front end, is not in any case less than 
 ten per cent, and in some cases as high as twenty-five per 
 cent; furthermore, such enlargement of the exhaust nozzle 
 results directly in fuel economy.
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 VALVES AND VALVE GEARS. 
 
 The valve is the device which admits steam to, and 
 allows it to exhaust from the cyhnder of every steam 
 en2;ine. The form of ^•alve having; a flat seat upon 
 which it slides backward and forward is termed a 
 slide valve. The slide valve was used as a means 
 of distributing steam in a cylinder before the loco- 
 motive was invented, and has ever since been an im- 
 portant factor therein. * 
 
 Fig. a. 
 
 Graphic Definitions of Valve Dimensions. 
 
 Plain Slide Valve. 
 
 The plain slide valve was long the standard fo*- 
 locomoti\e practice, but in more recent years with thb 
 increased size of locomoti\es and their correspond- 
 ingly larger ports, together with the advent of the 
 
 *Other volumes of "The Science of Railways" contain manji 
 illustrations and much information relative to the distribu- 
 tion of steam by the slide valve. 
 
 (18S)
 
 VALVES 189 
 
 present era of high steam pressure, the friction be- 
 tween valve and valve seat became excessive. Thesa 
 strains must be borne by all parts of the valve gear, 
 which increased greatly the frictional resistances 
 therein, and also taxed to the limit the power of the 
 engineer in reversing the engine. Reversing cyHn- 
 ders were invented and applied to many locomotives, 
 to the relief of the engineer, but not in any way reduc- 
 ing the frictional resistance, which was a large por- 
 tion of the engine's entire power. 
 
 Finally it was found that by reUeving much of the 
 steam pressure from the top of the valve — that is, 
 partially balancing it— the friction could be greatly 
 reduced. Of the many means devised to balance the 
 slide valve but few have attained that point of use- 
 fulness to merit special description herein, but those 
 widely used throughout the country are here given. 
 
 The engraving given of the plain shde valve 
 (Fig. A) gives graphic definitions of the various 
 valve dimensions as they are technically known. 
 
 In order that the meanings of the various terms 
 used in connection with valves and their gears 
 may be understood, the following definitions and 
 explanations are given : 
 
 Lap is that portion of the valve which over- 
 laps the steam ports when the valve is in its mid- 
 position. The lap on the edge of the valve which 
 admits steam to the cylinder, is called "steam 
 lap" and that on the edge which allows the steam 
 to escape from the cylinder to the exhaust passage 
 is called ''exhaust lap." For some classes of 
 service this exhaust lap is made a negative quan- 
 tity and .becomes "exhaust clearance,"' or as mere 
 
 Cut-off is the cutting off of the supply of live
 
 190 VALVES 
 
 steam, or steam in the steam chest, from the cylin- 
 der before the piston has completed its stroke and 
 thus making use of the expansive force of the 
 steam. 
 
 Release is the opening of the exhaust port to the 
 cylinder through the exhaust-arch of the valve 
 and allowing the expanded steam to escape to the 
 atmosphere. 
 
 Expansion is the expanding of the steam in the 
 cylinder from a small volume at a high pressure 
 to a large volume at a low pressure. The period 
 of expansion extends from "cut-off" to "re- 
 lease." The amount of expansion is regulated 
 by the steam and exhaust lap used on the valve. 
 
 Point of compression is the stopping of the 
 escape of the exhaust steam before the piston has 
 reached the end of its stroke. 
 
 Compression is the compressing of the entrap- 
 ped exhaust steam at tlie point of compression by 
 the piston as it advances in its stroke. It con- 
 tinues either up to the end of the stroke or to the 
 point of "pre-admission." 
 
 ,» Back pressure is the pressure exerted ^y the 
 steam against the piston while the exhaust port is 
 open after the piston has commenced its return 
 stroke. 
 
 Admission is the admitting of steam into the 
 cylinder. This point is either at the beginning of 
 the stroke or slightly before. If before, it is cal- 
 led "pre-admission." 
 
 Lead is the amount or width of opening of the 
 steam port -for the admission of steam to the cyl- 
 inder that the valve setting gives when the pis- 
 ton is at the beginning of its stroke. The effect 
 of lead is to permit an earlier cut-off, to increase
 
 VALVES 191 
 
 compregsion and to spcure as nearly full steam 
 chest pressure as possible in the cylinder up to 
 the point of cut-off, by giving a large port open- 
 ing as the jiiston commences its stroke. 
 
 Travel is the distance that the valve itself 
 travels. Over-travel is the distance that the 
 steam edge of the valve travels after the steam 
 port is wide open. 
 
 Seal is the overlapping of the steam edges of 
 the valve to prevent leaking. 
 
 Clearance is the volume of the space between 
 the piston and the valve, when the piston is at the 
 end of its stroke. 
 
 With no outside or steam lap, there would be no 
 expansion, and with no inside or exhaust lap, the 
 (jompression and release would both occur at the 
 jsame time. Outside lap delays the admission of 
 steam and hastens the cut-off, consequently allow- 
 ing greater expansion. Inside lap hastens com- 
 pression and prolongs the expansion by delaying 
 the point of exhaust. Inside clearance, on the con- 
 trary, will delay the compression and hasten the 
 release of the exhaust. 
 
 THE RICHARDSON BALANCED SLIDE VALVE. 
 
 Referring to the illustrations, Figs. 1 and 2 are 
 longitudinal and transverse sections through the 
 centre of an ordinary locomotive steam-chest fitted 
 with this valve. Fi"-. 3 is a plan of the valve, and 
 Fig. 4 is an elevation of one of the end Dacking strips 
 and springs. The only alteration made in the plain 
 valve is the addition of the balance plate (A), and the 
 substitution of a valve suited to receive the four 
 packing strips {p, p, p, p.) 
 
 In these engravings the balance plate is shown 
 bolted to the steam-chest cover, but itis obvious that
 
 132 
 
 VALVES 
 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Richardson Balanced Slide Valve. 
 
 Longitudinal Section. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 Richardson Balanced Slide Valve. 
 
 Transverse Section. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 Plan. 
 
 Richardson Balanced Slide Valve. 
 
 Fie. 4. 
 
 Elevation of End 
 Packing Strips 
 and Springs.
 
 VALVES 193 
 
 they may be cast in one piece if desired. As will 
 be noticed, the four sections of packing enclose a 
 rectangular space {ss, Fig. 3), which is made equal 
 in area to the amount of valve surface which it is 
 desirable to relieve of pressure ; the packing strips 
 preventing steam from entering this space and its 
 communication with the exhaust port in the valve, 
 through the small hole (h), relieving it from any 
 - pressure that might otherwise accumulate. These 
 packing strips, four in number, as previously 
 noticed, are : the two longer ones, plain, rectangu- 
 lar pieces of cast iron, while the shorter ones, as 
 shown in Fig. 4, are made with gib-shaped ends to 
 retain them in place. 
 
 Under each packing strip is placed a light semi- 
 elliptic spring — one of which is shown at m, Fig. 
 4 — which serves the purpose of holding the pack- 
 ing strips against the balance plate when steam is 
 shut off. While in operation, the different sections 
 are held in steam tight contact, by direct steam 
 pressure, with the balance plate and with the inner 
 surface of the grooves cut to receive them, the 
 joint being made complete by the abutting of the 
 ends of the long sections against the inner sur- 
 faces of the gibbed sections at the four corners. 
 
 The Richardson form of balanced valve is used 
 more extensively than any other balanced valve 
 in the country, 
 
 THE ALLEN-RICIIARDSON BALANCED 
 SLIDE VALVE. 
 
 The purpose of the Allen valve is to prevent, in 
 part, wire-drawing of steam when running at high 
 speed with the valve cutting off early in the stroke.
 
 194 
 
 VALVES 
 
 The Allen ports furnish an additional passage for 
 the admission of steam at such times; thus, when 
 the steam port is open one-half inch in the ordi- 
 nary manner, the port of the cored passage is also 
 
 rrri 
 
 ._.rrT! 
 
 Fig. 
 
 Allen-Richardson Balanced Slide Valve. 
 Longitudinal Section. 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 Allcn-Richardson Balanced Slide Valve. 
 
 Transverse Section. 
 
 open to the same extent on the other side of the 
 valve and consequently the effective area of the 
 steam port is doubled and becomes equal to a 
 single port open of one inch.
 
 VALTES 195 
 
 The wire-drawing which takes place when an 
 engine is running at high speed with the valve cutting 
 off early in the stroke is thus much diminished and 
 the consequent economy of steam and coal is obvious. 
 The lessened wire drawing implies a higher average 
 pressure on the piston when working at the same 
 cut-off and, therefore, the usual average pressure can 
 be obtained with a shorter cut-off, thus effecting an 
 appreciable economy. Hence the unbalanced Allen 
 valve effects a better and more economical distribu- 
 tion of steam; but its use is attended with certain 
 disadvantages. The bearing surface on the face of a 
 slide-valve is never sufficiently large to enable it to 
 wear well under the heavy pressure of steam, and this 
 wearing surface is still further reduced in the Allen 
 valve, owing to the internal steam-ports. The 
 internal passage virtually divides the valve into two 
 parts and the pressure of steam acting on the outer 
 part springs and bends its working face below that of 
 the internal or exhaust part of the valve. The useful 
 wearing face thus becomes reduced to a space about 
 half as wide as the outside lap of the valve. It is, 
 therefore, not surprising that the Allen vahe when 
 unbalanced wears very rapidly and the trouble and 
 expense of constantly facing valves and seats and the 
 loss of steam in blowing through leaky valves, coun- 
 terbalances the advantages gained by the diminished 
 amount of wire-drawing. These disadvantages are 
 entirely overcome by properly balancing the valve, 
 and then are gained, not only all the advantages of 
 the Richardson balancing device, but also the 
 increased steam economy from using the Allen ports. 
 
 To be sure of getting the very best results from the
 
 ,196 
 
 VALVES 
 
 use of the balanced Allen valve, the ports and bridges 
 should exceed the full travel of the valve b\- at least 
 one-eighth of an inch. The radius of the hnk should 
 al\va\s be as long as permissible, to avoid an exces- 
 sive increase of lead when cutting off early in the 
 stroke. 
 
 THE AMERICAN BALANCED VALVE. 
 
 Two forms of this valve are illustrated, together 
 with a longitudinal sectional view of the valve in the 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 The American Balance Valve. 
 
 Single Disc Longitudinal Section. 
 
 steam chest. Experience proves this balance to be 
 a very successful form of balance valves. This is 
 due to the simplicity of construction, positive action 
 and very large area of balance. The beveled ring 
 is self-adjusting — no springs being required — hence 
 not liable to get out of order. 
 
 This form of balance may be applied to almost 
 every form of slide valve. 
 
 The American balance valve is used by a great 
 many railroads in this country, consequently details 
 of its construction are here given, beheving they will
 
 VALVES 197 
 
 be interesting to a large number of railroad men. It 
 has also attracted the attention of foreign builders 
 and is now in use upon many locomotives in foreign 
 countries. 
 
 The claims of advantage for this valve are, first of 
 all, an absolutely steam-tight joint, not only when 
 newly fitted, but all the time. Second, greater area of 
 balance. The formula for figuring the area of bal- 
 ance differs from many others, and yet this valve will 
 not raise from its seat under all ordinary conditions 
 of service. It should be explained that this valve is 
 balanced in what is presumably its heaviest position, 
 and with the steam pressure acting on the circumfer- 
 ence of this taper ring, it will be observed that for the 
 valve to lift it is necessary to force the cone up into 
 this taper ring; and since the ring is held by the steam 
 chest pressure from opening, the valve cannot lift 
 without first overcoming the friction of the beveled 
 face, besides opening the ring against the steam chest 
 pressure. The lighter positions of the valve, where a 
 straight wall balance would allow the valve to go off 
 its seat, need not be considered. It should not, how- 
 ever, be assumed that this taper will crowd the valve 
 down on its seat, which would appear to be a natural 
 conclusion to draw, from its manner of preventing the 
 valve from leaving its seat. If the degree of taper 
 was made great enough — forty-five degrees or greater 
 — the action of the steam chest pressure on the cir- 
 cumference of the ring would, of course, wedge it in 
 between the cone and the chest cover and exert an 
 enormous pressure on the valve. In fact it would not 
 work satisfactorily at all; the friction would be too 
 great This, however, is not the case. Experiments
 
 198 VALVES 
 
 have been made with this taper from nine degreas to 
 twenty-four dep;re(\s, and the i)ropcr degree of taper 
 has been found with wliich the ring is certain to rise 
 under all conditions, and yet not crowd itself against 
 the ui)i)er bearing more than necessary. This is 
 demonstrated b\' the fact that rings have been reported 
 to have run 190,000 miles with only one thirty-second 
 of an inch wear off their face. 
 
 This form of balance is extremely simple, has no 
 delicate parts, is little likely to be broken, has positive 
 automatic adjustment, self-sui)i)orting feature of the 
 ring, and entire absence of springs. Its cost of con- 
 I struction is low, and it can be maintained at small 
 expense. It might be stated in explanation of this, 
 that the only repair necessary is to put on a new ring 
 when the old one has worn out from the top down- 
 ward. As the new rings are one inch deep they can 
 easily wear three-eighths of an inch and still adjust 
 themselves; and to wear a ring three-eighths of an 
 inch, assuming that it is made of proper metal, will, it 
 is claimed, require from four to eight years in con- 
 tinual service. When the old ring is taken off the 
 cone and a new one from stock placed on the old cone, 
 the balance is just the same as when all is new. This 
 is explained by the fact that since the steam pressure 
 on the circumference of the ring holds it firmly against 
 the beveled face of the disc or cone while in operation 
 under steam (its own tension holding it when not 
 under steam), there is absolutely no lateral wear on 
 the ring or disc; hence, a new ring fits an old disc at 
 any future time. 
 
 Since these rings are all lathe work (it does not 
 require more than twenty minutes' hand work to fasten
 
 YALVES 199 
 
 OR the L-shaped piece for covering the cut of the ring) , 
 it will, therefore, readily be seen that the expense in 
 taking a stock ring aiid renewing the balance is small. 
 It would appear that the disadvantages^ of other 
 valves are removed in this valve by the taper f eatureof 
 the ring. A variation of one-thirty-second of an inch 
 in the diameter of a ring either way from the sizes 
 
 Fir,. 2. 
 Single Disc American Balance Valve. 
 
 required would not in any wise interfere with the serv- 
 ice of the valve, since +he ring is turned one-fourth of 
 an inch smaller than its. worldng diameter. 
 
 The ring is expanded over the cone and thus 
 ^ecei^"es a tension which makes it self-supporting 
 when not under steam; the steam on its circumference 
 supports it when in operation. The outside rim or
 
 200 YALVE8 
 
 flange, as shown, extending outside the taper ring, is 
 to prevent pieces of the ring from falling in the path of 
 the valve in the event of accident to the ring. 
 
 Several forms of this balance are used, the simple 
 disc (Figs. 1 and 2) and the double disc (Fig. 3) being 
 more fully described. 
 
 Single "Disc" American Balanced Valve. — ^The> 
 single disc balance should always be used where chest 
 room will permit it, as one ring and disc is simpler 
 than two, but it will be noticed that in this form the 
 ring and cone extend beyond the sides of the valve. 
 
 R2ile. — For length of steam chest for single bal- 
 ance, add the extreme travel of the valve to the outside 
 diameter of disc, and to this sum add not less than 
 one-half inch for clearance — one-fourth inch at each 
 end of chest. If a little more clearance ia desired, the 
 rims of disc may be cut one-eighth inch, i. e., just 
 flattened on two sides in line of valve travel; but in no 
 case are they to be cut beyond their inside diameter. 
 If sufficient clearance cannot be obtained by cutting 
 the rims one-eighth inch each side in line of valve 
 travel, then double balance must be used. 
 
 The ring must be protected by the disc, and when 
 figuring outside diameter of ring one-fourth inch must 
 be added for the joint plate and the ring must be fig- 
 ured when expanded on the cone until its top face is 
 flush with top of cone, or at its greatest possible 
 diameter. 
 
 Fig. 2 shows the single disc balance valve with 
 cone and ring removed. 
 
 Double "Disc" American Balanced Valve. — When 
 the steam chest is too short to leave clearance for the 
 outside diameter of the disc or cone of single balance
 
 VALVES 
 
 201 
 
 at extreme travel of valve, then double balance is used. 
 If the yoke fit (or box) of valve is large enough, two 
 cones are cast on the valve, as shown in Fig. 3, but if 
 the yoke fit is not large enough to cast cones on, then 
 two discs are used. If the distance across the two 
 discs, when they are side by side on top of valve, is 
 greater than width of steam chest, the rims on each 
 disc may be cut one-eighth inch at center of valve 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 Double Cone American Balance Valve. 
 
 thereby drawing the discs one-fourth inch closer 
 together; and if more clearance is necessary, the rims 
 may also be cut one-eighth inch at ends of valve, 
 giving one-fourth inch more or a total of one-half inch. 
 But in no case shall the rims be cut more than one- 
 eighth inch, or to their inside diameter. 
 
 If discs thus cut will not clear the sides of chest, less 
 balance must be used.
 
 L'02 VALVES 
 
 Repair of These Valves— Discs Bearing on 1 ^alve. — 
 
 In all cases where ])ossible the height adjustment 
 should be made by lowering the chest cover, or bearing 
 plate, but when chest cover cannot be lowered the 
 discs may be raised. When it is found necessary to 
 raise the disc on the valve longer bolts should be used 
 and the liners placed between the disc and the valve 
 must be true, and large enough to give a solid bearing 
 for disc on the valve. If found necessary to raise the 
 disc to clear the top of valve yoke, the same rules must 
 be observed. The bolts which fasten the disc to the 
 valve should be steam-tight on threads and steam- 
 tight under the heads, a coj)per washer being used 
 under the heads, forming a bolt lock. The interior of 
 each disc or cone is relieved to the exhaust ca\ ity of 
 the Talve, as shown by the several holes in Fig. 3. 
 
 In "cone" balance, holes are drilled through the top 
 of valve, but in "disc" balance the relief holes pass 
 through the bolts, one-fourth inch hole being drilled 
 through each bolt, as shown in Fig. 1. 
 
 The Single "Cone" Balanced Valve must be cast 
 flangeless if a valve joke extending all around the 
 valve (as in locomotives) is used, but need not be 
 flangeless, when made for center rod to drive the valve 
 (as in stationary engines). In case of the locomotive 
 yoke, it is recommended that the ^oke be carried on 
 the steam chest at the ends of the valve. Where old 
 chests have rubbing strips wide enough they can be 
 planed on top and the yoke allowed to ride on them, 
 and in new work this can be done cheaper than to put 
 on a front carrying horn and is more efficient than to 
 support the yoke on the valve stem packing and the 
 valve itself. A valve need not be flangeless to thus
 
 VALVES 203 
 
 support the yoke; it can be carried with any valve, 
 and it insures the free upward mo\"ement of the valve 
 at all times, which is very essential in obtaining the 
 best results. 
 
 The outside rim on disc or cone is merely a saf& 
 guard to the ring in case of accident — preventing 
 broken portions of the ring from getting under the 
 valve — it performs no other duty. The required 
 inside diameter of this rim must allow the ring to 
 be expanded on the cone until the top face of the 
 ring is flush with top of cone and still clear the one- 
 eighth inch joint plate on the outside of ring. In 
 single balance the rims may be cut one-eighth inch 
 front and back, giving one-fourth inch more 
 clearance, when the disc runs too close to steam 
 chest at full travel of valve. 
 
 Proper Height Adjustment. — When the valve is in 
 position and the chest cover has been screwed down 
 there should be one-eighth inch between the face of 
 the bearing plate (sometimes called balance plate) and 
 the top of disc or cone. The rings are bored for this 
 position and in this position have their proper tension. 
 This allows the valve to lift off its seat one-eighth 
 inch, which it will do as soon as steam is shut off 
 while the engine is in motion or drifting, provided it is 
 not held down by the valve yoke. The valve yoke 
 must not interfere with this upward movement of the 
 valve. 
 
 Proper Tendon on Ring. — Rings are all bored 
 smaller than the diameter at which they are to work; 
 therefore, when a ring is set on its proper cone it will 
 stand higher than its working position. The face of 
 bearing plate must not be closer than one-eighth inch
 
 204 VALVES 
 
 to top of cone after chest cover has been screwed down. 
 In placing the cover in this position the ring is 
 expanded over the cone until its inside diameter at 
 bottom is the proi)cr balancing diameter. 
 
 Owing to the natural elasticity of the ring and its 
 expansion over the cone, a tension is placed on the 
 ring, the action of which is (the same as the steam 
 pressure) to close the ring on the cone, which neces- 
 sarily causes the ring to move upwards. The ring is, 
 therefore, self-supporting and self-adjusting. All 
 rings are interchangeable on discs and cones of 
 respective sizes, whether standard or special. 
 
 American balances are known under the following 
 heads: 
 
 Single Disc Balance — one ring and one disc. 
 
 Double Disc Balance — two rings and two discs. 
 
 Single Cone Balance — one ring, with cone cast on 
 the valve. 
 
 Double Cone Balance — two rings, with cones cast 
 on the valve. 
 
 Necessary Cylinder Relief. — The valve should 
 always be free to lift one-eighth inch off its seat, to 
 allow the free passage of air from one end of the cylin- 
 der to the other between valve and valve seat when the 
 engine is running without steam. The tops of all 
 American balance discs, or cones, show a pohsh, 
 giving positive evidence of their contact with the 
 bearing plate or cover, and that they, therefore, do 
 float. The explanation is: At the first stroke of the 
 piston, after the engine has been shut off, air is com- 
 pressed in one end of the cylinder while the valve is 
 traveling a distance equal to its outside lap; at an 
 early stage of this compression the valve is throwo
 
 TALVES 205 
 
 off its seat and the escaping air rushes under the 
 valve into the opposite end of the cyhnder to reheve 
 the suction which is taking place in that end; this 
 operation is repeated so rapidly that the valve is kept 
 floating until a slow speed has been reached. 
 
 The Formula of Balance Used on the American 
 balance valve is as follows: 
 
 (1) Area of balance for plain valves. — Area of one 
 steam port, two bridges, and the exhaust port, plus 
 eight per cent, if for siiigle balance and plus fifteen 
 per cent, if double balance. 
 
 (2) For Allen valves use the same formula as above; 
 then from the area derived subtract the area of one 
 side of the Allen port.
 
 THE PISTON VALVE FOR LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 The advantages gained by large ports and 
 diminished frictional resistance supposed to be 
 co-relative with the piston valve have been a sub- 
 ject of grave dissension among practical 
 locomotive designers. 
 
 The piston valve is an old device, yet of rare use 
 on the locomotive until recent years. The large 
 and successful introduction of the Vauclain type 
 
 Fio 1. 
 Piston Valve for Baldwin Four-Cylinder Compound Locomotives 
 
 of compound locomotives, employing a double pis- 
 ton valve, as shown in Fig. 1, is undoubtedly ac- 
 countable for the much exjjerimenting now going 
 on and the many styles — too numerous to mention 
 — of piston valves in use in a limited number of 
 locomotives on almost every railroad system of 
 any size in this country. 
 
 It was for some time erroneously supposed that 
 a piston valve was a perfectly balanced valve ; this, 
 however, has been proven not to be so, as the un- 
 balanced jDortion is largely dependent upon tha 
 
 (206)
 
 VALVES 
 
 207 
 
 width of the packing rings. Therefore it is not 
 surprising to find that the principal difference be- 
 tween the various forms of locomotive piston 
 valves lies in the varied designs of packing rings. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 Locomotive Piston Valve. 
 
 The American piston valve with wide packing 
 rings wedged in such a manner as to prevent 
 their great outward pressure against the walls of 
 the valve chamber, is shown in Fig. 2, as it has 
 been applied to several locomotives of modern 
 and complete design. 
 
 The Piston Valve — To open the admission ports, 
 to allow steam to enter the cylinder, close the 
 port or cut oS the steam at the desired point of 
 stroke, allowing the expansive force of the steam 
 to push the piston to the end of its stroke, open- 
 ing the port to allow the steam to escape through 
 the exhaust passage, closing the port in time to 
 produce sufficient compression to promote econ- 
 omy in the use of steam generated in the boiler, 
 is the function of the valve, whether plain, bal- 
 anced or of the piston type. To secure the nee-
 
 208 
 
 VALVES 
 
 essary compression the valve should close the 
 port before all the exhaust steam has escaped to 
 the exhaust, and the steam thus confined in the 
 cylinder is, or should be, compressed to fill the 
 space between the piston and the cylinder head 
 and the volume of the port to as near the initial 
 pressure or the pressure of steam that is admitted 
 to the cylinder when the port is again opened for 
 admission. To illustrate the diii'erence in the 
 slide and piston valves we will refer to Fig. 3, 
 
 Fig 3. 
 Balanced Slide Valve. 
 
 which shows the slide valve with the front port 
 slightly opened and the marks on the valve rod 
 made with a tram from a fixed point on the cyl- 
 inder casting that indicate to the valve setter the 
 position of the valve at all times after the cover 
 has been placed on the steam chest, in which 1 
 and 2 represent the admission edges of the valve, 
 and 3 and 4 represent the exhaust edges. Fig. 4 
 represents a piston valve with outside admission, 
 and the rings marked 1, 2, 3 and 4 still represent 
 the same edges of the valve as shown in Fig. 3. 
 Fig. 5 shows a piston valve with inside or inter- 
 nal admission, which changes the position of the 
 edges of the valve, also the direction of its move-
 
 YALYES 
 
 209 
 
 ment, which is directly opposite that of the slide 
 or piston valve with outside admission, as shown 
 in Figs. 3 and 4. It will be observed that the 
 marks on the valve rod are also changed in their 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 Piston Valve outside admission. 
 
 position. The inside edges of rings 3 and 4 are 
 the admission edges of the valve and the outside 
 edges of rings 1 and 2 are the exhaust edges of 
 the valve. The valve in Fig. 5 could be given 
 the same movement as in Figs. 3 and 4 by chang- 
 
 FiG. 5. 
 
 Piston Valve Internal admission showing marks on valve stem to Indicate 
 
 position of valve. Note the difference in position with 
 
 outside and internal admission. 
 
 ing the position of the eccentrics on the shaft 
 and still use the indirect rocker or motion. But 
 it is usually more convenient to employ a rocker 
 with the valve arm turned down opposite the
 
 210 
 
 VALVES 
 
 link arm. This leaves the eccentrics in the same 
 position as they were with the outside admission 
 valve and indirect rocker, but gives a direct 
 motion to the valve with internal admission as 
 the valve rod and the eccentric rod are both 
 traveling in the same direction, then we have a 
 direct motion valve gear for this style of piston 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 Showing piston valve and cylinder by-pass valves placed on top of 
 
 steam chest relief valves in cylinder heads. 
 
 valve. Fig. 6 shows a piston valve and cylinder, 
 internal admission. The arrows indicate the 
 passage of the steam. Fig 7 shows a valve cham- 
 ber bushing for a piston valve. The longitudinal 
 strips or bridges are not to make separate ports, 
 as is sometimes inferred. Their purpose is to 
 strengthen the bushing and prevent the packing 
 rings in the valve from springing past the edges 
 of the ports while traveling over them. The
 
 VALVES 211 
 
 bridges in the lower side of the bushing are wider 
 than the others to insure sufficient bearing where 
 the ends of the rings are held in jDlace by dowels 
 or stops that are placed in the packing ring 
 groove to prevent the rings from turning. When 
 the average size cylinder used on the majority of 
 roads did not exceed 18 or 19 inches and the 
 boiler pressure averaged 160 pounds, the balance 
 D-valve was satisfactory. The notches in the 
 quadrant were usually made to engage the latch 
 of the reverse lever in the 6, 9, 12, 15, 18 and 21- 
 
 aoDDoa 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 Piston Valve Bushing. 
 
 inch cut-offs. In order to give the engineer an 
 opportunity to obtain a finer adjustment of the 
 cut-off, the fine notched quadrant was applied to 
 many of the simple engines, as with the old style 
 quadrant the engine was often worked in the 9 
 or 12-inch notch because she would not make the 
 time working the 6 or 9-inch, and the 9 and 12- 
 inch was as much too heavy as the others were 
 too light. The notches allowed the engineer to 
 obtain the desired cut-off and regulate it to effect 
 economy. This was appreciated by enginemen 
 until the cylinders increased in size from 19 to
 
 212 VALVES 
 
 22 inches in diameter, 'svliich required larger ad- 
 mission and exhaust ports, also a larger valve. 
 This, with the increased boiler pressure to 190 or 
 200 pounds, made the valve hard to handle when 
 the throttle was well opened, and necessitated 
 the partly closing of the throttle when it was de- 
 sired to change the position of the lever on the 
 quadrant. When the valve was running rather 
 light on the lubrication, if the latch was disen- 
 gaged sometimes the engineer and the lever 
 would both go into the corner. Then the fine 
 notches were not used as intended, and many a 
 fireman can testify that he has shoveled extra 
 coal into the firebox for the reason that the 
 throttle would be eased off and longer cut-off 
 used than necessary because it was too hard 
 work to hook the lever back and the speed 
 and power were regulated by the throttle. To 
 overcome this and make the engine easy to 
 handle, the piston valve was applied to the large 
 modern engines, and was expected to enable the 
 engineer to manipulate the lever with ease as 
 well as to reduce the cost of maintenance or re- 
 pairs. The fact that they will run from one to 
 two years and then show very little wear on the 
 rings and bushings, that there are no leaky steam 
 chest joints for steam to escape and obscure the 
 vision of the engineer, no valve seats to plane, or 
 balance plates, strips, or rings for adjustment, 
 and very little trouble with the valve rod pack- 
 ing, as it is exposed only to the pressure of the 
 exhaust steam, and the drops of valve oil that 
 are fed through the sight feed glasses of the
 
 VALVES 213 
 
 lubricator seem to be more effective with the 
 piston valve than with the slide valve in case 
 either becomes dry, are all in favor of the piston 
 valve. 
 
 The report of face valves is not entered on the 
 work-book as frequently as before the introduc- 
 tion of the piston valve. We are all familiar 
 with the manner of obtaining the marks on the 
 valve stem as shown in Fig. 3. By placing a> 
 piece of tin in the port and pushing the edge of 
 the valve up to it, then scribing the mark on the 
 stem, with a piston valve internal admission it 
 would be impossible to locate the position of the 
 valve in that manner. Therefore, they are 
 usually provided with a hole drilled into the 
 valve chamber at each end that registers with 
 the admission ports and plugs are screwed into- 
 the peep-holes to prevent steam escaping. When 
 it is desired to mark the stems the plugs are re- 
 moved and a piece of small copper pipe with a 
 piece of wick inserted in the end, that forms a 
 very convenient torch for this purpose, is inserted 
 in the hole and the edges of the packing rings 
 may be easily seen and the position of the valve 
 located when the edges of the rings are opposite 
 the edges of the ports, and the stems are marked 
 accordingly with the same accuracy as they were 
 with the strip of tin and the cover removed on 
 the D-valve. In case of disconnecting on one 
 side, the ports may be covered by placing the 
 valve central on its seat, which may be deter- 
 mined by the steam ceasing to flow from the cyl- 
 inder cocks on the disabled side when the throttle
 
 214 VALVES 
 
 is opened or by placing the rocker arm m a ver- 
 tical position. As for the engine tearing herself 
 to pieces when descending a grade with the 
 throttle closed and the lever full gear, it is not 
 considered good practice to drift at high speed 
 with the throttle closed and lever in full gear 
 forward. It is better to leave the throttle 
 slightly opened or cracked enough to admit suffi- 
 cient steam to the cylinders to hold the air valves 
 shut, thus preventing the pistons from forming a 
 partial vacuum in the cylinders that will cause 
 the hot gases and cinders to be drawn into them. 
 This is the reason for not tightly closing the 
 throttle. The reason that the lever should be 
 notched well up in the quadrant will appear 
 clear from the following example: Take an en- 
 gine with a 60-inch driving wheel, including tire. 
 This sized wheel will make 836 revolutions per 
 mile. The valve will weigh possibly 175 pounds. 
 If the engine is equipped with an intermediate . 
 rocker or arm, we have another hundred pounds, 
 ©eglecting the weight of the rocker and friction 
 we have 275 pounds and a valve travel of 5| 
 inches. If we multiply the travel of the valve by 
 the number of revolutions we have 275 multi- 
 plied by 5| inches equals 1,932 inches or 161 feet. 
 If running at the rate of one mile per minute 
 with the lever in full gear forward, the forward 
 motion eccentric rod is nearly opposite the link 
 block and the work of pushing and pulling the 
 weight of 275 pounds a distance of 161 feet and 
 stopping and starting it 672 times in a minute is 
 performed by the forward motion eccentric.
 
 VALVES 215 
 
 When we stop to think this over is it strange 
 that the engine seemed as if she was pounding 
 herself to pieces, and does it not look reasonable 
 that this practice will result in excessive wear on 
 the eccentric straps and hot eccentrics? If the 
 ]ever is notched up at a shorter cut-off, instead of 
 the forward motion eccentric doing all the work 
 it is relieved of a part of it in proportion to the 
 position of the link in the link block and the 
 back motion eccentric will receive a part of the 
 load. When j'ou are going down a hill leave the 
 throttle cracked and drop the lever down until it 
 begins to pull, then notch it back to where it will 
 feel easy and let it remain there until the speed 
 is reduced. As the speed decreases the lever can 
 be moved farther forward and will not pound. 
 
 As the piston valve can not lift from its seat as 
 the D-valve can when compression is greater than 
 the initial pressure, provision is made to relieve 
 the strain and prevent the fracture of cylinder 
 heads by placing compression or relief valves in 
 the cylinder heads adjusting the springs to the 
 desired pressure. When the pressure exceeds the 
 resistance of the spring the valve is unseated and 
 the pressure relieved. Fig. 6 shows relief valves 
 in cylinder heads, also a style of by-pass valve 
 that opens when the compression exceeds the 
 pressure that is admitted into the valve chamber 
 between the pistons of the piston valve, 
 when the compression opens the valve, in- 
 stead of the steam escaping to the atmo- 
 sphere it flows through the passage into the 
 valve chamber and effects that much economy.
 
 216 VALVES 
 
 Various styles of by-pass valves are used on 
 piston valve simple and compound engines. 
 Compound locomotives may have two, threo or 
 four cylinders with either slide or piston valves. 
 The necessity for relief and by-pass valves of 
 adequate proportions, on piston valve engines, 
 should be appreciated. While the style of the 
 valve varies, some being hollow and others solid, 
 the action of the valve is the same as above 
 described. 
 
 The Link Motion is the device to regulate and 
 reverse the motion of the valve, Tliere are many 
 designs of Link Motions, but the ones mostly used 
 may be reduced to a very small number. The 
 Stephenson Link Motion is the one most commonly 
 used in America and it has remained practically 
 unchanged since its invention. It is acknowledged 
 to be one of the best reversible valve gears in 
 existence at the present day. 
 
 An outline illustration showing the arrange- 
 ment of the Stephenson Link Motion is shown in 
 Fig 8, which illustrates tlie usual form of direct 
 motion as used on American locomotives. 
 
 The forward and back-up eccentrics are keyed 
 to the main axle, their centers being F and B 
 respectively. Around the eccentrics are the ec- 
 centric straps, which in turn are bolted to the 
 eccentric rods ; the foi'ward rod is attached to the 
 top of the link, and the back-up eccentric rod to 
 the bottom of the link. The valve is connected to 
 the top arm of the rocker by the valve rod; the 
 lower rocker arm is attached to the link block, 
 which slides freely in the link. In the middle of 
 the link is the so-called saddle, also fonning the 
 pin supporting the link and eccentric rods; the
 
 •**^ 
 
 217
 
 218 VALVES. 
 
 saddle pin is connected witli the lower end of the 
 link hanger, while the upper end of the hanger is 
 fastened to one ann of the reversing or tumbling 
 shaft. The other arm of the reverse shaft is con- 
 nected to the reverse lever by the reversing or 
 reach rod. In the illustration the link is shown 
 to l)e in full forward gear, thereby allowing the 
 forward eccentric F to control the valve motion. 
 Moving the reverse lever, and by it the reversing 
 rod, so that the pin of the back-up eccentric rod is 
 on a line with the lower rocker arm, will let the 
 back-up eccentric govern the valve motion. By 
 placing the reverse lever in any jDosition be- 
 tween full gear and the center notch of the quadr 
 rant, the predominant influence on the motion of 
 the valve of one eccentric over the other can be 
 regulated at will. The valve travel at the same 
 time will be reduced as the reverse lever is moved 
 toward the central position on the quadrant. 
 
 The distinguishing difference between an In- 
 direct and a direct valve motion is at times con- 
 fusing. For the Stephenson motion the rocker 
 ann is the guide to a proper classification. The 
 usual form met with in America is the indirect; 
 that is, the foi^ward motion of the link is reversed 
 through the lower and upi^er anns of the rocker^ 
 thus imparting a backward motion tO' the valve. 
 If, however, the twO' arms of the rocker are both 
 extending upward or downward the motion would 
 be direct. This fonn is usually met with in eases 
 of engines having piston valves, when the steam 
 ports are so arranged that the engine takes steam 
 from the space between the two rings or ends of 
 the valve. 
 
 There are many things to be considered in the 
 laying out of a Stephenson Link Motion. Those
 
 YALTES. 219 
 
 which influence the valve's travel are angularity 
 of the main rod, the vertical distance between the 
 center lines of the cylinder and the driving wheels, 
 the back-set of the saddle-pin, the relative position 
 of the reverse shaft and the rocker, the actual 
 length of the eccentric blades and the lengths of 
 the reverse shaft anns. 
 
 The angularity of the main rod is noticed in 
 the fact that the crank pin will travel less than, 
 the distance from front dead center to tlie quarter 
 position when the crosshead pin is traveling from 
 front center to middle stroke position. At the 
 same time the crank pin will travel more than 
 the distance from quarter toi back center posi- 
 tion while the crosshead pin is traveling from 
 middle stroke position to back center position. 
 This inequality of travel is greater as the length 
 of the main rod is reduced. Its effect is to retard 
 the points of cut-off and release in the front end 
 of the cylinder of an engine with indirect valve 
 motion, and to hasten these events in the back end. 
 It at the same time increases the lead in the front 
 end and decreases it ii#the back end. 
 
 The ang-ular vibration, or the crossing of the 
 eccentric rods as the eccentrics are rotated gives 
 the same effect on the valve as the angularity of 
 the main rod. 
 
 In this discussion an indirect motion only will 
 be considered and at the same time all state- 
 ments will refer to a slide valve having, as is 
 usual, the steam admitted by the outside edges. 
 For a direct valve motion or for an inside ad- 
 mission valve the proper corrections will have to 
 be made. The locating of the eccentric blade 
 pins back of the center line of the link arc has 
 directly opposite effects upon the valve than the
 
 220 VALVES 
 
 angularitj^ of the main rod and the angular vibra- 
 tion of the eccentric blades. A correction of the 
 effects produced by the angularity of the main 
 rod and the anguhir vibration of the eccentric 
 blades could be obtained by placing the saddle 
 pin ahead of the link arc. The correction of the 
 errors in the valve motion due to the eccentric 
 blade i>in being placed back of the link arc center 
 is obtained by placing the saddle pin back of the 
 link arc center. The final offset of the saddle pin 
 is the resultant of these two correcting meas- 
 ures. 
 
 \"ery few locomotives are built with the center 
 line of the cylinder passing through the center 
 lines of the driving wheels. The effect of this 
 is to introduce an irregularity in the effect pro- 
 duced by the angularity of the main rod. The 
 effect produced in tlie foi'ward stroke of the en- 
 gine will be different from that produced in 
 the back stroke, but within reasonable limits this 
 will not give bad results. If, however, the ver- 
 tical distance between the center lines of the 
 cylinder and the axles be^mes too great, the only 
 remedy is to incline the cylinder so that its center 
 line will pass through the center line of the main 
 driver. 
 
 The points so far considered refer only to the 
 matter of obtaining equal cut-offs. As mentioned,, 
 this is finally obtained by locating the saddle pin 
 so as to compensate for all the other irregulari- 
 ties. This pin is usually located by actual trial, 
 either on the engine by the use of a slip saddle or 
 on a full-sized valve motion model. 
 
 The locating of the tumbling or reverse shaft 
 and the length of tlie link hanger are details which 
 affect the lead. These two items are ones which
 
 221
 
 222 VALVES. 
 
 have to be investigated on the drawing board, the 
 aim of the design being to obtain equal lead. 
 
 There are, of course, many points to be con- 
 sidered in setting the valves of an engine with 
 tlie Stephenson Link Motion. After finding the 
 dead centers and marking the port marks on the 
 valve stem, the first step is the eciualization of 
 the cut-offs and the lead. It must be noted, how- 
 ever, that both these items cannot be perfect at 
 the same time. If one is equalized all around, 
 the other is not. Usually for engines in road 
 sen-ice the back gear is sacrificed to help the for- 
 ward gear. 
 
 To equalize the valve events for the different 
 strols^s, the eccentric blades are lengthened or 
 shortened. Raising or lowering the link or the 
 link block is done to equalize the two sides of an 
 engine. To alter the amount of le^d, the eccen- 
 tric is shifted on the axle. One of the peculiari- 
 ties of the Stephenson Motion is that the lead 
 increases as the cut-off is decreased. By some 
 this is claimed to be an advantage and by others 
 a detriment to good steam distribution. However, 
 in setting valves the general practice is to make 
 the lead a certain desired amount for the ordinary^ 
 running conditions and cut-offs, and sacrifice, if 
 necessary, the good motion under the extreme 
 conditions. 
 
 The Allan Link Motion was invented and pat- 
 ented many years ago by Alexander Allan, of 
 England. Its a])plication to some locomotives of 
 a well-known American railway is illustrated in 
 outline in Fig. 9. This is of tlie fonu known 
 as Straight Link ^Nfotion, where all the locations 
 of the link block lie in the same straight line. 
 Link motions of this form give a practically con-
 
 224 VALVES. 
 
 stant lead when well designed and it is claimed 
 that "the slip of the link" is greatly reduced. 
 
 In Fig. 10 is shown a diagram of the Walschaert 
 Link Motion. No eccentrics are used in this 
 form, but an arm on the main crank jjin 
 gives the valve pait of its motion. The link ro- 
 tates about a fixed axis, the radius of its arc 
 equaling the length of the radius rod. This rod 
 is raised or lowered by the arms of a reversing 
 shaft, from one full gear position to the other. 
 It is evident from the diagram that the foi'ward 
 is an indirect, while the backward is a direct 
 valve motion. The cross-head motion is connected 
 to the eccentric motion through the combination 
 lever, and by this means the valve is enabled to 
 maintain both a constant lap and lead. This mo- 
 tion is receiving considerable attention and there 
 are many applications of it being made. 
 
 The Joy valve gear, like the Walschaert, also 
 dispenses with eccentrics and gives motion to the 
 valve from the connecting rods through a system 
 of levers. Some of the advantages claimed for 
 this valve gear are: That the cut-off and the 
 lead are exactly equal in both ends of the cylinder, 
 and remain so for all grades of expansion ; that 
 the motion admits of prompt cut-oft' and exhaust 
 release, while it moves the valve slowly during 
 the expanding and exhausting periods; that its 
 construction is simpler and it is easier of main- 
 tenance. Its application to an outside connected 
 locomotive is shown in Fig. 11. 
 
 The Stevens Valve Gear as used somewhat ex- 
 tensively by a prominent Pacific Coast railway, is 
 shown diagrammatically in Fig. 12. But one ec- 
 centric is used to operate the valve; the opening 
 of the ports being controlled by the eccentric^
 
 
 
 pq 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 V 
 
 
 hJ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 •< 
 
 < 
 
 
 !> 
 
 -1 
 
 
 cfl 
 
 
 !z5 
 
 / 
 
 »H 
 
 
 
 U) 
 
 H 
 
 
 t^ 
 
 OU 
 
 ^^^^ 
 
 226
 
 VALVES. 227 
 
 while tlie lap and lead are derived from the cross- 
 head motion. The valve opens sharply for ad- 
 mission until the port is wide open, then remains 
 almost stationary and finally closes again rapidly. 
 The reversing and adjustment of the cut-off are 
 obtained by moving the block in the curved link, 
 which is pivoted on a fixed center, about which it 
 is make to oscillate by means of a single eccentric 
 rod. This gear is very similar in detail to the 
 Walschaert, the only marked difference being the 
 use of two valves in each chest.
 
 SPECIAL VALVE GEARS. 
 
 GOOCH VALVE MOTION, ALLAN VALVE MOTION, HACK- 
 WORTH VALVE MOTION, JOY MODIFICATION, WAL- 
 SCHAERT VALVE MOTION, HELMHOLTZ MODIFICA- 
 TION, YOUNG VALVE ARRANGEMENT, BAKER VALVE 
 GEAR, SOUTHERN VALVE GEAR. 
 
 In addition to the most frequently used types of 
 valves used on locomotives mentioned elsewhere 
 the following description of special valve gears^ 
 presented to the American Railway Master Me- 
 chanics' Association, by an authority on the sub- 
 ject,* will be found interesting and instructive 
 particularly as one of the gears described (the 
 Walschaert) after lying dormant for more than 
 half a century is coming into use in America. 
 
 As several gears in use on locomotives are deri- 
 vations from others not suitable for locomotives, 
 it may in a few cases be of advantage to go back 
 to the origin from which they are developed, and 
 others referred to as comparisons in being ap- 
 plicable but which do not possess sufficient advan- 
 tages for extended adoption. 
 
 Gooch Valve Motion. — Among the latter class 
 may be mentioned the Gooch, or stationary link 
 motion, which might be said to be the opposite of 
 
 *Mr. C. J. Mellin. 
 
 (229)
 
 230 
 
 VALVE 
 
 Stephenson motion, in that the valve rod or link 
 block is raised and lowered in reversing the en- 
 gine, instead of the link in the latter. It is oper- 
 ated with two eccentrics set in the same relation to 
 the crank as in Stephenson's gear, and the link is 
 curved to a radius equal to the length of the valve 
 rod or radius bar and turned with its convex side 
 to the axle as shown in Fig. 1. This motion gives 
 
 FIG. I 
 GOOCH VALVE MOTION. 
 
 a constant lead and has otherwise no advantage 
 over the Stephenson gear, except, possibly, that 
 the link block and the radius bar are lighter to lift 
 in reversing than the link; but it presents an ob- 
 jectionable feature in that the sweep of the radius 
 bar in its raising and lowering is obstructed by 
 the front driving axle when the main connection is 
 made to the second or third pair of wheels, and is 
 probably the principal reason why the Gooch gear 
 has been in little use and is now practically aban- 
 doned altogether in locomotive service. 
 
 Allan Valve Motion. — The Allan motion (Fig. 
 2) may be said to be a combination of the Stephen- 
 son and Gooch gear, as the link and valve rod are 
 both moved in opposite directions, so that the an- 
 gularities and distances in either direction are re-
 
 GEAR 
 
 231 
 
 duced to one-half of tliose in either of the other 
 motions under comj)arison with an increase of 
 lead amounting to about one-half of that obtained 
 by the Stephenson gear in linking up the engine. 
 For this reason the Allan gear has been the favor- 
 ite valve motion in continental Europe for a gen- 
 eration or more. 
 
 FIG. 2 
 ALLAN VALVE MOTION. 
 
 With properly selected lengths of lifting arms 
 of the reverse shaft the link is made straight in- 
 stead of curved as in the previous cases, which, in 
 manufacturing in former days, was of no little im- 
 portance in its favor. From Fig. 2 it will be seen 
 that the lifting arms are placed on opposite sides 
 of the reversing shafts, necessitated by the re- 
 quired opposite vertical motion of the link and 
 valve rod in changing the cut-off or reversing the 
 engine and thereby practically balancing each 
 other and holding the reversing shaft in an ap- 
 proximate equilibrium at any position of the re- 
 versing lever. 
 
 These are all properties of considerable advan- 
 tage over either the Stephenson or Gooch gears 
 and deserve therefore a closer description.
 
 232 VALVE 
 
 From Fig. 2 it will be seen that it is operated 
 by two eccentrics and rods connected to the link in 
 the ordinary way, one for the forward and the 
 other for the backward motion of the engine, with 
 open rods as in the case of Stephenson motion 
 both for outside and inside admission valves so 
 that the lead is always increasing in linking up 
 the engine. The reversing shaft can be located 
 above or below the link as is found most con- 
 venient without in any perceptible way affecting 
 the distribution of the steam. The proportions of 
 the lengths of the rods and lifting arms are very' 
 important in order that there may be a complete 
 compensation for the gain of horizontal length by 
 one rod to the loss by the others in change of an- 
 gularity of the rods in linking up or down. These 
 proportions can hardly be found by trial, but must 
 be carefully figured out and are found by the fol- 
 lowing formula: 
 
 L^^length of the eccentric rod, 
 l^ength of the radius rod. 
 P^distauce c-d in the figure. 
 A=lengtli of radius rod lift arm. 
 B=link lift arm. 
 l-li=A-fB. 
 
 Although the Allan motion is the most correct 
 one in existence it has never gotten any foothold 
 in America, probably for the reason that it has to 
 some extent the same objectionable feature as the 
 Gooch in regard to the front driving axle, which, 
 however, is not serious, as the short vertical 
 sweep of the valve rod admits of a bend or a yoke
 
 GEAR 233 
 
 for straddling same. As this motion is located 
 inside the frames and occupies about the same 
 place and is of the same weight as the Stephenson 
 gear, on modern engines it would be hea\y and 
 cumbersome to apply, so its introduction at this 
 time is hardly to be looked for. These conditions 
 have also made themselves manifest in Europe, 
 and the Allan gear, in spite of its excellent qual- 
 ities, is fast disappearing from modern locomo- 
 tives, being disj)laced by the more advantagetus 
 construction and application of the Walschaert 
 motion, which will be referred to later. 
 
 The Stephenson, Gooch and Allan motions can 
 be classified as one system in that they are all 
 based on the two eccentrics set in s^Tnmetrical re- 
 lation to the line of motion, one governing the for- 
 ward and the other the backward movement of the 
 engine, differing principally only in the matter of 
 lead. In the Gooch gear, with its constant lead, 
 it makes little difference if the rods are crossed 
 or open, but in the Allan and Stephenson it is im- 
 portant that the rods are always open so that 
 there is no reduction of lead in linking up, as 
 crossed rods will reduce the port opening at the 
 earlier cut-off and cause an unfavorable wire- 
 drawing of the steam. 
 
 The expression ''open rods" has therefore its 
 definition in that it gives an increase of lead and 
 crossed rods a reduced lead in linking up the en- 
 gine, but it may not be out of place in this con- 
 nection to also define their relative positions to 
 the crank under the various conditions of direct 
 and indirect motions and outside and inside steam 
 admission valves. Therefore, in a valve gear hav- 
 ing direct motion and outside admission valve, the
 
 234 
 
 VALVE 
 
 eccentrics at the beginuing of the forward stroke 
 will be placed between the link and the center of 
 the axle and the crank will be on the opposite side 
 of the axle. If in this position the upper eccentric 
 
 FIG. 3 FIG. 4 
 
 Fig. 3. — Position of eccentrics of open rods for direct motion with 
 outside admission valve and indirect motion with inside admission valve. 
 
 Fig. 4. — Position of eccentrics of open rods for indirect motion with 
 outside admission valve and- for direct motion with inside admission 
 valve. 
 
 be connected to the upper link pin and the lower 
 eccentric to the lower link pin, we will have open 
 rods as shown in Fig. 3 represented with Stephen- 
 son link. In a valve gear with indirect motion, 
 
 FIG. 5 FIG. 6 
 
 Fig. 5. — Position of eccentrics of crossed rods for direct motion with 
 outside admission valve and for indirect motion with inside admission 
 valve. 
 
 Fig. 6. — Position of eccentrics of crossed rods for indirect motion 
 with outside admission valve and direct motion with inside admission 
 valve. 
 
 the eccentrics will be placed between the link and 
 center of the axle and the crank on its center on 
 the same side of the axle. If in this position the
 
 GEAR 
 
 233 
 
 Til^per eccentric be connected to the upper link pin 
 and the lower eccentric connected to the lower link 
 pin, we will have open rods as shown in Fig. 4. If 
 in same positions the upper eccentric be connected 
 to the lower link pin and the lower eccentric to the 
 upper link pin we will have crossed rods as per 
 Figs. 5 and 6 re selectively. With inside admis- 
 sion valve we will have the crank and eccentric 
 positions shown in Fig. 3 for indirect motion and 
 in Fig. 4 for direct motion, and in both cases we 
 have open rods, and in Fig. 5 indirect and in Fig. 
 6 direct motion, with cross rods. By this it is seen 
 that the valve events are the same for outside ad- 
 mission and direct motion as they are with inside 
 admission and indirect motion, and vice versa. 
 
 FIG. 7 
 ORIGINAL HACKWORTH VALVE GEAR. 
 
 HacJi worth Valve Motion. — There are various 
 kinds of valve motions that are driven with a 
 single eccentric among which the oldest probably
 
 236 
 
 VALVE 
 
 is that of John Wesley Hackworth, which was de- 
 signed sometime between 1840 and 1850, and while 
 this type in its original form (shown in Fig. 7) 
 is not suitable for locomotives, it is referred to as 
 the starting point for a number of modifications, 
 of which a few will be presented, in the line of its 
 evolution to fairly .good valve motions for locomo- 
 tives under various names of so-called "radial'' 
 gears. 
 
 The eccentric in this design can be placed either 
 
 FIG. 7a 
 
 on the same center line as the crank or directly 
 opposite, depending upon Avhether the valve rod 
 connection is made between the eccentric and the 
 link block or whether the link block is located be-
 
 GEAR' 237 
 
 tween the valve rod connection and the eccentric. 
 The link is occasionally made straight for very 
 long valve rods, but is more correctly curved to a 
 radius of the length of the rod and is pivoted on 
 its center while the block slides from one end of 
 the link to the other and back at every revolution 
 of the crank. The link fulcrum is the reversing 
 shaft by which the link is turned to any desirable 
 angle that will give the required throw and cut- 
 off of the valve, and the lap and lead motion is ob- 
 tained by the lever action of the eccentric arm 
 which, therefore, gives a constant lead, whereas 
 the opening motion of the valve is imparted by the 
 regular inclination of the link, and the combined 
 paths of the valve rod pin are represented in Fig. 
 7a in enlarged scale. 
 
 In 1859 Hackworth introduced a swinging lever 
 instead of the link, which at that time did not seem 
 to be brought into use, as the required length of 
 an arm to carry same was impracticable. Mr. 
 Brown, who has made many valuable improve- 
 ments in the development of this gear, introduced 
 a counterswinging link by which any radius could 
 be obtained, but the arrangement was rather com- 
 plicated and has apparently never reached any ex- 
 tended use until again improved upon by Klug, 
 in 1878, and Marshall, in 1880, by practically rein- 
 venting the Hackworth construction of 1859, and 
 the gear in that form has since been known mostly 
 as the Marshall gear and has to a great extent 
 been in use on marine engines and auxiliary ma- 
 chinery on board ships. 
 
 Another form designed by Hackworth is shown 
 in Fig. 8, where he attaches the eccentric rod or 
 combination lever to a point near the middle of
 
 238 
 
 VALVE 
 
 the connecting rod by means of an intermittent 
 hanger having one end connected to a return 
 crank on the main pin to obtain a shorter longi- 
 tudinal motion of the combination lever than that 
 of the stroke of the engine; the reversing shaft 
 being located above the center of this connection 
 in the same way as in his previous design above 
 the engine shaft. This was further modified by 
 
 FIG. 8 
 HACKWORTH VALVE GEAR. 
 
 Brown, in 1878, by introducing a system of levers 
 to reduce the swing of the combination lever, in- 
 stead of the return crank. 
 
 Joy Modification. — In 1879 Mr. Joy applied this 
 gear with a slight modification to a locomotive en- 
 gine and it is therefore generally known as Joy's
 
 GEAR 
 
 239 
 
 gear. It is largely used in Russia and to some ex- 
 tent in several other countries without having 
 gained any predominating use over the Allan mo- 
 tion which, as said before, until a few years ago 
 was the general favorite in continental Europe. 
 Fig. 9 shows the Joy gear in a general way, and 
 
 FIG. 9 
 
 JOY VALVE GEAR. 
 
 it is probably the highest development of the 
 Hackworth motion adaptable to locomotives and 
 gives a very good steam distribution when prop- 
 erl}^ fitted up, but the effect on the movement of 
 the valve by the vertical play of the main axle on 
 a rough track is not entirely eliminated. 
 
 In this arrangement, as well as in the original, 
 and in fact in all modifications of the Hackworth 
 gear, the link block or combination lever fulcrum 
 can be guided by a curved frame ("link" as it 
 has been called on account of its similarity to the
 
 240 YALYE 
 
 ordinary reversing links), or by a swinging link 
 and arm of approximately the same length as the 
 radius bar where such a construction is appli- 
 cable. 
 
 No principle of valve motions has been so fas- 
 cinating and subject to so many varieties of con- 
 struction as that of Hackworth, and a score or 
 more inventors have, with comparatively small 
 modifications, found them meritorious enough to 
 connect them with their names. 
 
 Walschaert Valve Motion. — One of the most 
 suitable forms of radial gear for locomotives is 
 unquestionably the one invented by the Belgian 
 engineer, Egide Walschaert, in 1844, and applied 
 to locomotives a few years later, which is shown 
 in Figs. 10, 10a and 11, but it was not properly 
 understood or appreciated during the first twenty 
 years following its invention, and has ever since 
 then made slow headway until a few years ago, 
 when it took quite a sudden move forward and is 
 at present the dominating valve gear throughout 
 the continent of Europe, and is rapidly gaining 
 ground in this country, where, only within the 
 last few years, it has been applied to engines for 
 regular road service, although it has been in use 
 in sundry cases, principally small engines. This 
 gear may be said to be based on a fundamental 
 principle of its own, but has also been subject to 
 a few modifications without any special improve- 
 ment over its original form. 
 
 The motion of the valve is derived from two 
 sources, namely, the main crank by connection 
 to the crosshead, and from an eccentric placed ap- 
 proximately at right angles to the main crank. 
 The crosshead connection imparts the motion of
 
 GEAR 
 
 241 
 
 FIG. 10 
 
 FIG. 10a 
 
 FIG. II 
 
 lap and lead at the extremities of the stroke of the 
 piston, at which moment the link is in its central 
 position. Therefore in the midgear with the re- 
 verse lever in its center notch this will he all the 
 motion imparted to the valve and the radius bar
 
 242 VALVE 
 
 becomes stationary. The link is curved to a radius 
 equal to the length of the radius bar. By moving 
 the reverse lever forward the eccentric motion is 
 brought into combination with the motion from 
 the crosshead, producing a valve opening for the 
 forward motion of the engine, and ))y moving the 
 reverse lever backward the link block is brought 
 to the opposite side of the link fulcrum, resulting 
 in a valve opening governing the backward mo- 
 tion of the engine, in effect similar to that of the 
 Stephenson motion. The action of this one eccen- 
 tric is therefore the same as if it was two eccen- 
 trics, one for forward and one for backward mo- 
 tion, placed diametrically opposite each other, and 
 the angle of advance in the Stephenson motion is 
 taken care of by the main crank in the crosshead 
 connection. The latter motion being constant, it 
 follows that the lead remains constant at all 
 points of cut-off. 
 
 The proportions of the various parts of the 
 Walschaert gear can not be determined experi- 
 mentally, nor should any change in setting the 
 valves be made unless the effect of the change is 
 known in advance. It is therefore important that 
 the different parts should be made and set cor- 
 rectly from the beginning and there will then be 
 no need for changes when the original dimensions 
 are maintained. The difference in this gear for 
 outside and inside admission valves must be con- 
 sidered in setting the eccentric crank and as the 
 forward motion of the engine should preferably 
 be taken from the lower end of the link when the 
 eccentric crank will folloiv the main crank for in- 
 side admission valve (see Figs. 10 and 10a), and 
 lead the main crank for outside admission valve
 
 GEAR 243 
 
 (see Fig. 11).* The connecting point of the radius 
 bar to the combination lever is above that of the 
 valve stem connection for inside admission and 
 below the valve stem connection for outside ad- 
 mission valves (see Figs. 10, 10a and 11). The de- 
 sired maximum cut-off, lead and valve travel de- 
 tennines the size of the lap, and the lap and lead- 
 motion is obtained by the corresponding propor- 
 tioning of the combination lever, and found from 
 the following formula 
 
 E: C = L: V. 
 
 E =■ radius of the main crank. 
 
 C = lap and lead (one side). 
 
 L = distance between radius bar and cross- 
 head connection (from F to M, Fig. 
 10a), on the combination lever. 
 
 V = distance between the radius bar and 
 valve stem connections. 
 
 The length of the combination lever must be 
 taken to suit the conditions under consideration 
 in each case, so that the angle through which it 
 oscillates will not exceed 60 degrees, but less is 
 preferable. The required horizontal movement or 
 travel of the connecting point F of the radius bar 
 to the combination lever for a given maximum 
 valve travel must now be ascertained and is found 
 
 ♦With short eccentric rods the distribution will be somewhat 
 improved with inside admission valves when the ahead motion 
 is taken from the upper end of the link, and the eccentric 
 crank leads the main crank, but in order to reduce stresses on 
 the link fulcrum the lower end is more generally used, as 
 this refinement will not show any practical difference when 
 the lengths of the radius bar and eccentric rod are not less 
 than three and one-half times their vertical deflections.
 
 244 
 
 VALVE 
 
 by the following formula,* in which R and C are 
 the same as above, namely : 
 
 R = radius of main crank. 
 
 C = lap and lead. 
 
 a =half of the travel of the valve. 
 
 b = half fthe travel of point F. 
 
 b= 
 
 R+C 
 
 for outside admission, and 
 
 b= 
 
 R—C 
 
 for inside admission valve. 
 
 These may also be laid out graphically as per 
 Fig. 12 for outside and Fig. 13 for inside admis- 
 sion valves by drawing a circle with S as a center 
 and a as radius (shown dotted in the figures). 
 Lay out crank radius R to the left from S = Sd 
 and the lap and lead dimension C = Se on same 
 side of S for inside admission (Fig. 13), and on 
 
 FIG. 12 
 
 opposite side of S for outside admission (Fig. 12). 
 Draw ef and Sh perpendicular to Sd when f be- 
 comes the intersecting point between the valve 
 travel circle and the line ef. Draw the line df 
 and where thi^ intersects the line Sh, which point 
 
 ♦Evolved by Mr. C. J. Mellin.
 
 GEAR 
 
 245 
 
 we will call li (found by extending df in Fig. 13) ; 
 Sli is then the desired dimension b in the formula, 
 or one-half the required movement of point F, the 
 total of which is represented by the full drawn 
 circle in the figures. 
 
 This is a most important function of the gear 
 upon which practically all the others depend and 
 is rather complicated to find by plotting. With 
 
 FIG. 13 
 
 a correct suspension of the link block it will have 
 the same horizontal movement as the point F, and 
 by limiting the angle of the swing of the link to 
 45 degrees as a maximum we get the rise or de- 
 pression of the link block on either side of the 
 
 b* 
 
 link fulcrum the distance Og = , 
 
 tan. d 
 (Fig. 10a) where is the link fulcrum,. d = one- 
 half of the swing of the link in degrees, and b =? 
 half the travel of point F in the previous formula. 
 The vertical location of the link fulcrum 
 should be, when practicable, on a line drawn 
 
 *As no suspension gives a perfectly equal drop of the block 
 in both link positions this formula is only approximate.
 
 246 VALVE 
 
 through point F parallel with the valve stem, and 
 the eccentric rod connecting pin K to the link 
 shonkl be as nearly as practicable on the same 
 level as the main axle in order to minimize the 
 effect of the vertical play of the axle on the valve 
 events, but on large engines it may be found nec- 
 essary to lower fulcrum O and raise connection 
 K to avoid excessive throw of the eccentric crank. 
 
 In locating the longitudinal position of the link 
 fulcrum consideration must be given to the 
 lengths of the eccentric and radius bars so that 
 both may be of approximately the same length. 
 When these lengths fall below three and one-half 
 times the total vertical sweep of the link block the 
 radius bar should be favored in preference to the 
 eccentric rod. The exact position of the eccentric 
 crank must be plotted as well as the longitudinal 
 location of point K. The former must bear such 
 relation to the main crank that it brings the link 
 in its middle position when the main crank is on 
 either of its dead centers and the connecting point 
 K must be so located that it swings the link in 
 the required angle d on either side of the middle 
 position of the link; that is, in other words, the 
 point K should be so located on the curve it must 
 follow with fulcrum as a center that its devia- 
 tion from the tangent of the eccentric rod to this 
 curve is such that it as near as practicable com- 
 pensates for the irregularities brought about by 
 the angularities of the main and eccentric rods 
 which in ordinary cases brings it from 2 inches 
 to 5 inches in the rear of the tangent to the link 
 drawn through the fulcrum O. 
 
 The locus of the suspension point of the radius 
 bar lifting link must also be plotted so that the
 
 GEAR 247 
 
 link block is at the same point of the link in its 
 extreme positions at all cut-offs. This locus is 
 a curve with its center in the vicinity of the point 
 F when in its mid-gear position. It would be im- 
 jDracticable, however, to have a lift arm of this 
 length, and a curve of smaller radius must be sub- 
 stituted and so applied that it intersects with the 
 former curve at points giving the least possible 
 distortion to the motion favoring the position of 
 the link block in which it is mostly used in service. 
 
 The sliding lifter shown in Fig. 10 meets these 
 conditions better than any other method of sus- 
 pension, but, due to wheel arrangements of vari- 
 ous designs of engines, this is not always appli- 
 cable but must be substituted by swinging lifters 
 as per Figs. 10a and 11, which, when properly 
 plotted, gives for all practical purposes equally 
 good results. 
 
 The vertical height of lower connection m of 
 the combination lever in relation to the crosshead 
 connection has a slight influence on the port open- 
 ing and should, therefore, in the center position 
 of the lever, be about in the same level as the 
 crosshead connecting point n (see Fig. 10a). 
 
 In Fig. 14 is the motion of the valve graphically 
 represented by the Long diagram at different cut- 
 offs where the horizontal lines represent the port 
 opening edges in the cylinder face and the curves 
 of the steam inlet edges of the valve, showing the 
 opening and cut-off points where the latter inter- 
 sect the former and the port openings at the vari- 
 ous points of the stroke are measured by the 
 height of these curves over and under the opening 
 edges of the ports at both ends of the valve re- 
 spectively.
 
 248 
 
 VALVE 
 
 It will be noticed that these ellipses are slightly 
 flattened on one side, which is caused by the slow- 
 er lineal motion imparted to the valve relative 
 to the angular motion when the eccentric passes 
 its back center compared with that of the front 
 center due to the angularity of the eccentric rod 
 and is more marked the shorter the rod. Fully 
 sjTiimetrical ellipses are not obtainable as this 
 would require the eccentric and main rods to be 
 
 EXHAUST. LINE A LINE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 » 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 » 
 
 
 s 
 
 ^ 
 
 * 
 
 . 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 , 
 
 ^ 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 :c; 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 i 
 
 T 1 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ]^ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .___ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 . . 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 -> 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 » 
 
 /> 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 — . 
 
 =S 
 
 
 ir 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 '- 
 
 2 
 
 - 
 
 . 
 
 ~ 
 
 e 
 
 in 
 
 ' 
 
 
 FIG. 14 
 
 of in"finite length, but this angularity however is 
 of but little detriment to the distribution of the 
 steam as long as the relations between the lengths 
 of the eccentric rod and the throw of the eccentric 
 is not less than the given limitations, and is pres- 
 ent in all kinds of continuous valve motions de- 
 rived from uniformly rotating cranks or eccen- 
 trics. 
 
 General Notes for Adjusting Walschaert Gear. 
 1. Ascertain by the following method the posi- 
 tion of the eccentric crank : Mark the position of
 
 GEAR 249 
 
 the link relative to its middle position on both of 
 the dead centers of the main crank. If the posi- 
 tion of the link is the same in both cases the eccen- 
 tric crank jDOsition is correct, if not the eccentric 
 crank should be shifted until this occurs or as 
 near so as possible. 
 
 2. After the eccentric crank has been correctly 
 set the eccentric rod should be lengthened or 
 shortened as may be required to bring the link in 
 its middle position when the main crank is on 
 either of its dead centers, so that the link block can 
 be moved from its extreme forward to its extreme 
 backward position without imparting any motion 
 to the valve, it may be noted that the link posi- 
 tion may be observed by the usual tram marks 
 on the valve stem, or direct by marks on the link 
 pin as may be found most convenient with the link 
 block in full gear, preferably ahead. 
 
 3. The difference between the two positions of 
 the valve on the forward and back centers of the 
 engine is the lap and lead doubled; it is the same 
 in any position of the link block and can not be 
 changed without changing the leverage relations 
 of the combination lever. 
 
 4. The tram marks of the opening moments at 
 both ends of the valve should be marked on the 
 valve stem and the latter lengthened or shortened 
 until equal leads at both ends are obtained. 
 
 5. Within certain limits this lengthening or 
 shortening may be made on the radius bar, if it 
 should prove more convenient, but it is desirable 
 that the length of this bar should be so nearly 
 equal to the radius of the link that no apparent 
 change in the lead should occur in moving the link 
 block as stated in note Xo. 2.
 
 250 VALVE 
 
 6. The lead may be increased by reducing the 
 lap and the cut-oil" points will then be slightly ad- 
 vanced. Increasing the lap produces the opposite 
 effect on the cut-off and reduces the lead the same 
 amount. With good judgment these quantities 
 may be varied to off'set the irregularities inherent 
 in transforming rotary into lineal motions; 
 
 7. The valve events are to a great extent de- 
 pendent on the location of the suspension point 
 of lifter of the rear end of the radius bar, when 
 swinging lifter is used, which requires that this 
 point should be properly laid out by careful plot- 
 ting, or, if convenient, it is preferably determined 
 by a model, as irregularities due to incorrect locus 
 of this point can not be corrected by the other 
 parts of the gear without more or less distortion 
 of same. When this point is so fixed that a change 
 of same is impracticable it may be better however 
 to modify other elements if thereby the motion in 
 general can be improved. 
 
 The chief point of difference between the Wal- 
 schaert and Stephenson gear when both are in 
 proper conditions is, as previously stated, that the 
 former gives to the valve a constant lead at all 
 cut-offs, whereas the latter produces an increase 
 of lead by linking up the engine and becomes ex- 
 cessive at short cut-off's. This very point has been 
 the subject for much controversy and has prob- 
 ably done more than anything else to retard the 
 progress of the use of Walschaert gear; as it has 
 been argued that in full gear, when the speed gen- 
 erally is slow only small lead is needed, but at 
 higher speed more lead is required, which is ac- 
 complished by the Stephenson motion, though this 
 admittedly becomes excessive at early cut-offs,
 
 GEAR 251 
 
 causing considerable compression and preadmis- 
 sion detrimental both to nlainteuauce and to 
 smooth running, and, in fact, to some degree coun- 
 teracts the work done by the steam on the driving- 
 side of the piston, which thereby also affects the 
 speed of the engine. 
 
 It was gradually discovered that the required 
 lead for^short cut-off and high speed was of no 
 l^ractical detriment to the working of the engine 
 in full gear as the preadmission at tRat point is 
 disappeariugly small. The proper amount of lead 
 however is dei:)eudent somewhat on the service, 
 and the port opening becomes larger with a larger 
 lead, or, in other words, when all other condi- 
 tions are equal in a Stephenson or Walschaert 
 gear the openings differ by the same amount as 
 the lead, so that 1-16 inch more lead gives 1-16 
 inch wider port opening ; but it is hardly advisable 
 to make this over y_^ inch or 5-16 inch as a maxi- 
 mum, as the advantage of any additional port 
 opening by means of a larger lead is more than 
 offset ])y the increase in compression and pread- 
 mission the larger lead would bring about at early 
 cut-offs, and would do no good in the later cut-offs 
 even if it does not do any harm. 
 
 There is no fimdamental reason that the Wal- 
 schaert gear should produce any economy in 
 steam consumption over the Stephenson motion 
 when both are in the best conditions, but an ad- 
 vantage in this respect comes to the former by 
 the fact that it remains in its good condition if 
 once made so, from one shopping to another, and 
 is therefore on an average more economical both 
 in steam consumption and maintenance of the 
 gear than the latter. The accessibility for atten-
 
 252 VALVE 
 
 tion is a great point -of undisputed advantage of 
 the Walschaert gear whicli is also highly appre- 
 ciated by the enginemen and attendants. 
 
 It will be borne out in the course of time that 
 the bracing between the frames permitted by 'the 
 Walschaert gear will bring about a considerable 
 reduction in the maintenance expenses by the less 
 wear and tear this additional rigidity will impart 
 to the entire engine. 
 
 GENERAL INSTEUCTIONS FOR THE WALSCHAERT 
 VALVE GEAR.* 
 
 In setting the Walschaert valve gear it must be borne in 
 mind that two distinct motions are in combination, viz. : the 
 motion due to the crosshead travel, and the motion due to the 
 eccentric throw. 
 
 The crosshead motion controls the lead, by moving the valve 
 sufficiently to overcome its lap, by the amount of lead in both 
 front and back positions. The eccentric throw controls the travel 
 and reversing operations. It will be seen that the movement 
 due to the eccentric, without the crosshead motion, would place 
 the valve centrally over the ports when the piston is at the 
 extreme end of the stroke. The combined effect of these two 
 motions, when the parts are properly designed, gives the required 
 movement of the valve, similar to that obtained by the use of a 
 stationary link. To reverse the engine the link block is moved 
 from end to end of the link, instead of moving tke link on the 
 block. This operation is accomplished by means of a reversing 
 shaft connected -with a reversing lever in the cab. 
 
 Walschaert gears should be correctly laid out and constructed 
 from a diagram, as the proportions cannot be tampered with by 
 experimental changes without seriously affecting the correct work- 
 ing of the device. 
 
 The only part capable of variation in length is the eccentric 
 rod, which connects the eccentric with the link. This rod may be 
 slightly lengthened or shortened, to correct errors in location of 
 the link center, from center of driving axle which carries the 
 eccentric. 
 
 The eccentric usually assumes the form of a return crank on 
 one of the crank pins, and its center is at right angles to the 
 plane of motion, viz. : at ninety degrees to a line drawn from 
 the point on the link at which the eccentric rod is attached, 
 through the center of the driving axle. This eliminates the 
 
 • Formulated by the Baldwin Locomotive Works.
 
 GEAR 253 
 
 angular advance of the eccentric, and allows the use of a single 
 eccentric for both forward and backward motion. The throw as 
 specified must be correctly obtained, and great care taken that the 
 position shown in the design be adhered to. The crank repre- 
 senting the eccentric is permanently fixed to the pin, and the 
 slightest variation will be detrimental. 
 
 When the engine is assembled, the throw of the eccentric should 
 be checked up by the specifications, and any error should be at 
 once reported in order that the mistake may be rectified by either 
 correcting the position of the eccentric, or by a change in the 
 design of the other parts to compensate for the error. 
 
 In case of accident, if any of the rods or connections are 
 broken, it is advisable if possible to disconnect the eccentric rod. 
 The combining lever should be uncoupled from the crosshead and 
 securely fastened in forward position. If for any reason the 
 eccentric rod cannot be taken down, the radius rod must be 
 removed in order that no motion may be imparted to the valve. 
 The valve can then be placed in central position and held either 
 by suitable blocking or by clamping the valve rod. This seals 
 both steam ports and cuts out the cylinder on the damaged side. 
 
 SPECIAL INSTEUCTIONS FOR ERECTING AND SETTING 
 VALVES. 
 
 1. Cheek carefully the dimensions of the following parts, 
 rejecting any that are not exactly to drawing: 
 
 a. Valve. 
 
 6. Valve stem. 
 
 c. Valve crosshead or slide. 
 
 d. Combining lever. 
 
 e. Crosshead link. 
 
 f. Link radius rod. 
 
 g. Eerverse link. 
 
 h. Location of combining lever on crosshead. 
 k. Length of eccentric crank. 
 
 2. Check eccentric throw to see that it is exactly as specified. 
 
 3. Be sure that guide bearer is correctly located from center 
 of cylinder, as the reverse link is usually attached to it, and varia- 
 tions in the location of the link cannot be allowed. If the link is 
 attached to separate crosstie, similar precautions must be taken 
 to insure its correct location. 
 
 4. Exercise great care in the location of the link so that the 
 trunnion center is exactly to dimensions from the center of cylin- 
 der. 
 
 5. See that the reverse shaft center is correctly located to 
 dimensions given, and that the lifting arm and link are of the 
 exact lengths as specified. 
 
 6. Connect crosshead gear to valve, and radius rod to link, 
 without connecting eccentric rod to link.
 
 254 VALVE 
 
 7. Hook up radius rod to exact center of link, and then revolve 
 driving ivheels, seeing that crosshead gear gives correct lead as 
 specified for both front and back admission ports. 
 
 8. Connect link to return crank by ecc(?ntric rod, and obtain 
 full travel front and back, and in both forward and backward 
 motions, correcting any errors by lengthening or shortening eccen- 
 tric rod as noted under ' ' General Instructions. ' ' 
 
 The valves may now be considered as definitely set, and may 
 be tested to any cut-off points in the usual manner. 
 
 A simple additional check should be made as follows: 
 
 Set one side of the engine so that piston is at its extreme for- 
 ward position in cylinder, and check lead on admission port. 
 
 In this position it should be possible to move the link block 
 through its entire travel in the link, without in any way disturb- 
 ing the movement of the valve. 
 
 This operation should then be reversed, and the pther side of 
 the engine similarly tried with the piston located at its extreme 
 backward position in the cylinder. 
 
 Questions and Answers Eelative to the Wal- 
 SCHAERT Valve Gear. — The following questions and 
 answers relative to the practical operation of the 
 Walschaert Valve Gear have been formulated by 
 a well-known authority on the subject.* 
 
 Question 1. — Define the meaning of the term "valve motion." 
 
 Answer. — The gerr, or arrangement of rods, levers, etc., actuat- 
 ing the valve that admits steam from the boiler to the cylinder 
 of an engine and finally exhausts it therefrom is referred to as 
 the valve gear, or valve motion; it is the expansive force of the 
 steam in the cylinder that drives the piston, which in turn, 
 through connecting rods, forces the driving wheels to turn around 
 and move the locomotive. The valve gear includes the mechanism 
 by which the engine may be reversed as to the direction in which 
 it runs, through altering the steam distribution ; and the reversing 
 mechanism is further employed to fix the degree of steam admis- 
 sion to the cylinder and its retention there in proportion to the 
 stroke of the piston. 
 
 Q. 2. — Name the different parts that comprise the Walschaert 
 valve gear as shown in the photo-engraving of the motion work of 
 the Baldwin engine in Fig. 1. 
 
 A. — In Fig. I pointer No. 3 rests on the link which is suspended 
 by a fulcrum pin, or trunnion, at its exact center, from a bracket - 
 attached to the guide-bearer, or yoke; the lower extension of 
 
 * Mr. W. W. Wood in the Locomotive Firemen and Engine- 
 men's Magazine.
 
 GEAR 
 
 255
 
 256 VALVE. 
 
 the link, the link foot, is indicated by pointer No. 9, and the 
 eccentric by No. 7, while No. 8 points to the eccentric rud and 
 No. 4 J;o the radius rod; No. 2 indicates the reversing, or lifting, 
 arm, from which the radius rod is hung by the suspension bar 
 denoted by pointer No. 1 ; the valve-stem slide, No. 5, acts as a 
 cross-head in carrying the valve-stem. No. 6, and the combina- 
 tion lever. No. 12; the piston's motion is imparted to the lower 
 end of the combination lever through the cross-head arm. No. 10, 
 and the vibrating link, No. 11, and it may be well to state that 
 the combination lever is called the vibrating arm by some loco- 
 motive builders. The valve of the engine shown in Fig. 1 is 
 of the piston type, with "inside admission." 
 
 Q. 3. — What is meant by the "expansive force" of the steam? 
 
 A. — For the production of power, matter must first be changed 
 in form or state, and its effort to return to its original form 
 or state creates a force that may be employed and controlled. 
 Through the action of heat, water in a locomotive boiler is 
 changed to compressed steam, and in its effort to expand — to fill 
 a larger space — this force is created; when the steam is being 
 released through the cylinders of an engine its expansion, to 
 make more room for itself, forces the piston from it ; as it 
 expands its pressure lessens, but if steam is continually admitted 
 to the cylinder during the whole stroke of the piston its power 
 continues undiminished, because the comparatively small cylinder 
 is receiving the expansive effort frJm' the whole boiler, and in 
 this case expansion really drives the piston, but the term is not 
 made use of. If the admission of steam from a boiler pressure 
 of 100 pounds to a cylinder with a piston stroke of 24 inches 
 should be closed after the piston has traveled, say 12 inches, the 
 pressure against the jiiston at the instant of cessation of boiler 
 supply would be, approximately, 100 pounds per square inch, but 
 thereafter, as the piston was forced to advance in its travel, the 
 pressure of the steam in the cylinder would decrease in inverse 
 ratio to the increase in its volume — the increasing spa(*e between 
 the piston and the pressure head of the cylinder — until, when the 
 piston had completed its twenty-fourth inch of stroke, and if the 
 exhaust had not yet commenced, the steam would have a pressure 
 approximating 50 pounds per square inch, for the volume of the 
 steam would then be twice what it was at the time of the cut-off 
 of its supply. If the closure of steam supply had been earlier in 
 the stroke than 12 inches the expansion would have been carried 
 further, and the steam finally released from the cylinder at a still 
 lower pressure; but in a locomotive cylinder steam is never ex- 
 panded down to a pressure lower than that which will produce 
 the required power. In starting a heavy train expansion, as we 
 term it, is not made use of, while the lighter the train and the 
 faster it is run, the shorter will be the duration of steam admis- 
 sion to the cylinder, with a consequent increase in the length of 
 expansive effort of the steam at each stroke of the piston. Steam 
 
 I
 
 GEAR 
 
 257 
 
 

 
 25S VALVE 
 
 is capable of doing work until it has expanded down to an equiva- 
 lent of atmosj)heri(,' pressure, and at that stage will still exert a 
 force of nearly lo pounds to the square inch if a vacuum be 
 produced on the oj)posite side of tlie piston by complete con- 
 densation of the exhaust steam. The engine that shows the great- 
 est economy in the use of steam is the one in which there is the 
 widest difference between the cylinder pressures at the times of 
 steam admission and release. 
 
 Q. 4. — How many general types of locotnotive valve motion are 
 in use on American railways? 
 
 A. — There are two : The so-called ' ' Stephenson ' ' gear, or link 
 motion, and tiie Walschaert type. Both were invented at dates 
 not so far apart, before the middle of the last century. The 
 Stephenson gear, an Englishman's device, has been practically 
 the standard American locomotive valve gear until the present 
 century, while the Walschaert motion, the production of a 
 Belgian, has been the favorite on European railways. The Wal- 
 schaert gear has been given desultory trials in this country, but 
 was never taken up with a serious intention of determining its 
 merits until within the past few years. 
 
 • Q. 5. — From where does valve gear, of any type, receive its 
 actuation? 
 
 A. — As the valve controls the action of the piston its phases 
 must be coincidental with certain regularly re-occurring phases 
 of the piston 's operation ; therefore the valve must receive its 
 motion from some point or combination of points in the machin- 
 ery that is actuated by the piston. 
 
 Q. 6. — What type of valve is required in association with the 
 Walschaert style of gear? 
 
 A. — As with the common link motion, any type of valve that is 
 in favor may be used with the Walschaert gear. The valve is 
 not regarded really as a part of the valve gear. 
 
 Q. 7. — What is the principal difference between the Stephen- 
 son link motion and the Walschaert valve gear? 
 
 A. — Both systems employ a link for reversion of direction of 
 motion, but in the Stephenson gear it is a "floating" link, of 
 swing suspension, its motion imparted by two eccentrics attached 
 to the main shaft, or axle, and raising or lowering the link past 
 its central position causes the reversion, while a slight shift 
 up or down will shorten or lengthen the period of steam admis- 
 sion to the cylinders, because the valve receives its regular mo- 
 tion directly from a block carried in the slot of the link. The 
 Walschaert link is suspended by a fixed fulcrum pin, or trunnion, 
 located at the exact center of the link saddle, to which it 
 oscillates, and can not be raised nor lowered. The link receives 
 its motion from a single eccentric, the forward end of which 
 is connected to an extension of the bottom of the link, and the 
 back end is connected to the eccentric, which is in the form of a 
 return crank attached to the main crank-pin and set 90 degrees
 
 GEAR 259 
 
 from it. The link and eccentrics of the Stephenson motion are 
 inside of the engine frames, while the whole motion work of the 
 Walschaert gear is outside the frame, where the parts are better 
 subject to inspection, lubrication and repair. A secondary, or 
 modifying, motion, called lead, must be imparted to the valve, 
 and this is secured in the Stephenson gear by advancing the 
 position of* the eccentrics on the axle, while by the Walschaert 
 method the location of the eccentric remains unchanged and 
 lead is secured by the more accurate and stable method of a 
 device called the combination lever. The lower end of the com- 
 bination lever has a link-bar connection with the cross-head, and 
 ~ at its upper end and at an intermediate point on the lever closely 
 adjoining are two other connections, the valve-stem and the 
 radius rod. The valve-stem works on a guiding slide and sup- 
 ports the weight of the combination lever, carrying it in true 
 position, while the back end of the radius rod is attached to the 
 link'block. The lifting-arm of the reversing gear has its sus- 
 pension bar attached to the radius rod, which it raises and lowers 
 instead of shifting the link, as the reverse lever is thrown for- 
 ward and back, and this changing of the location of the radius 
 rod and link-block in the slot of the link either reverses the mo- 
 tion or shortens or lengthens the period of steam admission to the 
 cylinders. 
 
 Q. 8. — How many general types of valve are there in loco- 
 motive use? 
 
 A. — There are many styles of valves, but all are embraced 
 within two general types— slide valves and piston valves. A 
 slide valve, or "D-slide valve," so called because in sectional 
 side elevation it has the appearance of a reclining capital letter 
 D, has a flat, plane face bearing on its seat, and the admission 
 of steam to the ports to each end of the cylinder is past the 
 ends of the valve, while the exhaust is through the inside cavity, 
 and a slide-valve is, therefore, of "outside admission." If 
 the total area of the top side of the slide-valve was exposed to 
 the full steam pressure from the boiler, it would cause the valve 
 to work very hard on account of its high frictional resistance, but 
 slide-valves now have a large portion of the steam area balanced, 
 causing them to work quite easily. Piston valves are in the 
 form of a spool, the wide ends being really pistons similar to the 
 main piston iu the cylinder joined by the narrower tube of the 
 •spool, which is generally hollow, so that both ends of the valve 
 chamber are in communication with each other, although some 
 motive power officials use closed spools, as both ends of the valve 
 chamber are otherwise in communication with each other. When 
 piston valves are of outside admission the live boiler pressure 
 occupies the ends of the valve chamber and the intermediate 
 space between the pistons is open to the exhaust, so that the 
 action is not unlike that of the D-slide valve. But most piston 
 valves are of inside admission, wherein the ends of the valve
 
 260 VALVE 
 
 chamber are open to the exhaust nml the middle space holds the 
 live steam: this balances the valve, fore and aft, perfectly, as 
 the areas inside of the valve are equal, while outside end pres- 
 sures on the valve are unequal, due to the space occupied by 
 the valve-stem; with inside admission, also, there is no pressure 
 against the valve-stem packing, except that of the exhaust steam. 
 When outside admission valves start to open an admission port to 
 the cylinder, either regularl}- or for lead, they must move in the 
 same direction the piston will move, while an inside admission 
 valve must go in an opposite direction to the resulting travel 
 of the piston, so that the live steam can pass from the inside of 
 the valve to the admission port; and while it is doing this the 
 port from the opposite end of the cylinder is open to the oppo- 
 site end of the valve chamber and the exhaust. 
 
 Q. 9. — What is the theoretical position of the valve in relation 
 to the piston, with either of the common types of locomotive 
 valve gear? 
 
 A. — With outside admission the valve is always one-fourth of 
 a cycle of motion, or double stroke, ahead of the piston; inside 
 admission valves follow the piston by that distance. 
 
 Q. 10. — What is meant by direct or indirect valve motion? 
 
 A. — Valve motion is direct when thei'e is no reversion in the 
 line of motion between the eccentric and valve; indirect when 
 there is such reversion, as by the double rocker-arms of the 
 Stephenson link motion, etc. 
 
 Q. 11.— What is lead? 
 
 A.— It has been stated that a valve of outside admission should 
 travel one-fourth of a cycle in advance of the piston, and to 
 obtain this result with direct motion the eccentric that actuates 
 the valve must be located at a point on the axle, or wheel, just 
 90 degrees ahead of the main crank-pin — in respect to the direc- 
 tion in which the engine is to run under the influence of that 
 eccentric — and with indirect motion the location of the eccentric 
 is 90 degrees behind the crank-pin; but, with the eccentric so 
 placed, when the crank-pin was on either dead center, at the 
 beginning of a stroke — the valve would be exactly centered on 
 its seat with both steam admission ports widely covered — 
 "widely," for the valve is considerably longer than the distance 
 between the outer edges of the two admis.sion ports — and as the 
 wheels began to turn from the action of the engine on the other 
 side the piston on this side would have been carried some distance 
 in the cylinder before the valve would have moved far enough 
 to uncover the admission port. In common practice, however, an 
 alteration is effected in the gear whereby the valve — of either 
 inside or outside admission — is advanced slightly further than its 
 theoretical position, with the result that as the piston is uearing 
 the end of its stroke, in cither direction, the admission port will 
 start to open. This gives a preadmission of steam against the 
 piston that is expected to cushion the sudden stoppage of the
 
 GEAR 261 
 
 motion work, and to provide a full opening for steam admission 
 earlier in the course of tlie piston 's stroke. This preliminary 
 opening of the admission ports is referred to as the lead. 
 
 Q. 12. — Does lead have any further effects than those just 
 stated? 
 
 A. — Yes; all of the regular events of the valve are hastened, 
 and while steam will be admitted to the cylinder earlier m the 
 course of the piston 's stroke, it will be closed off correspondingly 
 earlier; there is nothing in the matter of lead that can make the 
 steam push against the piston during a longer part of the stroke 
 than it would if lead were not present ; in either case steam 
 is admitted to the cylinder during the time that the crank is 
 describing a certain number of degrees on the wheel 's circle, 
 and lead brings those degrees of force back to a point where the 
 crank is ineffective — the dead center — with a consequent loss 
 of power. Lead also causes an earlier closing of the exhaust, 
 which in turn creates an undesirably high degree of compression 
 between the piston and the cylinder head toward which it is 
 advancing. 
 
 Q. 13. — Does not compression take place even though the valve 
 should not be advanced for the purpose of securing lead? 
 
 A. — Yes, with any valve having lap, if it should be exactly 
 central on its seat when the piston has arrived at the end of its 
 stroke, there would be compression, for the reason that as the 
 piston is nearing the end of the cylinder the valve is commencing 
 to cover the exhaust opening, and before the piston has com- 
 pleted its stroke the exhaust is so strictured by the constantly 
 lessening area of opening that even if the exhaust port is not 
 entirely closed when the valve is on center there will be a certain 
 amount of compression between the piston and cylinder head. 
 But with the mere absence of lead opening of the admission 
 port there will be a considerable amount of compression, for 
 after the exhaust has closed the valve will have to travel the 
 distance of its lap before the admission port is edge-and-edge 
 with the valve, and while the valve is doing this distance the 
 piston is moving through an equal proportion of its stroke, but 
 toward the finish, with the exhaust port covered. So, in almost 
 any conceivable case there is enough back pressure toward the 
 finish of the piston's stroke to cushion its stop and the sudden 
 reversal of the motion work, without the pre-admission of live 
 steam as lead for that purpose. 
 
 Q. 14. — What is it that causes this inevitable compression? 
 
 A. — It is due to the lap of the valve. 
 
 Q. 15.— What is the lap of the valve? 
 
 A. — As stated before, when the valve is centered exactly on 
 its seat its front and back edges extend beyond the outside 
 edges of the admission ports, and the distance that the valve 
 so "overlaps" the ports is called the outside, or steam, lap, this 
 with outside admission valves; with any kind of valve it is
 
 262 VALVE 
 
 the distance the valve must be moved from an exactly central 
 position on its seat until the admission port starts to open. With 
 inside admission valves the steam lap is to the inside; the inner 
 edges of the valve pistons overlap the admission ports by the 
 same distance as do the outer edges of a slide-valve of the same 
 moments. The expansive strength of steam could not be obtained 
 in an engine cylinder if its valve was without lap, for the lap 
 of the valve extends the time between the completion of the 
 cut-off of steam admission to the cylinder and the commencement 
 of the exhaust opening from the cylinder. 
 
 Q. 16. — Then, in order to secure preadmission of steam to the 
 cylinder, or lead, the valve must be advanced in its direction of 
 travel a distance equal to the lap plus the decided amount of 
 lead opening? 
 
 A. — Yes; this should always be remembered. 
 
 Q. 17. — What is the method of securing this valve advance with 
 the Stephenson link motion? 
 
 A. — It is accomplished by moving both the "go-ahead" and 
 "back-up" eccentrics in the proper direction on the main shaft, 
 or axle, as noted in answer to question 7. 
 
 Q. IS. — How is lead obtained by the Walschaert gear? 
 
 A. — The device of the combination lever is employed in the 
 Walschaert gear to produce the secondary motion of the valve 
 by which it is advanced to overcome the delay in its movement 
 due to the lap, and also to give the port opening for lead when 
 such is desired; and to do this is the sole function of the com- 
 bination lever. While in either type of gear the motion of the 
 piston must eventually furnish every motion of the valve. The 
 Stephenson plan must change the straight-line motion derived 
 from the piston into the circular motion of the wheel and axle, 
 and back again to the straight-line motion of the valve for each 
 of its several functions, and this introduces errors impossible to 
 entirely overcome. The Walschaert gear, however, takes the 
 straight-line motion of the piston right at the cross-head and, 
 through the combination lever, as noted in answer to question 7, 
 a short, diverting motion is imparted to the valve-stem that most 
 accurately shifts the position of the valve the required amount 
 for lead. 
 
 Q. 19. — Then, if an engine with the Walschaert gear was 
 standing with crank-pin on the forward dead center, with cylinder 
 cocks open, and the throttle should be opened if no steam should 
 blow from the forward cylinder cock it would prove that this 
 engine had no lead to the front admission port, would it not? 
 And if the valve gear was correctly set up, would not the one 
 foregoing test prove the amount of or absence of lead to the back 
 admission port as well? And would not such test have the same 
 result if made with the crank on either dead center? 
 
 A. — Yes to each question, because the combination lever gives 
 exactly equal results at the finish of each stroke of the piston.
 
 GEAR 263 
 
 Q. 20. — And if an engine standing as suggested in question 19 
 should prove to have no lead because no steam blew from the 
 ■cylinder cock, nvould it still be necessary for a combination lever 
 to be used? 
 
 A. — Yes. In the Walschaert gear the combination lever is 
 a necessity whenever the valve has any steam lap, and all loco- 
 motive valves have. 
 
 Q. 21. — Does the amount of lead supplied by the Walschaert 
 gear remain the same at all points of the cut-off? 
 
 A. — Yes; the lead is permanent for all points of cut-off, does 
 not change, and can not be changed. 
 
 Q. 22. — In the Stephenson link motion does the lead vary? 
 
 A. — It does. The position of each eccentric is adjusted on the 
 axle to a certain amount of lead when in full gear, but as the 
 reverse lever is hooked up toward the center the lead increases 
 in amount. 
 
 Q. 23. — Are there not different ideas held concerning the real 
 meaning of the term "lead"? 
 
 A. — Yes. Many enginemen refer to the shift in position of the 
 Stephenson eccentrics, or the presence of the Walschaert com- 
 bination lever, as simply for the purpose of securing lead, when, 
 as explained, the valve may be set blind — without lead — yet still 
 the valve should not be centered with the crank-pin on a dead 
 center. 
 
 Q. 24. — How may it be known from outward appearance 
 •whether with the Walschaert gear a piston valve is of inside or 
 outside admission? 
 
 A. — This depends upon the individual design of the reversing 
 gear principally, but in the strictly American style of construc- 
 tion, whereby the radius rod is lowered when the reverse lever is 
 thrown forward and raised by throwing it back, and assuming 
 an engine to be running forward, for the sake of distinction, 
 with outside admission valves of either the D-slide or piston type, 
 the eccentric is located 90 degrees ahead of the main crank-pin, and 
 the valve-stem is connected to the upper end of the combination 
 lever, with the radius rod connection to the combination lever 
 beneath it ; with inside admission valves the eccentric is located 
 90 degrees behind the crank-pin, and the radius rod is connected 
 to the upper end of the combination lever with the valve-stem 
 <-onnection beneath it. 
 
 Q. 25. — Illustrate this principle. 
 
 A. — Note Figure 2, the Mallet Articulated Compound Loco- 
 motive built by the American Locomotive Company. Kemember- 
 ing the information given in the answer to the last preceding " 
 question, it will be seen that the forward ' ' engine ' ' has a D-slide 
 valve — necessarily of outside admission — with the valve-stem con- 
 nected to the combination lever above the radius rod, and the 
 eccentric set a "quarter" ahead of the main crank-pin. The 
 rearward engine has piston valves, and we may know that they
 
 264 VALVE 
 
 are of inside admission by reason of the location of the eccentric 
 in its relation to the crank-pin, and the connections of valve-stem 
 and radius rod to tlie combination lever being opposite to the 
 arrangonionts of tiiose parts on the forward engine. 
 
 Q. L'6. — In referring to "shorter cut-oflf, " and "hooking-up, " 
 do not both expressions mean the same? 
 
 A. — "Shorter cut-oflf" is an effect with "hooking-up" as the 
 cause. With the Walschaert gear, if the reverse should be set 
 in either extreme end notch of the quadrant, it will cause the 
 radius rod to be carried at either the extreme upper or lower 
 end of the link, thus giving the valve its longest travel and 
 admitting steam to the cylinder during the greater part of the 
 piston's stroke. Hooking-up means changing the position of 
 the reverse lever to a notch nearer the center of the quadrant in 
 either forward or back gear, and as this brings the radius rod 
 and link-block correspondingly nearer to the center of the link, 
 a shorter motion is imparted to the valve, and the admission of 
 steam to the cylinder and the exhaust therefrom are cut off — 
 cease — at earlier periods in the course of the piston 's stroke. 
 Hence the expression of ' ' shorter cut-oflf. ' ' 
 
 Q. 27. — Using a diagram in side elevation, give a description 
 of the operation of the Walschaert gear in connection with a 
 valve of outside admission during the course of one single 
 stroke of the piston, 
 
 A. — With reference to Fig. 3 — a Baldwin engine with the 
 Walschaert gear and outside admission valves of the D-slide 
 pattern — the crank-pins are on the front dead center and piston 
 at the extreme forward end of the cylinder just ready to begin 
 its backward stroke. In referring to the positions of the crank- 
 pin and single eccentric and their relations toward each other, 
 it must be remembered that we assume the engine to be running 
 forward, always; in Fig. 3, then, the eccentric is a "quarter" 
 or one-fourth turn ahead of the crank-pin as the wheel turns for- 
 ward, which is as it should be with outside admission valves. 
 The eccentric, being now on a vertical line through the center 
 of the wheel, holds the link in a vertical position and if the 
 reverse lever was moved from the forward notch, where it now 
 stands, clear over to the farthest back-up notch, it would raise 
 the back end of the radius rod and link-block from the lower 
 to the upper end of the link, and the radius rod would assume 
 m turn the dififerent angles represented by the dotted lines, but 
 the position of its forward end would not be altered the slightest 
 because the link curves toward the fulcrum of the radius rod, 
 and its radius is the same as the length 'of the radius rod; in 
 other words, the curve of the link is the same as if it was a 
 section of the rim of a wheel of which the radius rod is a spoke 
 with the pin in its forward end as the hub center. When the 
 eccentric is just 90 degrees from the crank-pin the valve will be 
 exactly centered on its seat if there should be no other device
 
 GEAR 
 
 265 
 
 employed fur advancing it to secure lead; the combination lever 
 is introduced for that purpose, but let us remove it and note the ^ 
 result : Imagine/ that we remove the pin from the lower end of 
 the combination lever, thus disconnecting it from the cross-head, 
 and draw it to the right; the pin, i, will remain fixed in posi- 
 tion and fulcrum the motion of the combination lever, the upper 
 end of which will move to the left with its slide from which it 
 is suspended ; this slidf is connected to the end of the valve-stem, 
 acting as a cross-head for it, and when the combination lever has 
 been drawn to a vertical position — proven by the pins i and n 
 near its upper end, being on the same vertical line — the valve will 
 be placed at the true center of its travel with both steam ports 
 overcovered by the amount of outside lap. Now we will take out 
 pins i and n, thus entirely disconnecting the combination lever, 
 and we find that by raising the front end of the radius rod 
 
 Fig. 3. Walschaert Motion with B-Slide Valve. 
 
 its pin hole, i, will just match in position with the pin hole n in 
 the valve-stem slide so we will insert a pin to join them, and 
 having the radius rod and valve-stem thus directly connected 
 together, there is a direct and unbroTien line of motion from the 
 link-block to the valve; as the crank-pin stands, on a dead center, 
 the valve would be at its center of motion and we have an engine 
 that would run, but in which the piston would not begin to exert 
 its power until it had been carried some distance in its stroke; 
 but the maximum force of the piston would be exerted at the 
 time when the crank was exerting its greatest leverage. 
 
 The plate shows a vertical line drawn through the center of 
 the cylinder and valve seat, and a similar line through the exact 
 center of the valve, and taking this engine as it stands, e.xcept 
 for the change made by removing the combination lever, those
 
 266 VALVE 
 
 two vertical lines would exactly coincide; the valve lias no 
 advance whatever — the lap is positive — and in replacing the 
 combination lever the method of producing lead will be demon- 
 strated. 
 
 The engine is shown with the main rod removed, so as it will 
 not affect the crank we will push the cross-head back until the 
 piston is at the center of the cylinder — on the vertical line drawn 
 through it — and we can then reconnect the combination lever 
 without changing the position of the valve, because the piston 
 and valve are both centered, and when that condition exists the 
 combination lever is vertical, in regard to its upper two connec- 
 tions. After the radius rod and valve-stem have been discon- 
 nected from each other and reconnected to the combination lever, 
 we will push the cross-head forward again, and as it advances 
 the valve will be pulled in the opposite direction by the angle 
 which the combination lever is assuming until when the piston has 
 reached the finish of its forward stroke we find that the valve 
 has uncovered the front admission port by a very slight amount 
 for the lead opening, and it has been done without any movement 
 of the eccentric or link, showing that the position of the eccentric 
 has nothing to do with the lead. Vertical lines through the two 
 pins of the combination lever connecting it with the radius rod 
 and valve-stem are now exactly the same distance apart as are 
 the parallel lines through the valve and seat, showing that the 
 amount of advance given to the valve when the crank is on the 
 dead center is governed by the angle assumed by the combina- 
 tion lever at that time, and its length between the upper pins 
 connecting it with the radius rod and valve-stem, for the dis- 
 tance between the vertical lines through valve and seat, and 
 through the pins of the combination lever is exactly equal to the 
 length of the lap of the valve plus the lead. 
 
 When we had the combination lever standing vertically and 
 the valve and piston at the centers of their travels, if we had 
 drawn the cross-head backward to the end of its stroke the back 
 admission port would have been uncovered for lead, and the 
 valve would have been off center exactly the same distance as 
 shown in the plate, but in the opposite direction. 
 
 The position of the reverse lever would have had no effect 
 on the valve movements that we have been supposing, for with 
 the eccentric directly below or above the center of the wheel, 
 the link will be held in a position in which the link-block can 
 travel from one end of the link slot to the other without chang- 
 ing the location of the front end of the radius rod. 
 
 Let us assume that the main rod is coupled up. We will place 
 the reverse lever in the center notch of the quadrant and this 
 brings the radius rod up to the horizontal position shown in 
 dotted line, and the link-block pin will coincide with the fulcrum 
 pin, or trunnion, at the center of the link, and from which it is 
 suspended; now, if the engine should be pushed, or its wheels
 
 GEAR 267 
 
 made to revolve in either direction, the eccentric -n-ould give the 
 full motion to the link — which it does regardless of the position 
 in which the reverse lever is carried — but the link-block being 
 at the center of the link is given no motion, and therefore it 
 imparts none through the radius rod to the combination lever 
 and valve. The valve will be given its short travel, however, 
 received from the cross-head, and always in the opposite direction 
 to the piston 's travel. Whether the wheels turn forward or 
 backward the result is the same. As the piston reaches either 
 end of the cylinder the combination lever has drawn the valve 
 just far enough in the opposite direction to uncover the admis- 
 sion port the requisite distance for lead. 
 
 Now drop the reverse lever ahead, and, with the gear as 
 shown in Fig. 3, with the addition of having the main rod up in 
 position, which we will assume, we start the engine forward 
 under her own steam; the starting, however, must be done by 
 the piston on the other side of the engine, for the admission 
 of steam to the visible cylinder can exert no turning power to 
 the wheels while the crank-pin is on the center; as the crank 
 leaves the front center its motion is downward, rather than 
 backward, and the straight-line motion of the cross-head and 
 piston will be to move backward very slowly at this time, with 
 a consequent delay in the motion of the lower end of the com- 
 bination lever. Just at this time, though, the eccentric is making 
 its quickest move, the lower end of the link is carried backward, 
 drawing the upper end of the combination lever, and if the 
 valve — practically a straight line of motion, and the fast motion 
 of the eccentric is imparted to the valve, thus giving the for- 
 ward admission port a quick, full opening at just the time the 
 piston has started to enter, what should be the most effective 
 part of its stroke — when the crank-pin is nearing the "quarter." 
 The starting angle of the combination lever is maintained until 
 the piston has made about one-fourth of its stroke, when at that 
 time the crank-pin is starting on the fastest part of its circular 
 path of motion — past the quarter — and the motion of the lower 
 end of the combination lever is accelerated while its upper end 
 is retarded by the delay of the eccentric in approaching and 
 passing the end of its backward stroke ; this causes the com- 
 bination lever to begin straightening up toward a vertical posi- 
 tion, and as its motion lessens with its angle the valve stops and 
 slowly begins a forward movement, traveling faster as the eccen- 
 tric gets well started on its forward stroke, and after the crank- 
 pin has passed the lower quarter of the combination lever begins 
 to incline itself over in a position opposite to that in the plate. 
 As the crank-pin finally approaches the end of its single stroke 
 — the back center — the eccentric will be moving rapidly forward 
 toward its ' ' upper quarter, ' ' which, in connection with the fast 
 increasing angle of the combination lever, gives such a quicken- 
 ing forward motion to the valve that after the steam has been
 
 268 YALyE. 
 
 cut off from the forward admission port its opening to the 
 exhaust and the lead opening to the back admission port follow 
 in most rapid sequence. Thus, at the completion of a single 
 etroke of the piston all parts of the motion work will be in 
 positions exactly opposite to those shown in Fig. 3, except 
 that the link will have returned to the same position as in the 
 plate, for the eccentric will again be on a vertical line through 
 the center of the axle, although above, instead of below, the 
 center. 
 
 Q. 28. — Without detail, and in fewer words, simply relate the 
 changes occurring in the Walschaert valve gear during a stroke 
 of the piston. 
 
 A. — On the front center the gear is as shown in Fig. 3; with 
 the crank on back center the eccentric is nearly raised from below 
 to above the hub center without any change in the point of 
 location of the forward end of the eccentric rod, nor link; the 
 location of the piston being changed from the front to the back 
 end of the cylinder, the cross-head has carried the lower end 
 of the combination lever the same distance back of its vertical 
 line that the plate shows it ahead of that line, with the result 
 that the upper end of the lever will be thrown the same distance 
 ahead of its central perpendicular that the plate shows it back 
 of that line, thus moving the valve forward of the central 
 position in which the eccentric has placed it, the same distance 
 that the plate shows it back of that position, and this will give 
 precisely the same amount of lead opening to the back admis- 
 sion port that the plate shows is given to the forward port. 
 
 Q. 29. — The Stephenson link motion may be either "direct" 
 or "indirect." How about the Walchaert gear in this respect? 
 
 A. — The Walschaert gear is of direct motion when the reverse 
 lever is forward of the central notch of the quadrant and the 
 radius rod below the center of the link, for there is then a 
 direct, or unreversed, line of motion from eccentric to valve, 
 the link acting as a single-arm rocker; it is of indirect motion 
 with the reverse lever in any back-up notch, as then the radius 
 rod is carried above the link center and the motion produced 
 by the eccentric and transmitted to the lower end of the link 
 by the eccentric rod is reversed by the oscillation of the link, and 
 the motion it delivers to the radius rod and valve is in an opposite 
 direction, therefore, to that received from the eccentric, the link 
 in the latter case ac^ting as a double-arm rocker. 
 
 Q. 30. — Will the eccentric of the Walschaert gear give any 
 movement to the valve when the engine is running if the reverse 
 lever is standing in the center notch of the quadrant? 
 
 A. — No, for then the radius rod is being carried at the center 
 of the link and will receive no motion; but the valve will have 
 the short travel derived from the cross-head, through the com- 
 bination lever, a travel equal to twice the length of the valve's 
 lap and lead added together. The pin in the forward end of the
 
 GEAR 
 
 269 
 
 radius rod at this time acts as a fixed fulcrum to the combina- 
 tion lever which is receiving no motion except from the cross- 
 head 
 
 Q. 31. — vYhen the reverse lever is forward of the center of the 
 quadrant the radius rod is working in the lower half of the 
 link, and with the lever back of the center the radius rod is in 
 the upper half of the link — is it not? 
 
 A. — Such is common American practice; but if it will sim- 
 plify the reversing gear the radius rod may work above the link 
 center in the forward motion, and many European engines with 
 Walschaert gear are so designed. Fig. 4 is a reproduction of 
 such construction from Auchincloss' book on Valve Motion, and 
 represents an engine running forward ; the reversing — or tumbling 
 — shaft is located, as with old-time Rogers engines, below the 
 link, thus lessening the "slip" of the link-block while it is 
 
 ECCOITHIC goo 
 
 CtNrRU. LINE or MOTION 
 
 
 • «* REVERStHO SHAFT 
 
 Fig. 4. Walschaert Motion with Radius Rod Above Link Center 
 in Forward Gear. 
 
 working in the upper half of the link, which is forward gear 
 in this case. It will be noted from the plate that the only other 
 alteration in the gear made necessary in changing the position 
 of the radius rod to the opposite end of the link is simply to 
 change the location of the eccentric from 90 degrees ahead of 
 the crank-pin to 90 degrees behind it, with outside admission 
 valves as in the plate, or vice versa with valves of inside admis- 
 sion. Of course the reversing gear must be designed so that 
 the reverse lever will be forward of the center notch of the 
 quadrant when it has raised the radius rod above the link center. 
 
 Q. 32. — Is it easier to secure equal cut-off of the admission 
 of steam to each end of the cylinder with the Walschaert' gear 
 than with the Stephenson link motion? 
 
 A. — Yes; in the Walschaert gear the opening and closing 
 moments of the ports are accomplished with equal precision iii 
 each direction of the valve's travel and can not be otherwise.
 
 270 VALVE 
 
 for, as the piston moves in either direction from the center of 
 the cylinder it causes the combination lever to move the valve 
 in an opposite direction with outside admission, and in the same 
 direction with inside admission valves of the piston type, but in 
 either case the distance the valve is moved exactly equals a 
 certain and fixed proportion of the distance of the piston 's 
 travel, this being the leverage proportions of the combination 
 lever. 
 
 Q. 33. — The curve of the Stephenson link is from a backward 
 radius. Why is the curve of the Walschaert link on a radius 
 from ahead? 
 
 A. — As the radius rod, by its attachment to the link-block, 
 may be carried at any point in the link according to the direc- 
 tion of motion and the point of cut-off, raising or lowering the 
 radius rod from the center would put it at an untrue angle with 
 the link if the curve of the -link were not toward the radius 
 rod and of a radius equal to the length of the radius rod from 
 its pin connection with- the combination lever to the link-block 
 pin. Setting the engine on either dead center — as in Fig. 3, 
 for instance — the reverse lever may be brought from one end of 
 its sector clear over to the farthest opposite notch without 
 shifting the position of the valve in the slightest degree if all 
 parts of the motion work have been correctly designed and 
 properly set up, for, while the link-block is being moved from one 
 end of the link slot to the other it is at all times equidistant 
 from a fixed point represented by the location of the pin con- 
 necting the radius rod and combination lever when the radius 
 rod is at the center of the link ; to enable this to occur, the 
 radius and direction of curve of the link must conform to the 
 radius rod; and it is. called the radius rod because its length 
 determines the radius of the link's curvature. 
 
 Q. 34. — Describe the Walschaert link in detail. 
 
 A. — The reversing links used in connection with the Walschaert 
 gear by different engine builders, and on locomotives of different 
 types, vary somewhat in design; some are open links nearly like 
 those of the Stephenson link motion, but generally they are very 
 similar to the one illustrated in Fig. 5, which is engraved from 
 a blue-print furnished by the American Locomotive Company. 
 
 The piece that forms the link proper, and has the slot that 
 holds the link-block, is extended down much further than the slot 
 in order to take the eccentric rod connection as fiear as possible 
 to the horizontal line through the wheel's center, this lower 
 extension forming the link foot; the link piece is shown in side 
 elevation A as la, and in end view B as Ih ; it is forged from 
 wrought iron and ease-hardened. The frame that carries the 
 link piece is composed of the two bracket pieces Sb, in view B, 
 one on each side, with their ends bolted to the link piece; they 
 are of cast steel, each including the fulcrum pin 3b by which 
 the link is suspended and which are designed to be even with
 
 GEAR 
 
 271 
 
 the center of the link slot, both vertically and horizontally; a 
 case-hardened bushing of wrought iron is pressed on to these 
 link trunnions, or fulcrum pins, in order to prevent any lost 
 motion from wear. The pin hole in the link foot, 4a, 4b, to which 
 the eccentric rod is connected, is also fitted with a wrought iron, 
 case-hardened bushing. In view A, the slot in the link piece in 
 which the link-block operates is in dotted outline as indicated by 
 
 D 
 
 Fig. 5. The Walschaert Link. 
 
 6a, 6a, and the link-block is shown in the views C and D; C is 
 the side of the block and as it would appear if raised to its posi- 
 tion in the link slot in the view A, and the edge of the block is 
 shown in view Z) as it would lie in the link turned to the end- 
 wise view B, and when in place in the slot the sides 'of the block 
 are almost flush with the sides of the link piece to afford room
 
 272 VALVE 
 
 for the jaws of the radius rod to pass inside of the brackets; 
 the hole 8c, 8d, is for the pin by which the radius rod is attached 
 to the link-block, and this hole, like the others, is also bushed 
 with case-hardened wrought iron. 
 
 A plan of the gear would show the radius rod lying on the 
 same longitudinal line as the link; the back end of the radius 
 rod is forked, a jaw passing on each side of the link piece and 
 inside of the carrying bracket piece, the jaws embracing the link- 
 block ; there is a pin hole through each jaw of the radius rod 
 coinciding with the hole 8c, 8d, of the link-block for the pin 
 that connects them together, and these holes are bushed similarly 
 "to the other pin holes as described; but there will be no wear to 
 the pin holes through the radius rod jaws for the reason that a 
 keying bolt runs down through a vertical hole in each jaw and 
 through the link-block-pin, thus holding the pin rigid with the /a- 
 dius rod, the pin turning only in the hole through the link-block. 
 The openings at 7a, Ih, in the outer link bracket piece beside 
 providing means for direct oiling of the bearing surfaces of link- 
 block and link may also be used as an aperture through which the 
 link-block pin can be removed. 
 
 The link piece contains an oil well, 5a, Sh, in the top end, and 
 another similar one, 4a, 4b, in the link-foot, each with a small 
 feed hole drilled out at the bottom and the top ends threaded 
 to take a screw cap nut, for continuous lubrication of the faces 
 of the link-block and eccentric rod pin. An oil well of the same 
 kind is also provided in the top of the link-block, to lubricate the 
 radius rod pin. 
 
 It is by reason of the connection pins working in holes that are 
 fitted with practically non-wearing bushings, easy to oil, that 
 no lost motion of any moment develops in the Walschaert. 
 valve gear. 
 
 Q. 35. — Is the eccentric rod always connected directly with 
 the link foot? 
 
 A. — No, but it must have the same effect. Sometimes the 
 valve chest lies so far in toward the center line of the engine 
 that the link, to be in line, is also too far in for direct connection 
 with the eccentric rod, and in such cases it is common for the 
 link to have a supporting and carrying fulcrum pin on but one 
 side — the outer side — and this fulcrum pin attached to the outer 
 link bracket is lengthened to form a shaft working in a journal- 
 box, and extended outward far enough to have an arm attached 
 to it in line with the eccentric rod ; this arm reaches down as 
 much farther than the lower end of the link as the link foot 
 would extend, for the connection of the eccentric rod. When 
 this method of connecting the eccentric rod with the link is 
 employed there is, of course, no link foot, the link having 
 exactly the same lengths above and below its central trunnion. 
 
 Q. 36. — The action of the Walschaert gear in supplying the 
 motion to a valve of outside admission has been explained in
 
 GEAR 
 
 27.'5 
 
 answer to Question ,27, and with reference to Fig. 3. Now 
 explain the difference in the set-up and operation of the gear 
 as applied to an engine with valves of inside admission. 
 
 A. — Fig. 6 represents the latter type— piston valve of inside 
 admission; the reverse lever being in the center notch of the 
 quadrant, the radius rod is in position at the exact center of the 
 link just the same as though the valve were of outside admis- 
 eion, and this places the upper end of the combination lever — 
 to which the radius rod is connected — at its point of mid-throw, 
 while the piston being precisely in the center of the cylinder its 
 cross-head fixes the lower end of the combination lever at its 
 point of mid-travel, and these combined influences give the com- 
 
 Fig. 6. Walschaert Gear with Piston Valves of Inside Admission. 
 
 bination lever a jjosition which is plumb perpendicular, both its 
 upper pin holes — the radius rod and valve-stem connections — are 
 on the same vertical line, and this results in the valve being 
 placed exactly central on its seat with both admission ports over- 
 covered by the amount of steam lap, and this lap is from the 
 inside faces of the valve pistons in this case, because the live 
 boiler steam is contained between the pistons. With an engine 
 standing as in Fig. 6 the position and location of combination 
 lever and valve would be the same with valves of either inside or 
 outside admission. 
 
 Eotate the wheels one-quarter turn backward to bring the 
 piston at the front end of the cylinder, and the rise of the 
 eccentric to top quarter would pull the link to a vertical position, 
 but have no effect on the radius rod nor upper eud of the com- 
 bination lever, but the lower end of the lever would be pulled 
 forward carrying the valve-stem in the same direction as the 
 piston's travel and moving the valve forward of its central 
 position as shown in the plate, far enough to overcome the la}) 
 and to open the front admission port by the amount required 
 for lead, from the inside of the front valve piston.
 
 274 VALVE 
 
 Fig. 6 most clearly illustrates the method of securing lead 
 in the Walschaert motion; as the engine stands just imagine 
 that the main rod is removed, and then by pushing the cross- 
 head to each end of its stroke, in turn, the valve's established 
 amount of advance for lead is thereby produced, and proven to 
 be equal at each end of the cylinder. 
 
 While a valve of outside admission must be thrown by the 
 combination lever in an opposite direction to the stroke of the 
 piston to secure lead, this valve of inside admission must be 
 advanced in the same direction as the piston's stroke for that 
 purpose and to produce the effect the valve-stem is connected 
 to the combination lever below the radius rod connection. And 
 as the valve of inside admission must have its long travel derived 
 from the eccentric to be in an opposite direction to the travel 
 of a valve of outside admission, the eccentric is located so as to 
 follow the crank-pin by a quarter-turn, as shown in the plate, 
 instead of leading the crank by that distance as with valves of 
 outside admission. 
 
 Although the piston in Fig. 6 is at the exact center of the 
 cylinder the crank-pin has not yet completed one-half of its 
 travel between the dead centers — assuming the engme to be run- 
 ning forward; but if the back end oi the main rod could be dis- 
 connected and raised the circular opening in its stub-end would 
 center evenly with the hub center, showing that it has gone half 
 ■way in a straight line of motion, but in dropping it again to it3 
 depicted position the back end of the rod describes the arc of a 
 circle which carries it to a point a few degrees forward of a 
 vertical line through the hub center, and the shorter the main 
 rod the greater the variation from the center line. As the 
 eccentric is placed, theoretically, 90 degrees from the crank-pin, 
 this angularity of the main rod in offsetting the pin from the 
 true quarter also affects the position of the eccentric, giving it 
 now a location a few degrees away from, and higher than, its 
 'horizontal center line of motion, but as this error of location is 
 at right angles to the eccentric rod the effect of this slight offset 
 is not perceptible in operation, for, as the engine stands, the 
 error is present and if the reverse lever should be thrown into 
 either gear it would have to go to the corner notch to receive the 
 full effect of any error from the source referred to, and with 
 the radius rod at either end of the link an admission port would 
 be opened to its full capacity, admitting no error of such slight 
 moment ; so the angularity of the main rod can exert no mis- 
 chievous influence in the Walschaert gear. 
 
 From Fig. 6 it has been shown how the lead is produced by 
 simply moving the cross-head to the finish of either stroke for 
 the short travel of the valve, and that by placing the reverse 
 lever in either corner notch the long travel of the valve is given; 
 both ends of the link slot are at an equal distance from a vertical 
 line through the link fulcrum so that whether the radius rod is
 
 GEAR 275 
 
 raised or lowered it will throw the upper end of the combination 
 lever an exactly equal distance either forward or back of its 
 present central position, completing the full travel of the valve 
 either forward or back. 
 
 Q. 37. — Does the length of the radius rod hanger, and the loca- 
 tion of its point of suspension, have any material effect on the 
 action of the Walschaert gear? 
 
 A. — It does, to a remarkable degree. There is but one correct 
 location for the point of suspension, and that point can only 
 be determined by an expert designer of the gear, and any varia- 
 tion from the true locus will introduce serious error in the 
 motion. As to the length of the suspension bar, that also has 
 considerable influence on the action, but there is a variance of 
 opinion as to the length of suspension bar that should give the 
 more nearly correct results. On one of the earlier Mason engines 
 the suspension bar extended from the radius rod to a lifting 
 arm on a reversing shaft tiiat was carried across the top of the 
 boiler, while in a much latir design of the Walschaert: gear by 
 the same builders the height of suspension above the radius rod 
 was only equal to one-half the length of the link. The former 
 was an extreme case, but the latter was not if we notice the 
 manner of radius rod carriage in Fig. 6, a design of the Amer- 
 ican Locomotive Company, where there is no swing suspension 
 to the radius rod at all. On the end of the lifting arm there is 
 a pivoted slide through which the end of the radius rod extends, 
 beyond the link, and the reversing shaft is located on the same 
 horizontal line as the link trunnion, or fulcrum pin. 
 
 Q. 38. — Does the Walschaert' gear admit of experimental 
 changes or readjustments in the roundhouse or on the road, such 
 as seem to be required with the common link motion? 
 
 A. — No ; there is no portion of the Walschaert gear that can 
 be lengthened or shortened, outside of the general repair shop, 
 nor will there be any necessity for alterations in the motion 
 work. Formerly it was the practice to fit the Walschaert eccen- 
 tric rod with screw adjustments in order to correct through it 
 any little variation in the proportions of other parts of the gear 
 or slight errors in fixing the location of permanent positions of 
 the gear forward of the eccentric. Such a screw take-up is 
 impractical with the very heavy rods now used, but its length 
 may be slightly changed by adjusting the bearings at the eccen- 
 tric end on some engines. Even were it possible to do so no 
 change should ever be made in the motion work of this gear 
 ahead of the eccentric rod except in the "back shop." 
 
 Q. 39. — Does lost, or slack, motion appear in the Walschaert: 
 gear from wear at the connections or other sources as rapidly as 
 it does in the Stephenson gear? 
 
 A. — No; and one of the greatest recommendations for the 
 Walschaert ' gear is the almost entire absence of slack due to 
 wearing away of the bearing parts, thus insuring continuous
 
 -76 VALYE 
 
 regularity in the distribution of steam to the cylinders. Under 
 ordinary conditions an engine will run from shopping to shop- 
 ping without having had any part of the Walschaert gear closed 
 on account of worn looseness, and the engine will re-enter the 
 shop with the valve gear cutting off the steam, often, with no 
 perceptible loss in economy ; this is largely due to the fact that 
 all connections are made with pins working in bushings, all case- 
 hardened, and no large eccentrics with the enormous frictional 
 surfaces of their sheave and strap. 
 
 Q. 40. — The Walschaert eccentric is always referred to as 
 being located 90 degrees from the main crank-pin. Is this correct? 
 
 A. — Actually measured in degrees the Walschaert eccentric 
 will usually be found to be located somewhat nearer to the crank- 
 pin than the nominal 90 degrees when outside admission valves 
 are used, and an engine with exactly the same set-up of gear 
 except in having inside admission valves would have the eccentric 
 placed just the same number of degrees more than 90 away from 
 the crank-pin. 
 
 It must be remembered that the link is so centered with the 
 valve as to impart to it a motion free from the result of incorrect 
 angles, and in order to obtain that result the link is hung so 
 high that there i3 an undesirable angle in the transmission of 
 motion from the eccentric to the link. The ideally correct design 
 of the W^alschaert gear locates the connection of eccentric rod 
 to link exactly on the center line through the axle, and when so 
 placed in actual construction the eccentric will be located exactly 
 90 degrees from the crank-pin; but, as explained, this location is 
 not commonly obtained on modern locomotives; if the link foot 
 was extended down to receive the eccentric rod connection at 
 the theoretically correct location its length would shorten the 
 throw of the link to an impossible extent, so a compromise is 
 effected; the link foot is extended as low as may be permissible, 
 and to correct the error still existing, due to the angularity of 
 the eccentric rod's position, the location of the eccentric is 
 slightly shifted in the indicated direction. 
 
 Noting closely Fig. 3, it will be seen that while the crank-pin 
 is on the exact front center the eccentric is on a wheel radius 
 that is at right angles, or 90 degrees, to a line from the link 
 foot pin to axle center, the curved arrow indicating that the 
 eccentric is located 90 degrees from the center line of motion 
 of the eccentric rod; and when that line happens to coincide 
 with the main rod 's center line of motion — then, only, the eccen- 
 tric will be 90 degrees from the crank-pin. 
 
 If an inside admission valve was substituted for the D-slide 
 valve in Fig. 3, the eccentric would have to be changed to a 
 location directly opposite, across ■ the hub — 180 degrees distant, 
 around — and it is plainly seen that in moving across on the radial 
 line of the eccentric, that would place it just the same number 
 of degrees more than 90 away from the crank-pin — above the
 
 GEAR 277 
 
 wheel hub— that it now is less than 90 degrees from the crank-pin. 
 
 Q. 41. — "While an engine is running the bounding up and down 
 due to the spring action affects the proper working of the Ste- 
 phenson gear, causing imperfect steam distributiou. What effect 
 floes the rough carriage of the engine have on the "VValschaert 
 gear? 
 
 A. — It has no discernible effect, and when the link is set low 
 enough that with the crank-pin on the dead center the pin con- 
 necting the eccentric rod with the link foot will be on the hori- 
 zontal center line through the axle — its theoretically correct 
 location — the rise and fall of the engine will then have abso- 
 lutely no effect on the motion imparted to the valve. 
 
 Q. 42. — By reason of the return crank projecting the Wals- 
 chaert' eccentric out and further from the driving-box than the 
 Stephenson eccentrics are usually placed, is it not the case that 
 lost motion in the driving boxes will introduce greater irregu- 
 larities in the action of the Walschaert valve gear? 
 
 A. — 'Not at all; for, while the Walschaert eccentric may be 
 deflected slightly further than those of the Stephenson type, 
 lost motion in the boxes is largely dissipated by the very great 
 lever length between the suspension pins of the link and the 
 eccentric rod connection with the link foot, and through which 
 any motion engendered by the eccentric is reduced by a certain 
 and considerable proportion when transmitted to the radius rod 
 and valve. Loose driving-boxes should not be permitted, how- 
 ever, as the general effectiveness of an engine with any style of 
 valve gear is seriously impaired when the driving-boxes are in 
 such condition that setting-up the wedges will not remove the 
 lost motion at those points. 
 
 Q. 43. — Do the connections or other bearing parts of the 
 Walschaert gear have a tendency to heat in service? 
 
 A. — No. This valve gear is peculiarly free from any dispo- 
 sition toward heating; there have been certain cases where it has 
 not been designed to meet the unusual conditions of track and 
 service, and the eccentric rod pins have heated on account of 
 the twisting effect, on rough track, between the parts carried 
 by the driving wheel and the parts carried by the main frame. 
 Such troubles are not constitutional, are easily cured and never 
 need to have existed. 
 
 Q. 44. — In connection with the Walschaert gear, how may 
 the valve be exactly centered upon its seat so that with open 
 throttle steam will not blow from the open cylinder cocks? 
 
 A. — With valves of either inside or outside admission, when 
 the cross-head is at the exact center of its travel with crank-pin 
 on the upper or lower working quarter, reverse lever in center 
 notch of the quadrant and the combination lever standing — as 
 it must — in a plumb, vertical position, its two upper connection 
 pins on the same vertical line — then the valve is at the perfect 
 center.
 
 278 VALVE 
 
 Q. 45. — \Vhat is the meaning of the above reference to the 
 crank-pin as being on the "working quarter"? 
 
 A. — As explained in answer to a previous question, when the 
 crank-pin is on the perfect quarter it is on a vertical line through 
 tlie hub center, either above or below it, but owing to the angu- 
 larity of the main rod the piston is not then at the exact center 
 of its stroke; but when the piston is at the true center of the 
 cylinder — as outwardly indicated by the cross-head lying at the 
 center of its travel in the guides — the crank-pin is then a few 
 degrees forward of the true quarter, but is usually referred to 
 as being on the quarter at that time — therefore the working 
 quarter. This difference sometimes causes confusion, and in 
 alluding to the placing of an engine "on the quarter" it should 
 be stated whether the quarter is to be fixed in reference to the 
 position of the cross-head or crank-pin. 
 
 Q. 46. — If an engine with the Walschaert gear is standing 
 on the working quarter, the piston at the exact center of the 
 cylinder and the reverse lever in the center notch of the quad- 
 rant, suppose that the valve was not truly centered — steam would 
 blow from one of the cylinder cocks with the throttle open. 
 What would be the cause, and how could the cause be detected 
 and remedied? 
 
 A. — With the gear in this position there would have to be an 
 extensive error indeed to allow steam to blow from a cylinder 
 cock, as this would indicate a false movement of the valve more 
 than equaling the length of its lap, and might be caused by a 
 piston valve loose on the stem, or a broken yoke with a slide 
 valve. However, if error is indicated in the position of the 
 valve, first be sure that the reverse lever is in the center notch ; 
 if the notch is indicated there may have been a mistake in 
 laying-out the notches or in setting-up the quadrant, but if the 
 link trunnion and link-block pin coincide exactly that is what 
 we want and the reverse lever is centered all right, and in that 
 case if the piston is also truly centered and the valve is not, prob- 
 ably th^ link bearer, which is commonly attached to the guides, 
 varies s little in its position, fore or aft, and should be moved 
 far enough to correct the error; or the valve-stem can be length- 
 ened cr shortened, but as this induces other minor errors the other 
 method would be preferable. 
 
 Q. 47. — If the link bearer should be moved, thus shifting the 
 fulcrum of the link, would not other variations in the gear be 
 Introduced thereby? 
 
 A. — The resetting of the link fulcrum might be just what was 
 needed to perfect the whole valve motion if it had been set up 
 untrue; but it might be that while adjusting the location of the 
 link fulcrum would square the valve, by the radius rod at the 
 link center, with the reverse lever in a working notch, there would 
 be unequal cut-off by the valve still, for the difference made by 
 this change would have to be borne by the eccentric rod and to
 
 OEAR 279 
 
 finally true-up the motion it might have to be lengthened or 
 shortened as required. 
 
 Q. 48. — Give directions for adjusting the length of the 
 eccentric. 
 
 A. — Set the engine ■v\-ith the crank-pins on the forward dead 
 center, and have the reverse lever moved from the corner notch 
 in foraard gear up to the center of the quadrant, and if the 
 valve-stem is moved forward at all while the radius rod is rising 
 the eccentric rod should be lengthened ; or, if the valve-stem is 
 drawn backward as the radius rod is guided upward by the link 
 the eccentric rod needs shortening. In either case, of course, 
 the alteration should be by degrees, each one very slight and tests 
 constantly repeated, until drawing the reverse lever from the 
 corner up to the center notch will impart no movement whatever 
 to the combination lever and the valve stem. For a general 
 test, try in the same manner and alter if necessary the eccentric 
 rod on the other side of the engine, but starting the test with the 
 crank-pin on the back dead center. 
 
 It is a fundamental principle of the Walschaert gear that 
 the motion work forward of the link, including the link bearer, is 
 permanently set up and supported by rigid attachments to the 
 guides, guide-yoke and cylinder casting; the eccentric rod, how- 
 ever, represents the unstable distance between the rigidly carried 
 gear and the main driving wheel, and as this distance will vary 
 from wear in the driving-boxes, the length of the eccentric rod 
 should be tested as directed, occasionally, and if necessary, 
 shortened or lengthened. 
 
 Q. 49. — Why is it so important that the Walschaert motion 
 work should be supported by attachments in rigid connection with 
 the cylinder casting? 
 
 A. — Any" style of valve motion is designed to simply furnish 
 a sort of reciprocafing action between the piston and the valve; 
 both work in practically the same body casting and are in per- 
 manent alignment, and the motion of one will be transmitted 
 without error to the other if the associated arrangement of gear 
 that develops the transmission is solidly attached to the body 
 occupied by the piston and valve; in the common erection of 
 the Walschaert gear the motion work is borne at but three 
 supporting points — the link fulcrum, the reversing shaft and the 
 valve-stem slide ; the first two are carried on brackets attached 
 to the guide bearer, or yoke, and the valve-stem slide is either 
 mounted on the upper guide-bar or the slide-bar is connected to 
 the cylinder body at one end and to the guide yoke at the other. 
 Therefore the accuracy of the Walschaert gear is not affected 
 by the roll and twisting effect of an engine in motion. 
 
 Q. 50. — Besides furnishing a practically perfect locomotive 
 valve motion, is not the Walschaert gear more desirable in other 
 ways? 
 
 A. — Yes, in many ways; the absence of heating is a great
 
 280 VALVE 
 
 feature, anJ as the whole motiou wt)rk is outside of the engine 
 frame a chance for perfect inspection is furnislied, every part 
 can be easily and economically oiled, and in case of breakdowns 
 in the gear rejjairs can be most quickly made, as there will be no 
 necessity for getting under the engine ; and the removal of the 
 gear from inside the frame offers a fine opportunity for better 
 frame bracing, and at the point where most needed on the large 
 engines now in service. 
 
 C^. 51. — When an engine equipped with the Walschaert gear 
 becomes disabled on one side while on the road, is there any 
 considerable difference in the methods employed in getting the 
 engine in condition to proceed than if the Stephenson motion was 
 employed ? 
 
 A. — A great deal of difference. Enough to make it worth 
 while taking up the several points of possible derangement. 
 Some details are the same, however, in all cases — blocking the 
 valve, for instance, may be done in the same way whenever 
 necessary, and in the same way whether either type of valve gear 
 is used, etc., and while a breakdown in the Stephenson motion 
 work is quite common it doesn't frequently happen to the 
 Walschaert gear, atid engine failures are seldom charged to that 
 account, but when a breakdown does occur repairs can be much 
 quicker made to the Walschaert gear, exposed as it is, outside 
 the frame. 
 
 Q, 52. — "Blocking the valve" has been mentioned; what is 
 meant, and when and how should it be done? 
 
 A. — In almost every case of an engine becoming disabled so 
 that the cylinder power can not be used on one side, if the 
 engine is to proceed under her own steam by the power of the 
 other side the valve on the disabled side should be placed in an 
 exactly central position on its seat ; the words exactly central 
 position are to be taken literally, for it is not only to have both 
 admission ports covered so that no steam can enter the cylinder, 
 but because in that position both ends of the cylinder will be in 
 communication with each other through the exhaust cavity of the 
 slide-valve, or through the passage in the spool of the piston 
 valve of inside admission — this, of course, with valves having 
 exhaust lead, as most of them now do have, and this external 
 exhaust communication is plainly shown in Fig. 6, as the valve 
 stands. 
 
 After the necessary disconnections of the motive and valve gear 
 have been made the valve on the disabled side of the engine 
 must be centered by moving on the valve-stem and judging from 
 its travel when correctly centered; a better way, with the Wal- 
 schaert gear, however, is if the radius rod is not damaged have 
 it placed at the center of the link — by putting the reverse lever 
 in its center notch if possible — and then fixing the combination 
 lever in its central position so that its two upper connection pins
 
 GEAR 281 
 
 are on a vertical line with each other; the valve will then be 
 exactly centered and the way is exemplified in Fig. 6. 
 
 After it is seen that no steam will blow from the opened 
 cylinder cocks on the broken-down side with the throttle slightly 
 opened, however, the valve is practically centered, but in any 
 case it is best to disconnect the cylinder cock rigging on that 
 side so that the cocks can be left permanently open and permit 
 those on the other side to be worked at will, in order to afford 
 relief against compression in the cylinder from the travel of 
 the piston if the main rod is left up, in place, and also for detec- 
 tion in case the valve should get shifted off center by showing 
 steam at one of the cocks; some engineers prefer to unscrew 
 and remove the cocks entirely. When the cylinder is fitted with 
 plugs for indicator connections their removal will obviate the 
 necessity of disconnecting the cylinder cock rigging. 
 
 On many roads a clamp is carried on each engine to secure the 
 valve-stem immovably with and fix the valve on the correct center 
 in case of breakdowns, but where such clamp is not at hand it 
 has been generally the custom to raise the steam-chest cover — 
 where a D-slide valve is concerned — and place retaining blocks 
 in front and behind the valve, wedging them in, and so secure 
 it in position ; but it is out of the question to try to raise the 
 cover of the steam-chest on one of our big, modern engines and 
 it is safe enough, under the charge of a watchful, competent 
 engineer, to omit the actual blocking, for, after the valve has 
 been centered, when steam is used its pressure on the unbalanced 
 area of the slide-valve will be great enough to hold it bej^ond 
 any danger of moving except in case of bumping up against 
 cars, and then the engineer will be warned by the steam from 
 one of the open cylinder cocks. An advantage in not perma- 
 nently securing the valve is that, where the main rod has not 
 been taken down, if the live side should stop on the dead center 
 the valve on the disabled side could be moved by the stem off 
 center, to open the proper admission port, and steam then used 
 to move the engine just far enough to get the working side 
 off the center, stopping at the right moment with the air brakes, 
 and then with steam shut off the valve can again be centered. 
 
 Piston valves of inside admission are perfectly balanced, fore- 
 and-aft, and without blocking will usually remain centered by 
 the pressure of the steam setting out the packing rings against 
 the walls of the valve chest. 
 
 In times past engineers have been disciplined for not discon- 
 necting the main rod on the disabled side of the engine and 
 allowing the piston to churn in the cylinder; now, however, the 
 weight of the main rod makes taking it down on the road pro- 
 hibitive, and it has been found that no trouble need result from 
 leaving it up if the engineer understands his business ; if he does, 
 he will let the lubricator feed to the steam chest on the disabled 
 side as usual and at certain stops, if the valve is not blocked
 
 282 VALVE 
 
 inside the steam chest, he will move it far enough to uncover 
 one of the admission ports (even if not necessary to do so to work 
 the other side ofl' the dead center) and open the throttle slightly 
 to blow the accumulated oil into the cylinder. 
 
 Q. 53. — With the Stephenson gear when the main rod is left 
 up on the disabled side of an engine its motion can not affect 
 any part of the valve gear, but with the Walschaert type of gear 
 would it not give impulse to the combination lever, and should not 
 the combination lever then be taken down? 
 
 A. — Through the cross-head motion would be imparted to the 
 combination lever, but it need not be taken down, for its motion 
 should not affect the valve, on account of disconnections made 
 elsewhere in the gear. 
 
 Q. 54. — Whenever a valve is "blocked" or centered, it must 
 be disconnected of course, from any part of the gear that would 
 impart motion to it, and with the Stephenson link motion the 
 valve-stem is the general point of disconnection; would that be 
 the recommended practice in connection with the Walschaert 
 gear? 
 
 A. — No, it is inconvenient and unnecessary to disconnect the 
 Walschaert valve-stem — inconvenient, because there is no joint 
 between the valve and the slide that carries the end of the valve- 
 stem, and unnecessary, for the reason that the radius rod must 
 always be disconnected when the valve is blocked, and that removes 
 the fulcrumiug point of the combination lever. For a lever to 
 transmit motion it must have three points for the reception and 
 transmission of power, and with the radius rpd removed the com- 
 bination lever is left with only the cross-head connection at the 
 lower end and its upper end connected to the valve-stem slide, the 
 latter acting as a fixed suspension point for the pendulum-like 
 swing of the combination lever in unison with the strokes of the 
 piston. 
 
 Q. 55. — As the disconnection of the radius rod takes the place 
 of, and with the same effect, as disconnecting the valve-stem of 
 the Stephenson link motion, it will be frequently referred to in the 
 following answers to questions relating to breakdowns, and to 
 avoid repetitions explain once for all, in detail, how it should be 
 done. 
 
 A. — In many eases the radius rod will not need to be removed ; 
 where there is but a short distance for the engine to go, or it may 
 be run slowlj', remove the pin from point of radius rod and com- 
 bination lever and raise the front of the rod above any chance 
 of interference with the lever, suspending the front end of the rod 
 by strong rope or wiring of a length that will permit it to swing 
 freely to the motion of the link without striking anything; then 
 just center the valve in the manner already described and pro- 
 ceed slowly. This method, of course, is only to be resorted to 
 •where it is merely desired to get to the nearest siding with the
 
 GEAR 283 
 
 engine, which must be run very slowly or the radius rod will 
 kick-off the running-board. 
 
 If it is desired to so fix up the disabled side of an engine that 
 she can use the power of the other side to finish the run and make 
 the time with what she can pull in safety, set the reverse lever 
 in the center notch in order to center the link-block, in which 
 position the link can give no motion to the radius rod ; then fit a 
 block of wood within the link slot and under the link-block to 
 support the latter, and disconnect the suspension bar from the 
 radius rod — and also from the lifting arm if it will be in the 
 way of the swing of the link ; disconnect the front end of the 
 radius rod from the combination lever and raise and secure it 
 as before mentioned, but with a shorter suspension, as there will 
 be no swing to it now. The slot above the link-block should also 
 be filled in with a piece of wood to prevent the link-block from 
 jumping up from the center and giving a thrust to the radius rod. 
 It is not absolutely necessary to block within the link slot, as 
 wooden pieces may be fitted under and over the radius rod, be- 
 tween its jaws and the ends of the link bracket, but in this ease 
 the ends of the pieces that are in contact with the radius rod 
 must be rounded to roll against it as the link swings. 
 
 The radius rod having been disconnected from the combination 
 lever, the motion of the lower end of the lever will have no effect 
 on the valve, which may now be centered and secured — or trusted 
 to "stay put" as heretofore explained. As the engine starts to 
 move watch closely the motion of the combination lever during the 
 first revolution of the driving wheels, to see that it does not strike 
 the pin connecting the main rod with the cross-head, as the rela- 
 tive positions assumed by this pin and the combination lever are 
 changed by the removal of the influence of the radius rod. 
 
 Q. 56. — If the eccentric rod of the Walschaert gear should 
 break, what should be done? 
 
 A. — Eeniove the broken parts, and drop the reverse lever to the 
 go-ahead corner notch; then disconnect the suspension bar from 
 the radius rod on the disabled side of the engine, permitting the 
 link-block to rest at the bottom of the link, ancl disconnect the 
 radius rod from the combination lever, raising the front end of the 
 radius rod above any chance of interference and securing it there 
 in order to keep the link from swinging. Center the valve in the 
 prescribed manner and proceed. 
 
 Q. .57. — What should you do in the case of a broken valve-stem? 
 
 A. — The radius rod should be centered securely in the link, dis- 
 connected from hanger and combination lever and wired up at the 
 front end as previously explained ; then center the valve in the 
 recommended manner and block, or otherwise secure, the valve- 
 stem slide against any movement on the slide-bar that might be 
 caused by the swing of the combination lever, as it has not the 
 f rictional resistance of the valve to hold it in a fixed position, 
 now, but be sure to place the slide at a point where the combina-
 
 284 VALVE 
 
 tion lever will be carried without striking the pin that connects 
 main rod ami cross-head. 
 
 Q. 58. — How would you get along with a case where the radius 
 rod was broken forward of the link? 
 
 A. — Would remove all parts of the broken rod, disconnecting 
 same from the suspension bar and combination lever, and also 
 from the link-block, unless there was a long enough piece left 
 attached forward of the link to permit of wiring it up and secur- 
 ing the link-block in the center of the link, which could be done 
 in that case. Center the valve in the manner referred to and go 
 on. But under any circumstances in which the radius rod has 
 been disconnected always remember the importance of seeing that 
 the combination lever will swing clear of the wrist-pin in the 
 cross-head, and that the suspension bar will be out of the way of 
 the swing of the link. 
 
 Q. 59. — If the suspension bar should break, or, where it is con- 
 nected to an extension of the radius rod beyond and back of the 
 link if that extension of the radius rod should break, what should 
 be done? 
 
 A. — In either case place the reverse lever in a notch of the 
 quadrant that will give the valve an average cut-off, or in which 
 it may be contiuuously worked — forward or back gear, according 
 to the direction in which the engine is to run — raise the radius 
 rod with the broken piece — or hanger — until the link-block is 
 at the same height in the link as the one on the other side of the 
 engine, and insert a piece of wood in the link slot under the 
 link-block to hold it up, and another piece above the link-block 
 to keep it from slipping up. Eemove the broken parts and pro- 
 ceed, remembering not to reverse the engine nor to change the 
 reverse lever to another notch. 
 
 Q. 60. — What should be done in case the combination lever, or 
 the vibrating link that connects it with the cross-head, should be 
 broken ? 
 
 A. — If the combination lever is broken disconnect and remove 
 all pieces that are not in connection with the valve-stem slide ; 
 if it be the long arm of the combination lever that is broken, or 
 the vibrating link, take down the vibrating link also, and if the 
 piece of lever remaining attached to the valve-stem slide is long 
 enough to be in the path of the pin in the cross-head, either 
 remove the piece or draw it out of the way and secure it there. 
 Center the valve and disconnect the radius rod, both as heretofore 
 explained, and go on. 
 
 Q. 61. — In all of the cases so far it has been understood that 
 the main rod has been left in place; suppose, however, that the 
 main rod should be broken, compelling its removal — what ought 
 to be done? 
 
 A. — After taking down the broken parts of the main rod and 
 disconnecting the radius rod, if the valve is of inside admission, 
 push it to the forward end of the steamchest and clamp the valve-
 
 GEAR 285 
 
 stem or block the valve-stem slide to secure it in that position; 
 with a valve of outside admission drave it to the back end of its 
 travel and secure it there ; the idea is to hold the forward port 
 open for steam admission against the front of the piston, and the 
 back port open from the opposite side of the piston to the 
 exhaust; the cross-head should then be drawn back until the piston 
 is against the back cylinder head. This is called "steam bleek- 
 ing, ' ' for when steam is used it will hold the piston in its fixed 
 position. Then you can go on, but after drifting any distance, 
 shut off, use steam carefully at first for fear the piston may have 
 also drifted forward a little way in the cylinder and -will be 
 pounded back to the head too severely; it is better, therefore, to 
 fasten a piece of wood to fit in the guides ahead of the cross-head. 
 
 Q. 62. — Engines with the Stephenson link motion are totally 
 unfitted to run under their own steam if but one section of side 
 rod should break when it happens that the eccentrics are mounted 
 on a different axle than the one worked directly by the main rod, 
 and if the broken side rod is the one connecting the wheels of 
 the eccentrics' axle with the wheels carrying the main rod on 
 either side of the engine. Could the breaking of any section of 
 side rod, only, have the effect of completely disabling an engine 
 equipped with the Walschaert' valve gear? 
 
 A. — Xo ; the eccentric of the Walschaert' gear is always 
 mounted on the main pair of wheels — the wheels worked directly 
 by the main rod — and therefore the removal of all sections of side 
 rods on both sides of the engine could in no way affect the valve 
 motion. If, however, any one section of the side rod should break, 
 the corresponding section of rod on the other side of the engine 
 should be taken down ; the only result from doing so will be to 
 make the engine more slippery and very hard to hold to the rail — 
 if equipped with the Walschaert' valve gear. 
 
 Q. 63. — If the pLston should be broken, or loose from the piston 
 rod in the cylinder, what repairs are required? 
 
 A. — Commonly the result of this accident is to tear off, or 
 break, the front cylinder head, but the head should be removed 
 whether injured or not, and the piston extracted from the cylin- 
 der; if the piston rod is not bent disconnect the radius rod and 
 center the valve in the prescribed manner — except that of course 
 the cylinder cocks will not need to be fixed open nor taken out 
 on the disabled side — and move on. 
 
 Q. 64. — In case of a bent piston rod what should be done? 
 
 A. — Take down the main rod, disconnect the radius rod in the 
 regular manner and center the valve securely. Use your own 
 judgment as to blocking the cross-head — the piston and rod will 
 usually be so cramped as to make blocking unnecessary. 
 
 Q. 65. — In the too common case of blowing out a front cylin- 
 der head, what should you do? 
 
 A. — Disconnect the radius rod and center the valve, both by the 
 instructed method, except that in this case if the fixed-open
 
 286 VALVE 
 
 cylinder cocks will not afford relief for the compression from th& 
 piaton 's back stroke it is only necessary to remove one — the back 
 — cylinder cock; or better still, where there is one, unscrew the 
 indicator plufi from the back end of the cylinder. In this case 
 of running with the main rod up one of the objectionable features 
 in doing so is removed — the general lack of facilities for oiling 
 the piston in the cylinder — for with the front head off oil can 
 easily be introduced. 
 
 When the back cylinder head is broken, it is best to proceed as 
 directed in the case of bent piston rod. 
 
 Hehnholtz Modification. — Among the various 
 modifications of the Walschaert gear the one made 
 by Helmholtz is probably of some advantage. This 
 modification consists in making the link straight 
 and tlie radius bar is connected to tlie lifting link 
 instead of the link block. The curving of the link 
 is compensai;ed for by the reversing shaft or lift- 
 ing arm fulcrum being located in a given position 
 above the link so that the locus of the suspension 
 point of the lifting link forms an arc of a circle 
 with its chord perpendicular to the center line of 
 the radius bar in its center position. The radius 
 of this arc bears the same relation to the length 
 of the radius bar as the distance of the radius 
 bar connection above the link block bears to the 
 length of the lifting link, which results in that 
 this connection is moving in an arc with a radius 
 of the length of the radius bar and the same mo- 
 tion of the valve is obtained as in the direct Wal- 
 schaert gear. 
 
 Two advantages may be claimed for this modifi- 
 cation, of which one is the straight link being 
 simpler to make than the curved one, and the 
 other is that on large piston valve engines with 
 inside admission the link fulcrum can be lowered 
 by the amount the radius bar connection falls over 
 the link block, whereby the eccentric rod connec-
 
 GEAR 287 
 
 tion can be brought closer to the center line of the 
 axle with less length of link and eccentric throw. 
 It has, however, the disadvantage that there is 
 little choice in the location of the reversing shaft 
 or lifting arm fulcrum, a proper position for 
 which is hardly obtainable on all types of engines 
 and admits of no other method of lifting the radius 
 bar in linking up or reversing the engine. 
 
 Young Valve Arrangement. — This gear consists 
 chiefly in the application of the Corliss valves to 
 the locomotive engine with one valve both for the 
 steam inlet and the exhaust at each end of the cvl- 
 
 (TOCHER 
 
 FIG. 17 
 YOUNG'S ROTARY VALVE MOTION. 
 
 inder. Each valve is provided with double ad- 
 mission and exhaust ports as shown by Fig. 18. 
 The steam ports are practically opposite each 
 other, and the relation of the edges of the ports 
 in the valve to these ports corresponds to that of 
 the valve edges to the steam ports of the ordinary 
 slide valve, forming the steam laps, lead and ex- 
 haust laps or clearance as the case may be. The 
 exhaust cavity is a passage diametrically through 
 the valve of sufficient width on one side to com-
 
 288 VALVE 
 
 bine both steam ports with the main exhaust port 
 simultaneously during the exliaust period. At 
 right angles to the exhaust passage is a similar 
 but somewhat larger cavity which corresponds to 
 the steam chest with transverse passages through 
 the valve body alternating with the exhaust pas- 
 sages, and the lap and exhaust edges are sur- 
 rounded by carefully fitted slais, both on sides and 
 ends to prevent leakage. 
 
 The motion is transmitted through a pivoted 
 wrist plate to the valve from an ordinary Stephen- 
 son or Walschaert valve motion, the former as 
 
 FIG. 18 
 SECTION THROUGH VALVES & CYLINDER 
 
 indicated in Fig. 17. By means of pivoting the 
 wrist plate on the arm of a bell crank whose other 
 arm is connected with a union rod to a short arm 
 on the reverse shaft, the wrist plate is raised and 
 lowered by the motion of the reverse lever pro- 
 ducing a moderate increase in lead, an earlier ex- 
 haust and later compression than the direct Ste- 
 phenson motion produces in linking up the engine. 
 The main advantage of this valve is the quicker 
 admission, closing and exhaust it accomplishes due
 
 GEAR 289 
 
 to tlie double port openings, and the small resist- 
 ance -it offers to the valve motion, as compared 
 with the slide valve, in being completely balanced. 
 In common with the Allfree gear it gives a higher 
 average pressure at high speeds than the ordinary 
 valve. This gear, as well as in the previous 
 case, involves additional complications over 
 the ordinary gear, requiring special skill, both in 
 its manufacture and adjustment, which to some 
 extent counterbalances the above named advan- 
 tages. 
 
 </
 
 290 VALVE 
 
 THE BAKER VALVE GEAR* 
 
 The Baker Valve Gear, which is an improvement over what 
 was known as the Baker-Pilliod Valve Gear, is an outside 
 radial gear, i. e., it has no links or sliding blocks. The move- 
 ment is derived from the crosshead and the eccentric crank. 
 The crosshead m9ves the valve the amount of the lap and 
 lead each way, and the eccentric crank gives the remainder 
 of the movement. In the short cut-offs the actual effect of the 
 eccentric crank is reduced, while the crosshead movement is 
 constant. 
 
 The bearings are all^ins and bushings, the latter being 
 ground inside and out to a standard gauge. The pins are 
 case-hardened and ground to size on both the bearing and 
 tapers. 
 
 The improved gear has ten per engine less bearings than 
 the old one and the movement of nearly all has been greatly 
 reduced. Three bearings or joints on each side of the engine, 
 aside from the reach-rod, move when the reverse lever is 
 changed. 
 
 No loose oil cups are employed; each bearing has an oil 
 reservoir or cup which is made integral with the part. These 
 cavities can be filled with waste or curled hair to retain the 
 oil, obviating the danger of a bearing running dry on the 
 longest runs. All these bearing pins and bolts are exposed to 
 view so that they can be got at to be removed by the engine- 
 man or repairman. Three pins, or two pins and a bolt, remove 
 the hardest piece to be taken down. The heaviest piece, the 
 bell crank, weighs only 86 pounds. 
 
 * "We are well pleased with the manner in which you have covered 
 our valve gear." — Ross Graham, Mechanical Engineer, The Pilliod Com- 
 pany, Swanton, Ohio.
 
 GEAR 
 
 291
 
 292 VALTE 
 
 Standakdizatiox of Parts. This has been reached to some 
 extent in the Baker Gear as all the outside admission gears of 
 this make are alike and all the inside gears are the same, no 
 matter what the type or class of engine upon which used. The 
 yokes and radius bars are also the same for both admissions. 
 The combination lever must suit the stroke of the engine and 
 the lap and lead. Since there is not enough difference in the 
 power it takes to operate a valve on different modern engines 
 it does not warrant different sized gears. With other gears 
 there is not much, if any, difference in the cross-section 
 area of the same part on the different engines. All parts are 
 interchangeable, and the castings, including the frame, are the 
 same for both sides of the engine except the gear connection 
 rod. The combination lever has rights and lefts, but they are 
 drop-forged. 
 
 The frame is one piece cast steel, the same casting on both 
 sides of the engine; one type for inside admission and another 
 type for outside admission. The frame is designed with an 
 extension so that the same frame will go on a variety of 
 engines. This reduces to the minimum the number of kinds 
 of frames that any road may have. So far two designs of out- 
 side and one design of inside admission frame have been used. 
 Fig. 1 shows a general view of the gear. 
 
 Alignment. Every part of the gear is symmetrical with 
 respect to the center line of the gear, and all pins are sup- 
 ported on each end. This makes a straight line motion, and 
 prevents the possibility of a twisting effect on any part. This 
 construction is claimed to increase the strength of the gear 
 and also the wearing quality of the bearings. 
 
 Lead and Preadmission. The Baker Gear has a constant 
 lead with a variable preadmission. The objections to a con- 
 stant lead have been that it retarded the engine while running 
 in full gear and did not give compression enough in the short 
 cut-offs. 
 
 It makes no difference what lead there is in full gear so 
 long as there is not preadmission which is the factor in com- 
 pression. In full cut-off the Baker Gear has practically no 
 preadmission and the indicator cards show a low compression 
 line. This means a "quick" engine.
 
 GEAR 
 
 293
 
 294 VALVE 
 
 As the cut-off is shortened, the preadmission increases, and 
 at 25 per cent there is from %-inch to %-inch preadmission. 
 
 Fig. 2 shows in a general way the action of the Baker Gear 
 for outside admission. On an inside admission gear the bell 
 crank stands ahead of the reverse yoke and point L for the 
 connection of the valve rod is below point K instead of above. 
 The eccentric crank follows in both cases. 
 
 The circle AD is the path of the crank pin. Circle BB' is 
 the eccentric crank circle. ADX is the main rod. DX is the 
 crosshead. DXN is the crosshead arm. MN is the union link. 
 MKL the combination lever. KJG the bell crank. The gear 
 connection rod is GEC. EF shows the radius bar. HI is the 
 reversing yoke. 
 
 The two movements of the gear are as follows: One from 
 the eccentric crank B which follows the main pin at about 90 
 degrees. The other motion from the crosshead through the 
 combination lever. The eccentric crank moves the radius 
 bar and the action the radius bar has on the valve Is controlled 
 by the reverse yoke. The radius bar and yoke take the place 
 of the link and block of a link motion. The combination lever 
 throws the valve the amount of the lap and lead, the same 
 as in the Walschaert Gear. This makes the lead constant and 
 independent of the cut-off. Having a constant lead the valve 
 should show lead opening in all cut-offs when the engine is on 
 either dead center. 
 
 The cut-off, release and compression is done by means of 
 the eccentric crank and controlled by the reversing yoke. The 
 yoke controls the length of the cut-off and also reverses the 
 engine. The action is as follows: Eccentric crank in going 
 from B' to B moves point C from CS to C'S- By this move- 
 ment it moves pin ES through H to E'^-i. The particular 
 path of E is an arc whose radius is E'-jF-j. Thus it will be 
 seen that EF causes point E to raise. This rising movement 
 moves G from G-^ to G-i which, by means of the bell crank, 
 moves K from K-^ to K-,. This it can be seen will move the 
 valve forward. The valve is moved backward to its original 
 position in the next half turn of the wheel. The peculiar 
 action of the combination lever is not shown. As the com- 
 bination lever does its important work near the dead center
 
 GEAR 
 
 295
 
 296 
 
 VALVE 
 
 
 
 09 
 
 < 
 
 Q 
 2
 
 GEAR 297 
 
 •of the engine and when the engine is in the position as shown 
 In the diagram the combination lever is as shown on the 
 diagram. 
 
 From the diagram it will be noticed that E has a rising 
 and falling movement caused by the radius bar EF. If the 
 yoke is changed from I-i to I-2 it would change the center of 
 the radius F. So that E will move from E^ to E'S in other 
 words, the rising and falling movement is cut down which 
 would move G from G-. to G-2 and K from K-3 to K-^. Thus 
 it will be seen that with the varying position of the yoke I 
 the amount of movement of the valve varies. When I is in 
 the mid-gear position E would not move up and down at all 
 but simply swing back and forth in an arc. If I' is put in full 
 backward motion the same motion of the eccentric crank that 
 caused the rising movement before would cause the falling 
 movement in the back motion and E would go from E"-^ to 
 E\. The full motion backward is shown by a dotted line and 
 the short cut-off in backward motion by dash and three dots. 
 
 Instructions on Setting the Baker Gear. Connect up the 
 gear and check the throw of the reverse yoke, also clearance 
 at all points, with the eccentric crank clamped temporarily 
 to the main pin, but as near as possible to the specified throw. 
 Locate the dead centers in the usual way. 
 
 Eccentric Crank. With the engine on the front dead 
 center tram from the center of the pin in front end of eccentric 
 rod to any stationary point, such as the guide yoke or guides, 
 as shown by tram points "A" and "B," Fig. 5. (In most cases 
 the wheel tram can be used for this work.) After scribing a 
 line across the side of the main guide with the "A" end of 
 the tram, revolve the wheel to the back dead center and scribe 
 the guide again; if these two lines are together the crank set- 
 ting is correct. If they are not, knock the eccentric crank in 
 or out until they do. The position of the reverse lever is not 
 important while finding the eccentric positions. After the 
 valve setter has had sufficient experience, the location of the 
 eccentric can be determined while obtaining the dead centers. 
 
 Valve Travel. Put the reverse lever in full forward motion 
 position and test the full travel. If there is a difference be- 
 tween the right and left sides of the engine, lengthen the gear
 
 298 
 
 VALVE
 
 GEAR 
 
 299 
 
 /yys/^j^ /9^/Y/ss/o/y
 
 30'^ 
 
 VALVE 
 
 reach rod on the side of the engine where the short travel 
 exists. After obtaining the same travel on each side of the 
 engine in this manner, the reverse lever should be put in its 
 central position and the main reach rod adjusted until the 
 dimensions shown on Fig. 6 are obtained for mid-gear position; 
 then the quadrant length should be tested for the desired travel 
 in both full forward and back motions. 
 
 EccKNTuic Rod Lkn'gth. The inside admission gear is direct 
 in the forward motion and indirect in the back motion and the 
 ratio of the gear is 4 to 1, therefore the valve will move for- 
 ward iV if the eccentric rod is lengthened i/4" with the lever 
 in the extreme forward motion and the engine on dead center. 
 If the lever is in the extreme back motion the valve will move 
 back iV when the rod is lengthened i/4"- Having taken the 
 port marks with your standard valve stem tram, take the lead 
 openings in both motions as shown by Fig. 7, w^hich shows 
 eccentric rod V-J' too long for inside admission. 
 
 f-RONV 
 
 Fig. 7 
 
 If you shorten the rod y^" and take the lead points again 
 the valve will be shifted back in the forw^ard motion until 
 lead line "A" is at "E" and lead line "B" is at "F," and in the 
 back motion the valve will be shifted ahead until the lead line 
 "C" will be at "E" and lead line "D" will be at "F," which 
 will make the condition as shown by Fig. 8. 
 
 After obtaining leads as shown by Fig. 8, the length of the 
 valve rod should be adjusted, making "G" and "H" equal.
 
 UEAR 
 
 30x 
 
 Fig. 8 
 
 After the setter has had some experience the valve rod and 
 eccentric rod alterations can be made after one revolution of 
 the wheels. Referring back to the paragraph on Eccentric 
 Crank Setting, which can be checked from the stem (see Fig. 
 7), on -fthich the distance between "A" and "B" on the hori- 
 zontal line of the stem is equal to "C" and "D," this will 
 always be the case when crank setting is correct, whether the 
 eccentric rod shows long or short. 
 
 If the eccentric rod is %" too short and the crank setting 
 correct^ the full gear lead lines will come as shown by Fig. 9. 
 
 [motion l.EHOa I 
 
 Fig. 9 
 
 After lengthening the rod i^'' you will have the condition 
 shown by Fig. 8. 
 
 The foregoing includes inside admission only and altera- 
 tions in the eccentric rod length should be opposite for outside 
 admission valves. 
 
 Yalve Movements; General Ixformatiox. The Baker Gear 
 gets its motion from two points: the eccentric crank and the 
 crosshead. The eccentric crank moves the radius bar and the 
 action the radius bar has on the valve is controlled by the
 
 302 VALVE 
 
 reverse yoke. The radius bar and the yoke take the place 
 of the link and block of a link motipn. 
 
 The crosshead moves the valve the amount of the lap and 
 lead each way. This makes the lead constant and independent 
 of the cut-off. 
 
 Having a constant lead, the valve should show lead open- 
 ing in all cut-offs when engine is on either dead center. 
 
 Eccentric Crank Setting. With the Baker Gear the ec- 
 centric crank always follows the crank pin. It stands the 
 same for both inside and outside admission. 
 
 Cut-off and Eccentric Rod. If the eccentric rod is off in 
 length you can tell it by the following rule: If cut-offs are 
 long on front end in forward motion and long on the back 
 end in backward motion, the rod is too long. If the cut-offs 
 come just the opposite of the foregoing then the rod is too 
 short. 
 
 Break Downs. Two means are provided for blocking the 
 gear and valve in case of a break down. The valve stem 
 crosshead is provided with a set-screw so that the valve can 
 be blocked central over the ports by clamping the valve stem 
 crosshead to its guide. This is done in case the breakage on 
 the gear or engine disables one side. (See Fig. 12.) 
 
 The other way of blocking is by bolting the lower arm of 
 the bell-crank fast to the side of the frame. After the valves 
 have been set the reverse lever is put in mid-gear and two 
 holes are drilled through the frame. Any bolt that will go 
 through the hole can be used. (See Figs. 10 and 11.) With 
 the gear bolted in this manner the valve will get the lap and 
 lead movement and a port opening equal to the lead for all 
 cut-offs. This allows the following parts to fail and yet get 
 the lap and lead movement: eccentric crank, eccentric rod, 
 connection rod, radius bars, reverse yoke, short reach rod 
 and horizontal arm of bell-crank. In case the union link or 
 crosshead arm fails, it will be necessary to block the valve 
 over the ports, tie the combination lever fast, and disconnect 
 the valve rod, unless the construction of the engine is such 
 that the combination lever can be secured in practically a 
 plumb position. If the combination lever can be fastened, the
 
 GEAR 
 
 303 
 
 rO BLOCn BELL C/fAHK 
 
 Put bolTs //v both or 
 
 THESE MOLES. 
 
 ) ^u/oe 
 
 iFO te^ 
 
 Fig. 12 
 
 O^XO 
 
 TO Block y/^Lve. sc/?Ew this 
 
 'SET ^CffEtV INfiq/i/nST T/i£ (jL/IO£
 
 304 VALVE 
 
 valve will get the eccentric movement. The port opening would 
 be reduced and be closed in any cut-o£E shorter than 50 per 
 cent. 
 
 In case the combination lever fails, close up the bell-crank, 
 block the valve over the ports, disconnect the valve rod and 
 tie the loose parts to keep them from doing damage. 
 
 In case of engine breakage do the same as with any other 
 gear. 
 
 The Baker Valve Gear, like the Walschaert and other radial 
 gears, readily lends itself to any change in design that may 
 be necessary to suit the construction of the locomotive to which 
 it is applied. 
 
 The design shown in Fig. 1 is that originally adopted and 
 common to the majority of locomotives fitted with this gear, 
 especially those built in past years. On the later types of 
 locomotives, however, especially the "Mikados," the design 
 has been considerably modified, as for instance the long gear 
 frame shown in Fig. 1, as extending back from the guide yoke 
 to a bearing piece crossing the frames just ahead of the 
 tumbling shaft, has been changed to a short cast steel bracket 
 bolted to the rear of the guide yoke, this bracket carrying the 
 bell crank and the reverse yoke. This change made it neces- 
 sary to change the connecting point of the combination lever, 
 and the combination lever was therefore, carried forward and 
 connected to what is termed in a Baker Gear the valve rod, 
 which corresponds to the radius rod in a Walschaert Gear, the 
 connection being made at the valve stem crosshead. Where 
 the valves are of the inside admission type, the valve stem is 
 connected to the combination lever below the valve rod con- 
 nection, and where the valves are of the outside admission 
 type, the valve stem is connected to the combination lever 
 above the valve rod connection, the connections being exactly 
 the same as where the combination lever is placed as shown 
 in Fig. 1. 
 
 The manner in which the valve stem is connected in the 
 new type of gear and the valve rod is connected in the gear 
 illustrated in this supplement always indicates the type of 
 valve used, that is, whether it is inside or outside admission. 
 
 In order that the action of this gear may be clearly under-
 
 GEAR 305 
 
 stood with reference to the different types of valves used, we 
 must first consider those with the gear illustrated as in Figs. 
 1. 3 and 4. The fulcrum point of the combination lever is its 
 connection to the lower end of the bell crank, while on the 
 later type of gear, the fulcrum point of the combination lever 
 is where it is connected to the valve rod. In both instances 
 this fulcrum is movable; in other words it does not occupy 
 the same position at all points of the stroke. As explained in 
 a previous portion of this supplement the combination lever 
 gives the lap and lead travel; that is, it moves the valve so 
 that it has traveled the amount of the lap and the lead at the 
 beginning of each end of the stroke. 
 
 Referring to Fig. 3, as the combination lever obtains its 
 movement from the crosshead, it is evident that when the 
 crosshead is traveling forward carrying the lower end of 
 the combination lever with it, the upper end of the combina- 
 tion lever must be traveling back, and the proportions of the 
 combination lever are so arranged that when the crosshead 
 is at its extreme forward position, the upper end of the com- 
 bination lever has been pulled back the amount of the lap and 
 the lead of the valve, thereby placing the valve in position to 
 admit steam ahead of the piston to force the piston back. 
 "When the crosshead is at the other end of its travel, that is, 
 at the back end of the guides, the upper end of the combination 
 lever would be moved forward the amount of the lap and the 
 lead, thereby placing the valve in position to admit steam back 
 of the piston. In the view shown, the valve rod makes a direct 
 connection with the valve stem and consequently imparts to 
 the valve the same movement, that is, a movement in the same 
 direction as that imparted to the valve rod. 
 
 If, still referring to Fig. 3, the valves were of the inside 
 admission type, and the valve rod connected as before, it is 
 plain that with the crosshead at its extreme forward travel, 
 which would throw the top end of the combination lever back, 
 the back steam port would be open instead of the front one, 
 consequently the engine would not move. For this reason 
 where inside admission valves are used, the valve rod must 
 be coupled below the fulcrum point as shown in Fig. 4, in 
 order that when the crosshead is at the extreme forward end
 
 306 VALVE 
 
 of its travel, the connection point of the valve rod will also be 
 carried forward, thereby moving the valve forward and un- 
 covering the front steam port. 
 
 With the later type of the Baker Gear, as previously ex- 
 plained, the forward end of the valve rod, which in this case 
 corresponds with the radius rod of the Walschaert Gear, forms 
 the fulcrum point of the combination lever same as the com- 
 bination lever connection to the bell-crank as shown in Figs. 
 3 and 4; while the valve stem proper is connected direct to 
 the combination lever, same as the valve rod is connected in 
 the figures mentioned. A study of this motion, therefore, 
 shows that the first movement imparted to the valve is that 
 given by the crosshead through the combination lever, the 
 remainder of the movement being imparted by the eccentric 
 crank through the bell-crank. To make this clear imagine in 
 Fig. 3, which shows the reverse lever in forward gear, that 
 the reach rod was pulled back so the reverse lever would 
 occupy the center of the quadrant; this would then throw 
 the reverse yoke connections in line with the bell-crank con- 
 nection and the only effect that the eccentric crank would 
 have, would be to oscillate the radius bars forward and back 
 without imparting any material movement to the bell-crank, 
 and as the valve obtains its movement from the movement 
 of the bell-crank and the combination lever, it is clear that 
 the only material movement imparted to the valve under 
 these conditions, would be that given by the combination lever, 
 which would be equal to twice the lap and twice the lead. 
 
 Throwing the reverse lever into forward gear, places the 
 radius bars in an angular position and therefore they can 
 not oscillate as before without raising up and down; as they 
 are so connected, however, as to prevent any up and down 
 movement, it follows that the movement of the eccentric 
 crank instead of being imparted to the radius bars only, in 
 this instance would be imparted to the bell-crank, causing 
 the forward end of the bell-crank in Fig. 3, and the back end 
 'in Fig. 4, to move up and down. This would cause the lower 
 end of the bell-crank to move forward and back, thus im- 
 parting additional motion to the valve through the valve rod.
 
 GEAR 307 
 
 This explanation is deemed necessary in order that engi- 
 neers will clearly understand the different movements, so that 
 in case of failure of any one of the parts of this gear, they 
 would know how to disconnect, what to disconnect and how 
 to block the remaining portion of the gear to get a valve travel 
 on the disabled side. On the later type of Baker Gear there is 
 practically nothing that could break which would prevent 
 obtaining some valve travel, with the exception of a valve 
 stem. On the type of gear herein illustrated there is prac- 
 tically nothing that could break which would prevent obtain- 
 ing a valve travel with the exception of the valve stem, valve 
 rod or lower end of bell-crank. 
 
 Break Downs. Beginning at the rear end; in case the 
 eccentric crank, eccentric rod, or the lower end of the gear 
 connecting rod should break, the only movement that could 
 be imparted to the valve would be that of the combination 
 lever, and as the combination lever is fulcrumed to the bell- 
 crank, it is plain that the bell-crank must first be secured 
 in a rigid position so that all the movement imparted by 
 the crosshead to the combination lever would be imparted 
 to the valve, as otherwise were the bell-crank not secured, the 
 chances are the bell-crank would move instead of the valve 
 rod. On the type of gear herein illustrated you will notice 
 two holes through the gear frame. Figs. 10 and 11; these 
 holes are for the purpose of fastening the bell-crank in case 
 of failure of any of the parts previously mentioned, the bell- 
 crank being secured to the gear frame by means of a U-bolt 
 placed in these holes. 
 
 The short reach rod connecting the reverse or tumbling 
 shaft arm to the reverse yoke should also be disconnected 
 at one end and the reverse yoke thrown forward against the 
 gear frame in order to get it out of the way. This would 
 then give the full valve travel on the good side of the 
 locomotive but only a travel equal to the lap and the lead 
 on the disabled side and a port opening on the disabled side 
 equal to the lead opening. 
 
 With an engine disconnected in this manner, you should 
 be careful not to stop with the good side on the dead center 
 as if the good si^de is on the dead center, the disabled side
 
 308 VALVE 
 
 would necessarily be on the quarter and in this case the 
 combination lever would be straight up and down, and the 
 ports covered on the disabled side, making this side power- 
 less, and as the good side of the engine would be on the dead 
 center, that side would naturally be powerless also and the 
 engine would not move. Should you happen to stop in this 
 position, however, the engine could be gotten off the center 
 on the good side without the necessity of pinching by dis- 
 connecting the lower end of the combination lever from the 
 union link, and moving the combination lever in the right 
 direction to uncover the port that would allow the engine 
 to move in the direction desired, as for instance, if the engine 
 stopped with the good side on the forward dead center with 
 the other side on the upper quarter, and it was desired to move 
 in a forward direction, the combination lever should be swung 
 so as to uncover the back steam port on the disabled side. 
 After the engine had been moved off the dead center on the 
 good side, the combination lever should be coupled up again. 
 
 With the new type of gear there are no holes provided 
 in the gear frame for the purpose of fastening the bell-crank, 
 but the bracket is so cast that wooden wedges can be driven 
 on either side of the bell-crank to hold it in position. 
 
 If the gear connection rod should break below the pin 
 where it is fastened to the gear frame, it would of course 
 be necessary to disconnect the eccentric rod, then block same 
 as for broken eccentric rod or crank. If the gear connection 
 rod should break above the pin, the eccentric rod could be 
 left up, proceeding with the balance of the operation same 
 as for broken eccentric rod, etc. 
 
 In case the union link or the combination lever should 
 break, two methods could be employed. First, with the gear 
 illustrated, the combination lever together with the union link 
 could be removed and in many instances the valve rod could 
 be connected direct to the bell-crank at the point where the 
 combination lever was formerly connected. If this could not 
 be done and the failure was of the union link or of the com- 
 bination lever at a point below its connection with the bell- 
 crank, the union link, if broken, should be removed, or the 
 union link and that portion of the broken combination lever
 
 GEAR 309 
 
 should be removed, the remaining part of the combination 
 lever placed so it would hang straight down and then either 
 wedged or clamped in such a position that it could not move 
 on its fulcrum point on the bell-crank. This would then 
 allow the eccentric crank to impart a motion to the valve 
 equal to the difference between the motion imparted by the 
 eccentric crank only and that imparted by the combined move- 
 ments of the eccentric crank and the ■ combination lever. 
 The port openings would naturally be reduced and it would 
 be necessary to work the engine in practically full stroke 
 in order to get any opening on the disabled side. With an 
 engine disconnected in this manner no port opening would 
 be obtained on the disabled side at the beginning of the 
 stroke. 
 
 With the type of gear herein illustrated, in case of failure 
 of the valve rod, the engine would naturally be disabled on 
 that side; it would not be necessary to disconnect anything 
 however; simply remove the broken parts if they are liable 
 to interfere, clamp the valve central on its seat and make 
 the usual provision for lubricating the cylinder. This can 
 be done by either taking out cylinder relief valves, in case 
 the cylinder is provided with them or slacking off on the 
 front cylinder head. With the newer type of gear, however, 
 even in case of a failure of the valve rod you could still obtain, 
 a port opening and work steam on the disabled side by first 
 removing the engine so that the crosshead on the disabled 
 side would be at the center of its stroke, that is, with that 
 side on the quarter, then disconnect the disabled valve rod 
 and cut a piece of plank long enough to reach from the back 
 end of the steam chest to the guide yoke; cut a notch through 
 this plank that will fit over the upper end of the combination 
 lever; fasten it securely in place. This will act as a fulcrum 
 point for the combination lever and give you the lap and lead 
 travel. There would be no need of disconnecting any other 
 portions of the gear.
 
 310 VALVE 
 
 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 
 
 Q. — What type of gear is the Baker valve gear and is it of the 
 direct or indirect motion? 
 
 A. — It is of the radial type; outside gear, direct going ahead for 
 inside admission valve and indirect backing up; indirect going 
 ahead for an outside admission valve and direct backing up. 
 
 Q. — In what does the Baker gear differ from the Walschaert? 
 
 A. — In the manner in which the cut-off is regulated and the engine 
 reversed. 
 
 Q. — How is this accomplished in the Baker gear? 
 
 A. — By means of a reverse yoke instead of a link. 
 
 Q. — Through what parts does the valve obtain its movement 
 with the Baker gear? 
 
 A. — Through the combination lever from the crosshead and 
 through the eccentric crank connected to the main crank pin. 
 
 Q. — What movement is imparted to the valve by means of the 
 combination lever? 
 
 A. — That necessary to overcome the lap of the valve and give 
 the lead desired. 
 
 Q. — Is the lead given by the Baker valve gear constant or 
 variable? 
 
 A. — It is constant. 
 
 Q. — What do you understand by pre-admission? 
 
 A. — It is the act of admitting steam or having a port open before 
 the piston reaches the end of its stroke. 
 
 Q. — With the Baker gear is the pre-admission constant same as 
 the lead? 
 
 A. — No; pre-admission is variable, increasing as the cut-off is 
 shortened. 
 
 Q. — What would be the effect of pre-admission with an engine in 
 full gear? 
 
 A. — It would have a tendency to retard the movement of the 
 engine; also in a measure decrease its starting power. 
 
 Q. — Does this same objection obtain when an engine is worked 
 in a short cut-off? 
 
 A. — No; pre-admission in this case acts as a cushion for the 
 reciprocating parts. 
 
 Q. — How can you tell at a glance whether an engine equipped 
 with a Baker gear has an inside or outside admission valve? 
 
 A. — By the manner in which the valve rod is connected to the 
 combination lever; an engine having an inside admission valve has 
 the valve rod connected below the point at which the combination 
 lever is attached to the bell crank, and one having outside admission 
 valves has the valve rod connected above this point. 
 
 Q. — Is there any difference in the setting of the eccentric crank 
 for the inside and outside admission valve? 
 
 A. — No; the eccentric crank always follows the main pin. 
 
 Q. — How should the different bearings of the Baker gear be
 
 GEAR 311 
 
 lubricated? What kind of oil should be used? 
 
 A. — Bearings should be lubricated by filling the pockets or cav- 
 ities cast in all the movable parts and connecting with the bearings; 
 these pockets should preferably be kept full of curled hair in order 
 to assist in retaining the oil and to prevent grit and other abrasives 
 getting into the bearings. Engine oil only should be used. 
 
 Q. — Why not use valve oil in lubricating these bearings? 
 
 A. — Because owing to the limited moveme^jt of the bearings there 
 is no tendency on their part to run hot, and valve oil being thicker 
 than engine oil would not flow around the bearings as readily and 
 consequently might cause the bearings to seize. 
 
 Q. — What would you do in case of failure of the eccentric crank, 
 eccentric rod, or lower end of gear connection rod? 
 
 A. — Disconnect broken parts and remove such portions as are 
 lable to interfere; disconnect the short reach rod; fasten the bell- 
 Crank in its central position and proceed on both sides. 
 
 Q. — With an engine disconnected in this manner, what port 
 opening would you get on the disabled side? 
 
 A. — A port opening equal to the lead. 
 
 Q. — With an engine disconnected in this manner what precau- 
 tions should be taken in stopping? 
 
 A. — To see that the engine did not stop with the good side on the 
 dead center. 
 
 Q. — Why is this precaution necessary? 
 
 A. — Because in this case, the good side being on the center would 
 be powerless, and the disabled side being on the quarter would place 
 the valve in its central position covering both ports, consequently 
 no steam would be admitted to the cylinder on the disabled side and 
 the engine would not move. 
 
 Q. — In case an engine disconnected in this manner, did stop with 
 the good side on the dead center, could the engine be moved without 
 pinching? If so, how? 
 
 A. — Yes; by disconnecting the lower end of the combination 
 lever and moving the valve so as to obtain a port opening. 
 _ Q. — With an engine disconnected in this manner and the disabled 
 side on the quarter, why could not a port opening be obtained by 
 placing the reverse lever at full gear either forwar4 or back? 
 
 A. — Because in the first place the reach rod is disconnected on 
 that side and in the second place, if the reach rod were not discon- 
 nected, the reverse lever would have no influence on the valve 
 movement as the only movement given to the valve would be that 
 imparted by the crosshead. 
 
 Q. — What should be done in case the gear connection rod broke 
 above the point where it was fulcrumed to the gear frame? 
 
 A. — Proceed same as for a broken eccentric rod or crank, except 
 in this case it will not be necessary to disconnect the eccentric rod. 
 
 Q. — What should be done in case of a broken radius bar? 
 
 A. — Handle same as for broken eccentric rod or crank. 
 
 Q. — What should be done if the upper or horizontal bell crank 
 arm should break?
 
 312 VALVE 
 
 A. — Handle same as for broken eccentric rod. 
 
 Q. — What should be done in case the lower or vertical arm of the 
 bell crank broke? 
 
 A. — With the type of gear here illustrated this failure would 
 totally disable the engine on that side. All that would be necessary 
 to disconnect however would be the combination lever, union link 
 and valve rod; then clamp the valve to cover the ports and make 
 the usual provision for lubricating the cyUnder. With the later 
 type of gear, disconnect the valve rod, then fasten the top of the 
 combination lever by means of a plank extending from the steam 
 chest to the guide yoke. 
 
 Q. — What would you do in case you broke the crosshead arm, 
 union link or lower portion of the combination lever? 
 
 A. — Remove the broken parts that are liable to interfere. If in 
 case of a broken union link or crosshead arm, the combination lever 
 can be fastened so that it cannot move, do this and proceed with a 
 full train. If the combination lever is broken near its connection 
 however, or cannot be fastened, connect the valve rod direct to the 
 bell crank in place of the combination lever if possible; if not, wedge 
 or clamp the upper end the combination lever to the bell crank in 
 Buch a manner that it cannot move and proceed with a full train. 
 
 Q. — With an engine disconnected in this manner, how much valve 
 travel will be obtained on the disabled side? 
 
 A. — About two-thirds of the usual travel. 
 
 Q. — W^ith an engine disconnected in this manner at what cut-off 
 should the engine be worked to secure any power on the disabled 
 side? 
 
 A. — The engine should be worked at practically full stroke, if 
 cut back to less than half stroke no port opening would be obtain«i 
 on the defective side. 
 
 Q. — What do you do in case of a broken valve rod? 
 
 A. — Where the valve rod is connected from the combination 
 lever direct to the valve stem crosshead, the engine would be dis- 
 abled on that side and should be handled accordingly. There 
 would be no need to disconnect anything however except the valve 
 rod. Where the valve rod forms a connection between the bell 
 crank and the combination lever, and the combination lever is 
 attached to the valve stem crosshead, a lead opening could be ob- 
 tained by fastening the top of the combination lever. 
 
 Q. — What would you do in case of a broken reverse yoke? 
 
 A. — In case the yoke is broken at the short reach rod connection, 
 take down the short reach rod and block the yoke securely at the 
 cut-off in which it ia necessary to work the engme. If the break in 
 the reverse yoke is below the suspension point or lugs, proceed the 
 same as with broken eccentric rod or eccentric crank. 
 
 Q. — What would you do in case of a broken reach rod? 
 
 A. — If one of the short reach rods, block the yoke at the desired 
 cut-off point; if the main reach rod, block between tumbling shaft 
 arm and crosa brace.
 
 GEAR 313 
 
 SOUTHERN LOCOMOTIVE VALVE GEAR 
 
 While it is a radical departure from all previous outside 
 gears, it is a gear that can be adapted to any class of loco- 
 motives, both inside and outside admission, and is designed 
 with the view of eliminating roundhouse repairs and delays 
 to power incident thereto. It is a well known fact that there 
 is a derangement in the valve movement on all outside radial 
 gears, due to the change in the angularity of the main rod as 
 the engine settles. This valve gear has been so designed as to 
 practically eliminate this objectionable feature. 
 
 Transferring from a rotary motion to a reciprocating motion 
 is accomplished by direct movements and on straight lines, 
 doing away with strains and distortions found in other valve 
 gears in common use today. The links being located in a 
 horizontal position and being stationary, entirely does away 
 with wear at this point, as the block only moves in the link 
 when the reverse lever is moved to adjust cut-off or reverse 
 gear. The link being stationary also eliminates what is known 
 as the slip in the link block, found in some outside gears. 
 There are but eight possible points of wear on each side of an 
 engine or a total of sixteen points of wear per locomotive, this 
 being less than half contained in other gears. 
 
 This gear will practically do away with engine failures due 
 to breakage of valve gear parts. The different parts are so 
 balanced as to reduce the wear on the pins and bushings to a 
 minimum. The forward end of the eccentric rod is supported 
 by bell crank hanger, which has at its top two bearings spaced 
 widely apart, thus absolutely preventing any side slap on 
 eccentric rod. 
 
 This valve gear is designed to eliminate all stress and 
 strains on reverse lever and reach rod connections. The 
 reverse lever is easily handled with one hand while engine 
 is working under full steam pressure. This feature appeals 
 very strongly to the engineer as it enables him to adjust his 
 cut-off without fear of the reverse lever getting away from him 
 and will induce him to work as short cut-off as possible, re- 
 sulting in the saving of fuel. ThL«; 'valve gear will stand hard 
 usage that it is bound to get under heavy freight service, as 
 has been proven in a series of dynamometer car tests.
 
 314 
 
 VALVE
 
 GEAR 315 
 
 Directions for Setting and Adjusting Southern Locomotive 
 Valve Oear. — The dead centers are found in the usual way, 
 and the valve gear assembled according to elevation, with ec- 
 centric crank of proper length and set so that the pin travels 
 in an 18-inch circle and the reverse shaft arms stand vertical 
 while the reverse lever is in center position of quadrant and 
 the link set in position shown on the elevation, and securely 
 clamped; also that the auxiliary reach rods have been adjusted 
 to bring the link block in the center of the link while the 
 reverse lever is in middle position. 
 
 Diagram No. 1 shows an ideal valve gear, with all parts 
 of proper dimensions and properly located and adjusted. This 
 gear will have a uniform lead at both front and back ports. 
 
 Full lines show the position of eccentric crank for outside 
 admission, and dotted lines show the same for inside admission. 
 
 For outside admission, the eccentric crank leads the main 
 crank pin, but for inside admission, it follows the main crank 
 pin. 
 
 Diagram No. 2 shows a derangement of valve gear caused 
 by a long eccentric crank. A long eccentric crank pulls the 
 radius hanger center "D" back to "E" while engine is on for- 
 ward dead center, and thrusts same forward to "F" when 
 engine is on back dead center. This increases the lead in 
 forward motion, and decreases the lead in back motion. 
 
 Although the eccentric crank be of correct length, the same 
 derangement will occur if eccentric pin does not have a full 
 travel of 18 inches; a short eccentric crank, or one having 
 more than 18 inches travel, will have just the opposite effect 
 to that caused by the first case, viz: the lead will be decreased 
 in forward motion and increased in back motion. The effect 
 for inside admission is just the opposite in both cases. 
 
 Diagram No. 3 shows the method of correcting derangement 
 shown on diagram No. 2. First test full travel of center "D" 
 as follows: take a tram "T" of sufficient length; place one leg 
 in center "Dl", and with the other leg "dl" scrjbe arc "C". 
 While main crank pin is passing through bottom quarter, 
 eccentric crank will pass through position shown on the 
 diagram, and this will give the extreme travel of the center 
 "D" back.
 
 316 
 
 VALVE
 
 GEAR 
 
 317
 
 318 VALVE 
 
 Then with the same tram "Tl", with leg In center ' D2" 
 with the other leg "d2", scribe an arc "CI", while engl je 1b 
 passing through top quarter and eccentric crank is paising 
 through position shown on diagram. This will give the extreme 
 travel forward of the center "D". If the distance between the 
 arcs "c" and "cl" measures 18 inches, the travel of the center 
 "D" is correct; if more or less than 18 inches, move the eccen- 
 tric crank pin inward or outward the necessary amount to 
 secure 18 inches travel. Then try for correct length of eccen- 
 tric arm as follows: Set engine on forward dead center and 
 with tram "T2", one leg in center "D", with the other leg "d" 
 scribe an arc as shown, say the center arc between "a" and 
 "b", then turn engine over on back dead center and with one 
 leg of tram "T2" in center "D" as before, scribe another arc; if 
 this arc comes line in line with the first center arc, the eccentric 
 crank is O. K. But if the first arc, scribed while engine was 
 on forward dead center should fall at "a" and the second arc, 
 scribed while engine was on back dead center should fall at 
 "b", for outside admission this would show that the eccentric 
 crank was too long and would have to be shortened about one- 
 fourth the difference between arcs "a" and "b"; also the eccen- 
 tric pin would have to be moved away from the center of main 
 axle in order to secure full travel of 18 inches of center "D". 
 
 If the first arc, scribed while engine was on forward dead 
 center, should fall at "b", and the second arc, scribed while 
 engine was on back dead center, should fall at "a", for outside 
 admission this would show that the eccentric crank was too 
 short, and it would have to be lengthened about one-fourth the 
 difference between arcs "a" and "b" and eccentric pin moved 
 In toward main axle to obtain 18 inches travel of center "D". 
 
 Of course, for inside admission, the reverse process would 
 have to be followed for lengthening and shortening the eccen- 
 tric crank. Diagram No. 4 shows the valve gear with a properly 
 located link; the names of the different parts of the gear are 
 also shown. 
 
 Diagram No. 5 shows the effect of link being improperly 
 set, with the link too far ahead and engine on either center. 
 When link is moved forward, the valve will be pulled back; 
 When the link is too far back and the link block moved for-
 
 GEAR 
 
 319
 
 320 VALVE 
 
 ward, the valve will be pushed ahead. Remedy: It the valve 
 moves in the same direction as the link block, move the link 
 forward; if the valve moves in opposite direction to the link 
 block, move the link back until a position is found where the 
 link block can be moved full sweep in the link when engine 
 is on either dead center without moving the valve. Then drill 
 the eight holes in link support and bolt the link down. 
 
 Then try cut-off and make changes in valve rods to square 
 cut-off. If the valves are reported out after engine has been 
 in service several months, raise links by applying liners under 
 both ends of links, which will remedy the trouble. 
 
 NOTE: An ideal steam distribution cannot be obtained 
 without first having an engine with the crank pins correctly 
 quartered and main crank (or stroke) the exact length. Any 
 variation in one or both of these points will cause a derange- 
 ment in the movement of the valve. 
 
 In case elevation shows a less or greater circle than 18 
 Inches for eccentric crank pin to scribe, it will be necessary 
 to set eccentric crank to scribe circle shown on elevation^
 
 GEAR 
 
 321
 
 322 
 
 VALVn 
 
 It 
 
 Uj ^ u 
 
 Ocsb ^^ 
 
 2:
 
 322A GEAR 322A 
 
 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 
 
 Q. 1. Give a brief description of the Southern Valve Gear. 
 
 A. 1. This is an outside valve gear; the valve receives its 
 motion from an eccentric crank, or main pin, and differs from 
 other outside gears, in that the valve receives its motion direct 
 from the eccentric rod and has no cross head connections. 
 
 Q. 2. In what particular way does this valve gear differ 
 from other outside valve gears? 
 
 A. 2. By^ reason of its having no cross head connection and 
 the link being stationary. 
 
 Q. 3. What should be done in case of a broken main reach 
 rod? 
 
 A. 3. Block the link blocks both sides at suitable cut off to 
 start and handle train, using a block on each side of the link 
 block in link. 
 
 Q. 4. What should be done for a broken auxiliary reach 
 rod, or tumbling shaft arm? 
 
 A. 4. Block the link block on the disabled side at a suitable 
 cut off to handle train. 
 
 Q. 5. How would you disconnect for a broken eccentric 
 crank or rod? 
 
 A. 5. Remove the broken parts, block the valve with pcfrts 
 covered, secure the radius hanger and transmission yoke and 
 proceed on one side. 
 
 Q. 6. What disconnection should be made in case of a 
 broken bell crank? 
 
 A. 6. If valve rod connection, remove broken parts; if 
 transmission yoke connection, remove the transmission yoke, 
 block the valve with ports covered in both cases. 
 
 Q. 7. What would you do in case of a broken radius 
 hanger? 
 
 A. 7. Remove the eccentric rod, secure the transmission 
 yoke from swinging and block the valve with ports covered. 
 
 Q. 8. What provision should be made for lubricating cylin- 
 ders where valves are blocked with steam ports covered, with 
 main rod not connected? 
 
 A. 8. If indicator plugs are provided, would remove them 
 and lubricate through openings; if no indicator plugs, would 
 Black off on cylinder head and secure it in position to lubricate 
 through opening.
 
 CHAPTER iX. 
 
 COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES — INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 Note — In regard to the merits of the compound cylinder as 
 compared with the single-expansion, I do not desire nor profess 
 to express anj- opinion. I merely wish to describe the compound 
 cylinder in what follows, and, if in some places preference seems 
 to be expressed, it is the claim of builders and not mine. Those 
 who use locomotives must themselves be the judges of the re- 
 spective merits of single-expansion and compound cylinders and 
 of the particular pattern they want. 
 
 M. M. K. 
 
 In view of the fact that thfe Compound Loco- 
 motive is of comparative!}" recent introduction as 
 compared with the single-expansion cylinder, its 
 construction and working are less understood by 
 those connected with the equipment department 
 of railroads. These particulars I have, for that 
 reason, thought it best to embody here. More 
 and more attention is beiug given to the expan- 
 sive use of steam in connection with the locomo- 
 tive. It is claimed not to be unreasonable in 
 view of the triple and the quadruple expansion of 
 steam (expansion in three and four cylinders) 
 in the most approved stationary and marine en- 
 gines that it should be possible to devise practical 
 means of obtaining double expansion, at least, in 
 a locomotive. Because of the more or less gen- 
 
 (323)
 
 324 ENGINEERS' .iNB FIREMENS MANUAL. 
 
 eral introduction of compound cylinders, some 
 account of the working of the compound locomo- 
 tive is becoming every day more and more neces- 
 sary to those connected with the machinery and 
 equipment of railroads. Indeed, practical famil- 
 iarity with the working of compound engines 
 may be said to have become, in a measure, a 
 necessary part of the knowledge of every engi- 
 neer and firemen, for the reason that their duties 
 may at any time, through promotion or other- 
 wise, take them to roads where some form of 
 compound locomotive is extensively used. More- 
 over, it is well that their attention be especially 
 directed to the subject in order that it may 
 have the consideration and scrutiny at their 
 hands which its growing importance justifies and 
 their practical knowledge is likely to render so 
 valuable. 
 
 It is not surprising, inasmuch as the opinions 
 of engineers and firemen respecting the opera- 
 tion of simple engines differ so widely, that there 
 should be much controversy among them in re- 
 gard to the operation of compound locomotives. 
 Experience on the part of those operating the 
 compound locomotive will tend to its better 
 service and consequently greater development. 
 Many prejudices against it are due to lack of ac- 
 quaintance with its operation. This is true of 
 every new thing. Especially is it true in the 
 case of compounds where a railway has few loco- 
 motives of this kind. The feeling is but natural, 
 if we remeinber, as we should, that in the handling
 
 COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 325 
 
 of their engine the reputation of the engineer 
 and fireman is at stake. The opportunity af- 
 forded them for handling and studying any odd 
 engine, compound or otherwise, is necessarily 
 limited. Moreover, in the operation of such lo- 
 comotive, it is possible they may be impressed 
 with the unhandy, because unusual, cab arrange- 
 ments. Naturally, they are filled with appre- 
 hension, lest some accident might occur and 
 they be found ignorant of what should be done 
 to temporarily repair the engine and bring it in. 
 If a considerable number of the locomotives of a 
 railroad are compounds of similar class, the men 
 handling them become accustomed to their opera- 
 tion and this fear disappears. It is Avith a view 
 to the practical usefulness these pages may have 
 for engineers, firemen, and others interested in 
 the operation of compounds, that the descrip- 
 tions herein are elaborated to the extent they are. 
 The plan followed with each class of compound 
 locomotives is, first, to give a general description 
 of its operation, succeeded by a detailed descrip- 
 tion of its technical parts. This is done that the 
 reader may, in the first instance, if he desires, 
 learn of the general arrangement of each class 
 without the details, and afterwards, at his leisure, 
 he may apply himself to the particular class or 
 classes that most interest him. Following the 
 description of each class of compounds will be 
 found, in catechetical form, information relating 
 to its operation in case of any ordinary derange- 
 ment of its parts when the methods of procedure 
 will differ from those in case of similar accidents
 
 326 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 to simple locomotives, as outlined in the manual. 
 It is said that reforms must pass through 
 three stages: ridicule, argument, and adoption. 
 The compound has been subjected to the first 
 and second of these epochs, and it may be as- 
 sumed to have reached the last stage mentioned. 
 Like every part of a railroad, it is still in a state of 
 evolution. I know of no preference in regard to 
 compounds that is proper to express here. The 
 order of description has, therefore, no signifi- 
 cance. In the description of the various types I 
 have endeavored to eliminate all matter that 
 does not pertain directly to the practical appli- 
 cation of the principle of compounding, as de- 
 scriptions relating to other parts of the locomo- 
 tive are to be found elsewhere in "The Science 
 OF Railways." In relation to the descriptions 
 of the compound, I wish to say that I am in- 
 debted in a marked manner to Mr. E. W. Pratt, 
 whose familiarity with the construction and 
 working of locomotives and the appliances of the 
 latter makes him an authority of the highest or- 
 der in regard to all such matters. I am in- 
 debted to him in many other ways and it affords 
 me much gratification to be able to acknowledge 
 it thus conspicuously.
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES — GENERAL DESCRIPTION 
 
 COMPARISON WITH SIMPLE LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 A compound locomotive is one in which the 
 exhaust from one or more cylinders is passed 
 into one or more other cylinders and made to do 
 more work by further expansion before it is al- 
 lowed to escape to the atmosphere. In stationary 
 and marine service the principle of compounding 
 has long since passed its experimental stage and, 
 following the replacement of the single-expansion 
 engine by the double-expansion type, came the 
 era of high boiler pressures with triple and even 
 quadruple-expansion engines in marine service. 
 It was long thought by many, and is still held 
 by some, that, although compounding of steam 
 in marine and stationary engines was a great 
 economy due to the use of the condenser,* on 
 locomotives where condensers were impractic- 
 able, the compound locomotive would not be able 
 to gain sufficient advantage over the simple 
 engine to warrant its general use. 
 
 Without any attempt to pass judgment upon 
 the relative value of the points put forward for 
 and against compound locomotives, I will out- 
 
 *A condenser is a chamber into which the final exhaust of an 
 engine takes place and in which the steam is cooled and con- 
 densed, either by a jet of water or by contact .with sheets or 
 tubes having cold water circulation on their opposite sides. 
 These two forms of condensers are termed "jet condenser" and 
 "surface condenser," respectively. 
 
 (327:)
 
 328 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 line some of the claims made by their advocates 
 and also some of the practical objections met 
 with in their use, many of which objections 
 have been largely overcome in the later 
 designs. 
 
 It should be remembered that the locomotive 
 is not a steam engine merely, but consists of a 
 boiler as well, and must also carry water and fuel 
 for its own demands. 
 
 The first advantage of the compound over the 
 simple locomotive comes from its greater economy 
 in fuel, resulting primarily from the saving in 
 steam. There is, however, a secondary saving, pro- 
 duced by the less violent effect of the exhaust upon 
 the fire and also the economical use of high boiler 
 pressures in compound engines. 
 
 Experiments have shown that high boiler pres- 
 sures, say above 180 pounds, which have been 
 found very economical (especially in the space 
 occupied per horse power developed) in station- 
 ary and marine engines, are not a source of econ- 
 omy with the type of single-expansion locomotives 
 in use in this country, due to the extreme ranges 
 of temperature within a single cylinder and the 
 consequent condensation. Also, locomotive cylin- 
 ders and their steam ports are, not well protected, 
 and compounding the cylinders renders the varia- 
 tions of temperature in each cylinder less wide, 
 and thus makes practicable the use of higher pres- 
 sure. With the use of steel in place of iron for 
 boiler construction, and also on account of the 
 excellent care and inspection given all locomo- 
 tive boilers, there is no material increase of firs^
 
 COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 329 
 
 cost or for maintenance of high-pressure boilers. 
 In simple locomotives the exhaust produces 
 such a violent draft upon the fire that great 
 quantities of unconsumed fuel are drawn from 
 the fire-box and thrown from the stack. This is 
 not alone a waste of fuel, but cinders entering 
 the open car windows are a source of great an- 
 noyance to passengers, while, before the use of 
 the compound locomotive in the service of subur- 
 ban railways, the noise of the exhaust had to be 
 overcome by means of mufflers, which became 
 quickly choked up and produced a high back- 
 pressure on the pistons, resulting in the loss of 
 from 15 to 20 per cent, of the power. 
 
 The throwing of sparks from the stack is not 
 only a source of annoyance, but frequently re- 
 sults in heavy losses from damage by fire in tim- 
 ber and agricultural districts, and this is largely, 
 if not entirely, overcome by the compound 
 locomotive. 
 
 The heating surfaces of any given boiler absorb 
 heat from the fire and deliver it to the water at 
 a certain rate. If the rate at which the products 
 of combustion are carried away exceeds this rate 
 of absorption, there will be a continual waste 
 that can only be overcome by reducing the veloc- 
 ity of the products of combustion. In the com- 
 pound locomotive this is effected by the milder 
 exhaust. It has been clearly demonstrated by 
 experiment, that a milder exhaust and conse- 
 quently a slower rate of combustion produces a 
 greater evaporation of water per pound of fuel. 
 
 The milder exhaust is, of course, the result of a
 
 330 
 
 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 lower back-pressure and thereby permits a greater 
 effective power on the piston. 
 
 There is also found to be considerable reduction 
 in cylinder condensation, owing to the relatively 
 5mall variation of temperatures in each cylinder 
 as compared with single-expansion engines. In 
 any engine the walls of the cylinder, one cylinder- 
 head, and one side of the piston are cooled to the 
 temperature of the exhaust steam during each 
 stroke, and the live steam, again entering, must 
 
 Tiff. J. 
 
 i Stmm jstroK* ■ ■^Stnhe ruUSt rM 
 
 Length or Stroke 
 
 reheat them to Its own temperature, thus con- 
 densing and requiring additional steam- to flow in 
 and take its place. In the compound this total 
 range of temperature is divided between the high 
 and the low-pressure cylinders, and thus the vari- 
 ation and consequent condensation in each cylin- 
 der is less. 
 
 The saving of steam results in the saving of
 
 COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 331 
 
 both water and fuel. The economy in fuel can 
 be directly reduced to dollars and cents, while 
 that resulting from the saving of water is more 
 indirect. In bad water districts, the reduction 
 of from 15 to 20 per cent, in the amount of water 
 used, necessitates less frequent washings-out of 
 the boiler and must result in greater life and 
 diminished repairs to boiler and flues. Moreover, 
 as its carrying capacity of water limits the dis- 
 tance that a locomotive can run without stopping 
 (or slowing up, where track-tanks are used), it is 
 evident that the compound locomotive would have 
 an advantage in this respect. Fig. 1 besides 
 showing the most economical point of cut-off for 
 simple and compound engines, as far as the- use 
 of water is concerned, clearly shows the relatively 
 smaller amount of water used by the compound 
 per indicated horse power. 
 
 No locomotive can haul more than its adhesion 
 to the rails will permit, aud hence the tractive 
 power of an engine is based upon whatever the 
 adhesion to the rails may be. This is determined 
 by practical experiment. With a fairly dry rail, 
 a turning force of more than one-fifth, or 20 per 
 cent., of the weight of the drivers on the rails, 
 will cause the wheels to slip; a perfectly dry rail 
 will permit of a tractive power of about one- 
 fourth, or 25 per cent., of the weight on the 
 drivers; a well sanded dry rail will allow one- 
 third, or 33^ per cent., while a bad frosty rail 
 will permit less than half this last amount. 
 Where all the driving wheels are connected, it 
 matters not, of course, whether this force is ap-
 
 332 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 plied by one or many cylinders, but, if the power 
 is not uniformly distributed throughout the revo- 
 lution and becomes sufficiently excessive at any 
 one point to cause the wheels to slip, a very 
 much less power will thereafter keep them slip- 
 ping. It is a well known fact that adhesion, and 
 consequently the tractive power of a locomotive^ 
 is very much reduced after the wheels begin to 
 slip.* 
 
 It is claimed for the compound, that, as the 
 average cut-off is later in both cylinders than for 
 simple engines, the turning power is more uni- 
 form throughout the revolution, and hence heavier 
 trains can be hauled than with the single-expan- 
 sion engine. Then, too, while it would be un- 
 economical at other times to design a simple 
 engine with cylinders sufficiently large to develop 
 so high a tractive power as 33i per cent, at slow 
 gpeeds, this can be done with compound loco- 
 motives of the "convertible" type without loss 
 in economy under ordinary speeds of service, 
 when working compound. 
 
 A saving of oil has been one of the minor econ- 
 omies claimed to be incidental to the use of com- 
 pound locomotives. It is generally thought that 
 from six to ten drops of valve oil per minute are 
 required to be supplied with the steam in order 
 to properly lubricate a valve and cylinder. This 
 
 *Every engineer knows this and puts his knowledge into prac- 
 tice when on a very slippery rail by opening the throttle very 
 slightly and leaving the valve in full gear, thus distributing the 
 pressure more uniformly throughout the stroke than would be 
 the case with a shorter cut-off.
 
 COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 332 
 
 oil is supplied to the high-pressure cylinder only, 
 and hence, in the two-cylinder class of com- 
 pounds, a saving has been effected in many cases. 
 
 Comparative tests of greater or less duration 
 have been made by various railways, between 
 compound and simple locomotives of otherwise 
 similar construction, and the results obtained by 
 the different experimenters are widely at vari- 
 ance. In general, it may be said that the re- 
 ported saving in fuel with the compound is about 
 ten per cent, in fast passenger and 20 per cent, 
 in heavy freight service, although figures double 
 the latter have frequently been given.* 
 
 Later designs of compound locomotives, arranged 
 to be worked simple at the will of the engineer, will 
 temporarily pull a heavier train than a simple 
 engine of otherwise like design. When it is con- 
 sidered that the ruling grade on a division is the 
 governing factor for the maximum rating of 
 through trains over the whole division, it will be 
 seen that a locomotive capable of enough greater 
 power to haul an additional car or two up that 
 grade, produces more economical service for the 
 whole division. 
 
 Leaky valves and cylinder packing are less 
 wasteful in a compound than in a simple engine. 
 Steam leaking by the valve or packing of the 
 high-pressure cylinder is still worked expansively 
 
 *Fast freight service will more nearly compare with express 
 passenger service and the saving will be less than in heavy slow 
 freight service, on account of the simple engine using steam 
 more expansively in the former service than in the latter. This 
 is more fully brought out elsewhere. *
 
 334 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 in the low-pressure cylinder. Then, too, the dif- 
 ference of pressure between the two sides of the 
 valves and pistons is less than for simple engines, 
 and the wear should be consequently less. 
 
 On the other hand many serious practical ob- 
 jections hav^e been raised. The large cylinders 
 greatly increased the weight of the reciprocating 
 imrts.* This mast be followed by heavier coun- 
 ter-balancef weights and their accompanying 
 evils. J Also larger ports and consequently larger 
 valves must be provided for the large cylinders. 
 Inasmuch as considerable diflBculty w^as formerly 
 experienced in obtaining admission and exhaust 
 ports of sufficient size for the cylinders of 
 large high-speed single-expansion engines, it is 
 not remarkable that there should have been con- 
 siderable trouble experienced from this source in 
 designing ports for the much larger cylinders of 
 the compound locomotive. 
 
 In connection with these last two points, the 
 weight of reciprocating parts and the port re- 
 
 *By the reciprocating parts is meant those parts that have a 
 forward and back (or reciprocating) motion. This includes the 
 pistons and piston-rods, tlie cross-heads and a certain part of 
 the main. rods. 
 
 fThe counter-balance is the balance weight placed in the 
 wheel at a point opposite the crank pin. (See No. 240, Plate I.) 
 
 JThe counter-balance weights act at all points of the revolu- 
 tion, having an outward or centrifugal tendency from the center 
 of the wheel that is great at high speeds, and is only counter- 
 acted when the engine is passing the front and back centers. At 
 other points it produces an upward tendency upon the engine 
 when moving up and a downward blow upon the rails when 
 moving down.
 
 COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 335 
 
 quirements, let us see for one moment what the 
 requirements for high speed are. Take an engine 
 with a five foot driving wheel and a twenty-four 
 inch stroke, traveling at the not unusual rate of 
 a mile a minute. This requires 336 revolutions 
 per minute, and means that the piston starts and 
 stops 672 times, and with all its stopping and 
 starting travels 1344 feet per minute. At mid- 
 stroke the piston speed is about 35 feet per second 
 or 24 miles per hour. To the average railway 
 man high speeds are so common that I can think- 
 of no better way to show the full meaning of 
 these figures than to compare them with those of 
 a falling body acted upon by gravity. A falling 
 body at the end of the first second is traveling at 
 the rate of 32 feet per second, or about 22 miles 
 per hour, and in gaining this speed the body has 
 fallen some 16 feet, through which distance the 
 continued action of gravity has produced this not 
 inconsiderable acceleration, while in the case of 
 the piston of the locomotive in question, the still 
 greater speed of 24 miles per hour must not only 
 be attained by the time the piston has reached 
 the middle of its stroke, or in one foot, but also 
 it must be exerting great additional propelling 
 power on the crank pins. The steam in front of 
 this rapidly moving piston must be exhausted 
 freely or there would be no effective power to 
 maintain the speed. Where the reciprocating parts 
 weigh nearly a thousand pounds, it will be seen 
 what enormous power is required to stop and 
 start them without jar or shock to the loco- 
 motive, and also the size of ports required to
 
 336 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 freely exhaust the pressure ahead of and freely 
 supply steam behind the very large pistons of 
 compound locomotives. With any of the several 
 types of valve gear used in locomotive practice 
 to-day, it goes without saying that no compound 
 can be relatively so efficient, in comparison with 
 single-expansion engines, in express passenger as 
 in freight service, for the reasons hereinbefore 
 described. When many single-expansion loco- 
 motives with moderately large ports require a ve- 
 locity of steam through their ports of over 1,000 
 feet per second, it can better be imagined than 
 told what the port requirements are for the large 
 low-pressure cylinder on a compound. It is gen- 
 erally considered that for express passenger serv- 
 ice the low-pressure cylinders should not be so 
 large in proportion to the high-pressure cylinders 
 as for freight service. 
 
 Many of the earlier compounds in this country 
 suffered in comparative tests with simple engines 
 of otherwise similar design, by having cylinders 
 of too small a size to do the same work as the 
 simple engine. While they did their work with 
 economy, they would not haul the heavy trains 
 of the simple engines, and their supposed capacity 
 had to be reduced, to the annoyance of those en- 
 gaged in the operating of trains. Since then, with 
 the advent of larger cylinders and the "convert- 
 ible" class of compounds, the conditions have 
 become altered. 
 
 With any locomotive, when steam is shiit off, 
 as in running down grade, the pistons act as air 
 compressors, causing thumping, rough riding, and
 
 COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 337 
 
 cooling of the cylinders, as well as a strong draft 
 in the stack at a time when no steam and little 
 draft are required, and thus produce a waste of 
 fuel. The large low-pressure cylinders of the 
 compound have greatly magnified this evil, and 
 several builders have overcome it by the use of 
 automatic valves on the low-pressure cylinder, by 
 which the two sides of the low-pressure piston are 
 connected whenever the locomotive is drifting. 
 
 After closing the throttle, an engine working 
 compound will make several strokes before all 
 steam is finally exhausted. This delaj^ in clear- 
 ing the cj'linders of steam, placed compound 
 locomotives to considerable disadvantage in 
 switching or like service; also, in such sersace, 
 accustomed to gauge the speed by the exhaust 
 of the engine, trainmen were often deceived by 
 the less frequent exhaust of the two-cylinder com- 
 pound. The employment of the separate high- 
 pressure exhaust, whereby the engine can be run 
 simple at the will of the engineer, it appears, 
 has overcome these objections from an operating 
 standpoint. 
 
 Many of the earlier forms of intercepting valves 
 were of the poppet tj^pe and hammered badly in 
 opening or closing. It will be noticed that these 
 valves in the later designs are of the piston type 
 and are almost invariably cushioned by dash-pots 
 connected thereto, or some other equally effective 
 means. 
 
 It is also claimed that the breakage and loosen- 
 ing of the large low-pressure cylinders have been 
 considerably done away with by the use of proper 
 
 12 voi 12
 
 338 ENGINEERS' ^INI) FIREMEN S MANUAL. 
 
 reducing valves and a better attachment of cylin 
 ders to the frame, the use of double front rails f o» 
 the latter being particularly noticeable in modern 
 construction of large locomotives. 
 
 Thus it is that improvements in design and con- 
 struction are continually taking place, and the 
 upholders of the great principle of con>pounding 
 will certainly witness their more extensive adapta- 
 tion to all classes of service.
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 CLASSES OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES AND THEIR 
 GENERAL CONSTRUCTION DIFFERENT TYPES. 
 
 There are many classes of compound locomo- 
 tives in use. First, the strict h/ plain compound, 
 where no live steam is admitted to the low-pres- 
 sure cylinder, even in starting. The Webb three- 
 cylinder compounds (with cylinders arranged as 
 outlined in Fig. 6,) which are usually without 
 connecting rods — the two high-pressure cylin- 
 ders turning the rear pair of driving wheels by 
 
 two outside cranks while 
 the low-pressure cylinder 
 turns the forward drivers 
 by means of an inside 
 crank — belong to this 
 class and are used in con- 
 siderable numbers on the 
 London & North-Western 
 of England. They are not 
 powerful in starting, as 
 the driving wheels acted 
 upon by the high-pressure cylinders must turn, 
 either by slipping or moving the train, before 
 steam enters the low-pressure cylinder. 
 
 Second, automatic compounds — those using live 
 steam in the low-pressure cylinder in starting 
 only, automatically changing to compound with 
 the first stroke, and thereafter cannot be run ex- 
 cept as compounds. 
 
 (339)
 
 340 
 
 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 The third class can be run simple or compou.nd 
 at any time at the will of the engineer and will 
 be termed converfibh' compoKmh. 
 
 Each of these principal classes may have two, 
 three, or four cylinders. The two-cylinder or "cross- 
 compound" always has an intermediate recepta- 
 cle, called a receiver,* between the high and low- 
 pressure cylinders, while 
 the four- cylinder en- 
 gines may or may not 
 have receivers — those 
 with both pistons at- 
 tached to the same 
 crosshead generally 
 have not. The three 
 systems of four-cylinder 
 V^^y' compounds used in this 
 
 Ij country are the Baldwin 
 
 ^ rVauclain), the Brooks 
 
 ^ (Player), and the John- 
 
 Of these, the Brooks has receivers, while 
 
 rO 
 
 Fit 
 
 stone. 
 
 the remaining two are of the continuous expan- 
 sionf type and have no receivers. J 
 
 *Tlie receiver is for the purpose of receiving the exhaust from 
 the high-pressure cylinder and holding it until the engine gets 
 to the point in the revolution where it is admitted against the 
 low-pressure piston. Incidentally, the receiver may act as a re- 
 heater, if located in the smoke-box, as is usually the practice. 
 
 fMeaning expansion without any pause or interruption as is 
 the case when a receiver is interposed between the high and the 
 low-pressure cylinders. 
 
 Jin Europe the Hungarian State Railvvays employ four-cylin- 
 der tandem compounds with one receiver into which I)oth 
 high-pressure cylinders exhaust and from which both low-pres- 
 sure cylinders receive their supply.
 
 CLASSES OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 341 
 
 The arrangement of cylinders is quite varied, 
 as shown by the several skeleton cuts. There 
 may be two cylinders, oneyhigh-pressure and one 
 low-pressure, as outlined in 
 Figs. 1, 2 and 3, one high 
 and two low-pressure, as in 
 Figs. 4 and 5; two high-pres- 
 sure and one low into which 
 they both exhaust, as in Fig. 
 6; two high, each exhaust- 
 ing independently into a 
 low-pressure cylinder on 
 the same side of the engine, 
 shown in Figs. 7, 8, 9 and 
 10; or two high exhausting 
 into a common receiver 
 from which both low-pressure cylinders draw 
 their supply, as in Figs. 11 and 12. Aside from 
 %he varied arrangement of cylinders, many of 
 the European designs 
 employ three and four 
 cranks and use no side 
 rods. Some French 
 constructions, retain- 
 ing the use of side 
 rods, employ for the 
 high-pressure cylinders 
 two inside cranks on 
 one driving axle at an 
 angle with the low- 
 pressure cranks on a 
 second driving axle, 
 the angle between the cranks being such as to
 
 342 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 give as large a turning power as possible, for all 
 
 portions of the revolution. 
 
 It is, perhaps, needless to say that the wide 
 variations in the service 
 of American locomotives 
 demand that they have a 
 large starting power at all 
 points of the stroke. To 
 obtain this starting power, 
 
 ©"" ^ all the earlier designs 
 
 ^.^^^ used a device called an m- 
 /jy^ tercepting valve that, if 
 V^^ closed in starting, cut off 
 communication between 
 the receiver and the low- 
 -pressure cylinder and at 
 the same time admitted 
 
 ^^^. 
 
 s. 
 
 live steam to the low-pressure side, but after the 
 first exhaust from the 
 high-pressure cylinder to 
 the receiver took place, 
 the pressure in the latter 
 automatically shoved open 
 the intercepting valve and 
 simultaneously shut off 
 the further supply of live 
 steam to the low-pressure 
 cylinder. Hence these en- 
 gines belong to the auto- 
 matic class of compounds. 
 Mr. Anatole Mallet, who 
 was the designer of the 
 first practical compound locomotives in Europe
 
 CLASSES OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 343 
 
 in 1876, was also the first to devise a means by 
 which a compound could be worked as a simple 
 locomotive for any desired period at the will of 
 the engineer. This was accomplished by adding 
 a separate exhaust valve through which the ex- 
 haust from the high-pressure cylinder could escape 
 to the atmosphere without accumulating in the 
 receiver. This relieved all back pressure on the 
 high-pressure piston and admitted of greater power 
 at slow speed than was otherwise obtained.* 
 Many objections were raised to placing the 
 operation of the engine 
 either as a simple or as a 
 compound in the hands 
 of the engineer, and the 
 fear was freely expressed 
 that the average engineer 
 would run the locomotive 
 to its disadvantage in 
 ( j:^.j^ simple position more than 
 V^^ enough to offset the sav- 
 ly ing when operated as a 
 
 — ; "Z^ compound. However, one 
 
 V* ■ prominent railroad officer, 
 
 m placing the operation of the valves at the will 
 of the engineer, seemed to express the now settled 
 conviction of all, when he said: "To argue that an 
 
 *It should also be staled that not only were the automatic 
 compounds less powerful, at slow speeds after starting, than 
 simple engines, but, except in the case of four-cylinder engines 
 having one high and one low-pressure cylinder on the same side 
 they were practically helpless in case of a broken steam chest 
 on either side. The use of the sepai'ate exhaust valve has greatly 
 altered the conditions in these cases. 

 
 344 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 engineer is likely to work simple any longer than 
 absolutely necessary, is about the same as saying 
 that an engineer with the ordinary engine cannot 
 be trusted to pull the reverse lever up as soon as 
 possible." 
 
 Later practice interposed, within or near the 
 intercepting valve, a reducing valve, which is 
 used to admit live steam, at a reduced pressure 
 only, into the low-pressure cylinder when starting 
 or when working simple. This reduced the 
 
 abnormal shocks that were 
 produced when starting 
 large compounds of earlier 
 design. The reducing 
 valve, the intercepting 
 valve, and the separate 
 
 ©exhaust valve were so 
 closely combined in many 
 ^^ cases and so dependent, 
 one upon the other, in 
 their operation, that it 
 "became the tendency 
 ^•^' ' among railway and me- 
 
 chanical men to refer to the w^hole mechanism 
 simply as the "intercepting valve." 
 
 While the limit to the size of the ordinary 
 locomotive may be considered to have been 
 reached when the largest practical boiler that can 
 be placed on a given gauge track has been attained, 
 the limit to the American two-cylinder, or cross- 
 compound, with outside cranks will be the max- 
 imum width allowable for locomotives. However, 
 again Mr. Mallet, the father of the present era 
 
 jf\
 
 CLASSES OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 345 
 
 of compound locomotives, has seemingly solved 
 the problem by dividing the low-pressure cylinder 
 into two cylinders, as shown in Fig. 5, of smaller 
 size attached to the same crosshead. With such 
 a construction it would appear that the boiler 
 would still be the limiting feature of the size of 
 the compound as well as the simple locomotive. 
 The proper cylinder ratio of compounds for all 
 varieties of service is still somewhat undeter- 
 mined. By the cylinder ratio is meant the propor- 
 tion between the volumes of the high and the 
 low-pressure cylinders, not including the clearance 
 
 spaces. In American practice where the length 
 of stroke is the same, the cylinder ratio would 
 be as the areas of the two pistons, and it can 
 readily be found by multiplying the diameter of 
 each cylinder by itself and comparing the two 
 products. For instance, to find the cylinder ra- 
 tio of an engine with a 20 inch high and a 30 
 inch low-pressure cylinder, multiply 20x20 equals 
 400; 30x30 equals 900; 400 goes in 900 two and 
 one-fourth times, which is the cylinder ratio.
 
 346 
 
 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 The early practice in this country with two- 
 cylinder compounds gave a ratio of two to one 
 or even less, but extended experiment has dem- 
 onstrated that a greater 
 proportion than this is 
 advisable and many 
 compounds of this class 
 have a low-pressure cyl- 
 inder from tw^o and one- 
 half to two and three- 
 quarters times larger 
 than their high-pressure 
 cylinder. The Baldwin 
 works used a ratio of 3 
 to 1 in their Vauclain 
 four -cylinder com- 
 pounds for both passenger and freight service for 
 a number of years and consider the results emi- 
 nently satisfactory, while 
 the builders of the Brooks 
 tandem four -cylinder 
 compound advise a ratio 
 of between 2.8 and 3 to 1. 
 However, the whole prob- 
 lem of cylinder ratios for 
 compound locomotives is 
 based upon the desirabil- 
 ity of dividing the work V yj 
 
 as equally as possible be- 
 the high and the' 
 
 -z^'V 
 
 Fij^JJ. 
 
 tween 
 
 low-pressure cylinders, and 
 
 without going into details, it is apparent that no 
 
 given ratio will keep the work equally divided
 
 CLASSES OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 347 
 
 for different service and different points of cut-off, 
 nor should this equal division of power between 
 the cylinders be given anything but secondary 
 consideration in comparison with the total econ- 
 omy of the locomotive. To partially equalize the 
 power of compounds, the amounts of lap and lead 
 are not the same for both cylinders; one builder 
 uses a separate lever in the cab for independ- 
 ently adjusting the travel of the low-pressure 
 valve, as fully described elsewhere. 
 
 There seems to be no general rule followed by 
 
 builders in this country 
 as to which cylinder of 
 a two-c y 1 i n d e r com- 
 pound should be placed 
 on the right-hand or 
 engineer's side of the 
 engine. Generally the 
 intercepting valves are 
 located on the engi- 
 neer's side to make their 
 connections as simple as 
 possible, and hence, ac- 
 , . cording as the design 
 
 ^ ' contemplates the plac- 
 
 ing of this valve adjacent to the high or the low- 
 pressure cylinder, that one is placed on the right- 
 hand side. But even this rule is not without 
 exception.* 
 
 *It would seem as though the intercepting valve, if placed 
 between the high-pressure cylinder and the receiver, would cause 
 less wire-drawing of steam to the low-pressure cylinder than if 
 located between the latter and the receiver.
 
 348 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 Some compounds have cylinder casings both of 
 the same size, but with the advent of the thirty- 
 four or thirty-five inch low-pressure cylinder it 
 seemed to many advisable to place it on the 
 engineer's side with the thought of its better pro- 
 tection from damage if within his vision, and, fur- 
 thermore, that the high-pressure cylinder casing 
 be made no larger than necessary for reason of 
 its better protection from accident. 
 
 It is becoming the general practice on com- 
 pounds of any size to place combination safety and 
 relief valves on the receiver and the low-pressure 
 chest and cylinder heads to avoid damage in case 
 of broken reducing valve or other accident that 
 might produce unsafe pressure on that side. 
 
 THE BALDWIN FOUR-CYLINDER COMPOUND. 
 
 The builders of the "Vauclain" four-cylinder 
 compound locomotives claim a design productive 
 of the greatest efficiency with the utmost sim- 
 plicity of parts and the least possible deviation 
 from existing practice; that they also develop 
 equal power on each side of the locomotive, 
 thereby preventing the racking of the machinery 
 resulting from an unequal distribution of power; 
 and that, in their method of handling by the 
 engineer, there is but slight departure from that 
 of single-expansion or non-compound locomo- 
 tives. They may be started, and run for any de- 
 sired length of time, either simple or compound, 
 at the will of the engineer, and can be changed 
 from the one to the other at his discretion by the
 
 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 349 
 
 movement of a small lever in the cab which also 
 operates the cylinder cocks. 
 
 The principal features of construction are as 
 follows: 
 
 The cylinders consist of one high-pressure and 
 one low-pressure cylinder for each side, the ratio 
 of their volumes being as nearly 3 to 1 as the 
 employment of convenient measurements will 
 allow. They are cast in one piece with the cylin- 
 drical valve chamber and the saddle, the cylin- 
 
 l4Uc/i CAa/ni*r 
 
 ^aidirirt ^u>' - C^i^cn^er drnjoeunel ■ 
 
 ders being placed one directly above the other 
 and as close together as they can be with ade- 
 quate walls between them. Figs. 13 and 14 
 show the proximity of the two cylinders, while 
 in Fig. 15, which shows the arrangement of the 
 cylinders in relation to the valve, the actual con- 
 struction is distorted for illustrative purposes. 
 
 The valve used to distribute the steam to the 
 cylinders is of the piston type, working in a cyl- 
 indrical steam chest located in the saddle of
 
 350 
 
 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 the cylinder casting as close to the cylinders as 
 possible and between them and the smoke-box, 
 as shown in the figures. This chest, having 
 steam passages cast larger than required, is 
 bored out enough larger than the diameter of 
 the piston valve to permit the use of a hard cast 
 iron bushing. Fig. 22 shows this bushing and 
 one method of forcing it into place so that steam 
 tight joints will be had between all ports; it 
 
 l/a/ie CAa^nSer 
 
 also shows the narrow bridges across the steam 
 ports which prevent the eight packing rings of 
 the valve (shown in Fig. 16) from entering the 
 ports. These cast iron packing rings form the 
 edges of the valve. 
 
 The valve is of the piston type — double, and 
 hollow between the two inside pistons — but hav- 
 ing two solid ends, as shown by Fig. 16, and 
 controls the admission and exhaust of both cylin- 
 ders. The exhaust steam from the high-pressure
 
 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 351 
 
 cylinder becomes the supply steam for tTie low- 
 pressure cylinder and is transmitted from one 
 side of the high-pressure cylinder to the opposite 
 Tz^. IS. 
 
 side of the low-pressure cylinder through the hol- 
 low portion of the valve, as indicated by arrows, 
 Fig. 15. The supply steam for the high-pressure
 
 352 
 
 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 cylinder enters the steam chest at both ends, 
 thus balancing the valve with the exception of 
 the area of the valve-stem at the back end. 
 
 The more common slide valve action being so 
 much better understood by the average railroad 
 man than the piston valve, I will liken this four- 
 piston valve to one slide valve within another 
 having external admission and internal exhaust in 
 both cases. Thus it will be seen that the outside 
 
 Tiy J6. 
 
 edges of the two outer pistons govern admission 
 and their inside edges the exhaust of high-pres- 
 sure cylinder, while the two inner pistons simi- 
 larly regulate the flow of steam to and from the 
 low-pressure cylinder, all of w^hich will be evident 
 by a reference to the arrows in Fig. 15. 
 
 Where the front rails of the frame are single 
 bars, the high-pressure cylinder is usually put on 
 top, as shown in Fig. 13, and in that event, with
 
 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTI YES. 353 
 
 the usual rocker-arm, indirect valve motion is 
 used.* When the low-pressure cylinder is put 
 above (Fig. 14) on account of the double front 
 rails of the frame, they also prevent the use of 
 the rocker-shaft and box and the valve motion is 
 then termed direct-acting, which necessitates a 
 different location of the eccentrics on the axle.* 
 
 Engineers and those employed in shops and 
 round-houses for setting valves and eccentrics 
 should thoroughly understand the difference be- 
 tween the position of the eccentrics with relation 
 
 eOtZK 
 
 BcU^,n /our Cv^-n^r Cor^poun^ ^o/ion Sfee/ J',^(o,z 
 
 Croa -aaaa 
 
 to the crank-pins for direct and indirect valve 
 motion, as given fully elsewhere in the Manual, 
 and further brought out in the Catechism on 
 Accidents to Baldwin Four-Cylinder Compounds 
 hereinafter contained. 
 
 The style of crosshead is show^n in Fig. 17. 
 It is made of cast steel, to insure the greatest 
 strength with a minimum weight, the wearing 
 surface being lined with tin. The piston, shown 
 
 *Direct and indirect valve motion will be found fu'ily illus- 
 trated and explained in the earlier chapters of the Manual.
 
 354 
 
 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 in Fig. 18, is also preferably made with cast 
 steel heads, the object in both cases being to re- 
 duce the weight of the reciprocating parts to a 
 minimum. 
 
 It is obvious, that, in starting these locomotives 
 from a state of rest with heavy trains, it is neces- 
 sary to obtain a greater power than that exerted 
 by the high-pressure piston alone, for there would 
 
 
 be no pressure on the low-pressure piston until 
 the high-pressure cylinder had made one exhaust; 
 hence it is necessary to admijb steam to the low- 
 pressure as well as the high-pressure cylinders. 
 This is accomplished by the use of the starting
 
 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 355 
 
 valve (Fig. 19).* This is simply a plug-cock 
 which is opened by the engineer by means of 
 suitable levers from the cab, to admit steam from 
 one end of the high-pressure cylinder to the other, 
 and thence, as if it were the ordinary high-pres- 
 sure exhaust, into the low-pressure cylinder. This 
 same valve acts as a cylinder cock for both ends 
 of the high-pressure cylinder and is operated by 
 the same lever that actuates the ordinary cylin- 
 der cocks, which are in this case on the low-pressure 
 cylinder, thus making, probably, the most simple 
 starting device used on any compound locomotive 
 and one not easily deranged. The operation of 
 the starting valve in conjunction with the cylin- 
 der cocks is clearly shown in Fig. 20. The 
 starting valve should be kept closed (position iV) 
 as much as possible, as its indiscriminate use 
 reduces the economy and makes the locomotive 
 "iogy."t 
 
 Air valves, to prevent a vacuum, are placed in 
 the steam passages of the high-pressure cylinder, 
 
 *This is sometimes called the "By-Pass" valve, as it connects 
 the two sides of the high-pressure piston, but for an entirely dif- 
 ferent purpose than that to which the by-pass valves are put in 
 connection with the lovv-pi-essure cylinder as described herein- 
 after under the Richmond and the Rogers compound, and for that 
 reason I have not called it a "by-pass" valve. Two earlier 
 forms of starting valves have been used with Vauclain com- 
 pounds, but, Inasmuch as they have been superseded by this form 
 of valve, it I3 not deemed necessary to illustrate and dwcribe 
 them herttin. 
 
 fAn engine which sliould be capable of high speed but is not, 
 and in which the i)ressures work against themselves in the cyl- 
 inders, is said to be "logj'."
 
 356^ ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 a practice now generally followed on all locomo- 
 tives, either simple or compound. Additional air 
 valves, marked C and C ' in Fig. 20, are placed 
 in connection with the ports in the valve cham- 
 ber leading to the low-pressure cylinders. Air 
 valves of somewhat different shape have been 
 described and shown in detail heretofore in the 
 Manual. 
 
 Water relief valves W W, Figs. 20 and 21, 
 which are nothing more nor less than pop valves, 
 are applied to the low-pressure cylinders and at- 
 tached to the front and back cylinder heads to re- 
 lieve excessive pressure of any kind, steam or 
 water. The spring in the water relief valves on 
 these engines is made to carry a pressure enough 
 greater than the boiler pressure to prevent their 
 discharging steam and water oi'dinarily in start- 
 ing the engine simple. 
 
 In all other respects the locomotive is the same 
 as the ordinary single expansion locomotive. 
 
 Operafion of the Baldwin Four-Cylinder Com- 
 pound. — When starting the locomotive, the engi- 
 neer should, ordinarily, pull the cylinder cock 
 lever way back and thus open the cylinder cocks 
 in order to relieve the cylinders of condensation, 
 and, arf the starting valve is opened by the same 
 movement, steam is thus admitted to the low- 
 pressure cylinder and the locomotive started 
 quickly and freely. 
 
 In case the locomotive is at a platform of a 
 crowded station, or in any other place where it is
 
 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOl I \ 'Eti. 357 
 
 undesirable to open the cylinder cocks, the en- 
 gineer should move the starting lever in the 
 opposite direction from that usually given it, 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 C^i^t^ier Coc/fs . 
 
 placing the starting valve handle in position J, 
 Figs. 19 and 20; that is, he should push forward 
 the lever in the cab, thus allowing steam to pass
 
 358 
 
 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 through the starting valve without opening either 
 the low-pressure cylinder cocks or the drip C of 
 the starting valves. By further reference to Fig. 
 19, it will be seen how, when the handle is in po- 
 sition K, ports A, i?, and drip C are all connected 
 by the ports a, h, and c of the plug; but if the handle 
 is in the opposite position J, ports J. and B only 
 are connected, as h is now at a and c is opposite 
 J5; in its central position N (normal position for 
 compound working), it will be seen that all ports 
 are closed as in the figure. 
 
 Saidn-in ^ur-C^/eMHtr Compound. 
 
 After a few revolutions have been made and 
 the cylinders are free from water caused by con- 
 densation or priming, the engineer should move 
 the cylinder cock lever into the central position, 'N, 
 causing the engine to work compound entirely. 
 This should be done before the reverse lever is 
 disturbed from its full gear position. 
 
 Ordinarily, the reverse lever should not be 
 ''hooked up," thereby shortening the travel of
 
 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 359 
 
 the valve, until after the cylinder cock lever has 
 been placed in its central position, but it is often 
 necessary to open the cylinder cocks when at 
 full speed to allow water caused by priming or 
 foaming to escape from the cylinders, and in such 
 cases no disadvantage is experienced, and the 
 reverse lever need not be disturbed. 
 
 The starting device is simply designed for 
 use in the starting of the train and should not be 
 used at any other time unless there is imminent 
 danger of stalling and the lever has been previ- 
 ously dropped to full gear. In other respects, 
 
 J^?> 22. 
 
 aside from these here noted, the rules governing 
 the operation of compound locomotives in gen- 
 eral should be clearly understood by any engineer 
 who is liable to be called upon to run a compound 
 locomotive of this or other design. 
 
 REPAIRS, 
 
 The builders of the Yauclain four-cylinder 
 compound claim an advantage in it over the
 
 360 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 two-cylinder or " cross-compound " locomotive 
 in simplicity of parts, there being no intercept- 
 ing valve,* and a similarity to all the parts of a 
 single-expansion locomotive. Thus its repairs 
 will be similar to those of simple locomotives. 
 To carry out this simplicity of parts, the piston 
 rods of the high and low-pressure cylinders are 
 of the same diameter and designed strong enough 
 to withstand the severest strains of service. 
 
 The packing rings in the valves are easily 
 replaced and the valve chest bushing can be 
 cheaply and easily renewed. In extracting old 
 bushings it is best to split them between the 
 ports with a narrow chisel. The new bushings 
 can be pressed in by some such handy device as 
 that shown in Fig. 22. 
 
 Accidents to Baldwin Four-Cylinder {^'Vauclain^^) 
 Compounds. — For all ordinary accidents, such as 
 broken main rod or pin, or a broken valve stem, 
 what should be done? The same as for non- 
 compound or simple locomotives, as described 
 fully in the earlier chapters of the Manual. 
 
 With a low-pressure cylinder head knocked 
 out,, would it be necessary to disconnect that 
 side ? Not for a short distance. 
 
 In that event, how many exhausts would there 
 be during one revolution ? There would be three 
 
 *The intercepting valve is the valve which prevents the live 
 steam which is admitted from the boiler to the low-pressure cyl- 
 inder at certain times, from passing through the receiver to the 
 high-pressure cylinder where it would produce back pi'essure od 
 the piston.
 
 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 361 
 
 in the stack and one through the open cylinder 
 head and the latter exhaust might obstruct the 
 ■engineer's view, if on his side, and render the 
 procedure inadvisable. 
 
 With the Vauclain Compound, at what posi- 
 tion of the reverse lever is work of the two 
 cylinders most nearly equalized ? At a cut-off 
 of about one-half the stroke in the high-pressure 
 cylinder. 
 
 When is the work most unequal and the 
 strains on the crosshead consequently the great- 
 est ? In starting with the engine working sim- 
 ple, as then the high-pressure piston is nearly 
 balanced by live steam on both sides and the 
 low-pressure cylinder obtains approximately boiler 
 pressure. 
 
 What results would be likely should the rig- 
 ging of the cylinder cocks and starting valve 
 become bent or disconnected ? Should one start- 
 ing valve fail to properly close, the exhausts 
 would be of unequal intensity. If one of them 
 failed to open when required in starting, the 
 engine would be weak on that side as it would 
 have to start compound, that is with steam for the 
 first stroke in the small high-pressure cylinder 
 only. 
 
 In this latter event, when would the first 
 exhaust from that side take place ? Not until 
 the completion of the return stroke. 
 
 If the cylinder cocks open and close with the 
 same rigging as the by-pass valve, why would not 
 the engineer know thereby that the by-pass valve 
 was in position desired ? From the previous
 
 362 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 description of this rigging, shown in Figs. 19 
 and 20, it should be remembered that the cab 
 lever pushed clear ahead opens the by-pass valve, 
 but not its drip nor the cylinder cocks. 
 
 Before altering the valve motion, what else 
 should be examined if the exhausts were of un- 
 equal intensity ? Examine for broken packing 
 rings in the piston valve or the low-pressure 
 cylinder.* 
 
 In case a valve-stem broke off inside the chest 
 or the valve itself broke, would it be certain of 
 discovery at once, as with an ordinary slide valve? 
 Possibly it would not. Instances have been cited 
 where compound locomotives of this system have 
 hauled passenger trains long distances with bro- 
 ken valve-stems and broken valves. The two 
 ends of the valve being unbalanced by the area 
 of the valve-stem (see Figs. 15 and 16) accounts 
 for the first possibility, while live steam from the 
 induction ports acting on each end of the valve 
 would explain the case of an undetected broken 
 valve. 
 
 How can it be found if the cylinder packing 
 in the high-pressure cylinder is blowing? Put 
 the engine on the quarter, block the wheels, and 
 test as usual for leaky slide valve; then, with the 
 starting valve closed (in compound position) and 
 the low-pressure cylinder cocks blocked open, 
 
 *A case is cited by the builders where an engineer ran his 
 locomotive two days without any piston head at all in one of the 
 high-pressure cylinders, and even then could not tell what was 
 the matter except that the intensity of the exhausts were unequal 
 and the engine did not make good time. Machinists put to work 
 to locate the trouble, found it to the great surprise of the engineer.
 
 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 363 
 
 drop the reverse lever into full gear. Steam 
 passing the high-pressure piston will appear at 
 the open cylinder cock of the low-pressure cyl- 
 inder, but at the opposite end that would be 
 expected with a simple engine. 
 
 How can it be found if the packing in the low- 
 pressure cylinder is blowing ? Put the engine 
 on the quarter and open the starting valve and 
 cylinder cocks and look for any escape of steam 
 from the low-pressure cylinder cock on the end 
 that should be in exhaust, as with a simple engine. 
 
 
 ly. 23. 
 
 With the four-cylinder type, where the large 
 low-pressure cylinder is placed on top, as in Fig. 
 14, and direct valve motion is employed, how 
 should the eccentric rods on one side stand with 
 the same side of the engine on the forward cen- 
 ter ? They should be crossed, as shown in skel- 
 eton Fig. 23. A slipped eccentric should be 
 set the same as for similar valve motion on a 
 simple engine, as fully described heretofore in the 
 Manual under "Third Examination of Firemen." 
 
 14 Tol 12
 
 364 
 
 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 THE BALDWIN TW0-0YLIND;ER COMPOUND. 
 
 The original Baldwin two-cylinder compound, 
 built in the year 1892, was of the cross-compound 
 receiver type and, after the first stroke or two. 
 
 or as soon as the receiver had attained a pressure 
 of 100 lbs., the engine automatically changed to 
 compound and could not be operated otherwise. 
 It belonged, therefore, to the automatic class of 
 compounds. The reducing and the starting valve
 
 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 365 
 
 then employed were changed materially in the 
 later design of the two-cylinder compound here- 
 with illustrated and described. 
 
 Their later two-cylinder compound locom'o- 
 tives belong to the class of convertible com- 
 pounds, as they can be operated either simple or 
 compound for any length of time by the move- 
 ment of a small valve in the cab, as shown by 
 Fig. 28. 
 
 Fig. 24 shows a front view, giving the gen- 
 eral arrangement of cylinders, steam, exhaust and 
 receiver pipes in the front end, and the location 
 of the intercepting and reducing valve in the 
 saddle of the high-pressure cylinder. The low- 
 pressure cylmder derives all its pressure from the 
 receiver when running compound, as is usual in 
 two-cylinder compounds. 
 
 The office of the intercepting valve is two-fold. 
 It acts as an intercepting valve by opening and 
 closing communication between the two cylin- 
 ders, and also as a separate exhaust valve, by con- 
 necting the low-pressure cylinder with the exhaust 
 to the stack. This it does by diverting the ex- 
 haust from the high-pressure cylinder either into 
 the atmosphere, when working single-expansion, 
 or into the receiver, when working compound, 
 and is operated at the will of the engineer. 
 
 The office of the reducing valve is to admit 
 live steam at a reduced pressure into the receiver 
 and thence to the low-pressure cylinder, when 
 the engine is working single-expansion, and also 
 to close simultaneously with the changing of the 
 intercepting valve to the position which causes
 
 366 
 
 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 the engine to work compound, so that the receiver 
 will obtain no live steam from boiler when taking 
 the exhaust from high-pressure cylinder. The 
 performance of the first above-mentioned func- 
 tion — that of reducing the pressure of live steam 
 delivered to the receiver — is necessary in order 
 
 JiteliiecTter 
 
 \tbCai 
 
 JSWge^e ^e>rif^7^c >5i/n»Ze 
 
 that the total pressure on the large low-pressure 
 piston shall not be greater than that on the high- 
 pressure piston, and thus the low-pressure side 
 kept from jerking the train and producing unequal 
 strains on the two sides of the locomotive when 
 working as a simple engine.
 
 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 367 
 
 Operation of the intercepting and reduction 
 valves. — In Figs. 25 and 26 the intercepting 
 valve is marked A and the reducing valve C. 
 It will be seen that they are both cylindrical in 
 
 Tipelo OpmHa^ 
 lidvf in Cab 
 
 J^^- £6 
 
 form, are placed in bushings having suitable ports, 
 and that coil springs hold them in their normal 
 positions when no pressure is acting against them 
 to overcome these springs.
 
 368 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 In the cab of the locomotive is placed an oper- 
 ating valve, shown in Figs. 27 and 28, having 
 two positions, marked "simple" and "compound," 
 Through this operating valve a pressure of air or 
 live steam is admitted to one side of the reducing 
 and the intercepting valves through two pipes 
 marked DD, and, acting against the right end of 
 valve A and against the left end of valve C, moves 
 both from their normal positions shown in Fig. 
 25 to those of Fig. 26. 
 
 The reducing valve 6', when it is not closed 
 permanently by live steam from the operating 
 pipe D, is automatically closed when the pressure 
 in the receiver R is great enough to produce as 
 much power in the large low-pressure cylinder as 
 is obtained in the smaller high-pressure-cylinder. 
 For this purpose steam from the receiver R can 
 pass through a port E, raising the poppet valve F 
 (which remains open as long as the engine is not 
 working compound) and bears upon the larger 
 end of the reducing valve C, causing it to move to 
 the right and close the live steam passage H 
 (shown in Fig. 25) leading to the receiver i?, 
 whenever the receiver pressure becomes excessive. 
 Thus it will be seen that when the engine is work- 
 ing simple there must be a close balance between 
 the left-hand larger end of the reducing valve, 
 being acted upon by receiver pressure, and the 
 right-hand smaller end of the reducing valve, 
 being acted upon by live steam from the main 
 steam pipe »S'. In this way is the receiver pressure 
 kept as much lower than the boiler pressure as 
 the large end of the reducing valve is greater than
 
 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTI VE8. 369 
 
 rcy 27. 
 
 the small end. This proportion is relative to the 
 respective sizes of the high and the low-pressure 
 cylinders and hence equal cylinder power will be 
 given both sides of the engine in working simple. 
 When the engine is standing, the lever of the 
 small operating valve, Figs. 27 and 28, in the 
 cab should be placed at position marked "simple," 
 and the valves are then in position for the engine 
 to work as a single-expansion locomotive, as the 
 steam pressure is relieved 
 through this cab valve from 
 the large end of the reducing 
 valve and the right-hand end 
 of the intercepting valve, al- 
 lowing these valves to as- 
 sume (by the action of their 
 springs) their respective posi- 
 itions shown in Fig. 25. The 
 arrows in this figure illus- 
 trate clearly how the steam 
 can pass from the high-pres- 
 sure exhaust through the 
 ope^>^zQi^ intercepting valve A to the 
 
 £a/cf^,-^r^cy&,,a>rcc^c;w:me independent exhaust B lead- 
 ing to the stack (see dotted lines and arrows). At 
 the same time the passage of live steam to the re- 
 ceiver — from which the low-pressure cylinder 
 receives its supply — takes place through ports H, 
 as shown by other arrows. The receiver pressure 
 is governed by the automatic action of the reduc- 
 ing valve, as previously explained. 
 
 Thus the engine can be used as a single-expan- 
 sion locomotive in making up and starting trains.
 
 370 EKGII^EEIiS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 and then, at the will of the engineer, the operat- 
 ing valve, Figs. 27 and 28, in the cab can be 
 moved to the position marked "compound." This 
 will admit live steam through the two supply 
 pipes D, thence to the cylinders marked IF and 
 C", Fig. 26, changing the intercepting and the 
 reducing valves quickly, and, as the ports are 
 small, noiselessly, to the position shown in the 
 latter figure. With the intercepting valve in this 
 position it will be seen that the independent ex- 
 haust B is closed and steam from the high-pressure 
 exhaust must follow the course of the arrows to 
 the receiver, passing around the small reduc- 
 ing valve bushing and its valve C which is kept 
 closed by the live steam from pipe D. 
 
 At any time the engineer may desire to in- 
 crease the power of the engine as, for instance, 
 when in danger of stalling, by moving the lever 
 of the operating valve in the cab to position 
 marked "simple" the engine is again changed 
 at once to a single-expansion locomotive. 
 
 Accidents to Baldwin Two-Cylinder Compounds. 
 — With one side disabled, what should be done in 
 order to safely run the engine in ? Disconnect 
 the disabled side, as advised for simple engines, 
 place the intercepting valve in position for work- 
 ing simple so as to open the separate exhaust 
 port, and run in with one side. 
 
 Should the small pipes DD leading to the reduc- 
 ing valve C and the intercepting valve piston be 
 broken off, how could the engine be worked ? 
 With single-expansion only, unless the back head 
 of the separate exhaust chamber TFwere removed
 
 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 371 
 
 and the piston blocked in the position shown in 
 Fig. 26; then the engine would become an auto- 
 matic compound, that is, would start simple but 
 automatically go to compound after a revolution 
 or so. 
 
 What would it be advisable to do in case of a 
 broken reducing valve? Use very light throttle at 
 slow speeds, or run with a reduced boiler pressure. 
 
 Should the small valves F and G be frequently 
 inspected and cleaned? Yes. These valves and the 
 reducing and the intercepting v^alves become 
 gummed by the injudicious use of cylinder oil on 
 the low-pressure side. 
 
 THE SCHENECTADY COMPOUND. 
 
 Locomotives built by the Schenectady Loco- 
 motive Works are oftentimes styled by the older 
 railway men as " McQueen " engines, although 
 the name of the builders has been as at present 
 for many years. 
 
 These builders have constructed many com- 
 pound locomotives, and, including the original 
 valve design, have employed three styles of com- 
 pound mechanisms, but all engines built have 
 been of the two-cylinder variety of compounds. 
 
 Original Schenectady Type. — The original design 
 by their then superintendent, Mr. A. J. Pitkin, 
 consisted of an intercepting valve and a reducing 
 valve. The stem of the intercepting valve was 
 connected by levers to an index in the cab, which 
 showed its position to the engineer. These engines 
 belonged to the class of automatic compounds.
 
 372 ENGINEERS' AND FIRE MEN' 8 MANUAL. 
 
 In starting the engine, a small pipe from the 
 boiler through a reducing valve supplied steam 
 to the low-pressure cylinder at a reduced pressure. 
 When the receiver had accumulated sufficient 
 pressure by the exhaust into it from the high- 
 pressure 'Cylinder, the intercepting valve would 
 automatically be thrown to its normal position 
 for working compound; then the supply of live 
 steam to the low-pressure cylindei^ was cut off 
 'ind the receiver pressure admitted, and thus the 
 ingine worked compound. 
 
 The following modification of this valve ar- 
 i-angement was afterwards made by Mr. Pitkin 
 and applied to many locomotives by the Schenec- 
 tady Locomotive Works. 
 
 Design of 1S92. — With this construction of 
 1892, the opening of the throttle admits live 
 steam at the same time to both the high and 
 the low-pressure cylinders, closes the intercepting 
 valve and allows the engine to start with its 
 full power as a simple engine. After a few 
 strokes the receiver pressure automatically opens 
 the intercepting valve and cuts off the passage 
 of live steam to the low-pressure cylinder and 
 the engine works compound. The special valves 
 are located in and behind the saddle on the low- 
 pressure side and are operated automatically and 
 beyond the will of the engineer. Fig. 29 shows 
 the general appearance of that portion of the 
 intercepting valve projecting back of the saddle; 
 Figs. 30 and 31 show the valves and pistons 
 removed from their encasing chambers. Upon 
 opening the throttle, a small connection from the
 
 p 
 
 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 373 
 
 steam pipe admits live steam through suitable 
 valves to an actuating piston, the movement of 
 which opens a poppet .valve, supplying live 
 steam to the low-pressure cylinder, and also places 
 the intercepting valve so as to close connection 
 between the receiver and the low-pressure steam 
 
 THE INTERCEPTING VALVE. 
 jSTCHENECTADy -OeS/GW OF 1892 
 
 Fia.ai. 4f;>deKav& 
 
 I 
 
 L 
 
 chest. Thus the low-pressure cylinder exhausts 
 to the atmosphere, and the high-pressure cylinder 
 into a closed receiver. Sufficient pressure will 
 accumulate in the receiver after a few strokes to 
 move the small valves, thereby moving the actua- 
 ting piston and with it the intercepting valve to
 
 374 
 
 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 such position as will close off live steam to the 
 low-pressure cylinder, and instead admit the 
 receiver pressure, thus working the engine com- 
 pound. 
 
 For the benefit of those interested in the de- 
 tails of this device, a more thorough description 
 of the accompanying figures follows: 
 
 The front view, Fig. 32, shows the general 
 arrangement of cylinders, steam passages, and 
 the intercepting valve. Figs. 33 and 34 both
 
 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 375 
 
 show the same horizontal section through the 
 saddles and show the intercepting valve and the 
 actuating valves, Fig. 33 showing them in posi- 
 tion for working compound, and Fig. 34 for 
 starting. Fig. 35 gives a vertical section, better 
 showing the passages between the receiver and 
 the low-pressure steam chest, which passages are 
 opened and closed by the double pistons GG 
 which form the intercepting valve. Of the remain- 
 ing figures, 36 and 37 show details of the regu- 
 lating valve, and Fig. 38 an end view of the 
 intercepting pistons GG. The arrows in Figs. 
 33 and 34 indicate the direction of the steam 
 in passing through the apparatus. 
 
 Fig. 32 shows a smoke-box mounted on sad- 
 dles connected with the high and low-pressure 
 cylinders located on opposite sides of the engine 
 and having the necessary admission and exhaust 
 ports. The exhaust port of the high-pressure 
 cylinder is connected by a passage E (see dotted 
 lines in Fig. 32 and full section of port in Figs. 
 33 and 34) with the receiver at B, Fig. 32. 
 The other end of the receiver connects with the 
 inlet passage R^ (shown also in Fig. 35) leading 
 to the low-pressure steam chest, and in this 
 passage the intercepting valve 6^6^ is located and 
 travels across it to open or close this passage. 
 
 The intercepting valve and the mechanism for 
 operating it are mounted on the saddle of low- 
 pressure cylinder, as before stated, while the live 
 steam pipe S and the high-pressure exhaust pas- 
 sage E are situated in the high-pressure saddle. 
 The low-pressure exhaust passage E^ is formed
 
 376 
 
 KNOINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 by the two saddles being bolted together, see 
 Figs. 33 and 34. 
 
 The intercepting valve consists of two pistons 
 GG (having several small holes g through them 
 in order to balance them, see Figs. 35 and 38) 
 mounted at one end of a long piston rod, which 
 
 J^i^' 31 
 
 moves to and fro in a cylinder having four open- 
 ings. The two large openings shown lead from 
 the receiver to the low-pressure steam chest (see 
 Fig. 35) and are closed by the two intercepting 
 pistons GG when the engine is to be started, so 
 that live steam may be admitted to the low-
 
 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 377 
 
 pressure cylinder without producing a back 
 pressure in the high-pressure cylinder through 
 the receiver. Of the two remaining openings in 
 the valve cylinder, port D leads to the low-pressure 
 steam-chest and port F admits steam from the 
 boiler when the apparatus stands in position as 
 shown in Fig. 34o 
 
 JFijy. 34. 
 
 The back end of the intercepting piston-rod 
 passes through suitable stuffing boxes to a small 
 cylinder provided with a piston II, which actuates 
 the intercepting valve. This cylinder has a small 
 steam ches£ slide valve and admission and exhaust
 
 378 
 
 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 ports SO similar to those of an ordinary locomo- 
 tive cylinder, that its operation will be made plaic 
 b} referring to the Figs. 33 and 34, if the move- 
 ments of its slide valve are explained. This 
 
 J^zy. 33. 
 fiult/e. Open 
 
 small slide valve, Fig. 31, is moved by a stem 
 connecting two pistons, K and IC, of unequal 
 diameter in order to insure *their movement in 
 the proper direction at the proper time. The 
 actuation of these pistons, and with them the slide
 
 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTI VES. 379 
 
 valve, will be made clear by the figures. From 
 Fig. 35 it will be seen that a small pipe R~ leads 
 from the receiver connection R"^ to this valve 
 mechanism, and from Figs. 33 and 34, that a 
 pipe S^ comes from the live steam passage in the 
 saddle and has a small port leading to the actu- 
 ating valves as well as to the poppet valve N. 
 These live steam and receiver connections come 
 to opposite sides of a small piston valve M (Fig. 
 37), which is called the "regulating valve" and 
 travels across two ports leading to the slide valve 
 beneath it, as shown. 
 
 The remainder of this mechanism con^sts of a 
 balanced poppet valve X, which, when o'pen, ad- 
 mits live steam from pipe S^ through the inter- 
 cepting valve to the low-pressure cylinder in 
 starting. This poppet valve jV has a projecting 
 stem on the lower side and is opened and allowed 
 to close by a rocker-arm or bell-crank L, its 
 two positions being shown in Figs. 33 and 34, 
 respectively. 
 
 The operation of the apparatus is as follows: 
 The normal position of the parts when the en- 
 gine is w^orking compound is shown in Fig. 33, 
 in which position steam for the low-pressure 
 
 10 vol IS
 
 380 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 cylinder comes entirely from the high-pressure 
 exhaust through the receiver. To start the train, 
 the engine throttle is opened as usual. This per- 
 mits steam to pass to the high-pressure side and 
 also through the pipe S' (Figs. 33 and 36) to 
 the left side of piston valve M (Fig. 37) and 
 down through the adjacent port (as indicated 
 by arrows) to the slide valve chamber, there act- 
 ing between the two pistons K and A" (Figs. 
 31, 33 and 37). The right-hand piston, l3eing 
 the larger, causes a movement of the slide valve 
 from its position shown in Fig. 33 to that shown 
 in Fig. 34, thereby uncovering the steam port 
 to the left of piston //, which it forces with the in- 
 tercepting valve 6^(r to the right. In this position, 
 _7^. 58. as shown in Fig. 34, the receiver 
 openings are closed by the pistons 
 GG and the poppet valve ^Y has 
 been opened by the bell-crank L, 
 thus admitting live steam through 
 i i^^ ^^® intercepting valve cylinder and 
 ^■n^cifL port D to the low-pressure steam 
 chest, as indicated by the arrows. Hence it is 
 possible to obtain the full pressure of live steam 
 in the low-pressure cylinder in starting. 
 
 After one or tvvo revolutions the pressure in the 
 receiver, passing down through the small connect- 
 ing port to the right of the larger piston K" (Fig. 
 37) overbalances the pressures between the pis- 
 tons, thus moving the slide valve to the left, the 
 position shown in Figs. 33 and 37. According to 
 the ordinary action of a slide valve this reverses 
 the pressures on the actuating piston B., forcing it
 
 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTI VES. 381 
 
 to the left and opening the intercepting valve. 
 This return movement of the actuating piston H 
 detaches the bell-crank L from the poppet valve 
 ^V and allows the latter to close before the inter- 
 cepting valve opens. After this the locomotive 
 works compound, the passage of steam being 
 through the high-pressure cylinder to the receiver 
 and thence through the intercepting valve and 
 low-pressure cylinder to the atmosphere, as pre- 
 viously described. 
 
 A difficulty met with in many of the earlier 
 forms of compound mechanism, and to which the 
 reader's attention was called at the beginning of 
 this chapter, namely, the accumulation of dan- 
 gerously high pressure in the receiver when run- 
 ning with the throttle closed, was overcome in 
 this device by an automatic action of the piston 
 valve M and the differential pistons K and K^ 
 (Fig. 37), as follows: When the engine is using 
 steam the regulating valve M is always against 
 the right-hand seat, as shown, and this valve only 
 comes into use when running without working 
 steam, as down a long grade. In this case, if the 
 intercepting valve happened to be closed, the 
 action of the engine would cause air-pressure to 
 accumulate in a closed receiver as there would 
 then be no live steam available to cause the 
 actuating device to open the intercepting valve. 
 Hence it is arranged so that air-pressure in the 
 receiver will force the valve M to the left and 
 itself take the place of live steam by passing to 
 the slide valve chamber and down to the right 
 side of the actuating piston H, moving it to the
 
 382 
 
 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL.
 
 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 383 
 
 left and opening the intercepting valve, as shown 
 in Fig. 33. Thus the small valve M acts as a 
 safety valve, insuring the opening of the inter- 
 cepting valve when live steam is not being used, 
 and preventing the danger of excessive receiver 
 pressure or the lifting of the high-pressure slide 
 valve off its seat when the engine is running with 
 steam shut off. 
 
 SCHENECTADY 1892 DESIGN, WITH SOUTHERN PACIFIC 
 MODIFICATION. 
 
 To render it possible to run the engine "simple" 
 for any desired period in starting, or to obtain 
 a maximum power in case a train were stall- 
 ing on a heavy grade, the Southern Pacific Co. 
 in 1893 added to many of their Schenectady com- 
 pounds of the 1892 design, a separate exhaust 
 valve located in the smoke-box, as shown in Figs. 
 39 and 40. The reverse lever in the cab, when 
 placed in either of its extreme positions, caused 
 this valve to open and thereby connect the re- 
 ceiver directly with the main exhaust pipe, thus 
 permitting the high-pressure cylinder to exhaust 
 through the receiver directly to the atmosphere, 
 as indicated by arrows in Fig. 39. As the re- 
 ceiver pressure was thus kept down it will be 
 readily understood from the preceding description 
 of the intercepting valve tha^t the latter will 
 remain in starting position as in Fig. 34, and 
 hence the locomotive wilUvork as a simple engine 
 until such time as the engineer pulls the reverse 
 lever higher up on the quadrant and thereby 
 closes the separate exhaust valve. Then the
 
 384 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 intercepting valve automatically assumes the 
 compound position, as in Fig. 33, for reasons 
 hereinbefore explained. 
 
 This modification of the two-cylinder or' cross- 
 compound is of especial note inasmuch as it was 
 one of the first in this country which permitted 
 the working of the locomotive as a simple engine 
 for any desired length of time, at the will of the 
 engineer. Its results in practical operation were 
 to greatly reduce the jerking of trains in starting 
 (then a very serious objection to many com- 
 pounds); it gave a greater maximum power at 
 critical periods, and was withal so eminently satis- 
 factory that the reader will notice the majority 
 of the builders of two-cylinder compounds in this 
 country have embodied a separate exhaust valve 
 in their later designs. 
 
 SCHENj:CTADY COMPOUND DESIGN OF 1896. * 
 
 The valve arrangement designed in 1896 by 
 Messrs. A. J. Pitkin, Vice-President and General 
 Manager, and J. E. Sague, Mechanical Engineer of 
 the Schenectady Locomotive Works, and used as 
 their standard construction for two-cylinder com- 
 pound locomotives, will be made clear by what 
 follows. 
 
 In general it may be -said that this so-called 
 "intercepting valve" consists of four separate 
 parts, namely: (1) An intercepting valve proper, 
 which allows steam to pass to the low-pressure 
 cylinder from either the receiver or the boiler, 
 according to its position. (2) A reducing valve 
 allowing live steam at only a reduced pressure 
 
 • Tliis (lesitrn is the "Schenectady" stamlard in 1903.
 
 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 385 
 
 to enter the low-pressure cylinder when working 
 simple. (3) An independent or separate exhaust 
 valve which, when open, vents the exhaust from 
 the high-pressure cylinder to the atmosphere 
 through the exhaust pipe and stack. ( 4 ) A small 
 valve K inside of the separate exhaust valve, by 
 the use of which the latter can be opened more 
 easily and gradually. 
 
 By the arrangement of these valves the engine 
 can be started and run either compound or simple 
 and can be changed from compound to simple, or 
 the reverse, at the will of the engineer, with the 
 throttle and the reverse lever in any position; the 
 engineer has only to move a small three-way* cock 
 in the cab and the working of the engine changes 
 very smoothly and without jerking the train.
 
 386 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN S MANUAL,
 
 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTI VE8. 387 
 
 •a 
 
 5 '»•
 
 388 EN0INEER8' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 Figs. 41 and 42 give sections of smoke arch 
 and cylinder saddles and show the steam passages, 
 the receiver and the location of the intercepting 
 valve in the saddle of the low-pressure cylinder 
 on the right-hand side of the engine. 
 
 It will be noticed by the dotted lines behind 
 the receiver pipe that there are two steam pipes as 
 in a simple engine, but the one (S) leading to the 
 intercepting valve on the low-pressure side is m ach 
 smaller than usual, as it will only be required for 
 use at low speeds. 
 
 Fig. 43 shows a vertical section lengthwise 
 through the low-pressure cylinder saddle, and the 
 intercepting valve (as if they were cut through at 
 MN of Fig. 42) and shows the intercepting 
 and the separate exhaust valves in the position 
 taken when the engine is working simple and re- 
 ceiving live steam in both cylinders. Fig. 44 is 
 a section through the dash-pot of Fig. 43. 
 
 Fig. 45 gives the same section as Fig. 43, but 
 shows the intercepting and the separate exhaust 
 valves in the position taken when the engine is 
 working compound. 
 
 Figs. 46 and 47 show two sections crosswise 
 of the intercepting valve at points indicated re- 
 spectively by the lines cd and ah of Fig. 45. Sec- 
 tion cd shows the passages G for admitting live 
 steam into the low-pressure cylinder, and section 
 ah shows the outlet passage U from the sep- 
 arate exhaust valve to the main exhaust pipe. 
 
 The part which each portion of the valve 
 arrangement performs is as follows: The sepa- 
 rate exhaust valve, when open, allows the steam
 
 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 389 
 
 to exhaust from the high-pressure cylinder 
 to the atmosphere without going through the 
 low-pressure cylinder, thus working the en- 
 gine simple; when it is closed, the high-press- 
 ure exhaust must pass through the low-press- 
 ure cylinder, thus working the engine com- 
 
 F'ifr 46 FHy. 47. 
 
 Section c-d /Section «r-3 
 
 I 
 
 k 
 
 ^ound. The intercepting valve closes the 
 passage between the two cylinders when the sep- 
 arate exhaust valve is open, so that steam can- 
 not go from the high-pressure cylinder to the 
 low-pressure cylinder; thus doing away with 
 back pressure on the high-pressure piston when 
 the engine is working simple; it also admits 
 live steam direct . from the dry-pipe through 
 the reducing valve to the low-pressure cylinder. 
 When the separate exhaust valve closes, the 
 intercepting valve automatically opens the pas-
 
 390 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 sage between the two cj^inders and cuts ofE the 
 supply of live steam from the dry pipe to the 
 low-pressure cylinder. The reducing valve works 
 only when the engine is working simple and 
 throttles the steam passing through it, so that 
 the pressure of steam going to the low-pressure 
 cylinder is about one-half (or, less, according to 
 the proportionate sizes of the two cylinders) of 
 that admitted from the boiler to the high-press- 
 ure cylinder. 
 
 The reducing valve is quite heavily cross-sec- 
 tioned, while the long, intercepting valve ap- 
 pears next lighter, in order to render their out-^ 
 lines in Figs. 43 and 45 readily distinguishable. 
 Examining the two ends of the intercepting valve, 
 it will be seen that the left end, exposed to the 
 pressure of the atmosphere through the drip, is 
 only about three-fourths as large as the right 
 end (between the bridges R R, Fig. 43), exposed 
 to the receiver; hence, if the receiver has little 
 or no pressure, the boiler pressure on the 
 shoulder of the intercepting valve automatically 
 carries it to the right, as shown in Fig. 43. The 
 reducing valve is automatically opened because 
 of the difference in area of its two ends also. -The 
 movement of each of these valves is cushioned 
 by dash-pots, as shown. The separate exhaust 
 valve is operated by the engineer by means of a 
 three-way cock in the cab. To open the sepa- 
 rate exhaust valve the handle of the three-way 
 cock is thrown so as to admit a pressure of steam 
 or air through the pipe W against the piston J. 
 Pulling the handle back relieves the pressure
 
 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 391 
 
 against piston J and the spring shuts the valve, 
 as in Fig. 45. All the engineer has to do in 
 connection with the operation of the valves is to 
 pull the handle of the three-way cock in the cab 
 one way or the other, according as he wishes the 
 engine to run simple or compound. The engi- 
 neer uses the handle under the following condi- 
 tions: 
 
 To Stm't Simple. — Under ordinary conditions 
 this is not necessary, but if the maximum power 
 of the engine is needed to start a heavy train, the 
 engineer pulls the handle of the three-way cock 
 so as to admit pressure from the cab through 
 pipe W against the piston J, Fig. 45. This will 
 force piston J into the position shown in Fig. 43, > 
 opening the separate exhaust valve and hold- 
 ing it open. The engine throttle now being 
 opened, live steam at boiler pressure enters the 
 chamber E from the small steam pipe S before 
 mentioned and forces the intercepting valve to 
 the right against the seat FF, as shown in Fig. 
 43. The exhaust steam from the high-pressure 
 cylinder now passes through the receiver and is 
 exhausted through the separate exhaust valve to 
 an annular chamber U connected with the main 
 exhaust to the stack, as indicated by the arrow in 
 Fig. 43. (See also Fig. 47.) Steam also enters 
 the low-pressure cylinder from chamber E through 
 the reducing valve and the annular ports G in 
 the intercepting valve (See Figs. 43 and 46), 
 and is exhausted in the usual way. The reducing 
 valve prevents the full boiler pressure from reach- 
 ing the low-pressure cylinder. As will be seer from
 
 392 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 Figs. 43 and 45, the reducing valve is partly bal- 
 anced by its smaller left end being open to the at- 
 mosphere through a small groove leading to the 
 chamber having an open drip, and thus the boiler 
 pressure acting on the unbalanced area throws the 
 valve open — to the right. When the pressure in 
 the intercepting valve cavity on the right of the 
 reducing valve becomes high enough, it will throw 
 the valve to the left, because it acts on the whole 
 area of the valve; the result is that the steam is 
 throttled to the proper pressure desired for the 
 low-pressure cylinder. 
 
 To Work Compound. — Having started the train, 
 when the engineer wishes to change the engine 
 from simple w^orking to compound, he pushes the 
 handle of the three-way cock to its first position 
 which, relieving the pressure on piston J through 
 pipe W, allows the spring to act to the right and 
 close the separate exhaust valve, as in Fig. 45. 
 As soon as this valve is closed the pressure in the 
 receiver, having no outlet, rises and presses the 
 intercepting valve to the left against the pressure 
 from chamber E, w^hich acts only, as stated, 
 upon the shoulder of the intercepting valve. The 
 receiver pressure holds the intercepting valve to 
 the left, as shown in Fig. 45, thereby closing the 
 ports G and opening a free passage from the 
 receiver to the low-pressure cylinder as indicated 
 by the arrows, and the engine works compound. 
 While working compound, which is the usual way 
 of working the engine, both the reducing and the 
 intercepting valves are held to the left against 
 ground joint seats. This should prevent any
 
 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTI VES. 393 
 
 steam which might leak by the packing rings 
 from constantly escaping at the drip. 
 
 To Change from Compound to Simple. — With 
 the engine running compound, if the engineer 
 wishes to change to simple because of a very 
 heavy grade, he has only to pull the three-way 
 cock handle to the same position as for starting 
 simple. Then piston J first opens the small valve 
 K and then the separate exhaust valve. The 
 small valve ^relieves the pressure more gradually 
 than if the larger valve were opened at once. 
 As soon as the separate exhaust valve is opened 
 the pressure in the receiver escapes through it 
 and becomes so low that the intercepting valve is 
 again forced to the right (as in Fig. 43) against 
 its seat F by the steam pressure from chamber 
 E, and the engine works simple as in starting. 
 
 To Start as an Automatic Compound. — If the 
 separate exhaust valve is left closed, as in Fig. 
 45, the engine will start as an automatic com- 
 pound when the throttle is opened, for the 
 pressure from chamber E will force the intercept- 
 ing valve to the right, as in Fig. 43^ thus admit- 
 ting live steam through the reducing valve and 
 ports G to the low-pressure cylinder, while at the 
 same time the high-pressure cylinder exhausts 
 into a closed receiver for a few strokes. This 
 pressure, accumulating in the receiver, will then 
 automatically close the ports G by moving the 
 intercepting valve to the left, as in Fig. 45, and 
 the engine thereafter runs compound. 
 
 Accidents to Schenectady Compounds — the Autor 
 matic Compound of 1892. What should be done
 
 394 BNOINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 in case of a break-down on the road, necessi- 
 tating the disconnecting of the high-pressure 
 side? If but a short distance to go and a slow 
 speed would suffice, clamp the high-pressure 
 slide valve in center and permit the engine to 
 run by the admission of live steam through 
 the small pipe *S'' and the poppet valve N to the 
 high-pressure cylinder (Figs. 33 and 34). If 
 the intercepting valve is out of order, block the 
 poppet valve N open, that is, up. If it were re- 
 quired to run at considerable speed, this small 
 pipe S^ would give insufficient supply, in which 
 case the high-pressure slide valve should be 
 blocked clear back (much farther than its ordi- 
 nary travel carries it), so as to uncover the 
 exhaust port, thus admitting live steam direct 
 to the receiver. If the steam chest is large 
 enough to place the high-pressure valve as 
 described, and the intercepting valve is not de- 
 ranged, the engine would run at full speed with 
 the low-pressure side. If out of order, the inter- 
 cepting valve should be held open (in the position 
 as shown in Fig. 33) by clamping the stem be- 
 tween the stuffing boxes. In all cases the throttle 
 should be handled easily to prevent a too rapid 
 flow of boiler pressure to the large low-pressure 
 cylinder and the consequent liability of jerking 
 the train or causing damage to this cylinder. 
 
 What should be done if it becomes necessary 
 to take down the low-pressure side of the engine? 
 The engine could be moved a short distance with 
 the cylinder cocks open or the indicator plugs re- 
 moved on the high-pressure side, but as most en-
 
 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 395 
 
 gines of this class have either a large steam chest 
 or an "Allen " ported slide valve, the valve can 
 be clamped back far enough to uncover the low- 
 pressure exhaust port, and thus run at full speed. 
 If this cannot be done, block both the low-press- 
 ure crosshead and valve clear back and unscrew 
 the relief valves or take off the front cylinder 
 head on that side to mak"e an exhaust opening 
 from the receiver. If the intercepting valve is 
 out of order, it must be securely clamped open, 
 as in Fig. 33, otherwise the opening between 
 the receiver and the low-pressure steam chest 
 would be closed. 
 
 In this last procedure, with the exhaust other 
 than through the stack, would the engine steam 
 with much of a train? No; but a limited amount 
 of steam could be maintained by the use of the 
 blower for creating draught. 
 
 What w^ould be the effect of the removal of the 
 slide valve on the disabled side? This would 
 give a free port opening under all circumstances, 
 but w^ould generally consume too much time to 
 be practicable. 
 
 What prevents the leakage of live steam into 
 the receiver when the intercepting valve is closed, 
 as in Fig. 34, there being no packing rings in the 
 two pistons GG"! The live steam pressure acts 
 from below when starting, so as to hold these 
 pistons tight against ports of the receiver. Fig. 
 85 illustrates this clearly, if the intercepting
 
 396 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 valve were there shown closed, as live steam 
 would then be below pistons GG. 
 
 What would be the result if the wiper L would 
 strike the poppet valve N (Pigs. 33 and 34) 
 before the intercepting valve i)istons GG closed 
 their ports? Live steam would blow through to 
 the receiver and produce a back pressure on the 
 high-pressure side. 
 
 How can this be prevented? Pistons GG have 
 sufficient lap to allow of their closing before the 
 wiper L strikes the poppet valve N, and the 
 adjustable tappet on the intercepting valve stem 
 should be set so as to cause this. If the tappet is 
 set too far back, valve N would not be opened at 
 all and, as a consequence, no live steam would be 
 admitted to the low-pressure cylinder in starting. 
 
 If the operating piston H should break, what 
 position would the intercepting valve probably 
 take? On account of the unbalanced area of the 
 stem, it would probably move open to the left 
 as for compound working, Fig. 33. 
 
 Accidents to Schenectady design of 1892, with 
 Southern Pacific Modifications. — If it became 
 necessary to disconnect the high-pressure side of 
 the engine, what should be done? The same as. 
 with the 1892 Schenectady system. 
 
 Would there be any difference in case the low- 
 pressure side broke down? Yes; disconnect the 
 broken side as usual (see instructions for simple 
 engines in Part First of the Manual) and run with 
 reverse lever in full gear, if for a short distance or 
 a low speed only is required. If it is necessary to 
 run for a considerable distance at a good speed it
 
 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 397 
 
 would be advisable to disconnect the separate ex- 
 haust valve levers from their connection to the 
 reach-rod and properly secure them in either ex- 
 treme position, so as to hold the valve open. The 
 engine can then be "hooked-up," that is, the re- 
 verse lever pulled up toward its central position, 
 to correspond to the demands of the service. 
 
 Accidents to Scheiiecfadij Compounds — design of 
 1896. — What should be done in case the high- 
 pressure side had to be disconnected ? Ordinari] y, 
 open the separate exhaust valve ^' and do nothing 
 different than with a simple engine; but to obtain 
 greater speed than the supply .of live steam to 
 the low-pressure cylinder through its small steam 
 pipe would permit, the high-pressure valve should 
 be secured in such a position, if possible, as will 
 uncover its exhaust port, thereby admitting live 
 steam to the receiver and thence to the low- 
 pressure cylinder. In this case leave the separate 
 exhaust valve closed and handle the throttle 
 easily so as not to cause constant opening of the 
 safety valves on the low-pressure side. 
 
 What is necessary with the low-pressure side 
 disconnected ? Open the separate exhaust valve 
 and allow the high-pressure cylinder to exhaust 
 to the stack through its connection. While con- 
 siderable train could thus be handled, it would 
 not be done at anything but a slow speed, unless 
 the low-pressure slide valve were placed so as to 
 
 * While not absolutely necessary to open the separate exhaust 
 valve for this case, it is best to do so tliat there may be no 
 accumulation of pressure in the receiver should the high-pressure 
 Valve leak.
 
 398 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 uncover its exhaust port and the separate ex- 
 haust valve left closed. 
 
 What is done to prevent full boiler pressure 
 from reaching the low-pressure cylinder in case 
 the reducing valve becomes defective or broken? 
 Pop or safety valves are placed on the chest and 
 both heads of the low-pressure cylinder and they 
 are set at about one hundred pounds, the highest 
 pressure deemed advisable in so large a cylinder. 
 
 In case of a broken intercepting valve what 
 precautions should be taken? Run the engine 
 compound only and do not stop the engine with 
 the low-pressure side on center. 
 
 Why must the oil dash-pot be kept filled with 
 oil? The flow of oil from one side of the dash- 
 pot piston to the other prevents sudden move- 
 ments of and serious jars to the intercepting valve. 
 
 How can the rapidity of this movement be reg- 
 ulated ? By a greater or less opening of the valve 
 P, Figs. 43 and 44, as this valve regulates the 
 flow of oil from one side of the dash-pot piston to 
 the other. A slight opening causes a slow move- 
 ment, while a wide opening makes possible a too 
 rapid movement. 
 
 What would be most liable to cause breakage 
 to the intercepting valve ? Allowing the oil dash- 
 pot to become partially or wholly empty. 
 
 What kind of oil should be used in this dash- 
 pot? Only mineral oil, thinner, if anything, than 
 ordinary engine oil. 
 
 What is the purpose of the key shown in the 
 dash-pot (Fig. 44)? To prevent the intercepting 
 valve from turning around.
 
 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES, 399 
 
 With this compound, what pressure from the 
 cab is used to operate the separate exhaust valve ? 
 Either air or steam. 
 
 Why is air pressure generally considered pref- 
 erable? On account of the absence of moisture 
 therein. As the separate exhaust valve piston J 
 and its cylinder (Figs. 43 and 45) project from 
 the front of the cylinder saddle and are exposed to 
 currents of cold air, the use of steam therein and a 
 lack of proper drainage might cause them to freeze 
 in cold weather. 
 
 What objection is there to the use of air? 
 Should the air pump stop or the pressure other- 
 wise become exhausted, as in switching and pick- 
 ing up a large number of air-brake cars, there 
 might be insufficient pressure to hold the valve 
 open against the receiver pressure. 
 
 How is this objection overcome when air is 
 used for this purpose? Besides the air. connec- 
 tion to the three-way cock in the cab, there is a 
 steam connection; closing the one and opening 
 the other, quickly furnishes an alternative j)ress- 
 ure for operation. 
 
 What would be the result if both the steam and 
 the air connections were left open ? There would 
 be no effect upon the engine itself, but the steam 
 would fill the whole air-brake system with water 
 and seriously affect the operation of the brakes.
 
 THE MALLET LOCOMOTIVE. 
 
 Mallet Articulated Compound Locomotive 
 (American Locomotive Company). — The Mallet 
 articulated comiiound locomotive is one having 
 two sets of cylinders, compounded together and 
 driving independent groups of wheels. The two 
 sets of cylinders are supplied with steam from a 
 single boiler ; which makes it practically two loco- 
 motives combined in one, and having only one 
 boiler. The rear group of wheels is carried in 
 frames rigidly attached to the boiler in the usual 
 manner, while the frames which carry the front 
 group of wheels are not secured to the boiler, but 
 support it by means of sliding bearings. There is 
 a hinged connection between the frames of the 
 front engine and those of the rear engine, about 
 which the former is permitted a limited swing in 
 relation to the latter. It will be seen that the front 
 group is a truck which swivels radially about its 
 articulated connection with the rear group, when 
 the locomotive passes through a curve. It is from 
 this feature that the articulated type of locomotive 
 derives its name. 
 
 Because of the fact that only the rear group of 
 wheels is carried in rigid frames, the articulated 
 type of locomotive provides a short rigid wheel 
 base capable of passing through curves of short 
 radius. At the same time, the total number of 
 wheels is greater than in the ordinary types of 
 locomotives ; and the weight is distributed over a 
 
 (400)
 
 MALLET LOCOMOTIVES. 4Ul 
 
 greater number of axles. Consequently, an enor- 
 mous weight with corresponding tractive power 
 may be provided in this type without an excessive 
 weight per wheel on the rail. In an articulated 
 compound locomotive having twice as many driv- 
 ing wheels as a given locomotive of the rigid- 
 frame type, double the tractive power of the latter 
 is available, with the same weight per driving 
 wheel on the rail and with no increase in the length 
 of the rigid wheel base. Or vice versa, with the 
 same tractive power in each case, the weight per 
 driving wheel on the rail of the articulated com- 
 pound locomotive may, by the use of the proper 
 wheel arrangement, be reduced to one-half of that 
 of a given locomotive of any of the types in ordi- 
 nary use. 
 
 The work being divided between two sets of pis- 
 tons, crank pins, rods, and driving axles, an enor- 
 mous tractive power is obtained in the articulated 
 compound locomotive with practically no increase 
 in the weights of the moving parts over those of a 
 locomotive of the rigid-frame type, having half the 
 tractive power ; or with the same tractive power in 
 each case the moving parts of the articulated loco- 
 motive may be made much lighter than those of 
 locomotives of other types. 
 
 In addition to the advantages due to its wheel 
 arrangement, the articulated compound locomo- 
 tive possesses all those resulting from comj)ound- 
 ing the steam. This type of compound locomotive 
 is what is known as a two-stage compound ; that 
 is, the steam is used successively in two sets of 
 cylinders. Steam from the boiler is admitted to
 
 402 ENGINEEES' AND FIBEMEN'S MANUAL.
 
 MALLET LOCOMOTIVES. 403 
 
 the first set or high-pressure cylinders, which ordi- 
 narily drive the rear group of wheels ; and, having 
 done work in those cylinders, is then used over 
 again in the second set or low-j^ressure cylinders 
 which are connected to the front group of wheels. 
 From the low-jDressure cylinders, the steam is 
 exhausted to the atmosphere. 
 
 Between the high and low pressure cylinders 
 and connecting the two is a large pipe called the 
 receiver, into which the steam from the high- 
 pressure cylinders exhausts 'when the locomotive 
 is working compound. The receiver is simply a 
 reservoir in which the exhaust steam from the 
 high-pressure cylinders is stored until it is re- 
 quired by the low-pressure cylinders. From the 
 received, the steam is admitted into the low-pres- 
 sure cylinders by their valves in the usual manner. 
 
 The low-pressure cylinders have a larger piston 
 area than the high-pressure cylinders, the ratios 
 between the two being such that, at the ordinary 
 working cut-off, the steam at the lower pressure 
 per square inch acting against the larger piston 
 area, exerts the same force as the higher pressure 
 steam acting on the smaller area. Consequently, 
 the high and low pressure cylinders having the 
 same stroke, each set of cylinders ordinarily does 
 practically the same amount of work. 
 
 By using the steam successively in two sets of 
 cylinders, a greater range of expansion is obtained 
 than in a simple or single expansion locomotive. 
 In other words, the difference between the pres- 
 sure of the steam entering the high-pressure cylin- 
 ders and the pressure it has when the exhaust
 
 404 ENGINEEES' AND FIBEMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 from the low-pressure cylinders opens, is greater 
 than in the case of the simple locomotive. 
 
 In a simple locomotive, the steam is ordinarily- 
 expanded only four times, while in a two-stage 
 compound six or seven expansions are obtained. 
 As a result, more work is performed by the same 
 amount of steam in a compound than in a simple 
 locomotive ; and a considerable saving in coal and 
 water consumption is thereby effected. 
 
 Moreover, compounding divides the range of 
 temperature between the two sets of cylinders; so 
 that the condensation in the cylinders is reduced, 
 which effects a further saving in fuel and water 
 consumption. 
 
 In every compound locomotive some provision 
 must be made for admitting steam direct from the 
 boiler to the low-pressure cylinders in starting and 
 until the exhaust from the high-pressure cylinders 
 supplies the low-pressure cylinders with steam. 
 Also, provision is usually made by which in case 
 of emergency when additional hauling capacity is 
 required, the locomotive may be changed from 
 working compoimd into simple with an increase 
 in power. In this articulated compound locomo- 
 tive, these functions are performed by a special 
 mechanism called the intercepting valve, which is 
 located between the receiver and the exhaust 
 passages from the high-pressure cylinders. 
 
 Another device used by some locomotive build- 
 ers, in place of the intercepting valve, is an ar- 
 rangement by which, on opening a valve operated 
 from the cab, communication is established be- 
 tween the two ends of the high-pressure cylinder
 
 MALLET LOCOMOTIVES. 405 
 
 through a by-pass pipe; and live steam reduced 
 in pressure by j)assing through this pipe is admit- 
 ted to the receiver and so to the low-pressure 
 cylinders. 
 
 With the by-pass arrangement, when the loco- 
 motive is working simple, live steam is necessarily 
 admitted to both sides of the high-pressure pis- 
 tons. Consequently, these pistons are very nearly 
 balanced. At the same time, the live steam which 
 is admitted to the low-pressure cylinders is re- 
 duced in pressure. The result is that under 
 these conditions, when the locomotive is starting 
 or working simple, practically all of the work is 
 done by the low-pressure cylinders, and little, if 
 any, increase in power is secured. 
 
 In the American Locomotive Company's sys- 
 tem of compounding, the intercepting valve is so 
 designed that when the engine is working sim- 
 ple the exhaust from the high-pressure cylinder 
 passes directly to the atmosphere and the valve 
 cuts off communication between the receiver and 
 the exhaust side of the high-pressure pistons, thus 
 relieving them of back pressure, except that of 
 the steam exhausting to the atmosphere. More- 
 over, the live steam from the boiler reduced to 
 a pressure of somewhat above the ordinary pres- 
 sure in the receiver is admitted to the low-pres- 
 sure cylinder. Hence, the low-pressure pistons 
 are exerting more power than when working 
 compound. This additional power, added to that 
 secured in the high-pressure cylinders, because 
 of the reduction of the back pressure, gives a 
 total increase in power when working simple of
 
 406 ENGINEEHS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 about 20 per cent. The intercepting valve also 
 automatically regulates the pressure of the live 
 steam entering the receiver when starting and 
 when working simple, keeping it at such a pres- 
 sure that each of the four cylinders does prac- 
 tically the same amount of work. 
 
 INTERCEPTING VALVE. 
 
 Among the distinctive features of this articu- 
 lated compound locomotive, practically, the only 
 ones which enter into its operation are the inter- 
 cepting valve, the power reversing gear, and the 
 by-pass valves. 
 
 The intercepting valve is identical in principle 
 with that used on the two-cylinder cross-com- 
 pound locomotives known as the Eichmond Com- 
 pound, differing from the latter only in certain 
 modifications of the design which the use of four 
 cylinders instead of two necessitates. Engineers, 
 therefore, who have operated the two-cylinder 
 cross-compound of this build, will be pe'rfectly 
 familiar with the construction and operation of 
 the intercepting valve as applied to this locomo- 
 tive. 
 
 This valve is located in the saddle of the left 
 high-pressure cylinder, to the left of the vertical 
 ana above the horizontal center line of the cylin- 
 ders. It consists, in reality, of three valves, viz., 
 the intercepting valve, the reducing valve or 
 sleeve, and the emergency or high-pressure valve. 
 
 The various parts comprising the whole mech- 
 anism are shown in detail in Fig. 2.
 
 MALLET LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 407 
 
 Parts 2, 3 and 5 constitute the intercepting 
 valve proper. 
 
 This valve shuts off, at the proper time, com- 
 munication between the receiver and the hii?h- 
 pressure cylinders, to prevent the pressure in 
 the receiver backing up against the high-pressure 
 
 Fig. 2. Parts of the Intercepting Valve. 
 
 No. 5. Unbalancing Valve. 
 
 No. 6. Emergency or High-pres- 
 sure Exhaust Valve. 
 
 No. 7. Emergency Valve Cham- 
 ber Head. 
 
 No. 1. Reducing Valve or Sleeve. 
 No. 2. Intercepting Valve. 
 No. 3. Dash-pot Piston. 
 No. 4. Intercepting Valve Cham- 
 ber Head. 
 
 pistons, when the locomotive is working with live 
 steam in all four cylinders. 
 
 The reducing valve or sleeve, 1, fits on the stem 
 of the intercepting valve, 2, along which it is free 
 to slide longitudinally. Its duty is three-fold: 
 First, to close the intercepting valve in start-
 
 408 ENGINEEBS' AND FIBEMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 ing and when the locomotive is changed from 
 
 compound to simple working; 
 
 Second, to let live steam from the boiler into 
 
 the receiver and low-pressure steam chests in 
 
 starting and when the locomotive is working 
 
 simple; 
 
 Third, to regulate the supply of this live 
 
 steam and keep its pressure at a predetermined 
 
 amount. 
 
 The emergency or high-pressure exhaust valve, 
 6, which is located at one of the outer ends of the 
 intercepting valve chamber, is the device which 
 makes it possible to change the locomotive from 
 compound to simple working (that is, using live 
 steam in all four cylinders). 
 
 A wrought iron pipe leads from the emergency 
 valve chamber along the left side of the locomo- 
 tive to an elbow at the rear of the main exhaust 
 pipe. This elbow connects viith a passage sur- 
 rounding the main exhaust opening. 
 
 When the locomotive is changed into simple 
 working, the emergency valve, 6, is opened, which 
 allows the exhaust steam from the high-pressure 
 cylinders to pass through the wrought iron pipe 
 to the exhaust pipe in the smoke box and to the 
 atmosphere. 
 
 Opening of the emergency valve is accomplished 
 by opening the emergency operating valve, which 
 is indicated by the letter N in Fig. 3. AVhen the 
 emergency operating valve is closed (when the 
 locomotive is working compound), the handle of 
 the valve points foruard. 
 
 To open the emergency operating valve, N, and
 
 MALLET LOCOMOTIVES. 409 
 
 change the locomotive into simple, the handle 
 must be turned so as to point backivard. The 
 opening and closing of the emergency valve, 6, is 
 thus under the control of the engineer. 
 
 It is important to bear in mind that the emer- 
 gency valve, as its name indicates, should ordi- 
 narily be used only when the locomotive cannot 
 otherwise move the train; and, as soon as a speed 
 of three to four miles per hour has been attained, 
 the locomotive should be changed back to com- 
 pound. 
 
 Except for changing the locomotive into simple, 
 the movements of all the parts of the intercepting 
 valves are automatic. 
 
 The illustrations in Figs. 4, 5, 6 and 7 show the 
 entire mechanism assembled, and the arrange- 
 ment of the various steam pipes and passages. 
 These illustrations also give the intercepting 
 valve in its four different positions ; namely : 
 
 Fig. 4, the moment after the throttle is open 
 when starting in the ordinary way, the reduc- 
 ing valve, 1, being open and the intercepting 
 valve, 2, and the emergency valve, 6, closed ; 
 
 Fig. 5, at the time when the predetermined 
 pressure has been reached in the receiver pipe, 
 when the reducing valve, 1, is closed and the 
 other parts remain in the same position a« in 
 Fig. 4; 
 
 Fig. 6, in the compound position, when the 
 intercepting valve, 2, is open and the reducing 
 valve, 1, and the emergency valve, 6, are closed ; 
 Fig. 7, in simple position, when the emer- 
 gency or high-pressure exhaust valve, 6, and
 
 410 ENGINEEES ' AND FIREMEN 'S MAN UAL. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 Interior View of the Cab of a Mallet Articulated Com- 
 POUND Locomotive. 
 
 N. Emergency Operating Valve. 
 O. Engineers' Straiglit Air 
 
 Bralie Valve. 
 Q. Main Reverse Lever. 
 
 P. Engineers' Automatic Brake 
 
 Valve. 
 R, Auxiliary Reverse Lever.
 
 MALLEI LOCOMOTIVES. 411 
 
 the reducing valve, 1, are open, and the inter- 
 cepting valve, 2, is closed. 
 
 In these illustrations, the course of the steam 
 is indicated by arrows, and helps to make clear 
 the explanation of the principle and operation of 
 this system of compounding. 
 
 As will be seen from Fig. 7, the reducing valve, 
 1, is so fitted on the stem of the intercepting 
 valve, 2, that when the former opens, it closes 
 the latter, and vice versa. The reducing valve, 
 however, can be closed without opening the inter- 
 cepting valve. 
 
 OPERATION OF THE INTERCEPTING VALVEc 
 
 Referring to Fig. 4, live steam from the boiler 
 is, as indicated by the arrows, always admitted 
 through the cored passages in the cylinder cast- 
 ing to the chamber. A, formed in the intercepting 
 valve chamber head, 4, and surrounding the re- 
 ducing valve, 1. Chamber C communicates with 
 the receiver pipe or steam passage to the low- 
 pressure cylinders, and chamber F connects di- 
 rectly with the exhaust passages from the high- 
 ^pressure cylinders. The chamber L communicates 
 with chamber M through the emergency or high- 
 pressure exhaust valve, 6. The latter chamber is 
 connected with the exhaust pipe in the smoke box, 
 as previously explained. 
 
 With the intercepting valve in the position 
 shown in Fig. 4, steam from the boiler, following 
 the course of the arrows, flows through the pas- 
 sage in the left high-pressure cylinder to cham-
 
 412 ENGINEEES' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 ber A, and acting against the shoulder, E, of the 
 reducing valve, 1, has forced this valve open or 
 inward, closing the intercepting valve, 2, and un- 
 covering the ports, B. This allows live steam to 
 pass into the chamber C, and thence into the 
 receiver and to the low-joressure steam chests and 
 cylinders. Live steam, at the same time, passes 
 through the high-pressure valve into the high- 
 pressure cylinders in the ordinary 'waj. The in- 
 tercepting valve, 2, being closed, communication 
 between the exhaust passage, F, from the high- 
 l)ressure cylinders and the chamber, C, is cut off. 
 This thus prevents the jDressure in this latter 
 chamber from backing up against the exhaust 
 side of the high-pressure pistons; and, conse- 
 quently, these start free from back pressure; 
 while, at the same time, the low-pressure cylin- 
 ders are being supplied with steam direct from 
 the boiler. The pressure of this steam is so regu- 
 lated by the reducing valve, 1, that it bears the 
 same relation to the boiler pressure as the high- 
 pressure piston areas bear to the low-pressure 
 piston areas, thus making the work in all four 
 cylinders equal (the higli and low pressure cylin- 
 ders having the same length of stroke). For in- 
 stance, if the area of the low-pressure cylinder is 
 two and one-half times the area of the high-pres- 
 sure cylinder, then the reducing valve, 1, would 
 be so designed as to reduce the pressure of the 
 live steam admitted by it to chamber C, to 1 -f- 2.5 
 or 40 per cent, of the boiler pressure. 
 
 From the above, it will be seen that the loco- 
 motive automatically starts with live steam in all
 
 f- ti 
 
 S . 
 
 > u 
 
 C S 
 O O 
 
 fc Z 
 
 Z, M 
 
 c " :; c 
 S5 
 
 .i£ 
 
 
 
 C.3 
 
 :it 
 
 413
 
 414 ENGINEEES' AND FIEEMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 four cylinders, or, in other words, as a single 
 expansion engiae. 
 
 Piston, 3, and the chamber, H, in the outer end 
 of the intercepting valve chamber head, 4, consti- 
 tute simply an air dash-pot, to prevent slamming 
 of the valves when changing from compound to 
 simple when running. 
 
 Fig. 5 represents the intercepting valve at the 
 moment when the predetermined maximum pres- 
 sure in the low-pressure steam chests is reached. 
 In this case, it will be noticed that the positions 
 of the valves are the same as in Fig. 4, except that 
 the reducing valve, 1, has been moved out, closing 
 the ports, B, thus cutting off the supply of live 
 steam to the chamber C, and to the low-pressure 
 steam chests ; until by the movement of the low- 
 pressure pistons the pressure in that chamber 
 has been lowered to the required amount. 
 
 The reducing valve automatically keeps the 
 pressure in the chamber C down to the desired 
 amount because of the fact that the area of the 
 shoulder E is, as previously stated, usually 1 -^ 2.5 
 or 40 per cent, of the area of the end D of the 
 valve. Consequently, when the pressure in the 
 chamber C exceeds 40 per cent, of the boiler pres- 
 sure, it will overcome the force of the steam at 
 boiler pressure, acting on the shoulder E; and 
 move the reducing valve, 1, outward, closing 
 ports B. 
 
 The intercepting valve automatically assumes 
 the compound position, Fig. 6, after one or two 
 revolutions of the driving wheels. In this posi- 
 tion, the intercepting valve 2 is opened, allowing
 
 MALLET LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 415 
 
 the exhaust steam from the high-pressure cylin- 
 ders to pass into the chamber C, and so to the 
 receiver and the low-pressure cylinders. The 
 
 Fig. 5. Position of the Intercepting Valve when the Pre- 
 determined Pressure in the Receiver Pipe Has Been Reached. 
 
 Reducing Valve or Sleeve 1 is closed; the other parts remain the same as in 
 Fig. 4. Live steam is cut off from the receiver until the pressure is reduced to 
 the proper amount. 
 
 opening of the intercepting valve 2 has closed the 
 reducing valve, 1, which thus cuts off the supply 
 of live steam to the chamber C and receiver.
 
 \ 
 
 416 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 The principle by which these movements are 
 automatically performed may need some explana- 
 tion. The exhaust steam from the high-pressure 
 cylinders in the chamber F acting against the 
 inner face of the intercepting valve, 2, and also 
 against the inner end of the intercepting valve 
 stem (being admitted to the chamber L through 
 the holes in the unbalancing valve, 5), tends to 
 open the intercepting valve 2. This force is re- 
 sisted by the pressure on the outer face of the 
 intercepting valve 2, the pressure on the outer 
 and inner faces of the unbalancing valve, 5, being 
 balanced. The combined areas of the face of the 
 intercepting valve 2 and the end of its stem are 
 greater than the area of the outer face of the 
 valve. Thus steam in the chamber F at a lower 
 pressure acting against this larger area over- 
 comes the resistance of the higher pressure steam 
 in chamber C and forces the valve into the posi- 
 tion shown. This principle is the same as in the 
 case of the reducing valve previously explained. 
 
 These areas are usually so proportioned that 
 when the pressure in the chamber F is 30 per 
 cent, of the boiler pressure, it overcomes the 
 resistance of the steam in the chamber C at a 
 pressure of 40 per cent, of boiler pressure. 
 
 As will be seen from the above, when the locomo- 
 tive is working compound the low-pressure steam 
 chests receive all of their steam from the exhaust 
 from the high-pressure cylinders through cham- 
 bers F and C and the receiver, the ports B hav- 
 ing been closed by the outward movement of the 
 intercepting valve 2. At full stroke, the pressure
 
 MALLET LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 417 
 
 on the low-pressure pistons would be, approxi- 
 mately, 30 per cent, of the boiler pressure ; while, 
 on the high-pressure pistons, would be exerted the 
 
 Fig. 6. Intercepting Valve in Compound Position. 
 
 Intercepting Valve 2 Is open. Reducing Valve 1 and Emergency Valve 6 are 
 closed. Live steam is cut oH from the receiver pipe and exhaust steam from 
 the high pressure cylinders is admitted. 
 
 I 
 
 pressure which the live steam from the boiler has, 
 minus the 30 per cent, in the receiver which acts 
 on their exhaust sides. The pull on the cross
 
 418 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 heads of all four cylinders is practically equal, 
 as the products of the several piston areas multi- 
 plied by their respective pressures are equal in 
 each case. 
 
 Should the maximum power of the locomotive 
 be required in starting or in ascending a heavy 
 grade, it may be had at any time by simply turn- 
 ing the emergency operating valve N in the cab 
 so that the handle points to the rear. The inter- 
 cepting valve will then assume the position shown 
 in Fig. 7. 
 
 Opening the emergency operating valve admits 
 live steam into the chamber G, which forces the 
 emergency valve, 6, open against the resistance of 
 its own spring plus the pressure of the steam in 
 the chamber L (which is receiver pressure). 
 
 On the opening of the emergency exhaust valve, 
 6, the steam in the chamber L is immediately re- 
 leased. This unbalances the intercepting valve, 
 2, with the result that the reducing valve, 1, is 
 moved inward or opened by the pressure of the 
 steam from the boiler in chamber A acting against 
 the shoulder E. The reducing valve, 1, carries the 
 intercepting valve 2 inward with it, closing the 
 latter, the two valves assuming the position shown 
 in Fig. 7. Communication between the chamber 
 C and the chamber F, into which the steam from 
 the high-pressure cylinders exhausts, is thus cut 
 off; while live steam from the boiler, at a pres- 
 sure reduced to about 40 per cent, of the boiler 
 pressure, is allowed to pass through the ports B 
 into the chamber C and thence through the re- 
 ceiver to the low-pressure steam chests.
 
 MALLEI LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 419 
 
 By the use of the intermediate eliamber L be- 
 tween the chamber F and tlie emergency valve, 6, 
 which is exhausted the instant that valve is 
 
 Fig. 7. Ixtercepting Valves in Simple Position. 
 
 Emergency Valve 6 and Reducing Valve 1 are open and In- 
 terceptive Valve 2 is closed. 
 
 The exhaust from the high-pressure cylinders is released to the 
 atmosphere, the high-pressure cylinders are relieved of receiver 
 pressure and live steam is admitted to all cylinders, giving 20 per 
 cent, increase in tractive power. 
 
 opened, the intercepting valve 2 is closed and the 
 reducing valve 1 opened before, or at the same 
 moment, that the receiver is actually exhausted. 
 
 I
 
 420 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 Consequently, there is no drop of pressure in the 
 low-pressure steam chests during the change 
 from compound to simple or prior to the en- 
 trance of live steam into the low-pressure steam 
 chests. 
 
 As the emergency exhaust valve, 6, is kept open 
 by the pressure of the steam admitted to the outer 
 side of the piston 8 by the opening of the emer- 
 gency operating valve in the cab, the exhaust 
 steam from the high-pressure cylinders passes 
 through the chamber F into the chambers L and 
 M, and so into the high-pressure exhaust pipe 
 and to the atmosphere. 
 
 Thus when the intercepting valve is in position 
 shown in Fig. 7, that is, when the locomotive is 
 working simple, the high-pressure pistons are re- 
 lieved of the back pressure amounting to 30 per 
 cent, of the boiler pressure, which acts against 
 them when the locomotive is working compound, 
 with the intercepting valve in Fig. 6. On the other 
 hand, the low-pressure cylinders are receiving 
 steam direct from the boiler at a pressure of 40 
 per cent, of that which it has in the boiler, instead 
 of exhaust steam from the high-pressure cylin- 
 ders at a pressure of only 30 per cent, of boiler 
 pressure, as when the locomotive is working com- 
 pound. This explains the 20 per cent, increase in 
 the normal maximum power, which, as already 
 stated, is obtained by changing the locomotive 
 into simple. The increase would be greater were 
 it not for the wire-drawing of the steam through 
 the restricted area of the ports B, which are in- 
 tentionally reduced for operation under this con-
 
 MALLET LOCOMOTIVES. 421 
 
 dition. As it is, the actual increase in power at 
 speeds of from three to four miles per hour would 
 not be greater than the amount given above. 
 
 The reducing valve, 1, is so designed that at 
 speeds of more than three or four miles an hour 
 no increase in power is obtained by changing the 
 locomotive into simple. This is done in order that 
 the emergency feature will not be misused, with 
 injurious effect on the machinery and the sacri- 
 fice of economy in fue). consumption. 
 
 If the pressure in the chamber C and conse- 
 quently in the receiver pipe and the low-pressure 
 steam chests rises to more than 40 per cent, of 
 the boiler pressure when the engine is working 
 simple, the reducing valve, 1, will be forced out- 
 ward to the jDOsition it has in Fig. 5; that is, 
 closing the ports B and shutting oif the live steam 
 from the chamber C. The other parts of the 
 valve, however, will remain in the same position 
 as shown in Fig. 7. The reducing valve 1 auto- 
 matically closes under the conditions above stated. 
 
 Upon the movement of the low-pressure pis- 
 tons, the steam pressure in the chamber C will 
 be reduced; and the boiler pressure acting upon 
 the small shoulder E would again force the re- 
 ducing valve 1 inward to its position in Fig. 7, 
 opening the ports B. Thus the pressure in the 
 chamber C and low-pressure steam chests would 
 be again raised to the required 40 per cent, of 
 the boiler pressure. This alternate opening and 
 closing of the reducing valve 1 will continue as 
 long as the displacement of the low-pressure pis- 
 tons does not exceed the supply of steam that
 
 422 EXGINEEES' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 comes through the ports B. When this condition 
 occurs, the reducing valve 1 will remain open. 
 
 These facts explain why, if the locomotive 
 starts to slip when it is changed into simple, it 
 automatically ceases without necessitating clos- 
 ing the throttle; since, with the rapid movement 
 of the low-pressure pistons, the power of those 
 engines is reduced; and, with the increased ex- 
 haust from the high-pressure engines passing 
 through the comparatively restricted opening of 
 the emergency valve 6, the back jiressure on the 
 high-pressure pistons is increased, reducing the 
 effective power in those cylinders. 
 
 It is very important for the engineer to remem- 
 ber that, the locomotive having been changed into 
 simple working by opening the emergency oper- 
 ating valve N in the cab, it is necessary to close 
 this valve (that is, turn it so that the handle 
 points fonvard), in order to change the locomo- 
 tive back to compound or normal working. With 
 the emergency operating valve closed, the steam 
 will be exhausted from the chamber G in front 
 of the piston 8. The tension of the spring, as- 
 sisted by the steam pressure upon the inner end 
 of the emergency exhaust valve 6, will then return 
 that valve to its seat, thus preventing the exhaust 
 steam from the high-pressure cylinders escaping 
 to the stack. A few exhausts from the high-pres- 
 sure cylinders will, then, soon raise the pressure 
 in the chamber F and force the intercepting valve 
 2, and with it the reducing valve 1, to assume the 
 compound position, as shown in Fig. 6. 
 
 If, upon starting the locomotive, it is desired to
 
 MALLET LOCOMOTIVES. 423 
 
 prevent the valves from changing automatically 
 to the compound position, the emergency valve 6 
 may be opened in advance by opening the emer- 
 gency operating valve N, turning the handle to 
 the rear. This, as previously explained, will pre- 
 vent the pressure in the chamber F from rising 
 sufficiently to force the intercepting valve 2 open. 
 
 In changing from compound to simple when 
 running, the sudden unbalancing of the intercept- 
 ing valve 2, tends to close this valve rapidly, with 
 the result that it would slam, were it not for the 
 dash-pot, which prevents this. The dash-pot pis- 
 ton 3 at the outer end of the intercepting valve 
 stem works in the cylinder H formed in the outer 
 end of the intercepting valve chamber head 4. 
 When the intercepting valve is forced inward 
 under full pressure, its too rapid motion is pre- 
 vented by the slow escape of the air from under 
 the piston 3 through the small port J. This is 
 practically the only function of the dash-pot. The 
 port K, extending through the center of the inter- 
 cepting valve stem half way to the inner end, per- 
 mits the escape of any steam that may leak past 
 the small rings on the intercepting valve stem and 
 reducing valve 1. 
 
 All of the ports of the intercepting valve have 
 important duties to perform, and their location 
 and sizes must not be changed. 
 
 From the above description of the intercept- 
 ing valve, it will be seen that to start a train 
 with an articulated compound it is usually only 
 necessary to open the throttle in the ordinary way 
 with the reverse lever in the position required for
 
 424 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 the weight of the train or, ordinarily, in the ex- 
 treme notch; and with the cylinder cocks open. 
 The intercepting valve will automatically assume 
 the position shown in Fig. 4, and the locomotive 
 will work simple until the j^ressure in the receiver 
 has raised sufficiently to force the intercepting 
 valve 2 into position shown in Fig. 6, or compound 
 position. 
 
 If the locomotive fails to move the train when 
 started in this way, or is about to stall on a steep 
 grade, it should be changed into simple working 
 by turning the handle of the emergency operating 
 valve in the cab, so that it points to the rear, 
 which causes the intercepting valve to assume 
 position shown in Fig. 7. 
 
 There is no increased tendency for the locomo- 
 tive to slip when working simple ; and, moreover, 
 when it does slip, the slipping is automatically 
 arrested after only a few inches of movement of 
 the piston. If, however, the locomotive starts to 
 slip, it is advisable to use sand, should the rail 
 conditons be at all unfavorable. 
 
 The engineer can easily tell whether the locomo- 
 tive is working simple or compound either by the 
 sound of the exhaust or by the position of the 
 emergency operating valve in the cab. When 
 working simple there are eight exhausts to each 
 revolution of the wheels, and only four when 
 working compound. In the former case the ex- 
 haust has more the sound of a continuous blow, 
 the separate exhausts being less distinct. When 
 working compound, the handle of the emergency 
 
 I
 
 MALLET LOCOMOTIVES. 425 
 
 operating valve, as stated, points forward, and to 
 the rear when working simple. 
 
 If the low-pressure engine fails to start when 
 the throttle is open, the trouble may lie in the 
 reducing valve 1 having stuck in the closed posi- 
 tion, due to the fact that it had not been properly 
 lubricated or some foreign matter had worked 
 into the bore of the valve. In such an event the 
 admission ports B, Fig. 4, would be closed and no 
 steam could get to the low-pressure cylinder. 
 
 Such a difficulty can ordinarily be remedied by 
 giving the reducing valve a little more feed of 
 oil for a few minutes ; or, if necessary, the cover 
 of the dash-pot H may be removed and with a 
 piece of bent 14-inch wire the reducing valve 1 
 may be moved in and out a few times, after which 
 it will probably clear itself when the throttle is 
 open. 
 
 The intercepting valve should be given a liberal 
 feed of oil for a minute before starting and occa- 
 sionally during long runs when the throttle is 
 not shut off for a considerable length of time. 
 Outside of this, one drop of oil every four or 
 five minutes is ordinarily ample when running. 
 
 POWER EEVEESING GEAR. 
 
 Because of the size and weight of the parts of 
 the valve motion of this articulated compound 
 locomotive, a power reversing gear is generally 
 applied to operate the reverse lever. This is an 
 engine consisting of two cylinders, one an air 
 cylinder and the other filled with oil. The two
 
 \ 
 
 426 EXGINEEES' AND FIEEMEN'S MANUAL. ' 
 
 cylinders are set one ahead of the other, and are 
 usually bolted to the underside of the mudring or 
 some other convenient location. 
 
 Fi^. 8 shows the arrangement and construction 
 of tliis mechanism. In this case the forward one 
 is the air cylinder and the rear the oil cylinder, 
 although this arrangement is usually reversed and 
 can be made whichever the circumstances require. 
 In any arrangement both pistons are mounted on 
 a common piston rod which is connected to either 
 the main reverse lever, or, as in the illustration, to 
 an extension of the reverse shaft arm. 
 
 Between the two cylinders are the packing boxes 
 for the common piston rod, and there is also a 
 stuffing box at the air end of the cylinder for the 
 rod connecting the piston with the reverse lever 
 or shaft, as the case may be. Both pistons are 
 packed with leather packing, that in the air cylin- 
 der being held out by spring rings. The valves 
 of both cylinders are conical, that for the air cyl- 
 inders having four openings in addition to the 
 exhaust cavity, while the oil cylinder valve has 
 two crossed passages. 
 
 The valves of the air and oil cylinders are 
 operated by an auxiliary reverse lever E to which 
 they are connected by a rod. This lever is pivoted 
 on the main lever Q at the point AY. It is pro- 
 vided with a latch with teeth that fit in a quad- 
 rant in the same manner as the main lever. This 
 latch is so interlocked with the latch of the main 
 reverse lever Q that raising the former raises the 
 latter, which cannot drop again unless the main
 
 MALLET LOCOMOTIVES. 427 
 
 reverse lever Q is in its normal position relative 
 to the auxiliary lever R. 
 
 The levers are so designed that when the two 
 latches are lifted the auxiliary reverse lever R 
 is allowed sufficient movement about its pivot 
 point W (limited by lugs on the main reverse 
 lever latch) to give a full opening of the valves 
 of the air and oil cylinders. 
 
 When a change in cut-off is desired the latch 
 of the auxiliary lever R is released, which also 
 unlatches the main reverse lever Q. If the main 
 reverse lever Q is to be thrown ahead, the auxil- 
 iary lever is moved forward about its pivot point 
 W, and back, if it is de«ired to move the main 
 lever in that direction. The movement of the 
 auxiliary lever R, forward or back, swings its 
 lower end Y which operates t^^e valves of the 
 air and oil cylinders; and the valve motion is 
 moved in the desired direction. 
 
 For instance, when the auxiliary lever is pushed 
 forward, its lower end Y is drawn back. This 
 turns the valve of the air cylinder so that the air 
 is admitted through the air inlet 13 to the front 
 of the piston, and the exhaust port- 14 establishes 
 communication between the rear end of the air 
 cylinder and the exhaust to the atmosphere. At 
 the same time the crossed passages of the oil 
 cylinder valve are so turned as to allow the oil in 
 the cylinder to flow from one end to the other. 
 The air and oil pistons thus move back and the 
 valve gear is moved forward. The slow flow of 
 the oil in the oil cylinder prevents the too rapid 
 movement of the reverse lever Q.
 
 428 ENGINEEES' AND FIEEMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 The auxiliary lever R, being pivoted on the 
 main reverse lever Q, moves with the latter, and 
 when the gear is to be changed must be kept in 
 motion until the desired notch in the quadrant 
 is reached and then latched. By stopping the move- 
 ment of the auxiliary lever, the gear automatic- 
 ally moves the main reverse lever up to its normal 
 position relative to the former, when it also 
 latches, as already stated. This also automatic- 
 ally closes the valves of both the air and oil cylin- 
 ders, giving both an oil and a positive lock to the 
 gear. 
 
 Except in case of lack of air jtsessure or any 
 accident to the power reversing gear,' the valve 
 motion is handled entirely by the auxiliary re- 
 verse lever R. For this reason the practice is to 
 cut off that portion of the main reverse lever Q 
 which ordinarily projects above the deck of the 
 cab, thus leaving more room for the engineer. A 
 separate handle is provided for the main reverse 
 lever, which may be easily applied in case of acci- 
 dent to the power reversing gear. 
 
 It is, of course, important that the air and oil 
 valves be properly set so that the valve openings 
 and cylinder ports match up properly in the dif- 
 ferent positions. For example, a quarter of a 
 turn of the oil valve one way or the other would 
 result in the valve being blanked instead of open 
 when the auxiliary lever R was moved about its 
 pivot point. The gear could not, then, be oper- 
 ated, as the oil could not circulate from one end 
 of the oil cylinder to the other. If, therefore, 
 the power reversing gear fails to operate when
 
 MALLET LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 429
 
 430 ENGINE ESS' ATiD FlhEMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 the valves are supposedly opened and nothing 
 has happened to the air supply, first examine the 
 valves to see that they are in their proper 
 position. 
 
 The function of the oil cylinder is to prevent 
 the too rapid movement of the reversing gear 
 when a change of cut-off is made. It is impera- 
 tive, therefore, that this cylinder be always kept 
 full of oil. The frequency with which it should 
 be filled depends on the condition of its piston 
 and piston rod packing and these should, there- 
 fore, be kept in good condition. If the revers- 
 ing gear ojDerates too rapidly, this indicates that 
 there is a lack of oil in the oil cylinder and this 
 should be refilled and the leakages stopped. 
 
 In case of any repairs to the power reversing 
 gear, especial attention should be given to see 
 that it is properly adjusted when set up so that 
 when the gear is operated the main reverse lever 
 will automatically be moved to its normal posi- 
 tion relative to the auxiliary lever and properly 
 latch. If the gear is not properly adjusted, the 
 latch of the main reverse lever will not engage 
 properly with the teeth of the quadrant. In con- 
 sequence the latch of the auxiliary lever will have 
 to hold the gear with the result that it will be 
 quickly worn. 
 
 BY-PASS VALVES. 
 
 Another feature which plays a most impor- 
 tant part in the successful operation of the articu- 
 lated compound locomotive, and so should be
 
 MALLET LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 431 
 
 clearly understood by the engineer, is the by-pass 
 valves. 
 
 The purpose of these valves is to prevent the 
 injurious effects which would otherwise result 
 from the pumping action of the large low pres- 
 sure pistons when the locomotive is drifting. 
 
 These valves are so designed that they auto- 
 matically establish communication between the 
 two ends of the cylinder, when the engine is run- 
 ning with the throttle closed, thus performing sev- 
 eral important functions. 
 
 POBTS/S" 
 
 PORTS^S" 
 
 Fig. 9. By-pass Valves. 
 
 First, they prevent alternating vacuum and 
 compression in the cylinders when the locomotive 
 is drifting, thus insuring the free movement of 
 the pistons. 
 
 Second, by permitting the circulation of the
 
 432 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 free air drawn into the cylinders through the vac- 
 uum-relief valves, they prevent this air from be- 
 ing overheated by the churning of the pistons and 
 thus destroying the lubrication, when the locomo- 
 tive is drifting down a long hill. 
 
 Third, by destroying the vacuum which, with- 
 out them, would be formed by the large piston, 
 they prevent the smoke and gases from the smoke 
 box being sucked into the cylinder. 
 
 Fourth, they prevent excessive fanning of the 
 fire from the pumping action of the large pistons 
 when drifting 
 
 These valves are locaiea in chambers cast in 
 the outside of each low pressure cylinder. Their 
 construction is shown in Fig. 9. There are two 
 valves to each cylinder. The lower view in the 
 illustration shows the two valves U with the heads 
 T of the chambers in which they are located; 
 while the upper view shows the valves alone with- 
 out the valve chamber heads. 
 
 Fig. 10 illustrates the arrangement or the valves 
 when assembled in their chamber and their rela- 
 tion to the steam ports in the cylinders. 
 
 In position A of this latter figure, the valves 
 U are in the position they assume when the throt- 
 tle is open. In this position the steam passing 
 from the steam chest ports through the small 
 ports S in the head T of the valve chamber, as 
 indicated by the arrows, acts against the outer 
 ends of the valves U and keeps them against their 
 seats, cutting off communication between the ad- 
 mission ports of the cylinders. 
 
 Position B of Fig. 10 is the one the by-pass
 
 MALLET LOCOMOTIVES 
 
 433 
 
 valves U automatically takes when the throttle is 
 closed. In that event the atmospheric pressure 
 admitted through the small air vent in the valve 
 chamber forces the valves U open, closing the 
 steam chest ports and establishing communica- 
 tion between the admission ports at either end of 
 the cylinders. This permits circulation from one 
 end of the cylinder to the other when the locomo- 
 
 w 
 
 T-4 
 
 
 A 
 
 Fig. 10. By-pass Valves in Open and Closed Position. 
 
 tive is drifting, accomplishing the necessary re- 
 ■ suits enumerated. 
 
 It is strongly recommended, therefore, that in 
 drifting the reverse lever be kept at %-stroke or
 
 434 ENGINEEBS* AND FIBEMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 more, since when operated in this way the loco- 
 motive will drift freely. 
 
 As the by-pass valves perform such important 
 duties, it is essential that they be properly cared 
 for and kept in good condition, to prevent them 
 from sticking. The engineer can tell at once if 
 the by-pass valves are stuck open, as, in that case, 
 steam will blow from the small pipe projecting 
 from under the jacket midway between the ends 
 of the cylinder. This pipe connects to the air 
 vent in the center of the chamber containing the 
 valves. 
 
 From the above description it will be seen that 
 if the by-pass valves stick open it will cause a 
 severe blow. "When the locomotive is first put 
 into service the by-pass valves should be taken 
 out and cleaned quite frequently to keep them free 
 of core sand which will undoubtedly work in. 
 After this has been done a few times they require 
 only ordinary attention. 
 
 If the low pressure engines are heard to thump 
 as if a piston, crosshead or box were loose and 
 the locomotive does not drift freely, the trouble 
 probably lies in the by-pass valves being stuck 
 closed by being gummed, and these should be 
 taken out and cleaned at the first opportunity. 
 
 Sticking of the by-pass valves may be caused 
 by smoke box gases being sucked into the cylin- 
 ders by the pistons when the locomotive is drift- 
 ing with the reverse lever ''hooked up." These 
 gases would be sent circulating through the by- 
 pass valves which are oily from the steam, and 
 the soot may stick to them and form a gum. This
 
 MALLET LOCOMOTIVES. 435 
 
 gum hardens gradually and the valves ultimately 
 work so hard that the comparatively light suc- 
 tion in the steam chest is not strong enough to 
 open them. On this account periodical cleaning 
 of these valves should be made. 
 
 The possibility of smoke and gases being sucked 
 into the cylinders will be minimized, if the re- 
 verse lever is kept at %-stroke or more when the 
 locomotive is drifting. 
 
 VACUUM AND RELIEF VALVES. 
 
 In the high pressure steam chests or some other 
 convenient place which is in communication with 
 the steam chests, are located vacuum valves. The 
 function of these valves is to admit free air into 
 the steam chests when the locomotive is drift- 
 ing so as to avoid a vacuum and give a moderate 
 flow of air through the cylinders. 
 
 The low pressure cylinders are equipped with 
 combined vacuum and relief valves which in ad- 
 dition to having functions similar to the vacuum 
 valves of the high pressure cylinders also regu- 
 late the steam pressure in the low pressure steam 
 chests. These relief valves are set at 45 per cent 
 of the boiler pressure. 
 
 As these valves relieve any excessive pressure 
 in the low pressure cylinders, they should be test- 
 ed occasionally to see that they are correctly set. 
 
 From the previous description of the intercept- 
 ing valve it will be seen that when the locomotive 
 is working compound the packing rings of the 
 high pressure valves and pistons alone separate
 
 436 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL 
 
 the boiler pressure from the pressure in the re- 
 ceiver and low pressure cylinders. Consequently 
 if there was a blow in these packing rings, the 
 pressure in the receiver would be increased, caus- 
 ing the relief valves in the low pressure steam 
 chests to blow off. Therefore, if these valves rise 
 from their seats fiequently when the locomotive 
 is working compound, it might be due to the fact 
 that there was a blow in either the valves or the 
 pistons of the high pressure cylinders, and these 
 should be tested. 
 
 To test for blows simply throw the emergency 
 operating valve in the cab to the simple position, 
 namely, with the handle pointing to the rear. 
 Spot the locomotive and test the same as a simple 
 locomotive. 
 
 FLEXIBLE JOINTS. 
 
 Another feature peculiar to the articulated com- 
 pound locomotive is the flexible ball and slip joint 
 steam i^ipe connections. 
 
 In this articulated compound locomotive there 
 is a ball joint connection between the receiver 
 pipe and the high pressure cylinders, a slip joint 
 connection between the receiver pipe and the Y- 
 pipe by which the steam is carried to the steam 
 passages of the low pressure cylinders, a ball 
 joint connection between the exhaust pipe flexible 
 connection and the low pressure cylinders and 
 also between the former and the exhaust pipe in 
 the smoke box. This exhaust pipe flexible con- 
 nection is likewise provided with a slip joint to
 
 MALLET LOCOMOTIVES. 437 
 
 allow for the variations in its length when the en- 
 gine rounds a curve. The construction of these 
 flexible connections is shown in Fig. 11. 
 
 As will be noticed, the ball joints consist of a 
 ball-bearing, gland, stuffing box and. packing, 
 while in the slip joints the construction is very 
 much the same, without the ball-bearing. 
 
 The i^acking in both classes of joints consists 
 of a fiber material. The free nominal size of the 
 packing rings is five-eighth inch square in section 
 and they are hammered and worked down to one- 
 half inch square before being applied, which 
 makes them soft and pliable. 
 
 In the case of the receiver pipe joint at the 
 high pressure cylinders, a brass ring of elongated 
 diamond section is inserted in the center of the 
 packing. As this ring is just the width of the 
 packing space it seals all the joints in the pack- 
 ing rings proper and forces them tightly against 
 the inside of the box and against the ball. 
 
 In repacking the joint this brass ring should 
 be removed, all the packing rings inspected, new 
 rings put in where necessary and the ring put 
 back in its proper place. In every case the orig- 
 inal arrangement of joint packing should be pre- 
 served. 
 
 The diagram in Fig. 11 shows the method of 
 arranging the rings. These must be cut to the 
 correct lengths and the two ends in every case 
 meet perfectly when in place. They are so ar- 
 ranged that the seams in any two adjacent rings 
 are at least a quarter of a circle or 90 degrees 
 apart, and all the seams in the entire set are at
 
 438 
 
 ENGINEERS' AND FIEEMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 least one-eighth of a circle or 45 degrees from 
 each other. The reference numbers on the dia- 
 gram correspond to those on the packing 
 drawings. 
 
 It is important, therefore, when the packing is 
 
 ?. < ^ofiS Icr remoif'ng '/W^, for repack ina 
 y^.. c 3 SKfixire Fibre Packing 
 
 L. P. £xhausf Pipe Ba// Jo/nA 
 Fig. 11. Flexible Joints. 
 
 renewed that care should be taken to arrange 
 them in the manner shown, since if so arranged 
 trouble from leaky joints will be avoided. 
 
 It is also essential that in renewing packing
 
 MALLET LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 439 
 
 the same kind of packing should be used as that 
 originally applied. 
 
 Owing to the fact that in the articulated com- 
 pound locomotive a long receiver pipe is generally 
 employed and the ball joint is located in the ver- 
 tical center of the pivot connection between the 
 
 Square Hbre Packing 
 
 I 
 
 ^mm L 
 
 IBIBi 
 
 y 
 
 Receiver Pipe Slip Join A 
 
 Diagram of ^rrangemenf of Packing Rings. 
 Fig. 11. Flexible Joints. 
 
 front and rear engines, there is very little move- 
 ment in the ball joint and there is practically no 
 tendency for this joint to leak. 
 
 In case there is any leakage it is usually due 
 to the fact that the gland is not screwed in tight
 
 440 ENGINEERS' AND FIIiEMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 enough, and can be easily stopped by a turn or 
 two on the gland bolts. 
 
 ADJUSTMENT OF THE ALIGNMENT OF THE FRONT 
 ENGINE FEAMES. 
 
 In locomotives of the articulated compound 
 type vertical hanger or **trim" bolts X, Fig. 12, 
 connect the upper rails of the rear frames with 
 the lower rails of the front frames. These bolts 
 have ball and socket bearings in the frame rails 
 and sufficient play is allowed in the bolt holes to 
 provide for the lateral movement of the front 
 frames when the locomotive is passing through 
 a curve. They serve to adjust the weights on 
 the front and rear engines so- that each bears its 
 proportionate amount of the total load, and to 
 keep the front frames in proper alignment. Or- 
 dinarily, therefore, the alignment of the engine 
 may be easily adjusted if necessary by means 
 of them without any other change in the spring 
 rigging. 
 
 In designs of articulated compound locomotives 
 having no front truck, where two sliding boiler 
 bearings are employed, the front sliding bearing 
 does not normally carry any load, but is merely 
 an emergency stop in case of derailment or any 
 unusual change in the alignment between the two 
 frames. This bearing is so designed that when 
 the front and rear frames are in proper alignment 
 there is a clearance (ordinarily i/4 inch) between 
 the upper and lower bearing and an equal amount 
 between the upper bearing and the safety straps 
 or clips, as indicated at Z andZ', Fig. 12.
 
 MALLET LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 441
 
 142 EXGINEEES' AND FIBEMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 An exception to the above rule should be noted 
 in the case of class 0880 engines designed for 
 over 16-degree curvature. In such designs the 
 front bearing may sometimes be used for sup- 
 porting a small part of the weight on the front 
 engine, though a considerably less amount than 
 when a front truck is used. 
 
 About %-inch total play is also always allowed 
 between the rear draw casting (or jaw) and the 
 front draw casting (or hinge) of the articulated 
 connection. The hinge casting should not touch 
 either the top or bottom of the jaw. 
 
 In the case of this articulated compound locomo- 
 tive of one of the designs covered in the above 
 rule, if the hinge casting of the articulated joint 
 bears on the top of the jaw and the safety strap, 
 or clips, of the front sliding boiler support bears 
 close against the ujDper casting of this support, 
 adjustment may be made by the "trim" bolts, 
 which should be tightened up until the vertical 
 play is approximately divided in each case. 
 
 On the other hand, if the bearing surfaces of 
 the upper and lower castings of the front sliding 
 support touch and the articulated hinge bears on 
 the bottom of its jaw, adjustment should be made 
 by loosening the *'trim" bolts. 
 
 Should the upper and lower bearings of the 
 front boiler support touch, while at the same time 
 the articulated hinge bears on its top surface 
 against the jaw, a liner plate of a thickness of 
 about one-half the total play should be inserted 
 between the sliding block of the rear boiler sup- 
 port and its saddle. This should give a satisfac-
 
 MALLET LOCOMOTIVES. 443 
 
 tory adjustment. To insert this liner, the rear 
 bearing can be raised the required amount by 
 tightening up the vertical suspension or *'trim" 
 bolts X, while the plate is fitted in, after which 
 the nuts on the bolts should be eased off till the 
 correct tension is secured and the proper adjust- 
 ment is sure to be obtained. 
 
 If, on the other hand, the safety straps, or clips, 
 bear on the upper casting of the front sliding 
 boiler support and the articulated hinge bears on 
 its bottom surface against its jaw, the sliding 
 block of the rear sliding boiler support should be 
 planed oft' an amount equal to one-half the total 
 play. 
 
 When front trucks are used or where both bear- 
 ings of the front engine support weight, the 
 *'trim" bolts are provided with a spring undei 
 the nut at one end in order to relieve the excessive 
 load, which is liable to be concentrated on the 
 rear bearing because of inequalities in the level 
 of the track, or similar conditions. 
 
 BREAKDOWNS. 
 
 In case of any breakdown in which one or more 
 of the cylinders can be disconnected and the loco- 
 motive run in with the remaining cylinders active, 
 simply throw the emergency operating valve N 
 in the cab into the simple position and proceed 
 as with a simple locomotive, namely, disconnect 
 and block the disabled cylinder or cylinders. This 
 is the only rule to follow and the only one to be
 
 444 ENGINEEES' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 remembered, and covers all cases of accidents 
 which do not entirely disable the locomotive. 
 
 OPERATING EITLES. 
 
 Always open the cylinder cocks in starting. 
 
 Usually the locomotive will start the train when 
 the throttle is opened in the ordinary way with 
 the reverse lever in the position required for the 
 weight of the train or ordinarily in the extreme 
 notch. If the locomotive fails to start the train 
 when operated in this way, change it into simple 
 working by turning the handle of the emergency 
 operating valve in the cab so that it points to the 
 rean This same course should be followed if the 
 engine is about to stall on a heavy grade. If 
 the speed is over three or four miles an hour, no 
 increase in power will be obtained by changing 
 the locomotive into simple working. 
 
 "Wlien drifting, the reverse lever should be kept 
 at •'^-stroke or more. As before stated, if this is 
 done, the locomotive will drift freely. 
 
 The oil cylinder of the power reversing gear 
 should always be kept full of oil. The piston and 
 piston rod packing of the oil cylinder should be 
 kept in good condition so as to prevent leakage. 
 If the reversing gear operates too rapidly it indi- 
 cates that there is not sufficient oil in the oil cyl- 
 inder and this should be refilled and the leakages 
 stopped. 
 
 If the reversing gear is not adjusted properly 
 so that the latch of the main reverse lever does 
 not engage with the teeth of the quadrant, the
 
 MALLET LOCOMOTIVES. 445 
 
 trouble should be remedied as soon as possible. 
 If not properly adjusted, the locking of the re- 
 verse gear will be put almost entirely on the latch 
 of the auxiliary lever, which is not designed for 
 such duty and would, therefore, quickly wear. 
 
 The by-pass valves should be taken out and 
 cleaned periodically to prevent them from being 
 gummed and sticking. When the locomotive is 
 first put into service, these valves should be 
 cleaned quite frequently for a few times so as to 
 keep them free from the core sand which is sure 
 to work into them. Afterwards they will require 
 only ordinary attention to work properly. When 
 these valves are properly performing their func- 
 tions, the locomotive will drift freely. If they 
 stick open it will cause a severe blow, while if 
 stuck in the closed position, it will cause a pound- 
 ing in the low pressure engines. 
 
 The relief valves in the low pressure steam 
 chests should be tested occasionally to see that 
 they are correctly set at 45 per cent of the boiler 
 pressure, as these valves relieve any excessive 
 pressure in the steam chests. 
 
 Repaies to Flexible Joints. — In renewing the 
 packing of the flexible joints the same kind of 
 packing should be used as that originally applied. 
 Also care should be taken to keep the arrange- 
 ment of the packing the same as that shown in 
 the diagram in Fig. 11. 
 
 The brass ring of the receiver pipe joint at the 
 high pressure cylinder may be removed in order 
 to insert new packing, but the original arrange-
 
 446 ENGINEEFS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 meiit of the joint packing should always be pre- 
 served. 
 
 Lubrication. — Give the intercepting valve a lib- 
 eral feed of oil for a minute before starting and 
 occasionally during long runs, when the throttle 
 is not shut off for a considerable length of time. 
 Except for this, one drop of oil to the intercepting 
 valve every four or five minutes is ample when 
 running. 
 
 Besides the intercepting valve, the other parts 
 of the articulated compound locomotive which 
 should be oiled, which are not found on the ordi- 
 nary locomotive are : 
 
 Sliding boiler bearings on the front engine. 
 
 The ball joint in front of the high pressure cyl- 
 inder {before starting on a trip). 
 
 The upper or rear ball joint of the exhaust pipe 
 {before starting on a trip). 
 
 The lower or front ball joint of the exhaust pipe 
 {before starting on a trip). 
 
 The bolt connecting the two engines. 
 
 The ball bearings of the vertical suspension or 
 *'trim" bolts which connect the upper rails of 
 the rear frames with the lower rails of the front 
 frames X, Fig. 12. 
 
 The ball bearings of the floating columns (if 
 applied). 
 
 The piston rod packing of the cylinders of the 
 power reversing gear. 
 
 The air cylinder of the power reversing gear, 
 by means of the plug in the top of the cylinder 
 {about once a week). 
 
 Blows. — To test for blows in the valves or pis-
 
 MALLET LOCOMOTIVES. 447 . 
 
 tons, throw the emergency operating valve in the 
 cab to the simple position, namely, with the han- 
 dle pointing to the rear. Spot the locomotive and 
 test the same as a simple locomotive. 
 
 NOTE. — The Author is Indebted to The American Locomotive 
 Company for the Foregoing Full and Authoritative Description. 
 
 Mallet Articulated Compound Locomotive 
 (Baldicin Locomotive Company). — As the dis- 
 tinctive features of the Mallet locomotive have 
 been described, the articulated boiler connection 
 which does not form a part of that locomotive is 
 given here, also the arrangement of the super- 
 heater and reheater. 
 
 The flexible boiler connections used on the two 
 following engines are entirely different in con- 
 struction, engine 1158 having a double ball- 
 jointed connection, while engine 1159 has a pleat- 
 ed or bellows form of connection. 
 
 On engine 1158 the connection consists of two 
 caSt iron sleeves, Fig. 2, fitted one within the 
 other and provided with snap rings to keep the 
 joint tight. Each sleeve forms a ball joint with 
 a cast iron ring, which is bolted to the shell of 
 the corresponding boiler section. These rings 
 are made in halves, to facilitate assembling. The 
 ball joints are kept tight by rings of soft metallic 
 packing, which can be adjusted by set screws. 
 The two boiler sections can thus move in any 
 direction relative to one another and full pro- 
 vision is made for expansion and contraction. 
 
 On engine 1159 the joint is composed of sixty 
 rings of high carbon steel having a thickness of 
 No. 14 wire gauge. Fig. 3. These rings are ten 
 inches wide and have an outside diameter of sev-
 
 448 ENGINEEES' AND FIBEMEN'S MANUAL,
 
 449
 
 450 
 
 ENGINEEES' AND FIEEMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 enty-five and one-half inches. They are made with 
 a set, so that, when placed adjacent to each other, 
 they form a series of V-shaped joints. The ad- 
 jacent rings are riveted together at the inside 
 and bolted at the outside, and the connection is 
 bolted in place between the front and rear boiler 
 sections. The products of combustion traverse 
 the flexible connection through a cylindrical flue 
 forty-four inches in diameter. This flue is riv- 
 eted to the rear boiler section and prevents cin- 
 ders from lodging in the crevices between the 
 connecting rings. 
 
 FI6. 3 LONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE SECTIONS SHOWING BELLOWS TYPE OF BOILER CONNECTION 
 
 To assist in holding the boiler sections in align- 
 ment, a centering device is placed on each side 
 on the horizontal center line of ^the boiler. This 
 arrangement consists of a pair of helical springs,
 
 MALLET LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 451 
 
 which are seated in cast steel brackets riveted 
 to the shells of the front and rear boiler sections, 
 Fig. 4. The springs are held in place between 
 washers, carried by a horizontal thrust bar. When 
 the engine enters a curve, the two boiler sections 
 assume an angular position with reference to 
 each other and by reason of the compression of 
 the springs on the outer side the corresponding 
 thrust bar is thrown into tension, thereby tending 
 to bring the boiler sections back into alignment. 
 
 It is, of course, necessary in these locomotives 
 to place flexible joints in all pipes which pass the 
 
 FIG. 4 CENTERING DEVICE USED ON FLEXIBLE BOILER LOCOMOTIVES 
 
 articulated connections in the frames and boiler. 
 This, however, introduces no objectionable com- 
 plication. The steam piping is simplified, as no 
 flexible joints are required in the exhaust connec- 
 tion between the low-pressure cylinders and the 
 smoke box. There is claimed to be a distinct ad- 
 vantage in the avoidance of sliding supports under 
 the forward boiler section and the stability of the 
 locomotive, when on -aurves, is not impaired by the
 
 452 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 lateral displacement of the boiler on the front 
 frames, which necessarily occurs in the Mallet 
 locomotive as usually built. 
 
 The arrangement of the superheater and re- 
 heater is practically the same on both engines. 
 An open chamber is located in each boiler section 
 adjacent to the flexible connection and these cham- 
 bers contain the heaters, Fig. 5. The superheater 
 is located in the rear boiler section and the re- 
 heater in the front section. These heaters are 
 of the Jacobs type and each consists of a steel 
 drum traversed by horizontal fire tubes. 
 
 The superheater is exposed to a higher tem- 
 perature and steam pressure than the reheater 
 and its tubes are welded at each end, while in 
 the reheater the tubes are rolled and beaded. The 
 heaters are fitted with internal baflfle plates, so 
 that the steam is compelled to follow a circuitous 
 course among the tubes. 
 
 The throttle valve is connected with the super- 
 heater by an internal dry pipe and the steam 
 enters the superheater at the top. There are two 
 outlets, placed right and left in a steel casting 
 on which the superheater drum is seated, and 
 these outlets communicate directly with suitable 
 passages which are cored in the high-pressure 
 cylinder saddle. The connections between the 
 saddle and steam chests are effected by short el- 
 bow pipes.
 
 MALLET LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 453 
 
 (X
 
 454 £NG{NEESS ' AND FIREMEN 'S MANUAL
 
 DICKSON COMPOUND. 
 
 The Dickson Locomotive Works' compound is 
 built under the Dean patents which cover special- 
 valves both for automatic and for convertible 
 compounds, but, inasmuch as the practical infor- 
 mation is based on the mechanism for the former 
 class only, the detailed description will be con- 
 fined to the automatic compound. 
 
 The stp-rting and intercepting valves are placed 
 on top of the high-pressure steam chest on the 
 right side of the engine. Upon opening the throt- 
 tle for starting, live steam is admitted to both 
 cylinders, but, after a stroke or two, the inter- 
 cepting valve automatically opens and the engine 
 works compound thereafter. 
 
 The high-pressure exhaust port Q (Fig. 79) is in 
 the balance shield of a Richardson balanced valve 
 P, having its top removed, and thus the exhaust 
 steam from the high-pressure cylinder passes up 
 through it and the intercepting valve G to the 
 receiver and low-pressure cylinder, when the in- 
 tercepting valve G is open. Beneath the seat R, 
 intercepting valve G, is a port E^ leading to the 
 chamber E. 
 
 The receiver, as usual with cross-compounds, is 
 located in the smoke-box, but its shape is out of 
 the ordinary. It is made very large and, between 
 its connections with the high and the low- 
 pressure saddles, branches into two forks, each of 
 which is oval and has metal ribs lengthwise with 
 the pipes. Fig. 80 shows a section through this 
 
 (455)
 
 456 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 double portion of the receiver. The object of the 
 designer has been to obtain a very large heating 
 surface, so as to re-evaporate some of the water 
 
 
 
 ^.P. C^^zizc^e?^ 
 
 condensed in the high-pressure cylinder as it 
 passes with the exhaust steam through the re- 
 ceiver to the low-pressure side. From the re-
 
 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN S MANUAL. 457 
 
 ported econoni}' of these engines, it would seem 
 that the object has been largely attained. 
 
 Referring to Figs. 79 and 81, it will be seen 
 that tbe intercepting valve G is fastened to the 
 annular stem H having an enlarged top above 
 the space B which is constantly tilled with air 
 pressure or live steam from the pipe C when the 
 engine throttle is open, and hence sleeve H will 
 be found at the top of its travel, as illustrated, 
 after the engine has started. 
 
 The operation is as follows: Open the throttle 
 for starting and live steam enters the high- 
 pressure steam chest from the induction ports 1 
 
 rig. 80. 
 
 (Fig. 79) as usual and besides has a connec- 
 tion to F through the top of the steam chest, as 
 shown. There being no pressure in the receiver 
 (to which chamber E is connected through 
 the open intercepting valve G\ the weight of 
 N will have caused the converting valve L 
 to drop down, and thus the live steam passes 
 through valve L into the tube AJ. Port K ad- 
 mits steam to the enlarged top of the annular 
 stem H, forcing the intercepting valve G down on 
 its seat R and bringing the ports D in the stem H 
 opposite the ports J of the central steam tube A, 
 thus admitting live steam through them to the
 
 458 
 
 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 receiver and low-pressure steam chest. With the 
 intercepting valve G closed (down), the first 
 high-pressure exhaust, acting in chamber E 
 through the port E\ causes piston N to lift and 
 close the converting valve L (as shown in Figs. 
 79 and 81), thereby shutting off the supply of 
 steam from F to the central tube AJ. What 
 
 J^ S /. 
 
 steam remains in this tube escapes through the 
 relief port M and allows the intercepting valve G 
 to move uj) (open) by live steam pressure from 
 the pipe C acting in the annular cavity B^ as 
 hereinbefore described, assisted by the high- 
 pressure exhaust below G. The engine then 
 works compound, as live steam is shut off from
 
 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 459 
 
 the low-pressure cylinder and the exhaust from 
 the high-pressure cylinder takes its place. 
 
 The engine above described is an automatic 
 compound, that is, starts with live, steam in both 
 cylinders but after the first stroke changes auto- 
 matically to compound. 
 
 The inventor of this system, in a design not 
 shown, introduces a reducing valve in the central 
 tube A and adds a separate exhaust valve operated 
 by live steam from a three-way cock in the cab, 
 thus making a compound of the convertible class, 
 but at the same time he does not advise convert- 
 ible construction in compounds. 
 
 Accidents to Dickson Compounds. — What should 
 be done in order to run the engine in with the 
 low-pressure side only? Nothing different from 
 a simple engine, but the boiler pressure carried 
 should be reduced about one-half or else the 
 engine throttle opened very slightly. 
 
 How could the engine run with the high-press- 
 ure side only ? There being no means of exhaust 
 except into the receiver, the low-pressure valve 
 would have to be placed so as to uncover the 
 exhaust port or, if that were found to be impos- 
 sible, the valve entirely removed.
 
 RHODE ISLAND COMPOUND. 
 
 The type of compound locomotive built by the 
 Rhode Island Locomotive Works is sometimes 
 known as the "Batchellor" system, that being 
 the name of the inventor of the device. 
 
 In the saddle of the low-pressure cylinder on 
 the left side of the locomotive is located an inter- 
 cepting and a reducing valve and in the smoke- 
 box a separate high-pressure exhaust valve. 
 When the throttle is opened, the engine starts 
 with live steam in both cylinders. With the 
 separate exhaust valve closed the engine auto- 
 matically changes to compound in the course of 
 a complete revolution; with it open, the engine 
 continues, to work as a simple engine as long as 
 desired. This separate exhaust valve is operated 
 at the will of the engineer by means of a three- 
 way cock in the cab; and thus the engine belongs 
 to the class of convertible compounds. 
 
 Fig. 82 shows a vertical section lengthwise 
 through the intercepting valve, with the latter in 
 the position when the engine is either starting 
 or being run as a single-expansion locomotive. 
 Fig. 83 shows the same section with the inter- 
 cepting valve in compound position. R is the 
 receiver port; S is a. connection from the main 
 steam pipe; L is a port leading to the low-press- 
 ure steam chest, and 5 is a reducing valve. The 
 intercepting valve is composed of the fourpistons, 
 1, 2, 3 and 4, of which the last w^orks in an oil 
 dash-pot C. 
 
 so vol IS (460)
 
 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 461 
 
 If the engine had stopped after running com- 
 pound with the valve, as in Fig. 83, and the en- 
 gine throttle were then opened, live steam from 
 the pipe S would force the intercepting valve 
 into simple position as shown in Fig. 82, because 
 piston 2 is larger than piston 1. In this latter 
 position small port D is open and steam from S 
 passes through it and the reducing valve B to 
 the low-pressure side. Piston 3 has now closed the 
 communication with the receiver R in which one 
 
 or two exhausts from the high-pressure cylinder 
 soon produces sufficient pressure to react on this 
 piston 3, bearing the intercepting valve to the 
 left against the differential pressures on pistons 
 1 and 2 acting in the opposite direction, and the 
 valve is shifted to compound position, as in Fig. 
 83, in which position no more live steam can 
 pass through port D to the low-pressure side, and
 
 462 
 
 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 the receiver B is connected through port L with 
 the low-pressure steam chest, for which it forms 
 the supply thereafter, as indicated by the arrows. 
 
 The port leading from the live steam supply S 
 into the intercepting valve, is larger than it 
 appears from the illustrations, as it extends partly 
 around the circumference of the valve. 
 
 The separate exhaust valve shown in Figs. 84 
 and 85 is placed on the receiver in the smoke- 
 
 J^i^. 83. 
 
 box and, when opened by pressure through pipe 
 P leading from a three-way cock located in the 
 cab and under the control of the engineer, con- 
 nects the receiver with the main exhaust pipe. 
 The opening of this valve will thus permit the 
 high-pressure exhaust to escape and there will 
 be no accumulation of pressure in the receiver. 
 Hence, from the previous explanation, it will be 
 seen that the intercepting valve remains in sim-
 
 ENGINEERS' AND FIRE MENS MANUAL. 
 
 463 
 
 pie position (Fig. 82) until such time as the 
 engineer closes the separate exhaust valve, when 
 a stroke of the engine automatically changes the 
 mechanism to compound position, as before de- 
 scribed when starting. 
 
 The operation of the separate exhaust valve, 
 shown in Figs. 84 and 85, is very simple. Press- 
 ure admitted from the cab through pipe P, 
 moves the valve T'from its closed position (Fig. 
 85) to the right and vents the receiver pressure 
 direct to the exhaust pipe, as indicated by the 
 
 Open -BrtyinelVorKinj^/Simtiie.. ClosedSij^ine Compoanel. 
 Jih Odelslund- jSepa.rti^KExh.cLti^lVcdi;)! 
 
 arrows, Fig. 84. Withdrawing the pressure 
 from the pipe P, allows the receiver pressure to 
 automatically move and hold closed the valve T^, 
 as in Fig. 85. 
 
 Accide)its to Rhode Island Compound. — If it be- 
 came necessary to disconnect either side, how 
 should the engine be run ? Disconnect properly, 
 observing the same pi'ecautions advised for sim- 
 ple engines, then c^en the separate exhaast
 
 464 • OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTT VES. 
 
 valve so that no pressure can accumulate in the 
 receiver.* 
 
 What would 5''0u do with a broken intercept- 
 ing or reducing valve? Open the separate ex- 
 haust valve and run with very light throttle, or, 
 preferabl)% carry a reduced boiler pressure. 
 
 Would the working of the engine be affected 
 if the separate exhaust valve V were broken? 
 Probably not; but, if it left an opening between 
 the receiver and the exhaust, the engine would 
 run as a simple locomotive only. 
 
 *As remarked elsewhere in relation to designs having a sep- 
 arate exhaust valve, if it were the high-pressure side that was 
 disconnected, it would not be necessary to open the separate ex- 
 haust valve unless there was some leakage of steam into th« 
 receiver.
 
 THE FOUR CYLINDER BALANCED COMPOUND 
 LOCOMOTIVE. 
 
 In the evolution of the compound locomotive a 
 style known as the "Four-Cylinder Balanced" 
 has been successfully adopted by several of the 
 great American railways. Of this style of loco- 
 motive there are three types in use, known as the 
 "Vauclain," "Cole" and "DeGlehn," the charac- 
 teristics of which are shown in the following 
 table:* 
 
 TYPE. LOCATION OF H. P. CYL. 
 
 Vauclain — Inside in line with L. P. 
 Cole — Inside and in front of L. P. 
 DeGlehn — Outside in line with L. P. 
 
 MAIN ROD CONNECTION. 
 
 Vauclain — Outside, front driver ; inside, front axle. 
 Cole — Outside, rear driver ; inside, front axle. 
 DeGlehn — Outside, rear driver ; inside, front axle. 
 
 VALVE a'rRANGEMENT. 
 
 Vauclain^Two, piston. One for each pair of low and high 
 pressure cylinders. 
 
 Cole — Four, separate piston tandem arrangement. H. P. and 
 L. P. on same stem on each side. 
 
 DeGlehn — Four, separate slide, separate valve gear. Two re- 
 verse levers. 
 
 VALVE MOTION. 
 
 Vauclain — Stephenson ; two links. 
 
 Cole — Stephenson ; two links. 
 
 DeGlehn — Walscheat (modified) ; four links. 
 
 It will be Hoted that each of these types has 
 certain features in common with one or more of 
 the others. The comparison shown in the follow- 
 ing sketch will make the points of distinction 
 and similarity more clear. 
 
 *There is yet a fourth type of four-cylinder compound loco- 
 motive known as the "Von Borries," but it has not been adopted 
 by American railways. 
 
 (465)
 
 466 ENGINEERS' AND FTREMEN'S MANUAL. 
 
 e>inqie Citron vqiv&. 
 
 L POutsiOU 
 
 
 Cole 
 
 Tbndem Vision nair»B. 
 
 nSB 
 
 In^id^ 
 
 
 deGiehn. 
 
 ^/€i^^u^\ y\^ Separate, s/itte- i^/rem . 
 
 The " Vauclain" type has high pressure cylin- 
 ders inside and low pressure cylinders outside, 
 all in the same horizontal plane in line with the 
 smoke box, and all driving the front driving axle. 
 A single piston valve worked from a single link 
 motion effects the steam distribution for the pair 
 of cylinders on each side. The advantages 
 claimed for the "Vauclain" type are simplicity of 
 valve mechanism and location of cylinders re-
 
 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 467 
 
 quiring the least deviation from Standard Amer- 
 ican practice and balanced reciprocating parts. 
 
 The ''Cole" type has high pressure cylinders in- 
 side, in advance of the smoke box, driving the 
 front driving axle. The low pressure cylinders 
 are outside in line with the smoke box, driving 
 the rear driving axle. Two piston valves on a 
 single stem serve the steam distribution for each 
 pair of cylinders, and each valve stem is worked 
 from an ordinary link motion. The advantages 
 claimed for the ' ' Cole ' ' type are distribution of cyl- 
 inder effort between driving wheels, simplicity of 
 valve motion while providing separate valves for 
 high and low pressure cylinders, perfect balance 
 for reciprocating parts and compliance with 
 American requirements for location of cylinders 
 calling for insignificant changes in other parts of 
 the machine. 
 
 The ''De Glehn" type has high pressure cylin- 
 ders outside and behind the smoke box, driving 
 the rear drivers. The low pressure cylinders are 
 inside under the smoke box, and drive the crank 
 axle of the front drivers. Four separate slide 
 valves and four Walschaert valve gears allow of 
 independent regulation of the high and low pres- 
 sure valves. The advantages claimed for the 
 ''De Glehn" type are distribution of crank effort, 
 proper steam distribution in high and low pres- 
 sure cylinders due to separate valve mechanisms 
 and reverse levers, a perfect balance for recipro- 
 cating parts and protection against condensation 
 by inside location of low pressure cylinders. 
 
 In the balanced compound locomotive only the 
 revolving weights are considered as the recipro- 
 cating parts move to and fro, balancing each 
 other, and have no effect on the rail. The method
 
 468 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 employed by one of the largest locomotive builders 
 of the world in determining the position and 
 weight of each counterbalance is as follows.* 
 
 The revolving weights are concentrated at two 
 points on each side of the engine; that is, at the 
 centers of gravities of the outside pins and of the 
 inside crank pins. These weights are made up 
 (Fig. 86) as follows: 
 
 IM 
 
 Fig. 93 
 
 ^The Baldwin Locomotive Works.
 
 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 469 
 
 (a) Weights concentrated at each inside crank 
 
 pin, composed of two crank cheeks, inside 
 crank pin, back end of main rod. These 
 weights will be known as Wa. 
 
 (b) Weights concentrated at each outside pin, 
 
 composed of wrist pin, wrist pin hub, front 
 
 end of side rod and, if so coupled, the back 
 
 end of the main rod. These weights will 
 
 be known as Wb. 
 
 The throw of the weights W^ is balanced by 
 
 two weights, one in each wheel, throwing in the 
 
 opposite direction to the crank weights and of 
 
 such magnitude that the three parallel forces 
 
 thus produced shall balance each other, any one 
 
 being, therefore, equal and directly opposed to 
 
 the resultant of the other two. The throw of 
 
 the W'Cights Wb is balanced by a weight in the 
 
 wheel on the same side throwing in the opposite 
 
 direction, and by one in the opposite wheel 
 
 throwing in the same direction, the respective 
 
 weights being of such magnitude that the system 
 
 of parallel forces so produced shall balance each 
 
 other. 
 
 From the above it will be seen that in the left 
 wheel the counterweights which balance the 
 revolving weights of the right side are at 90 deg. 
 to those which balance the revolving weights of the 
 left side of the engine. In each wheel there will, 
 therefore, be two counterweights, one opposite 
 the inside crank and one at right angles. These 
 two weights can be combined by either graphical 
 or analytical methods. 
 
 In Fig. 87 let W^, — weights of inside criank pin. 
 Wb= weights at outside crank pin,
 
 470 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 ai and aa — distance of centers of gravities of 
 
 counterbalances from Wa. 
 bi and b^ = distance of centers of gravities of 
 
 counterbalances from Wb. 
 The weights C required in left wheel (Fig. 88) to 
 balance Wa Ci x (ai + as) = Wa aa 
 
 Wa a2 
 
 c. = 
 
 a,+a., 
 
 the weight Ca in the right wheel being 
 
 Wa a, 
 
 ai + aa 
 
 These two weights throw in the opposite direfc- 
 tion to Wa. The weight Cs required in the left 
 wheel (Fig. 89) to balance outside weights W^ 
 
 Ca \ = Wb (b, + b.) 
 Wb (b, + b,) 
 
 ^' = 1 ■ 
 
 This weight is opposite to the pin. The required 
 weight C4 in the right wheel being 
 
 C. X bj = Wb b. 
 Wbbi 
 
 b, 
 
 This weight throws in the same direction as the 
 weights Wb. 
 
 Since Wa and Wb are 180 deg. apart, the coun- 
 terweights to balance tiiem in the left wheel will 
 likewise be opposed to each other, the actual 
 weight to use will therefore be 
 K = Ca — Ci. 
 
 The weights in the left wheel which balance the 
 revolving weights on the right side both throw in 
 the same direction and at 90 deg. from the 
 
 k
 
 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMENS MANUAL. 471 
 
 weights just determined, therefore, a second 
 weight (Fig. 90) 
 Ki = C. + C. 
 
 must be placed 90 deg. from the above. 
 These weights can be combined either analyti- 
 cally or graphically, and both their magnitude 
 and direction determined by the usual method 
 of scaling two lines at right angles to each other, 
 their length being proportionate to the counter- 
 weights completing the parallelogram, the 
 diagonal of which will give both the size of the 
 resultant weight and the angle at which it should 
 be placed. 
 
 It can also be determined analytically (Fig. 91): 
 
 K 
 
 and — = tangent of the angle. 
 Ki 
 
 To this point the weights can be considered as 
 acting at a radius equal to the crank arm. The 
 weight at the rim of the wheel can be calculated 
 irrespective of the diameter of the wheel (Fig. 92). 
 
 , , 12 R a 
 Chord A B 
 
 'i 
 
 t q 
 
 R = Known weight at crank pin radius a. 
 
 t = Thickness of counterbalance. 
 
 q = Weight of cu. in. of metal. 
 
 In applying the formula the thickness should 
 be assumed. The sector balance (Fig. 93) can 
 be calculated as follows : 
 
 -V 
 
 3 R a 
 B» . 
 
 180 M 
 
 2 t q sin '■ —
 
 472 OPEEATION OF COMPOUND iLOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 B == Outside radius. 
 
 A = Inside radius. 
 
 u = Number of spokes. 
 
 M = Spaces to be HUed by balance. 
 
 Following will be found details and drawings 
 of locomotives that have been constructed and 
 put in operation of each of the three types 
 mentioned.
 
 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 473 
 VAUCLAIN FOUR-CYLINDER BALANCED COMPOUND.* 
 
 This locomotive is of the four coupled type. 
 Its construction is illustrated in drawings Fig- 
 ures 94 to 100. The tractive power is 24,000 lbs. 
 when working as a compound, and the cylinders 
 are approximately equivalent to 18.9 in. simple 
 cylinders. The weight on the drivers is 90,000 
 lbs., but with the balanced construction it is 
 claimed a much greater weight than this can be 
 placed on these wheels without injury to the 
 track than would be caused by a locomotive of 
 usual system of counterbalancing. The boiler is 
 of the wide firebox type for coal burning. The 
 mud ring is 5 in. wide at the sides, to assist cir- 
 culation. The main bearings are 11^x10 in., the 
 crank pins 10x4 in., the wheel fits 10x8| in. and 
 the crank webs 20 in. wide by 5 in. thick. 
 
 The method of balancing and the lightweights 
 employed are clearly indicated in the drawing of 
 the driving wheels, Fig. 96. A summary of the 
 revolving weights is as follows: 
 
 
 REVOLVING WEIGHTS. 
 
 
 Pin No. I. 
 
 Pin No. 2. 
 
 
 Inside. 
 
 Outside. 
 
 Pin No. 3, 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 403 
 
 423 
 
 
 588 
 
 180 
 
 153 
 
 88 
 
 214 
 
 174 
 
 
 148 
 
 148 
 
 1,079 - 965 475 
 
 This leaves 1,079, minus 965, or 114 lbs. excess 
 revolving weight on the inside of the main 
 wheel. The reciprocating weights are as follows: 
 
 I 
 
 *This engine was built by the Baldwin Locomotive Works 
 «or the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry., 1903.
 
 474 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 RECIPROCATING PARTS. 
 
 Inside. Outside. 
 
 Piston 356 463 
 
 Crosshead 310 310 
 
 Main rod on crosshead pin 149 156 
 
 Totals 815 929 
 
 This leaves 929, minus 815, or 114 lbs. of recip- 
 rocating weight in the main wheel. The 114 lbs. 
 of reciprocating weights are balanced in the main 
 wheel by 114 lbs. excess revolving' weight inside 
 the main wheel, thus requiring no counterbal- 
 ance in that wheel. The balance for 475 lbs. is 
 required in the rear wheel and this is accom- 
 plished by a weight of 208 lbs. with a radius of 
 28^ in., as indicated in the diagram. 
 
 RATIOS AND DIMENSIONS. 
 
 Heating surface to volume of high pressure cylinders, ^ 571. 
 
 Tractive weight to heating surface, := 29.7. 
 
 Tractive weight to tractive effort, '= 3.75. 
 
 Tractive effort to heating surface, = 7.92. 
 
 Heating surface to grate area, =61.3. 
 
 Tractive effort X diameter of drivers to heating surface, = 578. 
 
 Heating surface to tractive effort, = 12.6 per cent. 
 
 Total weight to heating surface, =: 61.7. 
 
 Gauge, 4 feet 8^4 inches. 
 
 Cylinder, 15 and 25x26 inches. 
 
 Valve, balance piston. 
 
 Boiler — Type, wagon top. 
 
 Diameter, 66 inches. 
 
 Thickness of sheets, 11-16 and 13-16 inch. 
 
 Working pressure, 220 pounds. 
 
 Fuel, soft coal. ' 
 
 Staying radial. 
 Firebox — Material, steel. 
 
 Length, 107 15-16 inches. 
 
 Width, 66 inches. 
 
 Depth, front, 75% inches; back, &7^^ inches. 
 
 Thickness of sheets, sides, f^ ; back, ^ ; crown, }i ; tube, 7-16 
 inch. 
 
 Water space, front, 4^ inches ; sides, 5 inches ; back, 4 inches. 
 Tubes — Material, iron, wire gauge No. 11. 
 
 Number, 273 ; diameter, 2^4 inches ; back, 4 inches. 
 Heating Surface — Firebox, 190 square feet. 
 
 Tubes, 2,839 square feet. 
 
 Total, 3,029 square feet. 
 
 Grate area, 49.4 square feet.
 
 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL 47b 
 
 Driving Wheels — Diameter outside, 7Z inches. 
 
 Diameter of center, 66 inches. 
 
 Journals, main. loxii inches; others, 9x12 inches. 
 Engine Truck Wheels — Diameter, 34% inches. 
 
 Journals. 6x10 inches. 
 Trailing Wheels — Diameter, 44 inches. 
 
 Journals, 8x12 inches. 
 Wheel Base — Driving, 6 feet 4 inches. 
 
 Rigid, 15 feet. , 
 
 Total engine, 29 feet 6 inches. 
 
 Total engine and tender, 58 feet 35^ inches. 
 Weight — On driving wheels, 90,000 pounds. 
 
 On truck, front, 52,000 pounds. 
 
 On trailing wheels, estimate, 45,000 pounds. 
 
 Total engine, 187.000 pounds. 
 
 Total engine and tender, about 327,000 pounds. 
 Tank capacity, 8,400 gallons. 
 Tender — Wheels, No. 8: diameter, 34^ inches. 
 
 Journals, 5^x10 inches.
 
 47P OPERATION OF COMPOUND L0C0M0TIVE8.
 
 rmiNEERS^ AND FIRBMENS MANUAL. 
 
 477
 
 478 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES, 
 
 r^f-i r-^'i 
 
 No. 3 Main. No.4 Back 
 
 Fig. 96— MAIN ANO REAR DRIVING W M E e I. S
 
 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 479 
 
 1^' S' 
 
 V 
 i 
 i 
 
 — >( i 
 
 Piu '^4 Pian4' 
 
 Fig. 9 7 —CO UN TERSAUANCINO 
 
 12 ThreaetM 
 
 Tl 
 
 r/mz 
 
 ■^ 
 
 1 -/i-- 1 
 
 style No. I. Fig. ss Style No. 2. 
 
 •ROWS OTHER CENTER ROWS 
 
 THAN CENTER 
 
 CROWN STAVS
 
 4 so OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTl VE8. 
 
 Fig. 99— FIREBOX. SHOWING S-IN MUD RINS
 
 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 481
 
 4S2 OPEIiJLTION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 Another example of the Vauclain 4-Cylinder 
 Balanced Compound is given in the following 
 drawings (Figs. 101 to 105) and tables.* 
 
 This locomotive embodies the principles of the 
 former designs but is especially arranged, in the 
 matter of detail, to meet the conditions of the 
 road for which it was built. The following indi- 
 cate some of the leading differences between the 
 two designs: 
 
 Burlington. Santa Fe. 
 
 Diameter of driving wheels 78 ins. ' 73 ins. 
 
 Weight on drivers 100,000 lbs. 90,000 lbs. 
 
 Total weight 192,000 lbs. 187.000 lbs. 
 
 Total heating surface. . 3,216.9 sq. ft. 3,029 sq. ft. 
 
 Grate area 44.14 sq. ft. 49.4 sq. ft. 
 
 Largest diameter of boi'er 64 ins. 66 ins. 
 
 Length of tube 19 ft. 18 ft. i in. 
 
 With the same size cylinders, 15 and 25x26 in, 
 in both engines, the tractive effort of the one is 
 less than that of the other, the tractive effort of 
 the formerf being 21,400 lbs., whereas that of the 
 latter:|: is 24,000 lbs., in compound working for 
 both cases. In the design of the locomotive now 
 being described, advantage is taken of the bal- 
 ancing of the reciprocating parts in order to in- 
 crease the weight on driving wheels, which, in 
 this case, is made 100,000 lbs. This engine has 
 outside journals for the trailing w^hee The 
 crank axles are forged, and 4| in. pins are forced 
 in through the crank pin portions. The crank 
 cheeks are banded by tire steel hoops, finished 
 all over, then heated, bent to shape and shrunk 
 on. The following are the ratios and dimensions 
 of the engine: 
 
 *Built by the Baldwin Locomotive Works for the Chicago, 
 Burlington & Quincy, 1904. 
 tXhe A. T. & S. F. engine. 
 :The C. B. & Q. engine.
 
 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMENS MANUAL. 483 
 
 RATIOS AND DIMENSIONS. 
 
 Heating surface to volume of high-pressure cylinders, 606.9. 
 
 Tractive weight to heating surface, 31.08. 
 
 Tractive weight to tractive eflfort, 4.67. 
 
 Tractive effort to heating surface, 6.65. 
 
 Heating surface to grate area. 72.88. 
 
 Heating surface to tractive effort, 15.03 per cent. 
 
 Total weight to heating surface, 59.68. 
 
 Tractive effort X diameter of drivers to heating surface, 518.8, 
 
 Gauge, 4 feet 8^ inches. 
 
 Cylinders, 15 inches and 25 inches x 26 inches. 
 
 Valves, balanced piston. 
 
 Boiler — Type, wagon top. Diameter, 64 inches. 
 
 Thickness of sheets, 11-16 inch and % inch. 
 
 Working pressure, 210 pounds. 
 
 Fuel, soft coal. 
 
 Staying, radial. 
 Firebox — Material, steel. 
 
 Length, 96^ inches. 
 
 Width, 66%: inches. 
 
 Depth, front, 70^ inches ; back, 68^ inches. 
 
 Thickness of sheets, sides, V^ inch; back, 5^ inch; crown, ^ 
 inch ; tube, Y^ inch. 
 
 Water space, front, 4 inches ; sides, 4 inches ; back, 3 inches. 
 Tubes — Material, iron. 
 
 Wire gauge, No. 11. 
 
 Number, 274. 
 
 Diameter, 2%= inches. 
 
 Length, 19 feet. 
 Heating Surface — Firebox, 166.4 square feet. 
 
 Tubes, 3,050.5 square feet. Total, 3,216.9 square feet. 
 Grate area, 44.14 square feet. 
 Driving Wheels — Diameter outside, 78 inches. 
 
 Diameter of center, 70 inches. 
 
 Journals, front, 10XI0V2 inches; back, 9^x12 inches. 
 Engine Truck Wheels (Front)— Diameter, ^^ inches. 
 
 Journals, 6x10 inches. 
 Trailing Wheels — Diameter, 48 inches. 
 
 Journals, 8x12 inches. 
 Wheel Base — Driving, 7 feet 3 inches. , 
 
 Rigid, 15 feet 6 inches. Total engine, 30 feet, 2 inches. 
 Weight — On driving wheels, 100,000 pounds. 
 
 On truck front, 50,000 pounds. 
 
 On trailing wheels, 42,000 pounds. 
 
 Total engine, 192,000 pounds. 
 
 Total engine and tender, 312,000 pounds. 
 Tank — Capacity, 6,000 gallons. 
 Tender— Wheels, number 8, diameter 37^ inches. 
 
 Journals, 5x9 inches. 
 Service. Dasseiurer.
 
 484 OPERATIOy OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES.
 
 BNGINEER8' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL, 485
 
 4S6 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES, 
 
 Fig. 103 — LOW PRESSURE PISTON 
 
 u 
 
 » • 
 
 4L 
 
 -(•Si"-- — 
 
 v/My^m 
 
 T- 
 
 
 MX'- — T — — ««^- 
 
 3 
 
 -i-±Ul 
 
 ij 
 
 Fig. 104— HIGH ppessune piston
 
 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL 487
 
 4R8 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 
 COLE FOUR-CYLINDER BALANCED COMPOUND.* 
 
 In this locomotive, illustrated in drawings Fig- 
 ures 106 to 1 11, the low pressure cylinders are lo- 
 cated in the position common to simple engines, 
 being outside of the frames and attached by a 
 saddle casting to the smoke arch. The high 
 pressure cylinders are situated forward of the 
 saddle casting and between the frames which are 
 extended to such length as to support them. The 
 pistons of the high pressure cylinders are con- 
 nected to the forward axle, which is suitably 
 cranked to accommodate such connections be- 
 tween the frames. The low pressure cylinders 
 are connected to the rear pair of drivers. By this 
 arrangement of cylinders long connecting rods 
 are possible both inside and outside of the frames. 
 
 The cranks on each axle are at 90 degrees to 
 each other and so disposed that the outside crank 
 is at 180 degrees with its adjacent inside crank. 
 The valves are of the piston type and the valves 
 of both the high pressure and low pressure cylin- 
 ders on one side are connected to the same valve 
 stem and operate within a continuous valve chest 
 which acts as a receiver between the high pres- 
 sure and low pressure cylinders very much as in 
 the design of Schenectady tandem compound. The 
 valves are operated by the usual Stevenson link 
 motion so that no complications are introduced 
 in this particular. The high pressure cylinders 
 are 15| inches in diameter by 26-inch stroke and 
 the low pressure cylinders are 26 inches in diam- 
 eter by the same length of stroke. The engine 
 operates under 220 lbs. of steam and the outside 
 diameter of drivers is 79 in. Applying these fig- 
 
 ♦Desif ned by F. J. Cole, mechanical engineer for the Sche- 
 nectady Locomotive Works for the New York Central & Hudson 
 River Railroad, 1904.
 
 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S -MANUAL. 489 
 
 ures to the usual formula for four-cylinder com' 
 pound locomotives proves that this engine is 
 capable of a tractive power of 23,800 lbs. 
 
 This engine has been tested in high speed pass- 
 enger service, hauling a train of 13 cars, and its 
 performance was satisfactory. The general plan 
 shows that the designer has been able to success- 
 fully adapt an entirely new arrangement of en- 
 gines to the usual construction of an American 
 Atlantic type. The crosshead and guide for the 
 high pressure cylinders are located under the 
 saddle of the low pressure cylinder, and it has 
 taken considerable ingenuity to work out the 
 detail. It appears to be a difficult place to get 
 at for repairs and lubrication, but not more so 
 than the valves of the inside connected English 
 engines, and when crank axles and inside cylin- 
 ders are used the method of repairing must be 
 adaptable thereto. 
 
 The principal dimensions are as follows : 
 
 Weight in working order, 200,000 pounds. 
 
 Weight on drivers, 110,000 pounds. 
 
 Weight, engine and tender, in working order, 321,600 pounds. 
 
 Wheel Base — Driving, 7 feet. 
 
 Rigid, 16 feet 6 inches. 
 
 Total, 27 feet 9 inches. 
 
 Total, engine and tender, 53 feet 8 inches. 
 
 CYLINDERS. 
 
 Diameter of cylinders, 15^^ and 26 inches. 
 Stroke of piston, 26 inches. 
 Diameter of piston rod, 3 inches. 
 
 VALVES. 
 
 Kind of slide valves, piston type. 
 
 Greatest travel of slide valves, 6 inches. 
 
 Outside lap of slide valves, i inch. 
 
 Inside clearance of slide valves, high pressure, V4 inch ; low pres- 
 sure, 3^ inch. 
 
 Lead of valves in full gear, ]/4 inch lead forward motion when 
 cutting off at 1 1 inches of the stroke. 
 
 WHEELS. ETC 
 
 Diameter of driving wheels, outside tire, 79 inches. 
 Material of driving wheels, centers, cast steel.
 
 490 or E RAT ION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 Tire held by shrinkage and retaining rings. 
 
 Driving box material, cast steel. 
 
 Driving journals, lo inches diameter by 12 inches. 
 
 Main crank-pin journals, side, 6^ inches by 4 inches; back, 6 
 
 inches diameter by 6 inches. 
 Side rod crank-pin journals, front, 5 inches diameter by 2% 
 
 inches. 
 Engine truck journals, 6Y2 inches diameter by 12 inches. 
 Diameter of engine truck wheels, 36 inches. 
 
 BOILER. 
 
 Style, straight top, radial stay. 
 
 Outside diameter of first ring, 72J4 inches. 
 
 Working pressure, 220 pounds. 
 
 Material of barrel and outside of fireboJc, steel (Worth Bros.). 
 
 Thickness of plates in barrel and outside of firebox, 13-16 inch, 
 
 9-16 inch, -% inch. 
 Firebox — Length, 9<5'4 inches. ' 
 
 Width, 751.4 inches. 
 
 Depth, front. 80^ inches ; back, 69 inches. 
 
 Material, carbon steel. 
 
 Plates, thickness, fs inch ; tube sheet, ^ inch. 
 
 Water space, front, 4 inches and 5 inches : sides, 3>^ inches 
 and 5^ inches; back, 35/^ and 4K' inches. 
 
 Stay bolts, Taylor iron, i inch diameter. 
 Tubes — Material and gauge, Worth, charcoal iron. No. II, 
 B. W. G. 
 
 Number, 390 2-inch. 
 
 Length over tube sheets. 16 feet. 
 Firebrick, supported on water tubes. 
 Heating Surface — Tubes, 3,248.1 square feet. 
 
 Water tubes, 2^, square feet. 
 
 Firebox, 175 square feet. 
 
 Total, 3.446.1 square feet. 
 Grate surface, 50.3 square feet. 
 
 Exhaust nozzles, minimum, s-)-;^ inches maximum, 5% inches. 
 Smokestack — Inside diameter, 18 inches. 
 
 Top above rail, 14 feet 8 inches. 
 Boiler supplied by N. & Co. Monitor No. 11 injector. 
 
 TENDER. 
 
 Weight, empty, 51,600 pounds. 
 
 Wheels, diameter, 36 inches. 
 
 Journals, diameter and length, 5I/2 inches diameter by 10 inches. 
 
 Wheel base, 16 feet g^A inches. 
 
 Tender frame, lo-inch channels. 
 
 Central bearings. Fox pressed steel frames and bolsters. 
 
 Water capacity, 6,000 U. S. gallons. 
 
 Coal capacity, 10 tons. 
 
 Brake, Wes'tinghouse-American on all drivers and trailers, on 
 tender and for train. Corrington consolidated and en- 
 gineers' valve and parts.
 
 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL 491
 
 492 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVBS.
 
 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 49? 
 
 m 
 
 VI 
 
 ^""S: 
 
 fF 
 
 ■i
 
 494 OPERATION OF COM FOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 Fig. 110— HIGH PRESSURE CVLINOERS
 
 ENGINEERS' AND FIREMEN'S MANUAL. 495
 
 496 OPERATION OF COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 
 DE GLEHN FOUB-OYLINDER BALANCED COMPOUND.* 
 
 This engine weighs about 160,000 pounds, with 
 about 83,000 pounds on the driving wheels. Its 
 maximum tractive effort is about 19,800 pounds 
 running compound. Its grate area is 33.9 square 
 feet. In France locomotives of the same type 
 and but little lighter than the imported locomo- 
 tive referred to have records of handling trains 
 of from 200 to 300 tons at sustained speeds of 60 
 to 70 miles an hour for distances considerably in 
 excess of 100 miles. 
 
 ♦Built in France for the Pennsylvania Railroad, 1904.
 
 HEIB 
 
 mine 
 ough 
 ying 
 estlv 
 that 
 case 
 ight, 
 nda- 
 )€cts 
 
 ' the 
 •n is 
 » the 
 p:es- 
 ) as- 
 
 and 
 sible 
 Tom 
 
 has 
 
 nical 
 erein 
 iring 
 m to 
 rvice 
 jject, 
 St to
 
 PLATE L 
 
 DEaORIPTION OF THE LOCOMOTIVE, A9 PKR DIAGRAM HEREWITH. 
 
 Headllgbl Reflector. 
 HeadHelil Burner. 
 
 NetllnK. 
 
 Deflector Piute Adjuxter. 
 AtrPunipExbauatl>lpe. 
 
 NoEilo Tip. 
 To?NlKK6r'Uea.J. 
 
 Bridget 
 
 
 Btt. C^UUer Laggli* 
 
 m. BoUet Lattglug. 
 
 THE AMERICAN STEAM LOCOMOTIVE.— Prepared exclusively for Kirkman's "Science of Kailways.' 
 
 uomuUve;iQai;lviagtIio uiimes by wUcb tlie]r are luiown to ibo^e coniieL-U.-i] with tho Mutlve Power Depiirtmuul Iiltt at oncoaCluLrtaail an Eaosclopiudiu, ottaa purt
 
 CHAPTER Xn. 
 
 PROGBESSIVE EXAMINATIONS FOR FIREMEN — THEIR 
 
 UTILITY QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 
 
 IN DETAIL. 
 
 On all railroads it is the practice to examine 
 applicants for employment as firemen although 
 thf scope of such examination differs in varying 
 decree. Some sort of examination manifestly 
 must be made. For instance it is essential that 
 the person seeking service should in every case 
 have certain physical qualifications as to eyesight, 
 hearing and bodily condition, these being funda- 
 mental ; that he is duly qualified in these respects 
 is ascertainable only by examination. 
 
 With the perfecting of the organization of the 
 railway service, the scope of the examination is 
 constantly being enlarged until it has become the 
 general custom to examine the fireman progres- 
 sively, that is from year to year in order to as- 
 certain that he is mastering his profession and 
 becoming duly qualified for the more responsible 
 and onerous duties of engineer. But aside from 
 this the progressive form of examination has 
 many advantages.* 
 
 ♦Even if a railroad company does not enforce technical 
 examinations such as are referred to, still their study as herein 
 set forth will materially aid firemen and others in acquiring 
 the knowledge they must possess in order to qualify them to 
 run an engine, and will moreover fit them to take service 
 on lines where such examinations are In vogue. The subject, 
 therefore, no matter how it presents itself, is of interest to 
 all firemen. 
 
 (497)
 
 498 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 The young man when first employed as a fire- 
 man has his attention called to a number of facts 
 concerning the ojjeration of locomotives that he 
 must be thoroughly co'uversant with if he is to be 
 successful as a fireman, Fo' this reason the study 
 of the question list during the year preceding 
 his first examination will keep liim thinking ai^d 
 studying about these and other facts, that will in- 
 duce habits of investigation in order to solve the 
 problems he will encounter in his work. This 
 training of the mind followed up by the successive 
 examinations he knows he must encounter will 
 tend to his development and to the mastery of his 
 "profession in all its ramifications so that when 
 he takes charge of an engine he is fully equipped 
 mentally and physically to control the machiLe of 
 which he has been placed in charge and of which 
 he is expected to be the master. 
 
 It is the practice upon some roads when a 
 young man is first employed as a fireman to send 
 him out for a number of trips on an engine as a 
 student under the instructions of an experienced 
 fireman so that he may become acquainted with 
 hand, lamp and whistle signals and be sufficiently 
 familiarized with the scoop to be able to keep up 
 stea.n under ordinary conditions. AVhen he has 
 attained this knowledge and is recommended by 
 the engineer under whose charge he has been at 
 work he is then examined as to his understanding 
 of the signals, etc., and if found jiroficient is duly 
 enrolled as a fireman. Some roads place the ap- 
 plicant on an engine on probation for a definite 
 period, say six months, with the understanding 
 that continued employment will depend upon his 
 conduct and work. If he does not give satisfac-
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 499 
 
 tion he is dropped from the service but if satis- 
 factory his employment dates from tJae beginning 
 of his service. 
 
 At the end of a year's service or as soon there- 
 after as possible, the young fireman undergoes an 
 examination on the lines of the questions, herein- 
 after set forth, known as the "First Series of 
 Questions." The examination is both written and 
 oral. If his answers are correct, or a certain per- 
 centage thereof, he is passed; if he fails in the 
 examination, he is usually afforded another trial 
 with the same series of questions not less than 
 two months and not more than six months from 
 the date of the examination. 
 
 When the fireman has passed the "first series" 
 of questions he is supplied with the "second se- 
 ries" and examined thereon at the end of the 
 second year; after passing this second examina- 
 tion he is supplied with the "third series" and if 
 he passes will be qualified for promotion. 
 
 The underlying reason for the pains railroad 
 companies take to foster the efficiency of firemen 
 lies in the fact tliat they are thus building up a 
 corps of competent locomotive engineers. From 
 this point of view it is necessary that the firemen 
 should possess certain fundamental qualifications 
 such as an education of at least a common school 
 grade, good habits and a good physique. Having 
 these attainments to start with advancement will 
 come to those who are conscientious in discharg- 
 ing their duties and who devote some of their 
 leisure hours to study. As an aid to this and in 
 order that the highest efficiency may be attained 
 by the locomotive fireman the questions pro- 
 pounded herein are placed in his hands. The
 
 500 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 preparation necessary to correctly answer these 
 questions will require not only study but an in- 
 telligent understanding of the many acts that 
 make up his daily work, which together will event- 
 ually fit him for the responsible duties of an en- 
 gineer. 
 
 It will not, it is needless to say, be sufficient to 
 memorize the answers to questions given herein. 
 They are given simply as a help and guide. Those 
 who conduct the examinations will ask questions 
 in different forms to determine how well the per- 
 son being examined understands the subject, so 
 that it is necessary that the full meaning of eacli 
 answer be understood. 
 
 The intelligent and conscientious fireman will 
 make use of ever^' avenue by which knowledge 
 can be gained. If there is a school of instruction 
 provided by the company he will avail himself of 
 its advantages, and he is always expected to seek 
 his master mechanic, general foreman, road fore- 
 man, traveling engineer, air brake inspector, or 
 any otlier comi:)etent official, for such information 
 as he may require relating to his duties. All this 
 must be further supplemented by close and intel- 
 ligent obsei'v'ation of the working of the locomo- 
 tive itself by careful inspection of every break- 
 down or disabled engine that comes to his notice 
 to observe where and what parts have given way 
 and to note in what manner the blocking, etc., is 
 done. 
 
 The questions that follow are arranged gener- 
 ally in the order prescribed by The Traveling 
 Engineers' Association, supplemented by others 
 which seemed necessary to a fuller elucidation 
 of the subject. All the questions are specific and
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 501 
 
 such as are suggested by the practical experience 
 of those versed in such matters. 
 
 It will always happen that conditions on differ- 
 ent railroads vary as for instance Compound En- 
 gines are not in service on all roads, oil burning 
 locomotives are restricted to those properties 
 where that fuel can be economically used, electric 
 head lights have not been universally adopted, 
 and so on. For this reason the questions and 
 answers on these subjects are given under separ- 
 ate headings but are available in case of need. 
 The author has not sought here, any more than 
 elsewhere, to be original, but rather helpful; to 
 supplement his limited knowledge whenever pos- 
 sible by the wider knowledge and experience of 
 others. The particular form that an examination 
 shall take is not material, if it is effective. 
 
 In reference to the answers given to the various 
 questions, it is not expected, as already intimated, 
 that students will restrict themselves either to the 
 scope or verbiage. The answers given, while cor- 
 rect and such as to throw a clear light on the 
 subject are not necessarily exhaustive. It is ex- 
 pected of firemen, as it is of every man connected 
 with railroads, be he high or low, that he will 
 not be satisfied with what he knows, but will strive 
 to keep on acquiring knowledge. It is not sought 
 here to forestall personal research, but to add to 
 the desire to acquire it by careful study and 
 thought. 
 
 The fireman who passes an examination is ex- 
 pected to answer the questions correctly or at 
 least a large percentage of them (generally eighty 
 per cent). The information given will help him 
 wonderfully in framing his own answers on ex-
 
 502 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 aminatioD, but will be of still greater value in 
 leading him to give each subject exhaustive 
 thought ou his own account. 
 
 The three series of questions and ans . ers con- 
 stituting the examinations are generally familiar to 
 engineers. Nevertheless in their respect and 
 grouping they present new features that will prove 
 valuable, interesting and instructive even to them. 
 It is the general rule of companies enforcing 
 technical examinations who employ engineers hav- 
 ing previous experience to require such men to 
 pass the same examination as promoted men. So 
 that the exposition of a locomotive engineer's 
 knowledge as set forth in these questions and an- 
 swers will appeal to the engineer who has been 
 long in the service equally with the novice just 
 entering it, for if he is to maintain his place in 
 the front rank of his profession and be competent 
 to take service at any jjlace, he must be familiar 
 with present day needs and methods and the ex- 
 acting requirements in regard to the best and 
 most scientific methods prevailing in the operation 
 of locomotives.* 
 
 With these explanatory remarks the several ex- 
 aminations will be given in their order denominat- 
 ed as ''Series"; thus the First Series relates to 
 the first year's examination, the Second Series to 
 the Second year's and the Third Series to the 
 third year's. 
 
 *I am indebted for the very full and complete answers to 
 the questions hereinafter set forth, to Mr. E. W. Pratt, 
 mechanical engineer, whose long experience in such matters 
 peculiarly qualifies him as an authority.
 
 EX AM IX A TIONS. 503 
 
 FIRST SERIES OF QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 
 
 Q. 1. What do you oonsider essential for your success in 
 regard to the use of fuel and supplies? 
 
 A. 1. I deem it essential to my success to be as economical 
 in the use of fuel and supplies as is consistent with the work 
 to be performed, working harmoniously with any engineer, 
 displaying a willingness to learn the best methods and cheer- 
 fully apply them to my work. Good judgment is most essential 
 to success in railroad work where conditions are seldom twice 
 alike. 
 
 Q. 2. What are the fireman's duties on arrival at engine- 
 house previous to going out on a locomotive? 
 
 A. 2. To examine the bulletin board; to register time of 
 arrival; to examine flues and fire box and to make sure that 
 boiler is not leaking, and that grates and ash pan are in good 
 condition; to know that water glass and lubricator guards are 
 in place; before building up fire to check water level in glass 
 by trying gauge cocks, then to put fire in proper shape; to see 
 that the required supply of water, fuel, oil, waste, sand, and 
 firing tools are provided, and that the required signal appliances 
 on the engine are in good order; and to assist the engineer in 
 his work as is customary. 
 
 Q. 3. What pressure is indicated by the steam gauge? 
 What is meant by atmospheric pressure? 
 
 A. 3. The internal pressure of the boiler in pounds per 
 square inch. The weight or pressure of the atmosphere (or 
 air) whicli surrounds the earth — 14.7 pounds per square inch 
 at sea level. 
 
 Q. 4. On what principle does a steam gauge work? 
 
 A. 4. There are two types of steam gauges. One is actuated 
 by the tendency of a bent flat tube to straighten itself under 
 the pressure of water inside in proportion to such pressure, a 
 lever mechanism transmitting the free movements of the tube 
 to the gauge pointer. The other type is operated by a double 
 diaphragm of corrugated plates, which, under the water pres- 
 sure inside, are forced outward in proportion to such pressure, 
 suitable attachments transmitting the movement of diaphragm 
 to the gauge pointer. 
 ■ Q. 5 What is the source of power in a steam locomotive? 
 
 A. 5. Steam, which is generated by heat. Steam is the 
 vapor of water generated by heating water above the boiling 
 point, which is then used in the cylinders to force the pistons 
 back and forth. 
 
 Q. 6. About what quantity of water should be evaporated 
 in a locomotive boiler to the pound of coal?
 
 504 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 A. 6. From five to seven pounds. One gallon of water 
 weighs eight and one-third pounds; one hundred pounds of 
 coal should, therefore, evaporate from sixty to eighty-four gal- 
 lons of water. 
 
 Q. 7. What is steam and how is it generated? 
 
 A. 7. Steam is the vapor of water and is generated by heat- 
 ing water above the boiling point. 
 
 Q. 8. What Is the purpose of the water gauge glass and 
 gauge cocks? 
 
 A. 8. To indicate the level of water in the boiler. 
 
 Q. 9. What would indicate to you that the boiler connec- 
 tions of water gauge glasses were becoming clogged? 
 
 A. 9. The up and down movement of the water in the 
 glass would become slow and inactive, or it would not register 
 correspondingly with the gauge cocks. 
 
 Q. 10. At what temperature does water boil? 
 
 A. 10. Under atmospheric pressure at sea level, which is 
 14.7 pounds, water boils at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. The tem- 
 perature, however, increases as the pressure under which the 
 water is boiled increases. At 200 pounds pressure the boiling 
 point Is 388 degrees Fahrenheit. 
 
 Q. 11. What is carbon? 
 
 A. 11. Carbon is an element of nature and forms the prin- 
 cipal part of all kinds of fuel. 
 
 Q. 12. What is the composition of bituminous coal? 
 
 A. 12. Bituminous coal of a good quality contains about 62% 
 of fixed carbon, about 30% of hydro-carbon (volatile matter), 
 about 7% of ash and 1% of sulphur. Anthracite, however. Is 
 nearly pure carbon and burns with a small flame. 
 
 Q. 13. What Is combustion? 
 
 A. 13. Combustion Is the uniting of any combustible ma- 
 terial with oxygen, and when this material is coal, It Is the 
 chemical union of the carbon and volatile gases of the coal 
 with the oxygen of the air. 
 
 Q. 14. Is air necessary for combustion? 
 
 A. 14. Yes, because one of the elements (oxygen) necessary 
 for combustion Is obtained from the air. 
 
 Q. 15. About how many cubic feet of air is necessary for 
 the combustion of a pound of coal In a locomotive fire-box? 
 
 A. 15. For perfect combustion sufficient air must be had 
 to form carbonic acid gas (CO^), which would be about 300 
 cubic feet to a pound of coal. 
 
 Q. 16. Why must air be heated before combining with coal? 
 
 A. 16. The air must be heated to a temperature high enough 
 to produce combustion, which temperature Is about 1800 degrees 
 Fahrenheit, In order not to reduce the temperature of the fire- 
 box below the Igniting point of the gases.
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 505 
 
 Q. 17. Why is it necessary to provide for combustion a 
 supply of air through the fuel in the furnace? 
 
 A. 17. It is necessary to provide a supply of air for com- 
 bustion in order to furnish the oxygen essential for combustion. 
 
 Q. 18. What is the effect upon combustion if too little air 
 is supplied? If too much air is supplied? 
 
 A. 18. If too little air is supplied, combustion is incomplete, 
 giving off carbon mon-oxide (CO). If too much air is supplied 
 combustion is complete. The excess air must be heated, how- 
 ever, which will result in a lower temperature. The tempera- 
 ture of the fire-box will be about one-half as high if twice the 
 amount of air required be supplied. 
 
 Q. 19. Give a practical definition of the igniting tempera- 
 ture. 
 
 A. 19. In all ordinary combustion there is a certain tem- 
 perature known as the ignition or kindling temperature, and 
 combustible substance must be heated to this temperature in 
 order to unite with the gas in supporting tne combustion. The 
 burning substance must not only be heated up to the kindling 
 temperature, but kept as high, otherwise combustion will cease. 
 
 Q. 20. State why such temperature is necessary and at 
 what place in the fire-box it is most required? 
 
 A. 20. The hottest part of the fire-box is the center. The 
 temperature at the side and end sheets is much lower, owing 
 to the water on the opposite sides of the sheets being of a lower 
 temperature than the fire-box. Therefore, by obtaining as high 
 a temperature as is possible at the side and end sheets, the 
 steam making efficiency of the boiler will be increased. The 
 gases, which are liberated from the coal, as soon as it becomes 
 heated, must attain a temperature high enough to produce com- 
 bustion, which temperature is about 1800 degrees Fahrenheit, 
 before they will unite with the air, which must also be heated 
 up to that point. 
 
 Q. 21. How is draft created through the fire? 
 
 A. 21. The draft through the fire is created by the action 
 of the exhaust steam from the cylinders passing through the 
 nozzle in the front end and up through the stack. This exhaust 
 through the stack acts like a piston in driving, the air and gases 
 out and leaving a partial vacuum in the front end. In an 
 effort to fill this vacuum the air from the ash pan passes 
 through the grates, fire and flues. 
 
 Q. 22. Is smokeless firing practicable? 
 
 A. 22. Yes, by careful and systematic firing, by arch brick 
 and by some types of "smoke burners," and by the intelligent 
 co-operation of both the engineer and the fireman. 
 
 Q. 23. In what condition should the fire be in order that
 
 506 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 the best results may be obtained from the combustion of the 
 coal? 
 
 A. 23. The fire should be as light as the work being done 
 by the engine will permit, evenly distributed over the grates, 
 bright and free from clinkers. 
 
 Q. 24. How should the blower be used? 
 
 A. 24. The blower should be used very lightly and care- 
 fully so as not to draw too much air into fire-box and through 
 flues, especially when fire is being drawn, cleaned, or is thin on 
 grates. 
 
 Q. 25. What is the result of opening the fire-door when the 
 engine is working steam? 
 
 A. 25. Too much opening of the door causes the chilling 
 of the flues and the fire-box sheets, producing leakage and 
 cracks. 
 
 Q. 26. What is the effect of putting too many scoops of coal 
 on a bright fire? Is this a waste of fuel? 
 
 A. 26. Adding too much coal to a fire at one time reduces 
 the temperature in the fire-box below the burning point, with 
 the result that combustion is stopped until this fresh fuel has 
 been heated up to the burning point. During this time, how- 
 ever, there has been heat enough in the fire-box to drive off the 
 gases of the coal and the draft has pulled these out through the 
 stack unburned, thereby causing the engine to fall back in 
 steam and also causing the waste of these unburned gases that 
 pass through the stack, which is a waste of fuel. 
 
 Q. 27. What effect has the fire upon a scoopful of coal when 
 it is placed in the fire-box? 
 
 A. 27. The heat drives off the gases from the coal, leaving 
 the fixed carbon or coke behind on the grates. With a proper 
 fire-box temperature, the gases burn with a long colorless flame, 
 otherwise, they pass off unburned, or only partially burned, and 
 form black smoke. The coke, which is left on the grates, burns 
 where it is. 
 
 Q. 28. In what condition should the fire be to consume these 
 gases? 
 
 A. 28. The temperature must be high enough to produce a 
 bright white coke fire, and the fire light enough to admit suffi- 
 cient air to mix with and burn the gases. 
 
 Q. 29. What is the temperature of the fire when in this 
 condition? 
 
 A. 29. It must be above 1800 degrees Fahrenheit, and the 
 temperature can be judged by the appearance of the fire, a 
 bright red fire being just about at a temperature of 1800 degrees. 
 Only 750 to 900 degrees Fahrenheit is necessary to burn the 
 coke which remains on the grate. Coke burns from the outside, 
 therefore, less heat is required to consume it.
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 507 
 
 • 
 
 Q. 30. How can the fire be maintained in this condition? 
 
 A. 30. By light and careful firing, adding coal no faster 
 than it is burned. ^ 
 
 Q. 31. What is black smoke? Is it combustible? 
 
 A. 31. Black smoke consists of small particles of carbon 
 suspended in the gases of combustion, and indicates incomplete 
 combustion. Black smoke is not combustible; it is like lamp 
 black and cannot be burned after having been produced. The 
 production of it can be prevented by suitable arrangements and 
 proper methods of firing. 
 
 Q. 32. Should the gas not burn in the fire-box, will it burn 
 after it enters the flues? Why? 
 
 A. 32. Gas burns only a short distance in the flues of a 
 boiler; the water absorbs the heat so quickly that the tempera- 
 ture of gas is lowered below the igniting point. 
 
 Q. 33. What is the effect on the flow of air through the fire 
 from opening the door? What on the burning of the gases? 
 What on the flues and sheets of the fire-box? 
 
 A. 33. When the furnace door is opened, the flow of air 
 through the grate is stopped in proportion to the amount of 
 air which passes through the door. The vacuum will be filled 
 from the quickest source and the door is closer than some parts 
 of the grate. The gases, mixing with the air, pass out through 
 the flues, and no combustion takes place, the air not being 
 hot enough to unite with the gas. Too much opening of the 
 door causes the chilling and contraction of the flues and 
 fire-box sheets, producing leakage and cracks. 
 
 Q. 34. Can firing be done more effectively if the water level 
 is observed closely? 
 
 A. 34. Proper firing can only be accomplished by watching 
 the way the engine is being handled and pumped. If the water 
 level is high approaching a station or the summit of a grade, 
 the fire can be burned low before shutting off, so as to prevent 
 the engine popping, whereas, if the water level is low a bright 
 fire must be kept up while the boiler is being filled. There 
 are many other similar examples to prove that the water level 
 should be closely watched at all times. Many engineers let 
 the fireman pump the engine so that he can regulate the fire 
 to correspond with the amount of water in the boiler. 
 
 Q. 35. How should the fire and water be handled in start- 
 ing from a terminal or other station? 
 
 A. 35. Steam pressure should be near the maximum and 
 sufficient water should be in the boiler to last until the fire 
 is burning well so that the pressure will not be reduced when 
 water is put into the boiler. There should be a moderately 
 heavy bed of fire, well burned and evenly distributed over the 
 grates. After the fire is burning well, the injector should be
 
 508 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 started lightly, increasing the feed gradually so as not to cause 
 any decrease of steam pressure. 
 
 Q. 36. What is the purpose of a safety valve on a locomotive 
 boiler? Why is more than one used? 
 
 A. 36. A locomotive boiler is built to withstand a certain 
 amount of pressure. In order to insure safety, every boiler is 
 provided with a safety valve of sufficient size to relieve the 
 boiler of any overpressure, which may be generated in it. 
 More than one safety valve are used as additional protection 
 against excessive pressure; one being set at the maximum pres- 
 sure and the others at two or three pounds above the maximum 
 pressure. 
 
 Q. 37. What is usually the reason for steam being wasted 
 from the safety valve? What can be done to prevent this 
 waste? 
 
 A. 37. Careless firing, careless running. Close attention 
 paid to the fire, the injectors, and the work at hand. A fireman 
 who knows the road will fire carefully and will plan to burn 
 down his fire in approaching stations and other stopping points 
 and the summits of grades, so there will be little of this waste 
 of steam at the pops as possible. 
 
 Q. 38. What is the estimated waste of coal for each minute 
 the safety valve is open? 
 
 A. 38. About fifteen pounds of coal are wasted every minute 
 the ordinary pop valve is open. This would be equivalent to 
 one scoopful of coal wasted in a minute, due to this cause. The 
 estimated waste of steam every second an engine pops equals 
 all the heat obtained from a quarter pound of coal. 
 
 Q. 39. What should be the condition of the fire on arriving 
 at a station where a stop is to be made? 
 
 A. 39. The last coal should have been put in far enough 
 from the station so that the gases are burned out from the 
 coal when the steam is shut off. There should be a good bed 
 of fire in the fire-box, however, so that the fire can be built up 
 quickly and the steam pressure maintained when starting 
 away from the station. 
 
 Q. 40. How should you build up the fire when at stations 
 in order to avoid black smoke? 
 
 A. 40. By adding small quantities of fuel at a time, having 
 the door slightly open, and the blower on lightly. If the fresh 
 fuel is fired along the sides and in the corners of the box 
 Instead of spread on the fire, the first few exhausts will spread 
 it and little smoke will be formed. 
 
 Q. 41. Why is it that if there is a thin fire with a hole in 
 it the steam pressure will fall at once. 
 
 A. 41. On account of too much cold air being drawn into
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 509 
 
 the fire-box, and through the tubes, retarding combustion and 
 cooling the fire-box and tubes. 
 
 Q. 42. If the injector is to be used after throttle is shut 
 off, how should the fire be maintained? 
 
 A. 42. Enough coal should be placed on the grates to main- 
 tain the maximum steam pressure and the blower used to 
 keep the fire burning brightly, 
 
 Q. 43. What would be the result of starting a heavy train or 
 allowing drivers to slip with the fire too thin on the grates? 
 
 A. 43. The heavy exhausts which accompany the starting 
 of a train will tear part of the fire off the grates and draw it 
 into the tubes, leaving the fire-bed full of holes, and some of 
 the fire remaining on the grates turned over. A decrease of 
 steam pressure will result. The tubes might start leaking, and 
 the fire would be in such condition, that it could not be built 
 up properly in a considerable distance. The grates would 
 become clogged up with green coal, which probably would result 
 in forming clinkers. 
 
 Q. 44. Where should the coal, as a rule, be placed in the 
 fire-box? 
 
 A. 44. As a general rule the bright spots should be covered 
 with fresh coal, as they show where the fire is nearly burned 
 out and combustion most rapid, and these spots must be 
 covered or they will burn out and leave dead spots in the fire. 
 The sides and corners should be given the preference, keeping 
 the fire a little heavier next to the sheets to prevent too much 
 air entering at these points. Throwing too much coal directly 
 in front of the door, particularly in wide fire-boxes, is a fruitful 
 cause of clinkered fires, and should be avoided. The method 
 of cross firing is good practice. 
 
 Q. 45. How is the fire affected by and what causes clinkers? 
 
 A. 45. Clinkers reduce the grate area according to their 
 size, shut off proportionately the air supply, and therefore, 
 interfere with proper combustion. They are caused by im- 
 proper firing and drafting, and an excess of .mineral deposits 
 in the coal. Running a hoe or bar through the fire bringing 
 the points of melted sand together, will also cause a clinker. 
 
 Q. 46. How can you best avoid their formation and dispose 
 of them? 
 
 A. 46. Clinkers can best be avoided by light firing and the 
 proper manipulation and shaking of the grates. When once 
 formed they should be removed, if possible, by firing around 
 them and burning them out. 
 
 Q. 47. How can you explain the slower burning of the coke 
 and how understand the proper manner of supplying fresh coal? 
 
 A. 47. The gases of coal being lighter than air will pass 
 away whether consumed or not. The slow burning of coke
 
 510 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 is due to the fact that it burns from the outside only. When 
 a fire reaches a white or incandescent heat, the gases have been 
 burned and a fresh supply of coal should be added. This is to 
 be done as light as the service performed by the engine will 
 permit. 
 
 Q. 48. When and for what purpose is the use of a rake on the 
 fire-bed allowable? 
 
 A. 48. The firing should be done in such a manner that the 
 use of the rake would not be necessary, because raking the fire- 
 bed tends to form clinkers. Especially is this so when the rake 
 is thrust down through the fire to the grate. When on the road 
 it may be used lightly for the purpose of breaking the crust 
 which may be found as a result of too heavy firing. 
 
 Q. 49. Within what limits may steam pressure be allowed 
 to vary, and why? 
 
 A. 49. Pressure should not be allowed to vary more than five 
 pounds from the maximum, as any greater variation is liable to 
 cause unequal expansion and contraction of the boiler which 
 may start the flues leaking, etc. 
 
 Q. 50. Has improper firing any tendency to cause the tubes 
 to leak? How? 
 
 A. 50. It certainly has. Improper firing may mean holes in 
 the fire or may mean dead spots or banks which will cause sud- 
 den changes of the temperature of the fire-box, which are almost 
 certain to produce leaky fiues. This is especially true with wide 
 fire-box engines, where great pains should be taken to fire care- 
 fully in order to avoid this trouble. Carrying the fire too heavy 
 in some places causes clinkers to form. If the door is open too 
 long, too much cold air is drawn over the fire, causing the tubes 
 to leak. 
 
 Q. 51. What do you consider abuse of a boiler? 
 
 A. 51. Overpumping the boiler, improper firing, or allowing 
 the steam pressure to. drop back and then blowing the engine 
 up quickly, thereby causing unnecessary expansion and con- 
 traction. 
 
 Q. 52. Does the stopping up of flues affect the steaming 
 capacity of the engine? 
 
 A. 52. Yes. Obstructed flues reduce the steaming capacity 
 of the engine, and, as a rule, result, in their leaking. An increase 
 of speed of the gases through the remaining flues is also caused, 
 resulting in imperfect combustion and a poor steaming engine. 
 
 Q. 53. What causes honeycomb over the flues? 
 
 A. 53. Honeycomb on flues is usually caused by the draft 
 through the fire picking up the sulphur and molten clay, which 
 is in a melted and sticky condition in the fire. As the draft 
 passes on to the stack, some of this substance strikes the 
 flue sheet and sticks or passes through the flues, clogging up
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 511 
 
 the netting in the front end. The brick arch will practically 
 prevent this. 
 
 Q. 54. How would you take care of a boiler with leaky 
 tubes or fire-box, and why? 
 
 A. 54. Keep a bright clean fire especially under flues, and 
 maintain the steam pressure as even as possible, keeping the 
 fire-box door open as little as possible and avoiding the use of 
 the blower, in order to reduce the expansion and contraction 
 to a minimum. 
 
 Q. 55. Why is it very important that coal should be broken 
 so that it will not be larger than an ordinary sized apple before 
 being put into the fire-box? 
 
 A. 55. Because, if the coal is so broken, a greater surface is 
 presented to the action of the fire, burning takes place more 
 rapidly, the coal can be spread more evenly, a better fire can 
 be maintained, and better results are obtained. 
 
 Q. 56. Should rapid firing be practiced? 
 
 A. 56. It should not. Rapid firing is wrong for the same 
 reason that heavy firing is wrong. A few moments should 
 lapse between each shovelful to permit the fresh coal to get 
 to burning, and to maintain the high temperature in the fire- 
 box. 
 
 Q. 57. When and why should you wet the coal on the tender? 
 
 A. 57. Coal should be wet for the purpose of cleanliness to 
 keep dust from flying. The sharp exhaust would pull a large 
 percentage of fine coal through the fiues and out of the stack 
 unburned if not wet. To overcome these objections it should 
 be wet as often as necessary. 
 
 Q. 58. What are the advantages of a large grate surface? 
 
 A. 58. The advantages of a large grate surface are that the 
 draft does not need to be so heavy on the fire, the rate of com- 
 bustion of the coal is less than with the narrow fire-box, and 
 greater economy can be obtained in burning the coal. 
 
 Q. 59. Why are grates made to shake, and how, when and 
 where should they be shaken? 
 
 A. 59. The grates are made so that they can be shaken in 
 order that the fire may be kept clean from clinkers and the 
 refuse be shaken out into the ash-pan. They should be shaken 
 often enough to keep the fire clean and in good condition, but not 
 while passing over bridges, near lumber or hay yards, or through 
 prohibited territory. The best time, however, to shake the 
 grates is when the throttle is closed, as then there is no exhaust 
 to carry the unconsumed gases and sulphur through the fiues 
 Into the front end, which are liable to choke or clog up netting 
 and cause steam failure. 
 
 Q. 60. Do you understand that coal furnished represents
 
 512 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 money invested, and should be fired economically and not 
 allowed to fall out of the gangway? 
 
 A. 60. I do. The fuel for locomotives is the greatest single 
 expense of a railroad company, and the coal should, therefore, 
 be fired carefully and economically. The gangways and deck 
 should be kept clean, and no coal be allowed to fall from them 
 as it is wasted, dangerous and not in accordance with safety 
 rules. 
 
 Q. 61. Is it objectionable to fill the tanks too full of coal or 
 overflow tank at standpipes or wateB tanks? 
 
 A. 61. It is. Tanks filled too full of coal are dangerous and 
 a waste of coal, as a part of it will fall off when running, and 
 water spilled washes away the ballast and freezes over the 
 track in cold weather, being dangerous, and expensive to re- 
 move. 
 
 Q. 62. What are the duties of a fireman on arrival at the 
 terminal? 
 
 A. 62. To take in signals and put them in their proper 
 place; to leave the fire in good cendition, the water in boiler 
 Bufficient to last until hostler assumes charge, and the cab in 
 a clean condition; and in winter to know that all heaters are 
 operating properly. In fact, attend to any other duties pre- 
 scribed by the road for which he is working. 
 
 Q. 63. Is the engineer responsible for the fireman's conduct 
 while on duty and for the manner in which the fireman's duties 
 are performed? 
 
 A. 63. He is. The fireman is under the direction of the 
 engineer, and should endeavor to do his work in co-operation 
 with him and in a manner pleasing to him. 
 
 Q. 64. What is the duty of the superheater damper and 
 how does it operate? 
 
 A. 64. The duty of the superheater damper is to control the 
 flow of gases through the large flues, thus protecting the units 
 from being overheated after the throttle is closed. When the 
 engine is not working steam the damper should be closed. 
 
 Q. 65. What will be the effect on the steaming of the engine 
 if the damper does not open properly? 
 
 A. 65. The engine will steam poorly because there will be 
 no draft through the large flues. The steam will not be super- 
 heated because the heated gases cannot come in contact with 
 the superheater units, located in the large flues. 
 
 Q. 66. How may steam failure be avoided in case the dam- 
 per fails to operate? 
 
 A. 66. Should the damper fail to operate tie the counter- 
 weight up, thus opening the damper.
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 513 
 
 AIR BRAKE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. FIRST SERIES* 
 
 Q. 1. What is an air brake? 
 
 A. 1. A brake operated by compressed air. 
 
 Q. 2. How is this air compressed? 
 
 A. 2. By an air pump or compressor on the locomotive. 
 
 Q. 3. Name the different parts of the air brake as applied 
 to the locomotive. 
 
 A. 3. Air pump, engineer's brake valves, triple valve, 
 auxiliary reservoir, automatic control or distributing valve and 
 its divided reservoir, brake cylinders, main reservoirs, air 
 gauges, pump governors, angle cocks, cut-out cocks, and the 
 necessary pipe and fittings for connecting the different parts. 
 
 Q. 4. What is the purpose of the main reservoir? 
 
 A. 4. The main reservoir is used for storing a large volume 
 of air for promptly releasing the brakes, recharging brake pipe 
 and auxiliary reservoirs. With the E. T. and L. T. equipments, 
 main reservoir air is used to supply the brake cylinders when 
 brake is applied on engine and tender. 
 
 Q. 5. For what other appliance is the main reservoir air 
 used? 
 
 A. 5. It is used in operating the sand blower, the bell 
 ringer, the water scoop, the water sprinkler, the fire-door, the 
 air signal whistle, etc. 
 
 Q. 6. What does the red hand on each of the air gauges 
 indicate? 
 
 A. 6. Main reservoir pressure on the large gauge and brake 
 cylinder pressure on the small gauge. 
 
 Q. 7. What does the black hand on each of the air gauges 
 indicate? 
 
 A. 7. The black hand indicates equalizing reservoir pres- 
 sure on the large gauge and brake pipe pressure on the small 
 gauge. 
 
 Q. 8. What pressure is usually carried in the main reser- 
 voir? 
 
 A. 8. Ninety pounds in freight and one hundred and thirty 
 pounds in passenger service. Where freight engines are 
 equipped with duplex pump governor, the low pressure top is 
 adjusted to ninety pounds and the high pressure top is ad- 
 justed to one hundred and thirty pounds. 
 
 Q. 9. What pressure is usually carried in the brake pipe? 
 
 A. 9. Seventy pounds in freight and one hundred and ten 
 pounds in passenger service. 
 
 *The Air Brake is fully described and illustrated in another 
 volume of the Science of Railways devoted to the subifot.
 
 514 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 Q. 10. What must the air pass through in flowing from the 
 main reservoir to the brake pipe? 
 
 A. 10. The air must pass through the automatic brake 
 valve. 
 
 Q. 11. Name the different positions of the brake valve. 
 
 A. 11. With the automatic valves, full release, running, lap, 
 service, and emergency; except the valves used with E, T. and 
 L. T. equipments, which have an additional position known as 
 holding. 
 
 Q. 12. Name the different positions of the straight air brake 
 valve. 
 
 A. 12. With straight air valves, release, lap and application. 
 
 Q. 13. How many kinds of triple valves are there in use? 
 
 A. 13. Two, the plain triple and the quick action triple. 
 
 Q. 14. How is the automatic brake applied? How released? 
 
 A. 14. It is applied by reducing the pressure in the brake 
 pipe and is released by restoring the pressure in the brake 
 pipe. 
 
 Q. 15. When the straight air brake valve handle is placed 
 in application position, are the train brakes affected? 
 
 A. 15. No. Only the brakes on the engine and tender are 
 applied. 
 
 Q. 16 What controls the pressure in the main reservoir? 
 
 A. 16. The pressure in the main reservoir is controlled by 
 the pump governor. 
 
 SECOND SERIES OF QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 
 
 Q. 1. What, in your opinion, is the best way to fire a loco- 
 motive? 
 
 A. 1. To fire as lightly as is consistent with the work re- 
 quired; to avoid smoke trailing back over the train; to avoid 
 popping; to endeavor to maintain a uniform steam pressure 
 under all circumstances, and to carry a nice level fire on the 
 grates, a little heavier at the sides and corners; to keep the 
 air from coming through it near the sheets as rapidly as in 
 the center of the fire-box. 
 
 Q. 2. What are the advantages of superheated steam over 
 saturated steam in locomotive service? 
 
 A. 2. Economy of water consumption; economy of fuel; 
 increased boiler capacity and a more powerful locomotive. 
 Superheated steam contains a gi-eater amount of energy per 
 pound than dry, saturated steam. It does away absolutely with 
 condensation in the cylinders while saturated steam coming 
 in contact with passages in cylinder saddle and walls of cylin- 
 ders, is immediately cooled, and, therefore, part of it is changed
 
 EXAMIXATIOXS. 515 
 
 back into water, which affects the pressure and its capacity 
 to do the work. 
 
 Q. 3. How is the saving in water produced? 
 
 A. 3. By eliminating all cylinder condensation present in 
 saturated steam, and the increase in volume of a given weight 
 of steam. 
 
 Q. 4. How is the saving in coal accomplished? 
 
 A. 4. Because less steam is required to do a given amount 
 of work, therefore, less water is evaporated, and consequently 
 less coal is required to evaporate the water. 
 
 Q. 5. How is the increased boiler capacity obtained? 
 
 A. 5. A boiler will evaporate a certain amount of water into 
 steam, which 4s always on the point of giving up some of its 
 heat and turning into water, thereby reducing the volume and 
 pressure. Superheating eliminates the loss, owing to con- 
 densation and increases the available useful steam. It also 
 increases the volume of a given weight of steam, thereby re- 
 ducing the consumption of steam required to develop a certain 
 power, and, therefore, increases the capacity. 
 
 Q. 6. How is a more powerful engine obtained? 
 
 A. 6. The increased boiler capacity permits working the 
 engine at a longer "cut-off" before a steam failure occurs. 
 
 Q. 7. What type of fire tube superheater is in most general 
 use in locomotive service? 
 
 A. 7. Schmidt, top header, superheater, which consists of 
 a system of units located in the large flues, through which the 
 steam passes on its way from the dry pipe to the steam pipes. 
 A damper mechanism controls the flow of gases through the 
 large flues. 
 
 Q. 8. Describe the construction and location of the header. 
 
 A. 8. The header is a casting divided by partition walls 
 into saturated and superheated steam passages. It is located 
 in the top portion of the smoke-box so as not to interfere with 
 work in the smoke-box, and is connected to the dry pipe at one 
 end, and the steam pipes at the other. In locating the super- 
 heater header, its face for superheater unit joints should be 
 square with the tube sheet, parallel to the top row of flues, 
 and the correct distance above them, to insure correct position 
 of the superheater units in the flues. It should be firmly sup- 
 ported at the ends by header supports, securely fastened to 
 the sides of the smoke-box. 
 
 Q. 9. Describe the construction of superheater units and 
 their connection to the header. 
 
 A. 9. The units consist of seamless steel tubing, four in 
 number, connected by three return bends. Of the four pipes, 
 two are straight and two are bent upward and connected to
 
 516 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 the header by means of a clamp and bolt. One end of the 
 unit is in communication with the saturated steam passage, 
 and the other with the superheated steam passage in the 
 header. 
 
 Q. 10. Trace the flow of steam through the top header 
 fire tube type superheater. 
 
 A. 10. On opening the throttle the saturated steam passes 
 through the dry pipe into the saturated steam passage of the 
 header casting. From this passage it goes into one end of 
 the unit, passing backward toward the fire-box, forward through 
 one of the straight pipes and the front return bend, backward 
 through the other straight pipe to the back return bend, and 
 forward through the bent pipe and upward into the superheater 
 steam passage of the header, from which it enters the steam 
 pipes and steam chests. 
 
 Q. 11. What should be the position of throttle valve when 
 r>nning a superheater locomotive? 
 
 A. 11. Superheater locomotives should be operated with as 
 full a throttle as working conditions permit, regulating the 
 steam admission to the cylinders in accordance with the work 
 *o be performed. 
 
 Q. 12. What should be the position of throttle while drift- 
 mg? 
 
 A. 12. The position of the throttle while drifting should 
 be slightly open, so as to admit a small quantity of steam 
 to the valve chamber and cylinder above atmospheric pressure, 
 to prevent the inrush of hot air and gases which destroy lubri- 
 cation, and also to avoid excessive wear to valve, cylinder 
 and piston rod packing. 
 
 Q. 13. How should the water be carried in boiler of super- 
 heater locomotives? 
 
 A. 13. Water should be carried in boiler of superheater 
 locomotives as low as conditions will permit. This practice 
 reduces the tendency to work water over into the dry pipe 
 and units, as the superheater locomotive will use one-third 
 less water than the saturated locomotive. 
 
 Q. 14. What care should be exercised in lubricating a super- 
 heater locomotive? 
 
 A.'14. The engineer should watch very closely the supply 
 of oil to the steam chests and he should know that the lubri- 
 cator is feeding constantly and evenly over the entire division, 
 and in accordance with the work to be done. 
 
 Q. 15. Describe the general form of a locomotive boiler. 
 
 A. 15« It is cylindrical in form. It has usually a rec- 
 tangular shaped fire-box at one end and a smoke-box at the 
 other end. Flues run through the cylindrical part, which, 
 like the fire-box, are surrounded by water.
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 517 
 
 Q. 16. How does the wide fire-box type of boiler differ 
 -from the ordinary boiler, and what are its advantages? 
 
 A. 16. The ordinary "deep" fire-box is limited in width to 
 the distance between* the frames; the "shallow" fire-box sets 
 on top of the frames, and over the driving wheels. The wide 
 fire-box is not only above the frames, but extends out on each 
 side of the driving wheels. The advantage is to obtain a larger 
 grate area in the same length fire-box so as to cause slower 
 combustion per square foot of grate surface. 
 
 Q. 17. Why have two fire-box doors been placed in the large 
 type of locomotive boilers? 
 
 A. 17. Owing to the greater width of the fire-box, two 
 doors have been placed in the large type of locomotive boilers 
 so that the coal can be more conveniently distributed to all 
 parts of the fire-box. 
 
 Q. 18. Describe a locomotive fire-box. 
 
 A. 18. The modern form of locomotive fire-box is a rec- 
 tangular shaped structure located at the back end of the 
 boiler. It has a dooj- and is composed of two side sheets, a 
 crown sheet, a back sheet, and a flue sheet from which the 
 flues extend to the smoke-box at the other end of the boiler. 
 
 Q. 19. To what strains is a fire-box subjected? 
 
 A. 19. To the crushing strains of the steam pressure and 
 the unequal expansion and contraction of plates, stay-bolts, etc. 
 
 Q. 20. How are the sheets of a fire-box supported? 
 
 A. 20. They are supported by means of stay-bolts, screwed 
 through the inside and outside sheets with their ends riveted 
 over. 
 
 Q. 21. In what manner is a crown sheet supported? 
 
 A. 21. By means of crown bars or radial stay-bolts. 
 
 Q. 22. What are the bad features about crown bars? 
 
 A. 22. They are hard to keep clean and frequently cause 
 "mud-burned" crown sheets. 
 
 Q. 23. What are the advantages of radial-stayed crown 
 sheets? 
 
 A. 23. They are comparatively easy to keep clean and 
 cheaper to repair. 
 
 Q. 24. How are the inside and outside sheets of a fire-box 
 secured at the bottom? 
 
 A. 24. They are riveted to a wrought iron ring called a 
 mud ring. 
 
 Q. 25. Describe the ash-pan and its use. 
 
 A. 25. The ash-pan is a receptacle secured to the bottom 
 of the fire-box, and is provided with two or more dampers de- 
 signed to regulate the admission of air to the fire. It collects 
 the ashes dropped from the fire-box and thus prevents their 
 setting fire to bridges, cattle guards, and other property else-
 
 518 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 where along the road. Enginemen should see that the ash-pan 
 slide and hopper bottoms are closed before leaving engine 
 house. 
 
 Q. 26. What is a "wagon-top" boiler? 
 • A. 26. It is a boiler which has the fire-box end made larger 
 than the cylindrical part in order to provide more steam space, 
 
 Q. 27. Why are boilers provided with steam domes? 
 
 A. 27. To furnish more steam space, to obtain drier steam 
 and to provide a place for the steam pipes, throttle valve, safety 
 valves and whistle. 
 
 Q. 28. What must be the condition of a boiler to give the 
 best results? 
 
 A. 28. It must have a good circulation, flues and seams 
 tight, no flues stopped up, and no leaks at other places, and 
 must be clean and free from mud and scale. 
 
 Q. 29. What is meant by "circulation" in a boiler? 
 
 A. 29. The free movement of the water, so that it may 
 come in contact with the heating surfaces, and after being con- 
 verted into steam, be Immediately replaced by fresh supplies 
 of water. 
 
 Q. 30. What would be the effect if a "leg" of the flre-box 
 became filled with mud? 
 
 A. 30. There would be no water in contact with the fire-box 
 sheets and they would in consequence become blistered or 
 "mud burned." (The narrow water space between the inside 
 and outside sheets of the fire-box is termed the "leg" of a 
 boiler.) 
 
 Q. 31. What would be the result if the fire-box sheets be- 
 came overheated. 
 
 A. 31. They would be forced off the stay-bolts and an ex- 
 plosion would occur. 
 
 Q. 32. Would it be advisable to put water into a boiler after 
 the sheets had become bare and red hot? 
 
 A. 32. It would not. The fire should be killed at once. 
 
 Q. 33. What effect has the stoppage of a large number 
 of flues? 
 
 A. 33. The heating surface and draft are decreased by just 
 so much area. 
 
 Q. 34. Why are boiler checks placed so far away from the 
 fire-box? 
 
 A. 34. In order to introduce the water into the boiler at 
 as great a distance from the fire-box as is possible. This permits 
 the water to become heated to a high temperature before 
 coming in contact with the fire-box and also tends to better cir- 
 culation. 
 
 Q. 35. What part of the boiler has the greatest pressure? 
 Why?
 
 EXAMIXATIONS. 519 
 
 A. 35. The bottom, because the weight of water is added, 
 in addition to the steam pressure. 
 
 Q. 36. What are the advantages of the extension front end? 
 
 A. 36. To provide room for suitable draft and spark ap- 
 pliances. 
 
 Q. 37. What is the purpose of a netting in a smoke-box 
 or front end? 
 
 A. 37. To crush the cinders and prevent the large ones from 
 passing out of the front end, through the stack. 
 
 Q. 38. What is the object of hollow stay-bolts? 
 
 A. 38. To immediately indicate that the stay-bolt is broken 
 "by the escape of steam through the small (detector) hole. 
 
 Q. 39. What will cause the engine to tear holes in the fire? 
 
 A. 39. Working hard, or slipping with dampers open and 
 doors closed, or too thin a fire. 
 
 Q. 40. Name the various adjustable appliances in the front 
 end by which the draft may be regulated. 
 
 A. 40. The exhaust nozzle, the diaphragm and the draft 
 pipes or petticoat pipe. 
 
 Q. 41. What object is there in having the exhaust steam 
 go through the stack? 
 
 A. 41. To produce a forced draft on the fire. 
 
 Q. 42. How does this affect the fire? 
 
 A. 42. The exhaust steam passing through the stack tends 
 to empty the smoke-box of gases, producing a partial 
 vacuum there. Atmospheric pressure then forces the air 
 through the grates and tubes to refill the smoke-box, thus 
 causing the fire to burn more rapidly, producing a much higher 
 temperature than could be obtained by natural draft. 
 
 Q. 43. Explain what adjustments can be made and the 
 effect of each adjustment on the fire. 
 
 A. 43. Larger or smaller nozzle tips cause less or greater 
 draft on the fire; angle and position of the diaphragm does 
 the same and raising or lowering it burns the fire more at the 
 rear or front end of the fire-box. The size and position of the 
 petticoat pipe increases or decreases the draft through the top 
 or bottom flues. These latter adjustments should always 
 bfc attempted before reducing the nozzle. 
 
 Q. 44. What does it indicate when the exhaust issues 
 strongest from one side of the stack. 
 
 A. 44. The stack, exhaust pipe, or petticoat pipe are out 
 uf plumb. 
 
 Q. 45. What is the effect of leaky steam pipe joints inside 
 the smoke-box? 
 
 A. 45. Engine will not steam freely. 
 
 Q. 46. What causes "pull" on the fire-box door? 
 
 A. 46. The partial vacuum in the front end; excessive
 
 520 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 "pull" indicates dampers closed, fire clinkered or grates stopped 
 up. 
 
 Q. 47. If upon opening the fire-box door you discover there 
 what is commonly called a red fire, what might be the cause? 
 
 A. 47. That the grates have become clogged with ashes 
 and clinkers so that sufficient air could not pass through them 
 to the fire. 
 
 Q. 48. Is it not a waste of fuel to open the fire-box door 
 to prevent pops from opening? How can this be prevented 
 more economically? 
 
 A. 48. Yes, sometimes. By putting the heater into the 
 tank, or starting the injector or by more careful firing. 
 
 Q. 49. Describe the principle upon which the injector 
 works. 
 
 A. 49. The action of the injector is due, first, to the dif- 
 ference between "Kinetic" or moving energy and "Static" or 
 standing energy; second, to the fact that steam at a pressure 
 travels at a tremendous velocity and if placed in contact with 
 a stream of water, imparts to the latter much of its velocity 
 and besides is condensed to water itself. By imparting this 
 velocity to the water it gives it sufficient energy to throw open 
 the check valves and enter the boiler against high pressure. 
 
 Q. 50. What is the difference between a lifting and a non- 
 lifting injector? 
 
 A. 50. A lifting injector will create sufficient vacuum to 
 raise the water from the level of the tank. The tubes in a 
 non-lifting injector are shaped differently and will not raise 
 the water, but merely force it into the boiler. It is necessary 
 to place a non-lifting injector below the level of the water 
 in the tank so the water will flow to it by gravity. 
 
 Q. 51. Will an injector work with a leak between the 
 injector and tank? Why? Will it prime? 
 
 A. 51. Not if a bad leak. It will not prime because the 
 air admitted through the leak destroys the vacuum necessary 
 to raise the water to the injector level. A non-lifting injector 
 will often work as the water will escape from the leak instead 
 of air being drawn into it, as with a lifting injector. 
 
 Q. 52. If it primes well, but breaks when the steam is 
 turned on wide, where would you look for the trouble? 
 
 A. 52. Insufficient water supply, due to tank valve not 
 open, strainer stopped up, hose kinked, injector tubes out of 
 line, limed up, or delivery tube cut, or wet steam from throttle. 
 
 Q. 53. If it would not prime, where would you expect to 
 to find the trouble"' 
 
 A. 53. Insufficient water supply, or priming valve out of 
 order. With the lifting injector the trouble might be due to 
 a leak between injector and tank.
 
 EXAMIXATI0N8. 521 
 
 Q. 54. Will an injector prime if the boiler check leaks 
 badly or if it is stuck up? If the injector throttle leaks 
 badly? 
 
 A. 54. Not if either leak badly. 
 
 Q. 55. If steam or water shows at the overflow pipe when 
 the injector is not working, how can you tell whether it comes 
 from the boiler check or the injector throttle? 
 
 A. 55. Close the main steam valve at the fountain. This 
 will stop the leak if it be from the injector throttle. 
 
 Q. 56. Will an injector prime if primer valve leaks? Will 
 that prevent its working? 
 
 A. 56. The injector will prime but not so readily as with 
 priming valve in good condition. It will not prevent its work- 
 ing, but there may be some waste from the overflow. 
 
 Q. 57. Will an \njector work if air cannot get into the 
 tank as fast as the water is taken out? 
 
 A. 57. It will not. 
 
 Q. 58. If you had to take down a tank hose, how would 
 you stop the water from flowing out of the tank that has 
 the syphon connections instead of the old style valves? 
 
 A. 58. Open the small pet cock at the top of the syphon. 
 
 Q. 59. Is any more water used' when the engine foams 
 than when the water is solid? 
 
 A. 59. Very much more — one cubic inch of water is equal 
 in weight to one cubic foot of steam. 
 
 Q. 60. How would you prevent injector feed pipes or tank 
 hose from freezing in winter when not in use? 
 
 A. 60. The steam valve should be opened slightly to allow 
 a slight circulation of steam through the feed and the branch 
 pipes. The heater cock closed, and the drip cock under the 
 boiler check or on the branch pipe opened to insure circulation 
 of steam through the branch pipe. 
 
 Q. 61. How would you prevent the overflow pipe from 
 freezing with a lifting injector? 
 
 A. 61. By keeping the overflow valve slightly open to per- 
 mit some steam to escape from the overflow pipe. 
 
 Q. 62. Name the various parts of the injector. 
 
 A. 62. It consists of the injector body with a steam valve, 
 a steam nozzle, a primer, a combining and condensing tube, 
 a delivery tube, line check valve, overflow valve, and water 
 valve. A lifting injector has a lifting tube. 
 
 Q. 6.3. What may be done if a combining tube is obstructed? 
 
 A. 6.3. Remove the steam valve bonnet and with a stiff 
 piece of wire force out the obstruction, or uncouple the de- 
 livery pipe from the injector, unscrew and remove the tubes, 
 then clear the obstruction and replace the tubes.
 
 522 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 Q. 64. How Is the greatest injury done to a boiler when 
 cleaning or knocking, the fire? 
 
 A. 64. By using the blower excessively, thus drawing cold 
 air through the fire-bo.x and flues. 
 
 Q. 65. Why does putting a large quantity of cold water into 
 a boiler when the throttle is closed cause the flues to leak? When 
 is this most serious? 
 
 A. 65. When steam is not being used there is little circula 
 tion of water in the boiler and water entering the boiler at about 
 150 degrees temperature is heavier than the water in the boiler. 
 As the colder water will go to the bottom, the temperature will 
 be reduced in that part of the boiler, and cause the flues to con- 
 tract in length as well as in diameter. This will have a tendency 
 to pull them out of the sheet, thereby loosening tliem. After 
 the fire has been knocked this tendency is much greater; hence, 
 cold water should never be put into the boiler after the fire is 
 knocked out. The boiler should always be filled before the fire 
 is knocked out. 
 
 Q. 66. Is warm water in the tank of any advantage in mak- 
 ing steam rapidly? 
 
 A. 66. It is. Careful experiments have shown that a loco- 
 motive boiler will generate one per cent more steam for every 
 eleven degrees that the tank water is heated. Thus heating 
 the water in the tank from 39 to 94 degrees would effect a saving 
 of five per cent. 
 
 Q. 67. Then why not heat the feed water to the boiling 
 point (212 degrees?) 
 
 A. 67. If the feed water is heated much above blood heat 
 (about 100 degrees) it will not condense enough steam in the 
 injectors to cause them to work properly. Some injectors will 
 take hotter water than others. It would also ruin the paint 
 and varnish on the tank. 
 
 Q. 68. At 200 pounds pressure per square inch, what is the 
 pressure per square foot on the sheets of a boiler? 
 
 A. 68. About fifteen tons. 
 
 Q. 69. What is the total pressure on the fire-box of a large 
 locomotive? 
 
 A. 69. Over three thousand tons. 
 
 Q. 70. Give a practical definition of heating surface. 
 
 A. 70. The heating surface of a boiler includes all parts of 
 the boiler that are directly exposed to fire or heat from the fire 
 and surrounded by water. 
 
 Q. 71. Should an engine be slipped to get water out of the 
 cylinders or steam passages? 
 
 A. 71. Never. Open the cylinder cocks and start the engine 
 slowly.
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 523 
 
 Q. 72. What does it indicate when the smoke trails back 
 over the train and into the coaches after shutting off? 
 
 A. 72. Either poor firing, or else a lack of understanding 
 between the engineer and fireman as to where the engine was 
 to be shut off. 
 
 Q. 73. Before shaking grates or dumping the ash-pan, what 
 should be observed? 
 
 A. 73. That the locomotive is not passing over bridges, cattle 
 guards, crossings, switches, interlocking fixtures, or in yards. 
 Promptly extinguish fire on the track where ash-pans are 
 cleaned. 
 
 Q. 74. Which is easier and more satisfactory on a long run, 
 to stop and clean the fire if necessary, or to continue to the end 
 of a long, hard trip with a dirty fire? 
 
 A. 74. Stop and clean the fire and thus save fuel and labor 
 for the remainder of the trip. Very often an engine failure 
 will be saved by so doing. 
 
 Q. 75. Should you examine the flues to see if they are 
 stopped up and leaking, and inspect the grate and grate rigging 
 carefully before leaving the engine at a terminal? 
 
 A. 75. Yes, so they can be reported if necessary. Clean flues 
 and grates working well, make a vast difference in the success 
 of a fireman. By keeping the flues and grates in proper con- 
 dition engine failures can be avoided. 
 
 Q. 76. How should cab lamps, signal lamps, oil cans and 
 lanterns be cared for? 
 
 A. 76. They should all be kept clean, free from leaks and 
 filled before starting any trip. 
 
 Q. 77. About how many drops are there in a pint of valve 
 oil when fed through a lubricator? 
 
 A. 77. About six thousand drops. 
 
 Q. 78. Assuming that five drops per minute are fed to each 
 of two valves and one drop per minute to the air pump, how 
 many hours would be required to feed one pint of valve oil? 
 
 A. 78. About nine hours. 
 
 Q. 79. Assuming that the engine is running twenty miles 
 per hour, how many miles per pint would be run? 
 
 A. 79. About one hundred and eighty miles per pint. 
 
 Q. 80. How many drops per minute should ordinarily be 
 fed? 
 
 A. 80. This will vary according to the size of the locomotive 
 and the work to be done. One drop per minute for each cylinder, 
 and one drop for the air pump every two or three minutes, 
 is usually sufficient on small yard engines. This depends on 
 the condition of the pump and the service being performed. 
 Four or five drops per minute should be fed large engines in 
 slow freight service, and from five to seven drops per minute
 
 524 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 for large engines in heavy fast passenger service. Wtiere the 
 brake pipe is in moderately good condition, air pumps in freight 
 service can usually be run with one or two drops per minute 
 when handling long trains of cars equipped with air brakes. 
 
 Q. 81. Will any bad results ensue from filling the lubricator 
 full of cold oil? 
 
 A. 81. Yes, when the oil becomes hot it will expand and may 
 bulge or burst the lubricator. 
 
 Q. 82. If a sight feed gets stopped up, how could you clean 
 it out? 
 
 A. 82. Close the water valve and the regulating valves to 
 the other feeds. Open the drain cock, draw out a small quantity 
 of water so as to bring the oil in the top part of lubricator below 
 the top end of oil pipe leading to the feed arm, then open wide 
 the regulating valve to the feed which is stopped up. The pres- 
 sure from the equalizing tube will force the obstacle out of 
 the feed nozzle and up into the body of the lubricator. Close 
 this regulating valve until the feed glass fills with water and 
 then open water valve and start feeds. 
 
 Q. 83. How would you clean out chokes? 
 
 A. 83. Shut off boiler pressure and condenser valve, remove 
 feed valve bonnet and open main throttle valve. The steam 
 from the steam chest will blow back through the choke plug, 
 clearing it. 
 
 Q. 84. What is superheated steam? 
 
 A. 84. It is the saturated steam separated from the water 
 from which it is generated by adding more heat, increasing its 
 temperature from 100 to 250 degrees F. above saturated steam 
 temperature. 
 
 Q. 85. What is the advantage of superheating or increasing 
 the temperature of the steam? 
 
 A. 85. The increase of temperature in superheated steam 
 augments its volume and all the moisture which is sure to be 
 contained in saturated steam, and any particles of water which 
 may have been entrained as the steam entered the throttle 
 valve are evaporated. This results in a reduced steam consump- 
 tion, a saving in coal and water, and increased boiler capacity. 
 
 Q. 86. How is the increased temperature obtained by the 
 use of the superheater? 
 
 A. 86. The saturated steam is admitted into a partitioned 
 receiver which has a number of li4-inch pipes attached to it. 
 These are located in and extend nearly the full length of the 
 large flues. The steam in passing through these li^-inch pipes 
 on its way back to the receiver absorbs the heat from the gases 
 passing through the large tnbes, causing its temperature to 
 rise — to become superheated.
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 525 
 
 Q. 87. How much is the volume of steam increased by super- 
 heating? 
 
 A. 87. At temperatures ordinarily used in locomotive prac- 
 tice, for each 100 degrees of superheat added to saturated 
 steam, the volume of a given w^eight is increased approximately 
 from sixteen to seventeen per cent. 
 
 Q. 88. Why is the superheated steam so much more eco- 
 nomical on coal and water than the saturated steam? 
 
 A. 88. By superheating, the reduction in the amount of 
 water consumed is from about 15 to 35 per cent for superheated 
 steam receiving 150 to 250 degrees Fahrenheit of superheat. 
 If less water has to be evaporated to do a given amount of work, 
 it follows that less coal has to be used. 
 
 Q. 89. Which is the better practice, to close the feed valves 
 or water valve while waiting on sidings, etc.? 
 
 A. 89. Close the feed valves. There may be a leak in the 
 water valve. 
 
 Q. 90. How can you tell if equalizer tubes become stopped 
 up or broken? 
 
 A. 90. The stopping of the tubes would destroy the equaliza- 
 tion and when the steam chest pressure was less than the boiler 
 pressure the feed would work too fast and instead of forming 
 into drops the oil would enter the feed glass in a stream; if 
 broken the lubricator could not be used and the auxiliary oilers 
 would necessarily have to be used to lubricate the cylinders. 
 
 AIR BRAKE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. SECOND SERIES 
 
 Q. 1. Explain how an air pump should be started. 
 
 A. 1. The pump should be started slowly, with the drain 
 cocks open to permit the condensation to be drained off. Work 
 the pump slowly until about forty pounds pressure has ac- 
 cumulated in the main reservoir, to cushion the steam and 
 air piston of the pump. After the pump is warm, close the 
 drain cocks and open the throttle wide enough to run the pump 
 at the proper speed. Start the lubricator feeding freely until 
 eight or ten drops have passed to the pump, and then reduce 
 the feed to an amount sufficient for proper lubrication. 
 
 Q. 2. What kind of oil should be used to lubricate both 
 the steam and air cylinders of the pump? 
 
 A. 2. Valve oil. 
 
 Q. 3. Where does the main reservoir pressure begin and 
 end? 
 
 A. 3. Begins at the discharge valves in the pump and ends 
 at the engineer's brake valve. , 
 
 Q. 4. Where does the brake pipe pressure begin and end? 
 
 A. 4. Begins at the feed valve and ends at the brake pipe
 
 526 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 side of the triple piston, conductor's valve and at the rear angle 
 cock. 
 
 Q. 5. What Is excess pressure, and where is it carried? 
 
 A. 5. Excess pressure is the pressure above that in the brake 
 pipe and is carried in the main reservoir. 
 
 Q. 6. Why is excess pressure necessary? 
 
 A. 6. To promptly release brakes and quickly recharge the 
 auxiliary reservoirs. Also to operate various devices, such as, 
 water scoop, sanders and bell ringer without danger of reducing 
 brake pipe pressure and applying the brakes. 
 
 Q. 7. How is the excess pressure regulated? 
 
 A. 7. By the pump governor. 
 
 Q. 8. Name the different parts of the air brake as applied 
 to a car. 
 
 A. 8. Triple valve, auxiliary reservoir, brake cylinder, brake 
 pipe, angle cocks, retaining valve and cut-out cock. 
 
 Q. 9. What is the duty of the triple valve? 
 
 A. 9. The triple valve performs three duties: first, to charge 
 the auxiliary reservoir; second, to apply the brakes; and third, 
 to release the brakes. 
 
 Q. 10. What is the purpose of the auxiliary reservoir? 
 
 A. 10. The function of the auxiliary reservoir is to store 
 the air to supply to the brake cylinders during the application 
 of the brakes. Each car, therefore, carries its own brake 
 power. 
 
 Q. 11. What is the purpose of the brake cylinder? 
 
 A. 11. The brake cylinder is that part of the air brake equip- 
 ment in which the force contained in the compressed air is 
 transformed into a mechanical force which is transmitted 
 through a suitable combination of rods and levers* to the brake 
 shoes and applies them to the wheels. 
 
 Q. 12. What is the purpose of the brake pipe and angle 
 cocks? 
 
 A. 12. The brake pipe acts as a channel to convey the air 
 from the engineer's brake valve to the locomotive and car 
 brakes, and is the medium through which the engineer controls 
 the locomotive and train brakes through the operation of the 
 engineer's brake valves. Angle cocks are for the purpose of 
 opening and closing the ends of the brake pipe. 
 
 Q. 13. What is the purpose of the cut-out cock? 
 
 A. 13. To cut off any brake which is not in operating con- 
 dition from the rest of the brake system. 
 
 Q. 14. How is a brake cut out? 
 
 A. 14. Close the cut-out cock in the cross-over pipe and 
 bleed the auxiliary reservoir. 
 
 Q. 15. How would you bleed an auxiliary reservoir? 
 
 A. 15. By opening the release valve on the reservoir.
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 527 
 
 OIL BURNING LOCOMOTIVES* 
 
 Q. 1. What are the fireman's duties on arrival at the engine- 
 house previous to going out on an oil burning locomotive? 
 
 A. 1. The fireman should observe the condition of draft 
 pans and arch, of burner and dampers; try the regulating valve, 
 and see that the burner is delivering fuel oil properly to the 
 fire. He should see that the fuel oil is heated to a proper tem- 
 perature; that the oil heaters are in working order, and that 
 there is a proper supply of fuel oil, sand and water on hand, 
 as well as the necessary tools for handling an oil fire. He should ^ 
 also perform such other duties on the engine as may be required 
 of him. 
 
 Q. 2. How warm should the oil be at all times in the tank? 
 
 A. 2. The best results are obtained when the oil is heated 
 to such a temperature that the hand can be held on the tank,, 
 or to about 110 degrees Fahrenheit. 
 
 Q. 3. If the oil is too warm, what happens? 
 
 A. 3. Some of the qualities of the oil are lost by keeping 
 it too warm, and the burner does not work so well and will 
 make it more difficult to operate. If the oil is too warm it will 
 give off too much gas which is liable to cause an explosion in 
 the oil tank. 
 
 Q. 4. What tools are necessary for firing purposes on an 
 oil burning locomotive? 
 
 A. 4. The necessary tools include a sand horn, brick hook, 
 and a small iron bar for cleaning carbon from the mouth of the 
 burner. 
 
 Q. 5. What is liable to happen if the heater valve is open 
 too much? 
 
 A. 5. It is very apt to burst the heater hose, as well as to 
 heat the oil to too high a temperature, placing an unnecessary 
 strain on all the heater connections, causing them to leak. 
 
 Q. 6. What should be done on approaching stations where 
 additional supply of fuel oil is to be taken? 
 
 A. 6. Shut off the fire, close safety and main oil valves and 
 see that there are no lamps or lights on the tender. 
 
 Q. 7. What care must be exercised in the use of lamps, 
 torches or lanterns about oil tanks whether hot or cold? 
 
 A. 7. Do not carry, nor permit anyone to carry oil lamps 
 or oil torches within a distance of ten feet of the tank opening. 
 Pocket flash lights or incandescent lamps only should be used 
 around oil tank manhole when taking oil. 
 
 *The reader Is referred to the chapter herein devoted to this 
 subject.
 
 528 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 Q. 8. How can oil in the tank be measured without taking 
 a light to the manhole? 
 
 A. 8. By the use of the stick or rod made for that purpose, 
 carrying it to the light to find the number of inches of oil in 
 the tank. 
 
 Q. 9. What precautions must be taken before entering tanks 
 that have been used for oil to clean or make repairs? 
 
 A. 9. Oil tanks should not be entered until thoroughly 
 steamed and cooled. For safety they should be steamed from 
 six to nine hours. 
 
 Q. 10. How should the fire be lighted in an oil-burning 
 locomotive? 
 
 A. 10. See that no one is working under the engine, that 
 the boiler is properly filled with water and that it will flow 
 through the gauge cocks, and that there is no accumulation 
 of oil in the ash-pan or fire-box, or existing leaks throughout. 
 Steam connection can be made to the three-way cock on the 
 smoke arch which will act as blower and atomizer. If there 
 are 20 or 30 pounds of steam in the boiler it can be operated 
 with its own blower. See that the front of the fire-box is free 
 from carbon or anything that would obstruct it from burning; 
 it must have free passage so oil can get to burner. Open the 
 front damper, put on the blower strong enough to make the nec- 
 essary draft, open the atomizer valve long enough to blow out 
 any water which might be in steam pipe or burner; next close 
 the valve and throw a bunch of lighted old waste in front of 
 the burner, then open the atomizer sufficiently to carry oil 
 to the waste and open the regulator slowly until the oil is 
 known to be ignited — this you can see through the fire-box 
 door. Be sure that no oil is wasting below the burner or an 
 explosion may result. 
 
 Q. 11. Should the fire go out and it is desired to rekindle 
 it while bricks are hot, is it safe to depend on the hot bricks 
 to ignite the oil without the use of lighted waste? 
 
 A. 11. Xo, always use waste in rekindling the fire as the 
 bricks are not very reliable and apt to do damage from ex- 
 plosive gases formed. 
 
 Q. 12. "What is termed an atomizer, and what does it 
 perform ? 
 
 A. 12. The atomizer is a casting divided into two long 
 ports, with an extension lip. The upper port is for oil and 
 the lower one for steam. The lip aids the steam in atomizing 
 and spreading the oil, which, when properly mingled with the 
 air and ignited, will produce combustion. The atomizer is 
 located just under the mud ring, pointed a little upward, so the 
 stream of oil and spray of steam will strike the opposite wall
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 529 
 
 a few inches above the bottom if it were to pass clear across 
 the box. 
 
 Q. 13. In starting or closing the throttle of the locomotive, 
 how should the fireman regulate the fire, in advance or after 
 the action of the engineer? 
 
 A. 13. In starting an oil-burning engine, bring the oil up 
 gradually as the throttle is opened, and keep the movement 
 and amount of oil slightly in advance of the action of the 
 engineer, so as to prevent the inrush of cold air as the engine 
 is working, which would result in injury to the fire-box and 
 flues. Reduce the fire very slightly in advance of closing the 
 throttle. This will prevent the engine from popping and black 
 smoke trailing over the train. 
 
 Q. 14. Is it necessary that the engineer and fireman on 
 an oil-burning locomotive work in perfect harmony and advise 
 each other of intended action at every change of conditions? 
 
 A. 14. Yes, they should work in harmony with one another 
 and while the fireman should watch every move the engineer 
 makes it is also the duty of the engineer to advise the fireman, 
 of every change of the throttle so that he can operate his 
 valves according therewith and thus save fuel, and avoid 
 black smoke. 
 
 Q. 15. What is the effect of forcing the fire on an oil-burn- 
 ing locomotive? 
 
 A. 15. It will cause the flues to leak. Always keep ah even 
 temperature in the fire-box. 
 
 Q. 16. Is a careful regulation of steam and oil valves and 
 dampers necessary to obtain the most economical results? 
 
 A. 16. Yes, the firing valve should be opened sufficiently to 
 make it certain that enough oil is being fed to produce a good 
 fire, but not enough to cause a waste of oil or a great volume 
 of black smoke. 
 
 Q. 17. How can you judge whether the combustion is good 
 or bad, so the valve may be regulated accordingly? 
 
 A. 17. When the fire is a dull red color it indicates that 
 the temperature is less than one thousand degi'ees, combustion 
 is incomplete and dense black smoke will be emitted from 
 the stack. When the fire is a bright red color, it indicates 
 that the temperature is more than eighteen hundred degrees, 
 combustion is very good and no smoke will issue from the 
 stack. 
 
 Q. 18. How should the flues be cleaned from soot when 
 running, and about how often is this necessary? 
 
 A. 18. A small quantity of sand should be placed in an 
 elbow-shaped funnel, and inserted through an aperture pro- 
 vided in the fire-door; while engine is working hard, the ex- 
 haust drawing the sand through the flues, carries with it the
 
 530 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 accretions of soot, discharging them from the stack. The flues 
 should be cleaned of soot after leaving terminals, or after the 
 engine has been standing for some time, and as often as found 
 necessary to aid the engine in steaming. Just prior to enter- 
 ing points where engine is to be i)ut in roundhouse or other- 
 wise detained, attention should be given the flues in order 
 to leave them clean, as this will aid in putting the engine under 
 steam with little delay where the blower alone is to be relied 
 on for draft. 
 
 Q. 19. Is the injudicious use of the blower particularly 
 injurious on an oil-burning locomotive? 
 
 A. 19. Yes, the frequent use of the blower is injurious to a 
 boiler and the cold air drawn in through the fire-box injures 
 the sheets and flues and will cause them to leak. 
 
 Q. 20. Is the blower more injurious when a light smoke is 
 emitting from the stack or when a dense black smoke is 
 emitting? 
 
 A. 20. It is more injurious when a light smoke is emitted 
 from the stack. 
 
 Q. 21. In drifting down long grades, should the fire be shut 
 off or burned lightly? Why? 
 
 A. 21. The fire should be burning lightly, yet it should not 
 be permitted to get too low, allowing the fire-box to lose its 
 temperature and thus contracting the flues and causing them 
 to leak. 
 
 Q. 22. How should the fire be handled when switching? 
 
 A. 22. The fire must be regulated according to the work 
 the engine performs on each move, and to protect against the 
 possibility of the fire being drawn out by the exhaust. 
 
 Q. 23. Would not some fuel be wasted in this way? 
 
 A. 23. Very little will be wasted if the fireman watches 
 closely, when switching as well as when running. 
 
 Q. 24. How should the fire be handled when leaving sta- 
 tions? 
 
 A. 24. It should be burning brightly and suflEiciently strong 
 to keep the draft from putting it out when the throttle is 
 opened. A little smoke should show up at the stack, indicating 
 that the fire was being forced a little ahead of the working 
 of the engine. 
 
 Q. 25. Which is desirable, to use as much or as little steam 
 jet atomizer as possible? 
 
 A. 25. Use as little atomizer as possible at all times. 
 
 Q. 26. What is the result of too little steam jet atomizer 
 "When standing at stations or when the engine is working 
 light? 
 
 A. 26. The oil will not be carried far enough into the fire- 
 box or arch and not properly atomized and the fire is very
 
 EXAMINATIOJSfS. 531 
 
 apt to go out. The oil will drop from the mouth of the burner 
 into the draft pan to the gi'ound and is liable to start a fire 
 under the engine. 
 
 Q. 27. If too much steam jet atomizer is used with a light 
 fire? 
 
 A. 27. A disagreeable gas will be formed, causing the fire 
 to burn with a succession of light explosions and kicks. It 
 will use too much steam and reduce the temperature of the 
 fire-box. 
 
 Q. 28. When the fire kicks and smokes, what should be 
 done? 
 
 A. 28. Adjust the atomizer. If this does not eliminate the 
 trouble, start the heater, as the oil may be too cold to fiow 
 freely. Water being mixed with the oil will also cause the 
 fire to kick and smoke. In this case drain the water out of the 
 oil tank immediately. 
 
 Q. 29. How should the dampers be used on an oil-burning 
 locomotive? 
 
 A. 29. They should be opened just enough to admit suffi- 
 cient air to produce perfect combustion, but not enough to 
 cool the fire-box. When drifting they should be closed tO' 
 prevent cold air being drawn in, causing flues and stay-bolts 
 to leak. 
 
 Q. 30. About how much smoke do you consider an oil- 
 burning locomotive should make under adverse conditions, 
 when the engine is steaming weak, but is being crowded by 
 the engineer? 
 
 A. 30. No more than when an engine is working ordinarily. 
 
 Q. 31. What color is most desirable at peep-holes in the 
 fire-box ? 
 
 A. 31. A bright red color is most desirable. 
 
 Q. 32. What will produce the bright red color? 
 
 A. 32. Feeding only the amount of oil that is properly 
 burned and properly manipulating the regulating valves, with 
 no leaks and fire-box in good condition. 
 
 Q. 33. How does the water in the oil affect the fire? 
 
 A. 33. It will produce popping or kicking with the fire in 
 the fire-box. At times the fire will almost go out entirely and 
 then suddenly fiash up as the oil appears at the burner, and 
 the water disappears. Water in the oil produces a very 
 dangerous condition and should be prevented by immediately 
 draining it from the oil tank. 
 
 Q. 34. Do you consider it advisable to keep the burners 
 clean, and how often? 
 
 A. 34. When furnished with steam blow-out pipes, the 
 burners should be blown out before commencing trip so they 
 will distribute oil evenly to each side of the fire-box.
 
 632 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 Q. 35. What position should burner be with reference to 
 level and in line with center of fire-box? 
 
 A. 35. It is very necessary that burners be level and throw 
 flames just to clear floor of arch that the full benefit of the 
 heating surface may be derived, as the draft has a great 
 tendency to elevate flames at opposite end of the fire-box. 
 
 Q. 36. Are you aware that in course of time the atomizer 
 port will become worn too large and will discharge too large 
 a volume of steam to properly atomize, and the remedy? 
 
 A. 36. Yes. In order that the oil may be atomized prop- 
 erly, and not flow out in quantities against flash walls before 
 it has time to ignite, the lip or bushing should be properly reg- 
 ulated so the steam will be restricted at the nozzle and escape 
 with a bursting effect. 
 
 Q. 37. What is the real object of having the fire-box lined 
 with bricks, and will engine steam without them? 
 
 A. 37. The engine wiU not steam as well without, as with 
 brick. The sheets being in contact with water are too cold 
 to flash the oil readily. Hence the use of the "flash wall," 
 which, heated to a very high temperature, very materially aids 
 combustion. 
 
 Q. 38. Do you consider it your duty to keep close inspection 
 of brick work as to need of repairs, such as air entering be- 
 tween brick and side sheets? 
 
 A. 38. Yes. Plaster should be kept between walls and 
 sheets to prevent the cold air from being drawn in. 
 
 Q. 39. Will engine steam if brick falls in front of burners 
 or in path of flame, and what may be done? 
 
 A. 39. No. The brick should be removed by pulling them 
 out with a brick rod or hook through damper of draft-pan. 
 
 Q. 40. Where engine is equipped with an oil-reheated or oil 
 line, do you consider it a help to engine's steaming qualities 
 •when used? 
 
 A. 40. Yes. This heater should be used at all times. 
 
 Q. 41. Why use second heater? Why not heat it to a high 
 temperature in oil tank with oil heater? 
 
 A. 41. Too much gas generates. Continually boiling the 
 oil destroys some of the higher qualities and it is more difficult 
 to control the flow through regulation valve. 
 
 Q. 42. Do you consider a vent hole in oil tank advisable, 
 and why? 
 
 A. 42. I do. To permit the gas which accumulates to 
 escape and to admit air so the oil will flow freely. 
 
 Q. 43. Do you inspect your oil pipes and report all leaks? 
 What other bad effect has a pipe leak aside from waste of oil? 
 
 a; 43. Yes. A leak in the pipe will cause oil to feed 
 irregularly.
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 533 
 
 Q. 44. Are you aware that keeping the flues clean is the 
 greatest one thing that you can do in regard to fuel economy 
 and how often should they be cleaned? 
 
 A. 44. Yes. At least every ten miles if the engine has 
 to be smoked hard. 
 
 Q. 45. Do you know that the engine should be working 
 hard and at a speed not less than 20 miles per hour when sand- 
 ing flues to avoid the sand falling to floor of the fire-box and 
 accumulating in front of them? 
 
 A. 45. Yes. 
 
 Q. 46. Do you realize that on first closing throttle you 
 should not adjust fire too low? Explain best method. 
 
 A. 46. Yes. The steam pressure should be allowed to 
 fall back some fifteen pounds before the throttle is closed, and 
 when closed a good fire should be left in the box, and allowed 
 to cool gradually to avoid leaky flues, broken stay-bolts and 
 cracked sheets, all of which are caused by a sudden fall of 
 temperature. 
 
 Q. 47. How is the flow of oil controlled? 
 
 A. 47. By valves in tank and pipe connections. 
 
 Q. 48. Name these valves, their location and purpose. 
 
 A. 48. The safety valve, the main oil valve and firing 
 valve. The safety valve, controls the flow of oil from the 
 fuel oil tank through an opening in the bottom sheet of tank 
 to pipes leading to burners. This valve is forced to its seat 
 by a heavy spring and held off its seat by a key in the upright 
 rod extending above the top of tank. A rope or chain is attached 
 to this key and also to the cab to cause the pin in rod to be 
 pulled in case^of a separation between engine and tank, and 
 permit the valve to be seated by its spring and avoid a waste 
 of oil. The main oil valve is situated in oil pipe under deck 
 leading to burner, usually of the plug-cock pattern connected 
 by bell crank and this connected to some part of the engine 
 by chain, in which case it also acts as a safety valve in case 
 of separation between engine and tender. In other cases it 
 is connected by an operating rod extending above deck of 
 tender, and in case of safety valve's failure it can be operated 
 by hand to shut off the flow of oil. The firing valve is usually 
 situated between heater box and burner and regulates the 
 flow of oil desired to reach the fire. It has an upright rod 
 extending into cab, where it is provided with a handle or 
 lever in position to be handled conveniently by fireman when 
 seated in cab. 
 
 Q. 49. When shutting out fire, which valve should be closed 
 first? Why? 
 
 A. 49. The safety valve. So the oil in the pipe may be 
 consumed and to see that this valve is in working order.
 
 534 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 Q. 50. Should safety valve fail to shut off the flow of 
 oil in such cases, would it be safe to rely on the firing valve 
 to shut off the fire? 
 
 A. 50. It would not. Main valve should then be closed. 
 
 Q. 51. Should the firing valve be depended upon to shut 
 off the fire at any time? Why? 
 
 A. 51. No. This valve leaks frequently, owing to its 
 being constantly in use, and while in use the trouble is not 
 detected, and besides there is always danger 'of the handles 
 being moved by workmen or others about the cab. 
 
 Q. 52. What is a heater box? 
 
 A. 52. An apparatus having two passages. One for steam 
 passing from boiler to heater pipes in tank, and the other 
 for oil from tank before it is delivered to burner. The purpose 
 of the heater-box is to raise the temperature of the oil before 
 reaching the burner to a much higher temperature than that 
 in the tank. 
 
 Q. 53. In the event of the heater pipes or connections 
 becoming defective, how could the oil be heated in tank? 
 
 A. 53. By closing the firing valve, closing the valve on 
 heater pipe and opening valve on heater box. Steam from 
 heater throttle can be passed directly through the oil feed 
 pipe to the fuel supply. 
 
 Q. 54. In the event of an objectionable quantity of water in 
 oil, how can it be removed? 
 
 A. 54. Some tanks are provided with drain pipes for this 
 purpose, but on tanks where there are none, the feed hose or 
 pipe between engine and tank can be disconnected and used 
 as a drain to fuel oil tank. 
 
 Q. 55. What effect has leaks between fuel tank and firing 
 valve? 
 
 A. 55. None other than a waste of oil. 
 
 Q. 56. What effect has leaks between firing valve and 
 burner? 
 
 A. 56. It interferes very materially with the engine's steam- 
 ing by admitting air when using considerable steam atomizer 
 which causes an irregular oil feed. There is also a loss of 
 oil while fire is burning low, and but little steam atomizer is 
 being used. 
 
 Q. 57. What action of the fire would indicate leaks in 
 pipes between firing valve and burner? 
 
 A. 57. Smoke at stack will show when fuel feeding is 
 irregular and the fire-box will give off sounds similar to 
 feeble explosions. 
 
 Q. 58. What would you consider the proper adjustment 
 of burner?
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 535 
 
 A. 58. When oil is delivered from the burner to flash 
 wall without striking arch, side walls, or floor brick. 
 
 Q. 59. In case it becomes necessary to fire up an oil burn- 
 ing engine with wood, what parts should be given particular 
 attention? 
 
 A. 59. The brick work. Wood must be placed in the fire- 
 box with great care so as not to damage or displace the brick 
 work. The brick work should be protected by placing brick 
 over that portion of the burner extending to fire-box ahead of 
 mud ring. The wood should also be arranged in the fire-box 
 to prevent any great amount of heat from reaching the burner 
 and melting nozzle of same. 
 
 Q. 60. In case of sudden drop in steam pressure, what 
 might be the cause? 
 
 A. 60. Occasionally pieces of brick will fall down and 
 lodge in front of the burner which will interfere with the 
 flow of oil: the petticoat pipe may be loose and out of line, 
 or perhaps the dampers may have fallen shut. 
 
 Q. 61. In case brick has fallen in front of burner how can 
 they be removed? 
 
 A. 61. They can usually be forced out through the vent 
 openings by a hook provided for that purpose. If this cannot 
 be done, they should be thrown against the blast wall in order to 
 get them as far as possible out of the course of the fuel 
 feed. 
 
 Q. 62. In case a petticoat pipe becomes deranged, what 
 can be done? 
 
 A. 62. If it cannot be put back in proper position, remove 
 it altogether. 
 
 Q. 63. Will a corroded burner mouth prevent the proper 
 delivery of fuel to fire? 
 
 A. 63. It will. 
 
 Q. 64. What causes the mouth of burner to corrode? 
 
 A. 64. The asphaltum and sand in the oil. 
 
 Q. 65. How can this be removed on the road? 
 
 A. 65. With a pointed hook or rod that can be inserted 
 into the mouth of the burner. 
 
 Q. 66. Why should a fuel oil tank not be filled to its hold- 
 ing capacity? 
 
 A. 66. The oil will expand and overflow when the heater is 
 applied. 
 
 Q. 67. In case of derailment or other accident that might 
 cause the fireman to desert his position in cab, what should he 
 do? 
 
 A. 67. Shut off the oil feed from the tank by pulling key 
 out of safety valve rod.
 
 536 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. THIRD SERIES 
 
 Q. 1. What are the duties of an engineman before attach- 
 ing a locomotive to the train? 
 
 A. 1. The duty of the engineman is to thoroughly inspect 
 his engine for possible defects of machinery. He should 
 know the condition of the fire-box, grates, etc.; that gauge 
 and water glass cocks are open and working freely; that the 
 crown sheet is covered with sufficient water to protect it from 
 injury, and that the tender has been supplied with fuel and 
 water. He should also know the condition of the engineer's 
 brake valve and air pump, and take such other precautions 
 as would prevent an engine failure. 
 
 Q. 2. What tools should there be on the locomotive? 
 
 A. 2. The engine should be provided with such tools as 
 are found necessary in everyday work. This includes also 
 tools with which to make repairs in case of breakdown. Clinker 
 bar, ash-hoe, coal pick, shovel and broom are classed as 
 tools. 
 
 Q. 3. What examination should be made after any repair 
 work has been done on valve, brasses, etc.? 
 
 A. 3. A careful examination should be made to see that 
 the work has been properly done, that all movable parts have 
 been returned to place and properly secured by set screws 
 or otherwise. If valves have been faced, special attention 
 should be given to their lubrication until they are worn 
 smooth; if the work has been done on rod brasses or other 
 bearings, the locomotive should be run very slowly at the 
 start, being very careful to give them sufficient lubrication and 
 guarding against excessive heating; and if the rod brasses 
 have been lined, it should be seen that they are keyed properly 
 and do not pinch the pin. 
 
 Q. 4. W^hat attention should be given to boiler attach- 
 ments, such as gauge cocks, water glasses, etc.? 
 
 A. 4. See that gauge cocks can be opened to try the water, 
 and closed so steam and water will not come out into cab. 
 Note the water glass and see if water is moving up and down 
 in the glass; that the steam valve at the top and water valve 
 at the bottom of glass can be opened and closed, and that 
 water and steam circulates freely through the glass. 
 
 Q. 5. What do you consider necessary to report on locomo- 
 tive boilers? 
 
 A. 5. All defects that can be discovered, their nature and 
 cause, and all leaks, such as leaky flues, staybolts, mud rings, 
 washout plugs, cocks of all kinds, steam gauge siphon pipes, 
 water glass connections, etc.
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 537 
 
 Q. 6. Trace the steam from the boiler through the cylin- 
 ders to the atmosphere and explain how it transmits power? 
 
 A. 6. From the main throttle in the dome into the dry 
 pipe, then through the steam pipes into each steam chest. 
 From there through the admission port into one end of the 
 cylinder, forcing the piston to the opposite end. When the 
 piston has nearly completed its stroke, the movement of 
 the valve (which is in the opposite direction to that of the 
 piston) opens a connection to the exhaust port and allows 
 the steam from the cylinder to pass through this exhaust 
 cavity into the exhaust pipe, through the nozzle, the stack 
 and out into the atmosphere. The action of the steam, forcing 
 the piston through the cylinder transmits its power by means 
 of crosshead, and main rod to the main crank pin, causing the 
 wheels to revolve and move the engine. 
 
 Q. 7. Why is it important that there be no holes through 
 the smoke-box door or front end and none in smoke-box seams 
 or joints? 
 
 A. 7. There should be no possible chance for the admission 
 of air to any part of the smoke-box, because it tends to destroy 
 the vacuum necessary to create a perfect draft on the fire 
 and also fans any fire that may be in the smoke-box, which 
 warps and destroys the sheets or front-end. 
 
 Q. 8. How should the locomotive be started to avoid jerks, 
 and what train and other signals should be looked out for at 
 the time of starting? 
 
 A. 8. The engine should be started with the reverse lever 
 in full gear in the direction in which the locomotive is expected 
 to move, and a gradual admission of steam to the cylinders. 
 Signals should be carefully looked for towards the rear end 
 of the train to make sure that the entire train has been started. 
 
 Q. 9. After a locomotive has been started, how can it be 
 run most economically? 
 
 A. 9. By working steam expansively, that is, with the re- 
 verse lever hooked back to a point where the engine will handle 
 the train with a full or nearly full throttle. When headway is 
 attained, the lever should be hooked up gradually and placed 
 in running cut-off as soon as possible, thereby saving steam, 
 water and coal and as a rule making better time. 
 
 Q. 10. What is meant by working steam expansively? 
 
 A. 10. By working steam expansively is meant the process 
 by which steam is let into the cylinder and cut off before the 
 piston has finished its full stroke, thereby allowing the ex- 
 pansive force of the steam to exert a certain amount of energy 
 upon the piston from the time that cut-off took place up to the 
 point where release occurs. 
 
 Q. 11. How rapidly should water be supplied to the boiler?
 
 538 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 A. 11. Water should be delivered to the boiler no faster than 
 it is evaporated into steam, unless just before a hard pull; or 
 when shutting off with a heavy bright fire in the fire-box to 
 avoid waste of steam at the pops. 
 
 Q. 12. What is the difference between priming and foam- 
 ing of a locomotive boiler? 
 
 A. 12. Priming is caused by the boiler being too full of water 
 and has a tendency to raise the water: while foaming is caused 
 by foreign substances in the water, such as dirt from animal 
 oil, alkali, etc. In both cases water is carried with the steam 
 to the cylinder. Muddy water or certain vegetable matters 
 will also cause a boiler»to foam. 
 
 Q. l3. What should you do in a case of foaming? What in 
 a case of priming? 
 
 A. 13. The throttle should be partly closed or "eased off" 
 to ascertain the true water level, and if necessary increase the 
 supplj' of. feed water to prevent its getting too low. Blow out 
 the dirty water in the boiler whenever possible and replace with 
 clean water. In case of priming, the water level should be 
 allowed to drop to the proper place in the boiler by shutting 
 off the supply of feed water. 
 
 Q. 14. What danger is there when the water foams badly? 
 W^hen it primes badly? 
 
 A. 14. From foaming there is danger of exposing the crown 
 sheet to the intense heat and the liability of burning it. From 
 priming there is danger of knocking out a cylinder head. Ad- 
 ditional oil should be fed to the steam chests when water 
 primes badly until valves are properly lubricated. 
 
 Q. 15. Suppose that with the water glass in good working 
 order, immediately after closing the ' throttle the water dis- 
 appeared from the water glass, what should be done? 
 
 A. 15. The throttle should be opened and an effort made 
 to raise water until both injectors would put enough water 
 into the boiler to make it absolutely safe to close throttle. 
 If unable to raise the water level to the lower gauge cock, 
 smother or put the fire out entirely, if necessary, keeping both 
 injectors working. 
 
 Q. 16. What work about a locomotive should be done by 
 the engineman? 
 
 A. 16. He should set up the wedges and key up the rod 
 brasses and see that all nuts and bolts are tight, also inspect 
 the engine both before and after each trip, and do any work 
 on the engine after starting on trip to avoid breakdowns, etc. 
 
 Q. 17. How should the work of setting up the wedges be 
 done? 
 
 A. 17. The engine should be placed with the crank pin of 
 the right side on the upper, forward eighth, which brings the
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 539 
 
 crank pin of the left side on the back upper eighth. Block 
 the wheels, and with the reverse lever in the forward motion 
 apply a small quantity of steam. As the action of the steam 
 against the piston has a tendency to move it forward, the strain 
 is thrown against the shoes, permitting a free movement of 
 the wedges. The wedges should be set up with an ordinary 
 wrench as far as possible and then gulled down again about 
 one-eighth of an inch to prevent the box from sticking either 
 from overheating of the box or defective lubrication of the 
 wedge. 
 
 Q. 18. How should rod brasses be keyed? 
 
 A. 18. If properly fitted they should be keyed brass to 
 brass; if not properly fitted, they should be keyed on the large 
 part of the pin, free enough so as not to cause heating and 
 snug enough so as to run without pounding. Neither end 
 should be keyed so tight as to prevent the lateral motion of 
 the brass on the pins. 
 
 Q. 19. How should an engine be placed for the purpose of 
 keying the rod brasses? 
 
 A. 19. That depends entirely upon which rods are to be 
 keyed. If the main rod is to be keyed, place the side of the 
 engine upon which the work is to be done either on the upper for- 
 ward eighth or the lower back eighth, as these positions present 
 the greatest diameter of the pin to the rod brass and guarantee 
 a free movement at all points without binding. After keying 
 up, test by moving the wheel to another position and see if 
 brasses are free on the pin. For side or parallel rods, always 
 stand the engine on the center for the side that is being 
 keyed. 
 
 Q. 20. How should the side rods on a mogul or consolida- 
 tion locomotive be keyed? 
 
 A. 20. Place the engine on the dead center either forward 
 or back. First key the middle connection, next the ends of 
 rods and observe that the rod moves freely on the pin. Now 
 place the engine on the opposite dead center and notice if the 
 rods move freely at this point also. This is particularly neces- 
 sary with rod brasses having keys on both sides of the pin and 
 which are apt to be made either too long or too short, throwing 
 the rods out of tram and causing undue strain on rods and 
 driving boxes, and also danger of broken rods or pins. 
 
 Q. 21. What is the necessity for keeping the brasses keyed 
 up properly? 
 
 A. 21. To prevent unnecessary shocks and heating of rod 
 brasses and pounding" in driving boxes; if too tight they will 
 run hot, if too loose, they will pound, which in time will cause 
 undue strain on the entire engine with disastrous results. 
 Very loose brasses can pound enough to get hot.
 
 540 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 Q. 22. What is meant by an engine out of tram? Out of 
 quarter? 
 
 A. 22. An engine out of tram is one whose distance from 
 center to center of axle or rod on one side does not coincide 
 with the similar distance on the opposite side; or it may mean 
 that the distance between two connected crank pins is not 
 the same as the distance between the two axles to which the 
 crank pins belong. An engine out of tram is sometimes in- 
 dicated by unequal flange wear. When an engine is out of 
 quarter, the crank pin in one wheel is not exactly 90 degrees, 
 or one quarter of a turn from the pin in the wheels on the 
 other end of the same axle. This is usually caused by the 
 engine slipping with sand on one rail only. 
 
 Q. 23. Describe a piston valve. 
 
 A. 23. A piston valve is a cylindrical spool shaped device 
 having cast iron packing rings sprung into place on the valve, 
 and operating in a cylindrical steam chest of equal diameter. 
 This steam chest is provided with suitable admission and dis- 
 charge ports; steam ports to the cylinder, exhaust port to the 
 exhaust pipe and a steam port for live steam from the boiler. 
 
 Q. 24. What is a balanced slide valve? How is it balanced, 
 and why? For what purpose is the hole drilled through the top 
 of the valve? 
 
 A. 24. One in which the steam pressure on the top and 
 bottom of the valve is nearly equalized, by protecting a portion 
 of the top of the valve from the steam pressure. To relieve 
 this top pressure to some extent, the valve is balanced by means 
 of strips working in the top of valve held by strings against 
 the balance plate on the steam chest cover, thus relieving the 
 pressure from that part of the valve inclosed by the strips. 
 The small hole in the top of the valve is for the express purpose 
 of allowing any pressure which may have accumulated on the 
 top of the valve from whatever cause to escape to the exhaust 
 port, also to equalize the exhaust pressure between the top of 
 the valve and exhaust cavity as well as to assist in lubricating 
 the balance plate. 
 
 Q. 25. What is meant by inside and outside admission 
 valves? 
 
 A. 25. An inside admission valve admits steam on the 
 inner edge and exhausts on the outer edge, while an outside 
 admission valve admits steam to the ports of the cylinder on 
 the outside edge of the valve and exhausts it on the inner edge. 
 A piston valve can be either inside or outside admission while 
 a slide valve is outside admission always. 
 
 Q. 26. What is the relative motion of the main piston and 
 the steam valves for inside admission, and on the other hand, 
 tor outside admission?
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 541 
 
 A. 26. If the piston is in the front end of the cylinder in 
 order to connect the inside of the valve with the front live 
 steam port to admit steam against the piston, an inside ad- 
 mission valve must move forward. The outside end of the 
 valve opens the exhaust port for the back end of the cylinder. 
 With the piston in the same position, an outside admission 
 valve must move backwards to open the steam port, or in the 
 same direction as the steam piston at the beginning of the 
 stroke. 
 
 Q. 27. What is an Allen ported valve, and what is its 
 object? 
 
 A. 27. An Allen ported valve is an outside admission slide 
 valve, having an auxiliary port cored in the valve and extend- 
 ing nearly from one end of the valve to the other, above the 
 exhaust cavity and through the body of the valve. The object 
 of this port is for the admission of steam through the valve 
 at the same time that steam passes by the end of the valve 
 into the same port, thus doubling the area of opening for live 
 steam when the port is first opened. 
 
 Q. 28. What is the difference in the valve motion for out- 
 side admission valves and for inside admission valves? 
 
 A. 28. An outside admission valve must be moved in an 
 opposite direction to an inside admission valve in relation to 
 the movement of the steam piston at the beginning of its stroke. 
 For a change in these valves either the position of the eccentric 
 or the position of the rocker arms in relation to the rocker shaft 
 must be opposite. 
 
 Q. 29. What is a direct motion valve gear? What is an 
 indirect motion valve gear? 
 
 A. 29. In a direct motion valve gear the valve moves in the 
 same direction as the eccentric rod, which is doing the work. 
 Very often no rocker arm is used. W^hen a rocker arm is used, 
 both arms point in the same direction forming the letter U. In 
 an indirect motion valve gear, the power is transmitted from 
 the eccentric to the lower rocker arm, which by its motion 
 forward forces the upper arm backward, so that the travel of 
 the eccentric is diametrically opposite to the travel of the 
 valve. The Walschaert Valve Gear, owing to its design and 
 construction is a direct motion gear when the engine is running 
 in one direction with link block in bottom of link, but when 
 the engine is running in an opposite direction with the link 
 block in the top of the link, it is indirect motion. When run- 
 ning forward it is usually direct motion. 
 
 Q. 30. How can you detect the difference between a blow 
 in valve or piston packing? 
 
 A. 30. A blow from the valve is more constant and has a 
 different sound than a blow from cylinder or piston packing
 
 512 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 which blows stronger at the beginning of the stroke and slowly 
 decreases as the stroke is finished. 
 
 Q. 31. How would you place engine to locate broken ad- 
 mission steam ring in piston valve? 
 
 A. 31. The engine should be placed on quarter, the reverse 
 lever in center to cover ports, then throttle opened. Steam 
 will blow out of cylinder cock at end of cylinder where broken 
 valve ring is located. 
 
 Q. 32. How would you locate broken exhaust ring in piston 
 valve? 
 
 A. 32. When engine is working steam, watch the cross- 
 head. As there will be three normal and one light exhaust, it 
 can be determined on which side of the engine the light ex- 
 haust takes place. 
 
 Q. 33. What is meant by lead? What by line and line? 
 
 A. 33. Lead is the amount of port opening a valve has for 
 live steam when the piston is on dead center. Line and line 
 is meant when the steam edge of the valve is in line with the 
 edge of the steam port when piston is on the center. 
 
 Q. 34. What is meant by steam lap? 
 
 A. 34. The distance the valve overlaps the steam ports, 
 when the valve is in the center of its seat. Although the valve 
 laps equally at both ends, the distance is measured at one end 
 only. 
 
 Q. 35. What is meant by exhaust lap? What by exhaust 
 clearance? 
 
 A. 35. Exhaust lap is th^ amo^mt the inner edge of the 
 valve overlaps the steam ports when the valve is in the middle 
 of the seat. Exhaust clearance is the amount the inside edge 
 of the valve comes short of covering the ports when the valve 
 is in the middle of its seat. If the valve has neither exhaust 
 lap nor clearance it is said to be line and line. 
 
 Q. 36. What is meant by release? What by compression? 
 
 A. 36. Release is the point in the travel of the piston when 
 the exhaust opens. Compression is the amount the piston trav- 
 els after exhaust port closes before the live steam opens. 
 During this travel of the piston the exhaust port is closed; the 
 moving piston compressing the steam left in the cylinder. 
 
 Q. 37. With an indirect valve motion and outside admission 
 valve, what would be the position of the eccentric relative to 
 the crank pin on that side? What with a direct valve gear? 
 What difference between outside admission valve and inside 
 admission valve as to this position? 
 
 A. 37. The go-ahead eccentric follows the crank pin when 
 engine is running ahead if there is an indirect valve motion 
 and an outside admission valve. Without any lap or lead it 
 would be 90 degrees behind the pin or a quarter of a turn, but
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 543 
 
 as all valves have lap and lead, the eccentric is advanced or 
 placed toward the pin enough to move the valve the amount 
 of the lap and lead. With a direct valve gear and an outside 
 admission valve the eccentric will be 90 degrees or a quarter 
 of a turn ahead of the crank pin and advanced enough to move 
 the valve the amount of the lap and lead. With an inside 
 admission valve and an indirect valve motion, the eccentric 
 will come the same as for an outside valve and direct motion, 
 or more than a quarter of a turn ahead of the pin. With an 
 inside admission valve and direct motion, the eccentric will 
 follow the pin less than a quarter of a turn. 
 
 Q. 38. What effect would be produced upon the lap and 
 lead by changing the length of the eccentric rod? 
 
 A. 38. Lap depends upon the construction of the valve. It 
 would not be affected by a change of the eccentric rod but the 
 port opening would be widened at one end of the travel and 
 reduced at the other. It should be equal at both ends. The 
 position of the eccentric on the axle controls the lead and 
 must be equal at both ends. Changing the length of the 
 eccentric rod from the proper one does not actually affect the 
 lead as no proper measurement can be made until lead is equal 
 at both ends. Improper length, therefore, of the eccentric 
 rod varies the port opening at the beginning of the stroke of 
 the piston at both ends. 
 
 Q. 39. Why are eccentric rods made adjustable? 
 
 A. 39. So as to change their length to make adjustment of 
 the valve gear not so easily made in any other way. 
 
 Q. 40. Why is it necessary to keep the cylinders free from 
 water? 
 
 A. 40. To prevent damage to valves and cylinders, to secure 
 perfect lubrication and efficient service from the locomotive. 
 
 Q. 41. Where is the piston rod packing located? Where 
 cylinder packing? 
 
 A. 41. Piston rod packing is usually soft metallic rings 
 located in the back cylinder head, and around the rod. Cylinder 
 packing rfngs are usually cast iron, placed in grooved recep- 
 tacles provided for that purpose in the circular surface of the 
 piston. 
 
 Q. 42. How are metallic packing rings on piston rods and 
 valve stems held in place? What provisions are made for the 
 uneven movements of the rod? 
 
 A. 42. Metallic packing rings are held in place by stiffened 
 spiral springs pressing against a ring and forcing the packing 
 into a bell shaped cone. Suitable provision is made for the 
 uneven movement of the rod in that the cone holding the 
 metallic packing has a ground and steam tight joint which 
 permits the cone to have a lateral motion against the face of
 
 544 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 the packing gland, and thereby prevents the escape of any 
 ;Steani. 
 
 Q. 43. While running under steam and there is a failure 
 of part of the locomotive which does not seem to prevent run- 
 ning at full speed, how would you proceed? 
 
 A. 43. Keep the locomotive running if it is deemed safe. 
 Endeavor to ascertain the failure and prepare to do such work 
 as the case demands at the next stop. Be careful to do the 
 work at a stop which will not interfere with the running of 
 trains on the main line. 
 
 Q. 44. If one side of a locomotive is disabled, what would 
 you do in a general way to make it possible to use steam on 
 the other side? 
 
 A. 44. Disconnect enough parts to permit the turning of 
 the wheels and for reversing of the opposite side without moving 
 the valve on the disabled side. 
 
 Q. 45. In case a locomotive in your care became disabled 
 on the road, what would you do? 
 
 A. 45. First, protect the train front and rear by flags the 
 prescribed distance. Make such temporary repairs as are neces- 
 sary to get the train to the next siding, in order to prevent 
 blockading of the main line. When on the siding make all the 
 repairs practicable with the tools at hand. If the breakdown 
 is of such a nature as to prevent the possibility of making even 
 temporary repairs so as to clear the main lines, arrange to 
 notify the nearest telegraph office of your location and ask for 
 assistance, giving full particulars. 
 
 Q. 46. Suppose a wash-out plug blew out or a blow-off cock 
 broke off or would not close, what should be done? 
 
 A. 46. First, put both injectors to work and endeavor to 
 overcome the leak until you can get in to clear. That failing, 
 draw the fire at once to prevent burning of fire-box sheets. 
 In addition to this, in cold, freezing weather, the pet cocks on 
 all connections where there is any liability of water collecting 
 should be opened to drain the pipes, and in the absence of cocks 
 the coupling should be slacked off. The tender hose' couplings 
 should be disconnected and special care should be given to the 
 air pump drain cocks to prevent the rupture of the steam cylin- 
 der of pump. 
 
 Q. 47. Can a locomotive boiler without steam pressure be 
 filled by being towed by another engine? If towed, how filled? 
 
 A. 47. Yes. All opening where air could enter the boiler 
 should be closed. Relief valves, cylinder cocks, gauge cocks, 
 whistle valve and air pump steam valves should also be closed. 
 The reverse lever should be placed in full gear in the direction 
 the. engine is to be towed with water supply valve and injector 
 throttle open. Engine oil should be used through auxiliary oil
 
 EXAMIXATIOXS. 545 
 
 cups to oil valves and pistons. When the engine is being towed 
 the movement of the pistons in the cylinders will pump the air 
 out of the boiler and the atmospheric pressure on water in the 
 tank will force the water into the boiler. 
 
 Q. 48. What should be done if grates should be burned out 
 or broken while on the road? 
 
 A. 48. Block up the broken or burnt grates with fish-plates, 
 brick or anything conveniently at hand, disconnect the good 
 grates immediately ahead and back of the burnt section in 
 order to prevent disturbing the other grates when shaking down 
 the fire, then level the fire, clean ash-pan and proceed with full 
 train. 
 
 Q. 49. What precaution should be taken to prevent loco- 
 motive throwing fire? 
 
 A. 49. In order to prevent engines from throwing fire the 
 netting in the smoke arch must be carefully looked after, and 
 the cinder slide and hand hold plates must be in their proper 
 places and securely fastened. It is equally important that the 
 ash-pan be clean and slide dampers for dumping ashes closed, 
 otherwise live coals; more dangerous than cinders will roll out. 
 Care should be exercised in working the engine in the vicinity 
 of stations or places where fire is liable to catch. Avoid slipping 
 the engine with an old fire that will throw cinders. 
 
 Q. 50. What shall be done with a badly leaking or bursted 
 flue? 
 
 A. 50. It should be plugged if possible with an iron or wooden 
 plug. If in the fire-box end, sharpen a piece of scantling or 
 post and drive into the flue from the fire-box door which will 
 burn off up to where the water from the bursted flues keeps it 
 wet. If a bottom flue it should be covered with ashes or green 
 coal to protect balance of the flre. Bran or any starchy sub- 
 stance admitted through the heater cock on the injector after 
 the injector has been started will aid in stopping a bad leak. 
 If able to maintain steam pressure would then proceed. 
 
 Q. 51. What should be done in case the throttle valve stem 
 became disconnected while the valve is closed? If it becames 
 disconnected leaving valve open? 
 
 A. 51. The train crew and dispatcher should be notified 
 and arrangements made to be towed in. With lubricator work- 
 ing would not disconnect unless in very cold weather when 
 there is danger of water freezing in the cylinders or steam chest 
 passages. A larger supply of steam could be gotten into the 
 cylinders by taking out lubricator chokes and steam chest 
 valves from the oil pipe. If disconnected and valve stuck open, 
 notify proper officials and train crew. Pressure should be re- 
 duced until able to handle engine with reverse lever and brake 
 and proceed with what can be handled by engine. Take up the
 
 546 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 dome cap and connect throttle if practicable and train is in 
 the clear. 
 
 Q. 52. In case a valve yoke pr stem became broken inside 
 of steam chest, how can the breakage be located? 
 
 A. 52. With a broken valve stem or yoke, the valve Is 
 always forced to the forward end of chest. With an outside 
 admission piston valve or a slide valve, place the lever in the 
 forward gear and watch the steam leaving the cylinder cocks. 
 Reverse the lever and if steam issues from both cocks on one 
 side and from only the back one on the other, this latter has 
 the disabled valve. With the inside admission, steam would 
 issue from the front cylinder cock on the disabled side. Where 
 relief valves are used remove them first and watch movement 
 of valve. 
 
 Q. 53. After locating a breakage of this kind, how would 
 you proceed to put the engine in safe running order? 
 
 A. 53. If the engine had relief valves on the front end of 
 the steam chest, disconnect valve rod; and, after forcing valve 
 to central position to cover ports, clamp stem from one end and 
 block with a plug driven into relief valve of sufficient length to 
 hold the valve in place, leave up main rod and proceed. If 
 relief valve were on the back end, the chest cover would not 
 have to be taken up, but the back end of main rod would have 
 to be disconnected and crosshead blocked ahead. The discon- 
 nected valve rod would hold the valve against the forward end 
 of the steam chest. 
 
 Q. 54. If a slide valve is broken, what can be done to run 
 tlie engine on one side? 
 
 A. 54. The steam chest cover should be removed and a thin 
 piece of board or plate placed between the valve and steam 
 passages in seat. Steam chest cover should then be replaced, 
 disconnecting valve rod and if the cylinders can be lubricated 
 leave up the main rod and proceed on one side. 
 
 Q. 55. If one of the bolts connecting the two parts of a 
 built up link on Stephenson gear breaks or is lost, how would 
 you proceed? 
 
 A. 55. If temporary bolt cannot be supplied, take down 
 the forward part of the link, disconnect and remove the link 
 block, fasten valve to cover the ports and proceed. If moving 
 link clears rocker arm or other parts of the machinery after 
 link block has been taken out, it is not necessary to discon- 
 nect eccentrics. 
 
 Q. 56. What should be done in case of link saddle pin 
 breaking? 
 
 A. 56. Put the lever in a notch forward where one would be 
 safe in starting a train. Then raise the link on the disabled 
 side to the same level as the good one and block between top
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 547 
 
 of the link block and the link. Have another block ready of 
 sufficient length to raise the link enough should it be necessary 
 to back up the engine. 
 
 Q. 57. With one link blocked up, what should be guarded 
 against? 
 
 A. 57. Guard against reversing the engine. Do not move 
 the tumbling shaft arm down so the link on the disabled side 
 can strike it. 
 
 Q. 58. How can it be known if an eccentric has slipped on 
 the axle? 
 
 A. 58. By a lame exhaust or, with a bad slip, one of the 
 exhausts disappearing entirely, and by watching the crosshead 
 to note when the exhaust takes place. 
 
 Q. 59. Having determined which eccentric has slipped, how 
 should it be reset? 
 
 A. 59. Having located the eccentric, if it is a go-ahead, move 
 the engine so that the crosshead will come very near to the 
 end of its travel ahead. Then move the eccentric around point- 
 ing in the opposite direction to the back-up, leaning either 
 toward or from the pin— which would depend entirely on the 
 style of valve and whether direct or indirect motion. As soon 
 as steam appears at front cylinder cock, tighten the set scews. 
 For a back-up eccentric, lever and crosshead will have to be 
 placed in the opposite direction. The best way is to mark the 
 eccentrics before starting, by placing the lever in forward notch 
 and having crosshead at front end of travel. Then make a 
 mark on the crosshead and the guide, doing the same with 
 eccentrics and straps. If from any cause an eccentric slips 
 and the engine is placed so that the mark on the crosshead 
 corresponds with that on the guide, the marks on three of the 
 eccentrics will correspond with those on the straps, while the 
 fourth or slipped eccentric's mark will be some distance away 
 from the mark on its strap. By this method an eccentric 
 can be set as true as any machinist can set it, and there is no 
 guesswork. 
 
 Q. 60. What should be done in case of a broken eccentric 
 strap or rod? 
 
 A. 60. If a go-ahead strap or rod is broken take off all 
 broken parts, disconnect valve rod, cover ports and proceed 
 on one side. It is advisable to take down back-up strap and rod 
 also on that side. For a broken back-up strap and rod, secure 
 the bottom end of the link so it will not turn over. Engine 
 should be worked full stroke ahead and proceed. 
 
 Q. 61. How should the engine be disconnected if the lower 
 rocker arm became broken? If link block pin? 
 
 A. 61. Unless the link interferes, all that is necessary is to 
 remove the broken part of the arm, cover ports by placing valve
 
 548 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 in its central position and leaving the main rod up; otherwise 
 the eccentric straps and rods would have to come down. With 
 a broken link block pin, there is more or less of interference 
 between the link and the rocker arm. Take down the eccentric 
 straps and rods only, and cover the ports. 
 
 Q. 62. For what break-down is it necessary to take down 
 the main rod? The side rod? 
 
 A. 62. Broken main crank pin, broken piston rod, when 
 near the middle of the rod, broken main rod or strap, broken 
 crosshead or guide and when steam cannot be kept out of 
 the cylinder, the broken valve or seat. When side rod is broken 
 side rods must come down, also broken main pin or broken side 
 rod pin affecting that rod. 
 
 Q. 63. If it is not necessary to take down the main rod of 
 disabled side of the engine, how would you arrange to lubricate 
 the cylinders? 
 
 A. 63. By removing the indicator plugs, if the engine is 
 equipped with them, oiling through them and replacing the 
 plugs. If the engine has no plugs, shift the valve just enough 
 to show a little steam at the cylinder cocks and oil with the 
 lubricator. If otherwise impossible, slack off nuts on front 
 cylinder head on disabled side and wedge the head open 
 sufficiently to introduce the oil. 
 
 Q. 64. What is the by-pass valve, and what is its duty? 
 
 A. 64. The by-pass valve is a small valve similar to the 
 check valve and connected with the live steam side of the 
 valve, and the steam port between the valve and cylinder. 
 When engine is drifting with steam shut off, its duty is to open 
 and close when working steam to permit air to pass back and 
 forth from opposite sides of the moving piston. 
 
 Q. 65. What is a vacuum relief valve? What is a cylinder 
 relief valve? 
 
 A. 65. Vacuum relief valves are usually located on the 
 steam chest or the live steam passage to the chest. They open 
 when the steam is shut off and the engine is drifting and allow 
 atmospheric pressure to pass into th6 steam chest. When 
 working steam they close. Cylinder relief valves are pop 
 valves screwed into the cylinder heads and set at high enough 
 pressure not to open in ordinary service, but to open to permit 
 water to pass out when exhaust ports are closed by valves: or 
 on compound engines when the pressure in the low-pressure 
 cylinders gets too high. 
 
 Q. 66. What would be considered a bad engine or tender 
 truck wheel? 
 
 A. 66. One loose on axle, cracked, worn in the tread ^-inch 
 deep, with sharp or broken flange, flat or shelled out spots
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 549 
 
 in the tread 2^/^ inches or more in length, or other defect that 
 would make it unsafe. 
 
 Q. 67. What should be done if a tender truck wheel or axle 
 should break? 
 
 A. 67. Lift up damaged truck corner and chain it to a rail 
 or stout timber which is placed across the tender. Sometimes 
 you can slide the wheel or truck by placing a tie across the rail 
 to carry the weight and keep the wheel from turning, then 
 pull it to a siding. 
 
 Q. 68. What should be done if an engine truck wheel or 
 axle should break? 
 
 A. 68. It should be entirely removed or blocked up so as to 
 have the wheel clear of the rail, and the truck frame should be 
 securely fastened to the engine frame with chains. Move 
 cautiously over crossing frogs. With a broken flange, skid it 
 to a siding by blocking the wheel thus preventing its turning. 
 
 Q. 69. What should be done for a broken tender truck 
 spring? 
 
 A. 69. Put a block in place of the broken spring, after jack- 
 ing up the tender to where it belongs. • 
 
 Q. 70. What should be done with a broken engine truck 
 spring or equalizer? 
 
 A. 70. Raise the front end of engine and place blocks across 
 the equalizertS under the truck spring near the spring band. 
 Block on top of engine truck boxes and under truck frame when 
 an equalizer is broken. 
 
 Q. 71. What should be done if a driving spring hanger or 
 equalizer should break? 
 
 A. 71. Use a hard wood block or piece of iron blocking 
 between the driving box affected and under the frame over it. 
 Block equalizer up to its proper position between the disabled 
 end and the frame or over the other end to hold equalizer level, 
 being governed by the type of spring rigging used. For a 
 broken equalizer all boxes affected should be blocked on top; 
 the engine may be raised by running the proper driving wheels 
 up an incline thus lifting the engine while other boxes are 
 blocked; a re-railing frog comes handy for this work. 
 
 Q. 72. How can an engine be moved if the reverse lever or 
 reach rod were caught at short cut-oJ by a broken spring or 
 hanger? 
 
 A. 72. By disconnecting the tumbling shaft arm and block- 
 ing over the link block pin with blocking that would permit 
 suflBcient power to be used to start the train. 
 
 Q. 73. How can the blowing of steam past cylinder packing, 
 a valve or valve strip be distinguished or located? 
 
 A. 73. Cylinder packing will blow the hardest at the begin- 
 ning of the stroke and has a heavy blow; a valve blow is con-
 
 550 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 tinuous and has a whistling sound; a valve strip blow is con- 
 tinuous and sounds as though the blower were on quite strong. 
 Plare lever in full gear, engine on the quarter and give engine 
 steam; if it appears at the opposite cylinder cock it indicates 
 cylinder packing blow. Place valve centrally on its seat, give 
 engine steam; if it appears at either cylinder cock, it is a valve 
 blow; if no steam or very little steam escapes from cylinder 
 cock, but escapes through exhaust port to stack it indicates a 
 valve strip blow, which permits steam to escape through the 
 small hole on top of the valve to the exhaust port. If there is 
 a drip cock in the exhaust pipe under the saddle, by giving 
 engine a little steam when standing, a valve strip blow can be 
 located by steam blowing out of drip cock on whichever side 
 leak is. This kind of blow can also be located by the increased 
 friction, which will cause the valve stem on that side to jerk 
 when in motion; or it may be located by placing the crank pins 
 on the quarter alternately and handling the reverse lever under 
 steam pressure; the blow will be on the side which handles 
 hardest. 
 
 Q. 74. If engine should blow badly and be unable to start 
 the train when on the right dead center, on which side would 
 be the blow generally? 
 
 A. 74. On the left side. If the side standing on the quarter 
 is not able to start the train, the trouble is probably there. 
 
 Q. 75. If throttle were closed and steara came out of cylin- 
 der cocks, what might be the cause? 
 
 A. 75. Leaky throttle or dry pipe. 
 
 Q. 76. Is it possible to distinguish between a leaky throttle 
 and a leaky dry pipe? 
 
 A. 76. Yes, a leaky throttle will show dry steam only, while 
 with a leaky dry pipe more or less water will pass out of the 
 cylinder cocks with the steam when the engine is standing, 
 and when the engine is working she appears to be working 
 water all the time, particularly with a full boiler of water. 
 
 Q. 77. What effect have leaky steam pipes in the smoke- 
 arch, and how should they be tested? 
 
 A. 77. They interfere with the draft on the fire and prevent 
 the engine from making steam. Place the lever on the center, 
 set the air brake, open the throttle and watch the joints of the 
 steam pipes top and bottom. The proper test is the hydraulic 
 test made in the shop. 
 
 Q. 78. How should the test for leaky exhaust pipe joint, 
 or a leaky nozzle joint be made? 
 
 A. 78. By placing the lever forward or back and moving 
 the engine slowly with brakes set and watching the joints. 
 Cinders never accumulate around such leaks and are always 
 driven away from them.
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 551 
 
 Q. 79. What should be done if a steam chest cracks? 
 
 A. 79. If the crack is not too serious, temporary relief can 
 1)6 obtained by driving wedges between the chest bolts and 
 steam chest. A brake shoe key can be used for crowding the 
 l)roken parts together. Then tighten down on steam chest 
 cover. 
 
 Q. 80. What should be done if a steam chest breaks? 
 
 A. 80. That depends on the type. With the chest com- 
 monly used, take up the chest cover, insert blocking over the 
 steam passages to chest and bolt the cover down firmly upon 
 them. Disconnect as necessary and proceed on one side. 
 
 Q. 81. If a link lifter or arm were broken, what should be 
 done? 
 
 A. 81. Disabled parts should be taken off, block between 
 top of link and link block, so that disabled link will be blocked 
 down very nearly in full stroke. Both the top and bottom of the 
 disabled link should have blocks in its slot so as to be safe. 
 The reverse lever would hold the good link in place and 
 should never be dropped down any farther than the disabled 
 link was. 
 
 Q. 82. If the reverse lever or reach rod should break, 
 what should be done? 
 
 A. 82. If either breaks, securely fasten in position an iron 
 bar or other suitable material across the top of both frames, 
 then fasten the arm of the tumbling shaft to the bar. The 
 engine will then have to be worked at about half cut-off and 
 the road conditions would govern what part of the train it 
 "Would be permissible to handle. 
 
 Q. 83. What should be done if the piston, piston rod cross- 
 head, main rod or crank pin are broken or bent? 
 
 A. 83. If piston should break remove broken parts, discon- 
 nect valve stem clamp valve in central position, leave main 
 rod up if moving piston wou'ld not damage cylinder, and 
 proceed. If cross head, piston rod, main rod or crank pin are 
 bent or broken, take down the main rod, block the valve and 
 cross head, and leave the main rod up if piston rod is broken 
 off at the cross head. 
 
 Q. 84. What should be done when there is a loose or lost 
 <;ylinder key? 
 
 A. 84. If the key is loose and can be shimmed up, it is 
 safe to go on. If the key is lost and nothing available, such 
 as track spike or cold chisel, in its place, the engine should be 
 run in light to prevent further damage. 
 
 Q. 85. What should be done if a safety valve spring or stud 
 breaks? 
 
 A. 85. Reduce steam pressure. Screw the parts down solid 
 or clamp the stem down when the spring is broken. To do
 
 552 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 this lay a piece of scantling across the top of the valve, fasten 
 each end to the hand rails on each side of the engine in case of 
 broken stud. Raise steam pressure and proceed. The other 
 safety valves should relieve the steam pressure properly and 
 care should be taken that they do. 
 
 Q. 86. How can an engine be brought in with a broken 
 front end or stack? 
 
 A. 86. By boarding up the front end and by protecting it 
 with the canvas cab curtain, making it as nearly air tight as 
 possible and using a petticoat pipe or barrel in place of the 
 stack, securing it to the smoke arch. The engine might 
 steam properly without the petticoat pipe or barrel if part of 
 the stack is inside of the smoke-box. 
 
 Q. 87. What should be done if the frame is broken be- 
 tween the main driver and cylinder? 
 
 A. 87. The safest plan is to be towed in. The other alter- 
 native is to disconnect the disabled side and bring the engine 
 in light, because an attempt to bring in part of the train 
 might damage the previously uninjured side. 
 
 Q. 88. If the frame is broken back of the main driver? 
 
 A. 88. Reduce to light tonnage and come in without dis- 
 connecting. 
 
 Q. 89. In case of broken side rods, what should be done? 
 
 A. 89. Take down broken, rod and corresponding rod on 
 opposite side also. 
 
 Q. 90. What can be done if the intermediate side rods were 
 broken on a consolidation engine having the eccentric on the 
 axle ahead of the main wheel? 
 
 A. 90. There is nothing to be done but be towed in, un- 
 less only one side is broken, when it w^ould be possible to bring 
 the engine in under her own steam on one side, with the dis- 
 abled side having its valve disconnected and ports covered, 
 but this is not advisable, inasmuch as the engine might slip 
 and break the other intermediate rod and do incalculable 
 damage. All side rods ahead of the intermediate on both sides 
 would have to come down. 
 
 Q. 91. Should one of the forward tire, main tire, inter- 
 mediate tire, or a trailer tire break, what must be done to bring 
 the engine in? 
 
 A. 91. Run the wheel up on a wedge so as to clear the 
 rail under all conditions; remove the oil cellar and fit a block 
 in its place; then place another block between the bottom of the 
 box and the pedestal binder. Also block under the equalizers 
 or on top of the box of the wheel, ahead or back as necessary, 
 to remove weight from disabled wheel. With a back driver or 
 trailer tire broken, endeavor to chain across from the engine 
 frame on disabled side to opposite side of tank to keep the
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 553 
 
 rear end on the track, and this failing, swing rear end of 
 engine from the tender. With an inside radial journal box 
 both trailer wheels must be blocked and swung clear of rail 
 for a broken trailer tire. It is not necessary to remove 
 rods unless they are bent or broken. Engine should be brought 
 to terminal light, running with caution over frogs and switches, 
 and when entering or leaving passing tracks. Special atten- 
 tion should be given to the lubrication of broken wheel, in 
 fact of all wheels, as there has been a redistribution of weight. 
 
 Q. 92. What is a good method of raising a wheel when 
 jacks are not available? 
 
 A. 92. To run them up on frogs or wedges. 
 
 Q. 93. How can it be known when the wedges are set up 
 too tight and the driving box sticks, and in what manner can 
 they be pulled down? 
 
 A. 93. If the wedges are set up too tight, the boxes will 
 heat, the engine will ride hard and have a rough, jerky up- 
 and-down motion. Pull them down by the wedge bolts or if 
 stuck tight, first jar the wheel by running over a nut on the 
 rail. If necessary loosen the pedestal brace bolt, allowing the 
 jaws to spread to release the box. 
 
 Q. 94. What are some of the various causes for pounds? 
 
 A. 94. Loose pedestal braces, engine and rods out of tram, 
 wedges improperly adjusted, loose or worn driving box 
 brasses, loose side rod bushings or side rod connections, rod 
 brasses not keyed or in need of reducing, worn cross heads 
 or wrist pins, broken frame, loose piston rod, loose cylinder 
 key, rod loose in crosshead, loose follower bolts or an im- 
 pediment in the cylinder. 
 
 Q. 95. How may a pound in driving boxes, wedges or rod 
 brasses be located, and after locating what should be done? 
 
 A. 95. By placing the right main pin on the upper for- 
 ward eighth, which brings the left main pin to the upper back 
 eighth. Then by blocking the drivers, giving the cylinders a 
 little steam and reversing the engine under pressure, both 
 sides can be tested at the same time. Would adjust wedges 
 or rod brasses at once if possible, reporting repairs needed at 
 destination. 
 
 Q. 96. How locate loose follower bolts? 
 
 A. 96. Allow engine to drift by shutting off steam. When 
 the loose follower bolt strikes a forward cylinder head as the 
 engine passes the forward center on that side, there will be 
 a pound in the cylinder. If the pound stops when the engine 
 is given steam while still moving there is likely to be a loose 
 or broken follower bolt. When working steam the com- 
 pression or preadmission takes up the lost motion in the rod 
 and connections, so the loose bolt does not strike the head.
 
 554 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 The piston travels the extra amount of this lost motion and the 
 bolt strikes the head when steam is shut off. 
 
 Q. 97. When should crossheads or guides be reported to be 
 lined? 
 
 A. 97. When there is sufficient lost motion between cross- 
 head and guides to cause a jumping motion when the pin is 
 leaving either dead center and the crosshead is beginning the 
 return stroke, or when there is lost motion between the cross- 
 head and the guide at the sides. 
 
 Q. 98. When should driving box wedges be reported to be 
 lined? 
 
 A. 98. When the wedge has been forced up as high as It 
 can go and lost motion appears between wedge and box. It 
 should then be reported lined down. Any excessive flange wear 
 should be reported at this time. 
 
 Q. 99. When should rod brasses be reported to be reduced? 
 When to be lined? 
 
 A. 99. When there is sufficient lost motion to cause pound- 
 ing. When the key is down to a point where it cannot be 
 forced down further to prevent the brass working in the 
 strap. 
 
 Q. 100. When should lost motion between engine and ten- 
 der be taken up? 
 
 A. 100. When the lost motion becomes great enough to 
 endanger the breaking of connections. 
 
 Q. 101. How do you proceed to pack a driving boK equipped 
 with a grease cellar? 
 
 A. 101. The filling plate on the inside of the cellar should 
 be removed. Pull down the indicators and follower plates, 
 and fill the space between the follower plate and perforated 
 plate with grease. Then replace the filling plate on the inside 
 of the cellar, allowing the spring and follower plate to force 
 the grease through the perforated plate to the journal. 
 
 Q. 102. Please explain the principle on which an injector 
 works? 
 
 A. 102. It operates on the principle of induced currents, 
 coupled with velocity; a jet of steam flowing through the 
 injector first creates a partial vacuum, whereupon the water 
 in the tank, being acted upon by atmospheric pressure, is 
 forced into the injector and out of the overflow. When this 
 condition is reached the injector is said to be primed. If, 
 now, more steam is admitted to the injector, the increased 
 jet or volume of steam combines with the water and imparts 
 to it a portion of its velocity, giving to the water sufl5cient 
 momentum, which added to the weight of the water, over- 
 comes the pressure in the boiler.
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 555 
 
 Q. 103. Explain the passage of steam from the boiler to the 
 steam heat pipe? 
 
 A. 103. Steam is admitted to the steam heat pipe and 
 passes at reduced pressure through a reducing valve therein 
 into the steam heat pipe beneath the entire length of the 
 train. The reducing valve is located in the cab near the 
 steam heat throttle. 
 
 Q. 104. If the steam heat gauge shows proper pressure, 
 but the steam heat pipe pressure appears to be low, what 
 should be done? 
 
 A. 104. There may be an obstruction in the pipe. Make 
 sure that the connections on the cars were all coupled and 
 their respective valves opened to the rear end of train. If 
 no steam appeared at rear car, examine each angle cock or 
 valve, and, if they were open, look for the trouble at the regu- 
 lator reducing valve. 
 
 Q. 105. What is the cause of failure with the second in- 
 jector, and what should be done to obviate this failure? 
 
 A. 105. Neglect and infrequent use. It should be looked 
 after and worked daily otherwise scale or mud may clog the 
 boiler check and joints will work loose. Test it often and 
 work regularly. 
 
 Q. 106. If an injector stops working while on the road, 
 what should you do? 
 
 A. 106. Would see if there was enough water in the tender 
 and tender valve open and that water was cool enough in the 
 tender so the injector would handle it. See that the feed pipe 
 or strainer was free and that there were no leaks in feed pipes 
 and that injector was being supplied with the required amount 
 of steam. If the injector would not prime, note if overflow 
 or heater valve could open wide, or if overflow pipe was 
 obstructed. Blow water back into tank if suction pipe is very 
 hot and let suction fill with cold water. Look for obstruction 
 in the steam priming tube and water tubes, if possible. If 
 it primes and fails to deliver water to the boiler, see that 
 the delivery tube is free from obstruction and then look for 
 trouble at the boiler check. With an obstruction in the tubes 
 the injector will stop working at once, while filling up with 
 scale, or wear of the tubes would gradually affect the injector. 
 
 Q. 107. What are the advantages of the combination boiler 
 check and stop valve? 
 
 A. 107. Its advantages are that the boiler pressure can be 
 shut off at will and the check repaired without cooling the 
 boiler, and that it reduces the number of boiler check and 
 injector failures. This hand operated valve can be closed to 
 prevent the boiler water passing back in case the check valve
 
 55C EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 sticks up and allows'the boiler water'toTpass back to the in- 
 jector when not working. 
 
 Q. 108. How can a disconnected tank valve be opened 
 without stopping? 
 
 A. 108. By closing the heater valve and forcing the steam 
 from injector back into the tank to dislodge the valve. 
 
 Q. 109. What comprises the steam heat equipment on a 
 locomotive? 
 
 A. 109. At the boiler there is located a globe valve throttle, 
 a reducing valve, a steam gauge connected to the steam heat 
 pipe and its necessary piping and hose connections. 
 
 Q. 110. What pressure is carried in the steam heat pipe, 
 and how is it controlled? 
 
 A. 110. It depends on the length of the train; from twenty- 
 five to sixty pounds in the train pipe. The regulating valve 
 controls the pressure. 
 
 Q. Ill, What would you do in case the regulating valve 
 failed to operate? 
 
 A. 111. If the regulating valve will not admit suflBcient 
 steam to the train pipe, it should be taken apart and the steam 
 valve blocked open. If the pressure ran too high in the steam 
 heat train pipe, control it by using the steam throttle at the 
 boiler head. 
 
 Q. 112. How does the steam heat reducing valve control 
 the pressure? 
 
 A. 112. The inlet valve for live steam is opened and closed 
 by the movement of a diaphragm (made of metal) in the valve 
 which is opened by a spring pressure on one side and closed 
 by a steam pressure on the other. By stiffening the spring 
 it will carry more pressure, by weakening it, it will carry less, 
 which are effected by turning the handle attached to this spring 
 either up or down. 
 
 Q. 113. If steam heat gauge showed the required pressure 
 and cars were not being heated properly, how would you pro- 
 ceed to locate the trouble? 
 
 A. 113. To test the gauge note where the hand on the 
 steam heat gauge stands when the steam is shut off. If it don't 
 drop back to zero, ascertain how much it lacks and note the 
 rise of pressure shown by the gauge with the steam turned 
 on. Pay no attention to the gauge if it is not correct but send 
 back steam sufficient to heat the train. If gauge is found to 
 be correct, to locate trouble, disconnect the hose between the 
 engine and first car, and if steam does not appear, look for the 
 trouble on steam heat line on engine or at the regulator re- 
 ducing valve, and if steam does appear, disconnect the hose 
 and test between the different cars until the trouble is located. 
 
 Q. 114. When engine is detached from the train, what 
 precaution should you take to prevent freezing of the steam
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 557 
 
 heat train pipe? Wliat to prevent damage of steam heat 
 hose? 
 
 A. 114. The steam heat throttle should be opened suffi- 
 ciently to cause a circulation of steam through the pipes on 
 the engine and tender so as to prevent their freezing. As 
 the end of the hose is liable to strike crossings or frogs it 
 should be swung up to a safe place. 
 
 Q. 115. What constitutes abuse of an engine? 
 
 A. 115. Abuse of an engine consists in neglecting to inspect 
 it and report the necessary work; allowing wedges and rod 
 brasses to run slack, nuts and bolts to become loose and lost; 
 failing to oil properly; carrying too much water; working the 
 engine unnecessarily hard; reversing under pressure and espe- 
 cially when driver brakes are set; slipping; using sand on one 
 Bide and using sand when slipping without closing the throttle; 
 pulling or tearing holes in the fire; irregular boiler feeding; 
 and poor firing. 
 
 Q. 116. How are accidents and breakdowns best prevented? 
 
 A. 116. By frequent and careful inspection before starting 
 and during each trip, by keeping water at the proper level 
 in the boiler and all parts properly adjusted, and by a care- 
 ful handling of engine and train. Making repairs after acci- 
 dents occur is much more expensive than using care to pre- 
 vent them. 
 
 Q. 117. What are the duties of an engine man when leaving 
 the engine at the terminal? 
 
 A. 117. The engine should be left in a place known to the 
 hostler; throttle should be left securely closed, lubricator feeds 
 to steam chest and cylinders closed, cylinder cocks open, 
 reverse lever in center notch. Sufficient fire to maintain steam 
 pressure until such time as fire is knocked out and boiler 
 should be full of water. Fireman's attention should be called 
 to anything of special importance. Make a thorough inspec- 
 tion of engine and make a full report of any tools or signals 
 lost on the trip and the entire condition of the engine. 
 
 Q. 118. What is the most important bolt or nut on the 
 locomotive? 
 
 A. 118. The one that is loose, and attention should be given 
 it immediately. 
 
 Q. 119. In reporting work on an engine, is it sufficient to 
 do it in a general way, such as saying, "Injector won't work," 
 "lubricator won't work," "engine won't steam," "engine blows," 
 etc.? Or would you report each special defect so it could be 
 located after the engine went into the roundhouse, whether 
 she had steam up or not? 
 
 A. 119. No, the report should be explicit and assign the 
 cause for every failure, so as to assist the shop force in remedy-
 
 558 EXAMIXATIONS. 
 
 ing the defect, whether there is steam in the boiler or not at 
 the time repairs are to be made. Make a test to locate the 
 blow if engine blows and give a correct report. Any unusual 
 feature in the operation of the engine should always be reported. 
 
 COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 Q. 1. Wherein do compound locomotives differ from ordi- 
 nary or simple ones? 
 
 A. 1. Compound locomotives differ from the ordinary type 
 in that a simple engine has but one set of cylinders of the same 
 diameter and uses the steam but once, while a compound 
 or double expansion engine has either two or four cylinders 
 of varying diameters, and the steam after passing through 
 the first cylinder and losing part of its energy passes into 
 the second cylinder, where a certain amount of its remaining 
 energy is used. Simple and compound engines consist of 
 two engines, coupled to the same set of driving wheels. Bal- 
 anced compounds have four sets of main rods and crank pins 
 and Mallet compounds have two complete sets of engines under 
 one boiler. 
 
 Q. 2. Why is one cylinder on a compound locomotive called 
 the high-pressure cylinder and the other one the low-pressure 
 cylinder? 
 
 A. 2. Because the high-pressure cylinder takes its steam 
 directly from the boiler at nearly initial boiler pressure, while 
 the low-pressure cylinder, under ordinary conditions receives 
 the steam from the high-pressure cylinder and works with a 
 low pressure. It is always larger than the high-pressure cyl- 
 inder in order to get the same power from the low-pressure 
 steam. 
 
 Q. 3. In the Schenectady two-cylinder compound what is 
 the duty of the oil dash-pot? 
 
 A. 3. To insure a steady movement of the Intercepting 
 valve without shock which might damage the valve or seat, 
 and in order to keep it working properly the oil dash-pot 
 should be kept full of oil. 
 
 Q. 4. Explain how a Schenectady two-cylinder compound 
 may be operated as a simple engine? 
 
 A. 4. Place the handle of the three-way cock so as to allow 
 air pressure to flow from the main reservoir to the cylinder of 
 the separate exhaust valve. This will open the separate ex- 
 haust valve and let the steam from the high-pressure cylinder 
 exhaust to atmosphere. The intercepting valve will allow live 
 steam to feed through the reducing valve at a reduced pressure 
 to the low-pressure cylinder when the separate exhaust valve 
 is open. When starting a train or when moving slowly and
 
 EZAMIXATIOyS. 559 
 
 about to stall on a grade, it should be operated as a simple 
 engine. It should not be operated as simple when running at 
 high speed. 
 
 Q. 5. Explain how a two-cylinder compound is changed 
 from simple to compound? 
 
 A. 5. Place the handle of the three-way cock in the cab so 
 as to release the air from the cylinder of the separate exhaust 
 valve. A coil spring will then close this valve, causing the 
 exhaust steam of the high-pressure cylinder to accumulate in 
 the receiver until sufficient pressure is obtained to force the 
 intercepting valve into compound position, thereby shutting 
 off live steam from the main throttle to the low-pressure cyl- 
 inder and opening a passage, so steam from the receiver will 
 feed to the low-pressure steam chest. 
 
 Q. 6. How should a compound engine be lubricated? 
 
 A. 6. In lubricating a compound engine one-third more 
 oil should be fed to the high than to the low-pressure cylinder, 
 and at high speed more oil should be fed than at low speed. 
 
 Q. 7. Why feed more oil to high than to a low-pressure 
 cylinder? 
 
 A. 7. Because some of the oil from the high-pressure 
 cylinder follows the steam into the low-pressure cylinder. 
 
 Q. 8. How would you lubricate the valve of low-pressure 
 cylinder if the oil feed became inoperative on that side? 
 
 A. S. Feed an increased quantity through oil pipe connect- 
 ing to intercepting valve, then by shutting engine off occas- 
 ionally and cutting into simple position, oil will go direct 
 from intercepting valve into low-pressure steam chest and 
 cylinder. This would avoid going out on steam chest and dis- 
 connecting pipe and oil by hand. 
 
 Q. 9. How much water should be carried in the boiler of a 
 compound locomotive? 
 
 A. 9. Not more than two gauges or about one-half of a 
 water glass. In case of broken glass do not allow water to 
 drop below a flutter in top cock when working. No more than 
 this amount should be carried in order to assure the delivery 
 of dry steam to cylinders, as wet steam is particularly injurious 
 to compound locomotives. 
 
 Q. 10. How should a compound locomotive be started with 
 a long train? 
 
 A. 10. Always in simple position with cylinder cocks open. 
 
 Q. 11. When drifting what should be the position of the 
 separate exhaust valve, the cylinder and port cocks? 
 
 A. 11. Should be in open position. 
 
 Q. 12. What will cause two exhausts of air to blow from 
 the three-way cock or simpling valve in the cab when the 
 engine is being changed to compound?
 
 560 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 A. 12. Exhaust valve being sticky. When air is first 
 discharged it does not move. When it does move the second 
 exhaust comes. 
 
 Q. lo. What does steam blowing at the three-way cock indi- 
 cate? 
 
 A. 13. The separate exhaust valve not seating properly, 
 caused by stuck valves, weak or broken spring, and the packing 
 rings of separate exhaust valve leaking. 
 
 Q. 14. What can be done if the engine will not operate 
 compound when the air pressure in the separate exhaust valve 
 is released by the three-way cock? 
 
 A. 14. The cause of this is the separate exhaust valve fail- 
 ing to close. Try tapping it with hammer on the front of the 
 saddle near the exhaust valve. In case this will not cause the 
 valve to close, disconnect the air pipe connection to the separate 
 exhaust valve, take the nuts off the center circle of studs around 
 the separate exhaust valve, pull out the casting, and, if the 
 valve is not broken, it can be closed and replaced. 
 
 Q. 15. If the engine stands with high pressure side on the 
 dead center and will not move when given steam, where is 
 the trouble, and what may be done to start the engine? Why? 
 
 A. 15. Intercepting valve is stuck in compound position so 
 live steam cannot get to the low pressure cylinder. In a case 
 of this kind, close the main throttle, open the cylinder and port 
 cocks and when all pressure is relieved, use a bar to shove for- 
 ward the rod that works through the oil dash pot; this will 
 move the intercepting valve to the simple position, admitting 
 steam to the low pressure cylinder as soon as the throttle is 
 open. The engine will not start for the reason that with the 
 low pressure piston on quarter steam must be admitted to 
 its cylinder to start the engine. 
 
 Q. 16. In the event of a breakdown, how should one dis- 
 connect? 
 
 A. 16. Disconnect the same as with a simple engine and 
 run with the separate exhaust valve open, working engine sim- 
 ple instead of compound. 
 
 Q. 17. What may be done to shut off steam pressure from 
 the steam chest and low-pressure cylinder? 
 
 A, 17. Pull out as far as it will come the rod that runs 
 through the oil dash pot and fasten it in this position and open 
 the separate exhaust valve. 
 
 Q. 18. Is it important that air be pumped up on a two- 
 cylinder compound before the engine is moved? Why? 
 
 A. 18. Yes, it is very important, because the separate 
 exhaust valve is opened by air and the engine will not operate 
 as a simple engine until sufficient air pressure is obtained to 
 open this valve.
 
 EXAM IN A T70 A S. 561 
 
 Q. 19. How are the blows in a compound located? 
 
 A. 19. Blows In a compound may be located the same as 
 in a simple engine with the exception that any blow on the 
 high pressure side of engine will not be heard when the sepa- 
 rate exhaust valve is closed. A blow on the high pressure 
 side of the engine will cause the relief valves on the low pres- 
 sure cylinder to pop when working the engine with full throttle 
 compound. 
 
 Q. 20. What should be done if high pressure piston of a 
 cross compound is broken off the rod, or if the high pressure 
 or low pressure cylinder head is broken? 
 
 A. 20. Cover the ports on that side, open the separate 
 exhaust valve, and run in, using live steam in low pressure 
 cylinder only. If high pressure cylinder head is broken off, 
 cover ports on that side, open separate exhaust and run in, 
 using live steam on low pressure side only. Do not take 
 down main rod, but take out pop valves, front and back heads 
 of cylinder, and see that the cylinder is properly oiled. If 
 low pressure cylinder head is broken off, cover the ports on 
 that side, open the separate exhaust valve, and run in with 
 high pressure side. Do not take down main rod, but see 
 that the cylinder is well oiled. 
 
 Q. 21. In the event of separate exhaust valves failing to 
 work when throttle is wide open what can be done to assist 
 in opening? 
 
 A. 21. Ease the throttle off very fine, which in a moment or 
 two will reduce the receiver pressure so that the separate 
 exhaust valve will move. If this does not have the desired 
 effect, shut off entirely, even at the risk of stalling, as in that 
 event train can be started from a dead stand with engine cut 
 into simple. 
 
 Q. 22. If a transmission bar on a cross compound is broken, 
 what would you do for the right side? For the left side? 
 
 A. 22. If on the right side, cover ports, fasten valve stem, 
 take out pops from cylinder heads, open separate exhaust 
 valve, and, leaving main rod up, run in with high pressure 
 cylinder only, looking carefully to its lubrication; if on the 
 left side, cover ports, fasten valve stem, take out pop valves 
 from cylinder heads, open separate exhaust valve, and leave 
 main rod up, run in with live steam on low pressure side 
 only. 
 
 Q. 23. In the event of a cross compound beginning to jerk 
 badly and cylinder head pops in low-pressure cylinder popping, 
 where would you look for the trouble? 
 
 A. 23. It would indicate that either the high-pressure valve 
 or the piston packing was blov/ing live steam through into the
 
 562 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 receiver, and then into low-pressure steam chest; determine 
 which and report accordingly. 
 
 Q. 24. If during a trip you found the piston valve rings 
 of a cross compound were broken what would you do? 
 
 A. 24. If nothing but rings were broken, reduce steam 
 pressure about 25 per cent, and go on with train if at all pos- 
 sible. 
 
 Q. 25. If piston valve on cross compound was broken so 
 it became necessary to remove it, what should you do? 
 
 A. 25. Remove it, reduce boiler pressure to 100 pounds, 
 and proceed. 
 
 Q. 26. What is the difference between a Vauclain four- 
 cylinder compound, a four-cylinder tandem, a balanced and a 
 Mallet compound in their arrangement of cylinders? 
 
 A. 26. A Vauclain compound has two cylinders on each 
 side with both piston rods connected to one crosshead. The 
 cylinders are one above the other. A four-cylinder tandem has 
 four cylinders, the high-pressure on each side, and both pistons 
 operated by the same piston rod, and one crosshead. A bal- 
 anced compound has four cylinders, two high-pressure and 
 two low-pressure. The high-pressure cylinders are located 
 between the frames, both having a main rod connected to a 
 crank axle; the two low-pressure cylinders being outside the 
 frame, both having a main rod and crank pin attached to the 
 driving wheel center. A Mallet compound has four cylinders- 
 two high-pressure and two low. It consists of two separate 
 and complete engines under one boiler, the rear engine fixed 
 rigidly to the back end of the boiler, the front engine swinging 
 from a center and sliding back and forth under the front 
 end of the boiler, and each engine has two cylinders located on 
 the sides as on simple locomotives. The two cylinders of 
 rear engine are high pressure and work boiler steam direct, 
 exhausting it into a flexible pipe or receiver; the two cylinders 
 of the front engine are low-pressure, and work the exhaust 
 steam from this flexible pipe or receiver, and then exhaust it 
 through stack to atmosphere. 
 
 Q. 27. How many main steam valves has each type? 
 
 A. 27. The Vauclain has one valve on either side con- 
 veying steam to the high and low-pressure cjiinder on that 
 side; the four-cylinder tandem has two on either side, one for 
 each of the two cylinders. The Baldwin balanced compound 
 has the same number of valves as the Vauclain. The Ameri- 
 can balanced compound has four valves, one for every cyl- 
 inder. The two valves for one side of the engine are connected 
 to one valve rod. The ]\Iallet compound has separate valves 
 for each cylinder, as in a simple locomotive.
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 565 
 
 Q. 28. How do you test for blow in high and low-pressure 
 cylinder packing for each type of compound engine? 
 
 A. 28. If a cross-compound, simple the engine, and make 
 test, the same as for a simple engine. For a Vauclain four- 
 cylinder compound, the low-pressure should be tested first. A 
 blow past the low pressure piston will show the same as on a 
 simple engine; a blow past the high-pressure piston makes 
 the engine more powerful on that side with full throttle and 
 the exhaust from the low-pressure cylinder will be heavier. 
 Cover the ports when testing valve on either side. Broken 
 packing rings in the steam valve will show a blow in one 
 position and be tight in another position. To test high-pres- 
 sure piston packing for a tandem compound, engine should 
 stand on the top quarter, lever in back gear, starting valve 
 closed and drivers blocked; remove back indicator plug or 
 open back cylinder cock of high-pressure cylinder. Steam 
 coming from the back cylinder cock must get by the piston 
 packing or by-pass or starting valve. Place reverse lever 
 ahead and try the other indicator plug or cylinder cock. If 
 the trouble is caused by a leaky by-pass valve in the front 
 end no steam will come through. The engine must stand 
 in the same position to test the low pressure piston packing 
 and the lever must be in position to admit steam into the 
 front end of high-pressure cylinder. Open starting valve, 
 remove back indicator plug of low-pressure cylinder and give 
 engine steam; steam coming from the indicator plug opening 
 or open back cylinder cock will indicate that either packing or 
 by-pass is leaking. To determine which one, reverse lever 
 should be put in another position, close back indicator plug 
 and open forward one; if blow still continues the packing rings 
 or both by-pass valves are leaking. By-pass valves should then 
 be inspected. 
 
 Q. 29. How can the blow through sleeve packing between 
 high and low pressure cylinder of the tandem compound be 
 located? 
 
 A. 29. Stand engine on the top quarter, set reverse lever 
 in forward gear, shut the starting valve, block the drivers 
 or set the brakes solid and open throttle. Steam cannot get 
 into the front side of the low-pressure cylinder, unless there 
 is a leak, until the engine moves. For this test, the indicator 
 plug in front end of the low-pressure cylinder should be re- 
 moved. 
 
 Q. 30. How test for piston packing blow with balanced 
 compound? 
 
 A. 30. To test the high-pressure piston packing on a 
 Baldwin balanced compound the engine should be placed with 
 the outside main pin on that side of the engine on the bottom
 
 564 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 quarter, the reverse lever in the forward notch, close starting 
 valve, block drivers or set brakes solid, remove indicator plug 
 in the front end of either the high or low-pressure cylinder. 
 Steam will be admitted to the back end of high-pressure 
 cylinder with the throttle thrown open. There will be a leak 
 past the piston or the high-pressure valve if steam escapes 
 out of this plug opening. If in doubt, next test the high 
 pressure valve by moving the reverse lever to the center notch. 
 This should cover the ports and if the valve is tight the blow 
 will cease. Stand the engine in the same position with the 
 wheels blocked in testing the low-pressure piston, open starting 
 valve, back indicator plug out. When throttle is opened the 
 leaky packing will be shown by steam escaping from the 
 plug opening. If in doubt, test valve by bringing reverse 
 lever to center of quadrant; this will spot valve over port and 
 if it is tight the blow will cease. A blow past the high-pres- 
 sure packing tends to increase the pressure in the low-pres- 
 sure cylinder, in compound engines. A blow past the low 
 pressure packing is heard at the exhaust and is generally 
 on both forward and back strokes, while a blow past the by- 
 pass valves or valve bushings occurs only at a certain part 
 of a complete revolution. 
 
 Q. 31. In case it was necessary to disconnect on one side 
 of a compound engine, how would you cover ports and hold 
 valves in position? 
 
 A. 31. Clamp the valve stem to hold valve in central posi- 
 tion. All ports should be covered by doing this. It may be 
 necessary to remove head of piston valve chest and block in 
 there. 
 
 Q. 32. Is it a disadvantage to work a compound engine 
 in short cut-off? Why? 
 
 A. 32.* It is. If cut-off is too short, steam passing the 
 throttle will not get to the low-pressure cylinder in its proper 
 proportion. The work should be divided between the two 
 cylinders on the same side. 
 
 Q. 33. In what way do the IMallet or articulated compounds 
 differ from the other steam locomotives in the distribution of 
 the steam? 
 
 A. 33. It differs both in construction and in steam dis- 
 tribution. It consists of two separate and independent engines 
 under one boiler. The rear engine is rigidly attached to the 
 back end of the boiler in the usual manner. The front engine 
 is not attached to the boiler, but supports it by means of sliding 
 bearings, so that it can move freely from side to side under the 
 boiler and pass curves more easily. There is a hinged or
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 565 
 
 articulated connection between the engines by which the 
 front one is permitted a limited swing in relation to the rear 
 one, and it is this feature which gives the name "articulated" 
 to this type of locomotive. The rear engine takes boiler steam 
 direct, the same as a simple engine, and exhausts it from 
 both cylinders into a large pipe or receiver. The front engine 
 takes exhaust steam from this receiver, works it in a larger 
 set of cylinders, and then exhausts it to the atmosphere through 
 the stack. 
 
 Q. 34. How do you get the use of both engines when start- 
 ing a train? 
 
 A. 34. In order that there may be steam in the low-pres- 
 sure cylinders before the high-pressure engine has exhausted, 
 on some types of the Mallet compound there is a live steam 
 pipe with a valve in the cab, which admits boiler steam to the 
 receiver pipe. Thus the use of the front engine is secured in 
 starting a train. In the American Locomotive articulated 
 compounds there is an intercepting valve, similar to the one 
 used in the Richmond cross-compound and is placed between 
 the exhaust passage of the rear engine and the flexible receiv- 
 ing pipe of the front one. When in simple position, this inter- 
 cepting valve, permits the high pressure cylinders of the rear 
 engine to exhaust directly to the stack instead of into the 
 receiver, feeding boiler steam at a reduced pressure into the 
 receiver pipe for the low-pi^essure cylinders, without giving 
 any back pressure on the high-pressure pistons. By this 
 arrangement the power of the complete locomotive is increased 
 twenty per cent. In compound position, the intercepting valve 
 shuts off the supply of live steam to the receiver pipe and the 
 exhaust steam is forced to the low-pressure engine. 
 
 Q. 35. How is the American articulated compound changed 
 from compound to simple, and back to compound again? 
 
 A. 35. When working the locomotive simple, the handle 
 of the operating valve in the cab should be placed to point 
 toward the rear. Steam .is admitted against the piston which 
 operates the emergency exhaust valve and opens it. Exhaust 
 steam from the high-pressure engine, instead of passing to the 
 low-pressure engine, passes to the exhaust nozzle. The inter- 
 cepting valve then moves over so that live steam reduced to 
 forty per cent boiler pressure passes through the receiver 
 pipe to the low-pressure engine. When working the locomo- 
 tive compound, the handle of the operating valve should be 
 placed to point forward. This exhausts the steam, holding 
 the emergency exhaust valve open; by means of a spring 
 and the pressure of the steam exhausted from the rear engine, 
 the emergency exhaust valve is closed, and a pressure built 
 up against the intercepting valve, which opens it, so that
 
 566 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 steam from the rear engine goes to the forward one, and at 
 the same movement, closes the reducing valve so that the 
 receiver gets no more live steam. 
 
 Q. 36. When is it necessary to use the operating valve 
 to change the locomotive from compound to simple, or from 
 simple to compound? 
 
 A. 36. The intercepting valve should automatically go to 
 simple position until exhaust steam from the rear engine 
 builds up a receiver pressure that shifts the valve to com- 
 pound, when giving the engines steam to start. Use the oper- 
 ating valve if it does not do so. The engine should be set 
 working simple, when about to stall on a grade or if moving 
 less than four miles an hour; when the danger of stalling is 
 over, or speed is more than four miles an hour, change to com- 
 pound. Open the starting valve to admit live steam to the 
 receiver pipe and low-pressure engine if there is no inter- 
 cepting valve to furnish live steam to the forward engine. 
 
 Q. 37. If in starting the locomotive the forward engine 
 does not take steam, what is the trouble? 
 
 A. 37. On account of being dirty the reducing valve may 
 be stuck shut or stuck on the stem of the intercepting valve. 
 Should the reducing valve be stuck, take off the head of the 
 dash pot and work the valve back and forth to loosen it. Oil 
 the intercepting valve freely just before starting and occa- 
 sionally during long runs to ke^ it from sticking. 
 
 Q. 38. AVhy does the Mallet compound have more power 
 when working simple than compound? 
 
 A. 38. If a starting valve is used to admit live steam to 
 the receiver pipe and thence to the low pressure engine, it 
 gives a higher pressure to the low pressure cylinders. If 
 an intercepting valve is used the open emergency exhaust 
 valve permits exhaust steam from the rear engine to go direct 
 to the stack, taking away the back pressure of the receiver 
 steam from the high-pressure pistons about thirty per cent 
 of the boiler pressure, thus adding to the power of the rear 
 engine. The reducing valve when feeding live steam gives 
 about forty per cent of boiler pressure to the low pressure 
 engine instead of the thirty per cent it gets from the receiver. 
 The compound operation is about twenty per cent less than the 
 power of both engines working simple with this added power. 
 
 Q. 39. What is the duty of the by-pass valves on the sides 
 of the low-pressure cylinders? Should they be kept clean of 
 gum and grit? 
 
 A. 39. They are connected to the steam ports at each end 
 of the cylinders and open to allow air and steam to pass from 
 one end to the other of the cylinder away from the moving 
 piston when the engine is drifting. If not kept clean they
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 567 
 
 may stick open; when working steam the engine will blow 
 badly, and if they stick shut will cause the engine to pound 
 when drifting. 
 
 Q. 40. In what position should the reverse lever be when 
 the steam is shut off and the engine drifting? 
 
 A. 40. Below three quarters of full gear, in order that the 
 valves will have nearly full travel. 
 
 Q. 41. Why should the power reversing gear of the Mallet 
 compound always have its dash-pot cylinder full of oil? 
 
 A. 41. To avoid the too rapid movement of the reverse gear 
 piston and prevent damaging it. 
 
 Q. 42. In what position should the engines stand to test 
 for blows in valves and piston packing? 
 
 A. 42. The operating or starting valve should be in sim- 
 ple position. "Spot" the engine in the proper position and 
 each engine should be tested for blows the same as for a 
 simple engine. 
 
 Q. 43. What power is used with Ragonnet or Baldwin 
 power reverse gear? 
 
 A. 43. Air pressure. 
 
 Q. 44. Can and should steam pressure be used? 
 
 A. 44. It can, but steam should never be used except in 
 an emergency when air is not available. 
 
 Q. 45. What precaution should be taken regarding steam 
 check and throttle? 
 
 A. 45.' They should be tight and check working properly 
 to prevent the steam from entering main reservoir. Should 
 this occur the steam would burn out the gaskets in the air 
 brake equipment; moisture would accumulate which would 
 result in freezing and bursting the equipment, besides being 
 dangerous. 
 
 Q. 46. What would cause the gear to fail to hold links in 
 Intended cut-off, and allow them to raise stnd lower without 
 operating valve in the cab being changed? 
 
 A. 46. This would be caused by leaks in main valve and 
 piston packing. 
 
 LUBRICATION 
 
 Q. 1. What produces friction, and what is the result of 
 excessive friction? 
 
 A. 1. Friction, as considered in locomotive service, is the 
 rubbing together of any two surfaces, when held in contact 
 by pressure. The result is heat, and the destruction of the 
 journal and its bearing, or the roughening of the sliding sur- 
 faces. 
 
 Q. 2. What is lubrication and its object?
 
 568 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 A. 2. The interposing of a thin layer of lubricant so that 
 the surfaces do not actually touch each other, the oily surface 
 of one part sliding with less heat against the oily surface of 
 the other. 
 
 Q. 3. What examinations should be made by the engineer 
 to insure successful lubrication? 
 
 A. 3. Examine so as to know that the oil holes are open, 
 cups filled and in proper working order, that packing in cellars 
 is put in evenly and in contact with the journal. Also see 
 that grease cups are filled, and that grease cellars contain 
 enough grease for the next trip. The waste on top of driving 
 or truck boxes should also be in proper shape. 
 
 Q. 4. How should feeders of all oil cups be adjusted? 
 
 A. 4. They should be adjusted according to the work, 
 oil should be fed regularly to give perfect lubrication, and as 
 small a quantity as possilDle for perfect lubrication used. 
 
 Q. 5. Why is it bad practice to keep engine oil close to 
 boiler in warm weather? 
 
 A. 5. It gets too hot and will flow off the bearings too 
 rapidly, a hot bearing very often being the result. 
 
 Q. 6. In what manner would you care for a hot bearing if 
 discovered on the road? 
 
 A. 6. Take as much time as possible in cooling the bearing, 
 carefully lubricate all moving parts and be sure that they move 
 freely before proceeding. 
 
 Q. 7. What kind of oil should be used on hot bearings? 
 
 A. 7. If too hot to stand engine oil use valve oil while 
 bearing is warm enough to make it flow. To avoid reheating, 
 the valve oil must be removed as soon as the bearing cools. 
 
 Q. 8. At completion of trip what is necessary? 
 
 A. 8. Shut off the lubricator and all bottom feed oil cups, 
 feel of all bearings and pins and report any that are running 
 hot. 
 
 Q. 9. How would you determine what boxes to report 
 examined? Why not report all boxes examined? 
 
 A. 9. Placing the hand on driving box, on hub of engine 
 truck wheel and on top of tender truck boxes nearest the brass, 
 shows which are too hot. Unless the temperature was above 
 running heat would not report them examined. 
 
 Q.IO. Why is it bad practice to disturb the packing on top 
 of driving and engine truck boxes with spout of oil can when 
 oiling engine? 
 
 A. 10. It stirs up the dirt, cinders and sand and is liable 
 to get them down on the bearings, as well as feed the oil away 
 too quickly. This packing is placed on top of boxes to help 
 keep the dirt and dust out of oil holes, and to aid in gradual 
 lubrication from the top.
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 569 
 
 Q. 11. How do you adjust grease cups as applied to rods? 
 
 A. 11. By screwing down the compression plug until a 
 slight resistance from the grease is felt. When grease shows 
 between brass and pin, then stop. This should be sufficient 
 over the division. 
 
 Q. 12. Is it usual for pins to run warm when using grease? 
 
 A. 12. Yes. The grease must melt and become practically 
 an oil in order to lubricate freely. 
 
 Q. 13. What effect does too much pressure produce? 
 
 A. 13. It wastes the grease and increases the friction 
 until the surplus amount is worked out so that the bearing 
 can run free on its journal. 
 
 Q. 14. Is it necessary to use oil with grease on crank 
 pins? 
 
 A. 14. No. 
 
 Q. 15. When an engine is equipped with Elvin driving 
 box lubricator, how can you tell whether a sufficient amount 
 of lubricant is in the grease receptacle? 
 
 A. 15. By the indicator wire fastened to the bottom of the 
 grease cellar, which shows the amount of grease left in the 
 cellar. 
 
 Q. 16. Why should engine oil not be used on valves and cyl- 
 inders? 
 
 A. 16. Because it will vaporize and become like a gas which 
 has no lubricating qualities at such a high temperature as that 
 of the steam. 
 
 Q. 17. At what temperature does engine oil lose its lubri- 
 cating qualities? At what temperature for valve oil? 
 
 A. 17. Either oil loses its lubricating qualities before reach- 
 ing its flash point. The flash point of engine oil is from 250 
 to 350 degrees F., that of valve oil from 500 to 600 degrees P., 
 depending on the quality of the oil. Steam at 120 pounds has 
 a temperature of about 350 degrees F., which is above the 
 flash test of engine oil; steam at 235 pounds has a tempera- 
 ture of about 431 degrees F., which is much below the flash 
 test of valve oil. Where superheated steam is used and the 
 temperature is 600 degrees F. and more, a higher grade of 
 valve oil with a higher flash test is required. 
 
 Q. 18. How and by what means are Valves, cylinders and the 
 steam end of air pumps lubricated? 
 
 A. 18. By hydrostatic lubricator with sight-feed. 
 
 Q. 19. What is the principle on which a lubricator oper- 
 ates? How does the oil get from the cup to the steam chest? 
 
 A. 19. Steam being admitted to the condenser condenses 
 and th*^ watrr of condensation flows through the water pipe, 
 when the water valve is open, to the bottom of the reservoir; 
 the oil being lighter than the water remains on top and at such
 
 570 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 a height that it can flow downward through the oil tubes to the 
 regulating feed valves; when the feed valves are open, the oil 
 passes out of the feed nozzles in the form of drops, flowing 
 upward through the sight-feed glasses, where it is met by a 
 small current of steam from the condenser, through the equal- 
 izing pipes which forces the oil through the choke plugs into 
 the oil pipes and thence into the steam chests. . 
 
 Q. 20. How should the lubricator be filled? 
 
 A. 20. Close all valves connected with the lubricator, re- 
 move filling plug, open the drain cock and draw off the water 
 only. Then' close drain plug. Fill the oil tank in the regular 
 way, taking ^are not to overflow it; replace filling plug. If 
 there is not enough oil to fill the lubricator water may be 
 used, as the lubricator will begin feeding sooner when full? 
 
 Q. 21. After filling lubricator, what should be done? 
 
 A. 21. Open wide the steam throttle to the lubricator, then 
 carefully open water valves. Open feeds as required but not 
 until sure the chamber in the glasses is filled with water. 
 
 Q. 22. How long before leaving terminal should the feed 
 valves be opened? Why? 
 
 A. 22. About fifteen minutes. This should be sufficient 
 time to allow oil to feed through the oil pipe to the steam 
 chests. 
 
 Q. 23. How many drops should be fed per minute? 
 
 A. 23. From one to seven drops per minute for cylinders, 
 depending upon conditions, timed by the watch. Large cyl- 
 inders require more oil than smaller ones. About one drop 
 per minute should be fed to the air pump. 
 
 Q. 24. If lubricator feeds regularly when working steam 
 and too rapidly after shutting off, what is the trouble? 
 
 A. 24. This is due to too large an opening in the choke 
 plug at the lubricator or through the steam valves at the 
 steam chest. Reduce to proper size by applying new chokes 
 or valves. 
 
 Q, 25. When valves appear dry while using steam and the 
 lubricator is working all right, what would you do to relieve 
 these conditions? 
 
 A. 25. Ease off on the throttle a few seconds to reduce 
 steam chest pressure anti drop the reverse lever a few notches, 
 giving the valve a longer travel. Oil held in the pipes will 
 then flow down. 
 
 GENERAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON ELECTRIC 
 HEADLIGHTS. 
 
 Q. 1. Describe the passage of the current through the lamp 
 and tell how arc light is formed.
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 571 
 
 A. 1. The current flowing from the dynamo is called the 
 positive current and enters the lamp at the binding post, 
 thence through a No. 8 insulated copper wire to the bracket, 
 thence through connections to carbon; then down through the 
 copper electrode and holder to a No. 8 insulated copper wire, 
 through the solenoid then to the binding post and back to the 
 dynamo. 
 
 As soon as current passes through the solenoid, it attracts 
 the armature which in turn is connected with the levers which 
 clutch the carbon and separate it from the point of the copper 
 electrode. The current jumping this space, from the carbon 
 to the electrode creates the light, the distance between the 
 points being regulated by current flowing through the solenoid. 
 A solenoid is a coil of wires and when energized by a current 
 flowing through them, acts as a magnet. 
 
 Q. 2. Why should sandpaper be used to smooth commutator 
 instead of emery cloth? 
 
 A. 2. Sand under these conditions is a non-conductor while 
 emery is a conductor of the electric current and should a piece 
 of the emery lodge between thfi bars of the commutator, it 
 would result in a short circuit. Emery will embed in the 
 copper and cut the brushes, while sand will not do so. 
 
 Q. 3. State how you would go about to focus a lamp? 
 
 A. 3. (1) Adjust back of reflector so front edge will 
 be parallel with front edge of case. 
 
 (2) Adjust lamp to have point of copper as near center 
 of reflector as possible. 
 
 (3) Have carbon as near center of chimney hole in re- 
 flector as possible. 
 
 (4) Have locomotives on straight track and move lamp 
 until you get best results on track. The light should be re- 
 flected in parallel rays and in as small a space as possible. 
 
 To lower light on track, raise lamp. 
 
 To raise light on track, lower lamp. 
 
 Q. 4. If the light throws shadows upon the track, is it 
 properly focused? 
 
 A. 4. No. 
 
 Q. 5. If the light is properly focused, that is, if the rays 
 are leaving the reflector in parallel lines, but the light does 
 not strike the center of the track, what should be done? 
 
 A. 5. ' Shift entire case on base board. 
 
 Q. 6. What can you do to insure a good and unfailing 
 light for the entire trip? 
 
 A. 6. The entire equipment should be carefully inspected 
 before starting on each trip to know that there are no wires 
 with insulation chafed or worn off; see that all screws and 
 connections are tight; that commutator is clean, and brushes
 
 572 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 set In holder in the correct way. Carbon of sufficient length 
 to complete the trip should be in the lamp, the copper electrode 
 cleaned and oil in both bearings. 
 
 Q. 7. Why would you not fill the main oil cellar full of 
 oil? 
 
 A. 7. It will be thrown out of the ends of the cellar by the 
 motion of the engine and might ruin the armature. 
 
 Q. 8. What is the most vital part of the dynamo? 
 
 A. 8. The commutator. 
 
 Q. 9. What care and attention should be given the com- 
 mutator? 
 
 A. 9. The brushes should be examined as to bearing, sur- 
 face and tension, the mica between the copper strips should 
 always be a trifle below the surface, and the commutator 
 clean. 
 
 Q. 10. How should you clean the commutator, and when? 
 
 A. 10. The commutator should be cleaned each trip with 
 a piece of damp waste not wet, rubbing endwise so as to keep 
 the creases clean where mica is filed out. Wipe dry. 
 
 Q. 11. What kind of a bearing should the brush have on 
 the commutator? 
 
 A. 11. They should fit perfectly on the commutator; with 
 bearings covering no less than two, nor more than three of the 
 commutator bars. 
 
 Q.12. How are the brushes fitted? 
 
 A. 12. Take a piece of fine O sand paper and introduce 
 between the brush and commutator and draw in the direction 
 of the rotation of commutator until the brush fits perfectly. 
 Do not saw sand paper back and forth, pull it in one direction 
 only. 
 
 Q. 13. Is it advisable to ever try to fit a brush up with a 
 file or knife? 
 
 A. 13. It is not. 
 
 Q. 14. Why is it important to clean the scale off the 
 point of the copper electrode each trip? 
 
 A. 14. The current will not pass through this scale, and 
 to allow the point of the carbon and the electrode to touch to 
 form a circuit, it must be removed. 
 
 Q. 15. How should the copper electrode be trimmed at the 
 point? 
 
 A. 15. Should be trimmed with a piece of emery cloth to 
 a rounding point having about Vt inch surface. 
 
 Q. 16. How far should the copper electrode project above 
 the holder? 
 
 A. 16. One inch. 
 
 Q. 17. Should the electrode be raised up to lij inches, 
 what might happen?
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 573 
 
 A. 17. So much heat -would be generated on the clutch that 
 It would result in a lamp failure. 
 
 Q. 18. If the dash pot should be found stuck, would you put 
 oil in it? 
 
 A. 18. Cut the dirt from out of the pot and off the plunger 
 with coal oil, wiping off all oil after cleaning as it would cause 
 the plunger to collect dirt and stick. 
 
 Q. 19. If one carbon of lamp should "jig or pound," what 
 can be done to stop it? 
 
 A. 19. This is caused by the iron armature being too far 
 out of the solenoid, or speed too low. 
 
 Q. 20. Does the pounding of the lamp occur with the old 
 series wound machines or with the new compound wound 
 machines? 
 
 A. 20. Occurs more with the old series wound as the com- 
 pound winding gives a steadier voltage. 
 
 Q. 21. If the copper electrode was fusing, how would you 
 know it? 
 
 A. 21. The rapid burning of the copper would change the 
 color of the light to green, instead of a shaft of white light. 
 
 Q. 22. What should be done when a green light is seen? 
 
 A. 22. Steam should be throttled at once, then opened 
 slowly until a white light reappears. 
 
 Q. 23. What is the cause of the copper electrode fusing? 
 
 A. 23. May be caused by speed of dynamo being too high 
 or by the wires from dynamo to lamp being connected up 
 wrong so that the positive current enters the copper electrode 
 instead of the top carbon. 
 
 Q. 24. What arrangements have been made so that you 
 cannot connect your wires wrong? 
 
 A. 24. The positive binding post both at the dynamo and 
 lamp have been provided with a much larger hole to receive 
 the wire than has been made in the negative binding post. 
 The ends of the positive wire should always be bent or doubled 
 back so they will just enter the receptacle in the positive bind- 
 ing posts, but cannot be connected to the negative binding post. 
 
 Q. 25. Should the copper electrode and holder become 
 fused until no longer serviceable out on the road, what would 
 you do? 
 
 A. 25. Remove the damaged holder from the lamp. Fasten 
 a bolt or carbon in the bracket of the lamp with the end in the 
 center of reflector and not touching the base of reflector or 
 lamp. 
 
 Q. 26. If you were running along with the 'light burning 
 steady and nice, then suddenly the light began to flash badly 
 and kept it up, where would you look for the trouble? 
 
 A. 26. A loose wire in the binding post or insulation worn
 
 574 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 off both wires allowing them to be jarred together. Examine 
 lamp and see that all set screws are tight. 
 
 Q. 27. If you were running along with light burning satis- 
 factorily and suddenly your light went out, where would you 
 be likely to find the trouble? 
 
 A. 27. Generally a carbon burned out or a broken wire 
 between dynamo and lamp. 
 
 Q. 28. If the light goes out while between stations, what 
 course would an engineer pursue? 
 
 A. 28. Steam shut off until investigation of cause can be 
 made. 
 
 Q. 29. Why is it essential to shut off steam and stop the 
 equipment? 
 
 A. 29. To avoid the possibility of the armature or fields 
 being burned out. 
 
 Q. 30. How does the equipment act when short circuited? 
 
 A. 30. There will be a small dull red light in lamp, or no 
 light at all, engine will labor heavily and run slowly with con- 
 siderable volume of steam blowing at the exhaust. 
 
 Q. 31. How would you test for a broken circuit? 
 
 A. 31. Place a carbon across the binding posts or dynamo. 
 No flash will be seen if the trouble is in the dynamo, but if 
 dynamo is O. K. a flash would be seen; this would indicate 
 that the trouble is on towards the lamp. Then go to the lamp, 
 placing carbon across binding posts. If wire is broken between 
 dynamo and lamp there will be no flash. If wires are O. K. 
 there will be a flash and the trouble will be found in the lamp. 
 Probably a carbon will be found to be burned out. 
 
 Q. 32. How would you proceed to locate the point of trouble 
 with a short circuit? 
 
 A. 32. First, remove one of the lead wires from the binding 
 post at dynamo; if the trouble was in the dynamo no difference 
 would be noticed in action of speed. Second, disconnect one 
 of the cab wires; speed would increase and lamp would burn 
 if the trouble is in cab circuit. Third, if trouble is not in cab 
 circuit, go to lamp, disconnect one of the main wires from 
 binding post. There will be no change in speed of dynamo if 
 short circuit is in the wires between dynamo and lamp. The 
 speed of engine will increase and the trouble will be found in 
 the lamp if the wires are all right.
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 575 
 
 AIR BRAKE QUESTIONS 
 PUMP GOVERNOR* 
 
 Q. 1. What is the duty of the pump governor? 
 
 A. 1. To properly regulate the air pressure in the main 
 reservoir. 
 
 Q. 2. Explain how the governor operates. 
 
 A. 2. The governor is an automatic arrangement for admit- 
 ting and closing off steam to the air pump, and is actuated 
 by air pressure. The steam valve, which shuts off and opens 
 up the steam passage way to the pump, is controlled by an 
 air piston and spring. When air pressure is admitted above the 
 piston, it forces the piston down, closing off the steam to the 
 pump. When the air pressure is exhausted from above the 
 piston, the spring forces the piston up and allows steam pres- 
 sure to pass to the pump. The admission and exhaust of the 
 air to this piston is controlled by a diaphragm and spring. The 
 air from the main reservoir enters the body of the governor 
 underneath the diaphragm, which is held by a spring of given 
 tension, depending on the pressure desired in the main reser- 
 voir. While the main reservoir pressure is less than the 
 pressure the governor is set for, this diaphragm is held down 
 by the spring, and the air can pass no farther than a small 
 pin valve attached to it, but when the main reservoir pressure 
 overcomes the tension of the spring, it raises the diaphragm, 
 unseats the pin valve and allows the air to flow to the top of 
 the air piston, shutting off the pump. During the time the 
 air is acting on this piston some of it escapes through a leakage 
 port or vent hole, which is always open. When the main reser- 
 voir pressure drops below that to which the spring is adjusted, 
 the spring forces the diaphragm down, seating the pin valve 
 and allowing the air on top of the piston to escape to the 
 atmosphere through the small vent port. 
 
 Q. 3. By what air pressure is the governor operated when 
 using the D-8 brake valve? When using the G-6 valve? When 
 using the New York brake valve? 
 
 A. 3. With the D-8 valve, by train line pressure. With the 
 F-6 or G-6 valve by the main reservoir pressure. New York, 
 by the train line. 
 
 Q. 4. By what pressure is the duplex governor operated 
 in high speed service? By what pressure in ordinary service? 
 
 A. 4. The governor tops are adjusted for 90 and 110 pounds 
 and the two feed valves are set for 70 and 90 pounds. To oper- 
 
 *See volume, Air Brake-Construction and Working.
 
 576 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 ate the low or ordinary pressure feature, the handle of the 
 reversing cock is turned to the left, this cuts out the 110 pound 
 governor and 90 pound feed valve and renders operative the 
 90 pound governor and 70 pound feed valve. By reversing the 
 position of the reversing cock handle the low pressure parts 
 are cut out and the high pressure parts cut in; but the small 
 stop cock in the governor pipe must also be closed. 
 
 Q. 5. What is the object of the relief port in the governor? 
 Why should it be kept open? 
 
 A. 5. If this port is not kept open, the air pressure which 
 holds the piston down cannot escape when the diaphragm valve 
 closes, and, consequently, the governor will not operate the 
 pump properly. 
 
 Q. 6. If the pin valve leaks, what effect will it have on 
 the pump? 
 
 A. 6. It will allow a certain amount of air pressure to flow 
 in on top of the air piston. If the leak is greater than the 
 escape from the little leakage port, the under pressure will 
 accumulate, and cause the governor to slow down or completely 
 stop the pump. 
 
 Q. 7. How can you detect leaks in the governor? 
 
 A. 7. By disconnecting the upper from the lower section 
 of the governor, then attaching the air pressure connection, 
 turn the air pressure under the diaphragm. It if raises with 
 the proper pressure and opens the port the escape of air will 
 be readily noticed. Should it not be raised or the port be closed 
 by dirt, it would be in that section; this will also show if the 
 diaphragm leaks. I would then inspect the lower section. 
 
 Q. 8. Where would you look for the cause if the governor 
 allowed the pump to raise the pressure too high? 
 
 A. 8. The main reservoir pressure may not reach the gov- 
 ernor, due to the stoppage in the pipe, or in the union at the 
 governor. This may also be due to the space on top of the dia- 
 phragm being filled with dirt. If the air is getting to the 
 diaphragm valve, and is so indicated by the blow at the leakage 
 port, the trouble must then be due to the drip pipe being 
 stopped up or frozen, thereby preventing the air and steam, 
 which leak in under the air piston, from escaping. 
 
 Q. 9. Where, if the pump stopped when the pressure was 
 too low? 
 
 A, 9. If the pump was not getting steam it would probably 
 be due to the pin valve gummed up or dirt under it; the detec- 
 tor hole or leakage port in the side of the governor would then 
 blow. Once in a great while the piston and steam valve have 
 been known to stick closed, but very rarely. 
 
 Q. 10. What effect does it have on the pump if the drip pipe 
 is stopped or frozen up?
 
 EXAMINATIOyS. 577 
 
 A. 10. The governor cannot then act to shut off the pump 
 and too high a pressure will be pumped into the main drum. 
 
 AIR PUMP* 
 
 Q. 1. Explain how an air pump should be started and run 
 on the road. 
 
 A. 1. It should be started slowly to permit the condensa- 
 tion to be drained off. The lubricator should be started care- 
 fully and the pump worked slowly until about forty pounds 
 has been accumulated in the main reservoir to cushion the 
 Bteam and air piston of the pump. Then the throttle should 
 be opened wider, giving a speed of about one hundred and 
 thirty or one hundred and forty single strokes per minute. 
 The amount of work being done really governs the speed of 
 the pump, 
 
 Q. 2. How should the steam end be oiled? 
 
 A. 2. By the sight-feed lubricator, with a good quality 
 of valve oil, and at the rate of about one drop per minute. This 
 amount will vary with the condition of pump and the work 
 being done. 
 
 Q. 3. How should the air end of the pump be oiled, and 
 what kind of oil used? 
 
 A. 3. High-grade valve oil, containing good lubricating 
 qualities and no sediment, should be used. A good swab on 
 the piston rod will help out a great deal. Oil should be used 
 in the air cylinder of the pump sparingly, but continuously, 
 and it should be introduced on the down stroke, when the 
 pump is running slowly, through the little cup provided for 
 that purpose, and not through the air suction valves. An 
 automatic oil cup is preferable to hand oiling. 
 
 Q. 4. Explain the operation of the steam end of the pump 
 — on an up-stroke; on a down-stroke. 
 
 A. 4. When first admitting steam to the 9%-inch pump, if 
 the main piston is at the bottom of the cylinder (as it usually 
 is, due to gravity), the main valve moves to the right hand 
 position pulling with it the side valve and thus admitting 
 steam to bottom of the cylinder under the piston, forcing it 
 up; when the main piston is nearly at the top of its fetroke, 
 the reversing plate catches the shoulder on the reversing-valve 
 rod, moving the reversing rod and valve to their upper posi- 
 tions, where it admits behind the large head of the main 
 valve, forcing this main valve over to the left, carrying with 
 it the slide valve which admits steam to the top end of the 
 
 *See volume. Air Brake Construction and Working. Also West- 
 house Air Brake Portfolio.
 
 578 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 cylinder, and, at the same time, exhausts it from the bottom 
 end, thereby reversing the stroke of the pump. 
 
 Q. 5. Explain the operation of the air end of the pump 
 on an up-stroke; on a down-stroke. 
 
 A. 5. The air piston is directly connected with the steam 
 piston, and any movement of the steam piston will conse- 
 quently be transmitted to the air piston. When the steam 
 piston moves up the air piston will, of course, go with it, thus 
 leaving an empty space or a vacuum in the lower end of the 
 air cylinder, underneath the air piston. Atmospheric air 
 rushes through the air inlet, raising the lower receiving valve, 
 and filling the bottom end of the cylinder with atmospheric 
 pressure. At the same time the air above the air piston will 
 be compressed. The pressure thus formed holds the upper 
 receiving valve to its seat and when a little greater than the 
 air in the main reservoir, the upper discharge valve will lift 
 and allow the compressed air to flow into the main reservoir. 
 When the piston reaches the top of the stroke its motion is 
 reversed, and on the down stroke the vacuum in the upper end 
 of the air cylinder is supplied by atmospheric pressure pass- 
 ing through the upper receiving valve. The main reservoir 
 pressure is held by the upper discharge valve, and the air 
 being compressed in the bottom of the cylinder holds the bot- 
 tom receiving valve to its seat, and when compressed sufB- 
 ciently, forces the lower discharge valve open and passes to 
 the main reservoir, 
 
 Q. 6. Give some of the causes of a pump running hot. 
 
 A. 6. First, air cylinder packing rings leaking. Second, 
 discharge valves stuck closed or the discharge passages so 
 obstructed that the pump will be pumping against high pres- 
 sure continually. Third, poor lubrication. Fourth, high speed. 
 Fifth, discharge or receiving air valves leaking. Sixth, air 
 piston rod packing leaking. 
 
 Q. 7. If a pump runs very hot on the road, how will you 
 proceed to cool it? 
 
 A. 7. First, reduce the speed of the pump, and look for 
 leaks in the train line. Second, make sure that the packing 
 around the piston rod is not too tight and in bad condition. 
 Third, see that the main reservoir is properly drained. If the 
 pump still runs hot it should be reported at the end of the trip. 
 
 Q. 8. If the pump stops, how can you tell whether the 
 trouble is in the pump or in the governor? 
 
 A. 8. It may be tested by opening the drain cock in the 
 steam passage at the pump, and noting whether there is a 
 free flow of steam; if so, there is a free passage through the 
 governor and the trouble is not there. 
 
 Q. 9. State the common causes for the pump stopping.
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 579 
 
 A. 9. There are several reasons. First, it may be stopped 
 by the governor being out of order. Second, the valves may 
 be dry and need lubrication. Third, nuts may be loose or 
 broken on the piston rod or one of the pistons pulled off. 
 Fourth, the reversing valve rod may be broken or bent, or the 
 reversing plate may be loose, or the shoulder on the reversing 
 valve rod or on the reversing plate may be so badly worn 
 as not to catch and perform their proper functions. Fifth, 
 nuts holding the main valve piston may be loose or broken 
 off. Sixth, excessive blow past the packing rings of the 
 main valve. 
 
 Q. 10. Under what circumstances will a pump compress 
 air in but one direction? 
 
 A. 10. With either discharge valve broken and held off 
 its seat. 
 
 Q. 11. How will defective air valves affect the operation 
 of the pump? 
 
 A. 11. Leaky air valves, like leaky air cylinder packing, 
 cause a pump to heat badly and lose greatly in the amount of 
 air compressed. A broken air valve causes the loss of all 
 service of compression at that end of the pump, that is, makes 
 it single instead of double acting. See also Answer 6. 
 
 Q. 12. How do you locate these defects? 
 
 A. 12. By the way the pump acts. The main piston moves 
 quickly toward a broken receiving valve and away from a 
 broken discharge valve. The various defects all have their 
 symptoms, which are noticed if the principle of the pump and 
 its details are clearly understood. 
 
 Q. 13. Should an engineman observe the working of a 
 pump on the road so as to properly report defects or repairs 
 needed, and do you consider yourself competent to locate 
 defects? 
 
 A. 13. Yes. 
 
 Q. 14. If the pump stops on the road, what will you do to 
 start it? 
 
 A. 14. Close the steam valve a moment and then open it 
 quickly. If it then failed to start, it would indicate that the 
 main valve was broken. Also examine it in both air and steam 
 end for defects. Be sure, first, that the governor is not defec- 
 tive or has not shut off the supply of steam to the pump.
 
 680 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 WESTINGHOUSE CROSS-COMPOUND PUMPS* 
 
 ENGINEERS' BRAKE AND EQUALIZING DISCHARGE 
 VALVE * 
 
 Q. 1. Name the different positions of the brake valve and 
 trace the flow of air through it in each position. 
 
 A. 1. Full release, running position, lap, service applica- 
 tion and emergency application. In full release there is a 
 large direct communication between the main reservoir and 
 the train pipe. In running position the air passes from the 
 main reservoir indirectly to the train pipe, that is, through 
 the ports and passages of the excess-pressure valve or through 
 the feed-valve, as the case may be. In lap position all ports 
 are closed. In service application first the air from the equaliz- 
 ing discharge reservoir and cavity "D" escapes to the atmos- 
 phere, then, when the equalizing discharge piston raises, the 
 air from the train pipe escapes to the atmosphere through the 
 train line exhaust elbow. In emergency position a large 
 direct opening is made between the train pipe and the at- 
 mosphere. 
 
 Q. 2. Where does the main reservoir pressure begin and 
 end? Where does the train pipe pressure begin and end? 
 
 A. 2. The main reservoir pressure begins at the pump dis- 
 charge pipe and ends at the connection to the brake valve. 
 The train pipe pressure begins at the brake valve and extends 
 to the rear cock on the train, with branches to the triple valve 
 under each car, the tender, and the engine. 
 
 Q. 3, Explain the effect of a cut rotary valve or seat. 
 
 A. 3. A leaky rotary valve or seat usually causes a loss 
 of excess pressure in running position and releases the brakes 
 in lap position. 
 
 Q. 4. With the handle of the brake valve in either running 
 or holding position, what defect will cause the black hand to 
 equalize with the red hand? 
 
 A. 4. A leaky rotary valve, a lower body gasket, feed valve, 
 or feed valve gasket. 
 
 Q. 5. How do you regulate the excess pressure with each 
 form of brake valve? How do you clean the valves? 
 
 A. 5. With the 1889 (D-8) brake valve, by the excess pres- 
 sure spring; with the later forms of brake valves, by the 
 spring in the feed-valve attachment. Clean the valves and 
 
 *See volume, Air Brake-Construction and Working.
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 581 
 
 their seats by waste or friction from a soft piece of wood — 
 never oil them when replacing. 
 
 Q. 6. How do you apply and release the automatic brake? 
 
 A. 6. The automatic brake is applied by reducing the train 
 pipe pressure below that in the auxiliary, it is released by 
 increasing the train pipe pressure above that in the auxiliary. 
 The brake valve is the valve to properly perform these func- 
 tions, when everything is in working order. 
 
 Q. 7. How can you tell which defect caused the hands to 
 equalize? 
 
 A. 7. Reduce the brake pipe pressure below the adjustment 
 of the feed valve, close the cut-out cock under the brake valve. 
 If there is a leak at the service exhaust port, the rotary valve 
 will be leaking. If there be no discharge, and the black hand 
 raise, the body gasket is at fault. If the black hand remains 
 stationary, the trouble will be found in the feed valve or its 
 case gasket. 
 
 Q. 8. What is the purpose of the equalizing reservoir, and 
 what effect would a leak from this reservoir have? 
 
 A. 8. The purpose of the equalizing reservoir is to supply 
 a larger volume of air above the equalizing piston to enable 
 the engineer to make a graduated reduction of the pressure 
 above the pistor Leakage from this reservoir would be liable 
 to cause the brakes to set when the brake valve is in lap posi- 
 tion. 
 
 Q. 9. If the pipe connecting the brake valve to the equaliz- 
 ing reservoir should break, what should be done? 
 
 A. 9. The pipe at the brake valve should be plugged, also 
 the service exhaust port. Wishing to make a service applica- 
 tion, move the handle carefully towards emergency position 
 until the desired reduction is made and then move back to lap 
 very carefully. 
 
 Q. 10. What can be learned by noticing the discharge of air 
 from the train pipe exhaust? 
 
 A. 10. The length of the train line, that is, approximately 
 the number of cars of air. By watching this exhaust it can 
 also be determined if, in testing brakes, one defective triple 
 sets quick action; third, in releasing brakes it can be told 
 if you only have the lone engine. 
 
 Q. 11. What is the duty of the small reservoir connected to 
 the brake valve? If the pipe leading to this reservoir is leak- 
 ing badly or broken off, what will you do? 
 
 A. 11. It is for the purpose of enlarging chamber "D" with- 
 out making a great bulky brake valve in the cab. Plug up this 
 pipe or put in a blind gasket, also plug the train line exhaust 
 nipple and use emergency position carefully, as with the old 
 three-way cock.
 
 B82 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 Q. 12. Where is the first air taken from in making a serv- 
 ice stop? Where does it blow out? Where next? 
 
 A. 12. From chamber "D"' and the equalizing reservoir. It 
 blows out of the preliminary exhaust. Next, the train pipe 
 pressure escapes from the train line exhaust nipple. 
 
 Q. 13. Does air ever blow out of the train pipe exhaust 
 when releasing the brake? Why? 
 
 A. 13. Yes, with a lone engine or very short train, in which 
 case the train line charges more rapidly than chamber "D" and 
 the equalizing reservoir, thus causing piston 17 to raise. 
 
 Q. 14. What pressures do the red hand and black hand of 
 the gauge indicate? 
 
 A. 14. Red hand — main reservoir; black hand — chamber 
 "D" pressure. 
 
 Q. 15. Does the blank hand of the gauge also show the 
 train pipe pressure at all times? 
 
 A. 15. No, only when chamber "D" and the train line are 
 connected, as in full release and running position. On lap or in 
 service positions at the instant the train line exhaust starts or 
 stops, they are also practically equal. 
 
 Q. 16. What will be the result of leaving the handle of the 
 brake valve in full release position too long and then moving 
 to running position? 
 
 A. 16. Brakes are likely to drag due to temporarily shutting 
 off all supply of air to overcome the leaks. 
 
 Q. 17. Following a straight air application, if the brake 
 fails to release with the straight air valve in release position, 
 where would you look for the trouble and what may be done to 
 release the brake? 
 
 A. 17. This would indicate that the double-throw clutch 
 valve was leaking and that the feed valve wanted cleaning. 
 To release the brake move the automatic brake valve to release 
 and quickly return to running position. 
 
 Q. 18. How is the train pipe pressure regulated with each 
 type of brake valve? 
 
 A. 18. By the governor with the 1889 (D-8) brake valve; 
 by the feed valve attachment with all later types of brake 
 valves. 
 
 Q. 19. In making a service application what should the 
 first reduction be? 
 
 A. 19. From 5 to 8 pounds, depending upon the length of 
 the train. 
 
 Q. 20. What reduction from 70 pounds train pipe pressure 
 will fully apply the brake? Why? 
 
 A. 20. About 20 pounds; because that amount from the 
 auxiliary reservoirs will equalize with the pressure in the 
 brake cylinders at about 50 pounds.
 
 EXAMIXATIO^^S. 583 
 
 ■ Q. 21.- How do you handle the brake valve to apply the 
 brake in the emergency? 
 
 A. 21. It should be thrown to full emergency position and 
 left there. 
 
 Q. 22. How do you handle the brake valve in the case of a 
 bursted hose? 
 
 A. 22. Place the handle on lap. If the trainmen could not 
 find the burst hose, I would frequently throw a wave of air into 
 the train pipe (in running position or partial release) so as to 
 aid them. 
 
 Q. 23. In case the train breaks in two? 
 
 A. 23. Place the brake valve on lap until the rear cock of 
 the first section is closed; then release and as soon as these 
 brakes are off, place the handle again on lap to get pressure to 
 release the rear portion of train when coupled up. Do not 
 recharge to full pressure until the whole train is coupled up. 
 
 Q. 24. When the train is backing up and a tail hose is used 
 on rear end to apply brakes? 
 
 A. 24. Always carry the valve in running position when 
 the tail hose is being used. Never throw it to full release unless 
 the train stops and some brakes fail to release. 
 
 Q. 25. Do leaks in the brake valve affect the operation of 
 the brakes? 
 
 A. 25. Yes. If air leaks to the atmosphere it will effect the 
 reduction desired. If it leaks from the main reservoir to other 
 ports it may release the brakes or make the service application 
 position of no effect. 
 
 Q. 26. Name the defects in the brake valve and explain 
 how you would locate them. 
 
 A. 26. Leaky rotary valve (or body gasket) place the valve 
 in service position, bleed the engine and tender auxiliaries and 
 place the rear tank hose in a bucket of water. Air bubbles in 
 the water will indicate this leak. If the rotary and body gasket 
 are tight, loss of excess means dirty or cut feed-valve or 
 broken feed-valve gasket. Leaky packing ring in piston 17 (the 
 equalizing discharge piston) makes the gauge reduce slower 
 and the black hand recoil after a considerable reduction. A 
 leak in chamber "D" or its connections (the gauge and the 
 equalizing reservoir) causes the train line exhaust to blow and 
 the brakes to set on lap position. These are the main defects 
 and "symptoms." 
 
 Q. 27. In what manner can you remedy these defects? 
 
 A. 27. Carefully tighten the bolts or unions where gaskets 
 are leaking and clean any dirty valves without scratching 
 them; after that is done it is better to handle the valve care- 
 fully until the terminal is reached and report the repairs 
 needed in detail.
 
 584 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 NO. 6 E. T.. EQUIPMENT* 
 THE TRIPLE VALVE* 
 
 Q. 1. "What is the duty of the triple valve? 
 
 A. 1. The duty of the triple valve is, first, to charge the 
 auxiliary reservoir; second, to set the brakes by allowing 
 auxiliary pressure to flow to the brake cylinder, and, third, to 
 release the brakes by allowing the pressure in the cylinder to 
 escape to the atmosphere. 
 
 Q. 2. "Why is the word triple used to designate this valve? 
 
 A. 2. Because it performs the three functions mentioned. 
 
 Q. 2a. By what is it connected to the brake valve? 
 
 A. 2a. By the branch pipe and the train line with hose. 
 
 Q. 3. Explain the duty of the triple piston, the slide valve 
 and the graduating valve. 
 
 A. 3. The duty of the triple valve piston, is, by variation of 
 pressures on its two sides, to move the slide valve on its seat to 
 the application, graduating, and release position, and to open 
 and close the feed groove in the piston bushing. The function 
 of the slide valve is, by its movement due to the triple valve 
 piston, to make connection between the auxiliary reservoir and 
 brake cylinder, applying the brake, and to make connections 
 between the brake cylinder and the atmosphere, releasing the 
 brake. The function of the graduating valve is, from it move- 
 ment given by the triple piston, to admit pressure gradually 
 from the auxiliary reservoir to the brake cylinder in response 
 to reductions made in the train pipe pressure. 
 
 Q. 4. How many kinds of triple valves are in use? 
 
 A. 4. Two, the plain type and the quick action type, or ac- 
 cording to the fact. 
 
 Q. 5. Describe how each kind operates. 
 
 A. 5. With the quick action type, a sudden reduction of 
 pressure in the train pipe will cause the triple piston and its 
 parts to be moved to quick action application position, which 
 first throws into operation the emergency feature of the triple, 
 admitting train line pressure to the brake cylinder, after which 
 auxiliary reservoir pressure is perniitted to pass to the brake 
 cylinder, and consequently a higher pressure is obtained than in 
 a full service application of the brake. With the plain type any 
 sudden reduction merely moves the parts to their extreme 
 position but allows no other than auxiliary reservoir pressure 
 to flow to the brake cylinder. 
 
 •See volume. Air Brake-Construction and Working. .\lso West- 
 inghouse Air Brake Portfolio. 
 
 1
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 585 
 
 Q. 6. Explain where the air comes from that enters the 
 brake cylinder in a service application. In an emergency ap- 
 plication. With each kind of triple valve. 
 
 A. 6. In service application with either type of triple valve 
 the air that enters the brake cylinder comes from the auxiliary 
 reservoir; with the quick action triple only does part of the 
 train pipe air first enter the brake cylinder quickly, later 
 followed by the auxiliary pressure. 
 
 Q. 7. How do you cut out a triple valve so its brake will not 
 operate? 
 
 A. 7. The old style plain triple, by turning the handle down 
 obliquely to about 45°. With the later style and all quick action 
 triples, by closing the stop cock in the branch pipe. Then 
 bleed the auxiliary reservoir. 
 
 Q. 8. If a triple valve does not apply the brake at the 
 proper time, where will you look for the trouble? 
 
 A. 8. If the auxiliary is charged, the triple valve is prob- 
 ably frozen or stuck or the packing ring worn badly, or the 
 brake cylinder itself leaking badly. If the auxiliary has not 
 charged, the feed groove may be closed or the reservoir itself 
 be leaking badly. 
 
 Q. 9. If the brake will not release, where will you look for 
 the trouble? 
 
 A. 9. Retainer turned up or its pipe stopped up; triple 
 piston packing ring worn; triple strainer stopped up or triple 
 frozen. 
 
 Q. 10. Name the common defects of the triple valve and 
 explain how you locate them. 
 
 A. 10. Triple valve frozen or stuck, packing ring leaking, 
 etc., located as above. Emergency gasket leaking — cut the car 
 out underneath and the brake will set quick action. Slide 
 valve dirty or leaking — blows through the exhaust or retainer 
 but will not cause emergency as last stated. Brake fails to 
 release on long train, usually the piston packing ring or cylin- 
 der bushing worn badly. 
 
 NEW YORK AIR BRAKE. THE DUPLEX AIR PUMP. 
 
 Q. 1. Describe the New York Duplex Air Pump and its 
 operation in the steam end. 
 
 A. 1. It has four cylinders — two steam and two air; one 
 air cylinder is double the area of any one of the other three, 
 which are all the same size. The steam end is duplex, and the 
 piston in each steam cylinder operates the slide valve which 
 controls the flow of steam from the boiler into the opposite 
 steam cylinder and out to the atmosphere. This is done by 
 locating the slide valve for the right cylinder under the left
 
 586 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 fylinder, and for the left cylinder under the right one, and 
 cross the steam ports from the left valve to the right cylinder 
 and from the right valve to the left cylinder. The valves are 
 D slide valves which admit steam to the cylinder by the outside 
 edge of the valve and exhaust through a cavity in the center. 
 The seat has three ports, two steam with the exhaust port 
 between them. A reversing valve rod is attached to the steam 
 valve and extends into the steam cylinder; the main piston rod 
 is drilled to clear this valve rod within it and a plate is bolted 
 on to the steam piston in such a manner as to strike a shoulder 
 on the valve rod just before the stroke of the piston in either 
 direction is completed, changing the steam valve to its opposite 
 position in the steam chest. Both steam valves being down, 
 when steam is turned on the right piston makes a stroke up 
 and at the completion of the stroke changes its steaip valve, 
 causing the left piston to make a stroke up, changing its steam 
 valve at the completion of the stroke, and causing the right 
 piston to move down, etc. The steam cylinders are the two 
 bottom cylinders. 
 
 Q. 2. Describe the operation of the air end. 
 
 A. 2. The large piston compresses air into the smaller 
 cylinder and then the latter compresses it into the main reser- 
 voir. 
 
 Q. 3. Is this a compound pump in both steam and air ends, 
 or in the air end only? 
 
 A. 3. Only in the air end. 
 
 Q. 4. What defects in the steam end will stop the pump? 
 How do you locate them? 
 
 A. 4. Chiefly the reversing apparatus — the reversing platee 
 and rods. Would investigate until the trouble was found, bear- 
 ing in mind the main valve for one cylinder regulates the steam 
 in the other. 
 
 Q. 5. What defects in the air end will stop the pump? 
 How do you locate them? 
 
 A. 5. Generally broken piston rods or loose nuts. Broken 
 or defective valves cause the pump to go "lame" but seldom 
 stop the pump unless broken parts get into the cylinder. Re- 
 move the'top heads to get at the air cylinders and examine the 
 valves through their caps. 
 
 Q. 6. Explain how you will locate a blow of steam by the 
 piston or main steam valves. 
 
 A. 6. It is difficult to distinguish between leaky packing 
 rings, leaky slide valves and worn cylinder. These parts should 
 be removed and examined carefully when there is a bad blow. 
 
 Q. 7. What is the cause of the pump not exhausting square 
 or working lame?
 
 EXAMIXATIONS. 587 
 
 A. 7. Any one or more of the air valves stuck or broken 
 or if they have much different "lift." 
 
 Q. 8. What is the effect of leaky piston rod packing in the 
 high pressure air cylinder? 
 
 A. 8. Any defective or leakage in the smaller or high-pres- 
 sure cylinder is more serious than in the low-pressure cylinder 
 because the pressure in the former is so much higher that the 
 consequent loss is greater. This loss of compressed air to the 
 atmosphere will cause the pump to run faster in order to main- 
 tain the same pressure. 
 
 Q. 9. What is the effect of leaky piston rod packing in the 
 steam cylinders? 
 
 A. 9. A waste of steam, obstructing the vision in the winter 
 and causes the piston rods to cut and groove. 
 
 Q. 10. Explain how you would locate a defective air valve. 
 
 A. 10. The general rule is this: the piston jumps toward 
 a leaky or broken receiving valve and away from a broken or 
 leaky discharge valve; also in the latter case the pump heats 
 up more, as the compressed air is "churned," that is, pumped 
 , over and over again. Air blowing out of the low-pressure re- 
 ceiving valves is readily detected. 
 
 Q. 11. How should the air cylinders be oiled? The steam 
 cylinders? 
 
 A. 11. In the air cylinders use good valve oil very sparingly. 
 Always keep good, well oiled swabs on the piston rods, as it 
 has been proven by many careful engineers that w'ith these 
 practically no oil need be put into the air cylinders. Valve oil 
 in the steam cylinders and lubrication started directly after 
 the pump has started. Remember the first steam admitted to 
 a cold pump condenses and washes the surfaces clean of oil; 
 hence oil should be supplied immediately thereafter. 
 
 Q. 12. Which air cylinder requires the most oil? 
 
 A. 12. The smaller or high-pressure cylinder, on account 
 of the higher temperature. 
 
 Q. 13. Explain the operation of the automatic oil cup used 
 on the air cylinders. 
 
 A. 13. With the oil cup filled, the pump working and the 
 stroke of the piston upward, air is forced up through a small 
 passage in the center of the oil cup body and cap, down inside 
 the extended cap nut sleeve, through the oil and forms a 
 pressure thereon. When the piston is on its downward stroke, 
 and there is a partial vacuum in the air cylinder, the air pres- 
 sure formed on top of the oil in this cup forces the oil up inside 
 the sleeve of the cap nut to the feed port and a small quantity 
 of oil is then taken down through this port and sprayed into 
 the air cylinders on each down stroke.
 
 588 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 L T EQUIPMENT* 
 
 Q. 1. What are the duties of the automatic control valve?" 
 A. 1. The automatic control valve is designed to admit 
 and exhaust air to and from all the brake cylinders on the loco- 
 motive and tender during an automatic application of the 
 brakes, and to automatically maintain the desired brake cylin- 
 der pressure regardless of piston travel or leakage from the 
 brake cylinders or their connections. 
 
 Q. 2. Where would you look for the trouble if the loco- 
 motive brakes fail to apply or leak off after a service applica- 
 tion is made? 
 
 A. 2. A leak in the control reservoir pipe or its connec- 
 tions or in the control cylinder cap gasket will cause this 
 trouble, or the spring in the straight-air brake valve may be 
 weak or broken, permitting the handle of the valve to remain 
 in the automatic release position. 
 
 Q. 3. What should be done if the brake cylinder pipe 
 breaks between the double chamber reservoir and the double 
 check valves? 
 
 A. 3. Close the cut-out cock in the main reservoir supply 
 pipe. If this occurs while train is in motion and brake applied, 
 the loss of main reservoir pressure can be prevented by moving 
 the handle of the straight-air brake valve to the automatic 
 release position. 
 
 Q. 4. What should be done if the control valve release pipe 
 breaks? 
 
 A. 4. If this pipe breaks, the holding feature would be lost. 
 To hold the locomotive brakes applied when releasing train 
 brakes, use the straight-air brake valve. 
 
 ■Q. 5. W^hat should be done if the brake pipe cross-over pipe 
 breaks? If the main reservoir supply pipe breaks? 
 
 A. 5. Close the cut-out cock in the pipe broken. Either pipe 
 broken means the loss of the automatic brake on the locomotive? 
 
 Q. 6. What should be done if the control reservoir pipe 
 breaks? 
 
 A. 6. The locomotive automatic brakes can not be applied 
 if this pipe is broken, but if plugged, it can be applied and 
 released with automatic brake valve; therefore, the pipe should 
 be plugged. 
 
 *See Second Supplement to the volume, Air Brake-Construction 
 and Working. Also New York Air Brake Portfolio.
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 589/ 
 
 B 3 EQUIPMENT 
 
 Q. 1. Name the different positions of the B 3 brake valve.. 
 
 A. 1. Straight air application, automatic release; running 
 and straight air release; service, subdivided into five graduat- 
 ing notches; lap; and emergency position. 
 
 Q. 2. "What takes place when the brake valve handle is. 
 moved to any one of the different positions? 
 
 A. 2. In release position, air flows direct to the brake pipe 
 and the supplementary reservoir, charging both to the adjust- 
 ment of the pressure controller, the accelerator valve reservoir 
 is open to the atmosphere, and the straight air port is open, 
 admitting air to the brake cylinders of the locomotive, applying 
 the straight air brake. In running position, air may also pass 
 to the brake pipe and the supplementary reservoir; in this 
 position the straight air port is open to the atmosphere, releas- 
 ing the straight air brake. The accelerator valve chamber is. 
 also open to the atmosphere. In lap position all ports are 
 closed except the port which leads to the back of the vent valve. 
 In service position the main reservoir air is cut off from the 
 brake pipe and supplementary reservoir; the brake pipe is 
 open to the atmosphere through the service ports, and the port 
 leading to the accelerator valve chamber is open to the brake 
 pipe. In the fifth service notch the straight air port is open. 
 In emergency position the brake pipe is connected to the at- 
 mosphere through large and direct ports; in this position all 
 other ports in the brake valve are closed except the straight 
 air ports, which are open to the locomotive brake cylinders. 
 
 Q. 3. How is the brake pipe pressure regulated with tJ^is 
 equipment? 
 
 A. 3. By the pressure controller. 
 
 Q. 4. Where is the pressure controller located? 
 
 A. 4. In the pipe between the brake valve and main rese*'- 
 voir. 
 
 Q. 5. What is the purpose of the accelerator valve? 
 
 A. 5. The accelerator valve accelerates or hastens the dis 
 charge of air from the brake pipe when making a service ap' 
 plication of the brake on an exceptionally long train. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS 
 
 Q. 1. Explain the operation of the quick-action triple valve. 
 
 A. 1. In release position the auxiliary reservoir is charged 
 from the brake pipe past the triple piston through the feed 
 groove. A gradual brake pipe reduction causes auxiliary reser- 
 voir pressure to move the piston, slide and graduating valvea 
 to application position, admitting air from the auxiliary reser-
 
 590 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 voir to the brake cylinder; when the pressure in the auxiliary 
 reservoir becomes a trifle lower than the brake pipe pressure, 
 brake pipe pressure moves the piston and graduating valve to 
 lap, thereby stopping the flow of air from the reservoir to the 
 brake cylinder. 
 
 A sudden reduction of brake pipe pressure causes auxiliary 
 reservoir pressure to move the piston and slide valve to their 
 extreme travel, which admits air above the emergency piston 
 forcing it and the emergency valve down, which then permits 
 brake pipe pressure to raise the check valve and pass to the 
 brake cylinder; auxiliary reservoir air also flows to the brake 
 cylinder until equalized. By restoring brake pipe pressure the 
 piston and slide valve are moved to release position, exhaust- 
 ing the air from the brake cylinder and recharging the auxil- 
 iary reservoir. 
 
 Q. 2. What additional features are found in the "K" triple 
 that are not found in the older types of triples? 
 
 A. 2. The venting of the brake pipe air to the brake cylin- 
 der in service application. Retarded release and restricted re- 
 charge. 
 
 Q. 3. What is meant by quick service? 
 
 A. 3. As a result of venting the brake pipe pressure to the 
 brake cylinder, which increases the rate of reduction under 
 each car, the application is hastened throughout the train. 
 
 Q. 4. What is meant by retarded release? How is it ob- 
 tained, and in what part of the train? 
 
 A. 4. By retarded release is meant the retarding or re- 
 stricting the exhaust of brake cylinder air in the release of an 
 application of the brakes. When rise of brake pipe pressure is 
 rapid, the triple valve is moved to retarded release position; 
 in this position the brake cylinder pressure is exhausted 
 through a restricted port, thereby delaying the release. Re- 
 tarded release may be had on about the first thirty cars in 
 the train. 
 
 Q. 5. Explain the operation of the high-speed reducing 
 valve? 
 
 A. 5. The construction of the high-speed reducing valve is 
 such that, when the pressure in the brake cylinder exceeds 60 
 pounds, it will automatically make an opening from the brake 
 cylinder to the atmosphere and allow the air to discharge until 
 the pressure has been reduced to about 60 pounds, when it will 
 close, holding about 60 pounds in the brake cylinder. With an 
 emergency application it is so constructed that it will reduce 
 the pressure from the brake cylinder to the atmosphere from 
 85 pounds to 60 pounds in about 27 seconds. 
 
 Q. 6. What are the essential parts of the P C brake as 
 applied to a passenger car?
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 591 
 
 A. 6. One service reservoir and brake cylinder, one emer- 
 gency reservoir and brake cylinder, and a control valve and its 
 divided reservoir. 
 
 Q. 7. In making a service application with the P C brake, 
 how low can the brake pipe pressure be reduced before emer- 
 gency application takes place? 
 
 A. 7. To one-half of the original brake pipe pressure. 
 
 Q. 8. In making a service application what brake pipe re- 
 duction is necessary to insure the P C brake applying? 
 
 A. 8. Not less than 8 pounds. 
 
 Q. 9. When should the brakes be released after an emer- 
 gency application from any cause, and when should you pro- 
 ceed? 
 
 A. 9. After train has stopped and brake pipe pressure has 
 been restored to within 10 pounds of the normal pressure. 
 
 Q. 10. What is meant by an application of the brakes? 
 
 A. 10. The first and including all subsequent reductions 
 until the brakes are released. 
 
 Q. 11. How many applications of the brakes should be made 
 when making a stop with a passenger train, and why? 
 
 A. 11. Two, to insure greater accuracy, and to avoid sliding 
 of wheels and disagreeable back lurch. 
 
 Q. 12. Explain how you would make an ordinary service 
 stop with a long freight train. What should the first reduction 
 be, and why? 
 
 A. 12. I would move brake valve from running to service 
 position, making at least 7 to 10 pounds reduction, and 
 would endeavor to make it so as to stop train at the desired 
 point, but when about 40 feet from the stopping point would 
 start another reduction in order to increase the brake power 
 on the forward end of train but not on rear end and prevent 
 slack stretching at time of stopping. Before releasing the 
 brakes the total brake pipe reduction should be 20 pounds. 
 
 Q. 13. Explain how a stop at a water tank or coal chute 
 should be made with a long freight train. 
 
 A. 13. Make the ordinary service stop, not trying to "spot" 
 the locomotive, but cutting off to obtain the supply. 
 
 Q. 14. In making a stop with a freight train, why should 
 the brakes not be released until stop is completed? 
 
 A. 14. Because the head brakes will release first and slack 
 run out before the rear brakes release, resulting in a break-in- 
 two or damage to equipment that will later on cause this 
 trouble. 
 
 Q. 15. In releasing brakes on a long freight train, what 
 should the engineman do to be sure that all brakes are re- 
 leased? 
 
 A. 15. The brake valve handle should be placed in full re-
 
 592 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 lease position and allowed to remain there until the brake pipe 
 pressure has been restored to within 5 pounds of the normal. 
 
 Q. 16. If the brakes are dragging, how can they be released 
 from the engine? 
 
 A. 16. By making a reduction of brake pipe pressure, then 
 placing the valve in full release position long enough to release 
 all brakes, and then placing the valve in running position and 
 leaving it there. With trains of 60 or more cars when moving 
 at a speed of 15 miles or less per hour, come to a stop. 
 
 Q. 17. Why is it dangerous to repeatedl. apply and release 
 the brakes on grades without giving time for the auxiliaries to 
 fully discharge? 
 
 A. 17. As the feed ports in the triple valve are small, it re- 
 quires considerable time to recharge the auxiliary reservoir, 
 and if the brakes are repeatedly applied and released without 
 suflScient interval of time to recharge, and braking power would 
 be lost. 
 
 Q. 18. What benefits are derived from the use of the retain- 
 ing valve? 
 
 A. 18. When operated, it will retain a certain pressure in 
 the brake cylinder, thereby assisting in retarding the move- 
 ment of trains down grades while the brake pipe and auxiliary 
 reservoirs are being recharged, and will give a higher braking 
 power on second application with the same reduction. 
 
 Q. 19. What does it indicate when making a service appli- 
 cation, if the exhaust port closes quickly, and the brakes go 
 on hard? 
 
 A. 19. That the brakes have applied in emergency. 
 
 Q. 20. When the brakes apply suddenly, what should en- 
 ^ineman do? 
 
 A. 20. Immediately shut off steam and lap the brake valve. 
 
 Q. 21. In case a hose should burst while on the road, what 
 should the engineman do to assist the trainmen in locating it? 
 
 A. 21. After the train has come to a full stop, the engineer 
 should occasionally move the brake valve to full release posi- 
 tion for an instant, then return to lap position; by so doing 
 there will be enough air admitted into the brake pipe to cause 
 a blow at the point where the hose is burst. 
 
 Q. 22. When double heading, which engineman should have 
 full control of the brakes and what should the other one do? 
 
 A. 22. The head engineer should have full control of the 
 brakes. The second engineer should have the cut-out cock 
 closed under the brake valve. 
 
 Q. 23. As a rule, how great a reduction of brake pipe pres- 
 sure is necessary to insure the brake piston being moved by the 
 leakage groove?
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 593 
 
 A. 23. This varies with the length of the train but should 
 never be less than 5 pounds. 
 
 Q. 24. From a 70-pound brake pipe pressure, how much ol 
 a reduction will be required to apply the brakes in full, and 
 why? 
 
 A. 24. About 20 pounds, after which brake cylinder and 
 auxiliary reservoir pressure are equalized. 
 
 Q. 25. What effect has the piston travel on the pressure 
 developed in the brake cylinder? 
 
 A. 25. The distance the piston travels determines the space 
 to be filled by the air that is permitted to flow from the auxiliary 
 to the cylinder, and the pressure, therefore, developed in the 
 cylinder will be inversely proportional to the space the air 
 fills. If the space is small, the pressure will be higher than if 
 space is large. 
 
 Q. 26. When should the brakes be tested? , 
 
 A. 26. Before leaving a terminal, after angle cock has been 
 closed for any cause, and at all designated points. 
 
 Q. 27. How should the brake valve be handled when making 
 a terminal test of the brakes? 
 
 A. 27. Make a reduction of about 10 pounds and note the 
 length of brake pipe service exhaust, then make a further re- 
 duction of about 15 pounds and hold the brake on until sig- 
 naled to release, and do not go until signaled that all brakes 
 have been applied and released. 
 
 Q. 28. What is meant by a running test? How and at what 
 points on the road should it be made? 
 
 A. 28. Apply the brakes lightly while the train is in motion, 
 and note the blow that joomes from the brake pipe exhaust; 
 when the efficiency of the air brakes is known, the brakes 
 should be at once released. It should be made approaching all 
 railroad crossings, drawbridges, and all hazardous places, and 
 within half a mile after standing test has been made. 
 
 Q. 29. What is the proper brake cylinder piston travel on 
 engine and tender? 
 
 A. 29. On engine and tender the piston travel should be 
 such as to permit auxiliary reservoir and brake cylinder pres- 
 sure to equalize at 50 pounds from a brake pipe pressure of 
 70 pounds. 
 
 On cars the piston travel should be adjusted to not less than 
 5 inches nor more than 7 inches. 
 
 Q. 30. How is the slack taken up on engine and tender 
 brakes? 
 
 A. 30. On engine by the adjusting screw and on tender by 
 the dead lever on each truck and by adjusting the lower con- 
 necting rod.
 
 594 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 Q. 31. How often should the main reservoir be drained, 
 and why? 
 
 A. 31. At the end of each trip, as an accumulation of water 
 in the main reservoir reduces its volume and is liable to cause 
 trouble in the brake system. 
 
 Q. 32. What is the dead engine device, and when should it 
 be used? 
 
 A. 32. The dead engine device consists of a %" cut-out 
 cock and combined strainer and check valve with suitable 
 choke connections between the brake pipe and main reservoirs. 
 It is used for the operation of locomotive brakes when the 
 engine is being handled "dead" in the train, or the air pump 
 is disabled. 
 
 Q. 33. Why is it important that piston travel be kept prop- 
 erly adjusted? 
 
 A. 33. To insure a prompt application or release of the loco- 
 motive brake, economy in the use of air, and also to provide 
 proper braking power. 
 
 Q. 34. What danger would there be from a leak of main 
 reservoir air to the brake pipe, brakes applied, lap position? 
 
 A. 34. The brakes would release. 
 
 Q. 35. Do you think it good practice to reverse the engine 
 while the driver brake is applied, and why? 
 
 A. 35. No, on account of wheels sliding and reducing brak- 
 ing power. 
 
 FEDERAL REGULATIONS FOR INSPECTION 
 OF LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS 
 
 Q. 1. What is the purpose of the Federal Rules and Regu- 
 lations for inspection of locomotive boilers? 
 
 A. 1. To prevent as far as possible an engine being in 
 service, or shown O. K. for service at a terminal, with any leaks 
 in boiler or any of the appurtenances not in good order. 
 
 ^ Q. 2. What is the purpose of the quarterly and monthly 
 Interstate inspection cards placed in the cab of the locomotive? 
 
 A. 2. To enable the engineer and the federal inspector to 
 see that the quarterly and monthly inspections have been made. 
 The monthly inspection indicates what pressure the safety 
 valves have been set to carry, and when steam gauges were last 
 tested; when boiler was last washed, and gauge cocks and 
 water glass spindles removed and cocks cleaned; when both 
 injectors were tested and left in good condition; when all 
 steam leaks were repaired; condition of flues and firebox sheets, 
 staybolts and crown stays, arch and water bar tubes, together 
 with date of previous hydrostatic test. 
 
 The quarterly inspection card indicates the date when safety
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 595 
 
 valves and steam gauges were tested, date of last hydrostatic 
 test, and certifies that the boiler and appurtenances have been 
 inspected as required by law and the rules of the Interstate 
 Commerce Commission. 
 
 FEDERAL REGULATIONS FOR SAFETY APPLIANCES* 
 
 Q. 1. What constitutes a safety appliance, as applied to 
 a locomotive? 
 
 A. 1. Such parts of a locomotive as are especially con- 
 structed and applied with a view of protecting against personal 
 injury to employes whose duties require them to work on or 
 about the engine. 
 
 Q. 2. Name some of the safety appliances found on a 
 locomotive? 
 
 A. 2. The air brake steps, ladders, handholds and hand 
 rails, couplers and coupler operating levers. 
 
 Q. 3. In what condition should safety appliances be main- 
 tained ? 
 
 A. 3. They should be maintained in perfect condition. 
 
 Q. 4. What should be done in event of any of the safety 
 appliances being damaged while engine is in service so as to 
 render it unsafe? 
 
 A. 4. It should be reported at once to some person in 
 authority who can relieve the engine from service until the 
 necessary repairs are made. 
 
 Q. 5. What effort should be made on the part of the engi- 
 neer to prevent persons using a safety appliance which he 
 knows is damaged and unsafe? 
 
 A. 5. He should warn all persons on or about the engine, 
 who are liable to use the damaged part of its unsafe condition. 
 
 Q. 6. What is the duty of the engineer in event of his 
 discovering a safety appliance which is in an unsafe condition 
 when taking an engine from roundhouse territory? 
 
 A. 6. He should at once call the attention of roundhouse 
 foreman or one of his assistants to the condition of this safety 
 appliance, so that necessary repairs can be made before the 
 engine is allowed to go into service. 
 
 •See volume, Operating Trains.
 
 "596 
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 The exhaust pipe, as its name im- 
 plies, is a pipe for carrying the ex- 
 haust steam from the cylinders to 
 the smoke-box of the eneine and so 
 through the smokestack. Suitably 
 attached to the upper end of the 
 exhaust pipe is the exhaust tip or 
 nozzle, the size of which is altered 
 in accordance with the draught re- 
 quirements of the engine — a small 
 exhaust creates a powerful draught, 
 and vice versa. (See Figs. 2 and 3. ) 
 The steam is carried to the smoke- 
 stack for the purpose of creating a 
 forced draught through the tire-box. 
 
 JPVV2. 
 
 JP^mS. 
 
 : 41 
 
 
 - ^ m 
 
 JP^y. 4.
 
 EXAMlNATIONa 
 
 *97 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 Blower.
 
 598 
 
 EXAMINATIONS 
 
 . a 
 
 S 2 
 o -3 
 
 Q 73 
 
 ♦i S ti 
 
 o o .3 
 
 t >'K 
 
 > 5 o 
 
 o M » 
 
 '' N — 
 
 OS 
 
 " .-s 
 
 en 
 
 o ^ 
 
 
 w MO 
 
 ^ 2 S 
 
 ^ K aj 
 
 tiii 
 
 d 
 
 .2 a 
 - u 
 
 o 
 
 u 
 
 p 
 
 
 <tt 
 
 as 
 
 
 a 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■a 
 
 
 
 0) 
 
 
 a 
 
 r/i 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 Ix. 
 
 o 
 
 •'> 
 
 M 
 
 
 M t« o 
 
 60fe 5 
 
 £ H CO 
 
 © ^ O 
 
 ■13 a 
 
 «■ g si 
 
 o ■^ a 
 
 - a 5j 
 
 O) 
 
 
 ID ^ 
 
 13 ,d c9 
 0) 
 
 *; g O. 01 I 
 
 =j ./ 9 "= « = 
 «; O O 
 
 2 g'-S o !i S 
 
 •9 c8 
 
 :2-3 
 o 5 
 
 ^ a,- •<ij ^ 
 
 2 ^ S 
 
 
 ^ t: 3
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 599 
 
 "jStcojn Cht^t Relief VaUe.'^
 
 600 
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 9tn.- 
 
 JKy.S. 
 
 
 •5ec//on 
 
 £/ey<3//on. 
 
 Phn. 
 
 Fig. 9^^ 
 
 Obeok valve, for preventing water from runnloff.
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 601 
 
 JTiff. JO. 
 
 "^AllenJPoi-tea fiilVe — 
 
 F'i^.n. 

 
 602 
 
 KXAMlNATIOJSa. 
 
 alio ry far Som 
 
 SlipofTkLBlooK 
 
 Fij^,12. 

 
 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 603 
 
 \^': 
 
 U.J 
 
 
 ICQo 
 <!«0 

 
 604 
 
 EXAMINATIONB. 
 
 /r/r/f /?ac/f£ff^/fM
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 605
 
 €06 
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 1. (rj^tacg ~ ~| 
 
 t: 
 
 <juidc;5 
 
 -- OntMcthod qfSlocKin q Cro^shecul ^ 
 
 JPiy. J 8. 
 
 ./fnucA/e, 
 
 .Bacfcxyia^-jRod 
 
 
 F'i^JS. 
 
 Wheel BlocKeclUp
 
 EXMflNATIONS. 
 
 607 
 
 V^.ZO. 
 
 1*^ Driving jijcleBrvK^n Ou^-ri^e thcBoTC ■ 
 
 -F!,rBroX*rLEnffTrr-u.c}<Wh*el erAacZ* —
 
 608 
 
 EXAMINATIONS.
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 609 
 
 
 Blocking for Broken Driver Springs. 
 
 FMa. 26. 
 
 '^JS'rvKenHang^rlReplacect hy a Chain -^ 
 
 Fig. 26^ 
 
 side View of American Bogie (or Pony) Truck, supporting 
 
 forward end of locomotive.
 
 €10 
 
 EXAMINATIOJSS. 
 
 JFi^.27. 
 
 ^(^raphicD^Lnittona o^tuli/eJJimenjlons^^ 
 
 For the purpose of particularizing the various positions of 
 the driving wheel crank (when occasion requires), the 360 
 
 degrees through which 
 it passes are divided into 
 eight parts; the "upper 
 quarter" represents the 
 crank piu when directly 
 above the main axle; the 
 "lower quarter" when 
 directly below it; the 
 "forward center" lo- 
 cates the crank pin on a 
 straight line between the 
 main axle and the cylin- 
 der, the "back center" 
 180 degrees from there. 
 Fig. 28. The "eights" are the up- 
 
 per, lower, forward and back, as shown by diagram.
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 611 
 
 1^1^.29. T'iff.SO. 
 
 -^Tafojlhtkaia of Chaining Uf> TracK forBnJttn Wuitorjlfi*-, 
 
 ^ectrn T£U%/» 
 
 JryecTor JPrinciple
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 HOW OIL IS USED FOR FUEL ON LOCOMOTIVES. 
 WHAT FUEL OIL IS AND HOW OBTAINED. 
 
 Fuel oil, as it is commonly called in America, 
 is known to the commerce of the world as Pe- 
 troleum, a word coined from two latin terms 
 yeti^a a rock and oleum oil, and which accurately 
 describes the liquid which is found in the earth 
 naturally in many parts of the globe and is be- 
 lieved to be formed by the gradual decomposi- 
 tion of vegetable matter beneath the surface. 
 
 The oil varies much in color and consistency in 
 different localities. In some places it is of a 
 faint yellow color thin and almost transparent; 
 in others of a brownish black color sometimes as 
 thick as molasses. It is found in most European 
 countries and in the United States; it has been 
 for many years abundant in Pennsylvania, New 
 York, Ohio and Indiana, and latterly has been 
 found in large quantities in the States of Cal- 
 ifornia and Texas. 
 
 Generally speaking, the oil is brought to the 
 surface by means of pumping from wells; in 
 some instances, however, the supply is so abund- 
 ant that the wells have a natural flow; some- 
 times also it is found oozing from the crevices of 
 rocks or floating on the surface of water. 
 
 The existence of petroleum has been known in 
 the states of New York and Pennsylvania from 
 
 (613)
 
 614 now OIL IS USED 
 
 the earliest Colonial days. It was not till the 
 year 1859, however, that it began to be of com- 
 mercial importance in America; in that year 
 wells began to be systematically bored. The 
 product of the oil fields of New York and Penn- 
 sylvania has been and is, utilized principally as 
 an illuminant, the crude oil being for that purpose 
 refined and marketed in the form of Kerosene. 
 This industry has grown to enormous propor- 
 tions, not only supplying America with sufficient 
 for home consumption, but exporting a vast 
 quantity annually to all parts of the world.
 
 FOR FTTEL ON LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 615 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 OIL FIELDa
 
 616 now OIL IS USED 
 
 THE USE OF OIL AS FUEL ITS ADVANTAGES UNDEB 
 
 FAVORABLE CONDITIONS. 
 
 The use of oil as fuel is no new thing; it can 
 be traced to the times of remote antiquity. Its 
 scientific adoption to industrial purposes com- 
 menced, however, not earlier than about the 
 year 1860. In 1870 it was used during the great 
 siege of Paris in France when the city's supply 
 of coal had been exhausted and we are told it 
 was the means of enabling the city to keep sev- 
 eral of its large factories going and to grind its 
 flour by steam while it was begirt by its enemies. 
 
 Conditions will have to change very much be- 
 fore oil can come into general use as fuel for in- 
 dustrial purposes by reason of its greater cost at 
 present as compared with that universal fuel, 
 coal. In favored countries or districts, however, 
 where the supply is plenteous and close at hand, 
 or whpre coal is more remote and the difficulty 
 of cost does not stand in the way of its econom- 
 ical use, it seems certain that oil will be more 
 and more used because the mechanical difficul- 
 ties attending its use are one by one being over- 
 come. More than a decade ago in the Caspian 
 region where petroleum is plentiful the appara- 
 tus for its consumption had been measurably 
 perfected and oil for fuel had replaced wood and 
 coal on all the steamers plying on the Caspian 
 Sea and on the locomotives of the Trans-Cau- 
 casian Railway as well as in the furnaces and 
 factories of that district. 
 
 With the discovery of new sources of oil sup- 
 ply in America its availability as fuel on loco-
 
 FOR FUEL ON LOCOMOTIVES. 617 
 
 motives has become general in certain districts, 
 and it is not unreasonable to suppose that further 
 supplies will be found and the field for its use be 
 correspondingly enlarged, so that the subject has 
 become, and will be in the future, of great inter- 
 est to those concerned with the motive power of 
 our railroads.* 
 
 Petroleum as a fuel for locomotives is said, 
 apart from the economic question of cost, to be 
 infinitely superior to coal: It is smokeless; free 
 from dirt and dust; can be instantly lighted; re- 
 quires no stoking; can be regulated instantly and 
 easily; requires much less storage room, and its 
 calorific power for purposes of generating steam 
 is several times greater than that of ordinary 
 coal. There are, in fact, many things to be said 
 in its favor for this purpose but few against it : 
 While it is true that its use reduces the life of 
 the flues and firebox about twenty-five per cent 
 yet, on the other hand, it emits no sparks to 
 cause conflagrations along the right of way or 
 set fire to stations, buildings, or equipment; the 
 cost of handling it is at least seventy-five per 
 cent less than coal; no clinkers have to be re- 
 moved at terminals or on the road; its use re- 
 duces the time consumed in turning the engine; it 
 makes no refuse or cinders to be taken care of; it 
 insures freer steaming and freer running loco- 
 
 *In the United States it is said that oil for locomotive fuel 
 at $1.00 per barrel is aa economical equivalent of coal at $4.0? 
 per ton. At some points where oil is now obtainable at the price 
 mentioned coal costs from $7.00 to $8.00 per ton. Its great 
 economic value under such circumstances is apparent.
 
 618 HOW OIL IS USED 
 
 motives and consequently affords greater ability 
 to handle maximum loads; furnishing a uniform 
 grade of fuel, it becomes practicable to adjust 
 draft appliances so as to get the best results un- 
 der all conditions; owing to the easy and exact 
 regulation of the fire possible, the greatest econ- 
 omy in firing is possible, as the labor of firing 
 coal conduces to extravagance in its use; and, 
 finally, the fuel supply can be taken at stations 
 simultaneously with water very rapidly and 
 without waste. 
 
 SPECIAL ADAPTATION OF LOCOMOTIVES THE TENDER. 
 
 Locomotives on which oil is used for fuel must 
 be specially adapted for the purpose. From the 
 delivery or supply tank the oil is conveyed to a 
 tank in the tender which is generally a separate 
 receptacle fitted in the space ordinarily used for 
 coal. The arrangement of the tender is indicated 
 in the following illustrations. Figure 2 shows 
 the outside appearance of a tender equipped for 
 oil burning.
 
 FOR FUEL OX LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 619 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 APPEARANCE OF TENDER EQUIPPED FOR OIL BURNING. 
 
 Figure 3 shows the details of the tender 
 equipment as used on the Southern Pacific Rail- 
 way.
 
 620 
 
 HOW OIL IS U8ED 
 
 re 
 
 =^N 
 
 rfQ&tt CofxJco^a i,ream 
 
 kj 
 
 *^ Stam ftoftr Con 
 "Oil npt n Surnv 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 DETAILS OF TENDER EQUIPMENT-SOUTHERN PACIFIC. 
 
 THE HEATER COIL IN TENDER. 
 
 As in the case of the supply or delivery tank so 
 also the oil tank on the engine tender must be 
 provided with a heater coil to which in cold 
 weather steam can be admitted from the boiler 
 so as to reduce the oil to a proper consistency. 
 This heater coil is illustrated by Fig. No. 4. 
 
 THE PIPING AND APPLIANCES ON TENDER AND ENGINE. 
 
 The oil tanks in the engine tender are fitted 
 with automatic safety valves with a small chain 
 or rope connection to the back of the engine cab
 
 FOR FUEL ON LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 621 
 
 '<wvip.o?»?»f
 
 622 UOW OIL IS USED 
 
 with a spring key which passes through the 
 upright rod of the safety valve so that in case the 
 engine breaks apart from the tender the rope or 
 chain will pull the spring key out of the rod 
 when the safety valve will close automatically 
 and stop the flow of oil from the tank. 
 
 The following illustrations, Figures 5, 6, 7 and 
 8 indicate the details of the piping on the tender, 
 the safety valve, the delivery pipe and tittings 
 and the hose and fittings as used on the Santa 
 Fe system. 
 
 In localities where heavy oil is used it is 
 necessary to carry about five pounds pressure in 
 the tender oil tanks to facilitate the proper flow 
 of the oil. With light gravity oil, however, and 
 in warm weather such pressure is not necessary. 
 The illustration. Fig. 9, shows very clearly the 
 general arrangement of an oil burning locomo- 
 tive.
 
 FOR FUEL OX LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 623 
 
 J ■ FCAnGt] BOLTtDTQTAi^ with".4 -^'Boi-TS 
 
 r3 
 
 I2f^ 
 
 V ^. 
 
 n^ 
 
 JBOLT. 

 
 624 
 
 HOW OIL IS USED
 
 FOR FUEL ON LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 625
 
 626 
 
 HOW OIL IS USED
 
 FOR FUEL ON LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 62^
 
 628 HOW OIL IS USED 
 
 THE LOCOMOTIVE. CONVERTING A COAL BURNER TO 
 
 AN OIL BURNER. PIPING AND BRICK 
 
 WORK IN LOCOMOTIVE. 
 
 The locomotive shown in Fig. 9 is one converted 
 from a coal burner to oil and shows the position 
 of the different parts of the oil apparatus. In 
 converting a coal burning engine to an oil burner 
 it is necessary first to remove the grates and 
 grate frame and remodel the ash pan by 
 applying a suitable casting fitting the inside of 
 the pan and riveted on the sides and near the top 
 of the pan ; this casting acts as a support for the 
 brick work on the sides of the fire box and is 
 cored out to admit the proper amount of air 
 necessary for combustion to the fire box. The 
 brick arch should be built as low as possible, the 
 main purpose of which is to protect the crown 
 sheet, crown bolts and seams from overheating. 
 The oil burner should be secured to the bottom 
 of the mud ring exactly central and should be 
 placed at such an angle that the jet or spray of 
 oil will strike just below or under the arch. 
 Details of the arrangements of piping and brick- 
 work of an oil burning locomotive are given in 
 the accompanying illustration, (Fig. 10.) 
 
 The details of the fire brick used in the 
 construction of an oil burning locomotive are 
 shown in the drawing, Figure 11. 
 
 For the side walls and inverted arch ordinary 
 commercial fire brick is used. Experience has 
 shown that fire bricks which soften under heat 
 are preferable as they form a bond which adds
 
 FOR FUEL ON LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 629 
 
 I. ». U I ' 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 FIREBOX EQUIPMENT— SOUTHERN PACIFIC. 
 
 strength to the wall and prevents it shattering 
 under the shocks incident to the service. Fire 
 bricks which have very high heat-resisting qual- 
 ities and which tend to crock when cooling are 
 said to be of little use. 
 
 THE BURNER OR ATOMIZER. 
 
 One of the principal devices essential to the 
 oil burning locomotive is, of course, the burner 
 or atomizer, of which several designs are illus- 
 trated in the following drawings. (Figs. 12, 13, 
 14 and 15.) 
 
 The function of the burner or atomizer is to 
 break up the oil into a very fine spray. It is 
 made of brass. In the Santa Fe burner, steam
 
 630 
 
 now OIL IS USED 
 
 ■^.Vc* 
 
 
 <i 
 
 *■■ ■ ■ ,%H 'j 
 
 i?y.j>K — •■■''/•i — H 
 
 KTAZ* 
 
 1 f 
 
 ^ 
 
 > 
 
 Oi U1 
 
 I- I- 
 llJ > 
 
 o 
 
 .¥2 
 
 t'/tt* 
 
 3i^ 
 
 O 
 
 (0 
 
 uJb 
 
 5 
 
 
 !3 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 , 
 
 
 1 
 
 ^^ 
 
 -f 
 
 n ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 (71 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IS O 
 
 
 
 
 
 * ^ 
 
 
 
 
 dJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 y- 
 
 o" <M 
 
 rg 
 
 N 
 
 N 
 
 xlE 
 
 
 
 
 
 yo 
 
 it 
 
 
 
 
 U 
 
 *£ 
 
 
 
 
 -) 
 
 ^f m 
 
 fO 
 
 ♦ 
 
 r 
 
 (/) 
 
 
 0* 
 
 m 
 
 ^ 
 
 •7S
 
 FOR FUEL ON LOCOMOTIYFS. 
 
 631 
 
 
 
 ;F^- « 
 
 K--^,-^-
 
 632 
 
 HOW OIL IS USED
 
 'ueiivA^i4 xuoiu 
 
 FOR FUEL OX LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 633 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 DETAILS OP OIL BTJRNER— SANTA PE.
 
 634 
 
 HOW OIL IS USED 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 DETAILS OF OIL BURNER— SOUTHERN PACIFIC. 
 
 enters the bottom part at one end and issues 
 through a slit at the other end. The oil flows 
 through the upper part of the burner over the 
 hot partition and on issuing is caught by the 
 steam and sprayed into the fire, which, when the 
 engine is working, is a mass of flame filling the 
 fire box. The supply of steam and oil to the 
 burner is regulated by the fireman from the cab, 
 the handles of the steam and oil supply valves 
 being located so that he can readily manipulate 
 them from his seat. 
 
 The Santa Fe burner is rigidly attached to the 
 mud ring; it is a casting having an oblong 
 passage. One end of the casting is enlarged 
 to receive connection with oil and steam 
 pipes otie above the other. The mouth of the 
 steam passage is directly underneath the mouth 
 of the oil passage and the effect of the steam 
 pressure is to spray the oil as it flows from the 
 upper passage.
 
 FOR FUEL ON LOCOMOTIVES. 03.1 
 
 In the Southern Pacific burner there are three 
 passages: one for oil, one for steam, one for air. 
 The oil enters the rear of the burner from above, 
 air is conveyed from below through a naiTower 
 passage to a common mouth just behind which 
 terminates a central tube supplying steam. The 
 mixture of oil, air and steam is there sprayed 
 into the fire box through one nozzle. In the 
 Southern Pacific arrangement the burner is lo- 
 cated near the upper part of the bricked portion 
 of the fire box probably for the reason that the 
 form of nozzle causes the spray to be thrown 
 down as well as up.* 
 
 THE HEATER BOX. 
 
 In order to provide against the effect of cold 
 weather, or where the oil is heavy or lacking in 
 fluidity, a heater box is placed between the 
 burner and the oil tank the purpose of which is 
 to raise the temperature of the oil to as high a 
 temperature as possible before it goes into the 
 burner. The construction of this box is shown 
 in the following illustration, (Fig. 16). 
 
 *The methods adopted for using oil for fuel have advanced 
 step by step as is the case with all mechanical devices. First 
 came the Hearth furnace in which the liquid is thinly distributed 
 in pans or other receptacles and burned; then the Gas furnace 
 in which the oil is transformed into gas before combustion, and, 
 finally, the Atomizer by which the oil is divided into atoms so 
 that it can be nearly completely consumed in a vaporous condi- 
 tion. The atomizer is the device adopted and used on Ameri- 
 can locomotives. It is certain however that the final stage has 
 not been reached in the development of mechanical appliances 
 for the combustion of oil.
 
 636 
 
 now OIL IS USED 
 
 
 J un CKiTcocK cOMriLCTtD TO NtXn*)BM 
 
 WITH CLOSe nlPPLE . 
 
 ALL FiTTinoi-SrO ^ 
 
 SKE.TCH OF HCATE.R BOX FITTCD OP. 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 OBTAILS OP OIL HEATER BOX-SANTA FK.
 
 FOR FUEL ON LOCOMOTIVES, 637 
 
 ^ CAB APPLIANCES. 
 
 Detail drawings of the three way cock blower 
 pipe connection to smoke arch and of the oil 
 throttle valve handle are shown in the following 
 drawings, (Figs. 17 and 18). 
 
 CLEANING FLUES. SAND FUNNEL. 
 
 In the operation of the oil burning locomotive 
 it becomes necessary occasionally to remove the 
 gum and soot generated in the combustion of 
 the oil from the boiler flues. To effect this a 
 funnel is used which is inserted in the fire door 
 through which sand is blown by steam with 
 force, the sand thus blown through the flues 
 carrying with it the accretions of soot. A detail 
 drawing of this funnel is shown in Fig. 19.
 
 6S8 
 
 HOW OIL IS USED 

 
 FOB FUEL ON LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 639 
 
 l-H
 
 G40 
 
 now OIL IS USED 
 
 
 - fc 2
 
 FOB FUEL CN LOCOMOTIVES. 641 
 
 SPECIFIC RULES TO BE OBSERVED IN FIRING 
 AND OPERATING. 
 
 In the operation of oil burning locomotives the 
 following practical rules and regulations have 
 been adopted: 
 
 In firiug up an oil burning locomotive in the 
 round house steam connection is made to the 
 three way cock on the smoke arch which acts as 
 a blower and atomizer at the same time ; then 
 throw in the fire box, in front of the burner, a 
 piece of greasy lighted w^aist; then start the oil 
 to running slightly; then open the atomizer valve 
 enough to atomize the oil which is flowing from 
 the burner, and the oil will instantly ignite. The 
 fire should be watched until steam begins to 
 generate in the engine, when the round house 
 steam can be cut off. Care should be taken not 
 to turn on too much oil, for the explosion would 
 drive the flame out of the fire box and might be 
 the cause of injury to the operator. Care must 
 also be taken to see that the fire does not go out 
 when first started in a cold engine; if it does and 
 is not noticed the oil will run into the pit and 
 may take fire later on and explode and thus 
 damage the engine. The fire must therefore be 
 carefully watchec. until its burning is well assured 
 after which there is little danger of this happen- 
 ing. Fire going out on an oil burning engine can 
 be detected readily by observing the smoke 
 coming out of the stack. If it is of a white, 
 milky color, it indicates that the fire has gone 
 out and that the oil is still running out into the
 
 642 ROW OIL IS USED 
 
 pan; this smoke is caused by the heat of the brick 
 in the bottom of the pan. That the fire has gone 
 out can also be detected by the odor. 
 
 In tiring up an oil burning locomotive where 
 steam is not available, wood may be used until 
 ten or fifteen pounds of steam is generated in 
 the boiler. The Avood must be placed in the fire 
 box with great care so as not to damage the brick 
 work, and in using wood for this purpose care 
 must be taken to avoid causing fires along the 
 right of way or elsewhere. 
 
 It is very important that the proper amount of 
 steam be admitted to the burner as an atomizer. 
 It is also very important that the brick walls and 
 arch of the locomotive be kept in perfect 
 condition. Occasionally small pieces of brick will 
 fall down and lodge in front of the burner, 
 which will interfere with the engine steaming. 
 All engines should be equipped with a pair of 
 light tongs or a hook so that the fireman can 
 remove these pieces of brick if necessary. 
 
 In oil burning engines it is necessary to occa- 
 sionally use sand for cleaning the gum off the end 
 of flues in the fire box. This sand is applied through 
 an elbow-shaped funnel made for the purpose; 
 the nozzle of the funnel is inserted through an 
 aperture in the firedoor, and when sand is being 
 applied by the fireman the engineer drops the 
 lever in the corner notch and has his throttle 
 wide open. This is very effective, and is only used 
 three or four times in going over a long hard di- 
 ^dsion. 
 
 In handling the oil burner on the road the 
 engineers and firemen must work in harmony,
 
 FOR FUEL ON LOCOMOTIVES. 643 
 
 i. e., when an engineer wishes to shut off the 
 throttle he should notify the fireman in time so 
 that the latter can close the oil valve in order to 
 prevent waste of oil, the emission of black smoke 
 and the ''popping off" of the engine; and again, 
 in starting up, the engineer should notify the 
 fireman so that the oil valve may be opened 
 before the throttle, and the fire burning before 
 any cold air is drawn into the fire box by the 
 exhaust. In opening the valve the flow of oil 
 should be gradually increased as the engineer 
 increases the working of the engine. If this rule 
 is carried out it will in a great measure prevent 
 leaky flues, crown and stay bolts. Fire boxes can 
 be easily damaged by over-firing. 
 
 In a coal burner if an engine drops back five 
 or ten pounds pressure it takes some little time 
 to regain it; in an oil burner the fire can be 
 crowded so as to bring it up almost instantly 
 and thereby ove'rheat the plates and cause dam- 
 age to the fire box. The practice should be to 
 consume about as much time in bringing up 
 steam on an oil burner as would be taken with a 
 coal burner; too much care cannot be exercised 
 in this particular. It is possible to melt the riv- 
 ets off the inside of an oil burner fire box by 
 over-firing. 
 
 In drifting down long grades, it is preferable 
 to keep the fire burning a little rather than to 
 shut it off entirely to prevent chilling of the fire 
 box, adjusting the dampers to suit a light fire. 
 The water can be carried in such a way ap- 
 proaching such points as will admit of working 
 the injector occasionally to prevent popping off.
 
 644 EOW OIL IS USED 
 
 The use of the blower should be restricted all 
 possible. It tends to make the fire box leak. If 
 the blower is used at all it should be used very 
 lightly, simply enough to cause a draught. 
 
 Some troubles have been encountered on ac- 
 count of waste getting into the oil tank; these 
 are caused by carelessness on the part of Host- 
 lers and Helpers in measuring the oil and wiping 
 the measuring stick off with waste. Waste 
 should therefore not be used for this purpose. 
 
 Do not approach the man hole or vent holes of 
 a tank closer than ten feet with a lighted torch 
 or lantern. 
 
 Do not take a lighted torch or lantern to a man 
 hole to ascertain the amount of oil in the tank ; 
 this should be done by the insertion of a stick or 
 rod and the same carried to the light to ascer- 
 tain the number of inches of oil shown on the 
 stick or rod. 
 
 Do not, when making repairs to, or inspection 
 of, an empty tank, place a lighted lamp or torch 
 inside of the same before it has been thoroughly 
 steamed and washed out, as gas will accumulate 
 in ah empty tank not so steamed and washed 
 out, and explosion is liable. Employes are pos- 
 itively prohibited from entering tanks having 
 contained crude oil, until tlie instructions to 
 thoroughly steam and wash them out have been 
 complied with. 
 
 Do not, in firing up, apply the atomizer and 
 oil before putting in the lighted waste, as gas 
 may accumulate in the fire box and thus cause 
 an explosion.
 
 FOR FUEL ON LOCOMOTIVES. 645 
 
 In starting up or stopping, the engineer must 
 always notify the fireman, as the starting or 
 shutting off of fire must in all cases precede the 
 opening and shutting off of the engine. 
 
 Do not force the firing. Bring the fire box 
 temperature up gradually. If pressure falls back 
 five or ten pounds, restore the maximum pressure 
 by gradual degrees. Forced firing \vill overheat 
 the plates, burn off rivet heads, and cause leaks. 
 
 In sanding the flues to clean out the accumu- 
 lations of soot and gum, drop the lever to half 
 stroke aud use full throttle for a few turns, while 
 the sand is being injected. 
 
 Successful combustion of petroleum is smoke- 
 less. 
 
 An accurate combination of steam and oil in 
 the atomizer and air admission is necessary to 
 thorough combustion. To this end the steam 
 and oil valves and dampers must be adjusted 
 closely. 
 
 As all petroleum contains a greater or less per 
 ceut of volatile gases, w^iich are given off at low 
 temperatures, lighted torches, lamps or lantern? 
 should never be taken in or near tanks contain- 
 ing oil. 
 
 The following rules are enforced by another 
 Company, viz : 
 
 Before departure, see that the oil tanks are 
 full, the oil heater in operation and the oil heated 
 to a proper temperature as soon as possible; also
 
 646 EOW OIL IS USED 
 
 that the fire is burning, that no oil is dropping or 
 lying in the outer pan, that no brick or other ob- 
 struction to the free passage of oil from the 
 burner to the front wall is lying on the bottom 
 of the inner pan, and that the sand buckets are 
 full. 
 
 Starting the Fire. — When the firebox is below 
 igniting point, which is a dull red, open the 
 dampers, start the blower and atomizer medium 
 hard, throw a piece of saturated 'oily waste, after 
 lighting same, on to the bottom of the inner pan, 
 close and fasten the firebox door, then turn on 
 the oil very light, and see if it ignites at once. If 
 not, shut off the oil at once, and see if the waste 
 is burning. When the oil has ignited, reduce the 
 blower and atomizer to very light feed; also re- 
 duce the oil flow until the stack becomes almost 
 clear. In starting the fire by the hot firebox, no 
 w^aste is used. 
 
 Temperature of Oil. — Kern River or thick oil 
 should be heated to from 150 to 170 degrees, Mc- 
 Kittrick or thin oil to from 100 to 120 degrees; 
 the temperature should be taken from the meas- 
 uring rod suspended in the forward tank. Vents 
 on the top of the oil tanks should be kept open at 
 all times, except when tanks are very full and 
 oil is liable to splash out, when they may be kept 
 closed until the oil is reduced from 5 to 7 inches 
 in the tanks, care being taken not to have any 
 lights in the hands when they are first opened 
 after having been closed any length of time. 
 
 Heating Oil by Direct Steam Application. — 
 Put the heater on strong until the oil has reached
 
 FOR FUEL ON LOCOMOTIVES. 647 
 
 the proper temperature, then close it off and give 
 it another application. To keep the heater on 
 light and constant might produce water enough 
 in the oil to become objectionable. 
 
 Heating by the Coil in Tank. — Open cock on 
 boiler head just sufficient to produce steam water 
 at drain cock under tank. Superheater should 
 be used constantly when weather is anyway 
 chilly. Keep drain cock to superheater open just 
 sufficient to keep cylinder dry. 
 
 Starting Train or Engine. — The engine should 
 not be started until the fireman is at the fir- 
 ing valve. Remember that the care of the fire 
 box is as important as keeping up steam or mak- 
 ing time. Start the engine carefully, so, if pos- 
 sible, not to slip engine. Open the firing valve 
 sufficiently to make sure that the action of the 
 exhaust will not put out the fire, but not enough 
 to make a great volume of black smoke. In- 
 crease the atomizer and oil gradually until full 
 speed is attained, keeping just on the verge of 
 black smoke. When the engine is hooked up, 
 the valves governing the admission of oil should 
 be regulated according to amount required. It is 
 well to use the blower about one-half turn while 
 starting, as this will help to consume the smoke 
 between exhausts and keep the engine hot. 
 
 Black Smoke. — Never make an excessively 
 heavy smoke, as it only fills the flues with soot. 
 Soot is a great non-conductor of heat and pro- 
 duces no heat in itself, therefore strive to keep the 
 stack clear at all times except when starting. 
 
 Sanding Flues. — Sand as frequently as re- 
 quired, according to the amount of smoke made.
 
 64 S EOW OIL IS USED 
 
 If the engine has to be smoked anyway hard, 
 sand every 10 or 12 miles, but if the stack is kept 
 clear, sand only every 30 to 50 miles. If any 
 amount of switching is done at a station, sand 
 immediately after leaving that station. How to 
 sand: Having attained a fair rate of speed use 
 about one quart of sand, close all the dampers, 
 put the reverse lever near full stroke, open the 
 throttle wide and allow the sand to be drawn 
 from the funnel in a thin stream. Going into a 
 station where stops are to be made great care 
 should be exercised not to cut the oil supply too 
 low before the throttle is closed. 
 
 Any draft through the fire box has a tendency 
 to put the fire out; the stronger the draft the 
 stronger must be the oil supply. Consequently 
 there is great danger of the fire being put en- 
 tirely out befoi'e the throttle is closed. When the 
 throttle is closed and oil reduced, the atomizer 
 should be cut down at once, so that it will just 
 keep the oil from dropping onto the bottom of the 
 inner pan, otherwise the intense heat of the fire 
 box will be blown down through the air inlet 
 burning the bottoms of the pans. 
 
 Never allow the fire to be put entirely out, ex- 
 cept when giving up the engine'at the end of a 
 run or when all hands are going away from the 
 engine. Then it must be put out. To put out 
 fire: First close the stop-cock under the tank, 
 allow the oil to all be drawn from the pipe and 
 burner, then close the firing valve, atomizer and 
 all dampers. To blow obstruction from oil line: 
 Close the firing valve, open the cock between
 
 FOR FUEL ON LOCOMOTIVES. 649 
 
 the heater line and the oil line, close the 
 heater line and turn the cock on boiler head to 
 the heater line on full. This will blow all ob- 
 structions back into the tank. This arrange- 
 ment may be used to heat the oil in the tank 
 in case of failure of the coil heater. If any 
 brick from the walls or arches in the fire box 
 should fall in front of the burner, it must be 
 removed at once or pushed to the extreme fi'ont 
 of the tire box. Blue gas issuing from the stack 
 is an indication that the fire is out or very nearly 
 so; it is very objectionable and should be avoided 
 if possible, especially on passenger trains. 
 
 Burners must be adjusted so that the oil will 
 strike about the middle of the front wall. If the 
 oil drops on the bottom of pan, black smoke and 
 poor steam will be the result. Burners are liable 
 to clog up with sand that is in the oil and by 
 pieces of w^aste that are sucked up through the 
 air inlet. If trouble is found with it, the inner 
 case or steam jet can be taken out in most cases 
 without disturbing the outer case or the adjust- 
 ment of the burner. In this manner any obstruc- 
 tion or defect may be readily located and reme- 
 died. The blower should never be used stronger 
 than just sufficient to clear the stack of black 
 smoke. Any more is only a waste of fuel and 
 a delay, as too strong a draft through a fire box 
 for the amount of oil admitted only absorbs heat 
 and cools instead of heating the fire box. At wa- 
 ter tanks, where it is necessary to keep the in- 
 jector on all the time the train is standing, the 
 oil supply should be left on a little heavy and the
 
 650 HOW OIL IS UBSD 
 
 blower on lightly. This will insure a full head 
 of steam when ready to start. As the oil pene- 
 trates the arch brick and causes them to crumble 
 away very fast, it is important to examine the fire 
 box frequently to know its condition. As steam 
 pressure increases on the boiler, the atomizer 
 and blower will work stronger unless they are 
 cut down. Be governed accordingly. Also re- 
 member that black smoke is very detrimental to 
 steam generating and that the more that is made, 
 the more it becomes necessary to make. 

 
 FOR FUEL ON LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 651 
 
 THE BALDWIN OIL BURNING LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 The following is a description of the devices 
 used by the Baldwin Locomotive Works, many 
 of whose oil burning locomotives are in use both 
 in the United States and Rirssia. 
 
 The burner, shown in figure 20, is rectangular 
 in cross -section, ^xi\h. two separated ports or 
 chambers, (one above the other), running its 
 
 FIGURE 20. 
 Details of "Baldwia" Oil Baroer.
 
 C52 HOW OIL IS USED 
 
 entire length. Into tLe npper of these ports the 
 oil from the reservoir is admitted through suit- 
 al)le pipes. The flow of oil is contrcdled Ly a 
 plug cock in the feed i:)ipe, provided with an 
 operating handle jdaccd in the eah within easy 
 reach of the tirennm. Steam is admitted to the 
 lower port of the burner through a^pipe con- 
 nected to the boiler in such a manner as at all 
 times to insure the introduction of dry steam. 
 The valve controlling the admission of steam is 
 also conveniently located in the cab close to the 
 fireman's seat. A free outlet is allowed for the 
 oil at the nose of the burner ; the steam outlet, 
 however, is contracted at this point by an adjust- 
 able plate which partially closes the port, and 
 gives a thin, wide aperture for the exit of the 
 steam. This arrangement tends to wire-draw the 
 steam and. increase its velocity at the point of con- 
 tact with the oil, giving a better atomizing effect. 
 A permanent adjustment of the plate can be 
 made for each burner after the requirements of 
 service are ascertained. The moving of the plate 
 would not then be required except for cleaning 
 purposes. The oil, as it j)^^^^s through the 
 tjurner, is heated to a certain extent by the effect 
 of the steam in the lower portion, and flows freely 
 in a thin layer over the orifice. It is here caught 
 by the jet of steam issuing from the lower port, 
 and is completely broken up and atomized at the 
 point of igniting. The oil is carried into the 
 fire box in the form of vapor, where it is mingled 
 with a sufficient quantity of oxygen fi-om the 
 incoming air to insure as near as possible perfect
 
 FOR FUEL ON LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 653 
 
 combustion. For the size of the burner it is com- 
 puted that one inch in ^vidth is suitable for one 
 hundred inches of cylinder area. The proper 
 width of burner for any locomotive may there- 
 fore be obtained by the following formula: 
 
 B=C2 X .7854, in which 
 
 1()0 
 B=width of burner in inches. 
 (J=dianietcr of cylinder in inches. 
 
 The oil pipe leading to the burner should be 
 made of ample size to insure a full supply, as it 
 is essential that a regular flow be maintained; 
 a small pipe would be found inadequate wdth 
 oil having a sluggish tendency. Any interfer- 
 ence with the flow, other than that interposed by 
 the feed cock, causes a loss of efficiency. 
 
 At times, especially when the locomotive is 
 standing still at stations or when drifting down 
 grade, it is desirable to allow only a small sup- 
 ply of oil to enter the burner. To accomplish 
 this, the feed cock, Figure 21, is used. The 
 passageway through the plug of this cock, which 
 regulates the supply of oil, is made square, as 
 shown in the cross -section. As the plug is turned 
 
 FIGURE 21. 
 Details of "Baldwin" Feed Cock.
 
 654 HOW OIL IS USED 
 
 to cut off the flow, the opening retains its angu- 
 lar form and a finer feed adjustment is attained 
 tlian is possible with a cock of ordinary construc- 
 tion, where the hole in the plug is circular in 
 form; it is also less liable under such circum- 
 stances to become clogged by refuse in the oil. 
 
 With a fire box such as is ordinarily used for 
 burning coal, the changes necessary to adapt it 
 for burning oil are easily accomplished. The 
 general arrangement of a fire box of this descrip- 
 tion is shown in Figure 22. The burner is placed 
 below the mud-ring at the back and on a line 
 with the center of the boiler, and it is pointed 
 upward at a slight angle to allow the spray to 
 enter the fire box. A fire brick arch at the fi-ont 
 of the fire box protects the tubes and gives 
 direction to the heated gases, to insure their 
 mingling with the incoming air. The throat 
 sheet below the arch is protected w4th a wall of 
 fire brick, and a layer of the same material is 
 placed on the grate-bars (or equivalent supports), 
 which extends back from the front wall covering 
 about half the bottom area of the furnace. A 
 fire brick hearth is placed under the burner to 
 catch any oil which may drop from it. A course 
 of brick is also placed on each side, sufficiently 
 high to protect the side sheets of the furnace 
 from excessive heat. A device correspondent to 
 the ash-pan of an ordinary locomotive is fitted 
 with a damper, preferably at the back, to govern 
 the admission of air. This damper should be 
 made as large as possible, with heavy frame, and 
 arranged to close perfectly air-tight. Heavy
 
 FOR FUEL ON LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 655
 
 656 HOW OIL IS USED 
 
 operating rods should be provided in order to 
 withstand rough usage. The proper admission 
 of air is an important feature, and the means for 
 regulating it should ])e carefully adjusted to give 
 a sufficient supply Avhen needed for comhustion, 
 and on the other hand, to entirely stop the sup- 
 ply and avoid the loss of heat which would 1)6 
 occasioned by a circulation of cold air through 
 the lire box and tubes when the oil supply is cut 
 off. A plate with a convenient sight hole may 
 take the place of the fire door, or the fire door 
 may be retained, care being taken that the joints 
 are perfectly air-tight; in either case a protection 
 of fire brick should be provided for the inner sur- 
 face to avoid the liability of warj^ing the metal. 
 
 Boilers fitted with the Vanderbilt type of fire 
 box have shown excellent results in burning fuel 
 oil. This fire box, as is well known, is circular 
 in cross -section, being rolled in the form of a 
 large corrugated tube, and is peculiarly adapted 
 to the class of fuel under consideration. 
 
 The arrangement of the fire brick used in the 
 Vanderbilt type of fire box is shown in Figure 23. 
 It is generally similar in arrangement to that 
 already described, the only variations being those 
 suggested by the structural changes in the boiler. 
 The burner is introduced through the lined cas- 
 ing forming the back head of the boiler, and is 
 located a short distance above the bottom of the 
 fire box. The corrugated sheet forming the fire 
 box is protected at the l)ottom and a portion of 
 the sides by a lining of fire brick. The front 
 wall and arch are placed at a suitable distance
 
 FOR FUEL ON LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 657
 
 658 HOW OIL IS USED 
 
 back of the tube sheet, to allow an unobstructed 
 entrance to all the tubes by the heated gases, 
 forming also a combustion chamber at the front 
 of the furnace. 
 
 In burning oil, the combustion being more per- 
 fect than in l»urning coal, the heat generated in 
 the fire l)ox will be greater. Care should there- 
 fore be taken in setting the fire brick not to 
 choke the passage between the upper portion of 
 the arch and the crown sheet. If this area is 
 insufiicient, the products of combustion will 
 impinge upon the crown sheet, and the intense 
 heat generated at this point is liable to be detri- 
 mental to the sheet. 
 
 The forced draft occasioned by the exhaust 
 should be so regulated as to be equally distributed 
 through all the tubes. This can be accomplished 
 by a careful adjustment of the "petticoat pipe" and 
 deflecting plate. If a collection of soot aj^pears 
 on the sheet around some of the tubes, it will 
 indicate that the draft through these tubes is not 
 sufficient, and a readjustment of the draft rig- 
 ging should be made until no such indications 
 are perceptible. It is suggested that after the 
 draft rigging in the smoke -box has been satisfac- 
 torily adjusted, it be rigidly attached to the boilef 
 ir^ such a manner as to be readily removed and 
 replaced without liability of derangement. 
 
 As the weight of oil used by a locomotive for 
 a given distance is about one-half the weight and 
 bulk of coal for the same distance, it is obvious 
 that a saving is made in the dead weight hauled, 
 or with the same weight, fuel for a much longer
 
 FOR FUEL ON LOCOMOTIVES. 659 
 
 run may be carried. In locomotives without ten- 
 ders it is often difficult to arrange for an ade- 
 quate supply of coal without encroaching upon 
 space required for other purposes. This diffi- 
 culty is largely overcome when oil fuel is used, 
 as the reservoirs can be located where it would 
 be impracticable to place a coal bunker, and in 
 this way room for a sufficient supply of fuel is 
 easily obtained. 
 
 The tender tank of an oil -burning locomotive 
 is usually constructed with two compartments, 
 the upj)er being used as a reservoir for the oil 
 and the lower for water. The partition which 
 separates these compartments, and which forms 
 the bottom of the oil reservoir is preferably 
 inclined toward the front, to allow the oil to flow 
 by gravity to the feed outlet. In cold climates a 
 coil of steam pipe may be placed in the reservoir 
 around this outlet, in order to rarefy the oil and 
 insure an even and continuous flow.
 
 660 HOW OIL IS USED 
 
 ECONOMIC YALFE OF OIL AS FFEL. 
 
 "Fuel oil can be used in almost any form of 
 firebox, the best location for the burner being 
 just below the mud ring, spraying U2:)ward into 
 the firebox. In some recent experiments with oil 
 of eighty-four degrees gravity, 140 degrees flash 
 and 190 degrees fire test, in which the boiler had 
 twenty -seven square feet grate area and 2135 
 square feet of heating surface (eight per cent 
 being in the firebox), it was found that there 
 were about thirty -nine pounds of oil burned per 
 square foot of grate area, and al)Out .45 pounds 
 per square foot of heating surface per hour, the 
 equivalei^t evaporation from and at 212 degrees 
 being about twelve and one -half pounds of water 
 per pound of oil. It was also computed that 
 there should be about one-third inch width of 
 burner for each cubic foot of cylinder volume, or 
 width of burner in inches e(]uals: 
 
 Volume of both cylinders in cnbic feet 
 3 
 
 or that one inch width of burner was sufficient 
 for 600 s<piare feet of heating surface. 
 
 "In the foregoing calculation, the figures are 
 based on single expansion engines only. in 
 compound locomotives the consumption of water 
 will be ten per cent and the fuel about twenty 
 per cent less than in single- expansion engines. 
 By the above formula, in calculating the width 
 of burner for compound engines, the volume of 
 only the high-pressure cylinder or cylinders 
 should be considered."
 
 POR FUEL ON LOCOMOTIVES. 661 
 
 To determine the value of oil, it is necessary 
 to know the evaporative power of the boiler for 
 each pound of fuel burned, which depends greatly 
 upon the ratio of heating surface to grate surface, 
 and the volume consumed in a given time. 
 These conditions do not seem to aifect the con- 
 sumption of oil, the evaporation being about the 
 same per pound of oil for all rates of combustion, 
 it being impossible to consume the oil without a 
 proper supply of air, and, as no smoke is made, 
 no unconsumed fuel goes out of the stack, as is 
 the case with soft coal. The following formula, 
 based on experiments made by the Baldwin 
 Locomotive Works, with a locomotive having 
 compound cylinders, will give an approximate 
 idea of the value of oil fuel as compared with 
 coal : 
 
 Cost of coal per ton -\- cost of handling (say 50 cents) x 10.7 x 7 
 2000 X evaporative power of coal 
 
 equals price per gallon at which oil will be the 
 equivalent of coal. 
 
 It must be remembered in these computations 
 that the cost of both oil and coal is considered at 
 the place where they are delivered to the engine, 
 and not at the place where they are purchased 
 by the railroad company. 
 
 The following table gives the weight and 
 volume of crude petroleum based on a specific 
 gravity of .91, which is about the average of the 
 Texas oil, as well as that received from South 
 America :
 
 662 
 
 HOW OIL IS USED 
 
 WEIGHT AND VOLUME OF CRUDE PETROLEUM. 
 
 Pound. 
 
 U.S. Liquid, 
 Gal. 
 
 Barrel. 
 
 Gross Ton. 
 
 1 
 7.6 
 
 319.2 
 2240. 
 
 .13158 
 1. 
 . 42. 
 294.72 
 
 .0031328 
 .02381 
 
 1. 
 
 7.017 
 
 .0004464 
 .003393 
 .1425 
 1. 
 
 For convenience in obtaining correct approxi- 
 mate weights of petroleum oil, the following 
 gravity conversion table can be used: 
 
 n 
 
 (S >* * 
 
 ^ 
 
 CC . 
 
 S> 
 
 r. 
 
 » 
 
 IS >' 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 
 
 2a 
 
 (U 03 
 
 
 '"■3 
 
 ^0 
 
 a 
 u a 
 
 
 
 c» 
 
 
 a 
 
 OM 
 
 c^ 
 
 I-) 
 
 Q« 
 
 Ow 
 
 )-i 
 
 10 
 
 1.0000 
 
 8.33 
 
 32 
 
 8641 
 
 7.20 
 
 54 
 
 .7608 
 
 6.34 
 
 11 
 
 .9929 
 
 8.27 
 
 33 
 
 .8588 
 
 7.15 
 
 55 
 
 .7567 
 
 6.30 
 
 12 
 
 .9859 
 
 8.21 
 
 34 
 
 .8536 
 
 7.11 
 
 56 
 
 .7526 
 
 6.27 
 
 13 
 
 .9790 
 
 8.16 
 
 35 
 
 .8484 
 
 7.07 
 
 57 
 
 .7486 
 
 6.24 
 
 14 
 
 .9722 
 
 8.10 
 
 36 
 
 .8433 
 
 7.03 
 
 58 
 
 .7446 
 
 6.20 
 
 15 
 
 .9655 
 
 8.04 
 
 37 
 
 .8383 
 
 6.98 
 
 59 
 
 .7407 
 
 6.17 
 
 16 
 
 .9589 
 
 7.99 
 
 38 
 
 .8333 
 
 6.94 
 
 60 
 
 .7368 
 
 6.14 
 
 17 
 
 .9523 
 
 7 93 
 
 39 
 
 .8284 
 
 6.90 
 
 61 
 
 .7329 
 
 6.11 
 
 18 
 
 .9459 
 
 7.88 
 
 40 
 
 .8235 
 
 6.86 
 
 62 
 
 .7290 
 
 6.07 
 
 19 
 
 .9395 
 
 7.83 
 
 41 
 
 .8187 
 
 6.82 
 
 63 
 
 .7253 
 
 6.04 
 
 20 
 
 .9333 
 
 7.78 
 
 42 
 
 .8139 
 
 6.78 
 
 64 
 
 .7216 
 
 6.01 
 
 21 
 
 .9271 
 
 7.72 
 
 43 
 
 .8092 
 
 6.74 
 
 65 
 
 .7179 
 
 5.98 
 
 22 
 
 .9210 
 
 7.67 
 
 44 
 
 .8045 
 
 6.70 
 
 66 
 
 .7142 
 
 5.95 
 
 23 
 
 .9150 
 
 7.62 
 
 45 
 
 .8000 
 
 6.66 
 
 67 
 
 .7106 
 
 5.92 
 
 24 
 
 .9090 
 
 7.57 
 
 46 
 
 .7954 
 
 6.63 
 
 68 
 
 .7070 
 
 5.89 
 
 25 
 
 .9032 
 
 7.53 
 
 47 
 
 .7909 
 
 6.59 
 
 69 
 
 .7035 
 
 5.86 
 
 26 
 
 .8974 
 
 7.48 
 
 48 
 
 .7865 
 
 6.55 
 
 70 
 
 .7000 
 
 5.83 
 
 27 
 
 .8917 
 
 7.43 
 
 49 
 
 .7821 
 
 6.52 
 
 75 
 
 .6829 
 
 5.69 
 
 28 
 
 .8860 
 
 7.38 
 
 50 
 
 .7777 
 
 6.48 
 
 80 
 
 .6666 
 
 5.55 
 
 29 
 
 .8805 
 
 7.34 
 
 51 
 
 .7734 
 
 6.44 
 
 85 
 
 .6511 
 
 5.42 
 
 30 
 
 .8750 
 
 7.29 
 
 52 
 
 .7692 
 
 6.41 
 
 90 
 
 .6363 
 
 5.30 
 
 31 
 
 .8695 
 
 7.24 
 
 53 
 
 .7650 
 
 6.37 
 
 95 
 
 .6222 
 
 5.18
 
 FOR FUEL ON LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 663 
 
 TABLE SHOWING RELATIVE ITEAT. PRODFCING 
 POWER OF OIL AND COAL.* 
 
 Theoretical Anthracite 
 
 Theoretical Bituminous 
 
 tUrquhart's Experiments 
 
 Peninsular Car Co. (1885) 
 
 Elevated R. R. New York (1887) 
 
 Pounds 
 Oil. 
 
 Pounds 
 Coal. 
 
 1.61 
 
 1.37 
 
 1.756 
 
 1.742 
 
 1.785 
 
 * Prepared by Dr. Charles B. Dudley, Chemist, Pennsylvania R. R. in 
 1888. In this table it is assumed that: 
 
 1 lb. Anthracite Coal contains 90 per cent carbon. 
 1 lb. Bituminous " " 85 " " 
 
 and 5 per cent hydrogen. 
 1 lb. Oil contains 86 per cent carbon and 14 per 
 cent hydrogen. 
 The heat-producing power of fhe carbon and hydrogen is calculated by 
 means of the well known heat units of these two substances. 
 
 t Thomas Urquhart, Locomotive Superintendent, Grazi-Tsaritzin Rail- 
 way, Russia, was among the first to adapt locomotives to the use of oil. 
 The use of solid fuel on this line was entirely abandoned in 1SS5. He 
 designed a burner which was one of the first to utilize a jet of steam to 
 atomize the oil as it enters the firebox This nictliod has been generally 
 adopted in the construction of the most successful burners now in use.
 
 664 
 
 HOW OIL IS USED
 
 FOR FUEL ON LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 665
 
 INDEX 
 
 Page 
 
 Admission 188 
 
 Allan Richardson Balanced Slide Valve I'Jl 
 
 lUus. 10 2 
 
 Allan Valve Motion 230 
 
 Illus. 2 31 
 
 American Balanced Valve 196 
 
 Illus. 190 
 
 Arithmetic, Rules in ■. 133 
 
 Arrangement of Brick Work for Oil Burning Locomotives. .Illus. 6G5 
 
 Axle, Driving, Broken Outside the Box Illus. 600 
 
 Baker 'Valve' Gear 2 90 
 
 Illus. 291, 293, 295, 296, 298, 299, 300, 301 
 
 Baker Valve Gear, Instructions on setting 2 97 
 
 Baker Valve Gear, Questions and Answers 310 
 
 Baldwin Locomotive Works, Rules and Data — Tractive Power 
 
 How to figure what she will pull 127 
 
 Blocking for Broken Driver Springs . . . .Illus. 609 
 
 Boiler, Longitudinal Section of Locomotive: Filled with Water 
 
 Illus. 598 
 
 Boilers, carrying water in 109 
 
 Broken Hanger Replaced by a Chain Illus. 009 
 
 Cab Appliances. Fuel Oil 037 
 
 Carrying water in Boilers Effect of too much 109 
 
 Clearance 191 
 
 Coal Burning Locomotives, Baldwin, Details of Fire-box Brick 
 
 Work for using Coal Illus. 6 55 
 
 Cole Side Header, Superheater 163 
 
 Combustion ■ 48, 52 
 
 Compound Locomotives 323 
 
 Classes of and their General Construction, Different types. . 3 39 
 
 General Description. Comparison with Simple Locomotives. . 3 27 
 
 Compounds, Automatic 339 
 
 Baldwin Four-Cylinder 348, 364 
 
 Accidents to 360 
 
 Combined Starting Valve and Drip Cock Illus. 3 54 
 
 Cross-Head Illus. 353 
 
 Cylinder Arrangement Illus. 349, 350 
 
 Cylinder Relief Valve Illus. 358 
 
 Direct Valve Motion Without Rocker Arms Illus. 363 
 
 Hollow Steel Piston Illus. 353 
 
 Operation of 356 
 
 Piston Valve Illus. 352 
 
 Repairs 359 
 
 Showing operation of Starting Valve and Cylinder 
 
 Cocks Illus. 357 
 
 Steam Distribution with Piston Valve Illus. 351 
 
 Valve Bushing, Showing Method of Pressing in. . .Illus. 359 
 
 Baldwin Two-Cylinder Illus. 3 04 
 
 Accidents to 870 
 
 Engine Working Compound Illus. 3 07 
 
 Simple Illus. 30 6 
 
 Operating Valve Illus. 309 
 
 Operation of the intercepting and reduction Valve. ... 367 
 
 Cole Four-Cylinder. Detail of Main Frames .Illus. 493 
 
 667
 
 GG8 INDEX. 
 
 Page 
 
 Half Plan of Running Gear and Valve Motion. . . . Illus. 41):! 
 
 Compounds. Cole Four-Cylinder High Pressure rylinders. . Illus. 4!>4 
 
 Rear View and Cross Section I Huh. 492 
 
 Side Elevation Illus. 4!)1 
 
 Ten Inch Crank Axle Illus. 4'.»r> 
 
 Convertible ;{4() 
 
 De CJIehn Four-Cylinder Balanced 4!>(> 
 
 Dickson 4.'>r> 
 
 Illus. 4r>'(; 
 
 Accidents to 4r>il 
 
 Cross Section through Ueceiver Illus. 457 
 
 Ktarting Valve in I'osition, working ("ompouml . . . Illus. 458 
 Compounds — 
 
 Pour-Cylinder Balanced Locomotive ' 4C.') 
 
 Cole 4(i7. 488 
 
 Illus. 466 
 
 De Glehn 4 07 
 
 Illus. 466 
 
 Vaudain 466, 473 
 
 Illus. 466 
 
 Schenectady 371 
 
 Illus. 374 
 
 Changing from compound to simple 393 
 
 Convertible. Southern Pacific Illus. 3 82 
 
 Design of 189 2 37 2 
 
 Intercepting Valve Illus. 373 
 
 With Southern Pacific Modification 383 
 
 Design lS9(i ' 384 
 
 Illus. 385 
 
 Accidents to 397 
 
 Engine Working Compound Illus. 387 
 
 Simple Illus. 3S6 
 
 Intercepting Valve Closed. Engine Working Simple Illus. 377 
 
 Open Illus. 37 8 
 
 Engine Working Compound Illus. 376 
 
 Intercepting Valve Passages Illus. 389 
 
 Southern Pacific Modifications, design of 1892, Acci- 
 dents to 396 
 
 Compounds, Schenectady, Starting as Automatic Compound 393 
 
 The Automatic Compound of 1892, Accidents to 393 
 
 To start simple 391 
 
 Type, Original 371 
 
 Working Compound »...*... .■)92 
 
 Strictly Plain 339 
 
 Compression 190 
 
 Counter-Balance 334 
 
 Counterbalancing Illus. 479 
 
 Crank Axle Illus. 479 
 
 Showing Banding Illus. 487 
 
 Crosshead, Method of Blocking Illus. 606 
 
 Crown Stays Illus. 4 79 
 
 Crude Petroleum, Weight and Volume of 062 
 
 Cut-off 189 
 
 Cylinder and Appurtenances Illus. 46 
 
 Steam Chest Illus. 4S1. 484, 485 
 
 Decimal Equivalents 137 
 
 "Dont's" for Engineers and Firemen 139 
 
 Driving Boxes Importance of proper method of packing 113 
 
 Drumming 69 
 
 Eccentrics, position of Lap and Lead 8 7 
 
 Straps and Reversing Gear Illus. 03 
 
 Emergency, being prepared for 3 
 
 Emerson Superheater 108
 
 INDEX. 669 
 
 Page 
 
 Engineers , 13 
 
 and Firemen, Duties and Responsibilities of 27 
 
 Two kinds of 4 9 
 
 Duties of 32 
 
 Examination of 18 
 
 Instruction of 16 
 
 Engine not steaming 72 
 
 Examinations for Firemen, Progressive — Questions and Answers 497 
 
 Exhaust Pipes Illus. 596 
 
 Expansion 190 
 
 Feed Cock, Baldwin, Details of. .^ Illus. C53 
 
 Firebox Equipment Fuel Oil Illus. 629 
 
 Showing 5-inch Mud ring Illus. 4. Si) 
 
 Fire Brick, Details of. Fuel Oil Illus. 630 
 
 Firemen, Examinations, Questions and answers for 497 
 
 Air Brake, First Series 513 
 
 Second Series 525 
 
 Air Pump 577 
 
 B 3 Equipment 589 
 
 Engineer's Brake and Equalizing Discharge Valve. . . . 580 
 
 L, T Equipment 588 
 
 Miscellaneous 589 
 
 New York Air Brake, Duplex Air Pump 585 
 
 Pump Governor 575 
 
 Triple Valve 584 
 
 Compound Locomotives 5i58 
 
 Electric Headlight 570 
 
 Federal Regulations for Inspection of Locomotive Boilers. . . 594 
 
 Federal Regulations for Safety Appliances 595 
 
 First Series 503 
 
 Lubrication 567 
 
 Oil Burning Locomotives 527 
 
 Second Series 514 
 
 Third Series 536 
 
 Firemen — First duties of 6 5 
 
 Hints on firing 6 2 
 
 Instruction of 16 
 
 Pointers for 6 5 
 
 Switching 6C 
 
 Firing 4 7, 68 
 
 Ash Pan 60 
 
 Blower 6 
 
 Cleaning ash pan and fires 61 
 
 Clinkers 60 
 
 Close of run 61 
 
 Dampers Use of 5 8 
 
 Different Methods of 49, 64 
 
 Engine's cylinder too large 49 
 
 Grates 60 
 
 Steam pressure 6 
 
 Flues. Cleaning. Sand Funnel. Fuel Oil 637 
 
 Foster Locomotive Superheater 172 
 
 Front end arrangement 72 
 
 Fuel and Combustion 50 
 
 Fuel Oil Burner, Details of "Booth" Illus. 632 
 
 "Lundholm" Illus. 631 
 
 Fuel Oil, Special Adaptation of locomotives The tender 618 
 
 What it is and how obtained .' . . . 613 
 
 Gooch Valve Motion 229 
 
 Illus. 230 
 
 Gravity Conversion. Table. Fuel Oil 66 2 
 
 Hackworth Valve Motion 235 
 
 Illus. 235
 
 670 lyOEX. 
 
 Page 
 
 Harrison Dust Guarils 126 
 
 Heater Hox. Fuel Oil 635 
 
 Coll Fuel Oil. Santa Fe Illua. 621 
 
 Heat, unit of C!) 
 
 Helmholtz Mollification, Valve Gear 280 
 
 Hose and Fittings. Fuel Oil Illus. 626 
 
 Injector Principle Illus. Oil 
 
 Injectors, enplneers having charge of 30 
 
 •Tacobs Superheater 168 
 
 Journal Box, Dust Guards 126 
 
 Journal Boxes, packing, proper care of 113 
 
 Journal Boxes, tools for packing 120 
 
 Illus. 121, 122 
 
 Joumala, Lubrication of 112 
 
 Joy Modification, Valve Gear 238 
 
 Joy Valve Gear. . .• Illus. 230 
 
 Lap 189 
 
 Lead 100 
 
 Link Blocked Up for Broken Reach-Rod, Link Hanger, Lifter, or 
 
 Saddle Pin Illus. 602 
 
 Motion, Allan 222 
 
 Illus. 221 
 
 Stephenson 216 
 
 Illus. 217 
 
 Walschaert 224 
 
 Illus. 223 
 
 Locomotive, American Type Illus. 496 
 
 and tender. Diagram of Illus. 476 
 
 Converting a coal burner to an oil burner. Piping and Brick 
 
 Work in Locomotive 628 
 
 Superheater 151 
 
 The 13 
 
 I>ubricating Valves and Cylinders 104 
 
 Lubrication, Journals 112 
 
 Lubricators. Principle of working and defects 97 
 
 Mallet, Mr. Anatole , 34 2 
 
 Mallet I^ocomotives 400 
 
 American Articulated Compound 400 
 
 Baldwin Articulated Compound 447 
 
 Mudge-Slater Spark Arrester 185 
 
 Illus. 185 
 
 Observation, faculty of 31 
 
 Oil and Coal, Table showing Relative Heat Producing Power of. . C63 
 
 Economic value of 660 
 
 use of. Its advantages under favorable conditions. . . 616 
 
 Burner, Baldwin, Details of Illus. 651 
 
 Details of. Santa Fe Illus. 633 
 
 Details of. Southern Pacific Illus. 634 
 
 Southern Pacific Illus. 664 
 
 Baldwin 651 
 
 General Arrangement of. Santa Fe Illus. 627 
 
 The Burner or Atomizer B29 
 
 Delivery, Pipe and Fittings Illus. 62 5 
 
 Fields Illus. 615 
 
 Heater Box, Details of. Santa Fe Illus. 636 
 
 How used for fuel on locomotives 613 
 
 Throttle Valve Handle, Details of. Santa Fe Illus. 639 
 
 Packing Driving Boxes ^13 
 
 Packing, .Tournal Boxes, proper care of 113 
 
 Piston, High Pressure Illus. 4S6 
 
 Low Pressure Illus. 4 86 
 
 Speeds in Feet per Minute at Engine Speed of Ten Miles 
 
 per Hour Illus. 136
 
 INDEX. G71 
 
 Page 
 
 Point of Compression 1<J0 
 
 Progressive Examinations for Firemen — Their utility — Questions 
 
 and Answers in Detail 497 
 
 Piston Valve 2t)(i 
 
 Illus. 20(), 207, 200, 210 
 
 Pyrometer, for Superheater Locomotives 170 
 
 Illus. 177 
 
 Reciprocating Parts 3 3 4 
 
 Release 190 
 
 Repairing, best methods of 30 
 
 Revolutions of Driving Wheels Per Mile Illus. 135 
 
 Richardson Balanced Slide Valve 191 
 
 Richardson Balanced Slide Valve Illus. . 192 
 
 Rods and Wedges 93 
 
 etc., for Mogul or Ten- Wheel Engines Illus. 006 
 
 lightness of Illus. 477 
 
 Rules to be observed in Firing and Operating 04 5 
 
 Heating by the Coil in Tank 04 7 
 
 Heating Oil by Direct Steam Application 040 
 
 Oil Burning Locomotives 041 
 
 Sanding Flues 047 
 
 Starting the Fire 04 
 
 Starting Train or Engine 04 7 
 
 Temperature of oil 04 
 
 Safety Valve, Details of. Fuel Oil Illus. 024 
 
 Sand Funnel used in Cleaning Flues. Fuol Oil Illus. 040 
 
 Schmidt Top Header Superheater 155 
 
 Illus. 156, 157 
 
 Seal 191 
 
 Seconds Per Mile in Miles Per Hour 137 
 
 Side View of American Bogie (or Pony) Truck supporting for- 
 ward end of locomotive Illus. 009 
 
 Slide Valve, Richardson Balanced Illus. 005 
 
 Slide Valve 188 
 
 Slide Valve, Allan Richardson : 193 
 
 Slide Valve, Richardson Balanced 191 
 
 Smoke-box, Draught Appliances in Illus. 596 
 
 problem 70 
 
 Southern Valve Gear 313 
 
 Illus. 314, 310, 317, 319, 321, 322 
 
 Southern Valve Gear, Directions for Setting 315 
 
 Spark Arresters, Mudge-Slater 185 
 
 Springs and Equalizers Illus. 608 
 
 Steam 41 
 
 Chest 4 4 
 
 Its Application to the Locomotive 41 
 
 WTiere it goes after generated and how distributed 7 6 
 
 Superheaters Illus. 15 4, 15 0, 15 7, 15 9, 10 0, 101, 104 
 
 1C5, 106, 107, 109, 170. 173 
 
 Cole Side Header 163 
 
 Emerson 108 
 
 Foster 172 
 
 Jacobs 168 
 
 Locomotive 151 
 
 Schmidt Top Header .' 155 
 
 Vaughan-Horsey Comb Header Superheater 166 
 
 Superheating, Advantage of 151 
 
 Temperature of Steam at various Boiler Pressures 138 
 
 Tender, Details of Piping on. Fuel Oil Illus. 623 
 
 Equipment, Details of. Southern Pacltic Illus. 620 
 
 Equipped for Oil Burning. Appearance of Illus. 619 
 
 Heater coil in. Fuel Oil 620 
 
 Piping and Appliances on. Fuel Oil 620
 
 672 INDEX. 
 
 • Page 
 
 Three-Way Cock, Details of. Fuel Oil IlluB. 63 8 
 
 Tools and supplies, economical use of 38 
 
 Tools, for packing journal boxes 120 
 
 Tractive powi-r of four-cylinder compound 131 
 
 Two-cylinder compound 130 
 
 Train resistance or locomotive rating 131 
 
 Travel 191 
 
 Two methods of Chaining up Truck for Broken Wheel or Axle Illus. 611 
 
 Valves, Admission and Exhaust ofsteam to and from 188 
 
 Allan Richardson (Balanced) 193 
 
 American (Balanced) 196 
 
 Plain Slide 188 
 
 Plain Slide, Dimensions, Graphic Delinitiuns oi' Illus. 1S8 
 
 Richardson (Balanced) 191 
 
 Valve Gear, Baker 2 90 
 
 Valve Gear, Gooch 229 
 
 Valve Gear, Helmholtz Modification 286 
 
 Valve Gear, Joy Modification 238 
 
 Valve Gear, Southern 313 
 
 Valve Gear, Walschaert 240 
 
 Valve Gear, Young 2 87 
 
 Valve Motion, Allan 230 
 
 Valve Motion, Hackworth 235 
 
 Valves and valve gears 188 
 
 Valve, Piston 2 06 
 
 Vanderbilt Type of Fire-box. Details of Fire-box Brick Work 
 
 for. Fuel Oil i Illus. 657 
 
 Vaughan-Horsey Comb Header Superheater 1C6 
 
 Walschaert Valve Gear 240 
 
 Walschaert Valve Gear, Adjusting 248 
 
 Walschaert Valve Gear, General Instructions for 252 
 
 Walschaert Valve Gear Illus. 255, 257, 265, 209, 271, 273 
 
 Walschaert Valve Gear, Questions and Answers relative to 25 4 
 
 Walschaert Valve Gear, Special Instructions for erecting and 
 
 setting 2 53 
 
 Wedges and Rods 93 
 
 Wheel Blocked Up for Brokt-n Tire or Axle Illus. 606 
 
 Wheels, Diameter, Circumference and Revolutions Per Mile 138 
 
 Main and Rear Driving .Illus. 478 
 
 Young Valve Gear 287 
 
 Young Valve Gear Illus. 287
 
 KIRKMAN'S SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS' 
 
 Books of Especial Interest and Value to ENGINEMEN, 
 TRAINMEN and SHOPMEN 
 
 For the convenience of those interested particularly in certain 
 lines of work, "Ivirkman's Science of Railways" is di\'ided and sold 
 in groups, as follows: 
 
 Special prices for these groups are made to railwaj' employes, 
 and payment may be made on the monthly instalment plan, if 
 desired. The books are bound in half leather, and are a handsome 
 addition to any library. 
 
 GROUP A, MOTIVE POWER DEP'T. 
 
 Locomotive and Motive Power 
 
 Department. 
 Engineers' and Firemen's Handbook. 
 Locomotive Appliances. 
 Electricity Applied to Railways. 
 Air Brake — Construction and Working, 
 
 Vol. L 
 Air Brake — Construction and Working, 
 
 Vol. n. 
 Operating Trains. 
 Portfolio of Locomotives. 
 Portfolio of Air Brake — ^Westinghouse. 
 Portfolio of Air Brake — New York. 
 
 GROUP B, CAR SHOPS 
 
 Cars — Construction, Handling and 
 
 Super\-ision. 
 Air Brake — Construction and Working, 
 
 Vol. L 
 Air Brake — Construction and Working, 
 
 Vol. n. 
 Electricity Applied to Railways. 
 Portfolio of Cars. 
 
 Portfolio of Air Brake — Westinghouse. 
 Portfolio of Air Brake — New York. 
 
 GROUP C, LOCOMOTIVE SHOPS 
 
 Engineers' and Firemen/s Handbook. 
 
 Locomotive Appliances. 
 
 Shops and Shop Practice, Vol. I. 
 
 Shops and Shop Practice, Vol. II. 
 
 Air Brake — Construction and Working, 
 
 Vol. I. 
 Air Brake — Construction and Working, 
 
 Vol. II. 
 Electricity Applied to Railways. 
 Portfolio of Locomotives. 
 Portfolio of Air Brake — Westinghouse. 
 Portfolio of Air Brake — New York. 
 
 GROUP D, ROUNDHOUSE 
 
 Shops and Shop Practice, \'ol. I. 
 Shops and Shop Practice, Vol. II. 
 Electricity Applied to Railways. 
 Portfolio of Locomotives. 
 Portfolio of Air Brake-^Westinghouse. 
 Portfolio of Air Brake — New York. 
 
 GROUP E, TRAINMEN 
 
 Operating Trains. 
 
 Cars— Construction, Handling and 
 
 Supervision. 
 Air Brake— Construction and Working. 
 
 Vol. I. 
 Air Brake — Construction and Working, 
 
 Vol. II. 
 Electricity Applied to Railways. 
 Portfolio of Cars. 
 
 PortfoUo of Air Brake — Westinghouse. 
 Portfolio of Air Brake — New York. 
 
 GROUP F, FULL SET 
 Locomotive and Motive Power 
 
 Department. 
 Engineers' and Firemen's Handbook. 
 Locomotive Appliances. 
 Electricity Applied to Railways. 
 Cars — Construction, Handling and 
 
 Supers'ision. 
 Air Brake — Construction and Working, 
 
 Vol. I. 
 Air Brake — Construction and Working, 
 
 Vol. II. 
 Operating Trains. 
 Shops and Shop Practice, Vol. I. 
 Shops and Shop Practice, Vol. II. 
 Portfolio of Locomotives. 
 Portfolio of Cars. 
 
 Portfolio of Air Brake — Westinghouse. 
 PortfoUo of Air Brake — New York. 
 
 Full Information Furnished on Request 
 
 CROPLEY PHILLIPS COMPANY, Publishers 
 
 CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
 
 
 
 i'!::' 
 
 ii'iiiiimiiiiuiiii 
 
 
 
 iiiiiKiiiiniiliilii 
 
 
 
 llU(lll(iFf?lf 
 
 
 
 'iiiUUiiiiiKiiKii 
 
 
 
 >MIIIIIIII(ll(lll(li 
 
 ^^^^^^^^^^■ii 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 
 
 IIIU 
 
 MIlllKlllllillllill 
 
 ^^^^^■||i!;;;: 
 
 iriiii 
 mill 
 
 I'difiiniiifiifriii^ 
 iiMiiitirniiOiiiit: 
 
 ^^^^^^^^^^Bjt' 'ii'l 
 
 ili|i 
 
 ms 
 
 'iiiitilii ijHBBB 
 
 ■"mtmB&mOk