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 OF THE. 
 U N I VERS ITY 
 Of ILLINOIS 
 
 621.11 
 
 R68e 
 1892 
 
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 0 
 
OPINIONS OF THE PKESS. 
 
 The Manufacturer and Builder, New York. 
 
 An Engineer's Handy-Book. — Mr. Roper, the writer of this work, is well 
 known to many of our readers as the author of a number of useful reference 
 books relating to steam-engineering, which have become deservedly popular by 
 reason of their plain and intelligibie style and their freedom from unnecessary 
 * and confusing mathematical technicalities. Mr. Roper's object in all these hand- 
 books has avowedly been to present facts and explain principles in language so 
 plain and comprehensible that average steam-users, engineers, firemen, and 
 those who are usually found in charge of steam-machinery, can read his books 
 understandingly and with profit. We would be glad to see Roper's hand-books 
 largely multiplied and distributed in every workshop, for it is only out of books 
 of this kind that the average workman will be able to master the principles of 
 his handiwork. The present volume is no exception to this rule; on the con- 
 trary, we regard it to be decidedly the best of Mr. Roper's books, Jboth with 
 regard to its substance and the manner in which the same is classified and pre- 
 sented. 
 
 The Locomotive, Hartford, Conn. 
 
 Roper's Engineer's Handy-Book.— Published by E. Claxton & Co., of 
 Philadelphia, who are the publishers of several works on steam, steam-boilers, and 
 engines, from Mr. Roper's pen. This last work is of special value to all who 
 have to do with steam-boilers and engines, and it will be found a valuable shop 
 companion for the mechanic. There are a great many facts collated that are 
 not easily reached except through expensive books and libraries. These will be 
 found of service to all classes of men, whether in trade or manufacturing. We 
 commend it heartily, and believe it will have a large sale. 
 
 National Car-Builder, Neiv York. 
 
 Roper's Engineer's Handy-Book.— This compact and comprehensive little 
 volume contains a vast amount of information relative to the care and manage- 
 ment of every class of steam-engines. It is profusely illustrated, and abounds 
 in facts, figures, rules, tables, questions and answers, formulie, etc., that are ex- 
 ceedingly valuable to engineers, and of easy reference by means of a copious 
 and well-arranged index. The various subjects are discussed with brevity and 
 
 1 
 
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 
 
 clearness, and with a freedom from technicality which enables the reader to get 
 at the pith of the matter without fishing it out from an ocean of words. A prom- 
 inent feature of the book is a full explanation of the steam-engine indicator, and 
 its use and advantages to engineers and others. The long experience of the 
 author in this branch of engineering, and the numerous publications he has al- 
 ready issued upon kindred subjects, give an additional value to the present 
 treatise. It is printed on thin paper and in clear type, and contains 678 pages. 
 Flexible tuck binding, gilt edge, suitable for the pocket. 
 
 Forest^ Forge^ and Farm, Ilion, New York. 
 
 Engineer's Handy-Book.— We have received a book with the above title, 
 by the well-known author and engineer, Stephen Roper, who has written a 
 number of works on the subject of engineering. The eminent reputation of the i 
 author is a sufiicient guarantee that the book is both interesting and useful. *! 
 Mr. Roper has had an experience of over thirty-five years with all kinds of en- 
 gines and boilers, and thoroughly understands locomotive, fire, marine, and 
 stationary engines. This work has 678 pages, is profusely illustrated, bound in 1 
 morocco, and contains nearly 300 main subjects, 1316 paragraphs, 876 questions 
 and answers, 52 suggestions and instructions, 105 rules, formulae, and examples, 
 149 tables, 195 illustrations, 31 indicator diagrams, and 167 technical terms ; 
 over 3000 different subjects, with the questions most likely to be asked when j 
 under examination, before being commissioned as an engineer in the U. S. Navy i 
 or revenue service ; before being licensed as an engineer in the mercantile marine 
 service, or receiving a certificate to take charge of a steam-engine or boiler in 
 locations where such certificate is necessary. 
 
 It is a very valuable book for engineers, and will no doubt meet with a read;^ 
 sale. E. Claxton & Co., Philadelphia, are the publishers. 
 
 LeffeVs Illustrated News, Springfield , Ohio. 
 
 Engineer's Handy-Book : By Stephen Roper, Engineer.— The author of 
 the valuable series of hand-books which we have before referred to, has just 
 issued the above-named work, which must find ready way into the hands of en- 
 gineers and steam-users throughout the entire land. It contains a full explana- 
 tion of the steam-engine indicator, its uses and advantages, with formulae for 
 estimating the power of all classes of steam-engines ; also facts, figures, questions 
 and tables for engineers who wish to qualify themselves for the United States 
 navy, the revenue service, the merchant marine, or the better class of stationary 
 engines. The work does not claim to teach how to design or proportion steam- 
 engines and boilers, but rather to inform the engineer how to manage them 
 intelligently. It is one of the kind of practical hand-books for which there is 
 always neeJ. The work is well bound in flexible leather, uniform with Roper's 
 other hand-books, has 678 pages, and is fully illustrated. 
 
 2 
 
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 
 
 American Machinist , New York, 
 
 Roper's Engineer's Handy-Book. — The subjects in this work have neen 
 treated in a brief and comprehensive way, therefore the reader is not required 
 to read a number of chapters in order to acquire a little knowledge. The use 
 of the indicator is treated in a plain, practical way, so that it may be readily 
 understood. Abstruse formulas have been omitted and simple arithmetic used, 
 thus avoiding the usual vexations among practical men, who are uneducated in 
 the higher mathematics. The author has in this book given the results of his 
 own practical experience, which extends over a period of thirty years and up- 
 wards, and the work will doubtless be read with pleasure and profit by very 
 many practical mechanics. 
 
 Boston Journahof Commerce, 
 
 Mr. Stephen Roper is well known as the author of several other handy-books 
 that treat on steam, steam-boilers, and engines. This new work is, in our judg- 
 ment, his best. Although the arrangement and classification seem a little 
 peculiar, and a decided new departure in book-malting, they do not detract from 
 the merit of the book, which is plain, comprehensive, and instructive from the 
 title-page to The End." It is neatly illustrated, and creditable in the highest 
 degree to both author and publishers. It will be a valuable addition to every 
 engineer's library. 
 
 Millstone^ Indianapolis , Ind, 
 
 The Engineer's Handy-Book," by Stephen Roper, Engineer, is a practi- 
 cal treatise on the management of the steam-engine. The author says the book 
 was not written for the purpose of instructing engineers how to design or pro- 
 portion steam-engines or boilers, but rather to inform them how to take care of 
 and manage them intelligently." The declaration is carried out in the plainest 
 and most systematic manner. There is no straining after possibilities, but the 
 facts, as a thorough mechanic and engineer understands them, are set forth in 
 positive language and plain terms. This gives value to the work as a hand-book 
 to such engineers who are not too egotistical to receive information. As a text- 
 book for students in mechanical engineering, it will be found of great value. Its 
 illustrations and tabulated matter are important features, and printed in the ex- 
 cellent style that characterizes all the books issued from the house of E. Claxton 
 & Co., Philadelphia. It is something that should be possessed by every engi- 
 neer. 
 
 TJie Ainerican Engineer*, Cli icago, 111. 
 
 The Engineer's Handy-Book.— We are in receipt of the above work, which 
 contains a description of the various forms of engines now in use, and supplies 
 interesting and useful information as to the care, management, and remedy of 
 
 3 
 
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS, 
 
 defects of steam machinery and its appendages, with tables for calculating the 
 power of engines. Mr. Roper in his preface says : " This book was not written 
 for the purpose of instructing engineers how to design or proportion steam-en- 
 gines or boilers, but rather to inform them how to take care of and manage 
 them intelligsntly, as well as to furnish to those intending to qualify themselves 
 for the United States Navy, Revenue Service, Mercantile Marine, or to take 
 charge of the better class of stationary steam-engines, with a plain, practical 
 treatise." It is from this standpoint, therefore, that the book ought to be judged, 
 and we are sure that the large class to whom it is especially addressed will find 
 it a useful appendage and book of reference in their daily work. 
 
 The Scientific American^ Kew Yorh. 
 
 A well-made pocket-book of practical information for mechanical engineers, 
 particularly those of limited education, and such as may wish to qualify them- 
 selves for service in the U. S. Navy or the mercantile marine. The more 
 important engines in use are clearly described, and formulae are given for 
 estimating their power. Pai^ticular attention is paid to the Steam-Engine In- 
 dicator, its use and advantages. The author has hpd much experience in this 
 class of work, and writes clearly and plainly. 
 
 Engineering News^ New YorJc. 
 
 An " Engineer's Handy-Book."— As a writer on subjects relating to steam 
 and steam engineering, Mr. Roper is now too well known to need any further 
 introduction. In this, his latest contribution to steam-engineering literature, 
 Mr. Roper has aimed to present to his brother engineers a " handy-book" that 
 will be to them what Trautwine*s " Pocket-Book" is to civil engineers, and in 
 doing this he has spared no labor in collecting and editing his materials. Some 
 idea of the completeness of the work may be gathered from the statement of 
 the publishers that it contains nearly 300 main subjects, 1316 paragraphs, 876 
 questions and answers, 52 suggestions and instructions, 105 rules, formulae, and 
 examples, 149 tables, 164 illustrations, 31 indicator diagrams, and 167 technical 
 terms ; over 3,000 ditferent subjects, with the questions most likely to be asked 
 when under examination, before being commissioned as an engineer in the U. S. 
 Navy or Revenue Service ; before being licensed as an engineer in the Mercantile 
 Marine Service, or receiving a certificate to take charge of a steam-engine or 
 boiler in locations where such certificate is necessary. The author does not 
 claim to have discovered any recent special facts relating to his subject, neither 
 does he claim to have written a book of instructions in designing or proportion- 
 ing steam-engines ; he aims rather to instruct how to care for and manage them 
 intelligently. The book is very full and complete, and its typographical execu 
 tion is perfect. It must readily recommend itself as an "ever-ready com.* 
 panion " to every steam-ei^gineer in the country. 
 
 4 
 
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 
 
 From the Textile Colorist, Philadelphia, 
 The Engineer's Handy-Book. — Another aid to engineering by a well 
 known author, who has already done much in the way of practically educa- 
 ting scientific students. The work before us is one of 678 pages of the mpst 
 useful information. It treats exhaustively on the most recently invented ad- 
 juncts to the steam-engine, and gives very full formula by which engineers can 
 accurately calculate power and make reliable estimates in all branches of theii 
 profession. It likewise presents the most desirable instructions to y« nng meu 
 wishing to stand examination for the United States Navy or Revenue {service, m 
 well as the merchant marine. It is fully illustrated, and got up in a stvle com 
 mendable in the publishers and flattering to the author. 
 
 From the American Manufacturer and Iron WorM^ 
 Fittshurg^ Fa. 
 
 The Engineer's Handy-Book : By Stephen Roper, Engineer.— iir. Rope) p 
 name is by no means unfamiliar to the readers of popular 8team-eng:neeri)ig 
 literature in this country. The book now under notice is his last, and we )>e- 
 lieve the largest in bulk and the most comprehensive in scope of any work vet 
 published by him. He has gathered into this single volume about ah die piac- 
 tical information relating to the care and management of a steam-eugine thai 
 one eni ployed as a steam-engineer would be likely to require in ordinary service. 
 The leading steam-engines now in the market are illustrated in th)s book with 
 more or less descriptive matter accompanying each, giving the reader a general 
 Idea of the design of the engines, the details of their construction and operation. 
 The various accessories to engines and boilers receive their full share of atten- 
 tion. The chapter relating to the indicator is well illustrated by means of nu- 
 merous and well chosen diagrams. 
 
 The paper, press-work, and the general make up of the book leave nothing to 
 be desired. The style in which the book is written will commend itself to those 
 who want a book to read, and, thererore, free from mathematical formuiae and 
 we have no doubt that the class of persons whom Mr. Roper addresses will find 
 in this book all they will be likely to want in connection witb any quejitiou re- 
 lating to the steam-engine. 
 
 6 
 
OPINIONS OF EMINENT ENGINEERS, ETC. 
 
 The following letters have been received from some 
 of the most distinguished mechanical engineers, ex- 
 perts, and authors in the country. 
 
 E, Claxton & Co, ancmnati, Ohio, Aug. 5, 1880. 
 
 Permit me to acknowledge copy of your Eoper'^s Engineer's Handy- 
 Book, The volume contains a large amount of useful information for 
 students of mechanical engineering^ arranged in a condensed form., and 
 cannot fail to he a valuable acquisition to young engineers and me- 
 chanics, JOHN W, HILL. 
 
 E, Claxton & Co, Yonkers, N. Y., Aug. Ik, 1880. 
 
 In rejjly to your favor of the 2d instant., Iwoidd say that I think Mr. 
 Eoper'^s Engineer'' s Handy-Book " is the best one of his recent works. 
 Permit me to say that, when asked, as I of ten am, by the men I meet in 
 charge of engines, as to what books they had best get ''to read up on the 
 engine,'''' I say ''get Boper''s Works,''' In the fidure, as in the past, 
 I shall take pleasure in endorsing his effort to the men for whom he has 
 written, W. H, ODELL, 
 
 Messrs, E, Claxton dc Co. Troy, N. f., Aug. ii, mo. 
 
 Your favor of a late date, as well as enclosure of "Boper''s Engi- 
 neer's Handy -Book,'''' duly received. Permit me to say, that I think 
 th-e book a very valuable addition to the literature of the subjects of 
 which it treats; and, while the accomplished engineer will fiiid in this 
 book many facts so pAainly stated as to save much time in icorking up, 
 the intelligent engineer and mechanic, whose opportunities in the past 
 have hardly permitted his becoming fitted, and whose time in the present 
 will hardly allow him to wade through the verbiage and mathematical 
 demonstrations in tohich such knowledge as is contained in Mr, Boper''s 
 book is usually enveloped, ivill find in it a large amount of information 
 stated in the common language of every -day life. Such books cannot be 
 too widely distributed. The time was when their possession was a con- 
 venience, TJie time is ichen their possession is almost, if not quite, a 
 necessity. F, F, HEMENWAY, 
 
 Claxton & Co, - Passaic, N. J, Aug. U, 1880. 
 
 I have examined " Roper ''s Handy-Book pretty thoroughly, and 
 have no hesitancy in pronouncing the loork an excellent one. It is de- 
 cidedly out of the beaten track, and the better for it, 
 
 WM, H. HOFFMAN. 
 
OPINIONS OF EMINENT ENGINEERS, ETC. 
 
 E, Claxton & Co. aucago, m., Aug. 18, 1880. 
 
 Your note of July S9th, and a copy of ^^Boper's Engineer's Handy- 
 Book,'''' were duly received. The book is well calculated to accomplish 
 the purpose of the author, viz,, to furnish practical and valuable infor- 
 mation to engineers. The comprehensive description of the various 
 types of automatic engines is a fund of useful knowledge, and the various 
 groups of questions, the answers to which are embodied in the text, are 
 very likely to cause readers to " think,''^ and to fasten the ideas in their 
 minds. The book is a desirable addition to an engineer'' s library, 
 
 CHARLES A, HAGUE, 
 
 E, Claxton & Co, Hamilton, Ohio, Aug. 30, 1880. 
 
 Your esteemed favor , and also a copy of Boper'^s Engineer'' s Handy- 
 Book, were duly received; and, in reply, I beg leave to say that the work 
 is well got up, and I consider it of more practical value than any Ihave 
 yet seen. It seems almost impossible to find steam literature adapted to 
 the tvants of steam users. This book fulfils this requirement, and de- 
 serves a good reception at the hands of a class of men whom it may 
 greatly benefit. J, W, SEE, * 
 
 E, Claxton & Co, Hartford, Conn., Sept. 8, 1880. 
 
 Your favor of the 29th of July came in my absence, I have just 
 returned, and hasten to reply, Boper''s Engineer'' s Handy-Book is re- 
 plete with the information that Engineers need at hand. It combines 
 such portions of more pretentious works not readily accessible to the 
 Engineer, as well as information from Mr, Boper''s wide practical 
 experience with the detailed icorking of Boilers and Engines, as icill 
 give it value in the Shop and Engine-room, But it has a wider range 
 than this. It contains valuable tables, articles on the U. S, Naval Ser- 
 vice, Bevenue Service, and Mercantile Service, icith qualifications re- 
 quired of persons seeking appointments in each, and numerous other 
 matters that make the work a very valuable compendium. I shall keep 
 a copy on my desk ready for reference, and cheerf ully commend it to 
 others. Business men and manufacturers will find it a very convenient 
 Hand-Book, J, M. ALLEX, 
 
 President Hartford Steam-Boiler Inspection and Insurance Company. 
 
OPINIONS OF EMINENT ENGINEERS, ETC. 
 
 E. ClaxtOn & Co, aiumbut, Ohio, Oct. tS, 1890. 
 
 I esteem this book highly as one containing much information not 
 found elsewhere in a condensed form. It hears directly on practical 
 questions in mechanical engineering, especially on matters pertaining 
 to the Indicator and its use. How to read a diagram and determine 
 the condition of the action of engines are made clear. 
 
 The hooJc is of especial value to any who may be interested in the 
 peculiarities of existing engines, as I find the book contains illustrations 
 and descriptions of most of the prominent engines in use, 
 
 S,W. EOBINSON, 
 
 Prqf. <if Mechanical Engineering, Ohio State University. 
 E. UlaXtOn & Co. ^^^on, Nov. tU, 1880. 
 
 I can give my opinion of Roper'' s Engineer's Handy-Book in a few 
 words : it is the book that has been needed for more than 50 years. It 
 is the only book on steam and the steam-engine that I know of which 
 is devoid of the mysteries of algebraical formulae, and which the engi- 
 neer or student, with only a common-school education, can read and 
 understand; it consequently leaver no excuse for the ordinary engineer 
 to be ignorant of the principles of steam-engines. 
 
 F,W, BACON, M.E. 
 
 E. Claxton & Co. mbohen, N. J., Dec. 51, 1880, 
 
 Gentlemen : — I am in receipt of your favor arid also a copy of Boper's 
 Engineer's Handy-Book; please accept thanks for the same, lam too 
 much occupied with collegerwork at the present time to give it a complete 
 analysis, but at a cursory gl/xnce I see it is full of valuable information 
 for those who use or handle steam-engines, and should think it would 
 have a very extensive sale. 
 
 R. H. THURSTON. 
 
 Prqf. oj Jltchani^al ScU.nce^ Slevem Institute q/ Technology t 
 
ENGINEER'S Handy-Book. 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 A FULL EXPLANATION OF THE STEAM-ENGINE 
 INDICATOR, AND ITS USE AND ADVANTAGES 
 TO ENGINEERS AND STEAM USERS. 
 
 WITH FORMULA 
 
 FOR ESTIMATING THE POWER OF ALL CLASSES OF STEAM-ENGINES; 
 ALSO, FACTS, FIGURES, QUESTIONS, AND TABLES FOR ENGINEERS 
 WHO WISH TO QUALIFY THEMSELVES FOR THE UNITED 
 STATES NAVY, THE REVENUE SERVICE, THE MER- 
 CANTILE MARINE, OR TO TAKE CHARGE OF 
 THE BETTER CLASS OF STATIONARY 
 STEAM-ENGINES. 
 
 BY 
 
 STEPHEN ROPER, Engineer, 
 
 Author of 
 
 "'Roper's Catechism of Hign-Pressure or Is on-Condensing Steam-Enginee," 
 "Roper's Hand-Book of the Locomotive," "Roper's Hand-Book of 
 Land and Marine Engines," "Roper's Hand-Book of Modern 
 Steam-Fire Engines," "Improvements in Steam-Engines," 
 "Use and Abuse of the yieaui-Boiler," " Queatioiia ana 
 Answers for Engineers," etc., etc. 
 
 THIRTEENTH EDITION. 
 
 PHILADELPPIIA: 
 EDWARD MEEKS, 
 1012 Walnut Street. 
 1892. 
 
Copyright. 
 CLAXTON & CO. 
 1881 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 r 
 
 T is quite customary for persons to write bobks on the steam-en. 
 gine, and then offer as an apology for so doing, that they have 
 discovered that there is no practical treatise on the same subject in 
 the market, which shows either a lack of modesty on their part, and 
 a want of appreciation of what has already been written, or an un- 
 willingness to do justice to those who have previously treated the 
 same subject. There is no want of literature on the steam-engine ; 
 in fact, it would be difficult for the most experienced engineer or 
 talented author to add anything original. The steam-engine of the 
 present day is probably as perfect as it ever will be ; in fact, there 
 has not been any important improvement made in any class of 
 steam-engines for several years, except in the quality of the mate- 
 rials employed in their construction and refinement of workman, 
 ship; consequently, the work of those wiio treat on the steam- 
 engine, for the present, must be confined simply to abbreviating, 
 simplifying, correcting, and explaining what has already been Nvrit- 
 ten, as well as noting the results of the experiments which are tried 
 to test the efiiciency of different designs of steam-engines. AVho- 
 ever will apply himself to this object in the future, will be per- 
 ^ forming what has long been needed. Of course, we may discover 
 <^ a new engine that will be radically different from any in use at the 
 ^ p^sent day, which would involve the necessity of a new order of 
 ^ literature and new theories, but such an innovation is highly im- 
 probable, and casts only a dim shadow in the future, 
 ^^his book was not w^ritten for the purpose of instructing engi- 
 I neers how to design or proportion steam-engines or boilers, but rather 
 to inform them how to take care of and manage them intelligently. 
 
X 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 as well as to furnish to those intending to qualify themselves for the 
 United States Navy, Revenue Service, Mercantile Marine, or to 
 take charge of the better class of stationary steam-engines, with a 
 plain, practical treatise. In order to enhance its value to young 
 engineers, as well as those of limited education, none but the plainest 
 language has been used. This has not been done for the purpose of 
 encouraging the engineer to dispense with the use of mathematics, 
 or discard theories, sis all our great triumphs in mechanical science 
 have been based on theories and demonstrated by practice. 
 
 In the discussion of the different subjects brevity has been ad- 
 hered to, because the spirit of the age demands it, even in the dis- 
 cussion of the most important subjects. There can be no reason 
 why the reader should be compelled to wade through chapters of 
 matter to obtain information which may be condensed into a few 
 terse and intelligent paragraphs, nor to deal with the dead past 
 when the living present is before him. The mathematical formulae 
 employed have been abbreviated, since it is immaterial how a prob- 
 lem is worked, providing the result is correct and susceptible of 
 easy explanation. Up to the present time, the knowledge to intelli- 
 gently apply the steam-engine indicator has been confined to a few 
 persons in every country styling themselves experts. This partly 
 arose from the fact that authors who have heretofore treated on 
 this subject were men of literary ability and well versed in mathe- 
 matics, who found it more agreeable to elucidate their subject in 
 their own peculiar style than in any other. 
 
 The writer's experience of over thirty-five years, and his asso- 
 ciation with all classes of engineers, enable him to understand fully 
 the kind of information most needed by the average engineer. Con- 
 sequently, he has undertaken the task of furnishing it, and how we^l 
 he .has succeeded in the accomplishment of his object, he cheerfully 
 leaves to the reader to decide. If it should appear that he has suc- 
 ceeded in imparting useful and important information to the mem- 
 bers of a profession to which he himself belongs, he will feel amply 
 rewarded for his efforts. S. E. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 JPor a full reference to the Contents in detail, see Index, p, 673. 
 
 PART FIRST. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Centennial Corliss Engines 25 
 
 Steam Engineering .27 
 
 Facts that should be Borne in Mind by Engineers . . 34 
 
 Wright's Automatic Cut-Off Engine 38 
 
 Examination of Candidates 40 
 
 Necessary Qualifications of Candidates Applying for Ap- 
 pointments AS Cadet Engineers in the U. S. Navy . . 40 
 
 Examination in Grammar 42 
 
 Spelling 43 
 
 Examination in Arithmetic 43 
 
 Examination in Geography 47 
 
 Examination in Natural Philosophy 49 
 
 Woodbury, Booth & Pryor Automatic Cut-Off Engine . . 52 
 
 Qualifications of Candidates for the U. S. Revenue Service 57 
 Standard of Examination for Assistant Engineer in the U. S. 
 
 Revenue-Cutter Service . 58 
 
 First Assistant Engineer 58 
 
 Examinations for the Mercantile Marine Service . . 59 
 
 Qualifications of Stationary Engineers 60 
 
 Locomotive Engineers . . . . . . . .62 
 
 Steam 63 
 
 Table showing the Increase of Sensible and the Decrease of Latent 
 
 Heat in Steam, according to Pressure 65 
 
 Table showing the Effluent Velocity with which Steam, at difierent 
 Pressures, will Flow into the Atmosphere, or into Steam at a lower 
 
 Pressure 67 
 
 xi 
 
xii 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 EuLE FOR Finding the Amount of Gain derived from Work- 
 ing Stea^ Expansively 67 
 
 Table of Hyperbolic Logarithms to be used in Connection with the 
 above Eule 68 
 
 Table of Multipliers by which to find the Mean Pressure of Steam at 
 Various Points of Cut-Off 69 
 
 Table of Constant Numbers by which to Ascertain the Average Press- 
 ure of the Steam against the Piston for different Pressures and Points 
 of Cut-Off, from ^ to | of the Stroke 69 
 
 Table of Constant Numbers for Finding the required "Lap" for Slide- 
 Yalves when the Travel of the Valve is known . . . .70 
 
 Table showing the Average Pressure of Steam upon the Piston through- 
 out the Stroke, when Cut-Off in the Cylinder is from J to |, com- 
 mencing with 10 Pounds and advancing in 5 Pounds up to 55 
 Pounds Pressure 71 
 
 Table showing the Average Pressure of Steam upon the Piston 
 throughout the Stroke, when Cut-Off in the Cylinder is from J to |-, 
 commencing with 60 Pounds and advancing in 5 Pounds up to 105 
 Pounds Pressure 72 
 
 Table showing the Average Pressure of Steam upon the Piston 
 throughout the Stroke, when Cut-Off in the Cylinder is from J to J, 
 commencing with 110 Pounds and advancing in 5 Pounds up to 
 150 Pounds Pressure 73 
 
 Table showing the Temperature of Steam at different Pressures, from 
 1 Pound per Square Inch to 220 Pounds, and the Quantity of Steam 
 produced from a Cubic Inch of Water, according to Pressure . .74 
 Explanation of Table 76 
 
 Table of Elastic Force, Temperature, and Volume of Steam from a 
 Temperature of 32° to 457° Fah., and from a Pressure of 0*2 to 900 
 Inches of Mercury 76 
 
 Table showing the Temperature and Weight of Steam at different Press- 
 ures from 1 Pound per Square Inch to 300 Pounds, and the Quantity 
 of Steam produced from 1 Cubic Foot of Water, according to Pressure 81 
 
 Table showing the Steam Pressure in Pounds per Gauge ; the Abso- 
 lute Pressure in Pounds and Inches of Mercury ; the Temperature ; 
 the Total Heat in Steam per Pound ; the Latent Heat per Pound ; 
 the Heat of the Water; the Eelative Volume and Weight of Steam 
 
 per Cubic Foot for various Pressures . . . . . .85 
 
 The Brown Automatic Cut-Off Steam-Engine . . . .88 
 
 The Harris Corliss Steam-Engine 95 
 
 Questions for Engineers 99 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Xlll 
 
 PART SECOND. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Hteam-Engines in Generate 102 
 
 Compound Engines 109 
 
 Simple Engines 112 
 
 Table of the Average Performances of different Designs of Pum ping- 
 Engines 114 
 
 Uncertainty of Tests for the Purpose of Comparing the 
 
 Kelative Economy of Marine Engines 116 
 
 The Locomotive 119 
 
 The Steain^ Fire-Engine 120 
 
 The Woodruff and Beach Automatic Cut-Off High-Pressure 
 
 Engine 124 
 
 Automatic Cut-Off and Throttling Engines .... 130 
 
 Throttling Engines 131 
 
 Steam-Engine Cut-Offs . . . 132 
 
 Design of Steam-Engines 134 
 
 Duplicating the Parts of Steam-Engines 136 
 
 Fitting the Cranks of Steam-Engines to their Shafts . 137 
 The Putnam Machine Company's Automatic Cut-Off Engine 138 
 
 How TO Put an Engine in Line 141 
 
 How TO Set up a Stationary Engine ...... 143 
 
 How TO Keverse an Engine 145 
 
 How TO Eepair Steam-Engines 146 
 
 How TO Increase the Power of the Steam-Engine . . .148 
 The Greene Automatic Cut-Off High-Pressure Engine . . 150 
 
 The Dead-Centre 152 
 
 The Causes of Knocking in Steam-Engines .... 153 
 The Kemedies for Knocking in Steam-Engines .... 155 
 
 The Douglas Automatic Cut-Off Engine 159 
 
 Technical Terms Applied to Different Parts of Steam-Engines 160 
 Terms Formerly Applied to Different Parts of Steam-En- 
 gines, but which have become Obsolete .... 161 
 Questions 162 
 
 PART THIRD. 
 
 Bed-Plates and Housings 163 
 
 Steam-Cylinders . 164 
 
 Table showing the Proper Thickness for Steam-Cylinders from 6 to 90 
 
 Inches 166 
 
 2 
 
xiv 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Steam-Pistons 167 
 
 piston-kods 169 
 
 Table of Units of Horse-Power for different Piston Speeds . . 170 
 Table showing Length of Stroke and Number of Revolutions for dif- 
 ferent Piston Speeds in Feet per Minute 172 
 
 Piston, Connecting-Rod, and Crank Connections . . . 175 
 
 The Reynolds Corliss Engine 177 
 
 Steam- and Exhaust-Pipes 180 
 
 Rock -Shafts .181 
 
 Cross-Head Bearings. . 181 
 
 Valve-Rods 182 
 
 The Eccentric .182 
 
 The Crank 183 
 
 Crank-Pins 185 
 
 Crank-Shaft Journals and Main-Bearings .... 187 
 
 Keys, Gibs, and Straps 188 
 
 The Link .... 189 
 
 Fly- Wheels 192 
 
 The Watertown Automatic Cut-Off Engine .... 194 
 
 Steam-Engine Governors . . . - 197 
 
 How TO Balance the Reciprocating and Revolving Parts 
 
 OF Vertical Engines . . 202 
 
 Heating in Journals and Reciprocating Parts of Steam- 
 
 Engines 202 
 
 Reversing-Gear for Marine Engines 203 
 
 The Slide- Valve 205 
 
 The Wheelock Automatic Cut-Off Engine .... 214 
 How TO Determine the Amount of Lap and Lead on a Valve 
 WITHOUT Opening the Steam-Chest, and whether it is 
 
 Equal at both Ends or not 218 
 
 Table showing the Amount of " Lap" required for Slide- Valves when 
 
 the Steam is to be Worked expansively 220 
 
 Friction of Slide- Valves 221 
 
 How TO Set the Valves of Steam-Engines 224 
 
 Valves and Valve-Gear . . . 226 
 
 Valves and Cocks connected with Engines and Boilers . 229 
 
 Pipes . 231 
 
 The Wells Two-Piston Balance-Engine 232 
 
 Instructions for the Care of Steam-Engines .... 235 
 
 PiSTON-RoD AND VaLVE-RoD PACKING, AND HoW TO USE IT . 237 
 
 Wardwell's High-Pressure Valveless Engine .... 240 
 
CONTENTS, 
 
 XT 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Lubricants 248 
 
 Questions 246 
 
 PART FOURTH. 
 
 The Steam-Engine Indicator : Its Invention and Improvement 251 
 
 Tabor's Indicator 259 
 
 Functions of the Indicator 261 
 
 Technical Terms Used in Connection with the Employment 
 
 OF the Indicator 263 
 
 How TO Attach the Indicator 268 
 
 Motion of the Paper Drum 269 
 
 The Most Accurate Methods of Testing the Adjustments . 274 
 Diagrams taken from Automatic Cut-Off Engines . . , 278 
 
 Application of the Theoretic Curve 280 
 
 The Initial Pressure, or Steam-Line 282 
 
 The Mean Effective Pressure 283 
 
 To Space the Ordinates 285 
 
 To Calculate the Indicated Horse-Power 285 
 
 Theoretical Economy 286 
 
 How TO Calculate Theoretical Rate of Water Consumption 288 
 Indicator Diagrams 291-320 
 
 Formula for Finding the Theoretical Clearance when the Scale is 
 known 316 
 
 Formulae for Finding the Horse-Power of Steam-Engines by Indi- 
 cator Diagrams 318 
 
 Another Formula 319 
 
 What Indicator Diagrams Show, and How they Show it . 321 
 
 The Planimeter 323 
 
 Steam-Engine Economy 325 
 
 Location of Steam-Engines 329 
 
 The Porter- Allen High-Speed Engine 330 
 
 Questions 334 
 
 PART FIFTH. 
 
 Condensers . . . .• 338 
 
 Table showing the Force with which Uncondensed Steam arising from 
 Water in Condenser resists Ascent or Descent of Piston, according 
 to its Temperature 341 
 
 IRelative Quantity of Injection- Water required to Condense 
 A Certain Volume of Steam . , 342 
 
xvi 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Injector Condenser 345 
 
 Independent Condenser and Air-Pump 346 
 
 The Vacuum . • 348 
 
 Table showing Vacuum in Inches of Mercury and Pounds Pressure 
 
 per Square Inch 349 
 
 Air-Pumps ............ 353 
 
 The Salinometer 360 
 
 Table showing Proportion of Salt in Water of different Seas . . 362 
 
 Table showing Boiling-Point of Salt Water at different Degrees of 
 Density, when the Barometer stands at 30 Inches .... 362 
 The Barometer 364 
 
 Table showing Weight of Atmosphere per Square Inch corresponding 
 
 with different Heights of Barometer 365 
 
 Thermometers 365 
 
 Marine Steam-Engine Register 367 
 
 Spring-, Mercury-, Syphon-, and Vacuum-Gauges . . . 369 
 The Mariner's Compass 373 
 
 Table of Khumbs, or Points of the Co pass ..... 374 
 
 Table showing Magnitudes and Velocities of the Planets . . . 375 
 Technical Terms and Definitions Used in Navigation . . 376 
 
 Table of Miles as Measured by Various Nations .... 382 
 Length of Days in Different Countries 382 
 
 Table of Sailing Distances from New York to different Parts of the 
 World, in Geographical Miles 383 
 
 Table of Latitude and Longitude of Places 384 
 
 Table showing Time at different Places when it is 12 o'clock Noon at 
 New York . . 385 
 
 Table of Miles and Knots, Knots and Miles 386 
 
 Marine Signals , 386 
 
 Marine Whistle-Signals 389 
 
 Marine Bell-Signals . . • . 390 
 
 Light Signals for Ocean Steamships 390 
 
 Railroad Signals 391 
 
 Train Signals o . 392 
 
 Enginemen's Signals 393 
 
 Conductors' Signals 394 
 
 Signals by Lamp 394 
 
 The Screw-Prqpeller 394 
 
 The Paddle-Wheel .......... 396 
 
 Pumps 400 
 
 Injectors 406 
 
CONTENTS. Xvil 
 
 PAGE 
 
 William Sellers & Co.'s Injectok 408 
 
 Table showing Steam-Pressure required to Lift and Deliver Water 
 
 with Sellers' Fixed-Nozzle Lifting Injector 412 
 
 Sellers' Non-Adjusting Fixed-Nozzle Injector, with Lifting 
 
 Attachment, for Stationary Boilj:rs 412 
 
 Table showing Maximum and Minimum Delivery of Sellers' Self- 
 Adjusting, 1876, Injector No. 6 ; Temperature of Delivered Water; 
 Pressure against which Injector delivers Water, and Highest Tem- 
 perature of Feed admissible; Water flowing to Injector under 15 
 
 Inches Head ; Waste- Valves Shut 416 
 
 Table of Capacities of Sellers' Injectors 417 
 
 Temperature of Feed-Water ........ 417 
 
 Kue's "Little Giant" Injector 418 
 
 Table of Capacities of Rue's Little Giani" Injector . . . 420 
 
 Friedman's Injector ... 420 
 
 Table of Capacities of Friedman's Injectors ..... 422 
 
 The Keystone Injector 422 
 
 The Keystone Lifting Injector 423 
 
 The Eclipse Injector 424 
 
 The Clipper Injector - . 426 
 
 Table of Capacities of Clipper Injectors 428 
 
 The Inspirator 430 
 
 Table of Capacities of the Hancock Inspirator 432 
 
 Instructions for Setting up. Properly Attaching and Ad- 
 justing Injectors 432 
 
 The Ejector or Lifter 434 
 
 Jamison's Steam Water-Ejector 435 
 
 Table of Capacities of Jamison's Steam Water-Ejector . . . 435 
 Questions 436 
 
 PART SIXTH. 
 
 Steam-Boilers 442 
 
 Bursting Pressure of Cylindrical Stea^i-Boilers . . . 448 
 
 KuLES 451, 452, 468 
 
 Boiler-Stays 453 
 
 Stay- Bolts 454 
 
 Table showing the Breaking Strain of Iron and Copper Stay- Bolts . 455 
 
 Scale in Steam-Boilers 455 
 
 Foaming in Marine-Boilers 457 
 
 Priming 45S 
 
 2* B 
 
XVIU CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Corrosion, and its Analogy to Combustion 460 
 
 Manual and Mechanical Firing 461 
 
 Technical Terms applied to Firing 462 
 
 Technical Terms employed in Kelation to Boilers. . 462 
 
 Friction of Eiveted Seams 463 
 
 Calking 463 
 
 Steam-Boiler Explosions 464 
 
 Safety- Valves 465 
 
 Draught in Chimneys 469 
 
 Smoke 473 
 
 Feed- Water Heaters 474 
 
 Table showing Units of Heat required to Convert One Pound of 
 Water, at the Temperature of 32°, into Steam at different Pressures 475 
 Technical Terms applied to Adjuncts of the Steam-Boiler 476 
 Instructions for the Care and Management of Steam-Boilers 478 
 
 Boiler Materials . . 480 
 
 Definitions of the Technical Terms applied to the Differ- 
 ent Kinds of Boiler-Plate 486 
 
 Questions 491 
 
 PART SEVENTH. 
 
 Air 496 
 
 Table of Altitudes above Sea-Level, and the corresponding Atmos- 
 pheric Pressures, deduced from the Observations of the Hayden 
 
 Expedition to the Eocky Mountains 498 
 
 Table showing the Force of the Wind in Pounds per Square Foot at 
 
 different Velocities • . . 499 
 
 Horse-Power of Wind-Storms 499 
 
 Altitude of the Highest Mountains in the World . . 500 
 
 Highest Waterfalls in the World 500 
 
 Table showing Relative Volumes of Air at various Temperatures . 501 
 Technical Terms which are applied to Fluids and Vapoks, 
 AND WHICH Bear a Certain Relation to the Steam-Engine 502 
 
 Fuel 503 
 
 Heat 507 
 
 Table showing the Latent Heat of various Substances . . . 508 
 Table showing the Radiating Properties of different Substances . . 508 
 Table showing the Effects of Heat upon different Bodies . . . 508 
 Table showing the Specific Heat of different Substances . . . 509 
 Table showing the Relative Weight and Volume of different Gases . 509 
 
CONTENTS. xix 
 
 PAOK 
 
 Table showing the Non-conducting Pro{)ertiefi of different Materials 
 
 at Even Thickness 510 
 
 Combustion 510 
 
 Table showing the Total Heat of Combustion of various Fuels . .512 
 
 Water 514 
 
 Table showing the Quantity and Weight of Water in Pipes One 
 Fathom in Length (6 Feet), and of different Diameters from 1 to 
 
 12 Inches 518 
 
 Table showing the Quantity of Water per Lineal Foot in Pumps or 
 
 Vertical Pipes of different Diameters 519 
 
 Table showing the Weight of Water at different Temperatures . . 520 
 Table showing the Boiling-Point for Fresh Water at different Alti- 
 tudes above Sea-Level 520 
 
 Table showing the Capacity of Cisterns and Tanks, Computed in Bar- 
 rels of 31^ Gallons 521 
 
 Table showing the Power required to raise Water to different Alti- 
 tudes, varying from 1 Foot to 20,000 Feet . ' . . . .522 
 Table showing the Capacity of Cisterns in Gallons for each 10 Inches 
 
 in Depth 523 
 
 Table showing the Daily average Number of Gallons of Water per 
 Individual in different Cities, including the Quantity Used for 
 Manufiicturing Purposes, Fountains, etc. . .... 524 
 
 Vapors 525 
 
 Table showing the Temperature of Saturated Vapor in Atmospheres, 
 
 according to Zeuner 525 
 
 Tiable showing the Pressure and Temperature of the Vapors of Water 
 
 from 32° to 400° Fah 526 
 
 Gases . . 530 
 
 Technical and Chemical Terms as applied to Substances that 
 Bear Relations to the Steam-Engine both in Theory and 
 
 Practice 534 
 
 Areas of Circles 536 
 
 Rules 538 
 
 Significations of Signs Used in Calculations .... 542 
 
 The Cipher 542 
 
 Table of Diameters and Areas of Small Circles ..... 543 
 Table containing the Diameters, Circumferences, and Areas of Circles 
 from y\ of an Inch to 100 Inches, advancing by -^^ of an Inch up 
 to 10 Inches, and by J of an Inch from 10 to 100 Inches . 544 
 
 Table of Logarithms of Numbers from 0 to 1000 .... 555 
 Table of Hyperbolic Logarithms ... .... 557 
 
XX CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Peculiarities of Multiplicatton , . . , „ , 560 
 
 Decimal Arithmetic , , . . . 560 
 
 Table of Vulgar and Decimal Fractions of an Inch .... 561 
 
 Table of Common and Decimal Fractions 561 
 
 Units 562 
 
 Table showing all the Units of Length Kecognized in England since 
 
 the 16th Century 565, 
 
 Atoms and Molecules 566 
 
 Table of Squares, Cubes, and Square and Cube Boots of all Numbers 
 
 from 1 to 620 567 
 
 The Wetherill Corliss Engine 583 
 
 Emergencies 584 
 
 Questions 585 
 
 PART EIOHTH. 
 
 Lexicon of Definitions of Central, Mechanical, and Dynam- 
 ical Forces 587 
 
 Metals and Alloys 612 
 
 Table of Mineral Substances and their Chemical Equivalents . .612 
 Table showing the Heat-Conducting Properties of Different Metals . 614 
 Table showing the Tenacity or Tensile Strength of Different Metals . 614 
 Table showing the Proportion of Carbon in the various Grades of 
 
 Iron and Steel * .615 
 
 Alloys and Compositions 616 
 
 Solder 617 
 
 Table showing the Average Crushing Load of different Materials, or 
 
 the Weight under which they will Crumble 617 
 
 Table showing the Tensile Strength, or the Strain that will Pull dif- 
 ferent Metals Asunder on a Straight Pull 618 
 
 Table showing the Tensile vStrength of different Kinds of Wood . 618 
 Table showing the Weight of Castings by Weight of the Patterns . 620 
 Table showing the Shrinkage of Castings of different Metals . . 620 
 Table showing the Weight and Bulk of different Substances in Cubic 
 
 Feet, Pounds, and Tons 620 
 
 Table showing the Weight of different Metals per Cubic Foot . . 621 
 Table showing the Actual Extension of Wrought-Iron at various 
 
 Temperatures 621 
 
 Table showing the Linear Dilatation of Solids by Heat . . . 622 
 Table deduced from Experiments on Iron Plates for Steam-Boil ers, 
 by the Franklin Institute, Philada. 623 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 xxi 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Table showi;ig the Strength of Copper Boiler-Plates at different Tem- 
 peratures, deduced frarn Experiments by the Franklin Institute of 
 Phila. The Standard Strength at 32° being 32,800 Pounds per 
 
 Square Inch 623 
 
 Table showing the Weight of Cast-Iron Balls from 3 to 13 Inches in 
 
 Diameter 624 
 
 Table showing the Weight of Cast-Iron Plates per Superficial Foot 
 
 as per Thickness 624 
 
 Table showing the Weight of Eound Iron from i an Inch to 6 Inches 
 
 in Diameter, 1 Foot Long 625 
 
 Table showing the Weight of Boiler-Plates 1 Foot Square and from 
 
 of an Inch to an Inch Thick . 626 
 
 Table showing the Weight of Square Bar-Iron, from 2 an Inch to 6 
 Inches Square, 1 Foot Long ........ 626 
 
 Table showing the W^eight of Cast-iron Pipes, 1 Foot in Length, from 
 
 J Inch to Ij Inches Thick and from 3 Indies to 24 Inches Diameter 627 
 Tables showing the Standard W^eights of Cast-iron Water- and Gas- 
 Pipes 628 
 
 Table showing the Tensile Strength of various Qualities of American 
 
 and English Cast-Iron 628 
 
 Table showing the Tensil« Strength of various Qualities of American 
 
 Wrought-Iron 629 
 
 Table showing the Results of Experiments made on difierent Brands 
 
 of Boiler-Iron at the Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, N. J. 630 
 Table giving the Proportions of the United States or Sellers' Stand- 
 ard Threads for Screws, Nuts, and Bolts 6itl 
 
 Speed, Power, Capacity, and Dress of Millstones . . . 632 
 Speed of Circular Saws . . . . . . . . . 632 
 
 Table of Coefficients of Friction between Plane Surfaces . . . 633 
 N on-Conducting Covering for Steam-Boilers and Pipes . . 634 
 
 Belting 637 
 
 Gearing 645 
 
 Fitchburg Steam-Engine Company's Automatic Cut -Off Engine 648 
 
 The Improved Circulating Salinometer 650 
 
 Crosby's Adjustable ^'Pop" Safety-Valve 654 
 
 The Improved Planimeter 656 
 
 Crosby's Improved Steam-Pressure Hydraulic, Combination, 
 
 Vacuum, and Self-Testing Gauges 657 
 
 The Atlas Corliss Engine 663 
 
 Questions . . 668 
 
 Index 673 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Centennial Corliss Engine, 24 
 
 Wright's Automatic Cut-Off Engine, ...... 36 
 
 Woodbury, Booth & Pryor's Automatic Cut-Off Engine, . 53 
 
 Double-Slide Valves, 55 
 
 Semi-Rotary Valves, 55 
 
 The Brown Automatic Cut-Off Engine, 89 
 
 Harris Corliss Engine, 93 
 
 Modern Marine Compound Engine, 110 
 
 Section of Marine .Compound Engine, Ill 
 
 The Woodruff & Beach Automatic Cut-Off High-Pressure 
 
 Engine, 125 
 
 The Putnam Machine Company's Automatic Cut-Off Engine, 139 
 The Greene Automatic Cut- Off High-Pressure Engine, . 150 
 
 The Babbitt & Harris vSteam-Piston, 167 
 
 Piston, Connecting-Eod, and Crank Connection, .... 175 
 
 The Reynolds Corliss Engine 178 
 
 The Crank, 183 
 
 The Link, 184 
 
 Valve-Gear, ♦ 199 
 
 The Watertown Automatic Cut-Off Engine, .... 195 
 
 The Waters Governor, 197 
 
 The Shive Governor, .199 
 
 Reversing-Gear, 203 
 
 Diagrams of Slide- Valve, ....... 204-213 
 
 The Wheelock Automatic Cut-Off Engine, .... 215 
 
 Poppet- Valves, 223 
 
 Slide- Valves, 230 
 
 The Wells Two-Piston 'Balance-Engine, 233 
 
 The Wardwell Valveless Engine, 241 
 
 The Steam-Engine Indicator, 251 
 
 Thompson's Indicator, 251 
 
 Crosby's Improved Indicator, ...... c . 255 
 
 Section of Crosby's Indicator, ....... 257 
 
 Tabor's Indicator, 260 
 
 Section of Tabor's Indicator, 261 
 
 Richards' Parallel Motion Indicator, 275 
 
 Indicator Diagrams, 291-320 
 
 The Planimeter, 323, 656 
 
 Diagram Measured by the Planimeter, 325 
 
 xxii 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 XXIU 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Porter-Allen High-Speed Engine, . , . . . 331 
 
 Surface Condenser 338 
 
 The Injector Condenser, 344 
 
 Independent Condenser and Air-Pump, 348 
 
 Independent Air- and Circulating-Pump, 352 
 
 Section of a Marine Air-Pump, 353 
 
 Independent Marine Circulating-Pump, 358 
 
 Marine Wrecking-Pump, 359 
 
 The Salinometer, » . . . 360 
 
 The Hotwell Thermometer, 366 
 
 The Uptake Thermometer, 366 
 
 Marine Steam-Engine Kegister, 367 
 
 Spring Steam-Gauges, 369-371 
 
 Marine Whistle-Signals, 389 
 
 Pumps, 401 
 
 William Sellers & Co.'s Injectors, 409 
 
 Rue's "Little Giant" Injector, ...... 418,419 
 
 Friedman's Injector, . .421 
 
 The Keystone Injector, 422 
 
 The Eclipse Injector, 425 
 
 The Clipper Injector, ......... 426 
 
 Mack's Fixed-Nozzle Injector, 429 
 
 The Inspirator, 430, 431 
 
 The Ejector or Lifter, 434 
 
 Jamison's Steam Water-Ejector, 435 
 
 Water-Tubular Marine-Boiler, 442 
 
 Fire-Tubular Marine- Boiler, 443 
 
 Direct Flue and Eeturn Tubular Marine-Boiler, . . . 446 
 Methods of Bracing Marine Steam-Boilers, .... 450 
 The Buckeye Automatic High-Pressure Cut-Off Engine, . 489 
 
 Diagrams of Circles, 537, 538 
 
 The Wetherill Corliss Engine, ....... 582 
 
 Steam-Joints, 634 
 
 Back View of the Fttchburg Automatic Cut-Off Engine, . 647 
 
 The Fitchburg Governor, 649 
 
 Circulating Salinometer, ........ 651 
 
 Crosby's Adjustable "Pop" Safety^- Valve ..... 654 
 
 Exterior View of Crosby's Steam Gauge, . . . . . 658 
 
 Interior View of the Original Bourdon Steam Gauge, . 658 
 
 Interior View of Crosby's Steam Gauge, 659 
 
 Crosby's Self-Testing Steam Gauge, 660 
 
 Crosby's Vacuum Gauge, 660 
 
24 
 
THE 
 
 ENGINEER'S 
 
 PART FIRST. 
 
 The Centennial Corliss Engines. 
 
 The Centennial Corliss Engines were beam-engine& of the Cor- 
 liss type, with all the latest improvements, and nominally of 700 
 horse-power each, or 1400 horse-power together. The cylinders 
 were 40 inches in diameter, with 10 feet stroke. They were pro- 
 vided with air-pumps and condensers, consequently they could be 
 worked either condensing or non-condensing, and were intended 
 to work with from 25 to 80 lbs. of steam pressure, according to 
 the requirements of the exhibition. The gear fly-wheel was 30 
 feet in diameter, 2 foot face, and weighed 56 tons; it was un- 
 doubtedly the largest gear-wheel ever made. The pinion that 
 was driven by this large fly-wheel was a solid casting 10 feet in 
 diameter, weighing 17,000 lbs., and was the largest ever made. 
 The main frame was A shaped, having the journals for the beam- 
 centres on the top, and the legs bolted to the bottom of the cylin- 
 der on one side, and to the main crank-shaft journals on the 
 other. 
 
 3 25 
 
26 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 The walking-beams were of the web-beam pattern, and made 
 of cast-iron, and, in consequence of th#r peculiar shape, detracted 
 very much from the general appearance of the engine. They 
 were 9 feet wide at the centre, and 27 feet long, each weighing 
 22,000 lbs. The cross-head guides extended from the upper cylin- 
 der-heads to the top gallery, and were provided with screws by 
 which they, as well as the cylinder-heads, might be lifted to admit 
 of access to the pistons. The piston-rods, which were made of 
 steel, were 6} inches in diameter. The cranks were highly fin- 
 ished, and weighed 10,000 lbs. each. The connecting-rods were 
 24 feet long. The steam-valves received their motion from a 
 wrist-plate and a system of levers similar to those employed in 
 the ordinary Corliss engine, and the releasing gear for them was 
 entirely original, and very ingenious, though the exhaust-valves 
 ended their vibrations by an abrupt kick or jerk. 
 
 The height of the engines, from the floor to the top of the walk- 
 ing-beams, was 39 feet, and their weight, with all their adjuncts 
 and attachments, was over 700 tons. The engines were supplied 
 with steam by 20 upright Corliss boilers, of 70 horse-power each. 
 The main steam-pipe was 18 inches in diameter and 320 feet long. 
 The engines rested on a platform 55 feet in diameter, and 3 J feet 
 above the floor of the building. The top of the frame was sur- 
 rounded by a circular gallery, which aflTorded access to the beams 
 and all the upper works ; this gallery was reached by a semi-cir- 
 cular stairway on each side. These engines were objects of general 
 interest and curiosity, and served to illustrate the wonderful de- 
 velopment of the steam-engine in this country, and the amount 
 of inventive genius that must have been devoted to its improve- 
 ment. 
 
 After the close of the Centennial they were taken down and 
 removed to the builder's establishment. Providence, K. I., where 
 they remained until recently, when they were sold to the Pull- 
 man Palace Car Co. for the purpose of furnishing the motive- 
 power for their works, near Chicago, and also the power for the 
 Allen Paper Car-Wheel Works adjoining. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 27 
 
 steam Engineering. 
 
 Steam Engineering has assumed such vast proportions as 
 an agent of modern progress and civilization, that it has given 
 birth to a profession whose scope and functions are not yet very 
 clearly defined. The engineer's duty, in the performance of his 
 daily routine, involves the application of the laws of Nature in 
 various ways, to understand and explain which require a wide 
 range of scientific knowledge. While there are to be found in 
 the profession men whose intelligence and acquirements would 
 shed lustre on any calling, there are others who, by their loose dis- 
 regard of correct rules, show that they are laggard in the acquisi- 
 tion of that real knowledge so essential to men in their profession. 
 This is to be regretted, in view of the vast amount of property 
 and the great number of valuable lives intrusted to their care, 
 both on sea and land. But whenever any attempt is made to induce 
 engineers to qualify themselves for their calling, the effort is met 
 with the old stereotyped question regarding the relative merits of 
 theoretical and practical engineers, or the comparative value of 
 theory and practice. The practical men, who have no theoretical 
 knowledge, scoff at the theorists, and the latter sneer at the former. 
 It requires very little experience on the one hand, and not much 
 study on the other, to show that each are equally important, only 
 in different ways. Both parties should know that " Theory and 
 Practice make perfect.'' Theory, together with practical experi- 
 ence, will, without doubt, enable men to excel in whatever work 
 they may undertake. Therefore, it should be the highest ambition 
 of engineers to combine theory with practice, and prove the one 
 by the other. 
 
 This object may be effected by devoting a portion of their 
 leisure hours to study, and by pursuing a systematic course of 
 self-culture. The engineer whose early training has been neglected, 
 and who is now. debarred from the advantages of a good educa- 
 tion, need have no cause for despondency, because the extra exer- 
 tion and effort required to educate himself will confer advantages 
 
28 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 of their own, which the routine work of a school cannot develop. 
 Of course, there are men in this, as in all other callings, who will 
 fail, however much they may try to accomplish in the way of 
 educating themselves. This arises from the fact that, though 
 morally all men may be equal, intellectually they never can be 
 so. Consequently, the ability of men to educate themselves varies 
 in proportion to the amount of natural intelligence they possess. 
 But in any case, study gives quickness of apprehension, enables a 
 man to profit by all the recorded experience of others, develops 
 a power of appreciation and concentration, enforces exactness and 
 accuracy, and, if properly directed, teaches men to classify facts, 
 make proper deductions and reason logically. The knowledge 
 acquired from the study of books is of inestimable value to the 
 young engineer, as without it he can never be thoroughly qualified 
 for the duties of his profession, since he will be lacking in certain 
 definite information which can only be obtained from them, owing 
 to the want of which he is almost sure to be not only narrow- 
 minded, but also very slow to receive new ideas or to estimate the 
 proper value of old ones. 
 
 Such persons, if occupying positions in which they exercise 
 authority, are very apt to become intolerant of other people's 
 opinions, to assume that all knowledge begins and ends with them- 
 selves, or with what they have learned, and to over-estimate their 
 own ability. They are apt to be self-conceited, a quality which 
 too many in every calling possess, mistaking it for an independent 
 spirit. One of the commonest excuses for ignorance is the stereo- 
 typed expression, I am too old to learn." This, if made in sin- 
 cerity, is a great mistake, as it is a false pride which neglects an 
 opportunity to learn because it comes late in life, and it is a false 
 fear which shrinks from an efibrt on account of its diflSculty. One 
 fact very important to be considered in this connection, is, that 
 knowledge throws light upon itself; and that it is the first step 
 only that must be taken gropingly, as it were in the dark, as the 
 bugbears in such cases, like shadows, vanish the moment they are 
 boldly approached, and will be found to be mere shadows after 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 29 
 
 all. Truths are in the main simple and easy to be understood, 
 and are daily being brought more within the grasp of the most 
 ordinary comprehension by means of good books, which may be 
 had at trifling cost. It is frequently asserted, by members of this 
 calling, that they are no book-engineers ; which statement betrays 
 their ignorance of the manner in which some of the most valuable 
 books on the steam-engine originated. They were written by en- 
 gineers of experience, who wished to advance their profession, and 
 who thought that, if their predecessors could commence their 
 studies in their young days, they themselves might advance and 
 improve still further, leaving the benefit of their experience to 
 posterity ; the art would therefore advance with the age. As much 
 information may be learned in a few weeks from the works which 
 they have left us, as had taken them years of observation and trial 
 to ascertain. 
 
 Most of the abuses connected with steam engineering have 
 arisen from two causes, viz., avarice and ignorance ; avarice on 
 the part of owners of steam-engines and steam-boilers, who enter- 
 tain the idea that cheap steam-engines and boilers might be 
 managed by a class of persons who were willing to work for very 
 low wages; and ignorance on the part of those who claimed to be 
 engineers, but who were only men of all work, or at best mere 
 laborers in the treadmill of routine (stoppers and starters). It is 
 evidently one of the greatest mistakes connected with the use of 
 machinery, to intrust its care and management to persons of in- 
 ferior judgment, as a competent engineer, who could command 
 good wages, would probably save three times the difference by his 
 judgment and skill in its proper maintenance. If engineers wish 
 to raise the standard of their profession to what it ought to be, 
 and command remunerative compensation for their services, they 
 may do so by educating themselves, and not otherwise. It will 
 not do for them to shrug their shoulders, and claim to be " prac- 
 tical men," who reject theories, because it is well known that such 
 men have become a nuisance in every branch of mechanics, being 
 the least progressive, the least enlightened, and the most stubborn 
 3* 
 
30 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 in the assertion of their views ; because their minds are cramped, 
 and will not allow of either the substitution or the admission of 
 ideas different from their own, however crude and primitive they 
 may be. 
 
 The engineer of the ferry-boat Westfield belonged to this class. 
 Although he had been fourteen years an engineer on tug- and 
 ferry-boats, he was unable to tell the figures on the steam-gauge; 
 and, at the investigation that followed the frightful disaster that 
 occurred on board that ill-fated boat, on being asked what a va- 
 cuum was, answered that "he thought it was foul air." It was also 
 in evidence that the chief engineer of the line on which he was 
 employed was equally wanting in that practical knowledge that 
 ought to be possessed by a person occupying his position. These 
 may, perhaps, be said to be extreme cases, but they will only 
 prove to be so when it can be shown that there are not hundreds 
 of others occupying the same positions who are not much better 
 informed. No man is practical unless he proves practice by 
 theory and theory by practice, and who attaches any importance 
 to statements not sustained by facts. Such men can always be 
 distinguished from the self-styled " practical men," by an unassum- 
 ing manner, and by rarely making any pretensions; when ex- 
 pressing their opinions, they have a tendency to underrate their 
 own ability, not because they pretend to be less capable than they 
 really are, but (as so many men have become pretentious in their 
 manners and expressions) because they fear they may be con- 
 sidered as belonging to that class. On the other hand, the self- 
 styled variety are continually thrusting themselves forward, and 
 can easily be distinguished by the profuse use of the pronoun "I,' 
 which is evidence of conceit or ignorance, or perhaps of both. 
 
 A great deal has been said and written on thesubject of licens- 
 ing engineers, but there seems still to be as great a diversity of 
 opinion, as to the benefit to be derived from it, as on any other 
 connected with the profession. Many engineers are of the opinion 
 that, in consequence of the loose and uncertain way in which 
 examinations for licenses are now conducted, a law that would 
 
THE ENGINEER\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 31 
 
 require every engineer to submit to a rigid examination, would 
 prevent all but first-class men from being employed as engineers. 
 But while all agree that there should be a license law to reach all 
 classes of engineers, there are more formidable difficulties to be 
 overcome in the impartial execution of such a law than appear 
 at first sight. In the first place, it would be almost impossible to 
 place the office of examiner or inspector beyond the reach of 
 political influence, consequently his decisions would, in many in- 
 stances, be likely to be influenced by partisan feelings. The next 
 objection is, that it is not in the power of any man to determine, 
 with any certainty, the ability of an engineer by any theoretical 
 examinations. The candidate should be required to show his 
 ability by practical demonstration. Another point is, that it is 
 very difficult for a stranger to judge a man's qualifications as an 
 engineer, with any degree of certainty, in comparison with those 
 who are in daily intercourse with him, which goes to show that, 
 unless it is possible to determine to a certainty a man's ability as 
 an engineer, the license is of no value. The execution of any 
 license law to produce beneficial and satisfactory results should 
 only be intrusted to a board of engineers, composed of theoret- 
 ical, practical, and painstaking men — men who have performed 
 all the duties incidental to the calling of an engineer. 
 
 For this reason examinations ought to be conducted in the engine- 
 and boiler-rooms, where the persons applying for certificates are 
 employed. In that case, there would be an opportunity to test the 
 candidate's practical knowledge of everything connected with the 
 engine and boilers under his charge. There can be no reason why 
 persons, whose duty it is to inquire into the capabilities of persons 
 having charge of steam-engines and boilers, should not do so on 
 the premises, or on the vessels on which they are employed, as well 
 as 10 have them go several miles, and frequently into another 
 county, for that purpose. Examinations ought to be uniform in 
 all localities ; as, where the subjects embraced in the examination 
 differ iu different localities, the system is unjust. 
 
32 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 There are thousands of instances on record where men, having 
 charge of engines and boilers for 10 or 12 years, have secured only 
 a second- or third-class certificate, simply because they were men 
 of limited education, and could only imperfectly express what they 
 actually knew ; while others, who could furnish no positive evi- 
 dence of ever having had charge of an engine or boiler, and who 
 did not possess any of the qualifications so essential to an engineer, 
 obtained first-class certificates, because they were theorists and 
 good mathematicians. It is quite common to find blatant indi- 
 viduals, who have no reputation for ability, sobriety, and industry, 
 parading first-class certificates, which they obtained because they 
 had abundance of assurance, while many practical and unas- 
 suming men are almost afraid to apply for a certificate, lest they 
 should be degraded to the level of a third or fourth class engineer. 
 While theorists and mathematicians should receive their due meed 
 of merit, it would seem unjust, so far as the awarding certificates is 
 concerned, to place them above the men who, though possessing only 
 a limited education, had shown by years of industry, truthfulness, 
 and the successful pursuit of their calling, that they were perfectly 
 reliable in every respect. These are nice points to decide, partic- 
 ularly when it has to be done by one man, perhaps without any 
 practical experience. 
 
 The character of steam engineering can never be much ele- 
 vated by examinations and the awarding of certificates ; the only 
 hope for this lies in a law requiring every man to possess an ele- 
 mentary knowledge of steam and steam machinery before being 
 permitted to take charge of an engine and boiler ; as, being once 
 recognized as engineers, however ignorant men may be, they, as a 
 general thing, evince a lack of interest in acquiring a more ex- 
 tended knowledge of the duties of their calling. They frequently 
 become too conceited to take instructions from others, or even to 
 ask a question, although the answer might put them in possession 
 of a fact of immense value to them. There is no reason why one 
 class of men should be required to serve a regular apprenticeship, 
 and even to devote years to the study of their profession, while 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 33 
 
 another class is allowed to discharge all the duties of a calling 
 equally as important, with scarcely any preparation. 
 
 The question is often asked, "Should an engineer be a ma- 
 chinist ? The proper answer would be, not necessarily so ; 
 there is no reason why a man should learn two trades in order to 
 follow one. Besides, experience has shown that, though ma- 
 chinists are in some instances the best judges of things that may 
 transpire in relation to steam machinery, they are, nevertheless, 
 frequently less careful, less reliable, and less ingenious, than those 
 who never learned a regular trade. Moreover, neither Savary, 
 Smeaton, Watt, Stephenson, Fitch, Fulton, or either of the Ste- 
 venses, Baldwin, or Oliver Evans were machinists. An engineer 
 should be possessed of natural talent, should be ingenious and 
 able to discover any defect that may occur in t^e machinery under 
 his charge, be able to take up the lost motion, or to take apart and 
 put together the different parts of an engine. 
 
 There is great need of reform in the use of the term engineer, 
 as a customary neglect to designate to what branch of the calling 
 he may belong gives rise to much inconvenience and confusion. 
 A bookseller advertises a book entitled " Hints to Young En- 
 gineers.'' Many men having charge of steam-engines order the 
 book by mail, under the impression that it contains useful, if not 
 valuable, information regarding their trade. On examination it 
 may be found to be a treatise adapted only to young men prepar- 
 ing themselves for the calling of civil engineers, not making a 
 single allusion, or having any bearing whatever, on the business 
 in which the party ordering it was engaged. Another author 
 writes a book, and terms it " an Engineer's Pocket-Book," intend- 
 ing it, of course, to be a hand-book for all classes of engineers, 
 as in the former case; although it may contain a good deal of val- 
 uable and useful information, it will be found, nevertheless, too 
 limited to meet the requirements of any one class, as it would be 
 impossible to embody such information in a book of ordinary size, 
 or in any book that would come within the reach of persons of 
 limited means; nor would it be possible for any author, however 
 
 C 
 
34 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 learned he may be, to elaborate so great a variety of subjects, re- 
 quiring, as they would, scientific accuracy and mathematical pre- 
 cision. 
 
 It is not uncommon to find men who have been educated as civil 
 engineers, and who have devoted their lives to the pursuit of that 
 calling, presuming to write treatises for the instruction of mechan- 
 ical engineers, or men having charge of' steam-engines and steam 
 machinery, without possessing the first qualifications for such an 
 undertaking. With the same propriety,, the lawyer might write a 
 treatise for the instruction of the doctor, and vice versa; or the 
 doctor might attach the word squire to his name, and the lawyer 
 appropriate the title of M.D. It would be more appropriate to 
 use the terms, mechanical or steam engineer, civil engineer, hy- 
 draulic engineer, dynamic engineer, sanitary engineer, etc., as, by 
 the general adoption of these terms, persons wishing information 
 in regard to machinery, bridges, embankments, or hydraulics, 
 might consult the right person, instead of being subjected to the 
 annoyance that is frequently experienced in consequence of con- 
 sulting or engaging the services of the wrong party. Engineers 
 of every class are very useful, though in different ways; their labors, 
 next to that rational intellect which places man above the beast, 
 have conferred on mankind the greatest boons, and the monu- 
 ments which display the conceptions of their genius are almost as 
 indestructible as the firmament or the ocean. It cannot be said 
 of the engineer, as has been frequently said of the lawyer or the 
 doctor, that if mankind could do without him it would be well for 
 the human race. 
 
 Facts that should he Borne in Mind hj Engineers. 
 
 No man who loves exact knowledge can fail to find scope for 
 the exercise of his intellect in the calling of an engineer, as it is 
 adapted to men of the most opposite temperaments. Two condi- 
 tions alone are needed, — the man must love his work and have 
 ability to perform it. 
 
THE ENGINEER\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 35 
 
 There is no royal road either to success or learning ; the nearest 
 approach to such a thoroughfare may be found in indefatigable 
 study and reflection. 
 
 A smooth sea never made a skilful mariner. Neither do unin- 
 terrupted prosperity and happiness qualify a man for usefulness. 
 The storms of adversity, like the storms of the ocean, arouse the 
 faculties, and excite invention, prudence, skill, and fortitude. 
 
 The very nature of steam engineering calls for superior intel- 
 ligence in those on whom depend the care and management of 
 steam machinery. Engineers should, therefore, prepare themselves 
 for any casualty that may arise, by considering possible cases of 
 derangement, and deciding in what way they would act should 
 certain accidents occur. 
 
 The strength, perfection, and durability of steam machinery 
 at the present day would seem to insure perfect safety, and yet 
 accidents occur when least expected, for which no amount of 
 mechanical skill or forethought could provide. It is in such cases 
 that the coolness, determination, and decision of the engineer may 
 avert a great calamity. 
 
 The wonderful increase in the size and speed of steamships 
 and locomotives renders it absolutely necessary that, with a 
 proper regard for life and property, they should be in charge of 
 men of well-ascertained mental and physical abilities, as inevi- 
 tably, sooner or later, at a critical moment, incapable men will be 
 found wanting, and the most serious consequences result from their 
 incapacity. 
 
 Risks of collision, of stranding, of fire, in fact, all risks per- 
 taining to steamships, might be very much diminished if they 
 were placed in charge of intelligent men. 
 
 The course to be pursued in an emergency must have refer- 
 ence to particular engines, as no general rules can be given, and 
 every engineer should decide on certain measures to be adopted 
 in any emergency in which he may be called upon to act, where 
 everything may depend upon his energy and decision. 
 
38 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 WRIGHT'S AUTOMATIC CUT-OFF ENGINE. 
 
 The cuts on pages 36 and 37 represent a front and back view of 
 Wright's Automatic Cut-off high-pressure engine, the bed-plate 
 or housing of which, as will be observed, is radically different 
 in design and general appearance from any other in use in the 
 country. The ordinary guides are dispensed with, and a guiding- 
 cylinder, which is bored out on a line with the centre of the steam- 
 cylinder, for the direction of movement of the cross-head, substi- 
 tuted. There are lateral openings in the sides of the guiding- 
 cylinder, through which easy access to the cross-head and piston- 
 rod may be had. From the front of the guiding-cylinder to the 
 point where it meets the base, the frame is made in the form of 
 an inclined concavo-convex trough of sufficient depth to permit 
 the free movement of the connecting-rod. The trough has the 
 upper edge of one side continued in a plane coinciding with the 
 centre of the cylinder, from the latter to the enlargement formed 
 to receive the bearing of the crank-shaft. The opposite side of 
 the trough extends from the guiding-cylinder, with a gradually 
 descending curve, to the base, into the upper portion of which it 
 gracefully merges. 
 
 The steam-cyh'nder rests on a separate bed or foot, which sus- 
 tains all the bearings for the valve-gear, and which is placed on 
 a level with the pillow-blocks and main bed-plate, to which it is 
 securely bolted and dowelled. There are four valves, two steam 
 and two exhaust, which are of the gridiron or multiport-slide 
 pattern. They work vertically in chests cast upon the cylinder, 
 the two upon the front being for the induction cut-off and expan- 
 sion, and those on the back for the eduction or exhaust. The 
 motion for the steam- and exhaust-valves is derived from a single 
 eccentric, which is so arranged as to give a quick movement to the 
 valves in opening, and a slow movement when lapping. The 
 stems of the steam-valves are connected with yokes having at 
 their lower ends dash-pots, which act as guides. These yokes are 
 operated by steel slides protruding through the ends of hollow 
 rocker-arms, and acting upon the swinging toes held in the yokes. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 39 
 
 The slides have a diagonal slot, iu which works a feather on a rod, 
 which has a longitudinal movement through the hollow rocker- 
 arms with which the governor is connected. By this longitudinal 
 motion through the diagonal feather and slot the slide is auto- 
 matically set, to engage the swinging toes, more or less, according 
 to requirements, to give the valve its proper lift, and release it on 
 the chord of an arc. 
 
 The governor is of a kind peculiarly adapted to these engines, 
 as it is very powerful and sensitive. It rests on a bracket, or 
 shelf, cast on the side of the bed-plate ; the rod being connected 
 with a lever which is fastened to the governor-shaft. This sliaft 
 carries two forked arms, which take hold of the small rods run- 
 ning through the hollow rocker-shafts. These rods are enlarged 
 at their ends, where they carry the adjustable slides which operate 
 the steam-valve yokes. 
 
 These engines are made of the best material, and fitted and 
 finished in the most thorough and workmanlike manner. The 
 pistons are fitted with self-adjusting steam packing-rings, the 
 lower half of piston body, between the packing-rings, being fitted 
 with a brass shoe, which carries the weight of the piston, and can 
 be so accurately adjusted that the piston must move central with 
 the bore of the cylinder. The piston-rods, wrist- and crank-pins, 
 and valve-rod are made of steel, and the boxes of the best machine 
 brass. The connecting-rods and crank-shafts are made of the best 
 hammered iron, and the pillow-blocks are lined with anti-friction 
 metal. All the rubbing, revolving, and vibrating surfaces are 
 of ample proportions, and fitted with great accuracy and preci- 
 sion. 
 
 The Wright Engine has undergone more changes in design and 
 general appearance, since it was first introduced to steam users, 
 than any other engine in the country. The manufacturer seems 
 to be under the impression that, however much he might alter, 
 he always discovers new defects in his engine, and he appears to 
 be governed more by complication and weight than by symmetry 
 and convenience. Consequently, the Wright engines are heavy, 
 
40 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 unsymmetrical, and expensive, and perhaps less economical thait 
 most other automatic cut-off engines. 
 
 Examination of Candidates. 
 
 The best aids to a candidate applying for an engineer's cer- 
 tificate are preparation, coolness, and self-possession. He must 
 be prepared to answer all questions propounded to him promptly 
 and without hesitation, thereby showing that he is master of the 
 situation, as hesitation in answering questions will convey the 
 idea that his knowledge of the subject to which they relate is 
 linMted. Hesitation will, in all probability, induce the examiners 
 to make- the examination more lengthy and rigid ; and it fre- 
 quently happens that examinations, that might be completed in 
 an hour, occupy several hours, and in some instances several days. 
 Consequently, a candidate must be prepared to demonstrate prob- 
 lems, on any subject embraced in the programme of examination, 
 by formulae of his own ; even if formulae and problems be given 
 him, he must be prepared to demonstrate that his method is 
 equally as correct, besides being more brief and simple. He 
 must understand that no amount of assurance will supply the 
 place of study, nor will an empty assumption of knowledge com- 
 pensate for a defective preparation. 
 
 Necessary Qualifications of Candidates Applying for Ap- 
 pointments as Cadet Engineers in the U. S. Navy. 
 
 Application may be made by candidates, or their friends, to the 
 Secretary of the Navy, stating age, date of birth, educational ad- 
 vantages, and satisfactory evidence of health and good moral 
 character, which is placed on register ; but neither the registering 
 of names, nor priority of application, gives any assurance of ap- 
 pointment. The number of appointments is limited by law to 
 twenty-five annually. Applicants must be not under sixteen or 
 over twenty years of age, and not less than five feet high. Those 
 whose applications have been favorably received will be notified 
 
THE ENGINEER\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 41 
 
 to appear for examination on the 5th of Septernl)er, at the Naval 
 Academy. 
 
 Candidates must be physically sound, well formed, and of 
 robust constitution ; and those who possess the greatest skill and 
 experience in the practical knowledge of machinery (other quali 
 fications being equal), shall have precedence for admission. 
 
 The board of examiners have the power of exercising discre- 
 tion in the application of the above requirements to each indi- 
 vidual case, rejecting no candidate who is likely to be efficient in 
 the service and admitting no one who is likely to prove physically 
 inefficient. Candidates once rejected by the board of examination 
 are not allowed a re-examination. 
 
 Candidates will be rejected for any of the following causes: 
 Feeble constitution ; greatly retarded development ; permanently 
 impaired general health. All chronic diseases, viz. : Weak or 
 disordered intellect ; cutaneous and communicable disease ; un- 
 natural curvature of spine, torticollis, or other deformity ; perma- 
 nent inefficiency of either of the extremities, or articulations from 
 any cause ; epilepsy ; impaired vision, or chronic disease of the 
 organs of vision ; hardness of hearing, or chronic disease of the 
 ears ; chronic nasal catarrh, ozsema, polypi, or enlargement of 
 the tonsils ; impediment of speech ; indications of pulmonary dis- 
 ease ; chronic cardiac affections ; hernia ; sarcocele ; hydrocele ; 
 stricture ; fistula, or haemorrhoids ; varicose veins of lower limbs, 
 scrotum, or cord ; chronic ulcers. 
 
 Every cadet, immediately after his admission, must supply him- 
 self with clothing, bedding, toilet articles, sanitary utensils, etc.; 
 the cost of which is $120. He must also deposit $50 with the 
 paymaster, to be expended in the purchase of books, etc. ; for 
 which he will b^ credited on the books. He \xill also, one mouth 
 after his admission, be credited with the amount of his expenses 
 in travelling from his home to the Academy ; but if he resigns 
 his appointment within one year after admission, he will be re- 
 quired to refund the amount advanced him for travelling ex- 
 penses. 
 
 4* 
 
42 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 Examination in Grafnmar, 
 
 Give the possessive singular and the objective plural of mayor, 
 journey, sky, she, strife, wife. 
 
 Answer. — Possessive singular: Mayor's, journey's, sky's, her 
 or hers, strife's, wife's. Objective plural: Mayors, journeys, skies, 
 them, strifes, wives. 
 
 Give the principal parts of smite, shed, lay, lie, drown. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Present Participle. 
 
 Past Participli 
 
 Smite, 
 
 smote, 
 
 smiting. 
 
 smitten. 
 
 Shed; 
 
 shed, 
 
 shedding. 
 
 shed. 
 
 Lay, 
 
 laid. 
 
 laying. 
 
 laid. 
 
 Lie, 
 
 lay. 
 
 
 lain. 
 
 Drown, 
 
 drowned. 
 
 drowning. 
 
 drowned. 
 
 Lie, 
 
 lied. 
 
 
 lied. 
 
 Compare many, cleanly, shy, little, elder, without using adverbs. 
 Answer. — Many, more, most ; cleanly, cleanlier, cleanliest ; shy, 
 shyer, shyest ; little, less, least ; old, older, oldest, or old, elder, eldest. 
 
 Name the moods, and explain the use of each. 
 
 Answer. — Infinitive expresses being, action, or passion, in an' 
 unlimited manner, without person or number. 
 
 Indicative simply indicates or declares a thing. 
 
 Potential expresses power, liberty, or necessity of being, ac- 
 tion, or passion. 
 
 Subjunctive represents being, action, or passion as doubtful 
 or contingent. 
 
 Imperative is used in commanding, exhorting, entreating, or 
 permitting. « 
 
 If you blow your neighbor's fire, don't complain if the sparks 
 fly in your face." Parse the words in dark type. 
 
 Answer. — If is a conjunction, connecting the sentence, "don't 
 complain if the sparks fly in your face" with "you blow your 
 neighbor's fire." 
 
THE ENGINEER \S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 43 
 
 Blow is an irregular, active, transitive verb, subjunctive mood, 
 present tense, second person, singular, to agree with its subject, 
 " your 
 
 Neighbor's is a common noun, third person, singular number, 
 common gender, possessive case, governed by " fire." 
 
 Don't complain — contraction for "Do not complain" — is a 
 regular, active, intransitive verb, emphatic form, in the imperative 
 mood, second person, singular, to agree with its subject, " you/' 
 understood, conjugated negatively. 
 
 Youp. — Your is a personal pronoun, second person, singular, 
 common gender, to agree with its antecedent, " you," possessive 
 case, governed by " face." 
 
 Fire is a common noun, third person, singular number, neuter 
 gender, and objective case, object of the verb " blow." 
 
 Spelling. 
 
 Commissary. 
 
 Treasury. 
 
 Debtor. 
 
 Counterfeit. 
 
 Alliance. 
 
 Apparition. 
 
 Identify. 
 
 Precedent. 
 
 Asylum. 
 
 Levy. 
 
 Perpetrate. 
 
 Although. 
 
 Anchorage. 
 
 Correspond. 
 
 Similar. 
 
 Eccentric. 
 
 Susceptible. 
 
 Sufficient. 
 
 Adjacent. 
 
 Occupant. 
 
 Weaken. 
 
 Commercial. 
 
 Insensible. 
 
 Concession. 
 
 Examination in Arithmetic. 
 Express 16 days, 12 hours, 47 minutes, 25 seconds as a fraction 
 of 23 days, 3 hours, 30 minutes, 23 seconds, (lowest terms.) 
 
 d. hrs. min. sec. 
 
 Answer. 23 3 30 23 = 1,999,823 seconds. 
 
 d. hrs. min. sec. 
 
 16 12 47 25 = 1,428,445 " 
 
 1428445 
 
 1999823 
 
 Give the rule for finding the cube root of any number, and illus- 
 trate by an example. 
 
 Answer. — First. Point off from right to left, if au iuteger or 
 
44 THE ENGINEER'S HANBY-BOOK. 
 
 whole number, and from left to right, if a decimal, in orders or 
 places of three. Second, Ascertain the highest, root of the first 
 order, and place it tQ the right of the number, as in long division. 
 Third. Cube the root thus found, and subtract it from the first 
 order, and to the remainder annex the next order ; then square 
 the root already found, and multiply it by three, with two ciphers 
 annexed, for a trial divisor ; next find how often this divisor is 
 contained in the dividend, and write the result in the root. 
 Last: Add together the trial divisor, three times the product of 
 the first figure of the root, by the second, with one cipher annexed, 
 and the square of the second figure in the root ; multiply this last 
 sum by the last figure in the root, and subtract as above ; to the 
 remainder annex the next order, and proceed, as before directed, 
 until all the orders are worked. 
 
 To find the 4/493039. 
 
 493039(79 
 
 
 7x7 
 
 X 7 = 
 
 343 
 
 7 X 
 
 7x3 = 
 
 14700 
 
 150039 
 
 7 X 
 
 9x3 = 
 
 1890 
 
 
 
 9x9 = 
 
 81 
 
 
 
 
 16671 
 
 150039 
 
 To find the V 403583-419. 
 
 403583-419(73-9 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 X 
 
 7x7 = 
 
 343 
 
 7 X 
 
 7 
 
 X 
 
 3 
 
 = 14700 
 
 60583 
 
 7 X 
 
 3 
 
 X 
 
 8 
 
 = 630 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 X 
 
 3 
 
 = 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15339 
 
 46017 
 
 73 X 73 
 
 X 
 
 3 
 
 
 1598700 
 
 14566419 
 
 73 X 3 
 
 X 
 
 3 
 
 
 19710 
 
 
 9 
 
 X 
 
 9 
 
 
 81 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1618491 
 
 14566419 
 
THE engineer's TrANDY-BOOK. 
 
 45 
 
 The cube of any number is that number multiplied by itself 
 three times. 
 
 Give the rule for findim/ the square root of any number , and 
 illustrate by an example. 
 
 Answer. — First, Point off from right to left, if an integer or 
 whole number, and from left to right, if a decimal, in orders or 
 places of twos. Second. Ascertain the highest root in the first 
 order, and place it at the right of the number, as in long division. 
 Third. Square this root, and subtract it from the first order; to 
 the remainder annex the next order, and double the root already 
 found, and place it to the left of this dividend. Fourth. Ascer- 
 tain how often this divisor is contained in all but the final figure 
 of the dividend, and place the quotient to the right of the root 
 already obtained, and to the right of the trial divisor. Fifth. Mul- 
 tiply this divisor by the final figure in the root, and subtract as 
 before ; if the remainder after a division m negative, take a figure 
 for the last figure in the root one less than before, and proceed as 
 directed in Fourth and Fifth. In like manner proceed until all 
 the orders have been worked. 
 
 To find the |/ 590^49. 
 
 5,90-49(24-3 
 4 
 
 44) 190 
 176 
 483) 1449 
 1449 
 
 To find the |/-075625. 
 
 07,56,25(-275 
 4 
 
 47) 356 
 329 
 545) 2725 
 2725 
 
 Any number multiplied by itself is squared. 
 
46 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Define the terms logarithms and hyperbolic logarithms, and 
 explain their use. 
 
 Answer. — The logarithm of a number is the exponent of the 
 power to which it is necessary to raise a fixed number in order to 
 produce the first number. The use of logarithms is to abridge 
 numerical computations. The operations of multiplication, divi- 
 sion, involution, and evolution are very much abridged by their 
 use. Any power of a given number may be found by logarithms 
 as follows: The logarithm of any power of a given number is 
 equal to the logarithm of the number multiplied by the exponent 
 of the power. 
 
 Example. — To find the fifth power of 9, logarithm 9 = 0*954243 
 X 5 = 4*771215, and the number corresponding to this is 59049. 
 Conversely. Any root of any number may be found by logarithms 
 as follows : The logarithm of the root of a given number is equal 
 to the logarithm of the number divided by the index of the root. 
 
 Example. — To find the cube root of 4096, logarithm 4096 = 
 3*612360 ^ 3 = 1*204120, and the number corresponding to this 
 logarithm is 16. 
 
 Hyperbolic logarithms is a system of logarithms, so called, 
 because the numbers express the areas between the asymptote and 
 curve of the hyperbola. The hyperbolic logarithm of any number 
 is the common logarithm of the same number in the ratio of 
 2*30258509 to 1, or as 1 to -43429448. 
 
 Explain the terms geometry and trigonometry. 
 
 Answer. — Geometry is the science of position and extension ; . 
 that branch of mathematics which has for its object the investiga- 
 tion of the relations, properties, and measurement of solids, sur- 
 faces, lines, and angles. Trigonometry is that branch of mathe- 
 matics whose object it is to determine unknown angles, or sides 
 of triangles, by means of others which are known ; the art or 
 science of measuring triangles. It also treats of the general rela- 
 tions existing between the trigonometrical functions of angles or 
 arcs. 
 
THE ENCJINEEr\s IF A N Y - JU) O K . 
 
 47 
 
 Give the meaniyujs of the tenns quotient^ product^ and prohlern. 
 
 Answer. — A quotient is' the result of au operation in division ; 
 Si product is the result of an operation in multiplication ; a problem 
 is a question requiring some unknown truth to be demonstrated. 
 
 Oive the meanings of the terms axiom, theorem, proposition, corol- 
 lary, and solution. 
 
 Answer. — An axiom is a self-evident truth ; a theorem is a state- 
 ment of a truth or principle which is to be demonstrated ; a prop- 
 osition is a term applied to a theorem or a problem ; a corollary is 
 an obvious consequence deduced from one or more propositions ; 
 a solution is the result arising from any mathematical proposition 
 or calculation. 
 
 Give the names of the various triangles, their peculiarities, etc. 
 
 Answer. — A triangle is a figure having three sides and three 
 angles ; an isosceles triangle has two sides and the angles at the base 
 equal ; a scalene triangle has no two sides or angles equal ; an obtuse- 
 angled triangle has one obtuse angle in it ; a right-angled triangle 
 has one right angle in it ; an equilateral triangle has all three sides 
 and angles equal ; an acute-angled triangle has one acute angle in it. 
 
 Examination in Geography. 
 
 Name the States which have any coast-line on the great lakes, 
 between the United States and Canada, telling in each ease what 
 lake the State touches. 
 
 Answer. 
 
 
 New York, 
 
 Lakes Ontario and Erie. 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 Lake Erie. 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 Lake Erie. 
 
 Michigan, 
 
 Lakes Erie, St. Clair, Huron, Michigan, and 
 
 
 Superior. 
 
 Indiana, 
 
 Lake Michigan. 
 
 Illinois, 
 
 Lake Michigan. 
 
 Wisconsin, 
 
 Lakes Michigan and Superior. 
 
 Minnesota, 
 
 Lake Superior. 
 
48 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Where and on what waters are Buenos Ayres, Bordeaux, Bel- 
 grade, Jackson, Bombay ? Tell which of the above are capitals of 
 States, and of what States they are capitals. 
 
 Answer. — Buenos Ayres is on the Rio de la Plata, and is the 
 capital of the Argentine Confederation, South America; Bor- 
 deaux is on the Garonne, in France ; Belgrade is on the Danube, 
 in " Turkey in Europe ; " Jackson is on the Pearl River, and is 
 the capital of Mississippi ; Bombay is in Hindostan, Asia, on the 
 coast of the Arabian Sea. 
 
 Define the source, direction, and mouth of the Ganges River, 
 Clyde River, Pruth River, Santee River. 
 
 Answer. — The source of the river Ganges is in the Hima- 
 laya Mountains ; its direction is south-east ; its mouth is in the 
 north-eastern part of Hindostan, and empties into the Bay of Ben- 
 gal. The source of the Clyde is in the Lammermoor Hills, Scot- 
 land ; flows in a north-westerly direction, and discharges into the 
 Firth of Clyde. The source of the Pruth is in the eastern base 
 of the Carpathian Mountains, in Austria ; flows first east, then 
 south-east, and finally south, emptying into the Danube. The 
 Santee is formed by the junction of the Congaree and Wateree 
 Rivers in the central part of South Carolina ; flows south-east, and 
 empties into the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 Where is Mount Snowden, the Atlas Mountains, the Elburz 
 Mountains, Mount -^tna. Mount Chimborazo ? 
 
 Answer. — Mount Snowden is a peak in the Cambrian range of 
 Mountains, in Wales. The Atlas Mountains are in the " Barbary 
 States," in Northern Africa. The Elburz Mountains are in 
 Northern Persia, and form part of the great Himalayan range. 
 Mount Chimborazo is a volcano in the Andes range, in Ecuador, 
 South America. 
 
 Name five islands of the Mediterranean, define their position, 
 and state to what Power each belongs. 
 
 Answer. — The Balearic group, off* the east coast of Spain, be- 
 longs to Spain. Corsica, off* the west coast of Italy, belongs to 
 
THE ENGINEER'S 11 A N D Y - B () O K . 
 
 49 
 
 France, Sardinia, off the west coast of Italy, belongs to Italy. 
 Sicily, off the south-west coast of Italy, belongs to Italy. Candia, 
 or Crete, off the south coast of Greece, belongs to Turkey. 
 
 Exmnination in Natural Philosophy* 
 
 Define centre of gravity of a body. How can the position of 
 the centre of gravity of an irregular body be determined ? 
 
 Answer. — The centre of gravity of a body is the point through 
 which the resultant of the weights of the several component par- 
 ticles of a body always passes. The centre of gravity of an ir- 
 regular body may be determined, experimentally, by suspend- 
 ing it successively from any two points, and, after it has come 
 to a state of rest, or is in equilibrium, drawing, by means of a 
 plumb-line, the verticals through the points of suspension. The 
 intersection of these lines will be the centre of gravity of the 
 body. 
 
 If the specific gravity of iron is 7 8 and that of gold 19*4, find 
 the weight, in water, of a substance composed of one pound of iron 
 and one pound of gold. 
 
 Answer. — In this problem, first find the solid contents, in inches, 
 of one pound respectively of iron and of gold, and add them. 
 Then, if one cubic foot of water weighs 62*5 lbs., one cubic inch 
 will weigh '036. Then multiply the combined solid contents in 
 inches, of one pound of iron and gold, by the solid content in 
 inches of ©ne cubic inch of water. Thus : 
 
 1 lb. of iron = 3*54 cubic in. of solid contents. 
 1 " " gold = 1-42 " " " 
 
 4"96 cubic in. of solid contents of both. 
 
 Then 4-96 X -036 = -17856. 
 This product deducted from 2 lbs. will be 
 
 2-00000 
 0^7856 
 1-82144 
 5 D 
 
50 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Then multiply the weight of 1 cu. ft. of water respectively by 
 that of iron and gold, and dividing by 1728 we get 
 
 62-5 X 7-8= 457-5 -1728-= 3-54 cu. in. 
 62-5 X 19-4 ==1212-5 1728 = 1-42 " " 
 
 4-96 " " 
 
 A cask weighing 236 lbs. 4 oz. floats in a square cistern of 
 water whose side is 2 ft. 6 in. On the removal of the cask, find 
 how much the water will sink in the cistern, supposing a cubic 
 foot of water to weigh 63 lbs. ? 
 
 Answer. — The weight of cask is 236 lbs. 4 oz., or, (if expressed 
 decimally,) 236*25 lbs. Side of cistern is 2 ft. 6. in., or 30 inches ; 
 this squared equals 900 inches. Then the weight of 1 cubic 
 foot of water is to 1 cubic foot of water as weight of cask is to 
 cubic feet of water displaced by the cask. 
 
 lbs. oz, ft. in. ft. in. 
 
 236 4 = 236-25 — cistern 2 6 x 2 6 = 900 cu.in. 
 
 lbs. cu.ft. lbs. cu, in. 
 
 As 63 : 1 : : 236*25 : 3*75 cu. ft. 3-75 x 1728 = 6450 
 and 6450 900 = 7*2 in. 
 
 How high will a common pump raise oil having a specific 
 gravity of 0*88, if it raise water 33 feet? How would this height 
 be affected if the force of gravity was doubled ? 
 
 Answer. — The specific gravity of water is expressed by unity. 
 Then the specific gravity of oil is to the specific gravity of water 
 as the height to which water is raised is to the height ta which oil 
 will be raised by the same pump. 
 
 •88 : 1 : : 33 : 37*5 ft. 
 
 How far would a solid of any material sink into a fluid denser 
 than itself? 
 
 Answer. — On the principle that fluids become denser the 
 deeper they go, a 'solid would sink in any fluid till it displaced 
 a volume of it equal to its own density. 
 
 Suppose the specific gravity of mercury be 14 and that of iron 
 7. How far would a cubic foot of iron sink into the mercury? 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 51 
 
 Answer. — One-half of its volume, or, if in a normal position, 
 one-half its depth. 
 
 A cube of cork, whose edge is 1 foot, floating vertically in water, 
 sinks to the depth of 2'88 inches. Find its specific gravity. 
 
 Answer. — First find the cubic contents of the water displaced, 
 by multiplying the depth to which the cork sunk by the length 
 and breadth of the same. Thus, 2*88 X 12 ==^414*72 cu.in.; then, 
 if 1728 cu. in. = 62-5 lbs., 414-72 cu. in. = 15 lbs. Hence, as 
 62-5 : 1000 : : 15 : 240, specific gravity of cork. 
 
 Give the readings of Fahrenheit's thermometer which cor- 
 respond to 110°, 10°, 29° Centigrade; also the readings of the 
 Centigrade thermometer which correspond to 77° and 23° Fah- 
 renheit. At what temperature Centigrade will these two ther- 
 mometers have the same readings ? 
 
 Answer. — To change Centigrade degrees to Fahrenheit degrees, 
 multiply the Centigrade degrees by 9 and divide by 5, and to the 
 quotient add 32. The result is Fahrenheit degrees. 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 C. 
 
 110° 
 
 10° 
 
 29° 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 5) 990 
 
 5) 90 
 
 5) 261 
 
 198 
 
 18 
 
 52-2 
 
 32° 
 
 32° 
 
 32° 
 
 230° F. 
 
 50° F. 
 
 84-2° F. 
 
 To change Fahrenheit degrees to Centigrade degrees, deduct 
 32° from Fahrenheit degrees ; then multiply by 5 and divide by 
 9. . The result is Centigrade degrees. 
 
 Explain the meaning of the term Conic Section. 
 
 Answer. — A conic section is a curve cut out of the surface of 
 a right cone having a circular base, by a plane. The sections re- 
 sulting from the cutting of a cone, are the triangle, the circle, the 
 ellipse, the parabola, and the hyperbola ; though the term conic 
 section is confined to the last three. 
 
54 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Woodbury, Booth & Pryor's Automatic Cut-Off Engine. 
 
 The cuts on pages 52 and 53 represent Woodbury, Booth & 
 Pryor's Automatic Cut-off Engine. It will be observed that it is 
 built upon what is known as the girder or truss frame, a design 
 which has been received with more favor, and more universally 
 adopted by intelligent engineers, both in this country and Europe, 
 than any other. In fact, it is fast superseding all previous forms 
 of bed-plates. This perhaps arises from the fact that it is the 
 best disposition that can be made of a certain quantity of mate- 
 rial, to insure strength and rigidity without extra weight, as the 
 centre line of the frame coincides with the plane of the line of the 
 strains and with the centre line of the engine. It is faced at 
 one end to receive the false head between the frame and cylinder, 
 the piston-rod stufSng-box being cast with the head. The cylinder 
 rests on a handsomely designed pedestal, the other end of the 
 frame containing the back leg and main pillow-block bearing. 
 
 Valve-Gear. — The main valve is an ordinary D slide-valve, an 
 arrangement which, since the advent of the steam-engine, in con- 
 sequence of its simplicity of design, positiveness of action, moderate 
 first cost, non-liability to become deranged and get out of order; 
 that it performs the double function of admission and release, as 
 well as from the ease and convenience with which it can be re- 
 paired or removed, has held its own against all new innovations in 
 steam-valves and valve-gear. Fig. 1 shows a horizontal section 
 through its centre, and, as will be observed, it is driveu by an 
 eccentric on the main shaft through the intervention of a rocker- 
 arm. The cut-off valve, a section of which may be seen in Fig. 
 2, is cylindrical in form, and works in a small cylinder attached 
 to the back of the main valve, which is cast in one piece with it. 
 In consequence of the arrangement of the ports, it is perfectly bal- 
 anced ; and, owing to its having diagonal admission edges, with 
 ports to correspond, by rolling it slightly in its seat it will cut off 
 at any point between zero and three-quarter stroke, according to 
 requirements. 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-HOOK. 
 
 55 
 
 The cut-off eccentric rod connects with the slide working in 
 the bracket by means of a ball-and-socket joint, which allows the 
 valve to rotate in its seat, more or less, according to the require- 
 ments of the load and pressure. The rotation, which never exceeds 
 one-quarter of a revolution of the valve, is accomplished by a seg- 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 ment on the cut-off valve-slide, working into a rack attached to 
 the governor spindle. The slide is a round steel rod, having a 
 number of grooves milled in it lengthwise, sliding through corre- 
 sponding tongues in the segment. This arrangement places the 
 cut-off at all times under complete control of the governor, and, 
 as the rolling movement of the cut-off is combined with the sliding 
 
56 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 of the valve in its seat, it offers but very slight resistance, and 
 induces less friction, even, than that of an ordinary throttling- 
 valve. These cut-offs embody the following advantages: Sim- 
 plicity of construction, positiveness of action, an entire absence of 
 releasing gear, non-liability of derangement, freedom from violent 
 shocks, accuracy in cutting off, and uniformity of speed. 
 
 The Governor. — The governor is of peculiar design ; the arms 
 extend across the centre, and have their point of suspension on the 
 opposite side of the ball, which insures great sensitiveness, as they 
 have a very extensive range of movement with a slight variation 
 of speed. Besides, the governor has comparatively no w^ork to 
 perform, as the rolling of the balance cut-off while sliding length- 
 wise in its seat requires but a very small amount of force. In 
 fact, the governor has nothing to do but to regulate the speed, 
 without being hampered by the movement of cut-off valves, that 
 have large rubbing surfaces exposed to boiler pressure. 
 
 The arrangement for the admission and release of the steam 
 to and from the cylinder automatically, embodies the right prin- 
 ciple by w^hich to work steam expansively and economically. 
 There are numerous industries in Avhich uniform speed is not only 
 a desideratum, but a necessity. It must not be understood, how- 
 ever, that all automatic cut-offs and governors are capable of pro- 
 ducing satisfactory and economical results, as many of them in 
 use at the present day fail to meet these requirements. The gov- 
 ernors of these engines are provided with a dash-pot, which acts as 
 a cushion, and obviates the jerking so common in many governors, 
 and which is so detrimental to the uniform working of an engine. 
 
 Some of the advantages of the Woodbury, Booth & Pryor 
 engines are, that they are handsome in design, and convenient 
 and simple in arrangement ; that they are built of the best mate- 
 rials, fitted with the greatest care, and steel and composition metals 
 are freely used on parts subjected to the most wear, thus insuring 
 durability as well as reducing the cost of maintenance to a mini- 
 mum ; that there is secured the highest degree of economy and the 
 closest approximation to uniform speed ; that the ports are dropped 
 
THE ENGINEEr\s HANDY-JU)0K. 
 
 57 
 
 sufficiently low to drain the cylinder, the water of condenaati(Hi 
 being drawn from the steam-chest instead of being forced through 
 the cylinder ; that owing to the positive valve-motion they can be 
 run at a high rotative speed ; that provision is made for catching 
 all the drip oil and water; that the crank-pins have a hollow 
 cellar or receptacle in the centre for the purpose of containing an 
 auxiliary lubricant, which will melt and prevent the pin from 
 cutting should the oil-cup be neglected or fail to feed ; and that 
 all wearing parts can be easily and accurately adjusted. 
 
 In fact, these engines seem to embody all the good points in 
 the best descriptions of engines, and many others which are pecu- 
 liar to thehiselves, which render them equal, if not superior, to 
 any other automatic cut-off engines in the market. They are 
 manufactured by Woodbury, Booth & Pryor, Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 Qualifications of Candidates for the U. S. Revenue Service. 
 
 First. — Candidates for appointments as second assistant en- 
 gineers must not be less than twenty-one nor more than thirty 
 years of age ; they must be of good moral character and correct 
 habits ; they must have worked not less than eighteen months in 
 a steam-engine factory, or served the same period as an engineer 
 on board of a steamer having a condensing engine ; they must 
 also produce favorable testimonials from the superintendent of 
 the machine-shop, or chief-engineer of the steam-ship, as to their 
 ability. 
 
 Second. — They must be able to describe and sketch the dif- 
 ferent parts of marine steam-engines and boilers, and explain 
 their uses and mechanical movements, the method of putting 
 them in operation, regulating their action, and guarding against 
 danger. 
 
 Third. — They must be fair arithmeticians and have a knowl- 
 edge of rudimentary mechanics, be capable of writing a fair, 
 legible hand, and have some knowledge of chemistry, particu- 
 larly of combustion and corrosion. 
 
 Fourth. — Candidates who excel in practical experience and 
 
58 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 professional skill will be given the preference, both in admission 
 and promotion. 
 
 Fifth. — Any candidate producing a false certificate of age, time 
 of service, or character, or making a false statement to the board 
 of examiners, will be dropped from the list. 
 
 Standard of Examination for Assistant Engineer in the 
 U. S. Revenue-Cutter Service. 
 
 First Assistant Engineer. 
 
 First. — They must pass before the board of examiners a 
 
 thorough examination upon the subjects prescribed for second 
 assistant engineers, and be able to explain the principles, peculi- 
 arities, functions, and uses of the different kinds of valves and 
 valve-gear, as applied to marine steam machinery. 
 
 Second. — They must understand the construction, principles, 
 peculiarities, and uses of the various mechanical arrangements em- 
 ployed in working steam expansively. 
 
 Third. — They must understand the construction of the marine 
 boilers in most general use, their attachments, and the functions 
 and uses of the same. 
 
 Fourth. —They must be able to explain the most general 
 causes of derangement in the operation of air- and feed-pumps 
 and pipes, and the most practicable method of preventing and 
 remedying them. 
 
 Fifth. — They must have a knowledge of the chemical and 
 mechanical causes which induce the formation of scale in steam- 
 boilers, and the most practicable method of preventing and re- 
 moving the same. 
 
 Sixth. — They must be acquainted with the general construc- 
 tion, principles, peculiarities, and uses of the different kinds of 
 surface-condensers in present use. 
 
 Seventh. — They must be able to calculate the loss induced 
 by blowing off, for the purpose of keeping the water in the boilers 
 at a uniform degree of saturation, and understand the principles 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-HOOK. 
 
 59 
 
 of the various instruments employed to determine the water's 
 saturation, as well as the method of graduating them. 
 
 Eighth. — They must understand the principles, most practicable 
 limits, and advantages of working steam expansively, and be able 
 to calculate the same. 
 
 Ninth. — They must have a knowledge of the construction of 
 the indicator, know how to apply it, and intelligently explain its 
 diagrams. 
 
 Tenth. — They must be acquainted with the construction and 
 the principles on which the action of steam- and vacuum-gauges 
 is based, and the causes of their derangement. 
 
 Eleventh. — They must have experience in building, erecting, 
 and repairing steam machinery. 
 
 Examinations for the Mercantile Marine Service. 
 
 The following are among the questions most generally asked 
 by examiners of engineers who apply for license in the mercan- 
 tile marine service. 
 
 How long have you served as a fireman? 
 
 How long have you served in the engine-room at sea, and in 
 what capacity ? 
 
 With what description of engines have you served at sea — 
 paddle or screw, jet-condensing, surface-condensing, or non-con- 
 densing engines, compound, trunk, inverted cylinder, or hori- 
 zontal engines? 
 
 What size were the engines? 
 
 Explain the difference between condensing and non-condensing 
 engines in principle and in point of economy. 
 
 In case the pump fails to work, what course would you adopt? 
 and what are the most general causes of the failure of lift, or suc- 
 tion-bilge, or steam-pumps failing to act ? 
 
 If the pumps fail to work, the water be low, and you are in dan- 
 ger of being driven on a lee-shore, what course would you adopt? 
 
 What is the object of braces in a steam-boiler? Which are 
 preferable, a few large ones, or numerous small-sized ones ? 
 
60 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 What parts of a marine engine are most likely permanently to 
 disable the ship in case of breakage ? 
 
 Demonstrate by example (taking your own data) the safe 
 working and bursting pressure of a boiler. 
 
 Demonstrate by example (taking your own data) the load 
 necessary to be placed on the lever of a safety-valve for a given 
 pressure of steam. 
 
 With what description of boilers have you served at sea — 
 wet-bottomed, dry-bottomed, multi-tubular, sectional or flue, water- 
 or fire-tube boilers ? 
 
 What engine defects have come under your notice at sea? 
 What caused those defects? How were they remedied? Give 
 the names of the steamers. 
 
 What boiler defects have come under your notice at sea? 
 What caused those defects ? 
 
 How were they remedied ? Give the names of the steamers. 
 
 Qualifications of Stationary Engineers. 
 
 In locations where the law requires persons having charge of 
 stationary steam-engines to procure certificates of competency, the 
 examination generally embraces the following subjects : 
 
 First. — Whether the candidate has charge of an engine at 
 present. If not, where he had charge of one last. If he has a 
 recommendation from his last employer. What was the size of 
 the engine of which he had charge, diameter of cylinder, stroke, 
 travel of piston, pressure as shown by the steam-gauge, etc., and 
 what power such an engine was capable of developing. 
 
 Second. — Whether the engine was condensing or non-con- 
 densing, horizontal, vertical, inclined, oscillating, trunk, or beam, 
 and the difference between a condensing and a non-condensing 
 engine. 
 
 Third. — Whether the engine was automatic, cut-off or slide, 
 throttling- or poppet-valve, and the diff'erence between an auto- 
 matic cut-off and slide-valve throttling-engine. 
 
 Fourth. — What he would consider his first duty on entering 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 61 
 
 the engine-room after being absent, or on taking charge of an 
 engine and boiler for the first time. How he would proceed to 
 set a slide-valve. How he could tell, without examining the 
 valve, whether the engine was exhausting regularly or not, and 
 what he would do before starting an engine, if it had been stand- 
 ing still for some time, particularly in cold weather. 
 
 Fifth. — Whether the boilers he had charge of were plain cylin- 
 der, flue, tubular, tubulous, or fire-box; whether they were in- 
 ternally or externally fired ; and whether, on any occasion, he 
 ever fired up under a boiler and afterwards discovered there was 
 insufficient water in it. 
 
 Sixth. — What advantages and disadvantages do plain cylinder, 
 flue, tubular, tubulous, and fire-box boilers possess over each other 
 in point of economy of fuel, efficiency, safety, durability, and 
 space ? 
 
 Seventh. — How often should a boiler be cleaned, and how 
 should it be managed before cleaning? How often ought boilers 
 to be examined, and what should be the character of such an ex- 
 amination? What are the object and nature of the different tests 
 now employed, and their effect on the boiler ? 
 
 Eighth. — What course he would pursue in case the feed-water 
 was cut off for a short time, or what would he do if cut off* for an 
 indefinite period, or from any cause became dangerously low; 
 how he would proceed if obliged to stop his engiue when steam 
 was blowing off* at the safety-valve and a heavy fire in the fur- 
 nace ; and how he would regulate his fire, when starting to raise 
 steam, with cold water in the boiler. 
 
 Ninth. — The difference in the strains to which the shell, flues, 
 tubes, crowns, and other parts of steam-boilers are subjected, as 
 well as those which the longitudinal and curvilinear seams have 
 to bear ; also the difference in strength between single- and double- 
 riveted seams, the loss induced by punching or drilling the holes 
 for the rivets, and the difference in strength between punched and 
 drilled holes, and between hand and machine riveting. 
 
 Tenth. — The diameter and length of the boiler of which he 
 6 
 
62 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 had charge last ; the diameter and length of the tubes or flues ; 
 the thickness of the shell ; the number of square feet of heating 
 surface in it — also of grate surface; the area of the safety-valve, 
 and whether the boiler was single or double riveted. 
 
 Eleventh. — The safe working- and bursting-pressure of boil- 
 ers, single or double riveted, of different diameters and of different 
 thicknesses of iron ; the proportions of grate and heating surfaces 
 that would be capable of generating sufficient steam to develop a 
 horse-power ; and the orifice of safety-valve that would liberate 
 that quantity of steam, provided that all other means of escape 
 were closed. 
 
 Twelfth. — A demonstration, from his own data, of the weight 
 necessary to place on the safety-valve for a given pressure when 
 the length of the lever and the area of the safety-valve are known ; 
 also the pressure required to lift a certain weight, with a given 
 length of lever and area of valve. 
 
 Thirteenth. — What are the most probable causes of lift or 
 suction, force or boiler feed-pumps failing to work? 
 
 Locomotive Engineers. 
 
 Locomotive engineers are not required to furnish evidence that 
 they possess any theoretical knowledge ; nor are they required to 
 pass any examination. They are all employed in the first place as 
 firemen or brakemen, and their promotion to the charge of a loco- 
 motive depends on their sobriety, industry, and endurance. On 
 most railroads they are required to fire from two to three years ; 
 after which, if they give evidence of sufficient capacity and care- 
 fulness, they are generally placed in the repair-shop or round- 
 house for one year, to enable them to learn the use of tools, but 
 more particularly to make them acquainted and familiar with the 
 construction of the locomotive engine, and the manner of taking 
 its machinery apart and putting it together again. 
 
 If, at the end of three or four years, he has conducted himself 
 properly, and given sufficient evidence of his knowledge of the 
 construction of a locomotive engine and its management to make 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 63 
 
 a good engineer, he. is promoted to a third-class engineer. After 
 one year's trial as third-class engineer, if he still gives evidence 
 of capacity and carefulness, he is advanced to the position of 
 second-class. If, after the expiration of one year as a second- 
 class engineer, he is qualified in every way for a first-class en- 
 gineer, he is advanced to that grade; but if not found competent, 
 he is considered out of the regular order of promotion. 
 
 Steam. 
 
 Steam is an elastic fluid resulting from the combination of heat 
 with water, and, when the steam is not in contact with the water 
 from which it is formed, it follows the same general law as all 
 other gases. This law is as follows : All gases expand by heat 4 ^^th 
 part of their volume for every degree Fah., while their elastic 
 pressure remains unaltered, and so long as the temperature of a 
 gas remains unaltered, its elastic pressure will vary inversely to 
 the volume. Steam is of several kinds. Surcharged steam is 
 steam heated to a temperature higher than is due to its pressure. 
 Saturated steam is steam which, in contact with the fluid from 
 which it is formed, has brought with it a proportion of moisture. 
 
 Supersaturated steam is steam in which there is more water 
 mingled in the form of minute spray than is generally contained 
 in saturated steam, which is called the water of supersaturation. 
 
 The temperature of the steam is always equal to that of the 
 water from which it is formed, and the elastic force of steam 
 formed is equal to the pressure under which it is formed. The 
 elastic force of steam, barometer at 30"^, at 212° Fah., is one at- 
 mosphere, or 14*7 lbs. per sq. inch; while at 250° Fah. its elastic 
 force is two atmospheres, or 29*4 lbs. per sq. inch. This includes 
 the pressure of the atmosphere. 
 
 If the mercury be in a vacuum, the pressure of steam due to a 
 temperature of 212° Fah. will equal 30 inches, and for a pressure 
 due to a temperature of 250° Fah. it will equal 60 inches; but 
 if the mercury be exposed to the atmosphere, the pressure due to 
 250° Fah. will only equal 30 inches of mercury, and for 212° 
 
64 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Fah. there is no indication by a mercury gauge, as steam at 212° 
 just balances the atmosphere. 
 
 The volume of steam is the space which it occupies. At 15 
 lbs. pressure above atmosphere, its volume is 883, and at 30 lbs. 
 its volume is 610 times the space it occupied in the shape of 
 water. 
 
 Surcharged steam is not indicated by the steam-gauge, as the 
 steam-gauge only shows the existence of pressure ; but it may be 
 indicated by a thermometer gauge, or by a fusible plug. 
 
 If the proper relation of the temperature between the steam and 
 water be disturbed, a violent ebullition or foaming will generally 
 take place, and will continue till the natural relation is restored. 
 This foaming is a source of danger to the engine and boilers. 
 
 The total heat of steam at 212° Fah. is 1202°, of which 990° 
 are latent heat, which is heat that is neither sensible to the touch, 
 nor can it be indicated by the thermometer. The existence of 
 this latent heat in w^ater, while in the form of steam, may be 
 proved by the following illustration : If 5i lbs. of water, at 32° 
 Fah., are placed in a vessel communicating with another, in which 
 water is kept at 212° Fah., and kept there till the former reaches 
 a temperature of 212° Fah., and then weighed, it will be found 
 to weigh 6J lbs., showing that 1 lb. of water has been added to 
 the 5i lbs. in the form of steam. This pound of water, received 
 ic. the form of steam had, w^hen in that form, a temperature of 
 212° Fah. It still possesses the same temperature of 212° Fah., 
 showing that it has parted with 5i times the number of degrees 
 of temperature between 32° and 212°, which is 180, and 5ixl80 
 = 990°. This heat was combined with the steam, but not being 
 .sensible to the thermometer is called latent; in this connection 5i 
 is taken as a convenient number. 
 
 If we observe the time that a certain amount of heat takes to 
 raise water from 32° to 212°, no matter what the time may be, it 
 will take 5} times as long for the same heat to evaporate the s-ame 
 amount of water. It follows, that to evaporate water under the 
 pressure of the atmosphere requires 5J times as much heat as 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 65 
 
 would be necessary to raise the same amount of water from 32''^ 
 to 212°. 
 
 A pound of steam in passing from a liquid at 212° to steam at 
 212° receives as much heat as would be sufficient to raise it 
 through 990°, if that heat, instead of being latent, had been sen- 
 sible, and 990° + 212 = 1202° is the whole amount of the heat 
 in steam. 
 
 The latent heat of steam is found by deducting its sensible heat 
 from 1202°. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE INCREASE OF SENSIBLE AND THE DECREASE OF LATENT 
 HEAT IN STEAM, ACCORDING TO PRESSURE. 
 
 Gross Peessuee. 
 
 Sensible Heat. 
 
 Latent Heat. 
 
 Relative Volume. 
 
 15 lbs. 
 
 212° 
 
 966-2° 
 
 1669 
 
 30 " 
 
 251° 
 
 939-0° 
 
 881 
 
 45 " 
 
 275° 
 
 922-7° 
 
 608 
 
 60 " 
 
 294° 
 
 909-2° 
 
 467 
 
 75 " 
 
 309° 
 
 898-5° 
 
 381 
 
 90 " 
 
 320° 
 
 891-3° 
 
 323 
 
 Heat in steam becomes latent whenever a change takes place 
 in the temperature ; then the heat produces the change, but does 
 not raise the temperature. 
 
 The heat necessary to generate steam, instead of being 212°, 
 must be 966 + 212° = 1178° ; therefore, the coal consumed and 
 the water necessary to condense the steam must he 5i times as 
 great as they would be, if the heat were all sensible instead of 
 latent, which, it will be observed, very materially affects the econ- 
 omy of the steam-engine. 
 
 The amount of water necessary to condense a certain quantity 
 of steam may be found as follows : If a cubic inch of water pro- 
 duces a cubic foot of steam, and the latent heat of steam at 212° 
 be taken at 990^, or, in other words, if the cubic foot of steam be 
 supposed to contain as much heat in the latent form as would 
 raise the temperature of the cubic inch of water, if it could be 
 6* E 
 
66 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 prevented from expanding, then 990°, the sum of the latent heat, 
 will be represented by 1202°. The temperature of the water dis- 
 charged by the air-pump is about 100°, which, deducted from 
 1202°, leaves 1102°, which must be taken up by such a quantity 
 of cold water that its temperature will not rise above 100°. If 
 the temperature of the injection-water be 50°, then the difference 
 between that and 100° is 50°, which is available for the absorp- 
 
 * 1102° 
 
 tion of heat, and = 22*1, which is the number of times the 
 injection- water must exceed the quantity of water in the steam. 
 Inasmuch as the injection- water is seldom so cold, a much larger 
 proportion of injection-water is usually required. 
 
 Steam which has any elastic force not exceeding that of one 
 atmosphere is termed "low pressure" steam, and "high pressure" 
 is only low pressure steam compressed into a smaller space. 
 
 Surcharged steam will affect the vacuum of an engine on 
 account of the undue amount of heat which it contains ; there- 
 fore, the amount of injection-water must be increased to take up 
 this extra heat, and keep the condensed water at the proper tem- 
 perature. 
 
 The steam from salt water is fresh, because no salt is carried 
 away in the steam when evaporation from salt water takes place ; 
 and when the water is all evaporated, the original salt will be 
 found in the vessel. 
 
 The difference in volume between water and steam at atmos- 
 pheric pressure is 1669 ; that is, a given quantity of water, when 
 converted into steam, will occupy 1669 times that which the water 
 did. One cubic foot of steam, at atmospheric pressure, weighs 
 •038 of a pound. 
 
 A steam-jacket is a hollow casing surrounding the cylinders of 
 steam-engines, into which the exhaust steam is admitted in its 
 escape from the cylinder. Its object is to preserve a uniform 
 temperature, and to prevent radiation and condensation. The 
 benefit to be derived from its use, in any case, is an unsettled 
 question among engineers. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 67 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE EFFLUENT VELOCITY WITH WHICH STEAM, AT DIFFERENT 
 PRESSURES, WILL FLOW INTO THE ATMOSPHERE, OR INTO STEAM AT A 
 
 LOWER PRESSURE. 
 
 Pressure above 
 THE Atmosphere. 
 
 Velocity of Escape 
 PER Second. 
 
 Pressuke above 
 THE Atmosphere. 
 
 Velocity of E.scape 
 PER Second. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 
 
 OU 
 
 1/OD 
 
 2 
 
 698 
 
 60 
 
 1777 
 
 3 
 
 814 
 
 70 
 
 1810 
 
 4 
 
 905 
 
 80 
 
 1835 
 
 5 
 
 981 
 
 90 
 
 1857 
 
 10 
 
 1232 
 
 100 
 
 1875 
 
 20 
 
 1476 
 
 110 
 
 1889 
 
 30 
 
 1601 
 
 120 
 
 1900 
 
 40 
 
 1681 
 
 130 
 
 1909 
 
 Rule for Finding the Amount of Gain derived from Work- 
 ing Steam Expansively. 
 
 Divide the length of the stroke in feet by the cut-off, J, }, i, as 
 the case may be; then find on the table on page 68 the hyperbolic 
 logarithm nearest to that of the quotient, to which add 1. This 
 sum will give the ratio of gain. 
 
 Example. — Suppose 50 pounds per square inch to be the ini- 
 tial pressure ; length of stroke, 10 feet ; cut-off, } ; find the mean 
 pressure. 
 
 10 -f- 2-5 = 4. The hyperbolic logarithm of 4 is 1*38629, which, 
 with 1 added, becomes 2*38629, which is the ratio of gain. 
 
 4 : 2*38629 : : 50 = ^'^^^^^ x 50 _ 29*82862 lbs. mean or aver- 
 4 
 
 age pressure. 
 
 If a given quantity of Steam, the expansive power of which, at 
 full pressure, is represented by 1, be admitted to a cylinder of a 
 certain size, and cut off when the piston travels through i of the 
 stroke, its effect will be raised by expansion to 1*69 ; if cut off at 
 i, the effect will be 2*10 ; at i , 2*39 ; at i 2*61 ; at i, 2*79 ; at i 
 2*95 ; at i, 3*08 ; but the expansion cannot be carried beneficially 
 as far as i in all classes of engines. 
 
68 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OF HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS TO BE USED IN CONNECTION WITH THE 
 
 ABOVE RULE. 
 
 No. 
 
 
 
 Logarithm. 
 
 No. 
 
 Logarithm. 
 
 No. 
 
 LOGARITHM. 
 
 1-25 
 
 •22314 
 
 . 
 
 5- 
 
 1-60943 
 
 9- 
 
 2-19722 
 
 1-5 
 
 •40546 
 
 5-25 
 
 1-65822 
 
 95 
 
 2-25129 
 
 1-75 
 
 •55961 
 
 5-5 
 
 1-70474 
 
 lo- 
 
 2-30258 
 
 2- 
 
 •69314 
 
 5-75 
 
 1-74919 
 
 ll- 
 
 2-39789 
 
 2-25 
 
 . ^81093 
 
 6- 
 
 1-79175 
 
 12^ 
 
 2-48490 
 
 • 2-5 
 
 •91629 
 
 6-25 
 
 1-83258 
 
 13- 
 
 2-56494 
 
 2-75 
 
 1-01160 
 
 6-5 
 
 1-87180 
 
 14- 
 
 2-63905 
 
 3- 
 
 1-09861 
 
 6-75 
 
 1-90954 
 
 15- 
 
 2-70805 
 
 3-25 
 
 1-17865 
 
 7- 
 
 1-94591 
 
 16- 
 
 2-77258 
 
 3-5 
 
 1-25276 
 
 7-25 
 
 1-98100 
 
 17- 
 
 2-83321 
 
 3-75 
 
 1-32175 
 
 7-5 
 
 2-01490 
 
 18- 
 
 2-89037 
 
 4- 
 
 1-38629 
 
 7-75 
 
 204769 
 
 19- 
 
 2-94443 
 
 4-25 
 
 1-44691 
 
 8- 
 
 2-07944 
 
 20- 
 
 2-99573 
 
 4-5 
 
 1-50507 
 
 8-5 
 
 2 14006 
 
 21- 
 
 3 04452 
 
 4-75 
 
 1-55814 
 
 
 
 22- 
 
 3-09104 
 
 Rule for finding the mean or average pressure in the cylinder 
 of a steam-engine. 
 
 Divide the length of the stroke in inches (including the clear- 
 ance) by the distance that the steam follows the piston before 
 being cut off ; the quotient will be the expansion the steam under- 
 goes. Then find in the expansion column, in the following table, 
 the number corresponding to it; take the multiplier opposite, and 
 multiply the full pressure of the steam per square inch, as it enters 
 the cylinder, by it. The product will be the average pressure. 
 
 Example. — Suppose the initial pressure be 70 lbs. per sq. inch 
 and cut-off at half-stroke, the stroke being 3 ft. 
 
 Then 3 ft. = 36 in. + 0*5 for clearance = 36-5. 
 Stroke J = 18 in. + 0-5 " = 18-5. 
 Then 36*5 h- 18*5 = 1*97, the relative expansion between 1*9 
 and 2. By referring to the table, the multiplier for 1*9 will be 
 found to be 0'864, and the difference between that and the multi- 
 plier for 2 is 0-017. Hence, by multiplying 0*017 by '07, and 
 subtracting the product 0*011, the remainder, 0*86281, is the mul- 
 tiplier for 1*97. Therefore, 0*86281 X 70 = 60*3967 lbs. per sq 
 inch, the mean effective pressure on the piston. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 69 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OF MULTIPLIERS BY WHICH TO FIND THE MEAN PRESSURE OF STEAM AT 
 
 VARIOUS POINTS OF CUT-OFF. 
 
 Expansion. 
 
 Mul tiplier. 
 
 Expansion. 
 
 Multiplier. 
 
 Expansion . 
 
 MultipllBr. 
 
 10 
 
 1-000 
 
 3-4 
 
 •654 
 
 5^8 
 
 •479 
 
 11 
 
 •995 
 
 3-5 
 
 •644 
 
 5-9 
 
 •474 
 
 1-2 
 
 •985 
 
 3-6 
 
 •634 
 
 6^ 
 
 •470 
 
 . 1-3 
 
 •971 
 
 3-7 
 
 •624 
 
 6^1 
 
 •466 
 
 1-4 
 
 •955 
 
 3-8 
 
 •615 
 
 6^2 
 
 •462 ( 
 
 1-5 
 
 •937 
 
 3-9 
 
 •605 
 
 6-3 
 
 •458 
 
 1-6 
 
 •919 
 
 4- 
 
 •597 
 
 6-4 
 
 •454 
 
 1-7 
 
 •900 
 
 4-1 
 
 •588 
 
 6^5 
 
 •450 
 
 1-8 
 
 •882 
 
 4^2 
 
 •580 
 
 6^6 
 
 •446 
 
 1-9 
 
 •864 
 
 4*3 
 
 •572 
 
 6^7 
 
 •442 
 
 2- 
 
 •847 
 
 4-4 
 
 •564 
 
 6-8 
 
 •438 
 
 2-1 
 
 •830 • 
 
 4-5 
 
 •556 
 
 6^9 
 
 •434 
 
 2-2 
 
 •813 
 
 4-6 
 
 •549 
 
 7' 
 
 •430 
 
 2-3 
 
 •797 
 
 4-7 
 
 •542 
 
 7-1 
 
 •427 
 
 2-4 
 
 •781 
 
 4-8 
 
 •535 
 
 7^2 
 
 •423 
 
 2-5 
 
 •766 
 
 4-9 
 
 •528 
 
 7^3 
 
 •420 
 
 2*6 
 
 •752 
 
 5* 
 
 •522 
 
 7 4 
 
 417 
 
 2-7 
 
 •738 
 
 5-1 
 
 •516 
 
 75 
 
 •414 
 
 2-8 
 
 •725 
 
 5-2 
 
 •510 
 
 7^6 
 
 •411 
 
 2-9 
 
 •712 
 
 . 5-3 
 
 •504 
 
 7-7 
 
 •408 
 
 3- 
 
 •700 
 
 5-4 
 
 •499 
 
 7^8 
 
 •405 
 
 3-1 
 
 •688 
 
 5-5 
 
 •494 
 
 7^9 
 
 •402 
 
 3-2 
 
 •676 
 
 5-6 
 
 •489 
 
 8^ 
 
 •399 
 
 3*3 
 
 •665 
 
 5-7 
 
 •484 
 
 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OF CONSTANT NUMBERS, BY WHICH TO ASCERTAIN THE AVERAGE PRESS- 
 URE OF THE STEAM AGAINST THE PISTON FOR DIFFERENT PRESSURES 
 AND POINTS OF CUT-OFF, FROM i TO | OF THE STROKE. 
 
 Point of Cut-off. 
 
 Constant Number. 
 
 Point of Cut-off. 
 
 Constant Number. 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 •5965 
 
 5 
 
 •9188 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 •6995 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 •9370 
 
 3 
 
 E 
 
 2 
 
 •7428 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 •9657 
 
 •8465 
 
 7 
 
 H 
 
 •9919 
 
 Multiply the pressure in pounds, as shown by the gauge, by the 
 constant number opposite the point of cut-off in the left column. 
 The product is the average pressure. 
 
70 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OF CONSTANT NUMBERS FOR FINDING THE REQUIRED "lAP" FOR SLIDE- 
 VALVES, WHEN THE TRAVEL OF THE VALVE IS KNOWN. 
 
 Cut-off 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 _3 
 4 
 
 5 
 6 
 
 i 
 
 1 1 
 
 T3 
 
 Multiplier. 
 
 •354 
 
 •323 
 
 •289 
 
 •250 
 
 •204 
 
 •177 
 
 •144 
 
 Multiply the valve-stroke by the decimals opposite each point 
 of cut-off. 
 
 There are two methods of applying the power of steam to the 
 
 cylinders of steam-engines, one being to allow it to flow from the 
 boiler to the cylinder through the whole length of the stroke, the 
 other to cut off the supply when the piston has travelled a certain 
 distance. The advantage of the latter over the former consists 
 in the saving of fuel; which may be explained as follows; If 
 steam be applied the full length of the stroke, the average press- 
 ure will be as the pressure per square inch on the piston ; but if 
 the steam be cut off at half stroke, — suppose the pressure to be 
 65 lbs. per square inch, when the pressure of the atmosphere is 
 added, — there will be a mean equivalent, or average pressure, 
 throughout the stroke of about 55 lbs. per square inch, being only 
 10 lbs. less than full pressure, or 16 per cent, of a loss in power, 
 though only half the former quantity of steam has been used. 
 
 Steam-ports. — A term applied to the passages through which 
 the steam enters the cylinder ; they are generally the area of 
 the piston, but vary for different boiler pressures and piston speeds, 
 those of locomotives being about jq, which have the largest ports 
 of any class of engines. The area of the exhaust-port should be 
 from ^ to ^ that of the cylinder. As a rule, the exhaust, when 
 passing out of the cylinder after the first rush is over, should not 
 have to travel faster than 100 feet per second ; but with some de- 
 signs of engines the velocity of the steam may be greater, without 
 creating injurious back pressure. The form of the ports is imma- 
 terial, providing they are large enough to give admission to the 
 amount of steam requisite to keep the pressure up to its initial point 
 until it is cut off by the valve, and give free egress for its escape. 
 
THE ENGINEER'S H AN D Y-BOO JC . 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE AVERAGE PRESSURE OF THE STEAM UPON THE PISTON 
 THROUGHOUT THE STROKE, WHEN CUT OFF IN THE CYLINDER FROM 
 J TO I, COMMENCING WITH 10 POUNDS AND ADVANCING IN 5 POUNDS 
 UP TO 55 POUNDS PRESSURE. 
 
 Pressure in Pounds at the Commencement of the Stroke. 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 55 
 
 Average Pressure in Pounds upon the Piston. 
 
 7 
 
 lOi 
 
 14} 
 
 ±'±2 
 
 X 1 2 
 
 
 24* 
 
 28 
 
 SI * 
 
 0x2 
 
 35 
 
 .Sf^* 
 
 00 2 
 
 O 4 
 
 14 
 
 181 
 
 ^0 2 
 
 281 
 
 
 87 i 
 012 
 
 42 
 
 46?^ 
 
 51 i 
 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 17f 
 
 201 
 
 281 
 
 26f 
 
 291 
 
 821 
 
 89 
 vJ 2 
 
 121 
 
 17 
 
 21 
 
 251 
 
 29^ 
 
 331 
 
 88 
 
 421 
 
 46^ 
 
 U 2 
 
 14^ 
 
 191 
 
 24 
 
 281 
 
 00 2 
 
 38} 
 
 
 481 
 
 58 
 
 
 
 lOi 
 
 
 15} 
 
 18J 
 
 20 i 
 
 23} 
 
 ^^6 
 
 28} 
 
 1 2 
 
 X J. 2 
 
 151 
 
 19 
 
 28 
 
 261 
 
 80 i 
 
 84i 
 
 881 
 0U4 
 
 49 
 
 Q 
 
 £7 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 97 
 
 81^ 
 
 861 
 
 OU 4 
 
 40^ 
 
 451 
 
 49^ 
 
 91 
 
 14i 
 
 19J 
 
 231 
 
 29} 
 
 34} 
 
 39 
 
 44 
 
 49 
 
 53J 
 
 4i 
 
 7 
 
 9} 
 
 m 
 
 14 
 
 16} 
 
 18i 
 
 20i 
 
 23} 
 
 25 i 
 
 91 
 
 lii 
 
 191 
 
 24i 
 
 29 J 
 
 B4i 
 
 39J 
 
 44} 
 
 49} 
 
 54 
 
 4i 
 
 6i 
 
 .8} 
 
 lOi 
 
 12* 
 
 Ui 
 
 161 
 
 181 
 
 21 
 
 23} 
 
 6J 
 
 9i 
 
 I2i 
 
 16 
 
 19} 
 
 22i 
 
 261 
 
 281 
 
 32 
 
 35} 
 
 71 
 
 111 
 
 155 
 
 191 
 
 231 
 
 27 i 
 
 31 i 
 
 35^ 
 
 39* 
 
 m 
 
 81 
 
 m 
 
 171 
 
 22} 
 
 261 
 
 31} 
 
 35J 
 
 40 
 
 44* 
 
 49 
 
 9i 
 
 Ui 
 
 19 
 
 23i 
 
 281 
 
 33* 
 
 38} 
 
 421 
 
 47 i 
 
 d2i 
 
 91 
 
 14i 
 
 191 
 
 241 
 
 29 i 
 
 34i 
 
 39i 
 
 44* 
 
 49* 
 
 54} 
 
 31 
 
 5? 
 
 71 
 
 9i 
 
 11* 
 
 13* 
 
 15} 
 
 17} 
 
 19} 
 
 21} 
 
 7^ 
 
 11 
 
 143- 
 
 18i 
 
 22} 
 
 26 
 
 29J 
 
 33i 
 
 37 
 
 401 
 
 9i 
 
 131 
 
 18} 
 
 221 
 
 27* 
 
 32 
 
 36f 
 
 41} 
 
 45* 
 
 501 
 
 9i 
 
 141 
 
 m 
 
 24i 
 
 29i 
 
 341 
 
 39* 
 
 44^ 
 
 49* 
 
 54J 
 
 M <3J 0) 
 
 s 6" 
 
72 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE AVERAGE PRESSURE OF THE STEAM UPON THE PISTOH 
 THROUGHOUT THE STROKE, WHEN CUT OFF IN THE CYLINDER FROM 
 J TO I, COMMENCING WITH 60 POUNDS AND ADVANCING IN 5 POUNDS 
 UP TO 105 POUNDS PRESSURE. 
 
 5« 
 
 ^ ^; 
 
 Pressure in Pounds at the Commencement of the Stroke. 
 
 a 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 75 
 
 80 
 
 85 
 
 90 
 
 95 
 
 100 
 
 105 
 
 m 
 
 Average Pressure in Pounds upon the Piston. 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 1 
 4 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 7 
 
 4 
 7 
 
 5 
 T 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 3 
 
 5 
 5 
 
 1 * 
 
 42 
 
 56 i 
 
 351 
 
 501 
 
 57f 
 
 3U 
 
 46 
 
 54} 
 
 58J 
 
 27i 
 
 59 
 
 25} 
 
 S8i 
 
 47i 
 
 53J 
 
 57} 
 
 59} 
 
 23 
 
 Ui 
 
 55} 
 
 59 J 
 
 45i 
 
 61 
 
 381 
 
 55 
 
 62^ 
 
 34 
 
 491 
 
 581 
 
 6Si 
 
 30} 
 
 64 
 
 27} 
 
 411 
 
 511 
 
 571 
 
 62 
 
 63i 
 
 25 
 
 48} 
 
 591 
 
 64i 
 
 49 
 
 65J 
 
 411 
 
 69} 
 
 67i 
 
 B6i 
 
 53i 
 
 63} 
 
 G8i 
 
 S2i 
 
 69 
 
 29} 
 
 45 
 
 55i 
 
 62} 
 
 661 
 
 69} 
 
 27 
 
 52 
 
 641 
 
 69i 
 
 52} 
 
 70} 
 
 44i 
 
 63} 
 
 72} 
 
 39 
 
 57} 
 
 67i 
 
 731 
 
 341 
 
 73f 
 
 31} 
 
 48} 
 
 59} 
 
 661 
 
 71} 
 
 74} 
 
 28f 
 
 55J 
 
 68! 
 
 74} 
 
 56 
 
 75 
 
 471 
 
 671 
 
 77} 
 
 4li 
 
 61} 
 
 72} 
 
 78} 
 
 37} 
 
 781 
 
 33} 
 
 51} 
 
 63} 
 
 71} 
 
 76} 
 
 79 
 
 30i 
 
 59} 
 
 73} 
 
 79} 
 
 59} 
 
 79} 
 
 501 
 
 72 
 
 82 
 
 44} 
 
 65 
 
 77 
 
 83 
 
 39} 
 
 831 
 
 351 
 
 54} 
 
 67} 
 
 751 
 
 81 
 
 84 
 
 321 
 
 63 
 
 78 
 
 84} 
 
 63 
 
 84} 
 
 53i 
 
 76} 
 
 87 
 
 47 
 
 69 
 
 81} 
 
 88 
 
 41 i 
 
 881 
 
 37i 
 
 57i 
 
 71} 
 
 80 
 
 851 
 
 89 
 
 34} 
 
 66i 
 
 82} 
 
 89} 
 
 66} 
 
 89 
 
 561 
 
 80} 
 
 91i 
 
 49} 
 
 72i 
 
 86 
 
 921 
 
 44} 
 
 93} 
 
 40 
 
 61 
 
 75} 
 
 84} 
 
 901 
 
 931 
 
 36} 
 
 70} 
 
 87} 
 
 94} 
 
 70 
 
 931 
 
 591 
 
 841 
 
 96} 
 
 52} 
 
 76} 
 
 90} 
 
 97i 
 
 46} 
 
 98} 
 
 42 
 
 64} 
 
 79 
 
 89 
 
 95} 
 
 98-1 
 
 38} 
 
 74} 
 
 91f 
 
 99 
 
 73 
 98} 
 621 
 89 
 
 101} 
 54i 
 80} 
 95} 
 
 102f 
 481 
 
 103} 
 44 
 67} 
 83 . 
 93} 
 
 100} 
 
 103f 
 40} 
 78 
 96} 
 
 104 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 73 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE AVERAGE PRESSURE OF THE STEAM UPON THE PISTON 
 THROUGHOUT THE STROKE, WHEN CUT OFF IN THE CYLINDER FROM 
 J TO J, COMMENCING WITH 110 POUNDS AND ADVANCING IN 5 POUNDS 
 UP TO 150 POUNDS PRESSURE. 
 
 m cut off 
 in the 
 y^linder. 
 
 • Pressure in Pounds at the Commencement of the Stroke. 
 
 no 1 
 
 115 j 
 
 120 
 
 125 
 
 130 
 
 135 
 
 140 
 
 145 
 
 1 150 
 
 
 Average Pressure in Pounds upon the Piston. 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 o 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 '5 
 
 1 
 
 <S 
 
 5 
 6 
 1 
 
 T 
 
 2 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 T 
 5 
 7 
 
 6 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 ■g" 
 7 
 H 
 
 77i 
 
 103 
 65 J 
 93 i 
 
 106} 
 57} 
 84} 
 
 m 
 
 1071 
 51} 
 108} 
 46} 
 70} 
 87 
 98 
 105 
 108} 
 42} 
 81} 
 101 
 109 
 
 80 i 
 107} 
 
 m 
 
 97} 
 111 
 
 60 
 
 88 
 104} 
 
 im 
 
 53 i 
 113} 
 48} 
 74 
 91 
 
 102i 
 1091 
 113} 
 
 m 
 
 85} 
 105i 
 114 
 
 84 
 112i 
 
 m 
 
 lOli 
 115} 
 62i 
 911 
 1081 
 117i 
 551 
 118} 
 50i 
 771 
 94} 
 1061 
 114* 
 118} 
 46} 
 89 
 110} 
 119 
 
 87 i 
 117 
 
 74} 
 105} 
 120} 
 
 65} 
 
 95} 
 113} 
 122} 
 
 58 
 
 123} 
 52} 
 80} 
 98} 
 111} 
 119} 
 123* 
 48 
 92} 
 114} 
 124 
 
 91 
 
 121} 
 77} 
 110 
 125} 
 67} 
 99} 
 117} 
 127} 
 60} 
 128 
 64} 
 83} 
 102} 
 115} 
 124 
 128* 
 50 
 96* 
 119* 
 128} 
 
 94} 
 126} 
 
 80} 
 114} 
 130} 
 
 70} 
 103} 
 122} 
 132 
 
 62} 
 133 
 
 561 
 
 861 
 106} 
 120} 
 128} 
 133* 
 
 52 
 100} 
 124 
 133} 
 
 98 
 131 
 
 83} 
 118} 
 135} 
 
 73 
 107} 
 126} 
 136} 
 
 65 
 137} 
 
 58} 
 
 90 
 110} 
 124} 
 133} 
 138* 
 
 54} 
 104 
 128* 
 138} 
 
 101} 
 135} 
 
 86} 
 122} 
 140 
 
 75} 
 111 
 131} 
 141} 
 
 67} 
 142} 
 
 61 
 
 93} 
 114} 
 129} 
 138* 
 143* 
 
 56} 
 107} 
 133} 
 143} 
 
 105 
 140} 
 
 89} 
 127 
 144} 
 ' 78} 
 115 
 135 
 146} 
 
 69} 
 147 
 
 63 
 
 96} 
 118} 
 133} 
 143} 
 148} 
 
 571 
 111* 
 137} 
 148} 
 
 7 
 
74 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE TEMPERATURE OF STEAM AT DIFFERENT PRESSURES, FROM 
 1 LB. PER SQUARE INCH TO 220 LBS., AND THE QUANTITY OF STEAM 
 PRODUCED FROM A CUBIC INCH OF WATER, ACCORDING TO PRESSURE. 
 
 It is necessary to add the pressure of the atmosphere, 15 pounds, to the pressure on 
 the steam-gauge, to correspond with the table. 
 
 Total 
 Pressure 
 oi C5it;aiii 
 in lbs. per 
 Square 
 Inch. 
 
 Correspond- 
 ing Temper- 
 ature of 
 Steam to 
 Pressure. 
 
 Cubic Inches 
 of Steam from 
 a Cubic Inch 
 
 of Water 
 according to 
 
 Pressure. 
 
 Total 
 Pressure 
 
 in lbs. per 
 Square 
 Inch. 
 
 Correspond- 
 ing Temper- 
 ature of 
 Steam to 
 Pressure. 
 
 Cubic Inches 
 of Steam from 
 a Cubic Inch 
 
 of Water 
 according to 
 
 Pressure. 
 
 1 
 
 102-90 
 
 20868 
 
 29 
 
 249-60 
 
 911 
 
 2 ■ 
 
 126-1 
 
 10874 
 
 30 
 
 251-6 
 
 883 
 
 3 
 
 141-0 
 
 7437 
 
 31 
 
 253-6 
 
 857 
 
 4 
 
 152-3 
 
 5685 
 
 32 
 
 255-5 
 
 833 
 
 5 
 
 161-4 
 
 4617 
 
 33 
 
 257-3 
 
 810 
 
 6 
 
 169-2 
 
 3897 
 
 34 
 
 259-1 
 
 788 
 
 7 
 
 175-9 
 
 3376 
 
 35 
 
 260-9 
 
 767 
 
 
 182-0 
 
 2983 
 
 36 
 
 262-6 
 
 748 
 
 9 
 
 187-4 
 
 2674 
 
 37 
 
 264-3 
 
 729 
 
 10 
 
 192-4 
 
 2426 
 
 38 
 
 265-9 
 
 712 
 
 11 
 
 197-0 
 
 2221 
 
 39 
 
 267-5 
 
 695 
 
 12 
 
 201-3 
 
 2050 
 
 40 
 
 269-1 
 
 679 
 
 13 
 
 205-3 
 
 1904 
 
 41 
 
 270-6 
 
 664 
 
 14 
 
 209-1 
 
 1778 
 
 42 
 
 272-1 
 
 649 
 
 15 
 
 212-8 
 
 1669 
 
 43 
 
 273-6 
 
 635 
 
 16 
 
 216-3 
 
 1573 
 
 44 
 
 275-0 
 
 622 
 
 17 
 
 219-6 
 
 1488 
 
 45 
 
 276-4 
 
 610 
 
 18 
 
 222-7 
 
 1411 
 
 46 
 
 277-8 
 
 598 
 
 19 
 
 225-6 
 
 1343 
 
 47 
 
 279-2 
 
 586 
 
 20 
 
 228-5 
 
 1281 
 
 48 
 
 280-5 
 
 575 
 
 21 
 
 231-2 
 
 1225 
 
 49 
 
 281-9 
 
 564 
 
 22 
 
 233-8 
 
 1174 
 
 50 
 
 283-2 
 
 554 
 
 23 
 
 236-3 
 
 1127 
 
 51 
 
 284-4 
 
 544 
 
 24 
 
 238-7 
 
 1084 
 
 52 
 
 285-7 
 
 534 
 
 25 
 
 241-0 
 
 1044 
 
 53 
 
 286-9 
 
 525 
 
 26 
 
 243-3 
 
 1007 
 
 54 
 
 288-1 
 
 516 
 
 27 
 
 245-5 
 
 973 
 
 55 
 
 289-3 
 
 508 
 
 1 28 
 
 247-6 
 
 941 
 
 56 
 
 290-5 
 
 500 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 75 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE TEMPERATURE OF STEAM AT DIFFERENT PRESSURES, FROM 
 1 LB. PER SQUARE INCH TO 220 LBS., AND THE QUANTITY OF STEAM 
 PRODUCED FROM A CUBIC INCH OF WATER, ACCORDING TO PRESSURE. 
 
 It is necessary to add the pressure of the atmosphere, 15 pounds, to the pressure on 
 the steam-gauge, to correspond with the table. 
 
 Total 
 Pressure 
 01 bieam 
 in lbs. per 
 Square 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Correspond- 
 ing Temper- 
 ature of 
 
 Pressure. 
 
 Cubic Inches 
 of Steam from 
 a Cubic Inch 
 
 of Water 
 according to 
 
 Pressure. 
 
 Total 
 Pressure 
 of Steam 
 in lbs. per 
 Square 
 Inch. 
 
 Correspond- 
 ing Temper- 
 ature of 
 
 Pressure. 
 
 Cubic Inches 
 of Steam from 
 a Cubic Inch 
 
 of Water 
 according to 
 
 Pressure. 
 
 57 
 
 291 -70 
 
 492 
 
 85 
 
 " 320-10 
 
 342 
 
 58 
 
 292-9 
 
 484 
 
 86 
 
 321-0 
 
 339 
 
 59 
 
 294-2 
 
 477 
 
 87 
 
 321-8 
 
 335 
 
 60 
 
 295-6 
 
 470 
 
 88 
 
 322-6 
 
 332 
 
 61 
 
 296-9 
 
 463 
 
 89 
 
 323-5 
 
 328 
 
 62 
 
 298-1 
 
 456 
 
 90 
 
 324-3 
 
 325 
 
 63 
 
 299-2 
 
 449 
 
 91 
 
 325-1 
 
 322 
 
 64 
 
 300-3 
 
 443 
 
 92 
 
 325-9 
 
 319 
 
 65 
 
 301-3 
 
 437 
 
 93 
 
 326-7 
 
 316 
 
 66 
 
 302-4 
 
 431 
 
 94 
 
 327-5 
 
 313 
 
 67 
 
 303-4 
 
 425 
 
 95 
 
 328-2 
 
 310 
 
 68 
 
 304-4 
 
 419 
 
 96 
 
 329-0 
 
 307 
 
 69 
 
 305-4 
 
 414 
 
 97 
 
 329-8 
 
 304 
 
 70 
 
 306-4 
 
 408 
 
 98 
 
 330-5 
 
 301 
 
 .71 
 
 307-4 
 
 403 
 
 99 
 
 331-3 
 
 298 
 
 72 
 
 308-4 
 
 398 
 
 100 
 
 332-0 
 
 295 
 
 73 
 
 309-3 
 
 393 
 
 110 
 
 339-2 
 
 271 
 
 74 
 
 310-3 
 
 388 
 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 311-2 
 
 383 
 
 130 
 
 352-1 
 
 233 
 
 76 
 
 312-2 
 
 379 
 
 140 
 
 357-9 
 
 218 
 
 77 
 
 313-1 
 
 374 
 
 150 
 
 363-4 
 
 205 
 
 78 
 
 314-0 
 
 370 
 
 160 
 
 368-7 
 
 193 
 
 79 
 
 314-9 
 
 366 
 
 170 
 
 373-6 
 
 183 
 
 80 
 
 315-8 
 
 362 
 
 180 
 
 378-4 
 
 174 
 
 81 
 
 316-7 
 
 358 
 
 190 
 
 382-9 
 
 166 
 
 82 
 
 317-6 
 
 354 
 
 200 
 
 387-3 
 
 158 
 
 83 
 
 . 318-4 
 
 350 
 
 210 
 
 391-5 
 
 151 
 
 84 
 
 319*3 
 
 346 
 
 220 
 
 395-5 
 
 145 
 
 . » 
 
76 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Explanation of the following Table. 
 
 The first column gives the absolute pressure of the steam in 
 inches of mercury, or the height to which the pressure would raise 
 a column of mercury in a tube, provided the opposing pressure 
 of the atmosphere were removed. 
 
 The second column gives the absolute pressure in pounds per 
 square inch under the same circumstances. 
 
 The third column, it will be observed, is headed "Pressure 
 above Atmosphere." By this is meant the apparent pressure of 
 the steam as indicated by a steam-gauge. 
 
 The fourth column shows the temperature in degrees of Fah' 
 renheit's scale. 
 
 The fifth column shows the increase of volume which the water 
 assumes in the act of changing into steam. 
 
 The sixth column shows the velocity with which steam, at the 
 given pressures, escapes through an orifice into the atmosphere, as, 
 for example, through the safety-valve of a steam-boiler. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OF THE ELASTIC FORCE, TEMPERATURE, AND VOLUME OF STEAM FROM A 
 TEMPERATURE OF 32° TO 457° FAH., AND FROM A PRESSURE OF 0*2 TO 
 900 INCHES OF MERCURY. 
 
 ELASTIC FORCE IN 
 
 Pressure 
 above 
 Atmosphere. 
 
 Temper- 
 ature. 
 
 Volume. 
 
 Velocity of 
 Escape. 
 
 Inches of 
 
 Pounds per 
 
 Mercury. 
 
 Square Inch. 
 
 
 
 
 •200 
 
 •098 
 
 
 32° 
 
 187407 
 
 
 •221 
 
 •108 
 
 
 35 
 
 170267 
 
 
 •263 
 
 •129 
 
 
 40 
 
 144529 
 
 
 •316 
 
 •155 
 
 
 45 
 
 121483 
 
 
 •375 
 
 •184 
 
 
 50 
 
 103350 
 
 
 •443 
 
 •217 
 
 
 55 
 
 88388 
 
 
 , ^524 
 
 •257 
 
 
 60 
 
 75421 
 
 
 •616 
 
 •302 
 
 
 65 
 
 64762 
 
 
 •721 
 
 •353 
 
 
 70 
 
 55862 
 
 
 1 '851 
 
 •417 
 
 
 75 
 
 47771 
 
 
 rooo 
 
 •490 
 
 
 80 
 
 41031 
 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 77 
 
 TABLE 
 
 (IF THE ELASTIC FORCE, TEMPERATURE, AND VOLUME OF HTP:AM FROM A 
 TEMPERATURE OF 32° TO 457° FAH., AND FROM A PRESSURE OF 0*2 TO 
 900 INCHES OP MERCURY. 
 
 ELASTIC FORCE IN 
 
 Pressure 
 above 
 Atmosphere. 
 
 Temper- 
 ature. 
 
 Volume. 
 
 Velocity of 
 Escape. 
 
 Inches of 
 Mercury, 
 
 Pounds per 
 Square Inch. 
 
 1-17 
 
 •573 
 
 
 85-° 
 
 35393 
 
 
 1-36 
 
 •666 
 
 
 90- 
 
 30425 
 
 
 1-58 
 
 •774 
 
 
 95- 
 
 26686 
 
 
 1-86 
 
 •911 
 
 
 100- 
 
 22878 
 
 
 2-04 
 
 1-000 
 
 
 103- 
 
 20958 
 
 
 2-18 
 
 1-068 
 
 
 105- 
 
 19693 
 
 
 2-53 
 
 1-24 
 
 
 110^ 
 
 16667 
 
 
 2-92 
 
 1-431 
 
 
 115- 
 
 14942 
 
 
 3-33 
 
 1-632 
 
 
 120- 
 
 13215 
 
 
 3-79 
 
 1-857 
 
 
 125* 
 
 11723 
 
 
 4-34 
 
 2-129 
 
 
 130- 
 
 10328 
 
 
 5-00 
 
 2-45 
 
 
 135- 
 
 9036 
 
 
 5-74 
 
 2-813 
 
 
 140- 
 
 7938 
 
 
 6-53 
 
 3-100 
 
 
 145* 
 
 7040 
 
 
 7-42 
 
 3-636 
 
 
 150- 
 
 6243 
 
 
 8-40 
 
 4116 
 
 
 155- 
 
 5559 
 
 
 9-46 
 
 4-635 
 
 
 160- 
 
 4976 
 
 
 10-68 
 
 5-23 
 
 
 165- 
 
 4443 
 
 
 12-13 
 
 5-94 
 
 
 170- 
 
 3943 
 
 
 13-62 
 
 6-67 
 
 
 175* 
 
 3538 
 
 
 15-15 
 
 7-42 
 
 
 180- 
 
 3208 
 
 
 17-00 
 
 8-33 
 
 
 185- 
 
 2879 
 
 
 19-00 
 
 9-31 
 
 
 190* 
 
 2595 
 
 
 21-22 
 
 10-40 
 
 
 195- 
 
 2342 
 
 
 23-64 
 
 11-58 
 
 
 200- 
 
 2118 
 
 
 26*13 
 
 
 
 205- 
 
 1932 
 
 
 28-84 
 
 14-13 
 
 
 210- 
 
 1763 
 
 
 29-41 
 
 14-41 
 
 
 211- 
 
 17S0 
 
 
 30-00 
 
 14-70 
 
 0- 
 
 212- 
 
 1700 
 
 
 30-60 
 
 15-00 
 
 
 212-8 
 
 1669 
 
 
 3L62 
 
 15-50 
 
 0-8 
 
 214-5 
 
 1618 
 
 
 32-64 
 
 16-00 
 
 1-3 
 
 216-3 
 
 1573 
 
 
 33-66 
 
 16-50 
 
 
 218- 
 
 1530 
 
 
 34-68 
 
 17-00 
 
 2-3 
 
 219-6 
 
 1488 
 
 
 35-70 
 
 17-50 
 
 
 221*2 
 
 1440 
 
 
 36-72 
 
 18-00 
 
 3-3 
 
 222-7 
 
 1411 
 
 
 37-74 
 
 18-50 
 
 
 224-2 
 
 1377 
 
 874 
 
 38-76 
 
 19-00 
 
 4-3 
 
 225-6 
 
 1343 
 
 
 7* 
 
78 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OF THE ELASTIC FORCE, TEMPERATURE, AND VOLUME OF STEAM FROM A 
 TEMPERATURE OF 32° TO 457° FAH.. AND FROM A PRESSURE OF 0*2 TO 
 900 INCHES OF MERCURY. 
 
 ELASTIC ] 
 
 Inches of 
 Mercury. 
 
 FORCE IN 
 
 Pounds per 
 Square Inch. 
 
 Pressure 
 above 
 Atmosphere. 
 
 Temper- 
 ature. 
 
 Volume. 
 
 Velocity of 
 Escape. 
 
 39*78 
 
 19*50 
 
 
 227*1° 
 
 1312 
 
 
 40*80 
 
 20*00 
 
 5*3 
 
 228*5 
 
 1281 
 
 
 41*82 
 
 20*50 
 
 
 229*9 
 
 1253 
 
 
 42*84 
 
 21*00 
 
 6-3 
 
 231*2 
 
 1225 
 
 
 43*86 
 
 21*50 
 
 
 232*5 
 
 1199 
 
 
 44*88 
 
 22*00 
 
 7'3 
 
 233*8 
 
 1174 
 
 1136 
 
 45*90 
 
 22*50 
 
 
 235*1 
 
 1150 ( 
 
 
 46*92 
 
 23*00 
 
 8*3 
 
 236*3 
 
 1127 
 
 
 47*94 
 
 23*50 
 
 
 237*5 
 
 1105 
 
 
 48*96 
 
 24*00 
 
 9*3 
 
 238*7 
 
 1084 
 
 
 49*98 
 
 24*50 
 
 
 239*9 
 
 1064 
 
 
 51*00 
 
 25*00 
 
 10*3 
 
 241* 
 
 1044 
 
 
 53*04 
 
 26*00 
 
 11*3 
 
 243*3 
 
 1007 
 
 1295 
 
 55*08 
 
 27* 
 
 12*3 
 
 245*5 
 
 973 
 
 
 57*12 
 
 28* 
 
 13*3 
 
 247*6 
 
 941 
 
 
 59*16 
 
 29' 
 
 14*3 
 
 249*6 
 
 911 
 
 1407 
 
 61*20 
 
 30* 
 
 15*3 
 
 251*6 
 
 883 
 
 
 63*24 
 
 31- 
 
 16*3 
 
 253*6 
 
 857 
 
 
 65*28 
 
 32* 
 
 17*3 
 
 255*5 
 
 833 
 
 
 67*32 
 
 33* 
 
 18*3 
 
 257*3 
 
 810 
 
 1491 
 
 69*36 
 
 34* 
 
 1D*3 
 
 259*1 
 
 788 
 
 
 71*40 
 
 35* 
 
 20-3 
 
 260*9 
 
 767 
 
 
 73*44 
 
 36- 
 
 21-3 
 
 262*6 
 
 748 
 
 
 75*48 
 
 37- 
 
 22*3 
 
 264*3 
 
 729 
 
 1550 
 
 77*52 
 
 38* 
 
 23*3 
 
 265*9 
 
 712 
 
 
 79*56 
 
 39* 
 
 24*3 
 
 267*5 
 
 695 
 
 
 81*60 
 
 40* 
 
 25*3 
 
 269*1 
 
 679 
 
 1600 
 
 83*64 
 
 41- 
 
 26-3 
 
 270-6 
 
 664 
 
 
 85*68 
 
 42- 
 
 27-3 
 
 272*1 
 
 649 
 
 
 87*72 
 
 43- 
 
 28*3 
 
 • 273*6 
 
 635 
 
 
 89*76 
 
 44* 
 
 29-3 
 
 275* 
 
 622 
 
 1652 
 
 91*80 
 
 45* 
 
 30*3 
 
 276*4 
 
 610 
 
 
 93*84 
 
 46* 
 
 31-3 
 
 277*8 
 
 598 
 
 
 95*88 
 
 47- 
 
 32-3 
 
 279*2 
 
 586 
 
 
 97*92 
 
 48* 
 
 33-3 
 
 280*5 
 
 575 
 
 1690 
 
 99*96 
 
 49* 
 
 34-3 
 
 281*9 
 
 564 
 
 
 102*00 
 
 50* 
 
 35-3 
 
 283*2 
 
 554 
 
 
 104-04 
 
 51* 
 
 36-3 
 
 284*4 
 
 544 
 
 1720 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 79 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OF THE ELASTIC FORCE, TEMPERATURE, AND VOLUME OF STEAM FROM A 
 TEMPERATURE OF 32° TO 457° FAH., AND FROM A PRESSURE OF 0 2 TO 
 900 INCHES OF MERCURY. 
 
 ELASTIC ] 
 
 Inches of 
 Mercury. 
 
 FORCE IN 
 
 Pounds per 
 Square Inch. 
 
 Pressure 
 above 
 Atmosphere. 
 
 Temper" 
 ature. 
 
 Volume. 
 
 - 
 
 VClUl^lliJf til 
 
 Escape. 
 
 J.UU \JO 
 
 K9' 
 
 O I o 
 
 9ft.'=»*7° 
 
 
 
 l\JO ±Zj 
 
 oo 
 
 on o 
 
 9ftfi*Q 
 
 
 
 J-IU J.U 
 
 tit 
 
 ou o 
 
 ^OO 1 
 
 .'^Ifi 
 
 
 119-90 
 
 
 
 
 OUO 
 
 1 7.^ 
 
 1 < OU 
 
 114*24 
 
 56* 
 
 41 -i? 
 
 290*5 
 
 ouu 
 
 
 1 lfi*9ft 
 
 O 4 
 
 
 9Q1 '7 
 
 dQ9 
 
 
 118'32 
 
 58* 
 
 
 9Q9*Q 
 
 ri:Cr± 
 
 1774. 
 
 120*36 
 
 59* 
 
 
 9Q4--9 
 
 4-77 
 
 
 122*40 
 
 
 
 295*6 
 
 4.70 
 
 *x 1 U 
 
 
 
 fil • 
 
 
 9QR'Q 
 
 TbOO 
 
 
 126*48 
 
 
 * 1 
 
 9QR*1 
 
 4^U 
 
 
 128 52 
 
 uo 
 
 rt(j *9 
 
 9QQ*9 
 
 44.Q 
 
 
 130*66 
 
 ut 
 
 
 ^00*^ 
 
 ouu o 
 
 
 
 132*60 
 
 
 
 ^01 *^ 
 
 4J^7 
 
 -to i 
 
 
 134*64 
 
 uu 
 
 
 
 4-^1 
 toi 
 
 lOlD 
 
 136*68 
 
 67* 
 
 
 303*4 
 
 o 
 
 
 138*72 
 
 68* 
 
 
 304*4 
 
 4.1 Q 
 
 
 140*76 
 
 69* 
 
 
 OUti rr 
 
 4.14. 
 
 
 142*80 
 
 70* 
 
 
 
 4.0ft 
 
 
 144*84 
 
 71* 
 
 
 .^07 '4. 
 
 10^ 
 iUO 
 
 
 146*88 
 
 79* 
 
 If • o 
 
 OUO *! 
 
 
 
 148*92 
 
 < O 
 
 
 ouc o 
 
 
 IRriO 
 JooU 
 
 150*96 
 
 74-* 
 
 
 OIU o 
 
 oOO 
 
 
 153*02 
 
 7^* 
 
 
 ^1 1 '9 
 
 oil ^ 
 
 QftQ 
 
 OOO 
 
 
 155*06 
 
 7fi* 
 
 Ol o 
 
 ^19*9 
 
 ^7Q 
 
 
 157*10 
 
 77* 
 
 
 ^1 ^'1 
 
 o/4 
 
 
 
 7«* 
 
 oo o 
 
 olt 
 
 Q7n 
 o<U 
 
 
 161*18 
 
 79- 
 
 64-3 
 
 314*9 
 
 366 
 
 
 163*22 
 
 80* 
 
 65-3 
 
 315*8 
 
 . 362 
 
 
 165*26 
 
 81- 
 
 6f>-3 
 
 316*7 
 
 358 
 
 
 167*30 
 
 82* 
 
 67-3 
 
 317*7 
 
 354 
 
 
 169*34 
 
 83* 
 
 68-3 
 
 318*4 
 
 350 
 
 
 171*38 
 
 84* 
 
 69-3 
 
 319*3 
 
 346 
 
 
 173*42 
 
 85* 
 
 70-3 
 
 320*1 
 
 342 
 
 
 183*62 
 
 90- 
 
 75-3 
 
 324*3 
 
 325 
 
 1904 
 
 193*82 
 
 95* 
 
 80-3 
 
 328*2 
 
 310 
 
 
 203*99 
 
 100* 
 
 85-3 
 
 332* 
 
 1195 
 
 
 214*19 
 
 105* 
 
 90-3 
 
 335*8 
 
 282 
 
 1950 
 
80 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OF THE ELASTIC FORCE, TEMPERATURE, AND VOLUME OF STEAM FROM A 
 TEMPERATURE OF 32° TO 457° FAH., AND FROM A PRESSURE OF 0*2 TO 
 900 INCHES OF MERCURY. 
 
 ELASTIC 
 
 T 
 
 Inches of 
 Mercury. 
 
 FORCE IN 
 
 Pounds per 
 Square Inch. 
 
 Pressure 
 above 
 Atmosphere. 
 
 ature. 
 
 Volume. 
 
 Velocity 01 
 Escape. 
 
 224-39 
 
 110- 
 
 95-3 
 
 339-2° 
 
 271 
 
 
 234-59 
 
 115- 
 
 100-3 
 
 342-7 
 
 259 
 
 
 244-79 
 
 120- 
 
 105-3 
 
 345-8 
 
 251 
 
 1980 
 
 254-99 
 
 125- 
 
 110-3 
 
 349-1 
 
 240 
 
 
 265-19 
 
 130- 
 
 115-3 
 
 352-1 
 
 233 
 
 
 275-39 
 
 135- 
 
 120-3 
 
 355- 
 
 224 
 
 2006 
 
 285-59 
 
 140- 
 
 125-3 
 
 357-9 
 
 218 
 
 
 295-79 
 
 145- 
 
 130-3 
 
 360-6 
 
 210 
 
 
 306- 
 
 150- 
 
 135-3 
 
 363-4 
 
 205 
 
 2029 
 
 316-19 
 
 155- 
 
 140-3 
 
 366- 
 
 198 
 
 
 326-29 
 
 160- 
 
 145-3 
 
 368-7 
 
 193 
 
 
 336-59 
 
 165- 
 
 150-3 
 
 371-1 
 
 187 
 
 
 346-79 
 
 170- 
 
 155-3 
 
 373-6 
 
 183 
 
 
 357- 
 
 175- 
 
 160-3 
 
 376- 
 
 178 
 
 
 367-2 
 
 180- 
 
 165-3 
 
 378-4 
 
 174 
 
 
 377-1 
 
 185- 
 
 170-3 
 
 380-6 
 
 169 
 
 2074 
 
 387-6 
 
 190- 
 
 175-3 
 
 382-9 
 
 166 
 
 
 397-8 
 
 195- 
 
 180-3 
 
 384-1 
 
 161 
 
 
 408- 
 
 200- 
 
 185-3 
 
 387-3 
 
 158 
 
 
 448-8 
 
 220- 
 
 205-3 
 
 392- 
 
 
 2109 
 
 524-28 
 
 257- 
 
 242-3 
 
 406- 
 
 
 2136 
 
 599-76 
 
 294- 
 
 279-3 
 
 418- 
 
 
 2159 
 
 848-68 
 
 367- 
 
 352-3 
 
 429- 
 
 
 2196 
 
 889-64 
 
 441- 
 
 426-3 
 
 457- 
 
 
 2226 
 
 It will be observed that in the foregoing and following tables 
 the relative volume and weight of steam differs with different 
 authors, and, while they may not all be scientifically correct, 
 they are undoubtedly approximately so, or suflSciently correct 
 for all practical purposes. Therefore, it would be perfectly safe 
 to take the volume of steam at 1728 ; in other words, a cubic 
 inch of water converted into stearii at atmospheric pressure will 
 occupy 1728 cubic inches, or one cubic foot. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 81 
 
 TABLE 
 
 Showing the temperature and weight of steam at differeni. 
 i-ressures from 1 pound per square inch to 300 pounds, ani, 
 
 'ajHE quantity of steam produced from 1 CUBIC INCH OF WATER, 
 
 ACCORDING TO PRESSURE. 
 
 Total Pressure 
 per Square Inch 
 measured from 
 a Vacuum. 
 
 Pressure 
 above At- 
 mosphere. 
 
 Sensible 
 Tem peratu re 
 in Fahren- 
 heit degrees. 
 
 lotal Heat in 
 Degrees from 
 Zero of Fah- 
 renheit. 
 
 Weight of 
 one Cubic 
 Foot of 
 Steam. 
 
 Relative Volume 
 of Steam com- | 
 
 pared with Water 
 from which it ( 
 
 was raised. i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 102-1 
 
 1144-5 
 
 -0030 
 
 20582 
 
 2 
 
 
 126-3 
 
 1151-7 
 
 -0058 
 
 10721 
 
 3 
 
 
 141-6 
 
 1156-6 
 
 •0085 
 
 7322 
 
 4 
 
 
 153-1 
 
 1160-1 
 
 -0112 
 
 5583 
 
 5 
 
 
 162-3 
 
 1162-9 
 
 -0138 
 
 4527 
 
 6 
 
 
 170-2 
 
 1165-3 
 
 -0163 
 
 3813 
 
 7 
 
 
 176-9 
 
 1167-3 
 
 -0189 
 
 3298 
 
 8 
 
 
 182-9 
 
 1169-2 
 
 -0214 
 
 2909 
 
 9 
 
 
 188-3 
 
 1170-8 
 
 •0239 
 
 2604 
 
 10 
 
 
 193-3 
 
 1172-3 
 
 •0264 
 
 2358 
 
 11 
 
 
 197-8 
 
 1173-7 
 
 •0289 
 
 2157 
 
 12 
 
 
 2020 
 
 11750 
 
 •0314 
 
 1986 
 
 13 
 
 
 205-9 
 
 1176-2 
 
 •0338 
 
 1842 
 
 14 
 
 
 209-6 
 
 1177-3 
 
 •0362 
 
 1720 
 
 14-7 
 
 0 
 
 212-0 
 
 11781 
 
 •0380 
 
 1642 
 
 15 
 
 •3 
 
 213-1 
 
 1178-4 
 
 -0387 
 
 1610 
 
 16 
 
 1-3 
 
 216-3 
 
 1179-4 
 
 •0411 
 
 1515 
 
 17 
 
 2-3 
 
 219-6 
 
 1180-3 
 
 •0435 
 
 1431 
 
 18 
 
 3-3 
 
 222-4 
 
 1181-2 
 
 •0459 
 
 1357 
 
 19 
 
 4-3 
 
 225-3 
 
 1182-1 
 
 •0483 
 
 1290 
 
 20 
 
 5-3 
 
 228-0 
 
 1182-9 
 
 •0507 
 
 1229 
 
 21 
 
 6-3 
 
 230-6 
 
 1183-7 
 
 •0531 
 
 1174 
 
 22 
 
 7-3 
 
 233-1 
 
 1184-5 
 
 •0555 
 
 1123 
 
 23 
 
 8-3 
 
 235-5 
 
 1185-2 
 
 •0580 
 
 1075 
 
 24 
 
 9-3 
 
 237-8 
 
 1185-9 
 
 •0601 
 
 1036 
 
 25 
 
 10-3 
 
 240-1 
 
 1186-6 
 
 •0625 
 
 996 
 
 26 
 
 11-3 
 
 242-3 
 
 1187-3 
 
 •0650 
 
 958 
 
 27 
 
 12-3 
 
 244-4 
 
 1187-8 
 
 •0673 
 
 926 
 
 28 
 
 13-3 
 
 246-4 
 
 1188-4 
 
 •0696 
 
 895 
 
 29 
 
 14-3 
 
 248-4 
 
 1189-1 
 
 -0719 
 
 866 
 
 30 
 
 15-3 
 
 250-4 
 
 1189-8 
 
 -0743 
 
 838 
 
 31 
 
 1.6*3 
 
 252-2 
 
 1190-4 
 
 -0766 
 
 813 
 
 32 
 
 17*3 
 
 254-1 
 
 1190-9 
 
 -0789 
 
 789 
 
 33 
 
 18-3 
 
 255-9 
 
 1191-5 
 
 -0812 
 
 767 
 
 « 34 
 
 19-3 
 
 257-6 
 
 1192-0 
 
 -0835 
 
 746 
 
 35 
 
 20-3 
 
 259-3 
 
 1192-5 
 
 -0858 
 
 726 
 
 36 
 
 21-3 
 
 260-9 
 
 1193-0 
 
 -0881 
 
 707 
 
 37 
 
 22-3 
 
 262-6 
 
 1193-5 
 
 •0905 
 
 688 
 
 38 
 
 23-3 
 
 264-2 
 
 1194-0 
 
 •0929 
 
 671 
 
 39 
 
 24-3 
 
 265-8 
 
 1194-5 
 
 -0952 
 
 655 
 
 F 
 
82 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 TABLE — ( Continued. ) 
 
 Total Pressure 
 per Square Inch 
 measured from 
 a Vacuum. 
 
 Pressure 
 above At- 
 mosphere. 
 
 Sensible 
 Temperature 
 in Fahren- 
 heit degrees. 
 
 Total Heat in 
 Degrees from 
 Zero of Fah- 
 renheit. 
 
 Weight of 
 one Cubic 
 
 i; OOlr 01 
 
 Steam. 
 
 Relative Volume 
 
 of Steam com- 
 pared with Water 
 from which it 
 was raised. 
 
 
 ZiO 0 
 
 
 1 10d*Q 
 
 •0074 
 
 A40 
 U4U 
 
 At 
 
 9A'^ 
 
 9Aft*7 
 
 llaO 4 
 
 •OOOfi 
 
 uzo 
 
 
 97.0 
 
 
 1 1Qn:.Q 
 llc/O 0 
 
 •1090 
 lUZU 
 
 A1 1 
 oil 
 
 '±0 
 
 
 971 'A 
 
 1 10A*9 
 1 lyu z 
 
 •1049 
 1U4Z 
 
 '^Oft 
 
 A4 
 4^ 
 
 9Q'Q 
 
 97q*n 
 
 Zi 0 u 
 
 1 10A*A 
 
 •lOA^ 
 lUDO 
 
 OuO 
 
 4:0 
 
 oU 0 
 
 Z/4 4 
 
 1 107*1 
 
 •lOftO 
 
 04 z 
 
 A(\ 
 
 ol 0 
 
 97'=;*ft 
 
 ZrO 0 
 
 1 107*^ 
 
 11(7 1 0 
 
 *1 1 1 1 
 
 1111 
 
 f^AI 
 
 OUX 
 
 A7 
 
 09. q 
 
 977*1 
 z/ / 1 
 
 1 107*0 
 
 *1 1 
 
 lloo 
 
 oou 
 
 Aft 
 
 qq.q 
 
 00 0 
 
 97ft*zL 
 ^< 0 4 
 
 1 10ft*^ 
 1 1 aO 0 
 
 •1 1 
 
 1100 
 
 00«7 
 
 AO 
 
 qzl«q 
 
 97Q'7 
 
 1 10ft'7 
 
 •1 170 
 
 Ilia 
 
 ^9Q 
 
 OZi7 
 
 ou 
 
 
 9ft 1 -n 
 
 1 100*1 
 
 1 luo 1 
 
 •1 909 
 
 IZUZ 
 
 010 
 
 01 
 
 qA*^ 
 
 9ft9*^ 
 
 1 ivv 0 
 
 •1 994 
 
 1ZZ4 
 
 '^OO 
 
 OUt7 
 
 
 q7.q 
 
 9ftq*'^ 
 
 1 100*0 
 
 •1 94fi 
 
 1Z4D 
 
 ^00 
 
 OUU 
 
 OO 
 
 ^ft*^ 
 
 00 0 
 
 9ftA*7 
 Zo4 < 
 
 IZUU 0 
 
 •19AQ 
 
 4Q1 
 
 04 
 
 qQ*Q 
 
 9ft'=;*Q 
 
 ZoO 1/ 
 
 1 9nn*A 
 izuu 0 
 
 •1901 
 
 4ft9 
 
 40Z 
 
 00 
 
 ACi'^ 
 
 4:U 0 
 
 9ft7*1 
 
 1 901 '0 
 IZUl u 
 
 •1 ^14 
 
 1014 
 
 474 
 4 < 4 
 
 00 
 
 41 ^q 
 
 9ftC*9 
 Zoo z 
 
 1 901 ^q 
 IZUl 0 
 
 •1 ^qA 
 
 lOOD 
 
 4AA 
 4DO 
 
 0/ 
 
 A9'q 
 
 4:ii 0 
 
 9ftQ'q 
 
 ZoH 0 
 
 1 9m '7 
 
 1 ZUl / 
 
 •1 ^A4 
 loD4 
 
 4Kft 
 400 
 
 oo 
 
 40 0 
 
 Zc/U 4 
 
 1 909*0 
 
 •1 ^ftO 
 lOoU 
 
 4/i1 
 
 401 
 
 Oa 
 
 44 0 
 
 9Q1 'A 
 
 1 909*4. 
 
 IZUZ 4 
 
 ±4UO 
 
 444 
 'I'll 
 
 
 40 0 
 
 9Q9*7 
 ZtrZ 4 
 
 1 909*7 
 
 1 ZUZ 1 
 
 •14-9,^ 
 
 4^7 
 40 i 
 
 til 
 Dl 
 
 4D 0 
 
 9Qq*ft 
 
 Z«70 0 • 
 
 1 9r^^*i 
 
 i ZUo 1 
 
 •1447 
 ±44 1 
 
 4^0 
 40 1/ 
 
 
 4/ 0 
 
 9Qd*ft 
 
 Zy4 0 
 
 1 90'^ 'A 
 
 J ZUO 4 
 
 •1 4AQ 
 
 494 
 
 Do 
 
 Aft*q 
 
 4o 0 
 
 Zf^O 1/ 
 
 1 90^*7 
 
 J ZUo 1 
 
 •140^ 
 
 417 
 
 04 
 
 4c> 0 
 
 9QA*Q 
 
 zyo a 
 
 1 90/1*0 
 1 ZU4 U 
 
 •1,^1 A 
 
 411 
 
 rrl 1 
 
 00 
 
 ou 0 
 
 9Qft'n 
 zyo u 
 
 I904.*q 
 
 1ZU4 0 
 
 J.tJOO 
 
 
 AA 
 DO 
 
 '^i 'q 
 01 0 
 
 
 1 904.*A 
 
 iZU4 0 
 
 •1/^AO 
 
 399 
 
 A7 
 
 0^ 0 
 
 ^nn*n 
 
 1 904. '0 
 
 ±ZU4 u 
 
 •l/^ft^ 
 
 ±000 
 
 
 Aft 
 
 Oo 0 
 
 
 1 90K*9 
 
 A ZUO Z 
 
 •1 AO.^ 
 
 388 
 
 AQ 
 
 04 0 
 
 qr»i '0 
 oui y 
 
 1 90K*'=; 
 ±zuo 0 
 
 •1 A97 
 
 383 
 
 7n 
 /u 
 
 00 0 
 
 OUZ a 
 
 1 90'=J*ft 
 
 •1 A4ft 
 
 378 
 
 71 
 / 1 
 
 00 0 
 
 ^^nq*o 
 
 OUO t7 
 
 1 90A*1 
 
 IZUQ 1 
 
 •1 A70 
 
 373 
 
 79 
 
 ^7*q 
 0/ 0 
 
 qnzL'ft 
 
 oU4 0 
 
 1 90A*^ 
 
 ±ZUO 0 
 
 •1 AQ9 
 
 368 
 
 7Q 
 
 f=ift'q 
 Oo 0 
 
 oUO / 
 
 1 90A*A 
 
 ±ZUD D 
 
 •1714 
 
 1 1 14 
 
 363 
 
 7zL 
 
 Oa 0 
 
 qnA*A 
 
 oUO 0 
 
 1 90A*0 
 
 IZUD tJ 
 
 •17^A 
 
 359 
 
 7c: 
 
 AH'Q 
 
 oU 0 
 
 oU/ 0 
 
 1 907*9 
 IZU/ Z 
 
 •1 7*^0 
 
 1 1 Ou 
 
 000 
 
 7A 
 
 A1 ^q 
 
 qnft'A 
 oUo 4 
 
 1 907*4 
 IZU 1 4 
 
 *17ft9 
 1 1 oz 
 
 349 
 
 77 
 
 A9«Q 
 
 0Ui7 0 
 
 1 907*7 
 IZU/ / 
 
 •1ft04 
 
 lc5U4 
 
 Ort<J 
 
 78 
 
 63-3 
 
 310-2 
 
 1208-0 
 
 •1826 
 
 341 
 
 79 
 
 64*3 
 
 311*1 
 
 I2O8-3 
 
 -1848 
 
 DOT 
 
 oo7 
 
 80 
 
 65-3 
 
 312-0 
 
 1208-5 
 
 -1869 
 
 333 
 
 81 
 
 66-3 
 
 312*8 
 
 1208-8 
 
 •1891 
 
 329 
 
 82 
 
 67-3 
 
 313-6 
 
 1209-1 
 
 -1913 
 
 325 
 
 83 
 
 68-3 
 
 314-5 
 
 1209*4 
 
 •1935 
 
 321 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 83 
 
 TABLE — ( Continued.) 
 
 Total Pressure 
 per Square Inch 
 measured from 
 a Vacuum. 
 
 Pressure 
 above At- 
 mosphere. 
 
 Sensible 
 Temperature 
 in Fahren- 
 heit degrees. 
 
 XOIdl Xlcaii 111 
 
 Degrees from 
 Zero of Fah- 
 renheit, 
 
 w eign L oi 
 one Cubic 
 Foot of 
 Steam. 
 
 Relative Volume 
 
 of Steam com- 
 pared with Water 
 from which it 
 was raised. 
 
 84 
 
 69-3 
 
 315-3 
 
 1209-6 
 
 •1957 
 
 318 
 
 85 
 
 70-3 
 
 316-1 
 
 1209-9 
 
 -1980 
 
 314 
 
 86 
 
 71-3 
 
 316-9 
 
 1210-1 
 
 *2002 
 
 311 
 
 87 
 
 72-3 
 
 317-8 
 
 1210-4 
 
 *2024 
 
 308 
 
 88 
 
 73-3 
 
 318-6 
 
 1210-6 
 
 *2044 
 
 305 
 
 89 
 
 74-3 
 
 319-4 
 
 1210-9 
 
 •2067 
 
 301 
 
 90 
 
 75-3 
 
 320-2 
 
 1211-1 
 
 •2089 
 
 298 
 
 91 
 
 76-3 
 
 321-0 
 
 1211-3 
 
 •2111 
 
 295 
 
 92 
 
 77-3 
 
 321-7 
 
 1211-5 
 
 •2133 
 
 292 
 
 93 
 
 78-3 
 
 322-5 
 
 1211-8 
 
 •2155 
 
 289 
 
 94 
 
 79-3 
 
 323-3 
 
 1212-0 
 
 •2176 
 
 286 
 
 95 
 
 80-3 
 
 324-1 
 
 1212-3 
 
 •2198 
 
 283 
 
 96 
 
 81-3 
 
 324-8 
 
 1212-5 
 
 •2219 
 
 281 
 
 97 
 
 82-3 
 
 325-6 
 
 1212-8 
 
 •2241 
 
 278 
 
 98 
 
 83-3 
 
 326-3 
 
 1213-0 
 
 •2263 
 
 275 
 
 99 
 
 84-3 
 
 327-1 
 
 1213-2 
 
 •2285 
 
 272 
 
 100 
 
 85-3 
 
 327-9 
 
 1213-4 
 
 •2307 
 
 270 
 
 101 
 
 86-3 
 
 328-5 
 
 1213-6 
 
 •2329 
 
 267 
 
 102 
 
 87-3 
 
 329-1 
 
 1213-8 
 
 •2351 
 
 265 
 
 103 
 
 88-3 
 
 329-9 
 
 1214-0 
 
 •2373 
 
 •262 
 
 104 
 
 89-3 
 
 - 330-6 
 
 1214-2 
 
 •2393 
 
 260 
 
 105 
 
 90-3 
 
 331-3 
 
 1214-4 
 
 •2414 
 
 257 
 
 106 
 
 91-3 
 
 381-9 
 
 1214-6 
 
 •2435 
 
 255 
 
 107 
 
 92-3 
 
 332-6 
 
 1214-8 
 
 •2456 
 
 253 
 
 108 
 
 93-3 
 
 333-3 
 
 1215-0 
 
 •2477 
 
 251 
 
 109 
 
 94-3 
 
 334-0 
 
 1215-^ 
 
 •2499 
 
 249 
 
 110 
 
 95-3 
 
 334-6 
 
 1215-5 
 
 •2521 
 
 247 
 
 
 96-3 
 
 335-3 
 
 1215-7 
 
 •2543 
 
 245 
 
 m 
 
 97-3 
 
 336-0 
 
 1215-9 
 
 •2564 
 
 243 
 
 113 
 
 98-3 
 
 336-7 
 
 1216-1 
 
 •2586 
 
 241 
 
 114 
 
 99*3 
 
 337-4 
 
 1216-3 
 
 •2607 
 
 239 
 
 115 
 
 100*3 
 
 338-0 
 
 1216-5 
 
 •2628 
 
 237 
 
 116 
 
 101*3 
 
 338-6 
 
 1216-7 
 
 •2649 
 
 235 
 
 117 
 
 102*3 
 
 339-3 
 
 1216-9 
 
 •2674 
 
 233 
 
 118 
 
 103-3 
 
 339-9 
 
 1217-1 
 
 •2696 
 
 231 
 
 119 
 
 104*3 
 
 340-5 
 
 1217-3 
 
 •2738 
 
 229 
 
 120 
 
 105-3 
 
 341-1 
 
 1217-4 
 
 •2759 
 
 227 
 
 121 
 
 106-3 
 
 341-8 
 
 1217-6 
 
 -2780 
 
 225 
 
 122 
 
 107-3 
 
 342-4 
 
 1217-8 
 
 •2801 
 
 224 
 
 123 
 
 108-3 
 
 348-0 
 
 1218-(l 
 
 •2822 
 
 ooo 
 
 124 
 
 109-3 
 
 343-6 
 
 1218-2 
 
 •2845 
 
 221 
 
 125 
 
 110-3 
 
 344-2 
 
 1218-4 
 
 •2867 
 
 219 
 
 126 
 
 111-3 
 
 344-8 
 
 1218-6 
 
 •2889 
 
 217 
 
 127 
 
 112*3 
 
 345-4 
 
 1218-8 
 
 •2911 
 
 215 
 
84 THE ENGINEER'S HANBY-BOOK. 
 
 TABLE — ( Concluded,) 
 
 Total Pressure 
 per Square Inch 
 measured from 
 a Vacuum. 
 
 Pressure 
 above At- 
 mosphere. 
 
 Sensible 
 Temperature 
 in Fahren- 
 heit degrees. 
 
 Total Heat in 
 Degrees from 
 Zero of Fah- 
 renheit. 
 
 Weight of 
 one Cubic 
 Foot of 
 Steam. 
 
 Relative Volume 
 
 of Steam com- 
 pared with Water 
 from which it 
 was raised. 
 
 1 QC 
 
 llO D 
 
 O40 U 
 
 1 91 Q«Q 
 
 izio y 
 
 •OQQQ 
 
 zyoo 
 
 Z14 
 
 1 9Q 
 
 1 1 A»Q 
 114 O 
 
 O40 0 
 
 1 91 Q'1 
 
 iziy 1 
 
 zyoo 
 
 01 0 
 ZlZ 
 
 1 Qn 
 loU 
 
 llO O 
 
 QA7*9 
 o4/ Zi 
 
 1 91 Q • Q 
 
 iziy o 
 
 •0Q77 
 
 zy/ / 
 
 01 1 
 
 Zll 
 
 1 Q1 
 
 llo O 
 
 QA7«ft 
 04i O 
 
 1 91 Q.c: 
 
 iziy o 
 
 . OQQQ 
 
 zyyy 
 
 zuy 
 
 1 Q9 
 
 11 / O 
 
 o4o O 
 
 1 91 Q'A 
 
 iziy 0 
 
 oUZU 
 
 OAQ 
 
 Zl)o 
 
 loo 
 
 llo O 
 
 o4o y 
 
 1 91 Q'Q 
 
 iziy o 
 
 •QA 1A 
 oU4U 
 
 OAA 
 
 zuo 
 
 1 QJ. 
 
 iiy o 
 
 o4y O 
 
 1 99A«A 
 
 oUOU 
 
 OAc: 
 ZUO 
 
 loo 
 
 1 9A*Q 
 IZU O 
 
 OOU 1 
 
 1 99A-9 
 
 •QAGA 
 oUoU 
 
 OAO 
 
 ZUo 
 
 1 Qft 
 loD 
 
 1 91 "Q 
 IZl o 
 
 oOU 0 
 
 1 99A • Q 
 IZZU o 
 
 •Q1 A1 
 OlUl 
 
 OAO 
 
 ZUZ 
 
 1 Q7 
 
 1 99'Q 
 IZZ o 
 
 Q=;i '9 
 
 oOl Zi 
 
 1 99a • ^ 
 
 •Q1 01 
 
 olZl 
 
 OAA 
 
 ZUU 
 
 loo 
 
 1 9Q'Q 
 ^IZo O 
 
 OOl O 
 
 1 99a •7 
 
 •Q1 /lO 
 ol4Z 
 
 1 QA 
 
 lyy 
 
 lOtf 
 
 1 9A»Q 
 1Z4 O 
 
 OOZ 4 
 
 1 99A«Q 
 
 izzu y 
 
 olOZ 
 
 1 QQ 
 
 ly© 
 
 14:U 
 
 1 9c:'Q 
 i ZO O 
 
 ooz y 
 
 1 991 'A 
 
 •Q1 QA 
 olo4 
 
 1 Q7 
 
 jyy 
 
 141 
 
 1 9A'Q 
 IZO O 
 
 oOo O 
 
 1 001 '9 
 
 IzZl Z 
 
 •QOAA 
 oZUO 
 
 1 Qc: 
 
 lyo 
 
 14Z 
 
 1 97 'Q 
 IZ/ O 
 
 OOl U 
 
 1 OOl '^l 
 
 IZZl 4 
 
 •QOOQ 
 oZZo 
 
 1 QA 
 
 iy4 
 
 14:0 
 
 1 9Q'Q 
 
 IZo O 
 
 OOi 0 
 
 1 OOl "A 
 
 IZZl 0 
 
 oZOo 
 
 1 QQ 
 
 lyo 
 
 144 
 
 1 9Q • Q 
 
 izy o 
 
 OOO u 
 
 1 OOl •7 
 
 IZZl i 
 
 •Q07Q 
 oZ/o 
 
 1 QO 
 
 lyz 
 
 140 
 
 1 QA*Q 
 loU O 
 
 oOO 0 
 
 1 OOl 'Q 
 
 izzi y 
 
 •QOQA 
 
 ozy4 
 
 IQA 
 
 lyu 
 
 1 AA 
 140 
 
 1 Q1 'Q 
 lol O 
 
 oOO 1 
 
 1 OOO 'A 
 
 IZZZ u 
 
 ocSiO 
 
 1 QQ 
 
 loy 
 
 1 A7 
 14/ 
 
 1 Q9'Q 
 loZ O 
 
 oOO / 
 
 1 OOO'O 
 
 oooO 
 
 1 QQ 
 J 00 
 
 1 AQ 
 14o 
 
 1 QQ«Q 
 loo O 
 
 OO/ Z 
 
 T Oi>O.Q 
 
 IZZZ o 
 
 .QQC:7 
 ooO/ 
 
 1 Q7 
 
 lot 
 
 1 AQ 
 14y 
 
 1 QA'Q 
 lo4 o 
 
 OO/ o 
 
 IZZZ o 
 
 .0077 
 00/ / 
 
 1 QA 
 
 loO 
 
 lOU 
 
 loo o 
 
 oOo O 
 
 
 
 1 QA 
 
 lo4 
 
 loo 
 
 1 /I A«Q 
 
 14U o 
 
 QA1 'A 
 
 obl U 
 
 IZZo 0 
 
 ooUU 
 
 1 7A 
 
 1 /y 
 
 1 AA 
 
 IbO 
 
 140 o 
 
 oOo 4 
 
 1 00 A • 0 
 
 1ZZ4 Z 
 
 •QAA7 
 
 oOU/ 
 
 1 7/1 
 1/4 
 
 loo 
 
 1 t^A'Q 
 
 loU O 
 
 oOO-^U 
 
 1 OO/l -Q 
 
 1ZZ4 'J 
 
 .071 /I 
 
 0/ 14 
 
 1 AQ 
 
 loy 
 
 1 7A 
 1 i\J 
 
 loo o 
 
 oOo Z 
 
 1 OOCC«7 
 
 IZZo / 
 
 •QQOI 
 ooZl 
 
 1 A/1 
 
 104 
 
 1 7cr 
 1 / 0 
 
 1 AA'Q 
 
 iOU o 
 
 o/U o 
 
 1 OOA* 1 
 
 IZZO 4 
 
 •QQOQ 
 oVJZo 
 
 1 c^Q 
 
 loy 
 
 1 Q.(\ 
 loU 
 
 lOO o 
 
 Q79«Q 
 
 oiA y 
 
 1 007 • 1 
 IZZ/ 1 
 
 4UoO 
 
 loo 
 
 loO 
 
 1 7A«Q 
 1 /U o 
 
 O/O O 
 
 1 007 'Q 
 IZZ/ 0 
 
 •A1 40 
 
 41 4Z 
 
 1 til 
 
 lol 
 
 1 OA 
 
 lyu 
 
 1 /O O 
 
 Q77- 
 O/ / O 
 
 1 OOC*'^ 
 
 IZZo 0 
 
 4Z0U 
 
 14o 
 
 lyo 
 
 1 QA'Q 
 loU O 
 
 Q7Q«7 
 
 o/y / 
 
 1 000 'O 
 IZZV; Z 
 
 4oO/ 
 
 1 AA 
 144 
 
 9AA 
 
 loo O 
 
 QQ1 "7 
 
 ool / 
 
 1 OOQ • Q - 
 
 j zzy 0 
 
 •AAA/1 
 4404 
 
 1 A1 
 141 
 
 91 A 
 
 ziu 
 
 lyo o 
 
 QQt? 'A 
 
 ooO U 
 
 1 0Q1 'I 
 
 IZol 1 
 
 •AAAQ 
 400o 
 
 1 Qc; 
 loO 
 
 99A 
 
 ZUO o 
 
 ooy y 
 
 1 OQO'Q 
 IZoZ 0 
 
 •AQ70 
 4o< Z 
 
 1 OQ 
 
 izy 
 
 9'^A 
 ZoU 
 
 91 c:«Q 
 
 Zlo O 
 
 oyd o 
 
 IZoo 0 
 
 OU/Z 
 
 1 OQ 
 IZo 
 
 9/1 A 
 Z4U 
 
 ZZO O 
 
 oy/ o 
 
 1 OQ 4 'A 
 
 lZo4 0 
 
 OZ/U 
 
 1 1 Q 
 
 iiy 
 
 250 
 
 235-3 
 
 401-1 
 
 1235-7 
 
 -5471 
 
 114 
 
 260 
 
 245-3 
 
 404-5 
 
 1236-8 
 
 -5670 
 
 110 
 
 270 
 
 255-3 
 
 407-9 
 
 1237-8 
 
 -5871 
 
 106 
 
 280 
 
 265-3 
 
 411-2 
 
 1238-8 
 
 -6070 
 
 102 
 
 290 
 
 275-3 
 
 414-4 
 
 1239-8 
 
 •6268 
 
 99 1 
 
 300 
 
 285-3 
 
 417-5 
 
 1240-7 
 
 •6469 
 
 96 ! 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 85 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE STEAM PRESSURE IN POUNDS PER GAUGE ; THE ABSOLUTE 
 PRESSURE IN POUNDS AND INCHES OF MERCURY; THE TEMPERATURE; 
 THE TOTAL HEAT IN STEAM PER POUND ; THE LATENT HEAT PER POUND; 
 THE HEAT OF THE WATER; THE RELATIVE VOLUME, AND WEIGHT OF 
 STEAM PER CUBIC FOOT, FOR VARIOUS PRESSURES * 
 
 Pressure 
 
 per 
 Gauge. 
 
 Total 
 lbs. 
 
 Inches of 
 Mercury. 
 
 Temper- 
 ature, 
 Fah. 
 
 Total Heat 
 per lb. 
 
 Latent 
 Heat 
 per lb. 
 
 Heat in 
 Water 
 per lb. 
 
 Relative 
 Volume. 
 
 Weight 
 
 per 
 Cub. Ft. 
 
 
 1 
 
 2036 
 
 102* 
 
 1145 05 
 
 
 102*08 
 
 17983* 
 
 '00347 
 
 
 2 
 
 4*072 
 
 126*27 
 
 1152*45 
 
 102601 
 
 126*44 
 
 10353* 
 
 •00602 
 
 
 3 
 
 6*108 
 
 141 62 
 
 115713 
 
 1015*25 
 
 141*87 
 
 7283*8 
 
 •00856 
 
 
 4 
 
 8*144 
 
 153-07 
 
 1162*62 
 
 1007*23 
 
 153*39 
 
 5608*4 
 
 '01112 
 
 
 5 
 
 10*180 
 
 162*33 
 
 1163*45 
 
 1000-7^ 
 
 162*72 
 
 4565*6 
 
 ■01366 
 
 
 
 12*216 
 
 170*12 
 
 1165*83 
 
 995*25 
 
 170*57 
 
 3851-0 
 
 '01619 
 
 
 7 
 
 14*252 
 
 176*91 
 
 1167*89 
 
 990*47 
 
 177*42 
 
 3330*8 
 
 '01837 
 
 
 
 16*288 
 
 182*91 
 
 1169*72 
 
 986*24 
 
 183*48 
 
 2935*1 
 
 '02125 
 
 
 9 
 
 18 324 
 
 188'32 
 
 117137 
 
 982*43 
 
 188*94 
 
 2624*1 
 
 '02377 
 
 
 10 
 
 20*360 
 
 193*24 
 
 1172-87 
 
 978*96 
 
 193*92 
 
 2373*0 
 
 '02628 
 
 
 11 
 
 22*396 
 
 197*77 
 
 1174*26 
 
 975*76 
 972*80 
 
 198*49 
 
 21663 
 
 '02880 
 
 
 12 
 
 24*432 
 
 201*96 
 
 1175*53 
 
 202*74 
 
 19930 
 
 '03130 
 
 
 13 
 
 26*468 
 
 205*88 
 
 1176*73 
 
 970-02 
 
 206*71 
 
 1845*7 
 
 '03380 
 
 
 14 
 
 28*504 
 
 209*56 
 
 117785 
 
 967 43 
 
 210*43 
 
 1718*9 
 
 '03629 
 
 '304 
 
 15 
 
 30*540 
 
 213 02 
 
 1178*91 
 
 964 97 
 
 213*94 
 
 1608*6 
 
 '03878 
 
 1'304 
 
 16 
 
 32*576 
 
 216*30 
 
 1179*91 
 
 962*66 
 
 217*25 
 
 1511*7 
 
 '04123 
 
 2-304 
 
 17 
 
 34*612 
 
 219*41 
 
 1180*86 
 
 960*45 
 
 220*41 
 
 1426*2 
 
 '04374 
 
 3' 304 
 
 18 
 
 36*648 
 
 222*38 
 
 118176 
 
 958*34 
 
 223*42 
 
 11^9*8 
 
 '04622 
 
 4"304 
 
 19 
 
 38*684 
 
 225 "20 
 
 1182*63 
 
 956*34 
 
 226*28 
 
 1281 -1 
 
 •04868 
 
 5-304 
 
 20 
 
 40*720 
 
 227*92 
 
 1183-45 
 
 954*41 
 
 229*04 
 
 1219*7 
 
 '05119 
 
 6 "304 
 
 21 
 
 42756 
 
 230*51 
 
 1184*25 
 
 952*57 
 
 231*67 
 
 1163*8 
 
 
 7*304 
 
 22 
 
 44*792 
 
 233*02 
 
 1185*01 
 
 950*79 
 
 234*22 
 
 1112*9 
 
 * 05605 
 
 8' 304 
 
 23 
 
 46*8*28 
 
 235*43 
 
 1185*74 
 
 949*07 
 
 236*67 
 
 1066*3 
 
 "05851 
 
 9*304 
 
 24 
 
 48*864 
 
 237*75 
 
 1186*45 
 
 947*4*2 
 
 239-03 
 
 1023*6 
 
 '06095 
 
 10*304 
 
 25 
 
 50*900 
 
 240*00 
 
 1187*14 
 
 945*82 
 
 241*31 
 
 984*23 
 
 '06338 
 
 11*304 
 
 26 
 
 52*936 
 
 242*17 
 
 1187*80 
 
 944*28 
 
 243*59 
 
 947*86 
 
 '06582 
 
 12*304 
 
 27 
 
 54*972 
 
 244**28 
 
 1188*44 
 
 942*77 
 
 94=^-A7 
 Z-40 D/ 
 
 914*14 
 
 '068*^4 
 
 13*304 
 
 28 
 
 57*008 
 
 246*33 
 
 1189*07 
 
 941*32 
 
 9A7'7t 
 Z-± 1 / 0 
 
 889-80 
 
 '07067 
 
 14*304 
 
 29 
 
 59*044 
 
 248*31 
 
 1189*67 
 
 
 
 C^Q.fiO 
 0)0 uv . 
 
 '07308 
 
 15*304 
 
 30 
 
 61*080 
 
 250*24 
 
 1190*26 
 
 voo 
 
 251*74 
 
 8*^6*3'^ 
 
 *0/o50 
 
 16*304 
 
 31 
 
 63*116 
 
 259'i2 
 
 ij yu oo 
 
 
 ZOO 04 
 
 800*79 
 
 '07791 
 
 17*304 
 
 32 
 
 65*152 
 
 253 95 
 
 1191*40 
 
 935*88 
 
 zoo oz 
 
 766*83 
 
 •nsA^i 
 uouoi 
 
 18*304 
 
 33 
 
 67*188 
 
 255*73 
 
 1191*94 
 
 934-61 
 
 257*33 
 
 754*31 
 
 *08271 
 
 19*304 
 
 34 
 
 69*224 
 
 257-46 
 
 1192-47 
 
 933-36 
 
 259*11 
 
 733*09 
 
 '08-510 
 
 20*304 
 
 35 
 
 71*260 
 
 •259*17 
 
 1192-99 
 
 932*15 
 
 260*84 
 
 713*08 
 
 '08749 
 
 21*304 
 
 36 
 
 73*296 
 
 260*83 
 
 1193*49 
 
 930*96 
 
 262*53 
 
 694-17 
 
 '08987 
 
 22*304 
 
 37 
 
 75*331 
 
 262*46 
 
 1193*99 
 
 929*81 
 
 2W-18 
 
 676-27 
 
 '09*2*25 
 
 23-304 
 
 38 
 
 77*367 
 
 264-04 
 
 1194-47 
 
 . 928*67 
 
 265*80 
 
 659*31 
 
 *09462 
 
 24*304 
 
 39 
 
 79*403 
 
 265*60 
 
 1194*94 
 
 927*56 
 
 267-38 
 
 643*21 
 
 *09700 
 
 25*304 
 
 40 
 
 81*439 
 
 267*12 
 
 1195-41 
 
 926-47 
 
 268-94 
 
 627*91 
 
 *09936 
 
 26*304 
 
 41 
 
 83-475 
 
 268-61 
 
 1195*86 
 
 9*25-40 
 
 270*46 
 
 613*34 
 
 *10172 
 
 27*304 
 
 42 
 
 85*511 
 
 270-07 
 
 1196*31 
 
 9*24*36 
 
 271-95 
 
 59946 
 
 •10407 
 
 28*304 
 
 43 
 
 87*547 
 
 271*51 
 
 1196*75 
 
 923-33 
 
 273*42 
 
 586-23 
 
 '10(U2 
 
 29*304 
 
 44 
 
 89*583 
 
 272*91 
 
 1197*18 
 
 9*22*32 
 
 274*86 
 
 573-5S 
 
 •10877 
 
 30*304 
 
 45 
 
 91*619 
 
 274*29 
 
 1197-60 
 
 921-33 
 
 276*27 
 
 561*50 
 
 •11111 
 
 31*304 
 
 46 
 
 93*655 
 
 275*65 
 
 1198-01 
 
 920-36 
 
 277*65 
 
 04994 
 
 •11344 
 
 32*304 
 
 47 
 
 95*691 
 
 276*99 
 
 1198*42 
 
 919*40 
 
 279*02 
 
 538*87 
 
 •11577 
 
 1 33*304 
 
 48 
 
 97*727 
 
 278-30 
 
 1198-82 
 
 918*47 
 
 280*35 
 
 5*28*25 
 
 •11810 
 
 I 34-304 
 
 49 
 
 99-763 
 
 279-58 
 
 1199-21 
 
 917*54 
 
 281*67 
 
 518*07 
 
 •12042 
 
 1 35*304 
 
 50 
 
 101*799 
 
 280-85 
 
 1199-60 
 
 916*63 
 
 282*97 
 
 508*29 
 
 •12273 
 
 * John W. Hill. 
 
 8 
 
86 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOKo 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE STEAM PRESSURE IN POUNDS PER GAUGE; THE ABSOLUTE 
 PRESSURE IN POUNDS AND INCHES OF MERCURY; THE TEMPERATURE; 
 THE TOTAL HEAT IN STEAM PER POUND ; THE LATENT HEAT PER POUND; 
 THE HEAT OF THE WATER; THE RELATIVE VOLUME, AND WEIGHT OF 
 STEAM PER CUBIC FOOT, FOR VARIOUS PRESSURES. 
 
 .' Pressure 
 per 
 Gauge. 
 
 Total 
 lbs. 
 
 Inches of 
 Mercury, 
 
 Temper- 
 ature, 
 Fah. 
 
 Total Heat 
 per lb. 
 
 Latent 
 Heat 
 per lb. 
 
 ■ 
 
 Heat in 
 Water 
 per lb. 
 
 Relative 
 Volume. 
 
 Weight 
 
 per 
 Cub. Ft. 
 
 36 '304 
 
 51 
 
 103 84 
 
 282' 10 
 
 1198*98 
 
 915-74 
 
 284*24 
 
 498*89 
 
 '12505 
 
 37 "304 
 
 52 
 
 105 '87 
 
 283*32 
 
 1200*35 
 
 914-86 
 
 285*50 
 
 489*85 
 
 -12736 
 
 38" 304 
 
 53 
 
 107*91 
 
 284*53 
 
 1200*72 
 
 913*99 
 
 286*73 
 
 481*15 
 
 '12966 
 
 39' 304 
 
 54 
 
 109*94 
 
 285*72 
 
 1201*08 
 
 913*13 
 
 -287*95 
 
 472*77 
 
 '13196 
 
 40 304 
 
 55 
 
 11198 
 
 286*89 
 
 1201*44 
 
 912*29 
 
 289*15 
 
 464*69 
 
 '13428 
 
 41'304 
 
 56 
 
 114*02 
 
 288*05 
 
 1201*80 
 
 911*46 
 
 290*34 
 
 456*90 
 
 "13652 
 
 42 304 
 
 57 
 
 116*05 
 
 289*11 
 
 1202*14 
 
 910*64 
 
 291*50 
 
 449*38 
 
 -13883 
 
 43 304 
 
 58 
 
 118*09 
 
 290*32 
 
 1202*49 
 
 909*83 
 
 292*65 
 
 442*12 
 
 •14111 
 
 44'304 
 
 59 
 
 120*12 
 
 291*42 
 
 1202*82 
 
 909*03 
 
 293*79 
 
 435*10 
 
 •14338 
 
 45*304 
 
 60 
 
 122*16 
 
 292*52 
 
 1203-16 
 
 908-25 
 
 294*91 
 
 428*32 
 
 •14566 
 
 46 '304 
 
 61 
 
 124*19 
 
 293*60 
 
 1203-49 
 
 907-47 
 
 296 02 
 
 421*75 
 
 •14792 
 
 47 '304 
 
 62 
 
 126*23 
 
 294*66 
 
 1203-81 
 
 906*70 
 
 297*11 
 
 415*40 
 
 •15018 
 
 48' 304 
 
 63 
 
 128*27 
 
 295*71 
 
 1204-13 
 
 905*95 
 
 298*18 
 
 409*25 
 
 •15244 
 
 49 '304 
 
 64 
 
 130*30 
 
 296*75 
 
 1204-45 
 
 905*20 
 
 299 "25 
 
 403*29 
 
 •15469 
 
 50 '304 
 
 65 
 
 132*34 
 
 297-78 
 
 1204-76 
 
 904*46 
 
 300' 30 
 
 397-51 
 
 •15694 
 
 51 '304 
 
 66 
 
 134*37 
 
 298' 79 
 
 1205-07 
 
 903-73 
 
 301*34 
 
 391*90 
 
 •15919 
 
 52' 304 
 
 67 
 
 136*41 
 
 299*79 
 
 1205-38 
 
 903*01 
 
 302*37 
 
 386*47 
 
 •16130 
 
 53-304 
 
 68 
 
 138*45 
 
 300*77 
 
 1205*68 
 
 902*30 
 
 303*38 
 
 381*18 
 
 "16366 
 
 54 304 
 
 69 
 
 140*48 
 
 301*75 
 
 1205*97 
 
 901*60 
 
 304*37 
 
 376*06 
 
 •16590 
 
 55*304 
 
 70 
 
 142*52 
 
 302*72 
 
 1206'27 
 
 900 90 
 
 305*37 
 
 371*07 
 
 •16812 
 
 56 '304 
 
 71 
 
 144*55 
 
 303*67 
 
 1206 -56 
 
 900*21 
 
 306 -35 
 
 366*24 
 
 "17035 
 
 57 304 
 
 72 
 
 146*59 
 
 304*62 
 
 Xiiuu 00 
 
 899*53 
 
 307*32 
 
 361 -53 
 
 •17256 
 
 58 304 
 
 73 
 
 148*63 
 
 305*55 
 
 1207*13 
 
 898*85 
 
 308*28 
 
 356*95 
 
 "17478 
 
 59*304 
 
 74 
 
 150" 66 
 
 306*47 
 
 1207-4'2 
 
 898*19 
 
 309*23 
 
 352*49 
 
 "17690 
 
 60*304 
 
 75 
 
 152*70 
 
 307*39 
 
 1207*69 * 
 
 897*53 
 
 310*16 
 
 348*15 
 
 -17919 
 
 6] *304 
 
 76 
 
 154*73 
 
 308*29 
 
 1207*97 
 
 896*88 
 
 311*09 
 
 343*93 
 
 •18139 
 
 62*304 
 
 77 
 
 156*77 
 
 309*18 
 
 l'^08*24 
 
 896*23 
 
 312-01 
 
 339*81 
 
 '18359 
 
 63*304 
 
 78 
 
 158*81 
 
 310*07 
 
 1*208*51 
 
 cgr;.r,q 
 OuO ov 
 
 312*92 
 
 335*81 
 
 •18578 
 
 64*304 
 
 79 
 
 160*84 
 
 310*94 
 
 1208*78 
 
 894*95 
 
 313*82 
 
 331*89 
 
 "18797 
 
 65*304 
 
 80 
 
 162*88 
 
 311*81 
 
 1209*04 
 
 894*33 
 
 314*71 
 
 328*08 
 
 "19015 
 
 66*304 
 
 81 
 
 164*91 
 
 312*67 
 
 1209*30 
 
 893*71 
 
 315*59 
 
 324*37 
 
 "19233 
 
 67*304 
 
 82 
 
 166-95 
 
 313*52 
 
 1209*56 
 
 893-09 
 
 316-47 
 
 320*74 
 
 "19451 
 
 68-304 
 
 83 
 
 168*99 
 
 314*36 
 
 1209-82 
 
 892-49 
 
 317*33 
 
 317*20 
 
 •19668 
 
 69*304 
 
 84 
 
 17102 
 
 31519 
 
 1210*07 
 
 891*88 
 
 318*19 
 
 313*74 
 
 •19885 
 
 70-304 
 
 85 
 
 173*06 
 
 316-02 
 
 1210*33 
 
 891-29 
 
 31904 
 
 310-36 
 
 •20101 
 
 71-304 
 
 86 
 
 175-09 
 
 316*84 
 
 1210*58 
 
 890*69 
 
 319*89 
 
 307*07 
 
 •20317 
 
 72-304 
 
 87 
 
 177*13 
 
 317-65 
 
 1210*83 
 
 89011 
 
 320*72 
 
 303*85 
 
 "20532 
 
 73*304 
 
 88 
 
 179*17 
 
 318-45 
 
 1211*07 
 
 889*52 
 
 321-54 
 
 300*70 
 
 •20747 
 
 74-304 
 
 89 
 
 181-20 
 
 319'25 
 
 1211*31 
 
 888*95 
 
 322*36 
 
 297-62 
 
 •20962 
 
 75-304 
 
 90 
 
 185*24 
 
 320 04 
 
 1211*55 
 
 888*38 
 
 323-17 
 
 294*61 
 
 •21185 
 
 76-304 
 
 91 
 
 185*27 
 
 320-82 
 
 1211*79 
 
 887*81 
 
 323*»8 
 
 291*66 
 
 •21390 
 
 77-304 
 
 92 
 
 187*31 
 
 321-58 
 
 1212-03 
 
 887*25 
 
 324*78 
 
 288*78 
 
 •21603 
 
 78-304 
 
 93 
 
 189-35 
 
 322*36 
 
 1212-26 
 
 886*69 
 
 325*57 
 
 285*96 
 
 •21816 
 
 79*304 
 
 94 
 
 191*38 
 
 323*13 
 
 1212*49 
 
 886-13 
 
 326*36 
 
 283*21 
 
 "22029 
 
 80*304 
 
 95 
 
 193*42 
 
 323*88 
 
 1212-72 
 
 885*59 
 
 327*13 
 
 280-50 
 
 •22241 
 
 81*304 
 
 96 
 
 195-45 
 
 324-63 
 
 1212*95 
 
 885*04 
 
 327*91 
 
 277*86 
 
 "22453 
 
 82*304 
 
 97 
 
 197*49 
 
 325*38 
 
 1213-18 
 
 884*50 
 
 328*68 
 
 275*27 
 
 "22675 
 
 83*304 
 
 98 
 
 199*53 
 
 326*11 
 
 1213*40 
 
 .883*97 
 
 329*43 
 
 272*73 
 
 •22873 
 
 84-304 
 
 99 
 
 201*56 
 
 326-84 
 
 1213*63 
 
 883 44 
 
 330*19 
 
 270*24 
 
 •23085 
 
 85-304 
 
 100 
 
 203*60 
 
 327-57 
 
 1213-85 
 
 882*91 
 
 330*94 
 
 267*80 
 
 •23296 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 87 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE STEAM PRESSURE IN POUNDS PER GAUGE ; THE ABSOLUTE 
 PRESSURE IN POUNDS AND INCHES OF MERCURY; THE TEMPERATURE ; 
 THE TOTAL HEAT IN STEAM PER POUND ; THE LATENT HEAT PER POUND ; 
 THE HEAT OF THE WATER; THE RELATIVE VOLUME AND WEIGHT OF 
 STEAM PER CUBIC FOOT, FOR VARIOUS PRESSURES. 
 
 Pressure 
 
 per 
 Gauge. 
 
 Total 
 lbs. 
 
 Inches of 
 Mercury. 
 
 Temper- 
 ature, 
 Fah. 
 
 Total Heat 
 per lb. 
 
 Latent 
 ft cat 
 
 per lb. 
 
 Heat in 
 Water 
 per lb. 
 
 Relative 
 Volume. 
 
 Weight 
 
 per 
 Cub. Ft. 
 
 86*304 
 
 101 
 
 205*64 
 
 328*29 
 
 1214*07 
 
 882*39 
 
 331*68 
 
 26o*81 
 
 '23505 
 
 87*304 
 
 102 
 
 207*67 
 
 329*00 
 
 1214*28 
 
 881*87 
 
 332*41 
 
 263*07 
 
 "23715 
 
 88 oU4 
 
 103 
 
 *209*71 
 
 329*71 
 
 1214*50 
 
 881*35 
 
 333*15 
 
 260*77 
 
 '23924 
 
 89*304 
 
 104 
 
 211*74 
 
 330*42 
 
 1214*71 
 
 880 85 
 
 333*86 
 
 258*52 
 
 '24132 
 
 90*304 
 
 105 
 
 213*78 
 
 331*11 
 
 1214*93 
 
 880*34 
 
 334*59 
 
 256*31 
 
 '24340 
 
 91*304 
 
 106 
 
 215*82 
 
 331*80 
 
 1215*14 
 
 879*84 
 
 335*30 
 
 254*14 
 
 '24548 
 
 92*304 
 
 107 
 
 217*85 
 
 33249 
 
 1215*35 
 
 879*34 
 
 336*01 
 
 25201 
 
 * 24 756 
 
 93*304 
 
 108 
 
 21989 
 
 333* 17 
 
 1215*55 
 
 878*84 
 
 336*71 
 
 249*92 
 
 * 24 963 
 
 94*304 
 
 109 
 
 221*92 
 
 333*85 
 
 1215*76 
 
 878-35 
 
 337*41 
 
 247*87 
 
 25169 
 
 95*304 
 
 110 
 
 223*96 
 
 334*52 
 
 1215*97 
 
 877*86 
 
 338*11 
 
 245*86 
 
 * 25375 
 
 96*304 
 
 111 
 
 225*99 
 
 335*19 
 
 1216*17 
 
 877*38 
 
 338*79 
 
 243*88 
 
 *25581 
 
 97*304 
 
 112 
 
 228-03 
 
 335 '85 
 
 1216*38 
 
 876 90 
 
 339*48 
 
 241*94 
 
 *25786 
 
 98*304 
 
 113 
 
 230 07 
 
 336*51 
 
 1216*58 
 
 876 42 
 
 340*16 
 
 240*03 
 
 '25991 
 
 99*304 
 
 114 
 
 232*10 
 
 337*16 
 
 1216*77 
 
 875*94 
 
 340*83 
 
 238*15 
 
 . '26204 
 
 lUU oU4 
 
 115 
 
 234*14 
 
 337*81 
 
 1216 97 
 
 875*47 
 
 341*50 
 
 236*31 
 
 '26400 
 
 101*304 
 
 116 
 
 236*17 
 
 338*46 
 
 1217*17 
 
 875 00 
 
 342*17 
 
 234*50 
 
 '26611 
 
 102*304 
 
 117 
 
 238*21 
 
 339 10 
 
 1217*36 
 
 874*54 
 
 342*83 
 
 232*70 
 
 *26816 
 
 103*304 
 
 118 
 
 240*25 
 
 66\) 16 
 
 1217*56 
 
 874*07 
 
 343*49 
 
 231*00 
 
 '270'20 
 
 104*304 
 
 119 
 
 242*28 
 
 .340*37 
 
 1217*75 
 
 873*61 
 
 344*14 
 
 229-30 
 
 *27224 
 
 105*304 
 
 120 
 
 244*32 
 
 340*99 
 
 1*217*94 
 
 873*15 
 
 344*79 
 
 227*56 
 
 •27421 
 
 lUo o04 
 
 121 
 
 246*35 
 
 341*62 
 
 121813 
 
 872*70 
 
 345*43 
 
 226*00 
 
 *27628 
 
 1U7 o04 
 
 122 
 
 248*39 
 
 342*24 
 
 1218*32 
 
 872*25 
 
 346*07 
 
 224*40 
 
 '27828 
 
 iU8 o04 
 
 123 
 
 250*43 
 
 342*85 
 
 1218*51 
 
 871*80 
 
 346*71 
 
 222*80 
 
 '28027 
 
 109 oU4 
 
 124 
 
 252*46 
 
 343*46 
 
 121 869 
 
 871*35 
 
 347*34 
 
 221 20 
 
 '28227 
 
 110*304 
 
 125 
 
 254*50 
 
 344*07 
 
 1218*88 
 
 870*91 
 
 347*97 
 
 219*50 
 
 '28422 
 
 111*304 
 
 126 
 
 256*54 
 
 344*68 
 
 1219*07 
 
 870*47 
 
 348*60 
 
 218*20 
 
 '28625 
 
 112*304 
 
 127 
 
 258*57 
 
 34528 
 
 1219**25 
 
 870*03 
 
 349**22 
 
 216*70 
 
 •28824 
 
 113*304 
 
 128 
 
 260*61 
 
 345-87 
 
 1219-43 
 
 809 '60 
 
 349*83 
 
 215**20 
 
 '29023 
 
 114*304 
 
 129 
 
 262 64 
 
 346*46 
 
 1*219*61 
 
 869* 16 
 
 350*45 
 
 213-70 
 
 '29*2*22 
 
 115*304 
 
 130 
 
 264*68 
 
 347*06 
 
 1219*79 
 
 868 74 
 
 1^1*06 
 
 212*07 
 
 •29419 
 
 116*304 
 
 131 
 
 266*72 
 
 347*64 
 
 121997 
 
 868-31 
 
 351*66 
 
 210*90 
 
 •29618 
 
 117*304 
 
 132 
 
 268-75 
 
 348*23 
 
 122015 
 
 867*88 
 
 352'27 
 
 20950 
 
 •29816 
 
 118*304 
 
 133 
 
 270*79 
 
 348*80 
 
 1220 32 
 
 867*46 
 
 352*86 
 
 208*10 
 
 •30013 
 
 119*304 
 
 134 
 
 272*82 
 
 349*38 
 
 1220*50 
 
 86704 
 
 353*46 
 
 206*70 
 
 '30*209 
 
 120*304 
 
 135 
 
 274*86 
 
 349*95 
 
 1220*67 
 
 866*62 
 
 354*05 
 
 205*18 
 
 '30406 
 
 121*30 \ 
 
 136 
 
 276*89 
 
 350*52 
 
 1220*85 
 
 866*21 
 
 354*64 
 
 204*10 
 
 '30601 
 
 122*304 
 
 137 
 
 278*93 
 
 351*09 
 
 12*2102 
 
 865*79. 
 
 355*23 
 
 202*80 
 
 -30796 
 
 123-304 
 
 138 
 
 280*96 
 
 351*75 
 
 1221*19 
 
 865*38 
 
 355*81 
 
 201*50 
 
 '30990 
 
 124*304 
 
 139 
 
 283*00 
 
 352*21 
 
 1221*36 
 
 8^*97 
 
 356*39 
 
 2av*2^) 
 
 •31186 
 
 1*25*304 
 
 140 
 
 '>8;3*04 
 
 352*76 
 
 1221*53 
 
 864*56 
 
 356*97 
 
 198*78 
 
 '31385 
 
 126*304 
 
 141 
 
 287*07 
 
 353*32 
 
 1221*70 
 
 864*16 
 
 357*54 
 
 197*80 
 
 '31586 
 
 127-304 
 
 142' 
 
 289*11 
 
 353 87 
 
 1221*87 
 
 86376 
 
 358*11 
 
 196*60 
 
 •31788 
 
 1*28*304 
 
 143 
 
 291*15 
 
 354*42 
 
 1222*04 
 
 863*36 
 
 358*67 
 
 195*40 
 
 '31990 
 
 129*304 
 
 144 
 
 293*18 
 
 354*96 
 
 12*22 20 
 
 862-96 
 
 359*24 
 
 194*20 
 
 •32190 
 
 130*304 
 
 145 
 
 295*22 
 
 355*50 
 
 12*22*37 
 
 mi-bi 
 
 359*80 
 
 192*83 
 
 '3*2354 
 
 131*304 
 
 146 
 
 •297*25 
 
 356*04 
 
 12*22*53 
 
 862*17 
 
 360*36 
 
 191*90 
 
 '32592 
 
 132*304 
 
 14V 
 
 299*29 
 
 356*57 
 
 1 '2*22*69 
 
 861*78 
 
 360*91 
 
 190*80 
 
 •32794 
 
 133*304 
 
 148 
 
 301*33 
 
 357 10 
 
 12*22*85 
 
 861*39 
 
 361*46 
 
 189*70 
 
 '32995 
 
 134*304 
 
 149 
 
 303*36 
 
 3^57*63 
 
 1*223*02 
 
 861*01 
 
 36201 
 
 188*60 
 
 33196 
 
 135*304 
 
 150 
 
 305*40 
 
 358*16 
 
 1223*18 
 
 86062 
 
 362*56 
 
 187*26 
 
 '33315 , 
 
88 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 The Brown Automatic Cut-Olf Steam-Engine. 
 
 The cuts on pages 89, 90, represent the Brown Automatic 
 Cut-off High-pressure Engine. — The housing, which, as wilJ be 
 observed, is of the girder-frame pattern, somewhat resembles the 
 Corliss, though the engine is different in every other respect. The 
 cylinder, which contains the steam- and exhaust-ports, is encased 
 in an ornamental cast-iron » jacket, and rests on a square, tapering 
 column which extends nearly the full length. By a judicious dis- 
 tribution of the materials, every part possesses sufficient rigidity, 
 without extra weight of metal. In its design, the evils induced by 
 expansion, and the liability to get out of line, have been scientifi- 
 cally considered and practically obviated. A spur-gear on the 
 main shaft gives motion to a shaft parallel with and below the 
 axis of the cylinder. Froin this shaft the motions of the valves 
 are derived. 
 
 There are four valves, one steam and one exhaust at each end 
 of the cylinder, which are independent, and though slide-valves, as 
 they have but one function to perform for each revolution, i, e., 
 admitting or exhausting the steam, they are necessarily of a dif- 
 ferent construction from the ordinary slide-valve. The exhaust- 
 valves are horizontal, and travel at right angles with the cylinder ; 
 the motion being derived from cams on the longitudinal shaft, 
 which is positive in both directions. The shape of the camways 
 is such that the motions of the valves in opening and closing are 
 very quick, and allow of their remaining stationary during nearly 
 the whole stroke of the piston, thus insuring a perfectly free ex- 
 haust, and preventing any possibility of back pressure. 
 
 The steam-valves, which are vertical, are of the gridiron pat- 
 tern, and require very little movement to give a full port opening. 
 They are operated by eccentrics on the cam-shaft, in connection 
 with the following device for regulating the point of cut-off. A 
 vibrating lifter, having the fixed centre at its outer end, is con- 
 nected, at about the middle of its length, with the eccentric-rod ; 
 while the inner end engages a spring-catch or projection on the 
 
THE ENGINEER\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 91 
 
 valve-stem, giving to the valve a positive motion on the left or up 
 stroke, and allowing of its being tripped, or released for closing, 
 when the point of cut-off is reached — jar being prevented by 
 means of small dash-pots. On the spring-catch of the valve- 
 stems is an inverted wedge, by means of which the valves are 
 tripped. 
 
 The governor, which, as will be observed, is enclosed in an or- 
 namental case or shell, is very sensitive and admirably adapted to 
 these engines, is of the centrifugal fly-ball type, receives a positive 
 motion from the cam-shaft, by means of bevel-gears, and causes a 
 rod running parallel with the shaft and back of the valve-stems 
 to oscillate. On this rod and opposite to each wedge is an arm, 
 which, when the speed increases, is moved by the governor towards 
 the wedge, thus drawing the catch away from the lifter as it rises, 
 and allowing the valve to drop, while the lifter continues its mov- 
 ment to the end of the stroke and return, when it engages the 
 catch as before. 
 
 Both steam- and exhaust-valves have ample openings, which, in 
 connection with their quick motions, entirely obviate the evil aris- 
 ing from wire-drawing the steam, or choking the exhaust, thereby 
 causing back pressure. The only unbalanced pressure on the 
 valve is an area of about one square inch on the top, for the pur- 
 pose of aiding in closing them quickly. As an evidence of the 
 small amount of friction induced in the working of the valves of 
 these machines, the ordinary starting-bar is dispensed with, and an 
 eight-inch hand-wheel on the cam-shaft, which possesses sufficient 
 leverage to work the valve by hand, substituted in its place. 
 
 The valve-gear is a most ingenious and admirable combinatioa 
 of mechanical devices, being very simple, and susceptible of easy, 
 convenient, and accurate adjustment. Its operation may be ex- 
 plained as follows : The shaft, A, receives its motion from a gear 
 on the main shaft, which, in turn, imparts motion to the gov- 
 ernor, and through the medium of the frictional device, or coup- 
 ling C, to the shaft B, on which the eccentrics, D, are located, 
 the ends of the straps of which are connected to the horizontal 
 
92 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 arms, E, which extend into th« square slot provided in the slide- 
 spindle, and to the catch of the tongue. As the shaft, B, revolves, 
 the ends of the arms, E, will reciprocate vertically in the square 
 slot, the valve-stem being attached to the guide, F, in the slot of 
 which the tongue, 6r, is pivoted by the pin shown in the guide. 
 The upper end of thfs tongue has a projecting catch upon it, be- 
 neath which stands the end of the arm, E, which lifts the valve for 
 the admission of the steam, and holds it open until the tongue is 
 tripped, when the valve closes, the movement being instantaneous, 
 and rendered noiseless by means of an air-cushion dash-pot. 
 
 The governor-spindle is attached to the end of an arm which is 
 fast upon a rod, which, being immediately back of the shaft By is 
 not seen in the cut ; upon this rod, and immediately behind the 
 steam-valve spindle-guide, F, is an arm standing vertically, and 
 carrying the horizontal pin, JET. The tongue which at one end 
 acts as a catch to the eccentric arm, at the other end protrudes 
 from the back of the slide-spindle guide, and stands directly be- 
 neath the pin, H, so that w^hen the arm, E, lifts (through the 
 tongue-catch) the steam-valve, the latter remains open until the 
 tail of the catch, G, meets with the pin, JT, which trips the tongue 
 and closes the valve. The governor controls the position of che 
 pin, H, and determines the point of cut-off. The discs, J, on the 
 shaft. By are provided with cam-grooves, into which a friction- 
 roller on the rocker-arm, Ky extends, the upper arm, Ly being at- 
 tached to the exhaust-valve spindle. To compensate for the cir- 
 cular motion of the arm and the vertical movement of the valve- 
 spindle, the connection between them is made by the eye of the 
 spindle, containing a slot in which is fitted a sliding die, to which 
 the pin of the arm is fitted. Any change of load on the engine 
 is instantaneously shown by the governor. Nevertheless, the 
 valve-gear is complicated, and liable to wear out rapidly and 
 become a source of annoyance and expense. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 95 
 
 The Harris Corliss Steam-Engine. 
 
 The cuts on pages 93 and 94 represent the Harris Corliss En- 
 gine, one showing the crank and cross-head, the other the eccentric 
 and vaive gear. It will be observed that the general design is 
 symmetrical and well proportioned, rigidity and strength being 
 introduced principally where the greatest longitudinal strain oc- 
 curs, viz., between the cylinder-flange and the centre of the fly- 
 wheel shaft. Between these points the frame, which is in one 
 casting, is vertically deep and strongly ribbedf thus insuring 
 greater strength and stiffness than could be obtained by any other 
 distribution of the same amount of material. The cross-head 
 guides are cast with the frame. The main pillow-block is of an 
 improved design, with the feet well spread out; and the cylinder 
 and exhaust-chest rest upon supports the entire wadth of the 
 chest. The engines are only slightly elevated above the floor, 
 thus allowing the attendant to reach every part with the greatest 
 ease. The cylinders and chests are neatly lagged in black walnut, 
 or other wood. 
 
 The piston -packing is of the most improved kind, and Is claimed 
 to remain perfectly steam-tight under all circumstances. It is 
 set out by means of German silver spiral springs, which obviate 
 the difficulty arising from the cylinder becoming worn larger at 
 the ends, or its liability to become cut or fluted, in consequence 
 of its being set out too tight. Besides, the piston-rod is retained 
 exactly in the centre of the cylinder. The spring plates for the 
 packing-rings are made of bronze metal, consequently they are 
 not liable to corrode. The distance used for the packing-ring be- 
 tween the piston and the follower is so small that it leaves a large 
 amount of the junk-ring for a bearing, or a wearing surface on the 
 lower side of the cylinder in the horizontal engine, which reduces 
 the liability to cut. The design and arrangement of this pack- 
 ing afford the most convenient facilities for taking it out, putting 
 it in, or for adjustment. The operation of the packing is as fol- 
 lows: When steam is admitted into either end of the cylinder, the 
 
96 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 packing-ring is carried by the steam over to the side of the groove 
 in the junk-ring, making a joint there, and allowing the steam to 
 pass down and under the packing-ring, thus placing it in equili- 
 brium; then all that is required is a very light spring to hold the 
 packing in contact with the cylinder. 
 
 There are four valves — two steam and two exhaust. The steam- 
 valves are located on the top of the cylinder at each end, and 
 open directly into the clearance, which obviates the waste induced 
 by the use of long passages. The exhaust-valves are placed in 
 the exhaust-che§t on the lower side of the cylinder, and, as in the 
 case of the steam-valves, open into the clearance spaces, which ar- 
 rangement facilitates the escape of the water of condensation from 
 the cylinder, and obviates the liability to accident. The four 
 valves are moved by one eccentric through the intervention of a 
 wrist-plate ; the same valves admit and cut off the steam. 
 
 The steam-valve in these engines commences to open its port at 
 one end of the cylinder when the eccentric is producing its most 
 rapid movement, and, as the motion of the eccentric is declining 
 towards the end of the throw, an increasing speed is obtained by 
 means of the wrist-plate, which compensates for the slow motion 
 of the eccentric. At the same time the steam-valve at the oppo- 
 site end of the cylinder commences to lap its port by the motion 
 of the eccentric, but by a reverse or subtraction of speed pro- 
 duced by the same wrist-plate, which speed is constantly decreas- 
 ing till the throw of the eccentric is completed. Or in other 
 words, the lapping and opening of the steam-ports require each the 
 same amount of throw of the eccentric, producing, for instance, a 
 lap of i an inch at one end of the cylinder, while the opposite 
 end has an opening of one inch and one-eighth. The exhaust- 
 valves are moved by the same eccentric and the same wrist-plate 
 before spoken of, but they have a much greater travel for the 
 purpose of ridding the engine of the exhaust steam easily through 
 the exhaust-ports, which are as long and twice as wide as the 
 steam-ports, and therefore back pressure on the piston of the en- 
 gine is avoided. The rapid opening and slow lapping of the ex- 
 
THE ENGINEER\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 97 
 
 haust-ports are obtained in the same manner as in tiie case of the 
 steam-ports, but much faster, as the travel is greater on the open- 
 ing of the exhaust than on the opening of the steam-port, in order 
 to get a free and full opening. 
 
 The variations of load upon these engines are communicated 
 to the steam-valves instantly by the governor, the valves being 
 moved by a force distinct from it, yet subjected to its regulation. 
 The governor in no case performs any work, and only indicates 
 the changes required to the levers which move the valves, and 
 needs only sufficient force to move a small stop. Its movement 
 is attended with the least possible friction ; the stop presents 
 hardly any resistance to the governor, except at the very instant 
 when it is in actual contact with the lever constituting its fulcrum. 
 This momentary resistance by the bearing of the lever on the 
 stop as a fulcrum occupies so small a space of time that, com- 
 pared with the period during which the governor is left free to 
 move the stop, it is practically nothing. As a precautionary 
 measure, a safety stop is connected with the valve-gear, so that in 
 case the governor should become inoperative, and should fail to 
 act, the steam-valves become unhooked, and cannot open, and, as 
 a universal result, the engine is stopped, although the valve in the 
 steam-pipe may be wide open. The valves are circular, and oscil- 
 late on fixed bearings in the front and back bonnets. The valve- 
 stems have flat blades, which extend the whole length of the valves 
 in the steam-chest, and to which levers are keyed for the purpose 
 of giving them motion. The valves are fitted in such a manner 
 as to^he capable of adjusting themselves to their seats, as their 
 faces and seats become warm. Any one of them can be adjusted 
 independent of the other, and can be removed from the valve- 
 chests by unscrewing four bolts, and withdrawing a key at the 
 point at which it is attached to the lever. The valve-gear of 
 these engines may be worked by hand, even under extreme steam 
 pressure. 
 
 The valve-stems of these engines are packed with an improved 
 metallic packing, Avhich is claimed to possess many advantages in 
 9 G 
 
98 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 respect to freedom from friction and wear, over hemp, cotton, or 
 any other fibrous substance, for the stems of oscillating or vibrat- 
 ing engines, as illustrated by the following cut: 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 A represents the valve, B the valve-seat, and D the valve-stem 
 or rod, which is outside the chest, and upon the end of which is 
 the toe with which the valve-gear engages to rock the valve to 
 enable the port to be opened. is a standard or bracket pro- 
 jecting from the side of the steam-chest, and bolted thereto, 
 through which the valve-rod passes, and by which the valve-rod, 
 and the valve connected with it, are sustained and supported in 
 their proper relation, all of which is familiar to the construction 
 of steam-engines. At the inner end of the bracket, and con- 
 centric with the hole through which the valve-rod passes, a recess 
 is cut. A collar, F, is then shrunk upon the valve-rod, or other- 
 wise tightly fitted thereto, so as to make a flange, and is turned 
 off* to face and fit the recess when the valve-rod, valve, and b?acket 
 are in their proper relation. The face of the flange, and the 
 seat of the recess, a, should also be round, so as to make a steam- 
 tight joint. 
 
 It will be observed from above description that the Harris- 
 Corliss, while retaining all the distinctive features and merits of 
 the original Corliss engine, has in addition the patented improve- 
 ments of Self-Packing Valve-Stems, Stop Motion on Kegulator, 
 Recessed Valve-Seats, Drip Collecting Devices, and Piston Packing, 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 99 
 
 Questions 
 
 FOR ENGINEERS, THE ANSWERS TO WHICH WILL BE FOUND UNDER 
 THE HEADS OF THE RESPECTIVE SUBJECTS TO WHICH THEY RE- 
 LATE. A PROMPT ANSWER WILL SHOW THAT THE CANDIDATE 
 HAS STUDIED THE SUBJECT, AND IS MASTER OF THE SITUATION, 
 AND VICE VERSA. 
 
 What are the best aids to candidates applying for an engineer's 
 certificate or license? 
 
 What qualifications, both mental and physical, ought candi- 
 dates applying for a Cadetship in the United States Navy to pos- 
 sess? 
 
 What qualifications should candidates for the position of en- 
 gineers and assistant engineers in the United States Revenue ser- 
 vice possess? 
 
 What ape the necessary qualifications of applicants for the 
 positions of engineers and assistant engineers in the Mercantile 
 Marine service? 
 
 What qualifications are necessary for persons taking charge 
 of stationary engines in any locality requiring a license ? 
 
 Give the names of the diflferent triangles. 
 What is steam? 
 
 What law does the expansive property of steam follow? 
 What is surcharged steam? • 
 Will it aflfect the vacuum? 
 What is saturated steam? 
 What is supersaturated steam? 
 
100 THE engineer's HANPY-BOOK. 
 
 To what are the temperature and the elastic force of steam 
 equal? 
 
 What is the difference in the pressure of steam when the mer- 
 cury is in a vacuum, or when exposed to the atmosphere? 
 
 If the proper relation of the temperature between the steam 
 and the water from which it is formed be disturbed, what will be 
 the effect? 
 
 What is the total heat of steam at 212° Fah.? 
 
 How is the latent heat of steam found? 
 
 When does heat in steam become latent? 
 
 How would you ascertain what amount of water is necessary to 
 condense a given quantity of steam ? 
 
 What is low-pressure steam? 
 
 Why is the steam of salt water fresh? 
 
 What is the most extraordinary property of steam? 
 
 What are the two modes of applying the power of steam to the 
 cylinders of steam-engines ? 
 
 State the rule for finding the mean or average pressure in a 
 cylinder. 
 
 Is the effluent velocity with which steam of different pressures 
 flows into the atmosphere uniform? 
 
 State the difference between the latent and sensible heat of 
 steam at different pressures. 
 
 State the total heat and relative volume of steam at different 
 pressures. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 101 
 
 As the sensible heat in steam increases, does the latent heat 
 
 decrease? 
 
 In what way does the change affect the economy of the steam- 
 engine? 
 
 What is meant by the volume of steam? 
 
 What is the difference in volume between water, and steam at 
 atmospheric pressure? 
 
 How much does one cubic foot of steam at atmospheric press- 
 ure weigh ? 
 
 State the velocity with which steam at different pressures flows 
 into the atmosphere or into steam of a lower pressure. 
 
 If steam, at a given pressure, be cut off in the cylinder at a 
 certain point of the stroke, what will be the pressure for the whole 
 length of the stroke? 
 
 Give the pule for finding the amount of benefit to be derived 
 from working steam expansively. 
 
 Give the rule for finding the average pressure of the steam in 
 the cylinder for different points of cut-off. 
 
 Is surcharged steam indicated by the steam-gauge? Or will it 
 affect the vacuum ? 
 
 What is superheated steam ? 
 
 What is the steam-jacket? 
 
 What is the difference in effect between superheated and sat- 
 urated steam ? 
 
 Which is capable of producing the most economical results? 
 
 9^ 
 
102 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 PART SECOND. 
 
 Steam-Engines in Greneral. 
 
 Steam-engines embrace a great variety of designs and names; 
 such as the beam, side-lever, inclined, oscillating, trunk, horizontal, 
 vertical, and steeple, which are in turn termed single-acting, double- 
 acting, reciprocating, rotary, semi-rotary, compound duplex, in- 
 verted, and geared, each of which was probably designed to meet 
 some peculiar requirement — either economy of space, fuel, or ef- 
 ficiency in speed. (Judging from the appearance of things at 
 present, the horizontal and vertical are destined to supersede all 
 other designs for land and marine purposes.) 
 
 All steam-engines, of whatever design, or for whatever pur- 
 pose employed, are embraced under two heads, commonly called 
 high- and low-pressure, but more properly termed condensing and 
 non-condensing. In the non-condensing engine, the steam, after 
 acting on the piston, escapes into the open air; therefore the 
 pressure of the outgoing steam must exceed atmospheric pressure, 
 or 14*7 lbs. to the square inch. Thus, if steam at 45 lbs. average 
 pressure above vacuum be admitted to the piston of a high-press- 
 ure engine, it will exert a force equal to its pressure ; but 14*7 
 lbs. per square inch of that pressure will not be converted into 
 work, as it will be lost in overcoming the pressure of the atmos- 
 phere, which may be illustrated by the following example : 
 
 Diameter of cylinder, 12 in. ; area, 113*09 in. 
 
 Average steam pressure per square inch, 45 lbs. 
 
 Total steam pressure, 5089*05 lbs. 
 
 As before, area, 113*09 sq. in. 
 
 Atmospheric pressure, 14*7 lbs. 
 
 Total atmospheric pressure, 1662*423 lbs. . 
 
 5089*050 
 
 Loss due to atmospheric pressure, 1662*423 
 Effective steam pressure on piston, 3426 627 lbs. 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 103 
 
 The foregoing example shows the resistance to be overcome at 
 each stroke of the piston before the steam acting against it can 
 produce any useful effect. Thus it will be seen that the piston 
 of a high-pressure steam-engine is exposed to the action of two 
 pressures, namely, the pressure of the sLeam from the boiler on 
 one side, and that due to the atmosphere and the steam remaining 
 in the cylinder after exhaust takes place on the other. The 
 pressure utilized or converted into work will be the difference 
 between the two. 
 
 In the low-pressure or condensing engine, the steam, after 
 acting against the piston, escapes into a condenser, where it is 
 condensed into water and a vacuum is formed ; thus rendering not 
 only a considerable portion of the steam pressure in the boiler, 
 but also the 14*7 lbs. per square inch required in the non-con- 
 densing engine to overcome the pressure of the air, available as an 
 effective force against the piston, which maybe explained as follows: 
 
 Diameter of cylinder, 12 in. ; area, 113*09 sq. in. 
 Average steam pressure per square inch, 45 lbs. 
 
 Total effective steam pressure, o089'05 lbs. 
 As before, area, 113*09 sq. in. 
 Vacuum at best, 13 lbs. 
 
 Power due to vacuum, 1470*17 lbs. 
 
 3958*15 
 1470-17 
 
 Total effective pressure due to steam and vacuum, 5428*32 lbs. 
 
 The back pressure in the condenser, which represents the differ- 
 ence between the indications of the vacuum-gauge and a perfect 
 vacuum, must be deducted; but, as a perfect vacuum is not attain- 
 able, the back pressure varies from 2 to 5 lbs., according to the 
 condition of the engine and the quantity of uncondensed steam 
 remaining in the condenser. 
 
 Waste in the high-pressure engine. — In the best types of 
 modern high-pressure engines, the useful effect obtained from the 
 work stored up in good fuel may be calculated as follows : 
 
104 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Loss through bad firing and incomplete combustion, 10 per cent. 
 Carried off by draught through chimney, 30 " " 
 
 Carried away in the exhaust steam, 50 " " 
 
 Utilized in motive power (indicated), 10 " " 
 
 100 per cent. 
 
 The foregoing may seem incredible, and yet any one wishing 
 to do so may demonstrate its truthfulness to his own satisfaction 
 by placing a thermometer in the steam-pipe and noting its tem- 
 perature during its escape from the boiler to the cylinder ; then 
 placing it in the exhaust-pipe, close to the engine, and noting the 
 temperature at this point, when it will be discovered that the 
 steam has lost very little of its heat in passing through the cyl- 
 inder. Consequently the difference in temperature between the 
 steam when it escapes from the boiler and from the exhaust-pipe, 
 constitutes all of the heat that was contained in the fuel that was 
 utilized. 
 
 Waste in the low-pressure or condensing engine. — According 
 to the dynamic theory of heat, as shown on page 105, a certain 
 weight of coal contains within itself a certain amount of work 
 stored up, and ready to rush out under the necessary surround- 
 ings, as in the case of a compressed spring set free. The supply 
 of a given weight of coal to the furnace of a steam-boiler repre- 
 sents the application of a definite amount of force at one end of 
 a series of transformations, a part of which force at length 
 appears as useful work at the other, the balance having been 
 wasted in the various processes through which it has passed. 
 
 Take, for example, a modern marine-engine of the best con- 
 struction and design. The force supplied to the furnace in the 
 combustible is first developed as heat by the burning of the coal ; 
 a portion of this heat is utilized in changing the water into 
 steam, the balance being wasted either in radiation, or by being 
 carried off in the hot gases through the chimney. A part of the 
 steam formed is applied to move the piston, the remainder being 
 wasted by condensation against the sides of the pipes and cylin- 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 105 
 
 ders, and by leakage past the piston or valves into the con- 
 denser. 
 
 It is thus shown that only a small portion of the total force 
 
 contained in the steam that is applied to move the piston is util- 
 ized. Of the force that is utilized in the cylinder, only a small 
 portion performs any external work, the remainder being absorbed 
 in overcoming the back pressure induced by the friction of the 
 machine itself. Of the remaining small portion that may be ap- 
 plied to the screw, another part is wasted in overcoming its use- 
 less resistances, and only the balance used to propel the ship. 
 
 
 
 PER CENT. 
 
 1 Uldl iludl III Uilv ilUflUI CU lUo. (Ji d,llllll<x~ 
 
 
 
 pifp pojil in units of heat,... 
 
 1 400 000 
 
 
 Deduct heat equivalent to weight of 
 
 
 
 
 200,000 
 
 
 J.Oiai lltJd;L 111 Ullc 11U11U.1 tJtl lUb. Ul d;ll- 
 
 
 
 
 1,200,000 
 
 100 
 
 Carried off by hot gases in chimney... 
 
 200,000 
 
 163 
 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 83| 
 
 Lost by leakage and condensation 
 
 200,000 
 
 161 
 
 Available to perform work in cylinder. 
 
 800,000 
 
 661 
 
 Escaped with steam into condenser 
 
 660,000 
 
 55 
 
 
 140,000 
 
 llf 
 
 Absorbed in overcoming resistance of 
 
 
 
 
 40,000 
 
 H 
 
 
 100,000 
 
 
 Absorbed in useless resistance of the 
 
 
 
 
 20,000 
 
 Is 
 
 Usefully applied to propel the ship 
 
 80,000 
 
 
 The following figures represent approximately the supposed 
 
106 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 distribution of the total force in the best engines. No estimate is 
 taken in them of the coal that is consumed in various ways on 
 board ship other than those mentioned, as, for instance, in getting 
 up steam, or in steam used to work pumps, in steam lost through 
 the safety-valves, in heat lost in blowing off, or remaining in the 
 furnaces after the vessel has arrived in port. These and other 
 causes usually add at least ten per cent, to the consumption, 
 leaving the force utilized about six per cent, of the total force ex- 
 pended in the coal. The cost of an indicated horse-power, by the 
 figures, would be 2i lbs. of coal per hour nearly. 
 
 To mitigate as far as possible the foregoing losses, the surface- 
 condenser and boiler arrangements shduld be designed so as to 
 insure a rapid circulation of the water, that condition being of the 
 greatest importance to produce efficiency in the heating or cooling 
 surfaces. Whenever practicable, the feed-water should be used 
 as injection to condense the educted steam, so that it might be 
 heated to the highest possible point before Being sent into th^ 
 boiler. 
 
 It is a question of vital importance to the owner of a steamship, 
 that the consumption of fuel be reduced to the lowest possible 
 amount, as each ton of fuel excludes a ton of cargo. As improve- 
 ments in the form of the hull and machinery are eflfected, less 
 power and less fuel will be required to propel a vessel through the 
 water a given distance ; but, great as have been the improvements 
 effected in marine engines to this end, much yet remains to be 
 accomplished, as while the consumption of fuel has been reduced, 
 by working steam more expansively in vessels of later date, from 
 three or four to less than two pounds per effective horse-power, 
 yet, comparing this with the total amount of energy in two pounds 
 of coal, it will be found that not a tenth part of the power is ob- 
 tained which that amount of coal would theoretically call into 
 action. 
 
 To find the quantity of coal required to drive a steamship a 
 given number of days in average fair weather. The beam in feet 
 squared will give the quantity of coal required in net tons. But 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 107 
 
 it must be understood that, with equal beams, the displacement, 
 and consequently the power required, vary very much ; or, in 
 other words, the displacement is not always proportionate to the 
 beam in vessels of the same model, nor is the power required to 
 propel them always proportionate to the displacement. 
 
 When steamships are running through still water and still air, 
 the loss due to the resistance of the atmosphere is about ten per 
 cent, of the whole power expended, ninety per cent, being absorbed 
 in overcoming the resistance of the water. 
 
 Economy of the condensing over the non-condensing engine. — 
 When the resistance of the atmosphere is removed from the piston, 
 the sleam ifl'ay be cut off* earlier, and further expanded in the 
 cylinder. This reduces the draught on the boiler, and admits of a 
 slower combustion of the fuel. In this way economy is promoted 
 by condensation of the exhaust steam and by the vacuum formed 
 in the cylinder. A vacuum equal to 14 lbs. per square inch is 
 35 per cent, saving in fuel, or the same increase in power ; but 
 this saving undergoes a great reduction, in consequence of the 
 cylinder being open alternately to the lower temperature in the 
 condenser, which varies with the degree of expansion employed, 
 being least when the steam follows full stroke, which is very 
 seldom the case. The practical gain, therefore, in the condensing 
 engine is from 20 to 30 per cent., varying with the conditions 
 above named, as shown in the working of condensing engines, 
 both stationary and marine. The economy of the condensing en- 
 gine might be increased, if advantage could be taken (as in the 
 case of the injector and steam-jet) of the velocity with which the 
 exhaust steam escapes from the cylinder to the condenser. On 
 entering the condenser, the power due to its energy is entirely de- 
 stroyed by the cold water injection, or by being brought in contact 
 with refrigerating surfaces. 
 
 Economy in modern steam-engines, condensing and non-con- 
 densing. — In Watt's time, 1 cubic foot or 62 •> lbs. of water was 
 the allowance per horse-power per hour for average engines, but 
 the water consumption for most engines was from 75 to 80 lbs. ; 
 
108 THE ENGINEER'S HANBY-BOOK. 
 
 while the better class of modern automatic cut-off high-pressure 
 engines will yield a horse-power from a water consumption of 
 from 20 to 25 lbs., and in the best class of condensing engines of 
 from 18 to 22 lbs. ; but, in either case, the water consumption de- 
 pends a good deal on the size of the engines, and the excellence 
 of the design and workmanship, quality of steam, pressure, etc. 
 The last condition exerts a very important influence on the quan- 
 tity of water required to develop a horse-power. 
 
 The mean effective pressure on the piston of a steam-engine 
 is the exponent of the work performed. The term " effective 
 pressure " means the amount by which the total pressure behind 
 the piston exceeds that which acts on the other side in opposition 
 to its movement. The terminal pressure," or that at which the 
 steam releases itself from the cylinder, is the corresponding expo- 
 nent of the consumption of water by the engine, or the cost of the 
 power. Hence, the best economy is attained when the mean effec- 
 tive pressure is highest relatively to the terminal pressure ; and 
 anything that will increase the former without correspondingly 
 increasing the latter, or which will diminish the latter without cor- 
 respondingly diminishing the former, will improve the economy. 
 
 The difference in effect between the condensing and non-con- 
 densing engine, with equal pressure of steam and expansion, is 
 solely that the condensing engine has the advantage of the effect 
 produced by the vacuum, or the amount of atmospheric pressure 
 removed. Their difference in operation is, that in the condensing 
 engine, the steam, after having performed its duty in the cylinder, 
 is condensed by the admission of a spray of cold water, or being 
 brought in contact with cooling surfaces, thus producing a vacuum 
 or minus pressure, which varies, according to the perfection of the 
 machinery, from 10 to 13 lbs. per square in.; while in the non-con- 
 densing engine, the steam, after having performed its duty, is 
 discharged into the atmosphere. Thus, the advantages of the 
 vacuum are lost ; some of the waste heat, however, is utilized by 
 leading the exhaust steam through a heater, for the purpose of 
 heating the feed-water. 
 
THE ENGINEEr\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 109 
 
 Compound Engines. 
 
 A compound engine is a high- and low-pressure condeDsing 
 engine, with two cylinders and pistons. The steam is first ad- 
 mitted to the small or high-pressure cylinder, until the piston has 
 moved through a certain distance, when the valve is so regulated, 
 that the communication with the boiler is cut off, the remainder 
 of the space to be passed through by the piston being performed 
 by the expansion of the steam, which, having done its work, es- 
 capes to the condensing cylinder, where it does a proportionate 
 amount of work, and out of which it escapes into the condenser. 
 
 With respect to the number and arrangements of the cranks 
 and cylinders of compound engines, there are five or six designs 
 used for screw propulsion ; but the most generally adopted is the 
 inverted, vertical, direct-acting, with the cylinders both high- and 
 low-pressure, placed alongside of each other in the fore and aft 
 direction of the ship, and the steam-chests between them con- 
 nected direct with the two cranks on the shaft beneath. Another 
 kind is that of an inverted, direct-acting engine, with one cylinder 
 placed above the other, the high-pressure being uppermost. In 
 this case there is only one piston-rod, which is continued through 
 both cylinders and pistons, one connecting and consequently only 
 one crank, a fly-wheel being generally employed to assist the 
 engine in passing over the centres. In another type, which is 
 known as the Huntoon, the high-pressure cylinder is placed 
 within the low-pressure. In another, known as the Smart en- 
 gine, there are four cylinders — two high-pressure and two low ; 
 the two high-pressure cylinders being placed on the tops of the 
 low ones, the piston-rods passing through both cylinders and con- 
 nected directly with the cranks. Lastly, the design most gener- 
 ally adopted for war-vessels is the horizontal, in which the cylin- 
 ders are placed side by side. 
 
 It is claimed that in the better class of compound engines 2 
 lbs. of coal will develop a horse-power ; but the want of reliable 
 data to the contrary would warrant the assertion that 3 lbs. of 
 10 
 
110 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK, 
 
 111 
 
 F 
 
 The annexed cut represents the section through the cylinders, steam-chests, 
 cross-heads, pillow-blocks, etc., of a Compound Marine Engine. ^4, 
 sViow the high- and low-pressure cylinders ; B, B, the pistons ; G, G, the 
 piston-rods; D, Z), the steam-chests; E, E, the exhaust cavities; E^ E^ 
 v:ilve-rod guides; H, connecting-rods; 7, J, cranks; J, J, crank-shaft ; 
 K, Ky Kj pillow-blocks ; X, 2v, foundation-plate ; c, c, cross-heads ; a, a, 
 h, 6, cross-head-guides; d, d, eccentrics. The steam is admitted from 
 the boilers to the steam-chest of the high-pressure cylinder, from which 
 it is exhausted into the receiver and readmitted into the low-pressure 
 cylinder, after which it escapes to the condenser. 
 
112 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 coal are oftener consumed in the development of a horse-power 
 than 2 lbs. Taking 3 lbs. as equivalent to a horse-power per 
 hour, theoretically only about one-sixteenth part has been util- 
 ized. The advantages of compound over simple engines is an 
 open and unsettled question, as it is claimed that some "simple 
 engines in use at the present time are more economical in the use 
 of fuel than compound engines ; but economy of fuel is not the 
 only consideration which leads to a choice of the compound en- 
 gine for marine service, since, perhaps, the more equal distribu- 
 tion of the power throughout the stroke is a feature of value in 
 these as in all other engines where the resistance is devoid of the 
 controlling influence of the fly-wheel. The disadvantages of com- 
 pound engines are their extreme first cost, extra weight, and com- 
 plication of parts. 
 
 The receiver is a chamber between the cylinders of compound 
 engines into which the steam from the high-pressure cylinder es- 
 capes, and from which it is admitted to the low-pressure cylinder. 
 The receiver may be said to be the steam-drum for a low-pressure 
 cylinder ; its capacity might be infinite, except for the weight and 
 expense it would incur. In the majority of independent com- 
 pound engines, the capacity of the receiver is about equal to that 
 of the low-pressure cylinder, though for engines in general its 
 capacity is regulated by certain attending circumstances. Such 
 engines as the Worthington have no receivers. 
 
 Simple Engines. 
 
 All steam-engines are divisible into two classes, simple and 
 compound ; the latter being those in which the steam is used 
 twice, by being exhausted from one cylinder into another, while 
 the former applies to all engines which use steam only once, 
 whether they are double engines and have double sets of valve- 
 gear or not. The term single engine is sometimes used ; but it 
 is liable to give rise to confusion. 
 
 Locomotives, steam fire-engines, and stationary engines which 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-J500K. 
 
 113 
 
 take their steam directly from the boiler and exhaust it into the 
 atmosphere should be termed simple engines, regardless of the 
 number of cylinders. An impression very generally prevails 
 among engineers that compound engines are of necessity marine 
 engines, and also condensing, which is a mistake, as there are 
 both high-pressure and low-pressure, or condensing and non- 
 condensing compound engines. Condensing compound engines 
 generally have not more than two cylinders, although in some 
 instances they have three, while non-condensing compound en- 
 gines are met with which have four. 
 
 Marine Engine. — The term marine engine is in very common 
 use, but it has no definite meaning, as it may be either condensing 
 or non-condensing, vertical, horizontal, or inclined, simple or 
 compound. The only reason that can be assigned for designating 
 it a marine engine is that it was designed to be used on steam- 
 ships. A marine engine, properly speaking, is an engine designed 
 to occupy a certain space on a vessel, and be capable of developing 
 a certain amount of power. The most desirable class of marine 
 engines are those that develop the greatest amount of power with 
 a given area of piston and steam pressure, and that occupy the 
 least space. The vertical engine is more in favor with marine 
 engineers, as it possesses many advantages over any other design. 
 This perhaps arises from the fact that it occupies less floor space ; 
 that it is more compact, and less liable to spring than an engine 
 of any other design ; and that the weight is against the lifting- 
 force of the reciprocating and revolving mechanism ; also that, in 
 consequence of the housing and pillow-block bearings being in one 
 piece, they are less liable to get out of line than those of any other 
 arrangement; and that they afford better facilities for a direct 
 connection with the propeller shaft than any other. Trunk and 
 oscillating engines are still employed in England for marine pur- 
 poses, but only on war-vessels. Such designs never were looked 
 upon with much favor by enlightened engineers. 
 10* H 
 
114 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
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116 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Uncertainty of Tests made for the Purpose of Comparing 
 the Relative Economy of Marine Engines. 
 
 It has been customary heretofore, in order to determine the 
 relative economy of marine engines, to weigh the amount of coal 
 consumed in performing a certain amount of work. So long as 
 all the machines compared are of the same design and dimensions, 
 the coal used of the same kind and quality, and the pressure of 
 the steam, the degree of vacuum, the rate of expansion, the tem- 
 perature of the atmosphere, and all other circumstances are the 
 same, it may be inferred that any difference in the economy is the 
 result of some imperfection in the engine itself. But if there is a 
 variation in one particular only, as, for instance, in the degree of 
 vacuum, the difference may be assumed to be due to that varia- 
 tion ; but if there are several variations at the same time, where 
 there are different kinds of engines or boilers and different steam- 
 pressures, when there is any gain or loss of economy, it is impos- 
 sible to decide to which of the variations the change is due. So, 
 also, where high pressure of steam is carried, and a greater expan- 
 sion is employed, if a poor economy is shown, it may happen that 
 the benefits that should result from the high pressure and the in- 
 creased expansion were counteracted by the increased condensa- 
 tion and leakage, or that the power which was gained in the 
 engine was lost in the boiler, or vice versa. Then, again, any dif- 
 ference in the kind of fuel employed, or in the skill and manage- 
 ment, unite with the other variations to render the actual results 
 more unsatisfactory. 
 
 In attempting to compare the results of such experiments as 
 ^ are recorded to determine the most economical design of engine, 
 it will be generally found that the experiments made to determine 
 one certain point are not sufficiently complete to serve any other 
 purpose, and have generally been made by different men, under 
 different circumstances and in different localities ; and, moreover, 
 that the expert is almost invariably biassed by prejudice. This 
 is particularly applicable to the reports which may be obtained 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 117 
 
 of the performances of new and improved engines, which may be 
 accounted for in this way : A steamship company may place on 
 its lines a vessel of fine model, with the most improved machinery, 
 which, on comparison, would show more satisfactory results than 
 one of the same capacity but of inferior lines, and propelled by 
 an inferior style of engine. It will be found, on comparison, that 
 the profits resulting from the new ship and improved engines are 
 largely in excess of those of the old; but it would, at the same 
 time, be diflScult to separate the gain due to the improvement in 
 the model of the hull from that due to the improved engines, and 
 vice versd. All that can be done in such cases is to accept the 
 whole result, without being able to separate the one from the 
 other. 'A series of exhaustive experiments to determine the 
 relative economy of different classes of steam-engines and boilers 
 is very much needed, but the diflficulties to be encountered are so 
 numerous as to render such an undertaking impracticable. 
 
 Power of steam-engines. — The power which a steam-engine 
 can furnish is generally expressed in " horse-power,'' the " nominal 
 horse-power " being admitted to be a force capable of raising a 
 weight of 33,000 pounds * one foot high in one minute, or 150 
 pounds 220 feet high in the same length of time. If an engine is 
 rated at 25 horse-power, it is recognized as being capable of rais- 
 ing 33,000 pounds one foot high twenty-five times in each minute. 
 The question will naturally arise. How are these 33,000 pounds to 
 be raised ? The answer to which would be, by belts, pulleys, cog- 
 gearing, cables, paddle-wheels , screw-propellers, or whatever mechan- 
 ical arrangement is most practicable and convenient. 
 
 There are several terms employed to express the power of en- 
 gines, such as the " nominal," " indicated," " actual or net," " dy- 
 namo-metrical," and " commercial " horse-power. The indicated 
 horse-power is obtained by multiplying together the mean efifective 
 pressure in the cylinder as shown by the diagram, the area of the 
 piston in square inches, and the speed in feet per minute, and 
 
 Foot-pounds. 
 
118 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 dividing the product by 33,000. The actual or net horse-power 
 is the total available power of an engine ; it equals the indicated 
 horse-power less the amount expended in overcoming the friction. 
 The dynamo-metrical horse-power is the net horse-power after 
 allowing for friction. The term commercial horse-power is some- 
 times used, but has no definite meaning, as there is no recognized 
 rule among engineers by which to buy or sell engines. 
 
 Estimating the power of steam-engines. — There are three con- 
 ditions necessary to be understood, before we can calculate with 
 any degree of accuracy the power which a steam-engine is capa- 
 ble of developing — first, the number of square inches in the 
 piston ; second, the effective pressure exerted against each square 
 inch of the same ; third, the speed of the piston in feet per minute. 
 Nor can the power which a steam-engine is exerting be demon- 
 strated by any calculation, however accurate, unless the condition 
 of the engine and the back pressure be also known, which latter 
 can only be determined by the indicator. 
 
 How to increase the power of steam-engines.— The three most 
 practical methods of increasing the power of a steam-engine are, 
 1st. To enlarge the diameter of the cylinder ; 2d. To increase the 
 speed; 3d. To increase the pressure of the steam. But the in- 
 crease in any case must have a very narrow limit, as, if the diam- 
 eter of the cylinder be increased much, the other parts of the en- 
 gine will be too light. The steam pressure cannot be increased 
 more than the boiler can safely bear, nor can the speed be in- 
 creased beyond what the revolving and reciprocating parts of the 
 engine will bear. But the power of any high-pressure engine can 
 be very materially increased by attaching a condenser and an air- 
 pump to it, providing the water supply is sufficient. 
 
 Speed of engines. — The speed of steam-engines is generally 
 counted by strokes, one stroke being half a revolution, or one 
 revolution being two strokes. The crank travels from one dead- 
 centre to the other to make one stroke, the distance travelled by 
 the crank-pin while making a stroke being twice the distance be- 
 tween the centres of the crank-pin and crank-shaft. To find the 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 119 
 
 travel of piston in feet per minute, multiply the distance travelled 
 for one stroke in inches by the whole number of strokes in inches, 
 and divide by 12. 
 
 Over-stroke. — This term is used when the position of the piston 
 in the cylinder is so altered by taking up the lost motion in the 
 boxes that it strikes either cylinder-head when the crank is at 
 the dead-centre. 
 
 The Locomotive.* 
 
 In estimating the power of a locomotive, the term horse-power 
 is not generally used, as the difference between a stationary steam- 
 engine and a locomotive is, that while the stationary engine raises 
 its load, or overcomes any directly opposing resistance with an 
 effect due to its capacity of cylinder, the load of a locomotive is 
 drawn, and its resistance must be adapted to the simple adhesion 
 of the engine, which is the measure of friction between the tires 
 of the driving-wheels and the surface of the rails. 
 
 The power of the locomofive is estimated in the moving force 
 at the tread of the tires. It is called the tractive force, and is 
 equivalent to the load the locomotive could raise out of a pit by 
 means of a rope passed over a pulley and attached to the circum- 
 ference of the tire of one of the driving-wheels. The adhesive 
 power of a locomotive is the power of the engine derived from the 
 weight on its driving-wheels, and their friction or adhesion to the 
 rails. 
 
 If the wheels of a locomotive were geared into toothed rails, 
 its power would be the force w^ith which its wheels could be made 
 to turn, or the weight or force which, if applied at the rims of 
 the wheels, would prevent them from turning. But if the wheels 
 revolve on smooth rails and slip in turning, a part of the power 
 would be wasted, and the effective power of the engine limited by 
 the friction or adhesion of its driving-wheels. Hence the terms 
 
 ^For full particulars on this subject, see Roper's "Hand-Book of the 
 Locomotive." 
 
120 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 "tractive power'' and "adhesive power" mean respectively the 
 revolving power and the progressive power of the engine. 
 
 The Steam Fire-Engine.* 
 
 Steam fire-engines are simply hydraulic machines similar to 
 steam-pumps, and the conditions involved in their employment 
 are precisely the same. They are also steam-engines, with their 
 machinery adapted to a special purpose, it being perfectly imma- 
 terial whether they are movable or stationary. Their means of 
 locomotion is only a matter of convenience. The result of the 
 working of the steam fire-engine may be measured by the hydraulic 
 effect, and the power utilized may be determined by the quantity 
 of water delivered. 
 
 To determine the efficiency of steam fire-engines, it is necessary 
 to note — first, the extreme vertical height and horizontal distance 
 to which the water can be thrown ; second, the volume or quantity 
 delivered in a certain time ; tliird, the total power consumed in 
 performing that work. 
 
 IKu\q for finding the horse-power of steam-engines. 
 
 Multiply the area of the piston in inches by the average steam 
 pressure in pounds per square inch ; multiply this product by the 
 travel of the piston in feet per minute,t divide this product by 
 33,000 ; the quotient is the horse-power. 
 
 for finding the horse-power of steam fire-engines. 
 
 Multiply the area of the piston in inches by the steam pressure 
 in pounds per square inch ; multiply this product by the travel 
 of the piston in feet per minute, and divide this last product by 
 33,000 ; '1 of the quotient will be the horse-power. 
 
 1{\x\q for finding the horse-power of a locomotive. 
 
 Multiply the area of the piston in inches by the pressure in 
 
 ^For a full description of all the steam fire-engines in use at the present 
 day, their peculiarities of design, construction, efficiency, etc., see Roper's 
 " Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines." 
 
 f Which should never be less than 250 feet per minute ; in fact, that should 
 be the minimum piston speed for all classes of engines. 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 121 
 
 pounds per square inch; multiply this product by the number 
 of revolutions per minute; multiply this by twice the length of 
 the stroke in feet or inches; multiply this last product by 2 and 
 divide by 33,000; the result will be the horse-power. 
 
 Rule for finding the horse-power of simple condensing engines. 
 
 Multiply the area of the piston in inches by the mean effective 
 pressure in pounds per square inch ; multiply this product by the 
 velocity of the piston in feet per minute ; multiply the atmos- 
 pheric pressure in pounds per square inch on the bucket of the 
 air-pump by its velocity in feet per minute; subtract the last 
 product from the second, and divide the remainder by 33,000 ; the 
 quotient will be the horse-power of the engine. 
 
 In estimating the hopse-power of steam-engines by the fore- 
 going rules, not more than two-thirds of the boiler pressure should 
 be taken ; as the analysis of a large number of indicator diagrams 
 shows that the average pressure in the cylinders of slide-valve 
 engines rarely, if ever, exceeds two-thirds of the boiler pressure. 
 This difference is due to the reduction caused by the pipes, stop- 
 valves, and the condensation in the pipes, cylinder, etc. 
 
 Rule for finding the horse-power of a steam-engine by indicator 
 diagrams. 
 
 Multiply the area of the piston by its travel in feet per minute, 
 and divide by 33,000; the quotient will be the value of one pound 
 of mean effective pressure, which, if multiplied by the total mean 
 effective pressure, as shown by the card, will give the indicated 
 horse-power. 
 
 Example. — Area of piston, 113. 
 
 Travel of piston in feet per minute, 333 1. 
 
 113 X 3303 __ horse-power value of 1 lb. M. E. R 
 
 ^^'^^^ 36 M. E. P. as shown by the card. 
 
 6846 
 3423 
 
 41*076 horse-power. 
 
 11 
 
122 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 The above cut shows a section of the cylinder, piston, and 
 steam-chest of an ordinary slide-valve engine; a represents the 
 cylinder ; 6, the piston ; c, the piston-rod ; o o, recesses in the cylinder- 
 head ; k k, steam-ports ; /, exhaust cavity in the valve-seat ; n, exhaust 
 opening in valve-face ; 6, valve ; /, valve-rod ; d d, steam-chest; m, 
 bonnet of steam-chest, and h h, clearance. 
 
 The term clearance is understood by engineers to mean the un- 
 occupied space between the piston- and cylinder-heads when the 
 crank is at the dead-centre; but it also applies to the space be- 
 tween the cylinder and the face of the valve or valves, either 
 slide or poppet. The amount of clearance of any engine affects 
 its economy ; and if the clearance is small, the engine will be more 
 economical than if large ; a certain amount is an absolute neces- 
 sity. It is, therefore, an object of importance, in point of economy,, 
 to have the valve-face as near the base of the cylinder as possible. 
 In this lies one of the most important features of the Buckeye, 
 
THE engineer's IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 123 
 
 Brown, Putnam, Woodruff and Beacli, etc., and, in fact, all en- 
 gines of the Corliss type. The clearance varies with different 
 builders, and in different engines from 1^ to 10 per cent, of the 
 cubic contents of the cylinder. 
 
 The clearance is often as high as fifteen per cent., in some old- 
 fashioned long stroke, slide-valve engines. This arose from a mis- 
 conception, at the time they were designed, of the waste the large 
 clearance would occasion, and is, perhaps, in many instances, due 
 to the caprice of the inventor of some patent piston, who made his 
 piston-rings of less depth than the original designs, thus increasing 
 the space between the piston- and cylinder-heads, when the crank 
 is at the dead-centre. There are even cases to be met with, where 
 the old fashioned, hemp-packed piston has been replaced by me- 
 tallic packing of not more than half its depth, without any means 
 being taken to fill up the spaces at each end of the cylinder. 
 Now, providing that the clearance is fifteen per cent, of the cubic 
 contents of the cylinder, and that the engine makes from one 
 hundred and fifty to two hundred strokes per minute for ten 
 hours, it may easily be seen how enormous the waste must be. 
 The quantity of fuel that might be saved by replacing such an 
 engine by one in which the clearance would be reduced to a mini- 
 mum, would more than pay for the latter in five years. Persons 
 employing steam-power, or intending to purchase steam-engines, 
 should pay attention to the foregoing fact. 
 
 As the clearance space is generally irregular in form, particu- 
 larly in slide-valve engines, it is somewhat difficult to calculate 
 the exact cubic space. The most accurate method of ascertaining 
 the exact aniiount of the clearance is to place the crank at the 
 dead-centre, and fill the space with water up to the face of the 
 valve (the quantity of water being previously weighed or meas- 
 ured). Then deduct the amount remaining in the vessel from the 
 whole, and the remainder will be the quantity contained in the 
 clearance in cubic inches or gallons, as the case may be. 
 
124 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 The Woodrulf & Beach Automatic Ciit-OflF High-Pressure 
 
 Engine. 
 
 The cut on the opposite page represents the Woodruff & Beach 
 high-pressure automatic cut-off engine. Fig. 1 shows a section of 
 the cylinder-valves, steam passages, and exhaust passages. Fig. 2 
 is a back view of the cylinder, steam-chests, valve-gear, etc. With 
 the exception of the Corliss, it is the oldest variable cut-off engine 
 in the country, and one that has undergone fewer changes in its 
 mechanism than any other. Those who remember it thirty years 
 ago, will fail, at the present day, to discover much difference from 
 its general appearance. For more than a quarter of a century it 
 has successfully competed with such engines as the Corliss, and it 
 has always sustained a high rating in the scale of comparative 
 merit. The bed-plate, as will be observed, is of the ordinary box 
 O. G. pattern, to which the cylinder-guides and pillow-blocks are 
 bolted and dowelled in such a manner that the possibility of their 
 getting out of line is entirely obviated. 
 
 The steam-valves, which are of the double poppet form with 
 bevelled feces and seats, are located at the back of the cylinder at 
 each end, horizontal with its axis. Their stems project inward, 
 and, owing to the peculiar shape of the cam which gives the 
 motion, the opening and closing is done very quickly and almost 
 noiselessly. They have independent adjustments, so that the 
 steam lead may be varied to meet any requirement without inter- 
 fering with the rest of the valve-gear. The power required to 
 work the valves in these engines is very slight, and as the cam- 
 lug and the ends of the valve-stems are made of hardened steel, 
 they show no perceptible sign of wear after years of use. 
 
 The exhaust-valve, which is cylindrical in form and has a very 
 convenient arrangement for taking up the wear and preventing 
 leakage, is placed at the bottom of the cylinder, and communi- 
 cates with it by its own ports or passages, which are entirely sepa- 
 rate from those of the steam-valve. An equilibrium of pressure 
 is maintained by the exhaust taking place through the interior 
 
THE ENGINEER^S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 11* 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 of the valve, and as its stroke is very short, the liability to wear 
 is slight. Its motion is derived from a transverse shaft under the 
 centre of the guides, carrying an eccentric, and driven by bevel- 
 gears. Owing to the 
 position of the ex- 
 haust openings at 
 the bottom of the 
 cylinder, and their 
 ample size, the ex- 
 haust is very free; 
 the discharge of any 
 water that may ac- 
 cumulate from con- 
 densation or from 
 priming in the boil- 
 ers is rendered easy, 
 and all danger of 
 accident from this 
 cause is obviated. 
 
 The governor, 
 which is very pow- 
 erful and sensitive, 
 and of a kind that 
 is admirably adapt- 
 ed to these engines, 
 is located centrally 
 between the steam- 
 valves, and receives 
 its motion from a 
 longitudinal shaft, 
 supported on bear- 
 ings attached to the 
 bed-plate, and driven by a spur and bevel-gear from the crank- 
 shaft. Its spindle passes through a compound eccentric carrying 
 a movable cam-lug, which, by its rotation, gives the opening or 
 
THE ENGINEEr\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 127 
 
 outward motion to the valves, in which direction it is positive; 
 while the closing, although controlled by the cam, is effected by 
 the pressure of the steam upon the unbalanced area exposed at 
 the outer end, and is 
 assisted by a spiral ||rrri 
 spring. In the bore 
 of the inner eccen- 
 tric is an inclined or 
 spiral slot for the re- 
 ception of a key at* 
 tached to the gov- 
 ernor-spindle, from 
 which the eccentric 
 receives its motion. 
 As the key is raised 
 or lowered by the 
 variations of the 
 governor, the inner 
 eccentric is turned 
 to the right or to 
 the left, and the 
 cam-lug moved in 
 or out, as the case 
 may be, thereby 
 giving the neces- 
 sary opening to the 
 valve, and cutting 
 off the steam at the 
 right point to allow 
 of the proper de- 
 gree of expansion. 
 As the cam-lug is 
 at all times in the 
 
 Fig. 
 
 same relative position to the outer shell of the eccentric, the lead 
 of the steam-valve is not affected by the variations. 
 
128 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 The expansion-gear of these engines is oneof the most ingenious, 
 simple, and effective mechanical devices that can be employed for 
 that purpose. Its operation may be explained as follows: The 
 cam, marked (7, Fig. 3, cuts off the steam with certainty at any 
 part of the stroke, the motion being produced automatically by 
 the action of the governor upon it, throwing it more or less out 
 of centre with the spindle of the governor ; the rotation of the 
 balls being more or less rapid, the eccentricity of the cam deter- 
 mines the amount of steam admitted to the cylinder. To produce 
 this effect the cam is made of two pieces. C4s a hollow shell or 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 cylinder, with a part of one end formed into a cam proper. 
 Throughout the whole length of this piece, upon the inside, there 
 is a spiral groove cut to receive one end of a feather, by which its 
 pitch or eccentricity is regulated. The inside piece, D, (Fig. 4) is 
 a hub which exactly fits into the hollow of the cylinder, C, and has 
 a socket, e, into which the spindle of the governor is secured, the 
 other end, d, forming a journal or bearing with a bevel-w^heel on 
 its extremity, to transmit the motion from the crank-shaft gearing 
 to the governor and cut-off. There is a hole throughout the length 
 of the inside piece, D, which is continued through the spindle of 
 the governor, and which contains the rod which connects the cam 
 with the governor. This hole is eccentric to the outside surfaces 
 of D and C, but is concentric with the collar, /, and with the 
 governor-rod. Both pieces, C and D, are connected by a feather, 
 one piece of which is of a spiral form, and the other straight; the 
 
THE ENGINEER\s HANDY-ROOK. 129 
 
 two being connected together by a stub which fits into a hole or 
 bearing in the spiral piece, so that the latter can turn on the stub 
 and accommodate itself to the groove in which it works. The 
 spiral part of the feather works in a spiral groove in the inside 
 of the shell, C, and the rectangular piece works in a straight 
 groove on the inside of the hub, />, the inner part of the rectan- 
 gular piece being fastened to the governor-rod, so that the feather 
 is permanently connected with the governor. When the several 
 pieces are put together the cam is complete, as shown in Fig. 4, 
 and it operates as follows : Motion is communicated by gearing 
 from the crank-shaft to the bevel-wheel on the end of the piece, 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 /), as well as to the spindle of the governor, which is screwed into 
 the socket on D; as the balls rise or fall through change in the 
 centrifugal force, due to the variation in the speed of rotation, 
 they raise or depress the governor-rod, which passes through the 
 spindle, and the piece, D, which is attached to the feather thereby 
 raising or depressing it. This feather acting on the spiral groove 
 instantly alters the lift of the cam, and regulates the amount of 
 steam admitted to the cylinder. By these means any speed may 
 be selected at which the load of the engine is to move, and any 
 variation from that will be instantly felt by the governor, and cor- 
 rected. There is no jar in the working of the parts; the feather 
 moves noiselessly in its grooves ; the governor-rod moves up and 
 down through the spindle and the piece D, and can be regulated 
 to give any required opening of the steam-ports to suit the work 
 to be done, 
 
 I 
 
130 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 The Woodruff &. Beach engines are very simple in design, and 
 have the reputation of being very durable and economical. Ab- 
 sence of complication in the valve-motion, and the ease with which 
 all the w^orking parts can be adjusted, are valuable features. 
 
 Automatic Cut-Off and Throttling Engines. 
 
 All steam-engines, for whatever purpose designed or em- 
 ployed, are either automatic cut-off or throttling. In the auto- 
 matic cut-off engines, the steam-valves are so controlled by the 
 governor, as to cut off the steam at any point from zero to three- 
 quarter stroke — the cut-off taking place earlier, or later, to accom- 
 modate the varying load on the engine and the pressure in the 
 boiler, the object being to obtain full boiler pressure at the com- 
 mencement of each stroke, and maintain it to the point of cut-off, 
 leaving the balance of the stroke to be completed by expansion, 
 the speed of the engine being controlled by the cut-off and not by 
 throttling. In engines of this class, there is no impediment (save 
 such as may occur at the port of entrance) to the free flow of 
 steam from the boiler to the cylinder, the regulation being effected 
 not by diminishing the pressure, but by cutting off in the cylinder , 
 the volume of steam necessary for each particular stroke; conse- 
 quently, the only loss in pressure between the boiler and the cyl- 
 inder is that due to the number of bends, and the length of the 
 connecting pipe. 
 
 Although all intelligent engineers are agreed upon the superior 
 economy of the automatic cut-off engine, few, excepting those who 
 have had the opportunity of making a practical comparison, are 
 aware of the great saving in the expense of fuel over that class 
 of engines wherein the point of cut-off is invariably relative to 
 the stroke of the piston. It is well understood, that the amount 
 of work realized, as compared to the total theoretical work due 
 the volume of steam expended, even in the most perfect engine, is 
 a very small percentage of the whole energy ; and it is, therefore, 
 the more an object of interest to know precisely what the differ- 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 131 
 
 ence is between these two classes of engines in point of economy. 
 The conditions which insure the highest grades of economy are a 
 full port with no intervening obstructions to impede the free flow^ 
 of the steam, and a rapid movement of the cut-off, or steam-valve, 
 over the port ; as mere increase in the mean effective pressure, re- 
 sulting from a tardy closing of the port, represents no gain during 
 one stroke of the piston that may be stored up and expended 
 during the succeeding stroke ; hence, any force upon the piston in 
 excess of that required to balance the resistance will result in a 
 diminished economy. 
 
 The economy of high-pressure engines is exactly in propor- 
 tion as their average piston pressure is higher than the terminal, 
 providing the latter does not fall below that of the atmosphere ; 
 the highest economy being attained when the stroke is commenced 
 with full boiler-pressure, and the steam quickly and completely 
 cut off, at a point in the stroke that allows the pressure to fall to, 
 or very near, that of the atmosphere. 
 
 Throttling Engines. 
 
 Throttling engines are those in which the flow of steam from 
 the boiler to the cylinder is regulated either by a throttle-valve, a 
 kind of damper in the steam-pipe, which, as the speed of the en- 
 gine increases, is turned, and stops off the supply of steam, or by 
 the steam in its passage from the boiler to the cylinder oozing 
 through the passage of some peculiar type of governor- valve. 
 An engine controlled by any such device is in a condition some- 
 what like that of a horse restrained by a brake applied to the 
 wheels of a wagon. Such relics of barbarism are fast giving place 
 to the automatic cut-off arrangement, by which the brakes are 
 removed from the wheels, and the bit placed in the horse's mouth, 
 instead. Manufacturers of this class of engines claim that they 
 give results equal to the automatic cut-off engines, which is un- 
 true, both as to economy and close governing. With an early cut- 
 off, which is absolutely necessary to good economy, it is simply 
 
132 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-ROOK. 
 
 impossible to govern the speed of throttling engines closely, with 
 even a moderate change in load and pressure. 
 
 In the best types of throttling engines, in consequence of the 
 peculiar construction of the governor-valve, and the tortuous pas- 
 sage through which the steam has to travel, the pressure in the 
 cylinder is in many cases not more than one-half of the boiler press- 
 ure ; the effect of which is, that when the work to be performed is 
 varying in its nature, such engines increase their speed when any 
 considerable load is thrown off, and decrease it when additional 
 load is put on. Now, every stroke an engine makes above its 
 regular speed is a waste of steam, and if the engine is large, or 
 runs at a high speed, the volume of steam, and consequently of 
 fuel, wasted will be enormous ; likewise every stroke an engine 
 makes below its ordinary speed, when work is thrown on, lessens 
 production. The loss of one revolution in ten diminishes the pro- 
 ductive capacity of every machine driven by the engine 10 per 
 cent. ; in short, the loss of one revolution in ten diminishes the 
 productive capacity of the whole factory 10 per cent. ; while the 
 expense of conducting the whole business, rent, wages, insurance, 
 etc., continues the same as if everything was in uniform motion. 
 A variation of one revolution in ten is quite common in throttling 
 engines : in fact, it is unavoidable. 
 
 Steam-Engine Cut-Oflfs. 
 
 The great desideratum in the use of steam is the most perfect 
 application of the expansive principle. As the pressure of steam 
 is always calculated in pounds per square inch above atmospheric 
 pressure, the nearer the indicated line of expansion approaches 
 that of the atmosphere, the greater is the actual power derived 
 from the utilized volume of steam. Were the boiler pressure and 
 th.e load or resistance on an engine always uniform, it would be 
 an easy matter, by making the cylinder of the necessary dimen- ' 
 sions, to set the cut-off at the proper point for allowing of proper j 
 expansion. As, however, the pressure and load are constantly 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 133 
 
 varyiDg, it is necessary to reduce the consumption of steam to a 
 minimum which, by its perfect expansion, will give the required 
 power. To these considerations may be attributed the efforts 
 which have resulted in the adoption of the three devices now in 
 use, viz., the positive, adjustable, and variable, or automatic cut-offs. 
 
 In the positive cut-off the expansion of steam is effected by what 
 is known as lap on the valve, by which the steam is cut off at the 
 same point in each stroke, independent of load or pressure ; al- 
 though in some instances the expansion of steam in the cylinder 
 is effected by an independent cut-off riding on the back of the 
 main valve, and receiving its motion from an eccentric. Such an 
 arrangement, like the former, is productive of beneficial results ; 
 but nevertheless it is very defective, inasmuch as it is stationary, 
 and cannot be varied to meet the requirements of work, pressure, 
 and speed. 
 
 In the adjustable cut-off the expansion is effected by an inde- 
 pendent valve, which can be adjusted by the engineer, outside of 
 the steam-chest, by means of a screw, hand-wheel, or other me- 
 chanical arrangement to meet the requirements of work and 
 pressure. The link, in its application to the steam-engine, belongs 
 to this class of cut-offs. Although such arrangements are adjust- 
 able, they are not self-adjusting, and when once set will cut-off 
 independent of circumstances. 
 
 The variable or automatic cut-off performs its functions accord- 
 ing to circumstances of load and pressure, both in admitting and 
 cutting off the steam. It gives regularity of motion and secures 
 all the benefits of expansion, as the governor operates the mechan- 
 ism which determines the exact point in the stroke where the 
 supply of steam from the boiler should be cut off and expansion 
 begin. This insures the most perfect regulation under the most 
 varying circumstances, as the slightest change in the position of 
 the governor will increase or decrease the initial charge of steam 
 admitted, thus balancing any variation in the amount of resist- 
 ance. It must not be inferred from the foregoing that any me- 
 chanical arrangement that may be termed by its inventor an auto- 
 12 
 
134 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 matic cut-off is capable of producing economical results, as many 
 of them are nothing but rattle-traps, undeserving of the name of 
 automatic cut-offs. 
 
 The cut-offs most generally used on steam-boats, tugs, and fer- 
 ries, are either the Stevens, Sickles, or Winters. They all receive 
 their motion from an eccentric on the main shaft. The Stevens 
 cut-off has two rock-shafts, — one for the steam and one for the ex- 
 haust, — which are operated by two separate eccentrics. The Sickles 
 cut-off is operated by an eccentric, the valves being tripped by a 
 wedge, so arranged as to disengage the valve-gear at any point of 
 the stroke. Dash-pots are employed to ease the valves into their 
 seats. The Winters cut-off is operated by a revolving shaft, which 
 receives its motion from an eccentric. One of the advantages of 
 this cut-off is that it can be arranged to cut off at any desired 
 point of the stroke when the engine is in motion, but neither the 
 Stevens nor the Sickles can. Zachariah Allen, of Providence, 
 R. I., was undoubtedly the inventor of, and the first to practically 
 apply, the automatic cut-off, which is unquestionably one of the 
 greatest improvements ever made in the steam-engine. 
 
 Design of Steam-Engines. 
 
 The design op improvement of any class of machinery must 
 be based upon two suppositions, either that existing mechanism is 
 impej^fect in its construction, or that it lacks functions which a 
 new design may supply. In most cases it would seem that any 
 machine, or part thereof, is susceptible of improvement; yet it will 
 be generally found no easy matter to hit upon a design, or con- 
 ceive a plan, to remedy the existing fault. Therefore no person 
 should undertake to design a machine unless he is well acquainted 
 with the principles involved in working it. He should be able 
 to calculate strength, strains, and forces, and apply the calcula- 
 tions so as to apportion the quantity and form of the material in 
 the various parts of the machine, in order to produce the greatest 
 amount of strength with the least expenditure of material. Bo- 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 135 
 
 «fdes a design may be based on right principles, and yet unfore- 
 seen mechanical difficulties may prevent its application; it may 
 introduce complication of parts, incur extra expense, or not be 
 susceptible of convenient or easy adjustment. The fewer the 
 parts, and the more harmonious the action, the more valuable the 
 machine will be, providing it embodies a good principle in its 
 design. 
 
 Before any correct formulaB by which to determine the proper 
 proportions for steam-engines can be deduced, there are many 
 things to be considered, such as permanent load, weight of mov- 
 ing material, nature of motion, etc. The load on the piston-rod 
 consists of the piston at one end, and the cross-head at the other; 
 consequently the greater the length between these two points the 
 more the rod is affected. For this reason, it is obvious that, when 
 it becomes necessary to determine the area of the piston-rod, the 
 pressure area of cylinder load and length of travel must be duly 
 considered. The connecting-rod being hung between a sliding and 
 a rotary motion, the load is in some measure due to the length of 
 the rod in proportion to the circle described. In the first case, the 
 sliding-point has a load on it due to the weight of the piston-rod, 
 beyond the stuffing-box, with the additional weight of the cross- 
 head. In the second instance, the rotating surface is affected by 
 the weight of the rod and that of the crank. 
 
 To determine the diameter of the crank-shaft we must take 
 into account the weight of the crank as a lever, and the pressure 
 of steam as the weight on the end of the same. The proportions 
 of the crank-pin are likewise modified according to pressure, per- 
 manent load, length of stroke, shearing strain, etc. 
 
 The most valuable features of a steam-engine are strength, 
 durability, simplicity, fewness of parts, and easy and convenient 
 arrangements for the adjustment of its working parts; as its 
 economy will depend on the harmonious action of its reciprocat- 
 ing and revolving mechanism, as well as on the nature of the 
 material and the excellence of the workmanship employed in its 
 construction. 
 
136 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Duplicating the Parts of Steam-Engines. 
 
 Duplicating the parts of any class of machines is an advantage, 
 as it insures more uniform proportions in their original construc- 
 tion than could otherwise be obtained, as the term duplication 
 of parts conveys the impression that they are made to standard 
 gauges, and for any number of machines must retain the propor- 
 tions of the original. While duplication of parts is convenient, 
 and sometimes of great value in cases of emergency, it is rarely 
 so in case of repairs ; since, as soon as any journal or bearing is 
 put into use, its dimensions begin to change, the cylinder com- 
 mences to enlarge and the piston to diminish. This change of 
 shape extends to the piston-rod, and glands of the stuffing-boxes, 
 wrist-pins, crank-pins, rocker-shafts, etc. The eccentric wears flat 
 on two sides, in consequence of the thrust at these points, and the 
 straps wear flat, owing to the push and pull at two points. 
 
 Now how can it be expected that a new eccentric will fit the 
 old straps, or the new straps conform to the old eccentric, or that 
 the new piston will prove a good fit for the old cylinder, or the 
 new piston-rod for the worn-out gland ? If the crank-shaft be- 
 comes worn oval, it will not adjust itself to a new main-bearing 
 made from the original standard ; or if the crank-pin becomes worn 
 tapering, owing to the engine being out of line, a box made of the 
 original proportions will not drop into its place and work har- 
 moniously ; but, as before stated, in case of emergency, such as 
 break-downs, or where interruption to business would entail great 
 loss, duplicate parts are a tolerably good make-shift, and that is 
 all that can^be said in their favor. For this reason, the duplica- 
 tion of parts, which in case of breakage would be most likely to 
 disable a machine, ought to be encouraged, especially in case of 
 marine engines, locomotives running in sections of the country 
 where there are no repair shops, and stationary engines located 
 in isolated places. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 137 
 
 Fitting the Cranks of Steam-Engines to their Shafts. 
 
 Boring the hole for the shaft in the crank is not so easy a task 
 as the average engineer would suppose. Theoretically, when the 
 hole is bored in the crank, if the boss is faced true, and then bolted 
 to a true face-plate on a lathe, it must be true. But inaccuracy 
 frequently arises from the fact that there are few face-plates whi(;h 
 are true, and continue to remain so for any length of time. And 
 even when the boring is as well done as can be expected under 
 the circumstances, the crank is frequently thrown out of line in 
 keying it on the shaft. For this reason, no crank should leave 
 the works where it was made without being tested after having 
 been keyed on. 
 
 When the crank is in the form of a disc, or wheel, the best 
 plan is to turn it true, first on a mandril, and then so fit it to the 
 shaft, and the key to its seat, that after the keying it will run 
 true ; but with the ordinary crank, this cannot be so easily done, 
 as all the surface available for testing its truth is near the centre ; 
 in such cases, the main reliance must be placed in fitting the key as 
 well as the crank itself to the shaft. The key should never be finally 
 driven till it has first been frequently partially driven, its points 
 of contact filed or scraped, and it fits perfectly its whole length. 
 
 The essential conditions necessary for the production of a well- 
 fitting and durable crank-shaft journal are, good material, a stiflT, 
 strong lathe, a skilful machinist, and a sharp, well-tempered, and 
 correctly set tool. The finishing cuts should be light, and,' if it 
 cannot be made suflSciently smooth with the tool, it must not be 
 filed, but may be ground and polished smooth by blocks of wood, 
 lead, copper, or some other suitable material fitted to the journal 
 in such a manner that the imperfections left by the turning-tool 
 will be corrected instead of aggravated by the use of a file or end 
 of a stick, as is commonly the case. The polishing powder used 
 should be very fine ; emery is considered, by many, objectionable for 
 polishing wearing surfaces, but on good homogeneous material, free 
 from flaws, fine emery may be used without any injurious efl'ect'^ 
 
 1 O -it. J J 
 
138 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-HOOK. 
 
 The Putnam Machine Company's Automatic Cut-Off Engine, 
 
 The opposite cut represents the Putnam Machine Company's 
 high-pressure variable cut-off engine, the frame or bed-plate of 
 which is designed with reference to strength and rigidity, and also 
 to answer either for right or left hand pillow-block bearings. The 
 almost universal reciprocating valve-motion derived from an ec- 
 centric is dispensed with, and a rotary motion derived from a gear 
 on the crank-shaft substituted. By means of mitre-gears the mo- 
 tion is communicated to a shaft running parallel with the axis of 
 the cylinder beneath the valves, and carrying cams for lifting the 
 latter. The steam-chests, one at either end of the cylinder, contain 
 each a steam and an exhaust valve of the balance or double-poppet 
 form, having flat faces and seats, and are capable of being removed 
 entire from the steam-chests by simply removing a bonnet or cover 
 on the top of the latter. The valve-stems pass through the neces- 
 sary stufiing-boxes in the bottom of the steam-chests. The shape 
 and adjustment of the cams for working the valves give them the 
 proper lift, lap, lead, etc. The opening and closing of the valves 
 are very quick, the duration of opening being an interval of rest 
 between the upward and downward motions. 
 
 The governor, which is of the ordinary centrifugal form, is 
 driven by bevel-gears from the cam-shaft, thus receiving a positive 
 motion. Below the cam-shaft is a rack-shaft having three arms, 
 the centre one of which is attached to the lifting-rod or spindle 
 of the governor, from which the rack-shaft receives a slight oscil- 
 lating motion, while those at the ends, which are at right angles 
 with the centre arm, connect with the lifting toes of the steam- 
 valve. The shape of the lower faces of the lifting toes which rest 
 upon the cams is such, that when moved inward towards the cyl- 
 inder, by the motion of the governor transmitted through the 
 rack-shaft, a curved upward offset is reached by the cam as it re- 
 volves, and the valve is lowered so quickly as to have the effect 
 of being actually released and allowed to drop to its seat, while at 
 the same time it is supported by the lifter. The interval between 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-JiOOX. 
 
140 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 the full lift of the valve and the reaching of the offset by the 
 highest point of the cam determines the point of cut-off, and in- 
 sures sufficient lift of the valves. The advantage claimed for this 
 arrangement is, that by keeping the valve always supported while 
 open, the danger of slamming is avoided without the necessity of 
 a dash-pot, which, in cases where the valve is tripped or released, 
 is absolutely indispensable. 
 
 When these engines are started, and until the speed for which 
 the governor is adjusted is reached, the steam necessarily follows 
 full stroke, as the cut-off is inoperative. But as soon as the reg- 
 ular speed is attained, the motion of the governor thrusts the 
 centre arm of the rack-shaft downward, thereby causing the arms 
 to which the lifting toes are connected to move towards the cyl- 
 inder. This brings the offsets of the lifting toes nearer to the 
 cams, causing them to drop sooner, thus cutting off the steam at 
 the proper point. In case of the removal of the entire load from 
 the engine, induced by the breaking of a belt, etc., the governor, 
 owing to its positive motion, will effectually check any attempt at 
 " running away," as the offsets on the lifting toes will be thrust so 
 far inward, that the cams will not raise the valves from their seats 
 until the speed is again reduced to the proper point. 
 
 It is claimed that, under the above-mentioned circumstances, the 
 engine will not make one full revolution before being completely 
 under the control of the governor. All the sliding and bearing 
 surfaces of the valve-gear of these engines are made of hardened 
 steel, thus preventing the liability of rapid wear, and also requir- 
 ing very little power to move the valves. The fly-wheels are 
 turned on the face and edges. The shafts, crank-pins, and con- 
 necting-rods are made of the best material, and the bearings are 
 ample and well proportioned. The workmanship is excellent, and 
 the finish neat and attractive. In fact, these engines rank among 
 the most simple, durable, and economical in the country. They 
 are manufactured by the Putnam Machine Company, Fitchburg, 
 Mass. 
 
THE ENGTNFI<^r's H A N T) Y - B T) O K . 
 
 141 
 
 How to put ail Eii^^iiie in Line. 
 
 An engine is in line when the axis of the cylinder and the 
 piston-rod are in one and the same straight line in all positions. 
 This line extended should intersect the axis of the engine-shaft, 
 and be at right angles to it. The guides should also be parallel 
 thereto. The shaft must be level, but the centre line of the cyl- 
 inder may be level, inclined, or vertical, according to the design 
 of the engine. 
 
 To " line up " an engine, as it is generally termed, take off 
 the cylinder-head, remove the piston, cross-head, and connecting- 
 rod ; then with a centre punch make four (4) marks in the counter- 
 bore at each end of the cylinder, at equal distances apart round 
 the bore. Take a piece of stiff hoop-iron with a hole at one end 
 of it, slip it on to one of the stud-bolts of the back cylinder-head, 
 and secure it firmly with a nut, after which it may be bent in the 
 shape of a crank, one end projecting across the cylinder at its 
 centre, at a sufficient distance from it to admit of convenient and 
 accurate measurement. Next draw a fine line through the cylin- 
 der, and attach one end of it to the temporary crank above men- 
 tioned, and the other end to a stake driven into the floor at the 
 back end of the bed-plate. Then with a piece of hard wood or 
 stiff wire pointed at each end and equal in length to half the 
 diameter of the cylinder, set the line so that, when one point of 
 the wood or wire is inserted in any one of the centre-punch marks 
 at either end of the cylinder, the other end will feel the line. Next 
 see if this line passes through the centre of the shaft ; if so, the 
 cylinder is in line with the shaft ; if not, one or the other must 
 be moved, which requires both skill and judgment, since engines 
 differ so much in design and construction. Now turn the engine- 
 shaft round till the crank-pin almost touches the line passing 
 through the centre of the cylinder ; then ascertain by measure- 
 ment whether the line is equidistant from the collars on the 
 crank-pin. Then turn the shaft on the other centre until the 
 crank-pin feels the line. If the measures correspond, the shaft 
 
142 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 is in line with the cylinder; if not, they will show which end 
 needs to be moved. The operation may have to be gone over 
 several times before a definite conclusion can be arrived at. The 
 shaft may be levelled by placing a spirit-level on it, if there be 
 room ; if not, drop a plumb-line passing through the centre of the 
 crank-pin and shaft ; then by placing the crank at both centres 
 and at half-stroke, the line will show whether the shaft is level or 
 not. The guides may be brought into line with the cylinder, by 
 measuring from each end of each guide to the line passing through 
 the centre of the cylinder, and moving them until they are par- 
 allel to the line and to each other. To adjust them to the hori- 
 zontal, a spirit-level may be placed on their top faces. If no level 
 is at hand, a square and plumb-line may be used. Where these 
 accessories are not at hand, a straight-edge placed across them 
 will determine by actual measurement whether they are in line 
 with the centre line of the cylinder or not. 
 
 Engines get out of line from the following causes : Faults of 
 
 ^ design, faults of construction, overwork, the character of the work 
 which they are performing, or from the boss of the crank wearing 
 away the face of the main bearing against which it revolves. To 
 move an engine-shaft and pillow-blocks into line with the centre 
 of the cylinder, screw down the caps of the pillow-blocks firmly 
 on the shaft ; then slack up on the bolts that tie down the pillow- 
 blocks to the bed-pla*te, after which the shaft pillow-blocks and 
 fly-wheel may be moved from the back end by means of a lever 
 or jack-screw, after which they should be firmly tied and the set- 
 
 . screws or wedges readjusted. To move a cylinder, if the connec- 
 tions be short and stiff*, remove the bolts which tie it to the bed- 
 plate ; then measure from the flange of the cylinder to some fixed 
 object, such as a wall, post, or column ; cut a plank or scantling 
 about an inch longer than the actual measurement from the cyl- 
 inder to the wall, so that when placed against the cylinder it may 
 stand slightly oblique ; then by driving on the end of the plank 
 with a sledge or heavy hammer, the cylinder may easily be moved. 
 The holes should then be reamed, and new bolts corresponding to 
 
THE ENGINEER\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 143 
 
 the reamer substituted for the old ones. The cylinders, guides, 
 and pillow-blocks of all engines should be double-pinned to pre- 
 vent them from getting out of line ; and whenever it becomes 
 necessary from wear to move them, the holes may be re-reamed 
 and new pins substituted. 
 
 How to Set Up a Stationary Engine. 
 
 The first object to determine in setting up steam-engines is to 
 decide definitely the precise point at which the engine is to be 
 located, after which the excavation for the foundation may be 
 made. It should be at least two feet wider and longer than the 
 intended brick- or stone-work, and its depth must depebd on the 
 size and weight of the engine and character of the soil. For ordi- 
 nary sized engines, say from 20 to 40 horse-power, from 3 to 4 
 feet will suffice, if the soil is dry and firm ; but if sandy or swampy, 
 it will require to be sunk deeper. For large engines of from 50 
 to 100 horse-power it is necessary to find a solid bottom. There 
 are even instances where piles had to be driven to insure a per- 
 manent foundation. Too much care cannot be taken in this par- 
 ticular, as any defect in the foundation will materially affect the 
 working of the engine. 
 
 Having decided on the location where the engine is intended to 
 stand, line down from the side of the line of shafting, or counter- 
 shaft, if there be any, to the floor, at three or four different places 
 in its length ; but if there be no shafting, measure from the side 
 of the building to the centre, at five or six points in its length ; 
 then strike a line across all these points. This line will show with 
 sufficient accuracy the line of the building by which the templet 
 may be set up ; the latter, as shown in the cut on page 144, should 
 be a fac-simile, or exact counterpart of the bottom of the bed-plate. 
 It may be made of inch pine boards, and set on four props over 
 the excavation, after which it must be squared and levelled with 
 the lines previously taken. The anchor-bolt^ may now be hung 
 in the templet, and the bricklayers proceed with their work. It 
 
144 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 is customary to lay from two to three courses of bricks on the bot- 
 tom of the foundation before the anchors are reached. These con- 
 sist of plates of cast-iron or old boiler-plate, generally about a foot 
 square, with a hole sufficiently large for the foundation bolts to 
 slip through ; though in some instances the anchors extend entirely 
 across the foundation and take in two bolts each. 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 The foundation should be widest at the bottom, and slope up- 
 wards about 2 inches to the foot, till the level of the floor is 
 reached, after which it may be carried up straight. When fin- 
 ished, it may be an inch wider on each side and end than the 
 bed-plate ; after which it should be made perfectly level by means 
 of a coat of good, strong mortar or cement. A parallel piece of 
 pine wood, 1 inch in diameter and from 3 to 4 inches wide, made 
 perfectly straight on both edges, on which a spirit-level may be 
 placed, will answer for levelling the foundation. 
 
 After the foundation is level, the bed-plate may be placed on it, 
 either by means of a crane, block and tackle, or skids and block- 1 
 ing, after which it may be tied down and accurately levelled. It ■ 
 is customary, in the case of large engines, to place wedges between | 
 the bed-plate and foundation, for the purpose of leaving an inter- t 
 stice between the bottom flange of the bed-plate and the brick ^ 
 work, into which melted sulphur is poured. As sulphur is less 
 
THE engineer's H A N I) Y -IU)0 K . 
 
 Influenced by a change of temperature than any other known 
 mineral, it is of great value as a bedding for heavy steam-engines, 
 and other machinery; besides, when melted, it enters every 
 crevice, and as soon as it is set becomes a permanent fixture. To 
 use it, it is necessary to seal the opening between the bed-plate and 
 brick work, inside and out, with potter's clay, occasionally leaving 
 a gate or sprue " through which the molten sulphur is poured. 
 
 A line should next be accurately drawn through the centre of 
 the cylinder, and attached to some permanent object at the back 
 end of the bed-plate; another line should be drawn at right angles 
 to this through the centre of the main bearing ; this latter will 
 give the exact location of the off pillow-block, as the crank-shaft 
 must be exactly at right angles with the horizontal line passing 
 through the centre of the cylinder. The fly-wheel may next be 
 swung into the pit, and the shaft slipped through it and firmly 
 keyed at the right position, after which the pillow-block caps 
 may be screwed down, the front head of the cylinder put on, the 
 cross-head placed in position, the piston slipped in, and the con- 
 nection between the cross-head and crank-pin made up. Other 
 numerous details might be mentioned, but they never all apply to 
 any individual case, and when any of them present themselves as 
 the work proceeds, the remedy in this case must be prescribed by 
 the erecting engineer. In setting up engines, like setting valves, 
 only general instructions can be given, and it is impossible to lay 
 down any that would apply to each and every case. 
 
 How to Reverse an Engine. 
 
 Place the crank on the dead-centre and remove the bonnet of 
 the steam-chest ; observe the amount of lead or opening that the 
 valve has on the steam end ; then loosen the eccentric and turn it 
 round on the main shaft in the direction in which it is intended 
 the engine should run, until the valve has the same amount of 
 lead on the other end. To determine whether the lead is exactly 
 the same at both ends, a small piece of pine wood may be tapered 
 13 K 
 
146 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 in the shape of a wedge, and inserted in the port ; the marks left 
 on it by the edge of the port and the lip of the valve will show 
 how far it has entered. The engine should then be turned on the 
 other centre for the purpose of equalizing the lead ; the crank 
 should also be placed at half-stroke, top and bottom, for the pur- 
 pose of determining whether the port opening is the same in both 
 positions. When the crank is at half-stroke, the centre of the 
 crank-pin is plumb with the centre of the crank-shaft. 
 
 How to Repair Steam-Engines. 
 
 It would be reasonable to suppose that any machinist would 
 be capable of repairing steam-engines; and yet, on an examination 
 of numerous cases w^here repairs have been done by persons calling 
 themselves mechanics, it appears that very few machinists are fit 
 to be trusted to do so. A man to be competent to do repairs must 
 first understand the original character of the engine or machine, 
 and its defects, whether arising from design, inferior material, or 
 workmanship, how an improvement can be made in its working, 
 as well as what would be actually an improvement, before pro- 
 ceeding to make it. 
 
 The first step in repairing an engine is to take off the connect- 
 ing-rod, cross-head, both cylinder-heads, and remove the piston ; 
 then pass a line exactly through the centre of the cylinder, and 
 attach it to some fixed object at the back end, to determine if the 
 centre of the crank-pin is in line with the centre of the cylinder. 
 If not, one of them must be moved, and whichever it is will de- 
 pend or^ the diflficulty to be encountered, and must be determined 
 by the judgment of the party who undertakes the repairs. The 
 cylinder must next be accurately measured at both ends and the 
 centre, for the purpose of determining if it is worn larger in the 
 centre than at either end, or worn oval, as is often the case. 
 
 In either case it will be necessary to rebore the cylinder and 
 make it uniform all through. It is next necessary to caliper thej 
 cross-head, wrist- and crank-pin, to see if they are worn oval, and! 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 147 
 
 if 80, they must be filed round. The guides should then be tested 
 with an accurate parallel piece, to ascertain if they are straight 
 all through ; if they are hollow in the middle or at either end, 
 they must be taken down and planed straight. If the piston-rod 
 is badly fluted, it must be put in a lathe, returned, and filed ; the 
 rings should be taken off*, placed in a lathe-chuck, and faced up 
 on both ends, and if they are cut they should be turned true and 
 smooth. The cross-head should then be measured crosswise to 
 determine whether the guides are too far apart or not; and if so, 
 the holes in the studs which tie them to the bed-plate must be 
 filed oval to bring them to a proper position. If the valve and 
 seat are cut, the valve must be taken off* and planed in the oppo- 
 site direction to its travel. The steam-chest must also be removed, 
 and the valve-seat straightened by filing and scraping, after which 
 the valve may be carefully fitted to it. 
 
 The flange of the piston -head and follower-plate should be faced 
 up in a lathe, at the point where they strike the rings, and the lat- 
 ter should be carefully ground and scraped on to them. The piston 
 should next be inserted into the cylinder, set out, and the cross- 
 head slipped on, connected with it, and levelled, so that it may 
 stand parallel w^ith the centre of the axis of the cylinder at all 
 points of the stroke. The connecting-rod boxes should be ex- 
 amined in order to ascertain if they are " brass bound," and if so, 
 they should be filed out. The main pillow-block bearing should 
 receive attention, in order to determine if it is worn oval or loose. 
 In fact, every part should receive attention, because defects that 
 have not been thought of may be revealed as the work progresses. 
 It has been generally heretofore supposed that any one bearing 
 the name of a machinist is competent to repair a steam-engine, 
 which, of course, is a grave error, as thousands of mechanics fully 
 competent to build a machine are totally unfit to repair it. 
 
 This arises from the fact, that the repairing of steam-engines 
 and other machinery requires a different class of talent from that 
 necessary to build them. A machinist may be a good hand on 
 either a vice, lathe, or planer ; he may be a thorough fitter and a 
 
148 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 neat finisher, and yet he may lack that keen observation, that cool, 
 patient, and searching perseverance which are so essential in the 
 party that will become an adept in the repairing of steam-engines 
 and other machinery. It not unfrequently happens, that when 
 everything has been done that was considered absolutely neces- 
 sary, an engine works badly when started up, which is very dis- 
 couraging to any one, except those who take a peculiar interest in 
 ferreting out the causes of minor defects which have been over- 
 looked when the more prominent ones were remedied. Almost 
 any one can tell if an engine is badly out of line, the cylinder 
 fluted, or the crank-pins loo^e or worn oval ; but it requires a dif- 
 ferent kind of talent to determine the different causes for the 
 defective working of steam-engines, and prescribe a remedy for 
 them, as many of them apparently did not exist at the commence- 
 ment of the work, but cropped out as it progressed. One of the 
 greatest mistakes in the repairs of steam-engines and other ma- 
 chinery, is that those who have them in charge are expected to per- 
 form the work in too limited a time. This being impossible, the 
 only resource left is to slight it. 
 
 How to Increase the Power of the Steam-Engine. 
 
 It frequently happens that engines which were originally of 
 sufficient power to do the work of a manufacturing establishment, 
 become unable to do the work, owing to an increase in the busi- 
 ness ; and while the cost of replacing an engine with one of sufl5- 
 cient power would be a matter of nominal consideration, the time 
 expended in removing and replacing it with a larger one might 
 involve a, serious loss to the owner, in case he had large orders for 
 goods to fill at profitable prices. Under such circumstances, the 
 three most practicable ways to remedy the difficulty for the time 
 being would be — jirsty to raise the pressure, providing the boiler 
 is considered safe; second, to increase the speed of the engine; 
 third, to replace the old cylinder with a new one about two inches 
 larger in diameter, which would of course involve the necessity of 
 a new piston, steam-chest, and valve. 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 149 
 
 For a moderate increase in power, the last plan would be the 
 most safe and practicable, as the active condition of steam-boilers 
 is not always understood, and without a thorough knowledge on 
 the subject it would be unwise to increase the pressure; nor should 
 any engine be run at a higher speed than it is capable of stand- 
 ing without springing or shaking to pieces. The increase in power 
 that would result from replacing the old cylinder with a new one 
 two inches larger in diameter may be illustrated as follows : Take, 
 for instance, a 10-inch cylinder, which contains 78*54 square inches 
 in area, while a cylinder 12 inches in diameter contains 113-09 
 square inches, which makes a difference of 34*55 square inches in 
 the piston. Now, if the engine having a lO-inch cylinder wa.%' 
 unable to do the work with 60 lbs. pressure per square inch, it 
 would do the work easily with the 12-inch cylinder at the same 
 pressure, as the new cylinder would make a difference of from 5 
 to 6 horse-power. Measures might be taken, and the new cylin. 
 der, piston, and steam-chest prepared and placed in position at a 
 given time, without causing any interruption to the business. 
 Of course the margin for increasing the size of cylinder for any 
 ! engine, and using all the other original parts of the engine, is lim- 
 ited, and should never exceed 2 inches; as, to exceed that limit, the 
 other parts would be too light, and become liable to spring. To 
 increase the speed of an engine, it would be necessary to have a 
 new counter-pulley, so that, while the piston velocity is increased, 
 the speed of the shafting may remain the same. An engine will 
 j develop more power by increasing its speed, but will use more 
 I steam, and as a consequence more fuel will be consumed. The 
 overtaxing of steam-engines and boilers, or any other class of 
 j machijies, is sure to induce waste either in fuel or wear and tear: 
 I but there are circumstances under which manufacturers and steam 
 I users find themselves placed, in which it would be impossible to 
 1 avoid waste. Steam-engines or boilers, or any other class of 
 machines that is too large or too small for the work to be per^ 
 1 formed, are not economical. 
 
 13* 
 
150 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 The Improved Greene Automatic Cut-Off Engine. 
 
 The illustration represents the Improved" Greene Automatic 
 Cut-Off Engine, of which the Providence Steam-Engine Company, 
 
 Providence, R. I., are 
 sole builders. 
 
 The bed-plate is of 
 the girder pattern, sym- 
 metrical in appear- 
 ance, and of ample 
 strength. The slides 
 are cast separate, and 
 secured to bed-plate by 
 dowels and bolts. The 
 main journal-boxes are 
 made in four pieces, 
 and provided with set- 
 screw^s and check-nuts, 
 which permit of con- 
 venient and accurate 
 adjustment. The gov- 
 ernor is of the Porter 
 pattern, and is driven 
 by a flat belt from the 
 main shaft. The valve- 
 gear is detachable, and 
 is so controlled by the 
 governor that the cut- 
 ting oflT may be eflected 
 from zero to three- 
 quarters of the entire 
 stroke. The valves are 
 four in number — two 
 steam and two exhaust 
 — and are of the flat-slide pattern. The power which moves them 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 151 
 
 is applied parallel to and in line with their seats, so that they can- 
 not rock or twist — thus obviating the tendency to wear unevenly. 
 The steam-valves when tripped, are shut by the combined action 
 of a weight and the pressure of the steam on the large valve-stems, 
 thereby insuring a quick cut-off, and the positive closing of the port, 
 under all circumstances of speed and pressure. The. steam-valves 
 are operated by toes, on the inner ends of two rock-shafts that 
 connect with the valve-stems outside the steam-chest. The outer 
 ends of the rock-shafts are furnished with steel-tipped toes. 
 
 There is a sliding-bar carrying tappets which receive a recipro- 
 cating rectilinear motion from an eccentric on the main shaft. 
 Below the sliding-bar is a gauge-plate connected with the gov- 
 ernor, which receives an up and down motion from a reverse 
 action of the governor balls. 
 
 The tappets in the sliding-bar are supported by springs, the 
 lower ends of which rest upon the gauge-plate ; the ends of the 
 tappets projecting through the gauge-plate with nuts upon them 
 secured by pins. As the sliding-bar moves, one of the tappets is 
 brought in contact with the inner face of the toe on the rock-lever, 
 causing it to turn on its axis, thereby opening the steam-valve at 
 one end of the cylinder; the other tappet, meanwhile, passes under 
 the rock-lever, — without moving it, — the toe and tappet being so 
 bevelled that the tappet will be forced down against the action of 
 the spring, till it has -passed the toe, when the spring causes it to 
 resume its original position, prior to opening the steam-valve at 
 the opposite end of the cylinder upon the return stroke of the bar. 
 
 As a result of this motion, the tappet always gives the valves 
 the same lead, and as the bar moves in a straight line, while the 
 I toe describes the arc of a circle, the tappet will pass by and liber- 
 I ate the toe, which is brought back to its original position by a 
 I w^eight, and the steam pressure on the large valve-stem, which thus 
 I closes the valve and cuts off the steam. The liberation of the toes 
 I will take place sooner or later, according to the elevation of the 
 I tappet ; that is, the lower the tappets are, the sooner the toes will 
 I be liberated, and vice versa. By the elevation or depression of the 
 
152 
 
 THE ENi^INEER's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 gauge-plate, the period of closing the valves is changed, while the 
 period of opening them remains the same. The adjustment of the 
 gauge-plate is effected directly by the governor. 
 
 Both the exhaust-valves and seats are convenient of access, and 
 removable from the outside of cylinder. These valves receive their 
 motion from a separate eccentric, thus allowing of easy adjust- 
 ment, without interference with the steam-valve mechanism. All 
 the connections are on the outside, are few in number, and have 
 ample bearing surfaces, insuring freedom from rapid wear and de- 
 rangement. 
 
 A safety stop-motion is combined with the governor, preventing 
 the admission of steam should the governor-belt run off or break. 
 
 The cross-head gibs are directly opposite the centre of pin, 
 thus avoiding any cross strain upon the piston-rod ; a lack of at- 
 tention to this point has been the cause of^many serious accidents. 
 The steam-ports are large, thus insuring the full pressure of steam 
 to the point of cut-off. A very desirable feature of this engine, 
 and one that will be appreciated, is the method of connecting the 
 steam-valves with their stems, by which, if water should accumu- 
 late in the cylinder, and the engine be started without the usual 
 precautions, the valves wdll lift, giving a free passage of the water 
 through the steam-ports. The engine is extremely sensitive to the 
 action of the governor, and is, therefore, particularly adapted to 
 those situations where perfect regulation iS" required. All parts 
 are well proportioned, made of best material, accurately fitted, and 
 highly finished. 
 
 The Dead-Centre. 
 
 All reciprocating steam-engines have one dead-centre in each 
 stroke and two in each revolution, and that point is the point at 
 which the steam is exhausted, and the centre of the crank-pin is 
 parallel with the centre of the axis of the cylinder. The centre 
 of the cross-head, in some cases, may be above or below the centre 
 of the cylinder ; but by placing a spirit-level on the top or bottom 
 
THE ENGINEER\s HANDY -BOOK. 
 
 153 
 
 of the stub-end strap, the dead-centre may be easily found. The 
 experienced engineer or machinist can generally tell by the eye 
 when the crank is at the dead-centre; but to insure accuracy it 
 is always better, in the case of horizontal engines, to try it with a 
 level, and in vertical engines with a plumb-bob and line. The 
 cranks of all engines have to be placed accurately on the centre 
 when the valves are set. 
 
 A single reciprocating engine is completely helpless when the 
 crank is at the dead-centre, and would stop there if it was not for 
 the momentum of the balance-wheel. Double reciprocating en- 
 gines, such as locomotives and marine engines, which have their 
 cranks set at right angles, require no balance-wheel, as they pull 
 each other off the dead-centre, in consequence of one crank being 
 at its full-power point while the other is at the weakest. There 
 are some engines, such as the rotary, which have no dead-centre 
 in their revolution. 
 
 The Causes of Knocking in Steam-Engines. 
 
 The most frequent causes of knocking in steam-engines are 
 
 lost motion in the cross-head, wrist- and crank-pin boxes ; loose- 
 ness in the pillow-block or main-bearing boxes ; looseness of the 
 piston-rod or folk wer-plate ; the crank-pin or crank-shaft being 
 out of line with the cylinder, or the wrist-pin, crank-pin, or main- 
 bearing journal being worn oval; the slide-valve having too much 
 or not enough lead ; the exhaust opening being too soon or too late; 
 the valve being badly proportioned, or the exhaust passage out- 
 side of the cylinder being contracted. 
 
 Other causes are shoulders being worn in each end of the 
 cylinder, in consequence of the packing-rings not travelling over 
 the counter-bore at each end of the stroke ; or shoulders being 
 worn on the guides, resulting from the cross-head shoes not over- 
 lapping them when the crank is at the dead-centre ; the piston 
 not having sufficient clearance at either end of the cylinder, in 
 consequence of its being altered by taking up the lost motion in 
 
154 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S H AND Y-BOOK . 
 
 the boxes ; there not being sufficient draught in the keys to take up 
 the lost motion in the connecting-rod boxes ; the packing being 
 screwed too tight round the piston-rod; excessive cushioning, re- 
 sulting from the leaky condition of the piston, which allows the 
 steam to occupy the space between the cylinder and piston-head, 
 as the crank approaches the centre, thereby subjecting the engine 
 to an enormous strain, as at this part of the stroke the fly-wheel 
 is travelling very fast and the crank moving very slowly ; or lost 
 motion in the connection by which the slide-valve is attached to 
 the rod. Engines out of line frequently knock sideways at the 
 half-stroke, but most generally at the outward or inward, upper 
 or lower dead-centre, as these are the points at which the greatest 
 strain is thrown on the bearings, in consequence of the direction 
 of the connecting-rod having to be reversed. The foregoing causes 
 of knocking in engines constitute the principal ones. 
 
 The knocks arising from lost motion in any of the revolving, 
 reciprocating, or vibrating parts of an engine may be located hj 
 placing the finger on the part, while the cross-head is being re- 
 moved back and forth on the guides by the starting-bar; but 
 knocks induced by the valve opening or closing too soon, by a 
 contraction of the exhaust, or by the valve or valves being im- 
 properly set, are the most difficult to discover, as they are different 
 from those induced by lost motion, the sound being a dull, heavy 
 thud, in many instances causing the engine, building, and even the 
 foundation to vibrate at every stroke. While an intelligent and 
 careful search will in most cases result in successfully locating the 
 knock, some will for a time baffle the most expert engineer. In- 
 stances are not uncommon in which weeks have been devoted, en- 
 gines taken apart and put together again, to find a knock, which, 
 when finally discovered, perhaps turned out to be caused by a 
 loose crank-pin, follower-plate, or key in a fly-wheel. It not un- 
 frequently happens that, after every other means have been re- 
 sorted to, the indicator has to be applied, in order to determine 
 the precise location of the knock or " thud." 
 
 From whatever causes knocking in engines may arise, they are 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 155 
 
 a nuisance, which sounds harshly not only to the engineer, but to 
 all who have an ear for natural mechanics. Nothing, perhaps, 
 makes the intelligent engineer feel so cheap as to be found in 
 charge of an engine that knocks, as lookers-on are not always 
 capable of deciding who is at fault — the engine or the engineer. 
 
 The Remedies for Knocking in Steam-Engines. 
 
 While it may be possible in most cases to locate the knocking 
 
 in steam-engines, and explain the causes from which they arise, it 
 is hardly possible to prescribe a remedy for all, as, in many in- 
 stances, it must arise out of and be determined by the circum- 
 stances of the individual case. The most practical method of 
 remedying the knocking induced by the crank-pin being out of 
 line, is to place the crank-shaft at right angles with the centre of 
 the cylinder, remove the old crank-pin, rebore the hole so as to 
 bring the centre of the new pin perfectly in line with the axis of 
 the cylinder, and replace the old pin with a new one. The knock- 
 ing induced by the wrist-pin and crank-pin becoming worn oval, 
 may be remedied by filing them perfectly round ; but the knock- 
 ing caused by the crank-shaft journal being worn out of round is 
 very difficult to remedy; in fact, there is hardly any remedy for 
 it, except to remove the shaft, true it up in a lathe, and refit the 
 boxes, which operation is attended with a good deal of difficulty, 
 more especially when the engine is large. 
 
 Knocking in the boxes on the crank-pin and cross-head, or 
 valve-rod, may be remedied by filing out the boxes and readjust- 
 ing the keys, or by putting a liner behind or in front of the boxes, 
 when there is not sufficient draught in the keys and gibs. Knock- 
 ing in the steam-chest caused by looseness in the valve connec- 
 tions may be remedied by readjusting the jam-nuts or the yoke. 
 Knocking arising from this cause manifests itself more frequently 
 when steam is shut off* from the cylinder, preparatory to stopping 
 the engine, than when the engine is running ; the lost motion is 
 taken up in the valve connections by the pressure of the steam 
 on the back of the valve. 
 
156 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Knocking in the piston is generally caused by the rod becoming 
 loose in the head, and, if it continues for any length of time, it 
 destroys the fit of the rod in the hole. The only practical remedy 
 under such circumstances is to remove the rod, rebore the hole, 
 and bush it or thicken the rod at that point by welding, and fit it 
 to the head after the hole is rebored perfectly true. Knocking in 
 the follower-plate is generally caused by the bolts being too long, 
 or from dirt being allowed to accumulate in the holes, which pre- 
 vents them from entering sufficiently far to take up the lost mo- 
 tion in the plate, and may be remedied by shortening the follower- 
 bolts, or removing the deposits from the bottoms of the holes, as 
 the case may be. 
 
 The knocking caused by shoulders becoming worn in the cyl- 
 inder at each end can be remedied by reboring the cylinder, and 
 making the counter-bore suflSciently deep that a part of one of 
 the rings will overlap it at each end of the stroke. Knocking 
 caused by shoulders becoming worn on the guides can be remedied 
 by planing the guides and making the gibs or shoes suflSciently 
 long that they will overrun the guides when the crank is at either 
 centre. The knocking induced by any of the foregoing causes is 
 generally a source of great annoyance to the engineer, as any at- 
 tempt to adjust the boxes on the cross-head or crank-pin, or the 
 piston-packing in the cylinder, generally aggravates the cause of 
 the knocking, as any adjustment of the connecting-rod boxes alters 
 the position of the piston in the cylinder and the cross-head on 
 the guides, and causes them to strike harder against the shoulders. 
 
 Knocking caused by the valve or valves being improperly set 
 may be rem-edied by removing the bonnet of the steam-chest and 
 adjusting the valve, so that it may move uniformly on its seat, 
 thereby giving the same amount of lead at each end of the stroke ; 
 then, if the valve is well proportioned, and the connections thor- 
 oughly fitted and skilfully adjusted there is no reason why the 
 engine should knock from this cause. But the knocks arising 
 from bad proportion in the valve or steam passages are the most 
 difl[icult of all to remedy, as they are inherent in the machine. 
 
THE ENGINEER\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 159 
 
 The Douglas Automatic ('ut-Off Engine. 
 
 The cuts on pages 157, 158, represent the Douglas Automatic 
 Cut-OfT Engine. It will be noticed that the bed-plate is of the 
 girder-frame pattern, which is faced up to receive the cylinder at 
 one end and the main pillow-block bearing at the other. The 
 cylinder rests on a tapering pedestal, while the back end of the 
 bed-plate and crank-shaft bearing is supported by a double leg, 
 which is cast solid with the bed-plate. The pillow-blocks at the cyl- 
 inder-base are placed on the under side, and are situated at equal 
 distances from the centre, which facilitates the setting up of the 
 engine or placing it in line, as all that is necessary is to level 
 the foundation stone and place the engine on it. The cross-head 
 guides are bored out cylindrical, and on line with the centre of 
 the cylinder, which obviates the liability of the engine getting 
 out of line. 
 
 The main steam-valve serves both for induction and exhaust. 
 The exhaust passes through its centre to the exhaust-port at the 
 centre of the cylinder. It receives its motion from an eccentric, 
 through the intervention of a rocker-arm and small take-up connec- 
 tions from the rocker-arm to the valve-rod. The two cut-off valves 
 are flat, and slide on the top of the main valve. They receive 
 their motion from an extra eccentric and rocker-arm. On this 
 rocker-arm is a disc, pivoted on its centre. At equal distances 
 from the pivot-pin, in opposite directions, are tw^o wrist-pins, to 
 which the cut-off valve on the frame end is attached by a take-up 
 connection and spade-handle joints to the lower pin of the disc, 
 while the steel rod passing through the sleeve to move the other 
 cut-off valve is attached to the other pin on the disc. The lever 
 and connection attachments from the governor to the rocker and 
 disc rotate either way, separating the cut-off valves or drawing 
 them nearer together, cutting off the steam earlier or later in the 
 stroke, to accommodate a varying load and pressure. 
 
 The governor is very powerful, sensitive, and positive in its ac- 
 tion, and can be driven by either belt or gearing. Should the belt 
 
160 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 shrink or slip off, the engine would continue to run the same as be- 
 fore it broke, as there would be no power to change the valves, since 
 the centrifugal force has only the clutch-back and the centre-weight 
 to lift. The driving power of the governor, when the clutches 
 are in contact, acting on a clutch attached directly to the top of 
 the screw, turns it up, and, acting on a clutch attached to the re- 
 versed gear, turns it down. It turns the screw up or down out 
 of clutch before the governor can make a revolution. 
 
 The pillow-block boxes are lined with Babbit metal, and are 
 provided with wedge- and draw-screws for the purpose of taking 
 up the wear and lost motion. The wrist- and crank-pins, valve- 
 and piston-rods, are made of steel well proportioned and well fitted. 
 The fly-wheels are turned off on the face and sides and are accu- 
 rately balanced. The Douglas engines are in very general use in 
 the Western States and Territories, and wherever used their repu- 
 tation for efliciency, durability, and economy has added to their 
 credit. 
 
 Technical Terms Applied to Different Parts of 
 Steam-Engines. 
 
 Bonnet. — This term is applied to the covers of the steam-chest 
 
 Brasses. — This term is understood to apply to the wrist- and 
 crank-pin, or connecting-rod boxes ; but it is used in connection 
 with other arrangements. 
 
 Counterbore. — A term applied to recesses in the ends of steam- 
 cylinders in the clearance space, over which the piston-rings 
 partly travel. The object of the counterbore is to prevent 
 shoulders being formed at each epd of the cylinder, which would 
 induce knocking in the engine when any changes are made in 
 the connecting-rod brasses. 
 
 Jam-nuts. — A term applied to the nuts which lock the adjust- 
 ing-screws in the piston- and valve-gear of steam-engines; but 
 jam-nuts and lock-nuts are used for many other purposes in 
 connection with the steam-engine. 
 
THE ENGINRER^S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 161 
 
 Pipe-swivel. — A long nut containing a right- and left-hand 
 thread. It is used for adjusting the valve-gear of steam-engines, 
 particularly those of the Corliss type ; but the pipe-swivel is used 
 ior many other purposes than this. 
 
 Trunk. — A term applied to the hollow tube connected with 
 the pistons of trunk engines in which the connecting-rod oscil- 
 lates. The term is just as applicable to certain other parts of 
 machinery and arrangements as to the steam-engine. 
 
 Trunnions. — A term applied to the gudgeons on which the 
 cylinders of oscillating engines vibrate ; but it may be, and often 
 is, applied to other machinery as well as oscillating engines. 
 
 Terras Formerly Applied to Dilferent Parts of Steam- 
 Engines, but whicli have become Obsolete. 
 
 Gab-lever. — A term formerly applied to an arrangement used 
 for lifting and lowering the eccentric-hook oft* and on the rocker- 
 pin. 
 
 Pitman. — A term applied to the crank-pins of steam-engines 
 in early times. 
 
 Plug -tree. — A primitive valve -gear which superseded the 
 scoggin. 
 
 Radius-bar. — A term applied to the connecting-rods of engines 
 in the early days of steam engineering. 
 
 Scoggin. — This name w^as given by the boy Potter to the ar- 
 rangement he invented for opening and closing the valves of 
 steam-engines. 
 
 j. Shackle-bar. — This term was used to denote the connecting- 
 rod of steam-engines at a period when they were generally made 
 of wood, and strapped with iron at both ends. 
 
 Spider. — The primitive name for piston-heads of steam-enginee. 
 U* L 
 
162 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Questions : 
 
 THE ANSWERS TO WHICH WILL BE FOUND IN THE TEXT. 
 
 Into what two classes are steam-engines divided, regardless of 
 design, general arrangement, etc. ? 
 
 Into what two classes are steam-engines in general sub-divided? 
 
 Explain the difference between condensing and non-condensing 
 engines, their advantages and disadvantages, and their difference 
 in useful results. 
 
 What are the advantages of compound over simple engines, and 
 
 vice versa f 
 
 State the formulae for 'estimating the power of each class of 
 engines. 
 
 Explain the difference between automatic cut-off and throt- 
 tling engines, and the advantages of the one over the other. 
 
 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of the various cut- 
 offs employed on stationary, marine, and locomotive engines. > 
 
 What are the most valuable features in any steam-engine? 
 
 What advantages are derived from duplicating the parts of' 
 
 steam-engines ? 
 
 How would you proceed to fit the crank of a steam-engine on 
 
 its shaft ? 
 
 How would you proceed to set up a stationary engine? 
 
 How would you proceed to repair a steam-engine? 
 
 What is the meaning of the term " dead-centre " ? How would 
 you proceed to find it ? 
 
 Explain the general causes of knocking in steam-engines, and 
 the remedies for the same. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 163 
 
 PART THIRD. 
 
 Bed-Plates and Housings. 
 
 The bed -plate is that part of a steam-engine which forms the 
 connection between the cylinder and the main pillow-block or 
 crank-shaft, and, in many instances, constitutes the support on 
 which they rest. They embrace a great variety of shapes and 
 forms, such as the box side bed-plate, girder-frame, etc., which 
 were all doubtless designed to meet some peculiar requirement, 
 and for each of which special advantages are claimed, the girder- 
 frame being in most favor with modern engineers. This is in 
 part due to the fact, that the necessary rigidity can be obtained 
 with less metal than in any other form, and that the strength can 
 be more equally distributed in the line of the strain, and above 
 and below it. Bed-plates are subjected to transverse in addition 
 to tensile and compression strains. 
 
 In designing a girder-frame, if it is to be supported only 
 at the ends, due allowance must be made for transverse strains 
 due to the thrust of the connecting-rod. The amount of this 
 strain may be found by dividing the greatest pressure to which 
 the piston may be subjected at mid-stroke by the quotient ob- 
 tained by dividing the connecting-rod by the crank. Thus, sup- 
 pose the area of the piston is 200 sq. inches, and it is desired to 
 give ample strength for, say 80 lbs. of steam at mid-stroke; 
 200 X 80 = 16,000 lbs., the force on the piston. Then suppose 
 the quotient obtained by dividing the connecting-rod by the crank 
 is 5 ; 16,000 -i- 5 = 3200 lbs., the pressure on the slides at mid- 
 stroke. When the engine runs over, that is, when the top of the 
 fly-wheel runs from the cylinder, the weight of the cross-head, 
 and half the weight of the connecting- and piston-rods, must be 
 added to this, and deducted when the motion is in the opposite 
 direction. 
 
164 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 When an engine runs under, a support under the frame at the 
 6lides (supposing the frame to be of the girder type) would not 
 compensate for weakness of the frame, as the thrust of the con- ^ 
 necting-rod being upwards, the upper slide would give, however 
 securely the lower one might be supported. The term housing is 
 applied to the upright frames of both land and marine engines. 
 
 The Housing.— This term is applied to the upright frame of 
 vertical engines on which the cylinder rests, and which, at its base, 
 contains the main pillow-block bearings. 
 
 Steam-Cylinders. 
 
 The cylinder is one of the most important as well as the most 
 expensive parts of a steam-engine ; it must be made of iron pos- 
 sessing the qualities of hardness and toughness, be moulded and 
 cast with great care, and bored with great accuracy. Cylinders, 
 from the moment they are put into use, have a tendency to wear 
 oblong, also to wear larger in some places than others. This in- 
 volves the necessity of reboring them, which is one of the largest 
 Items of expense incurred in the repairs of a steam-engine. 
 
 There are certain peculiarities connected with the wear of 
 steam-cylinders upon which engineers have hitherto been unable 
 to agree, among which is, why the cylinders of different engines 
 of the same size, design, and manufacture, and under the same 
 conditions, wear in opposite directions. The cylinders of some 
 horizontal engines wear more on the lower than on the upper side, 
 while others of the same size and build wear more on the sides 
 opposite the ports, and others on the sides next the ports. Nor is 
 it always the largest cylinders and heaviest pistons that wear most 
 on the lower side of the cylinder. The same peculiarities hold 
 good in relation to vertical engines. On some lines of ocean 
 steamers, where four or five of the engines were built by the same 
 manufacturing firm, and whose design, quality of material, char- 
 acter of workmanship were intended to be as much alike in every 
 respect as it was possible to make them, it was found on exami- 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 165 
 
 nation that the cylinders of all were worn oblong — some in the 
 middle, others at both ends, and others still at only one end. It 
 is a general impression among engineers, that the cylinders of very 
 large horizontal engines are more liable to wear oblong than those 
 of vertical engines of the same bore ; but experience and obser- 
 vation have proved this to be a mistaken idea. A distinguished 
 American mechanic, who has had more experience in boring out 
 the cylinders of large stationary, locomotive, and marine engines, 
 within the past ten years than any other party on this continent, 
 asserts that there is no accounting for the manner in which steam- 
 cylinders wear, and that in numerous instances he found the cyl- 
 inders of the engines of ocean steamers worn oblong, the wear 
 being as often on the sides next the ports as on those opposite. 
 He also observed in horizontal engines, with cylinders 36 inches 
 in diameter, that the wear on the bottom was hardly perceptible, 
 while it was sufficiently apparent, on either one side or the other, 
 to involve the necessity of reboring. 
 
 This is a subject worthy of study and investigation, as on it 
 depends a good deal of the economy of the steam-engine. Most 
 engineers would be inclined to think that such freaks were due to 
 a want of perfect alignment, as, with the piston, cross-head, crank- 
 pin, perfectly true with the centre-line of the cylinder, and with 
 each other, it is difficult to see why the piston should press in any 
 direction except that caused by gravity ; but most experienced 
 engineers are aware that engines that are supposed to be per- 
 fectly in line are not actually so, and a very little inaccuracy in 
 the alignment of the slides, or in the cross-head guides, may suf- 
 fice to press the piston out of centre. Even this may be aggravated 
 I by any unequal thickness of packing in the stuffing-box around 
 I the piston-rod. 
 
 Rule for finding the proper thickness for steam-cylinders. 
 
 Divide the diameter of the cylinder plus 2 by 16, and deduct 
 u j^T^th part of the diameter from the quotient ; the remainder 
 will be the proper thickness. 
 
 ^Rule for finding the required diameter of cylinder for an 
 
166 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 engine of any given horse-power, the travel of piston and avail- 
 able pressure being given. 
 
 Multiply 33,000 by the number of horse-power ; multiply the 
 travel of piston in feet per minute by the available pressure in 
 the cylinder. Divide the first product by the second ; divide this 
 quotient by the decimal '7854. The square root of the last quo- 
 tient will be the required diameter of cylinder. 
 
 Rule for finding the cubic contents of a steam-cylinder. 
 
 Multiply the area of cylinder in inches by the length of the 
 stroke in inches, and divide this product by 1728. The quotient 
 will be the number of cubic feet. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 ; HOWING THE PROPER THICKNESS FOR STEAM-CYLINDERS FROM 6 TO 90 
 
 INCHES. 
 
 Diameter 
 of 
 
 Cylinder. 
 
 Thick- 
 ness. 
 
 Diameter 
 of 
 
 Cylinder. 
 
 Thick- 
 ness. 
 
 Diameter 
 of 
 
 Cylinder. 
 
 Thick- 
 ness. 
 
 Diameter 
 of 
 
 Cylinder. 
 
 Thick- 
 ness. 
 
 6 in. 
 
 •440 
 
 28 in. 
 
 1-595 
 
 50 in. 
 
 2-750 
 
 72 in. 
 
 3-905 
 
 8 
 
 •545 
 
 30 
 
 1-700 
 
 52 
 
 2-855 
 
 74 
 
 4-010 
 
 10 
 
 •650 
 
 32 
 
 1-805 
 
 54 
 
 2-960 
 
 76 " 
 
 4-115 
 
 12 
 
 •755 
 
 34 
 
 1-910 
 
 56 " 
 
 3-065 
 
 78 
 
 4-220 
 
 14 
 
 •860 
 
 36 
 
 2-015 
 
 58 
 
 3-170 
 
 80 " 
 
 4-325 
 
 16 " 
 
 •965 
 
 38 " 
 
 2-120 
 
 6a 
 
 3-275 
 
 82 " 
 
 4-430 
 
 18 " 
 
 1-070 
 
 40 
 
 2-225 
 
 62 
 
 3-380 
 
 81 
 
 4-535 
 
 20 " 
 
 1-175 
 
 42 
 
 2-330 
 
 64 " 
 
 3-485 
 
 86 " 
 
 4-640 
 
 22 " 
 
 1-280 
 
 44 
 
 2-435 
 
 66 
 
 3-590 
 
 88 
 
 4-745 
 
 24 " 
 
 1-385 
 
 46 " 
 
 2-540 
 
 68 " 
 
 3-695 
 
 90 " 
 
 4-850 
 
 26 " 
 
 1-490 
 
 48 
 
 2-645 
 
 70 " 
 
 3-800 
 
 
 
 Rule for finding the quantity of steam any engine will use at 
 each stroke of the piston. 
 
 Multiply six times the area of the cylinder by \ the stroke, and 
 divide by 1728 ; the quotient is the cubic contents of the cylinder 
 in feet. Divide this quotient by the cut-off ^, |, or |, as the cas 
 may be ; the result will be the quantity of steam used at each 
 stroke of the piston. 
 
 Cylinder-head bolts. — There does not appear to be any un 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 167 
 
 versal rule among steam-engine builders for proportioning the 
 strength of cylinder-head bolts. In most of the prominent loco- 
 motive works in this country, eleven ^ bolts for an 18-inch cyl- 
 inder are used ; which practice is based on the assumption that 
 150 lbs. of steam pressure per square inch is the maximum strain 
 to which the area of the head can safely be subjected. Taking 
 5800 as the sectional area of each bolt, and dividing by the total 
 pressure of steam per square inch against the cylinder-head, we 
 get the area of all the bolts required. This quotient, if divided 
 by the area of one bolt, will give the whole number of bolts neces- 
 sary. 
 
 Fig. \, Fig. 3. Pig". 2. 
 
 The Babbit & Harris Steam- Piston. 
 
 Steam-Pistons. 
 
 The piston is one of the most important adjuncts of the steam- 
 engine ; all the other parts are subsidiary to it. No part of the 
 steam-engine, since its advent, has proved a greater source of an- 
 noyance to the engineer, and anxiety and waste to the steam user. 
 It is well known that only about 10 per cent, of the energy stored 
 \ip in good fuel is utilized in the best class of steam-engines ; this 
 
168 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 being a fact, however economically steam may be generated in 
 the boiler ; unless the piston is steam-tight and capable of resist- 
 ing the strains to which it is subjected, very little of the work it 
 should perform will be realized. 
 
 There are strong reasons why every portion of an engine should 
 be made as light as is consistent with strength ; but this is espe- 
 cially the case in the piston, from the rapidity of its reciprocating 
 motion and the strains induced by the momentum on the crank- 
 pin and other parts of the mechanism ; consequently, the essential 
 requirements of a good piston are strength, lightness, simplicity, 
 durability, and convenient arrangement for easy and accurate ad- 
 justment. Though the U. S. Patent-Office is literally crowded with 
 arrangements which are claimed to be improvements on all former 
 devices, it is asserted by intelligent engineers that a good piston 
 is as much of a necessity as it was in the days of Watt. Nor has 
 it ever been definitely settled which of the steam-pistons now in 
 use is best suited to all classes of engines ; nor is it at all likely 
 that any one piston will ever be able to establish its superiority 
 under all circumstances. It may be said of steam-pistons, as of 
 steam-engine governors, while they behave well in the majority 
 of cases, there are circumstances under which the very best of 
 them .utterly fail to give satisfaction. 
 
 The depth of the piston-rings, in good practice, should be about 
 J the diameter of the cylinder, and the thickness of the follower- 
 plate the same as that of the cylinder ; so that the whole thick- 
 ness of the piston will be ^ the diameter of the cylinder plus twice 
 its thickness, as obtained by the foregoing rule. The diameter of 
 the piston-rod should be from -5- to ^ that of the cylinder for high- 
 pressure engines, and ^ for condensing engines. 
 
 The cuts on page 167 show the Babbit & Harris Piston, which 
 is in very general use, and is said to be very serviceable. No. 1 
 represents the packing in its place ; No. 2 shows the junk-ring, 
 with two sections of packing out ; No. 3, the said two sections. 
 
 The inner ring of steam-piston packings, against which the 
 springs press, is termed the junk-ring. j 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-HOOK. 
 
 169 
 
 Piston-llods. 
 
 The diameter of piston-rods varies with different builders, the 
 range being between ^ and j^q the diameter of the cylinder, ac- 
 (;ording to their length and probable maximum pressure. The 
 high-pressure piston-rods of the American line of steamships are 
 about 4 the diameter of the cylinders, and the low-pressure about 
 j\. The piston-rod of the Corliss Centennial Engine was about 
 I the diameter of the cylinder. A rod y"^ the diameter would be 
 yJ(j the area of piston ; and if 100 lbs. of steam were acting on 
 the piston, the strain would be 10,000 lbs. per square-inch section 
 of rod, which is about ^ the breaking strength of good iron. 
 
 But the strain on a piston-rod is alternately tensile and com- 
 pressive. Such a siae would evidently do for such a pressure, 
 though it might not break so long as it was not subjected to any 
 undue strains from accidental causes, such as water in the cylinder, 
 etc. On the other hand, the largest size in use — I the diameter 
 of the cylinder — would be the area, on which the strain due 
 to 100 lbs. of steam would be 3600 lbs. per square-inch section, 
 which is fairly within the limits of perfect safety. But the 
 pressure on the piston is not the main consideration in deter- 
 mining the size of the rod, as accidental strains, to which it is 
 liable to be subjected, must be adequately provided for. Some of 
 these strains bear no relation to the steam pressure, so that the 
 diameter of the piston should be made the main factor in de- 
 termining the size of the rod. Bourne's rule is to multiply the 
 diameter of the cylinder in inches by the square root of the 
 pressure on the piston in pounds per square inch, and dinde 
 the product by 50. The quotient is the size of the piston-rod. 
 
 Piston-rods may be smaller in diameter than the foregoing, if 
 made of steel, and if they possess sufficient rigidity and strength 
 to resist all strains to which they may be exposed, and at the same 
 time induce less friction, do more service, with less liability to flute 
 or require returning, while the difference in first cost would be 
 ! very trifling, and that of fitting about the same. 
 15 
 
170 THE engineer's HANBY-BOOK. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OF UNITS OF HORSE-POWER FOR DIFFERENT PISTON SPEEDS. 
 
 The following table will supply any units of horse-power, be- 
 sides those already given, for any other velocity of piston by mul- 
 tiplication or division. For example, a piston of 12 inches diam- 
 eter, at 400 feet per minute, gives 1*366 horse-power for every 
 pound average pressure on each square inch, and will give one-half 
 or double this amount at speeds of 200 or 800 feet a minute. 
 
 INDICATED HORSE-POWER FOR EACH POUND AVERAGE PRESSURE 
 PER SQUARE INCH, WITH DIFFERENT DIAMETERS AND 
 SPEEDS OF PISTON. 
 
 SPEED OF PISTON IN FEET PER MINUTE. 
 
 Diane 
 
 0 
 
 Cylii 
 
 240 
 
 300 
 
 350 
 
 400 
 
 450 
 
 500 
 
 550 
 
 600 
 
 Inches. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 *091 
 
 •114 
 
 -133 
 
 -152 
 
 •171 
 
 *19 
 
 •209 
 
 •228 
 
 A 1 
 
 •115 
 
 •144 
 
 -168 
 
 •192 
 
 -216 
 
 "24 
 
 -264 
 
 -288 
 
 5 
 
 •144 
 
 •18 
 
 -21 
 
 -24 
 
 -27 
 
 -30 
 
 -33 
 
 -36 
 
 5i 
 
 '173 
 
 
 -252 
 
 -288 
 
 •324 
 
 ou 
 
 
 -432 
 
 6 
 
 •205 
 
 -256 
 
 •299 
 
 •342 
 
 •385 
 
 •428' 
 
 :471 
 
 •513 
 
 
 •245 
 
 -307 
 
 •391 
 
 •409 
 
 •461 
 
 •512 
 
 -563 
 
 -614 
 
 7 
 
 •279 
 
 -348 
 
 •408 
 
 •466 
 
 •524 
 
 •583 
 
 -641 
 
 •699 
 
 n 
 
 •321 
 
 -401 
 
 •468 
 
 -534 
 
 •602 
 
 •669 
 
 •735 
 
 -802 
 
 8 
 
 •365 
 
 -456 
 
 •532 
 
 •608 
 
 -685 
 
 •761 
 
 •837 
 
 •912 
 
 8i 
 
 •413 
 
 •516 
 
 -602 
 
 -688 
 
 •774 
 
 -86 
 
 •946 
 
 1-032 
 
 9 
 
 •462 
 
 -577 
 
 -674 
 
 •770 
 
 •866 
 
 •963 
 
 1-059 
 
 1-154 
 
 91 
 
 •515 
 
 -644 
 
 -751 
 
 •859 
 
 •966 
 
 1-074 
 
 1-181 
 
 1-288 
 
 10 
 
 •571 
 
 -714 
 
 •833 
 
 -952 
 
 1-071 
 
 1-390 
 
 1-309 
 
 1-428 
 
 101 
 
 •63 
 
 -787 
 
 •919 
 
 1-050 
 
 1-181 
 
 1-313 
 
 1-444 
 
 1-575 
 
 11 
 
 •691 
 
 -864 
 
 1-008 
 
 1-152 
 
 1-296 
 
 1-44 
 
 1-584 
 
 1-728 
 
 Hi 
 
 •754 
 
 •943 
 
 M 
 
 1-257 
 
 1-414 
 
 1-572 
 
 1-729 
 
 1-886 
 
 12 
 
 •820 
 
 1-025 
 
 1-195 
 
 1-366 
 
 1-540 
 
 1-708 
 
 1-880 
 
 2-050 
 
 13 
 
 •964 
 
 1-206 
 
 1-407 
 
 1-608 
 
 1-809 
 
 2*01 
 
 2-211 
 
 2-412 
 
 14 
 
 J^119 
 
 1-398 
 
 1-631 
 
 1-864 
 
 2-097 
 
 2-331 
 
 2-564 
 
 2-797 
 
 15 
 
 1^285 
 
 1-606 
 
 1-873 
 
 2-131 
 
 2-409 
 
 2-677 
 
 2-945 
 
 3-212 
 
 16 
 
 1^461 
 
 1-827 
 
 2-131 
 
 2-436 
 
 2-741 
 
 3-045 
 
 3-349 
 
 3-654 
 
 17 
 
 1-643 
 
 2-054 
 
 2-396 
 
 2-739 
 
 3-081 
 
 3-424 
 
 3-766 
 
 4-108 
 
 18 
 
 1-849 
 
 2-312 
 
 2-697 
 
 3-083 
 
 3-468 
 
 3-854 
 
 4-239 
 
 4-624 
 
 19 
 
 2-061 
 
 2-577 
 
 3-006 
 
 3-436 
 
 3-865 
 
 4-295 
 
 4-724 
 
 5-154 
 
 2Q 
 
 2-292 
 
 2-855 
 
 3-331 
 
 3-807 
 
 4-265 
 
 4-759 
 
 5-234 
 
 5-731 
 
 21 
 
 2-518 
 
 3-148 
 
 3-672 
 
 4-197 
 
 4-722 
 
 5-247 
 
 5-771 
 
 6-296 
 
 22 
 
 2-764 
 
 3-455 
 
 4-031 
 
 4-607 
 
 5-183 
 
 5-759 
 
 6-334 
 
 6-911 
 
THE 
 
 ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 TABLE — ( Continued.) 
 
 171 
 
 INDICATED HORSE-POWER FOR EACH POUND AVERAGE PRESSURE 
 PER SQUARE INCH, WITH DIFFERENT DIAMETERS AND 
 SPEEDS OF PISTON. 
 
 neter 
 of 
 
 nder. 
 
 
 SPEED OF 
 
 PISTON IN FEET PER MINUTE. 
 
 
 •p 5 
 
 240 
 
 300 
 
 350 
 
 400 
 
 450 
 
 500 
 
 550 
 
 600 
 
 Inches. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 3-776 
 
 4*405 
 
 5*035 
 
 5*664 
 
 6*294 
 
 6*923 
 
 < ooz 
 
 24 
 
 Q.rtQQ 
 
 4*111 
 
 4*797 
 
 5*482 
 
 6*167 
 
 6*853 
 
 7*538 
 
 Q.OOQ 
 
 0 zzo 
 
 25 
 
 6 oby 
 
 4-461 
 
 5*105 
 
 5*948 
 
 6*692 
 
 7*436 
 
 8*179 
 
 
 26 
 
 6 obi 
 
 4*826 
 
 5*630 
 
 6*435 
 
 7*239 
 
 8*044 
 
 8*848 
 
 y boz 
 
 27 
 
 A •! c:q 
 
 4 loy 
 
 5*199 
 
 6-066 
 
 6*932 
 
 7-799 
 
 8*666 
 
 9*532 
 
 1 A.QAQ 
 
 lu oyy 
 
 28 
 
 4 477 
 
 5*596 
 
 6-529 
 
 7*462 
 
 8-395 
 
 9*328 
 
 10*261 
 
 11 lyo 
 
 29 
 
 4 oUo 
 
 6*006 
 
 7-007 
 
 8*008 
 
 9-009 
 
 10*01 
 
 11*011 
 
 iz yjiz 
 
 30 
 
 At 
 
 O 141 
 
 6*426 
 
 7-497 
 
 8*568 
 
 9*639 
 
 10*71 
 
 11*781 
 
 iZ oOZ 
 
 31 
 
 0 4oo 
 
 6 '865 
 
 8-001 
 
 9*144 
 
 10*287 
 
 11*43 
 
 12*573 
 
 16 i lb 
 
 32 
 
 0 o4o 
 
 7-308 
 
 8-526 
 
 9*744 
 
 10*962 
 
 12*18 
 
 13*398 
 
 1 A 'Al A 
 
 14 bib 
 
 33 
 
 D ZlO 
 
 7-770 
 
 9*065 
 
 10*360 
 
 11*655 
 
 12*959 
 
 14*245 
 
 lo o4 
 
 34 
 
 b oy 
 
 8-238 
 
 9*611 
 
 10*984 
 
 12*357 
 
 13*73 
 
 15*103 
 
 lb 4/b 
 
 35 
 
 b yyo 
 
 8-742 
 
 10*199 
 
 11*656 
 
 13*113 
 
 . 14*57 
 
 16*027 
 
 1 / 4o4 
 
 36 
 
 7 4U1 
 
 9-252 
 
 10*794 
 
 12*336 
 
 13*878 
 
 15-42 
 
 16*962 
 
 lo OU4 
 
 37 
 
 / oiy 
 
 9*774 
 
 11*403 
 
 13*032 
 
 14*861 
 
 16-29 
 
 17*919 
 
 ly O4o 
 
 38 
 
 o Z4b 
 
 10*308 
 
 12*026 
 
 13*744 
 
 15*462 
 
 17-18 
 
 18*898 
 
 Z\j bib 
 
 39 
 
 o b4o 
 
 10*86 
 
 12*67 
 
 14*48 
 
 16*29 
 
 18-1 
 
 19*91 
 
 01 'AO 
 
 Zi xyZ 
 
 40 
 
 y loy 
 
 11*424 
 
 13*328 
 
 15*232 
 
 17*136 
 
 19-04 
 
 20*944 
 
 ZZ o4o 
 
 41 
 
 y bui 
 
 ] 2*006 
 
 14007 
 
 16*008 
 
 18*009 
 
 20-00 
 
 22*011 
 
 OA 'Al 0 
 
 z^ yjiZ 
 
 42 
 
 lU Ubo 
 
 12*594 
 
 14*693 
 
 16*792 
 
 18*901 
 
 20*99 
 
 23*089 
 
 Zo loo 
 
 43 
 
 1 A* Clii 
 
 10 Ob 
 
 13-20 
 
 15*4 
 
 17*6 
 
 19*8 
 
 22-0 
 
 24*2 
 
 Zb 4 
 
 44 
 
 11 U4b 
 
 13-818 
 
 16*121 
 
 18*424 
 
 20*727 
 
 23-03 
 
 25*333 
 
 Zt bob 
 
 45 
 
 11 obo 
 
 14-454 
 
 16*863 
 
 19*272 
 
 21*681 
 
 24-09 
 
 26*399 
 
 zb yuo s 
 
 46 
 
 iZ Uob 
 
 15-128 
 
 17*626 
 
 20*144 
 
 22*662 
 
 25-18 
 
 27*698 
 
 OA. 01 a 
 oU -lb 
 
 47 
 
 iZ bl4 
 
 15-768 
 
 18*396 
 
 21*024 
 
 23*652 
 
 26*28 
 
 28*908 
 
 01 • CO£J 
 
 ol Oob 
 
 4 O 
 
 48 
 
 Iz o4b 
 
 16-446 
 
 19*187 
 
 21*928 
 
 24*669 
 
 27*41 
 
 30*151 
 
 o2 152 
 
 49 
 
 iz yjo 
 
 17-142 
 
 19-999 
 
 22*856 
 
 25*713 
 
 28*57 
 
 31*427 
 
 01. 00 A 
 
 o4 284 
 
 50 
 
 14 
 
 17-85 
 
 20*825 
 
 23*8 
 
 26*775 
 
 29-75 
 
 32*725 
 
 00 / 
 
 51 
 
 14-832 
 
 18-54 
 
 21*665 
 
 24*76 
 
 27*855 
 
 30*95 
 
 34*045 
 
 37*08 
 
 52 
 
 15-437 
 
 19-296 
 
 22*512 
 
 25*728 
 
 28-944 
 
 32*16 
 
 35*376 
 
 38*592 
 
 53 
 
 16-041 
 
 20*052 
 
 23*394 
 
 26*736 
 
 30-078 
 
 33*42 
 
 36*762 
 
 40*104 
 
 54 
 
 16-656 
 
 20*82 
 
 24*29 
 
 27*76 
 
 31-23 
 
 34*7 
 
 38*17 
 
 41*64 
 
 55 
 
 17-275 
 
 21*594 
 
 25*193 
 
 28*792 
 
 32*391 
 
 35*99 
 
 39*589 
 
 43*188 
 
 56 
 
 17-909 
 
 22*386 
 
 26*117 
 
 29*848 
 
 33*579 
 
 37*31 
 
 41*041 
 
 44*772 
 
 57 
 
 18-557 
 
 23*196 
 
 27*062 
 
 30-928 
 
 34*794 
 
 38*66 
 
 42*526 
 
 46*392 
 
 58 
 
 19-214 
 
 24*018 
 
 28*021 
 
 32*024 
 
 36*027 
 
 40*03 
 
 44*033 
 
 48 036 
 
 59 
 
 19-902 
 
 24*852 
 
 28*994 
 
 33*136 
 
 37*278 
 
 41*42 
 
 45*562 
 
 49*704 
 
 60 
 
 20-558 
 
 25*698 
 
 29*981 
 
 34*264 
 
 38*547 
 
 42*83 
 
 47*113 
 
 51*396 
 
72 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 
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 THE ENGINEER S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
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THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 175 
 
 1 
 
 Of 
 
 Piston, Connecting-Rod, and Crank Connections. 
 An idea very generally prevails among engineers that the 
 craDk of a steam-engine travels 
 faster at one part of the stroke 
 than at the other. This is evident- 
 ly a mistake. The crank travels 
 at a uniform speed throughout its 
 revolution, but the piston travels 
 farther to make one-half its stroke 
 than the other> If the connecting- 
 rod were indefinitely long, or a 
 slotted yoke were substituted for it, 
 the movement of the piston would 
 be determined by the crank alone; 
 its points of mid-travel would cor- 
 respond exactly with the corre- 
 sponding points in the travel of the 
 crank, and the piston would occupy 
 the same position at the first and 
 last half of each stroke. But in 
 consequence of the distorting action 
 of the connecting-rod, the piston 
 travels farther during the half of 
 each stroke farthest from the crank, 
 and consequently, when the crank 
 is at its point of mid-travel, that is, 
 when it is perpendicular to the 
 axial line of the cylinder, the piston 
 is nearer the crank than its point 
 of mid-travel by an amount which 
 varies inversely with the length of 
 the connecting-rod, and which is 
 equal to the difference between the 
 base and the hypothenuse of the 
 right-angled triangle formed by the 
 
176 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 connecting-rod, crank, and the included portion of the line. Now 
 the square of the hypothenuse of a right-angled triangle is equal 
 to the sum of the squares of the other two sides. 
 
 The crank of a steam-engine moves six times as far while the 
 piston is travelling the first inch of the stroke as while it is mak- 
 ing the middle inch ; a little over twice as far while the piston is 
 moving the second inch ; a trifle over 1^ times as far while the 
 piston moves the third inch ; and less than 1^ times as far while 
 the piston is making the fourth inch. The crank also travels less 
 when the piston is making the last inch of the stroke than it does 
 while it is making the first. Another fact, not generally recog- 
 nized by inexperienced persons, is that the crank of a steam- 
 engine at certain points travels a considerable distance, while the 
 cross-head has a motion which is hardly perceptible. 
 
 Rule for finding the distance the piston is ahead of a central 
 position in the cylinder on the forward stroke, and also the dis- 
 tance which it lags behind on the backward stroke. 
 
 Subtract the square of the length of the crank from the square 
 of the length of the connecting-rod ; find the square root of the 
 diflference or remainder, and subtract it from the length of the 
 connecting-rod. The remainder will be the variation of the piston 
 from a central position when the crank is at right angles to th© 
 centre line of the engine. 
 
 Example. — Length of crank, 12 in. 
 liongth of connecting-rod, 72 " 
 Then 72^ =-5184 in. 
 12'= lU " 
 
 Diflference ^ 5040 " 
 
 x/5040 = 70-992 in.; and 
 72 
 
 70-992 
 
 1-008, which is the variation in 
 inches. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 177 
 
 The Reynolds Corliss Engine. 
 
 The cuts on pages 178, 179, represent the front and back views 
 of the Reynolds Corliss Engine. It will be observed that the 
 frame is of the girder pattern, the front end of which is faced up 
 to receive the cylinder and slides, while the back end contains 
 the pillow-block bearing; the whole being supported by three pair 
 of legs, which insures rigidity and prevents the possibility of 
 springing, in case the engine should be run at a high rate of 
 speed or loaded beyond its rated capacity. The cross-head has 
 its support on the slides, directly opposite the centre of the cross- 
 head pin, thus avoiding the springing and final breaking of piston- 
 rods, as is often the case where the support is carried back of the 
 centre of the cross-head, as is done' in most engines of this type. 
 It is provided with convenient mechanical arrangements for easy 
 and accurate adjustment in case of wear. 
 
 The valves are of such construction that they have double the 
 wearing surface ordinarily found in engines of this type. This 
 obviates the rapid wear of the seats, which must occur where the 
 wearing surfaces are small ; while, in consequence of the peculiar 
 construction of the valve-gear of these engines, they can be run 
 at any desired speed. The valves open with perfect regularity 
 and close instantaneously, which is a feature of great importance 
 in itself, especially in flouring-mills, as it admits of the line-shafting 
 being coupled directly to the engine-shaft, thus avoiding the use 
 of expensive counter-gearing, and still giving the fly-wheel sufli- 
 cient motion to properly " lead " the stone and avoid " backlash.'' 
 No springs are required on either steam- or exhaust-valves. The 
 steel catches used for opening and liberating the steam- valves are 
 so constructed and arranged as to give eight wearing faces on each 
 piece; while by unhooking the eccentric-rod, all the valves can 
 be easily moved and the engine worked by hand, which prevents 
 the liability of its catching on the centre, which is a source of 
 annoyance, especially in the case of large engines. The liberating 
 portion of the valve-gear is claimed to be an improvement on any 
 
 M 
 
180 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 other arrangement employed on any Corliss engine in use at the 
 present day. 
 
 Some of the most important features of the Reynolds Corliss 
 Engine are that they are stronger and heavier than most engines 
 of that class ; that the valves are under the complete control of 
 the governor, which is very powerful and sensitive, thus insuring 
 uniformity in speed, which is a feature of great importance for 
 milling and most other manufacturing purposes ; that the valve- 
 gear is simple and conveniently arranged for accurate adjustment ; 
 that the fly-wheel is turned on the face and sides and accurately 
 balanced ; that the wearing surfaces, whether revolving or rub- 
 bing, are ample, which prevents the possibility of rapid wear and 
 the expense of repairs ; and that the cross-head pin, crank-pin, and 
 piston-rod are made of steel, and the crank-shafts of the best ham- 
 mered iron. 
 
 The Reynolds Corliss engines are in very general use, and have 
 a well-earned reputation for durability, efficiency, and economy. 
 The condenser and air-pump are new in design, simple, and effi- 
 cient ; in fact, the whole design and arrangement of these engines 
 show them to be the result of mature mechanical deliberation. 
 They are manufactured, both condensing and non-condensing, 
 simple and compound, of any size and power, to meet the re- 
 quirements of purchasers, by Edward P. Allis & Co., Milwau- 
 kee, Wis. 
 
 Steam- and Exhaust-Pipes. 
 
 The diameter of the steam-pipe varies with leading engine 
 builders between i and | the diameter of the cylinder, the exhaust- 
 pipes being from about 30 to 50 per cent, larger. Some builders 
 make them little, if any, larger; but too small steam- and exhaust- 
 pipes are a prevailing vice amongst small builders, especially 
 those in country districts, who do not use an indicator to determine 
 their proportions. The proper diameter for steam- and exhaust- 
 pipes may be found by multiplying the diameter of the piston in 
 inches by its speed in feet per minute, and dividing the product 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 181 
 
 by 1440 for steam- and 1140 for exhaust-pipes ; the quotient will 
 be the diameter of the pipes in inches. For short and direct 
 pipes, however, the divisor may be increased to 2000 for steara- 
 and 1440 for exhaust-pipes. These latter divisors will give pro- 
 portions a trifle larger than the average, especially for exhaust. 
 
 Rock-Shafts. 
 
 Some engine builders make the diameter of the rock-shaft ] 
 
 the diameter of the crank-shaft; if subjected to torsion, it should 
 be i, and in some cases ^ , the diameter. The torsion on a shaft is 
 in proportion to the length of the arm to which the valve is at- 
 tached. About 10 times the area of the slide-valve in square 
 inches will nearly equal the force in pounds required to move it 
 under 100 pounds steam pressure, though, when dry or starting, it 
 may amount to 12 times or more. The diameter of a rock-shaft 
 may be found by the following rule. Multiply the maximum re- 
 sistance in pounds by the length of the arm which divides the 
 valve, and divide the product by 128; the cube root of the quo- 
 tient will be the diameter of the shaft in inches. The size thus 
 found will answer for ordinary wrought-iron shafts, and w^ill resist 
 greater strain than the above rule provides for. The rocker and 
 rock-shaft are being fast superseded by the guide-block. 
 
 Cross-Head Bearings. 
 
 The area of the wearing surface of a cross-head (that is to 
 say, ^ the total, above and below) should not be less than \ the 
 area of the piston, nor ever exceed i of it. Many steam-engine 
 builders make the length of the cross-head bearings § the diameter 
 of the cylinder, and their width ^\ of the same, which appears to 
 I be a good proportion, and may be ilhisirated as follows: | of a 
 ; 12 in. cylinder is 8 inches in length, and is 2^ inches in width, 
 which gives 20 sq. inches for each shoe, or 40 for both, which is a 
 1 good proportion ; but it should be slightly greater in the case of 
 
182 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 short connected engines running at a high speed. The cross-head 
 gibs are generally termed shoes, and. the grooves in which they 
 move are called Vs. 
 
 Valve-Rods. 
 
 The diameter of valve-rods varies for moderate sized engines 
 from to the diameter of the cylinder. Their diameter in 
 any case should be proportioned to the size of the valve, whether 
 it is balanced or not. If the area of the valve be considered 
 as a piston of such area, \ its diameter will bear about the same 
 relation to its maximum strain as piston-rods do ; but valve-rods 
 are generally made somewhat larger than such a rule would give, 
 because they are not so well protected against side strains as pis- 
 ton-rods. Probably, since the area of a piston-rod should be from 
 3^ Z(5 ^^^^ piston, according to its length and ma- 
 
 terial (steel may be smallest), a valve-rod should be about from 
 siir sItt unbalanced area of the valve for high-pressure 
 
 engines. 
 
 The Eccentric. 
 
 The eccentric. — An eccentric is substantially a crank, with its 
 pin enlarged in diameter so as to inclose the shaft on which it is 
 placed within its periphery. It gives exactly the same motion 
 that would be 'obtained from an ordinary crank of equal throw. 
 The eccentric is sometimes called a cam, which is erroneous, as the 
 latter is always used to obtain a motion different from what can 
 be obtained from a crank. The term " cam/' when used without 
 qualification, is indefinite, and conveys no impression of its precise 
 form or functions. It is a mechanical element of such a form 
 that a solid body held against, but not revolving with, the pe- 
 riphery of contact may have an intermittent, alternating motion. 
 
 Fore eccentric^ — A " term " applied to the eccentric, which is 
 connected by its rod to the upper part of the link, to move the! 
 valve for the forward motion ; but the reason that the forward 
 motion is derived from the upper end of the link arises from 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 183 
 
 conv^i.xie..ce, and not from necessity. The reverse conditions could 
 be introduced very easily. 
 
 Back eccentric. — The eccentric connected to the lower end of 
 the link by which the valves are adjusted for the backward motion. 
 
 Throw of the eccentric. — The "term'' throw of the eccentric 
 is understood to be the same as the travel it imparts to the valve, 
 and which is understood to be equal to the width of both steam- 
 ports with the lap added. 
 
 Angular advance of the eccentric means the angle at which it 
 stands in advance of that which it would occupy if the valve 
 were in the centre of its travel, and the crank at its centre. 
 
 The Crank. 
 
 The generally prevaler^t idea among mechanics that there is an 
 actual loss of power in the use of the crank, has stimulated in- 
 ventors to substitute for it a device that would utilize all the power 
 exerted against the piston 900. 
 without loss. As a result, the 
 
 U. S. Patent-Office, as well as C(^\ 
 those of the different coun- 
 tries of Europe, are crowded 
 with arrangements intended 
 to supersede the crank ; the 
 most popular, and conse-i8(K~'Nl";~' 
 quently the most frequently 
 resorted to, being the rotary \ 
 engine, in which the effective 
 force of the steam would be 
 constant, while in the case of 
 the crank it is intermittent ; 
 but, so far, no rotary arrangement has ever been able to compete, 
 in point of economy, with the reciprocating motion of the crank. 
 
 Strictly speaking, there is no loss of power in the use of the 
 crank, as, while there is a great variation in the power a given 
 
 ^270° 
 
 j_ 360° 
 
184 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 pressure of steam can exert at different points of the stroke, it is 
 known that when the power is least the consumption of steam is 
 least. Suppose an engine has 2-feet stroke, the piston would travel 
 4 feet for each revolution ; during each stroke the effective length 
 of the crank varies from 0 to 1 foot ; its average effective length 
 would be equal to the radius of a circle whose circumference was 
 4 feet, or 7*68 inches. The power of the engine would be the 
 same as if it acted on a constant crank of 7*68 inches, and the 
 displacement, and consequently the consumption of steam, would 
 be the same as before. 
 
 If the piston acted on a constant or average crank of 12 inches 
 in length, it must travel a distance equal to the circumference of 
 a 24-inch circle, or 63| inches. Though such an engine would 
 have proportionately more power at the same number of revolu- 
 tions, it would consume proportionately more steam. The power 
 of a crank is greatest for early cut-offs at the point at which the 
 valve closes, and for late cut-offs when it stands at right angles 
 with the connecting-rod, which point, as may be seen from the 
 cut on page 175, is not in the middle of the stroke. 
 
 An examination of the connecting-rod of an engine in motion, 
 will show that the two ends pass over different spaces in a given 
 time. If, for instance, in one stroke the end of the connecting- 
 rod that is attached to the cross-head moves through one foot, the 
 end which is attached to the crank-pin, and makes a half revolu- 
 tion in the same time, passes through 1*5708 feet. Suppose that 
 an engine is placed with its crank on the centre, and steam is ad- 
 mitted ; no motion will be produced, and consequently there will 
 be no power developed, and no expenditure of steam ; but let the 
 piston make a stroke, the power exerted is equal to the force or 
 pressure acting on the piston multiplied by the space passed 
 through, or it will be 100 foot-pounds, assuming the data previ- 
 ously given. During the same time the crank-pin has passed 
 through a space of 1'5708 feet, and the force or pressure exerted 
 has been 63*66 pounds, so that the power exerted during this time, 
 or the product of 1.5708 multiplied by 63*66, is 100 foot pounds. 
 
THE ENGINEER'S IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 185 
 
 The boss of the crank is that part into which the shaft is in- 
 serted, and which butts against the main-bearing. In comraon 
 practice, its width, when of cast-iron, is about twice the diameter 
 of the crank-shaft journal, and the width at the pin is generally 
 about twice the diameter of the pin. The section of the crank be- 
 tween the shaft and the pin is termed the web ; its area is gener- 
 ally equal to that of the crank-shaft. When the crank is round, 
 it is called a crank-plate, or disc. The only advantage that the 
 circular possesses over the ordinary form is that it affords better 
 facilities for balancing. 
 
 Crank-Pins. 
 
 Probably no part of the steam-engine more imperatively requires 
 perfection in material and workmanship than the crank-pin, if cool, 
 noiseless running is considered desirable. Yet it would be safe to 
 say that the cranks of most engines are so imperfectly fitted as to be 
 out of line with their shafts. The most frequent causes of trouble 
 with crank-pins are lack of parallelism between the pin and shaft, 
 imperfect material, untrue turning, and inadequate w^earing surface. 
 
 It is generally understood that, when a pressure exceeding about 
 800 lbs. per square inch is imposed upon a journal, lubrication 
 with oil is no longer adequate to prevent destructive wear. In 
 the case of crank-pins this limit is frequently approached, and in 
 some cases exceeded. Very few engine manufacturers make their 
 crank-pins exceed one-fourth the bore of the cylinder in diameter 
 and one-third of it in length, the majority being short of this pro- 
 portion. 
 
 Assuming this proportion, and that the rule for finding the 
 effective wearing surface of a journal is to multiply its diameter 
 by its length, a little calculation will show that the area of the 
 piston exceeds the wearing surface of the pin over 9y^^ times. 
 Then suppose the piston to be subjected to a pressure of 85 lbs. per 
 square inch, which is not unusual, the pressure on the crank-pin 
 will be 85 X 9*4 = 799 lbs. per square inch. If such a pressure 
 was constant, it is very probable that no material, perfection of 
 16^ 
 
186 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 workmanship, or lubrication would prevent the heating and speedy 
 destruction of the pin and boxes ; but in the case of the crank-pin 
 such pressures are but momentary, and do not last long enough 
 to allow destructive wear to begin. The alternating intervals of 
 no pressure assist in the necessary redistribution of the lubricant ; 
 still, when we multiply the mean pressure on the piston by the 
 number of times that its area exceeds that of the pin (tea times, 
 in many cases), the wonder will be not that so many pins giv€. 
 trouble, but that so many do not. An increase in the dimensions 
 of the pin would, it is true, proportionately diminish the pressure 
 per square inch ; but the loss of power, by the increased friction 
 thus induced, would be equally as objectionable as the evil which 
 it was intended to remove. 
 
 The length of a crank-pin should be equal to the horse-power 
 of the engine divided by the stroke; the quotient multiplied by 
 a coefficient which has been found by experiment to range from 
 1*3 to 1*5. For instance: if a crank-pin is required for an engine 
 24" X 48", capable of developing 250 Hp., then 250 -f- 48 X 1-5 
 = 7*81, or 7|f in., which is the required length. 
 
 To determine whether a crank-pin is in line with the centre of 
 the cylinder or not, put on the connecting-rod and key the box up 
 snug on the pin ; then disconnect the rod from the wrist of the 
 cross-head and move the crank round, and if the rod maintains a 
 central line in whatever position the crank may be placed, the 
 crank-pin is in line with the centre of the cylinder. This test wil> 
 also serve to prove the correctness of the boring of the pin-boxes 
 If they are not bored exactly at right angles to the centre line of 
 the rod, troubles similar to those caused by an untrue pin will 
 ensue. Another oversight not generally thought of, and which 
 causes much trouble with crank-pins, is that, in planing off the 
 stub-ends of the connecting-rod, the machinist, through ignorance 
 or inattention, planes more off one side than the other. As a re- 
 sult, every time the rod changes its position, the box will pinch on 
 the crank-pin, and cause undue heating. 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 187 
 
 Crank-Shaft Journals and Main-B(^arings. 
 
 The conditions so essential in the manufacture of crank-pins, 
 viz., good material, excellent workmanship, and accurate fitting, 
 hold good also in the case of crank-shaft journals. Unlike the 
 crank-pin, steel is not used in the case of shafts, principally in 
 consequence of its extra cost; therefore forged or rolled iron is the 
 material most generally employed. Since wrought-iron is never 
 found perfectly homogeneous, the difficulties which lie in the way 
 of a perfectly true and cylindrical journal are much greater than 
 with a steel crank-pin. 
 
 When the initial pressure on the piston is 80 lbs. per sq. inch 
 or upwards, the diameter of the crank-shaft bearing should not be 
 less than i the bore of the cylinder; and, in order to prevent 
 springing, it should be as near the centre-line as possible. Al- 
 though it will be impossible to entirely prevent springing, with 
 high speed and initial pressure, yet, by this arrangement, the lia- 
 bility to spring may be very much diminished. The length of the 
 crank-shaft journal should not be less than twice its diameter, 
 though some engine builders of good repute make them shorter. 
 The longer the journal, within reasonable limits, the more durable 
 it will be, providing the shaft does not spring, and is always per- 
 fectly in line with its bearings. But as these conditions cannot 
 be always realized for any length of time, it is not advisable to 
 attempt any greater length than the foregoing. 
 
 As the pillow-block bearing is not self-adjusting, it is of great 
 importance that it should be perfectly true with the line, so that 
 the contact of the shaft may be as nearly even as possible through- 
 out. The most general construction consists of a bottom box, side 
 and quarter boxes, adjusted by set-screws, or wedges and a cap; 
 but the simple box and cap, parted at an angle of about 30° from 
 the perpendicular, with its bolts as short as possible consistent 
 with requisite strength, possess the important advantages that they 
 do not tighten on the journal when it begins to heat, as is the case 
 with many of the ordinary forms in use, and that at that angle 
 
188 
 
 THE engineer's IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 the compensation, both horizontal and vertical, may be better pro- 
 vided for. The outer pillow-block bearing being subjected to less 
 severe wear, does not require the same care in its proportions and 
 finish, but should not, for that reason, be slighted. 
 
 Keys, Gibs, and Straps. 
 
 The key, gib, and strap are the most simple and effective me- 
 chanical devices which could be employed for securing the con- 
 necting-rods of steam-engines to the wrist- and crank-pins, and 
 taking up the lost motion in the boxes, as they possess sufficient 
 strength without extra weight of material, and facilitate quick and 
 easy adjustment. There is quite a wide difference of opinion among 
 builders in proportioning the keys, gibs, and straps of their en- 
 gines. Some make the thickness of both straps on the connecting- 
 rod ^ the diameter of the crank-pin, and their width about | the 
 length of the pin ; while others make the width of their straps 
 three times their thickness, and the area of the cross-section at the 
 mortise equal to the area of the smallest part of the connecting- 
 rod ; while others, still, make them equal in strength to the weakest 
 point in the piston-rod, which they undoubtedly should be in any 
 case. It has been customary, heretofore, to make straps thinner 
 at the yoke than at the mortise ; but this has been partly aban- 
 doned, as the amount of material saved was insignificant, while 
 the extra work was considerable. The depth of the gib and key 
 in a good engine is generally about three times their thickness, 
 and the taper at about 1 in ten ; though it ranges all the way 
 from the latter to 1 in 24, 1 in 15 being about the average. It is 
 customary in some instances, as in the case of marine engines, 
 locomotives, and other fast-running engines, to pass a bolt, and in 
 some cases two, through the stub-end and straps, as a precaution 
 against accidents ; the holes in the straps being the exact size of 
 the bolt, while those in the stub are slotted, for the purpose of 
 admitting of adjustment by the key and gib. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-HOOK. 189 
 
 The Link. 
 
 The link-motion is an arrangement of valve-gear for reversing 
 engines and varying the rate of expansion. It consists of two 
 eccentrics, with straps and rods. The eccentrics are so placed 
 that when one is in the right position for the engine to move for- 
 ward, the other is in the position for moving backward ; and by 
 raising or lowering the link, motion will be communicated to the 
 valve and the engine will move backward or forward. The re- 
 sult of this combination is that the link receives a reciprocating 
 motion in its centre ; since, when one eccentric is moving the end 
 of the link in one direction, the other is moving the other end in 
 the other direction ; so that the link will have nearly the same 
 motion communicated to it as if it were suspended from a pivot 
 at its centre. 
 
 The horizontal motion communicated to the link by the joint 
 action of the eccentrics, is a minimum at the centre of its length, 
 where it is equal to twice the linear advance, and it increases to- 
 wards the extremities of the various periods of the block in the 
 link, or of the link on the block, on the general principle that 
 admission varies with the travel of the valve. The nature of the 
 motion derived from the link is modified by the positions of the 
 
190 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 working centres, and most especially of the centres of suspension 
 and connection. The centre of suspension is the most influential 
 of all in regulating the admission, and its transition horizontally 
 is much more efficacious than a vertical change of place to the 
 same extent, inasmuch as the vertical movement of the body of 
 the link, with the consequent slip between the link and the block, 
 is the least possible when the suspended centre lies in the centre 
 line of the link, and increases as the centre is moved laterally. 
 The centre line of the link is therefore, in this respect, the most 
 favorable location for the suspension, even though it be not always 
 practicable for equal admissions. 
 
 The amount of travel communicated to the valve depends upon 
 the distance the block is from the centre of the link. By moving 
 the link up or down on the block, the travel of the valve will 
 either be increased or decreased ; and since the travel of the valve 
 is the measure of the lap, to reduce the travel is tantamount to 
 increasing the lap, and also the lead. Thus the link-motion be- 
 comes an expedient for regulating the amount of expansion with 
 which the engine works. Though it may be claimed by some 
 that cutting off by the link has a tendency to affect the exhaust, 
 it does not do so to any injurious extent, as the later opening of 
 the exhaust is a positive advantage, as it balances the resistance 
 due to the early admission of the steam at the other end, before the 
 engine has reached the end of the stroke. It will be seen, for the 
 foregoing reasons, that the link is a perfect expansion-gear, as, 
 when in full stroke, it is superior, in many respects, to most other 
 cut-off devices, since, while the lead is increased as the travel of 
 the valve is decreased, or, in other words, as the link is lifted to- 
 wards the centre, and the supply of steam cut off at an earlier 
 point in the stroke, the lead becomes a positive advantage, as it 
 serves as a cushion to the piston when its reciprocating motion is 
 rapid, as is frequently the case. 
 
 The ease and facility with which the link may be handled is 
 another very important feature in its favor. In fact, what could 
 we do without it when handling engines, especially large locomo- 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-liOOK. 
 
 191 
 
 tives or marine engines, which have of necessity to run backwards 
 with the same ease, speed, and facility as they run ahead? The 
 link is a splendid mechanical conception, and one of the greatest 
 improvements that has ever been made in the locomotive, marine 
 engine, or any other class of motors requiring a reversing gear. 
 
 The radius of the link is the distance from the centre of the 
 driving-axle, or shaft on which the eccentric is located, to the 
 centre of the link ; while the link itself is a segment of the circle 
 of that diameter. The length may be longer or shorter ; but any 
 variation from these proportions will give more lead at one end 
 than at the other while working steam expansively ; but the ra- 
 dius may be several inches shorter or longer, without materially 
 affecting the motion. The vital point in designing a valve link- 
 motion is the point of suspension of the link. If it is suspended 
 from the centre, it will invariably cut off steam sooner in the 
 front stroke than in the back stroke, while working expan- 
 sively. 
 
 The nearer the block is brought to either end of the link, the 
 greater will be the travel of the valve, and the more the steam 
 and exhaust will be opened. The term " full-gear forward means 
 that the link is dropped to its full extent ; while " full-gear back- 
 ward means that the link is lifted to its full extent. When the 
 link-block stands directly under the saddle-plate, both ports are 
 closed, and neither admission nor exhaust can take place. The 
 distance between the block and the end of the link when in full- 
 gear is termed the clearance. 
 
 In the Walschaert link-motion, which was used on one or two 
 of the small engines at the -Centennial Exposition, the mid-gear 
 movement was derived directly from the cross-head, while the end, 
 or full-gear, movement was derived from a single eccentric, or a 
 return crank, from the main crank-pin. The middle of the link 
 IS stationary, and, of itself, imparts no motion to the valve ; but 
 between the link and valve is an arrangement for imparting a 
 reduced and reversed copy of the piston movement to the valve, 
 which movement, being always present, modifies that of the ec- 
 
192 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 centric at all points, giving it the effect of angular advance, which 
 is not given to the eccentric in the case of the ordinary link-mo- 
 tion. 
 
 Lifting and stationary links. — The lifting-link is raised and 
 lowered to effect the changes it is designed to perform ; while in 
 the stationary link the block, instead of the link, is shifted. In 
 the stationary link but one eccentric is generally used, the throw 
 of which corresponds to the middle of the ordinary link ; for this 
 reason, more mischief would be caused by any lost motion in the 
 eccentric straps or other connections. Moreover, it does not allow 
 of ready, independent adjustment of the backward and forward 
 motion in full gear. 
 
 Fly-Wheels. 
 
 The object of the fly-wheel is to equalize the motion whenever 
 either the power communicated or the resistance to be overcome 
 is variable. In the one case, the fly-wheel may be said to be a 
 distributor of power. The complicated impulses, acting on the 
 mass in motion, preserve the momenta, without disturbing the 
 regularity of movement. The effect of one impulse is so absorbed 
 or distributed in the momentum of the wheel, that it may be said 
 to have hardly been diminished before the next impulse is re- 
 ceived. 
 
 In the other case, or where the fly-wheel is used to overcome a 
 variable resistance, it may be considered a conservator of power. 
 The power having been exerted in getting up the speed, is retained 
 in the moving mass, and the whole of the powder expended, with the 
 exception of that which has been lost through friction and resist- 
 ance of the air, can be brought to bear at any instant upon the 
 resistance to be overcome. When the crank and connecting-rod 
 are in one straight line, as they must be twice in each revolution, 
 the crank is said to be on its dead-centre, because there the 
 force of the piston is dead or ineffective. It is evident that, when 
 the crank is at right angles to the connecting-rod, the latter is 
 exerting the maximum of power; but when the forward or back- 
 
Tin: engineer\s handy-book. 193 
 
 ward dead-centre is reached, the crank would remain there, hut 
 for the action of the fly-wheel, which, by its accumulated momen- 
 tum, carries it over the dead-centre. 
 
 Thus, through the momentum of the fly-wheel, no perceptible 
 variation occurs in the velocity of the engine ; the unequal le- 
 verage of the connecting-rod is corrected, and a steady and uni- 
 form motion produced. The fly-wheel, as before stated, is a 
 regulator and reservoir, and not a creator of motion. The ac- 
 cumulated velocity in the fly-wheel, where the motion is required 
 to be excessively equable, should be about six times that of the 
 engine when the crank is horizontal. As regularity of motion is 
 of much greater importance in some cases than in others, the 
 weight and diameter of the fly-wheel must depend on the work 
 and the character of the machinery it is intended to drive ; so 
 that, in proportioning a fly-wheel to a given engine, attention must 
 be paid to many particular circumstances rather than to any given 
 rule. There are circumstances in which the use of a fly-wheel 
 may be dispensed with, as where a pair of engines work side by 
 side, whose cranks are at different angles, so that one assists the 
 other to pass the centres, or where smoothness of motion is not an 
 absolute necessity. 
 
 Rule for finding the proper weight of the fly-wheels of steam- 
 engines. 
 
 Divide the constant number 7,000,000 by the square of the 
 number of revolutions per minute, and by the diameter of the 
 wheel in feet. The quotient will be the number of pounds per 
 horse-power required in the rim of the wheel. 
 
 The above rule is correct, so far as it recognizes the fact that 
 the efficacy of a fly-wheel increases with the square of its velocity 
 and with its diameter. The constant number is found by taking 
 some engine whose fly-wheel is known to be right at a given load, 
 dividing its weight by the horse-power developed, and multiplying 
 the quotient by the square of the number of revolutions per min- 
 ute, and by the diameter. When so found, it will give correct 
 results for all other engines of the same class doing similar work. 
 17 N 
 
194 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 This constant number must not, however, be regarded as arbi- 
 trarily fixed. It will give the weight of the wheels near enough 
 for automatic cut-off engines. 
 
 The Watertown Automatic Cut-Off Engine. 
 
 The cut on the opposite page represents the Hampson Auto- 
 matic Cut-Off Engine, the bed-plate of which, as will be observed, 
 is of the box pattern ; the metal in which is so distributed as to 
 combine strength, stiffness, and rigidity, without extra weight. 
 The steam-cylinder and main pillow-block and guides are at- 
 tached to the bed-plate in such a manner as to prevent the 
 possibility of becoming loose when the engine gets out of line. 
 As the steam-chest is the full length of the cylinder, with the 
 ports opening directly from it into the clearance, it enhances the 
 value of these engines very much, as it obviates the waste induced 
 by long steam-ports. 
 
 The valve-geap receives its motion from two eccentrics on the 
 main shaft, the one next the pillow-block being connected with 
 the main valve, which is an ordinary slide-valve, with this ex- 
 ception — that the steam, instead of passing in at the ends of it, 
 
 Pi^. 1. 
 
 enters through it by means of ports, as shown at C D, Fig. 1. 
 H represents the back of the main valve, which is also the seat 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK, 195 
 
196 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 of the cut-off valve, G, F represents the stem of the main valve, 
 and B the stem of the cut-off valve, which is continued on through 
 the end of the steam-chest, and is held steady when the engine is 
 working by means of a horn at A, The reader will notice that 
 there is a rack cut in the back of the cut-off, which engages the 
 teeth of a small wheel on the valve-stem, and from this device any 
 one would soon come to the conclusion that the adjustment of the 
 cut-off is accomplished by rolling the valve-stem. This, as a matter 
 of course, will raise and lower the cut-off valve by means of the 
 rack and pinion, thereby opening the ports. 
 
 The governop, which is very powerful and sensitive, embodies 
 some peculiarities of design and construction not common in govern- 
 ors, inasmuch as the point of suspension, instead of being on the same 
 side of the spindle as the ball, is carried over to the opposite side, * 
 thereby greatly increasing its power and sensitiveness. Directly 
 under the governor there is a disc on the valve-stem, with teeth • 
 cut on the periphery about half the circumference, and these teeth 
 engage a rack connected with the governor-spindle. Consequently, 
 as the balls of the governor rise and fall, a proportional movement 
 will be transmitted to the cut-off valve. To determine the point 
 at which the engine is cutting off when running, the plain part of 
 the disc, which is connected with the governor and valve-stem, has 
 marks and figures upon it, each mark indicating a point in the 
 length of the stroke. There is a point which coincides with these 
 marks, and can be seen under the pulley attached to the governor. 
 To increase or diminish the speed, a counterweight is attached to 
 the end of the governor-spindle, under the steam-chest. 
 
 These engines possess many excellent features. The bearings 
 are well proportioned and all the parts thoroughly fitted ; the 
 fly-wheels are turned on the face and sides and accurately bal- 
 anced ; the connecting-rod and crank-shafts are made of the best 
 hammered wrought-iron ; the crank- and wrist-pins are made of 
 steel ; the connecting-rod boxes of gun-metal, and the main-bear- 
 ings lined with the best anti-friction metal ; while the cylinder is 
 cast of car-wheel iron, and jacketed to prevent radiation. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 197 
 
 Steam-Engine Governors. 
 
 The subject of regulating the speed of steam-engines, and 
 
 more especially those which, from circumstances and the nature 
 of the work to be performed, are liable to constant change, has of 
 late years received no little attention from engineers and practical 
 inventors, and as a result various kinds of governors have been 
 introduced. It would be safe to say that this device has absorbed 
 more thought, and re- 
 ceived more attention 
 on the part of mechan- 
 ics, than any other ad- 
 junct of the steam-en- 
 gine. In the ordinary 
 governor, the principal 
 part of the apparatus 
 consists of a pair of 
 balls revolving round 
 a vertical axis or spin- 
 dle driven by a train 
 of .mechanism, gener- 
 ally mitre-gears, which 
 causes their angular ve- 
 locity of revolution to 
 bear a fixed ratio to the 
 velocity of the prime 
 mover. The rods of 
 the pendulums place 
 themselves at an an- 
 gle with the vertical 
 axis, so that the common height of the pendulums is that corre- 
 sponding to the number of turns in a second. The regulator must 
 be so adjusted as to be in the proper position for supplying the 
 proper amount of power when the pendulum-rods are at the angle 
 of inclination corresponding to the proper speed of .the machine^ 
 17* 
 
 The Waters Governor. 
 
198 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 When the speed deviates above or below that amount, the out- 
 ward or inward motion of the pendulum-rods acts on the spindle, 
 so as to open the valve when the speed is too low, and close it 
 when it is too high. 
 
 In the attainment of this object, the principle of centrifugal 
 force, as embodied in the old fly-ball governor of Watt, has been 
 more resorted to than any other; but, aside from this, the governor 
 has been so improved, altered, and reconstructed, since his time, 
 as to be almost unrecognizable ; but still the old principle is 
 there, and also the three prominent defects which so materially 
 interfere with its efficiency. The first of these is friction which 
 arises from the joints, and is caused by swinging the balls or 
 weights by the short end of the arm or lever to which they are 
 attached. The second defect is due to the fact that the balls, as 
 they assume different positions in keeping with the speed with 
 which they revolve, are obliged to rise or fall. This is necessary 
 in order that the resistance which the weights offer to centrifugal 
 force should constantly increase; if it did not so increase, the 
 weights, when once started from their position of rest, would in- 
 stantly go to the extreme limit of motion. The rising of the balls 
 shortens the distance which they are allowed to move for a given 
 variation by bringing the centres of ball and *arm on which they 
 swing into a straight line, so that a variation which moves the 
 balls a given distance upward, if it occurs again, will not move 
 them nearly so far in the same direction. Again, the same force 
 that would support the balls in any plane would not raise them 
 to that plane from a lower one. So between friction, which de- 
 stroys the delicate power that the balls assume under a slight 
 change, and the necessity for a large change to overcome their 
 inertia, it is almost impossible to attain a degree of regulation 
 which would be equal to all requirements. 
 
 Governors when attached to throttle- valves work under cir- 
 Tjumstances that necessitate the use of openings for the passage of 
 the steam that are too small in area, so much so that the useful 
 effects of the steam are considerably diminished. On this depends 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 199 
 
 the ill repute of throttling engines as compared with those which 
 regulate by governor controlled valve motions or variable cut-off. 
 If the valve of a governor has too large openings, it will, owing 
 to the unsteady action of the governor, admit too large a quantity 
 of steam, and cause a jumping of the engine; then, m trying to 
 shut off this extra amount, it shuts it all off; in fact, the governor 
 cannot fix it exactly right, being incapable of delicate changes. 
 This difficulty is best met by making the openings in the valve 
 of peculiar shape, so that they open and close in a ratio different 
 from that of the governor. With a governor that would run per- 
 fectly up to theory, and be steady and capable of taking a posi- 
 tion in keeping with the speed, 
 and not leaving it without a 
 change in speed, , a very large 
 area might be used, and the 
 useful effects of the steam would 
 not be impaired, neither would 
 there exist a necessity for great 
 changes in speed to get the re- 
 quired opening and closing of 
 the valve. The extra amount 
 of steam required to drive a 
 heavy addition of load on an 
 engine is surprisingly small, 
 provided that the engine can get 
 the steam at the very instant the 
 load is applied, and before the 
 momentum of the machinery 
 becomes much reduced; but 
 let the engine once get below 
 speed, the circumstances will 
 be very different, as, even with- 
 out any load, the engine would take some time to come to speed. 
 
 The third defect in governors on throttling engines is that the 
 spindle or valve-stem has of necessity to pass through steam-tight, 
 
 The Shive Governor. 
 
200 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 packing' or stuffing-boxes, which have to be screwed up to pre- 
 vent leakage, without any guide save the judgment of the en- 
 gineer, which increases the friction and interferes with the free 
 action of the governor. There is also the friction on the governor- 
 valve necessary to overcome the power required to move the 
 valve-stem through all its bearings, stuffing-boxes, guides, etc., 
 under the pressure of steam. Were it possible to construct a 
 governor for throttling engines which would approach in practice 
 what theory would demonstrate, the fly-ball or centrifugal gov- 
 ernor would be a perfect regulator; but this appears, according to 
 mechanical laws, to be impossible. By the use of isochronous 
 governors, which would not admit of any variation of speed, but 
 would be in equilibrium at any speed, whether the balls were up 
 or down, or in any other position, the defects of the common gov- 
 ernor were supposed to be obviated; but it was found by expe- 
 rience that power and stability were necessary, and isochronism 
 in its strict sense unattainable. 
 
 The economy of a good governor has rarely been appreciated 
 by owners of steam-engines and steam-users. Experience has 
 shown the speed best adapted for each and every process in the 
 manufacturing and mechanical arts, and the governor that fails 
 to meet all the varied requirements of each process is of no value 
 in an economical point of view. Every stroke which an engine 
 makes below its regular speed increases the cost of production, 
 and every stroke above it is a waste of steam, and consequently 
 of fuel. If an engine is geared to run at 80 revolutions per 
 minute, when a heavy piece of machinery is thrown off*, the 
 governor admits of an increase of speed of from 10 to 15 revolu- 
 tions per minute. This incurs a waste of power, and consequently 
 a waste of from 12 to 20 per cent, of fuel. On the other hand, 
 when a heavy piece of machinery is thrown on, the governor 
 allows the engine to lag behind its regular speed by from 10 to 15 
 strokes per minute; this increases the cost of production. If a gov- 
 ernor is unreliable, it is worthless; if reliable, its first cost is merely 
 a nominal consideration. There are many processes, such as mill- 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-HOOK. 
 
 201 
 
 ing, weaving delicate fabrics, printing from small type, or the very 
 accurate turning of fine material, where a good governor is of 
 immense value. Unfortunately for the progress of the mechanical 
 arts, no governor yet invented has met all the necessary require- 
 ments, or the varied circumstances under which they are employed. 
 
 Governors are sometimes attached to marine engines for the 
 purpose of equalizing the revolutions in heavy sea-ways, and pre- 
 venting the engines from racing, which is caused by an insufficient 
 immersion of the paddle-wheels or propellers, and which may be 
 ascribed either to the lightness of the load or the heavy swell 
 of the sea. But from whatever cause racing may occur, it is 
 always attended with danger, as the undue strain to which the 
 machinery is subjected is liable to result in a breakdown. Marine 
 governors have not proved a success up to the present time, nor 
 has any one yet been invented which may be adapted to all classes 
 of marine engines. 
 
 Governors should be kept perfectly clean and free from accu- 
 mulations induced by the use of inferior oil, as such gummy sub- 
 stances have a tendency to interfere with the easy movement of 
 the diflferent parts. Many first-class regulators have been con- 
 demned as not being capable of controlling the engine at a uniform 
 speed, when all that was required was a good cleaning. 
 
 Governor-spindles working through stuffing- boxes should be 
 frequently and carefully packed, as, when the packing becomes 
 old and dry, if screwed up to prevent leakage, it interferes with 
 the free action of the governor. 
 
 Rules for calculating the size of pulleys for governors. — To find 
 the diameter of the governor shaft-pulley. Multiply the number of 
 the revolutions of the engine by the diameter of the engine shaft- 
 pulley, and divide the product by the number of revolutions of 
 the governor. 
 
 To find the diameter of the engine shaft-pulley, — Multiply the 
 number of revolutions of the governor by the diameter of the 
 governor shaft-pulley, and divide the product by the number of 
 revolutions of the engine. 
 
202 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 How to Balance the Reciprocating and ReyoMng Parts of 
 Vertical Engines. 
 
 If the counterweight be so arranged as to describe a circle of 
 the same radius as that of the crank-pin, it must be as heavy as 
 the piston, connecting-rod, and crank-pin ; but if it has a greater 
 circle than that of the crank-pin, it may weigh less than the 
 piston and its connections ; the only material condition being, that 
 the momentum, or amount of mechanical power resident in the 
 counterweight when moving in one direction, shall balance the 
 momentum of the piston and its connections when moving in the 
 opposite direction. 
 
 When a vertical engine runs slow, the weight of the piston 
 and piston-rod, cross-head, connecting-rod, and crank-pin must be 
 counterbalanced so that it will stand still in any position ; but 
 when the speed is very high, it is necessary to counterbalance 
 only such parts as revolve round the centre of the shaft, the crank- 
 pin, the stub-end, and half the connecting-rod. It is customary 
 to give more steam-lead on the valve at the bottom than at the 
 top of the cylinder in order to compensate for the weight of the 
 piston. • 
 
 Heating in Journals and Reciprocating Parts of Steam- 
 
 Engines. 
 
 Heating in the journals and reciprocating parts of steam- 
 engines may be attributed to the following causes : bad proportion, 
 improper fitting, unsuitable material, want of homogeneity between 
 the materials of which the journals and bearings are composed, 
 the reciprocating or revolving parts being out of line, the boxes 
 being screwed down or keyed up too tight, dirt, sand, or grit get- 
 ting into the journals, want of proper lubrication, etc. The last 
 mentioned cause is much more complicated than would at first 
 sight appear, as there are many conditions to be taken into con- 
 sideration, among which may be enumerated weight of load, area 
 of surface subjected to pressure, velocity of movement, etc. 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 203 
 
 Reversing-Gear for Marine Engines. 
 
 In the early days of the steam-engine, the only reversing- 
 gear in use was the V hook, which was very imperfect, uncertain, 
 and unreliable in action and 
 difficult of adjustment, and, 
 in consequence of its action 
 being positive, steam could 
 not be worked expansively 
 on engines on which it was 
 employed. A more modern 
 arrangement was the loose 
 eccentric, which, in conse- 
 quence of the eccentric-hook 
 being thrown out of gear, 
 moved half-way round on the 
 shaft whenever it became 
 necessary to reverse the en- 
 gine. The most perfect re- 
 versing and expansion gear 
 ever employed in connection 
 with the steam-engine is the 
 link. 
 
 A A shows the bed-plate; 
 B, the pillow-block bearing; 
 Z), the shaft; EE, the eccen- 
 tric-rods ; C, the connecting-rod ; the link ; G, the cross-head 
 wrist; J, the bonnet of steam-chest; I the steam-cylinder; K, 
 the cylinder-head ; L, the steam-pipe ; J/, the front column which 
 supports the cylinder ; JV, the reach-rod ; 0, the reverse arm of 
 the bell-crank by which the link is moved back and forth ; P, the 
 lifting arm ; JB, the screw by means of which the link is reversed ; 
 S Sy the guides through which the spindle of the screw, i?, moves ; 
 Q, the hand- wheel by which the lifting arm, P, is moved up or 
 down for the purpose of changing the position of the link. 
 
204 
 
 THE ENGINEEk's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 205 
 
 The Slide-Valve. 
 
 The function of the common slide-valve is to admit steam to 
 the piston at such times when its force can be usefully expended 
 in propelling it, and to release it when its pressure in the 
 cylinder is no longer required. Notwithstanding its extreme 
 simplicity as a piece of mechanism, no part of the engine is more 
 puzzling to the average engineer when the problem to be solved 
 is to determine beforehand the results which will be produced 
 by a given construction and adjustment, or the proportions and 
 adjustment required to produce given results. All who have had 
 any experience in constructing and setting slide-valves are aware, 
 in a general way, that the events of the stroke cannot be inde- 
 pendently adjusted; that, for instance, a cut-off earlier than about 
 three-fourths of the stroke can only be had at the expense of more 
 or less distortion of the other events, and that for some reason, not 
 always apparent, it is impossible to completely equalize the events 
 gf the two strokes, occurring during one revolution. 
 
 But hitherto no simple means have been given by which to de- 
 termine exactly the degree in which a given change in any event 
 affects the rest. There is no lack of literature on the subject, but 
 the manner in which it is generally treated is calculated to be- 
 wilder the average reader more than to assist him ; to invest the 
 subject with additional difficulties rather than to simplify it. The 
 manner in which the slide-valve performs its functions cannot be 
 at once perfectly shown without the aid of a working model, but 
 a considerable step may be taken in this direction by the con- 
 struction and study of diagrams similar to the following. It 
 should be understood, however, that the measurements given of 
 lead, cut-off, compression, etc., are only approximately correct ; the 
 object being to give the methods by which correct results may be 
 obtained rather than the results themselves. 
 
 Fig. I, page 207, represents the position of the piston and valves 
 
 Iat the beginning of the stroke, when the latter is just commencing 
 to open. The motion of both, as will be observed, is to the left. 
 18 
 
206 
 
 THE ENGINEEK'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Fig. 2 shows the relative position of the piston and valve 
 at about i of the stroke ; supposing the travel to be equal to the 
 sum of the width of both steam-ports and the steam-lap at both 
 ends, so that the ports will be just opened full for the steam, the 
 valve will be moving to the left. When the piston reaches the 
 left end of its stroke, the valve will have moved to the right till 
 it begins to admit steam, at the left hand end, just as Fig. 1 shows 
 the admission taking place at the other end, and during the return 
 stroke, the conditions represented by Figs. 2 and 3 will follow in 
 succession, at nearly corresponding points in the travel of the 
 pistons. If the piston was connected to the crank by means of a 
 slotted yoke, the events of the two strokes would occur at exactly 
 corresponding points in the travel of the piston, but the connecting- 
 rod unavoidably introduces a certain amount of distortion, the 
 nature and extent of which will be explained hereafter. Fig. 3 
 shows the position of the valve at mid-travel, or when if of 
 the stroke is complete. The compression at the left end towards 
 which the piston is moving has just commenced, and the exhaust 
 is about to take place from the other end. The events which occur 
 in connection with the slide-valve, viz., admission, suppression, re- 
 lease, and compression, may be explained as follows: — To find 
 the cut-off, exhaust, exhaust-closure, port-openings, and angular 
 advance which will be produced by a given lap, lead, and valve- 
 travel, the lead and laps being equal at the two ends. Suppose 
 the 'data to be as follows : valve-travel 2| in., lap j% lead m, 
 stroke of engine 24 inches. _ 
 
 Draw the circle AFB (?, etc., the diameter of which may, 
 when tlie engine is of considerable size, be equal to the travel of 
 the valve, as in the present case. Draw the line A B through 
 the centre of the circle, continuing it beyond 5 to a distance 
 nearly equal to three times the distance A B. With the given 
 lap in the compasses, draw short arcs of circles at D and E from 
 the centre, C. Draw lines a 6 and e d, parallel to each other, 
 touching the arcs D and E, equidistant from the intersections ot 
 the line A B, with the circle equal to the given lead, bet the 
 
THE ENGINEEr\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 207 
 
 compasses to a distance which will be to -4 jB as the connecting- 
 rod is to the stroke of the engine, which in the present case is 
 about 7i in. ; and with the foot in the continuation of the line A 
 By draw arcs b e and df, which will locate the points of cut-off,/ 
 aifd e on line A B, which represents the stroke of the engine as 
 well as the travel of the valve. By constructing and applying a 
 scale, such as Fig. 1, in which the travel of the valve is divided 
 
 L 
 
 I I I 1 f I M h t M I [ I I I 1 I I I 
 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 into as many parts as there are inches in the stroke of the piston, 
 1 it is found that, as the piston moves from the shaft, the cut-off, e, 
 I takes place at 18| inches from Ay and the other, /, at 19| inches 
 
 from By making an inequality of li inches. 
 
 If the valve has no exhaust-lap at either end, working "line oc 
 
208 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 line," as it is sometimes called, draw line k I through the centre 
 C, and parallel to a 6 and c d, and from ^ and ^ draw arcs k h 
 and / as directed for the arcs d f and b e, which will locate the 
 points of exhaust and exhaust-closure at h and g, about lA and 
 inches respectively from the ends of the stroke. A represents 
 the end of the stroke nearest the crank ; and it will be observed 
 that the events occurring nearest that end are later in the stroke 
 
 L 
 
 A 
 
 / ^\ 
 
 yy 
 
 
 9 \b 
 
 a' 
 
 IT 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 than corresponding events at the other end, which will always be 
 the case when the laps are equal at the two ends of the valve. 
 The port-openings will he D F and EG; F L will be the angular 
 advance. 
 
 To equalize the cut-off. — By inspection of Fig. 1, it is evident 
 that if line a 6 be moved towards the centre, 0, the arc b e will 
 approach B, and cut-off e, which is earliest, will be made later 
 
THE engineer's HANDy-BOOK. 
 
 209 
 
 In like manner if line c d he moved farther from the centre, cut- 
 (iff / will be made earlier. These changes represent increased 
 lead at A and diminished lead at B. In constructing a diagram, 
 however, representing a given equalized cut-off, it will be prefer- 
 able to begin by locating the points of cut-off at the desired part 
 of the stroke, say three-fourths, as at / e, Fig. 2, from which points 
 draw the arcs e b and / d. Then, as inspection of Fig. 1 has shown 
 
 z 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 A 
 
 hi 
 
 f m\ 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 B 
 
 a 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 
 
 that the lead at B required diminishing, the lead at that end may 
 be rejected altogether, which will be represented by drawing a line 
 from d to B, Then a line from h parallel to it will cut the circle 
 at a, indicating that over of an inch lead will be required at 
 that end (nearest the crank as before explained), against none at 
 the other to equalize the cut-off at three-fourths stroke. From 
 this it will be seen that the cut-off can only be equalized at the 
 expense of the equality of the lead. 
 18* * O 
 
210 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 To equalize the exhaust at a given part of the stroke. Sup- 
 pose the desired point be H inches from the end; set off the 
 points at h g, Fig. 2, and draw arcs, h H and g G, as before 
 directed. Then supposing the angular advance, F L, and with it 
 the lines, a b and B d, to have been fixed, draw HI and G J 
 parallel to a 6 and B d, and from points / and J draw arcs / i 
 and Jj, which will locate the points of exhaust-closure aty and i. 
 The distance, C K, will be the exhaust-laps required at the end 
 of the valve next the crank, and the distance of line, I from 
 centre, (7, will be the negative lap (^. e,, the amount less than no 
 lap) required at the other end. To determine whether the dis- 
 tance of a line indicating the exhaust-lap (as I H) from the 
 centre indicates positive or negative lap, observe the effect of in- 
 creasing its distance from the centre. If the exhaust located by- 
 it at one end should be made earlier, and the exhaust-closure 
 located by it at the other end made later, the lap indicated by it 
 is negative. Thus, to move J^f farther from (7 would make ex- 
 haust h earlier and exhaust-closure i later; hence it indicates 
 negative lap. The reverse effect would follow by moving G J 
 farther from the centre ; hence C^is positive lap. 
 
 Fig. 3. To compromise between unequal lead and cut-off. — 
 The lead inequality shown to be necessary, in order to obtain 
 equal cut-off*, may be in some cases so undesirable as to render 
 only a partial equalization of the cut-off* preferable. Fig. 3 
 shows such a compromise. It shows that by giving \ inch lead I 
 at A, and none at B, the cut-off* will be sufficiently equalized for ) 
 all practical purposes, as the diff*erence is reduced about one-half ! 
 as compared with Fig. 1. It will also be noticed that in Fig. 3 
 the exhaust-lap has been increased to -f^ at C iT, and about \ 
 inch at C m, both positive, which gives equalized exhaust-closure 
 at J j, and very nearly equal exhaust at h g. The excess of lead 
 at A over B of course diminishes the lap C D, and increases the , 
 port opening, F D, at that end. i 
 
 Fig. 4 shows the data obtained from Fig. 3 applied to the con-jl 
 struction of a common slide-valve. The scale of the valve i^jl 
 
THE engineer's II A N I) Y - H O O K . 211 
 
 made one-half size for convenience. The valve is shown at mid- 
 travel ; Ck shows the exhaust-lap obtained from Fig. 8 at Ck 
 and b m ; that at Cm, steam-lap; a E is obtained from Fig. 3 at 
 C E; and c D \n like manner from C D. It will be seen that, 
 notwithstanding there is less steam-lap at D than at £, the lap k 
 D is slightly greater than Em, which is due to the fact that the 
 exhaust-lap added at k, to equalize the exhaust and compressioa* 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 slightly more than compensates for the lesser steam-lap at D. If 
 the steam-lap at D had been lessened until k D equalled E m, the 
 cut-off would have been more nearly equal than is shown on Fig. 
 3, but still not entirely so. From this it will appear that valves 
 may be constructed (as they mostly are) with the two laps equal 
 in width, and in setting them, the exhaust and compression may 
 be equalized, letting the cut-off equalization take care of itself, 
 which it will do by becoming a trifle more than half equalized, 
 as compared with Fig. 1. Such a valve, considered apart from the 
 seat on which it works, would appear to have equal laps of both 
 kinds, and might be so set, as is the case in the adjustment repre- 
 sented by Fig. 1 ; but, when set to equalize the compression and 
 exhaust, it must be considered as having unequal laps of both 
 
212 THE engineer's hanby-book. 
 
 kinds. A valve constructed from the dimensions furnished by 
 Fig. 2, in which, as we have seen, the cut-off, exhaust, and com- 
 pression were entirely equalized at the expense of lead, equality 
 would have the lap k D the shortest. 
 
 In determining the best point for exhaust-closure, it should be 
 borne in mind that this event is the one which stands most in the 
 way of an early cut-off, and that it is desirable to know how early 
 it may be located, without detriment to the performance of the 
 engine. The decision of this point will depend mainly on the 
 amount of clearance present. If the clearance is great, consider- 
 able compression is not only admissible, but desirable; as the 
 greater the clearance the less the loss of mean effective pressure 
 by the counter-pressure resulting from early exhaust-closure. The 
 steam shut in by the closure of the exhaust is saved, to be used 
 over again during the next stroke ; and, when the clearance is 
 great, the loss of power by early compression is more than com- 
 pensated by the saving of steam ; the result is^a certain amount 
 of net gain in economy. As a general rule, the maximum com- 
 pression pressure should not exceed the pressure present in the 
 steam-chest. If it should, the valve is liable to be forced from 
 its seat; and not only so, but the limits within which compression 
 improves the economy would be exceeded. 
 
 When the clearance is known, and is reduced to a certain per- 
 centage of the stroke, the compression may be fixed at three to 
 five times the clearance, which would, theoretically, raise the com- 
 pression pressure to from three to five atmospheres ; but, in prac- 
 tice, the theoretical maximum is seldom reached. Thus, suppose 
 the clearance of an engine to be equal to its displacement during 
 one inch of its stroke, and the valve to close the exhaust four 
 inches from the end of the stroke ; or, in other words, suppose the 
 compression to be four times the clearance, the maximum compres- 
 sion pressure should, theoretically, reach 55 to 50 lbs. ; but it will 
 seldom, in practice, exceed 50 lbs., unless the cylinder is jacketed 
 with live-steam, and the valve and piston are very tight. 
 
 The proper point to release the steam will depend upon thQ 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 213 
 
 travel of the valve, the capacity of the cylinder-ports, and the 
 exhaust-passage in the valve. If these are ample, the release may 
 occur later than when they are not. The point to be aimed at in 
 locating it, is to release in time to avoid any considerable back 
 pressure at the beginning of the return stroke. No responsible 
 engine-builder of the present day will fix on a valve construction 
 and adjustment permanently, until he has first tested its results 
 Viith the indicator, and satisfied himself that they are the beat 
 possible with the slide-valve. 
 
 The above cut represents the Myers slide-valve. G C shows 
 the main valve, which is whole stroke ; D D shows the cut-ofF, 
 what is termed the riding cut-oflf, because it rides on the back of 
 the main valve, and, as will be observed, the amount of expansion 
 is regulated by right and left hand screws passing through the 
 cut-oflT valves, and shown above, D D. By turning the hand- 
 wheel, L, to the right, the cut-oflT will be decreased, while by turn- 
 ing to the left it will be increased. H H shows the steam-ports ; 
 Q, the exhaust cavity, and F, the exhaust opening in the valve- 
 face; J J, the valve-stems passing through guides on the back end 
 of the stuflSng-box ; K K shows the bonnet of the steam-chest : 
 and M, the spindle which carries the right and left screws. I is 
 the main valve-stem ; iV, a bracket for the purpose of holding the 
 quadrant, 0, in position, and preventing the cut-oflT from varying 
 when it is once set. This description of valve is used on nearly 
 all large ocean steamers. 
 
214 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANBY-BOOK. 
 
 The Wheelock Automatic Cut-Off Engine. 
 
 The cut on page 215 shows the cylinder, valve-gear, gov- 
 ernor, and part of the housing of the " Wheelock Automatic Cut- 
 OfT Engine," and that on page 216 a section of the same. In 
 general appearance, the Wheelock engine bears a close resem- 
 blance to the Corliss type, except that the absence of the cut-off 
 valves at the top of the cylinder removes the necessity for the 
 square corners, and that the guides, though like those of the Cor- 
 liss, are parallel with the plane of vibration of the connecting- 
 rod, and, in place of being V-shaped, are curves bored out on a 
 line with the axis .of the cylinder. This insures pei^fect accuracy, 
 and prevents the possibility of the piston and cross-head getting 
 out of line. 
 
 The valves receive their motion from an ordinary eccentric, and 
 perform the double function of admitting and cutting off steam. 
 Their seats are as close to the bore of the cylinder as is consistent 
 with a proper allowance of material, thus reducing the clearance 
 to a minimum. The valve-motion is very ingenious, effective, and 
 simple. The cut-off is effected by tripping the valves with an ar- 
 rangement which dispenses with the necessity of dash-pots, weights, 
 or levers, as by means of lugs on the lifters coming in contact 
 with the spring catches, which engage rock-arms on the valves, 
 the same effect is produced. The governor is of a design pecu- 
 liarly adapted to these engines, and, in consequence of its sensi- 
 tiveness, holds the valve-gear under complete control, and insures 
 a steady motion of the engine under the most varying circum- 
 stances of load and pressure. 
 
 The Wheelock engines are in very general use in the East- 
 ern States, and seem to give satisfaction. One of them which 
 was running in the Agricultural Department of the Centennial 
 Exhibition, held at Philadelphia in 1876, attracted a good deal 
 of attention, on account of its smooth and noiseless working. The 
 most objectionable feature of these engines is the liability of the 
 valves to become leaky. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 217 
 
 Lap on the valve. — The term lap on the valve denotes the 
 amount the edges of the valve extend over the ports when tke 
 valve is in the centre of its travel. If a valve has | lap, it is 
 understood to extend I beyond the ports when placed centrally 
 over them. The object of lap is to secure the benefit to be derived 
 from working steam expansively. Lap on the steam side is termed 
 outside lap, while lap on the exhaust side is termed inside lap. 
 
 Poppet- or conical-valves cannot have any lap; but the sama 
 effect is produced, as in the case of the slide-valve, by arranging 
 the cams and lifting-toes so that the valve may close at the proper 
 time to give the necessary degree of expansion. The lift of poppet- 
 valves, to give an opening equal to the area of the port, is ^ the 
 radius or | the diameter. 
 
 Lead on the valve. — The (^bject of lead is to enable the steam 
 to act as a cushion against the piston before it arrives at the end 
 of the stroke, to cause it to reverse its motion easily, and also 
 to supply steam of full pressure to the piston the instant it has 
 passed dead-centre. It varies in different engines from to /g, 
 without regard to size or kind. It often, however, exceeds 
 but perhaps very seldom ; while some valves have no lead at all, 
 others less than none, or what is termed " negative lead.'' The 
 higher the speed and the more irregular the work the more lead 
 will be required for any engine. 
 
 Loss of lead is a term employed to express the inequalities of 
 the lead at one end of the cylinder induced by the expansion of 
 valve-rod. It may occur, however, at both ends, through lost 
 motion in the joints or displacement of the eccentric. 
 
 Lead on the steam end is a term applied to the amount of 
 opening the valve has at the end of the cylinder into which the 
 steam is entering. Lead on the exhaust end means the amount 
 of opening the valve has on the end from which steam is escaping. 
 The name applies alternately to each end of the cylinder. 
 
 Line and Line. — A term applied to slide-valves when thev 
 have no exhaust lead, as shown in Fig. 3, on page 204. 
 19 
 
218 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK, 
 
 Valve-seat. — The flat surface which contains the ports, and on 
 which the valve moves. 
 
 The valve-face is the working surface of the valve which moves 
 on the valve-seat. 
 
 Valve-circle. — The term valve-circle, though sometimes used, 
 is inappropriate, as a valve does not describe a circle. It means 
 a circle which would have a circumference equal to the distance 
 •travelled by the valve in two strokes or one revolution. Such a 
 circle would be smaller than that described by the centre of the 
 eccentric, unless, as is sometimes the case, the rocker-arms were 
 so arranged as to give a greater travel to the valve than to the 
 eccentric. 
 
 Valve-stroke. — The travel or stroke of a slide-valve is the dis- 
 tance it moves on its face to give the proper opening of the port. 
 
 How to Determine the Amount of Lap and lead on a Yalve 
 without Opening the Steam-Chest, and whether it is Equal 
 at both Ends or not. 
 
 Open the cylinder drain-cocks and disconnect them from the 
 drip-pipes, so that the steam may be seen and heard to issue from 
 them. A better plan is, to open the holes made for the indicator, 
 if there are any; at all events, open as large holes as possible ; then 
 let in a very little steam, turn the engine around by hand, and 
 note, by the commencement and cessation of the flow of steam, 
 just where the steam is admitted and cut-ofi*. The point of cut- 
 off* can be most accurately ascertained by turning the engine 
 backwards ; the steam will in this case commence blowing at the 
 same point in the stroke at which it would cease blowing when 
 turning it forward ; and, owing to the elasticity of steam, the 
 commencement of the issue is always more clearly defined than 
 the cessation, particularly when the issuing orifice is small. For 
 the same reason, the point of admission can be most accurately 
 located by turning the engine forward. 
 
THE ENGINEEK^S HANDY-BOOK. 219 
 
 To determine the lead, having found the point of admission, 
 ifiake a mark on the valve-stem at a known distance from some 
 fixed point, and another after the pin has reached the centre ; this 
 will give the lead. If the admission forw^ard takes place when the 
 crank-pin is exactly on the dead-centre, there is no lead. Having 
 obtained the lead and cut-off for both ends, the travel and length 
 of the connection being known, a diagram may be constructed 
 similar to Figs. 1, 2, and 3,*which will give the lap and port-open- 
 ing. 
 
 The point of exhaust and compression cannot be determined so 
 readily. With a small engine, in which the piston and valve are 
 steam-tight, the points may be ascertained by blowing into the 
 cylinder through pipes attached to the cylinder-cocks or the holes 
 for indicator, if any. The exhaust would be indicated by the 
 point where the air would begin to pass through into the exhaust, 
 and the closure, by noting the point where it ceased to pass 
 through. 
 
 But in engines of any size, especially leaky ones, the plan of 
 blowing in with the mouth would be inapplicable. With non- 
 condensing engines, however, much may be learned by listening 
 to the exhaust ; if the puffs occur at equal intervals, and are of 
 equal force, good equalization may be inferred ; and, if they are 
 short, quick, and free, and are followed by a free and nearly noise- 
 less escape of the residuary steam, the exhaust is early and ample 
 enough. On the other hand, too late an exhaust will produce 
 more prolonged and labored puffs. It is needless, however, to 
 remind the reader that nothing can take the place of the indicator 
 for determining all the conditions and adjustments of the valve, 
 particularly its exhaust and compression, as, even when the nicest 
 measurements and calculations are resorted to, doubts may still 
 exist as to the truthful movements of the valve, which nothing 
 but an application of the indicator can satisfactorily remove. 
 
220 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE AMOUNT OF " LAP " REQUIRED FOR SLIDE-VALVES WHEN 
 THE STEAM IS TO BE WORKED EXPANSIVELY. 
 
 When the travel of the valve is known, and the point of cut- 
 off decided, the following table will show the amount of lap re- 
 quired.* 
 
 Travel 
 of the 
 Valve 
 
 in 
 Inches. 
 
 The Travel of the Piston when the Steam is cut off 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 T3 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 3 
 "4 
 
 1 0 
 
 jjj 
 
 The required " Lap." 
 
 . 2 
 
 3 
 
 3| 
 4 
 
 4^ 
 
 5 
 
 5^ 
 6 
 
 6| 
 7 
 
 7i- 
 8 
 
 8i 
 9 
 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 
 i 
 
 U 
 
 1-2 
 
 i| 
 2 
 
 2| 
 
 2A- 
 2i 
 
 2| 
 3 
 
 3A 
 
 Q 5 
 ^ ff 
 Ql 3 
 
 4 
 
 41 
 
 4tV 
 
 4A 
 
 41 3 
 5 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 1 6 
 
 2 
 
 9 9 
 91 1 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4-7- 
 
 4_9_ 
 ^1 6 
 41 3 
 
 1 1 
 
 T6 
 7 
 8" 
 
 u 
 
 1 7 
 
 ^ 1 6 
 1 1 3 
 
 2 
 
 9 3 
 
 9 » 
 
 3H 
 
 4 
 
 41 
 4tV 
 
 4T«g 
 
 5 
 8" 
 1 3 
 T6 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 U 
 
 1 9 
 ^ 1 6 
 
 2 
 
 9 3 
 
 21 
 2i 
 
 9 5 
 
 3 
 
 3A 
 
 3A 
 3i 
 
 ^ 8 
 Q 7 
 
 4 J- 
 
 ^ 8 
 
 1 1 
 
 T5 
 1 5 
 
 Te 
 ItV 
 li 
 If 
 
 If 
 
 HI 
 2 
 
 2A 
 2| 
 2|- 
 
 91 1 
 91 3 
 
 3/5 
 
 3fV 
 3i 
 
 3| 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 ItV 
 
 U 
 
 1| 
 
 If 
 
 1 1 3 
 
 2 
 
 9 3 
 ^3 -J 
 
 2| 
 
 2i 
 91 1 
 
 ^Tg 
 91 3 
 
 3 
 
 3| 
 3iV 
 3| 
 3f 
 
 ■ 
 
 7 
 
 Tg 
 
 3 
 5 
 IS' 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 u 
 If 
 
 U 
 If 
 1| 
 
 2 
 
 2i 
 
 21 
 
 2| 
 
 2-^ 
 
 2f 
 
 2| 
 9 7 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 tV 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 H 
 
 -'^ ¥ 
 1 3 
 
 1 1 
 ^ 4 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 3 
 ^ 4 
 
 2 1 
 
 2/6 
 
 21 
 2| 
 2^ 
 
 It is not advisable to cut off earlier with a single slide-valve 
 
 ^ If a valve has J lap, it will overlap each steam-port | of an inch when 
 placed centrally over them. 
 
THE engineer's HANJ)Y-H00K. 
 
 221 
 
 than at ^ or | stroke, as otherwise the lap would be excessive 
 and the freedom of the exhaust impaired. lu locomotives and 
 marine engines the case is different, as the cut-off may be effected 
 at almost any point through the agency of the link. 
 
 Rule for finding the point of cut-off required to produce a given 
 terminal from a given initial pressure. 
 
 Divide the total terminal by the total initial pressure. The 
 quotient will be the point of cut-off in decimal parts of the stroke. 
 
 Example. — Initial pressure, 20 lbs. per sq. in. Terminal, 13 lbs., 
 measured from a vacuum. Then 13 lbs. 20 = '65 of the stroke ; 
 or divide the volume of the initial by that of the terminal, the 
 quotient will be the point of cut-off in decimal parts of the stroke. 
 
 Example — Vol.* of 20 = 1229. Vol. of 13 = 1842. Then 
 1229 -T- 1842 = -667 of the stroke. 
 
 Rule for finding the point of cut-off when the initial and mean 
 pressure are known. 
 
 Add the pressure of the atmosphere to the initial and mean 
 pressures, and divide the mean pressure by the initial. Then find 
 in the table of multipliers, page 69, the number nearest the quo- 
 tient. Find the number opposite to it in the expansion column, 
 find divide 100 by it; the quotient will be the point of cut-off in 
 decimal parts of the stroke. 
 
 Exampl^. — Stroke of piston, 10 ft. Initial pressure, 10 lbs. per 
 fiq. in. Mean pressure, 8 lbs. Mean effective pressure, atmos- 
 phere added, 22*50. Initial pressure, atmosphere added, 24*5. 
 Quotient of first divided by last, '918. Expansion number in table 
 opposite,'919, which is nearest number to above quotient, 1*6; 100 -r- 
 1-6 = -625 or 1^ of the stroke. Either of the foregoing rules will 
 make the cut-off take place a trifle earlier than it would in practice. 
 
 Friction of Slide -Valves. 
 
 Many estimates have been made concerning the power absorbed 
 in overcoming the friction of slide-valves, and probably on no sub- 
 ject has there been a greater diversity of opinion. It has been 
 * See Table of Volumes, pages 76 to 87. 
 
 19* 
 
222 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 assumed, on the one hand, that as much as one-fourth of the power 
 of an engine is wasted, while others claim that the loss of power 
 is merely nominal. An idea has been very generally entertained 
 by engineers that the number of square inches in a slide-valve, 
 and the pressure of steam in pounds per square inch, represented 
 the total pressure on its back ; or, in other words, that the press- 
 ure was equal to the pressure of steam per square inch on the 
 back of a valve, minus the area of the steam-ports. 
 
 Such conclusions are erroneous, however, as the number of 
 square inches in a slide-valve, and the pounds pressure per square 
 inch, represent only the weight on its back, if we consider the 
 valve as a solid block of iron, with a smooth surface resting on a 
 smooth, solid bearing, perfectly steam-tight, in which case the 
 steam would press on every square inch of surface with the same 
 force as a dead weight. There is good reason to believe that 
 such conditions are never found in a slide-valve, except in one 
 position, viz., when the valve overlaps both ports and the engine 
 is at rest. As soon, however, as the valve moves, the steam enters 
 the open port, and the pressure is partially taken off thai end of it. 
 
 Rule for finding the pressure on slide-valves. 
 
 Multiply the unbalanced area of the valve in inches by the 
 pressure of steam in pounds per square inch ; add the weight of 
 the valve in pounds, and multiply the sum by 0*15. ^ 
 
 Another pule. — Multiply the combined area of the bearing sur- 
 face and ports in inches by the steam pressure in pounds per 
 square inch on the back of the valve; multiply this product by 
 the coefficient of friction between the two surfaces. The product 
 will be the force required to move the valve when unbalanced. 
 
 The better the slide-valve is fitted, the more power it takes to 
 work it; and a valve that is perfectly steam-tight on its seat, 
 takes immensely more power to move it than if poorly fitted; 
 because, if a valve is leaky, there is always a film of steam be- 
 tween the valve-face and the seat ; but, when the valve is perfectly 
 steam-tight, there is nothing to lessen the friction except the lu- 
 brication. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 223 
 
 The above cut represents poppet,* or double-beat, valves, such 
 as are used in connection with the Stevens' Cut-OfF, or what is 
 termed the Stevens' Front. It will be observed that the valves 
 on the left side are open for the admission of steam, while those 
 on the right are closed. The lift of such valves, if single, would 
 be about | of their diameter ; but when they are double, as in 
 the present case, ^ lift would give an area equal to the opening of 
 the steam-port. One of the greatest difficulties experienced in the 
 working of such valves is, that, however carefully they may be 
 fitted, their stems will expand and induce leakage in the valves 
 when exposed to a high temperature. For this latter difficulty 
 there appears to be no remedy. 
 
 Nevertheless such valves have their advantages, among which 
 are, that they can be turned up, or ground on to their seats at a 
 moderate cost, since the process of their manufacture is all lathe 
 work ; that in their working, there is no power absorbed by fric- 
 tion, as in the case of the slide-valve, and that they can be placed 
 
 * Puppet is the correct word, though poppet is most generally adopted by 
 engineers. 
 
224 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 SO near the cylinder as to reduce the clearance to a minimum. 
 Such valves, however, would not answer for high-speed engines, 
 as at high-piston velocity, and considerable back pressure, they 
 would not seat. 
 
 How to Set the Yalves of Steam-Engines. 
 
 No definite instructions that would apply to all cases can be 
 given for setting the valves of steam-engines. As the circum- 
 stances under which the engines and valves are employed must, 
 to a certain extent, influence and control this operation, fast-run- 
 ning engines require more lead than those that run slowly. En- 
 gines doing heavy and irregular work also require more lead than 
 those working with a uniform load. Some engines require no lead 
 at all, while others require a great deal. 
 
 The valves of a steam-engine may be adjusted with great ac- 
 curacy by an intelligent and practical engineer, providing that 
 all the valve-gear is of correct proportions ; but there are diffi- 
 culties to be contended with which frustrate the efforts of the most 
 practical mechanics, and must ever do so, unless we discover a 
 new material for valves and valve-gear. Valves may be set with 
 the nicest mechanical accuracy, opening and closing the ports with 
 precision when the valves and valve-gear are cold ; but when ex- 
 posed to high temperatures they may be far from accurate in 
 their travel. All metals expand with heat and contract with cold, 
 and a valve that will give uniform lead at each end of the stroke 
 when cold, will not, in all probability, do so when exposed to the 
 action of the steam, as the valve and valve-rod will expand, pro- 
 duce a loss of lead, increase the amount of lap, and alter the con- 
 ditions under which the engine was intended to work. 
 
 This change is not confined to slide-valve engines, as the stems 
 of poppet-valves are lengthened by expansion, decreasing the lift 
 and also the lead, and inducing a very different condition of things 
 from what would exist if the valves could be used at the tempera- 
 ture at which they were adjusted. Thousands of indicator dia- 
 grams show conclusively that the behavior of valves, when exposed 
 
T II E K N G I N K p: It \s HANDY- H O O K . 
 
 225 
 
 to high temperature, is very different from what they are when 
 cold. One of the best aids to correct valve-setting is a good indi- 
 cator, as nothing shows the action of the steam in the cylinder so 
 <5orrectly as this instrument. It tells exactly when the steam goes 
 in and out of a cylinder, because it maps down the motions of the 
 steam as determined by the motions of the valve and piston, re- 
 cording faithfully the times and pressures as they actually are. 
 
 To set a slide-valve, place the crank on the dead-centre and 
 the valve centrally on its seat over the ports; then adjust the 
 valve-gear to the right length, and move the eccentric round in 
 the direction in which the engine is intended to run, until the 
 proper lead is attained, as shown in Fig. 1, page 204 ; then turn the 
 engine on the opposite centre, and, if the lead is exactly the same, 
 the valve ought to travel equally on its seat, and the exhaust 
 appear, as in Fig. 2, page 204. Any difference in the lead at 
 either end must be equalized by lengthening or shortening the 
 valve-gear, as the case may be. 
 
 An intelligent engineer can generally tell by observation whether 
 engines exhaust regularly or not ; as, if the steam is discharged 
 with long or short puffs, alternately, or shows what is technically 
 termed a long and short leg, it is evident that the valve has an 
 earlier and a freer exhaust at one end than at the other ; never- 
 theless, one exhaust may be heavier than the other, and yet the 
 intervals between them may be equal. In such cases the exhaust 
 is equal as to time, but not as to amount. The difference in 
 amount may be caused by unequal degrees of expansion, and this 
 in turn may be caused by unequal cut-off, or unequal clearance, 
 or both. Such inequality cannot be cured by mere adjustment, 
 since the lap requires to be changed ; but in most cases an im- 
 provement may be effected by a compromise between equalized 
 cut-off and exhaust, so tliat the effects of the inequality of both 
 would not be noticeable. 
 I In the case of fast-running engines, or where the exhaust has 
 to pass through long pipes, this inequality is not easily determined 
 from the appearance of the exhaust ; but it may be done more 
 
 P 
 
226 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 accurately by holding the ear close to the exhaust-pipe. This 
 latter method may also be resorted to in the case of low-pressure 
 engines exhausting into a condenser. 
 
 Valves and Valve-Gear. 
 
 The term valve-geap'embraces all intermediate connections be- 
 tween the eccentric on the driving-shaft and the valves, and is 
 applicable to all mechanical arrangements employed for working 
 the valves of steam-engines. 
 
 The valves most generally employed for the admission of steam 
 to the cylinders of steam-engines, are the slide, poppet, Corliss or 
 semirotary, and rotary ; plug- or piston-valves are also used, but 
 most generally for steam-pumps. All valves, whether used for 
 the admission or escape of steam to or from the cylinders of steam- 
 engines, receive their motion from cams, eccentrics, or cranks ; the 
 movements of the former being indefinite as to character, and of 
 the two latter, definite. Whatever the device employed to give 
 motion to the valves may be termed, whether cams, eccentrics, 
 cranks, gearing, rockers, wrist-plates, toes, lifters, trips, links, rods, 
 levers, etc., they may be placed under the head of valve-gear. 
 
 There are engines without valves, such as the Wardwell, which 
 was on exhibition at the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia, 
 and some kinds of oscillating engines, in which faces on the cyl- 
 inder fit against faces on stationary steam-chests, through which 
 the steam enters and escapes from the cylinder. Such arrange- 
 ments may be called stationary valves, but they possess inherent 
 defects, which render them useless for the most important purposes 
 for which the steam-engine is employed. 
 
 A releasing " valve-gear is an arrangement in which the valve 
 is liberated from the control of its moving agent, and allowed to 
 close in obedience to the action of a spring, weight, or other force 
 independent of that which opened it. The agent which deter- 
 mines the time of release may be the governor, or it may be, and 
 often is, some device adjustable by hand. 
 
THE ENaiNEER\s HANDY-BOOK. 227 
 
 An automatic cut-ofT valve-gear is one in which the movement 
 of the cut-ofF valve is so controlled by the governor, as to cut off 
 the steam as early or as late in the stroke as may he required, to 
 maintain the desired uniformity of speed, under variations of load 
 and pressure. 
 
 A positive cut-off is an arrangement of valve-gear by which 
 the expansion of the steam is effected by what is known as lap on 
 the valve, the steam being cut off at the same point in each stroke, 
 independent of load or pressure. 
 
 An adjustable " cut-off is an arrangement of valve-gear, m 
 which the point of cut-off can be adjusted by the hand of the en* 
 gineer, outside of the steam-chest, by means of a screw, hand-wheel, 
 or other mechanical arrangement, to meet the requirements of 
 work and pressure. The link, in its application to the steam-en- 
 gine, belongs to this class of cut-offs, as it effects the adjustment 
 of the cut-off by means of coincident variations in the travel and 
 angular advance using a single valve. 
 
 Riding cut-oflT, — A term applied to cut-off valves which ride 
 on the back of the main steam-valve. 
 
 An independent cut-off is one in which the expansion is effected 
 by an independent or auxiliary valve riding on the back of the 
 main valve, and receiving its motion from an independent eccui- 
 tric. 
 
 An expansion " valve-gear is one that cuts off the supply of 
 steam at any required point of the stroke. It embraces all the 
 foregoing arrangements. 
 
 A "whole " stroke valve-gear is one that admits steam through 
 the whole length of the stroke. 
 
 A " reversing " valve-gear is an arrangement employed for re- 
 versing the motion of engines. It is effected in different ways : in 
 some cases with a single eccentric, \vhile in others with two ec- 
 centrics, as in the case of the link ; and in others, still, by means 
 of a loose eccentric which revolves on the shaft, but is prevented 
 from making a complete revohition by tw^o stops eo phiced that 
 one arrests it in the proper position for the forward, and the othe^ 
 
228 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 « 
 
 for the backward motion. This arrangement is peculiarly adapted 
 to tug-boats and ferries, owing to the ease and quickness with which 
 the engine can be reversed. 
 
 Double-beat valves are poppet-valves so arranged, that the 
 pressure of steam is nearly equal on both sides, thus rendering the 
 motion of the valve much easier than in the case of an ordinary 
 single-beat valve. (See cut, page 223.) 
 
 Throttle-valves are valves located in the steam-pipe, through 
 which steam is admitted to the steam-chest. At present their use 
 is confined to locomotives and old-fashioned stationary engines. 
 
 Relief-valves are used on the cylinders of large engines, par- 
 ticularly marine, to prevent fracture of the cylinder-head and 
 cylinder, in consequence of an accumulation of water in the latter. 
 When a greater pressure is exerted in the cylinder than would 
 result from the ordinary pressure of the steam, the relief-valve 
 will open and admit of the discharge of the water, thus averting 
 an accident. They are used on fire-engines for the purpose of 
 preventing the hose from bursting when the escape of the water 
 is obstructed. 
 
 Balance-valves. — Arrangements by which the weight on the 
 back of slide-valves, induced by the pressure of the steam, is re- 
 lieved by the action of the steam in the steam-chest. 
 
 Rotary-valves. — A term applied to any valve that describes a 
 revolution in working. 
 
 Semirotary- valves.— A term applied to all valves similar to 
 the Corliss that have a vibratory or rocking motion. 
 
 Starting -valve gear. — A mechanical arrangement employed in 
 connection with a small engine, called the starting-engine, for 
 moving the valves of large engines when stopping or starting. 
 
 Gridiron-valves. — A modification of the slide-valve, containing 
 a number of openings for the steam, by which means its travel 
 and friction are materially diminished. 
 
 Dash-pot. — An arrangement employed for closing the valves 
 of engines of the<Jorliss type, and in many instances for arresting 
 the closing movement when it is sudden and violent. The dash- 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-KOOK. 
 
 229 
 
 pots contain usually either water or oil, though in many instances 
 they are cushioned with air. 
 
 Spring-levers. — Arrangements employed for closing semiro- 
 tary- and poppet-valves. They are a substitute for the dash-pot, 
 which has many advantages over them, on account of the dis- 
 agreeable noise induced by their workings. 
 
 Lifters. — A term applied to the toes on the lifting-rods, which 
 open and close the valves of steam-engines, particularly those 
 constructed with what is called a Stevens' front. 
 
 Wrist-plate. — An arrangement employed in engines of the Cor- 
 liss type for transmitting the motion of the eccentric to the valves, 
 and in many instances for modifying their throw or movement.. 
 
 Trips. — A term applied to the pawls which liberate the valves 
 of engines having what is termed a releasing-valve gear. 
 
 Crab-claw. — A term applied to the pawls, which liberate the 
 valve-gear of engines of the Corliss type from the influence of 
 the eccentric, when the point of cut-off is reached. 
 
 Valves and Cocks Connected with Engines and Boilers, 
 
 The valves and cocks on a ship's side, in the engine, boiler-room, 
 and hold of a steamship, are the injection-, main-, bilge-, discharge-, 
 and water-service valves, and the blow-off*-, scum-, and ash-cocks. 
 
 The valves on a marine engine that can be worked by hand 
 are the stop-, safety-, slide-, throttle-, starting-, feed-, and suction- 
 valves. 
 
 The valves that are worked by the motion of the engine are 
 the slide, cut-off*, or expansion, feed, and bilge-pump, check, and 
 discharge valves. 
 
 The valves and pipes, through Ahich the steam passes from the 
 boiler to the condenser, are the steam stop-valve on the boiler- 
 dome, the steam-pipe, the throttle-valve, the slide- or poppet-valve 
 in the steam-chest, and the eduction-pipe between the cylinder and 
 the condenser. 
 
 The cocks and valves through which the injection and boiler 
 20 
 
230 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 feed-water passes in jet-condensing engines are the sea-injection 
 cock, passing through the ship's side to the rose-plate in the con- 
 denser, from which it is drawn off by the air-pump, through the 
 foot-valve, and delivered to the hot well, from whence the quantity 
 necessary is drawn by the feed-pump, and forced through the 
 check-valves into the boiler. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 The above cuts represent a simple method of ascertaining 
 whether a slide-valve is w^ell proportioned or not, and whether 
 the exhaust opens at the right time, too soon, or too late. Dis- 
 connect the valve from the rod or yoke, and take two parallel 
 pieces, J. JL, about one-half inch thick and one inch wide; though 
 the exact width or thickness is immaterial. Let one be the exact 
 length of the valve in the direction of its travel, on which the 
 width of the exhaust opening, C, in the valve-face may be marked , 
 by cutting notches with a penknife; then place the other parallel 
 piece on the valve-seat, and mark the width of the steam-ports? 
 i>, and the exhaust, D. Then place the one representing the 
 valve, A, in the centre of its travel, as shown in Fig. 1, and ob- 
 serve the inside and outside lap ; next* place it at the commence- 
 ment of its stroke, as shown at F, Fig. 2, and observe the amount 
 of exhaust opening. 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 231 
 
 If it should appear that the valve is well proportioned for 
 the admission of the steam, and that the exhaust opens too late, 
 the difficulty may be remedied by chipping out the exhaust- 
 opening in the valve-face ; or, should it be found that the exhaust 
 opens too early, it may be obviated by inserting some pieces of 
 brass or copper, and securing them to the valve with some small- 
 tap-bolts, the heads of which may be riveted down ; after which 
 the pieces may be filed and scraped down to correspond to the 
 face of the valve. 
 
 Pipes. 
 
 The principal pipes connected with marine engines and boilers 
 are the main steam-pipe, donkey-pipe, cylinder jacket-pipe, whistle- 
 pipe, the steam winch-pipe, ballast engine-pipe, feed-pipes, donkey 
 feed-pipes, donkey suction-pipes, and a hot-well connection-pipe, 
 circulating water-pipes, feed suction-pipes, air-pump discharge, 
 bilge-discharge, bilge-suction, bilge-injection, cylinder drain-pipes, 
 slide-jacket drain-pipes, and steam-jacket drain-pipes, blow-oflf- and 
 scum-pipes, waste-steam pipe, cooling-pipe, water-service pipes. 
 
 The pipes, cocks, and valves used in connection with the loco- 
 motive are the arch-pipes, blast-pipes, connecting-pipes, oil-pipes, 
 steam-gauge pipe, blower-pipe, feed-pipes, heater-pipes, lifting-pipe, 
 sand-pipes, steam-pipe, throttle-pipe, blow-off cocks, check-valve, 
 cylinder-cocks, feed-water cocks, frost-cocks, gauge-cocks, heater- 
 cocks, mud-cock, pet-cock, safety-valve, slide-valve, stop-cock, stop- 
 valves, and throttle-valve. 
 
 The pipes, cocks, and valves used in connection with station- 
 ary engines are the steam-pipe, exhaust-pipe, feed-water pipe, 
 blow-off pipe, drip-pipes from cylinder, drip-pipe from heater, 
 steam-gauge pipe, slide, poppet, or rotary steam-valves, globe- 
 valves on steam- and water-pipes, check-valves, stop-cocks on blow- 
 off pipe, bib-cocks, drips, etc. 
 
 Check-valves are placed on the connections between steam- 
 boilers and the pump or injector, by which they are fed to resist 
 the pressure from the boiler. 
 
232 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 The Wells Two-Piston Balance-Engine. 
 
 The cut on opposite page represents the Wells Two-Piston 
 Balance-Engine, which, the inventor claims, possesses features in 
 point of efficiency and economy which place it on a par with some 
 of the most improved engines in the country, as it may be run at 
 a much higher velocity, and, in consequence of its greater capac- 
 ity, is more efficient than any single-piston engine in use at the 
 present day. The weight and momentum of the reciprocating 
 parts being equal in opposite directions, the action is perfect 
 without lead, which results in a great saving of steam ; and as the 
 force is applied on opposite sides of the shaft, and both cranks 
 travel in the same direction, the thrust due to a single crank, is 
 avoided. Moreover, because all the force of the steam on the 
 cranks is exerted in torsion, there is no strain on the housing or 
 foundation ; hence it requires only a slight foundation. They have 
 been frequently run at a piston speed of 1000 revolutions per min- 
 ute, without any perceptible jar to the engine or vibration in the 
 building. 
 
 It is further claimed that the advantages of high piston speed, 
 and the benefits to be derived from expansion, are more fully 
 realized in this engine ; and that the condensation is less than it 
 possibly can be in any single-piston engine. Besides, the weight 
 of these engines is only about one-fourth that of ordinary engines 
 of the same power ; and, in consequence of the absence of all 
 vibration while they are working, they can be placed in any room 
 in a building without inconvenience or annoyance, and are pecu- 
 liarly adapted to yachts and other pleasure boats. The cut on 
 page 234 shows a section of the same engine : A A and B B des- 
 ignate the steam- and exhaust-ports ; C C, the piston-heads ; D, the 
 middle piston-rod, which works through the middle piston-head ; 
 E E, the outside piston-rods ; F, the middle connecting-rod ; G G, 
 the outside connecting-rods; H Hy the middle crank-arms; //, 
 the outside crank-arms ; J, the shaft ; IT shows the line on whicb 
 the opposing strains are exerted. 
 
THK engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 233 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 235 
 
 Steam is admitted sirftultaneously to both ends of the cylinder, 
 and exhausted in the ordinary way by means of a slide-valve. 
 
 But as the piston is one of the most important parts of a steam- 
 engine, and is oftener a source of annoyance and waste than any 
 other adjunct of the machine, it is extremely doubtful if the 
 economy of any engine can be increased by the use of two pistons. 
 Such engines, instead of being economical, are more frequently a 
 source of expense and annoyance. 
 
 Instructions for the Care of Steam-Engines. 
 
 Never allow an engine to become dirty, as thorough cleaning 
 requires no great amount of labor. An engine which has always 
 been kept clean, protected from rust and not abused in any way, 
 is worth, when second-hand, very much more than another which 
 has had little attention, been allowed to rust, and to take care of 
 itself generally. 
 
 A handsomely kept engine, with all its parts clean and in good 
 order, furnishes stronger evidence of an engineer's capabilities 
 than a volume of written recommendations. 
 
 Never depend entirely on patent oil-cups, as they either feed 
 too fast or not at all. There is generally too much oil wasted on 
 engines. What is needed is a small quantity at the right time, 
 and in the right place, and all that is not essential is wasted. 
 
 Do not allow the packing to become hard and dry in the stuffing- 
 boxes, as under such circumstances it has a tendency to cut and 
 flute the rods. 
 
 Never strike any part of an engine with the face of the hammer 
 or head of a monkey-wrench, as, in consequence of their being 
 headed with steel, they have a tendency to bruise the parts and 
 disfigure the engine. 
 
 Never set steam-packing, cotton-waste, tops of oil-cups, or 
 anything that is to be used round the cylinder, valves, piston-rod, 
 or bearings of steam-engines, on the floor, as they will invariably 
 pick up sand or grit, which injure the rubbing and revolving sur- 
 faces with which they come in contact. 
 
236 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 When practicable, piston and valve-rod packing should be ap- 
 plied when the stufRng-boxes and rods are cold. The best pack- 
 ing is often destroyed through ignorance or want of skill. 
 
 Almost any packing may be improved by being soaked in bees- 
 wax, tallow, and black-lead, before being used. 
 
 Gum-joints that require to be frequently taken apart, should be 
 coated with chalk before being placed between the flanges ; this 
 prevents the gum from adhering to the metal and being destroyed 
 when the joint is taken apart. All gum-joints located in the water- 
 space of steam-boilers should be coated with black-lead and tal- 
 low before being put together. This has the effect of preventing 
 the sulphur of the gum from attacking the metal and destroying 
 the surfaces. 
 
 When it becomes necessary to stop an engine with a heavy fire 
 in the furnace, place a layer of fresh coal on the fire, shut the 
 damper, and start the injector or pump, for the purpose of keeping 
 up the circulation in the boiler. 
 
 Always see that the cylinder drain-cocks are open when the 
 engine is standing still, and never close them till after starting. 
 
 Never admit the tallow to the cylinder until the engine is fairly 
 under way, and the cylinder drain-cocks closed. 
 
 Always start an engine slowly, and allow it to come up to speed 
 gradually. 
 
 Before starting an engine, always warm up the cylinder by ad- 
 mitting the steam to both ends ; if a marine engine, see that every- 
 thing is clear of the engines and propeller, and that the cocks and 
 valves are all right. 
 
 Whenever an engine is stopped for any length of time, examine 
 all its parts, for the purpose of seeing if they are in good order. 
 
 In cases of extreme heating, slack up on the keys and gibs, 
 permit them to run loose for a time, and then take up the lost 
 motion gradually. 
 
 Examine the piston-packing in the cylinder frequently, for the 
 purpose of seeing that it is tight and in good order. 
 
 Keep the cylinder and steam-pipes well covered with some good 
 
THE ENGINEER\s HANDY-BOOK. 237 
 
 non-conductor, to counteract the cooling effect of the atrnos- 
 yl^ero. 
 
 Whenever a clicking noise is heard in the cylinder, open the 
 cylinder drain-cocks, and allow the water to escape ; then let them 
 remain open until the cylinder works dry steam. 
 
 In giving instructions for the care and management of steam- 
 engines, too much stress cannot be laid upon the injunction, " Keep 
 your steam always at the same pressure," as, although all engines 
 employed for manufacturing purposes have governors, they are 
 not always reliable or capable of meeting the requirements of 
 varying steam-pressures and varying loads ; consequently, if the 
 steam is, through neglect, permitted to rise above the working 
 pressure, the engine will increase its speed, which will induce a loss 
 of steam, as every revolution above the speed at which the engine 
 was intended to run, and at which the machinery is geared for the 
 manufacture of the different materials, is a waste; and every revo- 
 lution the engine falls below the regular speed is a loss of produc 
 tion. 
 
 Piston-Rod and Talve-Rod Tacking, and How to Use it. 
 
 Probably no part of the steam-engine is more frequently out 
 of order than the piston-rod and valve-rod packing. This may be 
 attributed to various causes, viz., such as the speed of the engine ; 
 whether it is in line or not ; whether the piston leaks or not the 
 condition of the piston-rod ; the pressure of the steam ; the clear- 
 ance in the cylinder, and the character or quality of the material 
 of which the packing is composed, as well as the manner in which 
 it is applied, and how it is treated afterwards. 
 
 If the engine is out of line, the piston-rod will crowd the pack- 
 ing to one side or the other at certain points of the stroke ; if the 
 piston- and valve-rod are badly fluted, the steam will escape through 
 the grooves ; if the piston-packing leaks in the cylinder, it will be 
 impossible to keep the packing around the rod tight, in conse- 
 quence of the cushioning induced by the leakage. If the distance 
 between the piston and cylinder-head is not sufiicient, the steam 
 
238 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 will escape through the stuffing-box as the engine approaches the 
 centres ; if the rings of the material are cut too long, they will 
 not, when screwed up, hug the rod, and, as a result, leakage will 
 occur; if too short, the steam will insinuate itself between them, 
 and cause leakage ; if the material is not of the proper size to fill 
 the cavity between the rod and the box, it will leak, however 
 tightly it may be screwed up ; if the packing is screwed up too 
 tight at first, the heat induced by the friction will soon destroy its 
 elasticity, and leakage will be the result ; if the engine runs at a 
 very high speed, the packing will deteriorate faster than if the 
 speed is moderate ; and if the pressure is high, the temperature 
 due to the pressure will have a tendency to destroy the packing. 
 Another cause, and indeed one of the main causes which induce 
 leaking around piston- and valve-rods, is the want of depth of the 
 stuffing-boxes of some engines, which will not receive more than 
 two rings of packing ; as a result, they are continually leaking 
 around the rod, whereas, if the box is sufficiently deep to admit 
 of four rings, the leakage nuisance would be obviated. 
 
 A great variety of materials is in use for packing purposes, 
 soap-stone, paper, india-rubber, asbestos, tin-foil, webbing, wire- 
 cloth, metallic packing, etc., each of which possesses merit peculiar 
 to itself, but, like governors, and many other important adjuncts 
 of the steam-engine, not one of them was ever known to answer 
 every place, or give satisfaction under all circumstances. This 
 arises from the fact that our investigation has not been such up 
 to the present time, on this subject, as to enable us to decide which 
 material will give the most satisfaction under the most varying 
 circumstances ; besides, the best material may be rendered useless 
 in a comparatively short time through ignorance, while an inferior 
 quality may render good service by being intelligently treated. 
 
 The following instructions may be of use to those who have not 
 had much experience in packing piston- and valve-rods : Insert as 
 much packing into the box as will just allow the gland to enter; 
 then screw it up solid ; after which the nuts should be slacked for 
 the purpose of allowing the packing to swell when exposed to the 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 239 
 
 steam ; if leakage occurs, screw them up gradually and evenly, 
 until it stops. If the leakage is excessive, after a sufficient quan- 
 tity is inserted in the box, do not continue to screw it up, as the 
 heat of the rod will soon destroy the packing. It is always better 
 to stop the engine, if practicable, remove two or three pieces, and 
 replace them again in opposite positions, when in all probability 
 the leakage will cease. Never use any old file or any rough in- 
 strument to remove the packing from the boxes, as they have a 
 tendency to abrade or flute the rods, and cause leakage. Every 
 engineer and steam-user should provide himself with suitable 
 tools for removing the old packing from the boxes and inserting 
 the new. To find the proper diameter of the packing for any 
 stufiing-box : Measure the diameter of the rod, and also the gland 
 or stem of the stufBng-box, and half the difference between the 
 two will be the proper size of the packing. 
 
 Numerous attempts have been made at different times to sub- 
 stitute a metallic piston- and valve-rod packing for the various 
 fibrous packings now in use which would be more durable, and 
 at the same time involve no more cost; but up to the present time 
 none of these attempts have been crowned with success. This 
 may be attributed to various causes, such as the condition of the 
 piston-rod, whether it is fluted or not ; whether the engine is in 
 line or not ; the condition of the steam-packing in the cylinder ; 
 the depth of the stuffing-box, whether it is leaky or not; the 
 clearance space between the piston- and cylinder-heads when the 
 crank is at the centre; the amount of back pressure; the difficulty 
 of manufacturing the metallic packing in sizes to meet all the 
 vagaries of that class of steam-engine builders who pay no atten- 
 tion to good proportions, and who make the stuffing-boxes odd 
 sizes; the condition and shape of a stuffing-box to which it has to 
 be applied ; the ignorance displayed in its care and management, 
 as well as a disposition on the part of those who have it in charge to 
 cry down every new innovation in steam engineering, and to ridi- 
 cule every adjunct of the steam-engine and boiler that requires any 
 special attention, however great a safeguard or economizer it may be. 
 
240 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK, 
 
 WardwelPs High-Pressure, Valveless Engine. 
 
 The cut on page 241 represents Wardwell's Valveless Engine. 
 As will be observed, it is a horizontal engine, with one end of a 
 girder frame bolted to and supporting the cylinder, and the other 
 supporting the pillow-block. The pillow-block brasses are pro- 
 vided with side adjustment wedges, operated from the top face of 
 the cap by bolts and nuts. The cross-head has V-shaped bear- 
 ings, top and bottom, with a wrist-pin providing journal-bearings 
 for the fork end of the connecting-rod. The straps at these ends 
 of the rod are provided with the ordinary gibs and keys. At the 
 crank-pin end, however, the strap is secured to the rod by a bolt 
 passing through the strap, the key merely serving to adjust the 
 brasses. The piston passes a working fit through the cross-head, 
 being secured at each end by jamb-nuts, by which arrangement 
 any lateral play of the piston-rod in the cross-head is prevented ; 
 but at the same time the rod rotates in the latter. To the ex- 
 treme end of the piston-rod, after it has passed through the cross- 
 head, there is keyed fast a section of a bevel- wheel containing 5 
 teeth, which gears into another containing 4 teeth ; this latter sec- 
 tion being bolted fast to the inside of one of the fork-arms of the 
 connecting-rod ; the outside arm being selected as affording the 
 best advantages for adjustment. When the connecting-rod is at- 
 tached to the crank- and cross-head, and steam admitted to the 
 cylinder, a semirotary movement takes place in regular order, and 
 as the stroke proceeds, the steam passages are so arranged that 
 steam can be admitted, cut off, and exhausted at any desired 
 point of the stroke. It is obvious, however, that to accomplish 
 this the piston-head in the cylinder must be extra long in propor- 
 tion to the stroke. 
 
 The piston is solid, similar to a plunger, and is a neat working 
 fit in the bore of the cylinder. The wear is provided for by the 
 insertion at each end of the piston-head of ordinary spring pack- 
 ing-rings; and to take up wear and prevent leakage from one port 
 to the other, a straight, longitudinal, spring packing-piece is placed 
 
242 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 between the steam passages in the piston-head, thus preventing 
 the escape from one port to the other. The steam-port is in the 
 centre of the cylinder, and on top. The steam passages in the 
 piston-head commence near one end, and run along the circum- 
 ferential surface, in a longitudinal but curved line, so that the 
 passage will remain full open to the cylinder steam-port, notwith- 
 standing the rotary motion of the piston. At such part of the 
 stroke, however, at the point at which the steam is to be cut off, 
 the steam passage turns at an angle, and runs round nearly one- 
 half the perimeter of the piston-head, so that the rotary motion 
 of the piston during the remainder of the stroke is insufficient to 
 permit any communication between the cylinder-port and piston 
 passages. So soon as the piston-head steam passage turns the 
 angle above noted, the longitudinal movement of the piston-head 
 past the cylinder steam-port cuts off the supply of steam, and the 
 remainder of the piston-stroke is performed by expansion. The 
 circumferential direction of the passage above referred to serves 
 another purpose than acting as a cut-off, in that it enables the 
 same passage to be used to convey the steam to the cylinder ex- 
 haust-port. After the steam passage has taken the circumferential 
 direction referred to, it continues longitudinally to the end of the 
 piston-head ; the steam passage, while isolated from the cylinder 
 steam-port, comes into open communication with the cylinder ex- 
 haust-port, and that stroke of the engine is completed. For the 
 return-stroke, a similarly arranged passage is provided in the 
 piston-head, and hence the piston requires but two passages, 
 each of which operates alternately, as induction and eduction 
 passages. 
 
 There were three of this description of engines on exhibitioi/ 
 at the Centennial Exposition, which attracted considerable atten- 
 tion, in consequence of the arrangement for admitting and ex-^ 
 hausting steam being entirely different from anything heretofore? 
 employed. Such engines possess no practical value, their chief 
 interest consists in the novelty of the arrangement. 
 
THE ENGINEER^S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 243 
 
 Lubricants. 
 
 To understand the quantity of oil required for steam-cylinders, 
 slide-valves, and the reciprocating or revolving parts of steam- 
 engines, we should first know what its objects are. The object of 
 oil is to diminish friction, by interposing a thin film between the 
 sliding or revolving surfaces. To insure perfect lubrication, the 
 surfaces must be kept coated at all times, under all pressures and 
 velocities. In steam-engines there is a sliding and rotating fric- 
 tion, and it is very doubtful if any one kind of oil is perfectly 
 suited to both. Oil has no tendency to improve the character of 
 a bearing ; its functions being simply to keep them apart, prevent 
 heat, and diminish friction. 
 
 Temperature exerts a very important influence over any lubri- 
 cant. A thin oil has a tendency to run off too fast, while a thick 
 one is not sure to flow. Tallow, and all other thick and greasy 
 compounds, are exposed to the same objection, as the bearing gen- 
 erally gets hot before the lubricant begins to flow. Besides, what 
 may be called a good lubricant, one that adheres to the rubbing 
 surfaces under ordinary circumstances, may not be equally well 
 adapted to all conditions, as the area of the bearing surfaces varies 
 with the size of the journals, and the form of the boxes, which 
 causes a difference in the velocity of rotation. From this, it fol- 
 lows, that a lubricant that would be retained between the frictional 
 surfaces under a light load, would be entirely pressed out under a 
 heavy one. 
 
 The quantity of lubrication that the cylinders and slide-valves 
 of any engine require, depends on the condition of the engine, the 
 amount of work it is performing, and on the pressure and tem^ 
 perature of the steam. If the load is light, the pressure low, 
 and the engine in good order, very little lubrication is necessary; 
 but if the pressure and speed are high, and the engine is working 
 up to its full capacity, the cylinder and valves will require to be 
 frequently lubricated. But in no case should an unnecessary 
 quantity be used, as it is likely to produce a greater evil than the 
 
244 
 
 THE ENGINEER\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 one it was intended to remedy. A person having charge of steam 
 machinery should understand the work each part has to perform, 
 the speed at which it runs, and the weight it has to sustain. 
 Crank-pins and main-bearings require to be frequently oiled ; but 
 the condition of the bearing will determine the quantity of lubri- 
 cation needed. What is needed in any case is a few drops of good 
 oil applied often. It may be safely said that five times the quan- 
 tity of lubrication is used on the revolving and rubbing surfaces, 
 and in the valves and cylinder of steam-engines, which is actually 
 necessary. 
 
 According to the general impression, grease or animal oil is a 
 preserver of metal ; but experience has shown that it is more fre- 
 quently a destroyer, especially of the cylinders, pistons, and valves 
 of steam-engines. The reason of this is, that vegetable and ani- 
 mal fats and oils contain stearic, megaric, and oleic acids, which, 
 when subjected to the heat of high pressure steam, that frees them 
 from their base, attack the metal and destroy it. This applies as 
 well to oils of vegetable as to oils of animal origin, as fish or 
 sperm oil. On removing the heads of steam-cylinders and the 
 bonnets of steam-chests, the cylinders, pistons, and steam-chests 
 frequently show evidence of corrosion, which difiers entirely from 
 that of ordinary wear, and which persons unacquainted with the 
 nature and effect of the oil and grease they have been using, are 
 puzzled to account for. Oils derived from petroleum contain no 
 oxygen, cannot form acid, and therefore do not attack metal. 
 The proof of this may be found in the fact, that such oils are used 
 in surgical operations, and for cuts, bruises, and abrasions, with 
 good effect. Oils from petroleum are produced for nearly every 
 mechanical process, as well as for the cylinders of steam-engines, 
 for which latter purpose animal oils were considered indispensable. 
 
 At a recent meeting of the Railway Master Mechanics' Associ- 
 ation, at St. Louis, a report was presented by the committee on 
 lubricants, which embodied the result of a series of experiments 
 made for the purpose of testing the lubricating qualities of differ- 
 ent kinds of oil. In making the test, 56 drops of each variety 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOk' 
 
 245 
 
 or oil were put into a dynamometer, which was run at 35 'miles 
 an hour, until the temperature was raised from 60^ to 200*^ Fah. 
 The exact number of revolutions necessary to produce this change 
 of temperature was noted in each case, and is given in the last 
 column of the following table. 
 
 
 Cost per 
 Gallon. 
 
 Average Rev- 
 olutions. 
 
 
 $1.25 
 
 12-946 
 
 Paraffin e 
 
 .28 
 
 11-685 
 
 Mecca (black) 
 
 .45 
 
 9-982 
 
 Manufactured "J." 
 
 .35 
 
 9-653 
 
 U (C 
 
 .90 
 
 9-394 
 
 
 .25 
 
 9-187 
 
 Neat's-foot , . 
 
 .85 
 
 8-277 
 
 
 .26 
 
 7-915 
 
 
 1.75 
 
 7-912 
 
 Tallow 
 
 .70 
 
 7-794 
 
 No. 1 Lard 
 
 .70 
 
 7-377 
 
 Manufactured "D" .... 
 
 .25 
 
 6-999 
 
 a it a j^yf 
 
 .85 
 
 6-798 
 
 tc « *'J7"* 
 
 .20 
 
 6-121 
 
 W. Virginia (reduced) . . . 
 
 .20 
 
 4-770 
 
 
 .20 
 
 4-215 
 
 It has lately been demonstrated that natural petroleum oils, 
 when thoroughly freed from grit, are for many purposes as good, 
 if not better, than sperm, with the advantage of being much 
 cheaper ; but they are objectionable in consequence of their lia- 
 bility to stain bright work or finished machinery. 
 
 It is not by any means uncommon to see ignonint and inex- 
 perienced persons who have charge of steam-engines pouring oil 
 on cross-head guides and piston-rode every five minutes during 
 the day. This is immediately rubbed off by the shoes or the 
 piston-rod packing, without rendering any service, which is a 
 wilful waste of the necessary supplies in their charge, and has a 
 tendency to lessen the profits of the establishment. 
 21* 
 
246 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Questions : 
 
 THE ANSWERS TO WHICH WILL BE FOUND IN THE TEXT. 
 
 What are the objects and functions of the bed-plate as a part 
 of the steam-engine ? 
 
 Give the rule for finding the necessary strength of a bed-plate 
 /or any given speed and pressure. 
 
 State the rule for finding the proper thickness of a steam-cyl- 
 inder of any diameter. 
 
 Give the rule for finding the diameter of a cylinder for any 
 given horse-power. 
 
 Give the rule for finding the cubic contents of a steam-cylinder 
 of any given diameter. 
 
 State the rule for finding the quantity of steam that any engine 
 will use at each stroke of the piston. 
 
 Give the necessary strength of cylinder-head bolts. 
 
 What are the objects and functions of the pistons of steam- 
 engines, and what qualities should they possess ? 
 
 Give the proportions of piston-rods for condensing and non- 
 condensing engines, according to the be$t modern practice. 
 
 Give the units of horse-power for various piston speeds. 
 
 Give the pcpportions of steam- and exhaust-pipes according to 
 /he best modern practice. 
 
 What proportion should the diameter of the valve-rod bear to 
 that of the cylinder? 
 
 Give the proper length and width of the cross-head bearings. 
 What is the meaning of the term eccentric? 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 247 
 
 What are the functions of the craok, and what change of mo- 
 tion does it induce? 
 
 Explain the cause of the variation of the piston in the cylinders 
 
 of steam-engines when their cranks are at half-stroke. 
 
 Give the rule for finding the position of the piston in the cyl- 
 inder when the crank is at half-stroke. 
 
 Is there any loss of power incurred in the employment of a 
 crank as a mechanical device for converting reciprocating into 
 rotary motion ? 
 
 Give the rule for finding the necessary proportions of crank- 
 pins for any engine. 
 
 Give the proportion of the crank-shaft and main-bearings ac- 
 cording to the best modern practice. 
 
 Give the proper proportions of gibs, keys, and straps for any 
 engine. 
 
 Why is the strap thicker at the slot than at the part w^hich en- 
 circles the box ? 
 
 What are the functions of the link? 
 
 What is the meaning of the term " radius of the link " ? 
 
 Describe the mechanism of the various links employed as a 
 reversing-gear for steam-engines. 
 
 What is the object of the fly-wheel ? 
 
 Give the rule for finding the proper weight of fiy-wheel for any 
 engine, speed and pressure being given. 
 
 What are the functions of the steam-engine governor ? 
 
 Give the rule for finding the proper size of governor-pulleys. 
 
248 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 Give the most approved method of counterbalancing the re- 
 ciprocating parts of steam-engines. 
 
 What are the most common causes of heating in the journals 
 of steam-engines? 
 
 What are the uses and functions of the slide-valve? 
 
 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of the slide-valve 
 AS contrasted with those of other forms. 
 
 Explain the action of poppet- or conical-valves. 
 
 What are the meanings of the terms lap and lead on the valve? 
 
 What is the meaning of the term loss of lead f 
 
 What is meant by the terms valve-seat and valve-face? 
 
 Explain the meaning of the terms valve-circle and valve-stroke. 
 
 How would you proceed to ascertain the amount of lap and 
 lead on a slide-valve without opening the steam-chest ? 
 
 Give the meaning of the term cut-off, and the amount of lap 
 required to cut-off at different points of the stroke. 
 
 State the most economical point in the stroke at which to cut 
 off the steam, and demonstrate it by an example. 
 
 What is meant by friction when applied to slide-valves? 
 
 How would you proceed to set the valves of a steam-engine? 
 
 Is the friction of a perfectly fitting slide-valve more or less than 
 that of an imperfectly fitting one ? 
 
 Give the names of the different valves and valve-gear employed 
 i6r the admission and escape of the steam to and from the cyl- 
 inders of steam-engines. 
 
THE i:ngineer's handy-book. 249 
 
 Give the technical terms as applied to the valve-gear of steam- 
 engines. 
 
 Give the names of the various valves and cocks in use on dif- 
 ferent steam-engines and boilers. 
 
 Give the names of the various pipes in connection with differ* 
 ent kinds of steam-engines. 
 
 Explain the meaning of the term valve-gear. 
 
 In what condition should an engine be kept? 
 
 What is the best evidence of an engineer's capabilities ? 
 
 What dependence should be placed on patent oil-cups? 
 
 In what condition should the packing in the piston- and valve- 
 rod boxes be kept ? 
 
 What is the objection to striking any part of an engine with 
 the face of a hammer or head of a monkey-wrench ? 
 
 What is the objection to placing piston-rod packing or cotton 
 waste on the floor ? 
 
 When should piston- and valve-rod packing be •applied? 
 
 In what manner may piston- and valve-rod packing be improved? 
 
 How should gum-joints be treated, which must of necessity be 
 frequently broken ? 
 
 What precaution should an engineer take, when it becomes 
 necessary to stop an engine with a heavy fire in the furnace? 
 
 How should the cylinder drip-cocks be kept, when an engine is 
 stopped ? 
 
 When should the tallow or any other lubricant be admitted to 
 the cylinder ? 
 
250 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 How should an engine be started ? 
 
 What precaution should an engineer take before starting an 
 engine ? 
 
 What course should an engineer pursue when it becomes neces- 
 sary to stop for any length of time ? 
 
 What course should be adopted in case of extreme heating in 
 any of the revolving parts of an engine? 
 
 How should the piston-packing in the cylinder be treated? 
 
 What are the best means of protecting the cylinder and steam- 
 pipes from the effects of the atmosphere in order to diminish 
 radiation and condensation? 
 
 What course should be adopted when a clicking sound is heard 
 in the cylinder? 
 
 Why is it very important that the steam pressure should be 
 kept uniform ? 
 
 Give the reasons why the piston- and valve-rod packing is so 
 frequently out of order. 
 
 Explain the best method of using piston- and valve-rod packing. 
 
 What is the best course to adopt when excessive leakage oc- 
 curs ? 
 
 How should piston- and valve-rod packing be kept? 
 
 Give the rule for finding the right diameter of packing for any 
 stuffing-box. 
 
 What is the object of lubrication ? 
 
 What effect has temperature on lubricants? 
 
 What conditions influence the amount of lubrication required 
 for any engine ? 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 251 
 
 PART FOURTH. 
 
 The Steam-Engine Indicator: Its Invention and 
 Improvement. 
 
 Perhaps no device, in the entire range of mechanical inventions, 
 nas aided so much in developing and perfecting the steam-engine 
 as the indicator. 
 This arises from the 
 fact that no otlier in- 
 vention yet brought 
 forward pertaining 
 to the science of 
 steam engineering 
 can read the inner 
 workings of a steam- 
 engine, point them 
 out with unerring 
 accuracy, and dis- 
 cover the sources of 
 waste in it. Conse- 
 quently, its import- 
 ance cannot be too 
 highly estimated, 
 and its use too much 
 encouraged and ex- 
 tended in all classes 
 of steam-engines. 
 
 The steam-engine indicator is said to have been invented by 
 James Watt, which is rather doubtful; and, as Watt received 
 credit for many things he never invented, it is not to be won- 
 dered at that the invention of the indicator has been attributed 
 to him. Be that as it may. Watt's indicator, though very im- 
 
252 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 perfect, answered for engines travelling at a piston speed of about 
 150 feet per minute, and for pressures averaging 7 lbs. above 
 atmosphere, which he thought was the fastest speed and the highest 
 pressure that would ever be needed. But experience soon demon- 
 strated that the highest . economy was attained with high piston 
 speeds and correspondingly high pressures, and, • as a result, 
 Watt's indicator proved to be unsuitable for these conditions. 
 The requirements of such an instrument were more fully appre- 
 ciated by McNought, of Glasgow. The world is more indebted 
 to him for improvements in the steam-engine indicator than to 
 any one previous to his time. 
 
 The indicator was further improved by Hopkinson, Stillman, 
 and others ; but these improvements were not in the mechanical 
 design or arrangement of its working parts, but rather in the 
 accuracy and refinement of the workmanship employed in its 
 construction, as the mechanical principles embodied in the Watt 
 indicator were continued in them all. They consisted of an up- 
 right cylinder, into which a piston was accurately fitted. To the 
 piston-rod a spiral spring was attached, to resist the steam and the 
 vacuum when acting against it. The pencil was also attached to 
 the piston-rod ; the result of which was that the piston, piston-rod, 
 and spring had the same movements as the pencil. With such 
 instruments the vibration of the piston was so great as to render 
 them totally unreliable with fast running engines, or when steam 
 was worked expansively. 
 
 Gooch was the first inventor that gave the pencil a greater 
 range of movement than the piston. In his instrument the cyl- 
 inder was placed horizontally, and when its piston was subjected 
 to pressure it compressed two elliptic springs. The top of his 
 piston-rod was connected to the short arm of a lever, to the long 
 arm of which the pencil was attached, thus giving considerably 
 more motion than could be obtained by any former instrument 
 The pencil moved in the arc of a circle instead of a straight line. ' 
 The diagram was traced on a web of paper while it was unwound 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 253 
 
 from one drum and wound upon another. This arrangement ad- 
 mitted of a succession of diagrams being taken without any in- 
 termediate manipulation of the instrument. The communication 
 between the indicator and 
 the steam-cylinder was closed 
 by a slide-valve instead of a 
 cock. But as the principle 
 of working steam expan- 
 sively became almost uni- 
 versal, an instrument more 
 reliable than any of these 
 previously mentioned be- 
 came a necessity of the 
 times, and such was found 
 in the Richards' Indicator. 
 In this instrument the fol- 
 lowing construction and pro- 
 portions have been adopted, 
 and adhered to from the 
 first. The area of the piston 
 is ^ a square inch, the di- 
 ameter of which is very 
 nearly of an inch, or, 
 more exactly, '79 inch. The 
 length of the long arm of 
 the lever, to which the rod 
 of the piston is attached, is 
 3 inches, and the distance 
 from the pivot of the lever 
 to the point of attachment of the piston is | of an inch, thus giv- 
 ing the free end of the lever, and with it the pencil, four times 
 the movement of the piston. The secondary lever is equal in 
 length to the first, and the link which connects the two, and which 
 carries the pencil at its centre, is 1*^- inches long. These propor- 
 22 
 
 Section of the Indicator. 
 
254 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK 
 
 tions give a practically straight pencil movement for a distance 
 of 2} inches. 
 
 The indicator was further improved by Harris Tabor, (cuts 
 of whose instrument may be seen on pages 260 and 261 ;) but 
 
 more recent im- 
 provements made in 
 the indicator have 
 been effected by 
 George H. Crosby, 
 a mechanical en- 
 gineer of Boston, 
 Mass. It has appa- 
 rently been the aim 
 of Mr. Crosby to 
 avoid unnecessary 
 weight in the recip- 
 rocating parts, to in- 
 sure correctness of 
 action, and to so sim- 
 plify the method of 
 manipulating the 
 instrument as to 
 bring it within the 
 understanding of 
 engineers of limited 
 education and per- 
 sons of ordinary 
 intelligence. In 
 these objects he 
 seems to have been 
 partially successful, 
 as the Crosby Indicator is an improvement, in some respects, 
 on other devices of the kind in use; as it is reliable in its 
 recordings, whether employed for taking diagrams from auto- 
 matic cut-off, throttling, simple, compound, fast- or slow-run- 
 
 Crosby's Improved Indicator. 
 
THE ENGINEER\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 255 
 
 ning engines; as it is free from some objectionable features 
 in other instruments, 
 which render the dia- 
 grams taken by them 
 erroneous. In the con- 
 ception of this instru- 
 ment, the inventor seems 
 to have predetermined 
 many of the circum- 
 stances, emergencies, 
 and requirements that 
 might possibly arise in 
 the use of the indicator, 
 and provided for them. 
 
 The advantages of 
 the Crosby Indicator 
 are, that the parallel 
 motion is not a geomet- 
 rical approximate imi- 
 tation of, but a true 
 motion; that the motion 
 of the pencil is a uni- 
 form multiplication of 
 the piston of the indi- 
 cator, and is solely con- 
 trolled by the motion of 
 the piston-rod ; and that 
 there are no guiding- 
 slots, either straight or 
 curved, to induce fric 
 tion; that there is no 
 compensating arm 
 jointed to any fixed 
 
 Section of Crosby's Indicator. 
 
 point, as in other indicators ; that the pencil is located close to 
 the piston-rod, instead of projecting several inches to one side, 
 
256 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 as in other cases; that an air-chamber or jacket surrounds the 
 steam-cylinder instead of a steam-jacket, as in other instances; 
 that the piston-rod is hollow instead of solid, and that it is solidly 
 united to the piston, thus requiring no joints below the cap, 
 which obviates the possibility of corrosion by the action of the 
 steam or moisture; that there is no link or connecting-bar be- 
 tween the head of the piston-rod and lever to cause friction or 
 inaccuracy of motion ; that the cylinder, piston, and piston-rod 
 are automatically oiled by a self-lubricating device, thus removing 
 the possibility of friction, which always induces error in the re- 
 cordings of the indicator, thus rendering the diagram deceptive 
 even to experts ; that, wherever possible, every joint is made with 
 steel pivots instead of journals, as is the case in other instruments ; 
 that the mechanism for adjusting each instrument is so arranged 
 that it may be used either left- or right-handed, as the case may be, 
 in order that diagrams may be taken from either end of the cyl- 
 inder without the necessity of two indicators ; that means are 
 provided for adjusting the distance that the paper shall move 
 towards the pencil, so that a hair-line can be drawn without fric- 
 tion ; that the reduction in weight in the piston and hollow piston- 
 rod and the refinement of workmanship in the levers and joints, 
 render the reciprocating parts so extremely light that momentum 
 and friction are reduced to a minimum ; that it is more easily ad- 
 justed and operated than any other instrument of the kind ever 
 heretofore invented, thus dispensing with the necessity of experts, 
 and that diagrams may be taken from each end of a steam-cylin- 
 der without the least diflSculty, even by engineers of ordinary in- 
 telligence and limited experience, from engines running at the 
 highest practicable piston speed. 
 
 They ape manufactured by the Crosby Steam Gauge and Valve 
 Co., Boston, Mass. 
 
 The Thompson Improved Indicator. 
 The Thompson Indicator, see page 251, improved and patented 
 by J. W. Thompson, of Salem, O., is the only instrument now in 
 
THE ENGlNEEll\s fl A N D Y - H (> () K . 
 
 267 
 
 use that can be used on very high-speed engines with success ; and 
 it works equally as well on slowly as quickly running engines. It 
 will give correct results under any attainable speed of an engine 
 or locomotive. 
 
 The adoption of high-piston speed of stationary and locomotive 
 engines has created a demand for an indicator that will take cards 
 at a very high speed, say three hundred revolutions per minute, 
 or even more. 
 
 It will be observed that Mr. Thompson's improvement mainly 
 consists in reducing the weight of the parallel motion, by lessening 
 the number of vibrating pieces, thereby decreasing the tendency 
 to make wavy lines in both steam and expansion. ^ By this arrange- 
 ment, the instrument is lighter and more compact, — qualities which 
 will be fully appreciated by all intelligent engineers. 
 
 The Thompson Indicator has taken the first premium wherever 
 exhibited in competition with other indicators. 
 
 About two years since, the United States Government being 
 desirous of ascertaining which of the various patterns of indicators 
 in use was the most efficient, with a view to its adoption as the 
 Standard for naval service, Engineer-in-Chief Wm. H. Shock, 
 U. S. N., Chief of the Bureau of Steam Engineering of the Navy 
 Department, issued an order directing the Commandant of the 
 Boston Navy Yard to appoint a board for this purpose. The board 
 consisted of three officers of the Engineer Corps, who reported 
 unanimously in favor of the Thompson Indicator, and it was sub- 
 sequently adopted by the United States Navy Department as the 
 Standard Indicator. 
 
 The Thompson Indicator is also in use by all the principal 
 Institutes of Technology throughout the country. 
 
 By an ingenious device, invented by Mr. Thompson, cards can 
 be taken with this instrument at a pressure as high as five hundred 
 pounds to the square inch. 
 
 The Thompson Indicator is manufactured by the American 
 Steam-Gauge Company, Boston, Mass., who have been eminently 
 successful in the manufacturing of first-class instruments for nearly 
 22* R 
 
258 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 thirty years, and who, seeing the superiority of the Thompson over 
 any other make, negotiated with Mr. Thompson for the sole manu- 
 facture and sale of same. The cut on page 251 shows the indi- 
 cator as it was made when the manufacturers received it from Mr. 
 Thompson. But knowing that the principle of the Thompson was 
 far superior to any other indicator in the market, and being desir- 
 ous of keeping far in adVance of all other manufacturers of indi- 
 cators, the manufacturers have made some very important improve- 
 ments in the indicator, so that it is now known as the Thompson 
 Improved Indicator, as shown by the following cuts. 
 
 The Thompson Improved Indicator. Section of the Thompson tm- 
 
 The important improvements consist in lightening the moving 
 parts, substituting steel screws in place of taper-pins, using a very 
 light steel link instead of a large brass one, reducing the weight 
 of the pencil-lever, also weight of square in trunk of piston and 
 lock-nut on end of spindle, and increasing the bearing on connec- 
 ulon of parallel m.oticn By shortening the length and reducjig 
 
 proved Indicator. 
 
THE engineer's II ANDY- HOOK. 259 
 
 the actual weight of the paper cylinder just one-half, and hy short- 
 ening the bearing on spindle so that it now carries the drum-spring 
 nearer the base, they have reduced the momentum of the paper 
 cylinder to a very small amount. All of these improvements have 
 lessened the amount of friction, which was heretofore very small, 
 but is now reduced to a minimum, and the Thompson Improved 
 Indicator as it is now made is without a peer, and is the standard 
 Indicator in Europe and this country, and has been adopted by the 
 most eminent engineers in both countries. 
 
 Some of the advantages of Thompson's Improved Indicator are : 
 that it is handsome in design, and convenient and simple in ar- 
 rangement ; that cards can be taken at a pressure as high as 500 
 lbs. to the square inch ; that they are easily adjusted and operated ; 
 that all the moving parts have been lightened, which is a con- 
 sideration of great importance, especially for engines travelling at 
 a high rate of piston speed ; that it is made of materials carefiiUy 
 selected and accurately fitted, thus insuring durability ; and that 
 they are adapted to all purposes for which such instruments are 
 employed. 
 
 Every Indicator is tested at the works by being attached to an 
 engine before being sent out, and tried under different pressures, 
 which insures satisfaction in the working ; so that it is sure to meet 
 all the requirements for which it is intended. 
 
 Tabor's Indicator. 
 
 The cuts on pages 260, 261, represent Tabor's Steam-Enginp 
 Indicator. — As will be observed, its most striking features are its 
 parallel motion and the plainness of its cylinder. The piston has 
 a single capillary packing groove, and its whole action is remark- 
 ably nice. The springs, both as to range and general structure, 
 are similar to those in the Richards and Thompson Indicator. It 
 will be noticed that the piston-rod, which is jointed to the piston 
 and the pencil-lever, is slotted ; this slot is curved, and works 
 over a guide-roller set iu the cylinder-cap. The rear end of the 
 
260 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 pencil-lever is pivoted to the radius link. The slot-curve is that 
 peculiar curve which would be described by ihe> guide-roller aS a 
 scribing point while the pencil is being moved in a true line; 
 this, it is claimed, insures a correct parallel motion to the pencil. 
 The guide-roller is journalled in a free collar held in the cylinder- 
 cap, which allows 
 all the moving parts 
 to revolve freely, as 
 the pencil is brought 
 in contact with the 
 paper. 
 
 The paper drum 
 revolves on a steel 
 spindle, upon which 
 the bottom nut is 
 screwed; the nut 
 inside the drum is 
 simply a milled head 
 firmly screwed on 
 the upper end of the 
 spindle. The recoil- 
 spring is seated in a 
 cup on the bracket, 
 the outer end being 
 fixed to it, while the 
 inner end is hooked 
 Tabor's Indicator. by the hub on the 
 
 drum-base. A stop- 
 block on the cup, engaging with a lug in the drum-base, forms the 
 stop for the recoil motion. If the spindle be slacked somewhat, 
 the drum-base may be revolved over the stop-block, and more or 
 less tension given to the recoil-spring. By simply unscrewing the 
 cylinder-cap, the whole motion work may be removed in one 
 piece. The pencil-lever, piston-rod, and radius-link, are all of steel, 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 261 
 
 spring tempered ; the 
 small number of 
 moving parts, and 
 their lightness, re- 
 duce the error of 
 momentum that ex- 
 ists in instruments 
 of heavier parts, 
 which is frequently 
 a source of uncer- 
 tainty. The whole 
 instrument is very 
 light, the design sim- 
 ple, and the work- 
 manship neatly done. 
 It is claimed that the 
 diagrams produced 
 are very good. 
 
 Section of Tabor's Indicator. 
 
 Functions of the Indicator. 
 
 The function of the indicator is to automatically trace out on 
 paper a diagram that will graphically represent the pressure of 
 the steam in the cylinder of the engine to which it is attached, with 
 all its variations during both forward and return strokes of the 
 piston. It enables those who use or have charge of steam-engines, 
 to ascertain the condition of the parts of the engine subject to 
 the direct action of the steam, and to what advantage the steam 
 is applied; whether the valves are properly designed and ac- 
 curately set, and if the steam-passages or ports are of the proper 
 size to receive and discharge the steam in time to produce the best 
 effect ; what pressure of steam there is upon the piston at every 
 position in the cylinder, as w^ell as its average during the stroke; 
 what is the value of the vacuum acting upon the piston of a con- 
 densing engine in all its positions in the cylinder, and what is its 
 
262 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 average ; whether the exhaust passages from the cylinder are 
 sufficiently large to give free exit to the steani, and, if not, what 
 percentage of power is lost in forcibly expelling it; the actual 
 consumption of steam in giving motion to the engine, and also 
 what additional steam is used in giving motion to the slrafting 
 and millwark, the paddle-wheel or screw-propeller ; and also what 
 power is required to move the machinery, or any part of it. 
 
 In manufacturing establishments where power is let to tenants 
 it will show how much is consumed by each, and it will also dem- 
 onstrate the degree of economy in using steam at different press- 
 ures, the benefits of expansion, and the relative efficiency of 
 different kinds of expansion-gear. 
 
 Indicator cards are of great value, as they demonstrate the 
 initial, mean effective, and terminal pressures, the back pressure, 
 the cushion, whether by compression or lead ; the point of cut-off, 
 and the relative economy of different engines, aside from leakage 
 and condensation. It may be applied not only to steam-engines, 
 but to those driven by compressed air, or any vapor or fluid, as 
 w^ell as to the cylinders of air-pumps, air-compressors, blast-engines, 
 etc. The diagram produced is the joint production of two move- 
 ments, viz., a vertical movement of the marking point due to the 
 pressure of the steam acting on the piston of the instrument, in 
 opposition to the force of a spring of known strength, and a hor- 
 izontal movement of the paper, as the drum, on which it is placed, 
 makes partial rotations to and fro coincident with the movement 
 of the piston. Hence, when the pencil is held in contact with the 
 paper during one revolution of the engine, both will arrive at the 
 point from which they started at the same moment, and a closed 
 figure will be the result, except when a great change in the load 
 and pressure occurs during the stroke in which the diagram was 
 taken. 
 
 The value of indicator diagrams is that they show what propor- 
 tion of the boiler pressure is contained in the cylinder ; how early 
 in the stroke the highest pressure is reached ; how well it is main- 
 tained ; at what point and at what pressure the steam is cut off; 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 263 
 
 whether it is cut off sharply, or in what degree it is wire-drawn; 
 at what point, and at what pressure it is released; whether it is 
 freely discharged, or what proportion of it (in excess of the atmos- 
 phere or the vacuum in the condenser, according as the engine is 
 condensing or non^condensing) remains to exert a counter or back 
 pressure ; whether, before the commencement of the stroke, there 
 is any compression of the vapor remaining in the cylinder, and if 
 so, at what point in the stroke it commences, and to how high a 
 pressure it rises. The foregoing particulars can only be learned 
 by observation, though a scale, corresponding with the spring used, 
 is needed to measure the pressures, and to locate the exact events 
 in the stroke. The points to be observed in estimating diagrams 
 are, the mean or average pressure ; the total mean, or the mean 
 effective pressure ; the indicated horse-power, I. H. P., and the 
 theoretical water consumption. The indicator shows the pressure 
 at each and every point in the stroke; to represent this faithfully 
 is its sole office. The causes which determine the form of the 
 figure must be determined by the engineer. 
 
 Technical Terms Used in Connection with the Employ- 
 ment of the Indicator, 
 
 The term Adiabatic literally means no transmission. As applied 
 to an expansion curve, it means that it correctly represents at all 
 points the pressure due both to the volume and the temperature, 
 just as if no transmission of heat to or from it had taken place. 
 
 Admission. — This term is applied to the induction of the steam 
 into the cylinder when the valve opens at the commencement of 
 the stroke. 
 
 The term Asymptote means a line which approaches nearer and 
 nearer to some curve, but which, though infinitely extended, would 
 never meet it. The clearance and vacuum lines of a diagram are 
 asymptotes of a true expansion curve. 
 
264 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 The letter B at the end of a diagram means that that end was 
 taken from the bottom end of the cylinder. 
 
 A. B. OP Aba. is understood to stand for above atmosphere, and 
 B. A. or Bla. below atmosphere. 
 
 The term Compression is a term used to express the distance 
 through which the piston moves in the cylinder after the exhaust 
 has closed. Compression takes place between the piston and the 
 cylinder-head at the end of each stroke; and the distance from the 
 end of the cylinder at which it takes place depends on the amount 
 of lap on the valve. 
 
 The term Cushion means the resistance offered on the opposite 
 side of the piston induced by the steam shut up in the cylinder. 
 
 Cylinder efficiency. — This term is used to designate the amount 
 of work performed in the cylinder of a steam-engine for a given 
 pressure. 
 
 The term Clearance is used to express the extent of the space 
 which exists between the piston, the cylinder-head, and the valve- 
 face at each end of the stroke. See page 122. 
 
 Displacement. — This term is applied to the cubic contents, or 
 the volume of water, steam, or air displaced by the piston during 
 one stroke. It may be found by multiplying the area of the piston 
 in inches by its stroke in inches. The product will be its displace- 
 ment in cubic inches. 
 
 Duty. — This term is understood by engineers to mean the effi- 
 ciency of steam-engines, or the number of pounds that an engine 
 is capable of raising one foot high per second with an expenditure 
 or consumption of one hundred pounds of coal. 
 
 The term Flexure means bending or curving. The point of 
 flexure in a diagram is the point at which the cut-off closes anc) 
 the expansion curve begins, as shown at C, explanatory diagram 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 265 
 
 No. 1, page 291. The point of contrary flexure is the point at 
 which the line changes its direction by curving outwards and 
 afterwards inwards, as shown at A, on diagram on page 291. 
 
 H. P. cyl. stands for high-pressure cylinder. ♦ 
 
 H. P. means horse-power, which, when applied to the steam- 
 engine, means 33,000 lbs. raised one foot high ; or 150 lbs. raised 
 220 feet high ; or 550 lbs. raised one foot high in one second. 
 
 The term Hyperbola means a plane figure which is formed by 
 cutting a portion from a cone by a plane, parallel to its axis or to 
 any plane within the cone, which passes through the cone's vertex. 
 The curve of the hyperbola is such, that the difference between 
 the distances of any point in it from two given points is always 
 equal to a given right line. 
 
 The term Isothermal means uniform or same temperature. As 
 applied to an expansion curve, it means that such a curve repre- 
 sents correctly the expansion or compression of the steam when 
 the temperature is uniform. 
 
 • L. P. cyl. means low-pressure cylinder. 
 
 The term Ordinates means the vertical lines drawn across dia- 
 grams to facilitate the calculation of their power. See diagram 
 on page 291. 
 
 The term Parallelism is generally employed, where two or more 
 straight lines may be extended indefinitely, without any tendency 
 to approach or diverge from one another. See atmospheric and 
 vacuum lines on indicator diao^rams. 
 
 Release. — This term is understood to mean exhaust. Besid- 
 uary exhaust is that which follows the first release of the terminal 
 pressure. The term negative exhaust is sometimes used, though 
 not generally understood in its literal sense. It means compres- 
 sion or cushion, and absolutely amounts to the same thing, as it Ls 
 23 
 
266 THE ENGINEEP/S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 merely an early product of the exhaust, for the purpose of retain- 
 ing a portion of steam in the cylinder as the crank approaches 
 the centre of the stroke. 
 
 Rev. or Rev's is understood to mean revolutions per minute, 
 though rspm is sometimes used. 
 
 I. H. P. means indicated horse-power. It means the number 
 of H. P. of energy shown by the diagram of an engine, as found 
 by multiplying together the area of the piston in square inches, 
 its speed in feet per minute, and the mean effective pressure shown, 
 and dividing the product by 33,000. 
 
 N. H. P. means nett horse -power, which is the I. H. P. minus 
 the friction of the engine. ^ 
 
 The term Initial pressure is generally understood to mean the 
 pressure represented in the cylinder between the opening of the 
 steam-valve and the closing of the cut-off. More properly speak- 
 ing, it is the pressure represented in the cylinder at the commence- 
 ment of the stroke, as the pressure frequently falls considerably 
 before the closing of the cut-off. 
 
 M. E. P. means mean effective pressure. It is simply the 
 amount by which the average impelling pressure exceeds the 
 average resisting or counter-pressure. The M. E. P. on the piston 
 of a steam-engine is the measure or exponent of the work per- 
 formed. 
 
 The term Terminal pressure means the pressure at which the 
 steam is exhausted from the cylinder, and may be said to be the 
 exponent of the consumption of water by the engine. 
 
 The term Pipe diagram is applied to diagrams taken from the 
 steam-pipe for the purpose of determining how much of the press- 
 ure of the steam in the pipe is lost in passing through the steam- 
 ports to the cylinder. 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANI)Y-BOOK. 
 
 267 
 
 The term Scale means the number of pounds of steam per 
 square inch (acting on the piston of a?i engine) represented by 
 each inch of vertical height on the diagram. Thus a 40 lb. scale 
 means that each inch on the diagram represents 40 lbs. of steam 
 per square inch, and so on. 
 
 The term Spring means the spring which is employed on the 
 piston of the instrument, in order to resist the pressure of the 
 steam and the vacuum. The following table will give the limit 
 of presi5ine in the cylinder to which each spring may be subjected. 
 The length of each spring given in the third column is such that 
 each of them would be extended (when subjected to a perfect 
 vacuum) to a length of inches, which is the approximate 
 length which would cari-y the pencil to the lower limit of the 
 range of movement above given. 
 
 Scale of 
 Spring. 
 
 Limit of 
 Cylinder- 
 Pressure 
 ABOVE At- 
 mosphere. 
 
 
 Length of Spring. 
 
 — 
 
 15 lbs. per in. 
 
 25 lbs. 
 
 2-192 
 
 ins. — nearly 2\ 
 
 ins. 
 
 20 " 
 
 38 " 
 
 2-255 
 
 " —a little above 2i 
 
 
 30 " 
 
 64 " 
 
 2-315 
 
 a << << O 3 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 or nearer 2fQ 
 
 u 
 
 40 " 
 
 90 " 
 
 2-345 
 
 " = nearly 2-/o 
 
 (( 
 
 60 " 
 
 143 " 
 
 2-376 
 
 " = a little over 2| 
 
 a 
 
 "80 " 
 
 195 
 
 2-391 
 
 " = a little above 2| 
 
 n 
 
 To find the corresponding limit for grades not given, multiply 
 the total range of movement, 2 625 inches, by the scale of the 
 spring, and deduct the pressure of the atmosphere. 
 
 Example. — Suppose it is desired to find the limit of pressure for 
 a 50 lb. spring : 50 X 2-625 — 14-7 = 116-55. 
 
 The term String, as used in these pages, means the aggregate 
 length of the ordinates of an indicator diagram. 
 
268 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 The letter T on a diagram denotes that that end was taken from 
 the top end of a cylinder* 
 
 The term Undulating means rising and falling, wavy. See 
 dotted line on diagram No. 16, page 303. 
 
 Wire-drawing, — This term is applied to the common method 
 of regulating the flow of steam from the boiler to the cylinder, 
 by throttling or forcing the steam to ooze through some small or 
 intricate device, such as the governor-valve, thus tending to destroy 
 its elastic force. 
 
 The term Zero, when applied to indicator diagrams, means a 
 vacuum. 
 
 How to Attach the Indicator. 
 
 Since it is of the first importance that the diagram should be 
 correct, both as to its vertical and horizontal measurements, too 
 much care cannot be taken in making the attachments. The best 
 method of attaching the indicator to the engine is to drill and 
 tap into the cylinder directly opposite the ports. When practi-* 
 cable, the holes should be located exactly at the centre of the 
 clearance, or the space between the piston and the cylinder, when 
 the crank is at the dead-centre; since, if the holes are bored in 
 any part of the cylinder which is travelled over by the piston, the 
 communication with the indicator will be closed at that point in 
 each stroke. Care must also be taken that they are not too close 
 to the cylinder-heads, as the projecting parts of the latter may 
 interfere with the free flow of the steam between the cylinder and 
 the indicator. But if such a difficulty should arise, recesses must 
 be cut in the cylinder-heads, in order to establish the communi- 
 cation. If the heads can be removed for the purpose of locating the 
 holes, it is always best to do so, as their exact location can be de- 
 termined with perfect accuracy. 
 
 If circumstances will not admit of the holes being drilled into 
 the clearance, they may be put in the heads ; and, if it is not in- 
 
THE ENGINEER'S ITANDY-BOOK. 
 
 269 
 
 tended to place the instrument in connection with both ends of 
 the cylinder at the same time, this location is preferable. It is 
 claimed by many engineers that reliable diagrams cannot be ol)- 
 tained, when the pressure has to be transmitted through a long 
 pipe, as is the case when the instrument is connected to both ends 
 of the cylinder. But it has been shown by experiment, that if 
 the cylinder is tapped instead of the heads, thereby using the 
 shortest pipe, and the stop-cocks are placed as near as possible to 
 the instrument, the difference between diagrams so taken, and 
 those taken from a direct attachment, is not always noticeable. 
 If, instead of two stop-cocks, one on each side of the instrument, a 
 three way cock be placed under it, which will allow steam to be 
 admitted from either end through the same plug, the difference 
 can hardly be detected. If no such cock can be had, straight way- 
 cocks of ample aperture, placed as close to the L or T, to which 
 the instrument is attached, as possible, will give sufficiently satis- 
 factory results for all ordinary purposes. When, however, it is 
 decided to take the diagrams separately, two cocks become neces- 
 sary, and the card must also have tw^o loops or hooks, as far apart 
 as the two positions which the instrument is to occupy. Then it 
 may be quickly shifted from end to end as desired. If tw^o in- 
 struments are attached to an engine, diagrams may be taken 
 simultaneously from both ends ; but, while such an arrangement 
 obviates the difficulty of equalizing the events of the two ends 
 with one instrument, it is open to the objection that, if there is any 
 difference in the action of the two instruments, or in the strength 
 of their springs, this circumstance will interfere with the com- 
 parison. 
 
 Motion of the Paper Drum. 
 
 Owing to the almost endless variety of engines, their peculi- 
 arities of design, etc., it is impossible to give very definite instruc- 
 tions which will be applicable to all cases. But it must be borne 
 in mind, that the motion of the paper drum must be coincident 
 with that of the piston in respect to its times of stopping and 
 23* 
 
270 
 
 THE engine^:r's handy-book. 
 
 starting, and be a miniature reproduction of it in all other re- 
 spects ; or, in other words, equal piston movements must be rep- 
 resented by equal movements of the paper throughout the whole 
 stroke. To whatever the cord may be attached, whether to a tem- 
 porary wooden pendulum fastened by a screw to a post, or to the 
 beam of a beam-engine, it (the cord) must be at right angles to a 
 line between its point of attachment and the pivot of the beam or 
 pendulum to which it is attached, when the piston is in the middle 
 of its stroke. For instance, suppose the engine to be horizontal, 
 and that a wooden pendulum is attached to a light post set up by 
 or on the engine, or some other convenient object, or is suspended 
 from a joist, the lower end being connected to the cross-head, and 
 that the point on the pendulum where the motion is sufficiently 
 reduced for the paper drum is higher than the instrument, so that 
 the cord must incline downward. In such a case, unless a carry- 
 ing pulley is used to deflect it to a horizontal direction, or unless 
 the point of attachment for the cord is moved as many degrees 
 from the centre line of the pendulum as the cord inclines down- 
 wards, the movement of the pendulum will be too fast at one end 
 of its travel, and too slow at the other, and the diagram will be 
 distorted. The effects of such distortion will be to cause the ends 
 to appear unequal when they are not so, or else to conceal or ex- 
 aggerate inequalities where they really exist. 
 
 The length of the pendulum may be from one and a half times 
 to twice the length of the stroke or more. If too short, the ends 
 of the diagram will be distorted, unless the connection between it 
 and the cross-head is sufficiently long. The pendulum may be 
 attached to some object at the side of the engine, so that it may 
 vibrate in a horizontal plane. 
 
 A good substitute for a pendulum consists of a drum about six 
 inches in diameter, more or less, on the axis of which is another 
 drum, the diameter of which requires to be as much less than the 
 other as the movement of the paper is less than the travel of the 
 piston. If the drum is mounted in a convenient position, and a 
 cord from the large part is attached to the cross-head, and another 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-ROOK. 
 
 271 
 
 from the small part to the indicator, a spring in the large drum 
 keeps its cord taut, just as the spring in the drum of the in- 
 dicator keeps its cord taut. 
 
 When two instruments (right and left), are used, it is best to 
 fix a sliding-bar alongside of them having the proper motion, 
 carrying pins to which the cords are attached, these pins being 
 placed between the two instruments so that the cord of each may 
 pull towards the other, and the movement of the piston from 
 either end of the cylinder may pull the cord of the instrument 
 attached to that end, in which case the upper line of each dia- 
 gram will be drawn while the cord is being pulled. But no per- 
 ceptible advantage in the way of accuracy need be expected from 
 this arrangement, though it is a very convenient one where a large 
 number of diagrams are to be taken. 
 
 Analysis of diagrams. — All the various particulars which may 
 be learned from the indicator diagram may be classed under three 
 heads. 
 
 1. Those relating to the condition of the engine, such as its 
 construction, adjustment, etc. 
 
 2. The mean or average pressure exerted on the piston as an 
 element in calculating the indicated horse-power, I. H. P. 
 
 3. The theoretical rate of water consumption. 
 
 Here it is necessary to explain the terms used hereafter to des- 
 ignate the various parts of the diagram. 
 
 In diagram No. 1, A A shows the atmospheric line which is 
 drawn when both sides of the piston of the indicator are exposed 
 to the atmosphere. When tracing such a diagram it is preferable 
 to pull the cord by hand, in order to make the atmospheric line 
 longer than the diagram ; J5 C is called the steam line. It is 
 formed while steam is entering the cylinder. C is the point of 
 cut-off. It cannot always be located exactly by inspection, as the 
 closure of the part is generally sufficiently gradual to cause con- 
 siderable fall of pressure before the port is entirely closed. In 
 general, it may be located at the point where tlie outline of the 
 figure ceases to be convex and commences to be concave. C 1) 
 
272 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 is the expansion line or curve. D is the point of exhaust, which, 
 like that of the cut-off, may be located at the point of contrary 
 flexure, or that point where the expansion line begins to change 
 the direction of its curvature. D E is the exhaust line. It com- 
 mences at the point of exhaust, and may be considered as ter- 
 minating at the end of the stroke, (though, strictly speaking, it 
 does not terminate till the exhaust port closes at F.) E F is 
 termed the counter- or back-pressure line, and by some the vac- 
 uum or exhaust line ; but the former terms are more appropri- 
 ate, as they are applicable to all diagrams, whether from condens- 
 ing or non-condensing engines. In the diagrams of non-con- 
 densing engines it is above the atmospheric line, A A ; while 
 in condensing engines it is below ; but in both cases it rep- 
 resents some counter-pressure, since a perfect vacuum is unat- 
 tainable. F is the point of exhaust-closure. Its exact loca- 
 tion cannot be so readily determined as the points C and D, 
 as, although like the former, it is anticipated somewhat by a 
 change of pressure, it is not marked by any change in the direc- 
 tion of the curvature of the line. In perfectly working engines 
 it may be located geometrically, but it is seldom necessary to do 
 so, since for all practical purposes it is sufficient to know w^here 
 the change of pressure due to the closing of the exhaust begins, 
 and its final result. F G is the compression curve, and G £ is 
 the admission line. These constitute all the lines which belong 
 to the diagram proper, and all that are produced by the instru- 
 ment. 
 
 For certain purposes the vacuum line V F, and the clearance 
 Vine H diagram No. 1, are drawn, the former parallel to the 
 atmospheric line, and at such a distance below it as will repre- 
 sent, according to the scale used, the pressure of the atmosphere 
 as it was, or was supposed to be, at the time and place at which 
 the diagram was taken. For this purpose it is usual, when great 
 accuracy is desired, to consult a barometer at the time, and 
 record its reading on the card; but, in the absence of a barom- 
 eter, it is usual to assume the pressure at 14*7 lbs. per square 
 
THE pjnginej:k^s handy-hook. 
 
 273 
 
 inch, which is the average at sea level ; but, since the pressure 
 diminishes at the rate of j\ lb. for each 189 feet of elevation, 
 allowance should be made for the known or estimated eleva- 
 tion of the locality. It should also be remembered that the 
 pressure will vary nearly ^ lb., and sometimes more, from changes 
 in the weather. 
 
 The clearance line HHj diagram No. I, is drawn perpendicular 
 to the atmospheric and vacuum lines, and at such a distance from 
 the induction end of the diagram, that the space between them 
 will bear the same proportion to the whole length of the latter 
 as the whole volume of clearance bears to the piston displace- 
 ment. When the amount of clearance is unknown, and it is not 
 practicable either to calculate it or measure it by filling the space 
 with water, it must be approximated as near as possible from the 
 known clearance of engines of similar construction. The largest 
 clearance will be generally found in the smaller sized engines of 
 the ordinary single slide-valve type. Five such engines tested at 
 the Cincinnati Industrial Exposition of 1875, had the following 
 amounts 9, 9^, 10, 11^, and 12 per cent, of the cubic contents of 
 the cylinder. Next to these will be the larger sizes of the same 
 type, in which the clearance will range from 6 to 10 per cent. 
 When two slide-valves are used with short, direct ports, but ex- 
 hausting under the valves, the clearance will average from 3 to 6 
 per cent., according to the proportionate length of the stroke, the 
 longest strokes having the smallest per cent. Corliss engines, in 
 which the stroke is about three times the bore, have about 3 per 
 cent. The least amount of clearance is obtained from valves de- 
 signed to exhaust at both ends of the cylinder, instead of in the 
 centre, as in the case of the ordinary single slide-valve. By such 
 an arrangement of the steam- and exhaust-valves, the clearance 
 has in many instances been reduced to 1| per cent. The clearance 
 in poppet-valve engines is more difficult to calculate than in slide- 
 valve engines; but, as a general thing, it does not exceed 5 per cent. 
 It should be measured with water, when it is desirable to ascertain 
 accurately the cubic contents of the clearance. In poppet-valve 
 
 S 
 
274 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 engines the cut-off and other events are independent and adjust- 
 able; consequently, diagrams taken from this class of engines are 
 free from the limitations attending those taken from slide-valve, 
 because advantage is frequently taken of their freedom of adjust- 
 ment to give an earlier cut-off, or a later depression than is usually 
 adopted with slide-valve engines. In all such cases the diagram 
 will faithfully state the fact. 
 
 The Most Accurate Methods of Testing the Adjustments. 
 
 The conditions which are mainly instrumental in determining 
 the conformation of the diagram are the valves and valve-gear, 
 the length and capacity of the steam- and exhaust-pipes and 
 ports, the design of the governor-valve, the condition of the 
 valves and piston as to leakage, the amount of clearance, the 
 speed of the piston, etc. The engineer may be called upon to 
 analyze a diagram with reference to all the above conditions, or 
 only to accidental derangements. In the first place, he must com- 
 pare the diagram with one of the best form which can be pro- 
 duced in practice from the class of engines to which the one in 
 question belongs ; in the second case, he must discriminate between 
 such defects as are due to accidental derangements and those that 
 are due to design and construction, which cannot be remedied 
 without the substitution of new parts. Suppose the engine to be 
 of the throttling kind, of the best attainable construction and 
 adjustment, its diagram should possess the following general 
 features : 
 
 1. The initial pressure at jB, diagram No. 1, should be as high 
 at least as any subsequent pressure; and if the engine is not 
 driving its maximum load, and the steam is in consequence more 
 or less throttled, the pressure should begin to fall at and con- 
 tinue to do so at a tolerably uniform rate, until the point of cut- 
 off, C, is reached. 
 
 2. The cut-off, when obtained by means of lap in the slide- 
 valve, cannot, as a general rule, take place with advantage earlier 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 275 
 
 Richards* Parallel Motion Indicator. 
 
276 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 in the stroke than about f , as the angular advance necessary to 
 give any earlier cut-off would involve a too early exhaust and com- 
 pression. 
 
 3. From the cut-off, C, to the release, Z>, is the expansion 
 curve. Assuming the applicability of the Mariotte law to expand- 
 ing steam, the shape of the expansion curve, C E, should be such 
 that, if the distance from any point in it to the clearance line, H 
 H, taken on a line parallel with the atmospheric line, be multiplied 
 by the distance from the same point to the vacuum line measured 
 vertically, the product will be the same for all points in the curve. 
 Hence, if at the commencement of the curve, the two measure- 
 ments are multiplied together, and the product divided by the 
 distance from the clearance line to any other point, the quotient' 
 will be the distance of that point from the vacuum line, or the 
 pressure at that point, if the pressure scale is used for the measure- 
 ments. 
 
 4. The release at Z> will take place earlier or later, according to 
 the amount of lap, both steam and exhaust, that is introduced. 
 The steam-lap affects it indirectly, as, the greater it is, the greater 
 the angular advance necessary to maintain the proper lead. Lap 
 on the exhaust side affects it directly without change in the angu- 
 lar advance, by opening the port so much later, and consequently 
 closing it so much earlier. The requirements of perfect working 
 are, that it shall be early enough to release the piston of all undue 
 back pressure before much of the return stroke is made, and late 
 enough not to materially diminish the power of the engine. The 
 conformation of diagram No. 1, page 291, shows about as early 
 an exhaust as is admissible, because little or nothing would be 
 gained by a later one, as the steam is not thoroughly exhausted 
 until the piston has moved a short distance on its return stroke ; 
 and, while a later release would add a little to the average forward 
 pressure, it would also increase the back pressure. Besides, a later 
 release would involve either a later cut-off or an earlier compres- 
 sion ; and, although the general practice is to place all these events 
 later than is shown on the diagram, such practice is not calculated 
 
THE engineer's HANDY- BO OK. 
 
 277 
 
 to realize the best possible steam economy with that class of en- 
 gines. 
 
 5. The back-pressure line, EF, should coincide with the atmos- 
 phere, or nearly so, in non-condensing engines and with the 
 pressure shown by the vacuum-gauge in condensing engines. 
 When it is in excess in either case, it indicates insufficient capac- 
 ity in the exhaust-ports or pipes, or both. 
 
 6. The compression curve, F G, owes its form to the same laws 
 that govern the expansion curve, and its degree of conformity to 
 theory may be tested by the same methods. The only differences 
 between the two are in the quantities of steam evolved in their 
 production, and the order of their formation ; the ending of one 
 corresponding to the beginning of the other. As to the amount 
 required to satisfy the best conditions, some difference of opinion 
 exists. It is ascertained that a certain amount is advantageous, 
 as a means of arresting the momentum of the reciprocating parts, 
 while changing the direction of the force on the crank-pin in a 
 more gentle and quiet manner, than would be done by the admis- 
 sion of steam as an opposing force. If the compression, or, more 
 properly speaking, the cushion has fulfilled its functions, the in- 
 duction will find the parts already prepared for the shock, and 
 prevent a jar or thump. The maximum pressure reached by the 
 cushion should never be greater than the average initial pressure; 
 but within this limit considerable latitude exists, as, while it dimin- 
 ishes the power of the engine, it lessens the consumption of steam. 
 The less the exhaust-lap, the earlier the exhaust will take place, 
 and the later the compression, and vice versa. 
 
 7. The lead line, G B, need not conform to any arbitrary 
 standard. It satisfies the eye of the engineer best when it is ver- 
 tical, or nearly so ; but it may lean slightly inwards, indicating 
 deficiency of lead, or outwards, indicating excess, without affecting 
 the economy of the engine, and in most cases without sensibly 
 affecting the smoothness of its running. In many cases the com- 
 mencement of the lead line proper cannot be exactly located ; but 
 engines always run best when the compression and lead lines join 
 
 24 
 
278 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 each other with an easy curve. When a single slide-valve is used, 
 both the steam- and exhaust-lap must be provided for in its con- 
 struction, and cannot be subsequently changed without a change 
 of proportion. But since it is not the absolute amount of lap, but 
 its amount relatively to the travel of the valve, which determines 
 its influence, it follows that, by reducing the travel, the lap both 
 steam and exhaust will be virtually increased, and vice versd. 
 Any change of travel must be accompanied by such change of 
 angular advance as will maintain the proper lead. The adjust- 
 ment of the cut-off* by the link-motion of the locomotive is an 
 instance of such change of travel and angular advance. 
 
 In the foregoing description all the capital letters refer to dia- 
 gram No. 1, on page 291. 
 
 When two slide-valves are used, each performing the functions 
 of induction and exhaust at its own end of the cylinder, the steam- 
 lap may be increased by setting them farther apart, and dimin- 
 ished by contracting their connection ; but in such cases steam-lap 
 is obtained at the expense of the exhaust-lap, and vice versd. 
 Having learned from an engine embodying correct construction 
 and performance the general features which should characterize 
 a diagram, the engineer will have no difficulty in recognizing 
 defects as well as deviations from diagram No. 1, on page 291. 
 These conditions should be understood before the slide-valve, 
 throttling engine diagram can be intelligently criticised. 
 
 Diagrams taken from Automatic Cut-Off Engines. 
 
 The points of difference between diagrams from automatic 
 eut-off* engines and those from slide-valve engines will be mainly 
 found in the steam lines, the points of cut-off", and the expansion 
 ^jurve. When the automatic cut-off* engine is worked in accord- 
 ance with the theory of its operation, the steam is never throttled 
 for the purpose of regulating the speed, but is admitted freely to 
 the valves, the speed being regulated solely by means of variations 
 in the point of cut-off*. Hence, the steam line should indicate a 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 279 
 
 pressure equal to that in the boiler, whatever the load may be, 
 and would undoubtedly do so, if the proportions were good and 
 the valve-gear in perfect order. The necessary difference, then, 
 between the throttling and automatic cut-off engine diagrams, 
 may be thus stated. In the former, the height of the steam line 
 varies with the load, the length remaining the same ; in the 
 latter, the length of the steam line varies with the load and 
 pressure, the height remaining always approximately that of the 
 boiler pressure. 
 
 The theoretical diagram. — From what has been said in the 
 foregoing paragraphs, it is clear that a theoretical diagram may 
 be constructed, representing perfect performance on the automatic 
 cut-off principle, which cannot be done in the other case, as the 
 height and conformation of the steam line depends on conditions 
 too numerous and complex for analysis. Thus, with a given 
 boiler-pressure for a steam line, a straight horizontal line may be 
 drawn, corresponding with that pressure, and, from a given point 
 of cut-off, an expansion curve may be drawn having the properties 
 already described, and reaching to the end of the stroke. If the 
 remaining terminal pressure is greater or less than the counter- 
 pressure, a vertical line extending upwards or downwards to the 
 height required by the counter-pressure will represent a perfect 
 exhaust line. Then, for the return stroke, a line coincident with 
 the atmosphere or a perfect vacuum, according as the engine is 
 non-condensing or condensing, will represent the counter-pressure, 
 and a vertical line up to the beginning of the steam line will 
 represent the admission line and complete the figure. 
 
 If a compression curve is desired, it may be drawn through the 
 assumed or actual point of exhaust-closure on the counter-pressure 
 line, but such a curve cannot originate from a perfect vacuum. 
 Hence, when the diagram is from a condensing engine, and the 
 actual compression curve is to be tested by a theoretical one, the 
 latter must be based on the actual counter-pressure present at the 
 closure of the port. 
 
 This theoretical diagram being for the present assumed to be 
 
280 THE engineer's pi ANDY-BOOK. 
 
 perfect, not in the sense of representing the best conditions in an 
 economical point of view, but only the most perfect performance 
 possible under given conditions, is nevertheless the standard with 
 which the actual one is to be compared, and by which it is to be 
 judged. For this purpose it is customary to draw it around the 
 actual, so that the imperfections of the latter may be readily seen 
 and their magnitude estimated. 
 
 Application of the Theoretic Curve. 
 
 On tracing the theoretic curve on diagrams from different 
 engines, a great difference in the degree of theoretical correctness 
 shown in their expansion curves is revealed. The deviation from 
 the theoretical is always in the direction of a higher terminal 
 pressure, unless it is caused by excessive piston leakage. This 
 may be explained on two suppositions, viz., leakage of the cut- 
 off valves, and evaporation of the spray or water of supersat- 
 uration in the steam during expansion as the pressure decreases. 
 Till recently the former was the only explanation offered, but, in 
 more modern times, the latter has almost entirely displaced it. 
 There is no doubt that both causes are in some degree responsible 
 for the phenomenon, but the diagram itself seldom furnishes any 
 reliable indications pointing to either cause to the exclusion of the 
 other ; nor does a study of the conditions under which the greatest 
 incorrectness shows itself throw much light on the subject. As a 
 general rule, large engines give more correct expansion curves than 
 small ones, though numerous exceptions are met with in both 
 cases. 
 
 Incorrectness is generally less with heavy loads than with light 
 ones. But both the foregoing facts can be explained on either 
 theory, since, with equal care in the fitting of the valves, a large 
 engine will leak less in proportion to the amount of steam used 
 than a small one. But the evaporation of the spray will be less 
 perfect in the former than in the latter, owing to the longer time 
 occupied in effecting a given degree of expansion, during which 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 281 
 
 the heat of the water, instead of being effective for evaporation, 
 will be dissipated. In small, fast-running engines the steam under- 
 goes a more rapid expansion, and the heat, rendered sensible hy 
 the removal of the pressure, has less time to be taken up by the 
 cylinder walls, and is consequently more effective in vaporizing 
 the moisture. Another fault in small engines is imperfection in 
 the cut-off valves. Both causey afford better facilities to operate 
 with an early than with a late cut-off, the longer time afforded by 
 the*former, and the less pressure under the valve, being favorable 
 to the greatest leakage ; and the greater the change of pressure is, 
 the more favorable it will be to the evaporation of the moisture. 
 
 If, however, the deviation should (other things being equal) be 
 found to be greatest when the water is high in the boilers, or when 
 the steam is being rapidly generated, that fact would point to the 
 spray theory as the undoubted cause of part of it. Such appears 
 to be the case to some extent, though the observations taken on 
 that point have not been numerous and careful enough to be of 
 much value. But, whatever may be the cause of the phenom- 
 enon, it is so general that, whenever a very correct curve is met 
 with, the suspicion of piston or other leakage, the tendency of 
 which is to lower the pressure during expansion is always justly 
 raised, and should be disposed of by test or otherwise, before such 
 a curve can be confidently accepted as evidence of correct per- 
 formance. Nevertheless, very correct curves are sometimes met 
 with when piston leakage does not exist. 
 
 The most obvious lesson to be deduced from the facts at present 
 in our possession, seems to be that, when any considerable in- 
 correctness is met with in the curves of the diagrams taken from 
 large engines, a considerable amount of leakage may be confi- 
 dently inferred. But, in the case of small engines, particularly 
 fast-running ones, the amount of incorrectness which may be 
 caused by re-evaporation is undoubtedly greater than in large 
 ones ; but even in them the cut-off valves should not be too read- 
 ily excused without examination. 
 24 * 
 
282 
 
 THE ENGINEEH^S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 The Initial Pressure, or Steam-Line. 
 
 A close approximation of the steam-line of an automatic cut- 
 off diagram to the boiler pressure is rightly regarded as an indi- 
 cation of good construction and performance. Other things being 
 equal, that engine which most nearly obtains the highest boiler 
 pressure on its piston at the commencement of the stroke, may 
 cut off the earliest — attain the highest ratio of expansion — and 
 exhaust the steam at the lowest pressure. The last condition is the 
 test of all improvements designed to promote steam economy, as, if 
 they do not produce a lower terminal pressure for the same work, 
 they do not fulfil the conditions for which they were intended. It 
 is not sufficient to rely on the steam-gauge as a test of the steam- 
 line, unless it has been recently tested and found correct. Most 
 steam-gauges deteriorate by use, especially if exposed to undue 
 heat or cold. When practicable, the engine should be stopped 
 and blocked, or placed on the centre, steam admitted to the indi- 
 cator at full pressure, and a line traced by hand. If this has been 
 done, and a difference of four or five pounds between boiler and 
 initial pressure be detected, how is the difference to be accounted 
 for? The pipe may be too small, long, or crooked, or the ports 
 be inadequate ; or both these defects may exist. To test this 
 matter, a connection should be made between the indicator and 
 the steam-pipe above or below the throttle, as may be thought 
 preferable. By means of this connection, a diagram representing 
 the fluctuations of pressure in the pipe is produced over the engine 
 diagram. A diagram produced in this way will show whether 
 the loss of pressure is due to the ports or the pipe. In such a 
 case, the pressure falls, when it is admitted to the cylinder, until it 
 exceeds the initial pressure but little more than one pound. Then, 
 as soon after the steam is cut off, as the space immediately above 
 the cut-off valve can fill, the pressure rises, and the momentum 
 of the steam in the pipe evidently carries it above that of the 
 boiler, and about the middle of the stroke it falls again, evidently 
 going below the boiler pressure. At about three-fourths of the 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 288 
 
 stroke it rises again, but this time not so high as it did at its first 
 rise, probably not above boiler pressure. These secondary fluctu- 
 ations possess no special significance, except as showing that the 
 boiler pressure is to be determined by finding the mean of their 
 extremes. Their frequency during the stroke will depend on the 
 length of the pipe as determining their frequency in time, and on 
 the speed of the engine as determining their relative frequency. 
 The pressure of the steam also aflfects them, as high-pressure steam 
 is denser than low. The trouble involved in making the necessary 
 connection for such a diagram will of course exclude them in most 
 cases, but their value to the engineer, as a means of arriving at 
 <jorrect proportions for the pipes and ports, will be apparent. 
 
 The Mean Effective Pressure. 
 
 Whatever uncertainty may attach to the inferences deduced 
 from indicator diagrams, there is every reason to believe that, 
 provided that the spring is correct, the instrument in good work- 
 ing order, and its indications mathematically calculated, the con- 
 clusions will be reliable. The usual method of calculating the 
 mean eflTective pressure is to divide the diagram into any suitable 
 number of equal spaces by lines or ordinaies, to measure the centre 
 of each space with the proper scale, and to take the average of the 
 several pressures by dividing their sum by their number. But 
 since it is easier to measure on a line than to guess at the centre 
 between two lines, it will be preferable to make the first and last 
 spaces half the width of the rest, which w^ill make the lines stand 
 in the centres of equal spaces. The measurements are then taken 
 on them. Diagram No. 1, page 291, is lined in this manner. 
 The most expeditious and accurate method of obtaining the 
 average of these ordinates is to take a slip of paper, apply its 
 edge to each of them in succession, and mark their combined 
 length on it. This length in inches multiplied by the scale of the 
 spring used, and the product divided by the number of ordinates 
 measured, will give the desired average. By using a sharp-pointed 
 
284 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 instrument, as the point of a knife, thrusting it into the pnper at 
 the f )ot of each ordinate, moving it to the top of the next, and 
 carrying the strip with it, the measurement may be taken with 
 great ease and rapidity. 
 
 The simplest method is to measure the ordinates between the 
 direct and counter-pressure lines. This will give results accurate 
 enough for most purposes ; in fact, it will give the mean average 
 of the two ends with entire accuracy, and this must always be ob- 
 tained as a basis for calculating the power of the engine. But, 
 since a diagram, from either end of the cylinder, represents, by its 
 upper line, the pressure which impels the piston during one stroke, 
 and by its lower, the counter-pressure which opposes it during the 
 stroke in the opposite direction, it follows that, from either diagram 
 alone, a corrrect balance for either of the two strokes which it 
 represents cannot be struck. To do this, the mean counter-pressure 
 of the one must be deducted from the mean impelling pressure of the 
 other. To obtain these pressures separately, it is necessary to draw 
 and measure the ordinates from the lines representing them to the 
 vacuum line. This,. however, is unnecessary, except for very ac- 
 curate analysis. In general, the counter-pressure of the two strokes 
 will be very nearly equal, especially if the exhaust and cushion 
 are properly equalized ; and even where they are unequal, the final 
 average of the two ends will be correct. 
 
 The number of ordinates may preferably be one-fourth, one- 
 third, one-half, or equal to the number representing the scale used ; 
 in. which case it will only be necessary to multiply the combined 
 length of the ordinates (or the string, as it may be called) by 4, 
 3, or 2, as the case may be, to obtain the desired result. If the 
 number is equal to the scale, the multiplier, being 1, need not be 
 used. Thus, suppose the scale to be 40, the number of ordinates 
 20, and the string 14^ inches. As the scale represents twice the 
 number of ordinates, the string being multiplied by 2 will give a 
 product of 29 lbs. mean pressure. Or suppose diagrams to be 
 taken from both ends of the cylinder, either on the same paper or 
 separately, and the one to be calculated and averaged with the 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 286 
 
 other The string of both may be taken together on the same 
 strip, and if the scale is twice the number of ordinates, the length 
 of the string will give the mean pressure at once without multi- 
 plying. When taking such a continuous string for two diagrams, 
 the termination of the first should be marked with a pencil, so 
 that the two may be compared. 
 
 When diagrams are met with, in which the expansion curve 
 crosses the counter-pressure line, the string should be taken from 
 the beginning up to the point where the lines cross, and after that 
 in a reverse direction on the strip, so as to cancel the part of the 
 string already made. When the terminal end is reached, what 
 remains of the string first made will give the mean effective press- 
 ure (M E. P.) in the usual way ; or the total mean impelling and 
 counter-pressure above vacuum may be found separately, and their 
 diflference ascertained. 
 
 To Space the Ordinates. 
 
 Draw vertical lines touching the ends of diagram No. 1, A B 
 E ly and apply a rule across them in a more or less oblique direc- 
 tion, till some division on the rule, as j^, r2» tV» I> ?j ^^'iH divide 
 the distance between the points where the rule crosses the lines, 
 the desired number of two or three times the number of times. 
 Thus the line H C I, in diagram No. 1, is 3| inches long, and 
 contains the j'g division 60 times ; consequently, ^% pointed off at 
 each end, and for the other spaces, will correctly divide the 
 diagram for 20 ordinates. With a little greater obliquity the dis- 
 tance would be 4 inches, when ^ inches would be right for the 
 end spaces, and -f^ for the rest. 
 
 To Calculate the Indicated Horse-Power (I. H. P.). 
 
 Multiply the speed of the piston in feet per minute by the area 
 of the piston in square inches, and divide the product by 33,000. 
 The result will be the H. P. for each pound of M. E. P., or the 
 
286 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 H. p. value of each pound. See table on page 290, Then multiply 
 the M. E. P. by this value. This method is preferable to multi- 
 plying by the M. E. P. before dividing, as, when several diagrams 
 from the same engine representing varying loads are to be calcu- 
 lated, the value when once obtained will answer for all, the speed 
 being practically the same in each case. The area of the piston- 
 rod is generally ignored in such calculations, though it will dimin- 
 ish the area of one side of the piston about ^^q. 
 
 Theoretical Economy. 
 
 If the steam used by an engine was known to be saturated, and 
 at the same time free from any excess of water, and if it both 
 entered and left the engine in that condition, it would be easy to 
 calculate from the diagram the amount of water which the engine 
 would use in a given time, supposing it to be practically free from 
 leakage. Under such conditions the expansion and compression 
 curves would conform rigidly to exact theory, and the total piston 
 displacement for one stroke, divided by the volume of terminal 
 pressure, and the displacement up to any point in the curve di- 
 vided by the volume of the pressure at that point, would give the 
 same result wherever the point was taken, which result would be 
 the number of cubic inches of water used during that stroke. 
 Unfortunately, the nature of steam is such that no exact calcula- 
 tions of water consumption can be made. Even if its exact con- 
 dition as it enters the engine is known, as it may be by the calor- 
 imeter test, its capacity for receiving and parting with heat is so 
 great that its condition changes immediately upon entering the 
 cylinder, so that, after deducting the water of supersatu ration, 
 known to be present before it enters the cylinder, the diagram 
 will still fail to account for all of the remainder. Nevertheless 
 such calculations are frequently made, and as a means of ascer- 
 taining the relative economy of different engines, and of different 
 loads, pressures, and adjustments in the same engine, they possess 
 great value, since, whatever uncertainty may exist as to the unin* 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 287 
 
 dicated consumption, it may, so far as the engine is concerned, 
 be assumed to be the same in each of the cases under compar- 
 ison. 
 
 When it is desired to approximate as nearly as possible to the 
 actual consumption by calculation, a certain amount must be 
 added to the theoretical result. This amount varies from 10 to 50 
 per cent., according as the conditions are more or less favorable ; 
 but when they are so unfavorable as to require an addition of 50 
 per cent., they are obviously so bad as to call for repairs and 
 changes, rather than elaborate calculations. When the conditions 
 are generally good, a careful examination of them will make it 
 possible to fix the margin of uncertainty within tolerably narrow 
 limits. A large engine, with well-jacketed cylinder and tight-fitting 
 valves and piston, will generally require at least 10 per cent, ad- 
 dition, independent of the percentage of unevaporated spray, 
 which may exist in the steam with which it is supplied, and this, 
 unless the boiler is so set as to superheat the steam, will require 
 from 10 to 25 per cent. more. In fact, the margin of uncertainty 
 due to the boiler is much greater than that due to the engine, as 
 not only will differently constructed boilers vary greatly in the 
 amount of unevaporated water given off*, but great difference will 
 be found to exist with the same boiler, according to the height the 
 water is carried, the rapidity with which it is evaporated, the 
 amount of impurities present in the feed-water, or which have 
 accumulated in the boiler, and many other conditions. Thus a 
 rapidly fired generator, containing a large area of heating surface 
 in proportion to the amount of water and little steam room and 
 superheating surface, may, and often will, give off* nearly or quite 
 as much unevaporated water as is contained in the steam. The 
 only fair way to test the performance of an engine is to test the 
 steam as it enters it, both as to moisture and heat. It should 
 also be borne in mind that, according to Trowbridge's tables, the 
 difference between the economy of engines of over ten cubic feet 
 capacity of, cylinder and those under one cubic foot, is about 12 
 j-er cent, in favor of the larger size. 
 
288 ► 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 How to Calculate Theoretical Rate of Water Consump- 
 tion. 
 
 The total displacement per stroke in cubic inches divided by 
 the volume of the steam at release pressure, and the quotient 
 multiplied by the number of strokes per hour, will give the total 
 cubic inches used per hour. This, divided by 27*648, the number 
 of cubic inches of water per pound, will give the total number 
 of pounds used per hour, which, if divided by the I. H. P., will 
 give the result in pounds per I. H. P. per hour. This is the usual 
 method ; but, when the rate only is desired, a shorter process may 
 be adopted, based on the fact that, from a given diagram, the re- 
 sult would be the same, whether the calculations are based on the 
 actual size of the engine, or some other size is assumed, say a 
 smaller size; as, although the total consumption would be changed, 
 the divisor would also be proportionately changed. 
 
 Suppose the engine to be of such displacement as to develop 
 one horse-power with one pound pressure, and that it is driven by 
 that pressure of water instead of steam. It being but one horse- 
 power, its total consumption per hour and per horse-power per 
 hour will be the same. Being driven by water, its displacement 
 will be its water consumption, which will be obtained as follows: 
 A horse-power is 33,000 lbs. lifted one foot high per minute, or 
 33,000 X 60=--4 ,980,000 lbs. per hour, or 1,980,000 x 12=22,760,000 
 lbs. lifted one inch per hour, which would be the displacement of 
 such an engine in cubic inches, and consequently its consumption 
 in cubic inches of water when driven by water. Then, taking 
 27*648 cubic inches of water per lb., we have 22,760,000 27*648 
 = 859,375 as its rate of consumption in lbs. of water per H. P. 
 per hour. Then, if the pressure were greater than one lb., the 
 amount used would be as many times less than the above, as the 
 pressure was greater than one lb. ; and also, if it were driven by 
 steam instead of by water, the amount used would be as much 
 less, as the volume of steam at the terminal pressure was greater 
 than an equal weight of water. It follows that if we divide 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK, 
 
 289 
 
 859,375 by the product of the mean effective pressure, and the 
 volume of the total terminal pressure of the diagram under analy- 
 sis, the quotient will be the desired rate, whatever the size and 
 speed of the engine. The use of this constant number renders 
 the operation more easy and short, and, except in the case of the 
 compound engine, entirely independent of all data except those fur- 
 nished by the diagram itself, the scale of indicator being known. 
 
 The terminal pressure for this and subsequent rules is found, 
 when the exhaust takes place before the end of the stroke is 
 reached, by continuing the expansion curve to the end of the 
 stroke. In other words, it is not what the pressure may be at the 
 moment of release, but what it would have been if it had not 
 been released until the end of the stroke. 
 
 How to apply the rule to diagrams taken from compound en- 
 gines when the strokes of the two cylinders are equal. Multiply 
 the M. E. P. of the low-pressure cylinder diagram by the area of 
 its piston, and divide the product by the area of the piston of the 
 high-pressure cylinder. The quotient will be the pressure, which, 
 acting on the low-pressure piston, will be equivalent in energy to 
 that acting on the high-pressure piston. Then add this quotient 
 to the M. E. P. of the high-pressure cylinder, and with its mean 
 pressure so augmented treat it in all respects as an ordinary dia- 
 gram. Or the process may be reversed, i. e., the diagram from 
 the low-pressure cylinder, with its M. E. P. augmented by the 
 quotient of the product of the area and M. E. P. of the horse- 
 power cylinder divided by the area of the low-pressure cylinder, 
 may be treated as an ordinary diagram ; but the result by this 
 method will be less than by the first. 
 
 When the two cylinders have different strokes as well as dif- 
 ferent piston areas, multiply together the M. E. P. piston area, 
 and stroke of the high-pressure cylinder, and divide the product 
 by the product of the piston area of the low-pressure cylinder 
 multiplied by its stroke. The quotient will be the amount to aug- 
 ment the M. E. P. of the horse-power cylinder before treating it 
 as a simple diagram. 
 
 25 T 
 
290 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 The same calculations may be more conveniently made by 
 means of the following table ; to use it, proceed according to the 
 following rule : 
 
 Find under P the number which corresponds nearest to the 
 terminal pressure of the diagram, and multiply the terminal 
 pressure by the number opposite it to the right under W, and di- 
 vide the product by the M. E. P. ; the quotient will be the rate of 
 water consumption in lbs. per 1 horse-power per hour. 
 
 p. 
 
 w. 
 
 P. 
 
 w. 
 
 P. 
 
 w. 
 
 P. 
 
 w. 
 
 P. 
 
 w. 
 
 5 
 
 37-95 
 
 27 
 
 34-37 
 
 49 
 
 33-18 
 
 71 
 
 32-46 
 
 93 
 
 31-96 
 
 6 
 
 37-54 
 
 28 
 
 34-29 . 
 
 50 
 
 33-14 
 
 72 
 
 32-43 
 
 94 
 
 31-94 
 
 .7 
 
 37-22 
 
 29 
 
 34-22 
 
 51 
 
 33-10 
 
 73 
 
 32-40 
 
 95 
 
 31-92 
 
 8 
 
 36-93 
 
 30 
 
 34-15 
 
 52 
 
 33-06 
 
 74 
 
 32-38 
 
 96 
 
 31-90 
 
 9 
 
 36-67 
 
 31 
 
 34-08 
 
 53 
 
 33-02 
 
 75 
 
 32-36 
 
 97 
 
 31-88 
 
 10 
 
 36-44 
 
 32 
 
 34-01 
 
 54 
 
 32-98 
 
 76 
 
 32-34 
 
 98 
 
 31-86 
 
 
 36-24 
 
 33 
 
 33*95 
 
 55 
 
 32-94 
 
 77 
 
 32-32 
 
 99 
 
 31-84 
 
 12 
 
 36-06 
 
 34 
 
 33-89 
 
 56 
 
 32-91 
 
 78 
 
 32-30 
 
 100 
 
 31-82 
 
 13 
 
 35-89 
 
 35 
 
 33-83 
 
 57 
 
 32-88 
 
 79 
 
 32-28 
 
 101 
 
 31-80 
 
 14 
 
 35-73 
 
 36 
 
 33-77 
 
 58 
 
 32-85 
 
 80 
 
 32-26 
 
 102 
 
 31-78 
 
 15 
 
 35-59 
 
 37 
 
 33-72 
 
 59 
 
 32-82 
 
 81 
 
 32-23 
 
 103 
 
 31-77 
 
 16 
 
 35-46 
 
 38 
 
 33-67 
 
 60 
 
 32-79 
 
 82 
 
 32-20 
 
 104 
 
 31-75 
 
 17 
 
 35-34 
 
 39 
 
 33-62 
 
 61 
 
 32-76 
 
 83 
 
 32-18 
 
 105 
 
 31-73 
 
 18 
 
 35-22 
 
 40 
 
 33-57 
 
 62 
 
 32-73 
 
 84 
 
 32-16 
 
 106 
 
 31-71 
 
 19 
 
 35-10 
 
 41 
 
 33-52 
 
 63 
 
 32-70 
 
 85 
 
 32-14 
 
 107 
 
 31-69 
 
 20 
 
 34-99 
 
 42 
 
 33-47 
 
 64 
 
 32-67 
 
 86 
 
 32-12 
 
 108 
 
 31-67 
 
 21 
 
 34-89 
 
 43 
 
 33-42 
 
 65 
 
 32-64 
 
 87 
 
 32-09 
 
 109 
 
 31-65 
 
 22 
 
 34-79 
 
 44 
 
 33-38 
 
 66 
 
 32-61 
 
 88 
 
 32-07 
 
 110 
 
 31-63 
 
 23 
 
 34-70 
 
 45 
 
 33-34 
 
 67 
 
 32-58 
 
 89 
 
 32-05 
 
 111 
 
 31-61 
 
 24 
 
 34-61 
 
 46 
 
 33-30 
 
 68 
 
 32-55 
 
 90 
 
 32-03 
 
 112 
 
 31-59 
 
 25 
 
 34-53 
 
 47 
 
 33-26 
 
 69 
 
 32-52 
 
 91 
 
 32-00 
 
 113 
 
 31-57 
 
 26 
 
 34-45 
 
 48 
 
 33-22 
 
 70 
 
 32-49 
 
 92 
 
 31-98 
 
 114 
 
 31-55 
 
 Example from same diagram. The terminal pressure is 25-5 lbs., 
 and the mean of the numbers under W, opposite to 25 and 26 
 (34-50 and 34-41), is 34-45. The mean effective pressure being 
 30-5, the operation is as follows : 25-5 X 34-45 30*5 = 28-8 lbs. 
 per horse-power per hour. 
 
 As a matter of course, the theoretical rule of water consump- 
 tion, as deduced from indicator diagrams, can never be fully 
 realized in practice. It can only be approximated. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 291 
 
 Indicator Dia^ams. 
 
 All indicator diagrams are the perfect pictures of the perform- 
 ances of the engines from which they are taken, provided the in- 
 dicator is in good order. There are two senses in which a diagram 
 is said to be perfect or imperfect. First, it may be in perfect con- 
 formity to existing conditions, as clearance, load, steam-pressure, 
 etc., though all of these conditions may be far from the best ; or, 
 second, it may not only conform to the above conditions, but it 
 may represent the best attainable conditions, which would include 
 no clearance at all, which is unattainable. 
 
 Explanatory Diagram No. 1. 
 
 In diagram No. I, B C shows the steam line; C, point of cut-off; 
 CD, expansion curve ; D, exhaust ; D E, exhaust line ; EF, counter- 
 pressure line ; jP, point of exhaust-closure ; F G, compression curve ; 
 G By admission line ; A A, atmospheric line ; V V, vacuum line ; 
 HHy line representing the clearance ; 0 0 0, ordinates for ascertain- 
 ing the average pressure ; /, continuation of the expansion curve to 
 end of stroke, to give the terminal-pressure for the purpose of calcu- 
 lating theoretical consumption ; J, the point in the compression curve 
 where the pressure equals the terminal ; consequently, IJ is the pro- 
 portion of the whole stroke taken as the measure of the consumption. 
 
292 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Diagram No. 2 was taken from a Buckeye automatic cut-ofF 
 engine 22 x 44; piston speed, 520 feet per minute; scale, 40; 
 
 Diagram No. 2. 
 
 clearance, 1*75 per cent.; mean effective pressure, 36 lbs. It shows 
 very perfect performance both of the engine and indicator. 
 
 Diagram No. 3 was taken from a locomotive built at the Baldwin 
 
 Diagram No. 3. 
 
 Locomotive Works, for the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, to 
 run on the Philadelphia and Erie Railroad. Diameter of cylinder, 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 293 
 
 18 inches; stroke, 22 inches; speed, 93 revolutions per minute; 
 boiler-pressure, 115 lbs. per square inch; initial-pressure, 100 lbs.; 
 mean effective pressure, 86*60 lbs.; clearance, 4 per cent. At the 
 time the diagram was taken, the engine was pushing a train of 15 
 loaded cars, whose gross weight was 302 tons, throttle-valve wide 
 open, against a grade of 74 feet rise per mile. Adhesion per ton 
 of load 600, resistance per ton due to grade 35*7 lbs. The slight 
 rounding of the induction corner was probably caused by too 
 much pressure on the pencil, which prevented it from rising till 
 after the paper started to move. The diagram is very good. The 
 expansion curve, as far as can be observed from its limited extent, 
 is correct, and its compression curve very nearly so. 
 
 Diagram No. 4 was taken from a Wardwell valveless engine 
 on exhibition at the Centennial Exposition held at Philadel- 
 
 Diagram No. 4. 
 
 phia. The conditions under which the diagram was taken are 
 not specified, but it will be observed that the exhaust-port opens 
 quite late and quick, which explains the fact that the curve is all 
 on the lowev corner. The cut-off is quick and sharp. The induc- 
 tion and compression lines are also good. The lateness of the ex- 
 haust is a necessary result of the movement which produces it, as 
 it is effected by a partial rotation of the piston-head, derived from 
 25^ 
 
294 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 the lateral vibration of the connecting-rod, which gives a movement 
 exactly equivalent to that of an eccentric without angular advance. 
 Diagrams No. 5 were taken from an old Corliss engine that 
 
 had been running in 
 the penitentiary at 
 Jackson, Michigan, 
 for about 25 years. 
 Scale, 40; clearance 
 about 3 per cent.; 
 mean effective press- 
 ure, 47*5 lbs. ; mean 
 of the two ends, 47| 
 lbs. It possesses no 
 special interest, save 
 to show the effects of 
 adjustment due to 
 long wear and use, 
 without the applica- 
 tion of an indicator or 
 any other test. The 
 excessively late in- 
 duction would cause 
 a perceptible loss of 
 useful effect in the 
 steam. The exhaust 
 is much less perfect 
 from one end than 
 from the other, and 
 much of the benefit 
 of the vacuum is 
 thereby lost. The 
 pencil was held on 
 Diagrrams No. 5. during several revo- 
 
 lutions, and, the governor being over-sensitive and fluctuating, 
 different lines were drawn at each revolution. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 295 
 
 Diagram No. 6 was taken from a Harris Corliss engine oper- 
 ating at the Cincinnati Industrial Exposition of 1875. Size, 16 
 X 48; speed, 60 revolu- 
 tions, or 480 feet of piston 
 speed per minute. Both 
 the isothermal, J, and the 
 adiabetic curves are drawn. 
 In tracing the latter, the 
 following process was used. 
 The horizontal lines, A, B, 
 C, D, E, F, G, represent to- 
 tal pressures (above vacu- 
 um) of, respectively, 90, 80, 
 70, 60, 50, 40, and 30 lbs., 
 the volumes of which are 
 298, 333, 378, 437, 518, 
 640, and 838. At the point, 
 H, where the curve termi- 
 nates, the total pressure is 
 19 lbs., the volume of which 
 is 1290. Now, it is evident 
 that if the distance, H «/, 
 which is 4*7 inches, repre- 
 sents 1290, the distance, 
 G Jy representing 838, 
 (the volume of 30 lbs.,) 
 will be proportionately as 
 much shorter than H J 
 as 838 is less than 1290. 
 Hence, the formula, 1290 : 
 4-7 : : 838 : 3 05, or 
 4-7 X 838 . 
 ~ 2290 ' ^^^^ 
 
 this distance (3*05) from 
 
 the clearance line, J, to Diagram No. 6, 
 
296 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 that point in the curve which shows a pressure of 30 lbs. In like 
 
 manner the formula for the point, F, will be 
 4-7 X 518 
 
 4-7 X 640 
 1290 
 
 for E, 
 
 1290 
 
 -, and*so on for the other lines, 2>, C,B,A. The fore- 
 
 going process may, however, be shortened. 
 
 Diagram No. 7. 
 
 Diagram No. 7 
 
 was taken from a 
 Holly engine lo- 
 cated at the water- 
 works of Rochester, 
 N. Y. Size, 16 X 
 26*9 inches ; speed 
 not given, but it va- 
 ries greatly, as it is 
 regulated by the wa- 
 ter-pressure ; mean 
 effective pressure, 
 30 lbs.; scale, 32 lbs. 
 The cut-off valves 
 of these engines con- 
 sist of a single-pop- 
 pet valve placed on 
 the cover of the 
 steam -chest, which 
 cuts off the steam 
 for both strokes ; 
 hence, all the steam 
 in the chest is sub- 
 ject to expansion 
 along with that in 
 the cylinder, which 
 has the effect of enor- 
 mous clearance on 
 the diagram. The 
 theoretical curve 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 297 
 
 shown is not based on the actual clearance subject to expansion, 
 but on a reasonably small amount, not greater than the average 
 of true automatics 
 of good construction ; 
 consequently, it is not 
 a test of the conform- 
 ity of the curve to the 
 actual conditions, but 
 rather a means of 
 comparing the eco- 
 nomical results of 
 such an arrangement 
 with engines of the 
 best automatic type. 
 
 Diagram No. 8 was 
 taken from a Wheel- 
 ock automatic cut-off 
 engine on exhibition 
 at the Centennial Ex- 
 position. Size, 18 X 
 48 ; clearance, 4J per 
 cent. ; scale, 30 ; mean 
 effective pressure, 12; 
 piston speed, 50 revo- 
 lutions, or 400 feet per 
 minute. A is the adi- 
 abatic and I the isoth- 
 ermal curve, both be- 
 ing based on actual 
 terminal - pressure- 
 The diagram is quite 
 good for a light load, 
 though the very slight 
 compression is not in Diagrram No. 8. 
 
 accordance with the weight of opinion as to what constitutes sound 
 practice. 
 
298 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 Diagrams No. 9 were taken from a Cummer slide-valve engine, 
 
 with riding cut-off, built at De- 
 troit, Michigan. Size, 26 X 36 
 inches ; speed, 80 revolutions, or 
 480 feet per minute; scale, 30; 
 mean effective pressure not giv- 
 en ; clearance is unknown, but as- 
 suming it to be 4 per cent., which 
 is about what its construction re- 
 quires, the theoretical curve at 
 one end shows correct perform- 
 ance, but that at the other shows 
 considerable deviation. In such 
 a case, taking the size of the en- 
 gine into consideration, the ex- 
 planation of this defect lies be- 
 tween two suppositions, 1st, that 
 the cut-off valve leaked at one 
 end and not at the other; or, 2d, 
 that the volume of clearance^ is 
 greater at one end than at the 
 other. If the engine had been 
 a small one, the supposition of 
 the escape of the expanding steam 
 from the right-hand end through 
 a leaky slide-valve would be ad- 
 missible ; but the curve at that 
 end is just what an engine of the 
 size given should produce with- 
 out leakage of any kind; hence, 
 the left hand is the one to which 
 attention is directed for the cause 
 of the difference between the two, 
 and the supposition of a leaky 
 cut-off valve is the more prob- 
 Diagrama No. 9. able one. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 2yy 
 
 Diaqram No. 10 was taken from one of a pair of 16 X 30 inch 
 single slide-valve engines, which were attached to the same shaft 
 witl cranks at right angles to each other. Thejnston speed wa. 
 350 feet per minute; mean effective pressure, 32-3 The sudden 
 termination of the compression curve with a descendmg hook sug- 
 
 Diagram No. 10. 
 
 gests leakage of the piston or valve. The more rapid fall of the 
 expansion curve than theory requires, strengthens this supposition 
 and points to the piston as the source of the trouble. _ The rise of 
 counter-pressure in the middle of the return stroke is due to the 
 reaction of the exhaust of the other engine. 
 
 Diasrram No. 11. 
 
 Diagram No. II was taken from an engine, 18 x 36, in a mill 
 
300 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 in Detroit, Michigan. The cut-off was effected by a special cut 
 off valve above the steam-chest, operated by a Kendall's patent 
 governor, which varies the throw and advance of an eccentric 
 on the shaft by an arrangement similar to that of the link-motion 
 of a locomotive. The most striking defect is the extremely late 
 induction, showing a displacement of the eccentric, leading to a 
 loss of about one-sixth of the stroke. The exhaust is too late, 
 evidently from the same cause. 
 
 Diagrams No. 12 were 
 taken from a Brown auto- 
 matic cut-off engine on ex- 
 hibition at the Centennial 
 Exposition. Diameter of 
 cylinder, 15 inches; stroke, 
 38; revolutions, 65; scale, 
 30 lbs. They show wonder- 
 ful conformity to theoreti- 
 cal requirements, and that 
 the engine and indicator 
 must be in the most perfect 
 order to produce such cards. 
 The unusually sharp cut- 
 off corners are due to a cer- 
 tain extent to the fact that 
 the induction and cut-off 
 valves are of the gridiron 
 type, and that the indicator 
 is of an improved pattern, 
 with exceptionally light 
 moving parts ; but neverthe- 
 less there is an air of sus- 
 picion about them, that will 
 leave doubts of their gen- 
 Diagra^ms No. 12. uineness in the minds of in- 
 
 telligent engineers ,who understand the action of the valves of 
 steam-engines. { 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 301 
 
 Diagram No. 13 was taken from a John Cooper engine, built 
 under the Babcock and Wilcox patent, at Mount Vernon, Ohio. 
 Diameter of cylinder, 20 inches ; stroke, 36 inches ; boiler-press- 
 ure, 55 lbs. per square 
 inch ; speed, 60 revolu- 
 tions per minute ; scale, 
 30 lbs. per square inch. 
 It shows no imperfec- 
 tions worthy of note, ex- 
 cept the imperfect re- 
 tention of the compres- 
 sion-pressure, owing un- 
 doubtedly to leakage 
 either of the piston or 
 slide valve. Such a de^ 
 feet is a very common 
 one, and may appear 
 when no other evi- 
 dences of leakage exist, 
 in which case it is prob- 
 able that, if the com- 
 pression escapes by the 
 piston, the leakage ex- 
 ists at the end of the 
 stroke, or, if it escapes 
 by the valve, only the 
 portion which retains 
 the compression-press- 
 ure fits imperfectly. In 
 the present case the 
 compression curve com- 
 mences promptly, but 
 succumbs completely, and falls again before admission, show- 
 ing that the leakage commences suddenly near the end of the 
 stroke. 
 
 26 
 
 Diagram No. 13. 
 
302 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Diagram No. 14 was taken from a 9 x 15 high-pressure single 
 slide-valve engine. Speed, 190 revolutions per minute; scale, 40; 
 
 Diagram No. 14. 
 
 clearance, 6'4 per cent.; mean effective pressure, 41 lbs. It will be 
 noticed that its events occur late, which defects arise from counter- 
 pressure, indicating obstructed exhaust and imperfect rise in the 
 compression-pressure, suggesting leakage of either the valve or 
 piston by which the compression-pressure has escaped. 
 
 Diagrram No. 15. 
 
 Diagram No. 15 was taken from the same engine. Its defective 
 performance, as shown by its late cut-off, late and insufficient ex- 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 303 
 
 haust, and its excessive counter-pressure, all tending to extrava- 
 gant fuel consumption, speak louder than words of the vital import- 
 ance of an intelligent use of the indicator by engine builders, par- 
 ticularly when perfect- 
 ing new designs and 
 constructions. The 
 counter-pressure was 
 partly due to a con- 
 tracted exhaust-nozzle 
 used to create draught ; 
 but, even if it had had 
 ample exhaust capac- 
 ity at all points ex- 
 cept at the nozzle, the 
 counter-pressure cre- 
 ated by that ought not 
 to have exceeded one 
 or one and a half to 
 two pounds per square 
 inch. 
 
 Diagram No. 16 is 
 
 an exact transfer from 
 two diagrams taken 
 separately from the 
 same end of the cylin- 
 der of an automatic 
 cut-off engine. The 
 dotted lines represent 
 the card made by the 
 Richards, while the 
 plain lines represent 
 
 Diagrram No. 16. 
 
 that made by the Thompson, indicator. A comparison reveals 
 the fact that the correct average pressure cannot be ascertained 
 from a diagram which is distorted by vibration, and also that it^! 
 indications are deceptive as to admission, cut-off, and compression. 
 
304 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Diagrams Nos. 17 and 18 were taken respectively from the high- 
 and low-pressure cylinders of the compound engines of the steam- 
 ship Pennsylvania, of 
 the American Line, 
 built by Cramp & 
 Sons, marine engi- 
 neers and naval archi- 
 tects of Philadelphia; 
 speed, 58*3 revolutions 
 per minute. The dia- 
 grams present no de- 
 fects; the slight dif- 
 ference in the mean- 
 pressure of the two 
 ends of each card (as 
 in the case of all ver- 
 tical engines) is due 
 to the unbalanced 
 weights of the recip- 
 rocating parts. 
 
 The theoretical 
 clearance is about 10 
 per cent. ; and, as this 
 is probably not far 
 from the actual, the 
 expansion curves show 
 very correct perform- 
 ance. The amount of 
 vacuum shown is 10 to 
 lOi lbs., which isabove 
 the average of marine 
 engines. 
 
 As these engines are said to be more economical than any 
 heretofore used on ocean steamers, a calculation of their theoret- 
 ical economy will not be without interest. Taking the steam used 
 
 Diagram No, 
 
THE engineer's JI A N J) Y - BOO K . 
 
 305 
 
 by the small cylinder as the measure of consumption, the first 
 process is to find for it the equiv- 
 alent of the mean-pressure acting 
 on the large piston. The area 
 of the small cylinder is 2574*1975 
 square inches, and that of the 
 large one is 6379*4238 square 
 inches. The M. E. P. of the 
 small cylinder is 33'25 lbs., and 
 that of the other 9*25 lbs. The 
 rule is to multiply the area of 
 the large piston by the mean- 
 pressure acting on it, and divide 
 the product by the area of the 
 small piston. But, in the pres- 
 ent case, it will involve less labor 
 to perform the division first, 
 that is, to divide the area of the 
 large piston by that of the small 
 one, and multiply the quotient 
 by the M. E. P. of the large one. 
 Thus, 6379-4238 2574-1975 x 
 9-25 = 19-33 lbs., which, added 
 to the M. E. P. of the small cyl- 
 inder (33-25 -f 19-33 = 52*58 
 lbs.), gives for it the equivalent 
 of both, 52*58. Then the vol- 
 ume of the average terminal (28 
 lbs.) being 895, the calculation 
 
 •11 k ^ n 859*375 
 
 will be as follows : r^r^ 
 
 895 X 52-58 
 
 = 16.2 lbs. From this the de- 
 duction for compression will be 
 about 3 per cent., or -48 lbs., leaving (16*2 — -48) 15*70 lbs. per 
 I. H. P. per hour, which justifies theoretically the claim made 
 26* U 
 
 Diagrram No. 18. 
 
306 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 for these engines. The engines of the four steamships of this line 
 gave very similar diagrams. 
 
 Diagrams Nos. 
 19 and 20 were 
 taken respective- 
 ly from the high- 
 and low-pressure 
 cylinders of the 
 compound en- 
 gines of the 
 steamship St. 
 Paul, built by 
 Cramp & Sons, 
 of Philadelphia, 
 on her trial trip, 
 and now plying 
 between San 
 Francisco, Cal., 
 and Alaska. 
 Scale of high- 
 pressure cylinder 
 30 lbs., of low- 
 pressure cylinder 
 12 lbs., per square 
 inch. The data 
 are as follows : 
 steam, 67 lbs. ; 
 revolutions per 
 min., 74 ; cut-off, 
 •25 ; vacuum, 26 ; 
 indicated horse- 
 
 Diagram No. 19. 
 
 power of high-pressure cylinder, 262*5 ; of low-pressure cylinder, 
 '265*63 ; total, 528*13. Mean effective pressure of high-pressure 
 cylinder, 43*125 ; of low-pressure cylinder, 14*25 lbs. The termi- 
 nal-pressures, as shown by the diagrams, are as follows : The mean 
 
THE IINGINEER's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 307 
 
 terminal-pressure of both ends of the high-pressure cylinder is 47 
 lbs. (above vacuum); volume, 550. Of the low-pressure cylinder is 
 11*25 lbs. above vac- 
 uum; volume, 2100. 
 The equivalents for 
 each cylinder of the 
 combined power of 
 both are as follows: 
 For the high-press- 
 ure cylinder, 43125 
 + 43-64 = 86-765. 
 For the low-pressure 
 cylindsr, 14*25 -f- 
 14082 = 28*332. 
 From these data, the 
 calculation of the 
 theoretical rates of 
 water consumption 
 will be for each cyl- 
 inder as follows: For 
 the high-pressure 
 
 y , 859-375 
 ^^^^^'^''8^765X550 
 = 18 lbs. per indi- 
 cated horse-power 
 per hour. For the 
 low-pressure cylin- 
 der 859*375 
 
 28-332 X 2100 ~~ 
 14*44 lbs. indicated 
 horse-power per 
 hour. 
 
 The maximum compression-pressures of each are so nearly 
 
 equal to the terminal, that no correction for clearance and cushion 
 need be made. The diagrams indicate good performance in all 
 
 Diagram No 
 
308 THB ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 respects, tl^ lack of smoothness in the lines being presumably 
 due to the tremulous motion of the vessel. 
 
 Diagrams No. 21. 
 
 Diagrams No. 21 were taken from the simple surface-condensing 
 engine of the steamship Vera Cruz, of Alexander's Line, on her 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 309 
 
 thirty-ninth voyage from New York to Havana. Diameter of 
 cylinder, 48^ inches ; stroke, 6 feet ; speed, 60 revolutions, or 720 
 feet per minute; scale, 30 lbs. per inch. The boiler-pressure, which 
 is represented by the lines above the diagram, was 72 lbs. per 
 square inch ; vacuum, 23 inches, the equivalent of which is rep- 
 resented by the dotted line V V. The full line below represents 
 a perfect vacuum. The theoretical expansion curves are the adia- 
 batic curves, calculated from the table of volumes on pages 39 
 and 43 of Roper's Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines. The 
 calculations are as follows : 
 
 Assuming the clearance to be 5 per cent., the mean-pressure of 
 the theoretical diagram around the diagram B, which is based on 
 the line V F, will be 32*8 lbs. The mean effective pressure of 
 actual diagram jB, 28*5 lbs. Percentage realized of the full theo- 
 retical value of the boiler, terminal, and condenser pressures, 
 28*5 X 100 
 
 — ^^Tg — 86'88. Parallel calculations for the diagram T give 
 
 the following : 
 
 Mean-pressure of theoretical diagram, . . . 31*8 lbs. 
 Mean effective pressure of actual diagram, . . 27*25 lbs. 
 
 Percentage realized, ^f-,^ = 85*68. 
 
 The mean of both ends is as follows : 
 
 Mean-pressure of theoretical diagrams, . . . 32*3 lbs. 
 
 Mean effective pressure of actual diagrams, . . 27*875 lbs. 
 
 Percentage realized, ^qo.q = 86*3. 
 
 The area of the cylinder being 1847*45, and the piston speed 
 720 feet per minute, the horse-power value, or the horse-power for 
 each pound of mean effective pressure, is calculated as follows : 
 1847*45 X 720 
 
 33000 ~ "^^^ mean effective pressure being 27,875 
 
 lbs., the total horse-power is 27,875 x 40*3 = 1123*36. The ter^ 
 minal-pressure is 13 lbs., the volume of which is 1842, and the 
 
310 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 leoretical rate of water consumption will be found as follows ; 
 1842^X^27-875 ~ ^^'^^ P^^ indicated horse-power per hour. 
 
 The compression-pressure so nearly equals the terminal, that 
 no correction for compression and clearance is necessary. The dia- 
 grams are in nearly all respects excellent; the curves, allowing 
 for the unsteadiness which is apt to characterize diagrams taken 
 from ocean-steamship engines, are remarkably correct ; the engine 
 was fitted with Corliss valves. The difference of about 2^ lbs. 
 between the vacuum attained in the condenser, V V, and that at- 
 tained in the cylinder is a circumstance which is almost insepa- 
 rable from such a Jiigh piston speed. A comparison of the rate of 
 water consumption with that of such others as have been cal- 
 culated, will be instructive, particularly with reference to the rel- 
 ative economic merits of simple and compound engines, a question 
 which is yet unsettled. A comparison of the foregoing calculation 
 with the ordinary or long process will be instructive, as showing 
 the correctness of the short method and the vast amount of labor 
 saved by it, especially when dealing with large engines. 
 
 Thus, 720 feet per minute x 60 x 12 — 518,400 inches per hour, 
 which, multiplied by 1847-45, (area of piston,) = 957,718,080 cubic 
 inches per hour, as the displacement of the engine. 
 
 Then, 957,718,080 27*648 (cubic inches of water per pound) 
 
 1842 (volume of 13 lbs. terminal) = 18,805*476 lbs. of water 
 as its total theoretical consumption of water per hour ; this -r- 
 1123*36 (the indicated horse-power) = 16*74 lbs. per indicated 
 horse-power per hour, as before. 
 
 In making a complete analysis of diagrams, a statement of the 
 mean effective pressure, exclusive of vacuum and that due to the 
 vacuum, ought to be given separately. Thus : 
 
 Mean-pressure, exclusive of vacuum, . . . 19'375 lbs. 
 Mean-pressure due to vacuum, .... 8*5 lbs. 
 Percentage of power due to vacuum, • • . . 30*5. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 311 
 
 Diagrams No. 22 were taken from the same engine as diagram 
 No. 21, on the 
 steamer's forty- 
 fourth return voy- 
 age to New York 
 from Havana. It 
 represents con- 
 siderably lighter 
 load than diagram 
 No. 21, and shows 
 the attainment of 
 a better vacuum, 
 is more perfect in 
 its lines, and is 
 equally correct 
 in its expansion 
 curves. The line 
 above the dia- 
 grams represents 
 the boiler-press- 
 ure. The calcu- 
 lations are as fol- 
 lows: Mean ef- 
 fective pressure 
 of diagram B, 17 
 lbs. Mean effec- 
 tive pressure of 
 diagram T, 19*5 
 lbs. Mean of the 
 
 two, 18*25 lbs. Diagrams No. 22. 
 
 Terminal-pressure of bottom diagram, . . .6* lbs. 
 
 Terminal-pressure of top diagram, . . . .7* lbs. 
 
 Mean of the two, 6*5 lbs. 
 
 Taking 3600 as approximately the volume of 6*5 lbs. pressure, 
 the rate of water consumption will be 13*08 lbs. per indicated 
 
312 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 horse-power per hour^ which, if equalled, has never been exceeded 
 by any other engines in this country, either simple or compound. 
 
 Diagrams Nos. 23 and 24 were taken from the simple surface- 
 condensing engines of the steamship Knickerbocker, of Crom- 
 
 T 
 
 Diagram No. 23. 
 
 well's line, and running between New York and Boston. Many 
 of the conditions could not be ascertained, but the mean effective 
 
 Diagram No. 24. 
 
 pressure of B appears to be about 29 lbs., and of T, 19 lbs. The 
 calculations of the rate of water consumption give for the card, 
 By 13-74 lbs., and for T, 15-55. These very low rates are to some 
 extent due to the very perfect vacuum attained. With the excep 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 313 
 
 tion of the tardy inductioD, or deficient lead, as indicated by the 
 inward inclination of the induction line, and the great difference 
 in the work represented by the two, they are very perfect. And 
 since both features may have been purposely introduced, the 
 former to secure smooth running and the latter to compensate for 
 unbalanced weight, etc., they should not be hastily pronounced 
 faults of adjustment. 
 
 Diagrams No. 25 present a case of extremely difficult analysis, 
 us none of the conditions under which they were taken could be 
 
 Diagrams No. 25. 
 
 ascertained. The left hand one shows tardy induction, by the in- 
 clination of the admission line to the right. From A to D, as 
 will be observed, the pressure falls considerably ; but it does not 
 appear that the cut-off* has taken place, as the curvature of the 
 line is upward, which is never the case with a true expansion 
 curve. From D to E, it will be seen, the pressure rises slightly, 
 which renders it evident that the steam cannot have been cut off* 
 at any point previous to E, unless for an instant, after which it 
 was readmitted. Supposing the line to correctly represent the 
 27 
 
314 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 actual pressure on the piston, the most probable cause of the rise 
 in the curve is, that the steam was admitted during the entire 
 stroke to but not with sufficient freedom to maintain the press- 
 ure when the piston travel was greatest, or that the connecting- 
 pipe between the cylinder and the indicator was long and tortuous. 
 The right hand diagram is not so peculiar, as it shows a hori- 
 zontal steam-line and a tolerably well defined point of cut-off, C, 
 and expansion curve. In both the exhaust is much more free and 
 prompt than the induction. The best vacuum was obtained at 
 the beginning of the return stroke, F F, after which the lines 
 undulate in a manner not easily accounted for, without an inti- 
 mate knowledge of the construction of the engine and the con- 
 ditions attending it. 
 
 Diagrams Nos. 26 and 27 were taken from the simple condensing 
 engi ne of the steamboat Mary Powell, plying between New York city 
 and Albany, which has exceeded in point of speed any other steam 
 craft on American waters, or in Europe, so far as can be ascertained, 
 making 25 miles per hour between those points with perfect ease. 
 
 Diameter of cylinder, 72 in. 
 
 Stroke of piston, 12 ft. 
 
 Diameter of piston-rod, . . . . . . 8 in. 
 
 Diameter of air-pump, 40 in. 
 
 Stroke of the air-pump, 62 in. 
 
 Very few data could be ascertained, but it seems that the M. E. 
 p. of the top diagram was ..... 22*02 lbs. 
 
 Of the bottom, 22-23 
 
 Mean of both, 22-13 " 
 
 Terminal of top, 13-5 " 
 
 Of bottom, 18- " 
 
 Mean of both, 15-75 " 
 
 Theoretical clearance of top, . . . .12 per cent. 
 Theoretical clearance of bottom, . . . 17 " " 
 The water consumption appeared to be about 24-62 lbs. per 
 horse-power per hour. The bottom card has the more compres- 
 sion. The size and speed of the engine could not be ascertained. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 315 
 
 The Powell is a splendid specimen of the American beam-en- 
 gine river^boat which some years ago were so great favorites on 
 
 Diagram No. 26. 
 
 Diagram No. 27. 
 
 account of the great speed they were capable of developing, but 
 which are fast disappearing, and being superseded by another class 
 of engines, on account of inherent defects in their arrangement 
 
316 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Formula for Finding the Theoretical Clearance when 
 the Scale is known. 
 
 From two points in the expansion curve, as A B, the former 
 as early and the latter as late as possible consistent with the cer- 
 tainty that both 
 are in the expan- 
 sion curve, draw 
 the vertical lines, 
 A Daud B C, at 
 right angles to 
 the atmospheric 
 and vacuum lines 
 and the horizon- 
 tal lines, J. Cand 
 B D, forming the 
 parallelogram, A 
 C D B. Then, 
 through C D 
 draw a diagonal 
 line, continuing 
 it downwards till 
 it intersects the 
 vacuum line at 
 and from this 
 point draw a ver- 
 tical line, which 
 will represent the 
 clearance. It will, 
 in the majority 
 of cases, indicate 
 more clearance 
 than actually ex- 
 Diagram No. 28. ists; but if, as is 
 sometimes the case with large engines of good construction and 
 
THE engineer's HANBY-BOOK. 
 
 317 
 
 in good condition, the diagram agrees closely with exact theory, 
 the clearance thus shown will be less than the actual. 
 
 On theoretical grounds, there should be no clearance at all, as 
 any space between the cylinder-head and the piston at the end of 
 the stroke must be filled with steam. But in practice it is impos- 
 sible to dispense with it, since any wear of the parts must alter 
 the stroke, and foreign substances, such as grease or water, may 
 find their way into the cylinder. The loss resulting from clearance 
 in cylinders may be lessened by judicious design, since, if com- 
 pression takes place as the piston approaches the end of its stroke, 
 it serves to raise the temperature of the steam enclosed, reduces 
 the quantity of new steam required, and brings the raomentun: 
 of the piston to rest, thereby lessening the shock on the crank. 
 
 Formula for Finding the Scale of a Diagram when the 
 Clearance is hnown. 
 
 Draw a line representing the clearance ; then proceed, as before, 
 to draw the parallelogram, A C D B, and continue its diagonal, 
 C D, till it intersects the clearance line, as at E, From the near- 
 est point to this point of intersection, generally below, (which, by 
 its distance from the atmospheric line, will represent the pressure 
 of the atmosphere, according to one of the scales in use,) draw 
 the vacuum line which fixes the scale. For instance, suppose the 
 intersection occurs about of an inch below the atmospheric 
 line. The nearest point below that point at which a vacuum line 
 can be located to correspond with any of the usual scales is that 
 corresponding with the 30 lbs. scale, or a little less than ^ inch. 
 If, however, there be reason to suspect that the actual scale varies 
 from 30 to 40, (32, for instance,) this method will not determine 
 it with certainty, but it will approximate it when the diflferent 
 scales used are known to differ from each other to the extent of 
 10 to 20 lbs. per inch. No method can be relied upon when only 
 a limited length of the expansion curve is available, or when it is 
 much distorted by vibration, or other defects in the performance 
 of the instrument. 
 27* 
 
318 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 Formulcefor Finding the Horse-Fower of Steant" Engines 
 by Indicator Diagrams. 
 
 The custom of dividing the indicator card into ten ordinates 
 has been generally adopted by engineers because ten is the most 
 
 Diagram No. 29. 
 
 convenient number for a divisor, since the process of dividing by 
 it consists merely of pointing off one decimal. The M. E- P. is 
 ascertained by dividing the aggregate length of the ordinates by 
 their number, and multiplying the quotient by the scale of the 
 diagram. The following instructions will be found useful to per- 
 sons unaccustomed to make the calculation. 
 
 First. — Divide the card into ten equal parts, as shown by the 
 dotted lines in the above diagram, after which draw a line exactly 
 through the centre of each space, as shown by the full lines 1, 2, 
 3, etc. Then draw the dotted line A A, representing the atmos- 
 pheric line, also draw the full line V V, representing the zero, or 
 vacuum line, which is equal to 14y\ pounds, below the atmos- 
 pheric line ; then measure the card at the following points : 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 319 
 
 The initial-pressure as shown at /. 
 
 The pressure at the point of cut-off . . • .CO. 
 
 The terminal-pressure at T. 
 
 The pressure at the end of the cushion ... (7. 
 
 Next measure the full lines, or ordinates 1, 2, 3, etc., with a 
 slip of paper, marking with a sharp pencil or the point of a knife 
 the length of each, until it contains the sum of all their lengths^ 
 which in this case will be found to be 11*75 inches; then, from 
 11*75 
 
 the mean length — 1*175 inches, and the mean-pressure 
 1*175 X 16 scale of the indicator = 18*80 pounds; the correct 
 
 rendering of a card would be as follows : 
 
 Initial-pressure, (above zero) 
 
 = /. = 
 
 32-OIbs. 
 
 Pressure at cut-off " " 
 
 = G 0. = 
 
 28-0 " 
 
 Terminal-pressure " " 
 
 = T. = 
 
 17-0 " 
 
 Mean back-pressure " " 
 
 = B. = 
 
 5-6 " 
 
 Pressure at end of cushion (above zero) 
 
 = a = 
 
 18-5 " 
 
 Mean-pressure 
 
 
 18-8 " • 
 
 Suppose the diagram to be taken from 
 
 one end of 
 
 a cylinder 
 
 50 inches in diameter (with a stroke of 48 inches), making 50 
 
 revolutions per minute, and the area of piston to be 1963*5 square 
 inches, then 1963*5 X 18*8 — 36,913*8. This pressure acts on 
 the piston throughout the stroke, 48 inches, 50 times a minute, 
 and the work done on one side of the piston in each minute would 
 48 
 
 be 36,913*8 x50x^ = 7,382,760. Now, if another diagram were 
 
 taken from the other end of the cylinder, and the measurements 
 be the same, the total work done by the engine each minute would 
 be 3000 = 447, indicated horse-power. 
 
 Another Formula. 
 
 In the analysis of diagrams in this work, the usual custom of 
 dividing the diagram into ten ordinates has been departed from, 
 because, in the first place, ten ordinates were not considered enough 
 to insure accurate calculation ; and, secondly, because, when the 
 
320 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOR. 
 
 number of ordinates is made the same, or one-half, one-third, or 
 one-fourth as many as there are pounds per inch in the scale 
 of the diagram, the calculation is, if anything, simpler than the 
 old process, since the sum of the ordinates, as measured on the 
 strip of paper in inches, is the mean effective pressure at once, 
 when the number of ordinates equals the scale, and in other cases 
 it bears the same relation to it that the number of ordinates does 
 to the scale. Ten ordinates may be used, however, for such scales 
 as are divisible by 10. 
 
 Suppose the scale to be 60, and the number of ordinates 10, 
 and that the sum of their lengths is 7 inches. According to the 
 former process, -^^ = -7 X 60 = 42 lbs. ; by the latter method, sup- 
 posing the number of ordinates to be J of the scale, the process is 
 simply 6 X 7 = 42 ; that is, the mean effective pressure would be 
 six times the sum of the length of the ordinates, if the scale is six 
 times their number. 
 
 Diagram No. 30. 
 
 Suppose the scale to be 40 lbs per inch, one-half of that num- 
 ber, or 20 ordinates, as shown in the above diagram, are used ; 
 and suppose the sum of their lengths is found by the process of 
 measurement above given to be 15*3 inches, then twice that num- 
 ber will be the mean effective pressure in pounds per square inch, 
 or 15*3x2 = 30*6 lbs. Suppose the cylinder of an engine is 20 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-ROOK. 
 
 321 
 
 inches in diameter, 40 inch stroke, running at a speed of 75 revo- 
 lutions, or 500 feet per minute; the area of such a piston would 
 
 be 314*16 square inches; hence, ^^^^^^ = 4*727 horse-power 
 
 for each pound of mean effective pressure. The latter being 30*6, 
 then 30*6 X 4*727 = 145,656, the indicated horse-power. 
 
 What Indicator Diagrams Show, and How they Show it. 
 
 The object of indicator diagrams is to show the pressure acting 
 on the piston of the engine to which it is applied at all points, and 
 also at what part of the stroke any change of pressure takes place. 
 
 Indicator diagrams supply the means by which to calculate the 
 mean effective pressure acting on the piston, which, together with 
 the known area and speed of the piston, furnishes the factors from 
 which to calculate the power of engines. 
 
 Indicator diagrams show the steam-pressure by the height to 
 which the pencil traces the line on the paper measured from the 
 atmospheric or vacuum line. 
 
 When the line representing the back-pressure in the diagrams 
 of high-pressure engines shows more than one pound above atmos- 
 phere, or, in low-pressure engines, two or three pounds more than 
 the vacuum-gauge shows in the condenser, the diagram indicates 
 undue back-pressure, and that there is evidently something wrong. 
 
 The diagram shows whether the valves of a steam-engine are 
 properly set or not, because, if there is too little lead, it will lean 
 towards the exhaust. If the exhaust takes place too early, the 
 point, i), in diagram No. 1, page 291, will be further from the end, 
 /; whereas, if the exhaust closes too early, and, as a consequence, 
 there is too much " cushion " or " compression,'' it will be shown 
 by the great distance of the point F from E, 
 
 A diagram shows whether the piston and valves are leaky or 
 not ; though it is often difficult to decide to which the leakage may 
 be due, as the one neutralizes the other. But if the piston alone 
 leaks, the effect will be a more rapid fall of the pressure during 
 
 V 
 
322 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 expansion than theory requires, and the back-pressure will be 
 greater than if the piston was tight. If the slide-valve leaks, the 
 effect on the diagram will depend on the point at which the leak- 
 age occurs. It may leak at the ends, so as to keep on admitting 
 steam after it covers the port ; or it may leak at the bridges, and 
 allow the steam to escape in advance of the exhaust. In the first 
 case, the expansion line would fall less, and in the latter case 
 more, than theory requires. 
 
 A diagram shows whether the steam is throttled or not by the 
 expansion curve falling below the boiler-pressure when the throttle- 
 valve is wide open. 
 
 A diagram shows the effect of small ports and small steam con- 
 nections by the steam-line starting below boiler-pressure, and fall- 
 ing before the closing of the cut-off. A pipe-diagram is the only 
 ' reliable means of determining such defects. 
 
 A diagram shows the effect of exhaust-lead, by the exhaust 
 taking place before the end of the stroke is reached, as in nearly 
 all the diagrams shown. 
 
 A diagram shows that the indicator is out of order, or whether 
 there is lost motion between the piston and the pencil lever, by 
 indicating more back-pressure than actually exists. 
 
 A diagr^ shows the point of cut-off, which may be termed 
 the point of contrary flexure, that is, the point where the steam- 
 line, B C, (explanatory diagram) changes its direction from a 
 straight line to a curve. 
 
 A diagram shows the state of the vacuum in the condenser, and 
 whether too much or too little injection-water is used or not; but 
 in this case it is less reliable than the vacuum-gauge. Too much 
 injection-water can only be shown on the diagrams, by taking one 
 first with the proper quantity, and another with the increased 
 quantity, and calculating the power of each. If the extra power, 
 required to pump out the extra water against the atmospheric 
 pressure, more than counterbalanced the gain from the better 
 vacuum, the conclusion would be that too much injection- water 
 was used. 
 
THE ENaiNEER's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 323 
 
 The Planimeter.* 
 
 The planimetep, though not a receut invention, is almost un- 
 known among engineers on this continent. This arises from the 
 fact that, after its invention by Amsler, certain Swiss and German 
 engineers got control 
 of it, and limited the 
 number that should 
 be manufactured to 
 their own individual 
 necessities. It has 
 never been manufac- 
 tured in this country, 
 or even offered for 
 sale, until quite re- 
 cently. Its functions 
 are to measure indi- 
 cator diagrams, ir- 
 regular flues, steam 
 passages, and all dif- 
 ficult or intricate fig- 
 ures. It gives at 
 once the area of a 
 figure, without any 
 second measurement 
 being required, as the 
 reading shown on the 
 index counter gives the accurate area in square inches of the dia- 
 gram over which it had been passed. 
 
 To use the instrument, fasten the figure to be measured on a 
 smooth board, and insert the point. A, in the board at any con- 
 venient location ; then make a mark on the diagram, as at D ; 
 next fix the movable point, at the place selected for starting ; 
 then turn the index-roller, Q round until 0, on its periphery, 
 corresponds with the 0 on the fixed vernier ; then move it round 
 
 * See page 656. 
 
324 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 the figure to the right, or in the direction of the hands of a watch* 
 After it passes round the entire figure, note how many whole 
 numbers and subdivisions have passed the 0 on the vernier. The 
 whole numbers will indicate the square inches, and the subdivisions 
 tenths of square inches. If the 0 on the vernier falls between 
 two subdivisions marked on the roller, read the number of square 
 inches and tenths; then look on the vernier from 0 to 10, and find 
 a mark which coincides with one on the rollers ; the number of 
 such mark, counting from 0, will be the hundredths or second 
 decimal place. 
 
 Thus suppose that, in the figure measured, six subdivisions and 
 part of another one have passed, and that the fourth mark on the 
 vernier coincides with a mark on the roller, the area of the figure 
 will be either 3*64, 13*64, or 23*64 square inches, according to 
 whether the roller has made less than one, more than one, and 
 less than two, or between two and three revolutions. The eye 
 can readily decide as to the number of revolutions the roller has 
 made, as it would be impossible to make a mistake of ten square 
 inches in estimating the area of a figure within the capacity of 
 ^he instrument. If the figure measured is an indicator diagram, 
 it will nearly always be of less area than ten square inches, or at 
 most only a trifle more, as the utmost capacity of the indicator is 
 5| by 2| inches, or 15|- square inches ; and they are very seldom 
 worked beyond 4 by 2^ inches. 
 
 To find the mean effective pressure of a diagram from its area: 
 Multiply the area by the scale, and divide the product by the 
 length of the diagram in inches. Or divide the area by the length 
 of the diagram, and multiply the quotient by the scale. The 
 product is the mean effective pressure. 
 
 Example. — Suppose the area is found as above to be 3*64 square 
 inches, the scale 40, and the length of the diagram is 3| (3*875) 
 inches ; 3*64 x 40 H- 3*875 = 37*65 lbs., or 3*64 -r- 3*875 x 40 = 
 37*65 lbs. 
 
 It will be seen that the labor of calculation will be facilitated, 
 if, in taking the diagrams, care is taken to make them even inches 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 325 
 
 in length. But as the engineer will have to measure many not 
 of his own taking, he should have a rule divided into hun- 
 dredths. 
 
 The annexed diagram was measured by the planimeter, and 
 gives the following results: Area, 1*34 square inches; 1*34 multi- 
 plied by 40 the scale -r- 1-98 = 18, the M. E. P. 
 
 The area of a figure may be taken without placing the 0 on 
 the roller opposite the 0 on the vernier; but in such cases it is 
 necessary to take the reading before and after the tracing is made ; 
 the difierence between the two readings will be the area of the 
 figure. But it is preferable to place the O's together. The mov- 
 able point of the instrument may also be turned to the left, but 
 in this case the reading must be subtracted from 10 to give the 
 true reading. Each of the figures stamped on the roller indicates 
 a square inch of area, and if a figure contains 10 square inches? 
 at the tracing-point, the roller will revolve once, and the O's will 
 coincide as at the start. 
 
 Steam-Engiiie Economy. 
 
 Hardly a "decade" has passed since the days of Newcomen, 
 which has not witnessed the promulgation of some vague scheme 
 which it was claimed would revolutionize the economical working 
 of the steam-engine, or even do away with it entirely, and super- 
 28 
 
326 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 sede it by something else. Such wild schemes have invariably- 
 proved failures, as they must ever do, because there are some 
 principles involved in the working of the steam-engine which, ac- 
 cording to the natural order of things, can never be disproved. 
 Consequently, those who intend to purchase steam-engines, or those 
 who have capital invested in them, need entertain no fears that 
 steam as a motive-power, and the steam-engine as a motor, will 
 ever be superseded by anything else, while efficiency and economy 
 are desirable objects to be attained. 
 
 Nor has there been any new principle discovered in connection 
 with the steam-engine since " Newcomen's " time, as Watt, Horn- 
 blower, and Oliver Evans knew just as much about the latent 
 and sensible heat, temperature, and the elastic force of steam as we 
 do ; though they lacked the knowledge of applying it so econom- 
 ically to the piston. This did not arise from ignorance of its 
 properties so much as from the want of proper facilities to apply 
 it. Nor is it at all likely that the steam-engine of the present 
 day will ever be much improved upon in point of economy or 
 efficiency, though it may be in point of durability. Good ma- 
 terial, good tools, and perfect workmanship will go far towards 
 the economical working of the steam-engine. It is a very notice- 
 able fact, that no important improvement has been made in steam- 
 engines of any kind within the past 15 years. To be sure, there 
 have been many innovations introduced in that time, but upon ex« 
 amination it will be discovered that, in nearly all cases, they were 
 a revamp of things which had been used before, and abandoned for 
 want of experience in their use and proper facilities for perfect- 
 ing them. * 
 
 The mean effective pressure on the piston of a steam-engine is 
 the exponent of the work performed. The term effective press- 
 ure" means the amount by which the total pressure behind the 
 piston exceeds that which acts on the other side in opposition to 
 its movement. The <6rmina/-pressure, or that at which the steam 
 is released from the cylinder, is the corresponding exponent of the 
 consumption of water by the engine or the cost of the power. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 327 
 
 Hence, the best economy is attained when the mean effective press- 
 ure is highest relatively to the <ermma/-pressure, and anything 
 that will increase the former without correspondingly increasing 
 the latter, or which will diminish the latter without correspond- 
 ingly diminishing the former, will improve the economy. 
 
 The amount of water consumed by an engine is the only in- 
 telligible criterion of the economical results it is capable of pro- 
 ducing. The amount of fuel consumed will depend upon the 
 kind of boiler used, its condition as to dirt, scale, etc., the manner 
 in which it is set and fired, the quality of fuel used, the draught, and 
 numerous other conditions ; while the amount of water used will 
 depend entirely on the engine, provided that it is furnished with 
 dry steam. The theoretical rate of water consumption, as deduced 
 from the diagrams, can never be realized in practice. A certain 
 amount will always be lost from condensation, leakage, and un- 
 evaporated spray in the steam, for which no process of calculation 
 can make allowance. 
 
 Now admitting that the evaporative efficiency of steam-boilers, 
 under the best conditions, is 8 pounds of water per pound of coal, 
 providing the water consumption of an inferior type of engine is 
 one cubic foot, or 62A lbs., it would require 7| lbs. of coal, or its 
 equivalent in other fuel, to develop a horse-power; while an auto- 
 matic cut-ofi* engine would yield a horse-power with a water con- 
 sumption of 20 lbs., and the consumption of less than 3 lbs. of 
 good coal. If an inferior type of engine require the consumption 
 of 5 lbs. of coal pei- horse-power per hour, and an improved 
 engine produce the same power from a consumption of 3 lbs., the 
 latter will effect a saving of 40 per cent, in fuel over the former. 
 Such comparisons may be considered extreme, but this is not the 
 fact, as such cases are quite common in every manufacturing dis- 
 trict. A manufacturer at Detroit, Michigan, was induced .to take 
 out an engine, which he was influenced to believe was wasteful, 
 and replace it with one that was represented to be very powerful 
 and economical, and at the same time very cheap. The engine 
 was represented by the manufacturers as being capable of de- 
 
328 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 veloping 100 horse-power ; but it utterly failed to come up to this 
 representation. When the indicator was applied, it showed that 
 the engine was developing only 60 horse-power. The coal con- 
 sumption was found to be nearly 8 pounds per horse-power per hour. 
 
 The great Lancashire (England) strike which occurred during 
 the present year, and resulted in a loss to both employers and em- 
 ployees of several millions of pounds sterling, was brought about 
 by an attempt on the part of the manufacturers to reduce the 
 wages of the operatives one cent on every ten yards of manufac- 
 tured cloth. They defended their action on the ground that ten 
 per cent, was all the profit they realized on their manufactured 
 goods, and stated that, unless the operatives would submit to the 
 reduction, they would have to discontinue their business. Never- 
 theless, it had been well known for years, by reports made to the 
 Lancashire Institute and the officers of the Midland Steam-Users 
 Association, that there were thousands of steam-engines in that 
 county, supplying power to factories, that were consuming from 
 eight to nine, and in some cases ten and a half, pounds of coal per 
 horse-power per hour, and yet the manufacturers could not dis- 
 cover any " leahy 
 
 Before purchasing an engine or any other machine, there are 
 some very important points to be considered which involve its 
 commercial value, among which are, the amount which it would 
 save or earn over another machine when in use, the time it would 
 run without repairs, or the addition^ of any expenditure to its 
 original cost. For these reasons, the conditions that should guide 
 steam-users in the selection of engines are steady motion under 
 varying circumstances, economy of fuel, and cost of maintenance. 
 In the best types of the steam-engine, the principal expense, be- 
 sides first cost, is fuel ; but in inferior classes of engines, the cost 
 of maiotenance, such as lining up, and renewal of the different 
 parts, increases annually, until in a few years the cost in many in- 
 stances exceeds that of the fuel. It is to such considerations as 
 these that steam-users should direct their attention when about to 
 purchase steam-power, or replace a worn-out engine with a new one. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 329 
 
 It has not always been the custom heretofore for those needing 
 steam-power to purchase the most economical engines, but rather 
 to buy for the lowest possible first cost, regardless of future main- 
 tenance. Manufacturers of inferior steam-engines being aware 
 of this, agree to sell an engine of a certain horse-power for a cer- 
 tain price, perhaps 25 per cent, less than would be asked for a 
 first-class machine. 
 
 Many persons are under the impression that it requires more 
 fuel to carry steam at 100 lbs. per square inch than at 50 lbs., which 
 is evidently a mistake, for while it requires a slight addition of 
 heat to raise it from 50 to 100 lbs., the expenditure is more than 
 compensated for by the superior expansion of the steam. Of 
 course, the radiation will be greater at a 100 lbs. pressure per 
 square inch than at 50 lbs.; but this would be more than over- 
 balanced by the saving in the consumption of steam ; as steam at 
 70 lbs. pressure per square inch will perform more than seven times 
 as much duty as steam at 25 lbs. pressure. 
 
 Another fact not generally as well known to engineers and 
 steam-users as it ought to be, and which illustrates the benefits to 
 be derived from expansion, is, that if an engine was taking steam 
 whole stroke, or of the piston-stroke, with say 60 lbs. pressure 
 per square inch, if the pressure is raised to 75 lbs. per square inch 
 and cut off at f stroke, the engine would do the same amount of 
 work. 
 
 Location of Steam-Engines. 
 
 There is no class of machines, save, perhaps, steam-boilers, 
 that are so often injudiciously located as steam-engines ; they are 
 not unfrequently stowed away in out of the way places, without 
 any regard being paid to their general appearance. This arises 
 from the fact that persons consulted on such matters are allowed 
 to locate steam-engines who are totally unfit to do so, on account 
 of a want of that practical skill and experience that should be 
 possessed by persons who undertake this duty. 
 
 It is a mistalce to locate an engine at the extreme end of a 
 28* 
 
330 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 building or a long line of shafting, as, if the engine were located 
 to divide the work equally, the strain on the section carrying the 
 driving-pulley will be only one-half what it would be subjected 
 to if the motion were communicated from one end. Engines are 
 frequently so located for the ostensible purpose of economizing 
 space ; but, on examination of the surroundings, it will, in a ma- 
 jority of cases, be found that no more space need be occupied by 
 placing it in the centre, while there would be unquestionably a 
 gain in the diminished friction. 
 
 The Porter- Allen High-Speed Engine. 
 
 The cut on page 331 represents a front view of the Porter- 
 Allen High-Speed Engine. As will be observed, the bed-plate is 
 of the box form, the surface of which is raised near the centre 
 line. The main-bearing being brought as near as possible to the 
 centre line of the cylinder, the breadth and depth being of 
 sufficient proportion to resist all strains, it presents no sharp 
 angles that would be a source of weakness. In fact, the bed- 
 plate was designed to secure absolute rigidity under high-piston 
 velocity, and correspondingly high steam-pressures, as well as a 
 support for the cylinder, thus making a self-contained horizontal 
 engine. The cylinder is overhung from the front end of the bed- 
 plate, without any support excepting that which is derived from 
 the butt-joint which it forms with the housing, which admits of 
 equal expansion on all sides, and prevents the possibility of getting 
 out of line. The rigidity of these engines may be judged from 
 the fact that not the slightest vibration is experienced under the 
 highest piston-velocities and steam-pressures ; nevertheless, when 
 of necessity they have long stroke, there is a temporary support 
 placed under the cylinder. 
 
 The steam- and exhaust-chests are located on opposite sides 
 of the cylinder, and cast in one piece with it; and the valves and 
 seats are so arranged, that the removal of a small bonnet gives 
 easy access to them. At the back of the steam- valves, an adjust- 
 
332 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 able pressure-plate is introduced ; this plate is made of a form 
 which is calculated to resist the steam-pressure without deflection, 
 and which is held against two inclined supports above and below 
 the valve by a bolt screwed through the bottom of the chest. If 
 this bolt is backed sufficiently, the steam will cause the pressure- 
 plate to seize the valve. By turning the bolt forward, the pressure- 
 plate is raised, and also moved away from the valve. The en- 
 gineer can test each valve for leakage, by unhooking the disen- 
 gaging hook, with which all these engines are provided, and work 
 the valves by hand under steam-pressure by the starting-bar, while 
 the assistant adjusts the bolt on the pressure-plate. If there has 
 been no wear, the slightest movement of the bolt will cause the 
 valves to be seized ; but if there is any wear, it can be adjusted in 
 a few moments. 
 
 The exhaust-valves work under the pressure in the cylinder, 
 and have short movements, each valve opening four passages for 
 the release of the steam. The exhaust-valve seats are formed on 
 the covers of the chambers in which they work, and on which, 
 also, the outlets are cast. They drain the bottom of the cylinder ; 
 they are very conveniently arranged for facing, adjustment, or re- 
 pairs, and, by removing small bonnets, they may be taken out and 
 replaced without any inconvenience. The release of the steam is 
 one of the most remarkable features of these engines, as the link 
 gives to the valve an admirable movement in every respect. The 
 movement of the exhaust-valves being most rapid at the instant 
 of release, the steam can be held' to almost the end of the stroke, 
 in consequence of the port opening to its full width at the instant 
 the crank reaches the centre. 
 
 The eccentric is forged on the shaft, which gives compactness, 
 exactness of construction, and prevents it being shifted by acci- 
 dent or design. The cylinder-heads are designed to receive the 
 steam from the boiler, by which arrangement the clearance is re- 
 duced to a minimum, and the economy of the engine increased. 
 Great pains are taken with the crank- and cross-head pins, which 
 are made of the best steel, and hardened. The connecting-rod 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 333 
 
 boxes are made of gun-inetal or bronze. The upper and lower 
 sides of the cross-head wrist are made flat. The crank-pins are 
 of unusual diameter in proportion to their length, which brings 
 the flattened connecting-rods close up to the faces of the accurately 
 balanced disc-cranks. The construction of the marine pillow- 
 block bearings is the result of much study, and presents many 
 improvements over those to be seen in ordinary engines. The fly- 
 wheels of these engines, like the cranks, are turned and accurately 
 balanced, which insures smooth motion in the revolving and re- 
 ciprocating mechanism. The regulator employed on these engines 
 is what is known as the Porter governor, and is peculiarly adapted 
 to this class of engines ; and, in consequence of being more powerful 
 and sensitive than any other governor in the country, it has been 
 successfully applied to the controlling of the valves of other en- 
 gines which no other governor in the market would regulate. 
 
 The high-speed engine has not been heretofore appreciated in 
 this country. As has been heretofore stated in this book, most in- 
 telligent American engineers entertain the idea that there is 
 nothing to be gained by running an engine at such high velocity, 
 or employing extraordinary high pressure, because an engine, to 
 run at such an extraordinary speed, needs to be built with great 
 care, of first-class and expensive material, which increases its 
 first cost. Besides, the cost of maintenance of such a machine is 
 a continual source of annoyance. It is a well-established fact in 
 mechanism, that haste, beyond a certain limit, induces waste, and 
 that any attempt to force any machine, steam-engines and boilers 
 included, induces rapid wear, deterioration, and eventually the 
 destruction of the machine. The high-speed engine is one of the 
 innovations that at difierent times, in the opinion of their advo- 
 cates, were going to revolutionize the whole system of steam 
 engineering. But their impracticability soon became evident, and 
 they died out, only to give place to another set of schemes that 
 have proved equally delusive. 
 
334 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Questions. 
 
 What are the functions of the steam-engine indicator? 
 
 How would you proceed to attach the indicator? 
 
 Under what three heads may the particulars derived from an 
 indicator diagram be classed ? 
 
 State the conditions which are instrumental in determining the 
 conformation of a diagram. 
 
 Explain the points of difference between diagrams taken from 
 automatic cut-off engines and those taken from slide-valve throt- 
 tling engines. 
 
 How would you draw the theoretical .expansion curve geomet- 
 rically? 
 
 How would you trace a theoretical compression curve? 
 
 From what circumstances does the inaccuracy of the theoretical 
 curve arise ? 
 
 Describe the adiabatic curve. 
 
 How would you locate the theoretical terminal pressure cor- 
 responding to the actual cut-off? 
 
 How do you account for the difference in theoretical correctness 
 as shown by expansion curves of diagrams taken from different 
 engines? 
 
 Why is the incorrectness of the expansion curve less with an 
 engine heavily loaded than with a light load ? 
 
 If the deviation of the expansion curve in diagrams (other 
 things being equal) be found to be greatest when the water is 
 high in the boilers, and the steam rapidly generated, to what 
 cause might it be assigned ? 
 
THE ENGINEER\s HANDY-BOOK. 335 
 
 What is the most obvious lesson to be deduced from the facts 
 in our possession in regard to the incorrectness of the curves of 
 diagrams taken from large engines ? 
 
 What should be considered in indicator diagrams as indications 
 
 of good construction and performance? 
 
 How do you calculate the mean effective pressure ? 
 
 How would you space the ordinates ? 
 
 How do you calculate the indicated horse-power? 
 
 How do you calculate the theoretical consumption of water 
 from indicator diagrams ? 
 
 How do you make allowance for clearance and cushion? 
 
 How do you estimate the effect of compression? 
 
 What is the object of indicator diagrams ? 
 
 What information do indicator diagrams supply? 
 
 How do indicator diagrams show the steam-pressure in the cyl- 
 inder ? 
 
 When the line representing the back pressure in the diagrams 
 of high-pressure engines shows more than one pound above atmos- 
 phere, or in low-pressure engines more than two or three pounds 
 than the vacuum-gauge shows in the condenser, what does the dia- 
 gram indicate? 
 
 How does the diagram show whether the valves are properly 
 set or not? 
 
 How does the diagram show whether the piston and valves are 
 
 leaking or not ? 
 
 How does the diagram show whether the steam is throttled or 
 not? 
 
i 
 
 336 THE engineer\s handy-book. 
 
 How does the diagram show the effect of small steam-ports 
 and steam connections ? 
 
 How does the diagram show the effect of exhaust lead? 
 
 How does the diagram show that the indicator is out of order? 
 
 How does a diagram show the point of cut-off? 
 
 How does a diagram show the state of the vacuum in the con- 
 denser, and whether too much injection- water is used or not ? 
 
 Sketch a diagram, and explain it. 
 
 Show the points of excellence in a perfect diagram. 
 
 Show the steam, atmospheric, and vacuum lines and the ex- 
 pansion and exhaust curves. 
 
 Define the adiabatic curve, and explain how it is obtained. 
 
 Define the asymptote lines. 
 
 Define the term compression. 
 
 Define the term cushion. 
 
 Define the term clearance. 
 
 Define the terms flexure and contrary flexure, and demonstrate 
 them on the diagram. 
 
 Define the term hyperbola, and illustrate it. 
 
 Give the meaning of the term isothermal. i 
 Point out the ordinates on the diagram. 
 Define the term parallelism. 
 - What is meant by the initial-pressure? ? 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 337 
 
 What is meant by the term mean effective pressure? 
 
 What Is meant by the term terminal-pressure? 
 
 What is meant by the term scale in its application to the diagram ? 
 
 Explain the functions of the spring in its relations to the indicator. 
 
 Explain the meaning of I. H. P., N. H. P., M. E. P., and H. P. 
 
 Explain the meaning of the term string. 
 
 Define the term undulating. 
 
 What are the use and functions of the dynamometer? 
 
 What is the meaning of the letters B and T which are fre- 
 quently seen on diagrams ? 
 
 Define the term zero when applied to indicator diagrams. 
 
 Give the formula for finding the horse-power of an engine from 
 indicator diagrams. 
 
 What are the functions of the planimeter? 
 
 Explain the most correct method of using the planimeter. 
 
 What is the exponent of the work performed by a steam-engine? 
 For the meaning of the 4erm mean effective pressure, see page 259. 
 
 What is the best criterion of the most economical results which 
 a steam-engine is capable of producing? 
 
 Before purchasing a steam-engine or other machinery, what 
 
 considerations ought to be taken into account ? 
 
 Is there any difference in the consumption of fuel required to 
 carry steam at 100 lbs. pressure instead of 50 lbs. per square inch ? 
 
 How should engines in factories be located? 
 29 W 
 
338 
 
 THE ENGINEEE's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 PART FIFTH. 
 
 Condensers. 
 
 The condenser is one of the most necessary and important ad 
 
 ^^"^ juncts of the low-pressure engine, as in 
 
 the perfection of the vacuum produced in 
 it by the condensation of the steam lies 
 the economy of that class of machines. 
 All the other parts of the engine may be 
 modified, and many of them, in some 
 cases, dispensed with, as in the trunk 
 and oscillating engines. Even the air- 
 pump, as has been shown in a former 
 article, is not an absolute necessity; but, 
 whatever changes a condensing engine 
 may undergo, the presence of the con- 
 denser is an imperative necessity. 
 
 The two kinds of condensers in gen- 
 eral use are known as the jet and sur- 
 face. The surface condenser consists 
 of an iron box, in which brass or copper 
 tubes are inserted in tube sheets, simi- 
 lar to those of a tubular steam-boiler, 
 through which the water is forced by 
 the circulating pump, for the purpose 
 of condensing the steam. In some cases 
 condensation is effected by bringing the 
 exhaust steam in contact with the out- 
 side of the tubes, the circulating water 
 being on the inside ; while in others the 
 
 OpoOOOOoOGn 
 
 End View of a Surface 
 Condenser with the 
 Bonnet removed. _ 
 
 Steam is exhausted into the tubes, and the circulating water 
 
 distributed on the outside of them. There is no especial ad 
 
THE ENGINEER\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 339 
 
 vautage in the former over the latter, nor vice versa, the ar- 
 rangement being only a matter of taste. In the proportioning of 
 either surface or jet condensers there appears to be great latitudtr 
 in practice, but in the surface condenser a certain amount of coolinf^ 
 surface must be provided ; more than the required quantity is a waste 
 of material, and incurs unnecessary weight and first cost, besides the 
 extra time required to remove the air before starting. The objec- 
 tion to a small condenser is, that in case the air-pump should fail to 
 operate properly, the condenser would soon become choked with 
 water ; the best guide in such cases is practical experience. 
 
 In the surface condenser, the cold water is lifted by a circulat- 
 ing pump through a pipe in the ship^s side or bottom and forced 
 through the tubes, and thence overboard. The number of times 
 the w^ater circulates, depends on the design and arrangement of 
 the condenser. In some condensers it circulates once, in others 
 twice, and in others three or even four times. In the cut on page 
 838 the steam enters at A, and the injection- water at J5, which 
 returns through section C, re- returns through section D, and is 
 forced overboard through E. F represents the hot well contain- 
 ing the water of condensation, which is returned to the boilers by 
 means of the boiler feed-pumps. 
 
 The capacity of the circulating pumps of the best class of sur- 
 face-condensing, compound engines is about 1 to 22, or 1 cubic 
 foot of circulating pump capacity to 22 feet in the low-pressure 
 cylinder, and in the proportion of about 1 cubic foot of circulating 
 pump capacity to 688 feet of cooling surface in the tubes of the 
 condenser. The proportion of cooling surface in the best class of 
 surface condensers is about 28 square feet of cooling surfiice to 1 
 cubic foot in the low-pressure cylinder, or 6j square feet to the 
 indicated horse-power. 
 
 The advantages of surface condensers are, that they furnish 
 fresh water to the boilers, (since the sea injection-water does not 
 mingle w^ith the water of condensation, thus obviating the loss in- 
 duced by scale in the boiler,) that steam of any pressure can be 
 condensed, and that the vacuum is more perfect than in the jet 
 
340 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 condensers. Their disadvantages are, extra weight and first cost, and 
 that the tubes are liable to become leaky, and impair the vacuum. 
 In case the tubes should become so leaky as to be beyond remedy, 
 the surface condenser may be converted into a jet condenser by 
 admitting the exhaust steam and injection- water above the tubes ; 
 but the jet condenser cannot be changed into a surface condenser 
 under any circumstances. 
 
 The tubes of surface condensers are made of brass or copper, 
 generally about | of an inch in diameter. They were formerly 
 riveted into the heads or tube sheets, but in consequence of the 
 lightness of the material of which they are composed, and of its 
 great limit of expansion, they soon became loose and leaky, as a 
 result of which riveting was abandoned. They are now generally 
 made tight by means of some fibrous material, such as cotton or 
 India-rubber, but more recently by brushings of kiln-dried or con- 
 densed wood. 
 
 The jet condenser consists of an iron pot or shell, into which 
 the steam is exhausted. The water rises through a pipe in the 
 ship's side, by the pressure of the atmosphere, and is distributed 
 by a rose, an arrangement similar to the nozzle of an ordinary 
 garden watering-pot, which, as it frequently became choked by 
 substances carried in by the injection- water, was abandoned. The 
 distribution of the water is now effected by allowing it to strike a 
 cone in the cover of the condenser. 
 
 The capacity of jet condensers may be from j\ to -^q the ca- 
 pacity of the steam-cylinder, or it may be of the same capacity as 
 the air-pump. The advantages of a jet condenser are, that it is 
 light, simple, and inexpensive; and its disadvantages, that the 
 saline matter contained in the injection-water is carried into the 
 boilers, which lessens the economy of fuel, and that steam of a 
 very high pressure cannot be successfully condensed in it. Should 
 the condenser become so impaired, as to be incapable of creating a 
 vacuum, the connection between the condenser and the engine 
 may be separated, and the engine allowed to exhaust into the at^ 
 mosphere, when it becomes a non-condensing engine. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 341 
 
 A snifting-valve is fixed on the condenser to allow the air and 
 water to escape when the condenser is blown through. The vac- 
 uum in the condenser keeps it closed, and, in the event of a great 
 head of water, or pressure in the condenser, tlie valve will ease 
 up and allow it to escape. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE FORCE WITH WHICH THE UNCONDENSED STEAM ARISING 
 FROM THE WATER IN THE CONDENSER RESISTS THE ASCENT OR DESCENT 
 OF THE PISTON, ACCORDING TO ITS TEMPERATURE. 
 
 t-.ti 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .S o b 
 
 
 9^ • 
 
 •So b 
 
 1- JS 
 
 V o 
 
 CL a 
 
 Tempera 
 Fahrenl 
 
 Force 
 
 Inches 
 
 MerciiJ 
 
 Pounds 
 Square I 
 
 Tempera 
 Fahrenli 
 
 Force 
 
 Inches 
 
 Mercui 
 
 Founds 
 Square I 
 
 32 
 
 0-200 
 
 0-100 
 
 130 
 
 4-36 
 
 2-17 
 
 40 
 
 0-250 
 
 0-128 
 
 135 
 
 507 
 
 2-52 
 
 50 
 
 0-360 
 
 0-181 
 
 140 
 
 5-77 
 
 2-88 
 
 55 
 
 0-416 
 
 0-215 
 
 145 
 
 6-60 
 
 3-28 
 
 60 
 
 0-516 
 
 0-260 
 
 150 
 
 7-53 
 
 3-74 
 
 65 
 
 0-630 
 
 0-311 
 
 155 
 
 8-50 
 
 4-22 
 
 70 
 
 0-726 
 
 0-361 
 
 160 
 
 9-60 
 
 4-76 
 
 75 
 
 0-860 
 
 0-428 
 
 165 
 
 10-80 
 
 5-37 
 
 80 
 
 1-01 
 
 0-505 
 
 170 
 
 12-05 
 
 6-04 
 
 85 
 
 1-17 
 
 0-585 
 
 175 
 
 13-55 
 
 6-75 
 
 90 
 
 1-36 
 
 0-680 
 
 180 
 
 15-16 
 
 7-58 
 
 95 
 
 1-58 
 
 0-805 
 
 185 
 
 16-90 
 
 8-47 
 
 100 
 
 1-86 
 
 0-900 
 
 190 
 
 19-00 
 
 9-50 
 
 105 
 
 2-10 
 
 1-07 
 
 195 
 
 21-10 
 
 10-58 
 
 110 
 
 2-53 
 
 1-26 
 
 200 
 
 23-60 
 
 11-81 
 
 115 
 
 2-82 
 
 1-43 
 
 205 
 
 25-90 
 
 13-01 
 
 120 
 
 3-30 
 
 1-50 
 
 210 
 
 28-88 
 
 14-43 
 
 125 
 
 3-83 
 
 1-902 
 
 212 
 
 30- 
 
 15- 
 
 The temperature of the \vater in the hot wells of surface-con- 
 densing engines is generally about 100° to 110° Fah. A higher 
 temperature would affect the vacuum and injure the air-pump 
 29* 
 
342 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 valves, while a lower temperature would cool the cylinder, and 
 cause a waste of fuel by the condensation of the steam. A very 
 low temperature causes increased consumption of fuel, while a very 
 high one causes a loss of power, owing to the back pressure in- 
 duced by the uncondensed vapor in the condenser, which will be 
 shown by the vacuum-gauge. 
 
 In the jet condenser, when the bilge-injection is opened, the air- 
 pump draws off the air from the pipe, when the air in the ship, 
 pressing on the surface of the bilge-water, forces it up the pipe 
 into the condenser. In the surface condenser the circulating 
 pump creates the vacuum, and the air presses the water up. 
 
 In a jet condenser, if the injection-water is not shut off when 
 the engines are stopped, the condenser will be filled with water, 
 and, if not cleared before the engine is started, may cause serious 
 damage to the cylinder or condenser. 
 
 Relative Quantity of Injection- Water Required to Con- 
 dense a Certain Tolume of Steam. 
 
 The weight op quantity of injection- or condensing-water re- 
 quired for a given weight or volume of steam depends upon 
 several conditions : 1. The pressure at which the steam is ex- 
 hausted. 2. The absolute pressure existing in the condenser after 
 the vacuum has been formed. 3. The temperature at which the 
 injection- water enters the condenser. While the first and second 
 conditions vary but slightly with uniform load and steam pressure, 
 the third will vary with the season, and even with the weather; 
 consequently, more condensing-water is required in summer than 
 in winter. But the average amount may be illustrated as 
 follows: 
 
 Example. — Suppose the pressure in the cylinder at release or 
 exhaust be 5 lbs. above atmosphere, and the absolute pressure in 
 the condenser, after vacuum is formed, be 2 lbs., corresponding to 
 a vacuum of 26 inches of mercury. Each pound of steam ex. 
 hausted at 5 lbs. above atmosphere contains 1183 thermal units, 
 
THE ENGINEER\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 343 
 
 and the thermal units per pound of condensation at 2 lbs. abso- 
 lute pressure in the condenser are 126. Hence the thermal units 
 to be absorbed by the condensing-water are 1183 — 126 = 1057. 
 Suppose the temperature of the injection-water be 80° Fah., then 
 each pound of condensing-water takes up 126 — 80 = 46 thermal 
 units ; and pounds of condensing-water per pound of steam con- 
 densed become = 23 nearly. Suppose, again, that the tem- 
 perature of the injection-water be 40*^ Fah., then each pound of 
 condensing-water takes up 126 — 40 = 86 thermal units, and 
 pounds of condensing-water per lb. of steam condensed are 
 
 ^^^^ = 12*3 lbs., from which it will be seen that the average pro- 
 portion of condensing-water to the wetter of condensation is about 
 as 18 to 1. 
 
 Rule for finding the cooling surface in the tubes of surface con- 
 densers. 
 
 Multiply the circumference of one tube in inches by its length 
 in inches; then multiply that product by the whole number of 
 tubes, and divide by 144. The quotient will be the number of 
 square feet of cooling surface in the. tubes. 
 
 The tubes of surface condensers frequently become foul on 
 the inside, owing to the grease used to lubricate the cylinder being 
 carried over with the exhaust steam, and they become foul on the 
 outside by the saline matter in the injection- water adhering to 
 them. There are various ways of cleansing them, one of which 
 is to admit steam of a high pressure from the boiler to the con- 
 denser. Another is to fill the condenser with a strong solution 
 of soda of potash, but in both cases care must be taken not to 
 destroy the packing round the tubes, of whatever material it may 
 be composed. If the tubes are packed with wood, and allowed to 
 become too hot by the action of the steam, they will become 
 charred and drop out ; if packed with India-rubber, they will be 
 destroyed by too high a temperature ; if the solution of potash 
 used to clean them is too strong, they are liable to be ruined. 
 
344 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S 
 
 HANBY- 
 
 BOOK. 
 
 The Injector Condenser. 
 
 A shows the steam-pipe ; the stop-valve ; C, the exhaust-pipe ; E, the 
 annular head into which the condensing-water is thrown through the 
 pipe, and by the arrangement of which the water is formed into a 
 sheet; jPi^ shows the two inverted nozzles through which the condensing- 
 water escapes into the hot well, H, 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 345 
 
 The Injector Condenser. 
 
 The cut on the opposite page represents the injector condenser, so 
 called because its action is similar to that of the Giffard boiler feed- 
 injector. It consists of two conoidal nozzles, joined by a straight 
 neck, and swelled at the upper end for the junction of the water- 
 ^j.zie. Within is the exhaust-steam nozzle, which forms withm 
 the condenser a narrow, annular space for the entrance of the con- 
 densing-water. The sides of the condenser (which are parab- 
 oloidal curves) are smoothly finished, as is the contracted neck 
 below, to diminish the resistance of the water. When used m 
 connection with a condensing engine, the air-pump may be dis^ 
 pensed with, as steam of atmospheric pressure will flow into a 
 vacuum at the rate of 1600 feet per second. 
 
 When the exhaust steam from the engine meets the thin fihn 
 of water which enters by the annular space, it is instantly con- 
 densed. As the water passes down, the contracting outline of the 
 condenser gradually brings it to a solid jet in the neck below, 
 through which it rushes with a velocity due to its pressure. The 
 air which has entered the condenser with the water, or through 
 leaky joints or stuffing-boxes, together with' the uncondensed 
 vapor, is thus drawn down into a contracting, hollow cone of 
 water, until finally expelled through the neck. This latter being 
 straight for a distance, is virtually the air-pump, having a solid 
 piston of water moving at a high speed ; thus is the steam con- 
 densed, and the vacuum formed by a single process, and with 
 greater certainty *than in any other way. The air and vapor 
 having passed the contracted neck, enter the tapering nozzle 
 below, and expanding therein are prevented from returning to 
 the condenser above. 
 
 The method of operation of the injector condenser when the en- 
 gine is started is as follows : the exhaust steam expels the air from 
 the exhaust-pipe and condenser ; then a jet of cold water from a 
 pump or tank creates a vacuum, which may be maintained by a 
 head of water of 10 feet fall. The discharge-water passes off* at 
 
346 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 a temperature of 110° to 112°, when the vacuum is equal to 26 
 inches of mercury. 
 
 The advantages of the injector condenser are, that it is cheap, 
 light, simple, and durable ; that the injection-water is self-regu- 
 lating ; that there is no possibility of the water being carried over 
 into the cylinder ; that, simply by the removal of a bonnet, the 
 exhaust steam may be allowed to escape into the atmosphere, thus 
 converting the engine from low to high pressure ; that the con- 
 denser requires no foundation or any other attachment save an or- 
 dinary pump to raise the water when there is not sufficient fall ; 
 and that the condenser can be attached to any engine in any lo- 
 cality where the necessary supply of water can be obtained, which 
 ranges from 22 to 25 times as much as that from which the steam 
 would be generated. It is claimed that a saving of over 20 per 
 cent, may be made where these condensers are used, while the first 
 cost is trifling. 
 
 Independent Condenser and Air-Pump. 
 
 The annexed cut represents a very ingenious and convenient 
 combined condenser and air-pump, designed by Edwin Reynolds, 
 and manufactured by E. P. Allis & Co., Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 
 to be used in connection with the Reynolds Corliss engine, and 
 which can, in case of accident to the engine which drives the 
 machinery, be used as an independent or auxiliary engine, which 
 may be used while making repairs. A foot-valve is entirely dis- 
 pensed with, and only bucket- and delivery-valves used. They 
 are fitted up either with or without a steam-cylinder, and when 
 the latter is dispensed with the air-pump is driven by a belt 
 from the engine to the wheel, T ; but when driven by the steam- 
 cylinder a regulator is employed, which is not shown in the cut. 
 The barrel. A, which is bored out on a line with the steam-cylinder, 
 a, forms a cross-head guide, to which the steam-piston is attached. 
 Four rods form a connection with the cross-head of the air-pump 
 below the crank-shaft. 
 
 The head, B, shows the bonnet or cover of the valve-chamber, 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 347 
 
 Independent Condenser and Air-Pump. 
 
 Designed for the Reynolds Corliss Engine, and Manufactured bv E. P 
 AUis & Co., Milwaukee, Wis. See description on pages 346 and 348. 
 
348 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 and the flange, (7, the steam-pipe connection. D represents the 
 bracket containing the valve-stem stuffing-box, the outer end of 
 which forms a bearing for an oscillating valve, to the stem of 
 which the crank, E, is keyed, which operates the steam-valve. 
 The swell, constitutes the steam-ports from the valve-chamber 
 to the end of the steam-cylinder. G shows an opening provided 
 for getting at the stuffing-box of the piston-rod and oiling the 
 cylindrical cross-head. The eccentric, jET, gives motion to the 
 steam-valve through the rod, i?, and crank, A The crank /, which is 
 slotted for the purpose of adjusting the length of the stroke, drives 
 the force-pump, J, which may be used either as a •lift and force, 
 circulating, or boiler feed-pump, k represents the delivery- and K 
 the suction-pipe. The pipe, M, is the injection-pipe ; iV, the suction 
 for the force-pump, which takes its water from the pocket, S. The 
 valve, L, is used to regulate the quantity of water admitted to the 
 force-pump. The pipe, 0, is the overflow from the air-pump, which 
 is in the centre of the condenser. The plate, F, covers a man-hole, 
 through which access is had to the valves and piston of the air- 
 pump. 
 
 The Yacuum. 
 
 If the cylinder of a steam-engine be filled with vapor, it cannot 
 be said to be void of matter ; but if the vapor is condensed, and 
 the water from which it was vaporized drawn off*, there would be 
 created in the cylinder what is termed a " vacuum," or void space. 
 The absolute pressure of steam is measured from zero, or perfect 
 vacuum, and consists of the pressure indicated by the steam-gauge 
 (which is known as pressure above atmosphere), added to the 
 pressure of the atmosphere, as shown by the barometer. The 
 latter is, for all practical purposes, a constant quantity for any 
 given locality,* and may be roughly taken at 14*5 lbs., cor- 
 responding to 29*50 inches of mercury. Vacuum-gauges are 
 usually graduated to agree with the scale of the barometer, and 
 the vacuum is usually stated in inches of mercury. To the steam- 
 
 * See Table on page 498. 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 349 
 
 pressure, as indicated by the gauge, add 14*5 lbs. for total press- 
 ure. Thus, if the pressure by gauge is 60 lbs., the total pressure 
 is 74*5 lbs. Consequently, the total pressure on the steam side, at 
 any point in the stroke of the piston, is the pressure above the 
 atmosphere plus 14*5 lbs., and the total pressure for the whole 
 stroke is the mean-pressure above the atmosphere plus 14*5 lbs. 
 Thus, if the mean-pressure for whole stroke is 30 lbs., the total 
 mean-pressure is 44*5 lbs. ; and this 44*5 lbs., whether the engine 
 is condensing or non-condensing, is the variable factor in estima- 
 ting the load on the engine. Now, if the engine be non-conden- 
 sing, the 14*5 lbs. (pressure of the atmosphere) on the steam side 
 of the piston is balanced by an equal atmospheric pressure on the 
 exhaust side, and its effect is neutralized ; but if the engine be 
 condensing, a large proportion of the pressure of the atmosphere 
 on the exhaust side of the piston is removed, and an equivalent 
 portion of the pressure of the atmosphere on the steam side of the 
 piston made to do useful work. With well-proportioned conden- 
 sing apparatus, the pressure of the atmosphere on the exhaust side 
 of the piston can be reduced nearly 90 per cent. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING VACUUM IN INCHES OF MERCURY AND POUNDS PRESSURE PER 
 SQUARE INCH. 
 
 Mercury. 
 
 POUNDS. 
 
 Mercury. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 2-037 
 
 1 
 
 16-300 
 
 8 
 
 4-074 
 
 2 
 
 18-337 
 
 9 
 
 6-111 
 
 3 
 
 20-374 
 
 10 
 
 8-148 
 
 4 
 
 22-411 
 
 11 
 
 10-189 
 
 5 
 
 24-448 
 
 12 
 
 12-226 
 
 6 
 
 26-485 
 
 13 
 
 14-263 
 
 7 
 
 28-552 
 
 14 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 
 The lower the temperature of the water leaving the condenser, 
 the better the vacuum, and the more conducive to power, always 
 30 
 
350 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 supposing there be no air-leaks. Watt found a temperature of 
 100° in the water leaving the condenser more beneficial than 70^ 
 or 80°, supposing there be an abundant supply of cold water. It 
 may be explained in this way. A better vacuum due to a tem- 
 perature of 70° or 80° requires so much cold water in the con- 
 denser, (which must afterwards be pumped out against the press- 
 ure of the atmosphere,) that the gain in the vacuum does not 
 equal the loss of power caused by the additional load on the pump. 
 There is, therefore, a clear loss by the reduction of the temper- 
 ature below 100°, if such reduction be caused by the admission 
 of an additional quantity of water. 
 
 The vacuum is maintained in the condenser by the action of the 
 air-pump. A perfect vacuum cannot exist, and in the condenser 
 of an engine there is always more or less pressure from imperfect 
 condensation, and air passing in with the condensing-water. 
 
 The vacuum is measured by inches in the height of a column 
 of mercury, 2 inches of mercury equalling one pound pressure per 
 square inch ; thus, 20 inches of mercury means 10 lbs. pressure 
 per square inch. If the steam-gauge shows 10 lbs. pressure, and 
 the vacuum-gauge registers 20 inches, there is a vacuum equal to 
 10 lbs. per square inch in the condenser. 
 
 The vacuum is maintained in the condenser by the exhaust 
 steam being constantly condensed, by either mixing with the cold 
 injection- water or by being brought in contact with the cooling 
 surface of the tubes in the surface condenser. 
 
 A vacuum is produced in a condenser by the steam (when it first 
 enters) driving out the air ; and, when condensed into water, it oc- 
 cupies 1669 times less space than it did before being condensed, 
 as 1700 cubic feet of steam produce one cubic foot of water. 
 
 To produce a vacuum in a jet condenser, open the blow-through 
 valve, when the steam, in its passage through, will blow out all 
 air and water in the condenser; and as soon as the steam issues 
 from the snifting-valve the blow-through valve may be shut, and 
 the injection-cocks opened, wh6n the cold water mixing with the 
 steam forms a vacuum. When the gauge shows a sufficient vac- 
 
THE ENGINEEr\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 351 
 
 uum, shut the injection-cocks, in order to prevent the condenser 
 from being flooded. 
 
 To produce a vacuum in a surface condenser, open the injection- 
 valve shortly before starting the engine, so that the circulating- 
 water may enter the condenser tubes, and cool them. Then, when 
 the engine is started, the exhaust steam comes in contact with the 
 cooling surface of the tubes, and is condensed when a vacuum is 
 formed. 
 
 If the steam-gauge shows 60 lbs. pressure, and the vacuum- 
 gauge 26 inches, it means that there are 60 lbs. of steam pressing 
 on one side of the piston, and 13 lbs. of resistance removed from 
 the other side. 
 
 The state of the vacuum is shown by the vacuum-gauge attached 
 to the condenser ; and, if it be imperfect, the cause must be ascer- 
 tained and the fault corrected. If the water in the hot well be 
 above the ordinary temperature, more injection- water must be ad- 
 mitted ; and, if the vacuum continues imperfect, the cause may be 
 due to an air-leak, the location of which the engineer must 
 endeavor to discover. Very often the fault will be found in the 
 valve- or cylinder-cover, which must then be screwed down more 
 firmly ; or in the joint of the eduction-pipe, the gland of which 
 will require to be tightened. The door of the condenser should 
 also be examined. The joints of the condenser may be tested by 
 holding a candle to them, the flame of which will be drawn in if 
 the joints are leaky. 
 
 A vacuum is not power, as all power in the steam-engine is de- 
 rived from the pressure of the steam on the piston ; if there is no 
 resistance on one side of the piston, the entire pressure on the 
 other side is available. Whenever there is resistance on one side 
 of the piston, it must be deducted from the pressure on the other 
 side. There is hardly such a thing as a perfect vacuum. The 
 philosopher Torricelli asserted correctly that nature abhors a 
 vacuum ; consequently, if a perfect vacuum can be attained, it can- 
 not be maintained long, as the wear of the machinery, the packing 
 around the air-pump rod, and other causes, contribute to impair it. 
 
THE ENQINEER\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 353 
 
 Air-Pumps. 
 
 All condensing engines have of necessity to be provided with 
 
 an air-pump, for the purpose of extracting 
 water, and the water of condensation from 
 the condenser, in. order to maintain a vac- 
 There does not appear to be any 
 
 injection- 
 
 uum. 
 
 uniform, recognized rule, among marine 
 engineers or manufacturers of surface-con- 
 densing compound engines, for proportion- 
 ing the air-pumps to the steam-cylinder, as, 
 while some builders make the capacity of 
 their air-pumps one-eighth of that of the 
 low-pressure cylinder, others make it one- 
 tenth, and others one-eleventh ; the average 
 of the number examined being about one- 
 ninth. 
 
 The air-pumps of the steamships Penn- 
 sylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, of the 
 American Line, are one-eleventh the capac- 
 ity of the low-pressure cylinder. And, as 
 these engines have the reputation of being 
 very economical, it should be presumed* g^^^i^^ ^^^^ ^j^^^^i^^ 
 that their proportions are good ; neverthe- Pump, 
 less, they are evidently too large, as one-fifteenth would be nearer 
 to a correct proportion. The tendency among marine engineers is 
 to overdo the thing in the case of air-pumps, perhaps under the im- 
 pression that a large air-pump creates a better vacuum, and, as a 
 result, air-pumps of enormous diameter and long stroke are at- 
 tached to marine engines ; whereas, the air-pump has very little to 
 do with the vacuum, its functions being simply to clear the con- 
 denser of water and air. Any proportion that will accomplish this 
 will fulfil all the necessary requirements. An air-pump too large 
 for the purpose for which it is intended, can have no other eflTect 
 than to absorb much of the power which might be utilized in in- 
 30* X 
 
354 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 creasing the speed of the engine and economizing the fuel. The air- 
 pump piston, being resisted by the pressure of the atmosphere, ab- 
 sorbs from four to five per cent, of the power of ordinary simple con- 
 densing engines, and from two to three per cent, in the better class 
 of compound marine engines ; the power required to work it being 
 greatest when the vacuum is most perfect, and least when the 
 vacuum is impaired. A good deal also depends on the mechanical 
 arrangement employed to work it, as well as on the condition of 
 its packings, bearings, proportions, etc. 
 
 The capacity of the air-pumps of condensing engines using a 
 jet or spray, ranges from one-fifteenth to one-twentieth the capac- 
 ity of the cylinder. As it requires from 22 to 30 times as much 
 water to condense steam as there is water in it (according to the 
 pressure and temperature), the air-pumps ought to be proportioned 
 to meet the maximum demands. The right proportions of air- 
 pumps for both jet- and surface-condensing engines may be found 
 by calculating the displacement of the steam-piston, and that of 
 the air-pump for one minute, and dividing the former by the 
 latter. The use of the air-pump in connection with condensing 
 engines, as before stated, is not an absolute necessity in all cases, 
 as, with a head of water having a fall of about 13 feet, a vacuum 
 can be formed and maintained in the condenser without an air- 
 pump, providing the end of the delivery-pipe is submerged in a 
 tank of water. 
 
 Vertical air-pumps, with valves in their pistons or buckets, give 
 the best satisfaction, as, in that case, the air and vapor are lifted 
 and forced out of the condenser, relieving the exhaust and in- 
 creasing the vacuum. The capacity of the openings through the 
 valve-seats of air-pumps should be such that the maximum flow 
 of the water through them will not exceed 10 feet per second. 
 For instance, suppose a pump of 12 ins. stroke to make 50 strokes 
 per minute, the maximum travel of the bucket at midstroke will 
 be about 2*6 feet per second. Then, as 10 H- 2*6 = 3*84, the capac- 
 ity of the opening should not be less than one-fourth the area of 
 the pumps. 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 355 
 
 Air-pumps are frequently very injudiciously located, being 
 placed above the condenser; whereas, if placed below it, their re- 
 quirements would be fewer, as the water would fall by gravity 
 from the condenser into the air-pump. In some cases the air- 
 pump extends down through the condenser, so that the openings 
 are nearly on a level with the bottom of the condenser, which is 
 a good arrangement in every respect, except that it necessitates a 
 long stroke, which has a tendency to absorb power. 
 
 Independent air-pumps, a cut of which may be seen on page 
 352, having an air-cylinder at one end, the circulating-water cyl- 
 inder at the other, and the steam-cylinder in the middle, are being 
 very generally adopted on ocean steamers. The claim set up for 
 them is, that, as they are independent of the engine, they can be 
 worked faster or slower, according to the circumstances of the 
 case ; that they absorb none of the power of the engine, and are 
 freer from liability to accident in stormy weather, or whenever the 
 engine races, than air-pumps attached to the main engine ; that 
 they can be started, and a vacuum formed, before the engine com- 
 mences to work ; that the injection-water can be more easily reg- 
 ulated ; that they require no expensive foundation ; that, in con- 
 sequence of the water- and air-pistons being on each end of the 
 steam-piston, they have a more steady and uniform motion than 
 the ordinary air-pump has, and that, in consequence of all their 
 parts being accessible, they can be easily examined, and any de- 
 rangement remedied or readjusted, without interfering with the 
 working of the engine. 
 
 In a surface-condensing engine, the air-pump has only to ex- 
 tract the water resulting from the condensed steam and the uncon- 
 densed vapor from the condenser. In a jet-condensing engine, 
 the air-pump has to withdraw both the injection- water and the 
 water of condensation ; the work to be performed by the latter 
 being from 25 to 30 times greater than that of the former. 
 
 An air-valve is sometimes fitted to a circulating, reciprocating, 
 or double-acting pump, for the purpose of admitting air to the 
 
856 THE engineer's hAndy-book. 
 
 water on the up stroke. As the valve is closed against the dawn 
 stroke, the air admitted serves to soften the shock of the water. 
 
 A bucket air-pump is a single-acting pump, being, in fact, a 
 piston with a valve fitted to it, which closes on the up stroke and 
 opens on the down, lifting a quantity of water equal to its capacity 
 at each stroke of the engine. 
 
 A piston air-pump is a double-acting pump, the piston being 
 eolid. It is fitted with suction- and deli very- valves, and dis- 
 charges with each stroke. 
 
 A plunger air-pump is a double-acting pump, resembling the 
 bucket air-pump, except that it has no head-valves, and that the 
 bucket-rod is fitted with a plunger. The effect of this is, that the 
 plunger, owing to its displacement, discharges on both the up and 
 the down stroke. 
 
 The double-acting air-pump has both suction- and delivery- 
 
 /alves; but it is possible with the single-acting pump, in some 
 .^ases, to dispense with either the one or the other. They are 
 t^enerally made with pistons, though sometimes with plungers. 
 
 An air-pump with a foot-valve and no discharge-valve would 
 be most affected by a leaky stuffing-box ; and, while the foot-valve 
 remains, the pump will draw water, but if removed, it will fail to 
 work. 
 
 An air-pump trunk is a hollow cylinder attached to the bucket 
 or piston, and working through a stuffing-box. Such an arrange- 
 ^nent is rendered necessary when the pump is worked directly off* 
 the crank-shaft, or where it is located so close to the levers, 
 through "which the motion is transmitted from the engine, as to 
 render the appliance of an intervening cross-head and links im- 
 possible. The difference in the discharge is equal to the relative 
 difference between the displacement caused by an ordinary air' 
 pump rod and that caused by the trunk. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 357 
 
 The air-pump pet cock or valve is generally placed below the 
 head-valve and above the bucket. It opens with the down stroke 
 of the pump, and admits air to act as a cushion on the water. 
 When the delivery-valve is opened, the engineer can tell by its 
 action whether the pump is working properly or not. 
 
 An air-pump bucket is a hollow piston, generally made of brass, 
 with a grating in the top, and a boss (water-tight) which receives 
 the rod in its centre, from which strengthening ribs run to the rim 
 I of the bucket. The outside of the bucket is grooved to receive 
 water-tight packing. The valves, which are generally of India- 
 rubber, and whose lift is regulated by a guard secured by a nut, 
 and against which the valve is pressed when the bucket is on the 
 down stroke, are on the top of the grating. 
 
 Air-pump rods are generally made of wrought-iron, and covered 
 with a skin of Muntz metal, or brass, to prevent the oxidization to 
 which wrought- or cast-iron rods are exposed. 
 
 A ship's side air-pump discharge-valve is generally a mitred 
 I valve, with its spindle passing through a gland in the cover, on 
 r which a weight is placed to keep it shut. It differs from a stop- 
 valve in having a lift and weight. 
 
 There are numerous contrivances in use for dispensing with 
 the air-pump, such as the injector condenser, which produces a 
 sheet of water in the exhaust-pipe ; but the necessary arrangements 
 for operating them generally cost more than a good reliable air- 
 pump, though the first cost of the former is less than that of the 
 latter. Besides, the vacuum is never so perfect when produced by 
 any such arrangement as when created by a close condenser and 
 air-pump. This becomes obvious, since we know that, even with 
 the most perfect mechanism, it is almost impossible to attain a 
 I perfect vacuum, and maintain it for any length of time, as nature 
 j abhors a vacuum, as the atmosphere on the outside of a vessel 
 is constantly endeavoring to equalize any unbalanced pressure 
 i that may exist on the inside. 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 359 
 
 Marine Wrecking-Pump. 
 
 a^d 
 
 Water- 
 Cylinder. 
 
 Stroke. 
 
 Gallons 
 
 per 
 Stroke. 
 
 Capacity per Minute, 
 at Ordinary Speed. 
 
 B6 
 
 
 c . 
 
 o a> 
 
 §•£ 
 
 CQ 
 
 be 
 
 ^- . 
 
 q3 Zi 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 3J 
 
 7 
 
 •33 
 
 125 strokes, 
 
 42 gal. 
 
 a 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 li 
 
 
 4i 
 
 10 
 
 •69 
 
 100 
 
 (.i 
 
 69 
 
 1 
 
 u 
 
 2i 
 
 2 
 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 roe 
 
 100 
 
 
 166 
 
 1 
 
 u 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 1-02 
 
 100 
 
 IC 
 
 102 
 
 1 
 
 u 
 
 3J 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 2-61 
 
 100 
 
 
 261 
 
 1 
 
 u 
 
 5 
 
 3J 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 r47 
 
 100 
 
 
 147 
 
 u 
 
 2 
 
 3J 
 
 o 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 4^08 
 
 100 
 
 
 408 
 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 3^ 
 
360 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY -BOOK. 
 
 The Salinometer.* 
 
 A Salinometer is a form of hydrometer used to determine the 
 quantity of salt contained in the water of marJne boilers, and by 
 
 which the amount of water necessary 
 to be blown out, to keep the water in 
 the boilers at a certain density, may be 
 ascertained. It is 9. graduated glass 
 tube, and floats in th^. water at a height 
 proportional to its density or sal tn ess. 
 It is marked 0 for fresh water ; 
 sea-water that contai.'AS 1 lb. of salt to 
 32 lbs. of water; 3^3^ ^vhen it contains 
 2 lbs. of salt to S2 lbs. of water, and so 
 on. Each division is subdivided into 
 four parts, showing halres and quarters. 
 It is graduated for a temperature of 
 200° Fah. A uniform standard of 
 temperature is necessary, since water 
 must be taken from the pressure in the 
 boiler, in order that it may assume its 
 regular temperature under the pressure 
 of the atmosphere, because steam of 
 different pressures has diiferent tem- 
 peratures, and a difierence m tempera- 
 ture will alter the indications of the 
 hydrometer. 
 
 The amount of salt in the water of 
 a boiler may be ascertained by observ- 
 ing the degree of the boiling-point by 
 means of a thermometer. To do this, 
 a sufficient quantity of the water in the boiler should be drawn 
 off* in a long copper vessel, and brought to the boiling-point. Then 
 immerse the thermometer. For every pound of salt contained in 
 32 lbs. of water, the temperature rises one degree. Thus, if the 
 
 ^ See page 651. 
 
 The Salinometer. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 361 
 
 water contains of salt, it will boil at 213° ; if y^Hj, at 214^^ ; if 
 at 215•5^ and Z^-, at 216-6°. 
 
 Salt-water, at the usual density, contains it-s weight of salt ; 
 consequently, if one pound of salt enters the boiler with every 32 lbs. 
 of water, and 16 lbs. of that water be evaporated, the one pound of 
 salt remains in the proportion of 1 : 16. Again, if ^ of the 16 lbs. of 
 water remains to be evaporated, the one pound remains in the 8 lbs. 
 of water. Now, if these 8 lbs. of water were blown out of the boiler, 
 the salt would go with it ; and so long as that proportion is carried out, 
 the saturation cannot exceed 3*^^ ; from which it is clear that, to keep 
 water at glr, one-fourth must be blown out ; one-third at 3^2, and at 
 one-half of the water used for feed must be blown out. 
 
 The errors in the hydrometer may be corrected in the following 
 manner : Every 10° difference in temperature will vary the indi- 
 cations I of 3^2, 200° Fah. being the standard. Then, if the water 
 be 10° over 200° Fah., it will show \ of less than its true density ; 
 and if 10° below 200° Fah., it will indicate \ of 3^^ more. Moreover, 
 if the grade be 200° Fah., the thermometer shows 210°, and the hy- 
 drometer indicates a density of -/^j, the true density will be 2^ ; 
 and if the temperature be 190°, it will be 1|. 
 
 A Salinometer may be constructed by taking a long glass tube, 
 and inserting in it sufficient shot to sink it in fresh water, marking 
 the point at which the water stands in the tube. Then immerse 
 the tube in water containing part of salt, when the point at 
 which the water stands will be the sea-water mark. Similarly 
 immerse in water containing -^^^ /j, etc., up to -J| of its weight 
 of salt, marking off the respective points at which the water stands. 
 Transfer these marks to a scale, and paste it inside the bottle in 
 exactly the same position as the marks on the bottle, and the result 
 is a good salt'gauge. The temperature must always be the same 
 as when the hydrometer was graduated. 
 
 How to use a Salinometer.— Draw^ off some water from the 
 boilers, and when the ebullition has ceased, try its temperature with 
 a thermometer. If the temperature exceeds that marked on the 
 salinometer, let it cool till it reaches that degree ; and if the tery- 
 31 
 
362 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 perature is less than that marked on the salinometer, it must be 
 raised till it reaches that degree. Then immerse the salinometer 
 in the water and let it float ; if the level of the water is at or 
 less, there is no occasion for blowing off* ; but if it exceeds 3^3^, the 
 water must be changed. The degrees of temperature usually 
 marked on the salinometer are 190°, 200°, 210°. Before using the 
 salinometer, it should be wet all over with water. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE PROPORTION OF SALT IN THE WATER OF DIFFERENT SEAS. 
 
 
 PARTS IN 1000. 
 
 Mediterranean Sea.... 
 Atlantic at Equator... 
 
 PARTS IN 1000. 
 
 21-60- A 
 
 28-30::= 3V 
 
 33-76= 3V 
 35-50= 
 
 39-40 = 
 39-42 =r/3 
 
 41- 20 = 
 
 42- 60 = 
 385-00 = 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TABLE 
 
 iSHOWING THE BOILING-POINT OF SALT-WATER AT THE DIFFERENT DE- 
 GREES OF DENSITY, WHEN THE BAROMETER STANDS AT 30 INCHES. 
 
 Fresh water. 
 Sea-water 
 
 SATURATION. 
 
 35 
 _2_ 
 3 2 
 _3_ 
 32 
 4 
 
 3^ 
 5 
 
 32 
 
 6 
 3^ 
 Jl_ 
 3 2 
 
 8 
 
 32 
 9 
 '3 2 
 JO 
 3 2 
 il 
 3 2 
 12 
 3 2 
 
 BOILING-POINT. 
 
 212 ' 
 
 213- 2 
 
 214- 4 
 
 215- 5 
 
 216- 7 
 
 217- 9 
 2191 
 
 220- 3 
 
 221- 5 
 222.7 
 223-8 
 
 225- 0 
 
 226- 1 
 
 Fah. 
 
 The meaning of the term saturation, in its relation to the water 
 of marine boilers, means the quantity of salt it contains per gallon. 
 
THK engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 363 
 
 Saturation at means 4 oz. salt to one gallon fresh water ; 
 5^j, 8 oz. salt to one gallon water; 12 oz. salt to one gallon 
 water, and so on. In carrying the water at twice as much is 
 converted into steam as is blown off. At 3^^, the water blown off 
 
 and that converted into steam are equal. At i3_. the water con- 
 
 ^ 32 ' 
 
 verted into steam equals | of the water blown off. 
 
 The following table shows the method of regulating the satura- 
 tion. 600 gallons of water, which is supposed to contain 7200 oz. 
 of salt, being made the basis of the calculation. 
 
 Blown out . 
 
 Fed in at to make 
 up for deficiency 
 
 Fed in 
 
 Fed in 
 
 Water 
 in 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Salt 
 in 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 600 
 200 
 
 7200 
 2400 
 
 400 
 200 
 
 4800 
 800 
 
 600 
 200 
 
 5600 
 steam 
 
 400 
 200 
 
 5600 
 800 
 
 600 
 200 
 
 6400 
 steam 
 
 400 
 200 
 
 6400 
 800 
 
 600 
 
 7200 
 
 { evaporated. 
 
 I evaporated. 
 
 The following calculation shows the loss induced by blowing 
 off as well as the gain derived from fresh-water condensers, pro- 
 
364 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 viding they are tight, and the condensation of the steam be per- 
 fect. The degrees of heat imparted to the water converted into 
 steam are the total heat of the steam minus the degrees of heat 
 in the feed-water. The heat lost by blowing off is the difference 
 between the heat of the feed-water and the sensible heat of the 
 steam. 
 
 Rule for finding the percentage of loss induced by blowing off 
 to prevent saturation. 
 
 Multiply loss by blowing off by 100, and divide the product by 
 the total degrees of heat imparted to the water plus the heat lost 
 by blowing off. (Observe that for 3^^, as twice as much water ia 
 converted into steam as is blown off. For 3-^, the amount is equal. 
 1 3 
 
 For iL, the amount is |, and so on.) The result is the percentage 
 
 of loss. 
 Example. — 3^. 
 
 Feed-water, 110^ ; total heat, 1193-45° ; sensible steam, 260°. 
 260° — 110^ = 150° heat lost by blowing off 
 1193-45° 110° = 1083-45° total heat. 
 
 1083-45°x2 = 2166-9°-f 150° = 2316-9° total heat imparted, 
 and loss by blowing off. 
 
 (150° X 100) -T- 2316-9° = 6-47 per cent, of heat lost by blow- 
 ing off. 
 
 The Barometer. 
 
 The Barometer is an instrument used for observing the press- 
 ure and elasticity, or variations in density, of the atmosphere. 
 Its essential part is a well formed glass tube, closed at one end, 
 perfectly clear and free from flaws, 33 or 34 inches long, of equal 
 bore, filled with pure mercury, and inverted ; the open end being 
 inserted in a cup partly filled with the same metal, so that the 
 mercury in the tube may be supported by atmospheric pressure. 
 
 When the air is dry and light, the mercury in the barometer 
 rises ; when the air is humid and lieavy, it falls. When changes 
 in the weight of the atmosphere take place gradually, they are 
 
THE ENGINEER\s IT A N J) y - b o o k . 365 
 
 imperceptible to huraari sensation ; and if it were not for this instru- 
 ment, it would be impossible to estimate accurately atmospheric 
 conditions. If, in fine, clear weather, a rain-storm is approach- 
 ing, the increasing humidity of the atmosphere will be noted by 
 the fall of the barometer long before it will be perceived by ordi- 
 nary observers. Hence, the condition of the barometer is an indi- 
 cation of not only the weather at the time, but of that which is 
 to follow during the course of several hours. It is in a constant 
 state of variation, governed by the condition of the air. The mer- 
 cury in the barometer stops falling at 30 inches at sea-level. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF THE ATMOSPHERE PER SQUARE INCH CORRE- 
 SPONDING WITH DIFFERENT HEIGHTS OF THE BAROMETER. 
 
 Barometer 
 in 
 Inches. 
 
 Atmosphere 
 in 
 Pounds. 
 
 Barometer 
 in 
 Inches. 
 
 Atmosphere 
 in 
 Pounds. 
 
 Barometer 
 in 
 Inches. 
 
 Atmosphere 
 in 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 28-0 
 
 13-72 
 
 29-1 
 
 14-26 
 
 30-1 
 
 14-75 
 
 28-1 
 
 13-77 
 
 29-2 
 
 14-31 
 
 30-2 
 
 14-80 
 
 28-2 
 
 13-82 
 
 29-3 
 
 14-36 
 
 30-3 
 
 14-85 
 
 28-3 
 
 13-87 
 
 29-4 
 
 14-41 
 
 30-4 
 
 14-90 
 
 28-4 
 
 13-92 
 
 29-5 
 
 14-46 
 
 30-5 
 
 14-95 
 
 28-5 
 
 13-97 
 
 29-6 
 
 14-51 
 
 30-6 
 
 15-00 
 
 28-6 
 
 14-02 
 
 29-7 
 
 14-56 
 
 30-7 
 
 1505 
 
 28-7 
 
 14-07 
 
 29-8 
 
 14-61 
 
 30-8 
 
 15-10 
 
 28-8 
 
 14-12 
 
 29-9 
 
 14-66 
 
 30-9 
 
 15-15 
 
 28-9 
 
 14-17 
 
 30-0 
 
 14-70 
 
 31- 
 
 15-19 
 
 290 
 
 14-21 
 
 
 
 
 
 Thermometei'S. 
 
 The Thermometer is an instrument for measuring variations of 
 heat or temperature. It consists of a bulb and glass stem of uni- 
 form bore. A sufficient quantity of mercury having been intro- 
 duced, it is boiled, to expel the air and moisture, and the tube 
 is then hermetically sealed. ' The properties of mercury which 
 render it preferable to all other liquids are these: it supports, 
 31^ 
 
366 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 before it boils, more heat than any other fluid, and endures a 
 greater cold than would congeal most other liquids. 
 
 The standard points are ascertained by immers- 
 ing the thermometer in melted ice and in the steam 
 of water boiling under the pressure of 14*71bs. on the 
 square inch, and marking the positions of 
 the top of the column. The interval 
 between those points is divided into the 
 proper number of degrees,— 100 for the 
 Centigrade scale, 180 for Fahrenheit's, 
 and 80 for Reaumur's. 
 
 The word " zero " is of Arabic origin, 
 and means empty ; hence nothing. Ab- 
 solute zero is a temperature which is fixed 
 by reasoning, although no opportunity 
 ever occurs for observing it. It is the 
 temperature corresponding to the disap- 
 pearance of gaseous elasticity; or, in 
 other words, the point where gas would 
 become a solid, as where water becomes 
 ice. This temperature is called zero in 
 
 The Hotwen reference to all the erases, and the The Uptake 
 Thermometer. « ^, , i° ^, Thermometer, 
 
 positions 01 the absolute zero on the 
 
 ordinary scales would be 
 
 Reaumur's scale 219*2 belof^ 0^ 
 
 Centigrade 244 
 
 Fahrenheit . . . . . . 461-22 " 
 
 Rules for Comparing Degrees of Temperature Indicated by Dif- 
 ferent Thermometers. 1. Multiply degrees of Centigrade by 9 and 
 divide by 5; or multiply degrees of Reaumur by 9 and divide by 4. 
 Add 32 to the quotient in either case, and the sum is degrees Fah- 
 renheit. 2. From degrees of Fahrenheit subtract 32 ; multiply the 
 remainder by 5, and divide by 9 for degrees Centigrade ; or mul- 
 tiply by 4, and divide by 9 for degrees Reaumur. The abbrevia- 
 tion for Fahrenheit is " Fah." ; for degree, °. 
 
THE ENGINEER\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 567 
 
 Marine Steam-Engine Register. 
 
 This instrument is designed for application to marine steam- 
 engines. It consists of a circular box faced with a dial, in which 
 are cut, side by side, 
 six or more slots, 
 through which may 
 be seen the numbers 
 representing the 
 revolutions of the 
 engine. This dial 
 is called the '^coun- 
 ter " or register/' 
 which is worked 
 by an attachment 
 to any suitable part 
 of the engine, from 
 which a vibratory 
 motion may be 
 communicated to 
 an arm attached to 
 a central horizontal 
 shaft placed paral- 
 lel to the dial, into 
 the ends of which 
 is fixed a frame carrying a small shaft, parallel to the former, to 
 which six arms are attached in such a way that the right arm may 
 fall without the others, but cannot rise without carrying all the rest 
 
 This framework, with the pall-shaft, etc., by the motion of 
 the arm attached to the engine, describes an arc of 36°, or 
 of a circle. The ends of the palls, respectively, rest on and 
 slide over 6 cylinders placed side by side on the central shaft, all 
 of which move in the same direction, and are numbered from 
 right to left. On the right-hand edge of each cylinder are cut 
 10 slots, and on the left hand only one slot, which are of such a 
 
368 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 size as to admit the end of one of the palls. Then., on the bjick 
 motion of the framework, etc., the pall is carried back until it 
 drops in, when the forward motion carries with it the cylinder so 
 locked. 
 
 In the spaces between the laps, in each cylinder, and opposite 
 to one of the slots in the dial face, the numbers 1, 2, 3, etc., 
 to 0, are engraved at equal distances around the circumference. 
 The palls are placed one over each of the slots, so that the 
 pall can fall into the inner cylinder only when the slot in the 
 outer one comes directly under it. As this occurs only once 
 in a whole revolution, and as the motion of the palls is only 
 through one-tenth of a circle, it follows that cylinder No. 2 can 
 only be moved through one-tenth of its circumference after cyl- 
 inder No. 1 has moved a whole revolution, or ten times that space, 
 and so on. Thus, if the figures on No. 1 represent units, those on 
 No. 2 will be tens, on No. 3, hundreds, etc. It will be observed 
 that every revolution of the engine insures one-tenth of cylinder 
 No. 1 to move round, inasmuch as the ten slots in its right-hand 
 edge are not covered by any other cylinder, as is the case with 
 the others. 
 
 Rule /or Finding the Number of Revolutions the Engine has 
 made during the Voyage, 
 
 Subtract the number at which the counter stood at the beginning 
 of the voyage from that which is indicated at the end of it ; the re- 
 mainder will be the number of revolutions made during the voyage. 
 
 To Reduce the Time the Counter has been Working into Minutes. 
 
 Multiply the days by 24,* the product will be the hours ; multi- 
 ply this by 60,t the result will be the minutes during which the 
 counter has been working, or divide the number of revolutions by 
 the minutes the counter has been working ; the quotient will be the 
 average number of revolutions made by the engine per minute. 
 
 ^ 24 hours being equal to one day. 
 
 t Ab 60 minutes = 1 hour. 
 
THE ENGlisTEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 369 
 
 Spring-, Mercury-5 Syphon-, and Vacuum-Gauges.* 
 
 Figure I shows an inside view of the Lane spring steara- 
 ^auge. As may be observed, it consists of a hollow brass tube, 
 a lever, connecting- 
 link, sector, pinion, 
 and pointer. Its oper- 
 ation is as follows: 
 Pressure is exerted 
 in the tubes. A, A, 
 through the nipple, 
 the effect of which 
 IS to elongate or 
 Btraighten it. The 
 consequence is, that 
 the link, 0, draws the 
 lever, E, and the sec- 
 tor, Fy which moves 
 the pinion, which is 
 not shown, but which 
 carries the pointer, G, 
 The higher the pressure, the more the tubes will be expanded or 
 elongated, and the higher the pointer will be carried up. As the 
 pressure decreases, the tubes have a tendency to contract, and the 
 pointer again assumes its natural position at zero. 
 
 Fig. 2 (page 370) represents the Bourdon spring steam-gauge. 
 It consists, as in the case of the Lane, of a hollow metal tube, con- 
 necting-link, sector, pinion, coil-spring, and hand or pointer. As 
 will be seen, though the mechanism is reversed, the principle is 
 the same as in the Lane gauge. The pressure exerted in the 
 hollow tube, G, has a tendency to expand or elongate it ; the result * 
 of which is, that the link, H, draws the sector, J, (which swings on 
 the stud I) to the right, the upper end of which turns the pinion, 
 K, which carries the pointer to the right also. A coil-spring is 
 
 * *See Dage 658 
 
 Fig. 1. — Inside View. 
 
370 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 attached to the stud, which carries the pointer to assist in bring- 
 ing it back to a state of rest, as the pressure decreases. 
 
 The advantages of spring-gauges are, that they are light, cheap, 
 and simple, and are not affected by jar or jolting; their disad- 
 vantages are, liability to corrode, and the spring losing its ten- 
 sion ; they require to be tested and corrected at least once a year. 
 When steam-gauges of any kind are set up, the end of the pipe 
 next the gauge should invariably be filled with cold water. The 
 steam should never be allowed to act directly on a steam-gauge 
 
 when located in cold 
 situations, where they 
 are liable to freeze. 
 The valve on the boil- 
 er should be closed, 
 and the drip attached 
 to the gauge opened, 
 in order to allow the 
 water to run out. The 
 drip on the gauge 
 should be closed be- 
 fore the steam is 
 turned in from the 
 boiler, in order that 
 suflScient steam may 
 be condensed in the 
 pipe to furnish the 
 quantity of water necessary to keep the steam from striking the 
 gauge. • 
 
 The spring-gauge can also be used as a vacuum-gauge, by re- 
 versing the application of the pressure, which has a contrary effect 
 on the tube. For instance, as exhaustion takes place in the tube, 
 its power of resisting the pressure of the surrounding atmosphere, 
 which acts upon it, varies also, and it consequently again coils under 
 that pressure in regular ratio with its variation, and indicates the 
 degree of vacuum in the condenser. 
 
 Fig. 2. — Inside View. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 371 
 
 A siphon-gauge is a bent tube, inverted, and partially filled 
 with mercury. The orifice of the short leg is connected with the 
 boiler, and the long leg is open to the atmosphere. The steam 
 pressing upon the mercury in the short leg with greater force 
 than the pressure of the atmosphere, causes the mercury in the 
 other leg to rise, and indicates the excess of pressure above the 
 atmosphere. To the amount shown by the gauge must be added 
 the pressure of the at- 
 mosphere. Thus, if a 
 siphon-gauge shows 
 15 lbs. pressure, the 
 boiler-pressure is 30 
 lbs. 
 
 A mercurial gauge, 
 
 for high - pressure 
 steam - engines, con- 
 sists of a glass tube 
 open at the lower 
 end, and closed at the 
 top, containing air in 
 its ordinary state. Its 
 lower end is placed 
 in a cistern of mer- 
 cury. When the cock 
 is opened, the steam 
 passes through, forc- 
 ing the mercury up the glass tube, thereby compressing the air 
 in the tube above the mercury. When the air is compressed to 
 one-half its original space, the pressure is doubled ; to one-third, 
 it is trebled ; to one-fourth, it is quadrupled, etc. 
 
 A barometer-gauge is a tube of glass, more than 30 inches long, 
 closed at one end, and filled with mercury, then inverted so that 
 the lower or open end will be immersed in a cistern of mercury, 
 when the mercury in the tube will sink, rising in the basin until 
 Its weight balances the pressure of the atmosphere, which, by its 
 
 Figr. 3. -The Springr Steam-Gauge. 
 
872 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 elasticity, is endeavoring to force the mercury up the tube. The 
 mercury in the tube will be found to stand about 30 inches higher 
 than the level in the basin, varying slightly, according to the state 
 of the atmosphere. 
 
 The scale of a barometer-gauge may be explained as follows: 
 As 30 inches of mercury press down with the same force as the 
 atmosphere, say 15 lbs. per square inch, two inches of mercury 
 correspond to one pound of pressure, and a scale of inches meas- 
 ured from the mercury in the cup upwards must be fixed near 
 the glass tube. As the vacuum, while the engine is working, may 
 be supposed to be good, the scale need only be marked to a few 
 inches below 30 inches, every fall of two denoting one pound of 
 pressure in the condenser. 
 
 The sources of error, in estimating the vacuum by this gauge, 
 arise from the following two facts : That the pressure of the at- 
 mosphere, or the mercury in the cup, is liable to change. That 
 the gradations on the scale are marked, on the supposition that 
 the level of the mercury is stationary ; because it is from this 
 level that the scale commences. Therefore a fixed scale must be 
 erroneous, on account of the sinking of the mercury in the cup 
 as it rises in the tube. 
 
 The first source of error may be corrected by observing the 
 actual height of a weather barometer, and subtracting it -from the 
 height as shown by the gauge. This will be correct, if a tube of 
 a standard diameter is used. This error may be corrected by a 
 short gauge, similar to what a weather barometer would be if it 
 were enclosed in a space, communicating with the condenser. In that 
 event, before a vacuum is created, the mercury would stand as 
 high in the glass tube as in the weather barometer. On creating 
 a vacuum, thus taking off* the pressure from the mercury in the 
 cistern, the mercury would fall in the tube. In this instrument, 
 the less the height of the mercury the better the vacuum. 
 
 The second source of error may be obviated by having a mov- 
 able instead of a fixed scale, so that its lower end might always 
 be kept in contact with the surface of the mercury in the cup. 
 
THE ENaiNEEU\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 373 
 
 A siphon -gauge, such as has been spokeu of, may be used as a 
 vacuum-gauge. When so used, it is necessary to connect the long 
 leg with the condenser, placing a stick in the short leg. In this 
 case the scale would require to be graduated directly contrary 
 to that for steam. The state of the atmosphere will affect the 
 gauge. The pressure in the steam-boiler may be ascertained by 
 the temperature, by the safety-valve, or by the steam-gauge. 
 
 I The Mariner's Compass. 
 
 y The object of the mariner's compass is to enable travellers to 
 steer their course with certainty from one location to another. 
 The needle is understood to point to the north, and the other 
 points, east, west, etc., are easily found. In certain parts of the 
 world, however, the needle does not point to the north, but is drawn 
 to the right or left of true north. This is called the variation of the 
 compass, and must be known accurately by the navigator, in order 
 to correct and steer the right course. For instance, in crossing 
 the Atlantic Ocean, the variation of the compass amounts in sail- 
 ing vessels to 2J or 2J points westerly, and the course steered must 
 be corrected accordingly. If a due east course is desired, the 
 vessel must be steered 2 J or 2i points south. 
 
 Off the Cape of Good Hope, the variation of the compass in 
 ships bound to India or Australia is 2| points easterly, and, in 
 order to make a due east course, it is necessary to steer 2| to the 
 north, or left of her course ; while towards the equator there is 
 hardly any perceptible variation of the compass at all. The best 
 means of finding out how much the compass varies in different 
 parts of the world is by observations of the sun taken with the 
 compass, and the difference between the true and magnetic compass 
 is the variation, which must be applied as a correction to the course 
 steered. In iron ships or steamers, the deviation must be considered 
 as well as the variation. This is due to*the local attraction caused 
 by the iron, and must be carefully understood before steamers or 
 iron ships go to sea. Before a vessel proceeds on her first voyage, 
 the compass must be carefully swung and magnets fixed to th*' 
 >^^ck. 
 
374 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OP RHUMBS, OR POINTS OF THE COMPASS. 
 
 Points. 
 
 Angles. 
 
 NORTH. 
 
 NORTH. 
 
 SOUTH. 
 
 SOUTH. 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 4 
 
 O ' '• 
 
 2 48 45 
 5 37 30 
 8 26 15 
 
 N i E 
 N 2 E 
 N f E 
 
 N i W 
 N i W 
 N f W 
 
 S i E 
 S i B 
 S J E 
 
 s i w 
 
 S 2 W 
 
 s f w 
 
 1 
 
 U 
 H 
 If 
 
 1115 0 
 
 14 3 45 
 16 52 30 
 19 41 15 
 
 N by E 
 
 N by E } E 
 N by E i E 
 N by E f E 
 
 N by w 
 N by w i w 
 N by w i w 
 N by w 1 w 
 
 s by E 
 s by E i E 
 s by E 2 E 
 s by E J E 
 
 s by w 
 s by w ? w 
 s by w 2 w 
 s by w f w 
 
 2 
 
 2i 
 2i 
 2f 
 
 22 30 0 
 
 25 18 45 
 28 7 30 
 30 56 15 
 
 NNE 
 NNE i E 
 NNE i E 
 NNE f E 
 
 NNW 
 NNW ?• W 
 NNW 2 W 
 NNW f W 
 
 SSE 
 SSE i E 
 SSE i E 
 SSE J E 
 
 ssw 
 ssw k w 
 ssw 2 w 
 ssw 1 w 
 
 3 
 
 Si 
 3i 
 3i 
 
 33 45 0 
 
 36 33 45 
 39 22 30 
 42 11 15 
 
 NE by N 
 
 NE f N 
 NE i N 
 NE i N 
 
 NW by N 
 ' NW 4 N 
 NW i N 
 NW 4 N 
 
 SE by s 
 
 SE f S 
 SE J S 
 SE } S 
 
 sw by s 
 sw f s 
 sw 2 s 
 sw i s 
 
 4 
 
 4^ 
 4J 
 4f 
 
 45 0 0 
 
 47 48 45 
 50 37 30 
 53 26 15 
 
 NE 
 NE J E 
 NE i E 
 NE f E 
 
 NW 
 NW i W 
 NW i W 
 NW f W 
 
 SE 
 SE i E 
 SE } E 
 SE J E 
 
 sw 
 sw i w 
 sw 2 w 
 sw f w 
 
 5 
 
 5i 
 5i 
 5i 
 
 56 15 0 
 
 59 3 45 
 61 52 30 
 64 41 15 
 
 NE by E 
 
 ENE 1 N 
 ENE i N 
 ENE } N 
 
 NW by w 
 
 WNW f N 
 WNW i N 
 WNW i N 
 
 SE by E 
 
 ESE f S 
 ESE i 8 
 ESE } S 
 
 sw by w 
 wsw i s 
 
 WSW 2 s 
 
 wsw i s 
 
 6 
 
 6} 
 6} 
 6f 
 
 67 30 0 
 
 70 18 45 
 73 7 30 
 75 56 15 
 
 ENE 
 ENE i E 
 ENE i E 
 ENE 1 E 
 
 WNW 
 WNW i W 
 WNW i W 
 WNW J W 
 
 ESE 
 ESE i E 
 ESE i E 
 ESE f E 
 
 wsw 
 wsw i w 
 wsw 2 w 
 wsw f w 
 
 7 
 
 7} 
 7J 
 7f 
 
 78 45 0 
 
 81 33 45 
 84 22 30 
 87 11 15 
 
 E by N 
 E'f N ^ 
 
 E i N 
 E i N 
 
 w by N 
 
 W f N 
 W i N 
 W i N 
 
 E by s 
 
 E J S 
 E ^ S 
 
 w by s 
 wis 
 wis 
 wis 
 
 I 
 
 90 0 0 
 
 EAST. 
 
 WEST. 
 
 EAST. 
 
 WEST. 
 
THE engineer's II A N I) Y - B O O K . 
 
 cc o 
 
 O 
 O 
 O 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 tH' 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 co^ 
 
 'co^ 
 
 (xT 
 
 co" 
 
 cT 
 
 CD 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 rH 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 QO 
 
 
 CO 
 
 ZD 
 
 C5 
 
 
 
 c» 
 
 
 
 
 co" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7—1 
 
 
 -2 
 
376 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 Technical Terms and Definitions Used in Navigation. 
 
 Apparent altitude. — The apparent altitude is the observed 
 altitude, corrected for the indicated error of the instrument, and 
 dip of the horizon. 
 
 Meridian altitude. — The meridian altitude is the highest alti- 
 tude a celestial object attains on the meridian of the observer. 
 
 Observed altitude. — The observed altitude is the altitude of 
 a celestial object above the horizon dneasured by a sextant or 
 quadrant. 
 
 True altitude. — The true altitude is the apparent altitude cor- 
 rected for refraction and parallax. 
 
 Amplitude. — The amplitude is the arch of the horizon con- 
 tained between the centre of the celestial object, when rising or 
 setting, and the east or west points of the horizon, measured from 
 the east when rising, and from the west when setting. 
 
 Azimuth. — An azimuth is the angle at the zenith contained 
 between the vertical circle passing through the centre of the ce 
 lestial object, and of the meridian of the place. 
 
 Course. — The course is the direction steered by compass. 
 
 Magnetic course. — The magnetic course is the compass coursa 
 yX)rrected for deviation of the compass. 
 
 True course. — The true course is the compass course cor- 
 x^ected for variation and deviation of the compass. 
 
 Course made good. — The course made good is the compass 
 course corrected for deviation, variation, leeway, and set of the 
 current, and is the ship's real track on the ocean. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 377 
 
 Variation of the compass. — The variation of the compass is 
 the angle between the true north and the magnetic north. There 
 are only few places where the needle points exactly to the true 
 north. When it points to the eastward of the true north, it is 
 easterly variation ; but when the north point of the needle is at- 
 tracted to the westward of north, it is called westerly variation. 
 
 Deviation of the compass. — The deviation of the compass is 
 the angle between the compass north and the magnetic north, and 
 is produced by the local attraction of the ship's iron on her com- 
 passes. 
 
 Declination. — The declination is the distance a celestial object 
 is north or south of the equinoctial, measured on a meridian. 
 
 Eppop of the compass. — The error of the compass is the va- 
 riation and deviation combined. 
 
 Dead peciconing. — The dead reckoning is the method of as- 
 certaining the ship's position by the courses steered and distance 
 sailed, as shown in the following pages under the head of the 
 Day's Work. This is liable to many errors, such as bad steering, 
 unknown currents, improper allowances made for distance run, 
 and often fails to give the ship's true position. 
 
 Depaptupe. — The departure is the distance in miles made good 
 by a ship, east or west ; when a ship sails due north or south, she 
 makes no departure. 
 
 Taking a depaptupe. — When bearings are taken of some head- 
 land or other known object, before a ship leaves the land, it is 
 called taking a Departure. 
 
 Distance. — Distance is the distance between two places or po- 
 sitions, or the distance sailed by a ship on a certain course, meas- 
 ured in nautical miles. 
 
 Polar distance. — The polar distance is the distance of a ca- 
 
 32* 
 
378 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 lestial object from the elevated pole, and is found by subtracting 
 the declination of the object from 90^, when the latitude and the 
 declination are of the same name, but by adding the declination to 
 90°, when they are of contrary names. 
 
 Ecliptic. — The ecliptic is the apparent annual path of the sun 
 in the heavens. 
 
 Equator. — The equator is a great circle passing round the 
 earth, 90 degrees from the poles, and dividing it into two equal 
 parts or hemispheres, called the Northern and Southern Hemi- 
 spheres. At all places on the Equator, the sun rises and sets at 
 six o'clock all the year round. 
 
 Visible horizon. — The visible horizon is the circle that bounds 
 the observer's view at sea, where sky and water appear to meet. 
 
 Dip of the horizon. — The dip of the horizon is the angle be- 
 tween the true and visible horizon, and is a correction which must 
 be subtracted from all altitudes. 
 
 Hour angle of a celestial object. — The hour angle of a ce- 
 lestial object is the angle at the pole between the meridian of the 
 observer and that of the celestial object. 
 
 Latitude. — Latitude is distance north or south from the Equator, 
 measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds on a meridian ; a place 
 or position is in north or south latitude, according as it is north or 
 south of .the Equator; a degree of latitude is 60 nautical miles 
 of 6082 feet. 
 
 Parallels. — Parallels of Latitude are small circles parallel to 
 the Equator, running round the earth east and west. Two places 
 situated on one of these circles are said to be in the same parallel 
 of latitude. 
 
 Difference. — Difference of Latitude is the distance a ship 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 379 
 
 makes good in a north or south direction. When two places or 
 positions are on the same side of the Equator, that is, in north or 
 south latitude, their difference of latitude is found by subtracting 
 the lesser latitude from the greater ; when two places or positions 
 are on the opposite sides of the Equator, that is, when one is in 
 north latitude, and the other in south latitude, their difference of 
 latitude is found by adding the latitudes together. 
 
 Leeway. — The leeway is the angle between the ship's true 
 course and her path through the water ; starboard tack allows lee- 
 way to the left hand ; port tack allows it to the right hand. 
 
 Longitude. — Longitude is the degrees, minutes, and seconds a 
 place or position is east or west of the first meridian, measured on 
 the Equator. Most nations adopt the Meridian of Greenwich ob- 
 servatory in England as the first meridian. Thus the longitude 
 of a place or position is called east or west of the Meridian of 
 Greenwich, reckoned up to 180 degrees, which is the opposite me- 
 ridian to Greenwich, or one-half of the circumference of the 
 earth. Longitude is also reckoned by time, — hours, minutes, and 
 seconds, — each hour being equal to 15 degrees of longitude, as the 
 sun, which regulates the time, returns to the same meridian once 
 in every 24 hours. Thus 15 degrees multiplied by 24 hours 
 makes 360 degrees, the entire circumference of the earth. 
 
 To reduce longitude into time. — Divide the number of de- 
 grees, seconds, and minutes by 15, and the quotient will be the 
 time. 
 
 Degrees of Longitude. — The degrees of longitude are of the 
 same length at the Equator as a degree of latitude, viz., 60 nau- 
 tical miles ; but as the meridians contract, and the distance be- 
 tween them decreases gradually the farther you go north or south, 
 until they meet at the poles, it is evident that the space contained 
 in a degree of longitude becomes less the farther north or south 
 the distance travelled. Thus in latitude 60° north or south, 30 
 miles of departure is equal to a degree of longitude. It will be 
 
380 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 seen that if a vessel sails 60 miles east or west in the parallel of 
 60° north or south, she will make two degrees of longitude ; in 
 latitude of 70° north or south, 60 miles is equal to nearly three 
 degrees of longitude. 
 
 Difference of longitude. — The difference of longitude is the dif- 
 ference in degrees, minutes, and seconds which one place or position 
 is east or west of another ; when two places or positions are on the 
 same side of the Meridian of Greenwich east or west, their dif- 
 ference of longitude is found by subtracting the less from the 
 greater. When they are on opposite sides of the Meridian of 
 Greenwich, that is, one in east longitude and one in west longi- 
 tude, their difference of longitude is found by adding the two to- 
 gether. When one longitude is east and the other west, and on 
 being added together the sum exceeds 180 degrees, it must be sub- 
 tracted from 360 degrees to get the difference of longitude. 
 
 Meridian. — A meridian is a circle passing through both poles, 
 and crossing the Equator at right angles All places situated on 
 this circle are on the same meridian, or in the same longitude 
 north or south of each other. 
 
 Parallax. — The parallax is the difference between the altitude 
 of a heavenly body observed on the surface and what it would be 
 if taken at the centre of the earth. 
 
 Poles. — The poles are the extremities of the earth's axis; 
 these are^ 90 degrees north and south of the Equator, and are 
 called the North and South Poles. 
 
 Port side. — The term port side is used to designate the left 
 hand side of the ship looking towards the bow. 
 
 Refraction. — The refraction is the difference between the real 
 and apparent places of heavenly bodies, as affected by the atmos- 
 phere. 
 
THE ENGINEER^S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 381 
 
 Right ascension. — The right ascension is the distance a ce- 
 estial object is east of the first point of Aries, measured on the 
 equinoctial. 
 
 Semi-diametep. — The semi-diameter is half the diameter of 
 the sun or moon. It is given for each day in the Nautical Al- 
 manac, and must be applied to all altitudes of the sun or moon to 
 get the true central altitude. If the lower limb is observed, it 
 must be added; if the upper limb, subtracted, and vice versd. 
 
 Starboard side. — The term starboard side is employed to des- 
 ignate the right hand side of a ship looking towards the bow. 
 
 Augmentation. — The augmentation of the Moon's semi-diam- 
 eter is a correction to be added to the semi-diameter, as taken 
 from the Nautical Almanac, on account of the moon being nearer 
 to the observer when above the horizon than when in the horizon. 
 
 Tropics.— The Tropics are that portion of the earth situated 
 between 23J° north and 23}° south latitudes. 
 
 Civil time.— Civil time is reckoned from midnight to noon, then 
 called A. M. ; and from noon to midnight, then called p. m. The 
 civil day commences at midnight ; the nautical or sea day com- 
 mences at noon, twelve hours before the civil day. 
 
 Astronomical time.— Astronomical time is reckoned from noon 
 to noon continuously, from 0 hour to 24 hours. 
 
 Sidereal time.— Sidereal time is the hour-angle of the first 
 point of Aries, west of the meridian. 
 
 Apparent time.— Apparent time is time reckoned by the sun, 
 which is subject to continual variations, and requires correction 
 for astronomical purposes. 
 
 Mean time.— Mean time is time regulated by the average or 
 mean, instead of the unequal or apparent, motion of the sun, 
 
382 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 aud is such as would be shown by the sun if it moved uniformly 
 in the equinoctial. 
 
 Equation of time. — The equation of time is the difference be- 
 tween apparent and mean time, is found in the Nautical Almanac 
 for each day, and is used for reducing apparent time to mean 
 time. 
 
 Zenith distance. — The zenith distance is the distance a celes> 
 tial object is from the zenith, or the point overhead. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OF THE MILE AS MEASURED BY VARIOUS NATIONS. 
 
 The English mile is 1760 yds. 
 
 The Scotch " 1984 " 
 
 The Irish " 2240 " 
 
 The German " 8106 " 
 
 The Dutch and Prus- 
 sian mile is . . . 6480 " 
 
 The Italian mile is . 1766 " 
 
 The Vienna post mile 
 
 is 8296 " 
 
 The Swiss mile is . 9153 " 
 
 The Swedish and 
 
 Danish mile is . 7341*5 yds. 
 
 The Arabian " . 2143 " 
 The Roman mile is 
 
 1628 or 2025 " 
 The Werst mile is 
 
 1167 or 1337 " 
 
 The Tuscan mile is 1808 " 
 
 The Turkish " 1826 " 
 
 The Flemish " 6869 " 
 
 The British league, or three times our geographical mile of 60 
 to a degree, or 2025 yards, is 6075 yards. The Brabant league is 
 6096 yards. The Danish and Hamburg league is 8244 yards ; 
 the German league is 8101 yards; the long German league is 
 10126 yards ; the short German league is 6859 yards ; the Portu- 
 guese league is 6760 yards ; the Spanish league is 7416 yards ; 
 the Swedish league is 11700 yards. All of them are parts of a 
 degree, but made before the length of a degree was accurately 
 determined. 
 
 Length of Days in DiflFerent Countries. 
 
 At London, England, and Bremen, Prussia, the longest day has 
 16i hours. At Stockholm, in Sweden, the longest day has 18J 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 383 
 
 hours, Hamburg in Germany, and Dantzic in Russia, the 
 
 longest day is 18 hours, and the shortest is 7. At St. Petersburg 
 in Russia, and Tobolsk in Siberia, the longest day has 19 hours, 
 and the shortest, 5L At Tornea, in Finland, the longest day 
 has 24 hours, and the shortest is a half-hour. At Wardbuys in 
 Norway, the longest day lasts from the 1st of May to the 22d of 
 July without interruption ; and at Spitzbergen the longest day 
 is three months and a half. At New York the longest day has 
 15 hours and 56 minutes; and at Montreal 15^ hours. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OF SAILING DISTANCES FROM NEW YORK TO DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE 
 WORLD, IN GEOGRAPHICAL MILES. 
 
 To Sandy Hook . 
 
 18 miles. 
 
 To St. Petersburg, 
 
 4,420 
 
 mile 
 
 a 
 
 Nantucket Light 
 
 . 211 
 
 
 
 Havre . . . 
 
 3,148 
 
 u 
 
 n 
 
 Boston . . . 
 
 302 
 
 n 
 
 (i 
 
 San Francisco, 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 Halifax . . . 
 
 666 
 
 a 
 
 
 via Panama, 
 
 5,249 
 
 iC 
 
 (( 
 
 Cape Henlopen . 
 
 149 
 
 u 
 
 (( 
 
 San Francisco, 
 
 
 
 (( 
 
 Philadelphia . 
 
 252 
 
 u 
 
 
 via Cape 
 
 
 
 (< 
 
 Cape Henry 
 
 276 
 
 
 
 Horn . . . 
 
 18,850 
 
 u 
 
 n 
 
 Baltimore . . 
 
 428 
 
 
 
 Melbourne, via 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 Washington 
 
 434 
 
 (( 
 
 
 Cape of Good 
 
 
 
 t( 
 
 Norfolk . . . 
 
 306 
 
 u 
 
 
 Hope . . 
 
 12,895 
 
 n 
 
 i( 
 
 Richmond . . 
 
 375 
 
 (( 
 
 u 
 
 Nangasaki, Ja- 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 Cape Hatteras . 
 
 340 
 
 
 
 pan . . . 
 
 9,800 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 Charleston . . 
 
 621 
 
 
 n 
 
 Sandwich Isl- 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 Savannah . . 
 
 716 
 
 
 
 ands, via 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 Key West . . 
 
 1,484 
 
 
 
 Panama . . 
 
 7,157 
 
 
 « 
 
 Havana . . 
 
 1,454 
 
 
 u 
 
 Canton, via 
 
 
 
 
 New Orleans . 
 
 2,129 
 
 
 
 Panama . 
 
 10,000 
 
 u 
 
 t( 
 
 Vera Cruz . . 
 
 2,354 
 
 
 
 Canton, via 
 
 
 
 (( 
 
 Liverpool . . 
 
 3,084 
 
 
 
 Good Hope, 
 
 19,500 
 
 « 
 
 
 London . . 
 
 3,225 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 There are 5280 feet in a statute mile. 
 
384 THE engineer's hanby-book. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OF LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE OF PLACES. 
 
 Places. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 
 
 D. M. 
 
 D. M. 
 
 Quebec 
 
 46 49 N. 
 
 71 16 W. 
 
 Halifax ..... 
 
 44 38 " 
 
 63 65 " 
 
 Portland light .... 
 
 43 36 " 
 
 70 12 " 
 
 Buffalo 
 
 42 53 " 
 
 78 55 " 
 
 Chicago 
 
 42 0 " 
 
 87 35 " 
 
 Newburyport light 
 
 42 48 " 
 
 70 49 " 
 
 Boston State-House 
 
 42 21 " 
 
 71 4 " 
 
 Nantucket light .... 
 
 41 23 " 
 
 70 3 " 
 
 Newport ..... 
 
 41 29 " 
 
 71 19 " 
 
 New York 
 
 40 42 " 
 
 74 0 " 
 
 Philadelphia .... 
 
 39 57 " 
 
 75 10 " 
 
 Cape Heulopen .... 
 
 38 46 " 
 
 75 4 " 
 
 Cincinnati ..... 
 
 39 6 " 
 
 84 27 " 
 
 St. Louis ..... 
 
 38 36 " 
 
 89 36 " 
 
 Richmond . . 
 
 37 32 " 
 
 77 27 " ^ 
 
 Washington City .... 
 
 38 53 " 
 
 77 3 " 3 
 
 Baltimore . . . . 
 
 39 18 " 
 
 76 37 " B 
 
 Cape Hatteras .... 
 
 35 14 " 
 
 75 30 " ? 
 
 Charleston light .... 
 
 32 42 " 
 
 79 54 " 1 
 
 Savannah 
 
 32 5 " 
 
 81 8 " S 
 
 Cape Florida 
 
 25 41 " 
 
 80 5 " g- 
 
 Pensacola 
 
 30 24 " 
 
 87 10 " ■ 
 
 Mobile 
 
 30 42 " 
 
 87 69 " 
 
 New Orleans .... 
 
 29 57 " 
 
 90 0 " 
 
 San Francisco .... 
 
 37 47 " 
 
 122 21 " 
 
 Cape Horn 
 
 55 59 " 
 
 67 16 " 
 
 Porto Hico 
 
 18 29 " 
 
 66 7 " 
 
 Cape Hayti 
 
 19 46 " 
 
 72 11 " 
 
 Havana ..... 
 
 23 9 " 
 
 82 22 " 
 
 Vera Cruz 
 
 19 12 " 
 
 96 9 " 
 
 Mexico ..... 
 
 19 26 " 
 
 99 5 " 
 
 Porto Bello . . . 
 
 9 34 " 
 
 79 40 " 
 
 Cape St. Augustine 
 
 8 21 S. 
 
 34 57 " 
 
 Rio Janeiro 
 
 22 56 " 
 
 43 9 " 
 
 [ Buenos Ayres .... 
 
 34 36 " 
 
 58 22 " 
 
THE ENGI NE ER\s HAN I) Y- HOOK . 
 
 385 
 
 TABLE — {Continued.) 
 
 OF LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE OF PLACES. 
 
 Places. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Longitude. | 
 
 
 D. 
 
 M. 
 
 
 D. 
 
 M. 
 
 
 Cape Horn . . . . • 
 
 
 Oo 
 
 o. 
 
 0 < 
 
 1 
 
 1 0 
 
 w 
 
 Valparaiso ..... 
 
 oo 
 
 9 
 
 ivr 
 ii . 
 
 71 
 
 41 
 
 
 London ..... 
 
 OL 
 
 Ol 
 
 (( 
 
 A 
 
 U 
 
 0 
 
 « 
 
 Liverpool . . . . 
 
 
 29 
 
 
 9 
 
 .^9 
 
 OLi 
 
 
 Greenwich 
 
 
 9Q 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dublin ^ . . . . . 
 
 53 
 
 23 
 
 it 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 w. 
 
 Paris 
 
 
 ^0 
 
 0\} 
 
 u 
 
 9 
 L 
 
 90 
 
 H. 
 
 Marseilles . . . 
 
 43 
 
 18 
 
 
 5 
 
 22 
 
 i( 
 
 Florence . . 
 
 rlO 
 
 4A 
 
 (( 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 A 
 
 1 0 
 
 a 
 
 Rome ...... 
 
 41 
 
 54 
 
 li 
 
 12 
 
 97 
 
 <( 
 
 Naples 
 
 40 
 
 ^0 
 o\j 
 
 n 
 
 1 4 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 ID 
 
 
 Berlin 
 
 
 01 
 
 a 
 
 1 ^ 
 10 
 
 94 
 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 oo 
 
 oo 
 
 u 
 
 Q 
 
 •JO 
 
 u 3 
 
 Vienna 
 
 
 lO 
 
 
 1 
 
 J D 
 
 9^ 
 
 zo 
 
 
 Constantinople .... 
 
 41 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 9^ 
 
 OxJ 
 
 a 2 
 
 Stockholm ..... 
 
 Ou 
 
 91 
 
 ii 
 
 1 9. 
 
 10 
 
 A 
 4: 
 
 
 Copenhagen ..... 
 
 OO 
 
 41 
 
 4:1 
 
 a 
 
 1 9 
 1 z 
 
 '^4 
 04 
 
 
 St. Petersburg .... 
 
 59 
 
 56 
 
 n 
 
 .^0 
 
 19 
 
 J. €7 
 
 
 Madrid 
 
 40 
 
 TtV/ 
 
 9.^ 
 
 i( 
 
 Q 
 O 
 
 49 
 
 vv 
 
 Gibraltar . . . . 
 
 ou 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 
 90 
 
 i< 
 
 Lisbon ...... 
 
 38 
 
 42 
 
 a 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 a 
 
 Palermo ..... 
 
 38 
 
 12 
 
 
 15 
 
 35 
 
 (< 
 
 Pekin 
 
 39 
 
 54 
 
 ii 
 
 116 
 
 28 
 
 E. 
 
 Canton ...... 
 
 23 
 
 7 
 
 n 
 
 113 
 
 14 
 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 
 34 
 
 22 
 
 S. 
 
 IS 
 
 30 
 
 (< 
 
 Sidney, Australia .... 
 
 34 
 
 0 
 
 a 
 
 151 
 
 23 
 
 (( 
 
 Jerusalem ..... 
 
 31 
 
 48 
 
 N. 
 
 37 
 
 20 
 
 (< 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE TIME AT DIFFERENT PLACES WHEN IT IS 12 O'CLOCK NOON AT NEW YORK. 
 
 Washington, D. C. . 
 San Francisco, Cal. . 
 Salt Lake City, Utah 
 Greenwich, Eng. 
 Liverpool, " 
 Paris, France . 
 
 33 
 
 Hours. 
 
 Mill. 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 47 
 
 48 
 
 A.M. 
 
 8 
 
 46 
 
 13 
 
 it 
 
 9 
 
 27 
 
 36 
 
 « 
 
 4 
 
 56 
 
 0 
 
 P.M. 
 
 4 
 
 43 
 
 59 
 
 it 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 21 
 
 n 
 
386 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OF MILES AND KNOTS, KNOTS AND MILES. 
 
 The decimals of miles in this table are repeaters, and when four is used, the last 
 figure should be increased by one. 
 
 Knots. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Knots. 
 
 1 
 
 l-lol5 
 
 1 
 
 0-868421 
 
 2 
 
 2-3030 
 
 2 
 
 1-736842 
 
 3 
 
 3-4545 
 
 3 
 
 2-605263 
 
 4 
 
 4-6060* 
 
 4 
 
 3-473684 , 
 
 5 
 
 5-7575 
 
 5 
 
 4-342105 
 
 6 
 
 6-9090 
 
 6 
 
 5-210526 
 
 7 
 
 8-0606 
 
 7 
 
 6-078947 
 
 8 
 
 9-2121 
 
 8 
 
 6-947368 
 
 9 
 
 10-3636 
 
 9 
 
 7-815790 
 
 10 
 
 11-5151 
 
 10 
 
 8-684211 
 
 11 
 
 12-6666 
 
 11 
 
 9-552632 
 
 12 
 
 13-8181 
 
 12 
 
 10-421053 
 
 13 
 
 14-9696 
 
 13 
 
 11-289474 
 
 14 
 
 16-1212 
 
 14 
 
 12157895 
 
 15 
 
 17-2727 
 
 15 
 
 13-026316 
 
 16 
 
 18-4242 
 
 16 
 
 13-894737 
 
 17 
 
 19-5757 
 
 17 
 
 14-763158 
 
 18 
 
 20-7272 
 
 18 
 
 15-631579 
 
 19 
 
 21-8787 
 
 19 
 
 16-500000 
 
 20 
 
 23-0303 
 
 20 
 
 17-368420 
 
 21 
 
 24-1818 
 
 21 
 
 18-236841 
 
 22 
 
 25-3833 
 
 22 
 
 19-105262 
 
 23 
 
 26-4848 
 
 23 
 
 19-973683 
 
 24 
 
 27-6363 
 
 24 
 
 20-842104 
 
 33 
 
 38-0000 
 
 38 
 
 33-000000 
 
 There are 6080 feet in a knot. 
 
 Marine Signals. 
 
 While it must be admitted that we have made great improve- 
 ment in the design and construction not only of the hulls of steam- 
 ships, but also of the machinery and all other appliances con- 
 
THE ENGINEEr\s ITANDY-BOOK. 
 
 387 
 
 nected with their use, as a means of river, lake, and ocean naviga- 
 tion, it is also an authenticated fact, that the number of marine 
 disasters increases, especially as regards steamships, and that each 
 succeeding year shows an increase in the loss of steamships as well 
 as of human life and suffering. While light-houses illuminate 
 almost every coast, yet signals of distress become more numer- 
 ous and more dark, until the surf, as it were, is hoarse with the 
 cries of drowning men. The questions may naturally be asked, 
 in view of the foregoing facts, Have our ship-builders become 
 more unscrupulous? the weather more changeable? or the sea 
 more dangerous ? Within the last thirty-seven years, fifty-six large 
 ocean steamers have been wrecked, involving a loss of 4780 lives and 
 over forty millions of dollars^ worth of property, and out of the whole 
 number only tivo were lost from accidents to machinery. 
 
 There are three classes of marine signals in use as a means of 
 warning the mariner of his proximity to danger, viz., day signals, 
 night signals, and fog signals. They address themselves to the 
 eye and to the ear. Day signals, as a rule, are made with flags, 
 as these furnish the simplest and probably the best medium of 
 communication, whenever objects can be made out, and vessels 
 are beyond hailing distance. Besides the light-house, there are 
 three kinds of night signals used which produce sound, viz., the 
 syren, the whistle, and the bell. The light-house, like the flag, 
 is undoubtedly the most reliable and precise when the air is 
 clear ; but it frequently unfortunately happens that the strongest 
 lights, even the most powerful electric lights, are often obscured 
 and rendered invisible by fog. As a result, during heavy fogs by 
 day or night, recourse must be had to instruments which produce 
 sound, such as the syren, the whistle, and the bell. 
 
 The theory with regard to their use is, that they are capable of 
 emitting sounds of such intensity as to be heard at a distance suf. 
 ficient to avert impending danger, providing that the oflScer of the 
 watch is sufficiently wide awake to hear them. It frequently happens 
 that the first indication that the mariner has of his approach to 
 danger is a dull, muffled sound rising slightly above the roar of 
 
S88 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 the surf, the noise on board, or the wash of the water. He may 
 be undecided as to the character of the sound, or from whence it 
 arose, and, before giving orders, listens for its repetition, but dur- 
 ing all this time the ship is rushing on to danger, or perhaps to 
 destruction. Even if he should fully comprehend the nature of 
 the sound and give orders, they may not be fully and quickly 
 comprehended ; the steamer may be sluggish in her movements, 
 the engineer may not be at his post or close to the gear, or he may 
 be drowsy and not fully understand the bells. Any of the fore- 
 going circumstances may arise, and, though trivial in themselves 
 under ordinary conditions, are of vital importance when a steam- 
 ship, freighted with numerous lives and a valuable cargo, is rush- 
 ing on to danger. Under such circumstances, courage, self-posses- 
 sion, and that spontaneous knowledge of what to do in moments of 
 extreme peril, are invaluable qualifications in the officer in charge. 
 
 A steamship from three to four hundred feet in length, that 
 steers well under full steam or sail, must receive a warning signal 
 at least two miles from it in distance, as it will require a circle 
 of at least 5000 feet, or y% of a mile, in which^ to turn such a 
 vessel in smooth water; and it will take from ten to fifteen minutes 
 to head her course directly opposite to the one in which she was 
 steering when the signal was given, when she will be found to be 
 nearly, if not quite, a mile from the line in which she was sailing 
 when the helm was put hard over. It will take from seven to ten 
 minutes to head her course in a direction at right angles to the 
 one in which she was steering. In so doing she will describe a 
 semicircle of at least half a mile, and, under the most favorable 
 circumstances of wind and sea, it will take from five to ten minutes 
 to head her square from danger. If all the surroundings were 
 known, the same vessel might be stopped, backed, and be capable 
 of reversing her motion in a period of five minutes. But it must 
 be understood that the foregoing evolutions must be performed 
 under the most favorable circumstances of sea, wind, weather, and 
 sound, which goes to show that a signal to be efficient must be 
 adapted to each and every one of the foregoing cases. 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 389 
 
 A proper system of lights and signals is of great importance, as 
 they enable the mariner to shorten his voyage, and thus to facili- 
 tate travel and cheapen freights. But what is needed is a system 
 by which the signals might be placed by the side of the ordinary 
 track of vessels, indicating to the mariner that he is right and in 
 a position of safety. Vessels might approach such stations in 
 safety, observe their number, and take a new departure from each, 
 the result of which would be that the most dangerous highways 
 of the sea, and the most intricate channels, might be navigated in 
 the most foggy weather. 
 
 Marine Whistle-Signals. 
 
 When two steamships or boats are approaching each other 
 from opposite directions, one puff of the whistle means keep to the 
 
 right, thuSy ^^^^J^^^^ > which will bring the port, or red, light 
 
 of each vessel in full view of the other. 
 
 When two steamers are approaching each other from opposite di- 
 rections, two puffs of the whistle mean go to the left, thus,/^ 
 
 which will bring the green, or starboard, lights opposite each 
 other. 
 
 When two steamboats are moving in the same direction, one 
 behind the other, and the hindermost one wishes to pass the steam- 
 boat ahead, if one puff of the whistle is given, she passes ahead on the 
 
 right side, thus, , showing the red, or port, light of 
 
 the passing boat and the green, or starboard, light of the boat 
 being passed. Under the same circumstances, if two puffs of the 
 whistle are given, it means that the hindermost boat is coming up 
 on the left side, in which case the passing boat shows the star- 
 board, or green, light, while the boat being passed shows the port, 
 or red, light. 
 
 Three puffs of the whistle is a salute, and four or more a call 
 
 33* 
 
390 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 for an approachiDg steamer to slow down, stop, or come alongside, 
 as the case may be. 
 
 One long puff of the whistle is usually given when backing out 
 of the dock, and one short puff is a call to the deck hand. 
 
 Marine Bell-Signals. 
 
 Steamboat bell-sign<als for engineers in the mercantile service 
 are as follows : 
 
 When the engine is at rest, on receiving one hell, the engineer 
 starts ahead slowly, and continues until he receives a jingle-bell, 
 which is a signal to steam at full speed. 
 
 When running at full speed, one bell means to slow down, after 
 which one bell signifies to stop. Under the same circumstances, 
 two bells in succession signify stop, four bells in succession signify 
 reverse and move backward at full speed. 
 
 When the engine is at rest, two bells signify to go backward at 
 full speed. If it is desired to go slowly backward, the orders are 
 generally sent down through the speaking-tube, or communicated 
 to the engineer by light or heavy taps on the gong. 
 
 Light Signals for Ocean Steamships. 
 
 When under way, a bright white light is fixed on the foremast, 
 so as to show the light ten points on each side of the ship, a 
 green light on the starboard side, and a red light on the port side, 
 so constructed as to show the same number of points. 
 
 Coasting steamers navigating the bays, lakes, rivers, or inland 
 waters of the United States shall carry a bright light at the gaff*- 
 end or flag-staff*, in addition to the side-lights. 
 
 Steam-tugs, when towing, must carry two bright mast-head 
 lights vertically (one above the other), in addition to their side- 
 lights, so as to distinguish them from other steamships. 
 
 Fog-signals. — Steamships, when under way, must use a steam- 
 whistle at intervals of not more than one minute. Sailing-ships, 
 when under way, must use a fog-horn every five minutes. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 391 
 
 Precautions.— In case of two steamships meeting, in order to 
 avoid the risk of collision, the helms of both should be put to 
 port, so that each may pass on the port side of the other. 
 
 Signals of distress. — By day, the firing of a gun at intervals 
 of about a minute, or the distant signal, consisting of a square 
 flag, having a ball above or a ball below, and by night a gun, 
 rocket, or shell fired at intervals of about a minute, or flames on 
 the ship (as from burning a tar-barrel), etc. 
 
 Distant signals. — B, Ask name of ship or signal station in 
 sight ; C, Yes ; D, No ; F, Repeat signal — make it more conspic- 
 uous ; G, Come nearer. 
 
 Railroad Signals. 
 
 Red signifies danger, and is a signal to stop. 
 Green signifies caution, and is a signal to go slotvly, ^ 
 White signifies safety, and is a signal to go on. 
 Green and white is a signal to be used to stop trains at flag- 
 stations. 
 
 Blue is a signal to be used by car-inspectors. 
 Flags of the proper color must be used by day, and lamps of 
 the proper color at night or in foggy weather. 
 
 Red flags or red lanterns must never be used as caution-signals; 
 they always signify danger. Stop. 
 
 A lantern swung across the track, a flag, hat, or any object 
 waved violently by any person on the track, signifies danger , and 
 is a signal to stop. 
 
 An exploding-cap or torpedo clamped to the top of the rail is 
 an extra danger-signaly to be used, in addition to the regular signals 
 at night, in foggy weather, and in cases of accident or emergency, 
 : when other signals cannot be distinctly seen or relied on. 
 ! The explosion of one of these signals is a warning to stop the 
 I train immediately ; the explosion of two is a warning to check 
 \ the speed of the train immediately, and look out for the regular 
 danger-signal. 
 
 A fusee is an extra caution-signal, to be lighted and thrown on 
 
392 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 the track at frequent intervals by the flagman of passenger-trains 
 at night whenever the train is not making schedule time between 
 telegraph-stations. 
 
 A train finding a fusee burning upon the track must come to a 
 full stop, and not proceed until it is burned out. 
 
 Train Signals. 
 
 Each train, or engine without a train, while running after sun- 
 set, or during the day in foggy weather, must display the white 
 headlight in front of the engine, and two red lights in the rear of 
 the train or engine, except shifting-engines in yards, which will 
 display two green lights instead of red. 
 
 Each passenger-train while running must have a bell-cord at- 
 tached to the signal-bell of the engine, passing over or through the 
 entire length, and secured to the rear end of the train. 
 
 Each passenger-train while running must display one green flag 
 at the rear by day, and two green lights, one at each side of the 
 rear car, at night, as markers, to enable operators and enginemen 
 to know that the whole of the train is attached to the engine. 
 
 Each freight-train while running must display two green flags 
 by day, and two green lights at night, one on each side of the rear 
 car, as markers, to enable operators and trainmen to know that 
 the whole of the train is attached to the engine. 
 
 Two green flags by day, and two green lights at night, carried 
 in front of an engine, denote that the engine or train is followed 
 by another engine or train running on the same schedule. The 
 engine or train thus signalled will be entitled to the same schedule 
 rights and privileges as the engine or train carrying the signals. 
 
 Two white flags by day, and two white lights at night, carried 
 in front of an engine, denote that the engine or train is extra. 
 These signals shall always be displayed by all work and extra 
 trains or engines, except when running as a regular train. 
 
 A blue flag by day, and a blue light by night, placed in the draw- 
 head or on the platform or step of a car, at the end of a car stand- 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 393 
 
 ing on the main track or sidings, denote that car repairmen are 
 at work underneath the cars. The car or train thus protected 
 shall not be coupled to, or move until the blue signal is removed 
 by the car repairmen. 
 
 Enginemen's Signals. 
 
 One short blast of the whistle is a signal to apply the brakes 
 — Stop. Thus, — . 
 
 Two long blasts of the whistle is a signal to throw off the brakes. 
 Thus, . 
 
 Two short blasts of the whistle when running is an answer to 
 signal of conductor to stop at next station. Thus, . 
 
 Three short blasts of the whistle when standing is a signal that 
 the engine or train will back. Thus, . 
 
 Three short blasts of the whistle when running is a signal to 
 be given by passenger-trains, when carrying signals for a follow- 
 ing train, to call the attention of trains they pass to the signals. 
 Thus, — . 
 
 Four long blasts of the whistle is a signal to call in the flagman 
 or signalman. 37ms, . 
 
 Four short blasts of the whistle is the engineman's call for sig- 
 nals. Thus, . 
 
 Two long followed by two short blasts of the whistle when 
 running is the signal for approaching a road crossing at grade. 
 Thus, . 
 
 Five short blasts of the whistle is a signal to the flagman to go 
 back and protect the rear of the train. Thus, . 
 
 A succession of short blasts of the whistle is an alarm for cattle, 
 and calls the attention of trainmen to danger ahead. 
 
 A blast of the whistle of five seconds' duration is a signal for 
 approaching stations, railroad crossings, and draw-bridges. 
 
394 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 Conductors' Signals. 
 
 BY BELL-CORD. 
 
 One tap of the signal-bell when the engine is standing is a notice 
 to start. 
 
 Two taps of the signal-bell when the engine is standing is a notice 
 to call in the flagman. 
 
 Two taps of the signal-bell when the engine is running is a 
 notice to stop at once. 
 
 Three taps of the signal-bell when the engine is standing is a 
 notice to back the train. 
 
 Three taps of the signal-bell when the engine is running is a 
 signal to stop at the next station. 
 
 Signals by Lamp. 
 
 A lamp swung across the track is a signal to stop. 
 
 A lamp raised and lowered vertically is a signal to move ahead. 
 
 A lamp swung in a circle is a signal to move back. 
 
 The Screw- Propeller. 
 
 The screw-propeller, so commonly applied to the propulsion 
 of vessels, consists of two, three, or four helical or twisted blades 
 set upon a shaft, or axis, revolving beneath the water at the stern. 
 Experience has shown that no screw-propeller, designed or in- 
 vented up to the present time, has proved superior to all others 
 for all ships. The best propeller for any vessel is the one best 
 suited for that model, regardless of the number of blades, diameter, 
 or pitch. • The principles of screw-propulsion embrace those re- 
 lating to hydraulics also, so that, in proportioning the screw, the 
 lines of the hull should be considered. 
 
 The pitch of the screw is the distance that it would advance in 
 one revolution, if working in a solid, fixed nut ; or it is the dis- 
 tance between the threads measured in a line with the shaft. The 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 395 
 
 pitch of a screw, or the circumference of a paddle-wheel, multi- 
 plied by the revolutions, and two figures cut off for decimals, gives 
 the speed in knots per hour. 
 
 The term left-handed propeller means a screw with a left-handed 
 thread, and a right-handed one has a right-handed thread. A left- 
 handed propeller, to move the ship ahead, goes from left to right, 
 while a right-handed one turns from right to left, looking from 
 the engine-room towards the stern of the boat. 
 
 The force which drives a vessel forward when a screw-propeller 
 is used, is the pressure exerted against the thrust-block. Steam 
 being admitted to the cylinder, causes the piston to move, and 
 the motion being transmitted through the connecting-rod to the 
 crank-pin, crank, and propeller shafts, causes the latter to revolve, 
 by which the pressure it exerts against the water is transmitted to 
 the thrust-block, and the vessel forced forward. 
 
 The term slip of the screw " means the difference between 
 the actual advance of the propeller through the water, and the 
 advance which would be accomplished, if there was no recession 
 of the water produced by the pressure of the propelling surface. 
 A screw of 15 feet, if working in a stationary nut, would advance 
 15 feet for every revolution ; but when it acts in the water, it may 
 only advance 14 feet or less, the difference being caused by the 
 water being pressed back, owing to its inertia being inadequate to 
 resist the moving force. In such cases the slip is said to be 1 foot 
 in 15, or nearly 7 per cent. loss. 
 
 Measurement of the screw-propeller. — The surface of a screw- 
 propeller is the same as would be generated by a line revolving 
 around a cylinder, through the axis of which it passes,*and at the 
 same time advancing along the axis. To find the area of a pro- 
 peller-shaft, square the diameter, and multiply by the decimal, 
 •7854. 
 
 The Errickson and Delameter propellers are those most gen- 
 erally used, although the Loper Screw, as it is termed, is frequently 
 employed, but it has now nearly gone out of use. 
 
 The thrust- block of a propeller is formed of a series of rings, 
 
396 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK, 
 
 generally of brass, with spaces between them, into which an equal 
 number of solid collars fit. The thrust is exerted against the fore 
 and aft faces of these rings and collars. 
 
 The stern -tube is a tunnel located in the dead wood of a ship, in 
 which the propeller-shaft revolves. Its outer end is made water-tight 
 by a stuflSng-box containing a fibrous packing. Stern-tubes were for- 
 merly made of wood, but they are now generally made of boiler-plate. 
 
 The Paddle-wheel. 
 
 The advantages of the paddle-wheel as a motive-power de- 
 pend on the amount' of the immersion. When the water ap- 
 proaches the centre or reaches above it, it is obvious that great 
 waste of power will ensue. It is quite as obvious that the 
 greater the diameter of the wheel the greater the leverage, and 
 the greater is the effect obtained. 
 
 The slip of the paddle is caused by the recession of the water 
 from the buckets, or it is a retrograde motion given to the water 
 in a line parallel to the direction in which the ship is moving. 
 The slip of the wheel is the diflference between the speed of the 
 ship and that of the wheel. The amount of slip is determined 
 by finding the speed of the ship in feet per hour and subtracting 
 it from the speed of the wheel at the centre of pressure, or centre 
 of action, in feet per hour. 
 
 The centre of action is that point in a wheel in which the effect 
 would not be altered if the whole action of the water were con- 
 centrated. The centre of action may be thus determined : Lay 
 down the wheel to a certain scale and line off* the dip on it. 
 Take -| of the breadth of the totally-immersed paddles and | of 
 the depth of those partially immersed, and add them ; their sum 
 divided by the number of paddles partially or totally in the 
 water will give the distance of the centre of action from the edge 
 of the floats. This distance subtracted from the radius of the 
 wheel, and multiplied by 2, will give the diameter of the centre 
 of action of the wheel. The dip of the wheel is 69 inches, and, 
 at that dip, there are 7 full-immersed floats and one immersed 
 
THE ENGINEEr\s H A N D Y - H O O K . 
 
 397 
 
 15 inches, making 8 floats ; depth of bucket, 21 inches. Find the 
 speed of the circumference at the centre of action in the paddles 
 in feet per hour; diameter of wheel, 36 feet; revolutions, 15 per 
 minute. First take centre of action at | the mean depth of the 
 immersed paddles, then | of 21 = 7, which, multiplied by 7, = 
 49 ; ^ of 15 = 5 ; 5x1=5; 49 + 5 = 54, which divided by 8, 
 the number of buckets, = 6*75, which is the distance of the centre 
 of action from the outer edge of the floats. Then 6*75 x 2 = 
 13-5 inches ; 36 feet = 432 inches ; and 432 — 13*5 = 418*5 -r- 12 
 = 34*883, which is the diameter of the centre of action of the 
 paddles, and this X 3*1416 = 109*5884, which is the circumference 
 of their centre of action. Then 109*5884 feet x 15 revolutions 
 X 60 minutes in an hour = 98,629 ft., the speed of circumference 
 at the centre of action of the paddles in feet-power as required. 
 
 The speed of the ship being 12i miles per hour, the percentage 
 of slip of the above wheel may be calculated thus : 6082*66 ft. is 
 a nautical mile, which multiplied by 12} = 74,512*58 = speed of 
 ship in feet per hour. Then the speed of the centre of circum- 
 ference of action in feet per hour is 98,629 — 74,512*58 speed of 
 ship = 24,116*42, slip of centre of action of paddles in feet per 
 hour. The percentage of slip would then be 98,629 : 24,116*42 
 : : 100 : 24*44, which is the percentage of slip. 
 
 Loss from oblique action is the loss in the common radial wheel 
 occasioned by the floats striking the water at an angle. Oblique 
 action consists of a vertical depression and lifting of the water by 
 the entering and emerging floats. This loss is calculated by the 
 square of the sines of the angles at which the buckets strike or 
 enter the water. This may be explained as follows : When a body 
 strikes obliquely on a plane, the force of impact with any given 
 velocity varies according to the sines of the angle of incidence, 
 and therefore the force with which the particles of water strike 
 against a board will vary according to the sines of the angles at 
 which they strike. This force is gradually growing less as the 
 board is turned on its edge. The number of particles striking 
 the board also vary according to the sines of the angles of inci- 
 34 
 
398 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 dence, or, in other words, according to the perpendicular height 
 of the inclined board ; so that the resistance, as it varies both with 
 the force with which the particles strike the board and the number 
 of particles which strike it, must vary according to the squares 
 of the sines of the angle of incidence. This loss from oblique 
 action may be obviated by using the feathering wheel, in which 
 each float is hung upon a centre, and so arranged, by a suitable 
 mechanism, as to be always in a vertical position. 
 
 The rolling -circle of a wheel is a circle whose circumference 
 multiplied by the number of revolutions of the wheel in a given 
 time equals the speed of the vessel in the same time ; or it is a circle 
 at any point in the circumference, which moves with the same ve- 
 locity as the speed of the ship. The diameter of the rolling-circle 
 of a wheel is found as follows: Divide the speed of the ship in 
 feet per hour by the number of revolutions per hour; the quotient 
 will be the circumference of the rolling-circle; 10 X 5*280 = 
 52*800 -T- 600 (number of revolutions per hour) = '88, the circum- 
 ference of the rolling-circle; and '88 H- 3*1416 = 28*01, the diameter 
 of a rolling-circle. A disconnecting-paddle engine is one in which 
 the paddle-wheel can be thrown out of gear by sliding back a clutch 
 on the main-shaft. The crank-pin is made fast in the outer shaft, 
 and, if desired to stop one engine, the throttle is shut, and the 
 clutch on the shaft slipped back, which enables either engine to 
 be reversed or stopped independently of the other. 
 
 The names of the different paddle-wheels are the cycloidal, the 
 manly, the radial, and the feathering. The two former, though pos- 
 sessing some good features, for certain reasons have never come into 
 very general use, while the latter are almost universally adopted. The 
 feathering wheel is capable of producing more useful effect with less 
 power than the radial wheel, but it has the disadvantages of great 
 weight, extra first cost, as well as great expense of maintenance. 
 
 The usual rule for calculating the horse-power of an engine 
 cannot be applied to calculate the actual horse-power available 
 for propelling a vessel, as much of this power is lost by the slip 
 of the wheel and the oblique action of the buckets. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-ROOK. 
 
 399 
 
 Comparative efficiency 0/ the screw-propeller and paddle-wheel, — 
 When a vessel is propelled through the water, she necessarily puts 
 a column of water into motion in the direction of her advance. 
 In the case of paddle-wheels, none of the power expended in pro- 
 ducing the current is recovered ; but with the screw the case is 
 different, as the effect of the current reduces the number of rota- 
 tions requisite for the production of any prescribed speed. In 
 short vessels, in consequence of the rubbing surface of the bottom 
 not being sufficient to generate a current, there is little difference 
 between the performances of the paddle and screw ; but in long 
 vessels, where the water is more effectually rubbed into motion, 
 the superior efficiency of the screw over any species of side pro- 
 peller becomes very conspicuous. 
 
 In the early trials between paddle- and screw-vessels, the two 
 instruments appeared to be of about equal efficiency. This com- 
 parison was made between the screw and radial paddle. But wuth 
 the feathering paddle the efficiency is found to be greater in con- 
 sequence of the floats entering and leaving the water edgewise. 
 Feathering wheels have the further advantage for river navigation^ 
 that, as the diameter of the wheel may be reduced without giving 
 rise to other difficulties, the speed of the engine may be increased. 
 
 In vessels of moderate dimensions, the screw is found to be of 
 about equal efficiency to the radial paddle, and of somewhat infe- 
 rior efficacy to the feathering paddle ; but in vessels of large size, 
 the screw is found to be of considerably greater efficacy than pad- 
 dles .of any kind. 
 
 Relation between the power and speed of steam-vessels, — When 
 the relation between the pitch of the screw and the speed of the 
 vessel is considered, and also that the pitch must be determined 
 and the screw made before the vessel is tried, it must be obvious 
 how important it is that marine engineers should clearly under- 
 stand the laws affecting the motion of solid bodies in fluids. A 
 few words will not, therefore, be out of place on this important sub- 
 ject. When a steamboat makes a voyage between port and port, 
 she in effect excavates a canal between those ports, the transverse 
 
400 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 section of which corresponds with the immersed midship section 
 of the vessel. It is true this canal is immediately filled up again, 
 but yet this canal is really cut, and the work of the engine is ex- 
 pended in cutting it. After uniform motion has been attained by 
 the vessel, the work of the engine is transferred to the water pushed 
 out of the canal. Now, for similar speeds, the work per mile, or 
 per hour, must be as the immersed midship section of the vessel. 
 
 Effect of size on the speed of steam-vessels. — All experiments 
 confirm the theory, that to give one body twice the velocity of an- 
 other, it will necessarily require the expenditure of four times the 
 amount of energy. Assuming that fluid bodies follow, with re- 
 spect to motion, the same laws as solids ; if two vessels are making 
 voyages, having the same immersed midship section, they will dis- 
 place similar quantities of water from their course, regardless of 
 speed. The water having motion given to it, the power ex- 
 pended will be in proportion to the square of the velocity given 
 to it. 
 
 To find the mean speed of a steam-vessel. — The mean speed of a 
 steam-vessel, from a number of runs over a measured knot where 
 the tidal influence is always varying, may be ascertained as fol- 
 lows : Add the different speeds for the trials, and divide by the 
 number of trials. This will give the approximate mean speed. 
 
 The great difficulty with paddle-wheels is to secure a proper 
 immersion. As the ship proceeds on its voyage, and consumes 
 its store of coal, the vessel becomes lighter, and consequently its 
 draught of water decreases. Therefore, supposing a paddk is 
 properly immersed at the commencement of a voyage, it will be 
 partially out of the water at the end. At the commencement of 
 a voyage, the paddle must be too deeply immersed, so that at the 
 middle the proper immersion may be attained, while there will 
 be too little towards the end of the voyage. The paddle-wheel 
 is fast giving place to the screw-propeller, for the reason that it 
 offers greater resistance to the v^'md in case of storm, thus inducing 
 oscillation of the vessel, besides being more exposed to the shots 
 of an enemy in time of war. 
 
THE ENGINEER\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 401 
 
 Pumps. 
 
 Pumps, of whatever design or construction, or for whatever pur- 
 pose employed, are simply hydraulic machines attached to one 
 end of a tube, for the purpose of raising, 
 forcing, or transferring water, or other 
 liquids or fluids. The idea entertained 
 by many that water is raised by suction 
 is erroneous, as, properly speaking, there 
 is no such principle as suction. Atmos- 
 pheric " lift " or " suction pumps cause 
 the water to raise itself by having its 
 surface relieved of the column of air 
 resting upon it. If, therefore, one end of a pipe or tube be lowered 
 into water, the other end be closed by means of a valve or other 
 device, and the air contained in the pipe be drawn out, it is evi- 
 dent that the surface of the water within the pipe will be relieved 
 of the pressure of the atmosphere. There will then be no resist- 
 ance offered to the water to prevent its rising in the tube. The 
 water outside of the pipe, still having the pressure of the atmos- 
 phere upon its surface, therefore forces water up into the pipe, sup- 
 plying the place of the excluded air, while the water inside the 
 pipe will rise above the level of that outside of it, proportionally 
 to the extent to which it is relieved of the pressure of the air ; so 
 that, if the first stroke of a pump reduce the pressure of the air 
 contained in the pipe from 15 pounds per square inch (which is its 
 normal pressure) to 14 pounds, the water will be forced up the pipe 
 to the distance of about 2i feet, since a column of water an inch 
 square, and 2} feet high, is equal to about one pound in weight. 
 
 It is evident that, upon the reduction of the pressure of the air 
 contained in the pipe from 15 to 14 pounds per square inch, there 
 will be (unless the water ascended the pipe) an unequal press- 
 ure upon its surface inside as compared to that outside of the 
 pipe ; but, in ^consequence of the water rising 2i feet in the pipe, 
 the pressure on the surface of the water, both inside and outside. 
 34* 2A 
 
402 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 is evenly balanced (taking the level of the outside water to be the 
 natural level of the water inside), as the pressure upon the water 
 exposed to the full atmosphere is 15 pounds upon each square 
 inch of its surface, while that upon the same plane, but within 
 the pipe, will sustain a column of water 2} feet high (weighing 
 one pound) and 14 pounds pressure of air, making a total of 15 
 pounds, which is, therefore, an equilibrium of pressure over the 
 whole surface of the water at its natural level. 
 
 If, in consequence of a second stroke of the pump, the air 
 pressure in the pipe is reduced to 13 pounds per inch, the water 
 will rise another 2} feet. This rule is uniform, and shows that 
 the rise of a column of water within the pipe is equal in weight 
 to the pressure of the air upon the surface of the water without ; 
 hence it is only necessary, to determine the height of a column of 
 water that will weigh 15 pounds per square inch of area at the 
 base, to ascertain how far a suction-pump will cause the water to 
 rise. It must be understood, that the distance varies with the 
 height above sea level, and also with the pressure of the atmos- 
 phere. At our level of the sea, the column of water that the 
 atmosphere will support is about 33 feet in height, and a pump 
 will draw' water'' (as it is called) this distance; but the force 
 which sends the water into the pump at this height is so dimin- 
 ished as to be almost balanced by its own weight ; hence a lifting- 
 pump will deliver water very slowly, drawing it this distance. 
 
 To be reliable, the cylinder and piston should be in good order, 
 all the joints perfectly air-tight, a check-valve be placed in the 
 lower end of the suction-pipe ; and even then the pumps should 
 be run at a high speed. Pumps will give more satisfactory results 
 when the lift is from 22 to 25 feet. There is hardly any limit to 
 the distance a pump will draw water through a horizontal suction- 
 pipe, provided the pipe is perfectly tight, and everything is so pro- 
 portioned as not to cause undue friction. 
 
 The capacity of any pump may be determined by multiplying 
 the area of the piston in inches by its stroke in inches, giving the 
 number of cubic inches per single stroke ; this divided by 231 (the 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 403 
 
 number of cubic inches in a standard gallon) will give the number 
 of gallons per single stroke ; but it must be remembered that all 
 pumps throw less water than their capacity, the deficiency rang- 
 ing from 20 to 40 per cent., according to the quality of the pump. 
 This loss arises from the lift and fall of the valves, from inaccuracy 
 of fit or leakage, and in many cases'from there being too much space 
 between the valves and piston, or plunger. The higher the valves 
 of any pump have to lift to give the necessary opening, the less 
 efl[icient the pump will be. 
 
 The power required to raise a given quantity of water a certain 
 height may be computed by the following rule: Multiply the 
 amount of water in gallons to be raised per minute by 8'35 lbs. 
 (the weight of a gallon of water), and this product by the height, in 
 feet, of the discharge from the point of suction ; divide the result by 
 33,000, which will give the theoretical horse-power required to raise 
 the amount of water to a certain distance. See table on page 522. 
 
 The quantity of water which any pump will lift, or discharge, 
 may be estimated by multiplying the area of the piston by the 
 speed ; but this rule infers that the pump is fully supplied, and 
 the water thoroughly discharged at every stroke. 
 
 Rule for finding the diameter of pump-plunger for any engine. — 
 •When the pump-stroke is ^ the stroke of the engine, the diameter 
 of the steam-cylinder multiplied by 0*3 will give the proper di- 
 ameter of* pump-plunger. 
 
 Another rule. — When the pump-stroke is \ of the stroke of the 
 engine, the diameter of the cylinder multiplied by '42 will give 
 the proper diameter of pump-plunger. 
 
 Diameter of pump-plunger should be equal to | the diameter 
 of the cylinder ^yhen the pump-stroke is h the engine-stroke. 
 
 Diameter of pump-plunger should be equal to J of the diameter of 
 the cylinder when the pump-stroke is \ the engine-stroke. The ve- 
 locity of water in pump-passages should not exceed 500 feet per min- 
 ute. Pump-valves should have an area of | the area of the pump. 
 
 Feed-pumps for condensing engines: — For condensing engines, 
 the diameter of the pump-plunger should equal 1*11 the diameter 
 
404 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 of the steam-cylinder when the pump-stroke is half the engine- 
 stroke, and ^ the diameter of steam-cylinder when the pump-stroke 
 is I the stroke of the engine. 
 
 Rule to find the diameter of the feed-pump ram. — Multiply 
 the square of the diameter of the cylinder in inches by *0083. 
 The product is the diameter of the ram in inches. All boiler 
 feed-pumps, when working, at ordinary speed, should be capable 
 of discharging one cubic foot of water per horse-power per hour. 
 
 Rule for finding the necessary quantity of water per minute for 
 any engine. — Multiply the cubic space in the cylinder in inches, 
 to which steam is admitted before being cut off, by twice the num- 
 ber of revolutions per minute, and divide the product by the com- 
 parative volume of steam at the pressure used ; the quotient will be 
 the cubic inches of water required per minute. 
 
 A circulating-pump is used to lift water from the sea and force 
 it through the condenser. Such pumps are not always worked by 
 the main engines, but sometimes are independent or worked by an 
 independent auxiliary engine. See cut on page 352. 
 
 Although a pump will require to be in good condition to lift 
 water 33 feet, it will with ease draw water on a level at 1000 feet 
 (providing the pipes are all tight), and force it to any height that 
 the machinery of the pump is capable of bearing. 
 
 The reason why pumps do not work is, either that the water- 
 supply is exhausted, the pipes or pistons leak, or the valves pre- 
 vented from seating. If the valves and connections of a pump 
 are tight and in good order, and it is not located too high above 
 the supply, there is no reason why it should not work. 
 
 Pumps become hot from two reasons, — either they are placed 
 too near the boiler, or the pump and check-valves Jeak, and allow 
 the hot water to escape back from the boiler into the barrel of the 
 pump, which has the effect of expanding the valves and prevent- 
 ing them from doing their work. 
 
 A boiler feed-pump, or injector, for any engine should be capa- 
 ble of supplying one cubic foot of water per horse-power per hour. 
 Engines, in general, do not use that amount ; in fact, the better 
 
THE ENGINEER\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 405 
 
 class of automatic cut-off engines will develop a horse-power with 
 a water-consumption of from 25 to 30 lbs. ; but it is always best 
 to have the pump or injector sufficiently large, so that, in case the 
 power should be increased, it may be equal to the demand. 
 
 An air-chamber is placed on a pump to cushion the water-piston, 
 and relieve the jar that would be induced by the pump-piston 
 striking against a solid column of water ; but, to produce the 
 desired effect, it must be perfectly air-tight, otherwise the air 
 will escape. Even when the air-chamber is perfectly air-tight, 
 they require to be frequently refilled, as in fast-running pumps 
 and fire-engines the air becomes condensed. This may be done 
 by stopping the engine or pump, opening a cock or valve that 
 connects with it, and allowing the air to rush in. There is a very 
 general impression among engineers and those having charge of 
 fire-engines, that there is a vacuum in the air-chamber, and the 
 remark is often heard that the pump or engine has lost its vacuum. 
 This is a mistake, as there is no such thing as a vacuum in the 
 air-chamber of a steam-pump or fire-engine. The air-chamber 
 has lost its supply of air either by leakage or condensation. The 
 result is the pump commences to work and labor. 
 
 A feed-pump pet-cock, or valve, is a small cock, generally 
 placed on the barrel of the pump above the suction-valve, for the 
 purpose of ascertaining whether the pump is working right or not. 
 
 Mud-boxes, strainers, or arresters should be attached to the 
 extreme end of all lift-, suction,- bilge-, or circulating-pumps, for 
 the purpose of arresting any matter that would be liable to choke 
 the pump or prevent the valve from seating. 
 
 How to keep pipes and pumps from freezing.— The only certain 
 preventive is the removal of the water from them ; consequently, 
 in all cases provision should be made for turning it off during 
 very severe nights. It must be observed, however, that merely 
 J shutting off the water is not sufficient ; it must all be let out of 
 the pipes. For this purpose a small tap or pet-cock should be 
 I placed above the main stop-cock, or the latter should be made 
 with a vent, to allow the water to flow out when it is turned off. 
 
t06 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Injectors. 
 
 The injector, though simple in design, modest in appearance, 
 and diminutive in size, is, nevertheless, one of the most wonderful, 
 important, and useful machines which the mechanical arts have 
 ever presented to man. It consists of a slender tube, called the 
 steam-tube, through which steam from the boiler passes to another 
 or inner tube, called the receiving-tube. The latter tube conducts 
 a current of water from the pipe into the body of the injector. 
 Opposite the mouth of this second tube, and detached from it, is 
 a third fixed tube, called the delivery-tube. This tube is open at 
 the end facing the water-supply and leading from the injector to 
 the boiler. 
 
 Its action is identical to that of the steam-jet, or blower-pipe in 
 the chimney of the locomotive. The principle is, that steam being 
 admitted to the inner tube of the injector, enters the mouth of a 
 combining-tube in the form of a jet, near the top of the inlet water- 
 pipe. If the level of the water be below the injector, the escaping 
 jet of steam, by its superficial action (or friction) upon the air 
 ^iround it, forms a partial vacuum in the combining-tube and inlet- 
 pipe, and the water then rises by virtue of the external pressure of 
 the atmosphere. Once risen to the jet, the water is acted upon by 
 the steam in the same manner as the air has been seized and acted 
 upon in first forming the partial vacuum into which the water rose. 
 
 Giffard was the first to make a practical application of the prin- 
 ciples embodied in the injector ; in fact, when he invented his in- 
 jector, he may be said to have invented them all. His discovery 
 was, that the motion imparted by a jet of steam to a surrounding 
 column of water was sufficient to force it into the boiler from 
 which the steam was taken, and, indeed, into a boiler working at 
 even a higher pressure. It is not at all extraordinary to see in- 
 jectors, attached to boilers carrying a pressure of 70 or 80 lbs. per 
 square inch, forcing water into other boilers under a pressure of 
 250 lbs. per square inch. This extraordinary accumulation of 
 power may be explained as follows : the velocity with which steam 
 
THE ENGINEER\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 407 
 
 — say at 60 lbs. pressure to the square inch — flows into the atmos- 
 phere is about 1700 feet per second. Now suppose that steam is 
 issuing, with the full velocity due to the pressure in the boiler, 
 through a pipe an inch in area, the steam is condensed into water, 
 at the nozzle of the injector, without suffering any change in its 
 velocity. From this cause its bulk will be reduced, say 1000, 
 and therefore its area of cross-section — the velocity being constant 
 — will experience a similar reduction. It will then enter the boiler 
 by an orifice j^^n P^^^ ^^^^^ ^7 which it escaped. Now it will 
 be seen that the total force expended by the steam through the 
 pipe on the area of an inch, in expelling the steam-jet, was con- 
 centrated upon the area y^\~) o" of an inch, and therefore was greatly 
 superior to the opposing pressure exerted upon the diminished area. 
 
 The invention of the Giffard Injector, like that of the Corliss 
 engine, suggested a numerous progeny. This may be seen from the 
 numerous cuts of that class of machines illustrating this work, but 
 Sellers' Injector is the only one that can be said to be an improve- 
 ment on Giffard's. All the others are simply modifications of the 
 original Giffard instrument, some few bringing out features which 
 had not been contemplated by Giffard, who considered Wm. Sell- 
 ers' improvements the only ones that had been made upon his in- 
 strument. 
 
 Injectors may be divided into three classes — " self-adjusting," 
 "adjustable," and "fixed-nozzle." The self-adjusting injector reg- 
 ulates itself to meet all the conditions under which it is intended 
 to work, and, once started, it will work under a variation of steam- 
 pressure of from 10 to 150 lbs. This kind of injector furnishes 
 the most reliable boiler-feeder. The adjustable wjedor is one in 
 which the nozzle can be adjusted to meet the requirements of vary- 
 ing steam-pressure and water-supply. Such injectors are capable 
 of high duty when skilfully managed. The original Giffard rep- 
 resents this type of injector. 
 
 The injector possesses many advantages as a boiler-feeder for 
 furnishing large quantities of water, supplying tanks, etc. Its first 
 cost is moderate, it occupies but little space, and requires no oil, 
 
408 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 packing, or repairs. It can be set up almost anywhere and placed 
 either vertically or horizontally ; the latter position, however, is 
 preferable. It will act longer, and perform more work even 
 when abused and neglected, than any other device heretofore 
 invented as a boiler-feeder. 
 
 William Sellers & Co.'s Injector. 
 
 The cut on page 409 represents Sellers' celebrated lifting in-, 
 jector, so extensively used on locomotives, steamships, tugs, and 
 ferries. It is a self-contained instrument, that is to say, it has 
 both steam- and check-valves; so that it can be connected directly, 
 without any other fittings ; although, of course, it is desirable to 
 place another stop-valve in the steam-pipe and a check-valve in 
 the delivery-pipe, so that the injector can be taken to pieces, or 
 disconnected at any time. Another important feature of this in- 
 jector is, that it is operated by a single handle, and that the waste- 
 valve is only open at the instant of starting. 
 
 Its internal mechanism and mode of action may be easily un- 
 derstood by referring to the sectional cut on page 410. A is the 
 receiving-tube, which can be clgsed to the admission of steam by 
 the valve X A hollow spindle passing through the receiving- 
 tube into the combining-tube, is secured to the rod B, and the 
 valve X is fitted to this spindle in such a way that the latter can 
 be moved a slight distance (until the stop shown in the figure 
 engages with valve X) without raising the valve X from its seat. 
 A second valve, TT, secured to the rod By has its seat in the upper 
 side of the valve X, so that it can be opened (thus admitting steam 
 to the centre of the spindle) without raising the valve X from its 
 seat, if the rod B is not drawn out any farther after the stop on 
 the hollow spindle comes in contact with the valve X. D is the 
 delivery-tube, 0 an overflow opening into space C K, the check- 
 valve in delivery-pipe, and P R the waste-valve. The upper end 
 of the combining-tube has a piston, N N, attached to it, capable 
 of moving freely in a cylindrical portion of the shell, M and 
 
35 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-HOOK. 
 
 411 
 
 the lower end of the combining-tube slides in a cylindrical guide 
 formed in the upper end of the delivery-tube. 
 
 The rod B is connected to a cross-head which is fitted over 
 *.he guide-rod, «7, and a -lever, //, is secured to the cross-head. A 
 vod, L, attached to a lever on the top end of the screw waste-valve 
 lj»asses through an eye that is secured to the lever // ; and stops, 
 r, control the motion of this rod, so that the waste-valve is 
 Josed when the lever H lias its extreme outward throw, and is 
 Apened when the lever is thrown in, so as to close the steam-valve, 
 X, while the lever can be moved between the positions of the stops, 
 P, Q, without affecting the waste-valve. A latch, F, is thrown 
 into action with teeth cut in the upper side of the guide-rod, J, 
 when the lever ^is drawn out to its full extent, and then moved 
 back ; and this click is raised out of action as soon as it has been 
 moved in far enough to pass the last tooth on the rod J. An air- 
 vessel is arranged in the body of the instrument, as shown in the 
 figure, for the purpose of securing a continuous jet when the in- 
 jector and its connections are exposed to shocks, especially such 
 as occur in the use of the instrument on locomotives. 
 
 The manipulation required to start the injector is exceedingly 
 simple, — much more so in practice, indeed, than it can be rendered 
 in description. Moving the lever H until contact takes place be- 
 tween valve X, and stop on hollow spindle, which can be felt by 
 the hand upon the lever, steam is admitted to the centre of the 
 spindle, and, expanding as it passes into the delivery-tube D, and 
 waste-orifice P, lifts the water through the supply-pipe into the 
 combining-tube around the hollow spindle, acting after the manner 
 of an ejector or steam-siphon. As soon as solid water issues through 
 the waste-orifice P, the handle jETmay be drawn out to its full ex- 
 tent, opening the steam- valve X and closing the \vaste-valve, when 
 the action of the injector will be continuous as long as steam and 
 water are supplied to it. 
 
 To regulate the amount of water delivered, move in the lever 
 H until the click engages any of the teeth on the rod J, thus 
 diminishing the steam-supply, as the water-supply is self-regulat- 
 
412 
 
 THE engineer's HANBY-BOOK. 
 
 ing. If too much water is delivered, some of it will escape through 
 0 into C, and, pressing on the piston N N, will move the com- 
 bining-tube away from the delivery-tube, thus throttling the water- 
 supply ; and if sufficient water is not admitted, a partial vacuum 
 will be formed in C, and the unbalanced pressure on the upper side 
 of the piston, N N, will move the combining-tube towards the de- 
 livery-tube, thus enlarging the orifice for the admission of water. 
 The injector, once started, will continue to work without any further 
 adjustment, delivering all its water to the boiler, the waste-valve 
 being kept shut. By placing the hand on the starting-lever, it is 
 easy to tell whether or not the injector is working ; and if desired, 
 the waste-valve can be opened momentarily by pushing the rod Ly 
 a knob on the end being provided for the purpose. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING STEAM-PRESSURE REQUIRED TO LIFT AND DELIVER WATER WITH 
 sellers' FIXED-NOZZLE LIFTJLNG INJECTOR. 
 
 
 
 Height Wa- 
 ter IS LIFTED. 
 
 Steam-Peess- 
 ure required 
 to lift and de- 
 LIVER WaTER. 
 
 Height Wa- 
 ter IS lifted. 
 
 Steam-Press- 
 ure REQUIRED 
 TO LIFT AND DE- 
 LIVER Water. 
 
 Feet. Inches. 
 3 0 
 5 0 
 11 6 
 15 0 
 
 Lbs. per Sq. In. 
 25 
 30 
 40 
 49 
 
 Feet. Inches 
 
 21 3 
 
 22 10 ■ 
 
 
 Lbs. per Sq. In. 
 52 
 60 
 70 
 100 
 
 Sellers' Non- Adjusting Fixed-Nozzle Injector with Lifting 
 Attachment, for Stationary Boilers. 
 
 The cut on page 413 represents Sellers' Non- Adjustable In- 
 jector with fixed-nozzle and lifting attachment As will be ob- 
 served, a steam-ejector or siphon is attached to the side of this 
 instrument, which draws the water, when lifted by the admission 
 of the steam, through the combining-tube, and discharges it 
 through the orifice of the lifting attachment, through which, also, 
 
THE engineer's H A N I> Y - B O O K . 
 
 413 
 
 the waste water or overflow escapes. This injector has a check- 
 valve connected to it, also a steam stop-valve, which can be opened 
 wide by half a revolution of the lever on the stem. In connecting 
 the injector, since it has fixed nozzles, a water-supply valve must 
 be provided, and, as al- 
 ready remarked, a sec- b\ 
 ond check-valve in the 
 delivery - pipe and an- 
 other steam-stop valve 
 are desirable. 
 
 In starting this injec- 
 tor, steam is first admit- 
 ted to the lifting-nozzle, 
 the water-supply valve 
 being adjusted so as to 
 deliver about the max- 
 imum amount of water 
 corresponding to the 
 steam-pressure; and as 
 soon as solid water is- 
 sues from the lifting- 
 nozzle, the steam-valve 
 is to be opened slightly 
 until the jet is estab- 
 lished, when the full 
 steam-pressure is to be 
 admitted, and the valve 
 that admits steam to the 
 lifting-nozzle is to . be 
 closed. 
 
 Some little dexterity Section of Sellers* Non- Adjustable Fixed- 
 is required to start the Nozzle Lifting: Injector, 
 
 injector for a maximum lift, but the manipulation is readily ac- 
 quired, while for all ordinary lifts no special care is required. As 
 the velocity of steam escaping from an orifice varies greatly with 
 35* 
 
414 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 the pressure, other things beiug equal, the lifting-nozzle must have 
 proportions depending on the minimum steam-pressure to be em- 
 ployed, since it can readily be adapted to higher pressures by par- 
 tially closing the steam-admission valve. 
 
 Directions for operating Sellers' non-adjustable fixed-nozzle 
 
 injector, with lifting at- 
 tachment. — First, close 
 the steam -spindle, J., 
 by means of the handle, 
 B. Second, open the lift- 
 ing-jet by backing the 
 wheel, C, one-quarter 
 turn. Third, when the 
 water escapes at the 
 overflow, D, run out 
 the spindle, A , by back- 
 ing it quickly; then 
 close tjje lifting-jet, C, 
 as the injector will then 
 be feeding the boiler, 
 land the water-supply 
 'may be regulated by 
 means of an ordinary 
 globe-valve placed be- 
 tween the injector and 
 the water source. If 
 this valve is set to ad- 
 mit the required quan- 
 tity of water, there will 
 be no drip from the 
 overflow. When re- 
 quired, a special regu- 
 lating valve, which re- 
 quires but one turn, and which indicates the required opening, is 
 attached to the injector, so that those having it in charge may de- 
 
 Sellers' Non-Adjustable Fixed-Nozzle 
 Lifting" Injector. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 415 
 
 terniine the actual amount of opening by a glance at the hand- 
 wheel on the valve-spindle. 
 
 Duty of Sellers' injectors, or the foot-pounds of useful work 
 performed by the consumption of 100 lbs. of coal in the boiler 
 supplying steam to the injector, may be of interest. When the 
 evaporation of the boiler is known, this duty can readily be com- 
 puted from the data obtained in connection with the maximum 
 delivery of the injector. This can be illustrated by an example. 
 Assuming the boiler evaporation at 9 lbs. of steam per lb. of coal, 
 a result which, though rather above the average, is occasionally 
 exceeded in good practice. Using the data recorded in the table 
 on page 416 for the maximum delivery at a steam-pressure of 130 
 lbs. per square inch, it appears that 150 — 66 = 84 units of heat 
 were imparted to each pound of water delivered by the injector, 
 and, the weight of a cubic foot of water at a temperature of 66° 
 Fah. being about 62*3 lbs., that the total weight of water deliv- 
 ered per hour was 161*2 X 62*3 = 10,042-76 lbs., so that the total 
 amount of heat imparted to the water per hour was 10,042*76 x 
 84 = 843,591*84 units.. 
 
 The total heat above 32^ in a pound of dry steam, at a pressure 
 of 130 lbs. per square inch, is 1187*8 units, and the heat remain- 
 ing in a pound of steam above 32°, after condensation, is 150 
 — 32 = 118 units, so that each pound of dry steam imparted 
 1187*8 — 118 = 1069*8 units of heat to the feed-water, and the 
 
 .1^ 1 . 1 843,591*84 r,oon^^ 
 
 weight 01 dry steam required per hour was .^^^^g ^ — = 7oo*o lbs. 
 
 The height of a column of water equivalent to the pressure against 
 
 which the water was delivered was = 300*5 feet, so that 
 
 bZ'o 
 
 the useful work performed per hour ^vas 10,042*76 x 300*5 = 
 3,017,049*38 foot-pounds. The weight of coal required to do this 
 
 788*6 
 
 work, on the assumed boiler evaporation, was ~— - = 87*6 lbs., 
 
 so that the duty of the injector, per 100 lbs. of coal, was 
 
 3,017,04 9*38 x 100 oiKR^oa,- , a 
 ' g^^Tg — ~ = 3,455,536 loot-pounds. 
 
416 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 The term range is frequeDtly used in connection with injectors, 
 and means the difference between the maximum and minimum 
 delivery. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM DELIVERY OF SELLERS^ SELF- 
 ADJUSTING, 1876, INJECTOR NO. 6 ; temperature of delivered 
 
 WATER ; PRESSURE AGAINST WHICH INJECTOR DELIVERS WATER, AND 
 HIGHEST TEMPERATURE OF FEED ADMISSIBLE ; WATER FLOWING TO 
 INJECTOR UNDER 15 INCHES HEAD ; WASTE-VALVES SHUT. 
 
 Pressure of Steam Supplied to 
 Injector, and Pressure against 
 which Water is Delivered. 
 Lbs. per Sq. In. 
 
 Delivery in Cubic 
 Feet Per Hour. 
 
 Temperature Fahren- 
 heit Degrees. 
 
 Pressure of Steam Required to 
 Deliver Water against Press- 
 ure in Column 1. 
 
 Highest Temperature admissible 
 of Feed-Water, Fahrenheit 
 Degrees. 
 
 Maximum. 
 
 Minimum. 
 
 Ratio of Minimum to 
 Maximum Delivery. 
 
 Feed-Water. 
 
 Deli\ 
 Wa 
 
 s 
 a 
 
 ''ERED 
 PER. 
 
 u 
 
 D 
 
 % 
 M 
 
 < a 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 75-3 
 
 63-6 
 
 0-845 
 
 66 
 
 100 
 
 94 
 
 3 
 
 132 
 
 20 
 
 82-4 
 
 61-2 
 
 0-743 
 
 66 
 
 108 
 
 104 
 
 9 
 
 134 
 
 30 
 
 94-2 
 
 56-5 
 
 0-600 
 
 66 
 
 114 
 
 116 
 
 16 
 
 134 
 
 40 
 
 100-1 
 
 60-0 
 
 0-599 
 
 66 
 
 120 
 
 123 
 
 22 
 
 132 
 
 50 
 
 108-3 
 
 64-7 
 
 0-597 
 
 66 
 
 124 
 
 125 
 
 27 
 
 131 
 
 60 
 
 116-5 
 
 63-6 
 
 0-546 
 
 66 
 
 127 
 
 133 
 
 34 
 
 130 
 
 70 
 
 124-8 
 
 63-6 
 
 0-510 
 
 67 
 
 130 
 
 142 
 
 40 
 
 130 
 
 80 
 
 133-0 
 
 67-1 
 
 0-505 
 
 66 
 
 134 
 
 144 
 
 46 
 
 131 
 
 90 
 
 141-3 
 
 69-5 
 
 0-492 
 
 67 
 
 136 
 
 148 
 
 52 
 
 132 
 
 100 
 
 147-2 
 
 64-7 
 
 0-456 
 
 66 
 
 140 
 
 159 
 
 58 
 
 132 
 
 110 
 
 153-0 
 
 67-1 
 
 0-439 
 
 67 
 
 144 
 
 162 
 
 63 
 
 132 
 
 120 
 
 156-6 
 
 73-0 
 
 0-466 
 
 67 
 
 148 
 
 162 
 
 69 
 
 134 
 
 130 
 
 161-2 
 
 74-2 
 
 0-460 
 
 66 
 
 150 
 
 165 
 
 75 
 
 130 
 
 140 
 
 166-0 
 
 78-9 
 
 0-476 
 
 66 
 
 153 
 
 166 
 
 81 
 
 126 
 
 150 
 
 170-7 
 
 70-6 
 
 0-414 
 
 66 
 
 157 
 
 167 
 
 88 
 
 121 
 
 The table of capacities shows the maximum delivery, but the 
 injector can be regulated so as to reduce the amount about 60 per 
 cent 
 
THE engineer's If A N I) Y - H OO K . 
 
 417 
 
 <M CD uj Oi <?1 00 
 
 CD C<l l-^ C» »p »p »p ^ p 00 CJ 
 
 r-H r-i CO -f ^ CC O CO 
 
 CO 00 CO CO CO Ol 
 
 (pTh»po:>^QO<prru:)pr-i»piOi— I 
 
 coooi^<i>OT^T^a)coi*-i^ooio 
 i-icocoo:)^05iOrHO:>cDi-^i-QO 
 
 T-l r-l (M CO CO »0 1^ O 01 t o 
 
 CD (M CO 00 1^ CO GO I- CD 
 
 (>1 cp ^4 cp CO 00 C-UO CX) T-H C-l iO o 
 
 coT^cbc^coc<icbc<icooo»^cn)4foi 
 rHcoioc:»coQOcooi.^coco»o»— (c:i 
 
 rHrHCNCOCOiOt-OiO-l'^ 
 
 C^OtJlOt^CDOvlCDCDCOOT-iGOOC:) 
 rHC^lOCO<Nt^G^4GOiOi-HC:)0^i— ( 
 1— li— i(M(MCOtOCDa5r-iTt 
 
 r-lQ0(MG\|a:i0^1C00iC0rHr-(CDTf'O 
 T-HGvllOGOr-iCDi— ICDCOGOIO^OOCO 
 T-(T-HG\|G\|C0rtiCDQ0OC0 
 
 1— ICDOilr^i— iC<IOCOCOCvli— (LOCiC:> 
 T-ir-iCNKMCO'T^CDOOOO^ 
 
 . o 00 CO 1^ 00 lo 
 
 OrxlMC^lt^t^CO'r^T-HCOrfT-KMaiO 
 C<|rtiCDC5COI:^Gvlt^OiCOOOOa:> 
 
 i-HT-^fMcqcoiOt-ooo 
 
 1— (0:)C<10CO(M^COCDT-H,-HlOCi 
 (MCOCDO:)GMCDOiOCDC:iOG^^ 
 1— lrHC<lC^CO'^CDOOO 
 
 C0O:iCDt-CO'^OiO^C0l:-i— lOOOO 
 1— iCOlOOOl— l-^OOCOCO^OCDCO 
 r-lT-Hi— iGvlCO'^CDt^Oi 
 
 .2 g 
 
 O 
 
 C<IC0'^^CDl>G00:!O<MTfiCD00O 
 
 - - - — 
 
 P5 
 
 H 
 P 
 
 fa 
 O 
 
 w 
 
 < 
 
 :^ 
 
 w 
 
 2B 
 
418 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 The reputation of the Sellers' injectors stands deservedly high 
 for efficiency, reliability, and action. They are adapted to all pur- 
 poses for which such instruments are employed, such as boiler- 
 feeders for steamships, locomotives, and stationary engines. Every 
 injector is tested at the works by being attached to a steam-boiler 
 before being sent out, and tried under different pressures, which 
 insures entire satisfaction in the working, so that it is sure to meet 
 all the requirements for which it is intended. 
 
 Rue's " Little Giant Injector. 
 
 The annexed cut represents Rue's "Little Giant" Injector, class 
 A, which, as a boiler-feeder, has a reputation for simplicity, efficien- 
 
 forwards or backwards, as seems requisite, until neither steam nor 
 water shows at the overflow\ When it is ascertained where the 
 lever must be set, for the steam carried, it can be adjusted before 
 beginning, or left as it is, when steam is shut off. The lever is 
 only used to regulate the proportionate amounts of steam and 
 water. The injector will feed one-half its capacity, by decreasing 
 the amount of steam, and then adjusting the lever. By a little 
 practice, any engineer can adjust it, so as to feed a steady stream 
 of exactly the amount necessary for use. 
 
 cy, and capacity second 
 to no other in the coun- 
 try. All that is neces- 
 sary to be done in order 
 to start it, is to turn on 
 the water, and, when it 
 
 flows from the overflow, 
 * turn on the steam, slowly 
 at first, until it reaches 
 the water, then turn on 
 full head, and push the 
 lever M slowly, either 
 
THE ENGINEER\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 419 
 
 To set up Class A. — Place the injector in a horizontal position, 
 at any convenient point, so that the pipes will be as short and 
 straight as possible. Place an ordinary globe-valve on the steam- 
 pipe ; attach the steam-pipe to the swivel marked steam, and the 
 water-pipe to that marked water ; place a valve or stop-cock on 
 the same, as near the injector as practicable. If the water-sup- 
 ply is from a tank, let the fall be as great as possible, but if 
 from a hydrant, or any other source haying a pressure which is 
 not regular, as is frequently the case, let the water-pipe be one size 
 larger than the swivel, and attach it to the latter by a reducer. 
 Attach the delivery-pipe to the swivel marked — " to boiler.'' 
 
 The following cut represents the Little Giant" Lifting Injec- 
 tor, class B, which is used for locomotives and steamships, and will 
 lift water 12 feet at 40 
 lbs. pressure. This in- 
 jector, whether used on a 
 locomotive or steamship, 
 should be conveniently 
 located to the engineer. 
 The method of working 
 it is identical with that 
 of class A, except that 
 the steam-jet valve should 
 be first opened, then the 
 water turned on, and, 
 when it appears at the 
 overflow, the main steam supply-valve should be opened gradually 
 until it catches the water, when it may be turned on full head. 
 The steam for them should be taken from the highest point in 
 the boiler, so that it may be dry and elastic. Great care should 
 be taken to see that the water-pipes are all perfectly tight. No 
 washers should be used on the swivels by which the steam- and 
 water-supply pipes are attached to the injector. If there are any 
 floating particles, su.ch as sawdust, shavings, straw, bran, or chai£ 
 
420 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 in the water, the end of the pipe should be covered with a wire- 
 strainer. 
 
 To start the lifting injector, Class B, open the jet-valve until 
 water shows at the overflow in a solid stream ; then turn on the 
 steam as before, and, when the water is entering the boiler, shut 
 the jet. Great care should be taken to see that the supply-pipe, 
 through which the water is lifted, is perfectly air-tight, as any 
 leak in the pipe will interfere with the working of the injector. 
 When water is to be lifted by this injector, a small steam-pipe 
 leading from the boiler, and furnished with a valve that opens 
 with a quick motion, is attached to the swivel, P, by means of 
 which a steam-jet is thrown into the tube, i?, and the water lifted. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OF CAPACITIES OF RUE'S "LITTLE GIANT " INJECTOR. 
 
 Size of 
 Injectors. 
 
 Size of 
 Pipe Con- 
 nections. 
 
 Pressure 
 OF Steam 
 IN Pounds. 
 
 Gallons 
 PER Hour. 
 
 Nominal 
 Horse- 
 Power. 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 90 
 
 60 
 
 4 to 8 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 90 
 
 90 
 
 6 " 12 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 90 
 
 120 
 
 8 " 20 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 90 
 
 300 
 
 20 " 40 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 90 
 
 600 
 
 40 " 80 
 
 5 
 
 li 
 
 90 
 
 900 
 
 60 " 120 
 
 6 
 
 U 
 
 90 
 
 1200 
 
 80 " 160 
 
 7 
 
 u 
 
 90 
 
 1620 
 
 140 " 225 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 90 
 
 2040 
 
 200 " 275 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 90 
 
 2480 
 
 250 " 350 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 90 
 
 3000 
 
 300 " 400 
 
 12 
 
 2h 
 
 90 
 
 3600 
 
 350 " 600 
 
 Friedman's Injector. 
 
 The annexed cuts represent the Friedman Injector, which 
 is adapted to a great variety of purposes, such as raising water 
 
THE ENGINEER^S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 421 
 
 or other fluids from tanks, wells, mines, quarries, cellars, docks, the 
 holds of vessels, etc. They have also been successfully employed 
 in breweries, distilleries, chemical works, and sugar refineries, foi 
 conveying acids, fluids, or liquids from tank to tank, or from 
 one room to another. In general appearance the injector is of 
 cylindrical form, with 
 three openings, as in all 
 others ; one of each for 
 the suction, steam, and 
 delivery. As will be ob- 
 served, as in all other in- 
 jectors, instead of one 
 nozzle or cone there are 
 a series in this injector ; in this arrangement lies the secret of its 
 capacity and utility. 
 
 As the steam -jet acts at first only on that portion of the in- 
 coming water which is admitted through the first nozzle, or cone, 
 so that only a comparatively small jet of steam is required to 
 move it, this stream, 
 
 propelled by the 3 ] ( O 
 
 force of the steam, 
 gives an impetus to 
 the water entering 
 through the second 
 cone, and that in 
 turn becomes a mo- 
 tor to the next, and so on until the last is reached. The water 
 or liquid accelerated in its passage through these successive noz- 
 zles or cones, as well by the force already described as by the 
 vacuum always formed under such conditions, is carried with great 
 velocity through the diverging-pipe into the discharge-pipe, with 
 all the force and rapidity necessary to convey it to its required 
 destination. 
 36 
 
 Section of Friedman's Injector. 
 
422 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OF CAPACITIES OF FRIEDMAN'S INJECTORS. 
 
 Size of 
 Injec- 
 tor. 
 
 Minimum 
 Inside 
 Diame- 
 ter OF 
 Pipe in 
 Inches. 
 
 Delivery per Hour, in Gallons,at a Steam- 
 Pressure OP 
 
 
 k(\ 1h« 
 
 m\ Ihe 
 
 
 JNo. L 
 
 1 
 
 
 art 
 
 DO 
 
 oy 
 
 H O 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 220 
 
 180 
 
 141 
 
 90 
 
 4 
 
 -1 
 1 
 
 390 
 
 320 
 
 243 
 
 160 
 
 0 
 
 i 1 
 
 li 
 
 630 
 
 500 
 
 395 
 
 250 
 
 " 6 
 
 11 
 
 870 
 
 720 
 
 570 
 
 360 
 
 " 7 
 
 U 
 
 1200 
 
 965 
 
 774 
 
 500 
 
 8 
 
 U 
 
 1560 
 
 1280 
 
 910 
 
 639 
 
 " 9 
 
 2 
 
 1980 
 
 1620 
 
 1380 
 
 810 
 
 " 10 
 
 2 
 
 2450 
 
 2000 
 
 1580 
 
 990 
 
 " 12 
 
 2i 
 
 2870 
 
 2880 
 
 2275 
 
 1440 
 
 The Keystone Injector. 
 
 The above cut represents the Keystone Injector, class A, 
 which is used for feeding boilers where the water-supply is re- 
 ceived from street-mains, reservoirs, cisterns, etc. It should be 
 
THE ENGINEER^S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 423 
 
 placed in a horizontal position, and, if the water is taken from a 
 tankj^the injector should be below the supply. All connections, 
 whether for steam or water, should be of the same internal bore 
 as the nipples on the injector. The steam should be taken from 
 the highest part of the boiler, in order that it may be dry, and the 
 pipes should be as short and straight as possible, and should not 
 be connected with any supply-pipe or feeder employed for any 
 other purpose. A globe-valve should be placed on both the steam- 
 and water-pipes, but no extra check-valve is necessary, except the 
 one in the swivel, which controls the outlet to the boiler ; nor is 
 any washer or packing necessary for any part of the injector or 
 its connections, as all of its joints are ground. 
 
 To start the injector. — Open the steam-valve for the purpose 
 of allowing any water resulting from the condensation of steam 
 to escape ; then close it ; next open the water-cock, then the steam- 
 valve, and move the plug B slowly forward by means of the 
 handle b, until the water ceases to appear at the overflow. And 
 if, while the injector is working, water should commence to run 
 from the overflow, move the plug slowly forward until the water 
 ceases to flow. If steam escapes, move the plug backward for the 
 purpose of giving the injector more water. When the lever b is 
 set, so that the injector works dry, all that is necessary to do to 
 stop its feeding is to close the steam-valve first, then the water- 
 valve; and, when it becomes necessary to feed again, the injector 
 may be started by first opening the water-cock and then the steam- 
 valve. The lever being only used to regulate the volume of steam- 
 and water-supply, if the lever moves too loosely, it may be tightened 
 by screwipg down the nut on the spindle C; if too tight, the nut can 
 be slacked up. This injector will work under ordinary circumstances, 
 but there are other injectors in the market which are immensely 
 superior to them. , 
 
 The Keystone Lifting Injector. 
 
 The cut on page 424 represents the Keystone Lifting Injector, 
 class B. The same instructions for setting up and manipulating 
 class A, Fig. 1, apply to this also, with this exception, that no stop- 
 
424 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANBY-BOOK. 
 
 cock or valve is necessary on the water-supply. The jet D serves 
 to create a vacuum, and assists in carrying the water forward 
 against the boiler-pressure ; and, as it is stationary, it is always in 
 a proper position to produce a vacuum, the required volume of 
 steam necessary to force the water into the boiler being obtaiuec^ 
 
 by moving the plug B, as in the case of class A. To lift water 
 from a well, open the steam- valve for the purpose of removing 
 the water of condensation ; then close it ; after which move the 
 plug B back against the disc of the jet D ; then open the steam- 
 valve, and, when the water appears at the overflow, move the plug 
 slowly forward until the water ceases flowing, after which the in- 
 jector will sometimes lift water, but are said not to be reliable as 
 lifting injectors. 
 
 The Eclipse Injector. 
 
 The cut on page 425 represents the Eclipse Injector, with Sellers' 
 Lifting Jet, which is claimed to embody many desirable features, 
 such as simplicity, durability, and easy adjustment, and to work 
 under a steam-pressure ranging from 5 to 150 lbs. per square inch, 
 without breaking the water-supply ; that, when it becomes neces- 
 sary to fill a boiler with cold water, all the working parts may be 
 removed from the barrel, which will permit the water to flow 
 through without obstruction ; that it will heat the feed- water up 
 
THE ENG1NEER\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 426 
 
 to 200° Fall. ; and that it is particularly adapted to heatiug the 
 water in the tenders of locomotives, to prevent them from freezing. 
 
 The same precautions that are necessary to be observed in con- 
 necting all injectors, viz., that the steam be taken from the high- 
 est point of the boiler ; that a valve must be placed in the steam- 
 pipe near the swivel, and also one on the feed-pipe between th^ 
 boiler and check-valve ; and that the water connections are per- 
 fectly tight, are applicable to this one, also. 
 
 Directions for using the Eclipse Injector. — Close the regulator, 
 A, by turning it to the right as far as it will move ; then turn on 
 the steam, slowly at first, until the water which is taken up shows 
 at the overflow; next open the regulator slowly, untU the dis- 
 
 charge from the overflow ceases ; the injector will then be working. 
 When it becomes necessary to stop working, first turn off" the 
 steam ; then close the regulator, as otherwise, when started again, 
 it will not lift quickly ; but, when the water flows to the injector 
 from either a hydrant or tank, after the injector has once been 
 adjusted, it is only necessary to turn on the water, and then the 
 steam. To remove the working parts from the barrel of the in- 
 jector, screw the jam-nut, C, up against the main nut, D ; then, by 
 keeping the jam-nut tight against Z>, the injector may be easily 
 drawn out from the shell. Should it become necessary to repack 
 the injector at M, care must be taken to insert the packing \u 
 front of the follower, T, and compress it with the latter. 
 36* 
 
426 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 The Clipper Injector. 
 
 The annexed cut represents the Clipper Adjustable Injector, 
 which is claimed to possess the following good qualities : simplicity 
 of construction, certainty of action, ease of starting, non-liability to 
 
 get out of order, large capacity, and 
 that it will draw water as far as a 
 siphon or pump, and force it into 
 the boiler under ordinary pressure. 
 Besides, it can be regulated so as to 
 feed one-half its capacity, and will 
 not slip. 
 
 All that is necessary to insure 
 certainty of action in this injector, 
 is to place it in a horizontal position, 
 and take the steam from the highest 
 point in the boiler, and to have the 
 steam- and water-pipes fully as large 
 as the openings in tlie swivels to 
 which they are attached. 
 
 The cut on page 427 shows a sec- 
 tion of Lynde Clipper Injector. — A 
 is the shell or body ; B, the steam- 
 tube ; C, the jet or lifting-tube ; i), 
 the water-tube ; H, the swivel which 
 is kept from turning by the fins H; 
 Ky the bonnet, by unscrewing which 
 the tubes B and C may be re- 
 moved; M and N, revolving lever 
 and handle by which to regulate tke 
 water and steam ; 0, overflow holes ; 
 0\ holes to assist in lifting, on starting the injector ; Qj strainer 
 to prevent any foreign substances from entering the injector with 
 the water ; R, ribs to prevent the shell from springing ; W, over- 
 flow valve and spring. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 427 
 
 How to start the injector when the water flows to it. — Draw the 
 steam-tube, B, nearly all the way 
 back, by revolving the handle, M, 
 which actuates tube, B (same as the 
 wheel does the valve in a common 
 globe-valve), and pull lever, M', all 
 the way back. Open steam-valve 
 a little, to clear pipe of condensed 
 water ; when steam blows out at 
 overflow, push lever, M\ full for- 
 ward, open steam full, and open 
 water-cock. When water runs solid 
 from overflow, draw lever, M\ 
 slowly all the way back, and turn 
 in tube, JS, slowly till water ceases. 
 The injector is then set to feed its 
 maximum amount at the pressure 
 of steam then used. It may then 
 be started by simply opening steam- 
 valve a little, as above, to clear the 
 pipes ; then close steam- and open 
 water -cocks. When water runs 
 solid at overflow, open steam-valve 
 slowly, and feeding will commence 
 without operating lever. If'. 
 
 How to start the injector when 
 the water is to be lifted. — Draw 
 steam-tube, B, nearly all the way 
 back, and pull lever, M\ all the 
 
 way back ; open steam-valve a little (or all the way, if desired), 
 to clear steam-pipe, and, when steam appears at overflow, push 
 lever, M\ full forward — the water-pipe being open, water will 
 be likely to appear at once (or in a few seconds) at overflow ; if 
 not, pull lever, M\ back a moment to clear the injector and push 
 full forward again. As soon as the water runs solid at overflow^ 
 
428 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 pull lever, M\ slowly all the way back, and screw in tube, JS, until 
 feeding commences. It is then feeding the maximum amount at 
 pressure. It may then be started by turning on steam ; push lever, 
 M\ full forward, and then pull back as above, when water appears 
 at overflow. 
 
 To reduce the feed in either case. — When the injector is set 
 as above, push lever, M', forward, until water begins to run from 
 overflow ; then cut off* water with handle, M, until it ceases at 
 overflow, and repeat as long as it will bear, and continue to feed. 
 The minimum feed is thus obtained, and the water is delivered to 
 the boiler the hottest. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OF CAPACITIES OF CLIPPER INJECTORS. 
 
 
 Pipes. 
 
 Approximate Gallons 
 
 No. 
 
 
 
 of Water thrown per 
 
 
 
 
 Hour, with 60 to 100 
 
 
 STEAM. 
 
 WATER. 
 
 Lbs. of Steam. 
 
 1 
 
 f in. 
 
 1 in. 
 
 60 to 90 
 
 2 
 
 3 u 
 
 i " 
 
 150 to 180 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 a 
 
 4 
 
 250 to 300 
 
 4 
 
 3 U 
 4 
 
 1 " 
 
 500 to 600 
 
 5 
 
 • 1 " 
 
 U " 
 
 700 to 900 
 
 6 
 
 1 " 
 
 U " 
 
 800 to 1200 
 
 7 
 
 U " 
 
 U " 
 
 1200 to 1600 
 
 8 
 
 U " 
 
 U " 
 
 1600 to 2000 
 
 9 
 
 n " 
 
 2 " 
 
 2000 to 2500 
 
 10 
 
 U " 
 
 2 " 
 
 2500 to 3000 
 
 12 
 
 2 " 
 
 2\ " 
 
 3000 to 3500 
 
 There is one principle that governs the action of all injectors, 
 which is, that if the temperature of the water is raised too high, 
 they will not w^ork. Some injectors will lift water as high as 20 
 feet, according to the temperature of the water and the size of the 
 injector ; large injectors having invariably the greatest lifting ca- 
 pacity. As the amount of water thrown depends on the velocity 
 
THE engineer's FI A N 1) Y - B O O K . 
 
 429 
 
 of the steam, it follows that the volume of water thrown will be 
 much greater with high than with low steam-pressure. 
 
 The annexed cut represents Mack's Fixed-Nozzle Injector, 
 which is said to have a working range, with one handle, of from 
 15 lbs. to 175 lbs. steam-pressure per square inch, and is always 
 reliable, whether worked con- 
 stantly or once in a year. 
 When extraordinarily high 
 pressure is required, an ex- 
 tra valve is attached, which 
 will admit of working this 
 injector at a range of 5 lbs. 
 to 250 lbs. per square inch. 
 
 Fixed - Nozzle Injectors 
 have no movable or adjust- 
 able parts within them ; they 
 can be regulated by steam- and 
 water-supply cocks on the 
 outside of the instruments ; 
 but there is one pressure of 
 steam to which they have 
 been primarily adapted, and 
 at which they work best, viz., 
 at the pressure at which they 
 give the largest duty. Inas- 
 much as the pressure of steam 
 in stationary boilers is, as a 
 rule, held constant, they are 
 well suited for that kind of 
 work ; but in cases where there 
 is a great variation of press- 
 ure they are not so well suited. Mack's Fixed-Nozzle Injector. 
 There are fewer of them in use than of other arrangements, never- 
 theless some of them give satisfaction, but in any case their sim- 
 plicity is their chief recommendation. 
 
430 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 The Inspirator. 
 
 The inspirator, though belonging to the injector family, differs 
 from the latter, inasmuch as it is a double instrument, consisting 
 
 of a lifting and a forcing 
 side ; the latter being to all 
 intents and purposes, with 
 slight mechanical varia- 
 tions, an " injector," while 
 the former is a kind of a 
 pump, which supplies the 
 forcer side with water. 
 The whole machine is a 
 curious combination of 
 mechanical arrangements 
 for lifting and forcing 
 water, and cannot be act- 
 ually said to be either an 
 injector or a pump, though 
 it performs the functions 
 of both. The inspirator 
 is capable of lifting and 
 forcing water or other 
 fluids to a great height. 
 It will lift water 25 feet, 
 with a steam-pressure of 
 30 lbs., provided the suc- 
 tion-pipe be perfectly tight, 
 and the instrument is fur- 
 nished with dry steam ; but 
 the temperature of the 
 water will control to a 
 certain extent the height 
 of the lift. For a lift of 25 feet, the temperature of the water 
 should not exceed 100° Fah. 
 
THE ENGINEER\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 431 
 
 STEAM 
 
 Whenever the inspirator fails to act, the trouble, in a majority 
 of cases, will be due to leakage in the pipes. Other causes are due 
 to the area of the suction- 
 pipe being too small, which 
 ought in all cases to be 
 larger than the nipple or 
 swivel to which it is con- 
 nected ; but in any case it is 
 advisable to have a foot-or 
 check-valve in the suction- 
 pipe, below the level of the 
 water in the well, river, or 
 mine. 
 
 How to operate the in- 
 spirator, — When steam is 
 admitted to the inspirator, 
 it passes through the lifter 
 steam-jet, leaps the interval, 
 A, through the combiniyig- 
 tube, and escapes at the over- 
 flow, thus expelling the air 
 and producing a partial 
 vacuum, into which the 
 water rises. As soon as the 
 water appears at the over- 
 flow, close valve No. 1, to 
 prevent it from escaping, 
 and induce it to pass up the 
 forcer, and through the com- 
 bining-tube B ; then by open- 
 ing the handle No. 2, and closing No. 3, the water is forced 
 directly through the feed- or delivery-pipe into the boiler or tank, 
 as the case may be. The inspirator is adapted as a boiler-feeder 
 for either stationary, locomotive, or marine engines. 
 
 OVERFLOW. 
 
432 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OP CAPACITIES OF THE HANCOCK INSPIRATOR. 
 
 Number of Inspi- 
 rator. 
 
 Size of Pipe Con- 
 nections. 
 
 Gallons per Hour. 
 
 1 n 
 
 1- 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 320 
 
 20 
 
 1 
 
 540 
 
 25 
 
 u 
 
 900 
 
 30 
 
 li 
 
 1260 
 
 35 
 
 li 
 
 1540 
 
 40 
 
 2 
 
 2240 
 
 45 
 
 2 
 
 2820 
 
 50 
 
 2i 
 
 3480 
 
 Instructions for Setting up, Properly Attaching, and 
 Adjusting Injectors. 
 
 All pipes, whether steam, water-supply, or delivery, should be 
 of the same internal diameter as the hole in the corresponding 
 branch of the injector, and as short and straight as practicable. 
 
 When floating particles of wood, or other matter, are liable to 
 be in the supply-pipe, a strainer should be placed over the receiv- 
 ing end of it. The holes in this strainer should be as small as the 
 smallest opening in the delivery-tube, and the total area of all 
 the holes should be greater than the area of the water-supply pipe, 
 to compensate for the closing of some of them by deposits. 
 
 The steam should be taken from the highest part of the boiler, 
 in order to .avoid the carrying over of water with the steam ; but 
 it should not be taken from the pipe leading to the engine, unless 
 such pipe is large. 
 
 When any injector capable of raising water is set, care must be 
 taken to have the pipes as tight as possible, so as not to draw 
 air. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 433 
 
 If the water is not lifted by the injector, but flows to it from a 
 tank or hydrant, there should be a cock in the water-supply pipe ; 
 and in case the injector be self-adjusting, this cock should be of a 
 kind that will prevent any considerable pressure in the water- 
 supply pipe between it and the injector. The higher the steam 
 is carried in the boiler, the greater may be the pressure in the 
 water-supply pipe. 
 
 There should always be a stop-valve or cock in the steam-pipe, 
 between the steam-space in the boiler and the injector, and a 
 check-valve between the water-space of the boiler and the in- 
 jector. 
 
 When an air-chamber is placed below the injector in the water- 
 supply pipe, care should be taken to keep it sr.:pplied with air. 
 When the injector lifts water from a tank placed below it, no pre- 
 caution is needed, as, when the injector is stopped, the water flows 
 back and air enters the pipe. 
 
 When fed from a hydrant through a self-regulating valve, there 
 should be a pet-cock between the valve and the air-chamber, 
 which will serve to drain away the water when the valve is closed 
 and the injector is not working. 
 
 After all the pipes are properly connected to the injector and to 
 the boiler, and it is ready for work, they should be disconnected 
 and well, washed out, in order to remove any obstructions, such as 
 paint, red lead, straw, or shavings, that may have found their way 
 into them. Many excellent instruments have been condemned 
 because those who set them up failed to take this precaution. 
 
 Injectors, like pumps and other hydraulic machines, are not so 
 reliable in action when working water of a high temperature as 
 when the temperature is moderate ; though there are several in- 
 jectors, owing to peculiarities in their mechanical arrangements, 
 more reliable in this respect than others. 
 
 Injectors, like nearly all other machines connected with steam- 
 boilers, are frequently neglected, and allowed to become covered 
 with filth, which, in view of their wonderful utility and efficiency, 
 is a reproach to those who have them in charge. 
 37 2 (J 
 
434 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 The Ejector or Lifter. 
 
 STEAM 
 
 The annexed cut represents the ejector or lifter, which is prac- 
 tically the lifter side of the inspirator, with a reduced steam-jet 
 and enlarged lifter combining-tube. It is suitable for breweries, 
 tanneries, bleacheries, etc.; for trans- 
 ferring large volumes of water, lye, acid, 
 and other liquids. It will deliver more 
 fluid of any kind at a low lift, with a 
 lower pressure of steam, than either the 
 injector or inspirator; but it is not as 
 reliable, or as well adapted to the dif- 
 ferent purposes for which these instru- 
 ments are used, as either of them. It 
 answers a very good purpose when cellars 
 become flooded in consequence of heavy 
 rain-falls, high tides, or overflowing of 
 culverts, and requires no very intelligent 
 management. Its action is based on the 
 I DELIVERY same principle as that of the injector, 
 and is more simple, as it has no adjust- 
 able or movable parts. 
 
 Method of starting the ejector. — All 
 that is necessary to start the ejector is to 
 turn on the steam, after which it will 
 work as long as the water-supply and 
 steam-pressure continue ; and it is imma- 
 terial what lift it is started on, as the 
 steam-supply may be gradually reduced 
 to meet the requirements of the quantity of water to be dis- 
 charged. If started on a steam-pressure of 40 lbs. per square 
 inch, it will continue to work until the pressure falls to 15 
 pounds. 
 
 The Ejector and Inspirator are manufactured by the Hancock 
 Inspirator Co., Boston, Mass. 
 
 SUCTION 
 
THE engineer's HA>"DY-B00K. 
 
 435 
 
 Jamison's Steam Water-Ejector. 
 
 The annexed cut represents Jamison's steam water-ejector, 
 
 as it is termed, which, like other eject- 
 ors, is suitable in tanneries, breweries, 
 or places where large quantities of liq- 
 uids which contain floating particles, 
 such as malt, hops, bark, sawdust, etc., 
 require to be lifted, as it has no moving 
 mechanism to be obstructed or clogged. 
 Its action is based on the same prin- 
 ciple as the steam siphon, and when 
 once started, by simply turning on the 
 steam, it will continue to work as long 
 as the steam and water-supply lasts, 
 through a diminution of pressure rang- 
 ing from 15 to 100 lbs. per square inch, 
 and irice versa. As they are generally 
 made of brass or some non-corrosive 
 metal, they rarely ever wear out or 
 require any attention. They are just 
 as eflScient when submerged in water 
 or other liquid as when directly on 
 the surface. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OF CAPACITIES OF JAMISON's STEAM WATER-EJECTOR. 
 
 SIZE. 
 
 I inch ejector. 
 
 CAPACITY. 
 
 4 gals, per minute. 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 U 
 li 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 15 
 20 
 30 
 80 
 300 
 
436 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 Questions, 
 
 THE ANSWERS TO WHICH WILL BE FOUND IN THE TEXT. 
 
 What is the object of attaching a condenser to a steam-engine? 
 
 Give the names, and the advantages and disadvantages of the 
 two kinds of condensers in most general use, with a description 
 of the same. 
 
 Explain how the injection -water enters and escapes from surface 
 and jet condensers. 
 
 State what relative proportion the jet condenser should bear to 
 the steam-cylinder of a condensing engine. 
 
 State what relative proportion the cooling surface in a surface 
 condenser should bear to the cubic contents of the steam-cyl- 
 inder. 
 
 State the respective advantages and disadvantages of having 
 condensers too large or too small. 
 
 What is the most advantageous temperature at which to keep 
 the water in hot wells ? and what effect does too high or too low a 
 temperature exert on the economical working of the engine ? 
 
 Explain the arrangements by which the bilge injection- water is 
 introduced into jet and surface condensers. 
 
 What would be the effect of not shutting off the injection- water 
 when the engine is stopped ? 
 
 State the quantity of water necessary to condense steam, with 
 a formula. 
 
 Give the rule for finding the cooling surface in the tubes of sur- 
 face condensers. 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 437 
 
 What is the most practicable method of cleaning the tubes of 
 surface condensers when they become foul ? 
 
 State what relative proportions the circulating-pump should 
 bear to the steam-cylinder of a surface-condensing engine. 
 
 Explain the principles involved in the working of the Korting 
 jet condenser ; also the method of starting it. 
 
 What is the meaning of the term vacuum ? 
 
 How is the vacuum maintained in the condenser of a condens- 
 ing engine ? 
 
 What effect has the temperature of the injection-water on the 
 vacuum? 
 
 How is the vacuum measured ? 
 
 Suppose the steam-gauge shows 60 lbs. pressure, and the 
 vacuum-gauge registers 26 inches, what will be the effective press- 
 ure on the piston? 
 
 Why does the condensation of steam* produce a vacuum in the 
 condenser ? 
 
 How is the state of the vacuum shown? 
 
 From what causes is an imperfect vacuum most likely to arise? 
 
 How would you proceed to discover the cause of an imperfect 
 vacuum ? 
 
 Is a vacuum power? 
 
 Can a perfect vacuum be maintained ? If not, why not ? 
 
 What is the object of air-pumps used in connection with con- 
 densing engines ? 
 
 What relative proportion should the air-pump bear to the steam- 
 cylinders of simple and compound surface-condensing engines ? 
 37* 
 
438 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 What relative proportions should the air-pump bear to the 
 steam-cylinders of jet-condensing engines ? 
 
 What is the difference in the duty which the air-pumps of sur- 
 face-condensing and jet-condensing engines have to perform? 
 
 Explain the difference between bucket, piston, plunger,~single 
 and double acting air-pumps. 
 
 What is the object of attaching an air-valve to a circulating, 
 reciprocating, or double acting pump ? 
 
 What is the most probable cause of an air-pump with a foul 
 valve, and no discharge-valve, failing to work ? 
 
 *What is the object of an air-pump trunk? 
 
 What are the functions of an air-pump pet-cock? 
 
 Describe the construction of an air-pump bucket. 
 
 With what metals are air-pump rods generally covered, and 
 why are they so covered ? 
 
 Give the shape and functions of a ship's side air-pump discharge- 
 valve. 
 
 What is the object of an air-casing ? 
 
 What is the object of the mariner's compass? 
 
 What are the causes of variation of the compass? 
 
 What is the meaning of the term rhumbs ? 
 
 What is the equator? 
 
 What are the poles? 
 
 What is a meridian? 
 
THE engineer's HANDY- BOOK. 439 
 
 What is the meaning of the term latitude? 
 
 What is understood by difference of latitude? 
 
 What Is the meaning of the term departure in its relation to 
 navigation? 
 
 What is the meaning of the term longitude? 
 
 What are degrees of longitude? 
 
 Give the rule for reducing degrees of longitude to time. 
 
 What is the difTerence of longitude between any two places? 
 
 Define the term distance in its relation to navigation. 
 
 Define the terms course and magnetic course as applied to 
 navigation ; also the terms true course and course made good. 
 
 Define the terms variation, deviation, and error of the compass. 
 
 Define the term leeway. 
 
 Define the terms meridian ; and also apparent, observed, and 
 true altitude. 
 
 Explain the term visible horizon and dip of the horizon. 
 What is the meaning of the term refraction? 
 Give the meaning of the term port side. 
 What is the parallax? 
 
 What is the meaning of the term declination? 
 What is meant by polar distance ? 
 What is meant by right ascension? 
 What is meant by semi-diameter? 
 
440 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 Give the meaning of the term starboard side. 
 What is meant by the augmentation of the moon's semi-diameter 
 What is the zenith distance? 
 
 Explain the terms civil, astronomical, sidereal, apparent, and 
 mean time ; also the equation of time. 
 
 What is meant by the hour-angle of a celestial object? 
 
 Define the terms ecliptic and the tropics. 
 
 Define the term azimuth. 
 
 What is meant by the term amplitude when applied to naviga- 
 tion and astronomy ? 
 
 What is the meaning of the term dead reckoning? 
 
 Give the saih'ng distance from New York, in geographical miles, 
 to different ports. 
 
 Give the latitude and longitude of different seaports. 
 
 To what class of machines do pumps belong ? 
 
 What principle is involved in the working of all pumps? 
 
 How high will an ordinary pump, in good condition, lift water 
 or other liquids ? 
 
 What condition limits the action of all atmospheric pumps? 
 
 Give the rule for finding the size of pump-plunger and stroke 
 for an engine of any given power. 
 
 Give the rule for finding the quantity of water, or other liquid, 
 that any pump will lift or discharge in a given time. 
 
 Give the most probable causes why pumps fail to work satis- 
 factorily. 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 441 
 
 Explain the difference between lift-force, single-acting, and 
 double-acting pumps. 
 
 What is the meaning of the term circulating-pump? 
 
 What is the object of placing an air-chamber on a pump ? 
 
 Give the pule for finding the power required to raise a given 
 quantity of water. 
 
 Give the reason why pumps will not lift very hot water. 
 
 What is the object of placing a pet-cock on the barrel of a 
 feed-pump ? 
 
 What is the object of placing mud-boxes or strainers on the 
 suction-pipes of pumps ? 
 
 What course would you adopt to prevent pump-pipes from 
 freezing in cold weather ? 
 
 Explain the meaning of the terms injector and ejector when 
 applied to hydraulic machines. 
 
 Explain the principles involved in the working of the injector. 
 
 What conditions limit the height to which injectors can lift water? 
 
 Under what three heads may all injectors be classed? 
 
 What are the meanings of the terms maximum and minimum 
 delivery ? 
 
 What is the meaning of the term range when applied to injectors? 
 
 To what class of machines does the inspirator belong ? 
 
 On what principle is the action of the inspirator based? 
 
 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of injectors, ejectors, 
 and inspirators over pumps. 
 
442 THE ENGINEER'S H A NB Y -BOOK: . 
 
 PART SIXTH. 
 
 Steam-Boilers. 
 
 Steam-boilers embrace a great variety of designs;* in fact, 
 any vessel in which steam is generated for mechanical purposes 
 
 may be termed a steam-boiler, regardfess of shape or form. The 
 
 * For a full description of all the steam-boilers in use at the present day, 
 their peculiarities of design, construction, care, and management^ see Roper's 
 " Use and Abuse of the Steam-Boiler»!i 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 443 
 
 most common forms of marine-boilers in use at the present clay 
 are the horizontal and vertical, fire- and water-tubulars. The water- 
 tubular is fast disappearing, and is now rarely to be found except 
 in the United States Navy, or those of other countries. Its gradual 
 disappearance arises from the fact that it is more expensive to build 
 and to repair, is more dangerous, and requires extra care and man- 
 agement. If a tube splits or becomes leaky in the fire-tubular boiler, 
 the diflSculty may be met by plugging, and the vessel can proceed 
 on its way ; but if the same accident occur in a water-tubular, it 
 would be necessary to blow out the boiler. The same principle which 
 was embodied in the Montgomery water-tubular marine-boiler was 
 
 Fire-Tubular Marine-Boiler. 
 
 introduced into the Dimpfel locomotive-boiler, but soon fell int© 
 disuse in both cases. The fire-box, fire-tubular marine-boiler, with 
 
444 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 combustion-chamber at the back end and superheater in the up- 
 take, is the type of boiler most generally in use on the steamships 
 of the different lines sailing out from the seaports of this country 
 as well as those of other nations. 
 
 Aside from the choice among engineers between the two forms, 
 there is a wider difference in their proportion than in anything 
 else connected with the steam-engine. While all generally agree 
 that, in proportioning a marine-boiler, there should be sufficient 
 grate-surface to consume the maximum quantity of coal required 
 for the engine for which that boiler was intended to furnish steam, 
 and that there should be sufficient heating-surface to absorb the 
 heat evolved by the fuel ; yet, when it comes to laying down pro- 
 portions, one engineer allows twice as many square feet of heat- 
 ing-surface to one square foot of grate-surface as another. Watt's 
 proportions for land- and marine-boilers varied from 9*5 to 10 feet 
 of heating-surface to 1 square foot of grate-surface. Maudsley 
 and Miller allowed 10 square feet of heating-surface to 1 square 
 foot of grate-surface in the boilers of the celebrated ocean steamer 
 Great Western, and from 10 to 12 square feet of heating-surface 
 to 1 square foot of grate-surface in other marine-boilers that they 
 constructed about the same time ; so that neither they nor Watt 
 seemed to have any fixed rule, nor did there appear to be any 
 among naval constructors either in this country or England. 
 
 This may be seen from the fact that the U. S. gun-boat Massa- 
 chusetts had 34 feet of heating-surface to 1 square foot of grate- 
 surface, while the Vixen, with the same-sized engine, had only 16 to 1. 
 The merchant-steamer Constitution had 66 square feet of heating- 
 surface to one square foot of grate-surface, while the Franklin, a 
 steamship of nearly the same capacity, with engines of the same 
 power, had only 28 to 1. The boilers of the celebrated steamships 
 of the Collins Line, which have made such fast time between 
 New York and Liverpool, had 33 square feet of heating-surface 
 to 1 square foot of grate-surface, while in the boilers of the steam- 
 ships of the Cunard Line the heating-surface varies from 18 to 37 
 square feet to 1 square foot of grate-surface. The Mary Powell, 
 
THE ENGINEER\s HANDY-BOOK. 445 
 
 one of the fastest river-boats in American waters, has 17 square 
 feet of heating-surface to 1 square foot of grate-surface. In pro- 
 portioning the heating-surface to the cubic contents of tlie cylinder, 
 the same variation seems to exist which shows there is no recognized 
 proportion for either. The steamship Massachusetts, U. S. N., has 
 77 square feet of heating-surface to 1 cubic foot of cylinder, while 
 the Powhatan has less than 15 square feet, and the San Jacinto has 
 a trifle over 12. The merchant-steamer Union had one hundred 
 and eighteen square feet of heating-surface to 1 cubic foot of 
 cylinder, while the Isaac Newton had only 10 to 1. The steam-tug 
 Rescue had 63 square feet of heating-surface to 1 cubic foot of 
 cylinder, while the Anglo-Saxon had only 10 to 1. 
 
 The average proportion of heating-surface to grate-surface of 
 345 steamships, tugs, and ferry-boats examined was about 30 
 square feet of heating-surface to 1 square foot of grate-surface, 
 while an examination of a great number of steamships, tug, and 
 ferry-boats in this country, England, and France, showed that the 
 average proportion of heating-surface to 1 cubic foot of cylinder 
 was about 28. In stationary boilers the heating-surface varies 
 from 12 to 30 to 1 square foot of grate-surface, while in some 
 patented sectional boilers there are 60 to 70 square feet of heat- 
 ing-surface to one square foot of grate-surface, the average for 
 locomotive-boilers being about 60 square feet of heating-surface 
 to 1 square foot of grate-surface. 
 
 To proportion a marine-boiler understandingly, it is necessary 
 to know the size of the engine and of the boat or ship, the load 
 to be propelled, and the speed at which it is to move. The engi- 
 neer can determine the pressure and volume of steam required, 
 and decide on the degree of expansion, the quantity of grate- and 
 heating-surface, and in relation to these two latter conditions, as 
 shown in the foregoing paragraphs, the field has a very wide lati- 
 tude. But he must be sure that the boiler possesses sufficient 
 strength to resist in safety the maximum pressure to which it will 
 ever be exposed ; that it contains sufficient grate-surface for the 
 combustion of the necessary quantity of fuel under any circum- 
 38 
 
446 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 stances ; that it has sufficient heating-surface to evaporate the nec- 
 essary quantity of water ; that it is capable of containing a suffi- 
 cient supply of water and steam to prevent undue fluctuation, 
 and that it affords convenient facilities for the repair or renewal 
 of any of its parts. After the foregoing conditions are determined 
 on, another object of great importance to be considered is making 
 the boiler as light and compact as possible. The term heating- 
 surface, when applied to steam-boilers, means all that part of the 
 fire-box, crown-sheet, tube-sheets, and flues with which the fire and 
 flame come in contact in their escape from the furnace to the 
 
 chimney. 
 
 Martin's upright 
 tubular- boiler is 
 sometimes used for 
 marine purposes. 
 Its only advantage 
 is economy of space ; 
 its first cost is more 
 than that of the 
 ordinary horizon- 
 tal marine tubular- 
 boiler, and it is not 
 more efficient. The 
 capacity of the 
 steam-room is about 
 one-third the capac- 
 ity of the boiler. 
 
 The quantity of 
 steam that can be 
 generated in any 
 boiler in a given 
 time is dependent 
 upon a great varie- 
 Direct Flue and Return Tubular Marine-Boiler. circumstances, 
 
 such as the kind of boiler, its condition as to dirt, scale, etc., the 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 447 
 
 manner in which it is set and fired, the quality of the fuel used, 
 quantity of grate-surface, amount of heating-surface, draught, 
 etc., while the amount of water used will depend entirely on the 
 engine, provided the steam is dry. The evaporation in tubular 
 boilers, — stationary, locomotive, and marine, — under good con- 
 dition*, is about 8^ to 9 lbs. of water to 1 lb. of coal ; in flue- 
 boilers, 6 to 7 ; but the average result is about 25 per cent, below 
 this. The nominal loss of fuel in boilers is rarely less than 30 
 per cent., and is frequently as high as 50. Taking the lowest 
 estimate at 30 per cent., it may be illustrated as follows : The 
 amount necessary to produce a draught, including the flame which 
 escapes into the chimney, 20 per cent. ; particles of coal falling 
 through the grates, 5 per cent. ; loss arising from the formation of 
 carbonic oxide, 3 per cent.; loss induced by radiation, 2 per cent. 
 
 The common estimate of the quantity of water necessary to 
 produce one horse-power is one cubic foot; the amount of heating- 
 surface necessary to evaporate one cubic foot of water in an hour 
 has been found, by experiment, to be about 14 square feet to J 
 square foot of grate-surface, under the most favorable conditions. 
 It has grown into a custom, in estimating the horse-power of steam- 
 boilers, to allow 14 square feet of heating-surface to i square foot 
 of grate-surface; but the evaporative performance of steam-boilers 
 varies very much, as in one boiler a cubic foot of water may be 
 evaporated in an hour by 9 square feet of heating-surface to i 
 square foot of grate-surface, while another will take double the 
 amount. In locomotives, the proportion of heating-surface to 
 grate-surface is about 50 to 1 ; in marine-boilers, about 28 to 1 ; 
 ordinary cylinder-boilers, about 15 to 1 ; flue-boilers, 18 to 1 ; 
 tubular-boilers, from 20 to 24 to 1 ; and in sectional- or patent- 
 boilers, about 30 to 1. 
 
 The tendency of water to foam in marine-boilers is frequently 
 attributed to the presence of dirt, or other saline matter, in the 
 water ; but it is often induced by want of proper relations between 
 the heating-surface, steam-room, and water-space of the boiler, as, 
 when the discharge of steam is out of proportion to the steam-room 
 
448 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 in the boiler, the high temperature required to generate steam with 
 sufficient rapidity to supply the demand causes violent boiling, and 
 the agitation is greater when the relation between the temperature 
 and pressure is most disturbed. This is often the case with 
 tug-boats just starting to tow a heavy vessel. Boilers with a 
 large amount of heating-surface and small steam-room gei^rally 
 foam. 
 
 Marine-boilers are generally surmounted by a dome, and, 
 though domes do not add much to the cubical capacity of the 
 steam-room, they have the effect of superheating the steam, or 
 imparting to it an extra heat, which greatly increases its expan- 
 sive force, and renders it less liable to condense in the passages 
 between the boiler and the cylinder. 
 
 Fittings of marine-boilers. — The fittings of marine-boilers are 
 the funnels, air-casings, uptakes, smoke-box and fire-doors, grate- 
 bars, bearers and bridges, main steam-pipe and stop-valve, donkey- 
 valve, safety-valves and drain-pipes, main- and donkey-feed check- 
 valves, blow-off- and scum-cocks, water-gauges, test water-cock, 
 steam-valves for whistle, and winches. 
 
 Bursting Pressure of Cylindrical Steam-Boilers. 
 
 The force which will rupture a cylindrical boiler depends upon 
 the diameter and the pressure of the steam ; hence, the total press- 
 ure to be sustained is equal to the diameter, multiplied by the 
 pressure per square inch of surface, multiplied by the length of 
 the boiler. The shorter the tube, and the smaller the diameter, 
 the greater its power of resistance, and vice versa. No matter 
 what the diameter of a boiler may be, the transverse, or cross 
 pressure tending to tear it asunder, will always be double the 
 longitudinal pressure. 
 
 Rule for finding the bursting pressure of cylindrical boilers with 
 riveted seams. 
 
 Multiply the tensile strength of the iron (which should be taken 
 at 50,000 lbs. per square inch of section) by '56, if single riveted, 
 38-^ 
 
THE ENGINEEr\s irANOY-ROOK. 
 
 449 
 
 and by '70, if double riveted, and divide by the diameter of the 
 boiler, multiplied by the number of pieces of metal, that would 
 make one square inch of cross section ; the product wUl be the 
 bursting strain. 
 
 For instance, what pressure will it require to rupture a cyl- 
 indrical boiler with riveted seams, diameter 12 inches, thickness 
 of iron i inch ? 
 
 ^^^?o^^ ^^ = 583-33 X 2 = 1166-66 lbs., about one-fifth of 
 12 X 4 
 
 which would be the safe working-pressure. 
 
 Rule /or finding the strain exerted in a longitudinal direction by 
 the pressure of steam in a boiler. 
 
 Multiply the area of the head by the pressure in pounds per 
 square inch, and divide the product by the circumference of the 
 boiler, and by the number of thicknesses of iron that would 
 make one square inch of cross section ; the quotient will be the 
 strain. 
 
 Example. Diameter, 12 inches. Area, 113*09 square inches. 
 Pressure, 11661 lbs. 
 
 ^^^37'69 ^^^4 ~ ^^^^^ P^^ square inch of sectional area 
 in a longitudinal direction. 
 
 Rule for finding the strain exerted in a transverse direction by 
 the pressure of steam in a boiler. 
 
 Multiply the pressure per square inch by the diameter, and also 
 
 by the number of thicknesses of metal it will take to make one 
 
 square inch of cross section, and divide the product by 2, because 
 
 the boiler has 2 sides. 
 
 - , 1166-66 x 12 x 4 oiooQQi Ik • u 
 
 Example. = 31999*84 lbs. per square inch 
 
 of sectional area in a transverse direction. 
 
 The power of any steam-boiler to resist strain depends upon 
 the thickness and quality of material, character of the workman- 
 ship, and the shape of the parts subjected to strain. 
 38* 2D 
 
450 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 The above cut represents the arrangements most generally em- 
 ployed for bracing marine steam-boilers, and includes the vertical 
 and horizontal, angle, toggle, dome, and crown braces ; as well as 
 the buckles, crow-feet, angle-irons, girths, stay-bolts, and leg braces. 
 The tubes 'answer for braces for the tube-sheets ; the crow-feet for 
 the crown and dome; the proper strength for the braces of marine- 
 boilers may be found by multiplying the number of square inches 
 exposed to the pressure of the steam by six times the steam-press- 
 ure to be carried. 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 451 
 
 Rules. 
 
 Rule for finding the safe working-pressure of iron boilers. — Multi- 
 ply the thickness of iron by '56,* if single riveted, and '70, if 
 double riveted ; multiply this product by 10,000 (safe load) ; then 
 divide this last product by the external radius (less thickness of 
 iron) ; the quotient will be the safe working-pressure in pounds 
 per square inch, which, if multiplied by 5, would give the burst- 
 ing pressure. 
 
 In the foregoing rule, the tensile strength of the iron is taken 
 at 50,000, as it has been repeatedly proved by experiment that 
 boiler-plate possesses less tenacity than the same iron would have 
 if rolled into bars. 
 
 Rule for finding the internal strain to which boilers are subjected 
 when under pressure, — Multiply the surface of the plate required 
 for one square inch of sectional area by the pressure of steam in 
 lbs. per square inch ; multiply this result by the diameter of the 
 boiler in inches, and divide by 2, which gives the strain per square 
 inch of sectional area to which the boiler is subjected. 
 
 The surface of boiler-plate required for one square inch of 
 sectional area will depend upon the thickness of plate ; thus, iron 
 i inch thick will require 4 superficial inches to make one square 
 inch of sectional area; iron \ inch thick will require 2, and so on. 
 
 Rule for finding the pressure per square inch of sectional area on 
 the crown-sheets of steam-boilers. — 3Iultiply the width of the crown- 
 sheet in inches by its length in inches ; multiply this product by 
 the pressure of the steam in lbs. per square inch by the gauge ; 
 divide by 2, if i inch iron, and so on according to the thickness. 
 
 Rule for finding the aggregate strain caused by the pressure of 
 steam on the shells of boilers. — Multiply the circumference in inches 
 by the length in inches ; midtiply that product by the pressure in 
 pounds per square inch. The result will be the aggregate pressure 
 on the shell of the boiler. 
 
 ^ Multiplied by '56, because the iron loses 44 per cent, of its strength in tlie 
 process of punching. Double-riveted seams equal '70 of the original strength. 
 
452 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANBY-BOOK. 
 
 Rule for finding the safe external pressure on boiler-fiues, — Multi- 
 ply the square of the thickness of the iron by the constant whole 
 number 806,300 ; divide this product by the diameter of the flues in 
 inches; divide the quotient by the length of the flue in feet; divide 
 this quotient by 3: the result will be the safe working-pressure. 
 
 Ru\e for finding the collapsing pressure of boiler fiues, — Multiply 
 the square of the thickness of the iron, in thirty seconds of an 
 inch, by the constant number 262*4 ; divide this product by the 
 length of the flue in feet ; divide this quotient by the diameter of 
 the flue in quarter feet, and the quotient will be the collapsing 
 pressure in pounds per square inch. 
 
 Rule /or finding the number of square feet of heating-surface in a 
 tube, or any number of tubes. 
 
 Multiply the circumference of the tube in inches by its length 
 in inches, and divide by 144 ; the quotient will be the number of 
 square feet of heating-surface. This, multiplied by the whole num- 
 ber of tubes, will give the aggregate amount of heating-surface. 
 
 Rule for fiyiding the strength of single- or double-riveted seams. 
 
 Multiply the area of the metal between the holes, in square 
 inches, by the ultimate strength of the metal after punching the 
 holes. The product will be the strength of the seam. Single-riv- 
 eted seams being equal to about 56 per cent, of the original 
 strength, and double-riveted, 70 per cent. 
 
 Rule for finding the strain due to the pressure of the steam on 
 boiler-stays. 
 
 Multiply the area in inches between the stays by the pressure 
 in pounds per square inch. The product will be the strain in 
 pounds per square inch. 
 
 Rules. 
 
 Rwie for finding the heating-surface of fire-box boilers — locomotive, 
 marine, or stationary. — Multiply the length of the furnace-plates 
 in inches by their height above the grate in inches ; multiply the 
 width of the ends in inches by their height in inches ; .multiply 
 the length of the crown-sheet in inches by its width in inches ; 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 453 
 
 also the combiued circumference of all the tubes in inches by their 
 length in inches; from the sum of these four products subtract the 
 combined area of all the tubes and the fire-door ; divide the re- 
 mainder by 144, and the quotient will be the number of square 
 feet of heating-surface. 
 
 Rule for flue-boilers. — Multiply | of the circumference of the 
 shell in inches by its length in inches ; multiply the combined 
 circumference of all the flues in inches by their length in inches ; 
 divide the sum of these two products by 144, and the quotient 
 will be the number of square feet of heating-surface. 
 
 Rule for cylinder-boilers. — Multiply! of the circumference 
 of the shell in inches by its length in inches, divide by 144, and 
 the quotient will be the number of square feet of heating-surface. 
 
 Rule for tubular-boilers, — Multiply | of the circumference of 
 the shell in inches by its length in inches ; multiply the combined 
 circumference of all the tubes in inches by their length in inches. 
 To the sum of these two products add | the area of both tube- 
 sheets; from this sum subtract the combined area of all the tubes; 
 divide the remainder by 144, and the quotient will be the number 
 of square feet of heating-surface. 
 
 Rule for finding the heating-surface of vertical tubular boilers, such 
 as are generally used for fire-engines. — Multiply the circumference 
 of the fire-box in inches by its height above the grate in inches. 
 Multiply the combined circumference of all the tubes in inches 
 by their length in inches, and to these two products add the area 
 of the lower tube- or crown-sheet, and from this sum subtract the 
 area of all the tubes, and divide by 144. The quotient will be 
 the number of square feet of heating-surface in the boiler. 
 
 Boiler-Stays. 
 
 Boiler- stays, in any case, are but substitutes for real strength 
 in the shell or other parts of the boiler. The' strain usually al- 
 lowed on them per square inch is about 5000 lbs. The most 
 common method of securing them is to cut a thread on both ends, 
 
454 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 and screw and cold-rivet them into the plates ; another method 
 is to flatten the ends of the stay, and secure them to the boiler 
 by means of one or two rivets; still another is to rivet eye-bolts 
 into the shell of the boiler, fork the end of the stay-bolt, and 
 attach to the eye-bolt by means of a cotter. But all the forego- 
 ing methods have their objections, as, when the stays become 
 slack, and it becomes necessary to make them taut, the necessity 
 of cutting away the rivets, destroying the thread, and weakening 
 the boiler is necessarily involved. 
 
 The most modern and permanent method of securing stays to 
 the shell or ends of steam-boilers is by riveting angle-irons to 
 the parts to be braced, as shown at a, a, a, a, in the cut on page 
 450, and drilling holes in the angle-irons where the brace is to be 
 attached. Then the rods may be forked, and attached to the 
 angle-irons by means of a cotter, which term means a blank bolt, 
 with a splint in its end, which may be expanded with a cold-chisel, 
 to prevent them from coming out. This arrangement has this 
 advantage, that, where the braces become slack, they may be 
 made taut by taking them out, heating them in a forge, and up- 
 setting them. The value of stays as a substitute for strength and 
 safety depends very materially not only on the manner in which 
 they are attached to the parts they are intended to strengthen, 
 but also on their position, which affects their ability to stand ten- 
 sile strain and compression-pressure. If the stay is properly 
 anchored, it will stand, on a straight pull, a resistance equal to its 
 tensile strength, or it will resist the force of compression equal to 
 its crushing strength ; but if it stands slightly oblique, its power 
 of resistance will be very much diminished. 
 
 Stay-Bolts. 
 
 Stay-bolts are the means usually employed to strengthen the 
 flat surfaces in the fire-box and water-legs of locomotives and 
 marine-boilers ; they are generally screwed into both plates, on 
 each side of the water space, and riveted by the process called 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 455 
 
 cold riveting. Numerous ordinary-sized bolts are preferable to a 
 few large ones. The difficulty in the case of stay-bolts does not 
 arise ordinarily from tensile strength, brought upon the bolt by 
 the steam-pressure, but from relative changes in position of the 
 two sheets through which the bolt passes, caused by a difference 
 in the temperature of the two sheets, and the consequent difference 
 in expansion. For instance, if the side sheet of a fire-box of a 
 locomotive- or marine-boiler expands in a vertical direction i of 
 an inch more than the outside sheet, then all bolts in the top row 
 will have their inner ends forced upwards from their original 
 position to that extent, and the boilers must spring or bend ac- 
 cordingly ; whereas, when both sheets become again of the same 
 temperature, the ends of the bolts are drawn back to their original 
 position. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE BREAKING STRAIN OF IRON AND COPPER STAY-BOLTS. 
 
 
 Breaking 
 Weight in 
 Pounds. 
 
 Strength 
 distributed 
 
 over 25 
 inches area 
 would give 
 
 Lbs. per 
 square inch. 
 
 Strength 
 distributed 
 
 over 16 
 inches area 
 would give 
 
 Lbs. per 
 square inch. 
 
 1. Iron into iron screwed and ) 
 
 2. Iron into copper screwed ) 
 
 3. Iron into copper screwed ) 
 only . ^ 1 
 
 4. Copper into copper screw- ) 
 ed and riveted . ... j 
 
 25,000 
 21,400 
 16,200 
 14,400 
 
 1,000 
 
 856 
 648 
 576 
 
 1,563 
 1,338 
 1,013 
 900 
 
 Scale in Steam-Boilers. 
 
 Marine-boilers using sea-water require to be frequently blown 
 out to prevent incrustation, or deposit of salt, on their heating 
 
456 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 surfaces, which lie between the iron and the water. It not only 
 causes an increased consumption of coal, but allows the iron to 
 become crystallized and burned. The evil effects of the scale are 
 due to the fact that it is a non-conductor of heat. Its conducting 
 power, compared with that of iron, is as 1 to 35*5. Consequently, 
 more fuel is required to heat water in an incrusted boiler than in 
 the same boiler if clean. A scale inch thick will require the 
 extra expenditure of 15 per cent, more fuel ; this ratio increases 
 as the scale thickens. Thus, when it is i inch thick, 60 per cent, 
 more fuel is needed ; J inch thick, 150 per cent., and so on ; con- 
 sequently, to raise water in a boiler to any given heat, the fire-sur- 
 face of the boiler must be heated to a temperature in accordance 
 with the thickness of the scale. 
 
 To raise steam to a pressure of ninety pounds, the water must 
 be heated to about 320° Fah. In a clean boiler of | inch iron, 
 this may be done by heating the external surface of the shell to 
 about 325°. If ^ inch of scale intervenes between the shell and 
 the water, such is its non-conducting power, that it will be neces- 
 sary to heat the fire-surface to about 700°, almost red heat. Now^ 
 the higher the temperature at which iron is kept, the more rapidly 
 it oxidizes, and at any heat above 600° it very soon becomes gran- 
 ular and brittle, and is liable to bulge, crack, or otherwise give 
 way to the internal pressure. This condition predisposes the boiler 
 to explosions, and makes necessary expensive repairs. Again, it is 
 readily seen that the presence of scale renders slower and more 
 difficult -the raising, maintaining, and lowering of s.team. 
 
 The principal ingredient in the scale which forms in marine- 
 boilers using sea-water is sulphate of lime, but no very injurious 
 effect will take place in boilers if the degree of sal tn ess is not 
 allowed to exceed In fact, a thin coat of scale is beneficial, as 
 it protects the iron from corrosion and internal grooving. 
 
 Lord's Boiler Compound appears to be the only chemical prep- 
 aration in use at the present day that will prevent the formation 
 of scale, or remove it after it has been formed, in any class of 
 boilers, whether stationary, locomotive, or marine, as it neutral- 
 
THE ENGINEEK'S HANDY-HOOK. 
 
 457 
 
 izes the action of the natural chemical salts which form the 
 basis of all scale and incrustation. 
 
 An analysis of sea-water shows the relative quantities of the 
 ingredients it contains. 
 
 Water 
 
 Cliloride of Sodium . 
 Chloride of Potassium 
 Chloride of Magnesium 
 Bromide of Magnesium 
 Sulphate of Magnesia 
 Sulphate of Lime 
 Carbonate of Lime . 
 
 964-745 
 27-059 
 0-766 
 3-666 
 
 0- 029 
 2-296 
 
 1- 406 
 0-033 
 
 constitute the basis of the scale which 
 using fresh-water from wells, lakes, or 
 
 The minerals which 
 
 forms in steam-boilers 
 rivers, are sulphate of lime, phosphate of lime, carbonate of lime, 
 magnesia, silica, and alumina, with small quantities of sesquioxide 
 of iron, baryta, carbonic acid, organic matter, chlorine, sulphuric 
 acid, potassa, calcium, soda, phosphoric acid, magnesium, etc. 
 The remedies for the prevention and removal of scale from steam- 
 boilers are almost innumerable. 
 
 Foaming in Marine-Boilers. 
 
 Foaming in marine-boilers using jet-condensers is generally 
 caused by changing the water from salt to fresh, or vice versdj and 
 is made evident by the boiling up of the water in the glass gauge. 
 When foaming arises from this. cause, the water in the boiler should 
 be changed as soon as possible, which can be done by putting on a 
 strong feed, and blowing out continuously, or at short intervals ; 
 it may even become necessary to throttle down the engine, cut f ff 
 short, or even stop, in order to ascertain the level of the water in 
 the boilers. 
 
 Violent foaming can be checked by opening the furnace-door, 
 closing the damper, and covering the fire with fresh coal ; but this 
 39 
 
458 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 means of relief should be used as little as possible, because it has a 
 tendency to injure the boiler, owing to the sudden contraction of the 
 parts most exposed to the fire. All the phenomena connected with 
 foaming have not yet been satisfactorily explained; but, from 
 w^hatever cause it may arise, it is always attended with a certain 
 amount of danger. Foaming is sometimes confounded with ^nm- 
 ingy but they arise from different causes, and are productive of dif- 
 ferent results. Foaming is always made manifest by the violent 
 agitation, the rising and falling of the water in the gauge, and 
 the muddy appearance of the water. 
 
 Foaming is induced in stationary boilers by a filthy condition, 
 particularly in those to which the feed-water is supplied through 
 open heaters, in consequence of the oil or tallow employed for 
 lubricating the cylinder being carried over with the exhaust- 
 steam. The water in locomotive-boilers foams on some parts of 
 the road, while on other sections this phenomenon never mani- 
 fests itself, which may be attributed to the presence of alkali or 
 saline matter in the water with which the boilers are supplied on 
 certain parts of the road. Foaming is induced in all boilers by 
 the want of proper proportion between the water-space, heating- 
 surface, and steam-room of the boiler, and also from the absence 
 of sufficient steam-room in the boiler to supply the cylinder. 
 
 Priming. 
 
 The term Priming is understood by engineers to mean the 
 passage of water from the boiler to the steam-cylinder in the 
 shape of spray instead of vapor. It may go on unseen, but it is 
 generally made manifest by the white appearance of the steam 
 as it issues from the exhaust-pipe ; as saturated steam, or steam 
 containing water, has a white appearance, and descends in the 
 shape of mist ; while dry steam has a bluish color, and floats away 
 in the atmosphere. Priming also makes itself known by a click- 
 ing in the cylinder, which is caused by the piston striking the 
 water against the cylinder-head at each end of the stroke. 
 
 Priming is generally induced by a want of sufficient steam-room 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 459 
 
 in the boiler, the water being carried too high, or the steam-pi})e 
 being too small for the cylinder, which would cause the steam in 
 the boiler to rush out so rapidly that, every time the valve 
 opened, it would induce a disturbance, and cause the water to rush 
 over into the cylinder with the steam. 
 
 The following table shows the result of a series of experiments, 
 carried out by Captain Rodman, for the purpose of demonstrating 
 the effects of sudden strains on wrought-iron, a bar one inch 
 square, of the best quality of iron, being selected for the purpose. 
 
 Amount of Strain. 
 
 Temp'y Stretch. 
 Tinnr inch. 
 
 Permanent Stretch. 
 iWiJ of ^" inch. 
 
 5,000 lbs 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 10,000 " 
 
 41 
 
 1 
 
 15,000 " 
 
 57 
 
 1 
 
 20,000 " 
 
 76 
 
 3 
 
 25,000 " 
 
 100 
 
 7 
 
 30,000 " 
 
 537 
 
 408 
 
 35,000 " 
 
 1833 
 
 1661 
 
 40,000 " 
 
 4000 
 
 
 45,000 " broke 
 
 
 
 It will be seen from the above table that the first essay, by 
 means of a strain of 5000 lbs., produced no permanent stretch in 
 the bar; and that 10,000 lbs. and 15,000 lbs., respectively, only 
 produced a permanent stretch of yVA inch, or about of 
 
 the temporary stretch. But in the next two strains of 20,000 and 
 25,000 lbs., the iron begins to shows a great acceleration of the 
 weakening process or increase of fatigue, as the permanent strain 
 has sprung up to of the entire stretch. In the next two items 
 this acceleration is astounding, the permanent stretch being | of 
 the whole upon 30,000 lbs, and -f^ of the permanent stretch of 
 35,000 lbs. The tensile strength of good boiler-iron increases with 
 an increase of temperature up to about 500° Fah., consequently, 
 a steam-boiler is safer and stronger under a moderately high steam- 
 pressure than it would be under the same hydraulic pressure. 
 
460 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Deterioration of steam-boilers. — Deterioration of steam-boilers 
 arises from the following causes: want of lamination in the sheets; 
 overstretching of the fibre of the plate in the process of rolling ; 
 injuries done the plate in the process of punching ; damage in- 
 duced by the use of the drift-pin ; injury done the plates by a 
 want of skill in the use of the hammer, or in the processes of 
 hand-riveting and calking. Other causes are unequal expan- 
 sion and contraction, resulting from a want of skill in setting ; 
 grooving in the vicinity of the seams; internal and external 
 corrosion ; blowing out the boiler when under a high pressure, 
 and filling it again with cold water when hot ; allowing the fire to 
 burn too rapidly after starting, when the boiler is cold ; ignorance 
 of the use of the pick in the process of scaling and cleaning ; in- 
 capacity of the safety-valve ; excessive firing ; urging or taxing 
 the boiler beyond its safe and easy working capacity ; allowing 
 the water to become low, thus causing undue expansion ; deposits 
 of scale accumulating on the parts exposed to the direct action of 
 the fire, thereby burning or crystallizing the sheets or shell ; and 
 wuGting of the material by leakage, etc. 
 
 Corrosion, and its Analogy to Combustion.* 
 
 The term corrosion means wasting, pitting, or grooving of the 
 material, and is generally referred to under two heads, namely, in- 
 ternal and external. 
 
 Internal corrosion presents itself in various forms, and is due to 
 various causes, but principally to the minerals and acids con- 
 tained in the feed-water with which steam-boilers are supplied. 
 
 External corrosion is said to be due to the galvanic action of 
 the mineral in the fuel and the gases in the atmosphere, and both 
 are intimately associated with combustion, or stimulated by it ; as 
 the acids and minerals which are in solution in the water, and lib- 
 erated by the heat, attack the boiler internally; whilst the sulphur 
 which is liberated by the combustion of coal has a strong aflSnity 
 
 ^ See Koper's " Use and Abuse of Steam-Boilers." 
 
THE E N G I N K E R \S H A N I) Y - R () O K . 
 
 461 
 
 for the irou of which boilers are constructed, and attack it ex- 
 ternally. 
 
 Manuiil and Mechanical Firing. 
 
 The term firing is understood to be the art of applying fresh 
 coal or other fuel to a furnace, which operation, in the case of large 
 furnaces, incurs the severest kind of manual labor, and is attended 
 with a great loss of fuel, in consequence of the 'great volume of 
 cold air that enters the furnace every time the operation of replen- 
 ishing or cleaning the fires is performed. Numerous attempts 
 have been made to obviate this waste by the invention of ma- 
 chinery that would fire or supply the fuel continuously, but so far 
 no mechanical arrangements Have proved a success ; nor is it at all 
 likely that they ever will, as there are difficulties to be encountered 
 which no human ingenuity in the design of machines can prob- 
 ably ever overcome. It is impossible to design a machine that 
 will distribute the coal uniformly over the surface of the fire, in- 
 cluding the sharp corners, etc. Unless that can be done, me- 
 chanical firing, however ingenious the arrangement may be, must 
 ever prove a failure. 
 
 Even if a machine were devised that would distribute the fuel 
 evenly over the fire-surface, it would not be available for cleaning 
 the fires, and, as a result, there would be nearly the same loss in- 
 curred if the fires have to be cleaned by hand, as if they were fed 
 by hand. This being the case, the question would naturally be 
 asked. Why is it that thousands of dollars have been expended in 
 attempts to fire mechanically ? and the answer would be, that there 
 are always parties to be found who are ready to devote time and 
 invest money in every delusion which has ever been promulgated 
 in connection with the steam-engine and boiler. If fuel could be 
 consumed in round or oval furnaces, it would render more service 
 than if burned in square furnaces, as there is always more or less 
 dead material in the square confers through which the air escapes, 
 thus lowering the temperature in the furnace, and rendering com- 
 bustion less active and more wasteful. 
 39* 
 
462 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Technical Terms applied to Firing. 
 
 Start Fires. — This term is understood to mean starting fresh 
 fires in furnaces with shavings, wood, coal, etc. 
 
 Bank Fires. — This term is understood to mean covering the 
 fires down with a thick body of coal at night, or when the engine 
 has to be stopped for an indefinite period. 
 
 Slice Fires. — This means to push back the fire to the bridge- 
 wall, and then draw out the cinders, after which the fire is drawn 
 forward, distributed over the grates, and fresh fuel supplied. The 
 terms slice and clean fires have the same meaning. 
 
 Draw Fires. — This term is understood to mean to draw the 
 entire fire from the furnace for the purpose of allowing the furnace 
 to cool for stoppage or repairs, as the case may be. 
 
 Technical Terms Employed in Relation to Boilers, 
 
 Curvilinear Seams. — The curvilinear seams of a boiler are 
 those around the circumference. 
 
 Grate-Surface. — The term grate-surface means the aggre- 
 gate number of square feet. In practice, the allowance of 
 grate-surface is about three-fourths of a square foot per horse- 
 power. 
 
 Longitudinal Seams. — The seams which are parallel to the 
 length of a boiler are called the longitudinal seams. 
 
 Safe-working pressure, or safe load. — The safe-working press- 
 ure of steam-boilers is generally taken as ^ of the bursting press- 
 ure, whatever that may be. 
 
 Steam -Room. — That part of a boiler occupied by the steam. 
 In practice, it is about i of the cubic contents of the boiler. 
 
 Water-Space. — That part of a steam-boiler which is occupied 
 by the water. It is generally about i of the cubic contents of the 
 boiler. 
 
 The aggregate space in all classes of steam-boilers may be em- 
 braced under two heads, viz., steam-room and water-space. 
 
THE ENGINEEK's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 463 
 
 Friction of Riveted Seams. 
 
 Owing to the contraction of rivets in cooling, the plates are, in 
 many instances, brought into such close contact that the friction 
 between them is sufficient to withstand the working strain without 
 any shearing action coming upon the rivets. This is more especially 
 the case with machine riveting. The contraction of a wrought- 
 iron bar in cooling is nearly equal to j-qI^^ of its length for a 
 decrease of temperature of fifteen degrees Fah., and the strain 
 thus induced is about one ton for every square inch of sectional 
 area in the bar. 
 
 Thus, if a rivet one inch in section were closed at a temperature 
 of 900 degrees, it would in cooling decrease in length -i-^o%j^ of 
 its length ; and if its elasticity and strength remained perfect, would 
 produce a tension of 60 tons. The ultimate strength of rivet iron, 
 however, being only 24 tons, the rivet would in cooling be per- 
 manently elongated, and would continue, when cool, to exert a 
 tension of 24 tons, providing its elasticity remained uninjured by 
 the strain. Thus, if the rivets were not in contact with the plates, 
 excepting at the head and tail, the plates would be held together 
 by a pressure of 24 tons, and this friction would have to be over- 
 come before the rivet came into action as a mere pin, from which 
 will be seen that, by judicious riveting, the friction may, in many 
 cases, be nearly sufficient to counterbalance the weakening of the 
 plate from the punching of the holes. 
 
 Calking. 
 
 The object of calking is to bring together the seams of boilers, 
 tanks, or hulls of iron vessels after riveting, so that they may be 
 perfectly steam- or water-tight. This is done by using a sharp 
 tool ground to a slight angle. The edge of the plates being first 
 chipped or planed to an angle of about 110°, the calking-tool is 
 applied to the lower edge of the chipped or planed angle, in order 
 to drive or upset the edge, thus bringing the plates together, and 
 
464 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 rendering the joint to all appearances perfectly steam-tight, and 
 able to resist the internal pressure brought to bear upon this 
 particular point. There are different methods of calking, but 
 the concave method has many points of preference over any 
 other. Boilers should never be calked while under steam- or water- 
 pressure, however light, as the jarring induced by the calking is 
 liable to spring the seams and cause fresh leakage in other parts 
 of the boiler. 
 
 Steam-Boiler Explosions. 
 
 The principal causes of explosions,* in fact, the only causes, 
 are deficiency of strength in the shell or other parts of the boilers, 
 over-pressure and over-heating. Deficiency of strength in steam- 
 boilers may be due to original defects, bad workmanship, deterio- 
 ration from use or mismanagement. Deficiency of strength aris- 
 ing from bad workmanship is the most diflScult to discover, and 
 not unfrequently escapes the closest scrutiny, more particularly in 
 the case of flue, tubular, and locomotive boilers. 
 
 Over- pressure may be caused by the safety-valve being over- 
 weighted ; by its sticking on its seat ; by the inadequate size of 
 the communication between the boiler and valve, or by an incorrect 
 and worthless steam-gauge. The same effect may be produced 
 when there is a disproportion between the grate- and heating- sur- 
 faces, or where the heat from a large grate is concentrated on a 
 small space. Under such circumstances, the heat is delivered with 
 such intensity as to lift the water from the surface of the iron, 
 thereby exposing it to the direct action of the fire. 
 
 Explosions occurring from excessive firing are in all cases the 
 result of avarice, ignorance, or a want of skill in the care and 
 management of the steam-boiler. Overheating may be caused 
 by the accumulation of hard, solid incrustation adhering to the 
 parts most exposed to the direct action of the fire, or it may be 
 due to insuflSciency of water, resulting from leakage of the valve 
 
 * See Rop.er^s " Use and Abuse of the Steam-Boiler." 
 
THE enginp:kr\s II and y- book. 
 
 465 
 
 or stop-cock, a failure in the supply-pipe, or a neglect to turn it 
 on at the proper time or in sufficient quantity. 
 
 A steam-boiler may be well designed, of good material, and of 
 first-class workmanship, and yet in a few months, after being put 
 under steam, it may explode with terrible effect. On examining 
 into the cause of the explosion, it may turn out that the water 
 used made a heavy deposit ; that the boiler had not been cleaned 
 since it was put into use ; that the fires had been fiercely urged, 
 and the water driven from the surface of the iron ; as a result, 
 the life had been entirely burned out of the sheets over and around 
 the fire, thereby weakening the boiler, and putting it in a dan- 
 gerous condition. That the sudden heating or cooling, and oxida- 
 tion of the boiler, induce great deterioration of strength has 
 been proved by experience. Defects in the material, as blisters, 
 lamination arising from inferior material, or want of care in the 
 manufacture, are other sources of weakness in steam-boilers. 
 
 Safety- Valyes.* 
 
 The safety-valve is designed on the assumption that it will rise 
 from its seat under the statical pressure in the boiler, when this 
 pressure exceeds the exterior pressure on the valve, and that it 
 will remain off its seat sufBciently far to permit all the steam 
 which the boiler can produce to escape around the edges of the 
 valve. The problem then to be solved is : What amount of open- 
 ing is necessary for the free escape of steam from a boiler under a 
 given pressure ? The area of a safety-valve is determined from 
 formulae based on the velocity of the flow of steam under different 
 pressures, or experiments made to ascertain the area necessary for 
 the escape of all the steam a boiler could produce under a given 
 pressure. But as valves do not rise appreciably from their seats 
 under varying pressures, the point to be considered is, how high 
 any safety-valve will rise under the influence of a given pressure. 
 This question cannot be determined theoretically, but has been 
 settled conclusively by Burg, of Vienna, who ascertained from 
 
 * See page 654. 
 
466 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 careful experiments that the rise of the valve diminishes rapidly 
 as the pressure increases, as may be seen from the annexed table. 
 
 Pressure in Lbs. 
 
 Rise of Valve. 
 
 1 
 
 Pressure in Lbs. 
 
 Rise of Valve. 
 
 12 
 20 
 35 
 45 
 50 
 
 1 
 
 36" 
 45 
 T4 
 
 eV 
 1 
 
 56 
 
 60 
 70 
 80 
 90 
 
 1 
 
 Tg5 
 1 
 
 T65 
 
 in ordinary safety-valves, the average rise for pressures ranging 
 from 10 to 40 pounds is about ^^j^ of an inch ; from 40 to 70 pounds, 
 about -^Q, and from 70 to 90, about of an inch. The following 
 table gives the result of a series of experiments made at the Nov- 
 elty Iron Works, New York, some years ago, for the purpose of 
 determining the exact area of opening necessary for safety-valves, 
 per each square foot of heating-surface, at different boiler press- 
 ures. 
 
 Boiler Pressure 
 in Lbs. Above 
 the Atmos- 
 phere. 
 
 Area of Orifice in 
 Sq. In. for Each 
 Sq. Ft. of Heat- 
 ing-Surface. 
 
 Boiler Pressure 
 in Lbs. Above 
 the Atmos- 
 phere. 
 
 Area of Orifice in 
 Sq. In. for Each 
 Sq. Ft. of Heat- 
 ing-Surface. 
 
 0-25 
 
 •022794 
 
 40- 
 
 -001723 
 
 0-5 
 
 •021164 
 
 50- 
 
 •001389 
 
 1- 
 
 •018515 
 
 GO- 
 
 -001176 
 
 2- 
 
 •014814 
 
 TO- 
 
 -001015 
 
 3- 
 
 •012345 
 
 80- 
 
 -000892 
 
 4- 
 
 •010582 
 
 90- 
 
 -000796 
 
 5- 
 
 •009259 
 
 100- 
 
 -000719 
 
 10- 
 
 •005698 
 
 150- 
 
 -000481 
 
 20- 
 
 •003221 
 
 200- 
 
 •000364 
 
 30- 
 
 •002244 
 
 
 
 Now, if we compare the area of openings, according to these 
 experiments, with Zeuner's formula, which is entirely theoretical, 
 
THE ENGINEER\s HANDY-BOOK 
 
 467 
 
 it will be observed that the results from the two sources are al- 
 most identical. 
 
 The lift of safety-valves, like all other puppet-valves, decreases 
 as the pressure increases ; but this seeming irregularity may be 
 explained as follows : a cubic foot of water generated into steam 
 at one pound pressure per square inch above the atmosphere will 
 have a volume of about 1600 cubic feet. Steam at this pressure 
 will flow into the atmosphere with a velocity of 482 feet per sec- 
 ond. Now, suppose the steam was generated in five minutes, or in 
 300 seconds, and the area of an orifice to permit its escape as fast 
 as it is generated be required, 1600 divided by 482 X 300 will give 
 the area of the orifice, 1?- square inches. If the same quantity 
 of water be generated into steam, at a pressure of 50 pounds 
 above the atmosphere, it will possess a volume of 440 cubic feet, 
 and will flow into the atmosphere with a velocity of 1791 feet per 
 second. The area of an orifice, to allow this steam to escape in 
 the same time as in the first case, may be found by dividing 440 
 by 1791 X 300 ; the result will be square inches, or nearly | of 
 a square inch, the area required. It is evident from this that a 
 much less lift of the same valve will suflSce to discharge the same 
 weight of steam under a high pressure than under a low one, be- 
 cause the steam, under a high pressure, not only possesses a re- 
 duced volume, but a greatly increased velocity; it is also obvious 
 that a safety-valve, to discharge steam as fast as the boiler car 
 generate it, should be proportioned for the lowest pressure. 
 
 There does not appear to be any recognized rule among boilei 
 makers for proportioning safety-valves, since, while one allows one 
 inch of area of safety-valve to every 66 square feet of heating- 
 surface, another gives 1 inch area of safety-valve to every 4 horse- 
 power, while a third allows 1 inch area of safety-valve to 1| square 
 feet of grate-surface. This last proportion has been proved by 
 experience to be capable of admitting of a free escape of steam, 
 without allowing any greater increase of pressure than that for 
 which the valve is loaded, providing that all the parts are in good 
 working order. It is obvious, that no valve can act without a 
 
468 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 slight increase of pressure, as, in order to lift at all, the internal 
 pressure must exceed that of the load. Doubtless, most safety- 
 valves are larger than is actually required, and but few boiler 
 explosions occur from want of safety-valve area. The most prob- 
 able causes of accidents arising from safety-valves are that they 
 are either overloaded or out of order. A badly proportioned 
 safety-valve, whether too large or too small, is objectionable, and 
 is always attended with a certain amount of danger. 
 
 Rules. 
 
 Rule for finding the weight necessary to put on a safety-valve lever y 
 when the area of valve, pressure, etc., are known, — Multiply the 
 area of valve by the pressure in pounds per square inch ; multi- 
 ply this product by the distance of the valve from the fulcrum ; 
 multiply the weight of the lever by one-half its length (or its 
 centre of gravity) ; then multiply the weight of valve and stem 
 by their distance from the fulcrum ; add these last two products 
 together; subtract their sum from the first product, and divide 
 the remainder by the length of the lever ; the quotient will be the 
 weight required. 
 
 Rule for finding the pressure per square inch when the area of 
 valve, weight of ball, etc., are known, — Multiply the weight of ball 
 by the length of lever, and multiply the weight of lever by one- 
 half its length (or its centre of gravity) ; then multiply the weight 
 of valve and stem by the distance from fulcrum. Add these three 
 products together. This sum divided by the product of the area 
 of the valve, and its distance from the fulcrum, will give the press- 
 ure in pounds per square inch. 
 
 Rule for finding the pressure at which a safety-valve is weighted 
 when the length of lever, weight of ball, etc., are known. — Multiply 
 the length of the lever in inches by the weight of the ball in 
 pounds ; then multiply the area of valve by its distance from the 
 fulcrum ; divide the former product by the latter ; the quotient 
 will be the pressure in pounds per square inch. 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 469 
 
 Rule for finding centre of gravity of taper- levers for safety-valves. 
 — Divide the length of lever by two (2) ; then divide the length 
 of lever by six (6) ; and multiply the latter quotient by width of 
 large end of lever, less the width of small end, divided by width 
 of large end of lever plus the width of small end. Subtract this 
 product from the first quotient, and the remainder will be the dis- 
 tance in inches of the centre of gravity from large end of lever. 
 
 Dead-weight safety-valves are those in which a pressure is 
 exerted on the valve by means of a weight suspended on the long 
 arm of the lever. 
 
 Spring safety-valves are those in which the pressure of the 
 steam against the face of the valve is resisted by means of a spiral 
 spring. They are generally used for locomotives, as, in consequence 
 of the jar, the dead-weight safety-valve is impracticable. 
 
 Lock safety-valves are those in which the weight on the lever 
 is enclosed in a lock-box, to prevent the engineer from increasing 
 the pressure at will. This arrangement of safety-valve is most 
 generally used on the boilers of marine engines, tug-boats, and 
 ferries. 
 
 Draught in Chimneys. 
 
 The presence of draught in any locality is due, to a certain ex- 
 tent, to the unbalanced pressure of the atmosphere, and is, in 
 many cases, intensified and heightened by natural causes, but 
 more frequently by mechanical and artificial arrangements. The 
 natural draught or rush of air up chimneys or funnels is caused by 
 the buoyancy both of the rarefied atmosphere and of the gases 
 which pass through the fuel, as well as by the natural affinity of 
 the colder and denser atmosphere to rush in and fill up the vacuum 
 caused by the escape or ascension of the preceding volume. All 
 the phenomena connected with draught are not as well understood 
 as they should be, considering its importance as an agent in the 
 promotion and maintenance of the combustion of fuel ; the object 
 of draught being to supply oxygen to the-burning fuel, and dissemi- 
 nate or eject the products of combustion. 
 40 
 
470 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Numerous attempts have been made at different times to laj 
 down rules for the area and height of chimneys that would produce 
 sufficient draught for the consumption of a certain quantity of 
 fuel in a given time, but such formulae have more frequently failed, 
 than succeeded, in giving satisfactory results, which is due prob- 
 ably to the want of knowledge of the requirements in each in- 
 dividual case, and of the location and surroundings. Attempts 
 are, in many instances, made to produce a good draught by carry- 
 ing the chimney above all surrounding objects and buildings, but it 
 frequently occurs that shorter chimneys of the same area and 
 internal dimensions have a better draught. It is claimed by some 
 engineers that chimneys ought to increase in area from bottom to 
 top, to be capable of producing a good draught, while others assert 
 just ^the reverse, and claim that they ought to decrease from bottom 
 to top. It has been found by experiment that both arrangements 
 produced a good draught under some circumstances, but neither 
 of them under all circumstances. The area of any chimney should 
 increase slightly from bottom to top, in order to provide for the 
 increased volume of the heated air and gases resulting from their 
 expansion. It has been found that round flues produced a better 
 draught, as a general thing, than either square or oval ones of the 
 same area and height. This doubtless arises from the fact that 
 air, rushing through or up a flue or funnel, has a tendency to as- 
 sume the form of a screw, which is due probably to §ome natural 
 cause. 
 
 Adverse currents and capping winds frequently interfere with the 
 draught in short chimneys, but the same effect is frequently pro- 
 duced on tall ones during some kinds of weather and at certain 
 seasons of the year ; certain it is, that very tall stacks do not pro- 
 duce a corresponding draught in proportion to the height, and it 
 has been demonstrated by observation that there is nothing to be 
 gained by raising chimneys very high. It often occurs that chim- 
 neys of apparently sufficient height are incapable of producing 
 sufficient draught. This, in many instances, arises from the fact 
 that the quantity of fuel consumed in the furnace will not produce 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 471 
 
 sufficient heat in the flue to rarefy the air and cause draught, while 
 in other chimneys of ample height and area, in consequence of 
 the air and heated gases having to pass through a long, cold flue 
 between the boiler and chimney, the draught is sluggish and unsatis- 
 factory. There is no lack of formula? for proportioning chimneys, 
 which have been furnished by Wye Williams, Rankine, Weisbach, 
 Trowbridge, Steel, Watt, and others, but each is only applicable 
 in certain cases ; and indeed it appears that Watt knew as much 
 about proportioning the flue as any of our modern engineers, 
 which may be inferred from the fact that modern writers on the 
 subject refer to him as frequently as to any one else. This goes 
 to show that we have not made such rapid advances in mechanical 
 science, so far as regards proportioning chimneys to produce good 
 draught under all circumstances, as might have been expected, con- 
 sidering the intelligence of the present generation and the pro- 
 gressive ingenuity of the age. 
 
 There are always individuals to be found who can tell how to 
 proportion a chimney or a flue that will produce a draught sufficient 
 to carry off* the smoke and waste gases resulting from the con- 
 sumption of a certain quantity of fuel, but they rarely ever ex- 
 plain all the conditions under which this may be accomplished ; 
 such as the distance between the furnace and chimney ; whether 
 the flue is perfectly straight, or contains a number of bends ; and 
 whether in its course it ascends or descends. Such information 
 is akin to that which tells engineers that a pound of coal will 
 evaporate 8*or 9 lbs. of water, but never gives the conditions under 
 which it may be done, which include the type or design of boiler, 
 the quality of the iron, the condition of the boiler for cleanliness, 
 etc., the purity of the fuel, and the intelligence and experience 
 of the care and management. It is well known to most experienced 
 engineers that the boiler that w^ill evaporate 9 lbs. of water per 
 lb. of coal under some circumstances, will not evaporate over 5 
 lbs. of water per lb. of coal under others, and the results will be 
 about the same in regard to draught. 
 
 A forced draught may be produced by various mechanical ar* 
 
472 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 rangements, such as blowing-engines, fan-blowers, steam-jets, etc. ; 
 but, although it may be suitable, and even au absolute necessity 
 in the prosecution of many branches of mechanical industries, a 
 forced draught is objectionable in assisting the combustion of fuel 
 for the generation of steam in ordinary steam-boilers, and never 
 fails to induce mischievous effects, and consequently a good natural 
 draught is very much to be preferred when attainable. Any flue 
 ought to be as smooth on the inside as circumstances will permit, 
 in order to diminish the friction between the walls of the flue and 
 the escaping air and gases. And in regard to the height of chim- 
 neys and proportions of flues, it is always better to be governed 
 by such practice as has given satisfaction in that locality, and 
 with a particular kind of fuel, than to be guided by any theory, 
 however scientific. The sectional area of the flue is what is termed 
 the calorimeter of the boiler, and the calorimeter, divided by the 
 length of the flue in feet, is termed the vent. The flues of all 
 boilers diminish in their calorimeter as they approach the chim- 
 ney, as the smoke contracts in volume in proportion as it passes 
 through the heat. 
 
 Funnels. — The area of the funnels of steamships, tug-boats, and 
 ferry-boa^s varies considerably with different builders and in dif- 
 ferent countries. The number of circular inches p^ nominal horse- 
 power is given in the following table, for several makers. 
 
 Highest, 15-14] Highest, 12-96 Highest, 14*45 Highest, 16-40 Highest, 14-06 
 Mean, M'lO Mean, 11*79 Mean, 13*94 Mean, 15*94 Mean, 13*12 
 Low, 13*01 Low, 10*89 Low, 12*96 Low, 15*14 Low, 12*17 
 
 Mean Total, 13*78 
 
 These are all for low pressures. For high pressure, the num- 
 ber of inches varies from 9*11 to 6*02, mean 7*07. The funnel 
 should evidently bear a proportion to the amount of heated air 
 and smoke passing through it, which must bear a nearer propor- 
 tion to the horse- power than to the surface of the fire-grate. 
 Where the fire-grate is small, a large quantity must be burned per 
 square foot. If, in one case, 20 lbs. of coal are burned per square 
 foot per hour, and in another 40 lbs., and the funnels are proper- 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 473 
 
 tioned to the fire-grate, they will not be proportioned to their re- 
 quirements. 
 
 Rule for finding the required area for the chimneys of stationary 
 boilers. — Multiply the nominal horse-power of the boiler by 112, 
 and divide the product by the square root of the height of the 
 chimney in feet. The quotient will be the required area in square 
 inches. 
 
 A well-proportioned and moderately high smoke-stack is to be 
 preferred for sea-going steam-vessels, as tall ones are difficult to 
 steady on account of the oscillation of the vessel, arising from the 
 disturbance of the water and the resistance of the wind. 
 
 Superheaters. — Superheaters are steam-chambers located in 
 the uptakes of marine-boilers or at the base of the funnel, and so 
 arranged that the w^aste heat from the furnaces may pass around 
 and through them, prior to escaping up the chimney. They are 
 used for drying the steam in its transit from the boilers to the 
 steam-cylinders of the engines. The heat or flame passes through 
 the tubes and around the shell, the steam being inside. They are 
 fitted with a stop-valve, and arrangements for mixing the super- 
 heated and saturated steam, or using either independently ; they 
 also have safety-valves similar to those used on steam-boilers. 
 There is no definite size for superheaters, as they are not intended 
 for a receptacle for any large amount of steam, but simply as a 
 means of drying it. The proportionate area of superheating to heat- 
 ing surface in modern marine-boilers is about 1 to 10 square feet. 
 
 An interceptep op sepapatop is a chamber attached to marine- 
 boilers for the purpose of intercepting the water carried out by the 
 steam. The steam enters at the top and strikes against a partition 
 plate, then passes under it and escapes to the cylinder; the water 
 which enters with the steam is collected in the bottom of the box 
 and drawn off through a valve. 
 
 Smoke. 
 
 Smoke once fopmed in a furnace, flue, or chimney can never 
 be burned by any mechanical device or arrangement, nor can there 
 40* 
 
474 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 be any advantage in incurring much expense in the attempt, ex- 
 cept to abate a nuisance, as very little economy in fuel would re- 
 sult from the adoption of any such device. A very general idea 
 prevails that, when we see large volumes of smoke issuing from 
 the mouths of the chimneys of stationary boilers, smoke-stacks 
 of locomotives, and funnels of marine-boilers, whenever fresh fuel 
 has been applied, a great waste of fuel is taking place ; this, how- 
 ever, is a mistake, as about of the volume is steam resulting 
 from the moisture expelled from the coal, wood, or shavings by 
 the application of heat ; besides, sulphur and other earthy matters 
 which, like the steam, are incombustible, enter into and increase 
 the volume. 
 
 This may be easily explained by stating that \ ton of water is 
 converted into steam in the furnace for every ton of bituminous 
 coal consumed, which is an actual benefit, because, if the carbon 
 had not been thoroughly mixed with such a great mass of steam, 
 it would have fallen in the shape of a black cloud of dust in the 
 locality where the furnace was situated, and have become a more 
 insufferable nuisance than the smoke. Smoke contains about 20 
 per cent, of combustible and 80 per cent, of incombustible matter. 
 Such being the case, the question would naturally arise. Would it 
 be advisable to incur much expense in an attempt to consume 80 
 per cent, of incombustible matter, for the purpose of gaining 20 
 per cent. ? 
 
 Feed- Water Heaters. 
 
 The benefits to be derived from heating the feed-water for 
 
 boilers by exhaust steam may be explained as follows : A pound 
 of feed-water entering a steam-boiler at a temperature of 50° Fah., 
 and evaporated into steam of 60 lbs. pressure per square inch, re- 
 quires as much heat as would raise 1157 pounds of water 1 degree. 
 A pound of feed-water raided from 50° Fah. to 220° Fah. requires 
 987 thermal units of heat, which, if absorbed from exhaust steam 
 passing through a heater, would be a saving of 15 per cent, in 
 fuel. Feed-water, at a temperature of 200° Fah., entering a boiler, 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 475 
 
 as compared in point of economy with feed-water at 50"^, would 
 effect a saving of over 13 per cent, in fuel ; and with a well con- 
 structed heater there ought to be no trouble in raising the feed- 
 water to a temperature of nearly 212° Fah. 
 
 If we take the normal temperature of the feed-water at 60°, 
 the temperature of the heated water at 212°, and the boiler-press- 
 ure at 20 lbs., the total heat imparted to the steam in one case is 
 1192-5° — 60° 1132-5°, and in the other case 1192-5° — 212° = 
 
 152 
 
 980-5°, the difference being 152°, or a saving in fuel of j^^^ 
 
 = 13*4 per cent. Supposing the feed- water to enter the boiler at 
 a temperature of 32° Fah., each pound of water will require about 
 1200 units of heat to convert it into steam, so that the boiler will 
 evaporate between 61 and 7i pounds of water per pound of coal. 
 The amount of heat required to convert a pound of water into 
 steam varies with the pressure, as will be seen by the following 
 table : 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE UNITS OF HEAT REQUIRED TO CONVERT ONE POUND OF 
 WATER, AT THE TEMPERATURE OF 32°, INTO STEAM AT DIFFERENT 
 PRESSURES. 
 
 Pressure of 
 Steam in Lbs. 
 per square 
 INCH BY Gauge. 
 
 Units of Heat. 
 
 Pressure of 
 Steam in Lbs. 
 per square 
 inch by Gauge. 
 
 Units of Heat. 
 
 1 
 
 1-148 
 
 110 
 
 1-187 
 
 10 
 
 1-155 
 
 120 
 
 1-189 
 
 20 
 
 1-161 
 
 130 
 
 1-190 
 
 30 
 
 1-165 
 
 140 
 
 1-192 
 
 40 
 
 1-169 
 
 150 
 
 1-193 
 
 50 
 
 1-173 
 
 160 
 
 1-195 
 
 60 
 
 1-176 
 
 170 
 
 1-196 
 
 70 
 
 1-178 
 
 180 
 
 1-198 
 
 80 
 
 1-181 
 
 190 
 
 1-199 
 
 90 
 
 1-183 
 
 200 
 
 1-200 
 
 100 
 
 1-185 
 
 
 
476 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 If the feed -water has any temperature, the heat necessary to 
 convert it into steam can easily be computed. Suppose that its 
 temperature is 65°, and that it is to be converted into steam hav- 
 ing a pressure of 80 lbs. per square inch, the difference between 
 65 and 32 is 33 ; subtracting this from 1181 (the number of units 
 of heat required for feed- water having a temperature of 32°), the 
 remainder, 1148, is the number of units for feed-water with the 
 given temperature. 
 
 Technical Terms applied to Adjuncts of the Steam -Boiler. 
 
 Angle-irons. — Irons used for the purpose of staying steam- 
 boilers. See page 400. 
 
 Air-casing. — An arrangement attached to fire- and smoke-box 
 doors for the purpose of preventing radiation of heat. 
 
 Blast-pipe. — A small pipe used to blow steam into the fun- 
 nels of marine-boilers for the purpose of exciting the draught in 
 the furnace. 
 
 Blow-off cocks. — Cocks used for blowing the water out of 
 steam-boilers. 
 
 Check-valve. — A valve used to retain the water in steam- 
 boilers, and relieve the feed apparatus from the pressure. 
 
 Check-chamber. — The chamber in which the check-valve 
 operates. 
 
 Connecting-pipes. — The pipes which connect check-valves with 
 steam-boilers. 
 
 Crown-sheet. — That part of fire-box boilers (locomotive or 
 marine) directly over the fire. 
 
 Crown -bars. — Bars placed on the upper side of crown-sheets, 
 in the water-space, for the purpose of strengthening them. 
 
THE ENGINEER\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 477 
 
 Crown -braces. — Braces attached to the crown-bars, and to the 
 shells and domes of boilers, for the purpose of resisting the press- 
 ure exerted on the flat surfaces of crown-sheets. 
 
 Dashers. — Iron plates which are sometimes attached to the in- 
 side of steam-boilers to prevent the cold water, as it enters, from 
 striking the tubes. 
 
 Dead-plate. — The solid iron plate which fills the space between 
 the end of the grate-bars and the fire-door of boiler-furnaces. 
 
 Deflector. — An arrangement employed, in the furnaces of loco- 
 motives and marine-boilers, for the purpose of mixing the air and 
 gases arising from the combustion of the fuel, and causing them 
 to ignite. 
 
 Diaphragm-plate. — A perforated plate, used in the steam-domes 
 of locomotives and marine-boilers, to prevent the water from being 
 carried over into the cylinder with the steam. 
 
 Dome. — An elevated chamber on the top of steam-boilers, from 
 which the steam is generally taken for the cylinders. 
 
 Dome-stays. — Stays employed, in the domes of locomotives and 
 marine-boilers, for the purpose of strengthening them. 
 
 Gasket. — A packing employed for making the man- and hand- 
 holes of steam-boilers steam- and water-tight. 
 
 Gauge-cocks. — Cocks used on the front-head of steam-boilers 
 
 by which to ascertain the height of the water. 
 
 Grummet. — A packing of hemp, used between the flanges of 
 steam- and water-pipes, for the purpose of making them steam- 
 and water-tight. 
 
 Stay-tubes. — Tubes used for bracing marine-boilers. They are 
 generally made of thicker material than either the ordinary fire- 
 or water-tubes. 
 
478 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Spanner-guard. — An arrangement employed to secure cocks 
 and valves, connected with marine-engines and boilers, from being 
 opened or closed by accident. 
 
 Scum-cocks. — Cocks employed to blow off extraneous sub- 
 stances from the surface of the water in steam-boilers. 
 
 Spectacles. — Pieces of iron, with concave sides, employed as 
 braces between the tubes of marine-boilers, generally for the pur- 
 pose of stopping leaks. 
 
 Tube-sheets. — The sheets into which the tubes are inserted at 
 
 each end of the boiler. 
 
 Knees. — Brackets riveted to the sides of steam-boilers, for the 
 purpose of sustaining them on their supports. 
 
 Waist. — A term applied to the cylindrical part of locomotive- 
 or marine-boilers. 
 
 Instructions for the Care and Management of Steam- 
 
 Boilers. 
 
 On first entering a boiler-room in the morning, ascertain whether 
 the water stands at the proper level or not. 
 
 Never start a fire under a boiler until you are satisfied there is 
 suflScient water in it. 
 
 On taking charge of an engine and boiler, first ascertain if 
 there is suflScient water in the boiler, and then trace out the pipes 
 and connections between the engine, boiler, and pumps. 
 
 In starting a fresh fire under a boiler while it is cold, always 
 allow it to burn gradually at first, in order to bring all the parts 
 of the boiler to a uniform temperature. 
 
 Never blow out a boiler under a head of steam, as the heat 
 remaining in the boiler will bake the scale and mud on the sheets 
 and flues, after which it will be impossible to soften it again. 
 
THE ENGIl5rEER\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 479 
 
 When preparing to clean boilers, allow them to cool down, 
 and the water to remain in them until ready to commence clean- 
 ing. 
 
 Never fill a boiler with cold water while the shell, flues, or 
 tubes are hot, as the contraction induced by the tube in cooling 
 will have an injurious effect. 
 
 Boilers, under which a forced draught is used, require to be 
 cleaned oftener than when the draught is natural. 
 
 Never carry a higher pressure of steam than is necessary, nor 
 allow the water to rise above the second gauge-cock in the boiler 
 when the engine is running. 
 
 Before starting a fire under a boiler, place a small quantity of 
 coal on the grates, to prevent them from being warped by the 
 extra heat of the new fire. 
 
 Boilers should be cleaned and examined inside and out every 
 three months. 
 
 Never neglect to blow out and clean boilers, even although 
 solvents are used for the prevention and removal of scale. 
 
 Never put a new boiler into service until examined thoroughly 
 for the purpose of ascertaining if the boiler-makers have neglected 
 to remove all lamps, hammers, tools, etc. 
 
 Never open a steam-valve, on a boiler under pressure, quickly, 
 for the purpose of allowing steam to escape into the atmosphere, 
 or into a boiler containing a less pressure, as it is attended with a 
 certain amount of danger, and may possibly produce an explo- 
 sion. 
 
 Clean the flues or tubes of the boiler at least once a week, and 
 never allow ashes or cinders to accumulate under the grates. 
 
 Never throw water around the furnaces of fire-box boilers. 
 
 If the water should, from any unforeseen cause, become danger- 
 ously low, draw the fire, allow the boiler to cool down, and neither 
 admit feed-water nor disturb the safety-valve. 
 
 In case the supply of water should be temporarily cut off, owing 
 to the derangement of a pump, the bursting of a pipe, or any other 
 cause, stop the engine, cover the fire with fresh coal, and shut the 
 
480 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 damper, so as to retain a sufficient quantity of water in the boiler 
 to start on. 
 
 When it becomes necessary to blow out a certain quantity of 
 the water from a boiler every day, the hand should never be re- 
 moved from the cock or valve, as any diversion of a person's at- 
 tention from it may allow too much to be blown out, and the 
 boiler be ruined. 
 
 In all cases where it is possible, regulate the feed- water so as to 
 send it into the boiler in a steady stream. 
 
 When fresh water is used in marine-boilers, it is best to use salt 
 water for a short time w^hen first put into use, in order to cover 
 the parts with a thin coat of scale. This prevents them from 
 being injured by the action of fresh water. 
 
 The term salting marine-boilers, means that the flues, tubes, 
 and crown are covered with a thick coating of salt, which prevents 
 the water from coming in contact with the iron. This induces 
 cracking and burning of the parts so coated, besides causing a 
 great waste of fuel. 
 
 The parts of marine-boilers most likely to suffer from an in- 
 sufficiency of water are the tubes and crowns ; but the water can- 
 not become low in marine-boilers from accident, as they can be 
 fed either from the boiler feed-pumps, circulating, independent, 
 donkey, or bilge pumps. 
 
 If a tube becomes leaky in the tube-sheet, it may be made 
 tight by inserting a tapering iron ferule about of an inch 
 larger than the inside diameter of the tube. 
 
 If a tube splits, it may be plugged with either iron or wooden 
 plugs, whichever is most convenient. Iron is best for the end 
 next the furnace, while wood will answer for the smoke-box end. 
 
 Boiler Materials. 
 
 Boiler making now holds an important place among the mechan- 
 ical arts. Its progress has been aided chiefly by the enormous 
 growth of the steam-engine as the prime mover, by the increased 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 481 
 
 facilities afforded for procuring suitable materials, and by the irn- 
 provements made in working them. In the early days of the 
 steam-engine, boilers of copper and cast-iron were used for gener- 
 ating steam, but they were seldom subjected to a pressure higher 
 than that of the atmosphere ; but when pressures of 3 to 4 or even 
 7 atmospheres came into use, cast-iron was found to be unreliable 
 and treacherous, for which reason it was discarded in favor of 
 wrought iron, which was not employed at first, in consequence of 
 the difficulty found in working it and in making steam-tight joints. 
 It has, however, of late years become the material employed to 
 the almost entire exclusion of all others. It has been more ex- 
 tensively employed in the construction of steam-boilers, for the 
 past thirty years, than any other material, on account of its great 
 tensile strength, its ductility, power of bearing sudden and trying 
 strains, trustworthy nature, the ease with which it can be welded, 
 riveted, patched, or mended, and its moderate first cost, etc. 
 
 The first quality to be sought for in boiler materials is strength. 
 This does not necessarily imply the mere power to resist being 
 torn asunder by a dead weight, as in a testing-machine ; but the 
 quality to withstand, without injury, the varying shocks and 
 strains to which boilers are exposed. An inferior quality of plates 
 cannot be relied upon to bear the ordeal of heating and cooling 
 repeatedly, as they invariably warp and twist, showing defects of 
 manufacture ; more especially in the process of cold bending, when 
 minute fractures often occur on the outer surface of the plates of 
 stubborn or inferior qualities of iron. 
 
 The defect most commonly revealed in working boiler-plates is 
 want of lamination. This defect arises from the imperfect welding 
 of the several layers which make up the thickness of the plate, and 
 is usually caused by interposing sand or cinder, which has not 
 been expelled by hammering or rolled out during the process of 
 ; manufacture. This is more frequent in thick than in thin plates, 
 and is sometimes very difficult to detect in cold plate, although 
 I often discernible in the hot. It also often happens that plates 
 i which are passed as quite sound, on careful external examination 
 ! 41 2F 
 
482 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 are found to be severely laminated when subjected to heating and 
 hammering, and prove totally unfit for use. 
 
 Blisters are of a similar nature, and arise from the same cause 
 as lamination. Sometimes they appear as mere surface defects, 
 and are of no consequence ; but their appearance may be an in- 
 dication of want of care or skill in the making of the plate, and 
 should always excite suspicion. It frequently happens that these 
 defects pass undetected after the closest scrutiny and test by ham- 
 mering, but disclose themselves soon after the boiler is set to work, 
 especially if the plates be exposed to sudden variations of tem- 
 perature. In the plates over the fire-grate of an externally fired 
 boiler, such a blister may prove a very serious defect, and often 
 necessitates the cutting out and replacement of the sheet. Infe- 
 rior brands of iron will rapidly show unmistakable signs of weak- 
 ness when placed under the trying ordeal of bearing the alternate 
 impingement of a fierce flame and currents of cold air. The 
 rapid variations of temperature caused by the sudden and frequent 
 openings of the furnace door, and passage of cold air through the 
 grate-bars, will soon tell on even the best iron, but more quickly 
 on that of an inferior brand. 
 
 Characteristics of boiler-iron when broken. On breaking ? 
 plate or bar of wrought-iron, the fracture presents an appearance 
 by which the quality of the iron may, in some measure, be deter- 
 mined. The fracture is designated, on the one hand, as fibrous, 
 tough, silky, close-grained, etc., or, on the other hand, crystalline, 
 coarse, open-grained, brittle, and cold-shut. When broken sud- 
 denly, the best qualities of plate and bar iron exhibit a fine, 
 close-grained, uniform crystalline fracture, even silky, of a light 
 silver color ; the appearance in the harder descriptions approach- 
 ing to thai of steel. The appearance of indiflferently refined and 
 inferior qualities is coarser, usually of a darker color, more or less 
 uneven, or open, exhibiting large facets, and approaching some 
 descriptions of cast-iron. When broken gradually, good iron 
 presents a well drawn out, close fibre, of light greenish hue, whilst 
 inferior qualities give a shorter, more open, and darker fibre. 
 
THE engineer's II A N D Y -BOOK . 
 
 483 
 
 When good ductile iron is gradually torn asunder, it stretches 
 to a considerable extent, causing a diminution of sectional area at 
 the fractured part, which should always be compared with the 
 original sectional area of the specimen in judging of the quality. 
 An inferior bar or plate may bear as great a tensile strain as a 
 similar specimen of superior quality ; but on comparing their frac- 
 tured areas, it will generally appear that the latter has been drawn 
 out considerably, whilst the inferior specimen, having stretched 
 but little, has not sensibly diminished at the fracture. This is 
 owing to the fact that good ductile iron, when sudden strains occur, 
 will stretch, while badly refined will snap. Wrought-iron changes 
 from fibrous to crystalline, after enduring long-continued cold 
 hammering, vibration, tension, jarring, and other strains, after long 
 exposure to the influence of heat, or alternate expansion and con- 
 traction whenever it has been used for the plates of a boiler fur- 
 nace. Even the very best plates, after from ten to twenty years* 
 use in a boiler, have frequently been found to break without 
 stretching, at the same time displaying a crystalline fracture. 
 
 It has been said that this shows that a change has taken place 
 in the nature of the material, and that, from being fibrous and 
 tough, it has, by some unexplained cause, become crystallized and 
 brittle, or that it has lostjts nature in consequence of the treat- 
 ment it has undergone, whatever that may have been. There is 
 no doubt that the strains and other causes above mentioned have 
 a tendency to make good iron become brittle and liable to snap 
 suddenly under the same treatment that would originally have 
 torn it gradually, and to this extent a change is produced in its 
 nature. This snapping, and not the fatigue of the metal, is the 
 direct cause of the crystalline fracture, w^hich is but a necessary 
 consequence of the suddenness of the breaking, and not a prop- 
 erty of the iron itself. To say it snaps readily because it ha^ be- 
 come crystalline is to confound the cause with the eflTect. It is 
 erroneous to say the fibrous nature has passed out of the iron, as 
 its ductility can to some extent, at least, be restored, in most 
 cases, by simply heating to a bright red, and slowly cooling, the 
 
484 THE engineer\s handy-book. 
 
 iron, or, failing that, by hammering or rolling it while hot. By- 
 heating to redness, and suddenly cooling, a piece of wrought-iron, 
 it will become liable to snap, producing the same effect as cold 
 hammering. The explanation of this is not clear, and it may be 
 owing to the loosening of the crystals into which the composition 
 of the material ultimately resolves itself. To this cause may also 
 be attributed the same tendency to snap after long-continued jar- 
 ring or alternate expansion and contraction. 
 
 It may be asserted, without fear of contradiction, that all boiler- 
 plate worthy of the name is fibrous ; whether its hardness makes 
 it liable to snap, and, therefore, appear crystalline, depends on its 
 original character and the treatment it has undergone. No fine 
 iron can, however, by any treatment, except burning, be made to 
 appear coarse, and the fibres of the poorest descriptions of iron 
 cannot, without refining, be made to appear fine and close-grained. 
 From a want of knowledge of the above facts, false opinions are 
 often expressed respecting the qualities of boiler-plates. 
 
 It is no unusual thing to find intelligent mechanics and boiler- 
 makers expressing their opinions, at coroners' inquests, on the 
 quality of the iron in exploded boilers, without anything to base 
 their opinions on except the load per square inch required to tear 
 the plates asunder. They seem to forget, if the boiler be an old 
 one, that the age, the position in the boiler in which the rent has 
 taken place, the amount of strain to which it has been exposed, 
 and all the circumstances connected with the occurrence, should 
 be known in order to decide understandingly as to the quality of 
 the iron. It has been shown, in numerous instances, that good duc- 
 tile iron can be made to appear crystalline when pulled asunder 
 in the testing-machine, by confining the minimum sectional area 
 where fracture will occur to one point or to a very short length. 
 
 The general conclusions with regard to boiler material, which 
 may be regarded as established from experiments, observations, 
 and practice, thus far seem to be, 1st, That the laws of resistance 
 of the parts of boilers to the internal pressure are sufficiently 
 well established ; 2d, It is of the utmost importance that the ma- 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 485 
 
 terials employed should be of the best quality as regards strength 
 and durability; and as there are but few manufacturers of boiler- 
 plates, the inspection of materials, especially boiler-plates, should 
 be made by competent persons, appointed for that purpose, at the 
 place of manufacture, which inspection should extend to the 
 qualities of ores and the process of manufacture, the required 
 brands, stamps, or certificates being put on or authorized by the 
 inspectors in person. There is much greater certainty of securing 
 the best materials by an inspection of the process of working, and 
 of the raw materials employed, than by an inspection of plates 
 after they have been sent to market, when, judging from all exter- 
 nal appearances, good and bad plates are not easily distinguished. 
 
 Practical limits to the thickness of boiler-plates. — The proper 
 strength of boilers, in order to enable them to withstand with 
 safety the required pressure of the steam, is a matter of much 
 importance as regards both life and property, and the responsi- 
 bility of the proprietors and constructors of boilers is of so grave 
 a character as to justify the devotion of a much larger space to 
 this subject than is convenient in this work. The principles on 
 which the strength of the material depends may be expressed in 
 a very few words, — the strength being directly as the thickness 
 of the metal, and, inversely, as the diameter of the boiler. 
 
 So long as the quality of boiler-iron remains as it is at present, 
 the thickness of the plate may be practically determined within 
 exceedingly narrow limits, as a good boiler must be constructed 
 of plafe ranging in thickness from | to | an inch, as anything 
 less than the former cannot be properly caulked, and any thick- 
 ness greater than the latter is difficult to rivet without the aid of 
 machinery. A thickness of -f seems to have become the standard 
 thickness for all diameters of boilers intended to sustain a high 
 pressure. This, perhaps, arises from the fact that boiler-makers 
 seem to be better acquainted with the practical limit to the strength 
 of that thickness, because it has of late years been used more than 
 any other; nevertheless, for steel, or some of the higher grades of 
 American plate, a less thickness will suffice for the same pressure. 
 41* 
 
486 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Definitions of the Technical Terms Applied to the 
 Different Kinds of Boiler-Plate. 
 
 C. No. I charcoal iron means that charcoal was the fuel em- 
 ployed in the blast-furnace when the iron was smelted. Such iron 
 is not suitable for any purpose when exposed to a high tempera- 
 ture. Although it is frequently used for the shells of boilers, it is 
 very seldom employed for furnace-sheets. 
 
 C. H. No. I charcoal iron, commonly called flange-iron, is 
 manufactured by the same process as C. No. 1, with this differ- 
 ence, that it is reheated and hammered, which increases its com- 
 pactness, solidity, and strength as well as its capacity for resisting 
 high temperatures. C. H. No. 1 is generally called cold blast- 
 iron ; the process of manufacture is as follows. The pig-metal is 
 remelted and refined, or converted into wrought-iron in charcoal 
 fires, the balls being hammered into blooms. These blooms are 
 reheated in reverberatory furnaces, and then rolled into slabs. 
 These pieces are called covers, between two of which clippings 
 of boiler-plate and other wrought-iron scraps are placed, after 
 which the mass is brought to welding heat and passed between 
 heavy rollers. The greatest danger to be encountered in this 
 process arises from the imperfect welding of the pieces. It is 
 often due to the slag which remains between the coils when the 
 mass is heated. Iron manufactured by this process frequently 
 blisters when exposed to an intense heat. Boiler-plate should 
 never be manufactured by this process, as it is generally of infe- 
 rior quality, and always proves deceptive. The only advantage 
 in making it in this manner is cheapness. C. H. No. 1 charcoal 
 iron is produced by piling one slab upon another at right angles 
 with each -other, and exposing them to a high welding heat, after 
 which they are rolled and hammered, great care being taken both 
 in the selection of the material and in the rolling and hammering. 
 
 Fire-box iron is a kind of plate manufactured exclusively for 
 furnaces. It is produced in the same manner as C. H. No. 1, with 
 this difference, that it is subjected to two or three more processes 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 487 
 
 of heating, rolling, and hammering. There are many grades of 
 I this kind of iron, resulting from the details of the processes which 
 I are customary in the different plate mills, and the care with which 
 I the iron is selected. The names of the different manufacturers 
 furnish a better guarantee than the stock of knowledge possessed 
 by the most talented experts. 
 
 Iron produced from covers filled with iron scrap will blister, 
 unless the slag is expelled by patient and careful heating, rolling, 
 and hammering. Such iron, if used for fire-box plates, should be 
 tested as follows. Lay the plate off with a straight-edge, and 
 pencil or chalk in squares of about one foot each ; then, with a 
 light steel hammer, strike the surface of each square about one 
 inch apart, when, if there are any defects in the iron, they will in 
 all probability be made manifest by the sound. As soon as each 
 square is finished, it should be cancelled, in order to prevent repe- 
 tition. If the iron is perfect, it will give out a clear sound. 
 
 From the foregoing, it will be seen how much depends on the 
 character of the material, and the care taken in the process of man- 
 ufacture. It is well known that in many instances the iron in dif- 
 ferent plate mills is the same in every respect, and, while the pro- 
 cesses through which it has passed are the same to all appearance, 
 on examination it has been found that that produced by one mill 
 was of an excellent quality, while that produced by another was 
 of a very inferior grade. As a general rule, boiler-plate that can 
 be bent at right angles, when heated to a red heat, without showing 
 any cracks, may be relied upon. But the indications of superior- 
 ity wiirbe strengthened, if the iron can stand the test of bending 
 at right angles when cold, as none but the finest grades can bear it. 
 
 Steel boiler-plates are generally made of puddled steel, in which 
 the ordinary puddling process, by means of which wrought-iron is 
 made from pig-iron, is arrested at the point required for the carbon- 
 ization of the steel. Homogeneous steel plates are produced from 
 cast-steel, which is formed by melting the finest grades of wrought- 
 iron in crucibles with carbonaceous matter, after which the ingots 
 are reheated and rolled into plates of the desired thickness. 
 
488 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 The Buckeye Automatic Cut-OflF Engine. 
 
 The cuts on pages 489, 490, represent a front and back view of 
 the Buckeye automatic cut-off steam-engine. As may be observed, 
 the bed-plate is a modification of the Corliss or girder-frame pattern, 
 a design which possesses sufficient rigidity, without extra weight 
 of metal. It is faced up at one end to receive the cylinder, and 
 at the other the main pillow-block. The cylinder contains the 
 steam-ports, but not the exhaust-ports ; and, as the valve-faces are 
 as near the cylinder as is consistent with suflScient strength, the 
 clearance is reduced to a minimum, a feature which renders the 
 engine very economical in the use of steam. The cross-head is 
 made in halves, is held together by bolts, and is attached to the 
 piston-rod by means of a thread on the rod. The cross-head shoes 
 move in flat guides, and can be easily adjusted by me£ lis of screws 
 and jam-nuts. 
 
 The main steam -valve is driven by a fixed eccentric in the usual 
 manner. An adjustable eccentric, the position of which on the 
 shaft is under the control of the governor, works the cut-off valves. 
 A novel feature of the cut-off valve-gear is a rock-shaft working 
 in a bearing in the rocker-arm belonging to the main valve-gears. 
 The adjustable eccentric is attached to a pendant arm on the outer 
 end of it, and a similar but vertical arm on the inner end con- 
 nects it to the head, and thus works the cut-off* valve. The effect 
 of this device is to secure a correct movement of the cut-off valves 
 relatively to their seats in the moving main valve, and at the same 
 time to effect a degree of adjustment of the cut-off exactly cor- 
 responding to the degree of change in the angular position of the 
 eccentric, neither of which is possible without such an arrange- 
 ment. These engines are in very general use, and are said to be 
 very durable and economical. One of them on exhibition at the 
 Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia attracted considerable at- 
 tention. They are manufactured (both condensing and non-con- 
 densing) by the Buckeye Engine Company, Salem, Ohio, under 
 J. W. Thompson's patent. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 48y 
 
490 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 491 
 
 Questions, 
 
 THE ANSWERS TO WHICH MAY BE FOUND IN THE TEXT. 
 
 Define the term steam-boiler. 
 
 Why is there more need of accurate information in relation to 
 the steam-boiler than to the steam-engine ? 
 
 What causes affect the strength and durability of steam-boilers? 
 
 What qualities are most desirable in a steam-boiler? 
 
 Describe the nature and effect of the destructive forces, both 
 chemical and mechanical, that act on steam-boilers. 
 
 Of what form should a boiler be constructed to embody the 
 greatest strength ? 
 
 Give the names of the different boilers in use, both land and 
 marine, their advantages and disadvantages. 
 
 State the proportion of heating-surface to grate-surface suflScient 
 to constitute a horse-power in a steam-boiler. 
 
 What conditions will influence the amount of water which one 
 pound of coal will evaporate in a steam-boiler, also the maximum 
 and minimum evaporation per pound of coal ? 
 
 Give the principal causes which induce foaming in steam-boilers. 
 
 Give the names of the different adjuncts of steam-boilers. 
 
 Give the rule for finding the bursting-pressure of steam-boilers. 
 
 Give the rule for finding the safe working-pressure of steam- 
 boilers. 
 
 Give the rule for finding the internal strain caused by the press- 
 ure of steam on the shells of steam-boil^s. 
 
492 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 Give the rule for finding the pressure per square inch of sectional 
 area on the crown-sheets of steam-boilers. 
 
 Give the rule for finding the safe external pressure of boiler- 
 flues. 
 
 Give the rule for finding the collapsing-pressure for boiler-flues. 
 
 Give the rule for finding the number of square feet of heating- 
 surface in any given number of flues or tubes. 
 
 Give the rule for finding the relative strength of single- and 
 double-riveted seams of steam-boilers. 
 
 Give the rule for finding the strength of stays for steam-boilers. 
 
 Give the rule for finding the heating-surface for any steam- 
 boiler. 
 
 Explain the object of stay-bolts, their breaking-strength, etc. 
 
 Explain the causes which induce the formation of scale in steam- 
 boilers. 
 
 Give the chemical ingredients of the scale w^hich forms in steam- 
 boilers. 
 
 Explain the causes of the loss of fuel induced by incrustation 
 in steam-boilers. 
 
 What are the causes which induce deterioration in sfeam-boilers? 
 
 Does the tensile strength of boiler-iron increase by the appli- 
 cation of heat? and, if so, up to what degree Fah. does it increase? 
 
 What are the causes of corrosion in steam-boilers? and what 
 analogy does corrosion bear to combustion ? 
 
 What advantage has mechanical firing over manual firing, and 
 
 vice versa ? 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 493 
 
 Give the technical terms as applied to firing. 
 
 Give the technical terms employed in relation to steam-boilers. 
 
 Explain the cause of friction in riveted seams. 
 
 What is the object of caulking? 
 
 Explain the causes of steam-boiler explosions. 
 
 What is the object of a safety-valve on a steam-boiler ? 
 
 Give the rule for finding the weight necessary to be placed on 
 a safety-valve lever when the area of the valve, pressure, etc., are 
 given. 
 
 Give the rule for finding the pressure per square inch against 
 the safety-valve when the area of the valve, weight of ball, etc., 
 are known. 
 
 Give the rule for finding the pressure at which the safety-valve 
 is weighted when the length of the lever, the weight of the ball, 
 etc., are known. 
 
 Give the rule for finding the centre of gravity of taper levers 
 j)f safety-valves. 
 
 Explain the comparative advantages and disadvantages of dead- 
 weight, spring, and lock safety-valves. 
 
 Explain the cause of draught in chimneys. 
 
 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of square, oval, and 
 circular chimneys. 
 
 Give the rule for finding the area of a chimney or funnel neces- 
 sary to produce a suflScient draught to consume a given quantity 
 of fuel in a given time. 
 
 What are the advantages of superheaters? 
 42 
 
494 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 What is the object of an interceptor? 
 What ape the chemical ingredients which constitute smoke? 
 
 Can smoke, when once formed, be consumed by any mechanical 
 
 process ? 
 
 Does the formation of smoke incur a waste of fuel, and, if so, 
 to what extent? 
 
 Explain the meaning of the technical terms applied to the dif- 
 ferent adjuncts of steam-boilers. 
 
 What course should an engineer or fireman pursue when first 
 entering the boiler-room in the morning? 
 
 What precaution should be taken before starting a fire under 
 a boiler ? 
 
 What course should an engineer adopt on taking charge of an 
 engine and boiler for the first time? 
 
 How should the fire be regulated when first started under a 
 boiler ? 
 
 Under what conditions should a boiler be blown out? 
 
 What should be the condition of a boiler when it is to be filled 
 with cold water ? 
 
 What course should be adopted with boilers before cleaning? 
 
 How should boilers be treated when 21, forced draught is used? 
 
 How should the pressure in a boiler be regulated ? 
 
 How should the kindling material be placed on the grate pre- 
 paratory to starting a fire ? 
 
 How often should steam-boilers be cleaned ? 
 
THE ENGINEER\s HANDY-BOOK. 495 
 
 Should the cleaning of boilers be neglected, when solvents are 
 used for the prevention and removal of scale? 
 
 What precautions should be taken before new boilers are put 
 into service? 
 
 How often should the flues or tubes of boilers be cleaned ? 
 
 What course should be adopted in case the water in a boiler 
 becomes dangerously low ? 
 
 What course should be pursued in case the water-supply should 
 become interrupted for any length of time ? 
 
 What precaution should an engineer take, in case it becomes 
 necessary to blow out a certain quantity of water every day ? 
 
 How should the supply of feed-water be regulated? 
 
 What advantages are gained by filling marine-boilers with salt- 
 water for the first time ? 
 
 What is the meaning of the term "salting" when applied to 
 marine-boilers? 
 
 What parts of any class of steam-boilers are most likely to suf- 
 fer from the effects of heat ? 
 
 What is the most practical method to adopt in case a boiler- 
 tube should become leaky ? 
 
 « 
 
 What course should an engineer or fireman adopt in case a 
 tube should become split ? 
 
 Give the characteristics of good boiler material, whether iron, 
 steel, or copper. 
 
 Give the definitions of the technical terms applied to the dif- 
 ferent kinds of boiler-plates. 
 
496 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 PART SEVENTH. 
 
 Air. 
 
 The atmosphere is known to extend at least 45 miles above the 
 earth. Its aggregate weight has been calculated at upwards of 
 77,000,000,000 of tons, or equivalent to the weight of a solid globe 
 of lead 60 miles in diameter. Hence, this enormous weight re- 
 poses incessantly upon the earth's surface, and upon every object, 
 animate or inanimate, solid, liquid, or aeriform. 100 cubic inches 
 of air at the surface of the earth, when the barometer stands at 
 34 inches, and at a temperature of 60° Fah., weigh about 31 grains, 
 being thus about 815 times lighter than water, and 11,065 times 
 lighter than mercury. The component parts of the air are about 
 79 measures of nitrogen gas and 21 of oxygen ; or, in other words, 
 air consists of (by volume) oxygen, 21 parts ; nitrogen, 79 parts 
 (by weight) ; oxygen, 77 parts ; nitrogen, 23 parts. 
 
 Now, since the air is possessed of weight, it must be evident 
 that a cubic foot of air at the surface of the earth has to support 
 the weight of all the air directly above it ; and that, therefore, the 
 higher we ascend in the atmosphere, the lighter will be the cubic 
 foot of air ; or, in other words, the farther from the surface of the 
 earth the less will be the density of the air. At the height of 
 three and a half miles, it is known that the atmospheric air is only 
 half as dense as it is at the surface of the earth. From the nature 
 t)f fluids, it follows that the atmosphere presses against any body 
 with which it comes in contact — because fluids exert a pressure in 
 all directions — upwards, downwards, sidewise, and obliquely. Its 
 particles are so inconceivably minute, that they enter all substances, 
 even liquids. It penetrates all the ramifications and innermost 
 recesses of porous bodies, and is mixed up with and circulates in 
 the blood of men and animals ; and by the pressure of its super- 
 incumbent strata, it is urged through almost every substance. It 
 
THE ENGINEf:u'8 II A N T) Y - R O O K . 
 
 497 
 
 is this circulation through the interior of the bodies of men and 
 animals which counterbalances its outer pressure ; because, if its 
 weight were not neutralized, neither man nor beast could walk, 
 and would be as mute as statues of lead, and lips once closed could 
 never again be opened. 
 
 The amount of pressure of a column of air, whose base is one 
 square foot and whose altitude is the height of the atmosphere, 
 has been found to be 2156 pounds avoirdupois, or very nearly 15 
 pounds of pressure on every square inch. Consequently, it is com- 
 mon to state the pressure of the atmosphere as equal to 15 pounds 
 on the square inch. If any other gaseous body or vapor — such as 
 steam — exerts a pressure equivalent to 15 pounds on the square 
 inch, then the force of that vapor is said to be equal to one atmos- 
 phere. If the vapor be equal to 30 pounds on every square inch, 
 then it is equal to two atmospheres, and so on ; consequently, the 
 atmospheric pressure is capable of supporting about 30 inches of 
 mercury, or a column of water 34 feet high. 
 
 It is known that the pressure of the atmosphere is not constant, 
 even at the same place. At the equator, the pressure is nearly 
 constant, but is subject to great changes in high latitudes. In 
 some countries the pressure of the atmosphere varies so much as 
 to support a column of mercury so low as 28 inches, and at other 
 times so high as 31, the mean being 29*5 ; thus making the average 
 pressure between 14 and 15 pounds on the square inch. But in 
 scientific books, generally, the pressure is understood, in round 
 numbers, to be 15 pounds; so that a pressure exerted equal to 1, 
 2, 3, 4, etc., atmospheres means such a pressure as would support 
 30, 60, 90, 120, etc., inches in a perpendicular column, or 15, 30, 
 45, 60, etc., pounds on every square inch. 
 
 The pressure of the air differs at diflerent altitudes ; * at 7 miles 
 above the surface of the earth, the air is four times lighter than 
 it is at the surface; at 14 miles it is 16 times lighter; and at 21 
 miles it is 64 times lighter. It requires 13,817 cubic feet of air 
 
 * See table on page 498. 
 42* 2G 
 
498 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 to make one pound ; consequently, one cubic foot of air at the 
 surface of the earth weighs 527 grains, or J of an ounce avoir- 
 dupois; but under a pressure of 5i tons to the square inch, air 
 becomes as dense, and would weigh as much per cubic foot, as 
 water. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OF ALTITUDES ABOVE SEA-LEVEL, AND THE CORRESPONDING ATMOS- 
 PHERIC PRESSURES, DEDUCED FROM THE OBSERVATIONS OF THE HAY- 
 DEN EXPEDITION TO THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 
 
 Location. 
 
 Altitude 
 IN Feet. 
 
 Pressure 
 
 OF THE 
 
 Atmosphere. 
 
 Altoona, Pa. ..... 
 
 1,168* 
 
 14-08 
 
 Cairo, 111 
 
 291-23 
 
 1456 
 
 Cheyenne, Wy. Ter 
 
 6,075-28 
 
 11 -48 
 
 Cincmnati, U. . 
 
 440* 
 
 14*46 
 
 Cresson, Pa. ..... 
 
 2,000- 
 
 1364 
 
 Denver, Col 
 
 5,196-58 
 
 11-94 
 
 Golden City, Col 
 
 5,728-98 
 
 11-67 
 
 Lake Champlain .... 
 
 100-84 
 
 14-64 
 
 " Erie . . . . 
 
 573-08 
 
 14-39 
 
 " Huron ..... 
 
 589-99 
 
 14-38 
 
 " Michigan 
 
 589-15 
 
 14-39 
 
 " Ontario. ..... 
 
 249-99 
 
 14-56 
 
 Louisville, Ky. . . • , 
 
 404- 
 
 14-48 
 
 Mt. Lincoln, Col 
 
 14,296-66 
 
 7-06 
 
 New Albany, Ind. . » . . 
 
 379-75 
 
 14-5 
 
 Ogden, Utah . . . » . 
 
 4,303-3 
 
 12-42 
 
 Omaha, Neb 
 
 977-9 
 
 14-18 
 
 Pike's Peak, Col. . o . . 
 
 14,148-66 
 
 7-1 
 
 Pittsburg, Pa. ..... 
 
 699-2 
 
 14-33 
 
 Rock Island, 111 
 
 566-68 
 
 14-40 
 
 St. Louis, Mo. . . . . 
 
 429-29 
 
 14-17 
 
 Terre Haute, Ind. . . . . 
 
 485-55 
 
 14-44 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 499 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE FORCE OF THE WIND IN POUNDS PER SQUARE FOOT AT 
 DIFFERENT VELOCITIES. 
 
 Miles 
 
 PER 
 
 Hour. 
 
 Feet per 
 Second. 
 
 Force per 
 Square Foot 
 Pound. 
 
 
 1 
 
 1-47 
 
 0-005 
 
 Hardly perceptible. 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 2-93 
 4-4 
 
 0-020 
 0-044 
 
 > Just perceptible. 
 
 4 
 
 5-87 
 
 0-079 
 
 
 
 5 
 6 
 
 7- 33 
 
 8- 8 
 
 0-123 
 0-177 
 
 
 1 
 
 [^Gentle, pleasant wind. 
 
 7 
 
 10-25 
 
 0-241 
 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 11-75 
 
 0-315 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 13-2 
 
 0-400 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 14-67 
 
 0-492 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 17-6 
 
 0-708 
 
 
 ^Pleasant, brisk gales. 
 
 14 
 
 20-5 
 
 0-964 
 
 
 15 
 
 22-00 
 
 1-107 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 23-45 
 
 1-25 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 26-4 
 
 1-55 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 29-34 
 
 1-968 
 
 
 - Very brisk. 
 
 25 
 
 36-67 
 
 3-075 
 
 
 30 
 
 44-01 
 
 4-429 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 51-34 
 
 6-027 
 
 
 - High wind. 
 
 40 
 
 58-68 
 
 7-873 
 
 
 45 
 
 6601 
 
 9-963 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 73-35 
 
 12-30 
 
 
 • Very high. 
 
 55 
 
 80-7 
 
 14-9 
 
 
 60 
 65 
 
 88-02 
 95-4 
 
 17-71 
 20-85 
 
 j 
 
 ► Storm or tempest. 
 
 70 
 
 102-5 
 
 24-1 
 
 Great storm. 
 
 75 
 80 
 
 110- 
 117-36 
 
 27-7 
 31-49 
 
 1 Hurricane. 
 
 100 
 
 146-66 
 
 50- 
 
 Tornado. 
 
 Horse-Power of Wind Storms. 
 
 It is asserted that severe wind storms exert a pressure of from 
 25 to 30 lbs. per square foot, and travel from 50 to 70 miles per 
 
500 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 hour. Assuming that the pressure is 30 lbs. per square foot, or 
 ^ of a pound per square inch, with a speed of 66 miles per hour, 
 then, as there are 27,878,400 square feet, or 4,014,489,600 square 
 inches in a square mile, if the pressure of the storm was exerted 
 for the height of half a mile, it will give an area of 2,007,244,800 
 square inches for each mile in width upon which the storm acts. 
 
 Rule for finding the horse-power of wind storms. 
 
 Multiply the area acted on in inches by the pressure in lbs. per 
 square inch ; then multiply this product by the speed in feet per 
 minute, and divide by 33,000. The quotient will be the horse- 
 power of the storm. 
 
 Example. — 2,007,244,800 square inches x 1*5 lbs. pressure X 
 5800 feet -r- 33,000, which gives as a result 70,557,700 horse- 
 power developed for each mile of breadth of the track of the storm. 
 To produce the same horse-power with improved engines consum- 
 ing but two pounds of coal per hour per horse-power, would re- 
 quire 63,000 gross tons of coal. 
 
 Altitude of the Highest Mountains in the World. 
 
 The highest peak of the Himalayas, in Asia, is 25,659 feet 
 above sea-level. 
 
 Mont Blanc, the highest peak of the Alps, is 15,732 feet. 
 
 The highest peak of the Andes is 14,760 feet. 
 
 The peak of Teneriffe is 11,454 feet. 
 
 Mount /Etna is 9,000 feet. 
 
 The highest point in the Pyrenees is 8,400 feet. 
 
 The highest inhabitable point on the globe is Ancomarsa, one 
 of the Peruvian Andes, which is 16,000 feet. 
 
 Highest Waterfalls in the World. 
 
 The Ribbon Falls, Yosemite Valley, U. S. A., 3,300 feet. 
 
 Yosemite Falls, U. S. A., 2,600 feet. 
 
 The Arve Falls, Bavaria, Europe, 2,000 feet. 
 
 The Falls of Montmorency, Canada, 250 feet. 
 
 Niagara Falls, United States, 158 feet. 
 
THE ENGINEER\s HANDY-BOOK. 501 
 
 T A J3 I. E 
 
 SHOWING THE RELATIVE VOLUMES OF AIR AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES. 
 
 Temp. 
 Fah. " 
 
 Volume in 
 Cubic In. 
 
 Temp, 
 Fah. 
 
 Volume in 
 Cubic In. 
 
 Temp. 
 Fah. 
 
 Volume in 
 Cubic In. 
 
 Temp 
 Fah. 
 
 Volume in 
 Cubic In. 
 
 —49 
 
 834*7 
 
 — 6 
 
 922*5 
 
 37 
 
 1010*2 
 
 80 
 
 1098*0 
 
 —48 
 
 836*7 
 
 — 5 
 
 924*5 
 
 38 
 
 1012*2 
 
 81 
 
 1099*0 
 
 —47 
 
 838*8 
 
 — 4 
 
 926*5 
 
 39 
 
 1014*3 
 
 82 
 
 1100*0 
 
 —46 
 
 840*8 
 
 — 3 
 
 928*6 
 
 40 
 
 1016*3 
 
 83 
 
 1102-1 
 
 —45 
 
 842*8 
 
 — 2 
 
 930*6 
 
 41 
 
 1018*4 
 
 84 
 
 1104-1 
 
 —44 
 
 844*9 
 
 — 1 
 
 932*7 
 
 42 
 
 1020*4 
 
 85 
 
 1106-2 
 
 —43 
 
 846*9 
 
 — 0 
 
 934*7 
 
 43 
 
 1022*4 
 
 86 
 
 1108*2 
 
 —42 
 
 849*0 
 
 1 
 
 936*7 
 
 44 
 
 1024*5 
 
 87 
 
 1110*2 
 
 —41 
 
 851*0 
 
 2 
 
 938*8 
 
 45 
 
 1026*5 
 
 88 
 
 1112*3 
 
 —40 
 
 853*1 
 
 3 
 
 940*8 
 
 46 
 
 1028*6 
 
 89 
 
 1114*3 
 
 —39 
 
 855*1 
 
 4 
 
 942*9 
 
 47 
 
 1030*6 
 
 90 
 
 1116*4 
 
 —38 
 
 857*1 
 
 5 
 
 944*9 
 
 48 
 
 1032*7 
 
 91 
 
 1118*4 
 
 —37 
 
 859*2 
 
 6 
 
 947*0 
 
 49 
 
 1034*7 
 
 92 
 
 1120*4 
 
 —36 
 
 861*2 
 
 7 
 
 949*0 
 
 50 
 
 1036*7 
 
 93 
 
 1122*5 
 
 —35 
 
 863*3 
 
 8 
 
 951*0 
 
 51 
 
 1038*8 
 
 94 
 
 1126*5 
 
 —34 
 
 865*3 
 
 9 
 
 953*1 
 
 52 
 
 1040*8 
 
 95 
 
 1128*6 
 
 —33 
 
 867*3 
 
 10 
 
 955*1 
 
 53 
 
 1042*9 
 
 96 
 
 1130*6 
 
 — 32 
 
 869*4 
 
 11 
 
 957*1 
 
 54 
 
 1044*9 
 
 97 
 
 1132*7 
 
 — 31 
 
 871*4 
 
 12 
 
 959*2 
 
 55 
 
 1046*9 
 
 98 
 
 1134*7 
 
 — 30 
 
 873*5 
 
 13 
 
 961*2 
 
 56 
 
 1049*0 
 
 99 
 
 1136*7 
 
 — 29 
 
 875*5 
 
 14 
 
 963*3 
 
 57 
 
 1051-0 
 
 100 
 
 1138*8 
 
 —28 
 
 877*6 
 
 15 
 
 965*3 
 
 58 
 
 1053*1 
 
 101 
 
 1140*8 
 
 —27 
 
 879*6 . 
 
 16 
 
 967*3 
 
 59 
 
 1055*1 
 
 102 
 
 1142*9 
 
 —26 
 
 881*6 
 
 17 
 
 969*4 
 
 60 
 
 1057*1 
 
 103 
 
 1144*9 
 
 —25 
 
 883*7 
 
 18 
 
 971*4 
 
 61 
 
 1059*2 
 
 104 
 
 11470 
 
 —24 
 
 885*7 
 
 19 
 
 973*5 
 
 62 
 
 1061*2 
 
 105 
 
 1149*0 
 
 — 23 
 
 887*8 
 
 20 
 
 975*5 
 
 63 
 
 1063*3 
 
 106 
 
 1151 *0 
 
 — 22 
 
 889*8 
 
 21 
 
 977*6 
 
 64 
 
 1065*3 
 
 107 
 
 1153*1 
 
 — 21 
 
 891*8 
 
 22 
 
 979*6 
 
 65 
 
 1067*3 
 
 108 
 
 1155*1 
 
 —20 
 
 893*9 
 
 23 
 
 981*6 
 
 66 
 
 1069*4 
 
 109 
 
 1157*1 
 
 — 19 
 
 895*9 
 
 24 
 
 983*7 
 
 67 
 
 1071*4 
 
 110 
 
 1159*2 
 
 — 18 
 
 898*0 
 
 25 
 
 985*7 
 
 68 
 
 1073*5 
 
 111 
 
 1161*2 
 
 —17 
 
 900*0 
 
 26 
 
 987*8 
 
 69 
 
 1075*5 ' 
 
 112 
 
 1163*3 
 
 — 16 
 
 902*0 
 
 27 
 
 989*8 
 
 70 
 
 1077*6 
 
 113 
 
 1165*3 
 
 — 15 
 
 904*1 
 
 28 
 
 991*8 
 
 71 
 
 1079*6 
 
 114 
 
 1167*3 
 
 — 14 
 
 906*1 
 
 29 
 
 993*9 
 
 72 
 
 1081*6 
 
 115 
 
 1169*4 
 
 —13 
 
 908*2 
 
 30 
 
 995*9 
 
 73 
 
 1083*7 
 
 116 
 
 1171*4 
 
 —12 
 
 910*2 
 
 31 
 
 998-0 
 
 74 
 
 1085*7 
 
 117 
 
 1173*5 
 
 —11 
 
 912*2 
 
 32 
 
 1000*0 
 
 75 
 
 1087*8 
 
 118 
 
 1175*5 
 
 —10 
 
 914*3 
 
 33 
 
 1000*2 
 
 76 
 
 1089*8 
 
 119 
 
 1177*6 
 
 — 9 
 
 916*3 
 
 34 
 
 1004*1 
 
 77 
 
 1091*8 
 
 120 
 
 1179*6 
 
 - 8 
 
 918*4 
 
 35 
 
 1006*1 
 
 78 
 
 1093*9 
 
 121 
 
 1181*6 
 
 — 7 
 
 920*4 
 
 36 
 
 1008*2 
 
 79 
 
 1095*9 
 
 122 
 
 1183*7 
 
502 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 TABLE— {Continued.) 
 
 Temp. 
 Fah. 
 
 Volume in 
 Cubic In. 
 
 Temp. 
 Fah. 
 
 Volume in 
 Cubic In. 
 
 Temp. 
 Fah. 
 
 Volume in 
 Cubic In. 
 
 Temp. 
 Fah. 
 
 Volume in 
 Cubic In. 
 
 1 '>Q 
 
 lloO i 
 
 1 ^^9 
 
 lZt4 0 
 
 1 ftO 
 
 1 Q09*0 
 
 90ft 
 
 looy Z 
 
 1 OA 
 
 1 1 ft7 • Q 
 llo/ o 
 
 100 
 
 1 9AA*Q 
 
 1 ft! 
 . lol 
 
 1 Q04.*1 
 lOU^ 1 
 
 90Q 
 
 1 QA1 *9 
 loDl Z 
 
 1 Qc; 
 iZo 
 
 lloy o 
 
 1 c:4- 
 lO-t 
 
 1 94Q*0 
 
 1 ft9 
 lo^ 
 
 1 QOA'1 
 louo 1 
 
 91 0 
 ZIU 
 
 loDO 0 
 
 
 iiyi o 
 
 100 
 
 1 9^^! *0 
 
 100 
 
 1 QOft'9 
 louo ^ 
 
 91 1 
 Zll 
 
 loDO 0 
 
 1 97 
 
 1 1QQ'Q 
 
 100 
 
 1 9'=i^*0 
 
 1ft4. 
 lot 
 
 1 ^10*9 
 lOlU ^ 
 
 919 
 
 1 ^A7*^ 
 100 1 0 
 
 
 iiyo u 
 
 1 ^1 
 
 l^OO 1 
 
 Ift^ 
 100 
 
 1 m 9*9 
 
 lOlZi ^1 
 
 91 Q 
 ^lo 
 
 1 ^AQ*4. 
 
 lOUt/ t 
 
 1 9Q 
 
 llfo u 
 
 100 
 
 19^^7*1 
 
 IftA 
 
 lOU 
 
 1 ^^A*^ 
 
 lOlt 0 
 
 914. 
 Zlt 
 
 1 ^71 '4. 
 10/ 1 t 
 
 1 Qn 
 
 1 9nn'n 
 izuu u 
 
 
 
 1 ft7 
 
 l04 
 
 1 Q1 A*Q 
 lOlD 0 
 
 91 CI 
 ZIO 
 
 10 / o 0 
 
 1 Ql 
 lol 
 
 
 1 AO 
 IDU 
 
 1 9A1 '9 
 l^Ol .^j 
 
 Iftft 
 
 loo 
 
 1 *^1ft*4. 
 1010 t 
 
 91 A 
 ZIO 
 
 10 1 0 0 
 
 1 Q9 
 
 1 9nA*i 
 
 IZlUt 1 
 
 1 A1 
 
 1 9AQ*Q 
 
 IftQ 
 
 1 ^90*4. 
 
 91 7 
 Zl i 
 
 10 I/O 
 
 1 QQ 
 
 li>i> 
 
 IZUD 1 
 
 1 A9 
 
 1 9Af\*Q 
 
 IQO 
 
 1 ^99*4. 
 
 lO^Zi t 
 
 91 ft 
 Zlo 
 
 1 ^7Q*A 
 
 
 
 IDo 
 
 1 9A7*Q 
 
 1Q1 
 
 lO^t 0 
 
 910 
 Ziy 
 
 1 ^ftl 'A 
 lool 0 
 
 ioO 
 
 
 1 (\1 
 
 lot 
 
 1 9AQ*A 
 
 izoy t 
 
 1Q9 
 
 1 ^9A*'^ 
 
 990 
 
 1 ^ftQ*7 
 looo / 
 
 loO 
 
 -1 o-i 9.9 
 
 100 
 
 1 971 'A 
 
 i-At 1 t 
 
 IvO 
 
 1 ^9ft*A 
 loZo 0 
 
 9QO 
 ZOU 
 
 14.04.*1 
 ItUt 1 
 
 
 1914.'^ 
 
 1 Afi 
 
 1 97^*^ 
 
 1Q4. 
 
 IcJt 
 
 1 ^^O'A 
 loou 0 
 
 940 
 
 14.94.*£; 
 it^t 0 
 
 loo 
 
 i^io 0 
 
 1 (\7 
 1D< 
 
 1 97^*^ 
 
 
 lOOZi 0 
 
 9'^0 
 
 Ittt »7 
 
 lou 
 
 1 91 Q»4. 
 
 l^lo rt 
 
 1 Aft 
 IDo 
 
 1 977*^ 
 
 1QA 
 
 loot 1 
 
 9AO 
 ZOU 
 
 ItOu 0 
 
 
 1 990*4. 
 
 1 AQ 
 10 a 
 
 1 97Q*A 
 
 IZi 1 t7 0 
 
 1Q7 
 
 1 Q^A*7 
 1000 / 
 
 970 
 Z/U 
 
 14ft^*7 
 itoo / 
 
 14:1 
 
 1 999*4. 
 
 1 70 
 1 /U 
 
 1 9ft 1 'A 
 
 IQft 
 
 1 tlQft'ft 
 looo 0 
 
 9QO 
 ZoU 
 
 lOUD 1 
 
 14.9 
 
 1 994.* '^i 
 
 1 71 
 1/1 
 
 1 9ftQ*7 
 
 1QQ 
 
 1 Q4.0*ft 
 lotU 0 
 
 900 
 
 zyu 
 
 1 '^9A*f^ 
 lOZD 0 
 
 
 
 179 
 
 1 i jU 
 
 1 9ft.^*7 
 
 900 
 
 1 ^49*Q 
 
 •lot^j u 
 
 OOU 
 
 1 ^4A*Q 
 
 lOtD iJ 
 
 14.4. 
 
 lit 
 
 1 99ft 'fi 
 
 17^ 
 
 19ft7*ft 
 
 901 
 
 1 ^44.*Q 
 lott 0 
 
 
 1 7'^1 *0 
 1 / 01 U 
 
 1 
 
 ItO 
 
 1 9^0* A 
 
 1 7A 
 1 
 
 1 9ftQ • Q 
 
 909 
 
 loto V 
 
 C\00 
 
 iQc;c;*i 
 lyoo 1 
 
 146 
 
 1232-7 
 
 175 
 
 1291-8 
 
 203 
 
 1349-0 
 
 600 
 
 2159-2 
 
 147 
 
 1234-7 
 
 176 
 
 1293-9 
 
 204 
 
 1351-0 
 
 700 
 
 2363-3 
 
 148 
 
 1236-7 
 
 177 
 
 1295-9 
 
 205 
 
 1353-1 
 
 800 
 
 2567-4 
 
 149 
 
 1238-8 
 
 178 
 
 1298-0 
 
 206 
 
 1355-1 
 
 900 
 
 2771-5 
 
 150 
 
 1240-8 
 
 179 
 
 1300-0 
 
 207 
 
 1357-1 
 
 1000 
 
 2975-6 
 
 151 
 
 1242-9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Technical Terms which are Applied to Fluids and Vapors, 
 and which Bear a Certain Relation to the Steam-Engine. 
 
 Vaporization. — Vaporization is the act or process of vaporizing 
 liquids, or converting them into vapor. 
 
 Diffusion of vapor. — Diffusion of vapor means the state of 
 being scattered, as steam on escaping from the mouth of an ex- 
 haust-pipe is wafted away and scattered over a great extent of 
 space. 
 
THE ENGINEER\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 503 
 
 Compressibility means the quality of being compressible or 
 being capable of being compressed into a smaller space, while in- 
 compressibility implies the opposite property. ^ 
 
 Conductibility means the quality of being conductible, that is, 
 of being capable of being conducted or conveyed away. 
 
 Expansion means the state of being expanded or being capable 
 of expanding, either in surface or bulk. 
 
 Boiling-point means the temperature at which fresh water will 
 boil at sea-level, which is generally understood to be 212° Fah. 
 
 Ebullition is the motion produced in a liquid by the rapid con- 
 version of a part of it into vapor by the application of heat. 
 
 Condensation means the process of converting vapors into fluids 
 by the abstraction of a portion of their heat mechanically. 
 
 Evaporation is a term applied to all bodies existing in an aeri- 
 form state ; while spontaneous evaporation means the natural ten- 
 dency inherent in all fluids to evaporate. 
 
 Fuel. 
 
 The word fuel is used to denote substances which may be burned 
 by means of atmospheric air with sufficient rapidity to evolve heat 
 capable of being applied to economical purposes. Fuel consists 
 either of vegetable matter or of the products of the natural or 
 artificial decomposition of such matter. Vegetable matter, which 
 consists principally of woody tissue, is composed of carbon, hy- 
 drogen and oxygen, comprising the organic part, and a small pro- 
 portion of so-called earthy matter, that which is inorganic. The 
 sun is the source of the heat-producing power of fuel, since the 
 organic parts are derived from water, and, except in particular 
 cases, from the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, which are decom- 
 posed in the economy of plants by the action of solar light. 
 
504 
 
 THE ENGINEER\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Hydrogen in fuel must always be in association with carbon, but 
 carbon practically free from hydrogen may be procured abun- 
 dantly and applied as fuel. In all fuel containing carbon, hydrogen, 
 and oxygen, the proportion of hydrogen may be equal to or greater, 
 but never less, than that required to form water with the oxygen. 
 It is only the hydrogen in excess of this which is available as a 
 source of heat, so that, in the combustion of a substance whose 
 composition is represented by carbon and water, the carbon alone 
 is the source of heat. The hydrogen existing in combination with 
 oxygen in the state of water, so far from contributing to the actual 
 amount of heat produced, must be evaporated at the expense of 
 the heat developed by the combustion of the carbon. 
 
 If we compare different fuels, and assign them a value for heat- 
 ing purposes based on their chemical constitution, we will find 
 that petroleum is about 25 per cent, superior to all others theoret- 
 ically ; in round numbers, it is capable of evaporating 15 lbs. of 
 water per pound of fuel, while a pound of anthracite coal can 
 evaporate 11 lbs., and a pound of coke only about 9 lbs.; these 
 figures varying, to a certain extent, with the diflerent qualities of 
 the fuels. 
 
 The chemical properties of coal are, free carbon, hydro-carbons, 
 water or oxygen, and hydrogen, with solid matter termed ash ; the 
 proportions of these vary considerably. In some instances, the 
 solid matter is 25 per cent., w^hile with superior coal, only 6 or 10 
 per cent. The products of combustion are carbonic acid gas, ni- 
 trogen, air, ashes, and steam. 
 
 The oxygen necessary for the combustion of coal is derived 
 from the atmosphere. One pound of carbon in combustion unites 
 with 2*66 lbs. of oxygen, and the product is 3*66 lbs. of carbonic 
 acid gas. From the above it will be seen that to the 2*66 lbs. 
 of oxygen 11 lbs. of air would have to be brought into contact 
 with the pound of coal (if pure carbon) to render its combustion 
 complete ; but, as coal contains hydrogen, it is found that instead 
 of 11, 12 lbs. are required. 
 
 The value of wood as fuel compared with coal. — Two and a 
 
THE ENGINEER\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 505 
 
 half pounds of dry wood are equal to one pound (average quality) 
 of soft coal, and the fuel value of the same weight of different 
 woods is very nearly the same, — that is, a pound of hickory is 
 worth no more for fuel than a pound of pine, assuming both to 
 be dry. If the value be measured by the weight, it is important 
 that the wood be dry, as each 10 per cent, of moisture or water 
 in the wood will detract about 12 per cent, from its value as a 
 fuel. 
 
 The weight of one cord of different woods (air-dried) is as 
 
 follows : 
 
 Hickory, or Hard Maple ...... 4500 lbs. 
 
 White Oak 3850 " 
 
 Beech, Red Oak, and Black Oak .... 3250 " 
 
 Poplar, Chestnut, and Elm 2350 " 
 
 Pine 2000 " 
 
 The fuel value of wood, as compared with coal, is about as 
 follows : 
 
 1 Cord air-dried Hickory, or Hard Maple, equal to 2000 lbs. coal. 
 1 Cord air-dried White Oak equal to . . . 1725 " 
 1 Cord air-dried Beech, Red Oak, or Black Oak 
 
 equal to 1450 " " 
 
 1 Cord air-dried Poplar, Chestnut, or Elm equal to 1050 " 
 
 1 Cord air-dried Average of Pine Wood equal to 925 " 
 
 Comparative value 
 
 of different Icinds of wood for fuel. 
 
 
 Shellbark Hickory . 
 
 . . 100 
 
 Yellow Oak 
 
 60 
 
 Piguut Hickory . . 
 
 . . 95 i 
 
 Hard Maple 
 
 59 
 
 White Oak . . . 
 
 . . 84 
 
 White Elm 
 
 58 
 
 White Ash . . . 
 
 . . 77 
 
 Red Cedar 
 
 56 
 
 Dog- Wood. . . . 
 
 . . 75 
 
 Wild Cherry 
 
 55 
 
 Scrub Oak .... 
 
 . . 73 
 
 Yellow Piue 
 
 54 
 
 White Hazel . . . 
 
 . . 72 
 
 
 52 
 
 Apple-Tree . . . 
 
 . . 70 
 
 Yellow Poplar .... 
 
 51 
 
 Red Oak . . . . 
 
 . . 67 
 
 Butternut and White 
 
 
 White Beech . . . 
 
 . . 65 
 
 1 Birch 
 
 43 
 
 Black Birch . . . 
 
 . . 62 
 
 1 White Piue 
 
 30 
 
 43 
 
506 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Fire. — Fire is one of the oldest chemical phenomeDa. Its dis- 
 covery was one of the greatest boons conferred on mankind, as 
 with it arose sociability, the family joys of the domestic hearth, 
 all industries and arts, together with the wonders they have pro- 
 duced, and still produce from day to day. Henoe, we can readily 
 understand how it is that fire has ever been, and still is, among 
 nations the object of a special worship (priests of Baal, Gebers, 
 Hindoos, Brahmans, etc.), and has often Sgareii In the religious 
 or funereal rites of nations most remote from each other, both 
 in time and space, as the Chaldees, Hebrews, Greeks, Romans, 
 Peruvians, Mexicans, etc. But how and when this great discovery 
 was made, in the absence of which we can hardly conceive of the 
 possibility of human arts, or even of human existence, is un- 
 known. 
 
 Flame. — Flame is gas or vapor, of which the surface, in con- 
 tact with the atmospheric air, or other supporter of combustion, 
 burns with the emission of light. The luminosity of flame is 
 generally admitted to be caused by the presence of particles of 
 solid matter within, or in immediate contact with, the gas in active 
 combustion. 
 
 Smoke. — Smoke is the product of imperfect combustion, caused 
 either by a want of oxygen or a want of temperature. Bitu- 
 minous coal contains from 5 to 6 per cent, of hydrogen, which 
 unites with the oxygen necessary to combustion, and constitutes 
 water. A ton of bituminous coal will make nearly one-third of 
 a ton of water in the form of steam. That this steam is black, 
 does not necessarily indicate the presence of much carbon, as a 
 grain of soot, if distributed evenly in fine particles through a 
 cubic foot of steam, would color it blacker than the ace of spades. 
 
 Chemical analysis proves the basis of soft coal to be carburetted 
 hydrogen, but it generally contains benzole, naphtha, asphaltum, 
 paraffine, lubricating oil, and a great variety of other substances 
 used in the mechanical arts. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 507 
 
 Heat. 
 
 According to the dynamical or mechanical theory, heat is the 
 result of motion among the atoms of matter, or, as it may be 
 otherwise stated, of inter-atomic movement; and this motion is 
 capable of being propagated through space, from one body to 
 another, by undulations of a so-called ether assumed to be every- 
 where existent in the universe. 
 
 The relative effect of such heat producing motion, or, in other 
 words, the relative proportions of heat required to cause given 
 effects, may be accurately indicated by numbers, just as if heat 
 were a ponderable agent ; and it is usual to speak of heat as if it 
 were an independent material substance : thus, it is said to be 
 evolved, or emitted, radiated, conducted, absorbed, and stored up, 
 or accumulated. As a variable amount of the heat evolved in 
 the combustion of a body is absorbed in the work of effecting 
 alterations in the physical condition of the combustible elements 
 necessary to their effective oxidation^ it is impossible to estimate 
 the absolute quantity of heat evolved by the combustion of a 
 body ; yet the relative quantities of heat evolved by the com- 
 bustion of different bodies which may be utilized, can be accurately 
 determined. 
 
 One of the remarkable efTects of the application of heat to 
 matter is, that the same amount will affect equal weights of dis- 
 similar kinds in different degrees. Thus, the amount of heat that 
 will raise 1 lb. of water from 100° to 200° Fah, will raise 30 lbs. 
 of mercury through the same range. The amount that will raise 
 1 lb. of water 1°, will raise 14 lbs. of air. 
 
 The capacity of a body for heat is termed its specific heat, and 
 may be defined as the number of units of heat necessary to raise 
 the temperature of 1 lb. of that body 1° Fah. 
 
 The thermal unit, or unit of heat, as it is termed, is the quan- 
 tity of heat that v»^ill raise 1 lb. of pure water 1° Fah., or from 
 39° to 40° Fah. 
 
 The term latent heat means the quantity of heat which has dis' 
 
508 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 appeared from a body, owing to an increase of temperature. The 
 sensible heat is that which is sensible to the touch or measurable 
 by the thermometer. 
 
 The mechanical equivalent of heat is the amount of work per- 
 formed by the conversion of one unit of heat into work, and the 
 mechanical theory heat is based on the assumption that heat and 
 work are mutually convertible. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE LATENT HEAT OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES. 
 
 Fah. 
 
 Ice 140° 
 
 Sulphur . . . . .144 
 
 Lead 162 
 
 Beeswax 176 
 
 Zinc 493 
 
 Fah. 
 
 Steam 990° 
 
 Vinegar 875 
 
 Ammonia .... 860 
 Alcohol . . . •. .442 
 Ether 301 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE RADIATING PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENT SUBSTANCES. 
 
 Water 
 
 Fah. 
 . 100° 
 
 Blackened Tin . . . . 
 
 Lampblack 
 
 . .100 
 
 Clean Tin . . . . 
 
 Writing-Paper . 
 
 . 100 
 
 Scraped Tin . . . , 
 
 Glass 
 
 . 90 
 
 
 India-Ink . 
 
 . 88 
 
 
 Bright Lead 
 
 . 19 
 
 Polished Iron . . . . 
 
 Silver 
 
 . 12 
 
 
 Fah. 
 
 100° 
 12 
 16 
 85 
 20 
 15 
 12 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE EFFECTS OF HEAT UPON DIFFERENT BODIES. 
 
 Cast Iron thoroughly smelted 
 Fine Gold melts at 
 Fine Silver " 
 Copper " 
 Brass 
 Zinc 
 
 Quicksilver boils at 
 Linseed Oil " 
 
 Fah. 
 2,754^ 
 
 1,983 
 1,850 
 2,160 
 1,900 
 740 
 630 
 600 
 
 Lead melts at . 
 Bismuth " 
 Tin 
 
 Tin and Bismuth, 
 
 equal parts 
 Alcohol boils at 
 Ether 
 
 Mercury melts at 
 
 melt at 
 
 Fah 
 594^ 
 
 476 
 
 421 
 
 283 
 
 174 
 98 
 39 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 509 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE SPECIFIC HEAT OF DIFFERENT SUBSTANCES. 
 
 SOLIDS. 
 
 
 00951 
 
 
 
 0-0939 
 
 Gold 
 
 0-0324 
 
 Glass 
 
 
 0-1977 
 
 
 0-1138 
 
 Ice . . 
 
 
 0-5040 
 
 
 0-0314 
 
 Sulphur . 
 
 
 0-2020 
 
 Platinum 
 
 0-0324 
 
 Charcoal 
 
 
 0-2410 
 
 Silver ...... 
 
 0-0570 
 
 Alumina 
 
 
 0-1970 
 
 Tin ...... . 
 
 0-0562 
 
 Stones, Bricks, etc., about 0-2200 
 
 
 0-0955 
 
 
 
 
 
 LIQUIDS. 
 
 
 
 Water ..... 
 
 1-0000 
 
 Mercury. 
 
 
 0-0332 
 
 Lead (melted) . . 
 
 0-0402 
 
 Alcohol . 
 
 
 06150 
 
 feulpnur 
 
 0-2340 
 
 Fusel Oil 
 
 
 0-5640 
 
 Bismuth " ... 
 
 0-0363 
 
 Benzine . 
 
 
 0-4500 
 
 Tin " . . . . 
 
 0-0637 
 
 Ether . 
 
 
 0 5034 
 
 
 TABLE 
 
 
 
 SHOWING THE RELATIVE 
 
 WEIGHT AND VOLUME 
 
 OF DIFFERENT 
 
 GASES. 
 
 Air . . . . 
 
 
 
 0-238 . . 
 
 0-169 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 
 
 0-218 . . 
 
 0-156 
 
 Hydrogen . 
 
 
 
 3-405 . . 
 
 2-410 
 
 Steam Gas . 
 
 
 
 0-480 . . 
 
 0-346 
 
 Carbonic Acid Gas 
 
 
 
 0-217 . . 
 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 
 
 0-244 . . 
 
 
 Olefiant Gas 
 
 
 
 0-404 . . 
 
 0-173 
 
 Carbonic Oxide . 
 
 
 
 0-245 . . 
 
 0-237 
 
 Ammonia 
 
 
 
 0-508 . . 
 
 0-299 
 
 43^ 
 
510 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE NON-CONDUCTING PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS 
 
 AT EVEN THICKNESS. 
 
 Black Slate 100 
 
 Sandstone ......... 71*95 
 
 Fire-Brick . 61-70 
 
 Soft Chalk 56 
 
 Asphaltum 45 
 
 Oak Wood 33*66 
 
 Pine Wood 27*61 
 
 Wood and Plaster 25*55 
 
 Sulphate of Lime 20*26 
 
 Sulphate of Lime and Sand 18*70 
 
 Coarse Ashes, Shavings, Hay, and Straw . . . 25-85 
 
 Sawdust and Tan-Bark (fine) 17-20 
 
 Mineral Wood of Asbestos, cemented .... 18-20 
 
 Fine Asbestos, in thread 13-15 
 
 Fine-Powdered Charcoal 14-16 
 
 Ordinary Mineral Wool, Hair-Felt, Cat-Tail, etc. . 10-13 
 
 Extra Mineral Wool, Raw Silk, Cotton, etc., quite loose 8-10 
 
 Ice 0 
 
 Cooling of liquids and solids. — The velocities with which a 
 solid body cools in a liquid are approximately the same, whether 
 it be placed near the surface or near the bottom. It is slightly 
 less when the body is brought immediately under the surface. 
 The nature of the external surface of the cooling body has but 
 little influence. The velocity of cooling increases very consider- 
 ably for the same body immersed in the same liquid with increas- 
 ing temperature of the latter. If the cooling power of water be 
 taken at 1, that of alcohol is equal to 0*58; mercury, 2*07; sul- 
 phate of copper, 1*03, and common salt, 1*05. 
 
 Combustion. 
 
 Combustion is a subject of interest to the engineer, manufac- 
 turer, and individual, and must ever continue to be so, while the 
 
THE engineer\s IIANDY-BOOK. 511 
 
 steam-engine is used as a motive power, and so long as artificial 
 heat is employed for manufacturing and domestic purposes, as 
 well as for the preservation of animal life. This subject has not 
 heretofore received that consideration which its importance in an 
 economical point of view so eminently deserves. This arose, in 
 part, from the lavish hand with which a bountiful Nature has sup- 
 plied us with minerals, woods, and cereals, and the cl6se prox- 
 imity of the source of supply to the avenue of demand ; but the 
 increase of population and demand, and the diminution in supply, 
 are making the examination of the subject an imperative neces- 
 sity. It is quite common to see in the neighborhood of manu- 
 facturing establishments, and even households, splendid lumps of 
 the finest qualities of anthracite coal, nearly pure carbon, lying in 
 the highway, to be forced into the ground by the pressure of hoof 
 or wheel, and after rain storms dumping-grounds glisten with 
 kernels of coal that have never been exposed to the fire, which 
 are as fine as, and in many respects superior to, that which has been 
 placed in the furnace. The same thing may be said of oil, cotton- 
 waste, piston-rod packing, etc. ; but, as the cost of material has to 
 be paid out of the profits of production, such carelessness is gen- 
 erally followed by retributive justice; and the old adage which 
 says " that a wilful waste is generally followed by a woeful want," 
 is sooner or later realized. 
 
 Combustion is the result of chemical alterations of a violent 
 character, and the heat thus evolved is merely an incidental phe- 
 nomenon, or a vehement combination of various materials. In 
 combustion, the carbon and oxygen have so great a chemical af- 
 finity for each other, that they rush violently together, and by the 
 force of their combustion produce instant heat. 
 
 The composition of anthracite coal of the best quality is as 
 follows: carbon, 90*45; hydrogen, 2-43; oxygen, 2*45, and ashes 
 4*67, with a minute quantity of nitrogen. When coal is heated, it 
 discharges its gas ; the solid carbon then ignites in presence of 
 oxygen, and retains the temperature necessary for combustion as 
 long as the necessary quantity of oxygen is applied. The average 
 
512 
 
 THE ENGI^fEER^S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 weight of anthracite coal is about 53 lbs. per cubic foot, and the 
 number of cubic feet per ton will average about 42'3. 
 
 Bituminous coal is a compound substance. A ton (2000 lbs.) con- 
 tains about 1600 lbs. or 80 per cent, of carbon ; 100 lbs. or 5 per 
 cent, of hydrogen ; and 300 lbs. or 15 per cent, of oxygen, ni- 
 trogen, sulphur, and ashes. The weight of bituminous coal will 
 average about 50 lbs. per cubic foot and 44*8 cubic feet to the 
 ton, and in the process of coking it loses 35 per cent, of its orig- 
 inal weight. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE TOTAL HEAT OF COMBUSTION OF VARIOUS FUELS. 
 
 Sort of Fuel. 
 
 Equivalent 
 
 IN PUBE 
 
 Cabbon. 
 
 Lbs. of Water 
 Evaporated 
 FROM 212° Fah. 
 
 Lbs. of Water 
 Raised 
 1° Fah. 
 
 Anthracite coal . 
 
 1-05 
 
 15-75 
 
 15225 
 
 Bituminous " . 
 
 1-06 
 
 15-90 
 
 15370 
 
 Coke .... 
 
 0-94 
 
 14-00 
 
 13620 
 
 Charcoal . . . 
 
 0-93 
 
 14-00 
 
 13500 
 
 Dry wood . . . 
 
 0-50 
 
 7-50 
 
 7000 
 
 Spontaneous combustion. — This mysterious phenomenon has 
 attracted at different times the attention of chemists and philos- 
 ophers, and many theories have been advanced to account for its 
 development. Galletly, who investigated the subject, found that 
 cotton-waste soaked in boiled linseed-oil, and wrung out, if exposed 
 to a temperature of 170°, set up oxidation so rapidly as to cause 
 actual combustion in 105 minutes. Coleman also instituted a very 
 extensive series of experiments upon fragments of cotton, linen, 
 jute, and woollen waste saturated with oils of different natures. 
 
 The theory which attributes spontaneous combustion to the 
 presence of pyrites in the coal, may partially account for the 
 increased number of fires ; but Richter has shown that, for va- 
 rious coals experimented upon, those which contained the most 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 513 
 
 pyrites were not the most subject to spontaneous combustion. 
 According to him, air is rapidly absorbed by the coal, and the 
 oxygen of the air then combines with the organic components to 
 produce carbonic acid and develop heat. According to all prob- 
 abilities, however, the heat which determined the spontaneous 
 combustion is due both to the oxidation of the iron and to that 
 of the carbonized matters. This confined in badly-ventilated holds 
 speedily reaches a temperature sufficiently high to produce com- 
 bustion. 
 
 That most of the bituminous coals (English and American) are 
 subject to spontaneous combustion when in bulk, and under favor- 
 able circumstances, has long been known. Experiments by Green- 
 araann have also proved conclusively that an exposure of bitu- 
 minous coal in heaps to the action of the weather for a period 
 varying from two weeks to a year results in a large percentage of 
 loss. This loss is in the nature of a slow or incomplete combus- 
 tion; it is greater and more rapid in large heaps than in small, 
 and is also favored by the greater or less state of subdivision of 
 the coal, large fragments losing proportionably less than smaller 
 ones. The loss varies from 5 to 25 per cent. 
 
 The higher the temperature the more rapid is the combustion. 
 The heat around the coal-bunkers of steamships must necessarily 
 be very great, from their close proximity to the boilers aud fur- 
 naces; and in sailing-ships containing large quantities of these 
 coals in bulk, taken on board mostly wet, the generation of heat 
 to the point of ignition seems to be only a question of time. The 
 sulphur and volatile matter in bituminous and hydrogenous coals 
 are the active agents in spontaneous combustion, and the finer the 
 particles the more favorable is the condition for producing that 
 result. The large number of disasters, which have occurred from 
 the spontaneous combustion of bituminous coals on board of steam- 
 ships and sailing-vessels, has called public attention to the matter. 
 Although the manner by which bituminous coal stored in vessels 
 becomes ignited is not yet determined, it has been demonstrated 
 that the conditions for the \vork of spontaneous combustion exist 
 
 2H 
 
514 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 wherever large bodies of bituminous coal are stored in close com- 
 partments. 
 
 From the foregoing considerations, it would seem that, when 
 spontaneous combustion takes place among coals or other sub- 
 stances, drowning out with water is not always effective ; as, though 
 it extinguishes the fire, it leaves in the coal a condition of things 
 very favorable to a renewed ignition at any moment. A terrible 
 explosion of coal-gas recently occurred on board of a steamship in 
 Liverpool, by which fourteen men were injured, some of them 
 seriously, in consequence of a quantity of wet coal having been 
 placed in the bunkers and the hatches closed. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Water, with the barometer at 30°, boils in the open air, at sea- 
 level, at 212° Fah.; and in vacuum, at 88° Fah. The less the 
 pressure of the atmosphere, the lower is the temperature at which 
 water will boil. The pressure of the atmosphere at sea-level is 
 14*7 lbs. per square inch, pressing equally and in all directions. 
 This has been ascertained from the following illustration. Because 
 the height of a column of air of one square inch area exactly 
 balances a column of mercury of the same area 30 inches in 
 height, and also a column of water 33*86 feet in height, it follows 
 that a column of air, 30 inches of mercury, and 33*^86 feet of water 
 weigh the same, and since the last two weigh respectively 14*7 
 lbs. per square inch, a full column of air must weigh the same. 
 A cubic foot of water evaporated under a pressure of one atmos- 
 phere, or 15 lbs. per square inch, occupies a space of 1700 cubic 
 feet. 
 
 Salt water boils at a higher temperature than fresh, owing to its 
 greater density, and because the boiling-point of water is increased 
 by any substance that enters into chemical combination with it. 
 Mud and other substances, so long as they are kept in mechanical 
 solution, will not increase the boiling-point of water ; when these 
 substances settle, and burn to the interior of the boilers, the boil- 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 515 
 
 ing-point will be increased. The density of water decreases as the 
 temperature increases, since heat destroys cohesion and expands 
 the particles, causing them to occupy greater space. The power 
 of water to hold chemical substances, such as salts of lime, in solu- 
 tion, decreases as the temperature increases ; from this it follows 
 that boilers carrying high-pressure steam form more scale than 
 those working at low temperatures. 
 
 The law of expansion by heat and contraction by cold is true 
 as relating to water, with this exception, that, as hot water cools 
 down from the boiling-point, it contracts until 45° Fah. is reached, 
 but if cooled down from this point it expands again. The density 
 of water decreases as the temperature increases, because water is 
 expanded into a greater space by an increase of temperature. The 
 cohesive attraction of the particles is not so great, and the water 
 is therefore less buoyant, thus allowing the hydrometer to sink 
 lower than it should. 
 
 Water, like all liquids, expands by the application* of heat, and 
 this fact alone shows the fallacy of the commonly accepted notion 
 that it is incompressible ; the dilation and contraction of the liquid 
 is simply extension and compression of its particles. Although 
 the expansion of water is comparatively slight between its boiling 
 and freezing points, yet it is the most irregular of all liquids ; so 
 irregular, in fact, that it has been found impossible to find a single 
 empirical formula to express the expansion at different tempera- 
 tures. Below 50° Fah. it is more irregular than above that point, 
 as water possesses what no other liquid has been discovered to 
 have, and that is a point of maximum density. 
 
 If we take a water thermometer and expose it to the cold, we 
 shall observe the following curious phenomenon. The liquid will 
 gradually descend until it reaches the temperature of 39*2° Fah. ; 
 at this point the contraction will cease ; and, although the cold 
 acting on the bulb is far below this point, the liquid will gradually 
 ascend until it reaches 32° Fah., or freezing point, when it will 
 solidify. The point at which the liquid commences to ascend is 
 called its " point of maximum density." 
 
516 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 One of the most curious phenomena connected with water 
 before and after freezing, may be demonstrated as follows : Take a 
 tall jar and fill it with water, say at 60° Fah. ; at the top of the 
 jar fix a small mercurial thermometer, and another one at the 
 bottom ; then place the jar at rest, exposed to the cold. The lower 
 thermometer will be observed to fall more rapidly than the top 
 one, until it reaches 39*2° Fah., when it will remain stationary. 
 The top thermometer will now fall, and continue to do so until 
 the water freezes ; the bottom thermometer still remaining at 39*2° 
 Fah. These effects are easily explained : the particles of water 
 at the top being exposed to the cold, decrease in temperature, thus 
 becoming denser, and fall to the bottom, their places being taken 
 up by warmer particles, which in their turn undergo the same 
 change, until the whole volume has completely circulated, and 
 attained a temperature of 39'2° Fah. The particles now, instead 
 of becoming denser, actually expand, and so remain at the top 
 until a thin layer of ice is formed. This is exactly what takes 
 place in our lakes and ponds during every frost ; the circulation 
 continues until the whole mass attains the temperature of 39*2° 
 Fah., when it is gradually and finally arrested; a thin layer of 
 ice is then formed at the top, acting as a cloak to the interior, 
 which, remaining always at 39*2° Fah., preserves the animals and 
 fishes from the action of intense cold. 
 
 Were it not for this fact, our lakes and rivers would all be 
 frozen at the bottom, and, as water is a bad conductor of heat, 
 they would in time be converted into a solid block of ice, which 
 would defy the hottest rays of a tropical sun to melt. Thus we 
 see that such a wise provision of Nature depends entirely on an 
 apparent exception to a universal law, which is so slight that it 
 requires the most delicate experiments to detect it. The freezing 
 point of a liquid is almost invariably the same as its melting 
 point ; that is, if we cool a liquid below its melting point, it will 
 become solid. There are, of course, many exceptions to this, and 
 even water has been known to be cooled down to 4° Fah. without 
 freezing. To effect this, however, water most be kept perfectly 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 517 
 
 still, as, with the least vibration, congelation commences, and the 
 temperature will instantly rise to zero. 
 
 When a substance solidifies or freezes, there is always a change 
 of volume, which usually is a contraction ; but, in the case of water, 
 an expansion takes place. The expansion of water at the freezing 
 point is by no means gradual, but takes place almost instantane- 
 ously, and the amount of force exerted at the time is enormous. 
 It has been demonstrated by actual experiments, that in freezing, 
 water exerts a pressure of about 30,000 lbs. per square inch, which 
 far surpasses the strain that any of our machinery could bear. 
 
 Pure water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen in the pro- 
 portions of two measures of hydrogen to one of oxygen, or one 
 part of hydrogen to 8 of oxygen ; or oxygen, 89 parts by weight, 
 and by measure 1 part; hydrogen, by weight, 11 parts, and by 
 measure, 2 parts ; but pure water is not attainable, nor is it to be 
 found in the laboratory of the chemist. Fortunately, however, 
 pure water is not necessary, nor even desirable, for either house- 
 hold or manufacturing purposes ; because the presence of air and 
 other gases adds very materially to the ease with which steam 
 may be generated, while the ammonia, which most water contains, 
 improves it for manufacturing purposes. 
 
 The specific gravity of all waters is not the same. Sea water 
 varies from 1*0269 to 1*0285, the mean being 1-0277, thus requir- 
 ing 34*9741 cubic feet of sea water to make one ton, and about 
 35 feet of fresh water. Water is heavier at night than during the 
 day, owing to the atmosphere being more dense, and the additional 
 weight of the dew. 
 
 Water has the greatest specific heat of all known liquids ex- 
 cept hydrogen, and is therefore taken as the standard for all solids 
 and fluids. The latent heat of water is 143° Fah., and that of 
 ice 140°, as it absorbs that amount of heat in changing from a 
 liquid to a solid state. 
 
 Water, under the influence of heat, can be changed from the 
 liquid to the gaseous state in two ways only, either by conversion 
 into steam, or by decomposition into its constituent gases, hydrogep 
 44 
 
518 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 and oxygen, which decomposition can be effected only at the ex* 
 pense of the apparatus in which it is effected. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE QUANTITY AND WEIGHT OF WATER IN PIPES ONE FATHOM 
 IN LENGTH (6 FEET), AND OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS FROM 1 TO 12 
 INCHES. 
 
 Diameter 
 
 Quantity in 
 
 Quantity in Im- 
 
 Weight in Lbs. 
 
 IN Inches. 
 
 Cubic Inches. 
 
 perial Gallons. 
 
 Avoirdupois. 
 
 
 14-14 
 
 0-051 
 
 0-51 
 
 1 
 
 56-55 
 
 0-205 
 
 2-05 
 
 n 
 
 127-23 
 
 0-460 
 
 4-60 
 
 2 
 
 226-19 
 
 0-818 
 
 8-18 
 
 2i 
 
 353-43 
 
 1-278 
 
 12-78 
 
 3 
 
 508-94 
 
 1-841 
 
 18-41 . 
 
 3J 
 
 692-72 
 
 2-506 
 
 25-06 
 
 4 
 
 904-78 
 
 3-272 
 
 32-72 
 
 4i 
 
 1145-11 
 
 4-142 
 
 41-42 
 
 5 
 
 1413-72 
 
 5-113 
 
 51-13 
 
 5J 
 
 1710-60 
 
 6-187 
 
 61-87 
 
 6 
 
 2035-75 
 
 7-363 
 
 73-63 
 
 6* 
 
 2389-18 
 
 8-641 
 
 86-41 
 
 7 
 
 2770-88 
 
 10-022 
 
 100-22 
 
 7i 
 
 3180-86 
 
 11-505 
 
 115-05 ■ 
 
 O 
 O 
 
 QA1 Q-1 1 
 oDiy II 
 
 lo k)u\j 
 
 loU o\j 
 
 8i 
 
 4085-64 
 
 u-m 
 
 147-77 
 
 9 
 
 4580-44 
 
 16-567 
 
 165-67 
 
 9i 
 
 5103-52 
 
 18-459 
 
 184-59 
 
 10 
 
 5654-87 
 
 20-453 
 
 204-53 
 
 lOJ 
 
 6234-49 
 
 22-550 
 
 225-50 
 
 11 
 
 6842-39 
 
 24-748 
 
 247-48 
 
 m 
 
 7478-56 
 
 27-049 
 
 270-49 
 
 12 
 
 8143-01 
 
 29-452 
 
 294-52 
 
 m 
 
 8835-74 
 
 38-32 
 
 319-50 
 
 13 
 
 9556-74 
 
 55-3 
 
 34500 
 
 m 
 
 10306-01 
 
 59-6 
 
 373-50 
 
 14 
 
 11083-56 
 
 65-2 
 
 400-50 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 519 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE QUANTITY OF WATER PER LINEAL FOOT IN PUMPS, OR 
 VERTICAL PIPES OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS. 
 
 Diameter 
 of Pump 
 in Inches. 
 
 Number of 
 
 Gallons 
 per Lineal 
 Foot. 
 
 Number of 
 Cubic Feet 
 per Lineal 
 Foot. 
 
 Diameter 
 of Pump 
 in Inches. 
 
 Number of 
 
 Gallons 
 per Lineal 
 Foot. 
 
 Number of 
 Cubic Feet 
 per Lineal 
 Foot. 
 
 9 
 
 •1 ^fi 
 
 ±00 
 
 •091^ 
 
 0 
 
 9^1 7fi 
 
 
 
 •179 
 
 •097fi 
 
 
 9-^14 
 
 •^^71 9 
 
 ^ 2 
 
 •919 
 
 
 
 9-4.^fi 
 
 •^Q40 
 
 
 •9.'i7 
 
 •041 9 
 
 04 
 
 9-fiO.^ 
 
 \J\J0 
 
 •41 75 
 
 Q 
 o 
 
 •^Of^ 
 ouo 
 
 •n4Qn 
 
 Q 
 
 9-7^4 
 z 1 0^ 
 
 •441 7 
 
 
 
 •0^7fi 
 
 
 Z/ fjyJo 
 
 •4fififi 
 
 ttUUU 
 
 0 J 
 
 •41 
 
 •Ofifi^^ 
 
 wUOO 
 
 
 ^•OfiS 
 0 uuo 
 
 T:i7ZO 
 
 
 •47X 
 
 •07f>fi 
 
 
 o.oqo 
 
 0 LtO Li 
 
 •51 84 
 
 A 
 
 •.^44 
 
 •0S79 
 
 10 
 
 ^•400 
 
 •.54.54 
 
 Arl 
 
 
 
 lOi^ 
 
 1 V4 
 
 -O <J 1 z 
 
 •57*^0 
 
 
 
 •1 104 
 
 lOi 
 Xv/2 
 
 ^•74^ 
 
 0 1 rrO 
 
 •fiOl 
 
 
 •7fi7 
 
 •1 9^0 
 
 10^ 
 
 Q.QOQ 
 0 t7Zt/ 
 
 •fi^09 
 
 
 
 •1 ^fi^ 
 1000 
 
 1 1 
 
 4-1 14 
 
 ^ i It: 
 
 •fi5QQ 
 
 OtJi/i/ 
 
 
 .QQ7 
 
 •1 50^ 
 
 111 
 ±±4 
 
 4-^0^ 
 
 t: Ov/O 
 
 •fiQ09 
 
 
 1 •09X 
 
 •1fi4Q 
 
 1 1 fi^ 
 
 4-4Qfi 
 
 •791 9 
 
 
 1-124 
 
 •1803 
 
 111 
 
 4-694 
 
 •7529 
 
 D 
 
 1 'OO/I 
 1 ZZ4 
 
 
 IZ 
 
 4 oyb 
 
 / ooo 
 
 6} 
 
 1-328 
 
 •2130 
 
 m 
 
 5-312 
 
 •8521 
 
 6J 
 
 1-436 
 
 •2304 
 
 13 
 
 5^746 
 
 •9217 
 
 61 
 
 1-549 
 
 •2489 
 
 13i 
 
 . 6^196 
 
 •9939 
 
 7 
 
 1-666 
 
 •2672 
 
 14 
 
 6^664 
 
 r0689 
 
 7i 
 
 1-787 
 
 •2866 
 
 15 
 
 7^650 
 
 r2271 
 
 
 1-912 
 
 •3067 
 
 16 
 
 8^704 
 
 1-3962 
 
 71 
 
 2-042 
 
 •3275 
 
 18 
 
 11016 
 
 1^7670 
 
 One cubic foot of water weighs 62i lbs., and contains Ih U. S. 
 gallons. 
 
 One cubic foot of ice weighs 57 lbs. 
 
520 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF WATER AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES. 
 
 X HiiYix jLiixA. 1 U rvXi^ 
 
 Fah. 
 
 Weight of a 
 Cubic Foot 
 IN Lbs. 
 
 T? TVr T> Tf A T'TT'RU' 
 X tUM-trcjlxA. 1 U ixjiif 
 
 Fah. 
 
 Weight of a 
 Cubic Foot 
 IN Lbs. 
 
 40° 
 
 62-408 
 
 172° 
 
 60-72 
 
 42° 
 
 62-406 
 
 182° 
 
 60-55 
 
 52° 
 
 62-377 
 
 192° 
 
 60-28 
 
 62° 
 
 62-321 
 
 202° 
 
 60-05 
 
 72° 
 
 62-025 
 
 212° 
 
 59-82 
 
 82° 
 
 62015 
 
 230° 
 
 59-37 
 
 92° 
 
 62-004 
 
 250° 
 
 58-85 
 
 102° 
 
 61-092 
 
 275° 
 
 58-17 
 
 1 1 QO 
 
 Dl Via 
 
 
 0/ 4Z 
 
 122° 
 
 61063 
 
 350° 
 
 55-94 
 
 132° 
 
 61-047 
 
 400° 
 
 54-34 
 
 142° 
 
 61-080 
 
 450° 
 
 52-70 
 
 152° 
 
 61-011 
 
 500° 
 
 51-02 
 
 162° 
 
 60-092 
 
 600° 
 
 47-64 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE BOILING POINT FOR FRESH WATER AT DIFFERENT ALTI- 
 TUDES ABOVE SEA-LEVEL. 
 
 Boiling Point 
 in Deg. Fah. 
 
 Altitude 
 above Sea- 
 Level in Feet. 
 
 Boiling Point 
 in Deg. Fah. 
 
 Altitude 
 above Sea- 
 Level in Feet 
 
 Boiling Point 
 in Deg. Fah. 
 
 Altitude 
 above Sea- 
 Level in Feet. 
 
 1840 
 
 15,221 
 
 1950 
 
 9,031 
 
 206O 
 
 3,115 
 
 185 
 
 14,649 
 
 196 
 
 8,481 
 
 207 
 
 2,589 
 
 186 
 
 14,075 
 
 197 
 
 7,932 
 
 208 
 
 2,063 
 
 187 
 
 13,498 
 
 198 
 
 7,381 
 
 209 
 
 1,539 
 
 188 
 
 12,934 
 
 199 
 
 6,843 
 
 210 
 
 1,025 
 
 189 
 
 12,367 
 
 200 
 
 6,304 
 
 211 
 
 512 
 
 190 
 
 11,799 
 
 201 
 
 5,764 
 
 212 
 
 Sea-Level = 0 
 
 191 
 
 11,243 
 
 202 
 
 5,225 
 
 
 
 192 
 
 10,685 
 
 203 
 
 4,697 
 
 Below Sea-Level 
 
 193 
 
 10,127 
 
 204 
 
 4,169 
 
 213 
 
 511 
 
 194 
 
 9,579 
 
 205 
 
 3,642 
 
 
 
THE ENGINEER .S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 521 
 
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THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 523 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE CAPACITY OF CISTERNS IN GALLONS FOR EACH 10-INCH 
 
 DEPTH. 
 
 Diameter 
 IN Feet. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Diameter 
 IN Feet. 
 
 (tALLONS. 
 
 Diameter 
 IN Feet. 
 
 - - 
 
 a ATT riVQ 
 
 2- 
 
 
 
 195 
 
 6-6 
 
 206 -8 
 
 12 
 
 705- 
 
 2-5 
 
 30-5 
 
 7- 
 
 239-8 
 
 13 
 
 827-4 
 
 8- 
 
 44-6 
 
 7-5 
 
 275-4 
 
 14 
 
 959-7 
 
 B-5 
 
 59-97 
 
 8- 
 
 313-3 
 
 15 
 
 1101-6 
 
 4- 
 
 78-33 
 
 8-5 
 
 353-7 
 
 20 
 
 1958-4 
 
 4-5 
 
 99-14 
 
 9- 
 
 396-5 
 
 25 
 
 3059-9 
 
 5- 
 
 122-4 
 
 9-5 
 
 461-4 
 
 30 
 
 4406-4 
 
 5-5 
 
 148-1 
 
 lo- 
 
 489-6 
 
 35 • 
 
 5990- 
 
 6- 
 
 176-2 
 
 ll- 
 
 592-4 
 
 40 
 
 7831- 
 
 Rule for finding the horse-power of waterfalls. — Multiply the 
 area of the cross-section of the waterfall in feet by its velocity in 
 feet per minute; this product will give the number of cubic feet 
 flowing through per minute. Multiply this by 62^ lbs., the number 
 of pounds in a cubic foot of water. Multiply this last product by 
 the fall in feet, and divide by 33,000. The quotient will be the 
 horse-power of the waterfall. 
 
 Example.— With a stream or flume 10 feet; depth, 4 feet; area 
 of cross-section, 40 feet; velocity in feet per minute, 150. Then 
 40 X 150 = 6,000 cubic feet of water per minute ; 6,000 X 62.1 = 
 375,000 pounds of water per minute. 10 X 375,000 = 3,750,000 
 foot-pounds of the waterfall ; 3,750,000 -r- 33,000 = 113y\ horse- 
 power of the waterfall. 
 
 Rule for finding the contents of an elliptic or oval tank in cubic 
 feet or gallons, — Multiply the long diameter in inches by the 
 short diameter in inches, this product by '7854, and this last product 
 by the height of the tank in inches ; then divide by 1728, and tht 
 result will be the contents of the tank in cubic feet, which, if mul- 
 tiplied by 7*5, gives the number of U. S. gallons in the tank. 
 
524 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Rule for finding the quantity of water which any square or redan- 
 gular box, or tank, is capable of containing in cubic feet or U. S. 
 gallons, — Multiply the length of the sides in inches by their height 
 in inches ; then multiply the width of the ends in inches by their 
 height in inches. Add these two products together and divide by 
 1728; the product will be the contents in cubic feet. This re- 
 sult being multiplied by 7*5 gives the cubical contents in U. S. 
 gallons. 
 
 Rule for finding the cubical contents of a triangular tank. — Mul- 
 tiply the length of the base by half its height ; multiply this by 
 .7854, then divide the product by 1728 ; the quotient will be the 
 number of cubic feet, which, if multiplied by 7*5, will give the 
 number of U, S. gallons in the tank. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE DAILY AVERAGE NUMBER OF GALLONS OF WATER PER 
 INDIVIDUAL IN DIFFERENT CITIES INCLUDING THE QUANTITY USED 
 FOR MANUFACTURING PURPOSES, FOUNTAINS, ETC. 
 
 
 158 
 
 Toronto 
 
 . . 77 
 
 
 100 
 
 London, England. . 
 
 . . -29 
 
 
 50 
 
 Liverpool, " . . 
 
 . . 23 
 
 
 55 
 
 Glasgow, Scotland . 
 
 . 50 
 
 
 40 
 
 Edinburgh, " ' . 
 
 . 38 
 
 
 . . 75 
 
 Dublin, Ireland . . 
 
 . 25 
 
 
 60 
 
 Paris, France . . 
 
 . 28 
 
 Albany, N.Y.. . . 
 
 80 
 
 Tours, " . . 
 
 . 22 
 
 
 . , 83 
 
 Toulouse, " . . 
 
 . 26 
 
 Jersey City, N. J. 
 
 99 
 
 Lyons, " . . 
 
 . 20 
 
 Buffalo, N. Y. . . . 
 
 61 
 
 Leghorn, Italy. . . . 
 
 . 30 
 
 Cleveland .... 
 
 40 
 
 Berlin, Prussia . . . 
 
 . 20 
 
 Columbus .... 
 
 30 
 
 Hamburg, " . . . 
 
 . 33 
 
 Motitreal .... 
 
 55 
 
 Richmond, Va. . . . 
 
 . 36 
 
 San Francisco . . 
 
 . . 42 
 
 City of Mexico . . . 
 
 . 25 
 
 Hartford, Conn. . . 
 
 32 
 
 Vienna ...... 
 
 . 20 
 
 
 27 
 
 St. Petersburg . . . 
 
 . 19 
 
THE engineer's IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 525 
 
 Vapors, 
 
 The mechanical properties of vapor are similar to those of 
 gases in general. When a vapor or gas is contained in a close 
 vessel, the inner surface of the vessel will sustain a pressure arising 
 from the elasticity of the fluid. This pressure is produced by the 
 mutual repulsion of the particles, which gives them a tendency to 
 fly asunder, and causes the mass of the fluid to exert a force tend- 
 ing to burst any vessel within which it is confined. This pressure 
 is uniformly diffused over every part of the surface of the vessel 
 in which such fluid is contained. It is to this quality that all the 
 mechanical power of steam is due. 
 
 It is well known from common observation, that liquids, if not 
 confined in close vessels, become transformed into a condition re- 
 sembling gases at ordinary temperatures, and then disappear. 
 This transformation takes place in nearly all liquids more or less 
 rapidly at ordinary temperatures, though in some it takes place 
 at a very low temperature and at an imperceptible rate of evap- 
 oration ; the lighter the specific gravity, the more rapidly it will 
 disappear. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE TEMPERATURE OF SATURATED VAPOR IN ATMOSPHERES, 
 ACCORDING TO ZEUNER. 
 
 Atmospheres. 
 
 Temperature in 
 Degrees Fah., 
 Water. 
 
 Atmospheres. 
 
 Temperattjre in 
 Degrees Fah., 
 Water. 
 
 1 
 
 212° 
 
 6 
 
 318-5° 
 
 2 
 
 248° 
 
 7 
 
 329-5° 
 
 3 
 
 272° 
 
 8 
 
 339-0° 
 
 4 
 
 291° 
 
 9 
 
 3480° 
 
 5 
 
 306° 
 
 10 
 
 857-0° 
 
 J 
 
526 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE OF THE VAPORS OF WATER 
 FROM 32° TO 400° FAH. 
 
 Temp. 
 Fah. 
 
 Pressures 
 in Atmos- 
 
 Pressures 
 in Lbs. per 
 S(][. Incli. 
 
 Differ- 
 ences. 
 
 Temp. 
 Fah. 
 
 Pressures 
 in Atmos- 
 
 Pressures 
 in Lbs. per 
 Sq. Inch. 
 
 Differ- 
 ences. 
 
 32 
 
 0-006 
 
 0-09 
 
 0-00 
 
 73 
 
 0-026 
 
 0-38 
 
 0-02 
 
 33 
 
 0-006 
 
 0-09 
 
 0-00 
 
 74 
 
 0-027 
 
 0-40 
 
 0-01 
 
 34 
 
 0-006 
 
 0-09 
 
 0-01 
 
 75 
 
 0-028 
 
 0-41 
 
 0-02 
 
 35 
 
 0-007 
 
 0-10 
 
 0-00 
 
 76 
 
 0-029 
 
 0-43 
 
 003 
 
 36 
 
 0-007 
 
 0-10 
 
 0-01 
 
 77 
 
 0-031 
 
 0-46 
 
 0-00 
 
 37 
 
 0-007 
 
 0-11 
 
 O'Ol 
 
 78 
 
 0-031 
 
 0-46 
 
 0-01 
 
 38 
 
 0-008 
 
 0-12 
 
 0-00 
 
 79 
 
 0-032 
 
 0-47 
 
 0-00 
 
 39 
 
 0-008 
 
 0-12 
 
 0-01 
 
 80 
 
 0-032 
 
 0-47 
 
 0-02 
 
 40 
 
 0-009 
 
 0-13 
 
 0-00 
 
 81 
 
 0-033 
 
 0-49 
 
 0-01 
 
 41 
 
 0-009 
 
 0-13 
 
 0-01 
 
 82 
 
 0034 
 
 0-50 
 
 0-03 
 
 42 
 
 0-009 
 
 0-14 
 
 0-00 
 
 83 
 
 0-036 
 
 0-53 
 
 0-01 
 
 43 
 
 0-009 
 
 0-14 
 
 0-01 
 
 84 
 
 0-037 
 
 0-54 
 
 0-oa 
 
 44 
 
 0-010 
 
 0-15 
 
 0-00 
 
 85 
 
 0-039 
 
 0-57 
 
 0-03 
 
 45 
 
 0-010 
 
 0-15 
 
 0-01 
 
 86 
 
 0-041 
 
 0-60 
 
 0-02 
 
 46 
 
 0-011 
 
 0-16 
 
 0-00 
 
 87 
 
 0-042 
 
 0-62 
 
 0-01 
 
 47 
 
 0-011 
 
 0-16 
 
 0-01 
 
 88 
 
 0-043 
 
 0-63 
 
 0-02 
 
 48 
 
 0-011 
 
 0-17 
 
 0-00 
 
 89 
 
 0-044 
 
 0-65 
 
 0-03 
 
 49 
 
 0-011 
 
 0-17 
 
 0-01 
 
 90 
 
 0-046 
 
 0-68 
 
 0-03 
 
 50 
 
 0-012 
 
 0-18 
 
 0-00 
 
 91 
 
 0-048 
 
 0-71 
 
 0-01 
 
 51 
 
 0-012 
 
 0-18 
 
 0-01 
 
 92 
 
 0-049 
 
 0-72 
 
 0-02 
 
 52 
 
 0-013 
 
 0-19 
 
 0-01 
 
 93 
 
 0-050 
 
 0-74 
 
 0-02 
 
 53 
 
 0-013 
 
 0-20 
 
 0-01 
 
 94 
 
 0-052 
 
 0-76 
 
 0-05 
 
 54 
 
 0-014 
 
 0-21 
 
 0-00 
 
 95 
 
 0-055 
 
 0-81 
 
 0-03 
 
 55 
 
 0-014 
 
 0-21 
 
 0-01 
 
 96 
 
 0-057 
 
 0-84 
 
 0-01 
 
 56 
 
 0-015 
 
 0-22 
 
 0-02 
 
 97 
 
 0-058 
 
 0-85 
 
 0-05 
 
 57 
 
 0-016 
 
 0-24 
 
 0-00 
 
 98 
 
 0-061 
 
 0-90 
 
 0-00 
 
 58 
 
 0-016 
 
 0-24 
 
 0-01 
 
 99 
 
 0-061 
 
 0-90 
 
 0-03 
 
 59 
 
 0-017 
 
 0-25 
 
 001 
 
 100 
 
 0-063 
 
 0-93 
 
 004 
 
 60 
 
 0-018 
 
 0-26 
 
 0-00 
 
 101 
 
 0-066 
 
 0-97 
 
 0-01 
 
 61 
 
 0-018 
 
 0-26 
 
 0-00 
 
 102 
 
 0-067 
 
 0-98 
 
 0-03 
 
 62 
 
 0-018 
 
 0-26 
 
 0-02 
 
 103 
 
 0-069 
 
 1-01 
 
 0-05 
 
 63 
 
 0-019 
 
 0-28 
 
 0-01 
 
 104 
 
 0-072 
 
 1-06 
 
 0-03 
 
 64 
 
 0-020 
 
 0-29 
 
 0-00 
 
 105 
 
 0-074 
 
 1-09 
 
 0-06 
 
 65 
 
 0*020 
 
 0-29 
 
 0-02 
 
 106 
 
 0-078 
 
 1-15 
 
 0-01 
 
 66 
 
 0-021 
 
 0-31 
 
 0-01 
 
 107 
 
 . 0-079 
 
 1-16 
 
 0-02 
 
 67 
 
 0-022 
 
 0-32 
 
 0-02 
 
 108 
 
 0-080 
 
 1-18 
 
 0-04 
 
 68 
 
 0-023 
 
 0-34 
 
 0-00 
 
 119 
 
 0-083 
 
 1-22 
 
 0-04 
 
 69 
 
 0-023 
 
 0-34 
 
 0-01 
 
 110 
 
 0-086 
 
 1-26 
 
 0-03 
 
 70 
 
 0-024 
 
 0-35 
 
 0-00 
 
 111 
 
 0-088 
 
 1-29 
 
 0-05 
 
 71 
 
 0-024 
 
 0-35 
 
 0-02 
 
 112 
 
 0-091 
 
 1-34 
 
 0-03 
 
 72 
 
 0-025 
 
 0-37 
 
 0-01 
 
 113 
 
 0-093 
 
 1-37 
 
 0-03 
 
THE KNGINEEU\S flANDY-BOOK. 
 
 TABLE — {Continued.) 
 
 Temp. 
 Fah. 
 
 Pressures 
 in Atmos- 
 pheres. 
 
 Pressures 
 
 111 LjUS, JJCl 
 
 Sq. Inch. 
 
 Differ- 
 ences. 
 
 Temp. 
 Fah. 
 
 Pressures 
 in Atmos- 
 pheres. 
 
 X I ens 111 Co 
 
 in Lbs. per 
 iSq. Inch. 
 
 Differ- 
 ences. 
 
 114 
 
 0-095 
 
 1-40 
 
 0*07 
 
 157 
 
 0-300 
 
 4 41 
 
 u uy 
 
 115 
 
 0-100 
 
 1-47 
 
 0-03 
 
 158 
 
 0*306 
 
 4 OU 
 
 U Uo 
 
 116 
 
 0-102 
 
 1*50 
 
 0*04 
 
 159 
 
 0*308 
 
 A •ceo 
 
 4 00 
 
 U 14 
 
 117 
 
 0-105 
 
 1-54 
 
 003 
 
 160 
 
 0*318 
 
 A'fi.1 
 4 D/ 
 
 U 11 
 
 118 
 
 0-107 
 
 1-57 
 
 0*08 
 
 161 
 
 
 4 /o 
 
 u ly 
 
 119 
 
 0-112 
 
 1-65 
 
 003 
 
 162 
 
 (T-338 
 
 4 y/ 
 
 U Iv 
 
 120, 
 
 0-114 
 
 1-68 
 
 004 
 
 163 
 
 0*345 
 
 0 u/ 
 
 
 121 
 
 0-117 
 
 1*72 
 
 0-06 
 
 164 
 
 0*353 
 
 K.I 0 
 
 u iz 
 
 122 
 
 0-121 
 
 1-78 
 
 004 
 
 165 
 
 0*361 
 
 0 oi 
 
 K) 14 
 
 123 
 
 0-124 
 
 1-82 
 
 0-05 
 
 166 
 
 0*371 
 
 0 40 
 
 u iz 
 
 124 
 
 0-127 
 
 1-87 
 
 0*04 
 
 167 
 
 03/9 
 
 0 01 
 
 yj \jL 
 
 125 
 
 0-130 
 
 1-91 
 
 0-09 
 
 168 
 
 0*387 
 
 0 by 
 
 A*! 0 
 U lo 
 
 126 
 
 0-136 
 
 2-00 . 
 
 0*04 
 
 169 
 
 0*396 
 
 0 oZ 
 
 U 16 
 
 127 
 
 0-139 
 
 2-04 
 
 0-05 
 
 170 
 
 0*405 
 
 0 yo 
 
 Kj 10 
 
 128 
 
 0-142 
 
 2-09 
 
 006 
 
 171 
 
 0*415 
 
 D lU 
 
 U 10 
 
 129 
 
 0-146 
 
 2-15 
 
 0-05 
 
 172 
 
 0*425 
 
 D ZO 
 
 A.I A 
 
 U 10 
 
 130 
 
 0-150 
 
 2-20 
 
 0-06 
 
 173 
 
 0*436 
 
 0 41 
 
 A»1 Q 
 
 U lo 
 
 131 
 
 0-154 
 
 2-26 
 
 0-06 
 
 174 
 
 0*445 
 
 D 04 
 
 A'l Pi 
 
 U 10 
 
 132 
 
 0-158 
 
 2-32 
 
 0-06 
 
 175 
 
 0*455 
 
 6*69 
 
 A.I A 
 
 U lo 
 
 133 
 
 0-162 
 
 2-38 
 
 0-06 
 
 176 
 
 0*466 
 
 D OO 
 
 U 10 
 
 134 
 
 0-166 
 
 2-44 
 
 0-09 
 
 177 
 
 0*476 
 
 7 UU 
 
 A'l 
 
 U 10 
 
 135 
 
 0-172 
 
 2-53 
 
 0-04 
 
 178 
 
 0*488 
 
 T.I ^ 
 
 A. 91 
 U Zl 
 
 136 
 
 0-175 
 
 2-57 
 
 0-09 
 
 179 
 
 0*501 
 
 7 00 
 
 A.I Q 
 
 U lc> 
 
 137 
 
 0-181 
 
 2-66 
 
 0-03 
 
 180 
 
 0*513 
 
 7 04 
 
 A'l 9 
 U IZ 
 
 138 
 
 0-183 
 
 2-69 
 
 0*12 
 
 181 
 
 0*521 
 
 7 DO 
 
 A.I ^ 
 U 10 
 
 139 
 
 0-191 
 
 2-81 
 
 0-07 
 
 182 
 
 0*531 
 
 7 ol 
 
 A.I 7 
 U 1/ 
 
 140 
 
 0-196 
 
 2-88 
 
 0-06 
 
 183 
 
 0*543 
 
 7 yo 
 
 A'l Q 
 
 u ly 
 
 141 
 
 0-200 
 
 2-94 
 
 0-07 
 
 184 
 
 0*556 
 
 0.1 7 
 
 0 1/ 
 
 A'l Q 
 
 u ly 
 
 142 
 
 0-205 
 
 3-01 
 
 008 
 
 185 
 
 0*569 
 
 o.o^i 
 0 oO 
 
 A.I Q 
 U lo 
 
 143 
 
 0-210 
 
 3-09 
 
 0*10 
 
 186 
 
 0-581 
 
 0 04 
 
 A'l Q 
 
 U lo 
 
 144 
 
 0-217 
 
 3-19 
 
 0-04 
 
 187 
 
 0*593 
 
 O.'TO 
 
 o7Z 
 
 A.I 7 
 U 1 / 
 
 145 
 
 0-220 
 
 3-23 
 
 0-09 
 
 188 
 
 0*605 
 
 0 by 
 
 A'l Q 
 
 u ly 
 
 146 
 
 0-226 
 
 3-32 
 
 0-08 
 
 189 
 
 0*618 
 
 9*08 
 
 A. 91 
 
 u Zl 
 
 147 
 
 0-231 
 
 3-40 
 
 0-10 
 
 190 
 
 0631 
 
 9*29 
 
 A. 91 
 
 U Zl 
 
 148 
 
 0-238 
 
 3-50 
 
 0*10 
 
 191 
 
 0*646 
 
 9*50 
 
 A.99 
 
 u zz 
 
 149 
 
 0-245 
 
 3-60 
 
 0-09 
 
 192 
 
 0*661 
 
 V iZ 
 
 A* 99 
 
 150 
 
 0-251 
 
 3-69 
 
 0-02 
 
 193 
 
 0*676 
 
 9*94 
 
 A.99 
 
 u zz 
 
 151 
 
 0-259 
 
 3-81 
 
 0-09 
 
 194 
 
 0*691 
 
 10*16 
 
 0*20 
 
 152 
 
 0-265 
 
 3-90 
 
 U Oo 
 
 lyo 
 
 A.7rvr: 
 U /UO 
 
 
 0*21 
 
 153 
 
 0-271 
 
 3-98 
 
 0-11 
 
 196 
 
 0*719 
 
 10*57 
 
 0*22 
 
 154 
 
 0-278 
 
 4-09 
 
 0-10 
 
 197 
 
 0*734 
 
 10*79 
 
 0*22 
 
 155 
 
 0-285 
 
 4-19 
 
 0-06 
 
 198 
 
 0*749 
 
 11*01 
 
 0*22 
 
 156 
 
 0-289 
 
 4-25 
 
 0-16 
 
 199 
 
 0*764 
 
 11*23 
 
 0*22 
 
528 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 TABLE — ( Continued.) 
 
 r 
 
 Temp. 
 Fah. 
 
 X ressu res 
 in Atmos- 
 pheres. 
 
 X ressures 
 in Lbs. per 
 Sq. Inch. 
 
 Differ- 
 ences. 
 
 Temp. 
 Fah. 
 
 X ressures 
 in Atmos- 
 pheres. 
 
 "ressu res 
 in Lbs. per 
 Sq. Inch. 
 
 Differ- 
 ences. 
 
 200 
 
 U 77U 
 
 I 1 . /I c 
 
 II 45 
 
 A.I O 
 
 243 
 
 1*794 
 
 26*37 
 
 A. /IT 
 
 0 47 
 
 201 
 
 U 7o7 
 
 11*57 
 
 A. OK 
 
 244 
 
 1*826 
 
 26*84 
 
 A. /I A 
 
 0 49 
 
 202 
 
 A. OA/1 
 
 11*82 
 
 A. /I O 
 
 U 4o 
 
 245 
 
 1*859 
 
 27*33 
 
 A.CA 
 
 0 50 
 
 203 
 
 0'833 
 
 12*25 
 
 0*25 
 
 246 
 
 1*893 
 
 27*83 
 
 0*51 
 
 204 
 
 A.O KA 
 
 12*50 
 
 U Z4 
 
 247 
 
 1*928 
 
 28*34 
 
 A.KA 
 
 0 oO 
 
 205 
 
 0'867 
 
 12*7^ 
 
 0*27 
 
 248 
 
 1*962 
 
 28*84 
 
 0*52 
 
 206 
 
 
 13*01 
 
 A.OO 
 
 249 
 
 1*997 
 
 
 A.K1 
 0 Ol 
 
 207 
 
 A.AA/I 
 
 13*29 
 
 A.OO 
 
 250 
 
 2*032 
 
 29*87 
 
 A. KO 
 
 0 Oo 
 
 208 
 
 0*923 
 
 13*57 
 
 0*28 
 
 251 
 
 2*068 
 
 30*40 
 
 0*53 
 
 209 
 
 0*942 
 
 13*85 
 
 0*28 
 
 252 
 
 2*104 
 
 30*93 
 
 0*54 
 
 210 
 
 0*961 
 
 14*13 
 
 0*29 
 
 253 
 
 . 2*141 
 
 31*47 
 
 0*56 
 
 211 
 
 0*981 
 
 14*42 
 
 0*28 
 
 254 
 
 2*179 
 
 3203 
 
 0*57 
 
 212 
 
 1*000 
 
 14*77 
 
 0*30 
 
 255 
 
 2*217 
 
 32*60 
 
 0*56 
 
 213 
 
 1*020 
 
 15*00 
 
 0*29 
 
 256 
 
 2*256 
 
 33*16 
 
 0*56 
 
 214 
 
 1*040 
 
 15*29 
 
 A.01 
 
 U ol 
 
 257 
 
 2*294 
 
 OO.TO 
 
 A.KA 
 
 0*59 
 
 215 
 
 1*061 
 
 15*60 
 
 0*32 
 
 258 
 
 2*334 
 
 34*31 
 
 0*59 
 
 216 
 
 1*083 
 
 15*92 
 
 A.O 1 
 
 0*31 
 
 259 
 
 2*374 
 
 34*90 
 
 0*60 
 
 217 
 
 1 .1 A/1 
 
 1 104 
 
 16*23 
 
 A.01 
 
 U ol 
 
 0£?A 
 
 2o0 
 
 2*415 
 
 6b o\J 
 
 A.^A 
 
 0 oU 
 
 218 
 
 1*125 
 
 1 C /I 
 
 1d*54 
 
 A.OO 
 
 261 
 
 2*456 
 
 O^J.I A 
 
 0 oZ 
 
 219 
 
 1*147 
 
 16*86 
 
 A.OO 
 
 0£f o 
 
 2*498 
 
 OD 7^ 
 
 U DO 
 
 220 
 
 1*169 
 
 17*18 
 
 A.OO 
 
 263 
 
 o.r: /1 1 
 Z 541 
 
 o7 oO 
 
 A.^O 
 0 DO 
 
 221 
 
 1*191 
 
 17*51 
 
 0*35 
 
 264 
 
 2*584 
 
 37*98 
 
 0*64 
 
 222 
 
 1*215 
 
 17*86 
 
 0*34 
 
 265 
 
 2*627 
 
 38*62 
 
 A./? A 
 
 0 64 
 
 223 
 
 1*238 
 
 18*20 
 
 0*34 
 
 266 
 
 2*671 
 
 39*26 
 
 0*67 
 
 224 
 
 1*261 
 
 18*54 
 
 A.O C 
 0 OO 
 
 267 
 
 2*716 
 
 OA. AO 
 
 oy yo 
 
 U DD 
 
 225 
 
 1*285 
 
 18*89 
 
 0*35 
 
 268 
 
 2*761 
 
 40*59 
 
 A/3T 
 
 0 d7 
 
 226 
 
 1*309 
 
 19*24 
 
 A. 0*7 
 
 269 
 
 2*807 
 
 A t .O/J 
 
 41*ZD 
 
 0 oy 
 
 227 
 
 1*334 
 
 19*61 
 
 c\.on 
 
 y) 61 
 
 270 
 
 2*854 
 
 /1 1 .AK 
 
 4i*yo 
 
 0 by 
 
 228 
 
 1*359 
 
 19*98 
 
 A.OO 
 
 0*00 
 
 271 
 
 O.AA1 
 
 2*901 
 
 
 A.T1 
 
 U 71 
 
 229 
 
 1*385 
 
 20*36 
 
 0*44 
 
 272 
 
 2*949 
 
 /lO.OC 
 
 43 35 
 
 A.T1 
 
 0 71 
 
 230 
 
 1*415 
 
 20*80 
 
 A. /I A 
 
 U 40 
 
 273 
 
 2*997 
 
 A A.na 
 44 Oo 
 
 A. TO 
 
 0 7Z 
 
 231 
 
 1*442 
 
 21*20 
 
 0*39 
 
 274 
 
 3*046 
 
 44*78 
 
 A.TK 
 
 0*7o 
 
 232 
 
 1*469 
 
 21*59 
 
 0*42 
 
 275 
 
 3*097 
 
 /I x.co 
 
 4o 5o 
 
 A. TO 
 0 / O 
 
 233 
 
 1*497 
 
 22*01 
 
 0*41 
 
 276 
 
 3*147 
 
 4d 2o 
 
 A.T K 
 
 0 7o 
 
 234 
 
 1*525 
 
 22*42 
 
 0*41 
 
 277 
 
 3*198 
 
 /IT.Al 
 
 47 01 
 
 A.TT 
 
 0 77 
 
 235 
 
 1*553 
 
 22*83 
 
 0*43 
 
 278 
 
 3*250 
 
 /IT .TO 
 
 47 7o 
 
 A.TT 
 
 0 77 
 
 236 
 
 1*582 
 
 23*26 
 
 0*44 
 
 279 
 
 3*303 
 
 48 00 
 
 A. OA 
 
 0 oU 
 
 237 
 
 1*612 
 
 23*70 
 
 0*42 
 
 280 
 
 3*357 
 
 49*35 
 
 0*79 
 
 
 
 
 
 9S1 
 
 
 
 V O-L 
 
 239 
 
 1*670 
 
 24*55 
 
 0*44 
 
 282 
 
 3*466 
 
 50*95 
 
 0*81 
 
 240 
 
 1*700 
 
 24*99 
 
 0*45 
 
 283 
 
 3*521 
 
 51-76 
 
 0*81 
 
 241 
 
 1*731 
 
 25*45 
 
 0*45 
 
 284 
 
 3*576 
 
 52*57 
 
 0*82 
 
 242 
 
 1*762 
 
 25-90 
 
 0*47 
 
 285 
 
 3*632 
 
 53*39 
 
 0*84 
 
THE KNGINEER^S HANDY-BOOK. 529 
 
 TABLE — (Continued.) 
 
 Temp. 
 Fall. 
 
 Pressures 
 in Atmos- 
 pheres. 
 
 Pressures 
 in Lbs. per 
 Sq. Inch. 
 
 Diner- 
 ences. . 
 
 1 emp. 
 Fah. 
 
 Pressures 
 in Atmos- 
 pheres. 
 
 Pressures 
 in Lbs. per 
 Sq. Inch. 
 
 i-'iner- 
 ences. 
 
 286 
 
 3-689 
 
 54-23 
 
 0-85 
 
 329 
 
 6*945 
 
 102*09 
 
 1*44 
 
 287 
 
 3*747 
 
 55-08 
 
 0-87 
 
 330 
 
 7*043 
 
 103-53 
 
 1*44 
 
 288 
 
 3-806 
 
 55-95 
 
 0*88 
 
 331 
 
 7*141 
 
 104-97 
 
 1*44 
 
 289 
 
 3-866 
 
 56-83 
 
 0*88 
 
 332 
 
 7*239 
 
 106-41 
 
 1-46 
 
 290 
 
 3-926 
 
 57-71 
 
 0-90 
 
 333 
 
 7*338 
 
 107-87 
 
 1-45 
 
 291 
 
 3-987 
 
 58-61 
 
 0-91 
 
 334 
 
 7*437 
 
 109-32 
 
 1-46 
 
 292 
 
 4-049 
 
 59-52 
 
 0-93 
 
 335 
 
 7*536 
 
 110-78 
 
 1*50 
 
 293 
 
 4-112 
 
 60-45 
 
 0-92 
 
 336 
 
 7*638 
 
 112-28 
 
 1-51 
 
 294 
 
 4-175 
 
 61-37 
 
 0-94 
 
 337 
 
 7-741 
 
 113-79 
 
 1-55 
 
 295 
 
 4-239 
 
 62-31 
 
 0-96 
 
 338 
 
 7-846 
 
 115-34 
 
 1-55 
 
 296 
 
 4-304 
 
 63-27 
 
 0-97 
 
 '339 
 
 7-952 
 
 116-89 
 
 1*59 
 
 297 
 
 4-370 
 
 64-24 
 
 0-98 
 
 340 
 
 8-060 
 
 118*48 
 
 1-60 
 
 298 
 
 4-437 
 
 65-22 
 
 100 
 
 341 
 
 8-169 
 
 120-08 
 
 1-62 
 
 299 
 
 4-505 
 
 66-22 
 
 1-02 
 
 342 
 
 8-279 
 
 121-70 
 
 1-62 
 
 300 
 
 4-574 
 
 67-24 
 
 1*01 
 
 343 
 
 8-389 
 
 123-32 
 
 1*63 
 
 301 
 
 4-643 
 
 68-25 
 
 1*02 
 
 344 
 
 8-500 
 
 124-95 
 
 1-65 
 
 302 
 
 4-712 
 
 69-27 
 
 1-03 
 
 345 
 
 8-612 
 
 126-60 
 
 1*64 
 
 303 
 
 4-782 
 
 70-30 
 
 1-04 
 
 346 
 
 8-724 
 
 128-24 
 
 1*68 
 
 304 
 
 4-853 
 
 71-34 
 
 1-06 
 
 347 
 
 8-838 
 
 129-92 
 
 1-69 
 
 305 
 
 4-925 
 
 72-40 
 
 107 
 
 348 
 
 8*953 
 
 131-61 
 
 1*72 
 
 306 
 
 4-998 
 
 73-47 
 
 1-09 
 
 349 
 
 9-070 
 
 133-33 
 
 1-75 
 
 307 
 
 5-072 
 
 74-56 
 
 1*10 
 
 350 
 
 9-189 
 
 135*08 
 
 1-78 
 
 308 
 
 5-147 
 
 75-66 
 
 1-12 
 
 351 
 
 9-310 
 
 136-86 
 
 1-81 
 
 309 
 
 5-223 
 
 76-78 
 
 1-13 
 
 352 
 
 9*433 
 
 138-67 
 
 1*80 
 
 310 
 
 5-300 
 
 77-91 
 
 1-16 
 
 353 
 
 9*556 
 
 140*47 
 
 1*83 
 
 311 
 
 5-379 
 
 79-07 
 
 1-16 
 
 354 
 
 9*680 
 
 142*30 
 
 1*82 
 
 312 
 
 5-458 
 
 80-23 
 
 1-18 
 
 355 
 
 9-804 
 
 144-12 
 
 1-84 
 
 313 
 
 5-538 
 
 81-41 
 
 1*19 
 
 356 
 
 9-929 
 
 145-96 
 
 1-85 
 
 314 
 
 5-619 
 
 82-60 
 
 1-20 
 
 357 
 
 10*055 
 
 147-81 
 
 1-87 
 
 315 
 
 5-701 
 
 83-80 
 
 1-22 
 
 358 
 
 10-182 
 
 149-68 
 
 1-89 
 
 316 
 
 5-784 
 
 85-02 
 
 1-22 
 
 359 
 
 10*311 
 
 151*57 
 
 1-93 
 
 317 
 
 5-867 
 
 86-24 
 
 1-24 
 
 360 
 
 10*442 
 
 153-50 
 
 1*95 
 
 318 
 
 5*951 
 
 87*48 
 
 1*23 
 
 361 
 
 10*575 
 
 155*45 
 
 1'99 
 
 319 
 
 6-035 
 
 88-71 
 
 1*27 
 
 362 
 
 10-710 
 
 157-44 
 
 2-01 
 
 320 
 
 6*121 
 
 89-98 
 
 1*28 
 
 363 
 
 10*847 
 
 159-45 
 
 2-03 
 
 321 
 
 6-208 
 
 91-26 
 
 1*29 
 
 364 
 
 10-985 
 
 161-48 
 
 203 
 
 322 
 
 6-296 
 
 92-55 
 
 1*31 
 
 S65 
 
 11*123 
 
 163-51 
 
 2*04 
 
 323 
 
 6-385 
 
 93-86 
 
 1-32 
 
 366 
 
 11*262 
 
 165-55 
 
 2-04 
 
 324 
 
 6-475 
 
 95-18 
 
 1-34 
 
 367 
 
 11-401 
 
 167-59 
 
 2-08 
 
 325 
 
 6-556 
 
 96-42 
 
 1-35 
 
 368 
 
 11-542 
 
 169-67 
 
 2*08 
 
 326 
 
 6-658 
 
 97-87 
 
 1-37 
 
 369 
 
 11-684 
 
 171-75 
 
 2-14 
 
 327 
 
 6-751 
 
 99*24 
 
 1*40 
 
 370 
 
 11-829 
 
 173-89 
 
 2-16 
 
 328 
 
 6*846 
 
 100-64 
 
 1*45 
 
 371 
 
 11-976 
 
 176-05 
 
 2-19 1 
 1 
 
 45 21 
 
530 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 TABLE — {Continued.) 
 
 Temp. 
 Fah. 
 
 Jr ressures 
 in Atmos- 
 pheres. 
 
 1 ressures 
 in Lbs. per 
 Sq. Inch. 
 
 Differ- 
 ences. 
 
 Temp. 
 Fah. 
 
 X ressures 
 in Atmos- 
 pheres. 
 
 X ressures 
 in Lbs. per 
 Sq. Inch. 
 
 Differ- 
 ences. 
 
 372 
 
 1 O.I OK 
 
 lA'Vlo 
 
 17o 24 
 
 O.I A 
 
 2 19 
 
 OCT 
 OO/ . 
 
 14 OlU 
 
 01 O.OA 
 
 21o oU 
 
 2-51 
 
 Si 6 
 
 12 274 
 
 loU 4o 
 
 o>oo 
 2 22 
 
 OQO 
 OOO 
 
 14 Dol 
 
 oi K.OI 
 
 210 ol 
 
 2-54 
 
 
 1 o. /I oc; 
 12 420 
 
 lo2 DO 
 
 o«oo 
 2 22 
 
 OQA 
 
 ooy 
 
 1 4 o04 
 
 oi Q.oc; 
 21o OO 
 
 2*58 
 
 o/o 
 
 12 o7d 
 
 lo4 o/ 
 
 O.OO 
 
 2 2o 
 
 OOA 
 
 10 U2y 
 
 OOA.AO 
 
 22U yo 
 
 2-60 
 
 Old 
 
 12 72o 
 
 lo7 lU 
 
 2 2o 
 
 oyi 
 
 lo 2Uo 
 
 OOO-KO 
 
 22o Oo 
 
 2-56 
 
 611 
 
 12 ool 
 
 ioy oO • 
 
 2 2d 
 
 QOO 
 
 oy2 
 
 10 ooU 
 
 OO/^.AA 
 
 22d oy 
 
 2*13 
 
 o7o 
 
 lo Ut5o 
 
 1"J1 oi». 
 
 O.OQ 
 
 2 2o 
 
 oyo 
 
 10 40/ 
 
 OOT.OO 
 
 22/ 22 
 
 2*d4 
 
 379 
 
 13'190 
 
 193-86 
 
 O.O 1 
 
 2 ol 
 
 oy4 
 
 lo DO/ 
 
 229-86 
 
 2*69 
 
 380 
 
 13'347 
 
 lyo 20 
 
 2 OO 
 
 oyo 
 
 lo o2U 
 
 000. p: c; 
 
 2o2 00 
 
 2*65 
 
 381 
 
 13-507 
 
 198-55 
 
 2-40 
 
 396 
 
 16-000 
 
 235-20 
 
 2-Z9 
 
 382 
 
 13-f)70 
 
 200-95 
 
 2-44 
 
 397 
 
 16*190 
 
 237-99 
 
 2-37 
 
 383 
 
 13-836 
 
 203-39 
 
 2-45 
 
 398 
 
 16-385 
 
 240-86 
 
 2-90 
 
 384 
 
 14-003 
 
 205-84 
 
 2-47 
 
 399 
 
 16-582 
 
 243-76 
 
 2-94 
 
 385 
 
 14-171 
 
 208-31 
 
 2-49 
 
 400 
 
 16-782 
 
 246-70 
 
 3-04 
 
 386 
 
 14-340 
 
 210-80 
 
 2-50 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gases. 
 
 All substances, whether animal, vegetable, or mineral, consisting 
 of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, when exposed to a red heat, i 
 produce various inflammable elastic fluids capable of furnishing | 
 artificial light. The products of perfect combustion are gases j 
 which form in accordance with unchangeable laws. Many of the j 
 gases have already been brought into the liquid state by the con- \ 
 joint agency of cold and compression, and all of them are proba- 
 bly susceptible of a similar reduction by the use of means suflS- 
 ciently powerful for the required end. They must consequently 
 be regarded as the superheated steams or vapors of the liquids 
 into which they are compressed. 
 
 When a gas or vapor is compressed into half its original bulk, 
 its pressure is double ; when compressed into a third of its original 
 bulk, its pressure is trebled ; w^hen compressed into a fourth of its 
 original bulk, its pressure is quadrupled ; and generally the press- 
 ure varies inversely as the bulk into which the gas is compressed. 
 So in like manner, if the volume be doubled, the pressure is made 
 
THE ENGINEEr\s HANDY-ROOK. 
 
 531 
 
 one-half of what it was before, — the pressure in every case being 
 reckoned from 0, or from a perfect vacuum. 
 
 Thus, if we take the average pressure of the atmosphere at 14*7 
 pounds on the square inch, a cubic foot of air, if suffered to expand 
 into twice its bulk, by being placed in a vacuum measuring two 
 cubic feet, will have a pressure of 7*35 pounds above a perfect 
 vacuum, and also of 7*35 pounds below the atmospheric press- 
 ure ; whereas, if the cubic foot be compressed into a space of 
 half a cubic foot, the pressure will become 29*4 pounds above 
 a perfect vacuum, and 14*7 above the atmospheric pressure. 
 The specific gravity of any one gas to that of another will not 
 exactly conform to the same ratio under different degrees of heat, 
 and other pressures of the atmosphere. 
 
 Oxygen is the name given to the- solid particles of oxygen gas, 
 which is a combination of oxygen, caloric, and light, and is the 
 simplest form in which oxygen can be obtained. Oxygen is called 
 the radical or base of the gas ; and the same mode of expression 
 is used in other cases. Oxygen enters into chemical combination 
 with a great number of substances, in which it exists in a concrete 
 or solid state ; it is by the application of heat, or of acids, to some 
 of the substances containing it, that it is usually procured in the 
 form of gas. Oxygen gas is the only one that can be breathed by 
 animals for any length of time with impunity. The power of at- 
 mospheric air in supporting respiration is owing to the oxygen. 
 Oxygen combines with all the metals, and in this state they are 
 called metallic oxides, depriving them of their metallic lustre, and 
 giving them an earthy or rusty appearance. Any of the metals 
 are capable of combining with different proportions of oxygen. 
 Those with one proportion are called protoxides; of two, deiif oxides ; 
 those of three, tritoxides. 
 
 Nitrogen. — Nitrogen gas is most easily described by including 
 many of its negative qualities. It has no taste; it unites with 
 oxygen in several proportions ; it also unites with hydrogen. 
 Though incapable of being breathed above its base, nitrogen is a 
 component portion of all animal substances ; it is lighter than oxy- 
 
532 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 gen. Nitrogen gas may be variously obtained. If the oxygen be 
 extracted from the atmospheric air, this substance will remain, and 
 will generally be very pure, unless the oxygen has been extracted 
 by respiration. If iron filings and sulphur, moistened with water, 
 be put into a jar containing atmospheric air, this gas will in a day 
 or two be all the air that remains in the jar, as the oxygen will 
 be absorbed by the iron and sulphur. Phosphorus or sulphuret 
 of lime or potass, inclosed with common air in a jar, will produce 
 a similar effect. 
 
 Hydrogen.— Hydrogen, like oxygen and nitrogen, is invisible, 
 elastic, and inodorous ; but the last quality it seldom possesses, be- 
 cause it is very seldom perfectly dry, and when it contains water 
 in solution, like alkaline sulphurets, its odor is considerably fetid. 
 Hydrogen with oxygen forms water; and it is by the decomposi- 
 tion of water that chemists obtain it in the greatest abundance 
 and purity. For this purpose iron filing or turnings, or granu-^ 
 lated zinc, are put into a retort, and covered with sulphuric acid 
 diluted with four times its weight in water. A violent effervescence 
 ensues, a large quantity of gas is evolved, and issuing from, the 
 retort is collected in the usual manner by the pneumatic appa- 
 ratus. In this experiment the acid is not decomposed; it is the 
 oxygen of the water with which the acid is diluted that seizes upon'; 
 and oxidizes the metal, and the hydrogen, in the same portion of ' 
 water being thus disengaged, passes over in the state of gas. The 
 hydrogen obtained by using zinc is the purest, that obtained by 
 using iron generally containing some carbon. 
 
 Hydrogen combines with a larger quantity of oxygen than any 
 other body ; its combustion, therefore, when mixed with oxygen, 
 produces a more intense heat than any other combustion. 
 
 Carbon. — Vegetables, when burnt or distilled in close vessels 
 till their volatile parts are entirely separated, leave a black, brittle 
 and cinereous substance which constitutes the greater part of the 
 woody fibre, and is called charcoal Charcoal contains a portion 
 of earthy and saline impurities, but, when entirely freed from these 
 and other impurities, a solid, simple, combustible substance re- 
 
THE ENGINEEr\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 533 
 
 mains, which is called carbon. Carbon exists naturally in a state 
 of greater purity than can be prepared by art. The diamond is 
 pure carbon crystallized, and when pure is colorless and transpa- 
 rent. It is the hardest substance known ; and, as it sustains a 
 considerable degree of heat unchanged, it was formerly considered 
 to be incombustible. It may, however, be consumed by a burning- 
 glass, and even by the heat of a furnace. The difficulty of burning 
 it appears to arise from its hardness ; for Morveau and Tennaut 
 have rendered common charcoal so hard, by exposing it for some 
 time to a violent fire in close vessels, that it endured a red heat 
 without catching fire. Common charcoal contains only 64 parts 
 of diamond, or pure carbon, and 36 of oxygen in every 100. 
 
 The common charcoal of commerce is usually prepared from 
 young wood, which is piled up near the place where it is cut in 
 conical heaps, covered with earth, and burnt with the least pos- 
 sible access of air. When the fire is supposed to have penetrated 
 to the centre of the thickest pieces, it is extinguished by entirely 
 closing the vents. When charcoal is wanted very pure, the pro- 
 duct of this mode of preparing it will not suffice ; for the manu- 
 facturing of the best gunpowder, it is distilled in iron cylinders. 
 Chemists prepare it in small quantities in a crucible covered with 
 sand, and after they have thus prepared it, they pound it, and 
 wash away the salts it contains by muriatic acid ; the acid is re- 
 moved by the plentiful use of water, and afterwards the charcoal 
 is exposed to a low red heat. Pure charcoal is perfectly tasteless 
 and insoluble in water. 
 
 Charcoal newly prepared absorbs moisture with avidity. It 
 also absorbs oxygen and other gases, which are condensed in its 
 pores in quantity many times exceeding its ow^n bulk, and which 
 are given out unaltered. Fresh charcoal allowed to cool without 
 exposure to air, and the gas then admitted, will absorb 2*25 times 
 its bulk of atmospheric air immediately, and 75 per cent, more 
 in four or five hours ; of oxygen gas about 1*8 immediately, aod 
 slowly one more; of nitrogen gas, 1*65 immediately. 
 45* 
 
534 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Technical and Chemical Terms as Applied to Substances 
 that bear Relations to the Steam -Engine both in Theory 
 and Practice. 
 
 Alkali, or antacid, means any substance which, when mingled 
 with acid, produces fermentation. 
 
 Ammonia. — This alkali, when perfectly caustic, enables chem- 
 ists to distinguish between the salts of lime and those of magnesia, 
 as it precipitates the earth from the latter salts, but not from the 
 former. 
 
 Analysis means resolution, by chemistry, of any matter into its 
 primary and constituent parts. 
 
 Atoms. — In the chemical combination of bodies with each 
 other, it is observed that some unite in all proper proportions ; 
 others in all proportions as far as a certain point beyond which 
 combination no longer takes place. There are also many examples 
 in which they unite in one proportion only, and others in several 
 proportions ; and these proportions are definite, and in the inter- 
 mediate ones no combination ensues. 
 
 Bases. — This term is usually applied to alkalies, earths, and 
 metallic oxides in their relations to the acids and salts. It is 
 sometimes also applied to the particular constituents of an acid 
 or oxide, on the supposition that the substance combined with the 
 oxygen, etc., is the basis of the compound to which it owes its 
 particular qualities. 
 
 Calcination. — This term is applied to the fixed residues of 
 such matters as have undergone combustion, and are called cin- 
 ders in common language, and oxides by chemists. This opera- 
 tion, when considered with regard to these residues, is termed- 
 calcination. 
 
 Combination is understood to be the intimate union of the pai- 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 535 
 
 tides of different substances by chemical attraction, so as to form 
 a compound possessed of new and peculiar properties. 
 
 Compound. — A compound is the result or effect of a compo- 
 sition of different things, or that which arises from them. It 
 stands opposed to simple. 
 
 Equivalents are terms introduced into chemistry to express the 
 system of definite ratios in which the molecular atoms of this sci- 
 ence reciprocally unite. 
 
 Evaporation is a chemical process usually performed by apply- 
 ing heat to any compound substance, in order to dispel the vola- 
 tile parts. 
 
 Fixed. — This epithet is applied to such bodies as so far resist 
 the action of heat so as not to rise in vapor. It is the opposite 
 of volatile; but it must be observed that the fixity of bodies is 
 merely a relative term, as an adequate degree of heat will dissi- 
 pate all. 
 
 Neutral. — A term applied to saline compounds of an acid or 
 alkali nature, which are so called, because they do not possess the 
 characters of acid or alkaline salts. 
 
 Neutralization. — This term is applied when acid and alkaline 
 matter are combined in such proportion that the compound does 
 not change the color of litmus or violets, in which condition they 
 are said to be neutralized. 
 
 Oxide. — Any substance which combines with oxygen without 
 being in the state of an acid is an oxide. 
 
 Oxidation. — This term is applied to the process of converting 
 metals and other substances into oxides by combining with them a 
 certain portion of oxygen. 
 
 Phosphate is a salt formed by the union of phosphoric acid 
 
536 
 
 THE ENGINEEK^S HANBY-BOOK. 
 
 with salifiable bases ; thus, phosphate of ammonia, phosphate of 
 lime, etc. 
 
 Pyrites. — Substances which strike fire when rubbed or thrown 
 together. They are frequently found in bituminous coal, and often 
 induce spontaneous combustion. 
 
 Saline. —A term applied to any substance of a salty nature. 
 The number of saline substances is very considerable, and they 
 possess peculiar characters by which they are distinguished from 
 other substances. 
 
 Saturation. — A term applied to bodies which have a chemical 
 afiinity for each other, and which will only unite in certain pro- 
 portions. When, therefore, a fluid has dissolved as much of any 
 substance as it is capable of dissolving, it is said to have reached 
 the point of saturation. Thus, water will dissolve one-quarter of 
 its weight of common salt, and if more salt be added, it will sink 
 to the bottom in a solid state. 
 
 Areas of Circles. 
 
 The term area means any opening or flat surface confined be- 
 tween any lines; a definite space; superficial contents of any fig- 
 ure ; any plain space or surface included within any given lines ; 
 but when used in connection with the steam-engine, it means the 
 number of square inches in the piston, or valve, against which the 
 steam acts, as the case may be. 
 
 A circle may be considered as composed of many triangles, 
 whose bases are the circumference of the circle, and whose vertices 
 are coincident with the centre of the circle. If a cylinder be 
 drawn, whose height equals i its diameter, the convex surface of 
 such a cylinder is just equal to the area of the circle. A circular 
 vessel will contain a greater quantity than a vessel of any other 
 shape made of the same amount of material. The areas of cir- 
 cles are to each other as the square of their diameters. The di- 
 ameter of a circle being 1, its circumference equals 3-1416. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 The diameter of a circle is a straight line drawn 
 through its centre, touching both sides, thus 
 
 The radius of a circle is half the diameter 
 
 A chord is a straight line joining any two places in 
 the circumference of a circle 
 
 The versed sine is a perpendicular joining the middle 
 of the chord and circumference of a circle... 
 
 An arc is any part of the circumference of a circle... 
 A triangle has 3 sides and 3 angles 
 
 A parallelogram has 4 sides and 4 angles 
 
 A pentagon has 5 sides and 5 angles 
 
 A hexagon has 6 sides and 6 angles 
 
 A heptagon has 7 sides and 7 angles 
 
 An octagon has 8 sides and 8 angles 
 
538 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 A nonagon has 9 sides and 9 angles 
 
 A decagon has 10 sides and 10 angles. 
 
 An endeeagon has 11 sides and 11 angles 
 
 A dodecagon has 12 sides and 12 angles. 
 
 Eules. 
 
 To find the circumference of a circle, multiply the diameter by 
 3 1416 ; the product is the circumference. 
 
 To find the diameter of a circle, divide the circumference by 
 3-1416, the quotient is the diameter ; or multiply the square root 
 of the area by 1*12837, the product is the diameter. 
 
 To find the area of a circle, multiply the square of the diam- 
 eter by '7854, the product is the area ; or multiply half the cir- 
 cumference by half the diameter, the product is the area ; or mul- 
 tiply the diameter by the circumference, and divide by 4; the 
 quotient is the area. 
 
 To find the area of an ellipse or oval, multiply the long di- 
 ameter by the short diameter ; multiply this product by '7854, 
 and the product will be the superficial area of the ellipse. 
 
 To find the circumference of an ellipse or oval, multiply J 
 the sum of the two diameters by 3*1416 ; the product will be the 
 circumference of the ellipse. 
 
 To find the area of a parallelogram, multiply the length by the 
 height or perpendicular breadth. 
 
 To find the area of a triangle, multiply the base by the perpen- 
 dicular height, and take half the product. 
 
THE ENGINEEr\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 539 
 
 To find the area of a trapezoid, multiply half the sum of the 
 parallel sides by the perpendicular distance between them ; the 
 product will be the area. 
 
 To find the area of a quadrilateral inscribed in a circle. — From 
 half the sum of the four sides subtract each side severally; mul- 
 tiply the four remainders together ; the square root of the product 
 is the area. 
 
 To find the area of any quadrilateral figure, divide the quadri- 
 lateral into two triangles ; the sum of the areas of the triangles is 
 the area. 
 
 To find the area of any polygon, divide the polygon into trian- 
 gles and trapezoids by drawing diagonals ; find the areas of these, 
 as above shown, for the area. 
 
 To find the area of a regular polygon, multiply half the per- 
 imeter of the polygon by the perpendicular drawn from the centre 
 to the centre of one of the sides. 
 
 To find the area of a sector of a circle, multiply half the length 
 of the arc of the sector by the radius. Or, multiply the number 
 of degrees in the arc by the square of the radius, and by '008727. 
 
 To find the area of a segment of a circle, find the area of the 
 sector which has the same arc as the segment; also the area of the 
 triangle formed by the radial sides of the sector and the chord 
 of the arc ; the difference or the sum of these areas will be the 
 area of the segment, according as it is less or greater than a semi- 
 circle. 
 
 To find the area of a cycloid, multiply the area of the generat- 
 ing circle by 3. 
 
 To find the length of an arc of a parabola cut off* by a double 
 ordinate to the axis. — To the square of the ordinate add four- 
 fifths of the square of the absciss ; twice the square root of the 
 sum is the length nearly. 
 
 To find the area of an ellipse, multiply the product of the two 
 axes by '7854. 
 
 To find the area of an elliptic segment, the base of which is 
 parallel to either axis of the ellipse. — Divide the height of the 
 
540 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 segment by the axis of which it is a part, and find the area of a 
 circular segment; which the height is equal to in this quotient ; 
 multiply the area thus found by the two axes of the ellipse suc- 
 cessively ; the product is the area. 
 
 To find the length of an arc of a hyperbolae beginning at the 
 vertex. — To nineteen times the transverse axis, add twenty-one 
 times the parameter to this axis, and multiply the sum by the I 
 quotient of the absciss divided by the transverse. 
 
 To find the area of a hyperbola, to the product of the trans- 
 verse and absciss add five-sevenths of the square of the absciss, 
 and multiply the square root of the sum by twenty-one ; to this 
 product add four times the square root of the product of the trans- 
 verse and absciss ; multiply the sum by four times the product of I 
 the conjugate and absciss, and divide by seventy-five times the 
 transverse. The quotient is the area nearly. 
 
 To find the surface of a prism or a cylinder, the perimeter of \ 
 the end multiplied by the height gives the upright surface; add j 
 twice the area of an end. 
 
 To find the cubic contents of a prism or a cylinder, multiply 
 the area of the base by the height. ] 
 
 To find the surface of a pyramid or a cone, multiply the per- . 
 imeter of the base by half the slant height, and add the area of j 
 the base. < 
 
 To find the cubic contents of a pyramid or a cone, multiply the j 
 area of the base by one-third of the perpendicular height. 
 
 To find the surface of a frustum of a pyramid or a cone, mul- 
 tiply the sum of the perimeters of the ends by half the slant 
 height, and add the areas of the ends. 
 
 To find the cubic contents of a frustum of a pyramid or a 
 cone, add together the areas of the two ends, and the mean pro- 
 portional between them (that is, the square root of their pro- 
 duct), and multiply the sum by one-third of the perpendicular 
 height. 
 
 To find the cubic contents of a segment of a sphere, from three 
 times the diameter of the sphere subtract twice the height of the 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 541 
 
 segment; multiply the difference by the square of the height, 
 and by -5236. 
 
 To find the cubic contents of a frustum or zone of a sphere. — 
 To the sum of the squares of the radii of the ends add one-third 
 of the square of the height ; multiply the sum by the height and 
 by 1-5708. 
 
 To find the cubic contents of a spheroid, multiply the square 
 of the revolving axis by the fixed axis and by '5236. 
 
 To find the cubic contents of a segment of a spheroid. —When 
 the base is parallel to the revolving axis, multiply the difference 
 between thrice the fixed axis and double the height of the segment 
 by the square of the height, and the product by -5236. 
 
 To find the cubic contents of a wedge. — To twice the length of 
 the base add the length of the edge ; multiply the sum by the 
 breadth of the base, and by one-sixth of the height. 
 
 To find the cubic contents of a prismoid (a solid of which the 
 two ends are dissimilar, but parallel plane figures of the same 
 number of sides).— To the sum of the areas of the two ends, add 
 four times the area of a section parallel to and equally distant 
 from both ends ; and multiply the sum by one-sixth of the length. 
 
 To find the surface of a sphere, multiply the square of the di- 
 ameter by 3*1416. 
 
 To find the curve surface of any segment or zone of a sphere, ^ 
 multiply the diameter of the sphere by the height of the zone or 
 segment and by 3*1416. 
 
 To find the cubic contents of a sphere, multiply the cube of 
 the diameter by '5236. 
 
 To find the cubic contents of a parabolic conoid, multiply the 
 area of the base by half the height. 
 
 To find the cubic contents of a frustum of a parabolic conoid, 
 multiply half the sum of the areas of the two ends by the height 
 of the frustum. 
 46 
 
542 THE- ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Signification of Signs Used in Calculations. 
 
 = signifies Equality, as 3 added to 2 = 5. 
 
 + " Addition, " 4 4-2 = 6. 
 
 — " Subtraction, " 7 — 4 3. 
 
 X " Multiplication, " 6 x 2 = 12. 
 
 -i- " Division, " 16 4 = 4. 
 
 : : : : " Proportion, " 2 is to 3 so is 4 to 6. 
 
 v/ " Square Root, " ^/16 = 4. 
 
 y " Cube Root, " ^64 = 4. 
 
 3' " 3 is to be squared, " 3'^ = 9. 
 
 3' " 3 is to be cubed, " 3' = 27. 
 
 2+5x4 = 28 signifies that two, three, or more numbers 
 
 are to be taken together, as 2 + 5 = 7, and 
 
 4 times 7 = 28. 
 
 +, plus, means that the number after it is to be added to the 
 number before it ; thus, 5 + 4 are 9. 
 
 — , minus, means that the number after it is to be subtracted 
 from the number before it ; thus, 5 — 4 is 1. 
 
 X , multiplied by, means that the number before it is to be mul- 
 tiplied by the number after it ; thus, 9 X 3 are 27. 
 
 divided by, means that the number before it is to be divided 
 by the number after it ; thus, 9 -r- 3 are 3. 
 
 — , equal to, means that the quantity after it is of the same 
 value as the quantity before it; thus, 5 + 6 = 11. 
 
 The Cipher. 
 
 The term Cipher has various meanings. It is usually applied 
 to the figure 0, which is equivalent to zero, or nothing. It also 
 means a combination or intertexture of letters, as the initials of 
 a name, the several letters being intertwined so as to form one 
 figure. The word cipher also means secret writing; the proper 
 name for which, however, is cryptogram. 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OF DIAMETERS AND AREAS OF SMALL CIRCLES. 
 
 DiAM. 
 
 Area. 
 
 J^IAM. 
 
 Area. 
 
 DiAM. 
 
 Area. 
 
 •001 
 
 •0000008 
 
 •027 
 
 •0005726 
 
 •0625 
 
 •0030680 
 
 •009 
 
 •OOOOOrJl 
 
 •028 
 
 •0006158 
 
 •065 
 
 •0033183 
 
 
 •0000071 
 
 •029 
 
 •0006605 
 
 •070 
 
 •0038485 
 
 •004 
 
 •0000126 
 
 •030 
 
 •0007069 
 
 •075 
 
 •0044179 
 
 •005 
 
 •0000196 
 
 \J \J \J \J A. fJ \J 
 
 •031 
 
 •0007548 
 
 •080 
 
 •0050266 
 
 •006 
 
 •0000283 
 
 •03125 
 
 •0007670 
 
 •085 
 
 •0056745 
 
 •007 
 
 •0000385 
 
 •032 
 
 •0008043 
 
 •090 
 
 •0063617 
 
 '008 
 
 •0000503 
 
 •033 
 
 •0008553 
 
 •095 
 
 •0070882 
 
 •009 
 
 •0000639 
 
 •034 
 
 •0009079 
 
 •100 
 
 •0078540 
 
 •010 
 
 •0000785 
 
 •035 
 
 •0009621 
 
 •125 
 
 •0122719 
 
 •Oil 
 
 •0000950 
 
 •036 
 
 •0010179 
 
 •150 
 
 •0176715 
 
 •012 
 
 0001131 
 
 •037 
 
 •0010752 
 
 •200 
 
 •0314159 
 
 •013 
 
 •0001327 
 
 •038 
 
 •0011341 
 
 •250 
 
 •0490875 
 
 •014 
 
 •0001539 
 
 •039 
 
 •0011946 
 
 •300 
 
 •0706858 
 
 •015 
 
 0001767 
 
 •040 
 
 •0012566 
 
 •350 
 
 •0962115 
 
 •015625 
 
 •O0O1917 
 
 V/ *J v/ -1. t/ J. 1 
 
 •041 
 
 •0013203 
 
 •400 
 
 •1256637 
 
 •016 
 
 •0002016 
 
 •042 
 
 •0013855 
 
 •450 
 
 •1590435 
 
 •017 
 
 •0002270 
 
 •043 
 
 •0014522 
 
 •500 
 
 •1963495 
 
 •018 
 
 •0002545 
 
 •044 
 
 •0015205 
 
 •550 
 
 •2375835 
 
 •019 
 
 •0002835 
 
 •045 
 
 •0015904 
 
 •600 
 
 •2827440 
 
 •020 
 
 •0003142 
 
 •046 
 
 •0016619 
 
 •650 
 
 •3318315 
 
 •021 
 
 •0003464 
 
 •047 
 
 •0017349 
 
 •700 
 
 •3848441 
 
 •022 
 
 •0003801 
 
 •048 
 
 •0018096 
 
 •750 
 
 1 ^4417875 
 
 •023 
 
 •0004155 
 
 •049 
 
 •0018857 
 
 •800 
 
 •5026548 
 
 •024 
 
 •0004524 
 
 •050 
 
 •0019635 
 
 •850 
 
 •5674515 
 
 •025 
 
 , ^0004909 
 
 •055 
 
 •0023758 
 
 •900 
 
 •6361725 
 
 •026 
 
 1 -0005309 
 
 •060 
 
 •0028274 
 
 •950 
 
 •7088235 
 
644 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 CONTAINING THE DIAMETERS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND AREAS OF 
 CIRCLES FROM O:^ AN INCH TO 100 INCHES, ADVANCING BY 
 of an inch up to 10 INCHES, AND BY J OP AN INCH FROM 
 10 TO 100 INCHES. 
 
 DiAM. 
 
 CiRCUM. 
 
 Area. 
 
 DiAM. 
 
 CiRCUM. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 
 
 .1963 
 
 .0030 
 
 
 7.6576 
 
 4.6664 
 
 i 
 
 .3927 
 
 .0122 
 
 i 
 
 7.8540 
 
 4.9087 
 
 t 
 
 .5890 
 
 .0276 
 
 ^> 
 
 8.0503 
 
 5.1573 
 
 .7854 
 
 .0490 
 
 8.2467 
 
 5.4119 
 
 5 
 
 IS 
 
 .9817 
 
 .0767 
 
 H 
 
 8.4430 
 
 5.6727 
 
 3 
 8 
 
 1.1781 
 
 .1104 
 
 ii 
 4 
 
 8.6394 
 
 5.9395 
 
 
 1.3744 
 
 .1503 
 
 1 3 
 
 8.8357 
 
 6.2126 
 
 t 
 
 1.5708 
 
 .1963 
 
 
 9.0321 
 
 6.4918 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 1.7671 
 
 .2485 
 
 
 9.2284 
 
 6.7772 
 
 1.9635 
 
 .3068 
 
 3 
 
 9.4248 
 
 7.0686 
 
 
 2.1598 
 
 .3712 
 
 
 9.6211 
 
 7.3662 
 
 
 2.3562 
 
 .4417 
 
 t 
 
 9.8175 
 
 7.6699 
 
 1 3 
 
 1 
 
 2.5525 
 
 .5185 
 
 
 10.0138 
 
 7.9798 
 
 2.7489 
 
 .6013 
 
 i 
 
 10.2120 
 
 8.2957 
 
 H 
 
 2.9452 
 
 .6903 
 
 ❖ 
 f 
 
 10.4065 
 
 8.6179 
 
 1 
 
 3.1416 
 
 .7854 
 
 10.6029 
 
 8.9462 
 
 i 
 
 3.3379 
 
 .8861 
 
 i 
 
 10.7992 
 
 9.2806 
 
 3.5343 
 
 .9940 
 
 10.9956 
 
 9.6211 
 
 
 3.7306 
 
 1.1075 
 
 9 
 1 
 
 11.1919 
 
 9.9678 
 
 
 3.9270 
 
 1.2271 
 
 11.3883 
 
 10.3206 
 
 
 4.1233 
 
 1.3529 
 
 
 11.5846 
 
 10.6796 
 
 3 
 8 
 
 4.3197 
 
 1.4848 
 
 11.7810 
 
 11.0446 
 
 
 4.5160 
 
 1.6229 
 
 ii 
 
 11.9773 
 
 11.4159 
 
 t 
 
 4.7124 
 
 1.7671 
 
 i 
 
 12.1737 
 
 11.7932 
 
 
 4.9087 
 
 1.9175 
 
 if 
 
 12.3700 
 
 12.1768 
 
 5.1051 
 
 2.0739 
 
 4 
 
 12.5664 
 
 12.5664 
 
 1 1 
 
 5.3014 
 
 2.2365 
 
 i 
 
 12.7627 
 
 12.9622 
 
 f 
 
 5.4978 
 
 2.4052 
 
 12.9591 
 
 13.3640 
 
 
 5.6941 
 
 2.5801 
 
 A 
 
 13.1554 
 
 13.7721 
 
 ¥ 
 
 5.8905 
 
 2.7611 
 
 i 
 
 13.3518 
 
 14.1862 
 
 if 
 
 6.0868 
 
 2.9483 
 
 t 
 
 13.5481 
 
 14.6066 
 
 2 
 
 6.2832 
 
 3.1416 
 
 13.7445 
 
 15.0331 
 
 t 
 
 6.4795 
 
 3.3411 
 
 
 13.9408 
 
 15.4657 
 
 6.6759 
 
 3.5465 
 
 i 
 
 14.1372 
 
 15.9043 
 
 
 6.8722 
 
 3.7582 
 
 9 
 
 14.3335 
 
 16.3492 
 
 
 7.0686 
 
 3.9760 
 
 Y 
 
 8 
 
 14.5299 
 
 16.8001 
 
 
 7.2640 
 
 4.2001 
 
 
 14.7262 
 
 17.2573 
 
 t 
 
 7.4613 
 
 4.4302 
 
 
 14.9226 
 
 17.7205 
 
THE ENGINEEirs HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 545 
 
 TABLE — (Continued) 
 
 CONTAINING THE DIAM., CIRCUMFERENCES, AND AREAS OF CIRCLES. 
 
 DiAM. 
 
 CiRCUM. 
 
 Area. 
 
 DlAM. 
 
 CiRCUM. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Inch 
 
 
 
 I h 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 15.1189 
 
 18.1900 
 
 
 23.3656 
 
 43.4455 
 
 15.3153 
 
 18.6655 
 
 t 
 
 23.5620 
 
 44.1787 
 
 
 15.5716 
 
 19.1472 
 
 9 
 
 Y 
 
 8 
 
 23.7583 
 
 44.9181 
 
 5 
 
 15.7080 
 
 19.6350 
 
 23.9547 
 
 45.6636 
 
 
 15.9043 
 
 20.1290 
 
 
 24.1510 
 
 46.4153 
 
 
 16.1007 
 
 20.6290 
 
 4 
 
 24.3474 
 
 47.1730 
 
 
 16.2970 
 
 21.1252 
 
 4-4 
 ? 
 
 24.5437 
 
 47.9370 
 
 t 
 
 16.4934 
 
 21.6475 
 
 24.7401 
 
 48.7070 
 
 A- 
 
 16.6897 
 
 22.1661 
 
 H 
 
 8 
 
 24.9364 
 
 49.4833 
 
 16.8861 
 
 22.6907 
 
 25.1328 
 
 50.2656 
 
 
 17.0824 
 
 23.2215 
 
 8 
 
 25.3291 
 
 51.0541 
 
 2 
 
 17.2788 
 
 23.7583 
 
 25.5255 
 
 51.8486 
 
 9 
 
 17.4751 
 
 24.3014 
 
 
 25.7218 
 
 52.8994 
 
 17.6715 
 
 24.8505 
 
 t 
 
 4 
 
 25.9182 
 
 53.4562 
 
 1 1 
 
 17.8678 
 
 25.4058 
 
 8 
 
 26.1145 
 
 54.2748 
 
 Y 
 
 4 
 
 18.0642 
 
 25.9672 
 
 26.3109 
 
 55.0885 
 
 H 
 
 18.2605 
 
 26.5348 
 
 
 26.5072 
 
 55.9138 
 
 
 18.4569 
 
 27.1085 
 
 ? 
 
 2 
 
 26.7036 
 
 56.7451 
 
 ■3-4 
 6 
 
 18.6532 
 
 27.6884 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 26.8999 
 
 57.5887 
 
 18.8496 
 
 28.2744 
 
 27.0963 
 
 58.4264 
 
 
 ] 9.0459 
 
 28.8665 
 
 1 1 
 
 r¥ 
 
 27.2926 
 
 59.7762 
 
 t 
 
 19.2423 
 
 29.4647 
 
 4 
 
 27.4890 
 
 60.1321 
 
 A 
 
 19.4386 
 
 30.0798 
 
 16 
 
 27.6853 
 
 60.9943 
 
 A- 
 
 19.6350 
 
 30.6796 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 27.8817 
 
 61.8625 
 
 19.8313 
 
 31.2964 
 
 1 5 
 
 T¥ 
 
 28.0780 
 
 62.7369 
 
 ¥ 
 
 20.0277 
 
 31.9192 
 
 9 
 
 28.2744 
 
 63.6174 
 
 i 
 2 
 
 20.2240 
 
 32.5481 
 
 1 
 
 Y 
 
 8 
 
 28.4707 
 
 64.5041 
 
 20.4204 
 
 33.1831 
 
 28.6671 
 
 65.3968 
 
 
 20.6167 
 
 33.8244 
 
 
 28^8634 
 
 66^2957 
 
 20.8131 
 
 34.4717 
 
 t 
 
 4 
 
 29.0598 
 
 67.2007 
 
 
 2L0094 
 
 35.1252 
 
 TF 
 
 29.2561 
 
 68.1 120 
 
 4 
 
 21.2058 
 
 35.7847 
 
 8 
 
 29.4525 
 
 69.0293 
 
 
 21.4021 
 
 36.4505 
 
 
 29.6488 
 
 69.9528 
 
 21 5Q85 
 
 .^7 1224 i 
 
 ? 
 
 2 
 
 9Q 8452 
 
 70.8823 
 
 1 5 
 T¥ 
 
 21.7948 
 
 ^7 8005 1 
 
 ■X 
 
 ? 
 
 
 ' 71.8181 
 
 7 
 
 21^9912 
 
 38.4846 i 
 
 30.2379 
 
 72.7599 
 
 t 
 
 22.1875 
 
 39.1749 
 
 
 30.4342 
 
 73.7079 
 
 22.3839 
 
 39.8713 
 
 4 
 
 30.6306 
 
 74.6620 
 
 t 
 
 22.5802 
 
 40.5469 
 
 1 3 
 
 i 
 
 30.8269 
 
 75.62l>3 
 
 22.7766 
 
 41.2825 
 
 31.0233 
 
 76.5887 
 
 
 22.9729 
 
 41.9974 
 
 
 31.2196 
 
 77.5613 
 
 t 
 
 23.1693 
 
 42.7184 
 
 10 
 
 31.4160 
 
 78.5400 
 
 46* 2K 
 
THE engineer's IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 T A B L E — ( Continued) 
 
 CONTAINING THE DIAM., CIRCUMFERENCES, AND AREAS OF CIRCLES. 
 
 DiAM. 
 
 CiRCUM. 
 
 • 
 
 Area. 
 
 DiAM. 
 
 CiRCUM. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 
 
 
 31.8087 
 
 80.5157 
 
 8 
 8^ 
 
 48.3021 
 
 185.6612 
 
 i 
 
 32.2014 
 
 82.5160 
 
 I 
 
 48.6948 
 
 188.6923 
 
 32.5941 
 
 84.5409 
 
 5 
 8 
 
 49.0875 
 
 191.7480 
 
 1 
 
 52.9868 
 
 86.5903 
 
 4 
 
 49.4802 
 
 194.8282 
 
 33.3795 
 
 88.6643 
 
 
 49.8729 
 
 197.9330 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 33.7722 
 
 90.7627 ! 
 
 16 
 
 50.2656 
 
 201.0624 
 
 7 
 
 ■ft 
 
 34.1649 
 
 92.8858 1 
 
 
 50.6583 
 
 204.2162 
 
 11 
 
 34.5576 
 
 95.0334 1 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 51.0510 
 
 207.3946 
 
 
 34.9503 
 
 97.2053 i 
 
 51.4437 
 
 210.5976 
 
 \ 
 
 35.3430 
 
 99.4021 
 
 i 
 f 
 
 51.8364 
 
 213.8251 
 
 "8 
 
 35.7357 
 
 101.6234 
 
 52.2291 
 
 217.0772 
 
 36.1284 
 
 103.8691 I 
 
 1 
 
 52.6218 
 
 220.3537 
 
 5 
 3 
 
 36.5211 
 
 106.1394 1 
 
 7 
 
 53.0145 
 
 223.6549 
 
 4 
 
 36.9138 
 
 108.4342 
 
 17 
 
 53.4072 
 
 226.9806 
 
 7 
 
 "S" 
 
 37.3065 
 
 110.7536 
 
 
 53.7999 
 
 230.3308 
 
 12 
 
 37.6992 
 
 113.0976 
 
 
 54.1926 
 
 233.7055 
 
 
 38.0919 
 
 115.4660 
 
 f 
 
 54.5853 
 
 237.1049 
 
 1 
 
 38.4846 
 
 117.8590 
 
 
 54.9780 
 
 240.5287 
 
 3 
 
 38.8773 
 
 120.2766 
 
 55.3707 
 
 243.9771 
 
 
 39.2700 
 
 122.7187 
 
 4 
 
 55.7634 
 
 247.4500 
 
 39.6627 
 
 125.1854 
 
 i 
 
 56.1561 
 
 250.9475 
 
 i 
 
 40.0554 
 
 127.6765 
 
 18 
 
 56.5488 
 
 254.4696 
 
 7 
 
 40.4481 
 
 130.1923 
 
 i 
 
 56.9415 
 
 258.0161 
 
 13 
 
 40.8408 
 
 132.7326 
 
 \ 
 
 57.3342 
 
 261.5872 
 
 I 
 
 41.2338 
 
 135.2974 
 
 3 
 8^ 
 
 57.7269 
 
 265.1829 
 
 i 
 
 41.6262 
 
 137.8867 
 
 1 
 
 58.1196 
 
 268.8031 
 
 3 
 "8 
 
 42.0189 
 
 140.5007 
 
 58.5123 
 
 272.4479 
 
 i 
 
 42.4116 
 
 143.1391 
 
 
 58.9056 
 
 276.1171 
 
 1 
 
 42.8043 
 
 145.8021 
 
 7 
 
 ■g" 
 
 59.2977 
 
 279.8110 
 
 3 
 
 43.1970 
 
 148.4896 
 
 19 
 
 59.6904 
 
 283.5294 
 
 43.5897 
 
 251.2017 
 
 4 
 
 60.0831 
 
 287.2723 
 
 14 
 
 43.9824 
 
 .53.9384 
 
 4 
 
 60.4758 
 
 291.0397 
 
 
 44.3751 
 
 156.6995 
 
 
 60.8685 
 
 294.8312 
 
 i 
 
 44.7676 
 
 159.4852 
 
 ■1 
 
 61.2612 
 
 298.6483 
 
 45.1605 
 
 162.2956 
 
 5 
 g- 
 
 61.6539 
 
 302.4894 
 
 
 45.5532 
 
 165.1303 
 
 3 
 
 a. 
 
 62.0466 
 
 306.3550 
 
 
 45.9459 
 
 167.9896 
 
 i 
 
 62.4393 
 
 310.2452 
 
 
 46.3386 
 
 170.8735 
 
 20 
 
 62.8320 
 
 314.1600 
 
 1 
 
 46.7313 
 
 173.7820 
 
 
 63.2247 
 
 318.0992 
 
 15 
 
 47.1240 
 
 176.7150 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 63.6174 
 
 322.0630 
 
 i 
 
 47.5167 
 
 179.6725 
 
 64.0101 
 
 326.0514 
 
 i 
 
 47.9094 
 
 182.6545 
 
 
 64.4028 
 
 330.0643 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 547 
 T A B L. Fi — iOmtinued) 
 
 CONTAINING THE DIAM., CIRCUMFERENCES, AND AREAS OF CIRCLES. 
 
 DiAM. 
 
 CiRCUM. 
 
 Area. 
 
 DiAM. 
 
 CiRCUM. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 ■ - 
 
 
 64.7955 
 
 334.1018 
 
 i 
 
 _ 
 
 81.2889 
 
 525.8375 
 
 
 65.1882 
 
 338.1637 
 
 26 
 
 81.6816 
 
 530.9304 
 
 
 65.5809 
 
 342.2503 
 
 I 
 
 
 82.0743 
 
 536.0477 
 
 21 
 
 65.7936 
 
 346.3614 
 
 i 
 
 82.4670 
 
 541.1896 
 
 X 
 o 
 
 66.3663 
 
 350.4970 
 
 
 . 
 
 82.8597 
 
 546.3561 
 
 I 
 i 
 
 8 
 
 66.7590 
 
 354.6571 
 
 i 
 
 83.2524 
 
 551.5471 
 
 67.1517 
 
 358.8419 
 
 i 
 
 
 83.6451 
 
 556.7627 
 
 i 
 
 67.5444 
 
 363.0511 
 
 S 
 
 84.0378 
 
 562.0027 
 
 67.9371 
 
 367.2849 
 
 
 
 84.4305 
 
 567.2674 
 
 ' 1 
 
 68.3298 
 
 371.5432 
 
 27 
 
 84.8232 
 
 572.5566 
 
 i 
 
 68.7225 
 
 375.8261 
 
 • I 
 
 t 
 
 85.2159 
 
 577.8703 
 
 22 
 
 69.1152 
 
 380.1336 
 
 i 
 
 85.6086 
 
 583.2085 
 
 8 
 
 69.5079 
 
 384.4655 
 
 i 
 
 . 
 
 86.0013 
 
 588.5714 
 
 I 
 i 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 69.9006 
 
 388.8220 
 
 1 
 
 86.3940 
 
 593.9587 
 
 70.2933 
 
 393.2031 
 
 I 
 
 
 86.7867 
 
 599.3706 
 
 1 
 
 70.6860 
 
 397.6087 
 
 i 
 
 87.1794 
 
 604.8070 
 
 8 
 
 71.0787 
 
 402.0388 
 
 i 
 
 
 87.5721 
 
 610.2680 
 
 1 
 
 71.4714 
 
 406.4935 
 
 28 
 
 87.9648 
 
 615.7536 
 
 
 71.8641 
 
 41o!9728 
 
 i 
 
 \ 
 
 88.3575 
 
 621.2636 
 
 23 
 
 72.2568 
 
 415!4766 
 
 
 
 88.7502 
 
 626.7982 
 
 8 
 
 72.6495 
 
 420.0049 
 
 1 
 
 
 89.1429 
 
 632.3574 
 
 
 73.0422 
 
 424.5577 
 
 
 
 89.5356 
 
 637.9411 
 
 8 
 
 73.4349 
 
 429.1352 
 
 
 
 89.9283 
 
 643.5494 
 
 
 73.8276 
 
 433.7371 
 
 
 
 90.3210 
 
 649.1821 
 
 74.2203 
 
 438.3636 
 
 
 
 90.7137 
 
 654.8395 
 
 
 74.6130 
 
 443.0146 
 
 29 
 
 91.1064 
 
 660.5214 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 75.0057 
 
 447.6992 
 
 i 
 
 
 91.4991 
 
 666.2278 
 
 24 
 
 75.3984 
 
 452.3904 
 
 i 
 
 91.8918 
 
 671.9587 
 
 0 
 
 75.7911 
 
 457.1150 
 
 i 
 
 : 
 
 92.2845 
 
 677.7143 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 8 
 
 76.1838 
 
 461.8642 
 
 
 
 92.6772 
 
 683.4943 
 
 76.5765 
 
 466.6380 
 
 
 
 93.0699 
 
 689.2989 
 
 2 
 
 76!9692 
 
 47l!4363 
 
 * 
 
 93.4626 
 
 695.1280 
 
 77.3619 
 
 476^2592 
 
 i 
 
 
 93.8553 
 
 700.9817 
 
 
 77.7546 
 
 481 1065 
 
 30 
 
 94.2480 
 
 706.8600 
 
 7 
 
 78!l473 
 
 485 9785 
 
 
 94.6407 
 
 712.7627 
 
 25 
 
 78.*5400 
 
 490.8750 
 
 i 
 
 95.0334 
 
 718.6900 
 
 i 
 
 78.9327 
 
 495.7960 
 
 
 95.4261 
 
 724.6419 
 
 
 79.3254 
 
 500.7415 
 
 i 
 
 95.8188 
 
 730.6183 
 
 i 
 
 79.7181 
 
 505.7117 
 
 i 
 
 
 96.2115 
 
 736.6193 
 
 
 80.1108 
 
 510.7063 
 
 1 
 
 
 96.6042 
 
 742.6447 i 
 
 
 80.5035 
 
 515.7255 
 
 i 
 
 
 96.9969 
 
 748.6948 
 
 i 1 
 
 80.8962 
 
 620.7692 
 
 31 
 
 97.3896 
 
 75^.7694 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 TABLE — (Continued) 
 
 CONTAINING THE DIAM., CIRCUMFERENCES, AND AREAS OP CIRCLES. 
 
 DiAM. 
 
 CiRCUM. 
 
 Area. 
 
 DiAM. 
 
 CiRCUM. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 
 
 
 760 8685 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 114.2757 
 
 1039 1946 
 
 
 
 766 9921 
 
 i 
 
 ¥ 
 
 114 6684 
 
 1 046 3941 
 
 X V/ xV/.C»»7 JCX 
 
 8 
 
 5fi77 
 
 773.1404 
 
 115 061 1 
 
 X X t/.V/VJX X 
 
 1 053 5281 
 
 i 
 
 8 
 
 
 779 3131 
 
 f 
 
 1 1 5 4538 
 
 1 060 731 7 
 
 x.\j\j\j, 1 ox « 
 
 99.3531 
 
 785.5104 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 115.8465 
 
 1067 9599 
 
 i 
 
 99 7458 
 
 791 7322 
 
 1 ex . ( tJZj^ 
 
 37 
 
 1 1 6 2.392 
 
 1075 2126 
 
 xv< c^x 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 1 00 1 385 
 
 797 9786 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 116 631 9 
 
 X X W.'Jc/X «7 
 
 1 082 4898 
 
 X V/ *J *J . i <J t7 
 
 32 
 
 1 00 531 2 
 
 804.2496 
 
 I 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 1 1 7 0246 
 
 1089 7915 
 
 XVv-/»7.l 0 XfJ 
 
 1 
 
 100 9240 
 
 810.5450 
 
 117.4173 
 
 1097 1179 
 
 X V/«7 < .X X < V 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 101 31fifi 
 
 816 8650 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 117 8100 
 
 J X 1 .ox w 
 
 1 1 04 4687 
 
 101 7093 
 
 823 2096 
 
 1 1 8 2027 
 
 X X O.xJV^ 1 
 
 1111.8441 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 02 1 020 
 
 829 5787 
 
 f 
 
 118 5954 
 
 1119 2440 
 
 X X X i7 . ^(Tt'l V/ 
 
 102.4947 
 
 835.9724 
 
 
 118 9881 
 
 X XO. i700X 
 
 1 1 26 6685 
 
 
 102 8874 
 
 842^3905 
 
 38 
 
 1 1 9 3808 
 
 1 1 .34 1 1 76 
 
 X X O^.X X 1 \J 
 
 7 
 
 ¥ 
 
 1 03 2801 
 
 848.8333 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 4- 
 4 
 
 1 1 9 77.35 
 
 X X i/. < 1 *jU 
 
 1141 5911 
 
 XX^X.t^t7XX 
 
 33 
 
 103.6728 
 
 855.3006 
 
 120 16H2 
 
 1 149 0892 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 i 
 ? 
 
 104.0655 
 
 861.7924 
 
 8 
 
 120 5589 
 
 1156 6119 
 
 XXt/\J.V/XXi7 
 
 IO4I4582 
 
 868.3087 
 
 ¥ 
 
 120 9516 
 
 1 1 64 1 591 
 
 X X wn.xt^t/x 
 
 3 
 8 
 
 1 04 8509 
 
 874 8497 
 
 121 3443 
 
 1171 7.309 
 
 XX # X.I OV»/ 
 
 1 05 2436 
 
 881.4151 
 
 
 121 7.370 
 
 1179 .3271 
 
 XXI t/.Oi^ 1 X 
 
 
 1 05 6363 
 
 888.0051 
 
 7 
 ¥ 
 
 1 22 1 297 
 
 1 1 86 9480 
 
 
 1 06 0290 
 
 894 6196 
 
 39 
 
 1 22 5224 
 
 1 1 94 59.34 
 
 X X C7rr.Ui7c>Tt 
 
 7 
 
 106 4217 
 
 901.2587 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 1 22 91 51 
 
 1 202 2633 
 
 34 
 
 106 8144 
 
 X v/\J . 0 X X X 
 
 907 9224 
 
 JL 
 ? 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 1 93 3078 
 
 1 209 9577 
 
 1 
 
 ¥ 
 
 107 2071 
 
 914 6105 
 
 1 23 7005 
 
 1217 6768 
 
 XjUX 1 .U 1 uo 
 
 JL 
 4 
 
 1 07 5998 
 
 921 3232 
 
 I 
 2 
 
 ¥ 
 
 1 24 0932 
 
 1 225 4203 
 
 3 
 8 
 
 107 9925 
 
 928 0605 
 
 1 24 4859 
 
 1 2.33 1 884 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 08 .3852 
 
 9.34 8223 
 
 f 
 
 1 24 9787 
 
 1240 9810 
 
 108 7779 
 
 941 6086 
 
 X 
 8 
 
 195 971 3 
 
 1248 7989 
 
 4 
 
 109 1706 
 
 948 41 95 
 
 40 
 
 1 95 fi640 
 
 1 256 6400 
 
 7 
 
 ¥ 
 
 1 09 5633 
 
 955 2550 
 
 1 
 
 ¥ 
 
 1 26 0567 
 
 1 264 5062 
 
 35 
 
 1 09 9560 
 
 962 1 1 50 
 
 1 
 4 
 
 1 9fi 44Q4 
 
 1 979 ^970 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 1 1 0 3487 
 
 X X V.lJ 1 
 
 968 9995 
 
 8 
 
 126.8421 
 
 1980 3194 
 
 X 
 ? 
 
 110.7414 
 
 975 Q085 
 
 1 
 
 ¥ 
 
 1 97 9348 
 
 1 988 9^9^ 
 
 3 
 8 
 
 111.1341 
 
 982 8422 
 
 1 97 fi975 
 
 199fi 91fi8 
 
 1 
 
 "2 
 
 lll!5268 
 
 989.8003 
 
 
 128.0202 
 
 1304.2057 
 
 1 
 
 111.9195 
 
 996.7830 
 
 128.4129 
 
 1312.2193 
 
 i 
 
 112.3122 
 
 1003.7902 
 
 41 
 
 128.8056 
 
 1320.2574 
 
 7 
 
 ¥ 
 
 112.7049 
 
 1010.8220 
 
 1 
 
 129.1983 
 
 1328.3200 
 
 36 
 
 113.0976 
 
 1017.8784 
 
 1 
 
 129.5910 
 
 1336.4071 
 
 i 
 
 113.4903 
 
 1024.9592 
 
 3 
 8 
 
 129.9837 
 
 1344.5189 
 
 i 
 
 113.8830 
 
 1032.0646 
 
 i 
 
 130.3764 
 
 1352.6551 
 
THE ENGTNEER^S HANDY-BOOK. ^49 
 T A B L E — (Cbw/mM«<f) 
 
 CONTAININQ THE DIAM., CIRCUMFERENCES, AND AREAS OF CIRCLEa 
 
 DiAM. 
 
 CiRCUM. 
 
 Area. 
 
 DiAM. 
 
 CiRCIIM. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 
 
 130.7691 
 
 1360.8159 
 
 i 
 
 147.2625 
 
 1725.7324 
 
 f 
 
 131.1618 
 
 1369.0012 
 
 47 
 
 147.6552 
 
 1734.9486 
 
 8" 
 
 131.5545 
 
 1377.2111 
 
 
 148.0479 
 
 1744.1893 
 
 42 
 
 131.9472 
 
 1385.4456 
 
 I 
 1 
 
 148.4406 
 
 1753.4545 
 
 i 
 
 132.3399 
 
 1393.7045 
 
 
 148.8333 
 
 1762.7344 
 
 
 132.7326 
 
 1401.9880 
 
 
 149.2260 
 
 1772.0587 
 
 1 
 
 133.1253 
 
 1410.2961 
 
 i 
 
 149.6187 
 
 1781.3976 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 133.5180 
 
 1418.6287 
 
 f 
 
 150.0114 
 
 1790.7610 
 
 133.9107 
 
 1426.9859 
 
 "g" 
 
 150.4041 
 
 1800.1490 
 
 t 
 
 134.3034 
 
 1435.3675 
 
 48 
 
 150.7968 
 
 1809.5616 
 
 i 
 
 134.6961 
 
 1443.7738 
 
 i 
 
 151.1895 
 
 1818.9986 
 
 43 
 
 135.0888 
 
 1452.2046 
 
 i 
 
 f 
 
 151.5822 
 
 1828.4602 
 
 * i 
 
 135.4815 
 
 1460.6599 
 
 151.9749 
 
 1837.9364 
 
 i 
 
 135.8/42 
 
 1469.1397 
 
 
 152.3676 
 
 1847.4571 
 
 1 
 
 136.2669 
 
 1477.6342 
 
 152.7603 
 
 1856.9924 
 
 i 
 
 136.6596 
 
 1486.1731 
 
 f 
 
 153.1530 
 
 1868.5521 
 
 1 
 
 137.0523 
 
 1494.7266 
 
 i 
 
 153.5457 
 
 1876.1365 
 
 i 
 
 137.4450 
 
 1503.3046 
 
 49 
 
 153.9384 
 
 1885.7454 
 
 7 
 
 i 
 
 137.8377 
 
 1511.9072 
 
 i 
 
 154.3311 
 
 1895.3788 
 
 A A 
 
 44 
 
 138.2304 
 
 1520.5344 
 
 i 
 i 
 
 154.7238 
 
 1905.0367 
 
 
 138.6231 
 
 1529.1860 
 
 155.1165 
 
 1914.7093 
 
 
 139.0158 
 
 1537.8622 
 
 
 155.5092 
 
 1924.4263 
 
 1 
 
 139.4085 
 
 1546.5530 
 
 1 
 
 155.9019 
 
 1934.1579 
 
 i 
 
 139.8012 
 
 1555.2883 
 
 3. 
 4 
 
 156.2946 
 
 1943.9140 
 
 t 
 
 140.1939 
 
 1564.0382 
 
 ¥• 
 
 156.6873 
 
 1953.6947 
 
 J 
 
 140.5866 
 
 1572.8125 
 
 50 
 
 157.0800 
 
 1963.5000 
 
 7 
 
 140.9793 
 
 1581.6115 
 
 i 
 
 157.4727 
 
 1973.3297 
 
 45 
 
 141.3720 
 
 1590.4350 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 157.8654 
 
 1983.1840 
 
 
 141.7647 
 
 1599.2830 . 
 
 158.2581 
 
 1993.0529 
 
 J 
 
 142.1574 
 
 1608.1555 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 158.6508 
 
 2002.9663 
 
 
 142.5501 
 
 1617.0427 
 
 159.0435 
 
 2012.8943 
 
 
 142.9428 
 
 1625.9743 
 
 3. 
 4 
 
 159.4362 
 
 2022.8467 
 
 t 
 
 143.3355 
 
 1634.9205 
 
 i 
 
 159.8289 
 
 2032.8238 
 
 
 143.7382 
 
 1643.8912 
 
 51 
 
 160.2216 
 
 2042.8254 
 
 7 
 
 ■g" 
 
 144.1209 
 
 1652.8865 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 160.6143 
 
 2052.8515 
 
 46 
 
 144 51 ."^n 
 
 
 4 
 
 lOi.UU/ u 
 
 
 1 
 
 J 
 
 144.9063 
 
 1670.9507 
 
 3. 
 8 
 
 161.3997 
 
 2072.9764 
 
 i 
 
 145.2990 
 
 1680.0196 
 
 1 
 
 f 
 
 161.7924 
 
 2083.0771 
 
 i 
 
 145.6917 
 
 1689.1031 
 
 162.1851 
 
 2093.2014 
 
 i 
 
 146.0844 
 
 1698.2311 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 162.5778 
 
 2103.3502 
 
 1 
 
 146.4771 
 
 1707.3737 
 
 162.9705 
 
 2113.5236 
 
 a 
 
 146.8698 
 
 1716.5407 
 
 52 
 
 163.3632 
 
 2123.7216 
 
550 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 T A B Ij E — ( Continued) 
 
 CONTAINING THE DIAM., CIRCUMFERENCES, AND AREAS OF CIRCLES. 
 
 DiAM. 
 
 CIRCUM. 
 
 t 
 
 Area. 
 
 lA . 
 
 CiRCUM. 
 
 Area, 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 163.7559 
 
 2133.9440 
 
 3 
 8 
 
 180.2493 
 
 2585.4509 
 
 i 
 
 164.1486 
 
 2144.1910 
 
 
 180.6423 
 
 2596.7287 
 
 8 
 
 164.5413 
 
 2154.4626 
 
 i> 
 
 8 
 
 181.0347 
 
 2608.0311 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 164.9340 
 
 2164.7587 
 
 a 
 
 4 
 
 181.4274 
 
 2619.3580 
 
 165.3267 
 
 2175.0794 
 
 t 
 
 181.8201 
 
 2630.7095 
 
 i 
 
 165.7194 
 
 2185.4245 
 
 58 
 
 182.2128 
 
 2642.0856 
 
 7 
 
 166.1121 
 
 2195.7943 
 
 i 
 
 182.6055 
 
 2653.4861 
 
 53 
 
 166.5048 
 
 2206.1886 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 182.9982 
 
 2664.9112 
 
 i 
 
 166.8975 
 
 2216.6074 
 
 183.3909 
 
 2676.3609 
 
 i 
 
 167.2902 
 
 2227.0507 
 
 i 
 
 183.7836 
 
 2687.8351 
 
 
 167.6829 
 
 2237.5187 
 
 184.1763 
 
 2699.3338 
 
 i 
 
 168.0756 
 
 2248.0111 
 
 
 184 5690 
 
 2710.8571 
 
 1 
 
 168.4683 
 
 2258.5281 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 184.9617 
 
 2722.4050 
 
 i 
 
 168.8610 
 
 2269.0696 
 
 59 
 
 185.3544 
 
 2733.9774 
 
 i 
 
 169.2537 
 
 2279.6357 
 
 i 
 
 185.7471 
 
 2745.5743 
 
 54 
 
 169.6464 
 
 2290 2264 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 8 
 
 186.1398 
 
 2757.1957 
 
 i 
 
 170.0391 
 
 2300.8415 
 
 186.5325 
 
 2768.8418 
 
 i 
 
 170.4318 
 
 2311.4812 
 
 f 
 
 186.9252 
 
 2780.5123 
 
 f 
 
 170.8245 
 
 2322.1455 
 
 187.3179 
 
 2792.2074 
 
 1 
 
 171.2172 
 
 2332.8343 
 
 3. 
 4 
 
 187.7106 
 
 2803.9270 
 
 171.6099 
 
 2343.5477 
 
 7 
 
 ¥ 
 
 188.1033 
 
 2815.6712 
 
 f 
 
 172.0026 
 
 2354.2855 
 
 CO 
 
 188.4960 
 
 2827.4400 
 
 
 172.3593 
 
 2365.0480 
 
 i 
 
 188.8887 
 
 2839.2332 
 
 55 
 
 172.7880 
 
 2375.8350 
 
 i 
 
 189.2814 
 
 2851.0510 
 
 i 
 
 173.1807 
 
 2386.6465 
 
 3 
 8 
 
 189.6741 
 
 2862.8934 
 
 
 173.5734 
 
 2397.4825 
 
 i 
 
 190.0668 
 
 2874.7603 
 
 8 
 
 173.9661 
 
 2408.3432 
 
 5 
 8 
 
 190.4595 
 
 2886.6517 
 
 
 174.3588 
 
 2419.2283 
 
 2. 
 4 
 
 ¥ 
 
 190.8522 
 
 2898.5677 
 
 174.7515 
 
 2430.1833 
 
 191.2419 
 
 2910.5083 
 
 i 
 
 175.1442 
 
 2441.0772 
 
 61 
 
 191.6376 
 
 2922.4734 
 
 7 
 
 175.5369 
 
 2452.0310 
 
 i 
 
 192.0303 
 
 2934.4630 
 
 56 
 
 175.9296 
 
 2463.0144 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 192.4230 
 
 2946.4771 
 
 i 
 
 176.3323 
 
 2474.0222 
 
 i 
 
 192.8157 
 
 2958.5139 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 176.7150 
 
 2485.3546 
 
 i 
 
 193.2084 
 
 2970.5791 
 
 177.1077 
 
 2496.1116 
 
 1 
 
 193.6011 
 
 2982.6669 
 
 1 
 
 177.5004 
 
 2507.1931 
 
 i 
 
 193.9931 
 
 
 
 177.8931 
 
 2518.2992 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 194.3865 
 
 3006.9161 
 
 i 
 
 178.2858 
 
 2529.4297 
 
 62 
 
 194.7792 
 
 3019.0776 
 
 i 
 
 178.6785 
 
 2543.5849 
 
 i 
 
 195.1719 
 
 3031.2635 
 
 57 
 
 179.0712 
 
 2551.7646 
 
 i 
 
 195.5646 
 
 3043.4740 
 
 4 
 
 179.4639 
 
 2562.9688 
 
 3 
 
 195.9573 
 
 3055.7091 
 
 
 179.8566 
 
 2574.1975 
 
 i 
 
 196.3500 
 
 3067.9687 
 
THE ENOIXEER^S HANDY-BOOK. 
 TABLE — (Continued) 
 
 CONTAINING THE DIAM., CIRCUMFERENCES, AND AREAS OP CIRCLES. 
 
 DiAM. 
 
 CiRCUM. 
 
 Area. 
 
 DiAM. 
 
 CiRCUM. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 
 
 196.7427 
 
 3080.2529 
 
 i 
 
 213.2361 
 
 3618.3300 
 
 * 
 
 197.1354 
 
 3092.5615 
 
 68 
 
 213.6288 
 
 3631.6896 
 
 i 
 
 197.5281 
 
 3104.8948 
 
 i 
 
 214.0215 
 
 3645.0536 
 
 63 
 
 197.9208 
 
 3117.2526 
 
 \ 
 
 214.4142 
 
 3658.4402 
 
 i 
 
 198.3135 
 
 3129.6349 
 
 1 
 
 214.8069 
 
 3671.8554 
 
 i 
 
 198.7062 
 
 3142.0417 
 
 
 215.1996 
 
 3685.2931 
 
 
 199.0989 
 
 3154 4732 
 
 215.5923 
 
 3698.7554 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 199.4916 
 
 3166.9291 
 
 f 
 
 215.9850 
 
 3712.2421 
 
 199.8843 
 
 3179.4096 
 
 ¥ 
 
 216.3777 
 
 3725.7535 
 
 i 
 
 200.2770 
 
 3191.9146 
 
 69 
 
 216.7704 
 
 3739.2894 
 
 i 
 
 200.6697 
 
 3204.4442 
 
 i 
 
 217.1631 
 
 3752.8498 
 
 64 
 
 201.0624 
 
 3216.9984 
 
 f 
 
 217.5558 
 
 37 66.4327 
 
 4 
 
 201.4551 
 
 3229.5770 
 
 217.9485 
 
 3780.0443 
 
 i 
 
 t 
 
 201.8478 
 
 3242.1782 
 
 
 218.3412 
 
 3793.6783 
 
 202.2405 
 
 3254.8080 
 
 1 
 
 218.7339 
 
 3807.3369 
 
 i 
 
 202.6332 
 
 3267.4603 
 
 f 
 1 
 
 219.1266 
 
 3821.0200 
 
 1 
 
 203.0259 
 
 3280.1372 
 
 219.5193 
 
 3834.7277 
 
 t 
 
 203.4186 
 
 3292.8385 
 
 70 
 
 219.9120 
 
 3848.4600 
 
 7 
 
 203.8113 
 
 3305.5645 
 
 4 
 
 220.3047 
 
 3862.2167 
 
 65 
 
 204.2040 
 
 3318.3151 
 
 1 
 
 220.6974 
 
 3875.9960 
 
 
 204.5917 
 
 3331.0900 
 
 8 
 
 221.0901 
 
 3889.8039 
 
 1 
 
 OA A f\Of\ A 
 
 204.9894 
 
 3343.8875 
 
 
 221.4828 
 
 3903.6343 
 
 1 
 
 205.3821 
 
 3356.7137 
 
 f 
 
 221.8755 
 
 3917.4893 
 
 1 
 
 205.7748 
 
 3369.5623 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 222.2682 
 
 3931.3687 
 
 t 
 
 206.16/5 
 
 3382.4355 
 
 222.6609 
 
 3945.2728 
 
 1 
 
 206.5602 
 
 3395.3332 
 
 71 
 
 223.0536 
 
 3959.2014 
 
 1- 
 
 206.9529 
 
 3408.2555 
 
 4 
 
 223.4463 
 
 3973.1545 
 
 66 
 
 O Arr o /« ^ /» 
 
 207.34o6 
 
 3421.2024 
 
 i 
 
 223.8390 
 
 3987.1301 
 
 i 
 
 207.7383 
 
 3434.1737 
 
 
 224.2317 
 
 4001.1344 
 
 i 
 
 OAO 1 O 1 /\ 
 
 208.1310 
 
 3447.1676 
 
 
 224.6244 
 
 4015.1611 
 
 
 208.5237 
 
 3468.1901 
 
 225.0171 
 
 4029.2124 
 
 
 OAO t\t n A 
 
 208.9164 
 
 3473.2351 
 
 i 
 
 225.4098 
 
 4043.2882 
 
 5 
 t 
 
 i 
 
 209.3091 
 
 3486.3047 
 
 X 
 
 225.8025 
 
 4057.3886 
 
 209.7018 
 
 3499.3987 
 
 72 
 
 226.1952 
 
 4071.5136 
 
 7 
 
 i 
 
 210.0945 
 
 3512.5174 
 
 4 
 
 226.5879 
 
 4085.6631 
 
 67 
 
 210.4872 
 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 21o!8799 
 
 3538.8283 
 
 227.3733 
 
 4114.0356 
 
 i 
 
 211.2726 
 
 3552.0185 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 227.7660 
 
 4128.2587 
 
 i 
 
 211.6653 
 
 3565.2374 
 
 228.1587 
 
 4142.5064 
 
 
 212.0580 
 
 3578.4787 
 
 4 
 
 228.5514 
 
 4156.7785 
 
 1 
 
 212.4507 
 
 3591.7446 
 
 
 228.9441 
 
 4171.0753 
 
 
 212.8434 
 
 3605.0350 
 
 73 1 
 
 229.3368 
 
 4185.3966 
 
2 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 T A B Li E — ( Continued) 
 
 CONTAINING THE DIAM., CIRCUMFERENCES, AND AREAS OF CIRCLES. 
 
 DiAM. 
 
 CiRCUM. 
 
 Area. 
 
 DiAM. 
 
 CiRCUM. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Incli. 
 
 
 
 Inch 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 41 7424 
 
 4 * 
 
 8 
 
 246 222Q 
 
 4824 42QQ 
 
 1 
 
 
 4214.1107 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 246 61 56 
 
 48.8Q 881 1 
 
 8 
 
 
 4228.5077 
 
 8 
 
 247 0088 
 
 4855 2568 
 
 2 
 
 280 Q07fi 
 
 4242.9271 
 
 i 
 
 247 401 0 
 
 4870 7071 
 
 * 
 
 
 4257.3711 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 247 7Q.87 
 
 4886 1 820 
 
 2.S1 6Q.S0 
 
 4271.8396 
 
 79 
 
 248.1864 
 
 4Q01 6814 
 
 1 
 8 
 
 232.0857 
 
 4286.3327 
 
 8 
 
 248.5791 
 
 4Q17 2058 
 
 74 
 
 2.82 47H4 
 
 4800 8504 
 
 i- 
 4 
 
 248 Q718 
 
 4Q82 7517 
 
 1 
 
 ¥ 
 
 2.82 8711 
 
 481 5 .8Q26 
 
 
 24Q 8645 
 
 4Q48 89r>ft 
 
 1 
 4 
 
 2.8.8 26.88 
 
 482Q Q572 
 
 4 
 
 24Q 7572 
 
 4Q68 Q248 
 
 3 
 "5 
 
 2.88 6565 
 
 4.844 5505 
 
 250 1 4QQ 
 
 4Q7Q 5456 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 2.84 04Q2 
 
 485Q 1 668 
 
 4 
 
 250.5426 
 
 4005 1 QQA 
 
 284 441 Q 
 
 4878 8067 
 
 8 
 
 250 Q858 
 
 501 0 8642 
 
 i 
 
 2.84 8.846 
 
 4.888 4715 
 
 80 
 
 251 8280 
 
 5026 5600 
 
 
 2.85 2278 
 
 4408 1610 
 
 X 
 
 8 
 
 251 7-207 
 
 ,5042 9808 
 
 75 
 
 235.6200 
 
 4417.8750 
 
 1 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 252.1134 
 
 5058 0280 
 
 1 
 
 286 01 27 
 
 4482 61.85 
 
 252 5061 
 
 5078 7Q44 
 
 1 
 
 286 4054 
 
 4447 .8745 
 
 XXX 1 ,0# x?-J 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 252 8Q88 
 
 508Q 5888 
 
 % 
 
 2.86 7Q81 
 
 4462 1642 
 
 t 
 
 258 2Q15 
 
 51 06 4060 
 
 i 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 2.87 1 Q08 
 
 4476 Q768 
 
 4 
 
 258 6842 
 
 5121 24Q7 
 
 237.5835 
 
 44Q1 81.80 
 
 x^t/ X .OX CJV 
 
 1 
 
 254 0769 
 
 51.87 1178 
 
 t^XOI .XX< «J 
 
 1 
 
 287 Q762 
 
 4506 6742 
 
 81 
 
 954 46Q6 
 
 5158 00Q4 
 
 1 
 ? 
 
 238.3689 
 
 4521 5600 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 i 
 4 
 
 254.8623 
 
 5168.9260 
 
 76 
 
 238.7616 
 
 4586 4704 
 
 X O VJ . X 1 V X 
 
 255.2550 
 
 5184 8651 
 
 1 
 
 28Q 1 548 
 
 4551 4028 
 
 3 
 8 
 I 
 2 
 
 255 6477 
 
 5900 882Q 
 
 J 
 
 4 
 
 28Q 5470 
 
 4566 8626 
 
 256 0404 
 
 521 6 8281 
 
 3 
 8 
 
 239.9397 
 
 4581 .8486 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 256 4881 
 
 52.82 8.871 
 
 2 
 
 240.3324 
 
 45Q6 .8571 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 256 8258 
 
 5248 8772 
 
 240.7251 
 
 4611 .8Q02 
 
 1 
 8 
 
 257.2105 
 
 5264 Q41 1 
 
 3. 
 4 
 
 241.1178 
 
 4626 4477 
 
 82 
 
 257.6112 
 
 5281.0296 
 
 1 
 
 241.5105 
 
 4641 .82QQ 
 
 1 
 
 F 
 
 258.0039 
 
 5297.1426 
 
 77 
 
 241 0082 
 
 4656 6866 
 
 1 
 4 
 
 258 .8Q66 
 
 581 8 2780 
 
 'JtJXKJtiJI (J\J 
 
 1 
 
 242 2Q5Q 
 
 4671 7678 
 
 3 
 8 
 
 258 78Q8 
 
 589Q 4421 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 242.6886 
 
 4686 Q21 5 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 25Q 1 890 
 
 5.845 6287 
 
 3 
 8 
 
 248 081 8 
 
 4709 108Q 
 
 8 
 
 95Q 5747 
 
 5.861 88Q1 
 
 
 243.4740 
 
 4717.3087 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 259.9674 
 
 5378.0755 
 
 
 243.8667 
 
 4732.5381 
 
 I 
 
 260.3601 
 
 5394.3358 
 
 1 
 
 244.2594 
 
 4747.7920 
 
 83 
 
 260.7528 
 
 5410.6206 
 
 
 244.6521 
 
 4763.0705 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 261.1455 
 
 5426.9299 
 
 78 
 
 245.0448 
 
 4778.3736 
 
 i 
 
 261.5382 
 
 5443.2617 
 
 
 245.4375 
 
 4793.7012 
 
 1 
 
 261.9309 
 
 5459.6222 
 
 
 245.8302 
 
 4809.0512 
 
 i 
 
 262.3236 
 
 5476.0051 
 
THE ENGINEER .S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 T A B E - {Continued) 
 
 CONTAINING THE DIAM., CIRCUMFERENCES, AND AREAS OF CIRCLES. 
 
 DiAM. 
 
 CiRCUM. 
 
 Area 
 
 DiAM. 
 
 CiRCUM. 
 
 Arka. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 262.7163 
 
 6492.4118 
 
 i 
 
 279.2097 
 
 6203.6905 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 263.1090 
 
 5508.8446 
 
 89 
 
 279.6024 
 
 6221.1534 
 
 263.5017 
 
 5525.3012 
 
 i 
 
 279.9951 
 
 6238.6408 
 
 84 
 
 263.8944 
 
 5541.7824 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 280.3878 
 
 6256.1507 
 
 4 
 
 264.2871 
 
 5558.2881 
 
 280.7805 
 
 6273.6893 
 
 \ 
 
 1 
 
 264.6798 
 
 5574.8162 
 
 i 
 
 281.1732 
 
 6291.2503 
 
 265.0725 
 
 5591.3730 
 
 28 1 .5659 
 
 6308.8351 
 
 
 265.4652 
 
 5607.9523 
 
 2. 
 4 
 
 281.9586 
 
 6326.4460 
 
 
 265.8579 
 
 5624.5554 
 
 i 
 
 282.3513 
 
 6344.0807 
 
 f 
 i 
 
 266.2506 
 
 5641.1845 
 
 90 
 
 282.7440 
 
 6361.7400 
 
 266.6433 
 
 5657.8357 
 
 f 
 
 283.1367 
 
 6379.4238 
 
 85 
 
 267.0360 
 
 5674.5150 
 
 i 
 
 283.5294 
 
 6397.1300 
 
 4 
 
 267.4287 
 
 5691.2170 
 
 
 283.9221 
 
 6414.8649 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 267.8214 
 
 5707.9415 
 
 
 284.3148 
 
 6432.6223 
 
 268.2141 
 
 5724.6947 
 
 284.7075 
 
 6450.4039 
 
 
 268.6068 
 
 5741.4703 
 
 f 
 
 285.1002 
 
 6468.2107 
 
 268.9997 
 
 5758.2697 
 
 
 285.4929 
 
 6486.0418 
 
 1 
 
 269.3922 
 
 5775.0952 
 
 91 
 
 285.8856 
 
 6503.8974 
 
 i 
 
 269.7849 
 
 5791.9445 
 
 \ 
 
 286.2783 
 
 6521.7772 
 
 86 
 
 270.1776 
 
 5808.8184 
 
 i 
 
 286.6710 
 
 6539.6801 
 
 \ 
 
 270.5703 
 
 5825.7168 
 
 t 
 
 287.0637 
 
 6557.6114 
 
 \ 
 
 270.9630 
 
 5842.6376 
 
 
 287.4564 
 
 6573.5651 
 
 i 
 
 271.3557 
 
 5859.5871 
 
 287.8491 
 
 6593.5431 
 
 
 271.7484 
 
 5876.5591 
 
 
 288.2418 
 
 6611.5462 
 
 272.1411 
 
 5893.5549 
 
 1 
 
 288.6345 
 
 6629.5736 
 
 4 
 
 272.5338 
 
 5910.5767 
 
 92 
 
 289.0272 
 
 6647.6258 
 
 I 
 
 272.9265 
 
 5927.6224 
 
 1 
 
 289.4199 
 
 6665.7021 
 
 87 
 
 273.3192 
 
 5944.6926 
 
 i 
 
 289.8125 
 
 6683.8010 
 
 i 
 
 273.7119 
 
 5961.7873 
 
 3 
 
 290.2053 
 
 6701.9286 
 
 i 
 
 274.1046 
 
 5978.9045 
 
 
 290.5980 
 
 6720.0787 
 
 1 
 
 274.4973 
 
 5996.0504 
 
 290.9907 
 
 6738.2530 
 
 \ 
 1 
 
 274.8900 
 
 6013.2187 
 
 
 291.3834 
 
 6756.4525 
 
 275.2827 
 
 6030.4108 
 
 1 
 
 291.7661 
 
 6774.6763 
 
 
 275.6754 
 
 6047.6290 
 
 93 
 
 292.1688 
 
 6792.9248 
 
 oo 
 
 276.0681 
 
 6064.8710 
 
 
 292.5615 
 
 6811.1974 
 
 Li O.'iDUo 
 
 DUoZ. J o / D 
 
 
 
 ^OOQ JQ07 
 
 
 276.8535 
 
 6099.4287 
 
 f 
 
 293.3469 
 
 6847.8167 
 
 } 
 
 277.2462 
 
 6116.7422 
 
 
 293.7396 
 
 6866.1631 
 
 i 
 
 277.6389 
 
 6134.0844 
 
 294.1323 
 
 6884.5338 
 
 i 
 
 278.0316 
 
 6151.4491 
 
 s 
 
 294.5350 
 
 6902.9296 
 
 278.4243 
 
 6169.8376 
 
 1 
 
 294.9177 
 
 6921.3497 
 
 4 
 
 278.8170 
 
 6186.2591 
 
 94 
 
 295.3104 
 
 6939.7946 
 
 47 
 
554 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 T A B L 'B— (Concluded) 
 
 CONTAINING THE DIAM., CIRCUMFERENCES, AND AREAS OF CIRCLES. 
 
 DiAM. 
 
 ClRCVK. 
 
 Abea. 
 
 DiAM. 
 
 CiRCUM. 
 
 Area. 
 
 T I, 
 
 
 
 T V. 
 
 Idcu. 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 8 
 
 2Q5 7031 
 
 6958.2636 
 
 X 
 8 
 
 305 1 27Q 
 
 7408 8868 
 
 1 
 
 ¥ 
 
 
 6976.7552 
 
 1 
 4 
 3 
 
 ^On 5206 
 
 7427 Q675 
 
 8 
 
 
 6995.2755 
 
 .^05 Q1.S3 
 
 7447 076Q 
 
 i 
 
 2Qfi 8812 
 
 701 .S 818.S 
 
 8 
 
 OVJU.Ov/UV/ 
 
 7466 2087 
 
 2Q7 27 ^^Q 
 
 70.'^2 .*^85.S 
 
 OvU.Ut/O f 
 
 7485 .S648 
 
 4 
 
 2Q7 fifififi 
 
 7050 Q775 
 
 1 
 
 .^07 0Q14 
 
 7/S04 5460 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 2Q8 
 
 7060 5Q40 
 
 I. 
 
 .^07 4841 
 
 7523 751 5 
 
 f O^O. 1 oxo 
 
 95 
 
 2Q8 4520 
 
 7088.2352 
 
 98 
 
 .S07 8768 
 
 7542.9818 
 
 4 
 
 298.8447 
 
 7106.9005 
 
 8 
 
 308 26Q5 
 
 7562.2362 
 
 4 
 
 299.2374 
 
 7125.5885 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 308 6622 
 
 7581.5132 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 2QQ fi.*^01 
 
 7144 .^052 
 
 .SOQ 054Q 
 
 7600 818Q 
 
 
 .^00 0228 
 
 7 1 fi.S 044.S 
 
 1 
 
 ¥ 
 
 .qOQ 4476 
 
 7620 1471 
 
 1 
 8 
 
 .^00 4155 
 
 7181 8077 
 
 .SOQ 840.S 
 
 
 i 
 
 •SOO 8082 
 
 tj V/ V/ . <_J V CJ 
 
 7200 5Qfi2 
 
 * 
 
 .SI 0 2.S30 
 
 7658 8771 
 
 1 VJOv-J.tJ fix 
 
 7 
 
 ¥ 
 
 i/U 
 
 .SOI 200Q 
 
 721Q 40Q0 
 
 1 
 t 
 
 .SIO 6257 
 
 7678 27Q0 
 
 .^01 5Q.*^n 
 
 72^8 24fifi 
 
 QQ 
 
 Ql 1 0184 
 ox 1 .uxo^ 
 
 7fiQ7 7056 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 .^01 Q8fi.S 
 
 7-^57 108.S 
 
 
 311.4111 
 
 7717 1563 
 
 1 # X f . X tJViO 
 
 i 
 
 302.3790 
 
 7275.9926 
 
 1 
 
 31L8038 
 
 7736.6297 
 
 302.7717 
 
 7294.9056 
 
 f 
 
 312.1965 
 
 7756.1318 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 303.1644 
 
 7313.8411 
 
 i 
 
 -1 
 
 312.5892 
 
 7775.6563 
 
 303.5571 
 
 7332.8008 
 
 312.9819 
 
 7795.2051 
 
 
 303.9498 
 
 7351.7857 
 
 3 
 
 313.3746 
 
 7814.7790 
 
 
 304.3425 
 
 7370.7949 
 
 
 313.7673 
 
 7834.3772 
 
 97 
 
 304.7352 
 
 7389.8288 
 
 100 
 
 314.1600 
 
 7854.0000 
 
 Fop circumfepence of circles larger than those given in the' 
 table, multiply the diameter by 3,1416. 
 
 Example.— Diameter 101'' x 3,1416 = 317,3016. 
 
 Fop apeas larger than those in the table, multiply the square 
 of the diameter by the decimal .7854. 
 
 Example— 101 inchesxlOl ==10201 x. 7854 = 8011,86 sq. in. 
 
THE ENGINEEr\s HANDY-BOOK. 555 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OF LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS FROM 0 TO 1000.^ 
 
 No 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 Prop. 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 00000 
 
 30103 
 
 47712 
 
 60206 
 
 69897 
 
 77815 
 
 84510 
 
 90309 
 
 95424 
 
 415 
 
 10 
 
 00000 
 
 00432 
 
 00860 
 
 01283 
 
 01703 
 
 02118 
 
 02530 
 
 02938 
 
 03342 
 
 03742 
 
 11 
 
 04139 
 
 04532 
 
 04921 
 
 05307 
 
 05690 
 
 06069 
 
 06445 
 
 06818 
 
 07188 
 
 07554 
 
 379 
 
 12 
 
 07918 
 
 08278 
 
 08636 
 
 08990 
 
 09342 
 
 09691 
 
 10037 
 
 10380 
 
 10721 i 11059 
 
 349, 
 
 13 
 
 11394 
 
 11727 
 
 12057 
 
 12385 
 
 12710 
 
 13033 
 
 13353 
 
 13672 
 
 13987 
 
 14301 
 
 323 1 
 
 14 
 
 14613 
 
 14921 
 
 15228 
 
 15533 
 
 15836 
 
 16136 
 
 16435 
 
 16731 
 
 17026 
 
 17318 
 
 300 
 
 15 
 
 1760!) 
 
 17897 
 
 18184 
 
 18469 
 
 18752 
 
 19033 
 
 19312 
 
 19590 
 
 19865 
 
 20139 
 
 281 
 
 16 
 
 20412 
 
 20682 
 
 20951 
 
 21218 
 
 21484 
 
 21748 
 
 22010 
 
 22271 
 
 22 5 SO 
 
 22788 
 
 264 
 
 17 
 
 23045 
 
 23299 
 
 23552 
 
 23804 
 
 24054 
 
 24303 
 
 24551 
 
 24797 
 
 25042 
 
 25285 
 
 249 
 
 18 
 
 25527 
 
 25767 
 
 26007 
 
 26245 
 
 26481 
 
 26717 
 
 26951 
 
 27184 
 
 27415 
 
 27646 
 
 236 
 
 19 
 
 27875 
 
 28103 
 
 28330 
 
 28555 
 
 28780 
 
 29003 
 
 29225 
 
 29446 
 
 29666 
 
 29885 
 
 223 
 
 20 
 
 30103 
 
 30319 
 
 30535 
 
 30749 
 
 30963 
 
 31175 
 
 31386 
 
 31597 
 
 31806 
 
 32014 
 
 212 
 
 21 
 
 32222 
 
 32428 
 
 32633 
 
 32838 
 
 33041 
 
 33243 
 
 33445 
 
 33646 
 
 33845 
 
 34044 
 
 202 
 
 22 
 
 34242 
 
 34439 
 
 34635 
 
 34830 
 
 35024 
 
 35218 
 
 35410 
 
 35602 
 
 35793 
 
 35983 
 
 194 
 
 23 
 
 36173 
 
 36361 
 
 36548 
 
 36735 
 
 36921 
 
 37106 
 
 37291 
 
 37474 
 
 37657 
 
 37839 
 
 185 
 
 24 
 
 38021 
 
 38201 
 
 38381 
 
 38560 
 
 38739 
 
 38916 
 
 39093 
 
 39269 
 
 39445 
 
 39619 
 
 177 
 
 25 
 
 39794 
 
 39967 
 
 40140 
 
 40312 
 
 40483 
 
 40654 
 
 40824 
 
 40993 
 
 41162 
 
 41330 
 
 171 
 
 26 
 
 41497 
 
 41664 
 
 41830 
 
 41995 
 
 42160 
 
 42324 
 
 42488 
 
 42651 
 
 42813 
 
 42975 
 
 164 
 
 27 
 
 43436 
 
 43296 
 
 43456 
 
 43616 
 
 43775' 
 
 43933 
 
 44090 
 
 44248 
 
 44404 
 
 44560 
 
 158 
 
 28 
 
 44716 
 
 44870 
 
 45024 
 
 45178 
 
 45331 
 
 45484 
 
 45636 
 
 45788 
 
 45939 
 
 46089 
 
 153 
 
 29 
 
 46240 
 
 46389 
 
 46538 
 
 46686 
 
 46834 
 
 46982 
 
 47129 
 
 47275 
 
 47421 
 
 47567 
 
 148 
 
 30 
 
 47712 
 
 47856 
 
 48000 
 
 48144 
 
 48287 
 
 48430 
 
 48572 
 
 48713 
 
 48855 
 
 48995 
 
 143 
 
 31 
 
 49136 
 
 49276 
 
 49415 
 
 49554 
 
 49693 
 
 49831 
 
 49968 
 
 50105 
 
 50242 
 
 50379 
 
 138 
 
 32 
 
 50515 
 
 50650 
 
 50785 
 
 50920 
 
 51054 
 
 51188 
 
 51321 
 
 51454 
 
 51587 
 
 51719 
 
 134 
 
 33 
 
 51851 
 
 51982 
 
 52113 
 
 52244 
 
 52374 
 
 52504 
 
 52633 
 
 52763 
 
 52891 
 
 53020 130 
 
 34 
 
 53148 
 
 53275 
 
 53102 
 
 53529 
 
 53655 
 
 53781 
 
 53907 
 
 54033 
 
 54157 
 
 542821126 
 
 35 
 
 54407 
 
 54530 
 
 54654 
 
 54777 
 
 54900 
 
 55022 
 
 55145 
 
 55266 
 
 55388 
 
 55509 
 
 122 
 
 36 
 
 55630 
 
 55750 
 
 55870 
 
 55990 
 
 56410 
 
 56229 
 
 56348 
 
 56m 
 
 56584 
 
 56702 
 
 119 
 
 37 
 
 56820 
 
 56937 
 
 57054 
 
 57170 
 
 57287 
 
 57403 
 
 57518 
 
 57634 57749 
 
 57863 
 
 116 
 
 38 
 
 57978 
 
 58002 
 
 58206 
 
 58319 
 
 58433 
 
 58546 
 
 58658 
 
 58771 
 
 5888S 
 
 58995 
 
 113 
 
 39 
 
 59106 
 
 59217 
 
 59328 
 
 59439 
 
 59549 
 
 59659 
 
 59769 
 
 59879 
 
 59988 
 
 60097 
 
 110 
 
 40 
 
 60206 
 
 60314 
 
 60422 
 
 60530 
 
 60638 
 
 60745 
 
 60852 
 
 60959 
 
 61066 
 
 61172 
 
 107 
 
 41 
 
 61278 
 
 61384 
 
 61489 
 
 61595 
 
 61700 
 
 61804 
 
 61909 
 
 62013 
 
 62117 
 
 62221 
 
 104 
 
 42 
 
 62325 
 
 62428 
 
 62531 
 
 62634 
 
 62736 
 
 62838 
 
 62941 
 
 63042 
 
 63144 
 
 63245 
 
 102! 
 
 43 
 
 63347 
 
 63447 
 
 63548 
 
 63648 
 
 63749 
 
 63848 
 
 63948 
 
 64048 
 
 64147 
 
 64246 
 
 99 
 
 44 
 
 64345 
 
 64443 
 
 64542 
 
 64640 
 
 64738 
 
 64836 
 
 64933 
 
 65030 
 
 65127 
 
 65224 
 
 98 
 
 45 
 
 65321 
 
 65417 
 
 65513 
 
 65609 
 
 65075 
 
 65801 
 
 65896 
 
 65991 
 
 66086 
 
 66181 
 
 96 
 
 46 
 
 (y()276 
 
 66370 
 
 66464 
 
 66558 
 
 66651 
 
 66745 
 
 66838 
 
 66931 
 
 67024 
 
 67117 
 
 94 
 
 47 
 
 67210 
 
 67302 
 
 67394 
 
 67486 
 
 67577 
 
 67669 
 
 67760 
 
 67851 
 
 67942 
 
 68033 
 
 92 
 
 48 
 
 68124 
 
 68214 
 
 68304 
 
 68394 
 
 68484 
 
 68574 
 
 68663 
 
 68752 
 
 68842 
 
 68930 
 
 90 
 
 49 
 
 69020 
 
 69108 
 
 69196 
 
 69284 
 
 69372 
 
 69460 
 
 69548 
 
 69635 
 
 69722 
 
 69810 
 
 88 
 
 50 
 
 69897 
 
 69983 
 
 70070 
 
 70156 
 
 70243 
 
 70329 
 
 70415 
 
 70500 
 
 70586 
 
 70671 
 
 86 
 
 51 
 
 70757 
 
 70842 
 
 70927 
 
 71011 
 
 71096 
 
 71180 
 
 71265 
 
 71349 
 
 71433 
 
 71516 
 
 84 
 
 52 
 
 71600 
 
 71683 
 
 71767 
 
 71850 
 
 71933 
 
 72015 
 
 72098 
 
 72181 
 
 72263 
 
 72345 
 
 82 
 
 53 
 
 72428 
 
 72509 
 
 72591 
 
 72672 
 
 72754 
 
 72835 
 
 72916 
 
 72997 
 
 73078 
 
 73158 
 
 81 
 
 54 
 
 73239 
 
 73319 
 
 73399 
 
 73480 
 
 73559 
 
 73639 
 
 73719 
 
 73798 
 
 73878 
 
 73957 
 
 80 
 
 55 
 
 74036 
 
 74115 
 
 74193 
 
 74272 
 
 74351 
 
 74429 
 
 74507 
 
 74585 
 
 74663 
 
 74741 
 
 78 
 
 * Each logarithm is supposed to have the decimal sign (•) before it. 
 
556 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK, 
 
 TABL:E — {Continued,) 
 
 No. 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 H 
 
 9 
 
 d, 
 o 
 
 u 
 Ph 
 
 56 
 
 74818 
 
 74896 
 
 74973 
 
 75050 
 
 75127 
 
 75204 
 
 75281 
 
 75358 
 
 75434 
 
 75511 
 
 77 
 
 57 
 
 75587 
 
 75663 
 
 75739 
 
 75815 
 
 75891 
 
 75966 
 
 76042 
 
 76117 
 
 76192 
 
 76267 
 
 75 
 
 58 
 
 76342 
 
 76417 
 
 76492 
 
 76566 
 
 76641 
 
 76715 
 
 76789 
 
 76863 
 
 76937 
 
 77011 
 
 74 
 
 59 
 
 77085 
 
 77158 
 
 77232 
 
 77305 
 
 77378 
 
 77451 
 
 77524 
 
 77597 
 
 77670 
 
 77742 
 
 73 
 
 60 
 
 77815 
 
 77887 
 
 77959 
 
 78031 
 
 78103 
 
 78175 
 
 78247 
 
 78318 
 
 78390 
 
 78461 
 
 72 
 
 61 
 
 78533 
 
 78604 
 
 78675 
 
 78746 
 
 78816 
 
 78887 
 
 78958 
 
 79028 
 
 79098 
 
 79169 
 
 71 
 
 62 
 
 79239 
 
 79309 
 
 79379 
 
 79448 
 
 79518 
 
 79588 
 
 79657 
 
 79726 
 
 79796 
 
 79865 
 
 70 
 
 63 
 
 79934 
 
 80002 
 
 80071 
 
 80140 
 
 80208 
 
 80277 
 
 80345 
 
 80413 
 
 80482 
 
 80550 
 
 69 
 
 64 
 
 80618 
 
 80685 
 
 80753 
 
 80821 
 
 80888 
 
 80956 
 
 81023 
 
 81090 
 
 81157 
 
 81224 
 
 68 
 
 65 
 
 81291 
 
 81358 
 
 81424 
 
 81491 
 
 81557 
 
 81624 
 
 81690 
 
 81756 
 
 81822 
 
 81888 
 
 67 
 
 66 
 
 81954 
 
 82020 
 
 82805 
 
 82151 
 
 82216 
 
 82282 
 
 82347 
 
 82412 
 
 82477 
 
 82542 
 
 66 
 
 67 
 
 82607 
 
 82672 
 
 82736 
 
 82801 
 
 S2866 
 
 82930 
 
 82994 
 
 83058 
 
 83123 
 
 83187 
 
 65 
 
 68 
 
 83250 
 
 83314 
 
 83378 
 
 83442 
 
 83505 
 
 83569 
 
 83632 
 
 83695 
 
 83758 
 
 83281 
 
 64 
 
 69 
 
 83884 
 
 83947 
 
 84010 
 
 84073 
 
 84136 
 
 84198 
 
 84260 
 
 84323 
 
 84385 
 
 84447 
 
 63 
 
 70 
 
 84509 
 
 84571 
 
 84633 
 
 84695 
 
 84757 
 
 84818 
 
 84880 
 
 84941 
 
 85003 
 
 85064 
 
 62 
 
 71 
 
 85125 
 
 85187 
 
 85248 
 
 85309 
 
 85369 
 
 85430 
 
 85491 
 
 85551 
 
 85612 
 
 85672 
 
 61 
 
 72 
 
 85733 
 
 85793 
 
 85853 
 
 85913 
 
 85973 
 
 86033 
 
 86093 
 
 86153 
 
 86213 
 
 86272 
 
 60 
 
 73 
 
 86332 
 
 86391 
 
 86451 
 
 86510 
 
 86569 
 
 86628 
 
 86687 
 
 86746 
 
 86805 
 
 86864 
 
 59 
 
 74 
 
 86923 
 
 86981 
 
 F7040 
 
 87098 
 
 87157 
 
 87215 
 
 87273 
 
 87332 
 
 87390 
 
 87448 
 
 58 
 
 75 
 
 87506 
 
 87564 
 
 87621 
 
 87679 
 
 87737 
 
 87794 
 
 87852 
 
 87909 
 
 87966 
 
 88024 
 
 57 
 
 76 
 
 88081 
 
 88138 
 
 88195 
 
 88252 
 
 88309 
 
 88366 
 
 88422 
 
 88479 
 
 88536 
 
 88592 
 
 56 
 
 77 
 
 88649 
 
 88705 
 
 88761 
 
 88818 
 
 •88874 
 
 88930 
 
 88986 
 
 89042 
 
 89098 
 
 89153 
 
 56 
 
 78 
 
 89209 
 
 89265 
 
 89320 
 
 89376 
 
 89431 
 
 89487 
 
 89542 
 
 89597 
 
 89652 
 
 89707 
 
 55 
 
 79 
 
 89762 
 
 89817 
 
 89872 
 
 89927 
 
 89982 
 
 90036 
 
 90091 
 
 90145 
 
 90200 
 
 90254 
 
 54 
 
 80 
 
 90309 
 
 90363 
 
 90417 
 
 90471 
 
 90525 
 
 90579 
 
 90633 
 
 90687 
 
 90741 
 
 90794 
 
 54 
 
 81 
 
 90848 
 
 90902 
 
 90955 
 
 91009 
 
 91062 
 
 91115 
 
 91169 
 
 91222 
 
 91275 
 
 91328 
 
 53 
 
 82 
 
 91381 
 
 91434 
 
 91487 
 
 91540 
 
 91592 
 
 91645 
 
 91698 
 
 91750 
 
 91803 
 
 91855 
 
 53 
 
 83 
 
 9190/ 
 
 91960 
 
 92012 
 
 92064 
 
 92116 
 
 92168 
 
 92220 
 
 92272 
 
 92324 
 
 92376 
 
 52 
 
 84 
 
 92427 
 
 92479 
 
 92531 
 
 92582 
 
 92634 
 
 92685 
 
 92737 
 
 92788 
 
 92839 
 
 92890 
 
 51 
 
 85 
 
 92941 
 
 92993 
 
 93044 
 
 93095 
 
 93146 
 
 93196 
 
 93247 
 
 932^8 
 
 93348 
 
 93399 
 
 51 
 
 86 
 
 93449 
 
 93500 
 
 93550 
 
 93601 
 
 93651 
 
 93701 
 
 93751 
 
 93802 
 
 93852 
 
 93902 
 
 50 
 
 87 
 
 93951 
 
 94001 
 
 94051 
 
 94101 
 
 94151 
 
 94200 
 
 94250 
 
 94300 
 
 94349 
 
 94398 
 
 49 
 
 88 
 
 94448 
 
 94497 
 
 94546 
 
 94596 
 
 94645 
 
 94694 
 
 94743 
 
 94792 
 
 94841 
 
 94890 
 
 49 
 
 89 
 
 94939 
 
 94987 
 
 95036 
 
 95085 
 
 95133 
 
 95182 
 
 95230 
 
 95279 
 
 95327 
 
 95376 
 
 48 
 
 90 
 
 95424 
 
 95472 
 
 95520 
 
 95568 
 
 95616 
 
 95664 
 
 95712 
 
 95760 
 
 95808 
 
 95S56 
 
 48 
 
 91 
 
 1 95904 
 
 95951 
 
 95999 
 
 96047 
 
 96094 
 
 96142 
 
 96189 
 
 96236 
 
 96284 
 
 96331 
 
 48 
 
 92 
 
 ' 96378 
 
 96426 
 
 96473 
 
 96520 
 
 96507 
 
 96614 
 
 96661 
 
 96708 
 
 96754 
 
 96801 
 
 47 
 
 93 
 
 96848 
 
 96895 
 
 96941 
 
 96988 
 
 97034 
 
 97081 
 
 97127 
 
 97174 
 
 97220 
 
 97266 
 
 47 
 
 y4 
 
 (\'7 0 1 O 
 
 I 9/ ol^ 
 
 
 97405 
 
 y/4oi 
 
 y/ 4y/ 
 
 y/ o4o 
 
 y/ ooy 
 
 y/ ooo 
 
 y/ oou 
 
 y/ / ZD 
 
 ah 
 
 40 
 
 95 
 
 97772 
 
 97818 
 
 97863 
 
 97909 
 
 97954 
 
 98000 
 
 98045 
 
 98091 
 
 98136 
 
 98181 
 
 46 
 
 96 
 
 98227 
 
 98272 
 
 98317 
 
 98362 
 
 98407 
 
 98452 
 
 98497 
 
 98542 
 
 98587 
 
 98632 
 
 45 
 
 97 
 
 
 98721 
 
 98766 
 
 98811 
 
 98855 
 
 98900 
 
 98945 
 
 98989 
 
 99033 
 
 99078 
 
 45 
 
 98 
 
 99122 
 
 99166 
 
 99211 
 
 99255 
 
 99299 
 
 99343 
 
 99387 
 
 99431 
 
 99475 
 
 99519 
 
 44 
 
 99 
 
 99563 
 
 99607 
 
 99657 
 
 99694 
 
 99738 
 
 99782 
 
 99825 
 
 99869 
 
 99913 
 
 99956 
 
 44 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 557 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OF HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS. 
 
 Num. 
 
 Log. 
 
 Num. 
 
 Log. 
 
 Num. 
 
 Log. 
 
 Num. 
 
 Log. 
 
 1*01 
 
 •0099 
 
 1^43 
 
 •3576 
 
 1^85 
 
 •6151 
 
 227 
 
 •8197 
 
 1*02 
 
 •0198 
 
 1-44 
 
 •3646 
 
 1^86 
 
 •6205 
 
 2*28 
 
 •8241 
 
 1*03 
 
 •0295 
 
 1*45 
 
 •3715 
 
 1^87 
 
 •6259 
 
 2^29 
 
 •8285 
 
 1*04 
 
 •0392 
 
 1-46 
 
 •3784 
 
 1*88. 
 
 •6312 
 
 230 
 
 •8329 
 
 1*05 
 
 •0487 
 
 1^47 
 
 •3852 
 
 1*89 
 
 •6365 
 
 2*31 
 
 •8372 
 
 1 06 
 
 •0582 
 
 1^48 
 
 •3920 
 
 1*90 
 
 •6418 
 
 2*32 
 
 •8415 
 
 1*07 
 
 •0676 
 
 1^49 
 
 •3987 
 
 1*91 
 
 •6471 
 
 2*33 
 
 •8458 
 
 1*08 
 
 •0769 
 
 1*50 
 
 •4054 
 
 1*92 
 
 •6523 
 
 2*34 
 
 •8501 
 
 1*09 
 
 •0861 
 
 1-51 
 
 •4121 
 
 1*93 
 
 •6575 
 
 2 35 
 
 •8544 
 
 1*10 
 
 •0953 
 
 1*5^ 
 
 •4187 
 
 1^94 
 
 •6626 
 
 2*36 
 
 •8586 
 
 111 
 
 •1043 
 
 1^53 
 
 •4252 
 
 1*95 
 
 •6678 
 
 2*37 
 
 •8628 
 
 112 
 
 •1133 
 
 1^54 
 
 •4317 
 
 1*96 
 
 •6729 
 
 2*38 
 
 •8671 
 
 1*13 
 
 •1222 
 
 1^55 
 
 •4382 
 
 1*97 
 
 •6780 
 
 2*39 
 
 •8712 
 
 1-14 
 
 •1310 
 
 1^56 
 
 •4456 
 
 1^98 
 
 •6830 
 
 2*40 
 
 •8754 
 
 1-15 
 
 •1397 
 
 1^57 
 
 •4510 
 
 1*99 
 
 •6881 
 
 2*41 
 
 •8796 
 
 1-16 
 
 •1484 
 
 1*58 
 
 •4574 
 
 2*00 
 
 •6931 
 
 2*42 
 
 •8837 
 
 1*17 
 
 •1570 
 
 1*59 
 
 •4637 
 
 2*01 
 
 •6981 
 
 2*43 
 
 •8878 
 
 1*18 
 
 •1655 
 
 1^60 
 
 •4700 
 
 2*02 
 
 •7030 
 
 2*44 
 
 •8919 
 
 1*19 
 
 •1739 
 
 1-61 
 
 •4762 
 
 2*03 
 
 •7080 
 
 
 •8960 
 
 1*20 
 
 •1823 
 
 1-62 
 
 •4824 
 
 2*04 
 
 •7129 
 
 2^46 
 
 
 1*21 
 
 •1962 
 
 1*63 
 
 •4885 
 
 2*05 
 
 •7178 
 
 ^ rti 
 
 
 1*22 
 
 •1988 
 
 1*64 
 
 •4946 
 
 2*06 
 
 •7227 
 
 2^48 
 
 
 1*23 
 
 •2070 
 
 1^65 
 
 •5007 
 
 2*07 
 
 •7275 ' 
 
 ^•4Q 
 
 ^ Tti/ 
 
 '9122 
 
 1*24 
 
 •2151 
 
 1*66 
 
 •5068 
 
 2*08 
 
 •7323 
 
 2*50 
 
 
 1*25 
 
 •2231 
 
 1^67 
 
 •5128 
 
 2*09 
 
 •7371 
 
 2^51 
 
 •Q902 
 
 1*26 
 
 •2341 
 
 1*68 
 
 •5187 
 
 2*10 
 
 •7419 
 
 2^52 
 
 •Q949 
 
 1*27 
 
 •2390 
 
 1^69 
 
 •5247 
 
 2*11 
 
 •7466 
 
 2^53 
 
 •QOQO 
 
 1*28 
 
 •2468 
 
 1*70 
 
 •5306 
 
 2 12 
 
 •7514 
 
 2'.^4 
 
 
 1*29 
 
 •2546 
 
 1*71 
 
 •5364 
 
 2*13 
 
 •7561 
 
 2*/>ri 
 
 VO\J\J 
 
 1*30 
 
 •2623 
 
 1*72 
 
 •5423 
 
 Zi It: 
 
 •7608 
 
 ^ 0\J 
 
 aim/ 
 
 1*31 
 
 •2700 
 
 1*73 
 
 •5481 
 
 *>•! 
 
 •7654 
 
 £i Ot 
 
 
 132 
 
 •2776 
 
 1^74 
 
 •5538 
 
 
 '7701 
 
 2^58 
 
 •Q477 
 
 1*33 
 
 •2851 
 
 1^75 
 
 •5596 
 
 2-1 7 
 
 •7747 
 
 Oo 
 
 
 1-34 
 
 •2926 
 
 1-76 
 
 •5653 
 
 2-18 
 
 •7793 
 
 2^60 
 
 •9555 
 
 X oo 
 
 
 1 '77 
 Lit 
 
 .C7AQ 
 
 0/ uy 
 
 A ly 
 
 / ooy 
 
 L Dl 
 
 yoyo 
 
 1-36 
 
 •3074 
 
 1-78 
 
 •5766 
 
 2*20 
 
 •7884 
 
 2-62 
 
 •9631 
 
 1-37 
 
 •3148 
 
 1^79 
 
 •5822 
 
 2*21 
 
 •7929 
 
 2^63 
 
 •9669 
 
 1-38 
 
 •3220 
 
 1^80 
 
 •5877 
 
 2^22 
 
 •7975 
 
 2^64 
 
 •9707 
 
 1-39 
 
 •3293 
 
 1-81 
 
 •5933 
 
 2*23 
 
 •80-21 
 
 265 
 
 •9745 
 
 1-40 
 
 •3364 
 
 1-82 
 
 •5988 
 
 2*'24 
 
 •8064 
 
 2^66 
 
 •9783 
 
 1-41 
 
 •3435 
 
 1-83 
 
 •6043 
 
 2-25 
 
 •8109 i 
 
 2*67 
 
 •98-20 
 
 1-42 
 
 •3506 
 
 1^84 
 
 •6097 
 
 2*26 
 
 •8153 
 
 2^68 
 
 •9858 
 
 - 
 
 47* 
 
558 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 TABLE — (Continued.) 
 
 Num. 
 
 Log. 
 
 Num. 
 
 Log. 
 
 Num. 
 
 Log. 
 
 Num. 
 
 Log. 
 
 ^ Do 
 
 yoytj 
 
 3*11 
 
 X iO'xU 
 
 0 00 
 
 1*2612 
 
 0 yo 
 
 X 0/ 01 
 
 9*70 
 
 
 3*12 
 
 1 •! ^78 
 
 i iOl 0 
 
 0 Ot: 
 
 1*2641 
 
 0 yu 
 
 1 •^79fi 
 X 0 / ZU 
 
 9«71 
 
 yyuy 
 
 3-13 
 
 1-1410 
 
 0 00 
 
 1*2669 
 
 Q'Q7 
 
 0 y/ 
 
 1 *^787 
 X 0/ 0 1 
 
 9-79 
 
 1 '000^ 
 
 X \J\J\J\J 
 
 
 1*1449 
 
 0 OU 
 
 1*2697 
 
 0 yo 
 
 1 '^81 9 
 X 00 xz 
 
 0.70 
 
 JL vvt:0 
 
 3*15 
 
 1*1474 
 
 00/ 
 
 1*2725 
 
 0 yy 
 
 1 '^8^7 
 X 0001 
 
 9.74 
 /lit 
 
 
 0 xu 
 
 i iOvO 
 
 0 00 
 
 1*2753 
 
 4*00 
 
 rr UU 
 
 X oouz 
 
 9*7^ 
 
 1 'Oil 
 
 Oil 
 
 1 '1 5^7 
 
 0 oy 
 
 1 *9781 
 X z/ ox 
 
 4*01 
 
 t: ux 
 
 1 *^887 
 X 000 j 
 
 
 1 '01 'S9 
 
 0 iO 
 
 X XtJOO 
 
 0 uu 
 
 1 •980Q 
 X zouy 
 
 4*09 
 rt i/Z 
 
 1 *'^Q1 9 
 X oyxz 
 
 9*77 
 
 1 .01 88 
 
 1 vlOO 
 
 0 i y 
 
 X XUVV 
 
 0 ux 
 
 1 '98^7 
 
 X ZOOl 
 
 4*0^ 
 
 t: uo 
 
 1 *^Q^7 
 X oooi 
 
 9*78 
 
 1 '0994 
 
 0 ZV/ 
 
 X xuox 
 
 0 uz 
 
 1*2864 
 
 A' OA 
 
 rt \J'± 
 
 X oyuz 
 
 9'7Q 
 
 1 •09^0 
 
 J. w^jUv 
 
 3*21 
 
 l-lfifi9 
 X xuuz 
 
 0 uo 
 
 1*2892 
 
 Tt uo 
 
 1-3987 
 
 9*80 
 
 ^ Ov 
 
 1 •09Qfi 
 1 uzyo 
 
 3-22 
 
 1 '1 fiQ'^ 
 X xuyo 
 
 0 ut 
 
 1*2919 
 
 rr UU 
 
 1 *401 1 
 
 X rtUX X 
 
 
 1 V/Ot>i 
 
 0 zo 
 
 1*1794 
 
 X X < Z'l 
 
 0 uo 
 
 1 *9Q47 
 X Ziyti 
 
 4*07 
 
 '± Ul 
 
 X 'lUOU 
 
 9*89 
 
 
 Q.94 
 
 1 -17,^.^ 
 
 X J / Uc» 
 
 0 uu 
 
 1 •9Q74 
 i zy 1 
 
 t uo 
 
 1 *40fi0 
 X tuuu 
 
 9*R^ 
 
 Zi 00 
 
 J. vt;UZ 
 
 ^•9fi 
 
 0 Zr(J 
 
 1 '178^ 
 X i 1 ou 
 
 0 Ul 
 
 1 OUUi 
 
 ■4: uy 
 
 X TiUOO 
 
 z ot 
 
 1 '04^8 
 
 3*26 
 
 X XOi / 
 
 0 uo 
 
 1 '^()9Q 
 i ouzy 
 
 4'1 0 
 
 4: J U 
 
 1 -41 OQ 
 
 X rrXUy 
 
 
 1 '047^ 
 1 \j'±i 0 
 
 3*27 
 
 1 • 1 847 
 
 X i Ot: 1 
 
 0 uy 
 
 i ouou 
 
 4*1 1 
 
 t: i i 
 
 1 -41 ^4 
 
 J t: 1 Ot 
 
 9 8fi 
 Zi ou 
 
 1 •H.'^Ok 
 
 1 \jO\JO 
 
 3*28 
 
 1-1878 
 X i 0 1 0 
 
 ^*7n 
 
 0 1 u 
 
 1 *^08.^ 
 
 X 0\J00 
 
 4*1 9 
 
 '± iZ 
 
 1 •41 ,^8 
 X 1 00 
 
 9*k7 
 
 Zi Of 
 
 
 3*29 
 
 1 •! Q08 
 
 X i y vo 
 
 ^*71 
 
 0 / X 
 
 1 *^no 
 
 X oxxu 
 
 4-1 ^ 
 t xo 
 
 1 -41 89 
 
 X tiOZ 
 
 
 1 '0^77 
 
 3'30 
 
 1*1 Q^Q 
 
 X xyoy 
 
 q-79 
 
 1 -^1 ^7 
 
 X OXOi 
 
 4*14. 
 
 rr Xrt 
 
 1 *490H 
 
 X rrZiUU 
 
 Zj 0(7 
 
 1 -Ofil 9 
 1 uu-i z 
 
 3 31 
 
 1 '1 Q^IQ 
 X xyuy 
 
 0.70 
 0/0 
 
 l*'^lfi4 
 
 X OXUt: 
 
 4*1 
 
 rr XO 
 
 1 *49^1 
 X rtZOX 
 
 9*00 
 
 z yv/ 
 
 1 '0^47 
 
 0.09 
 
 0 oz 
 
 1 *1 QQQ 
 
 X xyyy 
 
 0*74 
 
 0 1 TC 
 
 1 -^1 QO 
 
 XOi yu 
 
 4*1 ft 
 
 '± XD 
 
 1*49^1.^ 
 
 X TbZOO 
 
 9'Ql 
 z y i 
 
 1 'AAQI 
 X UUOl 
 
 0.00 
 
 0 00 
 
 1 '9090 
 X zuzy 
 
 0 4 0 
 
 1*^917 
 
 X OZi 1 
 
 4*17 
 
 t: X 1 
 
 1 •497Q 
 X izi y 
 
 9 Q9 
 
 Z aZ 
 
 
 0 ot 
 
 1 *9n'^Q 
 X zvoy 
 
 0 1 u 
 
 1 '^944 
 
 X OZrlt 
 
 418 
 
 t: iO 
 
 X touo 
 
 Zi yo 
 
 
 0 00 
 
 1 *9n8Q 
 X zvoy 
 
 q.77 
 
 Oil 
 
 1 -^971 
 X oz 1 X 
 
 4*1 Q 
 
 4: X y 
 
 1 *4^97 
 
 X IOZI 
 
 9«Q4. 
 
 1 u / ot 
 
 0 ou 
 
 1 '91 1 Q 
 
 X zx xy 
 
 ^•78 
 0/0 
 
 1 •^9Q7 
 
 X OZ«7 1 
 
 4*90 
 
 rt ZU 
 
 X IOOU 
 
 Zi y^i 
 
 1 '081 ft 
 
 0.07 
 
 0 0 1 
 
 1 91 4Q 
 
 X ZiXrty 
 
 0 1 y 
 
 1*3323 
 
 4*91 
 
 4: ZiX 
 
 1 *4^74 
 
 X rtO 1 t: 
 
 ' 9'Qfi 
 
 1 'OS^l 
 ± UotJi 
 
 0 00 
 
 1 '9178 
 X zx 1 0 
 
 0 ou 
 
 1*3350 
 
 4*99 
 
 rt ZZi 
 
 1-4398 
 
 9-Q7 
 ^ y/ 
 
 1 uooo 
 
 0 oy 
 
 1 '9908 
 X zzuo 
 
 ^•81 
 0 ox 
 
 1*3376 
 
 4-9Q 
 
 zo 
 
 1.-4421 
 
 Zi yo 
 
 1 vjyiy 
 
 
 1 '99^7 
 
 X ZZO 1 
 
 ^•89 
 0 oz ■ 
 
 1*3402 
 
 4*94 
 
 rr Zt: 
 
 1.4445 
 
 ^ yy 
 
 1 uyoz 
 
 0 Tti 
 
 1 •99fi7 
 
 i ZZO/ 
 
 0 00 
 
 1 *^4*?8 
 
 X OtcZO 
 
 4*9^ 
 
 Tt ZO 
 
 1 -44^0 
 X rttuy 
 
 0 uu 
 
 1 uyoD 
 
 Q'49 
 
 0 t:Z 
 
 1 •9*>Qf^ 
 1 z.jyo 
 
 ^•84 
 
 0 0^ 
 
 X OrtOrt 
 
 4*9fi 
 
 t: ZU 
 
 1 "4409 
 
 X rtrtyZi 
 
 0 Ui 
 
 1 •! m Q 
 
 i luiy 
 
 
 i ZoZO 
 
 0 00 
 
 X OIOU 
 
 4*97 
 
 X rtOXU 
 
 0 uz 
 
 i lUOZ 
 
 Q'44 
 
 X ZOO'i 
 
 0 00 
 
 X oouu 
 
 4*98 
 t zo 
 
 X rtooy 
 
 0 uo 
 
 
 
 1 •9*^87 
 X zoo/ 
 
 ^•87 
 0 0/ 
 
 X oooz 
 
 4*9Q 
 
 rt Ziy 
 
 1*4562 
 
 3-04 
 
 1-1118 
 
 3-46 
 
 1-2412 
 
 3-88 
 
 1*3558 
 
 4*30 
 
 1*4586 
 
 3*05 
 
 1*1151 
 
 3*47 
 
 1-2441 
 
 3'89 
 
 1*3584 
 
 4-^1 
 
 1*4609 
 
 3-06 
 
 1-1184 
 
 3-48 
 
 1-2470 
 
 3-90 
 
 1*3609 
 
 4-32 
 
 1*4632 
 
 3-07 
 
 1-1216 
 
 3-49 
 
 1-2499 
 
 3-91 
 
 1*3635 
 
 4-33 
 
 1-4655 
 
 3-08 
 
 1-1249 
 
 3-50 
 
 1-2527 
 
 3-92 
 
 1*3660 
 
 4-34 
 
 1-4678 
 
 3-09 
 
 1-1281 
 
 3-51 
 
 1-2556 
 
 3-93 
 
 1*3686 
 
 4-35 
 
 1-4701 
 
 310 
 
 1-1314 
 
 3-52 
 
 1-2584 
 
 3-94 
 
 1*3711 
 
 4-36 
 
 1-4724 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 559 
 
 TABLE — ( Concluded. ) 
 
 Num. 
 
 Log. 
 
 Num. 
 
 Log. 
 
 Num. 
 
 Log. 
 
 Num. 
 
 Log. 
 
 4-S7 
 
 1*4747 
 
 4-79 
 
 1*5665 
 
 5*21 
 
 1-6505 
 
 5*63 
 
 1*7281 
 
 4*38 
 
 1-4778 
 
 4-80 
 
 1*5686 
 
 5-22 
 
 1*6524 
 
 5*64 
 
 1*7298 
 
 4*39 
 
 1-4793 
 
 4-81 
 
 1*5706 
 
 5-23 
 
 1*6544 
 
 5-65 
 
 1-7316 
 
 4*40 
 
 1-4816 
 
 4-82 
 
 1*5727 
 
 5-24 
 
 1*6563 
 
 5-66 
 
 1-7334 
 
 4-41 
 
 1-4838 
 
 4-83 
 
 1*5748 
 
 5-25 
 
 1-6582 
 
 5-67 
 
 1-7351 
 
 4*42 
 
 1-4858 
 
 4-84 
 
 1 5769 
 
 526 
 
 1*6601 
 
 5-68 
 
 1-7369 
 
 4*43 
 
 14883 
 
 4-85 
 
 1*5789 
 
 5-27 
 
 1-6620 
 
 5-69 
 
 1*7387 
 
 4*44 
 
 1-4906 
 
 4-86 
 
 1*5810 
 
 5-28 
 
 1-6639 
 
 570 
 
 1*7404 
 
 4*45 
 
 1-4929 
 
 4-87 
 
 1*5830 
 
 5-29 
 
 1*6658 
 
 5-71 
 
 1*7422 
 
 4*46 
 
 1-4954 
 
 4-88 
 
 1*5851 
 
 5-30 
 
 1*6677 
 
 5-72 
 
 1*7439 
 
 4*47 
 
 1-4973 
 
 4-89 
 
 1-5870 
 
 5-31 
 
 1*6695 
 
 5*73 
 
 1*7457 
 
 4*48 
 
 1-4996 
 
 4-90 
 
 1-5892 
 
 5-32 
 
 1*6714 
 
 5-74 
 
 1-7474 
 
 4-49 
 
 1-5018 
 
 4-91 
 
 1-5912 
 
 5-33 
 
 1*6733 
 
 5-75 
 
 1-7491 
 
 4*50 
 
 i 5040 
 
 4-92 
 
 1*5933 
 
 5-34 
 
 1-6752 
 
 5-76 
 
 1-7509 
 
 4*01 
 
 r5062 
 
 4-93 
 
 1*5953 
 
 5-35 
 
 1-6770 
 
 5-77 
 
 1-7526 
 
 4*52 
 
 1*5085 
 
 4-94 
 
 1-5973 
 
 536 
 
 l-67c9 
 
 5-78 
 
 1-7544 
 
 4'53 
 
 1-5107 
 
 4-95 
 
 1-5993 
 
 5-37 ' 
 
 1-6808 
 
 5-79 
 
 1-7561 
 
 4*54 
 
 1-5129 
 
 4-96 
 
 1-6014 
 
 5-38 
 
 1-6826 
 
 5-80 
 
 1-7578 
 
 4-55 
 
 1-5151 
 
 4'97 
 
 1-6034 
 
 5-39 
 
 1-6845 
 
 5-8I 
 
 1-7595 
 
 
 1-5173 
 
 4-98 
 
 1*6054 
 
 5-40 
 
 1*6863 
 
 5-82 
 
 1-7613 
 
 4*57 
 
 1-5195 
 
 4-99 
 
 1-6074 
 
 5-41 
 
 1*6882 
 
 5-83 
 
 1-7630 
 
 4*58 
 
 1-5216 
 
 500 
 
 1*6094 
 
 5-42 
 
 1-6900 
 
 5-84 
 
 1-7647 
 
 4*59 
 
 1-5238 
 
 501 
 
 1*6114 
 
 5-43 
 
 1-6919 
 
 5-85 
 
 1-7664 
 
 4*60 
 
 1-5260 
 
 502 
 
 1-6134 
 
 5-44 
 
 1-6937 
 
 5-86 
 
 1-7681 
 
 4*61 
 
 1-5282 
 
 5-03 
 
 1-6154 
 
 5*45 
 
 1-6956 
 
 5-86 
 
 1-7698 
 
 4*62 
 
 1-5303 
 
 504 
 
 1-6174 
 
 5*46 
 
 1*6974 
 
 5-87 
 
 1*7715 
 
 4 63 
 
 1-5325 
 
 505 
 
 1*6193 
 
 5-47 
 
 1*6992 
 
 5-88 
 
 1*7732 
 
 4*64 
 
 1-5347 
 
 5-06 
 
 1-6213 
 
 5-48 
 
 1*7011 
 
 5-89 
 
 1-7749 
 
 4*65 
 
 1-5368 
 
 5-07 
 
 1*6233 
 
 5-49 
 
 1-7029 
 
 5-90 
 
 1-7766 
 
 4*66 
 
 1-5390 
 
 5-08 
 
 1*6253 
 
 5-50 
 
 1-7047 
 
 5-91 
 
 1-7783 
 
 4-67 
 
 1-5411 
 
 5-09 
 
 1-6272 
 
 5*51 
 
 1*7065 
 
 5-92 
 
 1-7800 
 
 4-68 
 
 1*5432 
 
 5-10 
 
 1-6292 
 
 5*52 
 
 1*7083 
 
 5-93 
 
 1-7817 
 
 4*69 
 
 1*5454 
 
 5-11 
 
 1-6311 
 
 5*53 
 
 1*7101 
 
 5-94 
 
 1-7833 
 
 4*70 
 
 1*5475 
 
 512 
 
 1-6331 
 
 5*54 
 
 1*7119 
 
 5-95 
 
 1-7850 
 
 4-71 
 
 1*5496 
 
 513 
 
 1-6351 
 
 5-55 
 
 1-7137 
 
 5-96 
 
 1-7867 
 
 4-72 
 
 1*5518 
 
 5-14 
 
 1-6370 
 
 5*56 
 
 1*7155 
 
 5-97 
 
 1-7884 
 
 4-73 
 
 1-5539 
 
 5-15 
 
 1-6389 
 
 5*57 
 
 1*7173 
 
 5-99 
 
 1-7900 
 
 4-74 
 
 1-5560 
 
 5-16 
 
 1-6409 
 
 5-58 
 
 1*7191 
 
 6-00 
 
 1*7917 
 
 4-75 
 
 1-5581 
 
 5-17 
 
 1-6428 
 
 5*59 
 
 1*7209 
 
 6-01 
 
 1-7934 
 
 4-76 
 
 1*5602 
 
 5-18 
 
 1-6448 
 
 5*60 
 
 1-7227 
 
 6-02 
 
 1-7950 
 
 4-77 
 
 1-5623 
 
 5*19 
 
 1-6463 
 
 5*61 
 
 1*7245 
 
 6*03 
 
 1-7967 
 
 4-78 
 
 1-5644 
 
 1 5-20 
 
 1-6486 
 
 5*62 
 
 1-7263 
 
 6*04 
 
 1-7989 
 
560 THE engineer's hanby-book. 
 
 Peculiarities of Multiplication. 
 
 The multiplication of 987654321 by 45 gives 4444444445. 
 Reversing the order of the digits, and multiplying 123456789 
 by 45, we get a result equally curious, 5555555505. If we take 
 123456789 as the multiplicand, and, interchanging the figures 45, 
 take 54 as the multiplier, we obtain another remarkable product, 
 6666666606. Returning to the multiplicand first used, 987654321, 
 and taking 54 as the multiplier again, we get 53333333334, — all 
 threes except the first and last figures, which read together 54, the 
 multiplier. Taking the same multiplicand, and using 27, the 
 half of 54, as the multiplier, we get a product of 2666666667, — 
 all sixes except the first and last figures, which read together 27, 
 the multiplier. Next, interchanging the figures in the number 
 27, and using 72 as a multiplier, with 987654321 as the multi- 
 plicand, we obtain a product of 71111111112, — all ones except 
 the first and last figures, which read together gives 72, the mul- 
 tiplier. 
 
 Decimal Arithmetic. 
 
 Decimal Arithmetic is the most simple and explicit mode of 
 performing practical calculations, on account of its doing away 
 with the necessity of fractional parts in the fractional form, 
 thereby reducing long and tedious operations to a few figures. 
 
 Decimal Fractions are fractions in which the denominator is a 
 unit, or 1, with ciphers annexed, in which case they are com- 
 monly expressed by writing the numerator only with a point be- 
 fore it, by which it is separated from whole numbers ; thus '5, which 
 denotes five-tenths, ; '25, that is, -f^jj. Ciphers on the right 
 hand of decimals are of no value whatever ; but placed on the 
 left hand, they diminish the decimal value in a tenfold propor- 
 tion ; thus '6 signifies 6 tenths ; '06 signifies 6 hundredths; and '006 
 signifies 6 thousandths of the integer or whole number. 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 561 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OF VULGAR AND DECIMAL FRACTIONS OF AN INCH. 
 
 Vulgar 
 Fractions 
 of an Inch. 
 
 1 
 
 3^ 
 1 
 
 Tg 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 32 
 
 1 
 
 3-2 
 
 4 
 5 
 IS 
 5 1 
 
 ^2 
 
 Decimal 
 Fractions 
 ofan Inch. 
 
 •03125 
 
 •0625 
 
 •09375 
 
 •125 
 
 •15625 
 
 •1875 
 
 •21875 
 
 •25 
 
 •28125 
 
 •3125 
 
 •34375 
 
 Vulgar 
 Fractions 
 of an Incli. 
 
 3 
 5 
 3 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 32 
 
 3 2 
 
 1 1 
 
 2 32 
 
 9 1 
 
 T6 32 
 
 ¥ 
 
 5 1 
 
 ■g" 32 
 
 Decimal 
 Fractions 
 ofan Inch. 
 
 •375 
 
 •40625 
 
 •4375 
 
 •46375 
 
 •5 
 
 •53125 
 
 •5625 
 
 •59375 
 
 •625 
 
 •65625 
 
 Vulgar 
 Fractions 
 ofan Inch. 
 
 1 1 
 
 T(T 
 I I 
 
 Tg 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 13. 
 I 6 
 13 
 1 6 
 
 7 
 
 8" 
 
 7 
 
 1 5 
 
 1 
 
 32 
 
 1 
 
 32 
 
 1 
 
 32 
 
 1 
 
 32 
 
 Decimal 
 Fractions 
 ofan Inch. 
 
 •6875 
 
 •71875 
 
 •75 
 
 •78125 
 
 •8125 
 
 84375 
 
 •875 
 
 •90625 
 
 •9375 
 
 •96875 
 
 TABLE, 
 
 Com- 
 mon 
 Frac- 
 tion. 
 
 32 
 
 1 
 
 1 6 
 
 3 
 
 ^2 
 1 
 
 5 
 32 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 ^2 
 1 
 
 Deci- 
 mal. 
 
 •0312 
 •0625 
 •0937 
 •1250 
 •1562 
 •1875 
 •2187 
 •2500 
 
 Com- 
 mon 
 Frac- 
 tion. 
 
 9 
 
 32 
 5 
 
 1 1 
 
 32 
 3 
 ■g" 
 1 3 
 32 
 
 U 
 
 1 
 
 Deci- 
 mal. 
 
 •2812 
 •3125 
 •3437 
 •3750 
 •4062 
 •4375 
 •4687 
 •5000 
 
 Com- 
 mon 
 Frac- 
 tion. 
 
 1 7 
 
 32 
 9 
 
 T(7 
 
 1 9 
 3 2 
 
 5 
 8" 
 
 2 1 
 
 T6 
 2 3 
 32 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 Deci- 
 mal. 
 
 •5312 
 •5625 
 •5977 
 •6250 
 •6562 
 •6875 
 •7187 
 •7500 
 
 Com- 
 mon 
 Frac- 
 tion. 
 
 33 
 
 a 
 
 il 
 
 I 
 
 29 
 32 
 1 n 
 7^ 
 3 1 
 32 
 32 
 32 
 
 Deci- 
 mal. 
 
 •7812 
 •8125 
 •8437 
 •8750 
 •9062 
 •9375 
 •9687 
 L-000 
 
 2L 
 
562 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Units. 
 
 Unit of heat. — The unit of heat varies: the French unit of 
 heat, called a " caloric, is the amount of heat necessary to raise 
 one kilogramme (2*2046215 pounds) of water one degree Centi- 
 grade, or from 0^ C. to 1° C. In this country and in England 
 the amount of heat necessary to raise one pound of water one de- 
 gree Fahrenheit, or from 32"^ Fah. to 33° Fah., is taken as the 
 unit of heat. 
 
 Fop calculations involving quantity of heat, thermometrical 
 temperatures are of no value without a knoAvledge of the capac- 
 ity of heat which any body possesses. The quantity of heat re- 
 quired to raise various bodies to any given temperature differs 
 considerably. Water, as possessing the greatest " specific " heat 
 of any known substance, has been universally accepted as a 
 standard, and the unit for the quantity of heat is that amount 
 which will raise 1 pound of water 1° Fah. from a temperature of 
 32° Fah. To be strictly accurate, the w^ater should be distilled 
 and the lower temperature uniform, in any series of experiments, 
 for the amount of heat to raise w^ater 1° varies slightly at differ- 
 ent temperatures. 
 
 Unit of length. — The unit of length used in this country and 
 in England is the yard, the length of which has been determined 
 by means of a pendulum vibrating seconds, in the latitude of 
 London, in a vacuum and at the level of the sea. The length of 
 such a pendulum is to be divided into 3,913,929 parts, and 
 3,600,000 of these parts are to constitute a yard. The yard is 
 divided into 36 inches, so that the length of the seconds pendu- 
 lum in London is 39*13929 inches. 
 
 The division of a foot into 12 inches enables various fractional 
 parts, such as i, }, i, J, I, f , to be made by the use of whole 
 numbers, and, in this respect, it is far more convenient than 
 having the foot divided into ten parts, which will only give I and 
 \ in the whole divisions, without the use of decimals or fractions. 
 So far as the inch is concerned, it is always divided into several 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 563 
 
 proportions, including tenths, on any good rule, and we use those 
 most preferred, so that it possesses all the advantages of the deci- 
 mal system with others peculiarly its own. 
 
 The French unit of length, called the metre, has been taken as 
 being the ten-millionth part of the quadrant of a meridian pass- 
 ing through Paris ; that is to say, the ten-millionth part of the 
 distance between the equator and the pole, measured through 
 Paris. It is equal to 39*3707898 inches. The metre is divided 
 into one thousand millimetres, one hundred centimetres, and ten 
 decimetres ; while a decimetre is *ten metres, a hectometre one 
 hundred metres, a kilometre one thousand metres, and a myria- 
 metre ten thousand metres. 
 
 One English yard is equal to 0*91438 m^tre; while one mile is 
 equal to 1*60931 kilometres. 
 
 Unit of surface. — For the unit of surface, the square inch, 
 foot, and yard adopted in this country and in England are re- 
 placed in the metric system by the square millimetre, centimetre, 
 decimetre, and metre. 
 
 The unit of length squared becomes the unit for surface area, 
 and the same length cubed is the unit for capacity. Cubic inches 
 are generally used to express volumes of water, while cubic feet 
 is a convenient expression for steam. 
 
 Unit of capacity. — The cubic inch, foot, and yard furnish 
 measures of capacity ; but irregular measures, such as the pint 
 and gallon, are also used in this country and in England. The 
 yallon contains t^n pounds avoirdupois weight of distilled water 
 ato;2 Fah. ; the pint is one-eighth part of a gallon. 
 * The French unit of capacity is the cubic decimetre or litre, 
 equal to 1*7607 English pints, or 0*2200 English gallon ; and we 
 have cubic inches, decimetres, centimetres, and millimetres. 
 
 Unit of weight. — The unit of weight used in this country and 
 in England, viz., the pound, is derived from the standard gallon, 
 which contains 277*274 cubic inches ; the weight of one-tenth of 
 this is the pound avoirdupois, which is divided into 7000 grains. 
 
 The French measures of weight are derived at once from the 
 
564 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK, 
 
 measures of capacity, by taking the weight of cubic millimetres, 
 centimetres, decimetres, or metres of water at their maximum 
 density, that is, at 4° C. or 39° Fah. 
 
 Unit of time or duration. — The unit of time or duration is the 
 same for all civilized countries. The twenty-fourth part of a mean 
 solar day is called an hour, which contains sixty minutes, which 
 again is divided into sixty seconds. The second is universally 
 used as the unit of duration. 
 
 Another unit of time is the period occupied by the earth in 
 making one revolution around*the sun, in reference to an assumed 
 •fixed star, which unit is called a sidereal year, and contains 365 
 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, 9'6 seconds mean solar time. 
 
 Unit of velocity. — The units of velocity adopted by different 
 scientific writers vary somewhat ; the most usual, perhaps, in re- 
 gard to sound, falling bodies, projectiles, etc., is the velocity of feet 
 or metres per second. In the case of light and electricity, miles 
 and kilometres per second are employed. 
 
 Unit of work. — In this country and in England, the unit of 
 work is usually the foot-pound, viz., the force necessary to raise 
 one pound weight one foot above the earth in opposition to the 
 force of gravity. A horse-power is equal to 33,000 pounds raised 
 to a height of one foot in one minute of time. 
 
 In France the kilogrammetre is the unit of work, and is the force 
 necessary to raise one kilogramme to a height of one metre against 
 the force of gravity. One kilogrammetre = 7*233 foot-pounds. 
 The cheval-pouvoir is nearly equal to the English horse-power, and 
 is equivalent to 32,500 pounds raised to a height of one foot in 
 one minute of time. The force competent to produce a velocity* 
 of one metre in one second, in a mass of one gramme, is some- 
 times adopted as a unit of force. 
 
 Unit of pressure. — The pressure of the atmosphere at the level 
 of the ocean, with the barometer at 30 inches, is taken as the unit 
 in estimating and comparing pressures and elastic forces. 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 565 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING ALL THE UNITS OF LENGTH RECOGNIZED IN ENGLAND SINCE 
 THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 3 barleycorDS . . . . .1 inch. 
 
 1*2 inches 1 Surveyor's foot tenth. 
 
 1-875 foot tenths (2*25 inches) . . 1 nail. 
 1*777 nails (4 inches) .... 1 hand. 
 
 (6'1538 inches side of cube of wine gal. of 223 cub. in.) 
 (6-5576 " " " " " beer gal. of 282 cub. in.) 
 
 1-98 hands (7*92 inches) 
 ri36 links (9 inches) 
 1*333 quarters (12 inches) 
 
 (12*907 inches side of cubic bush, or 
 1*875 feet (2*5 quarters) 
 1*2 ell Hamburg (3 quarters) 
 1*33 ell Flemish (3 feet) 
 
 (38*73 inches side of cubic wine 
 1*25 yards (5 quarters) 
 1*644 ell English (6 quarters) 
 
 (5*0397 feet side of cubic cord or 128 
 1*333 ell French (6 feet) 
 2*75 fathoms (5*5 yards) 
 4 rods (22 yards) 
 
 (68*57 yards side of square acre, 
 10 chains 
 
 8 furlongs . . 
 1*158 statute miles 
 2*59 geographical miles (3 statute miles) 
 
 A cubit is two feet. 
 
 A great cubit is eleven feet. 
 
 A palm is three inches. 
 
 A span is ten and seven-eighth inches. 
 
 A pace is three feet. 
 
 A barrel of flour weighs 196 pounds. 
 
 A barrel of pork weighs 200 pounds. 
 48 
 
 1 link. 
 1 quarter. 
 1 foot. 
 2150-42 cub. in.) 
 1 ell Hamburg. 
 1 ell Flemish. 
 1 yard, 
 ton of 58212 cub. in.) 
 1 ell English. 
 1 ell French, 
 cubic feet.) 
 1 fathom. 
 
 1 rod, pole or perch. 
 1 chain. 
 
 1 furlong. 
 
 1 statute mile. 
 
 1 geographical mile, 
 
 1 league. 
 
566 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 A barrel of powder weighs twenty-five pounds. 
 
 A firkin of butter weighs fifty-six pounds. ; 
 
 A tub of butter weighs eighty-four pounds. 
 
 Atoms and Molecules. 
 
 The term atom has been exclusively appropriated by the 
 chemist, while the mathematician and physicist have preferred to 
 adopt the word molecule to signify those ultimate constituents of 
 matter upon whose motions and relations depend the various states 
 of all bodies solid, liquid, and gaseous. It is said that atoms are 
 attracted to each other by the attraction of cohesion, and repelled 
 by the force of repulsion. By the action of both these forces, the 
 atoms are kept in a state of rest. The solidity of a solid depends 
 upon the fact that each pair of atoms is in this state of equilib- 
 rium. These atoms are supposed to be of an oblate, spheroidal 
 form. 
 
 The word particle is also freely made use'of as involving no 
 hypothesis, and meaning simply a small part of any body. Mole- 
 cule has been defined by Maxwell as "the smallest possible portion 
 of a particular substance ; " and, again, as " that small portion of 
 the substance which moves as one lump in the motion of agita- 
 tion." 
 
 Every substance is now supposed to be composed of an im- 
 mense number of molecules, which, even in the solid state, are 
 never entirely at rest, and in the gaseous are in a state of per- 
 petual violent commotion, rushing about in straight lines in all 
 directions with inconceivable rapidity. 
 
 The difficulty of proving or disproving the molecular theory 
 lies in our inability to determine the size or shape of a molecule 
 by any means in our power. The most powerful microscope fails 
 utterly to show them, and should some material for lenses be dis- 
 covered infinitely superior to glass or other material at present in 
 use, we should fall far short of appreciating a molecule through 
 the vision. 
 
THE engineer's ilANDY-BOOK. 
 
 567 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OF SQUARES, CUBES, AND SQUARE AND CUBE ROOTS OF ALL 
 NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 620. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Cube. 
 
 Square Root. 
 
 Cube Root. 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1. . 
 
 
 1. 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 1.4142 
 
 136 
 
 1.2599 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 
 9 
 
 27 
 
 1.7230 
 
 508 
 
 1.4422 
 
 496 
 
 4 
 
 
 16 
 
 64 
 
 2. 
 
 
 1.5874 
 
 Oil 
 
 5 
 
 
 25 
 
 125 
 
 2.2360 
 
 68 
 
 1.7099 
 
 759 
 
 6 
 
 
 36 
 
 216 
 
 2.4494 
 
 897 
 
 1.8171 
 
 206 
 
 7 
 
 
 49 
 
 343 
 
 2.6457 
 
 513 
 
 1.9129 
 
 312 
 
 8 
 
 
 64 
 
 512 
 
 2.8284 
 
 271 
 
 2. 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 81 
 
 729 
 
 3. 
 
 
 2 0800 
 
 837 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 00 
 
 1 000 
 
 3.1622 
 
 777 
 
 2.1544 
 
 347 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 21 
 
 1 331 
 
 3.3166 
 
 248 
 
 2.2239 
 
 801 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 44 
 
 1 728 
 
 3.4641 
 
 016 
 
 2.2894 
 
 286 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 69 
 
 2 197 
 
 3 605/) 
 
 513 
 
 2.3513 
 
 347 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 96 
 
 2 744 
 
 3.7416 
 
 574 
 
 2.4101 
 
 422 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 25 
 
 3 375 
 
 3.8729 
 
 833 
 
 2.4662 
 
 121 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 56 
 
 4 096 
 
 4* 
 
 
 2.5198 
 
 421 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 89 
 
 4 913 
 
 4.1231 
 
 056 
 
 2.5712 
 
 816 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 24 = 
 
 5 832 
 
 4.2426 
 
 407 
 
 2.6207 
 
 414 
 
 19 
 
 3 
 
 61 
 
 6 859 
 
 4.3585 
 
 989 
 
 2.6684 
 
 016 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 00 
 
 8 000 
 
 4.4721 
 
 36 
 
 2.7144 
 
 177 
 
 21 
 
 4 
 
 41 
 
 9 261 
 
 4.5825 
 
 
 2.7589 
 
 243 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 84 
 
 10 648 
 
 4.6904 
 
 158 
 
 2.8020 
 
 393 
 
 23 
 
 5 
 
 29 
 
 12 167 
 
 4.7958 
 
 315 
 
 2.8438 
 
 67 
 
 24 
 
 5 
 
 76 
 
 13 824 
 
 4.8989 
 
 795 
 
 2^8844 
 
 991 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 25 
 
 15 625 
 
 5. 
 
 
 2.9240 
 
 177 
 
 26 
 
 6 
 
 76 
 
 17 576 
 
 
 195 
 
 2.9224 
 
 96 
 
 27 
 
 7 
 
 29 
 
 19 683 
 
 5.1961 
 
 524 
 
 3. 
 
 
 28 
 
 7 
 
 84 
 
 21 952 
 
 5.2915 
 
 026 
 
 
 889 
 
 29 
 
 8 
 
 41 
 
 24 389 
 
 5.3851 
 
 648 
 
 
 1 uo 
 
 30 
 
 9 
 
 00 
 
 27 000 
 
 5.4772 
 
 256 
 
 Q 1079 
 
 325 
 
 31 
 
 9 
 
 61 
 
 29 791 
 
 5*.5677 
 
 644 
 
 3.1413 
 
 806 
 
 32 
 
 10 
 
 24 
 
 32 768 
 
 5 6568 
 
 542 
 
 3.1748 
 
 021 
 
 33 
 
 10 
 
 89 
 
 35 937 
 
 5.7445 
 
 626 
 
 3!2075 
 
 343 
 
 34 
 
 11 
 
 56 
 
 39 304 
 
 5.8309 
 
 519 
 
 3.2396 
 
 118 
 
 35 
 
 12 
 
 25 
 
 42 875 
 
 5.9160 
 
 798 
 
 3.2710 
 
 663 
 
 36 
 
 12 
 
 96 
 
 46 656 
 
 6. 
 
 
 3.3019 
 
 272 
 
 37 
 
 13 
 
 69 
 
 50 653 
 
 6.0827 
 
 625 
 
 3.3322 
 
 218 
 
 38 
 
 14 
 
 44 
 
 54 872 
 
 6.1644 
 
 14 
 
 3.3619 
 
 754 
 
 39 
 
 15 
 
 21 
 
 59 319 
 
 6.2449 
 
 98 
 
 3.3912 
 
 114 
 
 40 
 
 16 
 
 00 
 
 64 000 
 
 (>.3245 
 
 553 
 
 3.4199 
 
 519 
 
 41 
 
 16 
 
 81 
 
 68 921 
 
 6.4031 
 
 242 
 
 3.4482 
 
 172 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 TABLE — (Continued) 
 
 OP SQUARES, CUBES, AND SQUARE AND CUBE ROOTS, ETC. 
 
 liumDGr. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Cube. 
 
 Square Root. 
 
 Cube Root. 
 
 42 
 
 17 64 
 
 74 088 
 
 6.4807 407 
 
 3.4760 266 
 
 43 
 
 18 49 
 
 79 507 
 
 6.5574 385 
 
 3,5033 931 
 
 44 
 
 19 36 
 
 85 184 
 
 6.6332 496 
 
 3.5303 483 
 
 45 
 
 20 25 
 
 91 125 
 
 6.7082 039 
 
 3.5568 933 
 
 46 
 
 21 16 
 
 97 336 
 
 6.7823 3 
 
 3.5830 479 
 
 47 
 
 22 09 
 
 103 823 
 
 6.8556 546 
 
 3.6088 261 
 
 48 
 
 23 04 
 
 110 592 
 
 6.9282 032 
 
 3.6342 411 
 
 49 
 
 24 01 
 
 117 649 
 
 7. 
 
 3.6593 057 
 
 60 
 
 25 00 
 
 125 000 
 
 7.0710 678 
 
 3.6840 314 
 
 51 
 
 26 01 
 
 132 651 
 
 7.1414 284 
 
 3.7084 298 
 
 52 
 
 27 04 
 
 140 608 
 
 7.2111 026 
 
 3.7325 111 
 
 53 
 
 28 09 
 
 148 877 
 
 7.2801 099 
 
 3.7562 858 
 
 54 
 
 29 16 
 
 157 464 
 
 7.3484 692 
 
 3.7797 631 
 
 55 
 
 30 25 
 
 166 375 
 
 7.4161 985 
 
 3.8029 525 
 
 56 
 
 31 36 
 
 175 616 
 
 7.4833 148 
 
 3.8258 624 
 
 57 
 
 32 49 
 
 185 193 
 
 7.5498 344 
 
 3.8485 Oil 
 
 58 
 
 33 64 
 
 195 112 
 
 7.6157 731 
 
 3.8708 766 
 
 59 
 
 34 81 
 
 205 379 
 
 7.6811 457 
 
 3.8929 965 
 
 60 
 
 36 00 
 
 216 000 
 
 7.7459 667 
 
 3.9148 676 
 
 61 
 
 37 21 
 
 226 981 
 
 7.8102 497 
 
 3.9364 972 
 
 62 
 
 38 44 
 
 238 328 
 
 7.8740 079 
 
 3.9578 915 
 
 63 
 
 39 69 
 
 250 047 
 
 7.9372 539 
 
 3.9790 571 
 
 64 
 
 40 96 
 
 262 144 
 
 8. 
 
 4. 
 
 65 
 
 42 25 
 
 274 625 
 
 8.0622 577 
 
 4.0207 256 
 
 66 
 
 43 56 
 
 287 496 
 
 8.1240 384 
 
 4.0412 401 
 
 67 
 
 44 89 
 
 300 763 
 
 8.1853 528 
 
 4.0615 48 
 
 68 
 
 46 24 
 
 314 432 
 
 8.2462 113 
 
 4.0816 551 
 
 69 
 
 47 61 
 
 328 509 
 
 8.3066 239 
 
 4.1015 661 
 
 70 
 
 49 00 
 
 343 000 
 
 8.3666 003 
 
 4.1212 853 
 
 71 
 
 50 41 
 
 357 911 
 
 8.4261 498 
 
 4.1408 178 
 
 72 
 
 51 84 
 
 373 248 
 
 8.4852 814 
 
 4.1601 676 
 
 73 
 
 53 29 
 
 389 017 
 
 8.5440 037 
 
 4.1793 39 
 
 74 • 
 
 54 76 
 
 405 224 
 
 8.6023 253 
 
 4.1983 364 
 
 75 
 
 56 25 
 
 421 875 
 
 8.6602 54 
 
 4.2171 633 
 
 76 
 
 57 76 
 
 438 976 
 
 8.7177 979 
 
 4.2358 236 
 
 77 
 
 59 29 
 
 456 533 
 
 8.7749 644 
 
 4.2543 21 
 
 78 
 
 60 84 
 
 474 552 
 
 8.8317 609 
 
 4.2726 586 
 
 79 
 
 62 41 
 
 493 039 
 
 8.8881 944 
 
 4.2908 404 
 
 80 
 
 64 00 
 
 512 000 
 
 8.9442 719 
 
 4.3088 695 
 
 81 
 
 65 61 
 
 531 441 
 
 9. 
 
 4.3267 487 
 
 82 
 
 67 24 
 
 551 368 
 
 9.0553 851 
 
 4.3444 815 
 
 83 
 
 68 89 
 
 571 787 
 
 9.1104 336 
 
 4.3620 707 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 5 
 
 T A B L E — ( Continued) 
 
 OF SQUARES, CUBES, AND SQUARE AND CUBE ROOTS, ETC. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Cube. 
 
 Square Root. 
 
 Cube Root. 
 
 84 
 
 
 70 56 
 
 
 592 704 
 
 9.1651 
 
 514 
 
 4.3795 
 
 191 
 
 85 
 
 
 72 25 
 
 
 614 125 
 
 9.2195 
 
 445 
 
 4.3968 
 
 296 
 
 86 
 
 
 73 96 
 
 
 636 056 
 
 9.2736 
 
 185 
 
 4.4140 
 
 049 
 
 87 
 
 
 75 69 
 
 
 658 503 
 
 9.3273 
 
 791 
 
 4.4310 
 
 476 
 
 88 
 
 
 77 44 
 
 
 681 472 
 
 9.3808 
 
 315 
 
 4.4479 
 
 602 
 
 89 
 
 
 79 21 
 
 
 704 969 
 
 9.4339 
 
 811 
 
 4.4647 
 
 451 
 
 90 
 
 
 81 00 
 
 
 729 000 
 
 9.4868 
 
 33 
 
 4.4814 
 
 047* 
 
 91 
 
 
 82 81 
 
 
 753 571 • 
 
 9.5393 
 
 92 
 
 4.4979 
 
 414 
 
 92 
 
 
 84 64 
 
 
 778 688 
 
 9.5916 
 
 03 
 
 4.5143 
 
 574 
 
 93 
 
 
 86 49 
 
 
 804 357 
 
 9.6436 
 
 508 
 
 4.5306 
 
 549 
 
 94 
 
 
 88 36 
 
 
 830 584 
 
 9.6953 
 
 597 
 
 4.5468 
 
 359 
 
 95 
 
 
 90 25 
 
 
 857 375 
 
 9.7467 
 
 943 
 
 4.5629 
 
 026 
 
 96 
 
 
 92 16 
 
 
 884 736 
 
 9.7979 
 
 59 
 
 4.5788 
 
 57 
 
 97 
 
 
 94 09 
 
 
 912 673 
 
 9.8488 
 
 578 
 
 4.5947 
 
 009 
 
 98 
 
 
 96 04 
 
 
 941 192 
 
 9.8994 
 
 949 
 
 4.6104 
 
 363 
 
 99 
 
 
 98 01 
 
 
 970 299 
 
 9.9498 
 
 744 
 
 4.6260 
 
 65 1 
 
 100 
 
 1 
 
 00 00 
 
 1 
 
 000 000 
 
 10. 
 
 
 4.6415 
 
 888 
 
 101 
 
 1 
 
 02 01 
 
 1 
 
 030 301 
 
 10.0498 
 
 756 
 
 4.6570 
 
 095 
 
 102 
 
 1 
 
 04 04 
 
 1 
 
 061 208 
 
 10.0995 
 
 049 
 
 4.6723 
 
 287 
 
 103 
 
 1 
 
 06 09 
 
 1 
 
 092 727 
 
 10.1488 
 
 916 
 
 4.6875 
 
 482 
 
 104 
 
 1 
 
 08 16 
 
 1 
 
 124 864 
 
 10.1980 
 
 89 
 
 4.7026 
 
 694 
 
 105 
 
 1 
 
 10 25 
 
 1 
 
 157 625 
 
 10.2469 
 
 508 
 
 4.7176 
 
 94 
 
 106 
 
 1 
 
 12 36 
 
 1 
 
 191 016 
 
 10.2956 
 
 301 
 
 4.7326 
 
 235 
 
 107 
 
 1 
 
 14 49 
 
 1 
 
 225 043 
 
 10.3440 
 
 804 
 
 4.7474 
 
 594 
 
 108 
 
 1 
 
 16 64 
 
 1 
 
 259 712 
 
 10.3923 
 
 048 
 
 4.7622 
 
 032 
 
 109 
 
 1 
 
 18 81 
 
 1 
 
 295 029 
 
 10.4403 
 
 065 
 
 4.7768 
 
 562 
 
 110 
 
 1 
 
 21 00 
 
 1 
 
 331 000 
 
 10.4880 
 
 885 
 
 4.7914 
 
 199 
 
 111 
 
 1 
 
 23 21 
 
 1 
 
 367 631 
 
 10.5356 
 
 538 
 
 4.8058 
 
 995 
 
 112 
 
 1 
 
 25 44 
 
 1 
 
 404 92^ 
 
 10.5830 
 
 052 
 
 4.8202 
 
 845 
 
 113 
 
 1 
 
 27 69 
 
 1 
 
 442 897 
 
 10.6301 
 
 458 
 
 4.8345 
 
 881 
 
 114 
 
 1 
 
 29 96 
 
 1 
 
 481 544 
 
 10.6770 
 
 783 
 
 4.8488 
 
 076 
 
 115 
 
 1 
 
 32 25 
 
 1 
 
 520 875 
 
 10.7238 
 
 053 
 
 4.8629 
 
 442 
 
 116 
 
 1 
 
 34 56 
 
 1 
 
 560 896 
 
 10.7703 
 
 296 
 
 4.8769 
 
 99 
 
 117 
 
 1 
 
 36 89 
 
 1 
 
 601 613 
 
 10.8166 
 
 538 
 
 4.8909 
 
 732 
 
 118 
 
 1 
 
 39 24 
 
 1 
 
 643 032 
 
 10.8627 
 
 805 
 
 4.9048 
 
 681 
 
 119 
 
 1 
 
 41 61 
 
 1 
 
 685 159 
 
 10.9087 
 
 121 
 
 4.9186 
 
 847 
 
 120 
 
 1 
 
 44 00 
 
 1 
 
 728 000 
 
 10.9544 
 
 512 
 
 4.9324 
 
 242 
 
 121 
 
 1 
 
 46 41 
 
 1 
 
 771 561 
 
 11. 
 
 
 4.9460 
 
 874 
 
 122 
 
 1 
 
 48 34 
 
 1 
 
 815 848 
 
 11.0453 
 
 61 
 
 4.9596 
 
 757 
 
 123 
 
 1 
 
 51 29 
 
 1 
 
 860 867 
 
 11.0905 
 
 365 
 
 4.9731 
 
 898 
 
 124 
 
 1 
 
 53 76 
 
 1 
 
 906 624 
 
 11.1355 
 
 287 
 
 4.9866 
 
 31 
 
 125 
 
 1 
 
 56 25 
 
 1 
 
 953 125 
 
 11.1803 
 
 399 
 
 5. 
 
 
 48* 
 
570 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 T A B L E — ( Continued) 
 
 OP SQUARES, CUBES, AND SQUARE AND CUBE ROOTS, ETC. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Cube. 
 
 Square Root. 
 
 Cube Root. 
 
 126 
 
 1 
 
 58 
 
 76 
 
 2 
 
 000 
 
 376 
 
 11.2249 
 
 722 
 
 5.0132 979 
 
 127 
 
 1 
 
 61 
 
 29 
 
 2 
 
 048 
 
 383 
 
 11.2694 
 
 277 
 
 5.0265 257 
 
 128 
 
 1 
 
 63 
 
 84 
 
 2 
 
 097 
 
 152 
 
 11.3137 
 
 085 
 
 5.0396 842 
 
 129 
 
 1 
 
 66 
 
 41 
 
 2 
 
 146 
 
 689 
 
 11.3578 
 
 167 
 
 5.0527 743 
 
 130 
 
 1 
 
 69 
 
 00 
 
 2 
 
 197 
 
 000 
 
 11.4017 
 
 543 
 
 5.0657 97 
 
 131 
 
 1 
 
 71 
 
 61 
 
 2 
 
 248 
 
 091 
 
 11.4455 
 
 231 
 
 5.0787 531 
 
 132 
 
 1 
 
 74 
 
 24 
 
 2 
 
 299 
 
 968 
 
 11.4891 
 
 253 
 
 5.0916 434 
 
 133 
 
 1 
 
 76 
 
 89 
 
 2 
 
 352 
 
 63f 
 
 11.5325 
 
 626 
 
 5.1044 687 
 
 134 
 
 1 
 
 79 
 
 56 
 
 2 
 
 406 
 
 104 
 
 11.5758 
 
 369 
 
 5.1172 299 
 
 135 
 
 1 
 
 82 
 
 25 
 
 2 
 
 460 
 
 375 
 
 11.6189 
 
 5 
 
 5.1299 278 
 
 136 
 
 1 
 
 84 
 
 96 
 
 2 
 
 515 
 
 456 
 
 11.6619 
 
 038 
 
 5.1425 632 
 
 137 
 
 1 
 
 87" 
 
 69 
 
 2 
 
 571 
 
 353 
 
 11.7046 
 
 999 
 
 5.1551 367 
 
 138 
 
 1 
 
 90 
 
 44 
 
 2 
 
 628 
 
 072 
 
 11.7473 
 
 401 
 
 5.1676 493 
 
 139 
 
 ] 
 
 93 
 
 21 
 
 2 
 
 685 
 
 619 
 
 11.7898 
 
 261 
 
 5.1801 015 
 
 140 
 
 1 
 
 96 
 
 00 
 
 2 
 
 744 
 
 000 
 
 11.8321 
 
 596 
 
 5.1924 941 
 
 141 
 
 I 
 
 98 
 
 81 
 
 2 
 
 803 
 
 221 
 
 11.8743 
 
 421 
 
 5.2048 279 
 
 142 
 
 2 
 
 01 
 
 64 
 
 2 
 
 863 
 
 288 
 
 11.9163 
 
 753 
 
 5.2171 034 
 
 143 
 
 2 
 
 04 
 
 49 
 
 2 
 
 924 
 
 207 
 
 11.9582 
 
 607 
 
 5.2293 215 
 
 144 
 
 2 
 
 07 
 
 36 
 
 2 
 
 985 
 
 984 
 
 12. 
 
 
 5.2414 828 
 
 145 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 25 
 
 3 
 
 048 
 
 625 
 
 12.0415 
 
 946 
 
 5.2535 879 
 
 146 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 112 
 
 136 
 
 12.0830 
 
 46 
 
 5.2656 374 
 
 147 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 09 
 
 3 
 
 176 
 
 523 
 
 12.1243 
 
 557 
 
 5.2776 321 
 
 148 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 04 
 
 3 
 
 241 
 
 792 
 
 12.1655 
 
 251 
 
 5.2895 725 
 
 149 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 01 
 
 3 
 
 307 
 
 949 
 
 12.2065 
 
 556 
 
 5.3014 592 
 
 150 
 
 2 
 
 25 
 
 00 
 
 3 
 
 375 
 
 000 
 
 12.2474 
 
 487 
 
 5.3132 928 
 
 151 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 01 
 
 3 
 
 442 
 
 951 
 
 12.2882 
 
 057 
 
 5.3250 74 
 
 152 
 
 2 
 
 31 
 
 04 
 
 3 
 
 511 
 
 008 
 
 12.3288 
 
 28 
 
 5.3368 033 
 
 153 
 
 2 
 
 34 
 
 09 
 
 3 
 
 581 
 
 577 
 
 12.3693 
 
 169 
 
 5.3484 812 
 
 154 
 
 2 
 
 37 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 652 
 
 264 
 
 1 2 40Q6 
 
 736 
 
 5.3601 084 
 
 155 
 
 2 
 
 40 
 
 25 
 
 3 
 
 723 
 
 875 
 
 12.4498 
 
 996 
 
 5.3716 854 
 
 156 
 
 2 
 
 43 
 
 36 
 
 3 
 
 796 
 
 416 
 
 1 2 4HQQ 
 
 96 
 
 5.3832 126 
 
 157 
 
 2 
 
 46 
 
 49 
 
 3 
 
 869 
 
 893 
 
 J. ^d,KJ idO U 
 
 641 
 
 5.3946 907 
 
 158 
 
 2 
 
 49 
 
 64 
 
 3 
 
 944 
 
 312 
 
 12.5698 
 
 051 
 
 5.4061 202 
 
 159 
 
 2 
 
 52 
 
 81 
 
 4 
 
 019 
 
 679 
 
 12.6095 
 
 202 
 
 5.4175 015 
 
 160 
 
 2 
 
 56 
 
 00 
 
 4 
 
 096 
 
 000 
 
 12.6491 
 
 106 
 
 5.4288 352 
 
 161 
 
 2 
 
 59 
 
 21 
 
 4 
 
 173 
 
 281 
 
 12.6885 
 
 775 
 
 5.4401 218 
 
 162 
 
 2 
 
 62 
 
 44 
 
 4 
 
 251 
 
 528 
 
 12.7279 
 
 221 
 
 5.4513 618 
 
 163 
 
 2 
 
 65 
 
 69 
 
 4 
 
 330 
 
 747 
 
 12.7671 
 
 453 
 
 5.4625 556 
 
 164 
 
 2 
 
 68 
 
 96 
 
 4 
 
 410 
 
 944 
 
 12.8062 
 
 485 
 
 5.4737 037 
 
 165 
 
 2 
 
 72 
 
 25 
 
 4 
 
 492 
 
 125 
 
 12.8452 
 
 326 
 
 5.4848 066 
 
 166 
 
 2 
 
 75 
 
 56 
 
 4 
 
 574 
 
 296 
 
 12.8840 
 
 987 
 
 5.4958 647 
 
 167 
 
 2 
 
 78 
 
 89 
 
 4 
 
 657 
 
 463 
 
 12.9228 
 
 48 
 
 5.5068 784 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 571 
 
 T A B L E — ( Cmtinued) 
 
 OF SQUARES, CUBES, AND SQUARE AND CUBE ROOTS, ETC. 
 
 Numbei*. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Cube. 
 
 Square Root. 
 
 Cube Root. 
 
 168 
 
 o 
 
 oo 
 oA 
 
 0/1 
 
 A T /1 1 
 
 4 /41 
 
 ooZ 
 
 1 O OA1 A 
 
 iz.yDi4 
 
 Qt A 
 
 oi4 
 
 X XI 7Q 
 O.Oi /O 
 
 AQA 
 
 4o4 
 
 169 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 OD 
 
 oi 
 
 A QO/J 
 
 4 oZo 
 
 QAO 
 
 ouy 
 
 1 o 
 
 io. 
 
 
 X XOQ7 
 
 o.oZo/ 
 
 7/1 Q 
 
 / 4o 
 
 170 
 
 Z 
 
 QO 
 
 oy 
 
 AA 
 
 A OI Q 
 
 4 yio 
 
 AAA 
 
 UUU 
 
 1 O AOQ /I 
 
 io.Uoo4 
 
 A/1 Q 
 
 U4o 
 
 X XO(»A 
 
 o.ooyo 
 
 XQO 
 
 Ooo 
 
 171 
 
 
 
 /I 1 
 
 41 
 
 AAA 
 0 UUU 
 
 OI 1 
 
 Zi i 
 
 io.U/oo 
 
 yoo 
 
 X XX/\/1 
 
 0.00U4 
 
 oo 1 
 
 yy 1 
 
 172 
 
 o 
 
 
 Q A 
 
 o4 
 
 AUQ 
 
 0 Uoo 
 
 A AQ 
 
 44o 
 
 1 O 1 1 /I o 
 
 lo.i i4o 
 
 77 
 / / 
 
 X X^! 1 O 
 
 0.00 IZ 
 
 (^i7 Q 
 
 y/o 
 
 173 
 
 o 
 
 yy 
 
 oo 
 
 zy 
 
 0 in 
 
 717 
 III 
 
 1 Q 1 ClOO 
 
 io.iozy 
 
 AaA 
 4o4 
 
 X X7 0A 
 
 0.0/ zu 
 
 KAa 
 04b 
 
 174 
 
 6 
 
 AO 
 
 OA 
 
 TA 
 
 ^ OAQ 
 
 0 Zoo 
 
 AO/1 
 
 UZ4 
 
 1 O 1 <"iAO 
 
 io.iyuy 
 
 Uo 
 
 X XQ')7 
 
 O.OoZ/ 
 
 7/»0 
 
 / UZ 
 
 175 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 Uo 
 
 OK 
 
 Zo 
 
 OKO 
 
 0 ooy 
 
 07 K 
 
 o/o 
 
 1 O 0007 
 
 iO.ZZo/ 
 
 OOO 
 
 X XOO 4 
 
 o.oyo4 
 
 A A'7 
 
 44/ 
 
 176 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 uy 
 
 /o 
 
 0 40i 
 
 ma. 
 1 to 
 
 1 o cictaA 
 io.Z0D4 
 
 0(^0 
 
 yyz 
 
 X fif\Ar\ 
 O.OU4U 
 
 7Q7 
 
 (oi 
 
 177 
 
 Q 
 
 6 
 
 1 Q 
 
 io 
 
 oo 
 
 zy 
 
 t^A ^ 
 
 0 040 
 
 ooo 
 Zoo 
 
 1 O OA,'l 1 
 
 io.oU4i 
 
 Q/17 
 
 o4/ 
 
 X A 1 /I A 
 
 o.ol4o 
 
 70/1 
 
 / Z4 
 
 178 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 o4 
 
 K. AOO 
 
 0 boy 
 
 7 f^O 
 
 / oZ 
 
 1 O O/l 1 A 
 
 io.o4io 
 
 A /I 1 
 
 o4i 
 
 X AOXO 
 O.oZoZ 
 
 o^^o 
 Zbo 
 
 179 
 
 Q 
 
 o 
 
 OA 
 
 A\) 
 
 A 1 
 
 4i 
 
 0 / OO 
 
 ooo 
 
 ooy 
 
 1 O 070A 
 
 io.o/ yu 
 
 QQO 
 
 ooZ 
 
 O.OOO/ 
 
 /I AQ 
 
 4Uo 
 
 180 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 
 AA 
 UU 
 
 r; Qoo 
 0 OoZ 
 
 AAA 
 
 UUU 
 
 1 O A A £i A 
 
 io.4io4 
 
 u/y 
 
 X A/lfiO 
 
 0.o4oZ 
 
 1 ^o 
 
 ibZ 
 
 181 
 
 6 
 
 07 
 
 A 1 
 Oi 
 
 ooo 
 
 0 yzy 
 
 1 A 1 
 
 / 41 
 
 1 O /I xon 
 
 1 0.40O0 
 
 O A 
 
 Z4 
 
 0.0000 
 
 XOQ 
 
 oZo 
 
 182. 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 oi 
 
 O^l 
 
 Z4 
 
 A AOQ 
 
 0 UZo 
 
 f;AQ 
 ooo 
 
 1 O /I OA7 
 
 io.4yU7 
 
 07 A 
 O/O 
 
 O.OO/U 
 
 XI 1 
 
 oil 
 
 183 
 
 Q 
 
 o 
 
 Q 1 
 
 QO 
 
 ©y 
 
 A 1 OU 
 0 iZo 
 
 /1Q7 
 
 4o/ 
 
 1 O XO'7'7 
 
 io.oZ// 
 
 A OO 
 
 4yo 
 
 X A "7 1 
 
 0.0/ / 4 
 
 11/1 
 114 
 
 184 
 
 Q 
 
 o 
 
 QQ 
 OO 
 
 00 
 
 A OOQ 
 
 0 zzy 
 
 0U4 
 
 io.oo4o 
 
 a 
 0 
 
 X AQTT 
 0.00/ 7 
 
 OA 
 
 o4 
 
 185 
 
 Q 
 
 o 
 
 /I 0 
 
 Ao 
 
 A QQ1 
 
 0 ooi 
 
 AOs; 
 oZO 
 
 t o ant A 
 io.oU14 
 
 7 AX 
 
 /Uo 
 
 X ^JOOA 
 
 o.byoU 
 
 1 oo 
 
 lyz 
 
 186 
 
 Q 
 
 o 
 
 40 
 
 yo 
 
 A /I Q/1 
 O 4o4 
 
 OOO 
 
 1 o aoQ t 
 io.Dool 
 
 Q 1 7 
 
 oi / 
 
 X TAOO 
 
 0./ UoZ 
 
 b/0 
 
 187 
 
 Q 
 
 o 
 
 4y 
 
 AO 
 
 oy 
 
 A f^QQ 
 
 0 Ooy 
 
 OAO 
 
 ZUo 
 
 1 o a '7 17 
 
 10.0/4/ 
 
 O/l o 
 
 y4o 
 
 X 71 O 1 
 
 0./ io4 
 
 "OI 
 
 / yi 
 
 188 
 
 Q 
 
 o 
 
 Oo 
 
 44 
 
 A A/1/1 
 0 044 
 
 A70 
 0/ Z 
 
 1 Q 71 1 O 
 
 io./ ilo 
 
 AOO 
 
 uyz 
 
 X 700£! 
 
 0./ Zob 
 
 X /I o 
 
 o4o 
 
 189 
 
 Q 
 
 0/ 
 
 Zi 
 
 A 
 
 0 /Oi 
 
 OAO 
 
 zby 
 
 1 O 7/177 
 
 io./4/ / 
 
 071 
 
 Z/ i 
 
 X 'TOO'? 
 
 0./O07 
 
 oo^ 
 
 yob 
 
 190 
 
 Q 
 O 
 
 
 AA 
 UU 
 
 0 ooy 
 
 AAA 
 
 UUU 
 
 1 O 7 Q 1 A 
 
 io./o4U 
 
 1 QQ 
 
 4oo 
 
 X ^ 1 oo 
 0./ 4oo 
 
 071 
 
 y/ i 
 
 191* 
 
 Q 
 O 
 
 o4 
 
 Q1 
 oi 
 
 A OA7 
 
 0 yo/ 
 
 Q7 1 
 
 o/ 1 
 
 1 O OOAO 
 
 io.oZUZ 
 
 75 
 
 X XOO 
 
 0./ ooy 
 
 ^ X o 
 
 bcZ 
 
 192 
 
 Q 
 
 o 
 
 Oo 
 
 A/1 
 04 
 
 7 A77 
 
 / u/ / 
 
 QQQ 
 OOO 
 
 1 O o r: ,1 
 io.(5004 
 
 A£i X 
 
 Uoo 
 
 5.7689 
 
 ooo 
 
 yoz 
 
 193 
 
 Q 
 
 o 
 
 70 
 
 / A 
 
 AQ 
 
 4y 
 
 7 1 QO 
 
 / ioy 
 
 AX7 
 
 Uo/ 
 
 1 O OOO/I 
 
 io.oyZ4 
 
 4 
 
 X ""7 00 
 
 0./ / oy 
 
 c\£ia 
 
 ybb 
 
 194 
 
 Q 
 
 i 0 
 
 QA 
 OO 
 
 7 QA1 
 
 / oUi 
 
 OQ/1 
 
 oo4 
 
 1 o nooo 
 
 io.yzoo 
 
 ooo 
 ooo 
 
 5.7889 
 
 bU4 
 
 195 
 
 o 
 O 
 
 QA 
 
 OX 
 
 Zo 
 
 7 /111 
 
 / 4i4 
 
 07 K 
 O/O 
 
 13.9642 
 
 4 
 
 5.7988 
 
 9 
 
 196 
 
 Q 
 O 
 
 o4 
 
 1 A 
 
 io 
 
 7 r:oo 
 
 / ozy 
 
 OOO 
 
 1 A 
 
 14. 
 
 
 5.8087 
 
 857 
 
 197 
 
 o 
 O 
 
 QQ 
 OO 
 
 AO 
 
 uy 
 
 7 A/1 
 
 / 04^ 
 
 070 
 
 o/o 
 
 14.0356 
 
 688 
 
 5.8186 
 
 479 
 
 198 
 
 Q 
 
 o 
 
 OO 
 
 yz 
 
 A i 
 
 U4 
 
 7 7/:;o 
 / / oZ 
 
 ono 
 
 oyz 
 
 14.0712 
 
 473 
 
 5.8284 
 
 867 
 
 199 
 
 Q 
 O 
 
 o/? 
 
 yo 
 
 A1 
 
 Ui 
 
 7 880 
 
 599 
 
 14.1067 
 
 36 
 
 5.8382 
 
 725 
 
 200 
 
 4 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 8 000 
 
 000 
 
 14.1421 
 
 356 
 
 5.8480 
 
 355 
 
 201 
 
 
 U4 
 
 A1 
 Ui 
 
 Q 1 OA 
 
 o iZU 
 
 AA1 
 
 oUl 
 
 1/1 1 4 
 
 J4.i/ /4 
 
 1 i30 
 
 4oy 
 
 5.8577 
 
 aa 
 bb 
 
 202 
 
 4 
 
 08 
 
 04 
 
 8 242 
 
 408 
 
 14.2126 
 
 704 
 
 5.8674 
 
 673 
 
 203 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 09 
 
 8 365 
 
 427 
 
 14.2478 
 
 068 
 
 5.8771 
 
 307 
 
 204 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 8 489 
 
 664 
 
 14.2828 
 
 569 
 
 5.8867 
 
 653 
 
 205 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 8 615 
 
 125 
 
 14.3178 
 
 211 
 
 5.S963 
 
 685 
 
 206 
 
 4 
 
 24 
 
 36 
 
 8 741 
 
 816 
 
 14.3527 
 
 001 
 
 5.9059 
 
 406 
 
 207 
 
 4 
 
 28 
 
 49 
 
 8 869 
 
 743 
 
 14.3874 
 
 946 
 
 5.9154 
 
 817 
 
 208 
 
 4 
 
 32 
 
 64 
 
 8 998 
 
 912 
 
 14.4222 
 
 051 
 
 5.9249 
 
 921 
 
 209 
 
 4 
 
 36 
 
 81 
 
 9 129 
 
 329 
 
 14.4568 
 
 323 
 
 5.9344 
 
 721 
 
 ! 
 
THE ENGINEER S HANDY-BOOK. 
 TABLE — (Continued) 
 
 OF SQUARES, CUBES, AND SQUARE AND CUBE ROOTS, ETC. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Cube. 
 
 Square Root. 
 
 Cube Root. 
 
 210 
 
 A 
 
 41 
 
 00 
 
 q 
 
 9fi1 
 
 000 
 
 1 4 4Q1 ^ 
 iTt.'iyio 
 
 IXJl 
 
 5.9439 22 
 
 211 
 
 A 
 
 
 21 
 
 Q 
 
 Ot/O 
 
 Q^l 
 
 VOL 
 
 14 i^9^8 
 
 oy 
 
 5.9533 418 
 
 212 
 
 4 
 
 4Q 
 
 44 
 
 Q 
 
 i7 
 
 528 
 
 128 
 
 1 4 iifi09 
 
 1 Q8 
 1 yo 
 
 5.9627 32 
 
 213 
 
 A 
 rt 
 
 uo 
 
 
 9 
 
 663 
 
 5Q7 
 
 1 4 KQ4.^ 
 
 1 tJO 
 
 5.9720 926 
 
 214 
 
 4 
 
 O 1 
 
 
 9 
 
 800 
 
 344 
 
 14 fi987 
 
 1t:.UZ(0 I 
 
 ^88 
 000 
 
 5.9814 24 
 
 215 
 
 4 
 
 
 9f» 
 
 Q 
 
 t/OO 
 
 Ol o 
 
 14 fifi98 
 
 78^ 
 / 00 
 
 5.9907 264 
 
 216 
 
 A 
 
 uu 
 
 ou 
 
 10 
 
 077 
 
 uyo 
 
 it.uyuy 
 
 oou 
 
 6. 
 
 217 
 
 4 
 
 70 
 
 Oi7 
 
 10 
 
 X.\J 
 
 91 R 
 
 ^1 '\ 
 
 OlO 
 
 14 7'-{0Q 
 1 ... / ovy 
 
 1 QQ 
 lyy 
 
 6.0092 45 
 
 218 
 
 4 
 
 
 94 
 
 10 
 
 OUV/ 
 
 9^9 
 
 lA 7A48 
 11. # uio 
 
 9^1 
 
 ZOl 
 
 6.0184 617 
 
 219 
 
 4 
 
 7Q 
 
 fil 
 
 10 
 
 
 4^Q 
 
 14 7Q8fi 
 
 Irr. / you 
 
 48fi 
 
 6.0276 502 
 
 220 
 
 4 
 
 Ort 
 
 00 
 
 10 
 
 X.\) 
 
 
 000 
 
 1 4 8*^9^ 
 
 1 *.OOZiO 
 
 Q7 
 y / 
 
 6.0368 107 
 
 221 
 
 4 
 
 oo 
 
 41 
 
 10 
 
 ( t70 
 
 8fi1 
 
 OUl 
 
 14 8fifi0 
 
 Irr.OUUU 
 
 887 
 uo / 
 
 6.0459 435 
 
 222 
 
 4 
 
 Q9 
 
 
 10 
 
 041 
 
 048 
 v^o 
 
 14 8QQfi 
 iLOfyu 
 
 fi44 
 
 6.0550 489 
 
 223 
 
 4 
 
 rr 
 
 Q7 
 
 9Q 
 
 1 1 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 14 Q^*^1 
 
 o^u 
 
 6.0641 27 
 
 224 
 
 o 
 
 
 7f^ 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 1 
 
 9^Q 
 
 
 j/±.yuuu 
 
 9QiS 
 
 ^«7U 
 
 6.0731 779 
 
 225 
 
 p; 
 o 
 
 Ofi 
 
 9^ 
 
 1 1 
 
 11 
 
 ^QO 
 
 Oi/V 
 
 
 lU. 
 
 
 6.0822 02 
 
 226 
 
 o 
 
 10 
 
 7fi 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 1 
 
 OtO 
 
 17fi 
 
 1 Ft 0^^9 
 
 lU.UOOZi 
 
 0fi4 
 
 d\j'± 
 
 6.0911 994 
 
 227 
 
 o 
 
 1.^ 
 
 9Q 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 1 
 
 fiQ7 
 
 Ut// 
 
 08^ 
 uoo 
 
 lU.vUUU 
 
 102 
 
 6.1001 702 
 
 228 
 
 o 
 
 1 Q 
 
 84 
 
 1 1 
 
 11 
 
 
 ^^9 
 ouz 
 
 1 ^ OQQR 
 lu. uyyu 
 
 uoy 
 
 6.1091 147 
 
 229 
 
 5 
 
 94 
 
 41 
 
 12 
 
 \}\jO 
 
 Q8Q 
 
 1 1 '^97 
 
 4fi 
 
 TtU 
 
 6.1180 332 
 
 230 
 
 O 
 
 9Q 
 
 00 
 
 1 9 
 iz 
 
 1 R7 
 
 000 
 
 1^1 fi^7 
 lu. 1 uu / 
 
 uuy 
 
 6.1269 257 
 
 231 
 
 o 
 
 oo 
 
 Ol 
 
 19 
 
 IZi 
 
 ozu 
 
 ^Q1 
 oyi 
 
 lu.iyou 
 
 849 
 
 6.1357 924 
 
 232 
 
 o 
 
 oo 
 
 94 
 
 19 
 
 1 Ll 
 
 487 
 
 1fi8 
 
 lUO 
 
 1 9^1 Ft 
 
 4R9 
 
 6.1446 337 
 
 233 
 
 o 
 
 49 
 
 8Q 
 
 19 
 1^ 
 
 
 oo / 
 
 lU.ZiU^O 
 
 0/ u 
 
 6.1534 495 
 
 234 
 
 5 
 
 47 
 
 UO 
 
 19 
 
 iZi 
 
 81 9 
 oiz 
 
 Q04 
 
 1 Ft 9Q70 
 
 uou 
 
 6.1622 401 
 
 235 
 
 5 
 
 C>Zf 
 
 9^^ 
 
 1 9 
 1 ^ 
 
 Q77 
 
 87.^ 
 
 Ol o 
 
 1 ^9Q7 
 
 lU.OZt/ / 
 
 097 
 
 6.1710 058 
 
 236 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 lO 
 
 144 
 
 256 
 
 
 915 
 
 6.1797 466 
 
 237 
 
 o 
 
 fil 
 Ul 
 
 oy 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 lO 
 
 ^1 9 
 
 Ol^ 
 
 0^^ 
 yjoo 
 
 1 .'S ^Q48 
 lu.oyio 
 
 04^ 
 
 6.1884 628 
 
 238 
 
 o 
 
 uo 
 
 44 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 lO 
 
 481 
 
 ■4:01 
 
 979 
 
 1.^ 4979 
 
 rrOU 
 
 6.1971 544 
 
 239 
 
 5 
 
 71 
 
 91 
 zi 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 lO 
 
 Dt>l 
 
 Q1 Q 
 yiy 
 
 1 Ft 4.^Qfi 
 
 lU.TiUaU 
 
 248 
 
 6.2058 218 
 
 240 
 
 o 
 
 7fi 
 
 00 
 
 1 ^ 
 lo 
 
 894 
 
 000 
 
 1 ^ 4Q1 Q 
 lu.Ttyiy 
 
 OOrr 
 
 6.2144 65 
 
 241 
 
 o 
 
 ^0 
 
 81 
 
 1 Q 
 10 
 
 QQ7 
 
 
 1 ^ .^941 
 
 lU.UZIl 
 
 747 
 
 6.2230 843 
 
 242 
 
 5 
 
 85 
 
 64 
 
 14 
 
 172 
 
 488 
 
 15.5563 
 
 492 
 
 6.2316 797 
 
 243 
 
 O 
 
 QO 
 
 4Q 
 
 1 4 
 1^ 
 
 ^48 
 OtcO 
 
 Q07 
 yu# 
 
 1 ^ ^^884 
 
 lU.UOOrt 
 
 u# 0 
 
 6.2402 515 
 
 244 
 
 5 
 
 95 
 
 36 
 
 14 
 
 526 
 
 784 
 
 15.6204 
 
 994 
 
 6.2487 998 
 
 245 
 
 6 
 
 00 
 
 25 
 
 14 
 
 706 
 
 125 
 
 15.6524 
 
 758 
 
 6.2573 248 
 
 246 
 
 6 
 
 05 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 886 
 
 936 
 
 15.6843 
 
 871 
 
 6.2658 266 
 
 247 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 09 
 
 15 
 
 069 
 
 223 
 
 15.7162 
 
 836 
 
 6.2743 054 
 
 248 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 04 
 
 15 
 
 252 
 
 992 
 
 15.7480 
 
 157 
 
 6.2827 613 
 
 249 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 01 
 
 15 
 
 438 
 
 249 
 
 15.7797 
 
 338 
 
 6.2911 946 
 
 250 
 
 6 
 
 25 
 
 00 
 
 15 
 
 625 
 
 000 
 
 15.8113 
 
 883 
 
 6.2996 053 
 
 251 
 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 01 
 
 15 
 
 813 
 
 251 
 
 15.8429 
 
 795 
 
 6.3079 935 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 TABLE — (Continued) 
 
 OF SQUARES, CUBES, AND SQUARE AND CUBE ROOTS, ETC. 
 
 XT 
 
 Square. 
 
 Cube 
 
 Square xCoot. 
 
 Cube Root. 
 
 252 
 
 6 35 
 
 04 
 
 16 003 008 
 
 15.8745 079 
 
 6.3163 
 
 596 
 
 253 
 
 0 40 
 
 09 
 
 16 194 277 
 
 15.9059 737 
 
 6.3247 
 
 035 
 
 254 
 
 0 45 
 
 lo 
 
 16 387 064 
 
 15.9373 775 
 
 6.3330 
 
 256 
 
 255 
 
 D OU 
 
 oc 
 LO 
 
 16 581 375 
 
 15.9687 194 
 
 6.3413 
 
 257 
 
 256 
 
 0 00 
 
 oa 
 OD 
 
 16 777 216 
 
 16. 
 
 6.3496 
 
 042 
 
 257 
 
 0 oU 
 
 A A 
 
 49 
 
 16 974 593 
 
 16.0312 195 
 
 6.3578 
 
 611 
 
 258 
 
 0 DO 
 
 ^ A 
 
 o4 
 
 17 173 512 
 
 16.0623 784 
 
 6.3660 
 
 968 
 
 259 
 
 0 7U 
 
 »1 
 
 17 373 979 
 
 16.0934 769 
 
 6.3743 
 
 111 
 
 260 
 
 0 /D 
 
 AA 
 
 17 576 000 
 
 16.1245 155 
 
 6.3825 
 
 043 
 
 261 
 
 o oi 
 
 01 
 
 17 779 581 
 
 16.1554 944 
 
 0.3906 
 
 765 
 
 262 
 
 0 OD 
 
 A A 
 
 44 
 
 17 984 728 
 
 16.1864 141 
 
 O OAOO 
 
 0.3988 
 
 279 
 
 263 
 
 Q. OI 
 
 oy 
 
 18 191 447 
 
 16.2172 747 
 
 6.4069 
 
 585 
 
 264 
 
 0 yb 
 
 96 
 
 18 399 744 
 
 16.2480 768 
 
 6.4150 
 
 687 
 
 265 
 
 T AO 
 
 OK 
 
 i20 
 
 18 609 625 
 
 16.2788 206 
 
 6.4231 
 
 583 
 
 266 
 
 7 07 
 
 00 
 
 18 821 096 
 
 16.3095 064 
 
 6.4312 
 
 276 
 
 267 
 
 
 OA 
 
 89 
 
 19 034 163 
 
 16.3401 346 
 
 6.4392 
 
 767 
 
 268 
 
 / lo 
 
 O/l 
 
 Z4 
 
 19 248 -832 
 
 16.3707 055 
 
 6.4473 
 
 057 
 
 269 
 
 / Zo 
 
 oi 
 
 19 465 109 
 
 16.4012 195 
 
 6.4553 
 
 148 
 
 270 
 
 1 on 
 
 AA 
 00 
 
 19 683 000 
 
 16.4316 767 
 
 6.4633 
 
 041 
 
 271 
 
 "7 OA 
 
 A 1 
 
 41 
 
 19 902 511 
 
 16.4620 776 
 
 6.4712 
 
 736 
 
 272 
 
 on 
 
 / oy 
 
 OA 
 
 o4 
 
 20 123 648 
 
 16.4924 225 
 
 6.4792 
 
 236 
 
 273 
 
 / 40 
 
 OA 
 
 zy 
 
 20 346 417 
 
 16.5227 116 
 
 6.4871 
 
 541 
 
 274 
 
 T r:A 
 
 / ou 
 
 7^i 
 
 7d 
 
 20 570 824 
 
 16.5529 454 
 
 6.4950 
 
 653 
 
 275 
 
 / OO 
 
 OK 
 
 ZD 
 
 20 796 875 
 
 16.5831 24 
 
 6.5029 
 
 572 
 
 276 
 
 / Oi 
 
 7A 
 
 7o 
 
 21 024 576 
 
 16.6132 477 
 
 6.5108 
 
 3 
 
 277 
 
 7 ^7 
 / 0/ 
 
 OA 
 
 29 
 
 21 253 933 
 
 16.6433 17 
 
 6.5186 
 
 839 
 
 278 
 
 7 70 
 
 O /I 
 
 o4 
 
 21 484 952 
 
 16.6783 32 
 
 6.5265 
 
 189 
 
 279 
 
 7 7Q 
 
 A 1 
 
 41 
 
 21 717 639 
 
 16.7032 931 
 
 6.5343 
 
 351 
 
 280 
 
 7 Q/1 
 
 AA 
 00 
 
 21 952 000 
 
 16.7332 005 
 
 6.5421 
 
 326 
 
 281 
 
 7 on 
 
 7 oy 
 
 51 
 
 22 188 041 
 
 16.7630 546 
 
 6.5499 
 
 116 
 
 282 
 
 / yo 
 
 O/l 
 
 z4 
 
 22 425 768 
 
 16.7928 556 
 
 6.5576 
 
 722 
 
 283 
 
 O AA 
 O 00 
 
 89 
 
 22 665 187 
 
 16.8226 038 
 
 6.5654 
 
 144 
 
 284 
 
 8 06 
 
 56 
 
 22 906 304 
 
 •16.8522 995 
 
 6.5731 
 
 385 
 
 285 
 
 ft 1 9 
 
 zo 
 
 23 149 125 
 
 16.8819 43 
 
 6.5808 
 
 44o 
 
 286 
 
 8 17 
 
 96 
 
 23 393 656 
 
 16.9115 345 
 
 6.5885 
 
 323 
 
 287 
 
 8 23 
 
 69 
 
 23 639 903 
 
 16.9410 743 
 
 6.5962 
 
 023 
 
 288 
 
 8 29 
 
 44 
 
 23 887 872 
 
 16.9705 627 
 
 6.6038 
 
 545 
 
 289 
 
 8 35 
 
 21 
 
 24 137 569 
 
 17. 
 
 6.6114 
 
 89 
 
 290 
 
 8 41 
 
 00 
 
 24 389 000 
 
 17.0293 864 
 
 6.6191 
 
 06 
 
 291 
 
 8 46 
 
 81 
 
 24 642 171 
 
 17.0587 221 
 
 6.6267 
 
 054 
 
 292 
 
 8 52 
 
 64 
 
 24 897 088 
 
 17.0880 075 
 
 6.6342 
 
 874 
 
 293 
 
 8 58 
 
 49 
 
 25 153 757 
 
 17.1172 428 
 
 6.6418 
 
 522 
 
 1 
 
THE ENGINEER^S HANDY-BOOK. 
 TABLE — (Continued) 
 
 OF SQUARES, CUBES, AND SQUARE AND CUBE ROOTS, ETC. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Cube. 
 
 Square Root. 
 
 Cube Root. 
 
 294 
 
 8 64 36 
 
 25 412 184 
 
 17.1464 282 
 
 6.6493 998 
 
 295 
 
 8 70 25 
 
 25 672 375 
 
 17.1755 64 
 
 6.6569 302 
 
 296 
 
 8 76 16 
 
 25 934 336 
 
 17.2046 505 
 
 6.6644 437 
 
 297 
 
 8 82 09 
 
 26 198 073 
 
 17.2336 879 
 
 6.6719 403 
 
 298 
 
 8 88 04 
 
 26 463 592 
 
 17.2626 765 
 
 6.6794 2 
 
 299 
 
 8 94 01 
 
 26 730 899 
 
 17.2916 165 
 
 6.6868 831 
 
 300 
 
 9 00 00 
 
 27 000 000 
 
 17.3205 081 
 
 6.6943 295 
 
 301 
 
 9 06 01 
 
 27 270 901 
 
 17.3493 516 
 
 6.7017 593 
 
 302 
 
 9 12 04 
 
 27 543 608 
 
 17.3781 472 
 
 6.7091 729 
 
 303 
 
 9 18 09 
 
 27 818 127 
 
 17.4068 952 
 
 6.7165 7 
 
 304 
 
 9 24 16 
 
 28 094 464 - 
 
 17.4355 958 
 
 6.7239 508 
 
 305 
 
 9 30 25 
 
 28 372 625 
 
 17.4642 492 
 
 6.7313 155 
 
 306 
 
 9 36 36 
 
 28 652 616 
 
 17.4928 557 
 
 6.7386 641 
 
 307 
 
 9 42 49 
 
 28 934 443 
 
 17.5214 155 
 
 6.7459 967 
 
 308 
 
 9 48 64 
 
 29 218 112 
 
 17.5499 288 
 
 6.7533 134 
 
 309 
 
 9 54 81 
 
 29 503 609 
 
 17.5783 958 
 
 6.7606 143 
 
 310 
 
 9 61 00 
 
 29 791 000 
 
 - 17.6068 169 
 
 6.7678 995 
 
 311 
 
 9 67 21 
 
 30 080 231 
 
 17.6151 921 
 
 6.7751 69 
 
 312 
 
 9 73 44 
 
 30 371 328 
 
 17.6635 217 
 
 6.7824 229 
 
 313 
 
 9 79 69 
 
 30 664 297 
 
 17.6918 06 
 
 6.7896 613 
 
 314 
 
 9 85 96 
 
 SO 959 144 
 
 17.7200 451 
 
 6.7968 844 
 
 315 
 
 9 92 25 
 
 31 255 875 
 
 17.7482 393 
 
 6.8040 921 
 
 316 
 
 9 98 56 
 
 31 554 496 
 
 17.7763 888 
 
 6.8112 847 
 
 317 
 
 10 04 89 
 
 31 855 013 
 
 17.8044 938 
 
 6.8184 62 
 
 318 
 
 10 11 24 
 
 32 157 432 
 
 17.8325 545 
 
 6.8256 242 
 
 319 
 
 10 17 61 
 
 32 461 759 
 
 17.8605 711 
 
 6.8327 714 
 
 320 
 
 10 24 00 
 
 32 768 000 
 
 17.8885 438 
 
 6.8399 037 
 
 321 
 
 10 30 41 
 
 33 076 161 
 
 17.9164 729 
 
 6.8470 213 
 
 322 
 
 10 36 84 
 
 33 386 248 
 
 17.9443 584 
 
 6.8541 24 
 
 ^323 
 
 10 43 29 
 
 33 698 267 
 
 17.9722 008 
 
 6.8612 12 
 
 324 
 
 10 49 76 
 
 34 012 224 
 
 18. 
 
 6.8682 855 
 
 325 
 
 10 56 25 
 
 34 328 125 
 
 18.0277 564 
 
 6.8753 433 
 
 326 
 
 10 62 76 
 
 34 645 976 
 
 18.0554 701 
 
 6.8823 888 
 
 327 
 
 10 69 29 
 
 34 965 783 
 
 18.0831 413 
 
 6.8894 188 
 
 328 
 
 10 75 84 
 
 35 287 552 
 
 18.1107 703 
 
 6.8964 345 
 
 329 
 
 10 82 41 
 
 35 611 289 
 
 18.1383 571 
 
 6.9034 359 
 
 330 
 
 10 89 00 
 
 35 937 000 
 
 18.1659 021 
 
 6.9104 232 
 
 331 
 
 10 95 61 
 
 36 264 691 
 
 18.1934 054 
 
 6.9173 964 
 
 332 
 
 11 02 24 
 
 36 594 368 
 
 18.2208 672 
 
 6.9243 656 
 
 333 
 
 11 08 89 
 
 36 926 037 
 
 18.2482 876 
 
 6.9313 088 
 
 334 
 
 11 15 56 
 
 37 259 704 
 
 18.2756 669 
 
 6.9382 321 
 
 335 
 
 11 22 25 
 
 37 595 375 
 
 18.3030 052 
 
 6.9451 496 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 T A B Li K — (Continued) 
 
 OP SQUARES, CUBES, AND SQUARE AND CUBE ROOTS, ETC. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Cube. 
 
 Square Root. 
 
 Cube Root. 
 
 336 
 
 11 
 
 28 
 
 96 
 
 37 
 
 933 
 
 056 
 
 18.3303 
 
 028 
 
 6.9520 
 
 533 
 
 337 
 
 11 
 
 35 
 
 69 
 
 38 
 
 272 
 
 753 
 
 18.3575 
 
 598 
 
 6.9589 
 
 434 
 
 338 
 
 11 
 
 42 
 
 44 
 
 38 
 
 614 
 
 472 
 
 18.3847 
 
 763 
 
 6.9658 
 
 198 
 
 339 
 
 11 
 
 49 
 
 21 
 
 38 
 
 958 
 
 219 
 
 18.4119 
 
 526 
 
 6.9726 
 
 826 
 
 340 
 
 11 
 
 56 
 
 00 
 
 39 
 
 304 
 
 000 
 
 18!4390 
 
 889 
 
 6.9795 
 
 321 
 
 341 
 
 11 
 
 62 
 
 81 
 
 39 
 
 651 
 
 821 
 
 18.4661 
 
 853 
 
 6.9863 
 
 681 
 
 342 
 
 11 
 
 69 
 
 64 
 
 40 
 
 001 
 
 688 
 
 18.4932 
 
 42 
 
 6.9931 
 
 906 
 
 343 
 
 11 
 
 76 
 
 49 
 
 40 
 
 353 
 
 607 
 
 18.5202 
 
 592 
 
 7. 
 
 
 344 
 
 11 
 
 83 
 
 36 
 
 40 
 
 707 
 
 584 
 
 18.5472 
 
 37 
 
 7.0067 
 
 962 
 
 345 
 
 11 
 
 90 
 
 25 
 
 41 
 
 063 
 
 625 
 
 18.5741 
 
 756 
 
 7.0135 
 
 791 
 
 346 
 
 11 
 
 97 
 
 16 
 
 41 
 
 421 
 
 736 
 
 18.6010 
 
 752 
 
 7.0203 
 
 49 
 
 347 
 
 12 
 
 04 
 
 09 
 
 41 
 
 781 
 
 923 
 
 18.6279 
 
 36 
 
 7.0271 
 
 058 
 
 348 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 04 
 
 42 
 
 144 
 
 192 
 
 18.6547 
 
 581 
 
 7.0338 
 
 497 
 
 349 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 01 
 
 42 
 
 508 
 
 549 
 
 18.6815 
 
 417 
 
 7.0405 
 
 806 
 
 350 
 
 12 
 
 25 
 
 00 
 
 42 
 
 875 
 
 000 
 
 18.7082 
 
 869 
 
 7.0472 
 
 987 
 
 351 
 
 12 
 
 32 
 
 01 
 
 43 
 
 243 
 
 551 
 
 18.7349 
 
 94 
 
 7.0540 
 
 041 
 
 352 
 
 12 
 
 39 
 
 04 
 
 43 
 
 614 
 
 208 
 
 18.7616 
 
 63 
 
 7.0606 
 
 967 
 
 353 
 
 12 
 
 46 
 
 09 
 
 43 
 
 986 
 
 977 
 
 18^7882 
 
 942 
 
 7.0673 
 
 767 
 
 354 
 
 12 
 
 53 
 
 16 
 
 44 
 
 361 
 
 864 
 
 18.8148 
 
 877 
 
 7.0740 
 
 44 
 
 355 
 
 12 
 
 60 
 
 25 
 
 44 
 
 738 
 
 875 
 
 18^8414 
 
 437 
 
 7.0806 
 
 988 
 
 356 
 
 12 
 
 67 
 
 36 
 
 45 
 
 118 
 
 016 
 
 18.8679 
 
 623 
 
 7.0873 
 
 411 
 
 357 
 
 12 
 
 74 
 
 49 
 
 45 
 
 499 
 
 293 
 
 18!8944 
 
 436 
 
 7.0939 
 
 709 
 
 358 
 
 12 
 
 81 
 
 64 
 
 45 
 
 882 
 
 712 
 
 18!9208 
 
 879 
 
 7.1005 
 
 885 
 
 359 
 
 12 
 
 88 
 
 81 
 
 46 
 
 268 
 
 279 
 
 18!9472 
 
 953 
 
 7!l071 
 
 937 
 
 360 
 
 12 
 
 96 
 
 00 
 
 46 
 
 656 
 
 000 
 
 18.9736 
 
 66 
 
 7.1137 
 
 866 
 
 361 
 
 13 
 
 03 
 
 21 
 
 47 
 
 045 
 
 831 
 
 19. 
 
 
 7.1203 
 
 674 
 
 362 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 44 
 
 47 
 
 437 
 
 928 
 
 19.0262 
 
 976 
 
 7.1269 
 
 36 
 
 363 
 
 13 
 
 17 
 
 69 
 
 47 
 
 832 
 
 147 
 
 1 9.0525 
 
 589 
 
 7.1334 
 
 925 
 
 364 
 
 13 
 
 24 
 
 96 
 
 48 
 
 228 
 
 544 
 
 19.0787 
 
 84 
 
 7.1400 
 
 37 
 
 365 
 
 13 
 
 32 
 
 25 
 
 48 
 
 627 
 
 125 
 
 19.1049 
 
 732 
 
 7.1465 
 
 695 
 
 366 
 
 13 
 
 39 
 
 56 
 
 49 
 
 027 
 
 896 
 
 19.1311 
 
 265 
 
 7.1530 
 
 901 
 
 367 
 
 13 
 
 46 
 
 89 
 
 49 
 
 430 
 
 863 
 
 19.1572 
 
 441 
 
 7.1595 
 
 988 
 
 368 
 
 13 
 
 54 
 
 24 
 
 49 
 
 836 
 
 032 
 
 19!l833 
 
 261 
 
 7!l660 
 
 957 • 
 
 369 
 
 13 
 
 61 
 
 61 
 
 50 
 
 243 
 
 409 
 
 19.2093 
 
 727 
 
 7.1725 
 
 809 
 
 370 
 
 13 
 
 69 
 
 00 
 
 50 
 
 653 
 
 000 
 
 19.2353 
 
 841 
 
 7.1790 
 
 544 
 
 371 
 
 13 
 
 76 
 
 41 
 
 51 
 
 064 
 
 811 
 
 19.2613 
 
 603 
 
 7.1855 
 
 162 
 
 372 
 
 13 
 
 83 
 
 84 
 
 51 
 
 478 
 
 848 
 
 19.287S 
 
 015 
 
 7.1919 
 
 663 
 
 373 
 
 13 
 
 91 
 
 29 
 
 51 
 
 895 
 
 117 
 
 19 3132 
 
 079 
 
 7.1984 
 
 05 
 
 374 
 
 13 
 
 98 
 
 76 
 
 52 
 
 313 
 
 624 
 
 19.3390 
 
 796 
 
 7.2048 
 
 322 
 
 375 
 
 14 
 
 06 
 
 25 
 
 52 
 
 734 
 
 375 
 
 19.3649 
 
 167 
 
 7.2112 
 
 479 
 
 376 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 76 
 
 53 
 
 157 
 
 376 
 
 19.3907 
 
 194 
 
 7.2176 
 
 522 
 
 377 
 
 14 
 
 21 
 
 29 
 
 53 
 
 582 
 
 633 
 
 194164 
 
 87S 
 
 7.2240 
 
 45 
 
576 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 TABLE — (Continued) 
 
 OF SQUARES, CUBES, AND SQUARE AND CUBE ROOTS, ETC 
 
 Number. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Cube. 
 
 Square Root. 
 
 Cube Rooi. 
 
 378 
 
 14 
 
 28 
 
 84 
 
 54 
 
 010 
 
 152 
 
 19.4422 
 
 221 
 
 7.2304 268 
 
 379 
 
 14 
 
 36 
 
 41 
 
 54 
 
 439 
 
 939 
 
 19.4679 
 
 223 
 
 7.2367 972 
 
 380 
 
 14 
 
 44 
 
 00 
 
 54 
 
 872 
 
 000 
 
 19.4935 
 
 887 
 
 7.2431 565 
 
 381 
 
 14 
 
 51 
 
 61 
 
 55 
 
 306 
 
 341 
 
 19.5192 
 
 213 
 
 7.2495 045 
 
 382 
 
 14 
 
 59 
 
 24 
 
 55 
 
 742 
 
 968 
 
 19.5448 
 
 203 
 
 7.2558 415 
 
 383 
 
 14 
 
 66 
 
 89 
 
 56 
 
 181 
 
 887 
 
 19.5703 
 
 858 
 
 7.2621 675 
 
 384 
 
 14 
 
 74 
 
 56 
 
 56 
 
 623 
 
 104 
 
 19.5959 
 
 179 
 
 7.2684 824 
 
 385 
 
 14 
 
 82 
 
 25 
 
 57 
 
 066 
 
 625 
 
 19.6214 
 
 169 
 
 7.2747 864 
 
 386 
 
 14 
 
 89 
 
 96 
 
 57 
 
 512 
 
 456 
 
 19.6468 
 
 827 
 
 7.2810 794 
 
 387 
 
 14 
 
 97 
 
 69 
 
 57 
 
 960 
 
 603 
 
 19.6723 
 
 156 
 
 7.2873 617 
 
 388 
 
 15 
 
 05 
 
 44 
 
 58 
 
 411 
 
 072 
 
 19.6977 
 
 156 
 
 7.2936 33 
 
 389 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 21 
 
 58 
 
 863 
 
 869 
 
 19.7230 
 
 829 
 
 7.2998 936 
 
 390 
 
 15 
 
 21 
 
 00 
 
 59 
 
 319 
 
 000 
 
 19.7484 
 
 177 
 
 7.3061 436 
 
 391 
 
 15 
 
 28 
 
 81 
 
 59 
 
 776 
 
 471 
 
 19.7737 
 
 199 
 
 7.3123 828 
 
 392 
 
 15 
 
 36 
 
 64 
 
 60 
 
 236 
 
 288 
 
 19.7989 
 
 899 
 
 7.3186 114 
 
 393 
 
 15 
 
 44 
 
 49 
 
 60 
 
 698 
 
 457 
 
 19.8242 
 
 276 
 
 7.3248 295 
 
 394 
 
 15 
 
 52 
 
 36 
 
 61 
 
 162 
 
 984 
 
 19.8494 
 
 332 
 
 7.3310 369 
 
 395 
 
 15 
 
 60 
 
 25 
 
 61 
 
 629 
 
 875 
 
 19.8746 
 
 069 
 
 7.33/2 339 
 
 396 
 
 15 
 
 68 
 
 16 
 
 62 
 
 099 
 
 136 
 
 19.8997 
 
 487 
 
 7.3434 205 
 
 397 
 
 15 
 
 76 
 
 09 
 
 62 
 
 570 
 
 773 
 
 19.9248 
 
 588 
 
 7.3495 966 
 
 398 
 
 15 
 
 84 
 
 04 
 
 63 
 
 044 
 
 792 
 
 19.9499 
 
 373 
 
 7.3557 624 
 
 399 
 
 15 
 
 92 
 
 01 
 
 63 
 
 521 
 
 199 
 
 19.9749 
 
 844 
 
 7.3619 178 
 
 400 
 
 16 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 64 
 
 000 
 
 000 
 
 20. 
 
 
 7.3680 63 
 
 401 
 
 16 
 
 08 
 
 01 
 
 64 
 
 481 
 
 201 
 
 20.0249 
 
 844 
 
 7.3741 979 
 
 402 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 04 
 
 64 
 
 964 
 
 808 
 
 20.0499 
 
 377 
 
 7.3803 227 
 
 403 
 
 16 
 
 24 
 
 09 
 
 65 
 
 450 
 
 827 
 
 20.0748 
 
 599 
 
 7.3864 373 
 
 404 
 
 16 
 
 32 
 
 16 
 
 65 
 
 939 
 
 264 
 
 20.0997 
 
 512 
 
 7.3925 418 
 
 405 
 
 16 
 
 40 
 
 25 
 
 66 
 
 430 
 
 125 
 
 20.1246 
 
 118 
 
 7.3986 363 
 
 406 
 
 16 
 
 48 
 
 36 
 
 66 
 
 923 
 
 416 
 
 20.1494 
 
 417 
 
 7.4047 206 
 
 407 
 
 16 
 
 56 
 
 49 
 
 67 
 
 419 
 
 143 
 
 20.1742 
 
 41 
 
 n At A'? ric; 
 
 7.4107 95 
 
 408 
 
 16 
 
 64 
 
 64 
 
 67 
 
 917 
 
 312 
 
 20.1990 
 
 099 
 
 7.4168 595 
 
 409 
 
 16 
 
 72 
 
 81 
 
 68 
 
 417 
 
 929 
 
 20.2237 
 
 484 
 
 7.4229 142 
 
 410 
 
 16 
 
 81 
 
 00 
 
 68 
 
 921 
 
 000 
 
 20.2484 
 
 567 
 
 7.4289 589 
 
 411 
 
 16 
 
 89 
 
 21 
 
 69 
 
 426 
 
 531 
 
 20.2731 
 
 349 
 
 ^7 A ct A f\ r\oo 
 
 7.4349 938 
 
 412 
 
 16 
 
 97 
 
 44 
 
 69 
 
 934 
 
 528 
 
 20.2977 
 
 831 
 
 7.4410 189 
 
 413 
 
 17 
 
 05 
 
 69 
 
 70 
 
 444 
 
 997 
 
 20.3224 
 
 014 
 
 7.4470 342 
 
 414 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 96 
 
 70 
 
 957 
 
 944 
 
 20.3469 
 
 899 
 
 ^7 /I r OA OAA 
 
 7.4530 399 
 
 415 
 
 17 
 
 22 
 
 25 
 
 71 
 
 473 
 
 375 
 
 20.3715 
 
 488 
 
 7.4590 359 
 
 416 
 
 17 
 
 30 
 
 56 
 
 71 
 
 991 
 
 296 
 
 20.3960 
 
 781 
 
 7.4650 223 
 
 417 
 
 17 
 
 38 
 
 89 
 
 72 
 
 511 
 
 713 
 
 20.4205 
 
 779 
 
 7.4709 991 
 
 418 
 
 J7 
 
 47 
 
 24 
 
 73 
 
 034 
 
 632 
 
 20.4450 
 
 483 
 
 7.4769 664 
 
 419 
 
 17 
 
 55 
 
 61 
 
 73 
 
 560 
 
 059 
 
 20.4694 
 
 895 
 
 7.4829 242 
 
rHE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 577 
 
 T A B L K — ( Continued) 
 
 OF SQUARES, CUBES, AND SQUARE AND CUBE ROOTS, ETC. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Cube. 
 
 Square Hoot. 
 
 Cube Root. 
 
 420 
 
 17 64 00 
 
 74 088 000 
 
 20.4939 015 
 
 7.4888 724 
 
 421 
 
 17 72 41 
 
 74 618 461 
 
 20.5182 845 
 
 7.4948 113 
 
 422 
 
 17 80 84 
 
 75 151 448 
 
 20.5426 386 
 
 7.5007 406 
 
 423 
 
 17 89 29 
 
 75 686 967 
 
 20.5669 638 
 
 7.5066 607 
 
 424 
 
 17 97 76 
 
 76 225 024 
 
 20.5912 603 
 
 7.5125 715 
 
 425 
 
 18 06 25 
 
 76 765 625 
 
 20.6155 281 
 
 7.5184 73 
 
 426 
 
 18 14 76 
 
 77 308 776 
 
 20.6397 674 
 
 7.5243 652 
 
 427 
 
 18 23 29 
 
 77 854 483 
 
 20.6639 783 
 
 7.5302 482 
 
 428 
 
 18 31 84 
 
 78 402 752 
 
 20.6881 609 
 
 7.5361 221 
 
 429 
 
 18 40 41 
 
 78 953 589 
 
 20.7123 152 
 
 7.5419 867 
 
 430 
 
 18 49 00 
 
 79 507 000 
 
 20.7364 414 
 
 7.5478 423 
 
 431 
 
 18 57 61 
 
 80 062 991 
 
 20.7605 395 
 
 7.5536 888 
 
 432 
 
 18 66 24 
 
 80 621 568 
 
 20.7846 097 
 
 7.5595 263 
 
 433 
 
 18 74 89 
 
 81 182 737 
 
 20.8086 52 
 
 7.5653 548 
 
 434 
 
 18 83 56 
 
 81 746 504 
 
 20.8326 667 
 
 7.5711 743 
 
 435 
 
 18 92 25 
 
 82 312 875 
 
 20.8566 536 
 
 7.5769 849 
 
 436 
 
 19 00 96 
 
 82 881 856 
 
 20.8806 13 
 
 7.5827 865 
 
 437 
 
 19 09 69 
 
 83 453 453 
 
 20.9045 45 
 
 7.5885 793 
 
 438 
 
 19 18 44 
 
 84 027 672 
 
 20.9284 495 
 
 7.5943 633 
 
 439 
 
 19 27 21 
 
 84 604 519 
 
 20.9523 268 
 
 7.6001 385 
 
 440 
 
 19 36 00 
 
 85 184 000 
 
 20.9761 77 
 
 7.6059 049 
 
 441 
 
 19 44 81 
 
 85 766 121 
 
 21. 
 
 7.6116 626 
 
 442 
 
 19 53 64 
 
 86 350 888 
 
 21.0237 96 
 
 7.6174 116 
 
 443 
 
 19 62 49 
 
 86 938 307 
 
 21.0475 652 
 
 7.6231 519 
 
 444 
 
 19 71 36 
 
 87 528 384 
 
 21.0713 075 
 
 7.6288 837 
 
 445 
 
 19 80 25 
 
 88 121 125 
 
 21.0950 231 
 
 7.6346 067 
 
 446 
 
 19 89 16 
 
 88 716 536 
 
 21.1187 121 
 
 7.6403 213 
 
 447 
 
 19 98 09 
 
 89 314 623 
 
 21.1423 745 
 
 7.6460 272 
 
 448 
 
 20 07 04 
 
 89 915 392 
 
 21.1660 105 
 
 7.6517 247 
 
 449 
 
 20 16 01 
 
 90 518 849 
 
 21.1896 201 
 
 7.6574 138 
 
 450 
 
 20' 25 00 
 
 91 125 000 
 
 21.2132 034 
 
 7.6630 943 
 
 451 
 
 20 34 01 
 
 91 733 851 
 
 21.2367 .606 
 
 7.6687 665 
 
 452 
 
 20 43 04 
 
 92 345 408 
 
 21.2602 916 
 
 7.6744 303 
 
 453 
 
 20 52 09 
 
 92 959 677 
 
 21.2837 967 
 
 7.6800 857 
 
 454 
 
 20 61 16 
 
 93 576 664 
 
 21.3072 758 
 
 7.6857 328 
 
 455 
 
 20 70 25 
 
 94 196 375 
 
 21.3307 29 
 
 7.6913 717 
 
 456 
 
 20 79 36 
 
 94 818 816 
 
 21.3541 565 
 
 7.6970 023 
 
 457 
 
 20 88 49 
 
 95 443 993 
 
 21.3775 583 
 
 7.7026 246 
 
 458 
 
 20 97 64 
 
 96 071 912 
 
 21.4009 346 
 
 7.7082 388 
 
 459 
 
 21 06 81 
 
 96 702 579 
 
 21.4242 853 
 
 1 7.7138 448 
 
 460 
 
 21 16 00 
 
 97 336 000 
 
 21.4476 106 
 
 i 7.7194 426 
 
 461 
 
 21 25 21 
 
 97 972 181 
 
 21.4709 106 
 
 7.7250 325 
 
 49 2M 
 
578 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 TABLE — (Continued) 
 
 OF SQUARES, CUBES, AND SQUARE AND CUBE ROOTS, ETC. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Square, 
 
 Cube. 
 
 Square Root. 
 
 Cube Root. 
 
 462 
 
 21 
 
 34 
 
 44 
 
 98 
 
 611 
 
 128 
 
 21.4941 
 
 853 
 
 7.7306 141 
 
 463 
 
 21 
 
 43 
 
 69 
 
 99 
 
 252 
 
 847 
 
 21.5174 
 
 348 
 
 7.7361 877 
 
 464 
 
 21 
 
 52 
 
 96 
 
 99 
 
 897 
 
 344 
 
 21.5406 
 
 592 
 
 7.7417 532 
 
 465 
 
 21 
 
 62 
 
 25 
 
 100 
 
 544 
 
 625 
 
 21.5638 
 
 587 
 
 7.7473 109 
 
 466 
 
 21 
 
 71 
 
 56 
 
 101 
 
 194 
 
 696 
 
 21.5870 
 
 331 
 
 7.7528 606 
 
 467 
 
 21 
 
 80 
 
 89 
 
 101 
 
 847 
 
 563 
 
 21.6101 
 
 828 
 
 7.7584 023 
 
 468 
 
 21 
 
 90 
 
 24 
 
 102 
 
 503 
 
 232 
 
 21.6333 
 
 077 
 
 7.7639 361 
 
 469 
 
 21 
 
 99 
 
 61 
 
 103 
 
 161 
 
 709 
 
 2L6564 
 
 078 
 
 7.7694 62 
 
 470 
 
 22 
 
 09 
 
 00 
 
 103 
 
 823 
 
 000 
 
 21.6794 
 
 834 
 
 7.7749 801 
 
 471 
 
 22 
 
 18 
 
 41 
 
 104 
 
 487 
 
 111 
 
 2L7025 
 
 344 
 
 7.7804 904 
 
 472 
 
 22 
 
 27 
 
 84 
 
 105 
 
 154 
 
 048 
 
 21.7255 
 
 51 
 
 7.7859 928 
 
 473 
 
 22 
 
 37 
 
 29 
 
 105 
 
 823 
 
 817 
 
 21.7485 
 
 632 
 
 7.7914 875 
 
 474 
 
 22 
 
 46 
 
 76 
 
 106 
 
 496 
 
 424 
 
 21.7715 
 
 411 
 
 7.7969 745 
 
 475 
 
 22 
 
 56 
 
 25 
 
 107 
 
 171 
 
 875 
 
 21.7944 
 
 947 
 
 7.8024 538 
 
 476 
 
 22 
 
 65 
 
 76 
 
 107 
 
 850 
 
 176 
 
 21.8174 
 
 242 
 
 7.8079 254 
 
 477 
 
 22 
 
 75 
 
 29 
 
 108 
 
 531 
 
 333 
 
 2l!8403 
 
 297 
 
 7.8133 892 
 
 478 
 
 22 
 
 84 
 
 84 
 
 109 
 
 215 
 
 352 
 
 21.8632 
 
 111 
 
 7.8188 456 
 
 479 
 
 22 
 
 94 
 
 41 
 
 109 
 
 902 
 
 239 
 
 21.8860 
 
 686 
 
 7.8242 942 
 
 480 
 
 23 
 
 04 
 
 00 
 
 no 
 
 592 
 
 000 
 
 21.9089 
 
 023 
 
 7.8297 353 
 
 481 
 
 23 
 
 13 
 
 61 
 
 111 
 
 284 
 
 641 
 
 2L9317 
 
 122 
 
 7.8351 688 
 
 482 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 111 
 
 980 
 
 168 
 
 21.9544 
 
 984 
 
 7.8405 949 
 
 483 
 
 23 
 
 32 
 
 89 
 
 112 
 
 678 
 
 587 
 
 21.9772 
 
 61 
 
 7.8460 134 
 
 484 
 
 23 
 
 42 
 
 56 
 
 113 
 
 379 
 
 904 
 
 22. 
 
 
 7.8514 244 
 
 485 
 
 23 
 
 52 
 
 25 
 
 114 
 
 084 
 
 125 
 
 22.0227 
 
 155 
 
 7.8568 281 
 
 486 
 
 23 
 
 61 
 
 96 
 
 114 
 
 791 
 
 256 
 
 22.0454 
 
 077 
 
 7.8622 242 
 
 487 
 
 23 
 
 71 
 
 69 
 
 115- 501 
 
 303 
 
 22.0680 
 
 765 
 
 7.8676 13 
 
 488 
 
 23 
 
 81 
 
 44 
 
 116 
 
 214 
 
 272 
 
 22.0907 
 
 22 
 
 7.8729 944 
 
 489 
 
 23 
 
 91 
 
 21 
 
 116 
 
 930 
 
 169 
 
 22.1133 
 
 444 
 
 7.8783 684 
 
 490 
 
 24 
 
 01 
 
 00 
 
 117 
 
 649 
 
 000 
 
 22.1359 
 
 436 
 
 7.8837 352 
 
 491 
 
 24 
 
 10 
 
 81 
 
 118 
 
 370 
 
 771 
 
 22!l585 
 
 198 
 
 7.8890 946 
 
 492 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 64 
 
 119 
 
 095 
 
 488 
 
 22.1810 
 
 73 
 
 «7*8944 468 
 
 493 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 49 
 
 119 
 
 823 
 
 157 
 
 22 20.S6 
 
 033 
 
 7.8997 917 
 
 494 
 
 24 
 
 40 
 
 36 
 
 120 
 
 553 
 
 784 
 
 22.2261 
 
 108 
 
 7.9051 294 
 
 495 
 
 24 
 
 50 
 
 25 
 
 121 
 
 287 
 
 375 
 
 22.2485 
 
 955 
 
 7.9104 599 
 
 496 
 
 24 
 
 60 
 
 16 
 
 122 
 
 023 
 
 936 
 
 22!2710 
 
 575 
 
 7.9157 832 
 
 497 
 
 24 
 
 70 
 
 09 
 
 122 
 
 763 
 
 473 
 
 22.2934 
 
 968 
 
 7.9210 994 
 
 498 
 
 24 
 
 80 
 
 04 
 
 123 
 
 505 
 
 992 
 
 22.3159 
 
 136 
 
 7.9264 085 
 
 499 
 
 24 
 
 90 
 
 01 
 
 124 
 
 251 
 
 499 
 
 22.3383 
 
 079 
 
 7.9317 104 
 
 500 
 
 25 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 125 
 
 000 
 
 000 
 
 22.3606 
 
 798 
 
 7.9370 053 
 
 501 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 01 
 
 125 
 
 751 
 
 501 
 
 22.3830 
 
 293 
 
 7.9422 931 
 
 502 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 04 
 
 126 
 
 506 
 
 008 
 
 22.4053 
 
 565 
 
 7.9475 739 
 
 503 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 09 
 
 127 
 
 263 
 
 527 
 
 22.4276 
 
 615 
 
 7.9528 477 
 
THE ENGINEER .S HANDY-BOOK. -) 
 TABLE- (Cojitinued) 
 
 OF SQUARES, CUBES, AND SQUARE AND CUBE ROOTS, ETC. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Cube. 
 
 Square Root. 
 
 Cube Root. 
 
 
 25 
 
 40 
 
 16 
 
 128 
 
 024 
 
 064 
 
 22.4499 
 
 443 
 
 7.9581 
 
 144 
 
 OxJO 
 
 25 
 
 50 
 
 25 
 
 128 
 
 787 
 
 625 
 
 22.4722 
 
 051 
 
 7.9633 
 
 743 
 
 uuo 
 
 25 
 
 60 
 
 36 
 
 129 
 
 554 
 
 246 
 
 22.4944 
 
 438 
 
 7.9686 
 
 271 
 
 ou/ 
 
 25 
 
 70 
 
 49 
 
 130 
 
 323 
 
 843 
 
 22.5166 
 
 605 
 
 7.9738 
 
 731 
 
 O\jo 
 
 25 
 
 80 
 
 64 
 
 131 
 
 096 
 
 512 
 
 22.5388 
 
 553 
 
 7.9791 
 
 122 
 
 
 25 
 
 90 
 
 81 
 
 131 
 
 872 
 
 229 
 
 22.5610 
 
 283 
 
 7.9843 
 
 444 
 
 OL\J 
 
 26 
 
 01 
 
 00 
 
 132 
 
 651 
 
 000 
 
 22.5831 
 
 796 
 
 7.9895 
 
 697 
 
 Fi\ 1 
 
 O I ± 
 
 26 
 
 11 
 
 21 
 
 133 
 
 432 
 
 831 
 
 22.6053 
 
 091 
 
 7.9947 
 
 883 
 
 Ol it 
 
 26 
 
 21 
 
 44 
 
 134 
 
 217 
 
 728 
 
 22.6274 
 
 17 
 
 8. 
 
 
 .^1 ^ 
 
 26 
 
 31 
 
 69 
 
 135 
 
 005 
 
 697 
 
 22.6495 
 
 033 
 
 8.0052 
 
 049 
 
 
 26 
 
 41 
 
 96 
 
 135 
 
 796 
 
 744 
 
 22.6715 
 
 681 
 
 8.0104 
 
 032 
 
 .M ^ 
 
 OyO 
 
 26 
 
 52 
 
 25 
 
 136 
 
 590 
 
 875 
 
 22.6936 
 
 114 
 
 8.0155 
 
 946 
 
 fil ft 
 
 26 
 
 62 
 
 56 
 
 137 
 
 388 
 
 096 
 
 22.7156 
 
 334 
 
 8.0207 
 
 794 
 
 .^17 
 
 26 
 
 72 
 
 89 
 
 138 
 
 188 
 
 413 
 
 22.7376 
 
 340 
 
 8.0259 
 
 574 
 
 UIO 
 
 26 
 
 83 
 
 24 
 
 138 
 
 991 
 
 832 
 
 22.7596 
 
 134 
 
 8.0311 
 
 287 
 
 
 26 
 
 93 
 
 61 
 
 139 
 
 798 
 
 359 
 
 22.7815 
 
 715 
 
 8.0362 
 
 935 
 
 
 27 
 
 04 
 
 00 
 
 140 
 
 608 
 
 000 
 
 22.8035 
 
 085 
 
 8.0414 
 
 515 
 
 521 
 
 27 
 
 14 
 
 41 
 
 141 
 
 420 
 
 761 
 
 22.8254 
 
 244 
 
 8.0466 
 
 03 
 
 .599 
 
 27 
 
 24 
 
 84 
 
 142 
 
 236 
 
 648 
 
 22.8473 
 
 193 
 
 8.0517 
 
 479 
 
 
 27 
 
 35 
 
 29 
 
 143 
 
 055 
 
 667 
 
 22.8691 
 
 933 
 
 8.0568 
 
 862 
 
 .594. 
 
 27 
 
 45 
 
 76 
 
 143 
 
 877 
 
 824 
 
 22.8910 
 
 463 
 
 8.0620 
 
 18 
 
 .59,5 
 
 27 
 
 56 
 
 25 
 
 144 
 
 703 
 
 125 
 
 22.9128 
 
 785 
 
 8.0671 
 
 432 
 
 
 27 
 
 66 
 
 76 
 
 145 
 
 531 
 
 576 
 
 22.9346 
 
 899 
 
 8.0722 
 
 62 
 
 .597 
 
 27 
 
 77 
 
 29 
 
 146 
 
 363 
 
 183 
 
 22.9564 
 
 806 
 
 8.0773 
 
 743 
 
 .598 
 
 27 
 
 87 
 
 84 
 
 147 
 
 197 
 
 952 
 
 22.9782 
 
 506 
 
 8.0824 
 
 8 
 
 .59Q 
 
 27 
 
 98 
 
 41 
 
 148 
 
 035 
 
 889 
 
 23. 
 
 
 8.0875 
 
 794 
 
 
 28 
 
 09 
 
 00 
 
 148 
 
 877 
 
 000 
 
 23.0217 
 
 289 
 
 8.0926 
 
 723 
 
 531 
 
 28 
 
 19 
 
 61 
 
 149 
 
 721 
 
 291 
 
 23.0434 
 
 372 
 
 8.0977 
 
 589 
 
 532 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 150 
 
 568 
 
 768 
 
 23.0651 
 
 252 
 
 8.1028 
 
 39 
 
 533 
 
 28 
 
 40 
 
 89 
 
 151 
 
 419 
 
 437 
 
 23.0867 
 
 928 
 
 8.1079 
 
 128 
 
 534 
 
 28 
 
 51 
 
 56 
 
 152 
 
 273 
 
 304 
 
 23.1084 
 
 4 
 
 8.1129 
 
 803 
 
 535 
 
 28 
 
 62 
 
 25 
 
 153 
 
 130 
 
 375 
 
 23.1300 
 
 67 
 
 8.1180 
 
 414 
 
 536 
 
 28 
 
 72 
 
 96 
 
 153 
 
 990 
 
 656 
 
 23.1516 
 
 738 
 
 8.1230 
 
 962 , 
 
 ,5^7 
 
 28 
 
 83 
 
 69 
 
 154 
 
 854 
 
 153 
 
 23.1732 
 
 605 
 
 8.1281 
 
 447 
 
 ooo 
 
 28 
 
 94 
 
 44 
 
 155 
 
 720 
 
 872 
 
 23.1948 
 
 37 
 
 8.1331 
 
 87 
 
 539 
 
 29 
 
 05 
 
 21 
 
 156 
 
 590 
 
 819 
 
 23.2163 
 
 735 
 
 8.1382 
 
 23 
 
 540 
 
 29 
 
 16 
 
 00 
 
 157 
 
 464 
 
 000 
 
 23.2379 
 
 001 
 
 8.1432 
 
 529 
 
 541 
 
 29 
 
 26 
 
 81 
 
 158 
 
 340 
 
 421 
 
 23.2594 
 
 067 
 
 8.1482 
 
 765 
 
 542 
 
 29 
 
 37 
 
 64 
 
 159 
 
 220 
 
 088 
 
 23.2808 
 
 935 
 
 8.1532 
 
 939 
 
 543 
 
 29 
 
 48 
 
 49 
 
 160 
 
 103 
 
 007 
 
 23.3023 
 
 604 
 
 8.1583 
 
 051 
 
 544 
 
 29 
 
 59 
 
 36 
 
 160 
 
 989 
 
 184 
 
 23.3238 
 
 076 
 
 8.1633 
 
 102 
 
 545 
 
 29 
 
 70 
 
 25 
 
 161 
 
 878 
 
 625 
 
 23.3452 
 
 351 
 
 8.1683 
 
 092 
 
riiE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 TABLE — (Continued) 
 
 OF SQUARES, CUBES, AND SQUARE AND CUBE ROOTS, ETC. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Cube. 
 
 Square Root. 
 
 Cube Root. 
 
 546 
 
 29 
 
 81 
 
 16 
 
 162 
 
 771 
 
 336 
 
 23.3666 
 
 429 
 
 8.1733 02 
 
 547 
 
 29 
 
 92 
 
 09 
 
 163 
 
 667 
 
 323 
 
 23.3880 
 
 311 
 
 8.1782 888 
 
 548 
 
 30 
 
 03 
 
 04 
 
 164 
 
 566 
 
 592 
 
 23.4093 
 
 998 
 
 8.1832 695 
 
 549 
 
 30 
 
 14 
 
 01 
 
 165 
 
 469 
 
 149 
 
 23.4307 
 
 49 
 
 8.1882 441 
 
 550 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 00 
 
 166 
 
 375 
 
 000 
 
 23.4520 
 
 788 
 
 8.1932 127 
 
 551 
 
 30 
 
 36 
 
 01 
 
 167 
 
 284 
 
 151 
 
 23.4733 
 
 892 
 
 8.1981 753 
 
 552 
 
 30 
 
 47 
 
 04 
 
 168 
 
 196 
 
 608 
 
 23.4946 
 
 802 
 
 8.2031 319 
 
 553 
 
 30 
 
 58 
 
 09 
 
 169 
 
 112 
 
 377 
 
 23.5159 
 
 52 
 
 8.2080 825 
 
 554 
 
 30 
 
 69 
 
 16 
 
 170 
 
 031 
 
 464 
 
 23.5372 
 
 046 
 
 8.2130 271 
 
 555 
 
 30 
 
 80 
 
 25 
 
 170 
 
 953 
 
 875 
 
 23.5584 
 
 38 
 
 8.2179 657 
 
 556 
 
 30 
 
 91 
 
 36 
 
 171 
 
 879 
 
 616 
 
 23.5796 
 
 522 
 
 8.2228 985 
 
 557 
 
 31 
 
 02 
 
 49 
 
 172 
 
 808 
 
 693 
 
 23.6008 
 
 474 
 
 8.2278 254 
 
 558 
 
 31 
 
 13 
 
 64 
 
 173 
 
 741 
 
 112 
 
 23.6220 
 
 236 
 
 8.2327 463 
 
 559 
 
 31 
 
 24 
 
 81 
 
 174 
 
 676 
 
 879 
 
 23.6431 
 
 808 
 
 8.2376 614 
 
 560 
 
 31 
 
 36 
 
 00 
 
 175 
 
 616 
 
 000 
 
 23^6643 
 
 191 
 
 8.2425 706 
 
 561 
 
 31 
 
 47 
 
 21 
 
 176 
 
 558 
 
 481 
 
 23.6854 
 
 386 
 
 8.2474 74 
 
 562 
 
 31 
 
 58 
 
 44 
 
 177 
 
 504 
 
 328 
 
 23.7065 
 
 392 
 
 8.2523 715 
 
 563 
 
 31 
 
 69 
 
 69 
 
 178 
 
 453 
 
 547 
 
 23.7276 
 
 21 
 
 8.2572 635 
 
 '564 
 
 31 
 
 80 
 
 96 
 
 179 
 
 406 
 
 144 
 
 23.7486 
 
 842 
 
 8.2621 492 
 
 565 
 
 31 
 
 92 
 
 25 
 
 180 
 
 362 
 
 125 
 
 23.7697 
 
 286 
 
 8.2670 294 
 
 566 
 
 32 
 
 03 
 
 56 
 
 181 
 
 321 
 
 496 
 
 23.7907 
 
 545 
 
 8.2719 039 
 
 567 
 
 32 
 
 14 
 
 89 
 
 182 
 
 284 
 
 263 
 
 23.8117 
 
 618 
 
 8.2767 726 
 
 568 
 
 32 
 
 26 
 
 24 
 
 183 
 
 250 
 
 432 
 
 23.8327 
 
 506 
 
 8.2816 255 
 
 569 
 
 32 
 
 37 
 
 61 
 
 184 
 
 220 
 
 009 
 
 23.8537 
 
 209 
 
 8.2864 928 
 
 570 
 
 32 
 
 49 
 
 00 
 
 185 
 
 193 
 
 000 
 
 23.8746 
 
 728 
 
 8.2913 444 
 
 571 
 
 32 
 
 60 
 
 41 
 
 186 
 
 169 
 
 411 
 
 23.8956 
 
 063 
 
 8.2961 903 
 
 572 
 
 32 
 
 71 
 
 84 
 
 187 
 
 149 
 
 248 
 
 23,9165 
 
 215 
 
 8.3010 304 
 
 573 
 
 32 
 
 83 
 
 29 
 
 188 
 
 132 
 
 517 
 
 23.9374 
 
 184 
 
 8.3058 651 
 
 574 
 
 32 
 
 94 
 
 76 
 
 189 
 
 119 
 
 224 
 
 23.9582 
 
 971 
 
 8.3106 941 
 
 575 
 
 33 
 
 06 
 
 25 
 
 190 
 
 109 
 
 375 
 
 23.9791 
 
 576 
 
 8.3155 175 
 
 576 
 
 33 
 
 17 
 
 76 
 
 191 
 
 102 
 
 976 
 
 24. 
 
 
 8i3203 353 
 
 577 
 
 33 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 192 
 
 100 
 
 033 
 
 24.0208 
 
 243 
 
 8.3251 475 
 
 578 
 
 33 
 
 40 
 
 84 
 
 193 
 
 100 
 
 552 
 
 24^0416 
 
 306 
 
 8.3299 542 
 
 579 
 
 66 
 
 
 A 1 
 
 41 
 
 194 
 
 104 
 
 ooy 
 
 OA f\£iCtA 
 
 z4.Udz4 
 
 1 OQ 
 
 loo 
 
 8.3347 553 
 
 580 
 
 33 
 
 64 
 
 00 
 
 195 
 
 112 
 
 000 
 
 24.0831 
 
 891 
 
 8.3395 509 
 
 581 
 
 33 
 
 75 
 
 61 
 
 196 
 
 122 
 
 941 
 
 24.1039 
 
 416 
 
 8.3443 41 
 
 582 
 
 33 
 
 87 
 
 24 
 
 197 
 
 137 
 
 368 
 
 24.1246 
 
 762 
 
 8.3491 256 
 
 583 
 
 33 
 
 98 
 
 89 
 
 198 
 
 155 
 
 287 
 
 24.1453 
 
 929 
 
 8.3539 047 
 
 584 
 
 34 
 
 10 
 
 56 
 
 199 
 
 176 
 
 704 
 
 24.1660 
 
 919 
 
 8.3586 784 
 
 585 
 
 34 
 
 22 
 
 25 
 
 200 
 
 201 
 
 625 
 
 24.1867 
 
 732 
 
 8.3634 466 
 
 586 
 
 34 
 
 33 
 
 96 
 
 201 
 
 230 
 
 056 
 
 24.2074 
 
 369 
 
 8.3682 095 
 
 587 
 
 ■ 
 
 34 
 
 45 
 
 69 
 
 202 
 
 262 
 
 003 
 
 24.2280 
 
 829 
 
 8.3729 668 
 
THE ENGINEEK'8 HANDY-iiOOK. 58 
 
 T A B E - {Concluded) 
 
 OF SQUARES, CUBES, AND SQUARE AND CUBE ROOTS, ETC. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Cube. 
 
 Square Root. 
 
 Cube Root. 
 
 588 
 
 34 
 
 57 44 
 
 203 
 
 297 
 
 472 
 
 24.2487 
 
 113 
 
 8.3777 
 
 188 
 
 589 
 
 34 
 
 69 21 
 
 204 
 
 336 
 
 469 
 
 24.2693 
 
 222 
 
 8.3824 
 
 653 
 
 590 
 
 34 
 
 81 00 
 
 205 
 
 379 
 
 000 
 
 24.2899 
 
 156 
 
 8.3872 
 
 065 
 
 591 
 
 34 
 
 92 81 
 
 206 
 
 425 
 
 071 
 
 24.3104 
 
 916 
 
 8.3919 
 
 423 
 
 592 
 
 35 
 
 04 64 
 
 207 
 
 474 
 
 688 
 
 24.3310 
 
 501 
 
 8.3966 
 
 729 
 
 593 
 
 35 
 
 16 49 
 
 208 
 
 527 
 
 857 
 
 24.3515 
 
 913 
 
 8.4013 
 
 981 
 
 594 
 
 35 
 
 28 36 
 
 209 
 
 584 
 
 584 
 
 24.3721 
 
 152 
 
 8.4061 
 
 180 
 
 595 
 
 35 
 
 40 25 
 
 210 
 
 644 
 
 875 
 
 24.3926 
 
 218 
 
 8.4108 
 
 326 
 
 596 
 
 35 
 
 52 16 
 
 211 
 
 708 
 
 736 
 
 24.4131 
 
 112 
 
 8.4155 
 
 419 
 
 597 
 
 35 
 
 64 09 
 
 212 
 
 776 
 
 173 
 
 24.4335 
 
 834 
 
 8.4202 
 
 46 
 
 598 
 
 35 
 
 76 04 
 
 213 
 
 847 
 
 192 
 
 24.4540 
 
 385 
 
 8.4249 
 
 448 
 
 599 
 
 35 
 
 88 01 
 
 214 
 
 921 
 
 799 
 
 24.4744 
 
 765 
 
 8.4296 
 
 383 
 
 600 
 
 36 
 
 00 00 
 
 216 
 
 000 
 
 000 
 
 24.4948 
 
 974 
 
 8.4343 
 
 267 
 
 601 
 
 36 
 
 12 01 
 
 217 
 
 081 
 
 801 
 
 24.5153 
 
 013 
 
 8.4390 
 
 098 
 
 602 
 
 36 
 
 24 04 
 
 218 
 
 167 
 
 208 
 
 24.5356 
 
 883 
 
 8.4436 
 
 877 ' 
 
 603 
 
 36 
 
 36 09 
 
 219 
 
 256 
 
 227 
 
 24.5560 
 
 583 
 
 8.4483 
 
 605 
 
 604 
 
 36 
 
 48 16 
 
 220 
 
 348 
 
 864 
 
 24.5764 
 
 115 
 
 8.4530 
 
 281 
 
 605 
 
 36 
 
 60 25 
 
 221 
 
 445 
 
 125 
 
 24.5967 
 
 478 
 
 8.4576 
 
 906 
 
 606 
 
 36 
 
 72 36 
 
 222 
 
 545 
 
 016 
 
 24.6170 
 
 673 
 
 8.4623 
 
 479 
 
 607 
 
 36 
 
 84 49 
 
 223 
 
 648 
 
 543 
 
 24.6373 
 
 7 
 
 8.467 
 
 
 608 
 
 36 
 
 96 64 
 
 224 
 
 755 
 
 712 
 
 24.6576 
 
 56 
 
 8.4716 
 
 471 
 
 609 
 
 37 
 
 08 81 
 
 225 
 
 866 
 
 529 
 
 24.6779 
 
 254 
 
 8.4762 
 
 892 
 
 610 
 
 37 
 
 21 00 
 
 226 
 
 981 
 
 000 
 
 24.6981 
 
 781 
 
 8.4809 
 
 261 
 
 611 
 
 37 
 
 33 21 
 
 228 
 
 099 
 
 131 
 
 24.7184 
 
 142 
 
 8.4855 
 
 579 
 
 612 
 
 37 
 
 45 44 
 
 220 
 
 220 
 
 928 
 
 24.7386 
 
 338 
 
 8.4901 
 
 848 
 
 613 
 
 37 
 
 57 69 
 
 230 
 
 346 
 
 397 
 
 24.7588 
 
 368 
 
 8.4948 
 
 065 
 
 614 
 
 37 
 
 69 96 
 
 231 
 
 475 
 
 544 
 
 24.7790 
 
 234 
 
 8.4994 
 
 233 
 
 615 
 
 37 
 
 82 25 
 
 232 
 
 608 
 
 375 
 
 24.7991 
 
 935 
 
 8.5040 
 
 35 
 
 616 
 
 37 
 
 94 56 
 
 233 
 
 744 
 
 896 
 
 24.8193 
 
 473 
 
 8.5086 
 
 417 
 
 617 
 
 38 
 
 06 89 
 
 234 
 
 885 
 
 113 
 
 24.8394 
 
 847 
 
 8.5132 
 
 435 
 
 618 
 
 38 
 
 19 24 
 
 236 
 
 029 
 
 032 
 
 24.8596 
 
 058 
 
 8.5178 
 
 403 
 
 619 
 
 38 
 
 31 61 
 
 237 
 
 176 
 
 659 
 
 24.8797 
 
 106 
 
 8.5224 
 
 321 
 
 620 
 
 38 
 
 44 00 
 
 238 
 
 328 
 
 000 
 
 24.8997 
 
 992 
 
 8.5270 
 
 189 
 
 Any number multiplied into itself 3 times is cubed ; as, 3 x 3 x ■ 
 = 27, which is the cube of 3. 
 
 The square root of any number is that number which, multi 
 plied into itself, will be equal to the given number; as, v/9 = 3 x 3 
 hence 3 is the square root of 9. 
 
THE ENG1NKER\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 583 
 
 The Wetherill Corliss Steani-Engine. 
 
 The cut on opposite page gives an outline of the general 
 appearance of the Corliss Engine as built by Robert Wetherill 
 .& Co., Chester. 
 
 The Main Bed is shaped in the strongest form and in direct 
 centreline connecting up cylinder and pedestals. The main ped- 
 estal bearings are made in four parts, adjustable. All bearings 
 and wearing surfaces are arranged to take up lost motion occa- 
 sioned by wear. The proportions, weights, and strength of mate- 
 rial are ample. Cylinders are made of hard, strong, charcoal iron, 
 and have all large proportioned port openings, which gives the 
 full boiler pressure against the piston. The cross-head is of an 
 improved pattern, which takes a direct bearing between centre 
 of shoes, and the shoes are gibbed in such a manner that they can 
 be easily removed or any lost motion taken up. Shafts, connecting- 
 rods, and all forgings are made of double-worked hammered iron. 
 Piston-rods, crank-pins, and all other small pins and valve- 
 motion forgings, are of steel. Valve-stems, crank-pin boxes, and 
 valve-gear brasses are all of bronze metal. 
 
 The Governor is of the regular Corliss pattern with improve- 
 ments, but does not require the oil or molasses pot generally used. 
 It acts free under varying loads and pressures, and regulates closely 
 from one horse-power up to the full capacity of engine. 
 
 Piston is self-packing, and does not require any attention from 
 the engineer. It keeps the cylinder in good order, requires very 
 little lubrication, and has a reputation of running eight years 
 night and day without any attention, keeping in good order and 
 steam-tight. 
 
 Vacuum Dash- Pots for' closing valves are generally used. On 
 slow running engines, weights closed with air-cushion are pre- 
 ferred. 
 
 Graduating Oil-Cups on all wearing surfaces, and self-feeding 
 oil-cups for cylinders. 
 
584 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Emergencies. 
 
 If a follower- plate should break at sea, it juight be repaired 
 with boiler-plate and tap-bolts, providing these materials were on 
 board ; if not, the propeller-shaft should be detached, and the ship 
 proceed to the nearest port, under sail. 
 
 If the air-pump rod should break, and no extra rod be on 
 board the vessel, remove the air-pump bucket and foot-valve, rig 
 a temporary exhaust-pipe with lumber, and proceed to the nearest 
 port. 
 
 If a cylinder- head should be fractured or split, it might be re- 
 paired temporarily by wrought-iron bars, canvas, or other packing, 
 and tap-bolts. 
 
 If the cut-oflF valve should break at one end, remove it from 
 the other end, and use steam at whole stroke. 
 
 If the condenser should become so much out of order as to 
 render it useless, detach the exhaust-pipe from it, and rig a tem- 
 porary exhaust with such materials as can be found on board. 
 
 If the crank-pin or truss-block should heat excessively, allow a 
 stream of water to run on them continually. 
 
 If the foot- valve should be rendered useless, the air-pump will 
 work, providing the discharge is in good order. Foot-valves are 
 generally made of vulcanized India-rubber. 
 
 If the delivery-pipe should break, burst, or split, it may be re- 
 paired temporarily with India-rubber or canvas, lumber, and 
 ropes. 
 
 If a crank-pin should break, the broken part may be removed 
 and replaced by a new one, providing there is an extra pin on 
 hand ; if not, detach the propeller and proceed under sail. 
 
 If the propeller-shaft should twist off, disconnect the engines 
 from it and proceed under sail ; but if one or more of the blades 
 should break off, proceed the best way you can, as, while any por- 
 tion of it remains, it is better than none at all. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 585 
 
 Questions, 
 
 THE ANSWERS TO WHICH WILL BE FOUND IN THE TEXT. 
 
 What is the pressure of the atmosphere at sea-level ? 
 
 Give the estimated height of the atmosphere. 
 
 Give the component parts of atmospheric air. 
 
 State the difference in weight between air, water, and mercury. 
 
 Does the pressure of the atmosphere differ in different locali- 
 ties? 
 
 Is the pressure of the atmosphere constant in the same lo- 
 cality ? 
 
 Give the altitude of some of the highest mountains in the 
 world. 
 
 Give the names of the highest waterfalls in the world. 
 
 Give the formula for finding the horse-power of wind-storms. 
 
 Give the meaning of the term fuel. 
 
 Give the component parts of various kinds of fuel. 
 
 Give the comparative values of various kinds of wood for the 
 purpose of fuel as compared with coal. 
 
 Give the definitions of the terms fire and smoke. 
 
 Define the term heat. 
 
 Give the specific heat of different substances. 
 
 Give the conductive properties of different substances. 
 
 Define the terms combustion and spontaneous combustion. 
 
586 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Give the component parts of fresh water. 
 
 Is the specific gravity of all waters the same? 
 
 Give the latent heat of water, ice, and steam. 
 
 Define the term vapor. 
 
 Give the meaning of the term gases. 
 
 What is meant by the term area? 
 
 Give the rules for finding the diameters, circumferences, and 
 
 areas of circles. 
 
 Give the meaning of the term cipher. 
 Give the meaning of the terms atoms and molecules. 
 What advantages does decimal arithmetic possess? 
 What are decimal fractions? 
 
 Give an explanation of the difierent recognized units, such as 
 those of heat, length, surface, capacity, weight, time, velocity, 
 work, and pressure. 
 
 Give the different lengths which have been recognized in Eng- 
 land since the sixteenth century. 
 
 Demonstrate the diflference between vulgar and decimal frac- 
 tions. 
 
 Give the decimals for the 16th or 32d part of an inch. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 587 
 
 PART EIGHTH. 
 
 Lexicon of Definitions of Central, Mechanical, and Djuaml- 
 
 cal Forces. 
 
 Acceleration. — Acceleration is the increase of velocity in a 
 moving body, caused by the continued action of the motive force. 
 When bodies in motion pass through equal spaces in equal time, 
 or, in other words, when the velocity of the body is the same dur- 
 ing the period that the body is in motion, it is termed uniform 
 motion, of which we have a familiar instance in the motion of the 
 hands of a clock over the face of it; but a more correct illustra- 
 tion is the revolution of the earth on its axis. In the case of 
 a body moving through unequal spaces in equal times, or with a 
 varying velocity, if the velocity increase with the duration of the 
 motion, it is termed accelerated motion ; but, if it decrease with 
 the duration of the motion, it is termed retarded motion. 
 
 Affinity. — Affinity is a term used in chemistry to denote that 
 kind of attraction, by which the particles of different bodies 
 unite, and form a compound, possessing properties distinct from 
 those of any of the substances which compose it. Thus, when an 
 acid and alkali combine, a new substance is formed called a salt, 
 perfectly different in its chemical properties from either an acid 
 or an alkali ; and, in consequence of the law of affinity, these 
 bodies have a tendency to unite. 
 
 Angle. — If two lines, drawn on a plain surface, are so situated 
 that they meet in a point, or would do so, if sufficiently prolonged, 
 they form an opening, which is called an angle. One straight 
 line, meeting another which is perpendicular to it, makes the 
 angle on both sides equal ; then these angles are each called a 
 right angle, and, in this case, the one line is said to be perpen- 
 dicular to the other, or, in the language of mechanics, the one 
 line is said to be square with the other ; and if the one line be 
 horizontal, the perpendicular is said to be plumb to it. The arc,. 
 
588 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 which measures a right angle, is the quarter of the whole circum- 
 ference, or a quadrant, and contains 90 degrees ; any angle meas- 
 ured by an arc less than this is acute (sharp), and if by an arc 
 greater than a quadrant, obtuse (blunt). 
 
 Axle. — An axle is a shaft supporting a wheel; the wheel may 
 turn on the axle, or be fastened to it, and the axle turn on bear- 
 ings. Axles are viewed as having certain relations to girders in 
 principle. Girders generally have their two ends resting on two 
 points of support, and the load is either located at fixed distances 
 from the props, or dispersed over the whole surface of the axle ; 
 the wheels may be considered the props, and the journals the 
 loaded parts. It is found that the inclined surface of the wheel- 
 tire, given by coning ranges from 1 to 12 to 1 to 20; and, as a 
 matter of course, the direct tendency of the wheel under a load is 
 to descend that incline, so that every vertical blow, which the 
 wheels may receive, is compounded of two forces, viz., the one to 
 crush the wheels in the direction of their vertical plane, and the 
 other to move the lower parts of the wheels together. It will be 
 seen that these two forces have a direct tendency to bend the axle 
 somewhere between the wheels. 
 
 Attraction. — The terms attraction, or affinity, and repulsion, in 
 the language of modern scientists, are employed merely as the ex- 
 pression of one of two general facts, either that the masses or parti- 
 cles of matter have a tendency to approach and unite to, or to recede 
 from, one another, under certain circumstances. The term attraction 
 is used synonymously with affinity. All bodies have a tendency 
 to attract each other, more or less, and it is this power which is 
 called attraction. Attraction is mutual; it extends to indefinite 
 distances. All bodies, whatever, as well as their component ele- 
 mentary particles, are endued with it. It is not annihilated, at 
 however great a distance we suppose them to be placed from each 
 other ; neither does it disappear, though they be arranged ever so 
 near each other. The nature of this reciprocal attraction, or at 
 least the cause which produces it, is altogether unknown to us. 
 Whether it be inherent in all matter, or whether it be the conse- 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 589 
 
 quence of some other agent, are questions beyond the reach of 
 human understanding; but its existence is nevertheh»ss certain. 
 
 Capillary Attraction. — Capillary attraction is the property in- 
 herent in narrow tubes and porous substances, such as sponge, 
 lamp-wicking, thread, etc., of raising oil, water, or other fluids 
 above their natural level. Hence this principle is applied for 
 obtaining a continuous supply of lubricating fluids between rub- 
 bing and revolving surfaces in motion, by means of a siphon con- 
 structed of wickings, worsted, or some other substance, one end 
 of which is immersed in oil, and the other inserted in the tube 
 through which the fluid is to be conducted. 
 
 Centre of Gravity, — The forces with which all bodies tend to 
 fall to the earth may be considered parallel ; hence every body 
 may be considered as acted on by a system of parallel forces whose 
 resultant may be found, and these forces, in all positions of the 
 body, act on the same points in the same vertical direction. There 
 is, therefore, in every body a point through which the resultant 
 always passes, in whatever position it is placed. This point is 
 called the centre of gravity of the body. The centre of gravity 
 of a uniform cylinder or prism is in its axis, and at the middle of 
 its length ; of a right cone or a pyramid it is also in the axis, but 
 at one-fourth of the height from the base. 
 
 Cohesion. — Cohesion is that quality of the particles of a body 
 which causes them to adhere to each other, and to resist being 
 torn apart. 
 
 Dynamics. — Dynamics is that branch of mechanics which 
 treats of forces in motion producing power and work. It compre- 
 hends the action of all kinds of machinery, manual and animal 
 labor, in the transformation of physical work. 
 
 Elastic Fluids. — Elastic fluids are divided into two classes — 
 permanent gases and vapors. The gases cannot be converted into 
 the liquid state by any known practicable process ; whereas the 
 vapors are readily reduced to the liquid form by pressure or dim- 
 inution of temperature. In respect of their mechanical properties, 
 there is, however, no essential difference between the two classes. 
 bO 
 
590 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Elastic fluids, in a state of equilibrium, are subject to the action 
 of two forces, namely, gravity, and a molecular force acting from 
 particle to particle. 
 
 Elasticity. — Elasticity is that quality which enables a body to 
 return to its original form, after having been distorted or stretched 
 by some external force. The limit of elasticity is the extent to 
 which any material may be stretched without receiving a perma- 
 nent set. 
 
 Energy. — This term has become obsolete in a mechanical point 
 of view, and is now only applied to the action of men and animals. 
 If an individual man, horse, ox, or other animal performed a cer- 
 tain amount of work in less time than another would occupy in 
 doing the same work, we say that he acted with great energy ; but 
 when a machine runs fast, or fire burns fast, or the waves roll fast, 
 we do not apply the term energy, but simply say that the machine 
 runs at a very high speed, or increased its speed; or the fire 
 burned fiercely, or that the wind blew, or the waves rolled with 
 great violence. 
 
 Force. — Force is the cause of motion or change of motion in 
 material bodies. Every change of motion, viz., every change in 
 the velocity of a body, must be regarded as the efiect of a force. 
 On the other hand, rest, or the invariability of the state of motion 
 of a body, must not be attributed to the absence of forces, since op- 
 posite forces destroy each other and produce no eflPect. The force 
 of gravity with which a body falls to the ground, still acts, though 
 the body rests ; but this action is counteracted by the solidity of 
 the material upon which it reposes. Forces that are balanced so 
 as to produce rest, are called statical forces or pressures, to dis- 
 tinguish them from moving, deflecting, accelerating, or retarding 
 forces, {. e,, such as are producing motion, or a change in the 
 direction or velocity of motion. This distinction is wholly arti- 
 ficial, as the same force may act in any of these modes ; it may 
 sometimes be a statical and sometimes an accelerating force. 
 
 Force is any action which can be expressed simply by weight, 
 and is distinguished by a great variety of terms, such as attraction, 
 
THE ENGINEEIl\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 591 
 
 repulsion, gravity, pressure, tension, compression, cohesion, adhe- 
 sion, resistance, inertia, strain, stress, strength, thrust, burden, load, 
 squeeze, pull, push, pinch, punch, etc., all of which may be meas- 
 ured or expressed by weight without regard to motion, time, 
 power, or work. 
 
 Focus. — Focus in geometry is that point in the transverse axis 
 of a conic section, at which the double ordinate is equal to a per- 
 imeter, or to a third proportional to the transverse and conjugate 
 axis. 
 
 Friction. — Friction is the resistance offered to the motion of a 
 body, when pressed upon the surface of another body which does 
 not partake of its motion. Under these circumstances, the sur- 
 faces in contact have a certain tendency to adhere. Not being 
 perfectly smooth, the imperceptible asperities w^hich may be sup- 
 posed to exist on all surfaces, however highly polished, become to 
 some extent interlocked, and, in consequence, a certain amount of 
 force is requisite to overcome the mutual resistance to motion of 
 the two surfaces, and to maintain the sliding motion even when it 
 has been produced. By increasing the pressure, the resistance to 
 motion is increased also ; and on the other hand, by rendering the 
 surfaces smoother by lubrication, its amount is greatly diminished, 
 but can never be entirely annulled. 
 
 Friction cannot be strictly called a force, unless that term be 
 taken in a negative sense. The tendency of force, in the rigid 
 meaning of the word, is to produce motion ; whereas the tendency 
 of friction is to destroy motion. 
 
 Friction Rollers. — The obstruction which a cylinder meets in 
 rolling along a smooth plane, is quite distinct in its character, and 
 far inferior in its amount, to that which is produced by the fric- 
 tion of the same cylinder drawn lengthwise along a plane. For 
 example, in the case of w^ood rolling on wood, the resistance is to 
 the pressure, if the cylinder be small, as 16 or 18 to 1000, and if 
 the cylinder be large, this may be reduced to 6 to 1000. The 
 friction from sliding, in the same cases, would be to the pressure as 
 2 to 10 or 3 to 10, according to the nature of the wood. Hence, 
 
592 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 by causing one body to roll on another, the resistance is dimin- 
 ished from 12 to 20 times. It is therefore a principle, in the 
 composition of machines, that attritign should be avoided as 
 much as possible, and rolling motions substituted whenever cir- 
 cumstances permit. 
 
 Gravity and Gravitation. — These terms are often used synony- 
 mously, to denote the mutual tendency which all bodies in nature 
 have to approach each other. Gravity acts on gases in the same 
 manner as on all other material substances ; but the action of the 
 molecular forces is altogether different from that which takes place 
 among the elementary particles of solids and liquids, as in the 
 case of solid bodies, the molecules strongly attract each other 
 (hence results their cohesion), and, in the case of liquids, exert a 
 feeble or evanescent attraction, so as to be indifferent to internal 
 motion ; but, in the case of the gases, the molecular forces are 
 repulsive, and the molecules, yielding to the action of these forces, 
 tend incessantly to recede from each other, and, in fact, do recede, 
 until their further separation is prevented by an exterior obstacle. 
 
 Gravity, Specific. — The specific gravity of a body is the ratio 
 of its weight to an equal volume of some other body assumed as 
 a conventional standard. The standard usually adopted for solids 
 and liquids is rain or distilled water at a common temperature. 
 In bodies of equal magnitudes, the specific gravities are directly 
 as the weights or as their densities. In bodies of the same specific 
 gravity the weights will be as the magnitudes. In bodies of equal 
 weights, the specific gravities are inversely as the magnitudes. The 
 weights of different bodies are to each other in the compound ratio 
 of their magnitudes and specific gravities. Hence, it is obvious 
 that, speaking of the magnitude, weight, and specific gravity of 
 a body, if any two of them are given, the third may be found. 
 A body, immersed in a fluid, will sink if its specific gravity be 
 greater than that of the fluid; if it be less, the body will rise to 
 the top, and be only partly immersed ; and, if the specific gravity 
 of the body and fluid be equal, it will remain at rest in any part 
 of the fluid in which it may be placed. When a body is heavier 
 
THE engineer's FT A N I) V - H O O K . 
 
 593 
 
 than a fluid, it lose§ as much of its weight when innnersed as is 
 equal to a quantity of the fluid of the same bulk or magnitude. * 
 If the specific gravity of the fluid he greater than that of the 
 body, then the quantity of fluid displaced by the part immersed 
 is equal to the weight of the whole body. And hence, as the 
 specific gravity of the fluid is to that of the body, so is the 
 whole magnitude of the body to the part immersed. The spe- 
 cific gravities of equal solids are as their parts immersed in the 
 same fluid. 
 
 Gyration, the Centre of. — The centre of gyration is that point 
 in which, if all the matter contained in a revolving system were 
 collected, the same angular velocity will be generated in the same 
 time by a given force acting at any place, as would be generated 
 by the same force acting similarly in the body or system itself. 
 The distance of the centre of gyration from the point of suspen- 
 sion or the axis of motion, is a mean proportional between the 
 distances of the centres of oscillation and gravity from the same 
 point or axle. 
 
 Horse-power, or Power of a Horse. — The power of a horse 
 when applied to draw loads, as well as when made the standard 
 of comparison for determining the value of other powers, has 
 been variously stated. The relative strength of men and horses 
 depends, of course, upon the manner in which their strength is 
 applied. Thus, the worst w^ay of applying the strength of a horse 
 is to make him carry a weight up a steep hill. The power of a 
 horse varies from five to eleven times that of a man. 
 
 Hydrodynamics. — Hydrodynamics is that branch of general 
 mechanics which treats of the equilibrium and motion of fluids. 
 The terms hydrostatics and hydrodynamics have a signification 
 corresponding to the terms statics and dynamics in the mechanics 
 of solid bodies, viz., hydrostatics is that division of the science 
 which treats of the equilibrium of fluids, and hydrodynamics that 
 which relates to their forces and motion. It is, however, usual to 
 include the w^hole doctrine of the mechanics of fluids under the 
 general term of hydrodynamics, and to denote the divisions rela- 
 50* " 2N 
 
594 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 tive to their equilibrium and motion by tha terms hydrostatics 
 and hydraulics. 
 
 Hyperbola. — A plane figure, formed by cutting a section from 
 a cone by a plane parallel to its axis, or to any plane within the 
 cone, which passes through the cone's vertex. The curve of the j 
 hyperbola is such, tliat the difference, between the distances of i 
 any point in it from two given points, is always equal to a given ; 
 right line. If the vertices of two cones meet each other, so that i 
 their axes form one continuous straight line, and the plane of the 
 hyperbola cut from one of the cones be continued, it will cut the 
 other cone, and form what is called the opposite hyperbola, equal ! 
 and similar to the former ; and the distance, between the vertices i 
 of the two hyperbolae, is called the major axis, or transverse di- ' 
 ameter. If the distance between a certain point within the hyper- 
 bola, called the focus, and any point in the curve be subtracted i 
 from the distance of said point in the curve from the focus of the t 
 opposite hyperbola, the remainder will always be equal to a given 
 quantity, that is, to the major axis ; and the distance of either focus - 
 from the centre of the major axis is called the eccentricity. The 
 line passing through the centre, perpendicular to the major axis, 
 and having the distance of its extremities from those of the axis- 
 equal to the eccentricity, is called the minor axis, or conjugate 
 diameter. An ordinate to the major axis, a double ordinate, and! 
 an absciss mean the same as the corresponding lines in the pa-; 
 rabola. | 
 
 Impact is the single instantaneous blow or stroke communi- 
 cated from one body in motion to another either in motion or at 
 rest. 
 
 Impenetrability. — In physics, one of the essential properties of 
 matter or body. It is a property inferred from invariable experi- 
 ence, and resting on this incontrovertible fact, that no two bodies 
 can occupy the same portion of space in the same instant of time. 
 Impenetrability, as respects solid bodies, requires no proof : it is 
 obvious to the touch. With regard to liquids, the property may 
 be proved by very simple experiments. Let a vessel be filled to 
 
THE ENGINEEr\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 595 
 
 the brim with water, and a solid, incapable of solution in water, 
 be plunged into it ; a portion of the water will overflow, exactly 
 equal in bulk to the dimensions of the body immersed. If a cork 
 be rammed hard into the neck of a vial full of water, the vial will 
 burst, while its neck remains entire. The disposition of air to re- 
 sist penetration may be illustrated in the following way : Let a 
 tall glass vessel be nearly filled with water, on the surface of 
 which a lighted taper is set to float ; if, over this glass, a smaller 
 cylindrical vessel, likewise of glass, be inverted and pressed down- 
 wards, the contained air maintaining its place, the internal body 
 of the water will descend, while the rest will rise up at the sides, 
 and the taper will continue to burn for some seconds encompassed 
 by the whole mass of liquid. 
 
 Impetus. — Impetus is the product of the mass and velocity of 
 a moving body, considered as instantaneous, as distinguished from 
 momentum, with reference to time, and from force, with reference 
 to capacity of continuing its motion. Impetus in gunnery is the 
 altitude through which a heavy body must fall to acquire a ve- 
 locity equal to that with which the ball is discharged from the 
 piece. 
 
 Incidence. — The term incidence in mechanics is used to denote 
 the direction in which a body or ray of light strikes another 
 body, and is otherwise called inclination. In moving bodies, their 
 incidence is said to be perpendicular or oblique, according as their 
 lines of motion make a straight line or an angle at the point of 
 contact. 
 
 Inclination. — Inclination denotes the mutual approach or ten- 
 dency of two bodies, lines, or planes towards each other, so that 
 the lines of their direction make at the point of contact an angle 
 of greater or less magnitude. 
 
 The Inclined Plane. — The inclined plane is the representative 
 of the second class of mechanical powers. Its fundamental law 
 of action is that of the composition and resolution of forces. The 
 manner in which the advantage is immediately derived from it, is 
 therefore distinct from that of the first class; there is necessarily 
 
596 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 a fulcrum, a point round which all the motion takes place, and 
 through which the power acts on the resistance ; whereas, in this 
 class, there is no apparent centre of action. The advantage gained 
 by the inclined plane, when the power acts in a parallel direction 
 to the plane, is as the length to the height or angle of inclina- 
 tion. Hence, divide the weight by the ratio of inclination, and 
 the quotient equals the power that will support that weight upon 
 the plane. Or, multiply the weight by the height of the plane 
 and divide by the length ; the quotient is the power. 
 
 The descent of a body down an inclined plane is as the length 
 of the plane to its height ; so is the velocity acquired by a fall- 
 ing body through a given height to the velocity on an inclined 
 plane. 
 
 Ex. — A body will roll down an inclined plane 300 feet long 
 and 25 feet high in one second of time, as follows : 300 : 25 : : 16 : 
 1-33 = the distance which the body descends per second on an in- 
 inclined plane. 
 
 Inertia. — Inertia is that property of matter by which it tends, 
 when at rest, to remain so, and, when in motion, to continue in 
 motion. 
 
 LgygPS^ — Levers are classified into three different kinds or 
 orders. When the fulcrum is between the force and the weight,, 
 the lever is called a lever of the first order ; when the weight is 
 between the force and the fulcrum, the lever is of the second 
 order ; when the force is between the weight and the fulcrum, the 
 lever is of the third order. The levers of safety-valves for steam- 
 boilers belong to this last class. 
 
 The lever is an inflexible bar, by the application of which one 
 force may balance or overcome another. These' forces are termed, 
 respectively, the power and the resistance or weight, not from any 
 difference in the action of the forces, but with reference merely to 
 the intention with which the machine is used ; and, indeed, the 
 same terms are used about all the other mechanical elements. In 
 applying the rod to operate upon any resistance, it must rest upon 
 a centre prop, or fulcrum, somewhere along its length, upon which 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 597 
 
 it turns in the performance of its work. Thus, there are three 
 points in every lever to be regarded in examining its action, 
 namely, the two points of application of the power, the weight, and 
 the point resting on the fulcrum. There is a certain relation to 
 be observed between the magnitudes of the opposing force and 
 tlie distances from the fulcrum, namely, that in every case the 
 power multiplied by its distance from the fulcrum is equal to the 
 weight multiplied by its distance from the same point. From this 
 relation, simple rules may be deduced for calculation. 
 
 To know the power to be applied, at a certain distance from 
 the fulcrum, to overcome a resistance acting also at a certain dis- 
 tance, multiply the resistance by its distance from the fulcrum, 
 which gives its momentum, and divide the product by the distance 
 given ; the quotient will be the power, it being understood that the 
 distance and the force be each expressed in the same unit of meas- 
 ure. For example, a weight, 1120 lbs., at 3 inches from the ful- 
 crum, is to be balanced by a force at the distance of 10 feet. Now, 
 10 feet are equal to 120 inches; and the momentum of 1120 lbs. 
 is 1120 X 3 = 3360. Divide this by 120, we have 28 lbs. for the 
 power required. Again, To know the distance at which a given 
 force ought to be applied to balance a given weight at a certain 
 distance, we must, in like manner, multiply the weight by its dis- 
 tance, as before, arid divide by the given power. 1120 lbs., for ex- 
 ample, at 3 inches distance, are to be balanced by a force of 28 
 lbs. To find the distance of this weight, 1120 lbs. multiplied by 
 3 gives 3360, which, divided by 28, gives 120 inches, or 10 feet. 
 
 Machines. — Machines are instruments employed to regulate 
 motion, so as to save either time or force. The maximum eflTect 
 of machines is the greatest eflfect which can be produced by them. 
 In all machines that wwk with a uniform motion, there is a cer- 
 tain velocity, and a certain load of resistance, that yields the 
 greatest eflfect, and which are therefore more advantageous than 
 any other. A machine may be so heavily charged, that th^ mo- 
 tion, resulting from the appliration of any given power, will be 
 but just sufficient to overcomn it, and, if any motion exiBue, it 
 
598 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 will be very trifling, and the whole effect will be very slight. If 
 the machine is very lightly loaded, it may give great velocity to 
 the load ; but, from the smallness of its quantity, the effect may 
 still be very inconsiderable; consequently, between these two 
 loads, there must be some intermediate one that will render the 
 effect the greatest possible. This is equally true in the applica- 
 tion of animal strength, as in machines. The maximum effect of 
 a machine is produced when the weight or resistance to be over- 
 come is four-ninths of that which the power, when fully exerted, 
 is able to balance, or of that resistance which is necessary to re- 
 duce the machine to rest ; and the velocity of the part of the 
 machine, to which the power is applied, should be one- third of 
 the greatest velocity of the power. 
 
 The moving power and the resistance being both given, if the 
 machine be so constructed, that the velocity of the point, to which 
 the power is applied, be to the velocity of the point to which the 
 resistance is applied, as four times the resistance to nine times the 
 power, the machine will work to the greatest possible advantage. 
 This is equally true when applied to the strength of animals; 
 that is, a man, horse, or other animal, will do the greatest quantity 
 of work, by continued labor, when his strength is opposed to a 
 resistance equal to four-ninths of his natural strength, and his 
 velocity equal to one-third of his greatest velocity when not im- 
 peded. In all machines, simple as well as compound, what is 
 gained in power is lost in time ; but the loss of time is compen- 
 sated by convenience. The power of a machine is not altered by 
 varying the size of the wheels, provided the proportion, produced 
 by the multiplication of the power of the several parts, remains 
 the same. 
 
 Mechanics. — Mechanics is that branch of natural philosophy 
 which treats of three simple physical elements, force, motion, and 
 time, with their combinations, constituting power, space, and 
 work. Mechanics, regarded as a science, comprehends the sum 
 of our knowledge relative to the sensible motions of bodies either 
 ACtwiJly existing, or expressed by the opposition of forces tend- 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 599 
 
 ing to produce motion. The science is thus resolvable into a code 
 of discovered laws, applying to the causes which occasion and 
 modify the direction and the velocities of motion, and is there- 
 fore distinct from those branches of science, in which, although 
 presenting phenomena of motion in sensible portions of matter, 
 we do not consider the circumstances and laws of these motions, 
 but only the effects produced. 
 
 When motion itself is considered, the reasoning belongs to 
 mechanics, and it is probable that, as our knowledge of the laws 
 which govern the phenomena that are evolved under the hand of 
 the experimental philosopher becomes more extended, a wider 
 meaning will be given to the science of motion. The definition 
 which is here given of mechanics is not coeval with the name. 
 The science, like most other sciences, has gradually expanded to 
 its present extent. It was originally the science of machines — 
 these being the first subjects of its speculation ; and, as every 
 material combination employed for producing or preventing mo- 
 tion may be regarded as a machine, and may be resolved into the 
 same elementary principles as those employed in machines, — the 
 mechanical powers, — the name " mechanics " came to be applied 
 to motion, and the tendency to motion of any bodies whatever. 
 Mechanics still continues to be defined by some the "science of 
 force," and there does not appear to be any valid objection to the 
 definition. Force is the cause of motion, and its laws are identi- 
 cal with the laws of motion ; and, consequently, the science of 
 force coincides, in all its parts, with the science of motion, w^hich 
 is mechanics. 
 
 All machinery, when analyzed, will be found to consist of a 
 combination of six simple machines or elements, commonly called 
 mechmiical powers. The six elements are respectively the lever, 
 the pulley, the ivheel and axle, the inclined plane, the wedge and 
 the screw. Though they are not powers, or, in other words, 
 sources of power or force, yet they transmit and diflTuse or 
 concentrate forces. The essential idea of machinery is, that it 
 renders force available for eflfecting practical ends. Machines 
 
eoo 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 prepare, as it were, the raw material of force supplied to us from 
 natural sources. It is transmitted and modified by certain com- 
 binations of the elements of machinery, and is given off, at last, 
 in a condition suitable for producing the desired mechanical ef- 
 fect. We do not create force; the object of machinery is to 
 transmit it, and diffuse or concentrate it in one or more points 
 of action. The various diffused or concentrated forces, then, 
 being added together, will amount exactly to the original avail- 
 able force. 
 
 Modulus. — The modulus of the elasticity of any substance is a 
 column of the same substance, capable of producing a pressure on 
 its base, which is to the weight causing a certain degree of com- 
 pression, as the length of the substance is to the diminution in its 
 length. 
 
 Momentum. — Momentum, in mechanics, is the same as impetus 
 or quantity of motion, and is generally estimated by the product 
 of the velocity and the mass of the body. This is a subject which 
 has led to various controversies between philosophers, — some esti- 
 mating it by the mass into the velocity as stated above, while 
 others maintain that it varies as the mass into the square of the 
 velocity. But this difference seems to have arisen rather from a 
 misconception of the term than from any other cause. Those 
 who maintain the former doctrine, understand momentum to sig- 
 nify the momentary impact ; and the advocates of the latter doc- 
 trine recognize it as the sum of all the impulses till the motion 
 of the body is destroyed. 
 
 The momentum of a body is the power contained in a moving 
 body, and is equal to its weight multiplied by its velocity. 
 
 The momentum divided by the velocity equals the weight, or 
 the momentum divided by the weight equals the velocity. 
 
 The velocity acquired by a falling body is proportional to the 
 time ; or the velocity acquired at the end of the first second, mul- 
 tiplied by the number of seconds, will be the velocity with which 
 it strikes the ground. 
 
 The space through which a body falls in a given time may be 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 601 
 
 found by multiplying the square of seconds by the distance which 
 a body moves in one second from a state of rest, which is 16 j\ feet, 
 or 193 inches, and the product will be the whole space through 
 which a body falls in a certain time ; if multiplied in feet, the 
 product will be feet, and if in inches, the product will be inches. 
 
 The space through which a body falls in any number of sec- 
 onds may be calculated as follows : During the first second, a ijody 
 falls IQj^ feet; the second second, it will fall 3 times IGy*^ feet; 
 and the third second, 5 times 16^^^ feet. 
 
 The distance passed over by a body in an air-tight vessel by 
 the force of gravity is 16 ft.; it gradually acquires an acceler- 
 ated motion, so that it has a velocity of S2j\ ft. at the end of the 
 first second. 
 
 Ex. — If a substance weighing 336 pounds be dropped from a 
 height of 400 feet, its momentum, and the time it takes to reach 
 the ground, may be calculated as follows : 
 
 16 : 1 : : x/400 — 5 seconds, the time of falling. 
 
 Now, to get the momentum, we must have the velocity to mul- 
 tiply into the weight, and 5 seconds being the time it was falling, 
 1 : 32 : : 5 : 160 = velocity in feet X 336 ( weight) = 53,760 pounds 
 momentum. 
 
 Ex. — If a ball 24 pounds in weight be dropped from a height 
 of 400 feet, the velocity with which it will strike the ground, 
 and its momentum, may be thus calculated. The time of falling 
 must be first found. Then, 16 : 1 : : v/400 = x/25 = 5 seconds 
 is the time of falling. Since the velocity is proportional to the 
 time, 1 : 5 : : 32 : 160, which is the velocity in feet \vith which it 
 strikes the ground. Then, as the momentum is equal to the ve- 
 locity multiplied by the weight, we have 24 X 160 = 3840, the 
 momentum. 
 
 Motion. — Motion, in mechanics, is a change of place, or it is 
 that property inherent in matter by which it passes from one 
 point of space to another. Absolute motion is the absolute 
 change of place in a moving body, independent of any other 
 motion whatever ; in which general sense, however, it never falls 
 51 
 
602 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 under our observation. All those motions, which we consider as 
 absolute, are in fact only relative, being referred to the earth, 
 which is itself in motion. By absolute motion, therefore, we 
 must only understand that which is so with regard to some fixed 
 point upon the earth, this being the sense in which it is interpreted 
 by writers on this subject. Accelerated motion is that which is 
 continually receiving constant accessions of velocity. Angular 
 motion is the motion of a body as referred to a centre, about 
 which it revolves. Compound motion is that which is produced 
 by two or more powers acting in different directions. Natural 
 motion is that which is natural to bodies, or that which arises 
 from the action of gravity. Parallel Motions. — Contrivances 
 of this kind are required for the conversion of rotary and alter- 
 nating angular motion into rectilineal motion, and the converse; 
 but the absolute necessity there is of guiding the path of a piston 
 in a steam-engine, has called forth more attention to the principles 
 and mechanism of parallel motions than would otherwise, in all 
 ])robability, have been awarded to the subject. Relative motion 
 is the relative change of place in one or more moving bodies. 
 Retarded motion is that which suffers continual diminution of 
 velocity, the laws of which are th^ reverse of those of accelerated 
 motion. Rotary motion, turning as a wheel on its axis, pertain- 
 ing to or resembling the motion of a wheel. Rotary motions 
 were favorite ones with ancient philoso})hers. They considered a 
 circle as the most perfect of all figures, and erroneously concluded 
 that a body in motion would naturally revolve in one. 
 
 To the substitution of circular for straight motions, and of 
 continuous for alternating ones, may be attributed nearly all the 
 conveniences and elegancies of civilized life. It is not too much 
 to assert, that the present advanced state of science and the arts 
 is due to revolving mechanism. From the earliest times it had 
 been an object to convert, whenever practicable, the rectilinear 
 and reciprocating movements of machines into circular and con- 
 tinuous ones. Old mechanics seem to have*been led to this result 
 by that tact or natural sagacity, that is more or less common to 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 603 
 
 all times and people. Thus the dragging of heavy loads on the 
 ground led to the adoption of wheels and rollers, — hence carts 
 and carriages. The rotary movements of the drill superseded the 
 alternating one of the punch and gouge, in making perforations ; 
 the whetstone gave way to the revolving grindstone ; the turning- 
 lathe produced round forms infinitely more accurate and more ex- 
 peditiously than the uncertain and irregular carving or cutting 
 witli the knife. Motion is uniform, when a body moves continually 
 with the same velocity, passing over equal spaces in equal times. 
 
 Oscillation, Centre of. — The centre of oscillation is that point 
 in a vibrating body, in which, if the whole were concentrated and 
 attached to the same axis of motion, it would vibrate in the same 
 time the body does in its natural state. The centre of oscillation 
 is situated in a right line passing through the centre of gravity, 
 and perpendicular to the axis of motion. 
 
 Pendulum. — If any heavy body, suspended by an inflexible 
 rod from a fixed point, be drawn aside from the vertical position, 
 and then let fall, it will describe the arc of a circle, of which 
 the point of suspension is the centre. On reaching the vertical 
 position, it will have acquired a velocity equal to that which it 
 would have acquired by falling vertically through the versed sine 
 of the arc which it has described, in consequence of which it will 
 continue to move in the same arc until the whole velocity is de- 
 stroyed ; and, if no other force than gravity were in operation, 
 this would take place, when the body reached a height on the 
 opposite side of the vertical height, equal to that from which it 
 fell. Having reached this height, it would again descend, and so 
 continue to vibrate forever ; but, in consequence of the friction 
 of the axis and the resistance of the air, each successive vibration 
 will be diminished, and the body soon be brought to rest in 
 the vertical position. A body thus suspended and caused to vi- 
 brate is called a pendulum ; and the passage from the greatest 
 distance from the vertical on the one side to the greatest distance 
 on the other is called an oscillation. 
 
 Percussion. — The centre of percussion is that point in a body 
 
604 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 revolving about an axis at which, if it struck an immovable ob 
 stacle, all its motion would be destroyed, or it would not incline 
 either way. When an oscillating body vibrates with a given 
 angular velocity, and strikes an obstacle, the effect of the impact 
 will be the greatest, if it be made at the centre of percussion ; 
 since, in this case, the obstacle receives the whole revolving mo- 
 tion of the body ; whereas, if the blow be struck at any other 
 point, a part of the motion will be employed in endeavoring to 
 continue the rotation. 
 
 Perpetual Motion. — In mechanics, a machine which, when set 
 in motion, would continue to move forever, or, at least, until de- 
 stroyed by the friction of its parts, without the aid of any exterior 
 cause, w^ould constitute perpetual motion. The discovery of 
 perpetual motion has always been a celebrated problem in me- 
 chanics, on which many ingenious, though in general ill-instructed, 
 persons have spent their time ; but all the labor bestowed on it 
 has proved abortive. In fact, the impossibility of its existence 
 has been fully demonstrated from the known laws of matter. In 
 speaking of perpetual motion, it is to be understood that, from 
 among the forces by which motion may be produced, we are to 
 exclude not only air and water, but other natural agents, as heat, 
 atmospheric changes, etc. The only admissible agents are the 
 inertia of matter, and its attractive forces, which may all be con- 
 sidered of the same kind as gravitation. It is an admitted prin- 
 ciple in philosophy, that action and reaction are equal, and that, 
 when motion is communicated from one body to another, the first 
 loses just as much as is gained by the second. But every moving 
 body is continually retarded by two passive forces, — the resist- 
 ance of the air and friction. In order, therefore, that motion 
 may be continued without diminution, one of two things is neces- 
 sary — either that it be maintained by an exterior force, (in which 
 case it would cease to be what we understand by a perpetual mo- 
 tion,) or that the resistance of the air and friction be annihilated, 
 which is practically impossible. 
 
 The motion cannot be perpetuated, till these retarding forces 
 
THE ENGTNEEr\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 606 
 
 are compeDsated, and they can only be compensated by an exterior 
 force, as the force, communicated to any body^ cannot be greater 
 than the generating force, which is only sufficient to continue the 
 same quantity of motion, when there is no resistance. The error, 
 of confounding mere pressure with energy available to produce 
 power, is the main origin of the majority of attempts at perpetual 
 motion, and even sometimes causes, among confused minds, ex- 
 aggerated expectations about the effects to be obtained from me- 
 chanical contrivances. A wound-up spring is exactly equivalent 
 to a weight. It may exert a certain pressure, great in proportion 
 to its size and strength ; but, unless it is allowed to unwind it; it 
 cannot produce motion or power. It is the same with compressed 
 air or gases ; they are, in fact, nothing but wound-up springs, with 
 this difference, however, that, in place of needing mechanical power 
 to wind them up, we may use either heat, chemical agencies, or 
 electricity. 
 
 Pneumatics. — Pneumatics is the science which treats of the 
 mechanical properties of elastic fluids, and particularly of atmo- 
 spheric air. Elastic fluids are divided into two classes — perma- 
 nent gases and vapors. The gases cannot be converted into the 
 liquid state by any known process ; whereas the vapors are readily 
 reduced to the liquid form by pressure or diminution of tempera- 
 ture. In respect to their mechanical properties, there is, however, 
 no essential difference between the two classes. Elastic fluids, in 
 a state of equilibrium, are subject to the action of two forces, 
 namely, gravity, and a molecular force acting from particle to 
 particle. Gravity acts on the gases in the same manner as on all 
 other substances ; but the action of the molecular forces is alto- 
 gether different from that which takes place among the elementary 
 particles of solids and liquids ; for, in the case of solid bodies, the 
 molecules strongly attract each other (whence results their co- 
 hesion), and, in the case of liquids, exert a feeble or evanescent 
 attraction, so as to be indifferent to internal motion ; but, in the 
 case of the gases, the molecular forces are repulsive, and the mole- 
 cules, yielding to the action of these forces, tend incessantly to 
 61* 
 
606 THE ENGimSER's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 recede from each other, and, in fact, do recede until their further 
 separation is prevented by an exterior obstacle. Thus air, con- 
 fined within a close vessel, exerts a constant pressure against the 
 interior surface, which is not sensible, only because it is balanced 
 by the equal pressure of the atmosphere on the exterior surface. 
 This pressure exerted by the air against the sides of a vessel, within 
 which it is confined, is called its elasticity — its elastic force or 
 tension. 
 
 Power. — Power is the product of force and velocity ; that is 
 to say, a force multiplied by the velocity with which it is acting. 
 The term horse-power is a unit of power, equivalent to a force of 
 33,000 pounds acting with a velocity of one foot per minute, or 
 150 pounds acting with a velocity of 220 feet per minute, which 
 is the same as a force of 550 pounds acting with a velocity of one 
 foot per second. Man-power is a unit of power established by 
 Morin to be equivalent to 50 foot-pounds of power, or 50 effects ; 
 that is to say, a man turning a crank with a force of 50 pounds, 
 with a velocity of one foot per second, is a standard man-power. 
 
 Power implies the ability to do so much work in a certam time, 
 and, like other things which we talk about and compare, requires 
 a unit by which to measure it. The unit used in this country is 
 called a horse-power, and is equal to raising 33,000 lbs. through 
 a space of one foot in a minute of time, or in any other way per- 
 forming 33,000 foot-pounds of work in a minute. 
 
 Pressure. — Pressure is force acting against some obstacle or 
 opposing force. It differs from weight, inasmuch as pressure 
 exerts a force in all directions, whereas weight exerts its influ- 
 ence only in one. There are instances where weight causes press- 
 ure in more than one direction, e, g,, in fluids, while there are 
 others in which pressure has no connection with weight, such as 
 the pressure of steam in a boiler. 
 
 Prime Movers. — Prime movers are those machines from which 
 we obtain power through their adaptation to the transformation 
 of some available natural force into that kind of efibrt which de- 
 velops mechanical power. 
 
THE ENGINEER\s HANDY-BOOK. 607 
 
 The Pulley. — Pulleys are of two kinda, fixed and movable. The 
 fixed pulley only turns upon its axis, and affords no mechanical 
 advantage; therefore, when the power and the weight are equal, 
 [ they balance each other. It is used for the convenience of chang- 
 : ing the direction of a motion. The movable pulley not only turns 
 J upon its axis, but rises and falls with its weight. Every movable 
 
 I pulley may be considered as hanging by two ropes equally stretched, 
 and which, consequently, are equal portions of the weight ; there- 
 fore each pulley of this sort doubles the power. The principle of 
 the pulley, as practically applied in the block and tackle, is the 
 distribution of weight on various points of support, the mechani- 
 cal advantage derived depending entirely upon the flexibility and 
 tension of the rope and the number of pulleys or sheaves in the 
 lower or rising block. Hence, by blocks and tackle of the usual 
 kind, the power is to the weight as the number of cords attached 
 to the lower block. The advantages to be gained by the employ- 
 ment of the block and tackle may be found by dividing the weight 
 to be raised by the number of cords leading to, from, or attached 
 to the lower block, and the quotient is the power required to pro- 
 duce an equilibrium, provided friction does not exist. Or, divide 
 the weight to be raised by the power to be applied ; the quotient 
 is the number of sheaves in, or cords attached to, the rising block. 
 
 The Screw. — The screw is another modification of the inclined 
 plane, and it may be said to remove the same kind of practical 
 inconveniences incidental to the use of the latter, that the pulley 
 does in reference to the simple lever. The lever is very limited 
 in the extent of its action ; so is the inclined plane. But the pul- 
 ley multiplies the extent of the action of the lever, by presenting^ 
 in effect, a series of levers acting in regular succession ; and just 
 such a purpose is effected by the screw. It multiplies the extent 
 of the action of the inclined plane by presenting, in effect, a con- 
 tinued series of planes. 
 
 The screWj in principle, is that of an inclined plane wound 
 round a cylinder, which generates a spiral of uniform inclination, 
 each revolution producing a rise or traverse motion equal to the 
 
608 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 pitch of the screw or distance between the two consecutive threads, 
 the pitch being the height or angle of inclination, and the circum- 
 ference the length of the plane. Hence, the mechanical advan- 
 tage is as the circumference of the circle described by the lever 
 where the power acts is to the pitch of the screw, so is the force 
 to the resistance in principle. 
 
 To find the effective power obtained by a screw of J-inch pitch, 
 and moved by a force equal to 50 lbs. at the extremity of a lever 
 30 inches in length : 
 
 875 
 
 To find the power necessary to overcome a resistance equal to 
 7000 lbs. by a screw of l|-inch pitch, and moved by a lever 25 
 inches in length : 
 
 7000x1-25 ..-^ 
 
 z=z 55*73 lbs. 
 
 25 X 2 X 31416 
 
 In the case of a screw acting upon the periphery of a toothed 
 wheel, the power is to the resistance as the product of the circle's 
 circumference described by the winch or lever and radius of the 
 wheel to the product of the screw's pitch and radius of the axle, 
 or point whence the power is transmitted ; but observe that, if the 
 screw consist of more than one thread, the apparent pitch must 
 be increased so many times as there are threads in the screw. 
 Hence, to find what weight a given power will equipoise, multiply 
 together the radius of the wheel, the length of the lever at which 
 the power acts, the magnitude of the power, and the constant 
 number 6*2832 ; divide the product by the radius of the axle into 
 the pitch of the screw, and the quotient is the weight that the 
 power is equal to. 
 
 Resilience is a characteristic of bodies, which manifests a cer- 
 tain degree of flexibility before they can be broken, hence the 
 body that bends or yields the most at the time of fracture is the 
 toughest. 
 
 Statics is the science of forces in equilibrium. It treats of the 
 strength of materials, of bridges, and of girders ; the stability of 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 609 
 
 walls, steeples, and towers ; the static momentum of levers, with 
 their combinations into weighing-scales, windlasses, pulleys, fu- 
 nicular machines, inclined planes, screws, catenaria, and all kinds 
 of gearing. 
 
 Strength. — Strength is the resistance which a body opposes to 
 a disintegration or separation of its parts. Tensile strength is the 
 absolute resistance which a body makes to being torn apart by 
 two forces acting in opposite directions. Crushing strength is the 
 resistance which a body opposes to being battered or flattened 
 down by any weight placed upon it. Transverse strength is the 
 resistance to bending, or flexure, as it is called. Torsional strength 
 is the resistance which a body oflers to any external force which 
 attempts to twist it round. Detrusive strength is the resistance 
 which a body oflers to being clipped or shorn into two parts by 
 such instruments as shears or scissors. TForKn^ strength. The 
 term "working strength" implies a certain reduction made in the 
 estimate of the strength of materials, so that, when the instrument 
 or machine is put to use, it may be capable of resisting a greater 
 strain than it is expected on the average to sustain. 
 
 Tools. — By the term tools, according to the definition given 
 by Rennie, we understand instruments employed in the manual 
 arts for facilitating mechanical operations, by means of percus- 
 sion, penetration, separation, and abrasion, of the substances 
 operated upon, and for all ^vhich operations various motions are 
 required to be imparted either to the tool or to the work. 
 
 Torsion. — Torsion, in mechanics, is the twisting or wrenching 
 of a body by the exertion of a lateral force. If a slender rod of 
 metal, suspended vertically, and having its upper end fixed, be 
 twisted through a certain angle by a force acting in a plane per- 
 pendicular to its axis, it will, on the* removal of the force, untwist 
 itself, or return in the opposite direction with a greater or less 
 velocity, and, after a series of oscillations, will come to rest in its 
 original position. The limits of torsion, within which the body 
 will return to its original state, depend on its elasticity. A fine 
 wire of a few feet in length may be twisted through several revo- 
 
 20 
 
610 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 lutions, without impairing its elasticity ; and, within those limita. 
 the force evolved is found to be perfectly regular, and direct)y 
 proportional to the angular displacement from the position of rest 
 If the angular displacement exceeds a certain limit (as in a wire 
 of lead, for example, before disruption takes place), the particles 
 will assume a new arrangement, or take a set, and will not return 
 to their original position on the withdrawal of the disturbing force. 
 
 Velocity. — Velocity is the rate of motion. Velocity is inde- 
 pendent of space and time, but, in order to obtain its value or 
 expression as a quantity, we compare space with time. Thus, 
 when the value of the velocity of a moving body is required, we 
 measure the space which the body passes through, and divide 
 that space by the time of passage, and the quotient is the velocity. 
 
 Weight. — The weight of a body is the force of attraction be- 
 tween the earth and that body. The weight of a body is greatest 
 at the surface of the earth, and decreases above or below that 
 surface. Above the surface, the weight decreases as the square 
 of its distance from the centre of the earth, and belov/ the surface 
 the weight decreases simply as its distance from the centre. 
 
 Weights and Measures. — The weiglits and measures of this 
 country are identical with those of England. In both countries 
 they repose, in fact, upon actually existing masses of metal (brass), 
 which have been individually declared by law to be the units of 
 the system. In scientific theory, they are supposed to rest upon a 
 permanent and universal law of nature — the gravitation of dis- 
 tilled water at a certain temperature and under a certain atmos- 
 pheric pressure. In this aspect, the origination is with the grains, 
 which must be such that 252,458 of these units of brass will be 
 in just equilibrium with a cubic inch of distilled water, when the 
 mercury stands at 30 inches in a barometer, and at 62 degrees in 
 a thermometer of Fah. Unfortunately, the expounders of this 
 theory in England used only the generic term brass, and failed to 
 define the specific gravity of the metal to be employed ; the con- 
 sequence of this omission is to leave room for an error of jq^^q-q 
 in every attempt to reproduce or compare the results. This is the 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 611 
 
 minimum possible error; the maximum would be a fraction of the 
 difference in specific gravity between the heaviest and lightest 
 brass that can be cast. 
 
 The Wheel and Axle. — The wheel and axle may be considered 
 as a perpetual lever, from the constant renewal of the points of 
 suspension and resistance. The fulcrSm is the centre of the axis, 
 the longer arm is the radius of the wheel, and the shorter arm the 
 radius of the axis. As the diameters of different circles bear the 
 same proportion to each other that their respective circumferences 
 do, the power is also to the weight as the diameter of the wheel is 
 to the diameter of the axle. If one wheel move another of equal 
 circumference, no power will be gained, as they will both move 
 equally fast. But if one wheel move another of different diameter, 
 whether larger or smaller, the velocities with which they move will 
 be inversely as their diameters, circumferences, or number of teeth. 
 
 The Wedge. — The wedge is a double inclined plane, conse- 
 quently its principles are the same. Hence, when two bodies are 
 forced asunder, by means of the wedge, in a direction parallel to 
 its head, multiply the resisting power by half the thickness of the 
 head or back of the wedge, and divide the product by the length 
 of one of its inclined sides ; the quotient is the force equal to the 
 resistance. The breadth of the back or head of a wedge being 3 
 inches, its inclined sides each 10 inches, required the power neces- 
 sary to act upon the wedge so as to separate two substances whose 
 
 resisting force is equal to 150 lbs. ^^^^ ^ ^ — 22*5 lbs. 
 
 Work is a term in mechanics of recent origin, but of grea\ 
 utility; it means a compound of force, pressure, and motion. 
 Work is said to be performed w^hen a pressure is exerted upon a 
 body, and the body is thereby moved through space. The unit 
 of pressure is a pound, the unit of space a foot; and work is 
 measured by a foot-pound as a unit. Thus, if a pressure of so 
 many pounds be exerted through a space of so many feet, the 
 number of pounds is multiplied into the number of feet, and th^ 
 product is the number of foot-pounds of work. 
 
612 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Metals and Alloys. 
 TABLE 
 
 OF MINERAL SUBSTANCES AND THEIR CHEMICAL EQUIVALENTS. 
 
 Names. 
 
 Aluminium 
 
 Antimony 
 
 Arsenic 
 
 Barium 
 
 Beryllium, or) 
 
 Glucinium j 
 
 Bismuth 
 
 Boron 
 
 Bromine 
 
 Cadmium 
 
 Caesium 
 
 Calcium 
 
 Carbon 
 
 Cerium 
 
 Chlorine 
 
 Chromium 
 
 Cobalt... 
 
 Columbium, ) 
 
 or Niobium j 
 
 Copper 
 
 Didymium 
 
 Erbium 
 
 Fluorine 
 
 Gallium 
 
 Glucinium,or\ 
 
 Beryllium../ 
 
 Gold 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 Indium 
 
 Iodine 
 
 Iridium 
 
 Iron 
 
 Lanthamum ... 
 
 Lead 
 
 Lithium 
 
 Magnesium 
 
 New At omic 
 Weights. 
 
 27-4 
 122-0 
 
 750 
 137-0 
 
 9-0 
 
 209-0 
 10-9 
 80-0 
 112-0 
 183-0 
 40-0 
 12-0 
 92-0 
 35-5 
 52-5 
 59-0 
 
 94-0 
 
 63-4 
 96-0 
 112-6 
 19-0 
 
 9-0 
 
 196- 0 
 2-0 
 
 114-0 
 127-0 
 
 197- 2 
 56-0 
 
 139-0 
 207-0 
 7-0 
 24-3 
 
 Old Atomic 
 Weights. 
 
 13-7 
 122-0 
 75-0 
 68-5 
 
 4-5 
 
 209-0 
 10-9 
 80-0 
 56-0 
 
 133-0 
 20-0 
 6-0 
 46-0 
 35-5 
 26-25 
 29-5 
 
 94-0 
 
 31-7 
 48-0 
 
 19-0 
 
 4-5 
 
 98-0 
 1-0 
 57-0 
 
 127-0 
 98-6 
 28-0 
 69-5 
 
 103-5 
 7-0 
 12-15 
 
 Names. 
 
 Manganese.... 
 
 Mercury 
 
 Molybdenum 
 
 Nickel 
 
 Niobium, or\ 
 Columbiumj 
 Nitrogen .. 
 
 Osmium 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 Palladium... 
 
 Phosphorus 
 
 Platinum. ... 
 Potassium... 
 Rhodium..... 
 Rubidium ... 
 Ruthenium.. 
 
 Selenium 
 
 Silicon 
 
 Silver 
 
 Sodium 
 
 Strontium ... 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 Tantalum.... 
 Tellurium... 
 
 Terbium 
 
 Thallium... 
 
 Thorium 
 
 Tin 
 
 Titanium 
 
 Tungsten — 
 
 Uranium 
 
 Vanadium... 
 
 Yttrium 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Zirconium... 
 
 New Atomic 
 Weights. 
 
 55-0 
 200-0 
 96-0 
 59-0 
 
 94-0 
 
 14-0 
 199-0 
 
 16-0 
 106-5 
 
 31- 0 
 197-4 
 
 39-11 
 104-0 
 85-5 
 104-0 
 79-5 
 28-0 
 108-0 
 23-0- 
 87-5 
 
 32- 0 
 182-0 
 129-0 
 148-5 
 204-0 
 231-0 
 118-0 
 
 50- 0 
 184-0 
 120-0 
 
 51- 0 
 92-5 
 65-0 
 89-5 
 
 Iron is the most important of all the metals known to man^ as 
 well as the most useful. It has been one of the principal agents 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 613 
 
 in the civilization of the human race, and is at the present day 
 more extensively employed in the mechanical arts than any other 
 metal. It is found in different conditions, but always in the state 
 of oxides, or as iron ore, that is, a sort of rusty metallic state. The 
 most common kind — the hematite or blood-stone — may be de- 
 scribed as iron-rust solidified, or rendered concrete by water. After 
 being taken from the ground in the condition of ore, it is placed 
 in a blast-furnace and smelted, after which it is rendered fibroua 
 and ductile by puddling. Spiegel iron or specular cast-iron is, as 
 its name implies, largely crystalline, presenting bright, mirror-like^ 
 cleavage planes. 
 
 Wrought-ipon varies in specific gravity from 7 8 to 7*6 ; taking 
 the mean at 7*7, a cubic foot will weigh 479-8721664 lbs., or nearly 
 480 lbs. Cast-iron varies in specific gravity from 7*5 to 6*9, the 
 average being 7*2. 
 
 
 Wrought-Iron, Lbs. 
 
 Cast-iron, Lbs. 
 
 A cylindrical inch 
 
 479-872 
 376-891 
 251-261 
 0-2777 
 0-2181 
 0-1454 
 
 439-800 
 344-407 
 230-279 
 0-2845 
 0-1999 
 0-1333 
 
 Cast-iron is composed of about 91 per cent, of iron, 5 of car- 
 bon, 2 of silicon, and 2 parts of sulphur phosphorus, and other 
 impurities. It also contains manganese, nickel, cobalt, chromium, 
 vanadium, titanium, and tungsten, in minute quantities. The 
 parts of steam-engines generally made of wrought-iron are the 
 link, eccentric-rods and straps, valve- and piston-rods, connecting- 
 rods, air-pump levers, cross-heads for pumps, arms, etc. 
 
 Rust.' — The red powder that falls from iron which has long 
 been subjected to the action of moisture, is the oxide of the metal, 
 and is termed rust. 
 
 Steel is one of the chemical modifications of iron, a combina- 
 tion of iron and carbon. It is composed of 98*6 of iron and 1*4 
 52 
 
614 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK, 
 
 of carbon. The steel containing the least carbon is the softest, 
 and that containing the most is the hardest. 
 
 Cast-iron, wrought-iron, and steel can be distinguished from 
 each other by the difference in the grain — wrought-iron being finer 
 in the grain than cast, and steel finer than wrought; cast-iron be- 
 ing short and brittle, wrought-iron fibrous, and steel void of fibre. 
 
 Steel and cast-iron are fusible; wrought-iron is malleable, duc- 
 tile, tough, fibrous, and possesses the quality of welding; steel, 
 also, is capable of being welded. From this it will be seen, that 
 steel possesses properties in common with both wrought- and cast- 
 iron. Malleable iron is composed of 99*5 per cent, of iron, 0*035 
 of carbon, 0*076 of silicon, and the rest is sulphur and phos- 
 phorus. Its principal value consists in its property of resisting 
 the chemical action of salt water or steam. 
 
 showing the heat-conducting properties of r)ifferent metals. 
 
 Conductive Property 
 FOR Transmission of 
 
 Copper 1000. 
 
 Brass 468. 
 
 Wrought-iron ...... 336. 
 
 Cast-iron 311. 
 
 From the above, it is evident that copper possesses the highest 
 conducting properties. 
 
 showing the tenacity or tensile strength of different metals. 
 
 .Tenacity in Lbs. 
 PER Square Inch. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 Heat. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 Gun-Metal (cast) 
 Iron, Wrought . 
 Iron, Cast . 
 
 Copper (cast) 
 Brass (cast) 
 
 . 51,000 to 61,000. 
 
 20,000. 
 
 19,000. 
 18,000. 
 36,000. 
 
THE ENGINEER\s HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 615 
 
 Brass or gun-metal is used for nuiin-hearings of marine-engines 
 and propeller-shafts, link-blocks, air-pump buckets, head- and foot- 
 valves, stern-tube bushes, propellers, and steam- and water-cocks. 
 White metal is frequently used as a lining for main propeller- 
 shaft and tunnel-bearings. Its chief value consists in its anti- 
 friction and lubricating properties, while its disadvantages are 
 that, if it becomes overheated, it will melt and run out of the 
 bearing. Muntz metal is used for surface-condenser tubes, air- 
 and circulating-pump rods, and surface-condenser tube-plates. It 
 is malleable, has a high tensile strength, is very durable, and not 
 liable to corrosion. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE PROPORTION OF CARBON IN THE VARIOUS GRADES OP 
 IRON AND STEEL. 
 
 Iron semi-steelified contains . . . 1-150 of Carbon. 
 
 Soft Steel capable of welding . . . 1-120 " 
 
 Cast steel for common purposes . • . 1-100 " 
 
 Cast steel requiring more hardness . . 1-90 " 
 Steel capable of standing a few blows, 
 
 but quite unfit for drawing . . . 1-50 " 
 First approach to a steely, granulated 
 
 fracture 1-40 ** 
 
 White cast-iron 1-25 " 
 
 Mottled cast-iron 1 -20 
 
 Carbonated cast-iron . . . . 1-15 " 
 
 Super-carbonated crude iron . . . 1-12 " 
 
 Copper is softer and more ductile than iron, is easily melted, 
 and, when cast, is almost always free from blisters and sound 
 Its chief drawback is its cost and great w'eight, which are nearly 
 double that of iron. Its superior conducting pOwer is to some 
 extent offset by the greater thickness required for strength. 
 
 Sulphur is less influenced by changes of temperature than any 
 known mineral. It has a strong affinity for iron, and, as there is 
 a great deal of it in bituminous coal, the sulphuretted hydrogen 
 gas, disengaged from the fuel, attacks and soon destroys the metal 
 
616 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Babbitt's Metal. — Its composition is as follows: Four pounds 
 of copper, eight pounds of regulus of antimony, and eighty-eight 
 pounds of tin. The copper is first melted ; the tin and the regu- 
 lus of antimony are then added. After the metals have been 
 fused a short time, and brought to a dull red heat, it is fit for use. 
 
 Another durable alloy for the journal-boxes of steam-engines, is 
 copper, 84 ; zinc, 8 ; tin, 2 ; lead, 4 ; and iron, 5 parts. 
 
 Bronze Alloy. — Copper, 80 ; tin, 18; zinc, 2. If, after cast- 
 ing, and while still red hot, cold water is poured over it, it becomes 
 liarder, and finer in grain, and tougher, as the tin, instead of sepa- 
 rating, as happens, when the bronze cools slowly, remains mixed, 
 and the alloy retains its compactness. 
 
 Alloys and Compositions. 
 
 Brass for locomotive bearings.... 
 
 Brass for glands 
 
 Brass engine bearings 
 
 Yellow brass for turning 
 
 Brass richer 
 
 Box metal 
 
 Red brass 
 
 Flanges to stand brazing 
 
 Tough brass engine work 
 
 Tough brass for heavy bearings. 
 
 Mimtz metal 
 
 White metal.... 
 
 White metal, hard. 
 
 Bronze red 
 
 Bronze yellow 
 
 Gun metal for bearings 
 
 Bell metal for large bells 
 
 Britannia metal 
 
 Brass for sheets 
 
 Nickel-silver, English 
 
 Nickel-silver, Parisian 
 
 German silver 
 
 50' 
 
 65- 
 
 50- 
 
 40- 
 
 SO- 
 SO- 
 
 70- 
 
 64- 
 100- 
 160- 
 
 90- 
 
 11- 
 104-7 
 130-5 
 100-8 
 
 90-3 
 
 80- 
 1- 
 
 84-7 
 
 60- 
 
 66- 
 
 50- 
 
 2-5 
 
 0- 5 
 
 1- 8 
 20- 
 10- 
 10- 
 10- 
 
 2- 
 15- 
 
 5- 
 60- 
 11- 
 38-7 
 19-5 
 46-8 
 
 9-67 
 
 2-' 
 
 15-3 
 17-8 
 13-6 
 25' 
 
 5- 
 8- 
 6-5 
 
 15- 
 25- 
 
 42-6 
 
 2-4 
 0-3 
 
 20- 
 
 81- 
 
 85-2 
 
 16' 
 
 22-2 
 
 19- 
 
 25- 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 617 
 
 Solder. 
 
 Silver solder is generally composed of 4 parts silver and 2 
 parts yellow brass. Pure copper, in thin strips, is generally used 
 for soldering-irons. Plumbers' solder is composed of 2 parts tin 
 and 4 parts lead. This solder melts at about 450^ Fah. Tin- 
 smiths' solder is composed of 4 parts tin and 2 parts lead. This 
 solder melts at about 350° Fah. Bismuth solder is composed 
 of 7 parts bismuth, 5 parts lead, and 3 parts tin. This solder melts 
 at about 225° Fah. All tin and lead solders become more fusible 
 the more tin they contain. Thus, 1 part tin and 10 parts lead 
 melt at about 550° Fah. ; while 6 parts tin and 1 part lead melt 
 at about 375° Fah. All the tin, lead, and bismuth solders become 
 more fusible the more lead and bismuth they contain. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE AVERAGE CRUSHING LOAD OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS, 
 OR THE W^EIGHT UNDER WHICH THEY W^ILL CRUMBLE. 
 
 Lbs. per Sq. Inch. 
 
 Lb.<!. 
 
 per Sq. Inch. 
 
 Alder 
 
 6,900 
 
 Walnut . . . 
 
 . . 6,000 
 
 Ash 
 
 8,600 
 
 Willow . . . 
 
 . . 2,900 
 
 Beech 
 
 7,600 
 
 Oast iron. Am. 
 
 . . 174.803 
 
 
 5,700 
 
 Low moor, Eng . 
 
 . . 62,450 
 
 Elm ...... 
 
 10,000 
 
 Wrought-iron 
 
 . . 38,000 
 
 Fir — Spruce . . 
 
 . 6,500 
 
 Steel, cast . . . 
 
 . . 225,000 
 
 Hickory (white) . . 
 
 . 8,925 
 
 " tempered . 
 
 . . 337.800 
 
 Hornbeam . . . 
 
 . 4,500 
 
 Copper, cast . . 
 
 . .117,000 
 
 
 3,200 
 
 Brass, " . . 
 
 . . 164,800 
 
 
 9,113 
 
 Tin, " . . 
 
 . . 15,500 
 
 
 8,150 
 
 Lead .... 
 
 . . 7,730 
 
 Oak 
 
 4,200 
 
 Hard brick . . 
 
 . . 2,000 
 
 " English . . . 
 
 . 6,500 
 
 Crown glass . . 
 
 . . 31,000 
 
 Pine (pitch) . . . 
 
 . 6,800 
 
 Granite, Eng. . . 
 
 . . 10,360 
 
 " Am. yellow 
 
 . 5,300 
 
 Portland cement 
 
 . . 15,000 
 
 
 , 5,100 
 
 Freestone, Conn. 
 
 . . 3,522 
 
 Plum 
 
 . 3,700 
 
 Marble, Am. . . 
 
 . . 18,061 
 
 
 . 7,000 
 
 Roman cement . 
 
 . . 342 
 
 Teak 
 
 , 12,000 
 
 
 
618 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE TENSILE STRENGTH, OR THE STRAIN THAT WILL PULL 
 DIFFERENT METALS ASUNDER ON A STRAIGHT PULL. 
 
 
 Ll)s. p6r 
 
 
 Sq. Inch. 
 
 Antimony . . . . 
 
 1,000 
 
 Bismuth . . . . 
 
 3,200 
 
 Brass — cast 
 
 18,000 
 
 Copper — cast 
 
 19,000 
 
 Gun-metal, copper, and tin . 
 
 96,000 
 
 Iron — cast . . . . 
 
 17,900 
 
 Wrought-iron — bar 
 
 57,500 
 
 good . . . . 
 
 60,000 
 
 superior 
 
 70,000 
 
 best American 
 
 76,160 
 
 low moor 
 
 60,000 
 
 boiler-plate . 
 
 45,000 
 
 rivet — English . 
 
 65,000 
 
 Steel plates — English . 
 
 78,000 
 
 Lbs. per 
 Sq. Jnch. 
 
 Steel plates — Hussey, Wells 
 
 & Co. — American . 94,450 
 
 Bessemer — American 98,600 
 
 Bessemer steel — tool . . 112,000 
 Steel, bar — Black Diamond 
 
 —American . . 120,700 
 
 tempered . . . 214,400 
 
 Chrome steel — American . 180,000 
 
 Silver— cast . . . 41,000 
 
 Tin — block . . . 4,600 
 
 Zinc — cast .... 2,800 
 
 " sheet . . . 16,000 
 
 wire . . . 22,000 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE TENSILE STRENGTH OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF WOOD. 
 
 
 Lbs. iter 
 Sq. Inch. 
 
 
 Alder . 
 
 . 14,000 
 
 Hickory 
 
 Ash 
 
 . 16,000 
 
 Lignum-Vitse 
 
 Birch . 
 
 . 15,000 
 
 Larch . 
 
 Bay wood 
 
 . 12,000 
 
 Locust . 
 
 Beech . 
 
 . 11,500 
 
 Maple . 
 
 Bamboo 
 
 . 6,000 
 
 Mahogany 
 
 Boxwood 
 
 . 20,000 
 
 Oak . 
 
 Cedar . 
 
 . 7,000 
 
 Pear 
 
 Chestnut 
 
 . 13,00? 
 
 Pine 
 
 Cypress . 
 
 . 6,000 
 
 Poplar . 
 
 Elder . 
 
 . 10,000 
 
 Sycamore 
 
 Elm 
 
 . 6,000 
 
 Teak . 
 
 Fir or Spruce 
 
 . 10,000 
 
 Walnut . 
 
 Hazel . 
 
 . 18,000 
 
 Yew . 
 
 Holly . 
 
 . 16,000 
 
 
THE engineer's iiandy-book. 619 
 
 Black Finish for Brass. — Make a strong solution of nitrate of 
 silver in one dish and nitrate of copper in another. Mix the two 
 together and plunge the brass into it. Now heat the brass 
 evenly until the required degree of dead blackness is obtained. 
 This is the method used by French instrument-makers to pro- 
 
 , duce the beautiful dead-black color so much admired in optical 
 
 i instruments. 
 
 Lacquer for Brass Castings. — Tak^ of shellac, 6 oz. ; amber 
 of copal, ground, 2 oz. ; dragon's blood, 40 grains ; extract of r^d 
 sandal- wood, 30 grains; oriental saffron, 36 grains; pounded glass, 
 4 oz. ; very pure alcohol, 44 oz. To apply to brass, expose to a 
 gentle heat and dip them in. 
 
 Solder. — The following solder will braze steel or iron, and may 
 be found very useful in case of a valve-stem or other light portion 
 of an engine or machine breaking at a time when it is important 
 that the engine or machine should continue work : Silver, 19 
 parts ; copper, 1 part ; brass, 2 parts. 
 
 Fusible Metal, consisting of 8 parts of bismuth, 5 of lead, and 
 3 of tin. It melts at the heat of boiling water, or 212° Fah. By 
 the addition of a very little mercury, it becomes still more fusible, 
 and is used for certain anatomical injections and for the filling of 
 carious teeth. 
 
 Rule /or finding the approximate weight of iron castings from pat- 
 terns, — Multiply the weight of the pattern by the figures corre- 
 sponding to the material in the table. Very accurate results can- 
 not be expected, as the specific gravity of wood as well as of iron ' 
 varies. 
 
 Pine wood ........ 14*0 
 
 Oak 9-0 
 
 Beech " 9*7 
 
 Linden" . . ^. . . . . . 134 
 
 Birch " . . . . . . . 10-6 
 
 Alder " 12*6 
 
 Pear-tree wood 10 0 
 
620 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF CASTINGS BY WEIGHT OF THE PATTERNS. 
 
 Multiply the weight of the pattern by the multiplier opposite 
 each material. 
 
 White Piue X 16 
 
 X 17-1 
 
 X 17-3 
 
 X 18 
 
 X 25 
 
 Cast-iron. 
 
 Wrought-iron. 
 
 Steel. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE SHRINKAGE OF CASTINGS OF DIFFERENT METALS. 
 
 Cast-iron, ^ inch per lineal foot. 
 Brass, j\ 
 Lead, i 
 
 Tin, inch per lineal foot. 
 Zinc, 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE WEIGHT AND BULK OF DIFFERENT SUBSTANCES IN CUBIC 
 FEET, POUNDS AND TONS. 
 
 
 
 0.2 0 . 
 
 
 CO 0 
 
 00 
 
 0.2 0 . 
 
 Names of Substances. 
 
 
 
 Names of Substances. 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 5 
 0 
 
 Cast-iron . » . . 
 
 450-5 
 
 4-97 
 
 Oak, white . . . 
 
 45-2 
 
 49-5 
 
 Wroiight-iron . . 
 
 486-6 
 
 4-60 
 
 Clay 
 
 101-3 
 
 22-1 
 
 Steel 
 
 489-8 
 
 4-57 
 
 Concrete, ordinary 
 
 115-0 
 
 19-5 
 
 Copper .... 
 
 5550 
 
 4-03 
 
 Brick 
 
 100-0 
 
 22-4 
 
 Lead 
 
 707-0 
 
 3-16 
 
 Plaster, Paris . . 
 
 105-0 
 
 21-3 
 
 
 537-7 
 
 4-16 
 
 Sand 
 
 94-5 
 
 23-7 
 
 Tin 
 
 456-0 
 
 4-91 
 
 Granite .... 
 
 139-0 
 
 161 
 
 Pine, white . . . 
 
 29-56 
 
 75-6 
 
 Earth, loose . . . 
 
 78-6 
 
 28-5 
 
 " yellow . . 
 
 33-81 
 
 66-2 
 
 Water, salt (sea) . 
 
 64-3 
 
 34-8 
 
 Mahogany . . . 
 
 66-4 
 
 33-8 
 
 Water, fresh . . 
 
 62-5 
 
 35-9 
 
 Marble, common . 
 
 141-0 
 
 15-9 
 
 
 58-08 
 
 38-56 
 
 Millstone. . . . 
 
 130-0 
 
 17-2 
 
 Gold 
 
 1013-0 
 
 2-21 
 
 Oak, live .... 
 
 70-0 
 
 32-0 
 
 
 651-0 
 
 4-07 
 
THE KNaiNEEIi's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 621 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF DIFFERENT METALS PER CUBIC FOOT, 
 
 Brass 
 Copper . 
 Gold . 
 Iron, cast 
 Iron, wrought 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 525 
 
 Lead, cast 
 
 550 
 
 Silver 
 
 1,210 
 
 Steel 
 
 450 
 
 Tin, cast . 
 
 485 
 
 Zinc 
 
 LbH. 
 
 710 
 
 655 
 490 
 456 
 450 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE ACTUAL EXTENSION OF WROUGHT-IRON AT VARIOUS 
 TEMPERATURES. 
 
 Deg. 
 
 of Fah. Length. 
 
 32^........1- 
 
 212 1-0011356 
 
 392 1*0025757 'J Surface becomes straw-colored, deep- 
 
 672 1*0043253 r yellow, crimson, violet, purple, deep- 
 
 752 1-0063894 ) blue, bright-purple. 
 
 932 1-0087730 I Surface becomes dull, and then bright- 
 
 1,112 1-0114811 i red. 
 
 1,652 1-0216024^^ . , , ... , ^ , . 
 
 2192 1-0348242 C yellow, welding heat, white 
 
 2J32 1-0512815 3 
 
 2,912 Cohesion destroyed. Fusion perfect. 
 
 Linear Expansion of Wrought-lron. — The linear expansion 
 which a bar of wrought-iron undergoes, according to Daniell's 
 pyrometer, when heated from the freezing- to the boiling-point, or 
 from 32^ to 212° Fah., is about of its length ; at higher tem- 
 peratures the elongation becomes more rapid. Thus, it will be 
 seen how sensible a change takes place when iron undergoes a 
 variation of temperature. A bar of iron 10 feet long, subject to 
 an ordinary change of temperature of from 32° to 180° Fah., will 
 elongate more than ^ of an inch, or sufficient to cause fracture in 
 stone-work, strip the thread of a screw, or endanger a bridge, 
 
622 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 floor, roof, or truss, or even push out a wall if brought in contact 
 with it. 
 
 The expansion of volume and surface of wrought-iron is cal- 
 culated by taking the linear expansion as unity ; then, following 
 the geometrical law, the superficial expansion is twice the linear^ 
 and the cubical expansion is three times the linear. 
 
 Wrought-iron will bear on a square inch, without permanent 
 alteration, 17,800 pounds, and an extension in length of yiVtt* 
 Cohesive force is diminished ^q\q by an increase of one degree 
 of heat. 
 
 Compared with cast-iron, its strength is 1*12 times, its extensi- 
 bility 0*86 times, and its stiffness 1*3 times. 
 
 Cast-iron expands jq-^^j^-^ of its length for one degree of heat; 
 the greatest change in the shade, in this climate, is yyVo '^^^ 
 length ; exposed to the sun*s rays, joV^- ! 
 
 Cast-iron shrinks, in cooling, from -^K to ^\ of its length. 
 
 Cast-iron is crushed by a force of 93,000 pounds upon a square' 
 inch, and will bear, without permanent alteration, 15,300 pounds] 
 upon a square inch. j 
 
 To find the surface dilatation of any particular article, double: 
 its linear dilatation ; and to find the dilatation in volume, triple! 
 it. To find the elongation in linear inches, per linear foot, of anyj 
 particular article, multiply its respective linear dilatation, as given: 
 in the table, by 12. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE LINEAR DILATATION OF SOLIDS BY HEAT. 
 Length which a Bar Heated at 212^ has greater than when at the Temperature of Z2P. 
 
 Brass, cast 0018671 
 
 Copper 0017674 
 
 Gold , 0014880 
 
 Iron, cast 0011111 
 
 Iron, wrought 0012575 
 
 Silver 0020205 
 
 Steel 0011898 
 
THE ENGIJSTEEK^S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 623 
 
 TABLE 
 
 DEDUCED FROM EXPERIMENTS ON IRON PLATES FOR STEAM-BOILERS, 
 BY THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE, PIIILADA. 
 
 Iron boiler-plate was found to increase in tenacity, as its tem- 
 perature was raised, until it reached a temperature of 550° above 
 the freezing-point, at which point its tenacity began to diminish. 
 At 32° to 80° tenacity is 56,000 lbs., or | below its maximum. 
 
 " 570° " " 66,000 " the maximum. 
 
 " 720° " " 55,000 " the same nearly as at 30°. 
 
 " 1050° " " 32,000 " nearly i the maximum. 
 
 u j240° " " 22,000 " nearly I the maximum. 
 
 " 1317° " " 9,000 " nearly I the maximum. 
 
 It will be seen by the above table that if a boiler should become 
 overheated by the accumulation of scale on some of its parts, or 
 an insufficiency of water, the iron would soon become reduced to 
 less than one-half its strength. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE STRENGTH OF COPPER BOILER PLATES AT DIFFERENT 
 TEMPERATURES, DEDUCED FROM EXPERIMENTS BY THE FRANKLIN IN- 
 STITUTE OF PHILA. THE STANDARD STRENGTH AT 32° BEING 32,800 
 LBS. PER SQUARE INCH. 
 
 
 Temperature 
 above 32°. 
 
 Diminution of 
 Strength. 
 
 
 Temperature 
 above 32°. 
 
 Diminution of 
 Strengtli. 
 
 1 
 
 90° 
 
 0-0175 
 
 9 
 
 660° 
 
 0-3425 
 
 2 
 
 180 
 
 0-0540 
 
 10 
 
 769 . 
 
 0-4398 
 
 3 
 
 270 
 
 0-0926 
 
 11 
 
 812 
 
 0-4944 
 
 4 
 
 360 
 
 0-1513 
 
 12 
 
 880 
 
 0-5581 
 
 5 
 
 456 
 
 0-2046 
 
 13 
 
 989 
 
 0-6691 
 
 6 
 
 460 
 
 0-2133 
 
 14 
 
 1000 
 
 0-6741 
 
 7 
 
 513 
 
 0-2446 
 
 15 
 
 1200 
 
 0-8861 
 
 8 
 
 532 
 
 0-2558 
 
 16 
 
 1300 
 
 1-000 
 
 It will be seen from the above table, that, in being heated from 
 the freezing-point to the boiling-point of water, copper loses 5 
 per cent, of its strength ; at 550° it loses about one-quarter of it« 
 strength ; and at 1332° loses all it« tenacity. 
 
624 
 
 THE ENGINEEE's HANDY-BOOK 
 
 
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THE ENGINEER 8 II A N D Y - BOO K . 
 
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626 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
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 < 
 
 o» 
 
 CO 
 
 O 
 
 H 
 ft 
 
 2 
 ft 
 
 H 
 O 
 
 O 
 ft 
 
 co° 
 
 CO 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 O 
 
 CO 
 
 
 GO 
 
 (M 
 
 
 to 
 
 C<l 
 
 
 -Irr 
 CO 
 (M 
 
 
 
 MjoO 
 
 T-I 
 
 ST 
 
 l>" 
 
 rH 
 
 — I(y^ 
 — |QO 
 
 — irp 
 
 to 
 
 tH 
 
 (M 
 
 CO 
 rH 
 
 
 tH 
 
 T— 1 
 
 O 
 rH 
 
 rH 
 
 05 
 
 tH 
 
 
 T-H° 
 
 Jo* 
 
 —Irf 
 tH 
 
 to* 
 
 —loo 
 tH 
 
 
 rH 
 
 CO 
 
 t>|<» 
 
 
 CO|rf 
 
 
 MtloO 
 
 tH 
 
 
 
 Square 
 
 Wt.in Lbs.... 
 
 CO 
 
 rH 
 <M 
 rH 
 
 lO 
 
 rH 
 l-H 
 rH 
 
 lO 
 
 — Irr 
 
 o 
 
 rH 
 
 
 o? 
 
 iO 
 
 00 
 
 i>l<» 
 
 00 
 
 
 — 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 — i-N 
 00 
 
 (X) 
 
 WjOO 
 
 CO 
 
 
 T— i 
 
 CO 
 
 —loo 
 
 lO 
 
 
 lO 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 eo|^ 
 CO 
 
 
 'C|GO 
 
 CO 
 
 -I'M 
 
 — fM 
 
 CO 
 
 rH 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 to 
 
 CO 
 
 
 Lbs.... 
 
 Square 
 
 Wt. in 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 627 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE WEIGHT OP CAST-IRON PIPES, 1 FOOT IN LENGTH, FROM } 
 INCH TO li INCHES THICK AND FROM 3 INCHES TO 24 INCHES DIAMETER 
 
 
 
 
 Thickness in 
 
 Inches. 
 
 
 
 ic 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 f 
 
 i 
 
 
 1 
 
 If 
 
 n 
 
 S * 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 T h« 
 
 
 T,h<a 
 
 
 T ha 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 3 
 
 8} 
 
 12i 
 
 m 
 
 22} 
 
 27i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3J 
 
 9} 
 
 14i 
 
 19i 
 
 25} 
 
 31} 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 161 
 
 22 
 
 28 i 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4i 
 
 llf 
 
 18 
 
 24J 
 
 3U 
 
 38f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 191 
 
 27 
 
 34i 
 
 42} 
 
 50J 
 
 f9 
 
 
 
 5^ 
 
 15 
 
 2U 
 
 29i 
 
 37i 
 
 46 
 
 54} 
 
 631 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 23 J 
 
 32 
 
 401 
 
 49} 
 
 59 
 
 681 
 
 isi 
 
 *88i 
 
 65 
 
 
 25i 
 
 34J 
 
 431 
 
 53i 
 
 6Si 
 
 7Si 
 
 84} 
 
 95 
 
 7 
 
 
 27i 
 
 361 
 
 461 
 
 561 
 
 67} 
 
 781 
 
 89i 
 
 lOU 
 
 7J 
 
 
 29 
 
 39 
 
 50 
 
 601 
 
 72 
 
 83 J 
 
 95} 
 
 107i 
 
 8 
 
 
 301 
 
 411 
 
 53 
 
 64J 
 
 76} 
 
 88 J 
 
 lOOJ 
 
 1131 
 
 8i 
 
 
 33 
 
 44i 
 
 56i 
 
 68} 
 
 80} 
 
 93 J 
 
 106i 
 
 120 
 
 9 
 
 
 34i 
 
 46J 
 
 59 
 
 71} 
 
 84} 
 
 98 i 
 
 nil 
 
 125i 
 
 9^ 
 
 
 361^ 
 
 49 
 
 62 
 
 7di 
 
 89 
 
 103 
 
 1171 
 
 132 
 
 10 
 
 
 38J 
 
 5U 
 
 65i 
 
 79} 
 
 93i 
 
 108 
 
 122i 
 
 138 
 
 lOi 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 68} 
 
 82} 
 
 97} 
 
 1121 
 
 128i 
 
 144} 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 56J 
 
 71i 
 
 86i 
 
 102 
 
 117f 
 
 134 
 
 150} 
 
 lU 
 
 
 
 59 
 
 76} 
 
 90 
 
 106} 
 
 122f 
 
 1391 
 
 1561 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 6U 
 
 77i 
 
 93^ 
 
 1105 
 
 127i 
 
 145 
 
 1621 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 821 
 
 101} 
 
 118} 
 
 137J 
 
 154 
 
 1731 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 89} 
 
 108} 
 
 1261 
 
 146i 
 
 165} 
 
 185} 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 95} 
 
 115} 
 
 135} 
 
 156i 
 
 176} 
 
 198 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 
 123} 
 
 143 
 
 166 
 
 187* 
 
 211} 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 130} 
 
 152i 
 
 178.i 
 
 198} 
 
 2231 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 137 
 
 161} 
 
 185i 
 
 209 
 
 235} 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 169} 
 
 1951 
 
 222} 
 
 247 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 178 
 
 205 i 
 
 233} 
 
 259 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 214 
 
 243 i 
 
 273} . 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 223 J 
 
 2441 
 
 285} 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 233 i 
 
 265 i 
 
 298} 
 
 24 
 
 ! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 245} 
 
 277i 
 
 3101 
 
628 
 
 TttE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE STANDARD WEIGHTS OF CAST-IKON WATER-PIPE. 
 
 3 inch, 15 lbs. per foot 
 
 4 inch, 22 " 
 6 inch, 33 " 
 8 inch, 42 " 
 
 10 inch, 60 " 
 12 inch, 75 " 
 
 = 180 lbs. per length of 12 feet. 
 = 264 
 400 
 
 = 500 
 -= 720 
 900 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE STANDARD WEIGHTS OF CAST-IRON GAS-PIPE. 
 
 3 inch, 12J lbs 
 
 4 inch, 17 
 6 inch, 30 
 8 inch, 40 
 
 10 inch, 50 
 12 inch, 70 
 
 per foot = 150 lbs. per length of 12 feet. 
 = 204 
 = 360 
 
 480 
 
 600 
 = 840 
 
 TABLE 
 
 8Hc ^ING THE TENSILE STRENGTH OF VARIOUS QUALITIES OF AMERICAN 
 
 CAST-IRON. 
 
 Breakiug weight of 
 a square inch bar. 
 
 Common pig-iron, 15,000 
 
 Good common castings, - 20,000 
 
 Cast-iron " ....... 20,834 
 
 19,200 
 
 ....... 27,700 
 
 Gun-heads, specimen from, 24,000 
 
 " " 39,500 
 
 Greenwood cast-iron, 21,300 
 
 " " (after third melting,) . . . 45,970 
 
 Mean of American cast-iron, 31,829 
 
 Gun-metal, mean, . , , 37,232 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 629 
 
 English Cad-Iron. ^^^^^.^^ ^^i^^, 
 
 a square inch bar. 
 
 Low Moor, 14,076 
 
 Clyde, No. 1, 16,125 
 
 Clyde, No. 3, 23,468 
 
 Calder, No. 1, 13,735 
 
 Stirling, mean, 25,764 
 
 Mean of English, 19,484 
 
 Stirling, toughened iron, 28,000 
 
 Carron No. 2, cold-blast, 16,683 
 
 " 2, hot-blast, 13,505 
 
 " 3, cold-blast, . . . . . . 13,200 
 
 " 3, hot-blast, 17,755 
 
 Davon, No. 3, hot-blast, 21,907 
 
 Buffery, No. 1, cold-blast, 17,466 
 
 " 1, hot-blast, 13,437 
 
 Cold-Talon (North Wales), No. 2, cold-blast, . . . 18,855 
 
 " 2, hot-blast, . . . 16,676 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE TENSILE STRENGTH OF VARIOUS QUALITIES OF AMERICAN 
 WROUGHT-IRON. 
 
 Breaking weight of 
 a square inch bar. 
 
 From Salisbury, Conn., 66,000 
 
 " Pittsfield, Mass., 67,000 
 
 " Bellefonte, Pa., . . . . . . 58,000 
 
 " Maramec, Mo., 43,000 
 
 " 53,000 
 
 " Centre County, Pa., 58,400 
 
 Lancaster County, Pa., ...... 58,061 
 
 " Carp River, Lake Superior, 89,582 
 
 " Mountain, Mo., Charcoal bloom, .... 90,000 
 
 American hammered, 53,900 
 
 Chain-iron, 43,000 
 
 Rivets, 53,300 
 
 53* 
 
630 
 
 THE engineer's 
 
 HANDY-BOO 
 
 K. 
 
 Breaking weight of 
 a square inch bar. 
 
 Bolts, 
 
 Boiler-plates, .... 
 Average boiler-plates, 
 
 " joints, double-riveted, 
 " single 
 Chrome steel, highest strength, 
 " lowest 
 " " average " 
 Homogeneous metal. 
 
 Bessemer steel. 
 
 2d quality. 
 
 52,250 
 50,000 
 55,000 
 35,000 
 28.600 
 198,910 
 163,760 
 180,000 
 105,732 
 81,663 
 148,324 
 154,825 
 157,881 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS MADE ON DIFFERENT BRANDS 
 OF BOILER-IRON AT THE STEVENS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, HO- 
 BOKEN, N. J. 
 
 Thipty-three experiments were made upon the iron taken from 
 the exploded steam-boiler of the ferry-boat "Westfield." The 
 following were the results : 
 
 Lbs. per sq. in. 
 
 Average breaking weight, 41,653 
 
 16 experiments made upon high grades of American 
 boiler-plate. 
 
 Average breaking weight, . . . . . 54,123 
 15 experiments made upon high grades of American 
 flange-iron. 
 
 Average breaking weight, 42,144 
 
 6 experiments made upon English Bessjemer steel. 
 
 Average breaking weight, 82,621 
 
 5 experiments made upon English Low Moor boiler-plate. 
 
 Average breaking weight, 58,984 
 
THE ENGINEEK's IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 631 
 
 Lb3. per sq. Id 
 
 6 experiments made upon samples of tank-iron taken 
 from different manufacturers. 
 
 Average breaking weight No. 1, . . . . 43,831 
 
 No. 2, . . . . 42,011 
 
 " No. 3, . . . . 41,249 
 2 experiments made on iron taken from the exploded 
 steam-boiler of the " Red Jacket." 
 
 Average breaking weight, ..... 49,000 
 
 It will be noticed that the above experiments reveal a great 
 variation in the strength of boiler-plate of different grades. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 GIVING THE PROPORTIONS OF THE UNITED STATES OR SELLERS' STANDARD 
 THREADS FOR SCREWS, NUTS, AND BOLTS. 
 
 eter of 
 cbes. 
 
 h reads 
 
 Screw 
 of the 
 Deci- 
 nch. 
 
 C « OS 
 
 o , 
 
 o <v 
 
 reads 
 
 
 
 utside Diam 
 Screw in In^ 
 
 umber of Tl 
 per Inch 
 
 iameter -of 
 at the Root 
 Thread in 
 mals of an 1 
 
 idth of To 
 Bottom of 1 
 in Decimals 
 Inch. 
 
 utside Diam 
 Screw in In< 
 
 umber of Tl 
 per Inch 
 
 iameter of 
 at the Root 
 Thread in 
 mals of an ] 
 
 idth of To 
 Bottom of '1 
 in Decimals 
 Inch. 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 Q 
 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 •185 
 
 -0062 
 
 2 
 
 ^ 
 
 1-712 
 
 -0277 
 
 A 
 
 18 
 
 •240 
 
 -0074 
 
 2i 
 
 u 
 
 1-962 
 
 -0277 
 
 3 
 
 R 
 
 16 
 
 •294 
 
 -0078 
 
 
 4" 
 
 2-176 
 
 •0312 
 
 
 14 
 
 •344 
 
 •0089 
 
 1' 
 
 4 
 
 2-426 
 
 -0312 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 •400 
 
 -0096 
 
 
 3^ 
 
 2-629 
 
 -0357 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 •454 
 
 -0104 
 
 
 H 
 
 2-879 
 
 -0357 
 
 ft 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 •507 
 
 •0113 
 
 ^ 
 
 H 
 
 8-100 
 
 -0384 
 
 f 
 
 10 
 
 •620 
 
 •0125 
 
 
 3 
 
 3-317 
 
 •0413 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 •731 
 
 •0138 
 
 
 3 
 
 3-567 
 
 •0413 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 •837 
 
 •0156 
 
 
 21 
 
 8-798 
 
 •0435 
 
 
 7 
 
 •940 
 
 •0178 
 
 U 
 
 2f 
 
 4-028 
 
 •0454 
 
 H 
 
 7 
 
 1-065 
 
 •0178 
 
 o 
 
 2| 
 
 4-256 
 
 -0476 
 
 n 
 
 6 
 
 1-160 
 
 •0208 
 
 2^- 
 
 4-480 
 
 -0500 
 
 n 
 
 
 1-284 
 
 •0208 
 
 5i 
 
 2^^ 
 
 4-780 
 
 •0500 
 
 i| 
 
 51 
 
 1-389 
 
 •0227 
 
 51 
 
 2f 
 
 4-963 
 
 •0526 
 
 
 5 
 
 1-491 
 
 •0250 
 
 ? 
 
 2| 
 
 5-203 
 
 •0526 
 
 If 
 
 5 
 
 1-616 
 
 •0250 
 
 
 2i 
 
 5-423 
 
 •0555 
 
632 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 The pitch " of a thread is the distance which it travels length- 
 ways for one revolution of the screw. 
 
 The- thickness op depth of a nut, to give equal strength, must be 
 equal to the outside diameter of the screw or bolt. 
 
 Speed, Power, Capacity, and Dress of Millstones. 
 
 Diameter of 
 Millstone. 
 
 Re vol u tion s 
 per Minute. 
 
 Horse-Power. 
 
 Average* Ca- 
 pacity per 
 Hour of 
 Orindin^ in 
 Bushels. 
 
 Usual Dress. 
 
 Draught 
 froiH Fore 
 Edge of Fur- 
 row. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Inches. 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 200 
 
 2^ 
 
 2^ 
 
 7*3 
 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 180 
 
 2f 
 
 2f 
 
 8*2 
 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 170 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 9-3 
 
 ^ 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 160 
 
 H 
 
 3i 
 
 9-3 
 
 2| 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 150 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 10-3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 140 
 
 3f 
 
 3f 
 
 10-3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 130 
 
 3| 
 
 3? 
 
 10-3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 125 
 
 3| 
 
 Nearly 4 
 
 11-3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 . 120 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 10-4 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 115 
 
 4| 
 
 4i 
 
 10-4 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 ^ 110 
 
 H 
 
 ^2 
 
 11-4 
 
 3i 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 105 
 
 41 
 
 5 
 
 X2-4 
 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 100 
 
 43 
 
 6 
 
 12-4 
 
 H 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 95 
 
 5 
 
 6i 
 
 12-4 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 90 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 12-4 
 
 ^ 
 
 Speed of Circular-Saws. 
 
 About nine thousand feet per minute for the rim of a circular- 
 saw to travel may be laid down as good speed : a saw twelve 
 inches in diameter, 3 feet around the rim, 3,000 revolutions ; 24 
 inches in diameter, or 6 feet around the rim, 1,500 revolutions ; 
 
 3 feet in diameter, or 9 feet around the rim, 1,000 revolutions; 
 
 4 feet in diameter, or 12 feet around the rim, 750 revolutions ; 5 
 feet in diameter, or 15 feet around the rim, 600 revolutions. 
 
 Rule for finding the proper number of revolutions per minute of 
 any sized saw. — Divide 36,000 by the diameter of the saw in 
 inches; the quotient will be the right number of revolutions. 
 
 Example.— 36,000 divided by 60 equals 600, the number of 
 revolutions a 60-inch saw should make. 
 
THE engineer's 11 A N D Y - J{ O C) K . 
 
 633 
 
 TABLK 
 
 Sliding 
 Surface. 
 
 Surface at 
 Rest. 
 
 Cast-iron. 
 
 Wrought- 
 iron. 
 
 Cast-iron. 
 
 Cast-iron. 
 
 Wrought- 
 iron. 
 
 Bronze. 
 
 Bronze. 
 
 Wrought- 
 iron. 
 
 Cast-iron. 
 
 Bronze. 
 
 Bronze. 
 
 Cast-iron. 
 
 Bronze. 
 
 Bronze. 
 
 Brass. 
 
 Cast-iron. 
 
 Steel. 
 
 it 
 
 Steel. 
 Steel. 
 
 Wrought- 
 
 iron. 
 Bronze. 
 
 OF COKFFICIENTS OF FRICTIONS BETWEEN PLANE SURFACES. 
 
 State of the Surfaces. 
 
 f Fibres of 
 I both sur- 
 faces par- 
 allel to 
 [ motion. 
 
 Fibres par- 
 allel to 
 motion. 
 
 plbg. 
 
 i lubricated f 1 
 I with W 
 
 f without lubri 
 
 plbg 
 
 Fibres of 
 iron pa- 
 rallel to 
 motion. 
 
 surfaces unctuous . 
 without lubricant . 
 surfaces unctuous . 
 
 f tallow 
 lubricated J lard . 
 with j olive-oil 
 
 I lard and 
 without lubricant . 
 surfaces unctuous . 
 
 lubricated | 
 
 1 olive-oil 
 without lubricant . 
 surfaces unctuous . 
 
 tallow 
 lard and 
 olive-oil 
 without lubricant . 
 surfaces unctuous . 
 
 lubricated f {!*J.|j ^ 
 
 without lubricant . 
 surfaces unctuous . 
 lubricated I tallow 
 
 with \ olive-oil 
 without lubricant . 
 surfaces unctuous . 
 lubricated with olive- 
 without lubricant . 
 surfaces unctuous . 
 
 lubricated f ['"^^jP^^ 
 
 with ••. 
 
 ( olive-oil 
 
 without lubricant . 
 
 ,l"''ru;ated||j7 
 
 with ] -1 
 I { olive-oil 
 
 lubricated f tallow 
 
 with ( lard . 
 
 without lubricant . 
 
 I lubricated (^^'j!'^^^ 
 1 ^^.^j^ - olive-oil 
 
 [ ^ ( lard and plbg. 
 
 oil 
 
 Coeffi- \ 
 cieiit of 
 Friction. 
 
634 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Non-Conducting CoYering for Steam-Boilers and Pipes. 
 
 Make a thin paste by boih"ng floup and water, then stir in as 
 much sawdust as it can hold together. After drying, it will adhere 
 to iron when slightly warm, after which several coats may be 
 applied in succession. It may be made water-proof by painting 
 with coal-tar. 
 
 Or, mix thoroughly equal parts of fuller's-earth and finely-sifted 
 coal-ashes ; add to tlie pasty mass a small quantity of calves-hair. 
 Before laying it on a pipe, add i its quantity of calcined gypsum, 
 and lay on in thin layers. The pipe or cylinder should be warm 
 when the mass is applied. 
 
 The annexed out represents what is known to mechanics as an 
 expansion-joint, such as is used on short, straight steam-pipes in 
 ^ „ . contracted places, for the 
 
 purpose of preventing 
 them from breaking or 
 throwing the machinery 
 out of line by the force 
 of expansion. A shows 
 the socket, or stufiing- 
 box; By the tube or pipe; 
 C, the guide employed 
 for the purpose of keep- 
 ing the pipe straight; F F, the studs by which the gland is ad- 
 justed, and the guide, (7, retained in position ; a a is the cavity 
 which contains the fibrous packing for the purpose of preventing 
 leakage ; e e, the recess into which the head, 2), is drawn Avhen the 
 pipe contracts; and G the female tube into which it is forced 
 by expansion. 
 
 Cement for steam -joints and patching steam-boilers, — Take 
 any desired quantity of pure red lead, put it in an iron mortar, on 
 a block or thick plate of iron. Put in a quantity of white lead 
 ground in oil; knead them until you make a thick putty; then 
 pound it ; the more it is pounded the softer it will become. Roli 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 635 
 
 in red lead, and pound again ; repeat this operation of adding red 
 lead and pounding, until the mass becomes a stiff putty. In ap- 
 plying it to the flange or joint, it is well to put a thin grummet 
 around the orifice of the pipe, to prevent the cement being forced 
 inward to the pipe when the bolts are screwed up. When the 
 flanges are not faced, make the above mass rather soft, and add 
 cast-iron borings run through a fine sieve, when it will be found 
 to resist either fire or water. 
 
 Op, powdered litharge, 2 parts ; very fine sand, 2 parts ; slaked 
 quicklime, 1 part. Mix all together. So use. Mix the proper 
 quantity with boiled linseed-oil, and apply quickly. It gets baud 
 very soon. 
 
 Or, white lead ground in oil, 10 parts; black oxide of manga- 
 nese, 3 parts ; litharge, 1 part. Reduce to the proper consistency 
 with boiled linseed-oil, and apply. 
 
 Or, red lead ground in oil, 6 parts ; white lead, 3 parts ; oxide 
 of manganese, 2 parts ; silicate of soda, 1 part ; litharge, J part ; 
 all mixed and used as putty. 
 
 Or, take 10 pounds of ground litharge ; 4 lbs. of ground Paris 
 white ; J pound of yellow ochre and J oz. of hemp ; cut into 
 lengths of I inch ; mix all together with boiled linseed-oil to the 
 consistency of a stiff putty. This cement resists fire and will set 
 in water. 
 
 Cement for rust-joints. — Cast-iron borings or turnings, 19 
 lbs. ; pulverized sal-ammoniac, 1 pound ; flour of sulphur, i pound. 
 It should be thoroughly mixed, and passed through a tolerably 
 fine sieve. SuflScient water should be added to wet the mixture 
 through. It should be prepared some hours before use. A small 
 quantity of sludge from the trough of a grindstone will improve 
 its quality. 
 
 All movable joints of the best description of land- and marine- 
 engines are now faced on a lathe or planer, and then rendered 
 perfectly steam-, air-, and water-tight by filing and scraping, so 
 that all that is necessary, when put together, is to oil their sur- 
 faces. 
 
636 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Fop smooth surfaces that can be conveniently calked, sheet- 
 copper, annealed by heating to a cherry red and then plunging it 
 into cold water, makes a permanent joint. 
 
 Lead -wire makes a very cheap, clean, and permanent joint. 
 Copper- wire also makes a good joint ; but, when convenient, it is 
 always best to plane or turn a groove in. one of the'surfaces to be 
 brought into contact. 
 
 For uniform surfaces, gauze wire-cloth coated on either side 
 with white or red lead paint makes a very durable joint, particu- 
 larly where it is exposed to high temperatures. 
 
 ♦ For pumps or stand-pipes in the holds of vessels, canvas well 
 saturated on both sides with white or red lead makes a very dur- 
 able joint. Pasteboard painted on both sides with white or red 
 lead paint is frequently used with good results. 
 
 How to make a good adhesive cement. — Mix pulverized 
 gum- Arabic with its weight of finely-powdered calcined alum. 
 When mixed with a small quantity of water, it forms a cement 
 which unites wood, paper, porcelain, glass, and crockery very firmly. 
 It must be kept dry in powder and moistened only as needed. 
 
 A cement for leather may be made by dissolving in a mixture 
 of ten parts of bi-sulphide of carbon and one part of oil of turpen- 
 tine enough gutta-percha to thicken the composition. The leather 
 must be freed from grease, which may be done by placing a cloth 
 between the leather and a hot iron. The pieces cemented must be 
 pressed together until the cement is dry. 
 
 A cement for fastening leather to iron, china, or glass. — To 
 one quart of glue dissolved in good cider vinegar add one ounce 
 of good Venice turpentine. It should be allowed to simmer about 
 half a day. 
 
 Cement for leather belting. — Of common glue and American 
 isinglass, take equal parts ; place in a kettle, and add suflacient 
 water to cover the whole. Let them soak ten hours ; then bring 
 the mixture to the boiling point, and add pure tannin, until the 
 whole becomes ropy, or appears like the white of eggs. Apply it 
 warm. Buff the grain off the leather where it is to be cemented ; 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-HOOK. 
 
 637 
 
 rub the joint surfaces solidly together, and let it dry for a few 
 hours. 
 
 Cement for rubber belting. — Take 16 parts of gutta-percha 
 or India-rubber; 2 parts common pitch; and 1 part linseed- 
 oil. Melt together, and use hot. This cement will unite leather 
 or rubber that has not been vulcanized. 
 
 Cement for brass and glass. — Boil 3 parts of resin with 1 
 part of caustic soda and 5 of water. Add five times its weight 
 of plaster of Paris. It sets firmly in from half- to three-quarters 
 of an hour. Zinc, white lead, or precipitated chalk may be sub- 
 stituted for plaster, but hardens more slowly. 
 
 Cement for stone or marble. — The best cement for mending 
 marble, or any kind of stone, is made by mixing 20 parts of lith- 
 arge and 1 part of freshly-burned lime in fine, dry powder. This 
 is made into a putty by the addition of linseed-oil. It sets in a 
 few hours, having the appearance of light stone. 
 
 Belting. 
 
 While the use of belts for the transmission of power is not an 
 American invention, the numerous improvements made in this 
 country have caused it to be known in Europe as the American 
 system. In Europe the greater part of the power is transmitted 
 by cog-w^heels, but in this country 99 per cent, is transmitted by 
 belting. The latter is used everywhere, from the sewing-machine 
 to the 500 horse-power engine of the largest factory. 
 
 Belts can be run in any way, at any angle, of any length, and 
 at any speed, and can be put up by any one of ordinary skill. 
 They can be made of any flexible material — leather, rubber, 
 gutta-percha, or cloth ; yet, while so hardy and so popular, they 
 have one fault — they are not positive. If the motion makes a 
 certain number of revolutions, a portion of them is lost with 
 every belt used. This is the only fault of the system. It is noise- 
 less, yielding, and regular ; but, unlike cog-wheels, it is not posi- 
 64 
 
•638 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 tive. The number of revolutions that are lost may, and do, vary 
 continually by changes of the load or of the atmosphere. 
 
 Belts derive their power to transmit motion from the friction 
 between the surface of the belt and the pulley, and from nothing 
 else, and are governed by the same laws as in friction between flat 
 surfaces. The friction increases regularly with the pressure. The 
 great difference often observed in the friction of belts is due simply 
 to their elasticity of surface ; that is, the more elastic the surface 
 the greater the friction. 
 
 In taking power from any source of motion, there are two points 
 which control us ; all the others we can control and modify to a 
 certain extent. Ordinary belts will sustain safely a working ten- 
 sion of 45 lbs. per inch in width ; the rule to determine the width 
 of belt and size of pulley required to transmit a given horse-power 
 is easily found. Since a horse-power is 33,000 pounds raised one 
 foot high per minute, we must adjust the width and velocity of 
 belts so as to effect the required result. Thus, if the belt moves 
 with a velocity of 733 feet per minute, a belt five inches wide 
 will transmit five horse-power, provided the effective tension is 45 
 lb&. per inch. If the velocity be increased to 1466 feet per min- 
 ute, the same belt with the same tension will transmit ten horse- 
 power. So that a five-inch belt, applied to a five-foot pulley mak- 
 ing 120 revolutions per minute, would transmit ten horse-power 
 when the effective tension is 225 pounds. 
 
 By taking the actual effective tension of the belt, and multiply- 
 ing it by the actual velocity, we get what may be called the in- 
 dicated horse-power of the belt, which corresponds to the indicated 
 horse-power of the engine. And, finally, by measuring the act- 
 ual power transmitted — which may be done by means of a dyn- 
 amometer — we can get the actual power transmitted. Eules 
 based upon the amount of belt surface in contact with the pulley, 
 and on similar data, cannot be made to give reliable results. For 
 practical purposes, velocity and power to resist tension are the 
 only available elements of the calculation. Actual tension, adhe- 
 sion, friction, etc., can all be varied at will, and consequently form 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 639 
 
 no certain dependence for the calculations of the machinist and 
 engineer. 
 
 On the scientific principle that the adhesion, and consequently 
 the capability of leather belts to transmit power from motors to 
 machines, is in proportion to the pressure of the actual weight of 
 the leather on the surface of the pulley, it is manifest that, as 
 longer belts have more weight than shorter ones, and that broader 
 belts of the same length have more weight than narrower ones, it 
 may be adopted as a rule that the adhesion and capability of belts 
 to transmit power are in the ratio of their relative lengths and 
 breadth. A belt of double the length or breadth of another 
 under the same circumstances, will transmit more than double the 
 power. For this reason it is desirable to use long belts. By 
 doubling the velocity of the same belt, its effectual capability for 
 transmitting power is also doubled. 
 
 Good stock is the first requirement of a belt, which, if spongy, 
 will not meet that demand. It must be firm, but pliable; the 
 grain or hair side should be free from wrinkles ; the stock should 
 show no irregularities in dressing, but be of an even thickness 
 throughout; the splices should be mathematically true, and if 
 rivets are employed, they should be inserted on the hair side, and 
 the burrs sent home before riveting ; the edges should be parallel 
 and perfectly straight. In handling a belt, examine it carefully, 
 double it up, the hair side out, and press it together ; if it crack 
 under this treatment, it should be rejected, as the rational use of a 
 belt consists in utilizing the whole amount of power it will trans- 
 mit. 
 
 Belts are sometimes used having a transmitting power of double 
 the capacity necessary where they are employed, while quite as 
 often they are much too narrow for the work required^of them. 
 The first instance shows a useless waste of material, the latter 
 poor economy ; as, in order that it may perform the work required, 
 it is necessary frequently to take it up, as a result of which the 
 weak points succumb to the strain, and it is torn asunder ; or if 
 not, the shaft is likely to be drawn out of line, or the bearing ovei* 
 heated. 
 
o40 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 In using a new belt a few days, if it present a mottled appear- 
 ance on the side next to the pulkys, it may be set down that it is 
 not furnishing the full capacity of its power. The spots referred 
 to indicate that certain portions of the belt do not touch the 
 pulley, and that its entire transmitting power is not utilized. If 
 the face of the pulley is true, and the belt is as nearly perfect as 
 possible, the defect may be remedied by the judicious application 
 of rendered tallow and fish oil, two parts of tallow to one of oil, 
 melted and allowed to cool. A new belt should be used a day or 
 two before it is oiled, and frequent application of small quantities 
 are better than too liberal oiling at long intervals. 
 
 If a belt, of the proper size for the work it has to do, slip on the 
 pulley, it is caused by the centrifugal force, which tends to throw 
 it outward; a corresponding degree of tension will check the 
 defect. 
 
 Belts should be put on by a person acquainted with their use, 
 as the wear of the belt depends considerably on the manner in 
 which it is put on ; therefore, the following suggestions, if prac- 
 tised, will be of much service to persons employed in this capac- 
 ity. The ends to be joined should be cut perfectly square, in 
 order that one side may not be drawn tighter than the other. 
 Good lace-leather, if properly used, will give better satisfaction 
 than any patent fastening. 
 
 Where belts run vertically, they should always be drawn moder- 
 ately tight, or the weight of the belt will not allow it to adhere 
 closely to the lower pulley ; but in all other cases they should be 
 slack. In many instances, the tearing out of lace-holes is unjustly 
 attributed to poor belting; when, in reality, the fault lies in having 
 a belt too short, and trying to force it together by lacing, and the 
 more the leather has stretched while being manufactured, the more 
 liable it is to be complained of. 
 
 To obtain the greatest amount of power from belts, the pulleys 
 should be covered with leather. This will allow the belts to be 
 ran very slack, and give 25 per cent, more wear. 
 
 More power can be obtained from using the grain side of a belt 
 
THE engineer's HANI) f-BOOK. 
 
 641 
 
 to the pulley than from the flesh side, as the belt adheres more 
 closely to the pulley ; but it should be remembered that the belt 
 will not last quite so long, as when the grain, which is very thin, 
 is worn off, the substance of the belt is gone. 
 
 Double-leather belts are frequently used ; but it is clearly a 
 mistake, as a single-leather one will transmit more of the power 
 than a double one. Double-leather belts run straighter than single 
 ones, as the flank side of one part can be put against the back 
 of the others. A double belt will stand a greater tension than a 
 single one, but a single belt will stand all that should be put upon 
 any belt. 
 
 In cases where a belt is incapable of transmitting the required 
 amount of power, and circumstances preclude the possibility of 
 substituting a wider one, the difficulty may be overcome by using 
 two belts of the same width, one on the top of the other. Two 
 belts run in this way will transmit nearly as much power as one 
 belt the width of the two. 
 
 How to test the quality of leather for belting. — Cut a small 
 strip of the leather about j'g of an inch in thickness, and place it 
 [ in strong vinegar. If the leather has been thoroughly tanned, 
 and is of good quality, it will remain for months even immersed, 
 without alteration, simply becoming a little darker in color. But, 
 on the contrary, if not thoroughly tanned, the fibres will quickly 
 swell, and, after a short period, become transformed into a gela- 
 tinous mass. 
 
 How to make belts run on the centre of pulleys. — It is a com- 
 mon occurrence for belts to run on one side of the pulleys. This 
 arises from one or two causes : 1st, One or both of the pulleys 
 may be conical, and, of course, the belt will run on the higher 
 side. The most effectual remedy for this will be to straighten 
 the face of the pulleys. 2d, The shafts may not be parallel or 
 exactly in line. In this case the belt will incline off to the side 
 where the ends of the shafts come the nearest together. The rem- 
 edy in this case would be to slack up on the hanger-bolts, and 
 drive the hangers out or in, as the case may be, until both ends of 
 64* 2Q 
 
642 THE engineer's handy-book. 
 
 the shafts become exactly parallel. This can be determined bj 
 getting the centres of the shafts at both ends by means of a long 
 lath or light strip of board. 
 
 Tighteners.— The tightener should be placed as close to the 
 large or driving-pulley as circumstances will permit, as the loss 
 of power incurred by the use of the tightener is equal to that re- 
 quired to bend the belt and carry the tightening-pulley. Conse- 
 quently, there is a greater loss of power by placing it near the 
 small pulley, as the belt is required to be bent more than when it 
 is placed near the large one. 
 
 The reason why belts run to the highest side of a pulley is due, 
 in part, to centrifugal force, and also to the fact that the part of 
 a belt nearest the highest part of a rounded pulley is more rap- 
 idly drawn, because the circumference of the pulley is greater at 
 that point. 
 
 Rubber and leather belts.— Rubber belts will transmit nearly 
 as much power as leather belts with the same tension ; and they 
 have this Sidvantage, that they may be made of any length, width, 
 or thickness, and yet always run straight, providing the pulleys 
 are in line. Besides, their first cost is much less than those of 
 leather ; but they will not last over half as long. They cannot 
 be run in situations where the belt rubs, nor as cross-belts, or 
 through forks, as shifting-belts; and when they give out, it is 
 almost impossible to repair them. 
 
 If a rubber belt runs off, and becomes entangled in the machin- 
 ery, ten chances to one it will be completely ruined ; whereas, a 
 leather belt, under like circumstances, will sustain very little 
 injury. When saturated with oil, they soon rot, and when situa- 
 ted in cold, damp places, they are liable to freeze, which has a 
 tendency to separate the different thicknesses and ruin the belt. 
 Besides, they often freeze to the face of pulleys when standing 
 still, and when started up, the gum facing is torn off, which ruins 
 the belt. 
 
 A leather belt, if made of good stock, not overstrained and 
 properly treated, will last for twenty years. When partly worn 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 643 
 
 out, it may be cut up and used over again for a narrower or 
 shorter belt ; and when entirely unfit for the transmission of power, 
 it may be used for different purposes around a factory ; but when 
 rubber belts are worn out, they are of no value whatever. 
 
 To prevent accidents by shafts revolving within reach of opera- 
 tives^ garments in mills and factories, — Cover the shaft with a loose 
 sleeve of sheet-tin or zinc, and insert a ring of thick gum or leather 
 at each end, to prevent rattling. Should it become entangled with 
 the garments of any of the operatives, the resistance will cause 
 the sleeve to stand still while the shaft is rotating within it, by 
 which the person may be extricated and accident averted. 
 
 Rule for finding the length of belt wanted, — Add the diameter of 
 the two pulleys together ; divide the sum by 2, and multiply the 
 quotient by 3i. Add the product to twice the distance^ between 
 the centres of the shafts, and the sum will be the length required. 
 
 Another rule for finding the length of a belt. — Add the diam- 
 eter of the two pulleys together, multiply by 3i, divide the pro- 
 duct by 2, add the quotient to twice the distance between the cen- 
 tres of the shafts, and you have the length required. 
 
 Rule /or finding the ividth of belt to transmit a given horse-power, 
 — Multiply 36,000 by the number of horse-power; multiply the 
 speed of the belt in feet per minute by one-half the length in 
 inches of belt in contact with smaller pulley; divide the first 
 product by the second ; the quotient will be the required width 
 in inches. 
 
 Rule for calculating the number of horse-powers a belt will trans- 
 mit^ its velocity, and the number of square inches in contact with the 
 smaller pulley being given, — Divide the number of square inches 
 in contact with the pulley by 2 ; multiply this quotient by the 
 velocity of the belt in feet per minute, and divide by 36,000. 
 The quotient is the number of horse- powers the belt will transmit. 
 
 Another rule. — Divide the number of square inches of belt in 
 contact with the pulley by 2 ; multiply this quotient by the ve- 
 locity of the belt in feet per minute ; divide this amount by 32,000, 
 and the quotient will be the number of horse-power. 
 
644 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Rule for finding the change required in the length of a belt when 
 one of the pulleys on ivhich it runs is changed for one of a different 
 size. — Take three times the difference between the diameters of 
 the pulleys and divide by 2. The result will be the length of 
 belt to cut out or put'in. 
 
 How to measure a coil of belting. — Add the diameter of the 
 hole, in inches, to the outside diameter of the roll ; multiply by 
 the number of coils in the roll ; then multiply this by the decimal 
 •1309, and the product will be the number of feet in the roll. To 
 have the exact length, the average diameter must be used if the 
 roll is not perfectly round, and fractional parts of an inch must 
 not be omitted in the calculation. 
 
 How to put on a belt. — Never place a belt on the pulley in 
 motion ; iilways place it first on the loose pulley or the pulley at 
 rest ; then run it on the pulley in motion. If the belt is very 
 heavy, and the pulleys run at a very high speed, it is advisable to 
 slack on the speed of the engine ; but when this is impracticable 
 or inconvenient, care must be taken to mount the belt on the exact 
 face. The person engaged in so doing must have a firm footing, 
 and prevent his clothing from getting in contact either with the 
 belt or pulley. Where the belt is heavy, and the location such 
 that it is impossible to get a solid footing and exert strength in 
 running on the belt, it is best to stop the engine and mount the 
 belt on the pulley as far as possible. Then take a small rope, 
 double it, slip one end through the arms and around the belt and 
 rim of the pulley, and the other end through the loop formed by 
 the double of the rope ; then stand on the floor on the opposite 
 side, and draw oh the rope, when the belt will be hugged to the 
 periphery of the pulley. When motion is communicated, it may 
 be slipped on without any trouble, while by letting go the end of 
 the rope when the belt is on the pulley, the noose will be undone 
 and the rope thrown off. 
 
 Rule for finding the required size of a driving-pulley for any re- 
 quired speed. — Multiply the diameter of the driven pulley by the 
 number of revolutions it should make, and divide the product 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 646 
 
 the revolutions of the driver. The quotient will be tlie required 
 size of driver. 
 
 Rule for finding the diameter of a driven pulley for a given 
 number of revolutionSy the diameter and revolutions of the driver 
 being known,- — Multiply the diameter of the driver by its num- 
 ber of revolutions, and divide the product by the number of 
 revolutions of the driven pulley. The quotient will give the 
 proper size of the driven pulley. 
 
 Gearing. 
 
 1{\x\q for finding the diameter of toothed wheels. — Multiply the 
 number of teeth by the number of thirty-seconds of an inch con- 
 tained in the pitch, the product will be the diameter in inches and 
 hundredths of an inch ; or, multiply the number of teeth by the 
 true pitch, and the product by '3184. These results give only the 
 diameter between the pitch-line, on one side, and the same line on 
 the other side, and not the entire diameter from point to point of 
 teeth on opposite sides. It must also be borne in mind that these 
 results are only approximate diameters, since the wheel often varies 
 from the computed diameter in consequence of shrinkage and other 
 causes. 
 
 Rule for finding the required number of teeth in a pinion to have 
 any given velocity. — Multiply the velocity or number of revolutions 
 of the driver by its number of teeth or its diameter, and divide 
 the product by the desired number of revolutions of the pinion or 
 driven. 
 
 Rule for finding the diameter of a pinion, when the diameter of 
 the driver and the number of teeth in driver and pinion are given. — 
 Multiply the diameter of the driver by the number of teeth in the 
 pinion, and divide the product by the number of teeth in the driver, 
 and the quotient will be the diameter of pinion. 
 
 Rule for finding the number of revolutions of a pinion or driven, 
 when the number of revolutions of driver and the diameter or the 
 number of teeth of driver and driven are given. — Multiply the 
 
646 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 number of revolutions of driver by its number of teeth or its 
 diameter, and divide the product by the number of teeth or the 
 diameter of the driven. 
 
 Rule for finding the number of revolutions of a driver, when the 
 revolutions of driven and teeth, or diameter of driver and driven, are 
 given. — Multiply the number of teeth or the diameter of driven 
 by its revolution^, and divide the product by the number of teeth 
 or the diameter of driver. 
 
 Rule for finding the number of revolutions of the last wheel at the 
 end of a train of spur-wheels, all of which are in a line, and mesh 
 into one another, when the revolutions of the first wheel, and the 
 number of teeth, or the diameter of the first and last are given, — 
 Multiply the revolutions of first wheel by its number of teeth or 
 its diameter, and divide the product by the number of teeth or 
 the diameter of the last wheel ; the result is its. number of revo- 
 lutions. 
 
 Rule for finding the number of revolutions in each wheel for a train 
 of spur-wheels, each to have a given velocity, — Multiply the number 
 of revolutions of the driving-wheel by its number of teeth, and 
 divide the product by the number of revolutions each wheel is to 
 make. The result will be the number of teeth required for 
 each. 
 
 Rule for finding the number of revolutions of the last wheel in a 
 train of wheels and pinions, spurs or bevels, wheii the revolutions of 
 the first or driver, and the diameter, the teeth or the circumference of 
 all the drivers and pinions, are given, — Multiply the diameter, the 
 circumference, or the number of teeth of all the driving-wheels 
 together, and this continued product by the number of revolutions 
 of the first wheel; and divide this product by the continued prod- 
 uct of the diameter, the circumference, or the number of teeth of 
 all the pinions, and the quotient will be the number of revolutions 
 of the last wheel. 
 
647 
 
648 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Fitchburg Steam-Engine Company^s Automatic Cut-OflP 
 
 Engine. 
 
 The cut on page 647 represents the Fitchburg horizontal, auto- 
 matic, cut-off engine, with positive valve-gear and independent 
 steam and exhaust arrangements. As will be observed, the frame 
 is of the girder pattern, faced up at one end to receive the cylin- 
 der and the other the pillow-block. The legs, which support the 
 cylinder and main-bearing, are bolted to foundation-plates, which 
 prevents the possibility of any movement. The steam-valves 
 receive their motion from a movable eccentric, with variable 
 throw, and admits or cuts off the steam at any desired point in 
 the stroke, to meet the requirements of load and pressure. The 
 exhaust-valves are worked by a direct movement from an eccen- 
 tric keyed on the sliaft. 
 
 The governor, a cut of which may be seen on page 649, is 
 placed on the main shaft, is enclosed in a disc, and is the same in 
 principle, though differing somewhat in mechanism from that used 
 on the Buckeye engine. It is claimed to be very sensitive and 
 powerful, thus ensuring a steady motion under the most varying 
 loads and steam-pressures, which is, of itself, a desideratum of 
 great importance, as any increase in speed over that at which the 
 engine was intended to run, is a waste of steam, and consequently 
 a waste of fuel ; and as any lagging of an engine behind the 
 regular speed at times induces a loss of production. Because, it 
 is well known that to produce economical results, the valve-gear 
 must be so arranged as to admit the necessary volume of steam to 
 the cylinder at the right time, and no more. 
 
 S'S is a disc which is firmly keyed to the shaft. X shows 
 the position of the crank-pin in its relation to the other parts ; 
 A A are weights attached to arms having their fulcra at 0 0; 
 H H are coiled springs, attached at one end to the arms at 0 0 
 by means of swivels, and at the other by means of adjustable hooks, 
 K K, As will be observed, short stub, connecting-rods, having 
 one end attached to the weighted arms and the other end to the 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 649 
 
 cast-iron collar, J5, which is accurately fitted to the shaft, are 
 introduced between the weights and the springs. This collar, B, 
 has an arm which extends from one side to the periphery of the 
 disc, and which ends in a flat weight, G, to which weights of the 
 
 same shape may be attached. On the opposite side an ear, /, is 
 shaped to receive a sliding-block; close to the periphery of the 
 disc, S S, is pivoted an arm, E, its other end encircling the shaft, 
 and which (in consequence of having an oblong slot) admits 
 of a swinging motion across the shaft; at its end opposite the 
 pivot, beyond the part encircling the shaft, is an ear or boss sus- 
 taining a steel pin, upon which pin turns the sliding-block which 
 moves in the ear, I. Upon the armi^ F, is bolted the eccentric, 
 which has a sufficient advance to give a f cut-ofF when the gov- 
 ernor is at rest. The spottings, PP, are intended for the fulcra 
 55 
 
650 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 of the weighted arms, in case it should be necessary to run the en- 
 gine in the opposite direction. 
 
 The action of the governor may be explained as follows : — 
 When the engine is travelling below speed, the eccentric is kept in 
 full throw by the tension of the spiral springs, and the steam fol- 
 lows the piston three-fourths of the stroke. As soon as the proper 
 speed is attained, the centrifugal action of the weights, A ^, over- 
 come the tension of the springs, and they move outwards in the 
 direction of the arrows, thus lengthening the spring. By means 
 of the connecting-rods, C C, the outward motion of the weights 
 gives a motion round the shaft to the collar, B, which in turn, by 
 means of the ear, G, and the sliding-block attached to the arm, E, 
 gives the latter an oscillating movement from its point of suspen- 
 sion across the shaft (as shown by the arrows), and at the same 
 time to the eccentric, which is bolted to it. 
 
 The Improyed Circulating Salinometer. 
 
 The cut on page 651 represents the Circulating Salinometer, 
 
 the object of which is to prevent the sputtering or boiling of the 
 water when drawn off from the boiler under pressure, and the 
 consequent inconvenience and danger of scalding. This object is 
 accomplished by reducing the temperature below the boiling-point 
 before it enters the testing-pot. ^ It serves also to keep up a con- 
 tinuous circulation, so that the degree of saturation can be ob- 
 served at any moment, thus avoiding the necessity of frequently 
 drawing off the water, and saving the time which would be 
 wasted in so doing. This salinometer consists of a large and 
 small pot attached to the same bottom, one inside of the other, 
 with a coil in the annular space between the two pots. This coil 
 is connected at the top with a globe-valve, and at the bottom with 
 a passage leading into the small or testing-cup, which contains a 
 hydrometer and thermometer, the latter being hung by a spring 
 hook on the upper edge of the pot. The right-hand globe-valve 
 is used for admitting cold water into the annular space between 
 
THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 651 
 
 the pots, for the purpose of reducing the temperature of the water 
 in its passage from the boiler to the 
 required degree, so that it may rise in 
 the testing-pot perfectly quiescent, and 
 is kept at the proper height ; and the 
 circulation is maintained by openings 
 to the pot near the top, through which 
 it overflows into the annular space be- 
 tween the two pots, after which it es- 
 capes with the cold water by the escape- 
 pipe through the passage-way, making 
 but one connection at the bottom. 
 These passages are situated upon each 
 side, right and left, and, should they 
 become choked by sediment resulting 
 from muddy water, they can be cleaned 
 out by disconnecting the escape-pipe 
 and running a wire through them. 
 The plug-cock at the bottom is only 
 used for emptying the testing-pot when 
 required, and has no communication 
 with anything else. 
 
 The water from the boiler and the 
 cold water can in no way become 
 mixed except by the bursting of the 
 coil, which is not likely to happen un- 
 less it should be left full of water and 
 allowed to freeze. The coils are thor- 
 oughly tested before they are put in ; 
 the top is not specially designed to be 
 tight, as nothing can escape from the 
 joints but the cold water, and that 
 only when the annular space is allowed 
 to become full, which is unnecessary, 
 as a very small quantity of cold water 
 
652 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 will be sufficient to reduce the temperature of the water passing 
 
 through the coil. A hole is drilled in 
 the back of the large pot, near the 
 top, which allows the water to escape 
 in case it should accidentally become 
 full. The cold water is supplied by a 
 pipe connected by a globe-valve to any 
 pipe or valve below the water-line sup- 
 plying cold water, and led to the sali- 
 nometer. If it should be desired to 
 place the salinometer above the out- 
 side water-level, the cold water can be 
 supplied by some of the pumps. 
 
 In erecting these salinometers, they 
 may be secured to the boilers or bulk- 
 head, but when there are two or more 
 boilers, a very neat and convenient 
 arrangement may be made by fitting 
 them close together on a plain cast-iron 
 plate fastened down with tap-bolts, and 
 with the pipe for the cold water fitted 
 just above them, with a T coupling 
 and branch to each one, the plate being 
 secured with tap-bolts in any conven- 
 ient place in the engine-room. A 
 salinometer may be attached to each 
 boiler, and all of them supplied with 
 cold water from the same pipe, or one 
 may be connected with two or more 
 boilers. 
 
 It is preferable to have one con- 
 nected with each boiler, as in that case 
 the density of the water may be ob- 
 served in any boiler independent of 
 the others. To put the salinometer in 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 653 
 
 operation, it is only necessary to open the valve communicating 
 between the boiler and the salinometer, and admit the water^as 
 fast as the overflow will allow it to escape, and when the temper- 
 ature reaches the required degree, the communication may be suf- 
 ficiently closed only to allow the necessary circulation. Then the 
 cold-water valve may be opened, and, if the connectiv>n \f ith the 
 boiler has considerable length of pipe to retain cold wit^r, the 
 blow-ofi* cock may be opened to admit of its escape, and then 
 closed. A very slight opening of either valve wiJl be saflicient 
 to keep up the circulation and keep the water sit the "required 
 temperature. If the water should be admitted too rapidly from 
 under pressure, the agitation of the water at the bottom, even 
 below the boiling-point, will disturb the hydrometer. When the 
 circulation and temperature are properly adjusted, it will not re- 
 quire to be touched from one end of a passage to another, unless 
 it may be to adjust the cold-water valve occasionally if any con- 
 siderable change takes place in the temperature of the water in 
 the boiler. 
 
 The manipulation and operation of these salinometers are very 
 simple and satisfactory, as they are a decided improvement on any 
 other arrangement of the kind ever heretofore used for the same 
 purpose, as, with one of them attached to each ))oiler, the density 
 of the water may be accurately determined at any moment, which 
 is a feature of great importance in many respects, and a fact 
 which will be appreciated by those who have used other arrange- 
 ments. The different parts of the salinometer are designated as 
 follows : A, hot-water pot ; K, outlet for hot-water overflow ; 
 cold-water reservoir; H, general outlet; C, hot-water inlet to 
 coil ; e, outlet passage from hot-water pot ; 2), cold-water inlet ; /, 
 small po^^^p for hydrometer ; /, passage from coil to hot-water pot ; 
 Fy outlet for ^old water. 
 
 These salmometers are manufactured by the Crosby Steam 
 Gauge and Yalve Company, Boston, Ma«s« 
 5^* 
 
664 
 
 THE ENGINEEB^S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Crosby's AdjustaWe "Pop" Safetj -Valve. 
 
 The annexed cut represents Crosby's Adjustable "Pop"' 
 Safety-Valve. — Its mechanism may be explained as follows : The 
 valve proper, B JS, rests upon two flat annular seats, V V and 
 
 W W, on the same plane, and 
 held down against the pressure 
 of steam by the steel spiral spring, 
 S, The tension of this spring is 
 caused by screwing down the 
 threaded bolt, L, at the top of 
 the cylinder, K. The area con- 
 tained between the seats, TTand 
 Vy is what the steam-pressure acts 
 upon, ordinarily, to overcome the 
 resistance of the spring. The 
 area contained within the smaller 
 seat, W Wy 'is not acted upon at 
 all until the valve opens. The 
 large seat, F F, is formed on the 
 upper edge of the shell or body 
 of the valve, A A. The small 
 seat, W W, is formed on the up- 
 per edge of a cylindrical cham- 
 ber or well, C C, which is situated 
 in the centre of the shell or body 
 of the valve, and is held in its 
 place by four arms, D Z>, radiat- 
 ing horizontally at right angles 
 to each other, and connecting it 
 with the body or shell of the 
 valve. These arms are hollow 
 and form four passages, E E, for 
 the escape of the steam or other fluid from the well into the air 
 when the valve is open. This well is deepened, so as to allow the 
 
 •u. a/ncMNoaoAf sc. 
 
THE ENGINEEr\s HANDY-ROOK, 
 
 655 
 
 wings, X Xy of the valve proper to project down into it far enough 
 to act as guides. The area of the apertures at the outer ends of 
 the passages through the arms is reduced more or less at will by 
 screwing up or down the adjustable ring, 0 G. 
 
 Action of the **Pop" Safety-Valve when under Pressure. — 
 When the pressure under the valve is within about one pound of the 
 maximum pressure required, the valve will open slightly, and the 
 steam will escape under the larger seat into the cylinder surround- 
 ing the spring, and thence into the air. The steam is also forced 
 under the smaller seat into the well, and thence, through the pas- 
 sages in the arms, into the air. As soon as the pressure attains 
 the exact maximum point, the valve will be lifted so high as to 
 force the steam into the well faster than it can escape through the 
 apertures in the arms. A pressure will then accumulate under 
 the inner seat, which will be in excess of what was required to 
 overcome the increasing resistance offered by the spring, and, act- 
 ing upon the additional area presented, at once forces the valve 
 wide open, and rapidly relieves the boiler. This pressure under 
 the inner seat is of itself differential. The valve then at once 
 slowly settles down, and the pressure under the inner seat as 
 slowly diminishes. This action continues until the area of the 
 opening under the smaller or innep seat is less than the area of 
 the apertures in the arms for the escape of the steam ; the pressure 
 then ceases and the valve promptly closes. The point of opening 
 can be readily changed while under steam by screwing the threaded 
 bolt at the top of the cylinder either up or down, and the point 
 of closing is as easily adjusted by screwing up or down the ring 
 surrounding the outside body or shell of the valve. 
 
 This valve is automatic, certain in its action, prompt in open- 
 ing and closing at the required points of pressure, and can be fully 
 relied upon to relieve the boiler under all circumstances. Expe- 
 rience and use have confirmed the following claims for it, namely, 
 opens precisely at fixed working pressure ; discharges all excess 
 of steam above fixed working pressure ; reduces the pressure rap- 
 idly upon opening ; closes with the least possible loss of steam ; 
 
656 
 
 THE ENGINEER^'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 the limits of pressure within which the valve will open and clpse 
 are adjustable ; uniform in action at different pressures ; simple in 
 arrangement, and easily connected and adjusted ; does not deteri- 
 orate under continued use ; never sticks on seat ; makes compara- 
 tively little noise in discharging; occupies less room than any 
 safety-valve. These valves are made to correspond with the re- 
 quirements of, and are used on, locomotive, portable, steamboat, 
 stationary, and steam fire-engine boilers, and for other pur- 
 poses. Each of these valves is tested under steam pressure, and 
 set to open at the exact point of pressure desired, and is ad- 
 justed to close at about two pounds reduction. Both of these 
 points may be readily changed by the operator without removing 
 the valve from the boiler or reducing steam. Any person of ordi- 
 nary intelligence will readily understand the principle and opera- 
 tion of these valves. 
 
 The Improyed Planimeter. 
 
 The above cut represents the improved Planimeter as espe- 
 cially adapted for ascertaining, from the indicator diagram, the 
 average pressure in the steam-engine cylinder, and also for meas- 
 uring the superficial contents of regular or irregular plain sur- 
 faces. It is claimed to have the advantages over any other in use, 
 in being supplied with a supplementary wheel, with a graduated 
 plate, marked with figures representing ten times the value of the 
 figure on the roller-wheel, thus saving the care and trouble inci- 
 dental to the use of the other single-wheel instruments, and in giv- 
 ing the average height of the indicator diagram in one-fortieth of 
 
THE engineer's IIANDY-BOOK. 
 
 657 
 
 an inch (instead of the area), which, multiplied by a factor repre- 
 senting the scale or number of the spring used, gives the average 
 pressure in pounds, without the long process and troub^ of meas- 
 uring the length of the diagram, dividing it into the area, and 
 then multiplying by the vertical scale. 
 
 It is also adapted for measuring the superficial contents of reg- 
 ular or irregular plain surfaces, and representing the contents 
 either in millimeters, inches, feet, perches, or acres, as the opera- 
 tor may desire, by adjusting the sliding-bar. In the case of indi- 
 cator diagrams, if the Crosby Indicator be used, the process of 
 finding the area of the diagram is simplified, as the springs used 
 are of such scales (mostly multiples of four) that, instead of the 
 long process formerly used, the mean pressure is obtained by sim- 
 ply multiplying by a factor corresponding to the scale used, as 
 follows : 
 
 Spring 8 12 16 20 24 30 32 40 48 
 
 Factor 02 0*3 0*4 0*5 06 075 08 I'O 1°4 
 
 The numbers engraved upon the sliding-bar, A, serve for the 
 calculation of the contents of surfaces, for which special instruc- 
 tions are required. The arms of these planimeters are made hol- 
 low and composed of the best grade of German silver, the whole 
 instrument being made with great precision, accuracy, and skill. 
 They are manufactured by the Crosby Steam Gauge and Valve 
 Company, Boston, Mass. The same firm makes two other styles 
 of planimeters, one corresponding with the common instrument in 
 use, which has only one wheel, as shown on page 323, and another 
 similar to it, having two wheels. 
 
 Crosby's Improyed Steam-Pressure, Hydraulic, Combina- 
 tion, Vacuum, and Self-Testing Gauges. 
 
 Steam Gauges. — About the year 1849, Eugene Bourdon, of 
 France, discovered that the free end or ends of a flattened me- 
 tallic tube possessed of sufiicient elasticity for use as a spring, 
 would move when pressure was exerted through the medium of a 
 
 2R 
 
658 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK, 
 
 Exterior View of Crosby's Steam 
 Gaugeo 
 
 fluid applied externally or internally; that the motion was 
 in direct proportion to the pressure applied ; and that when the 
 
 pressure was removed they 
 would assume their former 
 position. From this circum- 
 stance, he conceived the idea 
 of a new pressure gauge, in 
 which the bent tube should 
 be the main spring or means 
 of motioUc But, though it 
 was generally conceded at 
 that time that the hollow 
 tube spring gauge, as invent- 
 ed by Bourdon, excelled in 
 delicacy and sensitiveness 
 any previous mechanical ar- 
 rangement employed for that 
 purpose, nevertheless, it was demonstrated by experience that such 
 a device, owing to its pecu- 
 liar construction, was not well 
 adapted for all the purposes for 
 which pressure gauges are em- 
 ployed, as, in consequence of 
 being held only at one end, it 
 would vibrate from a sudden 
 shock or slight change of press- 
 ure, thus causing the pointer to 
 oscillate on the dial-plate, in- 
 ducing friction and wear, and 
 rendering the indications of 
 the gauge uncertain and delu- 
 sive. Besides, the dip of such 
 a spring caused it to retain a 
 portion of the water condensed in it, thus rendering it liable to 
 burst in cold weather, to be strained by freezing, and lose its tension. 
 
 Interior View of the Original 
 Bourdon Steam Gauge. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 659 
 
 To overcome these defects, numerous devices have been 
 suggested and tried, but they 
 almost invariably embodied the 
 same defects as those above 
 mentioned, and were subject to 
 the same errors, the gravest of 
 which arose from the straight- 
 ening or setting of the springs. 
 Steam users are more indebted 
 to George H. Crosby for reme- 
 dying the foregoing defects in 
 pressure gauges, and for the pro- 
 duction of a perfectly reliable 
 steam gauge, than to any one 
 previous to his time, as he dis- 
 covered, by observation and ex- 
 periment, that only the horizontal motion of the free ends of the 
 springs or tubes, while under varying pressure, had been used 
 heretofore, and that they had a perpendicular or upward action, 
 as well, when the springs were of proper length and shape, and 
 that by uniting these motions by proper mechanism, it could all 
 be transmitted to the pointer. In accomplishing this, he discov- 
 ered that a firmer and stifier spring than any heretofore used for 
 the same pressure was an absolute necessity. And as a result, 
 no pressure over that indicated by the pointer on the dial will 
 afiect their original elasticity, and vibration of the pointer under 
 varying pressures is obviated ; besides, in consequence of the spring 
 being held at the lowest points, they have no dip, which arrange- 
 ment admits of the water returning to the siphon, thus preventing 
 freezing. Thus it would seem that, while the Crosby gauges em- 
 brace all the desirable points in the original Bourdon gauge, they 
 also embody many others which have been demonstrated by expe- 
 rience to be absolute necessities in the construction of an accurate^ 
 reliable, and serviceable steam gauge. 
 
 Interior View of Crosby's 
 Steam Gauge. 
 
660 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Crosby's Self-Taeting' Steam Gauge. 
 
 Self- Testing Steam Gauges. — This class of gauges is of great 
 importaDce, convenience, and utility, as the engineer in charge can 
 always ascertain whether his gauge is correct or not by observing 
 
 the following instructions : 
 Set off all pressure that may 
 be on the gauge, after which 
 the pointer will fall to zero ; 
 then unscrew the plug on the 
 left-hand side, which uncov- 
 ers the hook. To this hook 
 hang the first weight by the 
 spindle. This is marked by 
 a certain number, and the 
 pointer should travel at once 
 to the corresponding number 
 on the dial, if correct at this 
 point. But if the pointer 
 stands below or above this 
 number, it will indicate just how much the gauge is "out," and in 
 which direction. Proceed by 
 adding the next higher num- 
 bered weight, and continue as 
 before. 
 
 Vacuum Gauges. — The con- 
 ditions under which vacuum 
 gauges act are the reverse of 
 steam gauges, as, in the vacu- 
 um gauge, the interior of the 
 tube is influenced by the vacu- 
 um, while its exterior is ex- 
 posed to the action of the at- 
 mosphere. These gauges are 
 manufactured , by the Crosby 
 Steam Gauge and Valve Company, Boston, Mass., and are all 
 tested by a mercury column before being put in use. 
 
 Crosby's Vacuum Gauge. 
 
56 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 663 
 
 The Atlas Corliss Engine. 
 
 The cuts on pages 661, 662, show a front and back view of 
 the Atlas Corliss engine. As will be observed, the frame is of the 
 girder pattern ; a form which has been more extensively copied, 
 for the past twenty years, by engineers and steam-engine builders 
 both in this country and Europe, than any other. Though a Cor- 
 liss engine in every respect, it differs from others of the same type 
 in many very important features ; one of which is, that the main 
 frame, hind leg, and main-bearing are cast in one solid piece, 
 which is not generally the case with other Corliss engines, as, in 
 most instances, the main-bearing and its supports are cast sepa- 
 rately, and bolted to the frame ; another is, that the horizontal 
 section of the frame is deeper and heavier than in most Corliss 
 engines, while a deep rib, running to the base of the legs, insures 
 additional rigidity and stiffness. The frame, as in the case of all 
 engines of the Corliss type, is faced up at the front end, to receive 
 the cylinder, which rests on a pedestal of ample proportions. In 
 consequence of the large metal surface brought in contact with 
 the foundation, the weight of the engine is more uniformly distrib- 
 uted, and the jar, which is so detrimental to the stability of many 
 types of engines, is entirely obviated. 
 
 While the steam- and exhaust-valves and the cut-off arrange- 
 ments are essentially the same as in most Corliss engines, the 
 mechanism which works the valves and controls the cut-off, is 
 entirely different. In the ordinary Corliss engine, only one ec- 
 centric is employed to operate the steam- and exhaust-valves, 
 through the medium of a wrist-plate, which must be so connected 
 with the eccentric, as to change the direction of its motion at the 
 proper time for opening and closing the steam- and exhaust- 
 valves. To accomplish this object, the eccentric must be placed 
 nearly at a right angle with the crank ; in consequence of which 
 its direction changes at about half-stroke ; the result of which is, 
 that the cut-off is limited to the preceding portion of the stroke, 
 as the clutch must be detached during the forward motion. In 
 
664 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 the Atlas engine, this difficulty is remedied, as two eccentrics are 
 used — one for the steam- and the other for the exhaust-yalveSj 
 each of which is set independently, for the most accurate per- 
 formance of its own work. The exhaust eccentric has nearly the 
 same angular position as the single eccentric in ordinary Corliss 
 engines. The cut-off eccentric is placed nearly 90 degrees behind 
 it, and therefore does not change the direction of the cut-off clutch, 
 until a correspondingly later period in the stroke is reached, which 
 is a very important feature in itself 
 
 The manner in which the eccentrics receive their motion is dif- 
 ferent from that generally employed, as, instead of being rotated 
 on the crank-shaft, they are placed on a supplementary or counter 
 shaft, which has the same motion as the main shaft, and is situated 
 directly under the. cylinder end of the frame. This eccentric 
 shaft is operated through the medium of gears from the main 
 shaft, through a side shaft, which is located directly under the 
 horizontal rib of the frame. The side shaft also operates the gov- 
 ernor, thus dispensing with the governor-belt and its necessary 
 risk and uncertainty. The governor is of the "Portei*" type, 
 which has been successfully applied to engines on which most 
 other governors have failed to give satisfactory results. This is 
 due to the fact, that the heavy centre weight gives the constant 
 force of gravity acting downwards ; while the centrifugal force of 
 the rapidly revolving balls is the variable force, and acts upwards 
 through the joints of the governor; the result of which is, that the 
 governor rises or falls, as the variable force is greater or less than 
 the constant force. It is very powerful and sensitive, and holds 
 the engine in perfect control under the most varying circum- 
 stances of load and pressure. It is also provided with an auto- 
 matic stop, which becomes operative in case of accident. 
 
 The valves and cut-off mechanism are essentially the same in 
 the Atlas as in most other Corliss engines, as may be seen in 
 the cuts on pages 284, 285. 
 
 A is the valve-stem, as shown in Fig. 1. £ is a bell-crank fast- 
 ened to the valve-stem, by which motion is communicated to the 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 665 
 
 valve. C is the cut-ofF clutch, which is made of gun-metal and 
 faced with hardened steel. D is a case-hardened block, having a 
 large bearing in the bell-crank, B, which allows it to adapt itself 
 freely to any angular position. This block is virtually a part of 
 the bell-crank, and contains a hole at right angles to the axis 
 of its bearing, through which the small end of the rod, F, which 
 
 Figr. 1. 
 
 carries the cut-off clutch, is passed, and receives its motion from 
 the cut-off eccentric by means of a rocking-plate on the side of the 
 cylinder. G is the dash-pot rod, to which a weight is attached, 
 for the purpose of closing the valves promptly when the cut-off 
 is effected. H is the governor-rod ; it varies the augulr.r position 
 of the governor-toe, jST, as the governor rises and falls, and 
 56* 
 
666 
 
 THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 determines the time of cut-ofF. K is the governor-toe, and is sup- 
 ported on a bushing concentric with the valve-stem. The cut-off 
 occurs when the governor-toe, Ky depresses the cut-off clutch, (7, suf- 
 ficiently to detach it at the point, from the bell-crank, 5, allow- 
 ing the unsupported weight of the dash-pot to close the valve by 
 its fall. 
 
 A cross -section of the cylinder through the steam- and exhaust- 
 ports is shown in Fig. 2. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 A is the bell-crank, connected by the cut-off clutch directly to 
 the rocking-plate. B is the stufBng-box, which has a very long 
 bearing between the ground-joints of the collar and the gland at 
 the outside. C is an out-board bearing fitted with a bushing, the 
 inside of which forms a bearing, the cut-off toe of the governor 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 667 
 
 being carried on its outer surface. The advantage of this arrange- 
 ment is, that it prevents the valve-stems from springing, which 
 would have a tendency to increase their friction, and cause them 
 to wear out of round ; while, in consequence of the brackets being 
 hollow, they form a receptacle for the drips from the valve-stem, 
 stuffing-boxes, and insure perfect drainage. There are many 
 points of excellence to be noticed in the design and construction 
 of these engines, among which are simplicity of design, convenient 
 arrangements for accurate adjustment of the different parts, and 
 independent steam- and exhaust-valve motions. The cross-head 
 bearings are flat, and so arranged that they may be repaired or 
 renewed at short notice and trifling expense. Besides, the cross- 
 head wrist-pin is placed both in the horizontal and vertical centre 
 lines of the bearing surfaces, thus relieving the cross-head of the 
 excessive weight and severe strain incident to an overhanging 
 connection. 
 
 The Atlas Corliss engines are built of excellent material, 
 thoroughly fitted, and tastefully finished. The bearings for the 
 rubbing, reciprocating, and revolving surfaces are ample, thus 
 preventing the possibility of rapid wear and the necessity of ex- 
 pensive repairs. The fly-wheels are turned on the face and sides, 
 and accurately balanced, which insures smooth running ; while the 
 cylinders are covered with "asbestos" and cast-iron lagging, which 
 prevents condensation and insures economy. The steam-piston 
 packing used is Babbit & Harris's patent (an illustration of which 
 may be seen on page 167), which has been generally adopted by 
 the builders of the best class of steam-engines in the country, and 
 has the reputation of giving entire satisfaction. 
 
 The Atlas engines are built, both condensing and non-condens- 
 ing, of any power to meet the requirements of purchasers, and for 
 whatever purpose employed, whether for milling, manufacturing, 
 or pumping, ha\e the reputation of giving entire satisfiiction. 
 They are manufactured at the Atlas Corliss Engine Works, In- 
 dianapolis, Indiana. 
 
668 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 Questions, 
 
 THE ANSWERS TO WHICH WILI BE FOUND IN THE TEXT. 
 
 What is acceleration ? 
 Define the term affinity. 
 What constitutes an angl<j? 
 
 Explain the principle embraced in the use of axles. 
 
 Give the meaning of the term attraction. 
 
 What is meant by capillary attractions? 
 
 Define the terms gravity and centre of gravity. 
 
 Give the meaning of the terms adhesion and cohesion. 
 
 Under what two heads may elastic fluids be classified? 
 
 Define the term elasticity. 
 
 Has the term energy any definite meaning when applied to 
 
 mechanics? 
 
 What is force? 
 
 Define the term focus as used in geometry. 
 What is meant by the term friction ? 
 
 Give the meaning of the terms hydrodynamics, hydrostatics, and 
 hydraulics. 
 
 Explain the formation of the hyperbola. 
 
 Define the term impact. 
 
 What is meant by the term impenetrability ? 
 
THE engineer\s JIANDY-ROOK. 669 
 
 Define the term impetus, as applied to mechanics. 
 
 What is meant by the incidence, as applied to mechanics? 
 
 Explain the meaning of the term inclination. 
 
 To what class of the mechanical powers does the inclined plane 
 belong ? 
 
 What is the meaning of the term inertia? 
 Under what three classes may levers be divided? 
 Give the definition of the term machine. 
 
 What physical elements are embraced under the head of me- 
 chanics ? ^ 
 
 What is meant by the modulus of the elasticity of any sub- 
 stance ? 
 
 Give the meaning of the term momentum. 
 What is meant by motion, as applied to mechanics? 
 Enumerate the different kinds of motions. 
 Define the centre of oscillation. 
 
 Explain the mechanical principles represented in the vibration 
 of the pendulum. 
 
 Define the centre of percussion. 
 
 Why is perpetual motion an impossibility? 
 
 Explain the meaning of the term pneumatics. 
 
 Of what two forces is power the product? 
 
 What is the difference between pressure and weight? 
 
670 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 What kind of machines may be termed prime movers ? 
 
 What is the mechanical principle involved in the use of the 
 pulley ? 
 
 To which of the mechanical powers is the screw most nearly 
 allied? 
 
 Give the meaning of the term resilience. 
 Define the science of statics. 
 
 What is meant by strength, when applied to mechanics? 
 
 Enumerate the different kinds of strength. 
 
 Give the meaning of the word tools. 
 
 Define the term torsion. 
 
 What is meant by the term velocity? 
 
 What is understood by the term weight? 
 
 Under which of the mechanical powers may the wheel and 
 axle be classed? 
 
 What mechanical principles are embodied in the wedge? 
 
 Give the atomic weights and chemical equivalents of the dif- 
 ferent metals in use at the present day. 
 
 Which is the most useful metal ? 
 
 Give the weight of a cubic foot of wrought- or cast-iron. 
 
 Give the component parts of cast-iron. 
 
 Of what two elements is steel composed ? 
 
 Give the heat-conducting properties of copper, brass, cast- and 
 wrought-iron. 
 
THE engineer's HANDY-BOOK. 671 
 
 Give the tensile strength of copper, brass, gun-metal, wrought- 
 and cast-iron. 
 
 Give the proportions of carbon in the various grades of iron 
 and steel. 
 
 Give the different proportions of the metals which form the 
 basis of brass, Muntz metal, gun-metal. Babbitt metal, and bronze 
 alloy. 
 
 Give the composition of fusible metal which melts at a tem- 
 perature of 212° Fah. 
 
 Give the rule for finding the approximate weight of iron cast- 
 ings from the weight of the pattern. 
 
 Give the shrinkage various metals undergo in the process of 
 casting. 
 
 Give the weight and bulk of several substances in cubic feet, 
 pounds, and tons. 
 
 Give the extension of wrought- and cast-iron at various tem- 
 peratures. 
 
 Does wrought-iron increase in heat up to a certain tempera- 
 ture? 
 
 Is the tensile strength of copper increased by the application 
 of heat? 
 
 Give the composition of a good non-conductor for preventiug 
 radiation of heat in steam-boilers, cylinders, pipes, etc. 
 
 Give the component parts of a good durable cement for steam- 
 joints. 
 
 What advantages does belting possess over cog-gearing, and 
 
 vice versdt 
 
672 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK. 
 
 From what principle do belts derive their power to transmit . 
 motion ? 
 
 What are the necessary characteristics of good belting? 
 
 What conditions are necessary to obtain the greatest percentage 
 of power from any belt ? 
 
 What advantages have double and single belts, and vice versd^ 
 
 How would you test the quality of belting? 
 
 How would you proceed to make belts run on the centre of 
 pulleys ? 
 
 What are the advantages of rubber belts over leather, and vice 
 versa ? 
 
 Give the rule for finding the length of a belt. 
 
 Give the rule for finding the number of horse-power a belt can 
 transmit. 
 
 Give the rule for finding the change in length in a belt when 
 one of the pulleys is changed. 
 
 Explain the most practicable method of putting on belts. 
 
 State the precautions to prevent accidents when throwing on 
 or taking ofi* belts. 
 
 Give the rule§ for finding the size of pulleys for any required 
 speed. 
 
A.m. or Aba, 264. 
 Acceleration, 587. 
 
 Accidents by revolving shaftSj how to 
 prevent, 643. 
 
 Actual extension of wrought-iron at va- 
 rious temperatures, table showing, 
 621. 
 
 Adhesive cement, how to make a 
 
 good, 636. 
 Adiabatic, 263. 
 
 Adj uncts of steam-boiler, technical terms 
 
 applied to, 476. 
 Adjustable cut-off, 227. 
 Adj ustments, most accurate methods of 
 
 testing, 274. 
 Admission, 263. 
 Affinity, 587. 
 
 Aggregate strain caused by pressure of 
 steam on shells of boilers, rule for 
 finding, 451. 
 
 Mr, 496. 
 
 A-ir-casing, 476. 
 
 Air-pump and condenser, independent, 
 345. 
 
 Air-pump bucket, 356, 357. 
 
 double-acting, 356. 
 
 pet-cock or valve, 357. 
 
 piston, 356. 
 
 plunger, 356. 
 
 rods, 357. 
 
 ship's side, 357. 
 
 trunk, 356. 
 Air-pumps, 353. 
 
 capacity, 354. 
 
 independent, 355. 
 
 vertical, 354. 
 Air- valve, 355. 
 Alkali, 534. 
 Alloy, bronze, 616. 
 "Alloys and compositions, 616. 
 
 metals, 612. 
 ■Altitude, apparent, 376. 
 
 57 2 
 
 Altitude, meridian, 376. 
 observed, 376. 
 
 of highest mountains in the world, 500. 
 true, 376. 
 
 Altitudes above sea-level, table of, 498. 
 Ammonia, 534. 
 Amplitude, 376. 
 Analysis, 534. 
 
 chemical* 506. 
 
 of diagrams, 271. 
 
 of sea-water, 457. 
 Angle, 587. 
 
 . irons, 476. 
 Angular advance of eccentric, 183. 
 Anthracite coal, composition of, 511. 
 Apparent altitude, 376. 
 
 time, 381. 
 
 Application of theoretic curves. 280. 
 Appointments as cadet engineers in the 
 
 U. S. Navy, necessary qualifications 
 
 of candidates applying for, 40. 
 Approximate weight of iron castings 
 
 from patterns, rule for finding, 619. 
 Areas of circles, 536. 
 Arithmetic, decimal, 560. 
 
 examination in, 43. 
 A.scension, right, 381. 
 Assistant engineer, first, 58. 
 
 in the U. S. re\enue cutter service, 
 
 standard of examination for, 58. 
 Astronomical time, 381. 
 Asymptote, 263. 
 Atlas Corliss engine, 6C3. 
 Atmosphere, 4%. 
 Atom, 534. 
 
 Atoms and molecules, 566. 
 Attraction, 588. 
 
 capillary, 589. 
 Augmentation, 381. 
 Automatic cut-off engine, Brown, 88. 
 
 Buckeye, the, 488. 
 
 Douglass, the, 159. 
 S 673 
 
674 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Automatic cut-off engine, Fitch burg 
 Steam-Engine Company's, 647. 
 Putnam Machine Company's, 138. 
 Watertown, the, 194. 
 Wheeloclv, the, 214. 
 Woodbury, Booth & Pry or, 52. 
 Wright's, 38. 
 Automatic cut-off engines, diagrams 
 taken from, 278. 
 high-pressure engine, the Greene, 150. 
 high-pressure engine, the Woodbury & 
 Beach. 124. 
 Automatic cut-off and throttling engines, 
 130. 
 
 valve-gear, 227. 
 Average crushing load of different ma- 
 terials, table showing, 617. 
 Axle, 588. 
 
 and wheel, the, 611. 
 Azimuth, 376. 
 
 • 
 
 Babbitt's metal, 616. 
 Back eccentric, 183. 
 
 Balance-engine, Well's two-piston, 232. 
 
 valves, 228. 
 Bank fires, 462. 
 Barometer, the, 364. 
 Bases, 534. 
 
 Bearings, cross-head, 181. 
 Bed -plates and housings. 163. 
 Bell-signals, marine, 390. 
 Belt, how to put on a, 644. 
 Belting, 637. 
 
 Belts, rubber and leather, 642. 
 Black finish for brass, 619. 
 Blast-pipe, 462. 
 Blow -oft* cocks, 462. 
 Boiler materials, 480. 
 
 plates, practical limits to thickness of, 
 485. 
 
 stays, 453. 
 
 Boilers, technical terms employed in re- 
 lation to, 462. 
 Boiling-point, 503. 
 
 for fresh water at different altitudes 
 
 above sea-level, table showing. 520. 
 of salt water at different degrees of 
 density, when barometer stands at 
 30 inches, table showing, 362. 
 Bolts, cylinder-head, 166. 
 
 stay, 454. 
 Bonnet, 160. 
 Boss of crank, 185. 
 Bourdon spring steam-gauge. 370. 
 
 Brass and glass, cement for, G37. 
 
 black finish for, 619. 
 
 castings, lacquer for, 619. 
 Brasses, 160. 
 
 Breaking-strain of iron and copper stay- 
 bolts, table showing, 455. 
 Bronze alloy, 616. 
 
 Brown automatic cut-off steam-engine, 88, 
 Bucket, air-pump, 356, 357. 
 Buckeye automatic cut-off engine, 488. 
 Bursting-pressure of cylindrical boilers 
 
 with riveted seam?, rule for finding, 
 
 448. 
 
 steam-boilers, 448. * 
 
 Cadet ertgineers in the U. S. Navy, 40. 
 Calcination, 534. 
 Calking, 463. 
 
 Candidates applying for appointments 
 as cadet engineers in the U. S. Navy, 
 necessary qualifications of, 40. 
 examination of, 40. 
 
 for the U. S. revenue service, qualifica- 
 tions of, 57. 
 Capacity of air-pumps. 354. 
 
 of cisterns and tanks, table showing, 
 521. 
 
 in gallons for each 10-inch depth, table 
 showing, 523. 
 
 unit of. 563. 
 Capillary attraction, 589. 
 Carbon, 532. 
 Cards, indicator, 262. 
 Care and management of steam-boilers, 
 instructions for, 478. 
 
 of steam-engines, instructions for, 235. 
 Causes of knocking in steam-engines, 153. 
 Celestial object, hour-angle of a, 378. 
 Cement for brass and glass, 637. 
 
 fastening leather to iron, china, or 
 glass, 636. 
 
 leather, 636. 
 
 leather belting, 636.' 
 
 rubber belting, 637. 
 
 rust-joints, 635. 
 
 steam-joints and patching steam-boil- 
 ers, 634. 
 stone or marble, 637. 
 Central, mechanical, and dynamical 
 
 forces, definition of, 587. 
 Centre of gravity, 589. 
 gyration, 593. 
 oscillation, 603. 
 Charcoal, 533. 
 
IND 
 
 Check chamber, 476. 
 
 valve, 476. 
 Chemical analysis, 506. 
 
 properties of coal, 504. 
 Chimneys, draught in, 469. 
 Cipher, the, 542. 
 Circle, valve, 218, 
 Circles, areas of, 536. 
 Circular-savrs, speed of, 632. 
 Circulating-pump, independent ma- 
 rine, 358. 
 Civil time, 381. 
 Clearance, 264. 
 
 the term, 122. 
 Clipper injector, the, 426. 
 
 table of capacities of, 428. 
 Coefficients of friction between plane 
 
 surfaces, table of, 633. 
 Cohesion, 589. 
 
 Coil of belting, how to measure, 644. 
 Collapsing-pressure of boiler- flues, rule 
 
 for finding, 452. 
 Combination, 534. 
 Combustion, 510. 
 
 spontaneous, 512. 
 Common and decimal fractions, table of, 
 
 561. 
 
 Comparative efficiency of screw-propel- 
 ler and paddle-wheel, 399. 
 
 value of different kinds of wood for 
 fuel, 505. 
 Compass, deviation of the, 377. 
 
 error of the, 377. 
 
 variation of the, 377. 
 Composition of anthracite coal, 511. 
 Compositions and alloys, 616. 
 Compound, 535. 
 
 engines, 109. 
 Compressibility, 503. 
 Compression, 264. 
 Condensation, 503. 
 
 Condenser and air-pump, independent, 
 345. 
 
 Injector, the, 344. 
 Condensers, 338. 
 jet, 340. 
 surface, 340. 
 Condensing and non-condensing, econ- 
 omy in modern steam-engines, 107. 
 Condensing-engines, steam-pumps for, 
 403. 
 
 over the non-condensing engine, econ- 
 omy of the, 107. 
 Conductibility, 503. 
 
 EX. 675 
 
 Conductors' signals, 394. 
 Conic section, 51. 
 Connecting-pipes, 476. 
 
 rod, piston, and crank connections, 
 175. 
 
 Contents of an elliptic or oval tank in 
 cubic feet or gallons, rule for finding, 
 523. 
 
 Cooling of liquids and solids, 510. 
 
 surface in tubes of surface condensers, 
 rule for finding, 343. 
 Copper, 615. 
 Corliss engine, Atlas, 663. 
 
 Centennial, 25. 
 
 Harris, 95. 
 
 Reynolds, 177. 
 
 Wetherill, 583. 
 Corrosion, and its analogy to combus- 
 tion, 460. 
 
 external, 460. 
 
 internal, 460. 
 Counter has been working into minutes, 
 
 to reduce the time the, 368. 
 Counterbore, 160. 
 Course, 376. 
 
 made good, 376. 
 
 magnetic, 376. 
 
 true, 376. 
 Crab-claw, 229. 
 Crank, the, 183. 
 
 base of the, 185. 
 
 connections, piston, and connecting- 
 rod, 175. 
 pins, 185. 
 
 Crank-shaft journals and main-bearings, 
 187. 
 
 to determine the diameter of the, 135 
 Cranks of steam-engines to their shafts, 
 
 fitting the, 137. 
 Cross-head bearings, 181. 
 Crown-bars, 476. 
 
 braces, 477. 
 
 sheet, 476. 
 
 Cubical contents of a triangular tank, 
 
 rule for finding, 524. 
 Curvilinear seams, 462. 
 Cushion, 264. 
 
 Cut-oft* and throttling engines, automatic, 
 130. 
 
 an adjustable, 227. 
 a positive, 227. 
 
 engines, automatic, diagrams taken 
 
 from, 278. 
 independent, 227. 
 
676 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Cut-off, riding, 227. 
 
 to equalize the, 208. 
 Cut-offs, steam-engine, 132. 
 Cylinder-boilers, rule for, 453. 
 
 efficiency, 264. 
 
 head-bolts, 166, 
 Cylinders, steam, 164. 
 Cylindrical steam-boilers, bursting press- 
 ure of, 448. 
 
 Daily average number of gallons of water 
 used per individual in different 
 cities, table showing, 524. 
 
 Dashers, 477. 
 
 Dash-pot, 228. 
 
 Days in different countries, length of, 382. 
 Dead-centre, the, 152. 
 
 plate, 477. 
 
 reckoning, 377. 
 
 weight safety-valves, 469. 
 Decimal arithmetic, 560. 
 Declination, 377. 
 
 Definition of technical terms applied to 
 
 different kinds of boiler-plate, 486. 
 Detuiitions of central, mechanical, and 
 
 dynamical forces, 587. 
 Deflector, 477. 
 Degrees of longitude, 379. 
 Departure, 377. 
 
 taking a, 377. 
 Design of steam-engines, 134. 
 Deterioration of steam-boilers, 460. 
 Deviation of the compass, 377. 
 Diagram, theoretical, 279. 
 Diagrams, analysis of, 271. 
 
 indicator, 262, 291-320. 
 Diagrams taken from automatic cut-off 
 
 engines, 278. 
 Diameter of the crank-shaft, to deter- 
 mine the, 135. 
 Diameters and areas of small circles, 
 
 table of, 543. 
 Diaphragm-plate, 477. 
 Difference, 378. 
 
 of longitude, 380. 
 Different parts of steam-engines, techni- 
 cal terms applied to, 160. 
 terms formerly applied to, but which 
 have become obsolete, 161. 
 Diffusion of vapor, 502. 
 Dip of the horizon, 378. 
 Directions for operating Sellers' non-ad- 
 justable fixed-nozzle injector, 414. 
 for using Eclipse injector, 425. 
 
 Displacement, 264. 
 Distance, 377. 
 
 polar, 377. 
 
 zenith, 382. 
 Dome, 477. 
 
 stays, 477. 
 Double-acting air-pump, 356. 
 
 beat valves, 228. 
 Douglas automatic cut-off engine, 159. 
 Draught in chimneys, 469. 
 Draw fires, 462. 
 
 Duplicating the parts of steam-engines, 
 
 136. 
 Duty, 261 
 
 Dynamical, central, and mechanical 
 
 forces, definitions of, 587. 
 Dynamics, 589. 
 
 Ebullition, 503. 
 Eccentric, the, 182. 
 
 angular advance of the, 183. 
 
 back, 183. 
 
 fore, 182. 
 
 throw of the, 183. 
 Eclipse injector, 424. 
 
 directions for using, 425. 
 Ecliptic, 378. 
 
 Economy in modern steam-engines, con- 
 densing and non-condensing, 107. 
 of high-pressure engines, 131. 
 of the condensing over the non-con- 
 densing engine, 107. 
 steam-engine, 325. 
 theoretical, 286. 
 Effect of size on speed of steam-vessels, 
 400. 
 
 Effects of heat upon different bodies, 
 
 table showing, 508. 
 Efficiency, cylinder, 264. 
 Ejf ctor or lifter, the, 434. 
 Elastic fluids, 589. 
 Elasticity, 590. 
 Emergencies, 584. 
 Energy, 590. 
 
 Engine, Atlas Corliss, 286. 
 
 condensing over the non-condensing, 
 
 economy of the, 107. 
 high-pressure, waste in the, 103. 
 how to reverse an, 145. 
 in line, how to put an, 141. 
 low-pressure or condensing, waste in, 
 
 104. 
 
 Porter-Allen high-speed, 330, 
 surface-condensing, 355, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 677 
 
 Engine, Woodbury, Booth & Pryor auto- 
 matic cut-off, 52 
 Woodruff & Beach automatic cut-off 
 ► high-pressure, 124. 
 
 Wright's automatic cut-off, 38. 
 Engineer, first assistant, 58. 
 Engineering, steam, 27. 
 Engineers, facts that should be borne in 
 mind by, 34. 
 in the U. S. Navy, necessary qualifica- 
 tions of candidates applying for ap- 
 pointments as cadets, 40. 
 licensing, 30. 
 locomotive, 62. 
 
 qualifications of stationary, 60. 
 questions for, 99. 
 Engines and boilers, valves and cocks 
 connected with, 229. 
 automatic cut-off and throttling, 130. 
 automatic cut-off, diagrams taken 
 
 ft-om, 278. 
 Centennial Corliss, 25. 
 compound, 109. 
 
 high-pressure, economy of. 131. 
 
 marine, 113. 
 
 simple, 112. 
 
 speed of, 118. 
 
 throttling, 131. 
 Equation of time, 382. 
 Equator, 378. 
 Equivalents, 535. 
 Error of the compass, 377. 
 Estimating the power of steam-engines, 
 118. 
 
 Evaporation, 535. 
 Evaporization, 503. 
 Examination for assistant engineer in 
 the U. S. revenue-cutter service, 58. 
 
 in arithmetic, 43. 
 
 in geography, 47. 
 
 in grammar, 42. 
 
 in natural philosophy, 49. 
 
 of candidates, 40. 
 Examinations for the mercantile marine 
 
 service, 59. 
 Exhaust- and steam-pipes, 180. 
 
 to equalize the, 210. 
 Expansion, 503. 
 
 valve-gear, 227. 
 Experiments on iron plates for steam- 
 boilers, tabic deduced from, 623. 
 Explosions, steam-boiler, 464. 
 
 Face, valve, 218. 
 57^ 
 
 Facts that should be borne in mind by 
 engineers. 34. 
 
 steam users. 650. 
 Fastening leather to iron, china, or glass. 
 
 cement for, 636. 
 Feed-pump pet-cock, 405. 
 
 ram, rule to find diameter of, 404. 
 Feed-pump for condensing-engines, 40o: 
 Feed, to reduce the, 428. 
 Feed -water heaters^ 474. 
 
 temperature of, 417. 
 Fire, 506. 
 
 Fire-engine, the steam, 120, 
 Fires, bank, 462. 
 
 draw, 462. 
 
 slice, 462. 
 
 start, 462. 
 
 Firing, manual and mechanical, 461. 
 
 technical terms applied to. 462. 
 First assistant engineer. 58. 
 Fitcliburg steam-engine company s auto^ 
 
 matic cut-off engine, 647. 
 Fitting the cranks of steam-engines to 
 
 their shafts, 137. 
 Fittings of marine-boilers, 448. 
 Fixed, 535. 
 Flame, 506. 
 Flexure, 264. 
 Flue-boilers, rule for, 453. 
 Fluids and vapors, technical terms ap- 
 plied to, 502. 
 elastic, 589. 
 Fly-wheels, 192. 
 
 of steam-engines, rule for finding pro- 
 per weight of, 193. 
 Foaming in marine-boilers, 457. 
 Focus, 591. 
 Force, 590. 
 
 of wind at different velocities, table 
 showing, 499. 
 Fore eccentric, 182. 
 
 Formula for finding horse power of 
 steam-engines by indicator diagrams, 
 318. 319. 
 
 for finding theoretical clearance when 
 the scale is known. 316 
 
 for finding the scale of a diagran] 
 when clearance is known, 317. 
 Friction, 59. 
 
 of riveted seams, 463. 
 
 of slide-valves, 221. 
 
 rollers. 591. 
 Friedman's injector, 420. 
 
 table of capacities of, 422. 
 
678 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Fuel, 503. 
 
 Functions of indicator, 261. 
 Funnels, 472. 
 Fusible metal, 619. 
 
 Gab-lever, 161. 
 Gases, 530. 
 Gasket, 477. 
 Gauge-cocks, 477. 
 Gauges, mercury, 369. 
 
 spring, 369. 
 . siphon, 369. 
 
 vacuum, 369. 
 Gearing, 645. 
 
 Geography, examination in, 47. 
 Geometry and trigonometry, 46. 
 Gibs, keys, and straps, 188. 
 Gitiard injector, invention of, 407. 
 Governors, steam-engine, 197. 
 Grammar, examination in, 42. 
 Grate-surface, 462. 
 Gravity and gravitation, 592. 
 
 centre of, 589. 
 
 specific, 592. 
 Green automatic cut-ofif high - pressure 
 
 engine. 150. 
 Gridiron-valves, 228. 
 Grummet, 477. 
 Gun-metal, 615. 
 Gyration, the centre of, 593. 
 
 jSancock inspirator, table of capacities 
 of 432. 
 
 Harris Corliss steam-engine, 95. 
 Heat, 507. 
 latent. 507. 
 of steam, 64.- 
 latent, 65. 
 unit of, 562. 
 Heat-conducting properties of different 
 
 metals, table showing, 614. 
 Heating in journals and reciprocating 
 
 parts of steam-engines, 202, 
 Heating - surface of tire-box boilers — 
 locomotive, marine, or stationary — 
 rule lor finding. 452. 
 of vertical tubular-boilers, such as are 
 generally used for fire-engines, rule 
 for finding, 453. 
 Higliest mountains, altitude of, in the 
 world. 500. 
 waterfalls in the world. 500. 
 High-pressure engine. Greene, 150. 
 valveless engine, Wardwell s, 240. 
 
 High-pressure engine, waste in the, 103. 
 Woodruff & Beach automatic cut-off, 
 24. 
 
 High-pressure engines, economy of, 131. • 
 High-speed engine, Porter-Allen, 330. 
 Horizon, dip of the, 378. 
 
 visible, 378. 
 Horse-povFer for different piston-speeds, 
 table of units of, 170. 
 Indicated, 266. 
 
 to calculate, 285. 
 net, 266. 
 
 of steam-engines, formulse for finding, 
 
 by indicator diagrams, 318. 
 of waterfalls, rule for finding, 523. 
 of wind-storms, 499. 
 
 rule for finding, 500. 
 or power of a horse, 593. 
 Hotwell thermometer, the, 366. 
 Hour-angle of a celestial object, 378. 
 Housing, 164. 
 
 Housings and bed-plates, 163. 
 How to attach the indicator, 268. 
 
 balance reciprocating and revolving 
 parts of vertical engines, 202. 
 
 calculate theoretical rate of water con- 
 sumption, 288. 
 
 how to determine the amount of lap 
 and lead on a valve without opening 
 the steam-chest, 218. 
 
 increase the power of steam-engines, 
 118, 148. 
 
 keep pipes and pumps from freezing, 
 405. 
 
 make a good adhesive cement, 636. 
 
 make belts run on the centre of pul- 
 leys, 641. 
 
 measure a coil of belting, 644. 
 
 operate the inspirator, 431. 
 
 put an engine in line, 141. 
 
 put on a belt, 644. 
 
 repair steam-engines, 146. 
 
 reverse an engine, 145. 
 
 set up a stationary engine, 143. 
 
 set valves of steam-engines, 224. 
 
 test the quality of leather for belting. 
 641. 
 
 use a salinometer, 361. 
 H. P., 265. 
 H. F.Cyl,, 265. 
 Hydrodynamics, 593. 
 Hydrogen, 532. 
 Hyperbola, 265, 594. 
 Hyperbolic logarithms, table of, 557. 
 
INDEX . 
 
 679 
 
 Impact, 594. 
 Impenetrability, 594. 
 Impetus, 595. 
 Incidence, 595. 
 Inclination, 595. 
 Inclined plane, 595. 
 Independent air-pumps. 355. 
 
 condenser and air-pump. 345. 
 
 cut-off, 227. 
 
 marine circulating-pump, 358. 
 Indicated horse-power, 266. 
 
 to calculate, 285. 
 Indicator cards, 262. 
 Crosby, 258. 
 diagrams, 262, 291-320. 
 
 show what, and how, 321. 
 functions of, 261. 
 how to attach the, 268. 
 steam-engine: its invention and im- 
 provement, 258. 
 technical terms used, 263. 
 Inertia, 596. 
 Initial pressure, 266. 
 
 or steam-line, 282. 
 Iiyection -water required to condense a 
 certain volume of steam, relative 
 quantity of, 342. 
 Injector, clipper, 426. 
 
 table of capacities of, ^28. 
 condenser, 344. 
 Eclipse, 424. 
 Friedman's, 420. 
 Keystone, 422. 
 
 lifting, 423. 
 method of starting the, 434. 
 Rue's " Little Giant," 418. 
 to start the, 423. 
 
 with lifting attachment for stationary 
 boilers, Sellers' non-adjusting fixed- 
 nozzle, 412. 
 
 \Vm. Sellers & Co.'s, 408. 
 Injectors, 406. 
 
 Instructions for setting up, properly at- 
 taching, and adjusting, 432. 
 Inspirator, 430. 
 
 Hancock, table of capacities of, 432. 
 how to operate the, 431. 
 instructions for setting up, properly at- 
 taching, and adjusting injectors, 432. 
 the care and management of steam- 
 boilers, 478. 
 the care of steam-engines, 235. 
 Intercepter or separator, 473. 
 Internal strain to which boilers are sub- 
 
 jected when under pressure, rule for 
 
 finding, 451. 
 Invention of Giffard injector, 407. 
 Isothermal, 265. 
 
 Jacket, steam, 66. 
 
 Jamison *s steam water-ejector, 435. 
 
 table of capacities of, 435. 
 Jam -nuts, 160. 
 Jet condensers, 340. 
 
 Journals and reciprocating parts of 
 steam-engines, heating in, 202. 
 
 Keys, gibs, and straps, 188. 
 Keystone injector, 422. 
 
 lifting injector, 423. 
 Knees, 478. 
 
 Lacquer for brass castings, 619. 
 Lamps, signals by, 394. 
 Lane spring steam-gauge, 369. 
 Lap and lead on a valve without opening 
 the steam-chest, how to determine 
 the amount of, 218. 
 on the valve, 217. 
 Latent heat, 507. 
 of steam, 65. 
 
 of various substances, table showing 
 the, 508. 
 Latitude, 378. 
 
 and longitude of places, table of, 384. 
 Lead, loss of, 217. 
 
 on the steam end, 217. 
 
 on the valve, 317. 
 Leather belting, cement for, 636. 
 Leeway, 379. * 
 
 Length of days in different countries, 
 382. 
 
 of stroke and number of revolutions for 
 different piston - speeds in feet per 
 minute, table showing, 172. 
 unit of, 562. 
 Letter b, 264. 
 Letter T, 268. 
 Levers, 596. 
 
 spring, 229. 
 Lexicon of definitions of central, me- 
 chanical, and dynamical forces, 587. 
 Licensing engineers, 30. 
 Lifter or ejector, the, 434. 
 Lifters, 229. 
 
 Lift of safety-valves, 467. 
 Lifting and stationary links, 192. 
 injector, the Keystone, 423. 
 
680 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 Light signals for ocean steamships, 390. 
 Line and line, 204. 
 
 Linear dilatation of solids by heat, table 
 showing, 622. 
 
 expansion of wrought-iron; 621. 
 Link, the. 189. 
 
 radius of the. 191. 
 Link-motion, the, 189. 
 
 Walschaert, 191. 
 Links, lifting and stationary, 192. 
 Liquids and solids, cooling of, 510. 
 " Little Giant injector. Rue's, 418. 
 Location of steam-engines, 329. 
 Lock safety-valves, 469. 
 Locomotive, 119. 
 
 (engineers, 62. 
 
 power of the, 119. 
 Logarithms of numbers from 0 to 1000, 
 
 table of, 555. 
 Longitude, 379. 
 
 degrees of, 379. 
 
 difference of, 380. 
 
 into time, to reduce, 379. 
 Longitudinal seams, 462. 
 Loss of lead, 217. 
 
 Low - pressure or condensing engine, 
 
 waste iu the, 104. 
 L. P. cyl., 265. 
 Lubricants, 243. 
 
 Machines, 597. 
 
 Magnetic course. 376. 
 
 Magnitudes and velocities of planets, 
 
 table showing, 375. 
 Main-bearings and crank-shaft journals, 
 
 187. 
 
 Manual and mechanical firing, 461. 
 Marine bell-signals, 390. 
 
 boilers, fittings of, 448 
 foaming in, 457 
 
 circulating-pump, independent, 358. 
 
 engine, 113. 
 
 signals, 386. 
 
 steam-engine register, 367. 
 
 whistle-signals, 389. 
 
 wrecking-pump, 359. 
 Marine engines, reversing-gear for, 203. 
 
 uncertainty of tests made for the pur- 
 pose of comparing the relative econ- 
 omy of, 116. 
 Mariner's compass, the, 373. 
 Martin's upright tubular boiler, 446. 
 Materials, boiler, 480. 
 Mean effective pressure. 266, 283. 
 
 Mean speed of a steam-vessel, to find, 400. 
 time. 381. 
 
 Measurement of screw-propeller, 395. 
 Measures and weights. 610. 
 Mechanical and manual firing, 461. 
 
 dynamical, and central forces, defini- 
 tions of, 587. 
 Mechanics, 598. 
 
 Mercantile marine service, examinations 
 
 for the, 59. 
 Mercury-gauge, 369. 
 Meridian, 380. 
 
 altitude, 376. 
 Metal, Babbitt's, 616. 
 
 fusible. 619. 
 Metals and alloys, 612. 
 Method of starting the injector, 434. 
 Mile as measured by various nations, table 
 of, 382. 
 
 Miles and knots, knots and miles, table 
 of, 386. 
 
 Millstones, speed, power, capacity, and 
 
 dress of, 632. 
 Mineral substances and their chemical 
 
 equivalents, table of, 612. 
 Modulus, 600. 
 Molecules and atoms, 566. 
 Momentum, 600. 
 
 Most accurate methods of testing the ad- 
 justments, 274. 
 Motion, 601. 
 
 of the paper drum, 262. 
 
 perpetual, 604. 
 Movers, prime, 606. 
 Multiplication, peculiarities of, 560. 
 Muntz metal, 615. 
 
 Natural philosophy, examination in, 49. 
 
 Navigation, technical terms and defini- 
 tions used in, 376. 
 
 Necessary quantity of water per min- 
 ute for any engine, rule for finding 
 404. 
 
 Net horse power, 266. 
 Neutral, 535. 
 Neutralization, 535. 
 Nitrogen, 531. 
 
 Non-condensing engine, economy of the 
 condensing over the, 107. 
 
 Non-conducting covering for steam- 
 boilers and pipes, 634. 
 properties of di fferent materials at even 
 thickness, table showing, 510. 
 
 Number of square feet of heating-surface 
 
INDEX. 
 
 681 
 
 in a tube, or any number of 
 rule for finding, 452. 
 
 Observed altitude, 376. 
 Ordinates, 265. 
 
 to space the, 285. 
 Oscillation, centre of, 603. 
 Over-stroke, 119. 
 Oxidation, 535k 
 Oxide, 535. 
 Oxygen, 531. 
 
 Paddle-vrheel, 396. 
 Paper drum, motion of, 269. 
 Parallax, 380. 
 Parallelism, 265. 
 Parallels, 378. 
 
 Parts of steam-engines, duplicating the, 
 136. 
 
 Peculiarities of multiplication, 560. 
 Pendulum, 603. 
 
 Percentage of loss induced by blowing 
 off to prevent saturation, rule for 
 finding, 364. 
 Percussion, 603. 
 Perpetual motion, 604. 
 Pet-cock feed-pump, 405. 
 Phosphate, 535. 
 Pins, crank, 185. 
 Pipe diagram, 266. 
 
 swivel, 161. 
 Pipes, 231. 
 
 and pumps from freezing, how to keep, 
 405. 
 
 Piston air-pump, 356. 
 
 connecting-rod, and crank connec- 
 tions, 175. 
 
 rod and valve-rod packing, and how 
 to use it, 237. 
 
 rods, 169. 
 Pistons, steam, 167. 
 Pitman, 161. 
 Plane, the inclined, 595. 
 Planimeter, the, 323 656. 
 Plate, wrist, 229. 
 Plug-tree, 161. 
 Plunger air-pump, 356. 
 Pneumatics, 605. 
 
 Points of the compaiss, table of rhumbs, 
 
 or, 374. 
 Polar distance, 377. 
 Poles, 380. 
 
 Porter-Allen high-speed engine, 330. 
 Port side, 380. 
 
 ;, Positive cut-off, 227. 
 Power, 606. 
 
 and speed of steam-vessels, relation 
 
 between, 399. 
 of a horse, 593. 
 of the locomotive, 119. 
 of steam-engines, 117. 
 estimating the, 118. 
 how to increase the, 118. 
 required to raise water to different al- 
 titudes varying from 1 foot to 20,000 
 feet, table showing, 522. 
 Practical limits to thickness of boiler- 
 plates, 485. 
 Pressure, 606. 
 
 and temperature of vapors of water 
 from 32° to 400° Fah., table showing, 
 526. 
 
 mean effective, 266, 283. 
 
 of a diagram from its area, 324. 
 on slide-valves, rule for finding the, 222. 
 per sq. in. of sectional area in crown- 
 sheets of steam-boilers, rule for find- 
 ing, 451. 
 safe-working, 462. 
 terminal, 266. 
 unit of, 564. 
 Prime movers, 606. 
 Priming, 458. 
 
 Proper number of revolutions per minute 
 of any sized saw, rule for finding, 632. 
 Proportion of carbon in various grades 
 of iron and steel, table showing, 615. 
 Proportions of the United States or Sel- 
 lers' standard threads for screws, 
 nuts, and bolts, table giving the, 631. 
 Pulley, the, 607. 
 
 Pulleys for governors, rules for calculat- 
 ing the size of, 201. 
 Pump-plunger for any engine, rule for 
 
 finding diameter of, 403. 
 Pumps, 401. 
 air, 353. 
 
 Putnam machine company's automatic 
 
 cut-ott' engine, 138. 
 Pyrites, 536. 
 
 Qualifications of candidates for the U. 
 S. revenue service, 57. 
 stationary engineers, 60. 
 Quantity and weight of water in pipes 1 
 fathom in length (6 feet), and of dif- 
 ferent diameters from 1 to 12 inches 
 518. 
 
682 iNjy 
 
 Quantity of water per lineal foot in 
 pumps, or vertical pipes of different 
 diameters. 519. 
 of water which any square or rectan- 
 gular box or tank is capable of con- 
 taining in cubic feet or U. S. gallons, 
 rule for finding, 524. 
 
 Questions for engineers, 99, 162, 246, 334, 
 436, 491, 585, 668. 
 
 Radiating properties of different sub- 
 stances, table showing, 508. 
 
 Radius-bar, 161. 
 
 Radius of the link, 191. 
 
 Railroad signals, 391. 
 
 Reciprocating and revolving parts of 
 vertical engines, how to balance, 202. 
 
 Reckoning, dead, 377. 
 
 Refraction, 380. 
 
 Register, marine steam-engine, 367. 
 Relation between power and speed of 
 
 steam-vessels, 399. 
 Relative economy of marine engines, 
 
 uncertainty of tests made for the 
 
 purpose of comparing the, 116. 
 quantity of injection-water required to 
 
 condense a certain volume of steam, 
 
 342. 
 
 volumes of air at various temperatures, 
 
 table showing the, 501. 
 weight and volume of different gases, 
 table showing, 508. 
 Release, 265. 
 Releasing valve-gear, 226. 
 Relief-valves, 228. 
 
 Remedies for knocking in steam-engines, 
 155. 
 
 Resilience, 608. 
 
 Results of experiments made on different 
 brands of boiler-iron at the Stevens 
 Institute of Technology, 620. 
 
 Rev. or Revs., 266. 
 
 Reversing-gear for marine engines, 203. 
 
 valve-gear, 227. 
 Revolutions engine has made during 
 voyage, rule for finding number of, 
 
 368. 
 
 Revolving shafts, how to prevent acci- 
 dents by, 643. 
 Reynolds Corliss engine, 177. 
 Riding cut-off, 227. 
 Right a.scension. 381. 
 Riveted seams, friction of, 463. 
 Rock-shafts, 181. 
 
 Rods, air-pump, 357. 
 piston, 169. 
 valve, 182. 
 Rollers, friction, 591. 
 Rolling circle of a wheel. 398. 
 Rotary-valves, 228. 
 Rubber and leather belts, 642. 
 
 belting, cement for, 637. 
 Rue's " Little Giant" injector, 418. 
 
 table of capacities of, 420. 
 Rule for cylinder-boilers, 453. 
 Rule for finding aggregate strain' caused 
 by pressure of steam on shells of 
 boilers, 451. 
 amount of gain derived from working 
 
 steam expansively, 67. 
 approximate weight of iron castings 
 
 from patterns, 619. 
 bursting pressure of cylindrical boilers 
 
 with riveted seams, 448. 
 centre of gravity of taper-levers, for 
 
 safety-valves, 469. 
 change required in length of belt when 
 one of the pulleys on which it runs 
 is changed for one of different size, 
 644. 
 
 collapsing pressure of boiler-flues, 452. 
 
 contents of an elliptic or oval tank in 
 cubic feet or gallons, 523. 
 
 cooling surface in tubes of surface con- 
 densers, 343. 
 
 cubic contents of a steam-cylinder. 166. 
 
 cubical contents of a triangular tank, 
 524. 
 
 diameter of a driven pulley for a given 
 number of revolutions, 645. 
 
 diameter of a pinion when the diame- 
 ter of the driver and the number of 
 teeth in driver and pinion are given, 
 645. 
 
 diameter of pump-plunger for any en- 
 gine, 403. 
 
 diameter of toothed wheels. 645. 
 
 distance piston is ahead of a central 
 position in the cylinder, 176. 
 
 heating surface of fire-box boilers, etc.. 
 452. 
 
 heating surface of vertical tubulau 
 boilers, 453. 
 
 horse-power of a locomotive, 120. 
 
 horse-power of a steam-engine by in- 
 dicator diagrams. 121. 
 
 horse-power of simple condensing en- 
 gine.s, 121. 
 
IND 
 
 Rule for finding horse-power of steam- 
 engines and fire-engines, 120. 
 
 horse-power of waterfalls, 523. 
 
 horse-power of wind storms, 500. 
 
 internal strain to which boilers are 
 subjected when under pressure, 451. 
 
 mean or average pressure in cylinder 
 of a steam-engine, 68. 
 
 necessary quantity of water per minute 
 for any engine, 404. 
 
 n'amber of revolutions engine has 
 made during voyage, 368. 
 
 number of revolutions in each wheel 
 for a train of spur-wheels, 646. 
 
 number of revolutions of a driver, 646. 
 
 number of revolutions of the last wheel 
 in a train of wheels and pinions, 
 spurs or bevels, 646. 
 
 number of square feet of heating sur- 
 face in a tube or any number of 
 tubes, 452. 
 
 percentage of loss induced by blowing 
 off to prevent saturation, 364. 
 
 point of cut-off required to produce a 
 given terminal from a given initial 
 pressure, 221, 
 
 point of cut-off when the initial and 
 mean pressure are known, 221. 
 
 pressure at which a safety-valve is 
 weighted when length of lever, 
 weight of ball, etc., are known, 468. 
 
 pressure per square inch of sectional 
 area or crown-sheets of steam-boil- 
 ers, 451. 
 
 pressure per square inch when area of 
 valve, weight of ball, etc., are known, 
 468. 
 
 proper number of revolutions per min- 
 ute of any sized saw, 632. 
 
 proper thickness for steam-cylinders, 
 165. 
 
 proper weight of fly-wheels of steam- 
 engines, 193. 
 
 quantity of steam any engine will use 
 at each stroke of the piston, 166. 
 
 quantity of water which any square or 
 rectangular box or tank is capable 
 of containing in cubic feet or U. S. 
 gallons, 524. 
 
 required area for chimneys of station- 
 ary boilers, 473. 
 
 required diameter of cylinder for an 
 engine of any given horse-power, 
 165. 
 
 EX. 683 
 
 Rule for finding required number of teeth 
 in a pinion to have any given veloc- 
 ity, 645. 
 
 required size of a driving-pulley for 
 
 any required speed, 644. 
 safe external pressure on boiler- flues, 
 
 452. 
 
 safe working-pressure of iron boilers, 
 451. 
 
 strain due to pressure of steam on boil- 
 er-stays, 452. 
 
 strain exerted in a longitudinal direc- 
 tion by pressure of steam in a boiler, 
 449. 
 
 • strain exerted in a transverse direction 
 by pressure of steam in a boiler, 449. 
 
 strength of single- or double-riveted 
 seams, 452. 
 
 weight necessary to put on a safety- 
 valve lever, 4C8. 
 
 width of belt to transmit a given horse- 
 power, 643. 
 Rule for flue-boilers, 453. 
 
 tubular-boilers, 453. 
 Rule to find area of a circle, 538. 
 
 a cycloid, 539. 
 
 an ellipse, 539. 
 
 an elliptic segment, 539. 
 
 an hyperbola, 540. 
 
 an oval, 538. 
 
 any polygon, 539. 
 
 parallelogram, 538. 
 
 quadrilateral inscribed in a circle, 539. 
 
 regular polygon, 539. 
 
 sector of a circle, 539. 
 
 segment of a circle, 539. 
 
 trapezoid, 539. 
 
 triangle, 538. 
 
 circumference of a circle, 538. 
 circumference of an ellipse or oval, 
 538. 
 
 curve surface of any segment or zone 
 of a sphere, 541. 
 
 cubic contents of a frustum of a para- 
 bolic conoid, 541. 
 
 cubic contents of a frustum of a pyra- 
 mid or a cone, 540. 
 
 cubic contents of a frustum or zone of 
 a sphere, 541. 
 
 cubic contents of a parabolic conoid, 
 541. 
 
 cubic contents of a prism or a cylinder, 
 540. 
 
 cubic contents of a prismoid, 541. 
 
684 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Rule to find cubic contents of a pyramid 
 or a cone, 540. 
 cubic contents of a segment of a sphere, 
 540. 
 
 cubic contents of a segment of a sphe- 
 roid, 541. 
 
 cubic contents of a sphere, 541. 
 " " *' wedge, 541. 
 
 diameter of a circle, 538. 
 
 diameter of feed-pump ram, 404. 
 
 length of an arc of a hyperbola begin- 
 ning at vertex, 540. 
 
 length of an arc of a parabola cut off 
 by a double ordinate to the axis, 539. 
 
 surface of a frustum of a pyramid or 
 a cone, 540. 
 
 surface of a prism or a cylinder, 540. 
 
 surface o.f a pyramid or cone, 540. 
 
 surface of a sphere, 541. 
 Rules for calculating number of horse- 
 powers a belt will transmit, 643. 
 
 size of pulleys for governors, 201. 
 
 comparing degrees of temperature in- 
 dicated by different thermometers, 
 366. 
 
 for finding length of belt, 643. 
 for finding pressure on slide-valves, 222. 
 Rust, 613. 
 
 Rust-joints, cement for, 635. 
 
 Safe external pressure on boiler-flues, rule 
 for finding, 452. 
 
 working-pressure of iron boilers, rule 
 for finding, 451. 
 
 working-pressure, or safe load, 462. 
 Safety-valves, 465, 654. 
 
 dead-weight, 469. 
 
 lift of, 467. 
 
 lock, 469. 
 
 spring, 469. 
 Sailing distances from New York to dif- 
 ferent parts of the world, 383. 
 Saline, 5iJ6. 
 Sali no meter, 360 650. 
 
 how to use a, 361. 
 Salt in water of different seas, table show- 
 ing proportion of, 362. 
 Saturation, 363, 536. 
 Scale, 267. 
 
 in steam-boilers, 455. 
 
 of a diagram, formula for finding, 317. 
 Scoggin, 161. 
 Screw, 607. 
 
 Screw-propeller, 394. 
 
 and paddle-wheel, comparative effi- 
 ciency of, 399. 
 
 measurement of, 395*. 
 Scum-cocks, 478. 
 Seams, curvilinear, 462. 
 
 longitudinal, 462. 
 Seat-valve, 218. 
 Sea-water, analysis of, 457. 
 Section, conic, 51. 
 
 Sellers' injectors, table of capacities of, 417. 
 
 non-adjustable fixed-nozzle injector, 
 directions for operating, 414. 
 
 non-adjusting fixed-nozzle injector,412. 
 Semi-diameter, 381. 
 
 rotary valves, 228. 
 Shackle-bar, 161. 
 Shafts, rock, 181. 
 Ship's side air-pump, 357. 
 Shrinkage of castings of different metals, 
 
 table showing, 620. 
 Sidereal time, 381. 
 Signals by lamp, 394. 
 
 conductors', 394. 
 
 enginemen's, 393. 
 
 for ocean steamships, light, 390. 
 
 marine, 386. 
 
 railroad, 391. 
 
 train, 392. 
 
 Signification of signs used in calcula- 
 tions, 542. 
 
 Signs used in calculations, signification 
 
 of, 542. 
 Simple engines, 112. 
 Slice fires, 462. 
 Slide-valve, 205. 
 Slide-valves, friction of. 221. 
 
 rule for finding pressure on, 222. 
 Slip of the screw, 395. 
 Smoke, 473, 506. 
 Snifting-valve, 341. 
 Solder, 617, 619. 
 Space, water, 462. 
 Spanner-guard, 478. 
 Specific gravity, 592. 
 
 heat of different substances, table 
 showing, 509. 
 Spectacles, 478. 
 Speed of circular-saws, 632. 
 
 of engines, 118. 
 
 of steam-vessels, effect of size on, 400. 
 power, capacity, and dress of mill- 
 stones, 632. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 686 
 
 Spelling, 43. 
 Spider, 161. 
 
 Spontaneous combustion, 512. 
 Spring, 267. 
 
 gauge, 369. 
 
 levers, 229. 
 
 safety-valves, 469. * 
 steam-gauge, Bourdon, 370. 
 Lane, 369. 
 
 Squares, cubes, and square and cube roots 
 of all numbers from 1 to 620. 567. 
 
 standard of examination for assistant 
 engineer in U. S. revenue cutter ser- 
 vice, 58. 
 
 weights of cast-iron gas- and water- 
 pipes, tables showing, 628. 
 Jtarboard side, 381. 
 Start fires, 462. 
 Star ting- val^e gear, 228. 
 Statics, 608. 
 
 Stationary and lifting links, 192. 
 
 engine, how to set up a, 143. 
 
 engineers, qualifications of, 60. 
 Stay-bolts, 454. 
 
 tubes, 477. 
 Stays, boiler, 453. • 
 Steam, 63. 
 
 heat of, 64. 
 
 jacket, 66. 
 
 latent heat of, 65. 
 
 ports, 70. 
 
 saturated, 63. 
 
 surcharged, 63. 
 
 temperature of, 63. 
 
 volume of, 64. 
 Steam- and exhaust-pipes, 180. 
 Steam-boiler explosions, 464. 
 Steam-boilers, 442. 
 
 and pipes,- non-conducting covering 
 for, 634. 
 
 bursting pressure of cylindrical, 448. 
 
 cylinders, 164. 
 
 deterioration of, 460. 
 
 scale in, 455. 
 Steam end, loss on the, 217. 
 Steam-engine, Brown automatic cut-off, 
 88. 
 
 cut-offs, 132. 
 economy, 325. 
 governors, 197. 
 Harris Corliss, 95. 
 how to increase power of, 148. 
 indicator, 251, 
 58 
 
 Steam engineering, 27. 
 Steam-engines, causes of knocking in, 
 153. 
 
 condensing and non-condensing, econ- 
 omy in modern, 107. 
 
 design of, 134. 
 
 duplicating parts of. 136. 
 
 estimating power of, 118. 
 
 fitting thie cranks of, 137. 
 
 heating in journals and reciprocating 
 parts of, 202. 
 
 how to increase power of, 118. 
 
 how to repair, 146. 
 
 how to set valves of, 224. 
 
 in general, 102. 
 
 instructions for care of, 235. 
 
 location of, 329. 
 
 power of, 117. 
 
 remedies for knocking in, 155. 
 Steam fire-engine, 120. 
 Steam-j oints and patching steam -iDoilers, 
 cement for. 634. 
 
 line, or initial pressure, 282. 
 
 pistons, 167. 
 
 pressure required to lift and deliver 
 water with Sellers' fixed-nozzle lift- 
 ing-injector, table showing, 412. 
 
 room, 462. 
 
 water-ejector, Jamison's, 435. 
 table of capacities of, 435. 
 Steel, 613. 
 Stern-tube, 396. 
 Stone or marble, cement for, 637. 
 Strain due to pressure of steam on boiler- 
 stays, rule for finding, 452. 
 exerted in a longitudinal direction by 
 
 pressure of steam in a boiler, 449. 
 exerted in a transverse direction by 
 
 pressure of steam in a boiler, 449. 
 that will pull different metals asunder 
 on a straight pull, table showing, 618. 
 Straps, keys, and gibs, 188. 
 Strength, 609. 
 
 of copper boiler-plates at different tem- 
 peratures, table showing, 623. 
 of single- or double-riveted seams, rule 
 for finding, 452". 
 String, 267. 
 Stroke, valve, 218. 
 Sulphur, 615. 
 Superheaters, 473. 
 Surface condensers, 340. 
 condensing engine, 355. 
 
686 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Surface, grate, 462. 
 
 unit of, 563. 
 Syphon-gauge, 369. 
 
 Table containing diameters, circumfer- 
 ences, and areas of circles, etc., 544. 
 
 deduced from experiments on iron 
 plates for steam-boilers, 623. 
 
 giving proportions of U. S. or Sellers' j 
 standard threads for screws, nuts, 
 and bolts, 631. 
 
 of altitudes above sea-level, 498. 
 
 of average performances of different 
 designs of pumping-engines. 114. 115. 
 
 of capacities of Clipper injectors, 428. 
 
 of capacities of Friedman's injectors, 
 422. 
 
 of capacities of Hancock inspirator, 432. 
 
 of capacities of Jamison's steam water- 
 ejector, 435. . 
 
 of Capacities of Rue's " Little Giant" 
 injector, 420. 
 
 of capacities of Sellers' injector, 417. 
 
 of coefficients of frictions between 
 plane surfaces, 633. 
 
 of common and decimal fractions, 561. 
 
 of constant numbers by which to as- 
 certain the average of the steam 
 against the piston, etc , 69. 
 
 of constant numbers for finding the re- 
 quired "lap" for slide-valves, etc., 70. 
 
 of diameters and areas of small circles, 
 543. T 
 
 of elastic force, temperature, and vol- 
 ume of steam, etc., 76-80. , 
 
 of hyperbolic logarithms, 68, 557. 
 
 of latitude and longitude of places, 384. 
 
 of logarithms of numbers, etc., 555. 
 
 of mile as measured by various na- 
 tions, 382. 
 
 of miles and knots, knots and miles, 
 386. 
 
 of mineral substances and their chem- \ 
 
 ical equivalents, 612. 
 of multipliers, etc., 69. 
 of rhumbs, or points of the compass, 
 
 374. 
 
 of sailing distances, etc., in geograph- 
 ical miles, 383. 
 
 of squares, cubes, and square and cube 
 roots of numbers from 1 to 620, 567. 
 
 of units of horse-power for different 
 piston-speeds, 170. 
 
 ble of vulgar and decimal fractions of 
 an inch, 561. 
 
 showing actual extension of wrought- 
 iron at various temperatures, 621. 
 
 showing all the units of length recog- 
 nized in England since the 16th cen 
 tury, 565. * 
 
 showing amount of "lap" required 
 for slide-valves, etc., 220. 
 
 showing average crushing load of dif- 
 ferent materials, 617. 
 
 showing boiling-point for fresh water 
 at different altitudes above sea-level, 
 520. 
 
 showing boiling-point of salt water 
 at different degrees of density, etc., 
 362. 
 
 showing breaking strain of iron and 
 
 copper stay-bolts, 455. 
 showing capacity of cisterns and tanks, 
 
 521. 
 
 showing capacity of cisterns in gallons 
 for each 10 inch depth, 523. 
 
 showing daily average number of gal- 
 lons of water per individual in dif- 
 
 % ferent cities, etc., 524. 
 
 showing effect of heat upon different 
 bodies, 508. 
 
 showing different velocity of steam at 
 different pressures, etc., 67. 
 
 showing force of wind, etc., at different 
 velocities, 499. 
 
 showing force of uncondensed steam, 
 etc., according to temperature, 341. 
 
 showing heat-conducting properties of 
 different metals, 614. 
 
 showing increase of sensible and de- 
 crease of latent heat in steam, 65. 
 
 showing latent heat of various sub- 
 stances, 508. 
 
 showing length of stroke and number 
 of revolutions for different piston- 
 speeds in feet per minute, 172. 
 
 showing linear dilatation of solids by 
 heat. 622. 
 
 showing magnitudes and velocities of 
 planets, 375 
 
 showing maximum and minimum de- 
 livery of Sellers' self-adjusting in- 
 jector, etc., 416. 
 
 showing non conducting properties 
 different materials at even thickness. 
 510. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 687 
 
 Table showing power required to raise 
 water to different altitudes, etc., 522. 
 showing pressure and temperature of 
 vapor of water from 32^ to 400° Fah., 
 526. 
 
 showing proper thickness for steam- 
 cylinders from 6 to 90 inches, 166. 
 
 showing proportion of carbon in the 
 various grades of iron and steel. 615. 
 
 showing proportion of salt in water of 
 different seas, 362. 
 
 showing quantity and weight of water 
 in pipes of one fathom in length (6 
 feet), etc., 518. 
 
 showing quantity of water per lineal 
 foot in pumps, or vertical pipe of 
 different diameter, 519. 
 
 showing radiating properties of differ- 
 ent substances, 508. 
 
 showing relative volumes of air at va- 
 rious temperatures, 501. 
 
 showing relative weight and volume 
 of different gases, 509. 
 
 showing results of experiments made 
 on different brands of boiler-iron, 
 630. 
 
 showing shrinkage of castings of dif- 
 ferent metals, 620. 
 
 showing specific heat of different sub- 
 stances, 509. 
 
 showing standard weights of cast-iron 
 water- and gas-pipes, 628. 
 
 showing steam-pressure in pounds per 
 gauge, etc., 85. 
 
 showing steam-pressure required to 
 lift and deliver water with Sellers' 
 fixed-nozzle lifting injector, 412. 
 
 showing strain that will pull different 
 metals asunder on a straight pull, 
 618. 
 
 showing strength of copper boiler 
 plates at different temperatures, etc., 
 623. 
 
 showing temperature and weight of 
 steam at different pressures, etc., 
 '81-84. 
 
 showing temperature of steam at dif- 
 ferent pressures, etc., 74. 75. 
 
 showing tenacity or tensile strength of 
 different metals, 614. 
 
 showing tensile strength of different 
 kinds of wood. 618. 
 
 showing temperature of saturated va- 
 
 por in atmosphere, according to 
 Zeuner. 525. 
 Table showing tensile strength of various 
 qualities of American and English 
 cast-iron, 628. 
 showing 'tensile strength of various 
 qualities of American wrought-iron. 
 629. 
 
 showing time at different places, 385. 
 
 showing total heat of combustion of 
 various fuels, 512. 
 
 showing units of heat required to con 
 vert 1 pound of water, at tempera- 
 ture of 32°. into steam at different 
 pressures, 475. 
 
 showing vacuum in inches of mercury 
 and pounds pressure per sq. in., 349. 
 
 showing weight and bulk of different 
 substances in cubic feet, pounds, and 
 tons, 620. 
 
 showing weight of atmosphere per 
 
 sq. in. corresponding with differenc 
 
 heights of barometer. 365. 
 showing weight of boiler-plates 1 foot 
 
 square and from one-sixteenth of an 
 
 inch to an inch thick. 626. 
 showing weight of castings by weight 
 
 of the patterns, 620. 
 showing weight of cast-iron balls from 
 
 3 to 13 inches in diameter, 624. 
 showing weight of cast-iron pipes, etc., 
 
 627. 
 
 showing weight of cast-iron plates per 
 superficial foot as per thickness, 624. 
 
 showing weight of different metals per 
 cubic foot, 621. 
 
 showing weight of round iron, etc., 625. 
 
 showing weight of square bar-iron, etc., 
 620. 
 
 showing weight of water at different 
 temperatures, 520. 
 
 Tables showing average pressure of the 
 steam upon the piston throughout 
 the stroke, etc., 71-73. 
 
 Taking a departure, 377. 
 
 Technical and chemical terms that bear 
 relation to the steam-engine, 534. 
 terms and definitions used in naviga- 
 tion, 376. 
 
 terms applied to adjuncts of steam- 
 boiler, 476. 
 
 terms applied to different kinds of 
 boiler-plate, 486. 
 
688 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Technical terms applied to different 
 
 parts of steam-engines, 160. 
 terms applied to firing, 462. 
 terms applied to fluids and vapors, 502. 
 terms employed in relation to boilers, 
 
 462. 
 
 terms used in connection with employ- 
 ment of indicator, 263. 
 Temperature of feed-water, 417. 
 
 saturated vapor in atmosphere, table 
 
 showing, 525. 
 of steam, 63. 
 Tenacity or tensile strength of different 
 
 metals, table showing, 614. 
 Tensile strength of different kinds of 
 wood, table showing, 618. 
 stren^h of various qualities of Amer- 
 ican cast-iron, 628. 
 strength of various qualities of Ameri- 
 can wrought-iron, 629. 
 Terminal pressure, 266. 
 Terms formerly applied to different parts 
 of steam-engines, but which have 
 become obsolete, 161. 
 Theoretical clearance when the scale is 
 known, formula for finding, 316. 
 diagram, 279. 
 economy, 286. 
 
 rate of water consumption, how to cal- 
 culate, 288. 
 Theoretic curve, application ot, 280. 
 Tliermal unit, the, 507. 
 Thermometer, the Hotwell, 366. 
 
 the Uptake, 366. 
 Thermometers, 365. 
 
 rules for comparing degrees of temper- 
 ature indicated by different, 366. 
 Throttle-valves, 228. 
 Throttling and automatic cut-off engines, 
 130. 
 
 engines, 131. 
 Throw of the eccentric, 183. 
 Thrust-block, 395. . 
 Tighteners, 642. 
 Time, apparent, 381. 
 
 astronomical, 381. 
 
 at different places at noon, New York, 
 
 table showing, 385. 
 civil, 381. 
 equation of, 382. 
 mean, 381. 
 
 or duration, unit of, 564, 
 sidereal, 381. 
 
 To calculate the indicated horse-power, 
 285. 
 
 To compromise between unequal lead and 
 
 cut-off, 210. 
 To equalize the cut-off, 208. 
 
 the exhaust, 210. 
 To find diameter of engine shaft-pulley, 201. 
 diameter of governor shaft-pulley, 201. 
 mean effective pressure of a diagram 
 
 from its area, 324. 
 mean speed of a steam- vessel, 400. 
 Tools, 609. 
 
 To reduce longitude into time, 379. 
 the feed, 428. 
 
 the time the counter has been working 
 into minutes, 368. 
 Torsion, 609. 
 
 To space the ordinates, 285. 
 
 start the injector, 423. 
 Total heat of combustion of various fuels, 
 
 table showing, 512. 
 Train signal, 392. 
 Trigonometry and geometry, 46. 
 Trips, 229. 
 Trophies, 381. 
 True altitude, 376. 
 
 course, 376. 
 Trunk, 161. 
 
 air-pump, 356. 
 Trunnions, 161. 
 Tube-sheets, 478. 
 Tubular-boilers, rule for, 45. 
 
 Uncertainty of tests made for the pur- 
 pose of comparing the relative econ- 
 omy of marine engines, 116. 
 
 Uncondensed steam arising from water 
 in condenser resists ascent or descent 
 of piston, table showing force with 
 which, 341. 
 
 Undulating, 268. 
 
 Unequal lead and cut-off, to compromise 
 
 between, 210. 
 Unit of capacity, 563. 
 
 of heat, 562. 
 
 of length, 562. 
 
 of pressure, 564. 
 
 of surface, 563. 
 
 of time or duration, 564. 
 
 of velocity, 564. 
 
 of weight, 563. 
 
 of work, 564. 
 
 the thermal, 507. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 689 
 
 Tnits, 562. 
 
 of heat required to convert 1 pound 
 
 of water, at temperature of 32°, into 
 
 steam at different pressures, 475. 
 of length recognized in England since 
 
 the sixteenth century, table showing, 
 
 565. 
 
 Upright tubular-boiler, Martin's, 446. 
 Uptake thermometer, the, 366. 
 U. S, revenue service, qualifications of 
 candidates for the, 57. 
 
 Vacuum, 348. 
 gauges, 369. 
 
 in inches of mercury and pounds 
 pressure per square inch, table show- 
 ing, 349. 
 
 Value, comparative, of different kinds of 
 wood for fuel, 505. 
 
 of wood as fuel compared with coal, 504. 
 Valve circle, 218, 
 
 face, 218. 
 , lap on the, 217. 
 ^ lead on the, 217. 
 
 rods, 182. 
 
 seat, 218. 
 
 snifting, 341. 
 
 stroke, 218. 
 Valve.gear and valves, 226. 
 
 automatic cut-off, 217. 
 
 expansion, 227 
 
 releasing, 226. 
 
 reversing, 227. 
 
 whole-stroke, 227. 
 Valve-rod and piston-rod packing, and 
 
 how to use it, 237. 
 Valves ana cocks connected with engines 
 and boilers, 229. 
 
 and valve-gear, 226. 
 
 balance, 228. 
 
 double-beat, 228. 
 
 gridiron, 228. 
 
 of steam-engines, how to set, 224. 
 
 relief, 228. 
 
 rotary, 228. 
 
 safety, 465. 
 
 semi-rotary, 228, 
 
 throttle, 228. 
 Vapor, diffusion of, 502, 
 Vaporization, 502. 
 Vapors, 525. 
 
 Variation of the compass, 377. 
 Velocity, 610. 
 
 58* 
 
 Velocity, unit of, 564. 
 Vertical air-pump, 354. 
 
 engines, how to balance reciprocating 
 
 and revolving parts of, 202. 
 Visible horizon, 378. 
 Volume of steam, 64. 
 Vulgar and decimal fractions of an inch 
 
 table of, 561. 
 
 Walschaert link-motion, 191. 
 Wardvrell's high-pressure valveless en- 
 gine, 240. 
 Waste, 478. 
 
 in the high-pressure engine, 103. 
 in the low-pressure or condensing en- 
 gine, 104. 
 Water, 514. 
 
 consumption, how to calculate theo- 
 retical rate of, 288. 
 space, 462. 
 
 Water-falls, highest, in the world, 500. 
 Watertown automatic cut-off engine, 214. 
 Wedge, 611. 
 Weight, 610. 
 
 and bulk of different substances in 
 cubic feet, pounds, and tons, table 
 showing, 620. 
 of atmosphere per sq. in. correspond- 
 ing with different heights of barome- 
 ter, 365. 
 
 boiler-plates 1 foot square and from 
 one-sixteenth of an inch thick, table 
 snowing the, 626. 
 of castings by weight of patterns, table 
 
 showing, 620. 
 of cast-iron balls from 3 to 13 inches in 
 
 diameter, table showing, 624. 
 of cast-iron pipes, 1 foot in length, etc., 
 
 table showing the, 627. 
 of cast-iron plates per superficial foot 
 as per thickness, table showing, 624. 
 of different metals per cubic foot, table 
 
 showing, 621. 
 of round Iron from one-half of an inch 
 to 6 inches in diameter, 1 foot long, 
 table showing, 625. 
 of square bar-iron, from one-half of an 
 inch to 6 inches square, etc., table 
 showing the, 626. 
 • of water at different temperatures, 
 table showing, 520. 
 unit of, 563. 
 Weights and measures, 610. 
 
690 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Wells two-piston balance-engine. 232. 
 Wetherill Corliss engine, the, 583. 
 What iiidieator diagrams show, and how 
 
 they show it, 321. 
 Wheel and axle, 611. 
 
 rolling circle of, 398. 
 Wheelock automatic cut-off engine, 214. 
 Wheels, fly, 192. . 
 Whistle-signals, marine, 389. 
 White metal, 615, 
 Whole-stroke valve-gear, 227. 
 Wind storms, horse-power of, 499. 
 Wire-drawing, 268. 
 
 William Sellers & Co.'s injector, 408. 
 Wood as fuel, value, compared with, 504. 
 Woodruff & Beach automatic cut-off 
 
 high-pressure engine, 124. 
 Work, 611. 
 
 unit of, 564. 
 Wrecking-pump, marine, 359. 
 Wright's automatic cut-off engine, 38. 
 Wrist-plate, 229. 
 
 Wrought-iron, linear expansion of, 62i 
 
 Zenith distance, 382. 
 Zero, 268. 
 
 THE 
 
 ENJDo 
 
I