THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS GRICULTURE NON CIRCULATING i’ - CHECK FOR' UNBOUND circulating coax Bulletin 102. August, 1905 The Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Colorado Agricultural College, Feeding Steers On Sugar Beet Pulp, Alfalfa Hay and Ground Corn. BY W. L. CARLYLE AND C. J. GRIFFITH. PUBLISHED BY THE EXPERIMENT STATION Fort Collins, Colorado. 1 905 . THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, FORT COLLINS, COLORADO. The State Board of agriculture. Hon. P. F. SHARP, President ,. Hon. HARLAN THOMAS, Hon. JAMES L. CHATFIELD, Hon. B. U. DYE,. Hon. B. F. ROCKAFELLOW Hon. EUGENE H. GRUBB, Hon. A. A. EDWARDS, ----- Hon. R. C. CORWIN, - - Governor JESSE L. McDONALD, / President BARTON O. AYLESWOKTH, \ ) ex '°lJ lC10 TERM Denver EXPIRES - 1907 Denver, - - 1907 Gypsum, - - 1909 Rockyford, 1909 Canon City 1911 Carbondale, - 1911 Fort Collins, 1913 Pueblo 1913 Executive Committee in Charge P, F: SHARP, Chairman. B. F. ROCKAFELLOW. A. A. EDWARDS. Station staff. L. G. CARPENTER, M. S., Director - - - Irrigation Engineer C. P. GILLETTE, M. S.,.Entomologist W. P. HEADDEN, A. M., Ph. D., .Chemist W. PADDOCK, M. S.,.Horticulturist W. L. CARLYLE, M. S.,.Agriculturist G. H. GLOVER, B. S., D. V. M., .Veterinarian C. J. GRIFFITH, B. S. A.,.• Animal Husbandman W. H. OLIN, M. S., . Agronomist R. E. TRIMBLE, B. S., - - - Assistant Irrigation Engineer F. C. ALFORD, B. S., ------ - Assistant Chemist EARL DOUGLASS, B. S., .Assistant Chemist A. H. DANIELSON, B. S.,.Assistant Agriculturist S. ARTHUR JOHNSON, M. S., - - - - Assistant Entomologist B. O. LONGYEAR, M. S., - - - - Assistant Horticulturist P. K. BLINN, B. S., - - Field Agent, Arkansas Valley, Rockyford OFFICERS. President BARTON O. AYLESWORTH, A. M., LL. D. L. G. CARPENTER, M. S.,. Director A. M. HAWLEY,. Secretary MARGARET MURRAY, - - - Stenographer and Clerk university of iitiNCia agriculture library 6 > 3 o.l C 11 b VL(? , I 6 ~ ? 6 THE VALUE OF SUGAR BEET PULP, ALFALFA HAY AND GROUND CORN IN FATTENING STEERS.* By W. L Carlyle and C J. Griffith. In bulletin number 97 of this Station is given the results of an experiment which was undertaken for the purpose of determi¬ ning if sugar beet pulp is a suitable foo^ when fed with alfalfa hay and farm grains for beef production. The results obtained were not considered final, though of importance as indicating that sugar beet pulp when fed in combination with alfalfa hay and farm grains will produce an excellent quality of beef at a very low cost. The object of the experiment here reported was to determine more fully the comparative value of alfalfa hay, sugar beet pulp and corn, when fed singly and in various combinations to ordinary range steers. Plan of Experiment. In planning the experiment we had the hearty co-operation of the Fort Collins-Colorado Sugar Company, through its manager, Mr. R. M. Booraem, to whom the station is greatly indebted for many courtesies, as well as the stock, feed, corrals, labor, and all necessary conveniences for conducting the experiment. The forty-eight steers selected for the experiment were taken from a lot that had been fed on alfalfa hay and beet pulp for some weeks, and, previous to that time, had been ranging on the beet fields and feeding upon beet tops. They were of mixed breeding, *Other bulletins relating to the feeding of Sugar Beets and Sugar Beet Pulp have bee i published by the Experiment Station, and may be had on request of the Director. 73. —Hart 1.—Feeding Value of Beet Pulp. Part 2—Feeding Beet Pulp and Sugar Beets to Cows. By Buffum and Griffith, 1902. 74. —Swine Feeding. By Buff iin and Griffith, 1902, 75. Lamb Feeding Experiment. By Buffum and Griffith, 1902. 77.—Feeding Beet Pulp to Lambs. H. H. Griffin, 1902. 9?.—Feeding Steers on Sugar Beet Pulp. Carlyle, Griffith and Meyer, 1905. STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. 4 Shorthorn and Hereford blood predominating, and were below the average in quality. They were two years of age with one or two in each lot probably three years past. When the experiment was started on December 30, these steers averaged in weight between 950 and 960 pounds. They were divided as evenly as possible into four lots of twelve each, care being taken to have an equal number of promising and unpromising feeders in each lot. . They were con¬ fined in four small corrals in close proximity to the Fort Collins sugar factory, water being provided in a large trough, a portion of which projected into each corral. The fences, feed racks and feed boxes provided for the pulp and grain were such as are used for this purpose by all feeders in Northern Colorado. The different rations to be fed were as follows: Lot I.—Alfalfa hay, beet pulp and ground corn. Lot II.—Alfalfa hay and ground corn. Lot III.—Alfalfa hay and beet pulp. Lot IV.—Alfalfa hay. The alfalfa hay was fed ad. libitum to the steers in each of the lots and was weighed in bulk as it was hauled to the corrals and placed in a small enclosure where it could be readily forked close to the feed rack, from which place, on the ground, it was eaten. This system of weighing the feed in large quantities accounts for the wide variation in amounts charged to the steers in the various week-periods of the experiment. The hay was much below the average of the best Northern Colorado alfalfa hay, as it was very coarse as a rule and had been much spoiled in curing. The pulp fed to Dots 1 and III was also fed ad. libitum and was placed fresh in the feed boxes or u bunks” twice each day. The corn was of good quality, and was rather coarsely ground in a local mill, being fed in limited quantities once each day just after noon. The amount of corn meal fed was very small at the beginning, but was gradually increased. Two pounds per head was given the first week, three pounds the second week, and four pounds during the third and fourth weeks. Five pounds was given during the fifth and sixth weeks, and eight pounds during the seventh and eighth weeks, after which the amount was increased gradually until the last two weeks of the experiment, when each steer on the average in the two lots received eleven pounds daily. The amount of corn meal for each week’s feeding was weighed out in advance, and approximately the same amount was fed each day, care being taken to see that all was fed out during the week, and as evenly apportioned as possible daily by measure. The steers in each lot were weighed on Saturday of each week, the weights being recorded as they were taken. FEEDING STEERS ON BEET PUEP, AEFAEEA PAY AND CORN 5 Total Feed, Weight and Gain, With Average Weight and Gain of Each Steer, Table 1.—Lot I. Fed Beet Pulp, Hay and Ground Corn. Date. Pulp. Hay. Corn. Total Weight. Total Gain. Average Weight. Av. Weekly Gain. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. Dec. 30. 11415 951 Jan. 7. 9830 6315 216 12210 795 1018 66 “ 14. 6980 2580 252 12405 195 1034 16 “ 21. 8895 785 336 12260 —145 1022 -12 “ 28 ... . 10170 830 336 12365 105 1030 6 Feb. 4. 8830 1290 420 12840 475 1070 40 “ 11. 5220 i 2905 420 * 18 . 8617 1000 588 13120 280 1093 23 " 25. 7819 2475 588 13075 — 45 1090 — 3 Mar. 4.. 6135 672 13425 350 1119 29 “ 11. 7447 672 13800 375 1150 31 18. 9331 1555 750 14110 310 1176 26 •“ 25. 8815 2360 840 14220 110 1185 9 Apr. 1. 6113 1900 924 11645 425 1220 35 8. 7285 924 14578 — 67 1215 — 5 Total. 112117 23995 7944 14578 3163' 19 * *not weighed, Table II.-—Lot II. Fed Hay and Ground Corn. Dec. 30 Jan. 7 66 14 66 21. 66 ’ 28. Feb. 4 if 11. (1 18. 66* 25 M|ir. 4. 11. 66 18. (f6 25. A H r - 1. 8. Total Date. *not weighed. Hay. Corn. Total Weight. Total Gain. Average Weight. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 11615 968 6530 216 1214u 525 1012 2870 252 12365 225 1030 2725 336 12420 65 1035 1920 386 12295 —125 1025 8050 420 12760 455 1063 4120 420 * 2430 588 12976 215 1081 2105 588 12750 —225 1093 1005 672 12995 245 1083 1005 672 13285 290 1107' 1550 856 13520 235 1127 3290 840 13535 15 H'28 2980 924 13725 M0 1144 1940 924 13725 .. 0 U44 37520 7944 13726 2110 ’ Av. Weekly Gain. lbs. 44 18- ; 5 ' ) i -10 38 -18- ' -18 2 &> 24- 2 $ i 46 6 STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. Table 111.—Lot III. Fed Beet Pulp and Hay. Date. Pulp. Hay. Total Weight. Total Gain. Average Weight. Av. Weekly Gain. Dec. 30. lbs. lbs. lbs. 11290 lbs. lbs. 941 lbs. Jan. 7... 11630 5375 11850 560 988 47 “ 14. 7700 2580 12110 260 1009 21 “ 21. 9055 785 11990 —120 999 —10 “ 28. 11065 830 12050 60 1004 5 Feb. 4.... “ 11. 9550 5220 1290 2905 12260 * 210 1022 18 “ 18. 8617 1060 12460 200 1036 16 “ 25 . 7849 865 12625 165 1052 14 Mar. 4. 7165 1650 12735 110 1061 9 “ 11. 7447 1055 13035 300 1086 25 “ 18 . 9331 945 13310 275 1109 23 “ 25. 8730 3610 13265 — 45 1105 — 4 Apr. 1. “ 8. 6113 1500 1859Q 325 1132 27 7285 1880 13500 - 90 1125 — 7 Total .. 11677 26270 13500 2210 13.1 *not weighed. Table IV.-Lot IV. Fed Hay. Date. Hay. Total Weight. Total Gain. Average Weight. Av. Weekly Gain. Dec. 30. lbs. lbs. 11620 lbs. lbs. 962 lbs. Jan. 7. 8970 12515 695 1026 58 “ 14. 3380 12480 165 1040 14 “ 21.:. 2465 12375 -105 1031 - 9 28. . 3340 12480 105 1040 9 Feb. 4. “ 11. ■2820 3940 12515 * 35 1043 3 “ 18. 1480 12655 140 1055 12 " 25. 2780 12665 230 1074 19 Mar. 4. 2540 12795 — 90 1066 — 8 “ 11. 2260 13245 450 1104 38 “ 18. 3165 13155 - 90 1096 — 8 “ 25. 4250 13340 185 1112 16 Apr. 1. * 8. 5165 13295 — 45 1108 — 4 3420 13380 95 1115 8 Total. 49795 13380 1760 10.5 *not weighed. In tables I to IV is given the data in tabulated form of the amounts of feed eaten by the steers in each of the lots; also the gains made each week by each lot. As was the case in similar data given in bulletin No. 97, relating to the feeding of steers, there were a number of weekly weighings when the steers in each lot showed a loss as compared with the weights given the week pre¬ vious. In this experiment, however, there was apparently no spe¬ cific cause for the variation in the thrift of the animals. I11 the preceding experiment the steers in the different lots appeared to gain or lose weight in unison, but in this case there was more varia¬ tion in the different lots from week to week, it being more apparent in Lot IV, in which the steers were fed only hay. The great varia¬ tion in rate of gain in this lot might be accounted for by the more variable appetite of the animals when fed on a single kind of feed, while the steers in the other lots that were receiving a mixed ration feeding steers on beet pulp, alfalfa hay and corn. 7 would be more likely to have a greater relish for their food at all times. It will be observed that the steers in Lot I that received a mixed ration composed of pulp, alfalfa hay and ground corn made an average weekly gain of 19 lbs. during the experiment, or an aver¬ age daily gain for each steer of 2.7 lbs. The steers in Lot II re¬ ceiving alfalfa hay and ground corn, the amount of the latter feed being exactly the same as was received by the steers in Lot I, made a gain of but 12.6 lbs. per week, or an average daily gain of but 1.8 lbs., a difference of .9 of a pound in the average daily gain of each steer. The steers in Lot III, receiving pulp and alfalfa hay, made an average weekly gain of 13.1 lbs., or an average daily gain of 1.9 lbs., and received no grain of any kind during the experiment. The steers in Lot IV that received nothing but alfalfa during the entire experiment made an average weekly gain of 10.5 lbs. or an average daily gain on each steer of 1.5 lbs. For this experiment, the prices charged for feed were such as the average feeder paid in the vicinitv of Fort Collins, viz., alfalfa hay, $5.00 per ton; corn, 85 cents per cwt., and beet pulp at 50 cents per ton. The pulp was received from the sugar factory at a cost of 35 cents per ton. As there is much more labor entailed in feeding steers on pulp than where alfalfa hay and ground corn only are fed, we charged the pulp up to the steers at 50 cents per ton, allowing 15 cents per ton above market price for the difference in cost of labor in feeding pulp over the cost of labor in feeding hay and corn. Table V.—Average Amount Feed Required lor One Pound of Gain, and Cost of the Same Food'Fed. Cost. Alfalfa. Pulp. Corn Meal. lbs. lbs. lbs. cts. Lot 1 . 7.59 35.45 2.51 4.22 Lot 2. 17.78 3.78 7.63 Lot 3. 11.89 52.83 4.28 Lot 4. 28.29 7.04 In table V is given the data showing the amounts of the va¬ rious kinds of feed required to produce a pound of live weight gain on a rather rough bunch of steers rising three years old. From this table it will be seen that in case of Lot IV it required 28.29 lbs. of alfalfa hay, below the average in quality, to produce one pound of gain. With an average lot of good feeding steers, and alfalfa hay of good feeding quality, the indications are that one pound of gain would be produced for each 25 lbs. of alfalfa hay on the average. When beet pulp ad. libitum was added to the ration of alfalfa hay in the case of Lot III, the amount of the latter required for a 8 STA'i'B AGRICULTURAL C6tU3Glb pound of gain was reduced to ii;§9 pounds, th<* steers requiring* 32.83 pounds of beet pulp to replace 16.4 pounds of hay in produc¬ ing a pound of gain. In other words 3.22 pounds of beet pulp wheii fed to steers in combination with alfalfa hay are equivalent to one pound of hay in feeding value, when the hay is fed as the entire ration. With alfalfa hay selling at $5 per ton, beet pulp is therefore worth 1.59 cents per ton to combine with alfalfa in the production of beef. By adding ground corn to the ration of alfalfa hay in the case of Lot II, it will be seen that 3.76 lbs. of ground Corn when added to the ration of alfalfa hay resulted in deducing the amount of hay tequired for one pound of gain from 28.29 lbs. to 17.78 lbs., the steers in this lot requiring 3.76 lbs. of ground corn to replace 10.5! lbs* of hay in producing a pound of gain. In this case 3.76 lbs. of Corn was equivalent to 10.51 lbs. of hay-, of one pound of corn was equal in feeding to 2.8 lbs. of hay when fed ill conjunction with a ration of alfalfa hay in fattening steers. With alfalfa hay selling at $5 per ton, ground corn, according to the results of this trial, should be worth at least $17.85 per ton, which indicates that corn at 85 cents per hundred could be fed with practically equal profit with alfalfa hay at $5 per ton. In Lot I, where both ground corn and beet pulp was added to the hay ration, it will be seen that the amount of hay required for a pound of gain was reduced to 7.59 lbs., this reduction being ac¬ complished by the use of 35.45 lbs. of pulp and 2.51 lbs. of ground corn. We have seen from the comparison of nutrient values in pulp and hay, in the case of Lots III and IV, that one pound of hay was equivalent to 3.22 lbs. of pulp, and from the data in the case of Lots II and III, that one pound of corn was equivalent to 2.8 lbs. of alfalfa hay, consequently by reducing the amounts of pulp and corn, fed in conjunction with hay to the steers in Lot I, to their equiva¬ lent in hay, we should find, other things being equal, that this, gether with the hay fed to Lot 1, should equal the amount uf fety required by the steers in Lot IV for the production of a pound of gain. It has been shown that 3.22 pounds of pulp equaled one pound hay; therefore 35.45 pounds of pulp is equal to o pounds, of bay-.. We have also seen that one pound of corn is equal to 2.8 pounds oft hay, therefore 2.51 pounds of corn is equal to 7.03 pounds of hay: The steers in Lot I therefore had the equivalent of n pounds of; hay in the pulp fed them, and the equivalent of 7.03 pounds of hay- in the corn fed, which, together with the amount of hay actually fed, amounting to 7.59 pounds, makes a total of 25.62 pounds of hay required for one pound of live weight gain. Since the steers in Lot I required 28:29 pounds of hay for one pound of gain, we therefore have a balance of 2.67 pounds of hay or 9.43 per cent, as the amount saved by feeding steers a combination of feeds rather than one kind singly. .FEEDING STEERS ON BEET PULP, ALFALFA HAY AND CORN. Q Table VI.—Showing the Average Weights and Gains. Also the Average Amount of Feed Eaten and the Average Cost per Head for 100 Days. Average Weight at Be¬ ginning. Average Weight at End. Avei*age Gain Made. Food Fed Per Head. Cost of Feed Per Head. Alfalfa. Pulp. Corn Meal. Lot 1. 951 1215 263 1999 9343 662 $12.95 Lot 2^... . . 968 1114 176 3137 662 18.43 Lot 3. 941 1125 184 2189 9729 7.90 Lot 4. 968 1115 147 4149 10.32 Table VII—Selling Price of Each Lot and Average Weight and Price of Each Steer at Denver, Lo t 1— Lot 2.... Lot 3,... Lot 4 — 12 head, 13,890 lbs. at $5.15 9 head, 10,080 lbs. at $5.15 3 head, 2,980 lbs. at $4.75 12 head, 12,600 lbs. at $5.00 9 head, 9,820 lbs at $4.80 3 head, 2,930 lbs. at $4.50 Average Weight Average Price. per cwt.... $713.29 1157 $59.44 \ $5.06. 660.83 1087 55.06 630.00 1049 51.66 | $4.72. 603.07 1062 50.25 In Table VI may be seen the average weight of each steer in the different lots at the beginning and close of the experiment, and the average amounts of the various kinds of feed eaten per head and the cost of the same. This table should prove of value to the prospective feeder, since from it by bearing in mind that the figures represent an average of 12 steers in each case, and that the time covered was just ioo days, it should be an easy matter to get a very close estimate of the amount of feed required for a lot of steers for any stated period; also the approximate amount of feed that will be required. In Table VII is given the data gathered from the marketing of the steers. They were shipped to Denver and sold on the open market to the highest bidder. It is only fair to state here that none of the buyers in the yards knew anything of the kinds of feed given the different lots. It will be seen that Lots I and II sold for the same price with the exception that three steers from Lot II were cut back and were valued at 35 cents per hundred less than the rest of the lot. All of the steers in Lot III sold for the same price, while of those in Lot IV, three were cut 30 cents per hun¬ dred. It has been a noteworthy fact through the entire experiment that the steers in the pulp fed lots were more uniformly thrifty than those that had no pulp. IO STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. FINANCIAL STATEMENT. Table VIII.—Lot I. 11,415 lbs. at 3c.$342.45 23,995 lbs. Alfalfa at $5.00 per ton. 59.98 112,117 lbs. Pulp at 50c per ton. 28.02 7,944 lbs. Corn at 85c per cwt. 67.72 Labor. 39.00 Freight. 14.44 Yardage. 3.00 Feed at Stock Yards. 8.40 Total cost.$563.01 Sold for. 715.33 Profit.$152.32 Profit per head. 12.69 Table IX.—Lot II. 11,680 lbs. at 3c.$348.60 37,520 lbs. Alfalfa at $5 per ton. 93.80 7,944 lbs. Corn at 85c. 67.72 Labor. 39.00 Freight. 14.44 Yardage. 3.00 Feed at Stock Yards. 8.40 Total cost Sold for.. $574.96 660.67 Profit.$85.71 Profit per head. 7.14 Table X.-Lot III. 11,290 lbs. at 3c.$338.70 26,270 lbs. Alfalfa at $5 a ton. 65.67 116,757 lbs. Pulp at 50c a ton. 29.18 Labor. 39.00 Freight. 14.44 Yardage. 3.00 Feed at Stock Yards. 8.40 Total cost.$498.39 Sold for. 630.00 Profit. 131.61 Profit per head. 10.97 Table XI.-Lot IV. 11,620 lbs. at 3c.$348.60 49,795 lbs. Alfalfa at $5.00 a ton. 124.48 Labor. 39.00 Freight. 14.40 Yardage. 3.00 Feed at Stock Yards. 8.40 Total cost. $537.88 Sold for. 603.07 Profit. Profit per head $ 65.19 5.43 STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. II Tables 8 to 11 inclusive give a very complete financial state¬ ment for each lot of steers. While it is not the primary object of these experiments to make them financially successful, yet it is gratifying to learn that in all cases and with all kinds of feed ra¬ tions, there is a fair margin of profit which is certainly encouraging to the general feeder in Colorado. SUMMARY. Table XII.—Giving Data for an Average Steer in Each Lot Lot 1. Lot 2. Lot 3. Lot 1. Weight at beginning of experiment (lbs.). 951 968 941 968 Value at 3 cents per pound. $28.53 $29.04 $28.23 $29.04 Cost entire p.eriod, 100 days. $12.95 $13.44 $ 7.90 $10.39 Cost of feed for 100 lbs. gain. ... $ 4.60 $ 7.63 $ 4.29 $ 7.04 Cost of labor in feeding. $ 3.25 $ 3.25 $ 3.25 $ 8.25 Weight finished steer at feed lots, (lbsj. 1214 1144 1125 1115 Sale weight of steer at Denver (lbs.). 1157 1088 1050 1062 Shrinkage ip shipping Obs.). 57 56 75 53 Selling price per hundred pounds. $ 5.15 $ 5.06 $ 5.00 $ 4.73 Value at selling price —'. $59.58 $55.05 $52.25 1 $50.25 Cost of marketing. $ 2.15 $ 2.15 $ 2.15 $ 2.15 Net profits. $12.70 $ 7.16 $10.97 $ 5.44 In Table XII is given a complete summary showing the aver¬ age of each steer in the various lots. In thn table is given very complete data covering the various points of comparison in the re¬ sults obtained with the average steer in each lot. CONCLUSIONS. gam V r. An average “feeder” steer two years old will make a of 1.5 lbs. per day on alfalfa hay alone, and will require approxi mately 28 lbs. of hay to make one pouud of gain. 2. The addition of ground corn to the ration of alfalfa hay will increase the daily gain, increase the market price of the steer by finishing him better in a given time, and will add to the profits if the corn can be procured below 90 cents per hundred pounds. ^ 3. A pound of ground corn is equal in feeding value to 2.8 tbs. of alfalfa hay and to 9 pounds of sugar beet pulp for feeding two-year-old fattening steers. 4. Sugar beet pulp at present prices is a cheaper and better feda than ground corn when fed with alfalfa hay for fattening ma¬ ture steers. 5. That 3.22 of beet pulp is equivalent in feeding value to one pound of alfalfa hay, when fed in conjunction with the hay, giving two-year-old steers all they will eat of both feeds. 6. With alfalfa hay at $5 a ton, it will pay to feed a light ra- 12 FEEDING STEERS ON BEET PULP, AEFAEFA HAY AND CORN. tion of ground corn with the hay, provided the corn can be pur¬ chased at from 85 to 90 cents per hundred weight. 7. With poor alfalfa hay at $5 per ton, sugar beet pulp is worth $1.50 per ton to combine with the hay for fattening mature steers. 8. Fattening steers will gain approximately a pound a day more on a ration composed of alfalfa hay, ground corn and beet pulp than they will on a ration made up of alfalfa hay and ground corn or on a ration composed of alfalfa hay and sugar beet pulp, and they will gain almost one and a half pounds more eaeh day on the above ration than when fed alfalfa hay alone. Bulletin 103. October, 1905. The Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Colorado Agricultural College. The Thorough Tillage System for the Plains of Colorado. BY W. H. OLIN. PUBLISHED BY THE EXPERIMENT STATION FORT COLLINS, COLORADO 1 905 The Agricultural Experiment Station. FORT COLLINS, COLORADO. THE STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Hon. P. F. SHARP, President, - Hon. HARLAN THOMAS, . Hon. JAMES L. CHATEJELD, - Hon. B. U. DYE, ------- Hon. B. F. ROCKAFELLOW, - - - - Hon. EUGENE H. GRUBB, ----- Hon. A. A. EDWARDS, - - - - Hon. R. W. CORWIN, ------ Governor JESSE F. McDONALD, ) m . President BARTON O, AYLESWORTH, \ ex -°JJ lcw Denver, TERM EXPIRES 1907 Denver, - 1907 Gypsum, 19C9 Rockyford, - 1909 Canon City, 1911 Carbondale, - 1911 Fort Collins, 1913 Pueblo, - 1913 EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE IN CHARGE. P. F. SHARP, Chairman. B. F. ROCKAFELLOW. A. A, EDWARDS. STATION STAFF. L. G. CARPENTER, M. S., Director , - C. P. GILLETTE, M. S., W. P. HEADDEN, A. M., Ph. D., W. PADDOCK. M. S., - W. L. CARLYLE, MS., - G. H. GLOVER, B. S., D. V. M., R. E. TRIMBLE, B. S., F. C. ALFORD, B. S, EARL DOUGLASS, B. S , - A. H. DANIELSON, B. S., S. ARTHUR JOHNSON, M. S., - W. H. OLIN, M. S., - - - - B. O. LONGYEAR, M. S., J. A. McLEAN, A. B., B S. A., P. K. BLINN, B. S., - - Field Irrigation Engineer .Entomologist .Chemist - Horticulturist Agriculturist Veterinarian Assistant Irrigation Engineer Assistant Chemist Assistant Chemist Assistant Agriculturist Assistant Entomologist .Agronomist Assistant Horticulturist - Animal Husbandman Agent, Arkansas Valley, Rockyford OFFICERS. President BARTON O. AYLESWORTH, A. M., LL. D. L. G. CARPENTER, M. S.. .Director A. M. HAWLEY, ---------- Secretary MARGARET MURRAY, ----- Stenographer and Clerk The Thorough Tillage System for the Plains of Colorado. BY W. H. OLIN. I. THE PRINCIPLES OF SEMI-ARID FARMING. Regions having an annual rainfall of less than twenty and more than eight inches are usually considered as semi-aricl. To successfully grow crops in such regions requires a careful study of soil and climatic conditions, with a selection of crops as nearly ad¬ apted to these conditions as possible. Even when all requirements are seemingly met, a failure is sometimes the only result. Experience, and experiments already conducted in many parts of our nation’s semiarid belt, demonstrate that the preparation of a soil reservoir of good depth several months before seeding, the thorough culture of this ground before and after seeding, the selection of suitable vari¬ eties of crops, the seed of which is grown under dry farming con¬ ditions, are essentials which very largely determine success in farm¬ ing lands in Colorado where irrigation can not be practiced. The preparation of the soil reservoir and seed bed calls for careful plowing, harrowing and sub-surface packing. i. Plowing.— Jethro Tull nearly two centuries ago said “Til¬ lage is manure.” Roberts’ Fertility says that stirring and mixing the soil is the one fundamental labor of agriculture. The object of plowing should be to pulverize the soil, making it possible to pre¬ pare a good seed bed for the reception of the various farm seeds. The depth to plow must depend upon the time of plowing, the character of the soil and the crop to be grown. Shallow plowing is preferred for shallow soils underlaid by an inferior sub-soil lacking in plant food. Spring plowing for early crops should not be as deep as fall plowing for the same crops. Ex¬ periments have shown that deep plowing of stiff or clayey, adobe land in the spring turns up unworked or new soil in which most of the plant food is not available, on account of the mechanical con¬ dition of the ground. Crops on lands thus plowed often make an unfavorable growth. It is nearly always desirable to plow sandy and sandy loam soils deep, since the plant food contained in these soils is easily available and the deep plowing brings more plant food to the surface for the tender young plant to feed upon, giving it a sturdy growth at the start. 4 Bulletin 103. All deep plowing is best done in the summer or fall. This permits the weathering of the soil, through the fall and winter, making its mechanical texture more desirable and the plant food available. Deep plowing assists water to percolate or pass through to lower depths. Hence it increases the water holding capacity of the soil, a most important element in semi-arid farming. The deeper the plowing the greater the soil reservoir. Experiments con¬ ducted at the Cornell Experiment Station, New York, by Dr. Rob¬ erts show that an acre of average soil in good tilth will hold 20 to 25 per cent of moisture and not be too moist for cultivation. It is estimated that an acre of soil 12 inches deep will weigh 1,800 tons if it contains 20 per cent of moisture, 1,620 tons if it contains 8 per cent of moisture—the amount upon which plants are able to grow and maintain themselves. Dr. Roberts says that an inch of rainfall brings to each acre 113 7-16 tons of water. If this could all be retained in average soil it would mean almost 7 3-5 per cent moist¬ ure, nearly enough to maintain plant growth. Well fined soil is capable of taking up two inches of rainfall in the first foot of soil and still be in good condition to cultivate. Suppose that this soil is deeply plowed and contains 15 per cent moisture; an inch or a two- inch rain would find the soil reservoir able to hold it. If this ground were shallow plowed, say four inches, an inch rain would saturate the reservoir, while a two-inch rain would overflow the soil reservoir, causing a loss of water and severe washing away of the surface soil. Deep plowing therefore increases the storage ca¬ pacity of moisture in our soils from which the plant draws as it has need. Good plowing gives a clean-cut.furrow on side and bottom. It turns the inverted furrow slice upon edge in a moderately well pulverized condition with but few air spaces at the bottom edge of the furrow slice. A good coulter lessens draft and aids in making a clean cut furrow. Disking the ground before plowing is advant¬ ageous but increases the expense of preparing the seed bed. A seed bed from one to three inches deep can be prepared with¬ out plowing. The young plants may grow sturdily at first, but if the soil is not in a physical condition to store the moisture necessary to dissolve the plant food and render it available for the growing plant, lack of nourishment will bring it to an untimely end and the crop will prove a failure. Very successful crops are grown this way, when the moisture is supplied by ditch or sub-irrigation but it is always hazardous to attempt cropping without thorough tillage, under semi-arid conditions. A disc plow will often leave the soil in a good condition for the harrow, when the ground is too hard for a mold board plow to do satisfactory work. The drier the ground the more narrow Thorough Tieeage System tor Plains or Colorado. 5 should be the furrow, whether the plow be a mold board or a disc plow. 2. Harrowing the Ground. —Harrowing is the process of stirring the soil by some form of a toothed or circle knife imple¬ ment. Its purpose is the pulverizing of the soil, reducing it to finer tilth than the plow left it, filling the interstices left by the plow and thus leveling the soil. I believe that the spike toothed harrow is a superior implement for pulverizing after the plow. It should follow as near after the plow as possible so as to prevent loss of moisture by evaporation from the newly plowed earth and the for¬ mation of clods. Each half day’s plowing should be harrowed that same half day in which it is plowed. Ground that is harrowed first lengthwise with the plowing will retain its moisture better, since it regularly and evenly fills the in¬ terstices or openings at the bottom edge of each furrow slice. Al¬ ways first harrow lengthwise and later cross harrow if the ground is not in fine enough tilth for the seed. Ground that is inclined to be cloddy should be worked with the disc harrow instead of the spike tooth, double disking or half lapping lengthwise with the fur¬ rows. See that your disc is the proper size to do the most effec¬ tive work in pulverizing the soil. A fourteen to sixteen-inch disc generally pulverizes better than an eighteen or twenty-inch disc, and the draft is correspondingly greater. Experiments seem to indicate that the smaller diameter discs are better adapted for farming conditions on the Colorado plains than the larger diameter discs. Experiments conducted by experiment stations and by Mr. H. W. Campbell of Lincoln, Nebraska, show that disking grain ground after the harvester prevents loss of moisture on stubble ground through too rapid evaporation, and prepares the ground for the ready absorption of rain. 3. Sub-Sureace Packer. —This tool consists of a series of wedge faced wheels attached to a common axle. These wedge¬ faced disks are 18 inches in diameter and placed vertically on the shaft 6 inches apart. This machine is better than a smooth roller for a roller firms the surface soil with little or no effect upon the under or sub-surface soil. The packer firms the soil in the lower portion of the furrow slice, restoring the capillariety where plow¬ ing had arrested it. This firmed under-surface soil is enabled to draw moisture from below and give good normal root development. In case a sub-surface packer is not obtainable, a corrugated roller can be used. It firms the ground but not to the depth which the sub-surface packer does. These packers should be followed by a smoothing harrow to produce an earth mulch which shall arrest capillarity and thereby check evaporation. A spike toothed harrow with lever attachments for regulating 6 Bulletin 103. the angle of the teeth is a very satisfactory implement for this purpose. 4. Summer Curture. Fallowing Ground —leaving the land without a crop for one or more seasons—was a common practice with the ancients. Dr. Roberts in his work on “Fertility of the Land/’ says this was a necessity for them. The imperfect tools then used made but a small proportion of the plant food in the soil available and the demands of the crops grown soon outran the ob¬ tainable plant food. Then the only method for renewal was to let the soil “weather out” enough plant food, with the decayed vege¬ table matter to sustain another crop. Some centuries later the French found that “manoeuvering” the land—causing the particles of earth to change place by tillage—made it more productive. Ex¬ periments now show that summer tillage in our semi-arid lands has an added value—it conserves the moisture while it renders more plant food available. Good results have been obtained in Eastern Washington, Eastern Oregon, Utah and many sections of Colo¬ rado from summer culture of the land every other season. It has been found that in this way sufficient moisture can be stored from the year’s rainfall to mature a crop, in many localities. After the snows of winter have melted in the spring, plow the ground at least seven to eight inches deep. Level this down with the harrow and packer, following this process with a smoothing harrow, forming an earth mulch to check evaporation. This mulch should not be too fine as the winds of the plains will tend to rift the soil, or blow the earth mulch entirely away. If possible, stir the surface soil from two to four inches every ten to fifteen days throughout the summer. Allow no crust to form after summer showers, as this will increase the evaporation of the soil moisture. Keep the ground clean—free from weeds. If fall grain is to be sown it is advisable to drill in the grain, as this insures getting it below the earth mulch which is really a dry earth blanket used all summer to hold the moisture in the soil below. Get the seed into this moist under-soil where it can have the moisture so essential for germination. It is advisable to seed fall grain not later than the last week in September in the lower altitudes and not later than the first week in September in the higher altitudes; better still, the third or last week in August. Ground that has been well cultivated for several years will produce two crops in succession and can be given summer culture the third year. I11 this way it is possible to grow two crops in three years. If a farmer expects to cultivate 80 acres he should divide it into two crop divisions—cropping 40 acres the first year and giv¬ ing summer culture to the other 40 acres. This gives him a crop Thorough Tillage System eor Plains oe Colorado. 7 on one half his land each year while he is storing up moisture in the soil reservoir of the other half to make the next year’s crop. Farm¬ ers in the southern part of Larimer County, Colorado, have been able to raise quite satisfactory wheat, barley and forage crops by following this method of cropping. Mr. Geo. D. Porter living at Akron, Colorado, near the center of the plains region has used this method of cropping, for a small area, for several years. He reported last fall, when he seeded his winter wheat, a soil reservoir in which there was five feet of moist¬ ure. Last season gave us an uuusual amount of rainfall but this summer culture has been practiced in some parts of California for more than forty years with satisfactory results. The writer knows of one section of California where it seldom rains from April to September, yet here some of the finest fruit and grain is grown. This region in California has an ample supply of moisture in the rainy season—the winter months. This illustration is simply given to show the value of the earth mulch in holding the moisture which is already in the soil reservoir. Mr. S. S. Peterman has a cherry orchard near Fort Collins that has never been irrigated. He depends upon rainfall for his moisture in a region that averages scarcely fifteen inches per an¬ num. As soon in the spring as possible he cultivates his orchard and continues to stir the ground until the fruit sets. His trees bear fine flavored cherries in a satisfactory quantity, while his orchard is the cleanest one in his neighborhood. This orchard is eight years old, but has not yet weathered one of our “dry” years. Summer culture keeps the ground in good tilth, keeps down weeds, renders the plant food easily available for the next year’s crop, while it stores up the moisture so necessary to the plant in assimilating its food. II. SELECTION OF SEED FOR SEMI-ARID CONDITIONS. Climatic conditions are believed to have an influence on the development of certain temperaments and characteristics in the breeding of live stock, although the hereditary power of a well-bred horse, cow or sheep to transmit its qualities to its descendents is the major influence and measures the value of a pedigree. While plants, like live stock, certainly have strong hereditary power, yet it seems true that climate, soil and cultural methods, have an influence on the manner of growth of very many crops grown in our fields. M. de Candolle, an eminent plant scientist, has succeeded in finding the wild forms of one hundred and ninety-three of the two hundred and seventy species of cultivated plants. Of the remaining seventy-seven, twenty-seven he names as possibly half 8 Bulletin 103. wild and the rest he has so far failed to discover in the wild state. Darwin in his investigation of domesticated plants came to the conclusion that in cases similar to this the cultivated plant either was so changed in its growing habit by its new environment that its wild prototype could not be recognized or that its original parent ceased to exist. Prof. A. M. Ten Eyck of Kansas in an address on “Plant Adaptation” before the Corn Breeders’ Association of that state last March stated: “Prom a single, comparatively valueless, primitive wild form have originated in the course of time thousands of valuable varieties of plants, all differing from the original and some to such an extent that they cannot be recognized.” Prof. W. M. Hays, in the Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 62, speaking of variations in individual wheat plants says: “Among the four hundred plants of McKendry’s Fife for example, plants were found which matured in ninety-seven days, others requiring one hundred twenty-seven days. Among Power’s Fife (wheat) plants, the range was from ninety-eight to one hundred seventy-two days; and among Haynes’ Blue Stem plants the range was from ninety-nine to one hundred twenty-eight days. “The ten plants which appeared to the eye as the best yielding plants out of the four hundred of each variety, w r ere harvested and notes taken as to the height of plant, number of spikes, length of spikes and yield of shelled grain. The following table shows the extremes of the variation in each case: VARIATION AMONG BEST TEN OUT OF FOUR HUNDRED WHEAT PLANTS. Name of Variety. Height of Stalks. Length. No. of Yield in inches. of Spikes. Spikes. grams, inches. Haynes’ Blue Stem. 31 to 39 4 to 4% 19 to 31 15.4 to 19.4 Powers’ Fife. 27 to 33 3 x / z to 4 18 to 33 3.4 to 13.8 McKendry’s Fife. 30 to 33 3 V 2 to 4 22 to 33 6.8 to 16.7 In breeding corn, the writer has observed that individual plants in the same breed or type of corn, vary widely in producing power, height of ears on the stalk, height of stalk, width and number of leaves and period of maturity of corn. The Iowa Seed Company state their earlist maturing type of dent corn—Farmers’ Reliance— was developed by selecting the lowest ear on individual plants, these ears usually ripening first. At the Kansas station a pure bred type of corn known as Reid’s Yellow Dent, was planted in the season of 1903—an ear to a row. These ears were carefully se¬ lected for uniformity and trueness to the breed characteristics of that type of corn. The resulting harvest from these different rows showed almost as much difference in the character of plants in dif¬ ferent rows as in different supposedly fixed types of yellow dent corn, while difference in yield between highest anl lowest was nearly four hundred per cent. The very best ears from the best yielding and most desirable mother ears were selected for the mother ears Thorough Tillage System eor Plains oe Colorado. 9 of 1904 and seeded a row to an ear. Marked differences in growing- habit were noted, but differences in yield from lowest to highest was but a trifle more than eighty per cent—one fifth what it was the preceding year. “Selection is the process by which new varieties are fixed. Artificial crossing may be used to induce variation, with a view to promote the de¬ velopment of new forms, but selection is always the final process by which new varieties are established and maintained. “Three principal factors largely determine the value of a variety of any cultivated crop, namely, yield, quality and adaptation—and the last named is really the deciding factor which determines whether a variety type may be successfully grown in any locality. In no two countries, perhaps in no two sections of the same country or state, are the plants subject to exactly the same conditions of soil and climate. One section may have a dif¬ ferent soil, a little more dry weather, and the plants of this section vary to adapt themselves to these conditions. If the plant is removed from its na¬ tive habitation and planted in a different part of the world or country, in a different soil, surrounded by different conditions to those to which it has been accustomed, it is placed at a disadvantage, it is exposed to a new en¬ vironment to which it is not suited. Thus we can understand why a good variety of fruit or grain does not always give as good results in all places, and we should expect a variety of plants originating from the plants of a certain region to be best adapted for growing in that region, or such plants may be adapted for growing in any region having similar conditions of soil and climate. “We find a demonstration of this principle in the fact that wheat and other grains, brought from the steppes of Russia and Turkey are well adapted for growing in the western plains region of the United States, which has a climate and soil very similar to that of the countries named. The Turkey Red wheat, for instance, has largely replaced all other varieties of winter wheat grown in the West, because of its greater hardiness and productiveness, and yet some of the varieties which it has succeeded had been grown in the West for many years and seemed to be fairly wll adapted to western climatic and soil conditions. This superior hardiness and adaptation which the Russian and Turkey varieties of grain appear to have in our western country may be largely credited to the centuries of training which these varieties have had in an environment almost identical with that of similar latitudes in the West, while the varieties which the Russan grans succeeded as a rule have been those which have been gradually moved from the Eastern and Middle states farther west, and although many of these varieties have gradually become more or less hardy and fairly well adapted for growing in our western cli¬ mate, yet, in the comparatively short period during which they have been grown under western conditions, apparently they have not become so hardy and well adapted to those conditions as the Russian and Turkey varieties.” (Prof. Ten Eyck’s Plant Adaptation.) For more than ten years Mr. Robert Gauss of Denver, has been growing a certain type of wheat, under drouth conditions with results that are in accord with statements made by Prof. Ten Eyck. Each year Mr. Gauss has made his seed selections looking toward the seeding of wheat for the plains, that has good drouth resisting qualities. This past season the writer seeded some of this wheat, in May, on the very driest seed bed which he has ever used. It was sown broadcast, and seed covered with a spike toothed harrow. The seeding was done on an experimental plat located on the C. F. & I. grounds five miles southwest of Pueblo, Colorado. This wheat IO Bulletin 103. matured when barley and oats, seeded at the same time, in the same seed bed, perished from lack of moisture. Mr. Gauss tells me he can trace this wheat as a drouth resistant wheat for at least eigh¬ teen years; while his wheat has not been tested for milling qualities, his results would indicate the value of selecting seed grown under semi-arid conditions, for semi-arid farming. Persons coming from a lower altitude with a moist climate, often are completely pros¬ trated on being transported to Leadville—Colorado’s “Cloud City,” nearly two miles above sea level. In a similar manner, but probably not to so marked a degree, altitude and climate affect our crops and we should try to secure acclimated seed or at least obtain seed from regions with similar climatic and soil conditions. Seed corn from the Mississippi river states cannot be expected to make a sturdy growth in eastern Colo¬ rado ; seed wheat from near tide water cannot be expected to make a quick, rapid growth at an altitude of 8,000 to 10,000 feet. Colorado farmers find grain of good quality grown and de¬ veloped in the region of their farms gives best results and Colorado grown seed should be so selected that it shall take precedence of all other seed on our home markets. Mr. A. H. Danielson, Asst. Agronomist, a few years ago de¬ cided to test selection for hardiness in winter wheat. For this test he selected a number of varieties. The ones which showed the best quality grain and gave the best yields he used as the basis for his work. The first year all were badly winter killed. From the plants which lived through and matured grain, he obtained seed and so continued for four years. This year all of his plots showed a perfect stand, while other plots not thus treated showed from twenty to thirty per cent winter killed. The value of good vital seed is shown in an experi¬ ment conducted by Professor R. A. Moore of the Wisconsin Experiment Station with oats. He selected from two pecks of seed oats sent to him by the U. S. Department of Agri¬ culture, 33 especiallly fine, large, plump kernels and planted them in a choice plot by themselves in 1899. From these plants he re¬ ceived sufficient seed to plant a good sized bed. The next year he began sending out seed to members of the Wisconsin Experimental Union, asking that a record of harvest and sales be kept so he could trace the progeny of his 33 oat kernels; last year (1904,) he found the harvest of the oats with a pedigree tracing back to the 33 kernels of 1899, numbered 500,000 bushels. Hardiness, quality and productiveness are to be sought for in our field crops if we would farm profitably in any region. Because of the struggle for existence in our semi-arid fields, our farm seeds should be chosen with great care and with these three essentials always in mind. Thorough Tillage System eor Trains oe Colorado, ii Rate of Seeding .—Because of the limited amount of moisture in the soil a limited amount of seed should be used in seeding all crops grown on semi-arid lands which can not be irrigated. If seeded too heavily there is not sufficient moisture in the soil to ma¬ ture all plants and the entire crop in a very dry year is liable to “fire”—ripen prematurely. It is better to under seed rather than over seed. The rate of seeding depends so much upon the size of seed, mechanical condition of the seed bed, method of seeding and moisture—conditions that it is impossible to give the exact amount of seed which should be used in seeding the various field crops. The writer this past season carried on a co-operative experiment with a farmer testing two varieties of drouth resistant wheats on sod. One was seeded nearly twice as heavy as the other one, yet the field having the lightest seeding had equally as good a stand as the field seeded the heavier, because there were nearly twice as many kernels in a bushel and each kernel made a plant. Below is a sug¬ gestive table which may prove helpful to persons who are seeding crops for the first time on semi-arid lands. The amount of seed required is usually from one half to two thirds that which is used for the irrigated lands. RATE OF SEEDING FOR NON-IRRIGATED LANDS. Name. Lbs. per Bushel. Lbs. per l GRAIN CROPS. Wheat . .60 45 to 60 Barley. .48 50 to 60 Oats. .32 40 to 60 Rye. .56 35 to 50 Emmer, or Speltz. . . . .40 45 to 60 Field Corn (in hills) . . . (shelled) ... 56 4 to 6 Field Corn (in drills or lister rows). 5 to 7 Sweet Corn (in hills) . 6 to 8 Sweet Corn (in drills) 10 to 15 Kafir Corn. .56 4 to 5 Broom Corn. .46 to 55 2 to 4 Field Peas. .60 30 to 50 Field Beans. .60 15 to 25 Proso . .60 6 to 12 Millett . .60 5 to 10 Buckwheat. .50 20 to 30 Flax. .56 20 to 30 FORAGE CROPS: Sorghum or Cane.5 0 Alfalfa.60 Meadow Fescue.24 Brome Grasses.14 Vetches. ROOT CROPS: Sugar Beets . . Mangel Wurzel Carrots. Stock Turnips 8 to 2 5 (varies with method of seeding.) 20 to 25 15 to 25 15 to 25 20 to 30 10 to 15 8 to 12 3 to 5 iy 2 to 4 (manner of seeding.) 12 BuivIylyTiN IO3. III. CROPS FOR THE SEMI-ARID LANDS. The amount of water required by growing crops is shown by experiments to vary with the soil, climatic conditions and the nature of the crop grown. Crops having a large percentage of water in their composition will necessarily require more moisture to produce a healthy, vigorous growth than crops with a low percentage of moisture in their composition. Experiments to determine the best grain, forage and root crops for drouth resistant power and productiveness are now being con¬ ducted at the experiment stations in the semi-arid states. Conclu¬ sive results have not yet been obtained but the following crops are worthy of consideration for semi-arid farming. All of these have been successfully grown in some portion of the semi-arid West, but probably none of these crops would do well in all regions of Colorado where semi-arid farming is being practiced. I. GRAIN CROPS. 1. Corn —Early maturing types of dent and flint varieties are chosen. Cool nights, high altitudes and short summers are not adapted to this cereal since corn is a semi-tropical plant. When the seed bed is well prepared and the crop thoroughly tilled, eastern Colorado farmers have been able to obtain from 10 to 25 bushels per acre with the average season. Favorable seasons a greater yield is reported in a few indi¬ vidual cases. In raising corn in Colorado it is highly important to grow an acclimated variety. Obtain seed grown as nearly as pos¬ sible under the same climatic conditions which prevail in the region where you wish to plant it. Select seed of good vital power. It is especially important in all semi-arid regions to give the crops a good start, for they usually have a hard struggle for existence, even under the thorough tillage system of farming. Hence the use of good, strong, vital seed grown under drouth resistant conditions is very important. 2. Kafir Corn. This is an important crop both for grain and forage. It is a non-saccharine sorghum. The seed is borne in a head at the top of the stalk and seems to be relished by all classes of stock. In tests conducted at the Kansas Experiment Station the feeding value of Kafir corn for fattening hogs was found to be 90 per cent of the feeding value of corn (Kans. Bulletin No. 128). This crop may appear almost dried up, favorable conditions return and it revives in a remarkably short space of time. It seems to withstand dry and windy periods to a remarkable degree, if these periods do not last too long. The Fort Hays Sub-Station in Kansas, gives the following plan of seeding for grain and for forage: Thorough Tillage System eor Plains oe Colorado. 13 “Kafir corn grown for seed does best when planted with a lister in rows from 3 to 3 Vz feet apart, and cultivated enough to about level the ridges. If seed alone is desired, a special plate should be used in the drill that will put a stalk every 4 to 6 inches apart. If the fodder is also sought, the seed should be much thicker. A common practice is to use the regular corn plate set to drop 12 to 16 inches apart. This will drop a dozen or more grains at a place. When planted in rows the corn harvester should be used for cutting the crop, and the bundles set up in good sized shocks. When the heads are dry they may be threshed with the ordinary thresher. The most satisfactory method of harvesting the heads is to take a low wagon with a tight rack and a good sized chunk laid across the back end, with two stakes set in it, about six inches apart at the bottom and one foot at the top, 18 inches from the chunk. One man with a heavy broadax stands on the wagon and chops the heads off, as two or three others pick up the bundles and lay them on the chunk. “With two wagons and five men this is a very rapid way of obtaining seed The bundles may easily be reshocked or laid in piles. The threshing of the entire stalk is not satisfactory, if the stalks are of any size. It is very hard on a machine, and the fodder does not keep so welPwhen cut up. It also dries out, which is undesirabble. The practice would be similar to cut¬ ting bread for the table a month or so beforehand. It is not palatable. “For roughage alone, the general practice is to plant with the grain drill at the rate of a half to a bushel per acre, depending upon the land. This is cut with a mowing machine, raked, and put in large cocks. A great deal of labor can be saved by using a buck-rake or “go-devil,” to bunch the windrows.” The White Kafir with a black hull or chaff is the earliest va¬ riety and so far seems to be the hardiest grower and best yielding variety. 3. Wheat. (A) Spring Wheat. —The best spring wheat variety for semi-arid conditions seems to be a durum wheat known as Kubanka durum—U. S. Cerealist, M. A. Carleton, introduced some 15 variety types of durum from a part of Russia with soil and climatic conditions quite similar to eastern Colorado. The type which seems best adapted to Colorado conditions is the Kubanka durum. This is a spring wheat in our latitude and should be seeded as early in the spring as ground and weather conditions will permit. The durum wheat, having been grown for many generations in a semi-arid climate in Russia, withstands drouth conditions better than our common spring wheats. It must be remembered, however, that no wheat can be matured without some moisture. Kubanka durum has good drouth resistant power, but one must not expect this wheat to mature a satisfactory crop without several inches of rainfall during the growing season. While durum wheat has been tested this past season in thirty counties in Colorado, experiments have not been conducted long enough to tell us the minimum amount of moisture required to produce a crop under our differing conditions of soil and climate. This wheat has the heaviest and coarsest beards found on any wheat. The kernel is very hard and most millers feel that this wheat requires special machinery for milling. For this reason but few local millers in the state are buying durum wheat. Mr. H Bulletin 103. B. F. Hottel of the Lindell Mills, Fort Collins, Colorado, ground 1,500 bushels of Kubanka durum last fall. He put up five pound sample sacks of this flour and the Agronomy Department assisted in placing these sacks in more than fifty families to be tested in both light bread and biscuits. The reports sent in from this test showed that light bread or biscuits made from Mr. Hottel’s durum flour compared very favorably with the patent flour in common use, in texture, elasticity (lightness), flavor and moisture. While the bread was possibly a shade darker it was not considered a seri¬ ous objection. Comparative tests made later, by the Domestic Science Department, Mrs. A. M. Hawley and Mrs. Winnie E. Olin, confirmed the previous tests, showing the Hottel durum flour made a very satisfactory bread. This wheat is also used in making semolina, a milled product from which our very best French and Italian macaroni is made. A milling firm in Cincinnati, Ohio, is now making from 8,000 to 9,000 pounds of macaroni per day from western grown durum wheat. This wheat when first introduced, was known as macaroni wheat and it was believed that it could not be used for anything else. The milling and baking tests conducted in North and South Dakota, Minnesota and Colorado, demonstrate that durum or macaroni wheat gives a desirable flour for bread or pastry. Prof. J. H. Shepard, Chemist of the South Dakota Station, has found that the importation of wheat known as Kubanka No. 5639, gives the best quality flour of all durum wheats. This wheat should not be sown on the irrigated lands, as the use of too much water produces starchy kernels, causing the wheat to deteriorate in quality. It should not take the place of any bread wheat now being successfully grown in any region. It is recom¬ mended as a spring wheat on lands where other spring wheat does not yield a satisfactory crop, in a region where there is sufficient rainfall to mature a drouth resistant wheat, giving the farmer a semi-arid bread-wheat. Like all new crops, a market must be de¬ veloped for it. This wheat has only been grown in our state a few years and farmers are urged to study market conditions and determine their acreage of this new crop by the market demands for this wheat. ( B ) Winter Wheat. —The variety of wheat has given the most satisfactory yields and shown drouth resistant power is Turkey Red. This wheat has been grown quite successfully in Kansas, Nebraska and portions of Colorado for many seasons. It is the wheat which made Kansas the greatest winter wheat state in the Union and is as good for the irrigated as for the semi-arid lands. The millers of Colorado prefer this to any other wheat for flour production. It has a ready and constant market at any mill in the state. Seed for semi-arid lands should be obtained from Thorough Tiuuage System for Prains oe Colorado. 15 regions where this seed has been kept pure and grown “above ditch.” The sub-stations in Nebraska and Kansas located in the west¬ ern portions of these states can aid our eastern Colorado farmers to obtain seed and the Monticello sub-station farm in Utah will help our western Colorado farmers to obtain seed wheat, while the writer will also assist anyone desiring this wheat, to obtain as good seed as possible, grown under drouth resistant conditions. Any winter wheat which has good milling quality and shows drouth resisting power, adapted to the region where grown, can and should be developed by wise seed selection and careful culture treatment. All semi-arid wheat should be harrowed or run over with a weeder to break up the crust which may form, and thus check too rapid evaporation. Wheat can thus be advantageously cultivated until it is knee high. Often seeding rows sixteen instead of eight inches apart (stop up every other hole in the drill) is advantageous. Then one can use a beet cultivator or other small toothed cultivator and cultivate the crop, keeping the ground well stirred. Cultivating grain in the semi-arid region lessens evaporation and thereby holds more moisture for the growing crop. 4. Barley .—This grain has not been generally sown as a drouth resisting crop. Bald barleys can be grown in the higher altitudes and in the northern and north central portions of the state, with a fair degree of success. Bald barley when ripe has a very hard kernel and most feeders find it best to crush or grind it before feeding to stock. Cut in the soft dough or before ripening, it is fed in the straw without threshing. A bearded feed barley is grown in some sections of the state. Obtain seed grown on non- irrigated lands. 5. Emmer. This grain belongs to the wheat group and is sometimes called speltz by our farmers. Both emmer and speltz have a hull which clings to the kernel and does not come off when threshed. Speltz and emmer differ in size of head and arrangement of spiklets on the spike or head. Emmer is the more preferable grain of the two for our conditions. This is a spring grain and should be seeded the same as barley. It is used as a feed grain for nearly all kinds of stock. It is being grown more extensively in the South Platte and on The Divide east of Colorado Springs, than in any other portion of the state. 6. Oats . This grain is not well adapted for non-irrigated lands. Only the earlier maturing types should be grown. It is often sown for a hay crop in eastern Colorado and in higher alti¬ tudes above the ditches. i6 Bulletin 103. 7. Rye. Winter rye or early varieties of spring rye are sown, for hay and for grain crops as well. Choose a market type of rye and seed a small acreage at first. II. EORAGE CROPS. 1. Cane or Sorghum. This is grown for feed to supplement the range in winter. Grow early maturing types. Drilled sorghum is a more certain crop than when sown broadcast. 2. Proso. This is a drouth resistant millet, imported within recent years by the U. S. Cerealist, Prof. M. A. Carleton, from the driest regions of Europe. This crop grows a wealth of seed in a close panicled head, while it affords considerable forage in its broad leaved foliage. It is a spring crop, but should not be seeded until all danger of frost is passed. There are several varieties but the white proso furnishes the most foliage and fully as much grain as any other type of proso. 3. Millet. Mr. J. E. Payne in Bulletin No. 77 of this station, reports this as a widely grown crop with a yield varying from one quarter to one half a ton, according to season and locality. The German millet has proven one of the more desirable types to grow on account of its yield of grain. 4. Alfalfa. This crop is being tested in many parts of our semi-arid land. Results differ with methods of seeding, soil and the seasons. Experiments already conducted are not convincing. This is our most important perennial forage crop and the writer would ask that the following suggestions, given in Bulletin No. 90, by Mr. J. E. Payne, be noted by all who contemplate seeding alfalfa on non-irrigated land: “The important factor in getting a stand of alfalfa is* getting a good seed bed for it. My experience has taught me to plow the ground early in the season five to eight inches deep, harrow until it is thoroughly packed and then wait until the ground is thoroughly wet before planting the seed. If this occurs before the middle of July go on the ground with a light drag har¬ row as soon after the rain as the surface appears to be dry and break the crust thoroughly.” Then sow the seed with a press drill and follow with the harrow. A good stand has been obtained every time I have followed this rule. “Some have been successful with the hoe drill and some have used the press drill. One man seeded his alfalfa with a lister, taking off the shares and running the seed in behind the subsoiler part of the machine. The time to sow alfalfa may be any time when the ground is in good condition, between the 1st of May and the 1st of July. Having a stand of alfalfa, the next question is how shall it be maintained against its enemies, the drought and the grasshoppers? It has been demonstrated in west- EFFECT OF GOOD AND POOR SOIL PREPARATION. tv* •••' : - ||W^ Y Thorough Tillage System for Plains of Colorado. 17 ern Kansas that thoroughly discing the old alfalfa field usually in¬ creases the yield of hay, while it also prevents the deposit of grass¬ hopper eggs in the field.” Mr. H. T. Miller on a ranch near Fort Collins, has some ten acres of alfalfa above the ditch that has been seeded down twenty- . eight years. He cuts two crops, and favorable years, like 1904 and 1905, he cuts three crops each year. This is located on the lower level and some years receives considerable moisture, which runs off from the higher ground surrounding the field. Many of these “favorable locations,” can be successfully found in many parts of eastern and western Colorado, where irrigation can not be practiced. 5. Bronte Grass. There are several varieties of this grass but the one that has been the most widely tested in Colorado is Bromus inermis. This was first tested on the experimental grounds of the California station, being imported by Prof. Hilgard from Europe and offered for distribution to California farmers in 1884. This grass has proven to be one of our best drouth resistant grasses in Colorado. If requires a good seed bed and a reasonable amount of moisture for germination and early growth. It is one of the first grasses to appear in the spring and the last grass to die down in the fall. 6. Meadow Fescue. This is a grass resembling our blue grass in habit of growth, but carries a heavier sward. It is English blue grass and where seed can be obtained from non-irrigated land has made a reasonably good growth in western Kansas and Nebraska. It is of slow growth the first season, has a metallic green lustre and is better adapted for a pasture than a meadow grass. 7. Field Peas. This crop under ditch and sub-irrigation has made an excellent growth in many parts of our state. But few tests have been made on non-irrigated lands. These indicate that field peas can not be counted as a sure crop every season, but very often seeding early in the spring, peas will mature sufficiently for a good hay crop. Peas for hay can be cut with a mower, and well cured hay makes good feed for cattle and sheep. It is not advisable to feed this hay to horses. >111. ROOT CROPS. Potatoes, sugar beets and rutabagas have been grown on non- irrigated lands in a few sections of the state. Root crops need considerable moisture and it will require experiments for several seasons to determine to what extent these crops can be grown on semi-arid lands in the various sections of our state. i8 Bulletin 103. IV. NATIVE PASTURES AND MEADOWS. Colorado has some most nutritious native grasses. While the grass is short and sparse in many parts of our ranges, when not overstocked, it keeps the stock in excellent condition. The hay made from native grass commands a premium in the market. Much of our very best quality hay grows above the irri¬ gation ditches. One of our most hardy and best native hay grasses is the Western Wheat Grass (Agropyrum occidentale), known lo¬ cally as Colorado Blue Stem. This is a leafy grass, forms an even sod, and experiments show it can be sown the same as brome grass or meadow fescue, with good success. A farmer near Fort Collins sowed three acres of Blue Stem with a nurse crop this spring, and has a good stand of grass on cultivated ground. He sold the Blue Stem hay from a native grass meadow for five to six dollars a ton more than he could have ob¬ tained for his alfalfa hay. His native hay is always of good quality and sells from $12 to $16 per ton in the market. Native meadows may be made profitable when good native hay grasses are carefully chosen. The underground stems of many of these grasses give them good drouth resisting power and causes them to thicken rapidly, making finer and therefore superior quality hay, yielding from one and one half to two and one half tons per acre. Many arroyas or lower level areas furnish favorable locations for Blue Stem meadows. The writer will be glad to assist anyone who wishes to start a Blue Stem or Grama Grass meadow. IV. PRINCIPLE OF CAPILLARITY. Water in the soil used in the plant economy is known as capil¬ lary water. The water found in the bottom of postholes dug in the wet ground or standing on the surface of the ground is called ground water or free water. This free water flows under the force of gravity, as does the water in our irrigation ditches. When the ground becomes thoroughly saturated all the spaces between the grains of soil become filled with water. This cuts off all air from plants and they drown or suffocate. Ground or free water is not in that particular form available to the plant. When it sinks into the soil and later comes up in small quantities in the capillary tubes of the soil, it is the essential capil¬ lary water which aids in dissolving plant food in the soil so the root hairs can utilize said food. Plants get all the water they use through their roots. When the texture of the soil is just right and the amount of moisture ample, the soil grains and granules will be surrounded by this water as a thin sheet or film. This is continuous Thorough Tillage System eor Plains oe Colorado. 19 where the grains or granules are in contact or nearly so and seeks to extend in. all directions. If a dish be filled with soil composed of grains and this soil be rounded up into a cone, one can get some conception of this capillary action of the water in the soils of our fields. Pour water slowly into the dish and it will be observed that soon this water is drawn quite a distance upward from the base of the cone, as shown in diagram. Place two rectangular pieces of window glass in a basin of water so that two edges of the glass plates touch. It will be observed that where the edges are in con¬ tact with each other is where the water rises higher than anywhere else on the plates. COLO. AG. EXPT. 6TA. FIGURE 4. (From First Book of Farming.) a. Saturated soil-water drawn up by capillary action from bottom of basin. b. Dry soil. FIGURE 5. a-b. Water line between glass pfates. This action is also clearly shown by the diagram used by many text books in physics. Place several glass tubes varying in size from a quarter of an inch in diameter to as small a tube as you can obtain, with one end of each tube in a basin of water. It will 20 Bulletin 103. be noticed that the water on the sides of the tubes is above the height of the water in the basin and the smaller the tube the higher will be the water on the sides of the tube. “The force which causes the water to rise in these tubes is called capillary force, from an old Latin word capillum, (a hair), because it is most marked in hairlike tubes, the smaller the tube the higher the water will rise. The water which rises in the tube is called ‘capillary water.”’ (Goodrich’s First Book of Farming). This book of Mr. C. L. Goodrich (formerly instructor in Agri¬ culture in Agricultural Institute, Hampton, Va.,) shows that, for their best development and growth, roots of plants must have a firm, mellow soil, a ventilated soil, a warm soil, a soil supplied with plant food and a moist soil. The following interesting diagram teaches the relative amounts of film moisture held by coarse and fine soils. Here are two tumblers, one with a half pound of coarse soil, the other with a half pound of fine, sandy loam. In a small phial is shown the amount of water necessary to cover each half pound with a film of moisture. It requires more than five times as much water for the sand as it does for the coarse soil. A. B CD. COLO. AG. £XPT. 5TA. FIGURE 6. A. Coarse soil. B. Phial containing amount of water necessary to cover the coarse soil with a thin film of moisture. C. Phial containing the amount of water necessary to cover the fine sandy loam with a thin film of moisture. D. Fine sandy loam. This shows that fining the soil increases the capillarity of the soil, its power to hold capillary water. It has been estimated by careful agriculturists that the film surface of a cubic foot of clay loam spread out would cover three- fourths of an acre. When these capillary tubes of the soil extend to the surface the hot sun of our semi-arid lands pumps the water from them which is seemingly wasted in the dry air of these regions. The earth mulch is the dry blanket which breaks capillary con¬ nection between the under surface soil tubes and the hot outer sur- Thorough Tillage: Syste:m lor Plains or Colorado. 21 face, checking this seriously rapid evaporation. Of course the finer the mulch the more perfect its action. Were it not for the winds on our plains, we could make a dust mulch and thus get the most perfect earth mulch for checking evaporation of moisture from the soil. The danger from wind blowing soil and seed from the field is too great and farmers are cautioned not to make the earth mulch too due. Leave the soil as loose as possible on top, so as to prevent this capillary action reaching to the surface, but do not make it of dust-like fineness. The blanket-like action of this earth mulch and the difficulty the water has in getting through it, is well illustrated by loaf sugar and granulated sugar. Place one of these hard squares of loaf sugar in a teaspoon and lower it so it is partly submerged in a cup of coffee. How soon it is saturated. Place the same amount of granulated sugar in the teaspoon and lower as before in the coffee and observe how much longer it takes to saturate the finely ground sugar than it did the loaf sugar. The finer flour sugar used by confectioners takes still longer for water to saturate it. A thoroughly fine, dry, dust blanket requires more moisture to wet through it, to the soil you want to reach with moisture, since the dust is so much finer and has therefore a greater film surface than the under soil. On the other hand, when moisture seeks to come up, it has the same difficulty to get to the surface of the dust blanket and be lost in the hot, dry air above, which it experiences in getting down. For this reason our earth mulch should be kept as fine as the action of prevailing winds will permit. Remember, capillary force will carry down as well as up, and we can deepen the root growing power of our farm crops by deep plowing and summer culture, which stores and conserves soil moisture. V. EXPERIMENTS AND EXPERIENCE IN SEMI-ARID FARMING IN OTHER STATES. The following questions were sent to the experiment stations in each of the western states in the semi-arid regions, where crops are being grown without irrigation. QUESTIONS. 1. To what extent is semi-arid farming - , without irrigation, practiced in your State. 2. With what success? 3. Do your best farmers under this system of farming try to obtain a crop each year from a given field, or only every other year? 4. Will you tell me what preparation you think makes the most sat¬ isfactory seed bed for semi-arid farming conditions? 5. What is your average rainfall in localities where semi-arid farm¬ ing is practiced? 22 Bulletin 103. 6. How do your farmers conserve this moisture? 7. What tools are used in doing this work? 8. What crops have proven most successful for you? 9. What yields are obtained? 10. What literature can you cite me to for information on the thorough tillage system of farming under semi-arid conditions? The answers received from these questions show that semi- arid farming, where irrigation cannot be practiced, is now being carried on with some degree of success in eastern Washington and certain portions of Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Cali¬ fornia, Nevada, Utah, Colorado and New Mexico. The reply letter from Prof. E. E. Elliott, Agriculturist at the Washington Experiment Station, located at Pullman, Washington, gives us the farm system which eastern Washington farmers have followed for several seasons quite successfully. Pullman, Washington, June 14, 1905. Dear Sir: Replying to the questions in your letter of June 8th, I will make the following answers: (1.) One-third of the State of Washington is available for dry farming and a very large part of it is now under cultivation. In using the word “dry farming,” I refer to agricultural operations outside of irrigation. (2). This part of Washington is by far the most fertile and pro¬ duces the largest crops in the State except those under irrigation. It is largely devoted to the culture of the different grains and embraces the fa¬ mous wheat region of eastern Washington. (3.) It is the general practice to summer fallow for fall grain, a crop being produced by this means every other year. Many of our progressive farmers are trying to introduce other crops to take the place of the summer fallow in the alternate years. (4.) Probably the best preparation of the ground under the summer fallow sys¬ tem is to plow it in June and cultivate thoroughly throughout the season. By this means the moisture is conserved and the seeding can begin much earlier in the fall. (5.) The average rain fall throughout the semi-arid regions of this State where farming is practiced, runs from 12 to 23 inches. You will understand, however, that through part of this region the condi¬ tions for conserving this moisture are very favorable, owing to the nature of the soil. Successful crops of grain are being produced where the rain fall is as low as ten inches. Since much of our wheat is grown from fall sown crop and the greater amount of the moisture is precipitated during the winter and spring months, there is little difficulty in conserving a sufficient amount of the moisture to produce a crop, and it is rare that a failure oc¬ curs from the lack of moisture. (7.) The tools employed for cultivating the plowed ground are the common harrow used everywhere, although specially designed tools intended to destroy wild oats are coming into gen¬ eral use. (8.) This question is answered by question one. (9.) The yields of wheat range from 20 to 50 bushels. Oats, from 50 to 90, and barley slightly less, while rye is grown almost entirely for hay and that in the extremely dry sections. (10.) I regret that we have no liter¬ ature that would be of much service to you on this subject. Thanking you for this inquiry, I am, Very truly yours, E. E. ELLIOTT. Mr. F. M. Gum and Mr. W. L. Putnam, special students in Agronomy for spring term of 1905, assisted me in preparing these questions and carrying on the correspondence. The replies which they received are hereby acknowledged: Prof. J. H. Shepperd, Dean of Agriculture, North Dakota. Thorough Tillage System eor Plains oe Colorado. 23 Prof. F. B. Linfield, Director State Experiment Station, Montana. Prof. B. C. Buffum, Professor of Agriculture, State University, Wyo. Prof. Luther Foster, Director Experiment Station, New Mexico. Prof. Lewis A., Merrill, Agronomist, Utah Experiment Station. Prof. T. L. Lyon, Agriculturist, Nebraska Experiment Station. Prof. A. M. Ten Eyck, Agriculturist, Kansas Experiment Station. Prof. Jas. Withycombe, Oregon Experiment Station. Prof. G. A. Crosthwait, Idaho Experiment Station. Prof. M. A. Carleton, United States Cerealist, Department of Agricul¬ ture, Washington, D. C. These answers show that summer culture is being practiced with considerable success. This plan contemplates making the soil a reservoir to hold sufficient moisture to grow a crop every other year. The rain fall in those portions of the western states where this system of farming is practiced varies from 10 to 25 inches. Successful crops are being produced in both Utah and eastern Washington with the average rainfall near the minimum. It must be remembered that soil as well as climatic conditions quite largely determine the success of any system of farming. Director Linfield of the Montana Experiment Station says: “In certain sections of this State farming without irrigation is prac¬ ticed quite extensively. This is particularly the case in Gallatin Valley, where from 75,000 to 100,000 acres are farmed in this way. Probably a larger area than this is farmed near Great Falls and in the Flathead country around Kalispell. There is also quite a large area cropped without irrigation in other sections and very successfully indeed. We are at present trying to encour¬ age the extension of this method of farming in other parts of the State. Con¬ ditions look very favorable in the Bitter Root Valley, in the Judith Basin, and in the higher districts back from the Yellowstone river, both north and south. In the drier portions of the State the practice is to crop the land every second year only. In the Gallatin Valley this is particularly the case, fall wheat and fall rye being the crops. Around Great Falls and Flat- head spring crops are grown and the cropping is usually every year. It will depend of course to a certain extent upon the rainfall and climatic condi¬ tions which vary considerably in the different valleys of the State. “We have not experimented long enough to determine just exactly what preparation of the ground makes the best seed bed for dry land farm¬ ing conditions. I am inclined to think that with many of our farmers their practice is not the best. Where crops are grown every year, the land must be plowed in the fall and plowed deep, then cultivated in the spring just as early as possible or as soon as the land gets dry enough to work. This working is continued until the weather is warm enough to sow the crop. The time of sowing varies from the latter part of March to the first of May, depending, of course, on the climatic conditions in the lower and higher valleys. For fall crops, the land is usually plowed in the spring and then worked down immediately with the disc and drag harrow, and cultivated frequently during the summer to conserve the moisture and then fall wheat is sown usually about the first week in September. Some sow the latter part of August. Some do not sow until the early part of October, but the earlier sowing gives the best results as a rule. The average rainfall in our best dry farm districts is about 16 to 18 inches, varying of course with the different years. In this State no special tools have been introduced for the work of culti¬ vating. The disc and spring tooth harrow and the drag harrow are the only tools used in the cultivation of the ground. “In the Gallatin Valley, fall wheat and fall rye are the principal crops grown on the land. Around Great Falls spring crops are more generally grown, wheat, early oats, bald barley, and spring rye. Timothy hay and 24 Bulletin 103. brome grass are also grown to a considerable extent, particularly the former, and alfalfa is being tried with considerable success. It seems to do well once it is well started in the ground. In the Flathead country also, spring crops are grown, but here the clover seems to do a little better than the al¬ falfa, although it is not a permanent crop. In the Gallatin Valley the fall wheat will usually yield from 20 to 25 bushels per acre on the average and I believe around Great Falls somewhat similar crops are obtained as the con¬ ditions are a little more favorable.” Prof. A. M. Ten Eyck of Kansas, in speaking of the tools used for preparing the seed bed in western Kansas, says: “Disk plows are being commonly used now in western Kansas. They appear to be better adapted for plowing dry, hard land, than the moldboard plows. Other tools used are the disk harrow, common harrow and some make use of a sub-surface packer, or corrugated roller.” Prof. James Withcombe of the Oregon Experiment Stations, says: “Replying to your letter of the 7th, beg to say we have no specific date as to wheat growing under semi-arid conditions without irrigation, in this State. There are, however, several million bushels of wheat grown annually under practically arid conditions and without irrigation. “Precipitation in several of our wheat growing counties will range from 8 to 14 inches annually and the wheat crop in these sections will range from 15 to 35 or even 4 0 bushels per acre, some seasons. “The prevailing system is to summer fallow every alternating year; in this way some of the moisture of the preceding year is conserved for the wheat crop. There is no especial system of culture developed and ordinary agricultural implements are used, such as gang plows of the ordinary mould board pattern, and the disk plow is used. The better class of farmers en¬ deavor to work their ground down well immediately after plowing; in this way the furrow slice is thoroughly pulverized and made compact, and in this condition it conserves the maximum amount of capillary moisture. “The soil in these sections is in excellent physical condition, being largely volcanic ash with considerable organic matter. However, the pres¬ ent system of farming is very injurious and in time will doubtless develop very unsatisfactory conditions for wheat production. While from 8 to 12 inches of precipitation may be sufficient to produce a good crop of wheat now, later when the organic matter becomes reduced, a great deal more moisture will be required as the soil will be less capable of retaining moisture. “Trusting this supplies the desired information and if we can be of further assistance at any time, you will kindly advise us.” VI. AMOUNT OF MOISTURE REQUIRED BY FARM CROPS. The amount of moisture required by the various farm crops varies with the character of the crop and the climatic conditions under which they are grown. The experiments already carried on in the agricultural stations of Europe, and the Eastern and Central States, east of the Mississippi river in the United States, show that the leading grain and root crops require from 271 to 576 pounds of water to produce one pound of dry matter under normal conditions, in a normal season. Hellriegel of Germany and Prof. F. H. King of Wisconsin, give the amount of water to produce one pound of leading crops as follows: Thorough Tillage System eor Plains oe Colorado. 25 Wheat . . . Barley . . . Oats . Corn . Clover . . . Field Peas Potatoes . 453 lbs. water. 464.1 ” 503.9 ” 270.9 ” 576.6 ” 477.2 ” 385.1 ” The Utah Experiment Station has found that under semi-arid conditions the evaporation is such that wheat requires 750 pounds to mature one pound of dry matter. Counting the weight of straw necessary to grow 1 bushel of wheat (60 lbs.) as 90 lbs. (1 1-2 times the weight of grain), we find that it requires 56 1-4 tons of water to produce one bushel of wheat in our climate. The moisture required to mature a crop of wheat is believed to indicate the maximum amount required by most any farm crop in the semi-arid lands of Colorado. VII. ANNUAL RAINFALL FOR COLORADO. The U. S. Weather Bureau has divided the state into weather districts for convenience in making and recording reports. The average annual and crop season rainfall in these several districts is indicated on the chart given below. These averages are-made from the government reports and cover the period observations have been made. The minimum is six and the maximum thirty-seven years. Through the courtesy of Mr. F. H. Brandenburg, District Fore¬ caster for the Rocky Mountain District, we are enabled to give this valuable data on the rainfall by districts. figure 7 . a. Average annual moisture precipitation. b. Average precipitation February to August. Weather districts are marked by full lines and county limits by dotted lines on the chart. 26 Bulletin 103. Station normals, with the number of years weather records have been taken, are as follows: I—NORTH CENTRAL DISTRICT. Average Annual. No. Years. Precipitation Normal. 1. Alford . 10 17.75 inches. 2. Boulder. 9 17.20 9 9 3. Boxelder. 13 17.14 99 4. Denver . 33 14.49 99 5. Fort Collins. 25 14.47 99 6. Greeley. 14 11.76 99 7. Laporte . 14 14.97 99 8 . Waterdale . 10 15.47 99 District Normal. Crop Season, Normal for Dis- 16 15.41 99 trict, February to August. 11.81 99 II—EASTERN DISTRICT. 1. Cheyenne Wells . 11 15.64 inches 2. Fort Morgan. 9 11.53 99 3. Fox . 13 16.65 9 9 4. Grover . 8 11.29 99 5. Holyoke . 9 15.96 9 9 6. Le Roy. 16 15.30 99 7. Wallet . 10 18.11 99 8 . Wray. 12 17.30 9 9 9. Yuma . 14 17.05 99 10 . Seibert . 10 15.21 99 District Normal. Crop Season, Normal for Dis- 11 15.41 9 9 trict, February to August. 12.66 99 • Ill—ARKANSAS- -PLATTE DIVIDE. 1 . Castle Rock. 13 17.74 inches 2. Colorado Springs . 25 14.32 9 9 3. Glen Eyrie. 13 15.35 9 9 4. Haups (Hugo P. O.). 12 13.76 99 5. Husted . 17 15.98 9 9 District Normal. Crop Season Normal for Dis- 16 15.37 9 9 trict, Feb. to August .... 12.56 99 IV—ARKANSAS VALLEY AND BACA CO. 1. Canon City. 15 12.33 inches 2. Holly. 9 15.16 9 9 3. Lamar . 14 15.57 99 4. Las Animas. 37 11.33 99 5. Pueblo . 17 12.11 9 9 6 . Rocky Ford. 15 12.86 99 7. Blaine. 14 15.89 99 8 . Vilas . 14 14.01 99 District Normal. Crop Season Normal for Dis- 17 13.53 99 trict, Feb. to Aug. 10.67 99 Thorough Tillage: System for Plains of Colorado. 27 V—SOUTH CENTRAL DISTRICT. Average Annual. No. Years. Precipitation Normal. 1 . Hoehne. 14 13.15 inches 2 . Trinidad. 10 17.10 99 3. Westcliffe. 11 17.41 99 District Normal. Crop Season Normal for Dis- 12 15.89 99 trict, Feb. to Aug. 11.24 9 9 VI— -SAN LUIS VALLEY. 1 . Garnett. 12 6.38 inches 2 . Saguache . 14 7.22 9 9 3. San Luis. 14 11.78 99 4. Fort Garland. 25 12.74 99 District Normal. Crop Season Normal for Dis- 16 9.53 99 trict, Feb. to Aug. . . 6.81 99 VII—SOUTHWESTERN DISTRICT. 1 . Durango . 12 16.04 inches 2 . Mancos. 6 13.72 9 9 3. Hermosa . 7 14.30 99 District Normal. Crop Season Normal for Dis- 8 14.69 9 9 trict, Feb. to Aug. 8.58 9 9 VIII—GRAND AND UNCOMPAHGRE VALLEYS. 1 . Cedaredge . 12 10.93 inches 2 . Collbran . 12 13.65 99 3. Delta. 14 8.04 9 9 4. Fruita. 6 8.77 99 5. Grand Junction. 17 8.50 99 6 . Grand Valley. 13 11.20 9 9 7. Montrose. 10 9.11 9 9 8 . Paonia. 10 9.62 99 9. Silt. 10 12.04 99 District Normal. 12 10.21 99 Crop Season Normal for Dis trict, Feb. to Aug. 7.89 99 IX—NORTHWESTERN DISTRICT. 1 . Lay. 12 12.13 inches 2 . Meeker. 13 15.66 99 3. Pagoda . 14 18.76 99 4. Rangeley. 8 8.39 99 District Normal. 12 13.74 9 9 Crop Season Normal for Dis- trict, Feb. to Aug. 8.44 99 RAINFALL BY MONTHS AT THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, FORT COLLINS, COLORADO. 28 cd 0 O 0 > O o O ft 0 m be d d 0 M d cd h 0 fH cd rO 0 fa d cd Sh cd 0 kH Bulletin 103. 00 H h 05 O o c- 00 o WHOCOH 00000 WOOHO O CM O H OOOO W O ^ t> ^OL-O OHHM 10 o u- o 00 10 id GO CM 00 o *d CO rH 1 CO O 10 »D cd H O O *D CO 05 CM O O tr- CM L- H O 8 05 CM OH CD CO rH H OO id co CM O 00 CO o o 00 O 00 o CD 05 CO ID 00 CO o o O H M030 XW H ©nO rH O ID O 05 00 GO C'- O rH CO U- 00 O rH CO CO* t-HH "sDiCOO r* CM H t H • 05 * CO 00 iD l CO r* 1 * 00 iD A CO rH O rH O O rH 05 ID w ID HO CM O OH OO ID L'* HO WDOOOODiOH 0 t ^ 0 HMDHlHCOHCO hoHiCOHHCOO ^ MOhCMhHCCH NO 5 HCOlOiDI > WOO » OlOH 0 O 5 H 0 HCO r-i rH rH rH rH HHHHHHHNHHH COO0H(N0HCM?DH’Hl>C^lHHt^l>t2COCMCDHHHCOI>OH OO OOOOO0 000*0*000rH000 OOkDOOCOCMOCOkD'^OkDC^-'H rHHCCHCCCDWiOrHO f © CJ | rHOOOOOOOOOOOrH OOOOO 05C000CDOO COO tODiOiNCOHCDiCOD CD 'H’ OO -H C"» CM 05 rH O H IH GO CM CM CO rH CO OOOCOOOOO rH o* OO CO O OH rH O OO O rH t— H 05 CM^THHOO 05 tH ID ID O H CM O ©M Ih 05 lflWH^OHHNHlG»lGN©HHOOO © © O © H* O* O CM © H O* © © H CM tr- O H iDO©t*^!NHCHDiDlCO»DHHHJOaOO OOt -^ HCOCDI > l > OcOiG © H ^ WO©H cooohohohcococmohhohhhoi CO t-» CO CM O CM CO CM ID ID 05 I> CO CM ID CO CO 00 H O5H©HC0HCMHCD©COC0©00C0HCMCDCD H O CM © rH CM O © CO 00 H H H O CM CM CM H O CODDDt>COCMD'MOOQDlDHiCl>WCOl>CC CM 0 : C 0 HO 00 © OO © O © Ot ' HH©MH HCCCOHHHHCCCCH'MCCHHt'CMOlCH OCOt^MHODDDDDOOO CD CM H © 05 CM H CM O 05 H CD CD 00 CO CM CO O ^ iD CO CD iD G© CO hhcmcocmhh©hhhhh©co©h©co lOCOlDClHCMHt^HCOlDOOC-GOOCOHiC NC^CDCMCQlCHDlCt^riiDlD©OOiO©iOtH oooohhooohcmohhhhhoh CO CD H th CO 05 HOCMCOHOOHCQOOlOOHiO CM CO CO CM H CM ID CD iD O ID © O H CO H CO CO CO OOOOOHOOHOOOHHOOHOO COC5HCOCM©CMlOHCOOOHCO»D05CMCOH05 OOCMCMHCOCDOCMCMH’HrHCDCMHCOHOCM O O O O CM o o o o o o o o o o o o o o NWHDOHNCOHiDCCt^QODQHWCOHiDCDt'OODQHMCOHiD t^i>t-i>'XGOooGCx xcocoxco©©c5©©©a.©©©oooooo QOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOGOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOGOOOCXJGOOOOOOO id t— »o CO CD CO ID 05 00 ^HtDHlDCMCMCOtDOHOOOCDCMCr-OOHlD H 0 © H 0 W © iDHCMD '©© Ht - 0 ClKN ^HOCOCMOOHHOIHOOOOOOOH GO c— CD O0 05 CM CM ID 05 CD O CM ID 0 fcu cd 0 > Thorough Tiuuagr System ror Puains or Colorado. 29 It is to be observed that the weather station records have not been taken for the same length of time in the different districts nor for the same number of years at the various stations within the districts. The above record is just as the U. S. Weather Office has re¬ ceived it and indicates the number of years the different stations have reported observations. It may possibly be interesting, in this connection, to look over the rainfall by months and years, as re¬ corded by Mr. R. E. Trimble, in charge of the meteorological ob¬ servations at the Fort Collins Station, in the North Central District of the state: It will be seen by this table that the years 1873, 1888 and 1893 had less than 10 inches and the year 1901 more than 20 inches of rainfall. The last ten years show an average of 15.95 inches, while the preceding years, for which there is full record, give an average of but 12.12 inches rainfall. This would seem to suggest that our rainfall has great variations. It was the exceptionally dry years of 1873, 1888 and 1893 which gave the farmers on our eastern plains little or no harvest. It is these “dry” years which test all systems of crop farming and soil culture. The past few years have been quite favorable for any system of careful farming, but we need to profit by the ex¬ periences of the past and not rely too much upon the average rain¬ fall or even the rainfall for some several years back. It is those years with a minimum rainfall which test our systems of crop farming. We have not met these years very successfully in the past and the careful plains’ farmer will be conservative in his farming ventures, until he has successfully tided over one or more of the “dry” years, when the rainfall drops below 10 inches per annum. Conclusions 1. Do not assume that all unoccupied land is good farming land under any system o f soil-culture or crop farming. 2. Character of soil, amount of rainfall, method of farming and market conditions, on land where irrigation can not he practiced, must largely determine the success or failure in all farming ventures in Colorado. 3. Methods of farming which (a) conserve the soil moisture, (b) pre¬ pare a good seed bed, (c) reduce the evaporation to as near the minimum as possible, (d) use good vital, acclimated seed, (e) employ a crop rotation which has stock foods prominent, contain at least one money crop, (f) and the practice of thorough tillage of the ground, often tide the farmer over bad years and insure his success in good years. 4. With all these conditions met, crop failures or low prices will prove disastrous some years, unless stock raising is combined with crop farming. 5. Most of the crop should be “driven to market,” in the stock sold from the farm. 6. Natural conditions must be considered in determining whether lands can be made more profitable for farming than for grazing purposes. 7. The first principles of semi-arid farming was enunciated by the English farmer, Jethro Tull, nearly three centuries ago, who said “Tillage is manure.” 8. Present day experiences and experiments demonstrate that fining the soil has a tendency to render more plant food available. 9. All so-called soil culture systems, are groupings of few or many of the principles of the thorough tillage system, which is the correlated ex¬ perience of our best farmers of past and present time. 10. The Thorough Tillage System of farming considers: (a) . Time and manner of plowing the ground. (b) . Time and manner of harrowing. (c) . Firming the soil and formation of an earth mulch to arrest evaporation in semi-arid regions. (d) . Summer culture to fine the soil, conserve moisture and pre¬ pare a good seed bed for any crop under drouth conditions. (e) . Principle of capillarity and how moisture may be conserved. (f) . Selection of seed and rate of seeding. (g) . Crops which have shown drouth resistant power. (h) . Amount of moisture required by plants. (i) . Average crop season rainfall for a period of years in lo¬ cality where farming is to be practiced. (j) . Crop rotations most profitable for the farmer and the land. 11. Small grain, forage crops and potatoes have been successfully grown on the Colorado Divide and in certain sections of eastern Colorado, without irrigation. Thorough tillage will undoubtedly increase the areas where these crops can be successfully grown in our semi-arid lands. 12. Our best native grass—Western Wheat Grass, (Colorado Blue Stem)—Prof. R. A. Oakley of the Agrostology Division of the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., finds will do best on irrigated ground with one early irrigation. More water is a detriment. This would indicate we may yet be able to induce this grass to make a profitable hay crop on culti¬ vated lands where we have ten or more inches of rainfall per annum. Thorough Tillage System ror Plains or Colorado. 31 13. Roots of all cultivated plants make their best growth when the following conditions are supplied: soil well supplied with plant food. 14. The earth mulch prevents excessive evaporation and thus con¬ serves moisture. 15. Deep plowing furnishes a soil reservoir of good depth to store moisture and summer culture conserves it. 16. Crops require more moisture to mature them under semi-arid than under humid conditions. 17. Our field crops rank from the lowest to highest in amount of moisture required to mature them as follows: Corn, potatoes, wheat, barley, field peas, oats, alfalfa and red clover. 18. Ten inches of rain furnishes enough moisture to mature more than twice that number of bushels of wheat per acre. 19. The amount of rainfall, together with the selection of drouth resistant crops, must be considered under any system of soil culture—under semi-arid conditions. 20. The total area of land which can be successfully farmed within Colorado’s semi-arid belt is yet to be determined.. Index Page. Alfalfa . 16 Amount of Moisture Required by Farm. 24 Annual Rainfall for Colorado. 25 Barley . 15 Brome Grass . 17 Capillarity, Principles of. 18 Conclusions . 30 Corn . 12 Crops for Semi-arid Lands. 12 Development of Drouth Resistant Power. 9 Durum Wheat . 13 Earth Mulch . 6 Emmer . 15 Experiments and Experience in Semi-arid Farming in Other States. 21 Factors to be Considered in a Variety of Crop to Grow. 9 Field Peas . 17 Harrowing, Manner of . 5 Harrowing, Purpose of . 5 Harrowing, Time of . 5 Kafir Corn . 3 Meadow Fescue . 1 Millet . 16 Moisture Capacity of Plowed Land. 5 Native Meadows . 18 Oats . 15 Plowing, Manner of.3-4 Plowing, Object of. 3 Plowing, Time of. 3 Principles of Semi-arid Farming. 3 Principles of Semi-arid Farming, Culture of. 30 Proso . 16 Questions Sent to Other Experiment Stations in Semi-arid Belt. 21 Rainfall, Average Crop Season. 26 Rate of Seeding . 11 Root Crops .*. 17 Bye . 16 Seed Selection .*.. 7 Spring Wheat . 13 Sub-Surface Packer . 5 Summer Culture .-. 6 Western Wheat Grass . 18 Winter Wheat . 14 Bulletin 104. November, 1905 The Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Colorado Agricultural College. A Rust=Resisting Cantaloupe BY PHILO K. BLINN PUBLISHED BY THE EXPERIMENT STATION Fort Collins, Colorado, 1905 . THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. FORT COLLINS, COLORADO. THE STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. TERM Hon. P. F. SHARP, President , • • Hon. HARLAN THOMAS, .... Hon. JAMES L. CHATFIELD, Hon. B U. DYE,. Hon. B. F. ROCKAFELLOW Hon. EUGENE H. GRUBB, Hon. A. A. EDWARDS,. Hon. R. W. CORWIN, - - Governor JESSE F. McDONALD, \ ~ . President BARTON O. AYLESWORTH, \ ex -°IJ lcl0 Denver EXPIRES - 1907 Denver, - - 1907 Gypsum, - - 1909 Rockyford, 1909 Canon City, - 1911 Carbondale, - 1911 Fort Collins, 1913 Pueblo 1913 Executive Committee in Charge. P. F. SHARP, Chairman. B. F. ROCKAFELLOW. A. A. EDWARDS Station Staff. L. G. CARPENTER, M. S., Director .... Irrigation Engineer C. P. GILLETTE, M. S.,. Entomologist W. P. HEADDEN, A. M., Ph. D., .- Chemist W. PADDOCK, M. S., - -.Horticulturist W. L. CARLYLE, M. S.,. Agriculturist G. H. GLOVER, B. S., D. V. M. t .Veterinarian W. H. OLIN, M. S., -------- Agronomist R. E. TRIMBLE, B. S., - - - Assistant Irrigation Engineer F. C. ALFORD, M. S., ------ - Assistant Chemist EARL DOUGLASS, M. S., .Assistant Chemist A. H. DANIELSON, B. S., - - - - Assistant Agriculturist S. ARTHUR JOHNSON, M. S., - - - - Assistant Entomologist B. O. LONGYEAR, M. S., - - - - Assistant Horticulturist J. A. McLEAN, A. B., B, S. A., - - - - Animal Husbandman P. K. BLINN, B. S., - - Field Agent, Arkansas Valley, Rockyford OFFICERS. President BARTON O. AYLESWORTH, A. M., LL. D. L. G. CARPENTER, M. S.,. Director A. M. HAWLEY, .Secretary MARGARET MURRAY, .... Stenographer and Clerk A Rust Resisting Cantaloupe. # PHILO K. BLINN. The cantaloupe rust, or “blight” as it is called, has for a num¬ ber of years inflicted serious injury to the cantaloupe industry in Colorado in the vicinity of Rocky Ford, and recently it is reported as being the cause of similar trouble in other cantaloupe growing sections of the United States. The prevalence of the disease is largely affected by climatic conditions, yet in localities like Rocky Ford, where cantaloupes are continually grown, the soil becomes so infested with the spores that its development is as regular as the seasons, yet varying somewhat as to the loss it causes. In very dry seasons its development may not excite much notice, other than the dying down of some of the leaves in the centre of the hill, and perhaps a few yellow spots or specks on the leaves over the plant. On the other hand if the sea¬ son is subject to rains and dews its development is very disastrous to the crop. Often before the plants reach maturity the disease so destroys the functions of the leaves that the cantaloupes prema¬ turely ripen, and have no desirable qualities for table use and are a disappointment to everyone handling them. A few days of cloudy, wet weather will so precipitate the disease that the leaves and vines will go down as if swept by a blast from a furnace; the cantaloupes will become soft and wilted and if marketed will result in loss, though it sometimes happens that if rust strikes a field of canta¬ loupes at about the time the melons reach maturity it will so hasten the ripening that enormous yields are sometimes marketed in a very few days, when the prices are high, thus resulting in advantage to the grower. But invariably the same conditions which hasten the ripening of one field will also hasten others, and the shipments will increase beyond all proportion to the market demands, and at the same time the quality will decrease with equal rapidity and, before it is realized, the market is full of cantaloupes inferior in quality, and very disheartening returns are made. The recurrence of these rust injuries seems to be more com¬ mon with each succeeding season, and even the grower who by care¬ ful cultural methods or favored location escapes a serious attack, is still unable to get satisfactory returns,owing to the demoralized condi¬ tion of the market due to melons from rusted areas. It seems evi- Plate V. Two plants that grew in the same hill, one killed with rust, the other rust resisting. A RUST RESISTING CANTALOUPE. 5 dent that some effective remedy or means of control must be found to restore confidence in the melon crop. The Cause of the Disease. —The cantaloupe rust or “Blight” so called, is the effect of a parasitic fungus which grows and devel¬ ops on the tissues of the plant. It has been named “Macros- porimn Cucumerinum,” by Ellis and Everhart. It spreads and de¬ velops by means of spores that are carried by wind and other means and which develop when conditions are favorable. The idea that rain and dew cause the rust is true in the same sense that rain causes weeds,-it simply affords conditions favorable for devel¬ opment. Investigations jor Controlling the Disease. —In 1898, H. H. Griffin, of the Colorado Experiment Station, began investigations to control the disease. He carefully conducted field tests with sprays of different fungicides, and Bordeaux mixture gave promise of en¬ couraging results, but owing to the rapid growing nature of the cantaloupe vines, and the frequency of spraying required, with its attendant expense, this plan proved impracticable. By a series of tests, it became evident that the disease is not communicated by the seed, except as it might occasionally occur from spores accidentally lodging with the seed. The next step was the development of a resistant strain of can¬ taloupes. A Rust-resisting Cantaloupe. —In the summer of 1903 a close study of the cantaloupe fields was made to ascertain if any varia¬ tion existed in the rust resisting tendency of the various strains of Rocky Ford cantaloupe. Owing to the different soil conditions and cultural methods on different farms, and the varying ages of the vines, conclusions were difficult to draw, as all the vines seemed to be affected with rust to some extent, and eventually all suc¬ cumbed to its attacks, though several growers claimed to have can¬ taloupes that did not rust “like their neighbors.” In order to make a relative comparison of the point in ques¬ tion a small quantity of seed of five of the oldest and most distinct strains of seed, was secured from those who were propagating them. This seed was planted on a plat of ground that in 1903 had grown a very badly rusted crop of cantaloupes; two rows of each kind were planted May 9th, 1904, with a row of watermelons separating each variety to prevent their vines from intermingling. The whole plat had uniform conditions of culture in every particular and the vines of each variety made a very similar growth. About Aug. 1st the rust began to develop in the center of the hills, and it soon became evident that the disease was not making the same progress on all plants. Some of the hills in the rows planted with seed fur¬ nished by Mr. J. P. Pollock remained green throughout the season, 6 bulletin 104. Plate I. Cantaloupe hill dead with rust. Plate II. Cantaloupe hill resisting rust. Both views taken Sept. 24, 1904, on adjacent hills—J. H. Whittenburg farm. A RUST resisting cantaloupe. 7 and also produced the first ripe cantaloupe from the plat, Aug. 9th. A few days later the other strains gave a greater yield of early mel¬ ons, doubtless due to the rust, which soon after destroyed ] all the plat except the hills mentioned. These observations were verified in other fields planted with the Pollock strain. That of W. B. Ebberts, east of Rocky Ford, was an exceptionally fine field of cantaloupes, and revealed green hills here and there over the patch after all neighboring fields had been destroyed by rust. A portion of the cantaloupe field on Mr. J. H. Whittenburg’s place, west of Rocky Ford, was planted with the Pollock seed and the balance with what is known as the “Blinn” strain. By Sept. 24th the portion of the field planted with the • Pollock seed had many hills that remained green, when the balance of the field was brown And dead with rust. Plates I and II fairly represent the contrast in the two portions of the field. These give views of adjacent hills. Plate II is a resistant plant, grown from the Pollock seed; Plate I a rusted hill from the other strain. There was also a remarkable contrast in the superior quality of the cantaloupes produced from the re¬ sistant hills; these were uniformly sweet and spicy and possessed excellent keeping qualities. A quantity of seed from the rust resisting hills was selected to carry on the work of developing a rust resisting strain of canta¬ loupes. During the past season, 1905, this resistant seed was planted on the same plat of ground upon which the experiments had been previously conducted, and which had grown in succession two very badly rusted melon crops, the idea being to develop the resistant strain in as adverse rust infested conditions as possible, to thus re¬ veal the most strongly resistant plants. The results of the past season were affected somewhat by the destructive hail of May 26th, yet fortunately by replanting, and with some hills which survived the hail, very encouraging results were obtained. Many who visited the plat were surprised at the great contrast between the rust resisting hills and those from ordi¬ nary seed. Plates III and IV, views taken Sept. 20th, reveal the contrast not only in the vines, but also in the character of the melons produced on the respective hills. On the rust resisting hills the melons were hidden under a healthy growth of vines and were large, solidly net¬ ted, with thick, firm flesh, small seed cavity completely filled with seed. On the rusted hill the plants were almost devoid of leaves and the small melons were prematurely ripe, with thin, watery flesh, large, open seed cavity, and practically of no market value. 8 bulletin 104 . Plate V shows the contrast between two plants which grew in the .same hill; one, entirely dead from rust, the other absolutely free from the disease—this view taken Oct. 1st. This hill was grown from a general selection of Pollock seed and reveals the ne¬ cessity of individual plant selection to eliminate the reverting ten¬ dency of some plants. Hills grown from the seed of one resistant cantaloupe produced nearly all resistant plants,—the whole row showing green except an occasional vine attacked by rust. Plate III. Rusted hill, showing poor, undeveloped melons, taken Sept. 20, 1905 Field observations were again made to verify the existence of resistant plants in fields planted with Pollock seed, and in every instance the green resistant plants could be seen remaining over the field after the balance of the vines were dead with rust. During the shipping season, before the vines had gone down with rust to any extent, several conspicuously resistant plants in the fields of Messrs. C. J. Cover, J. B. Ryan and I. D. Hale, were ob¬ served and marked for seed. Bach grower has reported that these hills remained green till frost. A RUST RESISTING CANTALOUPE. 9 The relative merits of the Pollock melon, and the interest created by the investigation of its rnst resisting tendencies led many growers to plant it this past season, and many other growers are anxious for any evidence toward the improvement of the cantaloupe industry. The fact that during the past two seasons, several names have been given to the Pollock cantaloupe, such as “Eden Gem,’’ “Net¬ ted Rocks,” and other suggestive titles, also that several Associ- Plate IV. Rust Resistant Hill, showing fine qualities of netting and thick flesh, taken Sept. 20, 1905. stions and commission men are insisting that their growers shall plant only this strain, seems to be good evidence of its practical merits. In the light of investigation, the rust resisting tendencies of the Pollock strain, seem to offer the most immediate solution of the rust problem. With this object in view, we hope to induce the cantaloupe growers to consider rust and disease resisting plants as IO bulletin 104 . an important feature in seed selection and lead them to furnish in¬ formation that will assist in securing that end. As a matter of information regarding this strain of cantaloupes, an inquiry was directed to Mr. J. P. Pollock asking for a short his¬ tory of the cantaloupe while it was in his hands. The following is his reply:— 1908 Colorado Avenue, Colorado Springs, Oct. 6th, 1905. Mr. P. K. Blinn, Dear Sir:— Yours at hand; I note what you say regarding the Pollock cantaloupe with pleasure, mainly because if you are correct in your conclusions as to its rust resisting qualities, I have been instrumental in doing good to the community. Now as to its history; I began growing the strain nine years ago in Holbrook, my first experience in melon culture and farming in Colorado. I got two lots of seed from Ellingwood and Houck, one at 50 cts. per lb. and the other at $3.00 per lb.; the 50c seed grew large melons, too large, not one tenth being of a size to crate. The $3.00 seed produced good can¬ taloupes, most of them good sized and very heavy netted, not a short melon but correct in length; I saved my seed selecting the proper size and netting,—you may draw your own conclusions as to whether there was cross fertilization producing the origin of my future strain. The next year I planted at Bocky Ford; I had a fine growth of vines and setting of cantaloupes, I distinctly remember the heavy growth of vines. It was my first experience with plenty of water, and I over¬ watered and the rust struck the patch, and I had quite a failure; the whole patch was ruined and I was soon counted out at the platform on the score of rusted vines. However, I selected my seed from the patch, selecting a large sized melon with a white close netting, and a perfect cantaloupe as I remember it, in the midst of the rusted vines; I never had much trouble with rust after that, and in the light of your conclusions as to its rust re¬ sisting tendencies, I now believe, I unwittingly selected a rust resisting melon, as the rest of my crop were slick melons that failed to mature. Thereafter I always had my eye on that same type of melon in selecting my seed; it was a full large sized melon, with netting over the blossom end; not a long melon, but rather inclined to be short, but it had the quali¬ ties. By selection I reduced the size of my cantaloupes down till the last two years that I grew them they averaged well to crate nicely. I often thought of changing my stock of seed,but after going through the season, having very little trouble with culls or inferior melons and the quality seeming to me superior in comparison with anything I could get hold of, I stayed with it. I could easily see that they had peculiarities of their own compared with other cantaloupes. Now if the using of my name in this connection meets with your ap¬ proval, it is certainly satisfactory to me, and I will feel honored. Wishing you success in the work and asking for a copy of your Bulletin, I am, Yours truly. J. P. Pollock. This bit of history reveals why this strain of seed shows re¬ sistant tendency; it has a line of selection to that end, though un¬ intentional at the time. There is an old law in nature called the “Survival of the fittest,” it applies to plants as well as animals; it simply means that in nature individuals that are able to grow and develop in the midst of adverse conditions are thus naturally se¬ lected to resist the attacks of their enemies. It is for this reason A RUST RESISTING CANTALOUPE. I I that our native plants and weeds are so little affected by adverse conditions, while our cultivated crops are so susceptible. For many generations under cultivation, they have been developed for certain purposes, and the vital line of selection has been neglected. This is especially true in regard to some cultivated flowering plants; their existence depends entirely upon the care and protec¬ tion of man. If they were left to their natural enemies, they would soon become extinct. No work in connection with agriculture is so important in its results as that of seed selection. Too long it has been merely seed Plate VI. Single plant that produced sixteen large cantaloupes. saving , and if selection has been considered it has been along nar¬ row lines, perhaps size, form or appearance has been considered at the expense of quality, or possibly it has been the quality at the expense of vitality. A standard of perfection covering all the essential points in the development of a perfect cantaloupe would assist the grower in keeping his selection so balanced as to strengthen or build up any weakness, his strain of seed might reveal. To this end the following points might be considered as a schedule for selection. 12 bulletin 104. Schedule for Seed Selection. P-rolific yielding, E-arly maturing, R-esisting tendency, F-orm, size and netting,—ideal, E-picurean qualities, sweet and spicy, C-avity, small, well filled, T-exture, smooth and firm. While the field is growing, select and mark any individual plants that show exceptional merit along the lines of prolific yield, early maturity or resistant power. That such variation frequently occurs is plainly shown by the field observations of the past three years; many plants were observed which produced only three or four cantaloupes during the entire season, while in one instance, shown in Plate VI, sixteen large cantaloupes were produced from one plant, which would be a very large yield for three or four ordinary plants. The variation in maturing was revealed in the compara¬ tive test of the five strains of seed before mentioned. Ten days elapsed between the first ripe melon on one strain, and the first of another, although the rows were given uniform conditions. The variation in resistant power has already been indicated. One very important feature of the work of seed selection is the marking of individual plants which show desirable qualities. The seed should be saved separately, labeled and grown by itself, thus fixing in the strain these desirable traits. In the past the seed saving has been too much from a general selection of the melons without regard to the merits of the vines from which they grew; and also a common error has been # in giving too much attention to the external points of the melon without considering its internal qualities. This is well illustrated in Plates VII and VIII which show a choice pile of cantaloupes selected for outside appearance only; the other view shows some of the same melons cut in half revealing the undesirable large open cavity and thin flesh of some, and the solid, well filled cavity and thick flesh of others. When the marked hills reach maturity the vines which reveal the most uniform sized cantaloupes of ideal form and netting should be taken as the basis for selection. That the size as well as other qualities is affected by seed selection is brought out in the letter of Mr. J. P. Pollock, in which he states that he “reduced the size down until they averaged well to crate.” There are many conditions which may affect size and to some extent each grower should study his soil from the standpoint of the melons which it produces, and govern his selection accordingly. The netting of a cantaloupe has long been considered an at¬ tractive fancy feature and without question it is the essence of its A RUST RESISTING CANTALOUPE 13 Plate VII. Pile of cantaloupes selected from outward appearance only. Plate VIII. Some of the same cantaloupes qualities. showing contrast of internal 14 buu^tin 104 . appearance on the market, and experience reveals that it has a value in protecting the keeping qualities of the melons on long shipments. The words “Rocky Ford” scratched on the surface of a green melon appeared in the netting at maturity, thus showing that the netting of a cantaloupe is merely a tracery of callous formed by the natural cracking of the surface of the melon. By observation and tests it is shown that a close netted melon does not lose weight by evaporation as rapidly as one less covered with netting, thus its keeping and shipping qualities are largely determined by the amount of netting on its surface. Plate IX represents a former ideal Rocky Ford Netted Gem, a melon characterized by a close heavy netting divided by clear cut sectors. But the tendency of these stripes is to widen under care¬ less selection, and in view of the superior keeping qualities of the “solid net,” the old ideal is giving way to a type represented in Plate X which is a result of a cross of the Pollock strain and the melon shown in Plate IX, known as the “Blinn” strain. The form is more nearly perfect to fit the standard crates than the ronnd type characterizing the Pollock strain, and its internal qualities are in keeping with the external appearance. The eating qualities of a cantaloupe are the ultimate test of its perfection. A cantaloupe produced from a strong healthy vine and yet not having a sweet spicy flavor, should never be saved for seed. The small cavity, solidly filled with seed, ^ thick flesh with smooth, firm texture, are obvious points in the value of a marketable cantaloupe. These with many minor points should be zealously guarded by the careful seed selector. There is no absolute, fixed relation existing between the points of the above schedule. Thus, the selection of melons for resistant powei only, will not insure netting or other qualities. On the other hand, an ideally perfect melon, if unable to resist rust, would be a failure; but careful attention to all these details in dne pro¬ portion, will result in a melon like that shown in Plate X,—a can¬ taloupe having a “money basis.” A rust resisting cantaloupe. - Plate IX. An old ideal of perfection. From Bulletin 85, 1903. Plate X. A perfect Pollock cantaloupe, selected for resistant tendency cantaloupe with a money basis.” . - . . ■ Bulletin 105. November, 1905. The Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Colorado Agricultural College. A New Apple Rot. BY B. O. LONGYEAR. 1 PUBLISHED BY THE EXPERIMENT STATION FORT COLLINS, COLORADO 1 905 The Agricultural Experiment Station, FORT COLLINS, COLORADO. THE STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Term Expires Hon. P. F. SHARP, President , - ----- Denver. 1907 Hon. HARLAN THOMAS, -.Denver. 1907 Hon. JAMES L. CHATFIELD,.Gypsum. 1909 Hon. B. U. DYE, .- Rockyford. 1909 Hon. B. F. ROCKAFELLOW, . Canon City. 1911 Hon. EUGENE H. GRUBB, ----- Carbondale. 1911 Hon. A. A. EDWARDS, ------ Fort Collins. 1913 Hon. R. W. CORWIN, -------- Pueblo. 1913 Governor JESSE F. McDONALD, [ m . President BARTON O. AYLESWORTH, j ex-ojjicw. Executive committee in charge. P. F. SHARP, Chairman. B. F. ROCKAFELLOW. A. A. EDWARDS. STATION STAFF. L. G. CARPENTER, M. S., Director, - - - Irrigation Engineer C. P. GILLETTE, M. S., .Entomologist W. P. HEADDEN, A. M., Ph. D., -.Chemist WENDELL PADDOCK, M. S., - - - - - - Horticulturist W. L. CARLYLE, M. S.,. Agriculturist G. H. GLOVER, B. S., D. V. M., ------ Veterinarian W r . H. OLIN, M. S., - - - - - - - - - Agronomist R. E. TRIMBLE, B. S., - - - - Assistant Irrigation Engineer F. C. ALFORD, M. S., - - - - - - - Assistant Chemist EARL DOUGLASS, M. S., .Assistant Chemist A. H. DANIELSON, B. S., - - - - Assistant Agriculturist S. ARTHUR JOHNSON, M. S , - - - - Assistant Entomologist B. O. LONGYEAR, B. S., .Assistant Horticulturist J. A. McLEAN, A. B., B. S. A., ----- Animal Husbandman E. B. HOUSE, .Assistant Irrigation Engineer P. K. BLINN, B. S., - - Field Agent, Arkansas Valley, Rockyford Officers. President BARTON O. AYLESWORTH, A. M., LL. D. L. G. CARPENTER, M. S., - - - - - - - Director A. M. HAWLEY, .Secretary MARGARET MURRAY,. Stenographer and Clerk PLATE I.—Four Ben Davis apples showing the Alternaria Rot in the blossom end (on the right). Three apples artificially inoculated with spores of the Alternaria (on the left). An Apple Rot Due to An Undescribed Species of Alternaria. BY B. O. LONGYEAR. history and distribution. Among* the comparatively few diseases of orchard fruits, which occur in the state of Colorado, probably the most widely distributed and common one is a decay of apples and pears due to an appar¬ ently undescribed species of Alternaria. This decay was first met with by the writer at the Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station in the winter of 1904. While investigating the decays of stored apples at that place, a single specimen was found showing a decay of unfamiliar appearance. A tube culture was made from spores obtained by placing this specimen in a moist chamber for several days, and inoculations of sound fruit were made which demon¬ strated the ability of the fungus to induce the decay. At this Station the fungus was first reported in November, 1902, and specimens were secured for study by Professor W. Pad- dock, who recognized the fungus as being a species of Alternaria. Pie also conducted some inoculation experiments with the fungus and made the first report of it in the Experiment Station report of 1904. Investigation shows it to be of quite common occurrence in this State and it has been also found in the core cavity of one variety of apples grown in California. Thus, while this decay evidently occurs over a wide range, the fact that it has thus far been unnoticed, indicates that it is probably not destructive to any extent in other regions. CHARACTER OR THE DISEASE ON THE APPUE. In the case of the apple, so far as studied, the fungus is con¬ fined to the fruit, its most common point of attack being at the blossom end. The affected fruits usually show a dark purplish brown, slightly sunken area at the base of the sepals. This area may remain small and scarcely noticeable for a long time, but when the fruit is placed in storage it is apt to increase in extent until the fruit is entirely decayed. During the past season specimens were found in which the blossom end of the apple was cracked open and a considerable area of the discolored tissue surrounded the rupture, but this is not the usual manner of attack. It seems probable in Picked from the trees in September. A New Appre Rot. 7 these cases that the fungus was not the cause of the cracking, but merely gained a foothold in the wound. Other wounds in the fruit, such as those caused by the larvae of the codling moth, are fre¬ quently the point of attack of this fungus. The rotting due to this fungus is usually not so rapid as that caused by some of the soft rot fungi. Hence, fruit that is already affected by the Alternaria in some cases succumbs to some of the more rapidly working rots which not infrequently seem to follow it. The affected tissue is not greatly softened by this fungus, but by drying out finally changes to a shrivelled dark brown mass simi¬ lar to that produced by the mummifying effects of the brown rot of stone fruits. In many cases, however, no external evidence of the presence of the fungus is noticeable until the apple is cut through when the core cavity is found to be blackened or discolored. In the majority of such cases the parchment-like lining of the seed cavity is the only part showing the discoloration which, in mild cases, appears in the form of brownish or blackish streaks or stains. The seeds, too, are usually coated with a dark colored growth of the mycelium. In badly affected specimens, however, the seed cavity is nearly filled with fungous threads, while the discoloration extends into the surrounding flesh of the fruit to a greater or less extent. This invasion of the core by the fungus appears to be most common in certain varieties of the apple, among which the Wine Sap is especially subject to this form of attack. And in the worst cases this variety shows some eyidence of the presence of the blackened core by a slightly contracted appearance and yellowed color of the blossom end. Fruit which is of good size and normal depth of color seems usually to indicate freedom from this condition of the core, while fruit of small size with unusually light or dark color is frequently found to be affected. The reason why certain varieties of the apple are particularly subject to the blackened seed cavity is found in a structural peculiar¬ ity of such varieties. Thus a longitudinal section through such an apple usually shows a very deep calyx tube, which, in many cases, extends to or meets the core, or even opens into it. In such cases the fungus has evidently reached the core through this passageway by following the united styles and the inner wall of the calyx tube. (See Plate I and III). ON THE PEAR. In the case of the pear, the fungus has been found on fruit, leaves, and young sprouts at base of the tree. The fruit seems liable to attack at almost any point, in observed cases the stems being frequently blackened and the surface spotted irregularly. In the COLO. AG.EXPT. STA PLATE III.—Vertical section through a Winesap apple showing the very deep calyx tube meeting the seed cavity, which is darkened by the fungus (upper figure). (a) Young apples, fallen from the tree, showing the Alternaria after being kept in moist chamber, (b) Young apples and a fruit spur blackened with the fungus, after remaining on the tree over winter. Leaf of Keiffer pear affected with the Alternaria (lower figure). A New Apple Rot. 9 latter case, too, the skin of the fruit is often cracked in the affected areas apparently from loss of moisture. On the leaves of the pear the fungus produces brown spots of considerable size which are often situated along the margin or scattered over the surface in an irregular manner. (See Plate II and III). MICROSCOPIC characters. The rotting effects of this fungus are due to the invasion of the tissues of the plant by numerous branching threads or hyphse of mycelium. Thus a microscopic examination of the decayed part of an apple or pear reveals the presence of this mycelium in the form of an intricate network. These hyphse vary considerably in diame¬ ter in some cases being so slender as to be seen with difficulty under even a high power. In numerous instances, the mycelium may be found in the cell cavity, in which case the slender hyphse are often coiled to some extent. Within the affected tissues the mycelium is nearly hyaline, or but slightly yellowish in color and contains num¬ erous minute oil drops; but as the fruiting or spore-bearing portions of the mycelium are reached, the hyphse assume a brownish color. The conidiophores, or spore-bearing branches, possess rather thick¬ er walls than the feeding part of the mycelium and are freely septate near the terminus. The spores, conidia, are characteristic of those of the genus Alterncria. When seen in mass they appear blackish olive, but are of a brownish color when seen under the microscope. They differ much in size and shape, as well as in the number of cells composing them, varying from one cell in the smallest to ten or twelve cells in the largest. They are produced in simple or slightly branched chains with a narrowed portion, consisting of one or more lengthened cells, joining the spores. Thus, when the larger spores are separated they usually possess a somewhat flask-shaped form, the larger end rep¬ resenting the base or point nearest the conidiophore. Spores may often be found by examining the calyx end of affected specimens of fruit, but are obtained most readily by placing such fruit in a moist chamber for a few days. The spores germinate readily in water, each cell being capable of sending out a germ tube, and even portions of the conidiophores frequently act in the same manner. While the spores are capable of germinating as soon as mature, if conditions of moisture and temperature are not favorable they will remain dormant during the remainder of the season or until the conditions are suitable for growth. (Plate IV). TIME AND MANNER OE INEECTION. While the matter of infection has not been investi¬ gated to any great extent, it appears from observations made, in PLATE IV.—Microscopic characters of the Alternaria; (a) mycelial threads within a cell from rotting pear; (b) hyphm showing the variable size of the mycelium; (c) mature spores from a culture; (d, e) manner of spore-formation from 'culture; (f) two spores germinating in”water, at the end of three hours. A New Apple Rot. 11 the case of the apple, that the fungus gains a foothold on the with¬ ered stamens and stigmas which remain in the blossom end of the fruit. This may quite often occur early in the season soon after the flowering period and while the fruit is just forming. For, when the withered stamens and stigmas are placed in a moist cham¬ ber, at this time, the Alternaria frequently develops. The rotting effects of the disease, however, do not usually appear until after the growing period is nearly past and when the ripening stage is reached. Thus it would appear that the fungus is not capable of making much headway while the tissues are in a young, growing condition and when the vital processes are most active, but behaves more in the nature of a ripe rot fungus and is, therefore, not strictly parasitic. This is also suggested from the fact that young- growing apples when inoculated with the fungus were not much affected by it. The principal source of infection in spring appears to be the diseased fruits of last year, which remain in the orchard in a shriv¬ elled and blackened condition, either lying on the ground, or some¬ times left clinging to the fruit spurs. Young fruit which has failed to develop fully, perhaps due to imperfect pollination, is frequently found to be permeated with this fungus, after having withered upon the tree. In such cases the fungous threads within the tissues of these mummified fruits are capable of producing a crop of spores when the conditions are favorable the following spring. Some of these old diseased parts, when placed in a moist chamber, gave rise to a vigorous growth of conidia-bearing threads, the spores of which started the rot when used in making inoculations. The fungus evidently hibernates also on the twigs and fruit spurs, as it was ob¬ tained from them during the winter season. Wounds in the fruit caused by the larvae of the codling moth frequently give entrance to the Alternaria. (Plate III). ARTIFICIAL CULTURES AND INOCULATIONS. Numerous cultures of the fungus have been made in the labora¬ tory, using several different culture media. From these, inoculations of sound, ripe fruit were performed by inserting the spores of the fungus into punctures made with a sterilized needle. Usually in two or three days the point inoculated begins to show a surrounding area of decaying tissue, which widens rather slowly but steadily until the entire fruit is involved. The only fruit besides the pear and apple that has been inoculated with this fungus is the tomato, but in such cases it made almost no progress. (Plate I). varieties affected and extent of injury. In the case of the apple the varieties reported as most com¬ monly subject to the Alternaria rot are the Lawver, Foy, Mann, 12 Bulletin 105. Dominie, Jonathan and Ben Davis, while the Winesap appears to be most commonly affected in the seed cavity, as previously men- . tioned. Some of these varieties are among those which are re¬ ported as dropping their fruit badly in some seasons during June and July, but whether or no the fungus plays any part in this matter has not been determined. Among pears, the Keiffer is the only variety which has thus far shown any liability to attack from this fungus, although in the cases observed other varieties were growing in the same orchard. The extent of the injuries due to this Alternaria have not been estimated even approximately. It is apparently, however, not a destructive fungous disease, as compared with some which attack the apple and pear in more humid regions. It is doubtless capable of doing considerable damage, however, to the fruit of susceptible varieties, some of which have been reported as almost failing to bring their fruit to maturity. CONTROLLING THE DISEASE. In the absence of any experimental work in the control of the Alternaria rot the methods for combating the fungus are necessarily suggestive. Attempts to control the fungus in one orchard, by the use of Bordeaux mixture, indicate that it can be much reduced. Whenever this fungus becomes troublesome the following measure? are suggested: (a) Clean culture, thereby covering up in spring all diseased, fruit that is left on the ground under the trees besides keeping the trees in a state of good health. (b) The use of some fungicide as a spray, the first application being a strong copper sulphate solution, one pound to twenty-five gallons of watei, applied just before the buds open in spring. The standard Bordeaux mix¬ ture should be used after blossoming, making one or more applications dur¬ ing the growing season as may appear necessary. This may be used in con junction with the poison mixtures applied for the control of the codlin, moth, thus saving extra labor and time. (c) While it is very improbable that the disease will ever prov uncontrollable by the preceding means, should that occur, it would be ad visable to discontinue the growing of varieties, which are particularly sus ceptible 'to the attacks of this fungus. \ • > 1 . ■ Bulletin 106. December, 1905 The Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Colorado Agricultural College. PRUNING FRUIT TREES BY WENDELL PADDOCK PUBLISHED BY THE EXPERIMENT STATION Fort Collins, Colorado, 1905 . THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, FORT COLLINS, COLORADO. THE STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. TERM EXPIRES Hon. P. F. SHARP, President ,.Denver - 1907 Hon. HARLAN THOMAS, .... Denver, - - 1907 Hon. JAMES L. CHATFIELD, - - Gypsum, - - 1909 Hon. B. U. DYE,.Rocky ford, - 1909 Hon. B. F. ROCKAFELLOW - Canon City, - 1911 Hon. EUGENE H. GRUBB, .... Carbondale, - 1911 Hon. A. A. EDWARDS,.Fort Collins, 1913 Hon. R. W. CORWIN, - .... Pueblo - 1913 Governor JESSE F. McDONALD, \ ^ . President BARTON O. AYLESWORTH, T ^ A. M. HAWLEY, Secretary EDGAR AVERY, Treasurer Executive committee in Charge. P. F. SHARP, Chairman. B. F. ROCKAFELLOW. A. A. EDWARDS STATION STAFF. L. G. CARPENTER, M. S., Director C. P. GILLETTE, M. S., - W. P. HEADDEN, A. M., Ph. D., - W. PADDOCK, M. S., W. L. CARLYLE, M. S., G. H. GLOVER, B. S., D. V. M., W. H. OLIN. M. S., R. E. TRIMBLE, B. S. ( - - - F. C. ALFORD, M. S., EARL DOUGLASS, M. S., - A. H. DANIELSON, B. S., - S. ARTHUR JOHNSON, M. S., - B. O. LONGYEAR, B. S., - Irrigation Engineer Entomologist Chemist Horticulturist Agriculturist - Veterinarian Agronomist Assistant Meteorologist Assistant Chemist Assistant Chemist Assistant Agriculturist Assistant Entomologist Assistant Horticulturist J. A. McLEAN, A. B., B. S. A., - - - - Animal Husbandman E. B. HOUSE ----- Assistant Irrigation Engineer O. B. WHIPPLE, B. A., - - - Assistant Horticulturalist P. K. BLINN, B. S., - - Field Agent, Arkansas Valley, Rockyford OFFICERS. President BARTON O. AYLESWORTH, A. M., LL. D. L. G. CARPENTER, M. S., .Director A. M. HAWLEY, .- - - Secretary MARGARET MURRAY, .... Stenographer and Clerk Pruning fruit Trees. By Ulendell Paddock. Handling Young Trees: —The writer has been impressed, when visiting the various fruit districts of the state, by the lack of knowledge on the part of many growers of the requirements of young trees. No doubt a large majority of our fruit growers come to the state with no experience in the business and so have every¬ thing to learn, and surely no part of orchard management is more important than to start the young trees just right. On this depends not only the future usefulness of the orchard but in many instances large numbers of young trees fail to live through the first season foAhe simple reason that the trees were not properly started. In several instances the Experiment Station has been asked to investi¬ gate the cause of the dying of newly planted trees, and on visiting the orchard it was found that the trees were planted just as they had been received from the nursery. No doubt some of them had been injured somewhat by exposure and improper care but with the best of treatment it is difficult for the mutliated root system of a transplanted tree to establish itself and at the same time support a vigorous or overgrown top. It is not generally realized that when a tree is taken from the nursery row, a large portion of the root system is left in the ground. The balance between the roots and the top is thus destroyed and obviously a part of the top should be removed. Practically all of the elements which nourish and build up a tree, save one, are taken from the soil by the roots in liquid form. This material is carried in the cell sap mostly through the outer sap wood to the leaves. Here the crude food is changed by the influence of the sun light and the green substance of the leaves to a form that can be readily assimilated by the plant. This will illustrate, briefly, how impor¬ tant the roots are to a plant. Much of this elaborated food may be stored in the cells, especially in the fall, to be drawn upon at any time that the roots fail to supply the requisite amount. In trans¬ planting, the nursery tree is often deprived of one-half or more of its roots, and not only must it become established in the soil but it must produce a large number of new roots before much new food can be supplied. In the meantime the leaves begin to push out 4 STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE and the reserve food and moisture may all be used before the root system is in a condition to supply more. Is it any wonder, then, that the failure to cut back the tops of newly planted trees results in the death of many of them ? This is especially true in Colorado as the dry air and intense sunshine cause the young trees to dry out rapidly. It is also true that many nurserymen, as well as fruit growers, are careless in handling trees before they are planted. Not infre¬ quently the roots are exposed for hours to the drying action of wind and sun. One must take the chances of such treatment from the nurserymen but after the trees have been received by the grow¬ er there is no excuse for neglect in this respect. The trees should be heeled in deeply at once in damp soil and when planting the work should be so arranged that the roots of each tree shall be ex¬ posed to the air for the shortest possible time. All bruised and torn roots should be carefully removed, leaving smoothly cut ends which will readily heal; if this is not done decay is apt to set in which may seriously injure the tree. Long strag¬ gling roots may well be shortened and if a tangled mass of fine roots are present they should be shortened and thinned. Some successful growers also insist that where large spreading roots oc¬ cur a slanting cut should be made so that the cut surface may rest flat upon the ground. It would seem to be almost superfluous to insist on the impor¬ tance of having all nursery stock inspected by the County Inspec¬ tors, yet there are a few who try each year to evade the law in this respect. There are several insect pests and plant diseases, which are very common on young trees, all of which may be easily over¬ looked by anyone who is not thoroughly familiar with them. The wooly aphis is such an insect and it is doing a great amount of damage in all sections of the state-. This insect lives on the roots of trees and is introduced to our orchards almost wholly by infected nursery stock. When once established it spreads rapidly and is al¬ most impossible to eradicate. Crown gall is a common disease in many nurseries and it attacks all kinds of fruit trees. It is the worst kind of folly to plant a tree which has a trace of this disease, for not only is the tree pretty sure to die before it comes into full bearing but the infection may be spread by the cultivator or in the irrigation water to all parts of the orchard. A statement made in a former bulletin on the subject of inspection will bear repetition here: . . AM possible assistance should be given the County Inspectors in their inspection of nursery stock. In counties where many trees are be¬ ing planted, sufficient assistance should be provided, so that there will be no possibility of any shipments being overlooked. And finally some means should be devised whereby the importance of inspection can be im¬ pressed on the growers since, in some instances, they antagonize the in- PRUNING FRUIT TREES 5 spectors and hinder their work. It is no doubt true, that the inspection of nursery stock alone, if well done, pays many times over for all the ex¬ pense incurred, even in those counties which expend the most money in orchard inspection.” But in those counties where several hundred thousand trees are planted each spring the inspectors are so rushed with their work that the most careful men are liable to overlook an occasional in¬ fected tree; therefore no grower can afford to be unfamiliar with these common pests. Bach tree should be reinspected as it is planted and to make the work thorough, the roots should be dipped in water so as to remove any dirt which might conceal small galls or a few aphids. In this discussion it is presumed that the planting is done in the spring as this is nearly the universal practice in this state. It should also be stated here that the requirements of apple trees have been foremost in mind in the following pages. The same principles will apply, however, to all of our other kinds of fruit with the possible exception of the peach. A short discussion of the special requirements of this fruit is given at the end of the bul¬ letin. The proper formation of the top is by no means the least im¬ portant reason for cutting back the branches of newly planted trees. In the first place the importance of low headed trees for this climate cannot be too strongly emphasized. Hundreds of trees are dying in all parts of Colorado because of the exposure of the long trunks to the afternoon sun, either directly or by reflection from hot dry soil in summer or snow in winter. Young trees are especially liable to injury which results in early death or a weak, sickly growth from which they never recover. There is less injury from sun scald in the humid states, but in these districts many authorities are advocating lower headed trees. In addition to forming low heads there can be no question but that it pays to still further protect the trunks of newly planted trees from injury by sun scald. Various devices are used, such as wrap¬ ping the trunks with burlap, paper, straw, wood veneer, or by shad¬ ing the trunk on the southwest side with a thin piece of board set upright in the ground. Whitewashing the young trunks to serve the same purpose has come to be extensively used in portions of California. Whatever method is adopted, it should be applied soon after the trees are planted and kept in good condition through the second winter or until the shade of the trees becomes ample. The advantages of low headed trees may be mentioned as fol¬ lows: Greater ease in picking, thinning, pruning and spraying and less damage to trees and fruit from winds. Some growers object to low headed trees on account of the greater difficulty of cultivating around them, but with proper pruning low headed trees develop as¬ cending branches as shown in plate I. There is not the slightest 6 STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE difficulty in working around the trees in this orchard, whereas the branches on high headed trees commonly droop after they have borne a full crop of fruit and so interfere with all orchard manage¬ ment. The following extract is taken from Prof. Bailey’s Pruning Book: “The relative merits of high or low heads for fruit trees are always in dispute. This controversy is partly the result of confusion of ideas, and partly of differing mental ideals and of varying climates. Two fac¬ tors are chiefly concerned in these disputes—the question of ease of culti¬ vation, and the question of injury to the trunk by sun-scald. It is the commonest notion that short trunks necessarily make low heads, and yet any one who can see a tree should know better. The number of trunks which a tree has does not determine the direction of the leaf-bearing limbs. This tree (referring to illustration) can be worked around as easily as it could be if it only had one long trunk. In fact, branches which start high from a trunk are very apt to become horizontal and to droop. There must be a certain number of scaffold limbs to form the head. If these limbs are taken out comparatively low, they may be trained in an upright direc¬ tion and hold their weight and position. If they are started out very high they will not take such an upright direction, because the tree will not grow beyond its normal stature. High trained trees are often practically lowest headed.” Form of Tree. —The business of orcharding is not old enough to have developed systems of pruning which may be said to be characteristic of the state. The conditions existing in the fruit districts have been so favorable for the production of fine fruit that the growers have not felt the need of the finest development of the art. We have grown fine fruit whether we would or no. But now that competition is more severe and insects and diseases are multiplying more attention must be given to methods and sys¬ tems of culture. In pruning trees one of two ideals must be adopted, which are known as the pyramidal and vase forms. The former preserves the leader, which is made to form a central shaft to the tree. This style has the advantage of more bearing surface, as the leader grows and in time forms a “two-storied” tree. The objections to tall trees are apparent and need not be discussed here. The leader is done away with in the vase form and a few limbs, usually not more than five, are selected to form the top. A more or less open centered tree is thus formed, but by skillful pruning this space is occupied by branches of bearing wood. Very tall trees are thus avoided, but what is more important, such trees are not so apt to be destroyed by blight, as recently pointed out by Mr. Waite. Death to trees re¬ sult when the blight germs gain entrance to the trunks and larger limbs. Such attacks are usually brought about by the presence of small limbs, water spouts or fruit spurs, which become diseased and which the germs follow till the main trunk or branch is reached. Should the leader of a pyramidal tree be attacked seriously enough to necessitate its removal the tree would be ruined, but by having PRUNING FRUIT TREES 7 several main branches or trunks one of them might be spared with¬ out seriously crippling the tree. But the protection may be carried still further by keeping the main branches of the vase shaped tree free of all small limbs and fruit spurs which are so susceptible to attacks of blight. Shaping the Newly Planted Tree. — The term low headed, is a relative one, but a top may be considered low when the first branch is thirty inches from the surface of the ground. Some of our successful growers prefer higher heads than this, while others start them lower. Our own preference is for a trunk about twenty inches in height. But whatever height is de¬ termined upon, the tree must be cut back preferably, just after it has been planted. Should the tree be supplied with suitable limbs at the point where the head is desired three to five of them, properly spaced, should be selected to form the frame work of the tree. The rest are removed. The Selected branches should then be shortened in to a sound bud within a few inches of the main stem. But ordi¬ narily the lower branches are pruned off in the nursery so that we seldom get a tree from which suitable branches may be selected. In this case the entire top should be removed without regard to branches, making the cut a foot to eighteen inches above the point where the lowest limb is wanted. In doing this it is expected that branches will push out below in sufficient numbers so that suitable selections may be made. For this reason strong yearling trees are always preferable to older ones and in fact apple tiees of this age are now commonly used in California. Should suitable branches fail to grow, one of the lower branches which nearly always form, must be developed to form a new heady # The trees should be gone over several times during the first summer to remove surplus shoots and especially those which push out far below the point where the lowest branch is wanted. Occa¬ sionally some of the upper branches develop a vigorous growth at the expense of the others. These should be headed back so as to give all a chance to develop, otherwise some of the important scaf¬ fold limbs may be found to be very weak at the close of the season. When a branch is headed back great pains should be taken to make a slanting cut just above a sound bud. If made too far above the stub will die back at least as far as the bud, and often farther If made too close, the bud may be so injured that a stub is formed which will die back at least to the next sound bud. As soon as the trees are planted, then the top should be cut back as described above. Ordinarily a profusion of branches will be pushed out which may be allowed to grow as they will during the first season or they may be cut back to one or two buds. By the time these branches begin to grow the roots are established m the soil and new ones formed so that an adequate supply of plant looc is 8 STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE provided. It will be remembered, however, that the plant cannot use this food until it has been made over in the leaves. It is for this reason that a large leaf surface is necessary and it is also desira¬ ble m that the shade forms - a protection from the sun. The kind of top which the tree is to assume is developed with t le first season’s pruning, which should be begun in most sections not earlier than the first of March. This is true for the reason if done earlier a longer time must elapse before the wounds can heal and necessarily the cut surfaces are exposed that much longer to the drying action of the sun, wind and frost. It is commonly understood among orchardmen that trees must not be pruned when the wood is frozen. Pruning when the trees are in this condition often results m bad wounds and the dying back of branches, but this result is probably due to the agencies just mentioned rather than to the fact that the wood was frozen. In any case the rule is a good one to follow. Then, too, there is always more or less danger from winter killing after early pruning is done so that the trees would need to be gone over a second time. From three to five limbs are now selected to form the frame¬ work of the tree which should be cut back about twelve inches from the trunk. The rest are removed. If the lowest branch has been at twen ty inches from the ground, the highest branch should be at .east a foot above; two feet would be better. A com¬ mon mistake is to cut trees back too far thus crowding the branches as shown in plate I. Neither were these branches thinned out nor headed in during the first season but were all allowed to develop into leaders. This latter mistake often re¬ sults m long willowy branches which droop with a load of fruit and is the mam reason for ’condemning low headed trees. Many growers carry their pruning up to this point successfully, but fail to head m the first season’s growth and so miss one of the critical points in the proper formation of the top. ^ It is a common notion that the branches gradually get hio-her r°m the ground as the tree continues to grow. The apparent gain eight is due solely to the increase in diameter of the limbs w ich soon begin to crowd if sufficient space has not been left be- we^n em. he centers of the limbs will always remain the same distance apart, so in forming the head one should have in mind what the appearance of the limbs will be when they have attained a diameter of six or more inches. liml-TTT Y , EAR: ~ It , may be re K arded as a rule, that when a s cut back, unless the cut is made just above a strong lateral L° V , m< ? re bran ches will develop near the cut end and some of is to T S T er Wl11 devel °P into shoots - The usual practice to form nViv ° f [T 6 t0 grOW on each of the P revi °us years limbs to form additional framework for the tree. The two selected should PLATE I. —LOW HEADED TREES WITH ASCENDING BRANCHES. PLATE II .—YOUNG APPLE TREES WELL HEADED IN 9 PRUNING FRUIT TREES be some distance apart, one at the end and one farther back, and so placed that the development of crotches will be impossible. They are now cut back from a half to two-thirds of their growth and the laterals are shortened to one or two buds so that they may later de¬ velop fruit spurs and also shade the branches with their cluster of leaves. If too many have formed, some of them should of course be removed. On the other hand if we are to develop Mr. Waites’ idea of making the tree more resistant to blight these laterals should all be removed and so carry the fruit bearing wood farther away from the trunk and main branches. Some growers object to heading in trees at all, for the reason that all of the buds are likely to develop into branches and so the formation of fruit spurs is retarded and the surplus branches must be cut out. But it is highly desirable that all of the buds should develop and then by heading them back to spurs, as just mentioned, the formation of fruit spurs is largely under control of the pruner’ Any tendency toward one-sidedness may to some extent be corrected and open spaces filled in by selecting branches that are al¬ ready growing in the general direction of the vacancy. Then by cutting to a bud, which is on the side toward the opening, such faults may gradually be overcome. Third Year:— The frame work of the tree should now be well formed so that it will require less attention from this time on. Surplus branches and those that rub or are inclined to form crotches should be removed. Very vigorous growths should also be headed in. Thus far out discussion has been confined to the shaping of open.or vase formed trees. If a leader is desired, the treatment is practically the same, except that the upper shoot is allowed to grow with little heading in. Branches are allowed to develop on this leader at proper intervals, using the same care as to location, prun¬ ing and development as in the former case. A discussion of some photographs of actual experience in prun¬ ing young trees will help to review and fix the points of the differ¬ ent stages of pruning in mind. These were second grade trees and were evidently three years old when planted. The lower laterals had all been pruned away in the nursery so that the tops were much too high for Colorado. There was also difficulty in getting branches to form at suitable places from which to make the selections for the head. However, the results are much better than as though the tops had been left as received from the nursery as is so often done. The trees in figures i, 2 and 3 were all headed back to about 24 inches in April, 1904. This left them mere stubs. Had ther? been any laterals below this point they would have been pruned back to single buds so that clusters of leaves might have formed and thus provided some shade for the trunks. These pictures show IO STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE how the trees looked in April, 1905, ^ ie ^ me the first prun¬ ing. No. i had formed five vigorous branches, No. 2 produced tour and No. 3 but two. The five branches on No. i were saved to form a framework tor the tree and were cut back to about one foot in length. These are well distributed about the trunk, but have the fault that they are too close together. The lowest limb might well be double the dis¬ tance from the top that it now is. No. ia shows No. i after it was pruned, with the idea of making an open-centered tree. No. 2 is also open to the objection that the limbs are too close. All of these were saved to form the frame work of a tree with a leader as is shown in No. 2a. The only difference between this and No. ia being that the topmost branch was left longer than the others. The pruner of this tree is open to severe criticism m that he has allowed three vigorous limbs to grow from near the surface of the ground. These limbs could serve no useful purpose and so only rob the other limbs of plant food. Such growths are best pre¬ vented by pinching off the buds early in the season. No. 3 failed to throw out enough branches to form a suitable top. The two which were produced are nearly opposite, so that a bad crotch would soon result. Both branches were cut back to the second bud, as shown in 3a, in the hopes of inducing dormant buds to push out lower down. PRUNING FRUIT TREES II No. 4 shows one of this lot of trees that was left unpruned. Notice the weak spindling growth and short laterals as compared with the others. There is small chance of making a decent tree out of such a specimen even though it should live. Such illustrations as this, which may be seen on every hand, should prove to any one that all trees should be headed back when planted, if for no other purpose than to induce a vigorous growth. At the close of the season of 1905 the pruned trees had made a growth respectively as shown in ib, 2b and 3b. Pruning should, of course, be done in late winter or early spring, but these trees were pruned for the purpose of illustration and the results are shown in ic, 2c and 3c. Tree No. 1 has now taken the form shown in ic. One of the scaf¬ fold limbs seemed superfluous so it was removed and the new growth, shown in Fig. ib, was cut back about one-half. The few side shoots were cut back to a single bud with the idea of developing fruit spurs. During the season of 1906 numerous branches should develop on all of these scaffold limbs. As a rule two of the best placed of these secondary limbs will be selected on each of main scaffold limbs to form additional framework. The rest may be removed or cut back to develop fruit spurs as may se FKJ. 2 FIG 2A FIG. 2B FIG. 2C I 2 STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE The form of the tree then, should be developed at the beginning of the season of 1907 and subsequent pruning should be directed to¬ ward retaining this shape, cutting back excessive growths and thin¬ ning and renewing the bearing wood. The pruning of tree No. 2 is much the same, except that a leader is being developed. Fig. 2c shows that although the top was cut back the same as Tree No. 1, the topmost branch is devel¬ oping into a vigorous central shaft. The first set of scaffold limbs have been formed and a second set is to be developed at a suitable distance above. The new growth is to be cut back the same as has been described. The tree shown in the series 3-3C is, so far, pretty much of a fail¬ ure. The severe heading given it in the spring of 1905 failed to make branches develop lower down. It would have been a better plan to have inserted two or three buds at suitable points around the main stem in June, 1905. This can probably be done next June, but the chance for success is not so great. Limbs can be developed by this means just where they are wanted, but the average person will suc¬ ceed better with trees which do not require such manipulation. Pruning Bearing Trees. —The form of the young tree should be well established after the third season. From this time on the question of pruning is simply to retain so far as possible the SI ATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE form we have started, to prevent the formation of crotches and ero« branches, to thin out an excess of branches so that sunhlfef „ u admitted and the amount of bearing wood reduced and refewed companying ^i^fr^^ whii S .biS'to nss sho',.^',;'r„ are “ eiy arise, the following should be borne in mind: Prune in summer to nduce fruitfulness and in winter to promote wood growth This tree 1 hv 50 / ^ r6aS ° n that summer Pmniug checks the S growth of the y -liT° Vm ? a P ° rtl0n 0f the leaf surface. An injury of anv tree r m t Ve 16 Same eiTect ’ likewise a weak growing or s ckh in whik sti " d< ™»»- given as each tree prLntTa dSel^robta'”'ihick g'romh of branches results m weak bearino- shoots and snnrs a ^ n 11 when cutting back limbs on bearing trees the cut shoufd be m ^ just above a strong lateral wherever possible. The tendency of the sap will be to flow into the lateral and thus prevent the format o„ sssr*" which ”“ iy ai ™>" “"«> * -ss longIXta^S Sch’Sl'ytnd' A’Z X “ oir t'* 11‘e3«S S? t b hTwSe'°Sap'a a re overbear periodically as they get older, often to rod, an eSnuhS branches are broken down with a load of undersized fruit It bearinjbutrtie^fh 8 !T° “fr, 0 "* t0 reC ° Ver from the effect of °ver- n a • . Ut ^ e year the process may be repeated A severe SeT h and . thin ? in S out of the branches would largek correct of fine fruit “ P ° SSible f ° r the trees to bear “ n « a > crops growfh of°diffi° U f d wel1 acquainted with the habit of growth of different varieties as a few kinds grow slowly and will spreading ^Onecau'A ° th . e [ S are . erect growers and some are but Hip g * 1, caunot expect to entirely overcome such tendencies but they may be corrected to a marked degree. The upright varie! the S spreading P k rea d SOmewbat b y P runin g to the outside laterals and e spreading kinds may be contracted by cutting to those which ave an inward direction. And by cutting back the vigorous growths stockjTthus'it^erea^n *** ^ 0Ver “ length ’ the K " lbs are made stocky thus in great measure doing away with drooping branches However, we believe, that under our conditions, it i S P advantageous *4 PRUNING FRUIT TREES in many ways to keep trees from becoming very tall Tus can he done bv intelligent annual pruning. In Plate 11 . is snown a photograph of a successful young Colorado orchard that has been s everely head discussion has had to do entirely with apple trees. The same princes apply to most of the other fruits with the ex- firm of those like the peach which bear fruit on last season s cep H The oear is pruned^nuch the same as the apple, as are also ST Mu “ The latter should be headed lower ll* tLv reouire much less attention after the character of the top has been formed. The sour cherry and red or cultivated varieties of American plums require almost no pruning. The tops sho be very low. Pruning the Peach.— Peaches are borne on wood of the pre- j • p. vear ’ s growth consequently the training from the beginning should be somewhlt different from that given our other common fruit trees The importance of peach growing m the state will war¬ rant a brief description of methods of training and pruning. We must have the tops low, twelve to eighteen inches o clea imnV being ample. In fact the trees m some of our best orchards are headed lust above the surface of the ground. For tins reason medium sized, well grown yearling trees are always Parable to two yea i a te trees’are nearly Always cut off from the lower portion in the nursery so that it is rarely possible to make branches grow where theyf are ^wanted £ea(h g ^ ^ . g pro ^ ded with suitable laterals for forming a top. As soon as the tree is planted, cut the too back to from twenty four to thirty inches from the ground. Then reduce all of the laterals to spurs of from one to three buds. Manv of the remaining buds will soon start into active grow S a large number 5 small shoots result. The foliage wi l not Sv orotect the trunk from the sun but a large leaf surface is necessary for the preparation of plant food. The second spring tf i the trees receive their first pruning and the forma- t' el ,!f the too begins Select from three to five of the strongest and best placed branches to form the frame work. If the lowest one is fifteen mches above ground the upper one may well be twelve to teen inches higher. The intervening ones should be well space e- Jweenandsymmetrically arranged around the Stan so that therein be no open spaces, one-sidedness or crotches. T > , . ter how vigorous their growth may have been, should be cut back a half or two-thirds of their length, while all of the rest are remove entirely By making these main limbs short they become stout and stocky and the load of the matured top is borne close to the ce - tral trunk so that the strain is materially lessened. STATE AGRICULTURAL COEEEGE heiVwTi'l the nU E ery ‘f, 6 'f lacki «g in laterals at the proper W| ht Tf fl P i St r cut , back anyway if we a le to have a low J; be !° wel : laterals have been pruned away in the nursery ere will be difficulty in securing branches from which a well bal- anced head may be formed. One must take this risk. Should suitable branches appear they are headed in as above. If no branches at all are pushed out where wanted, or those that are formed are so situated as to make the tree very much one-sided, a branch from near the surface of the ground will nearly always develop which can be used to form a new trunk and top. This should be treated the same as a newly planted tree and in three or four years it cannot be told from the rest. J During the second and third years the pruning and trimming does not differ materially from that already described. The laterals should not be too thick, but enough should be left to produce a good bearing surface low down. The trees should be pruned each year from now on, heading in the main branches and vigorous lat¬ erals from a half to two-thirds of their growth and thinning out laterals where too thick. Always head back to a good lateral where- ever possible and so prevent the growth of surplus shoots. In any case short branches should be encouraged to grow low down on the trunk and branches to provide protection from the sun. It is a mistake not to keep the branches on peach trees well cut back, for if this is not done and the laterals which produce the bearing wood grow farther from the body of the tree each year which finally results m long, bare branches with a tuft of bearing wood at the end. Neither should the attempt be made to cut the branches back evenly all around the tree, but each branch should be considered as a separate problem. Should trees become too tall to be handled to advantage new tops can be secured by cutting back all of the limbs at the time the pruning is usually done. A luxuriant growth will push out from these stubs so that but two seasons of fruit bearing will be lost. Precaution needs to be taken, however, not to cut off too large limbs, especially on old trees. Neither should a small limb be cut back too close to its junction with a large limb. Perhaps the best results will follow if none of the limbs are larger than two inches in diameter at the point where the cut is made. The stubs should be left from about two to four feet in length, depending upon the age of the tree, the size of the limb and its location. Too severe heading in may easily result in the death of the tree. I Bulletin 107. February, 1906. The Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Colorado Agricultural College. PEACH MILDEW By O. B. WHIPPLE PUBLISHED BY THE EXPERIMENT STATION Fort Collins, Colorado. 1906 . THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, FORT COLLINS, COLORADO. THE STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Hon. P. F. SHARP, President , Hon. HARLAN THOMAS, Hon. JAMES L. CHATFIELD, Hon. B. U. DYE, Hon. B. F. ROCKAFELLOW Hon. EUGENE H. GRUBB, Hon. A. A. EDWARDS, Hon. R. W. CORWIN, TERM Denver EXPIRES - 1907 Denver, - ■ 1907 Gypsum, - - 1909 Rockyford, - 1909 Canon City, 1911 Carbondale, - 1911 Fort Collins , 1913 Pueblo 1913 Governor JESSE F. McDONALD, \ nflinn President BARTON O. AYLESWORTH, \ A. M. HAWLEY, Secretary EDGAR AVERY, Treasurer Executive committee in charge. P. F. SHARP, Chairman. B. F. ROCKAFELLOW. A. A. EDWARDS. Station staff. L. G. CARPENTER, M. S., Director C. P. GILLETTE, M. S., - W. P. HEADDEN, A. M., Ph. D., - W. PADDOCK, M. S., W. L. CARLYLE, M. S., G. H. GLOVER, B. S., D. V. M., W. H. OLIN, M. S., R. E. TRIMBLE, B. S., F. C. ALFORD, M. S., EARL DOUGLASS, M. S., - A. H. DANIELSON, B. S., - S. ARTHUR JOHNSON, M. S., - B. O. LONGYEAR, B. S., J. A. McLEAN, A. B., B. S. A., E. B. HOUSE - O. B. WHIPPLE, B. A., P. K. RLTNN, B. S., - - Field - Irrigation Engineer .Entomologist Chemist Horticulturist .Agriculturist Veterinarian Agronomist Assistant Meteorologist Assistant Chemist Assistant Chemist Assistant Agriculturist Assistant Entomologist Assistant Horticulturist Animal Husbandman Assistant Irrigation Engineer Assistant Horticulturist Agent, Arkansas Valley, Rockyford OFFICERS. President BARTON O. AYLESWORTH, A. M., LL. D. L. G. CARPENTER, M. S.,. Director A. M. HAWLEY, - . Secretary MARGARET MURRAY .... stenographer and Clerk PEACH MILDEW. By O. B. WHIPPLE. The phenomenal growth of the peach industry in that part of Colorado west of the Continental Divide is due, to a certain extent, at least, to the absence of insect pests and fungus diseases. While it is probable that our growers will never have the large array of these pests, which are common in many other regions, to contend with, we cannot hope to be entirely immune from such attacks. From a business standpoint, then, we should be constantly on the lookout for anything in the nature of a pest, so that it may be studied and means devised for its control before its attacks become serious. Peach mildew has made its appearance in a few orchards and appears to be spreading. While no great amount of damage has yet been done, some of the growers are beginning to spray their trees for the control of the disease. It is the purpose of this Bulletin to point out the nature of the disease and describe some of the means of combating it which have been used in other states. The Experiment Station has had no opportunity as yet to conduct experiments of this kind, but there is no*reason to suppose that these remedies will fail in Colorado if properly made and applied. The injury in Colorado is due to a fungus which attacks leaves, twigs and fruit alike. It appears on the fruits while they are yet small and immature, often causing them to fall prematurely. Its first appearance is indicated by a musty or frost-like patch upon the surface. When well established, the spots become almost pure white; the color being due to the mycelium and its fruiting branches, which overrun the surface upon which the fungus estab¬ lishes itself. The flesh of the fruit becomes hard under these spots and the skin takes on a brown or dead color. The appearance upon the twig is very much the same, it being very conspicuous as white blotches along the twigs; the underlying bark becoming chy anc brown. Where the attack is very severe the leaves fall, the bark be¬ comes shriveled, and the young tips often assume a curved position. It 4 STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE PLATE I.-SHOWING PEACH ATTACKED 1 BY MILDEW. PLATE II.— PEACH TWIGS ATTACKED BY MILDEW. PEACH MILDEW 5 only appears on the current year’s growth, it being able to establish itself upon the more tender growing parts only. On the leaves, it generally appears upon the under surface, most prominently along the midrib as white, irregular blotches. The attack is not confined to the under surface of the leaf, but is found there more often, proba¬ bly because strong sunlight is its worst enemy. The leaves become crimpled and curled, the younger ones near the tip often falling during severe attacks. The tissues of the leaf are deadened, and it folds more or less along the midrib, the upper surface folding upon itself. Attacks of this fungus often injure the fruit, in some cases al¬ most ruining the crop for market. The young twigs are checked in their growth, and sometimes killed outright, while the foliage is greatly reduced. If no injury to the crop is experienced during the season of attack it is no doubt true that the future crops and good health of the tree are at stake. Fruit buds for the coming year cannot be developed on half-dead twigs poorly nourished by a scant supply of foliage. Neither is the tree in shape to withstand other troubles to which the unhealthy peach tree falls heir. As preventive measures, several of more or less importance can be mentioned. As the fungus thrives best in a warm, moist and shaded location, anything that will overcome these conditions might be classed as a preventive. Too close planting is not recommended, as in such plantations a free circulation of air is shut off. Pruning to an open head would no doubt be an advantage in favor of the tree. In other words, plant and prune the orchard to favor a free circulation of air and plenty of sun about and on the inside of the tree. Experience with other mildews would seem to suggest that as a preventive measure, a cool soil and location be selected. Some have recommended the planting of varieties that seem to be free from attack, but in this state little or no preference has been shown by the fungus for certain varieties. The statement has been made that the disease seemed to be restricted to the ser¬ rate, glandless-leaved varieties, but in three lots of infested ma¬ terial sent in to the Station by fruit growers of the state two had serrate leaves and very conspicuous glands, while the third was serrate, glandless. It has been noticed that it is especially bad on seedlings in infested localities. It seems hardly necessary to take out infested trees as some have recommended, but no doubt the seedlings above mentioned could be disposed of at little loss to the grower and may noticably check the spread of the disease. No extensive experimental work has been followed out along the lines of determining remedies for this disease; nevertheless, knowing its habit of growth and the action of the various sprays upon the peach, no fear is entertained in recommending a system 6 STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE of spraying which will no doubt prove effective in holding peach mildew in check. In his “Fruits of California” Wickson, on the subject of com¬ bating mildew says: “This has been effectually done by thorough sulphuring. Mr. Klee advises three applications where mildew is apt to be bad; the first one very early in the season.” Owing to the smooth surface of the foliage of the peach such applications would necessarily have to be made early in the morn¬ ing or after a rain, while the foliage is damp. Though the applica¬ tion is generally a very simple matter when the dust sprayer is at hand, it will not, as a rule, prove as satisfactory as other methods. Lodeman, in his “Spraying of Plants,” says: “It is probable that the disease can be held in check by spraying the trees with Bordeaux Mixture as soon as the fruit has set, and follow this at intervals of two weeks by two treatments of one ounce of carbonate of copper dissolved in ammonia and diluted with twelve gallons of water.” Peach mildew being a surface grower there is no reason why any of our standard fungicides might not be employed in fightingit. A tlior ougli spraying, before the trees come into bloom, with formula A or C, is recommended. After the blossoms have fallen , an application of B or D should be made. Follow this at intervals of ten days or two weeks with one or two more applications of B or D. While A and E are sometimes recommended for use on the peach while the tree is in full leaf they are liable to burn the foliage more or less, and though it may not prove dangerous to the life or health of the tree, it is well to give up their use for others that are safe as well as efficient. Formula B is a modification of the regular Bordeaux mix- ture sometimes recommended for the peach, and can be safely used upon the peach during the growing period. Formula E is a very safe and effective spray for the first application before the leaves come out, but others given are much more simple in preparation and just as effective. Formula A. -Bordeaux Mixture. - Copper sulphate (Blue stone or Blue vitriol), 4 lbs. Quick lime ...........4 lbs. Water ......45 gal. Formula B.—Copper sulphate......2 lbs. Quick lime. . '. 4 lbs Water . 45 gal. Formula C.—Copper sulphate.1 lbs. Water.25 gal. Formula D.—Copper sulphate.1 lb. Water.400 gal. Formula E.—Copper carbonate.1 oz. Ammonia (enough to disolve copper carbonate.) Water.12 gal. The effectiveness of any of these sprays depends upon the PEACH mildew 7 thoroughness with which it is applied, and pains should betaken to reach all parts of the tree. A nozzle that breaks up the spray well will save much time. Fresh unslacked lime only should be used. It should be slacked in water in a separate vessel diluted to a thin whitewash and strained through one or two thicknesses of burlap or sacking, or through a strainer with openings the size of a pin head, before using. This prevents the clogging of the nozzles v\ith any of the coarse material left after slacking. The copper sulphate should be dissolved in warm water if wanted for immediate use. It may be dissolved in a considerable quantity of cold water by suspending it in a sack just beneath the surface. If to be used in large quantities it is well to make up a stock solution by dissolving fifty pounds in twenty-five gallons of water. Keep well covered to pre¬ vent evaporation. Two gallons of this solution contains the four pounds of copper sulphate called for in formula A, or one gallon contains the two pounds called for in formula B. The required amount of this solution should be diluted to at least thirty gallons before the lime water is added. The lime may be slacked in large quantities, in which condition it will keep well all summer, and the amount of lime water or paste required may be determined by a chemical test. For this test potassium ferro-cyanide may be secured of any druggist and prepared for use by dissolving in ten times its bulk of water. A quantity of lime water is then added to the diluted cop¬ per solution, stirred well and a drop of cyanide dropped upon the surface. If it gives a reddish brown color to the mixture, more lime must be added and the test repeated until no reaction occurs. This indicates that all harmless acids of the copper have been neutralized and the mixture is ready for use. Red litmus paper may be used and lime added until the solution turns the paper to a blue color. Bordeaux mixture deteriorates rapidly and should be used as soon as prepared. While being sprayed it requires constant stir¬ ring. In the preparation of the mixture no metal vessels or tool other than copper or brass should be used. Bulletin 108. March, 1906. The Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Colorado Agricultural College. Development of the Rockyford Cantaloupe Industry. PHILO K. BLINN. I PUBLISHED BY THE EXPERIMENT STATION FORT COLLINS, COLORADO 1906 The Agricultural Experiment Station, FORT COLLINS, COLORADO. THE STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Te Expires Hon. P. F. SHARP, President ,.Denver. 1907 Hon. HARLAN THOMAS,.Denver. 1907 Hon. JAMES L. CHATFIELD,.Gypsum. 1909 Hon. B. U. DYE,.Rocky ford. 1909 Hon. B. F. ROCKAFELLOW.Canon City. 1911 Hon. EUGENE H. GRUBB,.Carbondale. 1911 Hon. A. A. EDWARDS,.Fort Collins. 1913 Hon. R. W. CORWIN, - -.Pueblo. 1913 Governor JESSE F. McDONALD, President BARTON O. AYLESWORTH, ex-officio . A. M. HAWLEY, Secretary. EDGAR AVERY, Treasurer. Executive Committee; in Charge. P. F. SHARP, Chairman. B. F. ROCKAFELLOW. A. A. EDWARDS. STATION STAFF. L. G. CARPENTER, M. S., Director, - - - Irrigation Engineer C. P. GILLETTE, M. S.,.Entomologist W P. HEADDEN, A. M., Ph. D., . Chemist WENDELL PADDOCK, M. S.,.Horticulturist W. L. CARLYLE, M. S., .- Agriculturist G. H. GLOVER, B. S., D. V. M., ------ Veterinarian W. H. OLIN, M. S., - - . - - - - - - - * Agronomist R E. TRIMBLE, B. S.,.Assistant Meteorologist F' C. ALFORD, M. S., . Assistant Chemist EARL DOUGLASS, M. S., .Assistant Chemist F. KNORR, ..Assistant Agriculturist s’ ARTHUR JOHNSON, M. S , - Assistant Entomologist ■r o LONGYEAR. B. S., -.Assistant Horticulturist j.‘ A. McLEAN, A. B., B. S. A.,.Animal Husbandman E. B. HOUSE, B. S., - - - - Assistant Irrigation Engineer O. B. WHIPPLE, B. S., - - - - - - Assistant Horticulturist P. K. BLINN, B. S., - - Field Agent, Arkansas Valley, Rockyeord Western Slope Fruit Investigations, Grand Junction: .- Field Horticulturist ESTES P. TAYOR, B. S.,.Field Entomologist Officers. President BARTON O. AYLESWORTH, A. M., LL. D. L. G. CARPENTER, M. S., - - - - - - Director A. M. HAWLEY.. Secretary MARGARET MURRAY,. Stenographer and Clerk Development of the Rockyford Cantaloupe ' Industry. Philo K. Blinn. HARDY HISTORY. Rockyford Netted Gem Cantaloupes have been produced in the vicinity of Rockyford for about twenty years, while other va¬ rieties of cantaloupes or muskmelons are reported as having been grown at an earlier period by the first settlers along the valley. The honor of growing the first Rockyford cantaloupes for market is accredited to Mr. J. W. Eastwood now a resident of Phoenix, Ariz. The same season Mr. J. E. Gauger, a few miles west of La Junta also grew a small patch of the Netted Gems from seed secured from Mr. W. Atlee Burpee who introduced the Variety in 1881. Mr. Eastwood relates the beginning of the industry in the following narrative: I removed from Denver to Rockyford in November, 1884, and as I had previously been growing the Netted Gem cantaloupes, I determined to try them there. Accordingly the following spring, I planted about one- half acre, and so far as I know, this was the first of this variety grown at Rockyford. Mr. G. W. Swink was growing a larger variety, but after making several close inspections of the Netted Gems as he saw them grow¬ ing during the season, said he was convinced that they were the canta¬ loupes to grow. He selected a dozen or so for seed which were the first of this variety in Rockyford to be saved for seed. I secured my seed either through Mi*. Henry Lee of Denver or Mr. Burpee of Philadelphia. At that time no thought was given to the improvement of the parent stock, from which such marked results have since been attained. I do not now remember the amount of cash received from the product of this half acre. I shipped the melons mostly to Mr. Woodruff, a com¬ mission merchant of Leadville, who sold them for 10 cents per pound, which would be equal to about $6.50 per crate. As the patch yielded well and the melons sold so readily, I wished before the season closed that I had planted several half acres, but dur¬ ing the seven years in which I grew cantaloupes at Rockyford, I rarely exceeded five acres each year. After the first two or three years a num¬ ber of other farmers began growing cantaloupes. In those early years the market was not crowded and by culling closely a good sale was realized for what was shipped. The cantaloupes were gathered in sacks and packed and shipped in barrels and boxes, and as the market was then principally in Colorado towns, the “empties” were re¬ turned to the growers. We had not thought of shipping in car lots, although watermelons were already being shipped in that way; sometimes straw was placed on top of the water melons and cantaloupes were added to the car. We had no thought of co-operative organization as yet, but each sue- 4 Bulletin 108. ceeding year, new growers were added, and as the markets began to be more fully supplied with cantaloupes, they were sometimes over crowded at the height of the season; one year while I was there, the growers met and apportioned the markets, each grower agreeing to ship only to his own, during the rush of the season, thus equalizing the supply to the various markets. At the commencement of the cantaloupe industry, a com¬ paratively small area was under cultivation. Such farms as were found along the Arkansas were principally stock ranches, pro¬ ducing hay, grain and alfalfa seed. The gross returns from any of these crops were comparatively small, and the valuation of land was consequently low. In the vicinity of Rockyford, even as late as 1897, choice lands under ditches with the best water rights were purchased for fifty dollars per acre. Hon. G. W. Swink and other early settlers who were interested in the de¬ velopment of the valley, were enterprising in their efforts. In 1889 Mr. Swink attended a Beet Sugar Convention held at Grand Island, Neb., with a view of interesting the Oxnard’s in the Ar¬ kansas Valley as a suitable location for a Beet Sugar factory. He became convinced that the farms in the Arkansas Valley were too large and the population too small to offer any inducement to the sugar beet industry at that time. He had the hope, how¬ ever, that the cantaloupe industry, which had already brought en¬ couraging returns, would provide a larger population and smaller farms, and thus bring about the conditions necessary for the beet industry. Accordingly on his return to Rockyford he set to work to encourage every available settler. His lands near Rockyford were divided into five and ten acre tracts; and opportunities to secure homes were freely offered to health seekers without means, good intention being the principle requirement. The lucrative promise of the cantaloupe industry, as well as the light character of the work, appealed to an intelligent class of people who found the climatic conditions of the East too severe. The public spirit which was early manifested, as well as the enterprising character of the community, were potent factors in the development of the cantaloupe industry and led to the in¬ tensive farming which has since characterized the vicinity of Rocky¬ ford. During ten or twelve years, small farms devoted to canta¬ loupe culture were constantly increasing. Some growers, for¬ tunate in getting early melons and in shipping to reliable com¬ mission merchants, received gratifying returns; others from various causes received but poor returns and bewailed their fate in ever coming to the valley. During the latter part of the first decade, it became evident that the production of cantaloupes had. reached the limit of the Development oe Rockyeord CanataLoupe Industry. 5 market then developed. One of the first evidences of “too many” cantaloupes, was the lack of boxes and barrels for shipping. Ne¬ cessity, however, became the mother of invention, and someone conceived the idea of making a crude crate. Twelve-inch board and common lath were utilized, half of the length of the lath be¬ ing used for slats, and as this happened to accomodate about 45 averaged sized melons, the size of the future standard crate was thus arbitrarily determined. Although the empty boxes were con¬ stantly being returned from the Pueblo and Denver markets, the local supply of lath and twelve-inch boards was soon exhausted. Glowing reports from the first shipments of the season cre¬ ated .such enthusiasm, that every melon which could possibly be shipped was hurried onto the market, only to find at the end of the season, that much of the crop had not paid express charges. The high prices which a favored few obtained at the beginning of the season acted like a lucky strike in a mining camp, and each spring found new growers and a constantly increasing acreage. For many years the cantaloupes were shipped entirely by local express, each grower making his individual consignments to the var¬ ious Colorado markets. In 1894 the first step toward co-opera¬ tive effort in marketing cantaloupes was taken, groups of neigh¬ bors combining to load a ventilator car and ship by freight, thus securing greatly reduced transportation. The cars were con¬ signed to commission men on the various markets who remitted to the individual consignors who made up the car. Messrs. G. W. Swink, A. C. Comer, A. P. Kouns were representative men in these early shipping groups. Two years later the growers, for the first time, were supplied with regular crates manufac¬ tured at the lumber mills. These were of the same dimensions as the first crude crate, and were essentially the same as those that have since been used. Following the introduction of the crate, came the next step towards co-operative organization, when one of the shipping groups, already referred to, added a few members, elected officers, and effected a formal organization which has since been known as the “Kouns Party.” Their plan was to ship to specially authorized agents or commission men who contracted to handle their canta¬ loupes exclusively. They shipped most of their cantaloupes to Denver, receiving fair returns considering the glutted condition of the Colorado markets that season. Their organization had its ad¬ vantages, but as they had no control over the heavy shipments of others, the general results of 1896 were a repetition of former failures. Many growers after laboring all summer to produce a crop of cantaloupes, were presented with bills for transportation, their summer’s labor having been sacrified as they believed, to the 6 Bulletin 108. railroad and commission men. A few cars of cantaloupes which Messrs. G. W. Swink and A. C. Comer that season shipped to Kansas City and St. Louis caused a new star of hope to rise in the Eastern horizon, and visions of great possibilities for future market developments. The unremunerative returns of several years having created a strong public sentiment that something must be done, the time seemed to be ripe for a more comprehensive co-operative organiza¬ tion. Accordingly a meeting was called in the fall of 1896; by¬ laws were drafted and articles of incorporation were filed for the Rockyford Melon Growers Association. It embraced practically all the cantaloupe growers of Otero county with the exception of several individuals who by reason of the organization were able to secure good prices from certain commission men who were trying hard to disrupt the organization. The Kouns Party was absorbed by the Association, it being understood that H. Woods should represent the Association in the Denver market. The gen¬ eral plan of the Association was to market all cantaloupes possible, and when from lack of cars or insufficient market, the melons could not be handled, the grower was given a receipt and his canta¬ loupes returned to him to be cut for seed or to be fed to stock. The proceeds of those which were marketed were divided pro rata according to the receipts which the growers held. The first season a contract was made with the Western Poul¬ try and Game Co. of St. Louis, Mo., which agreed to take thirty- five cars during the season of 1897 at 75 cents per crate, f. o. b. at Rockyford. The quality of the cantaloupes that season was ex¬ ceptionally fine, and they sold so readily on the Eastern markets, that by the close of the season the St. Louis firm had handled 121 cars. On several occasions, circumstances necessitated the return of the cantaloupes to the grower, which, according to the terms of the Association were receipted for, and which reduced the average price per crate during the- season, yet for once in the history of the cantaloupe industry, the returns were satisfactory. The following year the Manager of the Western Poultry and Game Co. came before the Association and reported that tEe previous year had been a profitable one to his com¬ pany, they having cleared a considerable sum, exclusive of large amounts spent in advertising; he claimed that they had secured reliable agents in New York, Pittsburg and other cities in the East, to assist them, and offered to contract the crop of 1898 at 97/4 cents per crate, f. o. b. at Rockyford. The proposition was received with enthusiasm. The membership of the Association swelled to over 800 mem¬ bers, and the acreage increased to more than 5,000 acres in Otero Development op Rockyeord Cantaloupe Industry. 7 County. With the exception of a small body of men in Prowers County and two or three men in Otero County it comprised all the cantaloupe growers in the Arkansas Valley. Never before was there a closer organization of growers, or one in which members were more persistent in their determination to remain loyal to the organization. Some attempts were made to influence growers to break the contract and leave the organization, some men even having their agents meet the growers on the road to the station, and offer an advance over what they expected to receive through the Associa¬ tion, but as there was a general feeling that they had been vic¬ timized by such men there is no record of any grower betraying the Association. The harvest began early in August, a few crates at first which rapidly increased until 14 cars were loaded in a day. This jumped suddenly to 28 cars a day during the last week in August. Soon 150 cars were rolling to the Eastern markets when it was realized that the market would be glutted before the week’s heavy ship¬ ment could arrive. Telegrams flashed the information and a halt was called, while the commission men hurried West to explain the situation. A largely attended mass meeting of growers met at the Fair Grounds in Rockyford to hear the report of market conditions. By telegrams, letters and able addresses, they were convinced that their cantaloupes were not so marketable as in the previous year. Over one hundred cars had been dumped in New York City alone and transportation charges of many thousands of dollars remained unpaid, which it was claimed they were re¬ sponsible for because the melons were not merchantable. The A. T. & S. F. R. R. offered to cancel the transporta¬ tion due them from the lost cantaloupes. The commission firm offered to pay $18,000 of the $48,000 then due the Association, pro¬ viding the latter would waive the balance and accept 75 cents per crate for the balance of the season. This proposition was accepted by the growers though it afterwards proved that the firm was un¬ able to meet their promises and representatives of the Association were sent East to investigate the disaster. They reported and experience has since shown that poor refrigeration was the chief cause of the loss of the cantaloupes, the truth of the matter being that the industry had out grown the then poorly developed mar¬ ket facilities. Experience in handling the crop had not kept pace with the increased production. As a whole the season’s results were highly unsatisfactory. Seemingly the Association idea had received a death blow, yet the co-operation idea of the Association was not abandoned, it simply changed form. The various shipping points of La Junta, 8 Bulletin 108. Fowler and Manzanola withdrew and organized Associations of their own, then a Federation was perfected including these sev¬ eral Associations which provided a general marketing committee with representatives from each Association who were empowered to make the contracts with the commission men, thus uniform con¬ tracts were secured for the Valley. By this time, the cantaloupe industry had been the cause of a large increase in population and the large farms had been broken up into smaller tracts. Then, too, in 1899 a large number of field tests of sugar beets by farmers demonstrated the possibilities in the Valley, and the following year saw the construction of a factory at Rockyford, thus realizing the early hopes of the origi¬ nal promoters of the Valley. Many growers turned their attention to the new crop so that the tension of the cantaloupe situation was somewhat relieved, and cantaloupe growing has since become more profitable, the average price realized having gradually increased. It is true there have been seasons of high and low prices, influenced by various condi¬ tions which effect the marketing of any crop, such as over-produc¬ tion, quality, the abundance of substitute fruit, etc. At Rockyford the original Association, with amended by¬ laws, was continued and is still a well organized body of growers. The growers who had been previously identified as the “Kouns Party,” withdrew with others and reorganized, forming the “Kouns Party” of today. Their plan has been to ship exclusively on com¬ mission, each car being treated as an entirety and the returns pro¬ rated among the growers who shipped in the car. The plan has been popular with many growers and a number of Associations in the Valley have adopted it, shipping through the same commis¬ sion firm—H. Woods of Chicago. The Rockyford Association and those federated with it, since the disaster of 1898 have also resorted to the commission basis in general, shipping through the joint firms of Lyons and Coggins, the main difference being that in the Rockyford Association, the returns have been prorated, at first in daily pools and later in the season in weekly pools, instead of by the car as in the Kouns Party. The latter method although affording a quick account of sales, make the returns for each grower more subject to chance, since the particular car in which he ships may or may not encounter favor¬ able conditions. Thus in this plan there may be a variation in the returns which different growers may receive who have shipped the same day but in different cars. It might be well to state that up to the present time, there has been no classification as to quality there being but one grade of inspection. In the other plan, the returns for the day or week Development oe Rockyeord Cantaloupe Industry. 9 being pooled, growers shipping at the same period will receive the same returns regardless of the conditions which their indi¬ vidual melons may encounter. Each plan has its advocates and on the whole both have given satisfactory results. Since the division of the big Association of 1898, most of the cantaloupes have been marketed through the organizations and commission men above mentioned, yet from time to time, other commission men have made efforts to gain a foot-hold with the growers. Taking advantage of low market conditions, they would report high returns and in this way a number of growers have been drawn from the Associations. One after another of these firms has come and gone, each time leaving a sadder but more experienced set of growers. The presence of these contending elements has in many cases hampered the results of the associations, causing unstable condi¬ tions. Thus, when the management insisted on the rules of the Association and the rigid inspection of cantaloupes necessary to the welfare of the industry, some over sensitive grower would “pull out” to the opposition who were ready and willing to re¬ ceive his cantaloupes regardless of condition. A number of in¬ stances have occurred when loads of green or otherwise unmar¬ ketable cantaloupes have been refused at the Association plat¬ form, only to be immediately driven over to the car of some con¬ tending commission firm, where a large sum would be paid for the first load with promise of still greater returns subsequently if sent on commission. The result of trusting these promises, has shown them to be but a bait. Again the constant canvassing by these commission agents has tended to increase the acreage of cantaloupes, although experience has shown the industry to be overdone nearly every year. Not only this, but the strife and competition have led to the shipping of green unmarketable melons in order to get the ad¬ vertising which comes from shipping the first basket or crate of Rockyfords. Thus, in 1894, one of the new commission firms paid $10 for a crate of green cantaloupes which were shipped a week before the first really ripe cantaloupes were ready to market. This shipping of green stock stimulated the practice in all of the Associations among impatient or inexperienced growers and resulted injuriously to the reputation of the Rocky ford cantaloupes and has been an outrage upon the people who bought the fruit. A cantaloupe which is not at a certain stage of ripeness when picked will never be fit to eat, but the inexperienced commission man rea¬ sons that because fruit such as lemons, bananas and tomatoes can be marketed quite green and still attain perfection, that the same can be done with cantaloupes. This is a fatal mistake—as well 10 Bulletin 108. try to market green peaches, strawberries or watermelons, which only shrivel down and are worthless. Many lessons beside those mentioned have been learned in the last six or eight years, and they nearly all attest the merits of well organized co-operative efforts to secure results. During the coming season of 1906, the organized Associa¬ tions will doubtless market most of the cantaloupes from the Rocky- ford district, although the firm of Young & Mathis of New York, who are large growers themselves, and who ship for individuals to some extent, may be a possible exception. The growers in general have realized to their sorrow that the old adage, “Competition is the life of trade,” is a poor maxim when applied to the sale of cantaloupes on commission—the com¬ mission men fight and the growers pay the bill. This has become such a reality that it has produced a strong sentiment in the minds of many growers in favor of a cash proposition. As a result in recent years a cash advance of varying amounts has been granted in many of the contracts with the commission men, but there are many conditions which can not be controlled, such as the acreage needed to supply the market demands; the preventing of outside growers from selling on commission and thus competing with the man who pays cash, all of which seem to preclude the possibility of getting a cash price which would equal that now realized through reliable commission. If the element of competition on the market were eliminated by the complete co-operation of the growers, and if the acreage were not increased beyond that indicated by experience, the price of cantaloupes would doubtless become more uniform from year to year. The added strength of the established Associations, caused by the return of many of the disaffected growers; the securing of a uniform strain of seed for the members of these Associations, and the improving of market facilities are all factors which seem to promise better days for the cantaloupe industry and the realiza¬ tion of the co-operative ideal where all the interests of the canta¬ loupe growers become mutual. Having summarized the growth of the industry from the grower’s standpoint, the history would seem to be incomplete with¬ out a review of the market developments as witnessed from the distributing man’s point of view; for in order to make possible this great industry which returns to the grower several hundred thou¬ sands of dollars each year, joint efforts were required on the part of both growers and market men, and without this co-operative effort, the industry would still be in a chaotic condition. Lyons Brothers Co. of New York and M. O. Coggins Co. Development op Rockyford Cantaloupe Industry. ii of Pittsburg which jointly have directly or indirectly handled the cantaloupes of the Rockyford Melon Growers’ Association since the first car went to Eastern markets, and H. Woods of Chicago, who has marketed the cantaloupes of the Kouns Party since its organization, represent the principal distributing agents of canta¬ loupe growers’ organizations in Colorado during the past ten years. Each has kindly contributed an article embodying much use¬ ful information relative to the co-operative organizations and the marketing of cantaloupes. Mr. M. O. Coggins of Pittsburg had prepared an article en¬ titled, “The Cantaloupe—From a Luxury to a Necessity,” which he read before the National League of Commission Merchants in Milwaukee, and this article with supplementary information was to have been contributed to this Bulletin, but before he had time to prepare it, his sudden death immediately following his return, occurred, and the information expected to have been obtained from him, is limited to the article referred to. His unexpected death has caused a severe blow to the canta¬ loupe industry, for without doubt his influence, as much as that of any one man has made possible the present development of the industry. Being identified with it from the first, his experience and judgment are a loss which will be felt. It was through his personal influence that the first cars were shipped east of St. Louis. In 1897, after several interviews over the long distance telephone with Mr. Nat Wetzel of St. Louis, he induced him, by a guar¬ antee of $2 per crate, to forward a car of Rockyford cantaloupes, although it was doubtful whether cantaloupes could be carried far¬ ther east than St. Louis. Mr. Coggins lost 20 cents per crate but made good his guarantee, and the merits of the melons becoming known, he was able to realize a profit on subsequent shipments, and that season handled 8 cars of the first 30 received in St. Louis by the Western Poultry and Game Co. THE CANTALOUPE, FROM A LUXURY TO A NECESSITY M. O. COGGINS. In the year 1870, it was an unusual thing to see a muskmelon on the market, but long in the eighties, they began planting in the Maryland Peninsula a variety known as the Anna Rundels and also some Jenny Linds. These were placed on the market about the 10th of July, but ship¬ ments amounted to very little until about the 20th of July, continuing un¬ til the middle of August; these shipments gradually increased in quantity each year until the nineties, although the total receipts on the New York market would not amount to three cars a day at the height of the sea¬ son and the prices ranged from $2.50 to $6.50 per basket. Only a few of the fruit and vegetable men handled muskmelons and they supplied the hotels and restaurants. The high prices and limited supply made the cantaloupe a great luxury, too expensive for the average grocer to handle. 12 Bulletin 108. Beginning with, the early nineties, there was a gradual increase in quantity as other sections of the country began shipping so that the sea¬ son gradually began earlier until melons for the 4th of July market were no longer considered a novelty. After the year 18 97, when Rockyfords were placed on the different markets and the standard crate established, the Rockyford seed for planting came to be in great demand in the southern states. In 1898, the first cars of southern cantaloupes grown from Roc.ky- ford seed were shipped from Hitchcock, Texas, and in the following yeai the first carloads from Florida arrived in New York on June 2; these were followed by shipments from Georgia, the Carolinas and other points far¬ ther north, keeping a steady supply on the market until the last ship¬ ments of the Colorado melons. The effect of the use of the Rockyford seed and of the standard crate was to make the cantaloupe a standard article of trade so that regular quotations could be made. Orders were received from cities and towns tributary to the large re¬ ceiving points, causing a demand at small points as well as large ones. This demand has increased so enormously since 1897, that I thought possibly a few figures carefully estimated would be of interest. In 1897 the amount consumed througout the United States was not over 400 carloads, gradually increasing until during the past season of 1905, 6,920 carloads were used throughout the United States. The three largest markets the past year handled 1,4 60; 715 and 660 cars respectively. While the season for cantaloupes has changed from a period of less than two months to six months of carload business. The past three seasons have opened up about May 12 with shipments from Florida, car lots having been received on the market as early as May 22. During the height of the season, New York alone has received as high as 35 cars in a day. Prior to the introduction of the Rockyfords, the markets had no uni¬ form style of package, shipments being received in baskets, barrels, straw¬ berry crates and sometimes in dry goods boxes. There being no uni¬ formity, quotations were impossible, but with the establishment of the standard crate containing a uniform number of cantaloupes, the canta¬ loupe became a standard article of fruit which can be quoted intelli¬ gently, the buyer knowing what he is to receive in size and number, since the Rockyford seed produces the same size and shape in all states and is the only shape of cantaloupes that the buyers will buy. This has made it possible for both individuals and companies to plant a very large acreage. To give some idea of the seed industry, there was saved in the past season in the Rockyford district, from 90,000 to 100,000 pounds for dis¬ tribution in the different melon growing sections of the country. Before the advent of the Rockyfords, a ten-acre patch was con¬ sidered a large venture for any one grower and it is now well known that in some states one grower may sometimes attempt as high as 150 acres. Prior to the Rockyfords no muskmelons worth speaking of were raised south of the Maryland Peninsula in the East, and Indiana and Missouri in the West; at the present time there are grown in the state of Florida, about 4,000 acres; in Georgia, about 4,000 acres; in North and South Carolina, about 4,500 acres, to say nothing of the aggregate of small acreage in other states; the total for the United States during the past season being not less than 58,600 acres. The supply from the beginning is continuous, the season in one state over-lapping that in another so there is no time after the commence¬ ment of the melon season when the markets are not supplied. Thus the trade has an opportunity to handle and the consumer an opportunity to purchase, so the cantaloupe at the breakfast table is no longer con¬ sidered a luxury but a necessity. Development oe Rockyford Cantaeoupe Industry. i3 EARLY MARKET CONDITIONS OF CANTALOUPES ON THE NEW YORK MARKET. EYON BROTHERS COMPANY. Prior to 1897, the eastern markets were supplied with Anna Rundels, Jennie Linds and the Hackensack variety of muskmeolon; these came to the New York market in packages of every description, there being no uniformity of package or any effort to establish one. The melons were irregular in size, variety and quality; the flesh was generally thin, the seed cavity large, the flavor irregular. The bulk of the receipts for the New York market came from Mary¬ land, Delaware and New Jersey. Evidently there was no systematic or¬ ganization of the growers as the shipments were spasmodic; at times the market was glutted, at other times deficient, and the irregular conditions which prevailed made it impossible to give a standard market quotation. The melons were sold by men whose principle business was the sell¬ ing of vegetables and the prices realized were according to their ideas rather than from any regular market quotation, which today gives the grower accurate information of the condition of the market. HOW ROCKYEORDS CHANGED CONDITIONS. In August, 1897, Rockyford cantaloupes, packed uniformly in crates containing 45 cantaloupes, were received on the New York market; the thick flesh, small seed cavity and delicious flavor, made a sensational repu¬ tation for the Rockyford cantaloupe as being the very finest ever placed on the New York market. These melons we received from the Rockyford Melon Growers’ Association, and the form of crate which originated there, was soon adopted as the standard package for market quotations, and soon came into use throughout the melon growing sections of the United States. The ready sale of the Rockyfords, the organization of the growers which insured the uniform crates, and the fact that the melons were grown under irrigation and about the same quality could be produced every year, were facts which convinced us that the Rockyford would be¬ come as standard an article of trade as a barrel of apples. ^Accordingly, we determined to make cantaloupes one of our specialties, and for several years were the only house in New York handling the product. By thorough advertising the Rockyford cantaloupe became famous in all the Eastern states. The introduction of the Rockyford cantaloupe prolonged the market season in New York City from about September 5 to the middle of October. Experiments showing that the Rockyford seed would reproduce its superior qualities when grown in the South or East, led to extensive plant¬ ing in the Southern states—700 acres being planted in these states in 18 99. The melons from these states came on early in May, thus open¬ ing the market two months in advance of previous years. In 1905, the first crate was received from Florida on May 12, and the supply con¬ tinued from the various states in succession until October 2 3, making a period of nearly six months. The fact that the cantaloupe seed produced in Colorado under irri¬ gation, will produce earlier melons and of a superior quality, than the same strain when grown in other states, has been verified each year, and thousands of pounds are annually sent to the Southern states and Cali¬ fornia from Colorado. Owing to the development of this phase of the industry, it behooves the Colorado grower to use the utmost care in the selection and develop¬ ment of his seed, in order to maintain the trade of the United States which looks to him to supply a superior grade of seed. Every communitty of growers should organize an association which would make rules enforcing the planting of a strain of cantaloupe seed 14 Bulletin 108 . known to have the best line of selection. They should insist on uniform grading and packing and permit no inferior cantaloupes to be marketed or even cut for seed. By such action a reputation can be secured and maintained which will greatly benefit the melon industry. On the other hand, carlessness on the part of a few, may work irreparable injury to the industry. We wish to express our satisfaction in dealing with organized growers. It has been more satisfactory to the growers themselves as well as the trade, and the co-oprative spirit that has been shown in some of the com¬ munities of the melon growing section in Colorado, is worthy of being emulated in other sections of the country. Transportation under modern refrigeration has made possible the great melon industry. Melons will carry to the most distant markets if the proper conditions are provided. Usually the melons are warm when loaded, the temperature often being over a hundrd degrees in the shade. The car may stand six or eight hours before it is made up and even if it starts soon after being loaded, the enormous heat in 350-400 crates of melons is more than the ice in the bunkers can absorb; the hot, close air generates a ferment that results in the partial or complete loss of the melons. It is a fact that in cars of cantaloupes which heat or are spoiled, the injury is done in the first 24 hours. Mr. Li. M. Lyons, the President of our Company, has been studying the problem and has perfected a patent cooling process, which exhausts the hot air while the car is being loaded and waiting to start on its long journey, thus avoiding the formation of degenerating gases. During the season of 1905, the process was used for the first time at Thermal, Cal.; the cars were three days in being loaded and the out¬ side temperature during the day varied from 123-130 degrees in the shade, but arrived in New York in perfect condition and sold as high as $2,506 gross, per car. During the coming season, the process will be tested in Colorado and the Southern states. MARKET DEVELOPMENT OF THE ROCKYFORD CAN¬ TALOUPE. H. WOODS. My experience with the Rockyford cantaloupe began in Denver, fifteen years ago when one wagon could have delivered the daily consignments and my yearly sales did not exceed $500. Since that time I have witnessed the growth of the industry and its market developments until the present time when my cantaloupe business amounted to $250,000 for the season of 1905. A story of the early market conditions of the Rockyford cantaloupe would be a varied one, telling of irregular cantaloupes, in irregular pack¬ ages, coming in irregular consignments to irregular commission men, who remitted irregular returns to irregular growers. From the beginning of my experience in Denver, the market, at some period in nearly every season would be over-crowded with melons. The melon is at best a very perishable article and may be in per¬ fect condition today, but soft and undesirable tomorrow. When the market is over-supplied each subsequent consignment makes more difficult the sale of stock already on hand, consequently the price drops, and trans¬ portation charges may not be realized. This has been the cause of many of the discouraging remittances to growers. The recollection of some of the critical experiences of the early melon market in Denver is far from pleasant. Often the commission houses were overstocked and yet in spite of repeated advices by mail and wire, the growers would continue their consignments, although there was lit¬ tle hope of even securing transportation charges. Development op Rockypord Cantaloupe Industry. i5 The adoption of the standard crate and the co-operative idea of some of the growers, made possible the wider development of the cantaloupe market throughout the United States. The subsequent organization of the growers to provide a satisfactory- market for their cantaloupes was a wise step. The season of 1898 was a disastrous one. The elements leading to this failure being, poor quality, a partial failure in refrigeration, over¬ production, and . the fact that a large proportion of the men handling the cantaloupes in the East, had but little experience or knowledge of the product, and the proper method of handling on the market. Believing my experience with the Rockyford cantaloupe in Colorado would be useful to myself and the industry, and the industry having now become national rather than local, in 1899, I contracted to handle on a commission basis the cantaloupes of the Kouns Party on the Eastern market. I went to New York to thoroughly study the conditions in the East, and to discover what improvements could be made in the distribution and handling of the cantaloupes on the Eastern market, also the neces¬ sities for their proper transportation and refrigeration. From my experience and observation that year, I decided that Chi¬ cago was the best point from which to distribute the product. Chicago was not only one of the largest cities in the country, but it was on the only line of railroad running through the cantaloupe belt of Colorado, although as yet Chicago consumed but very few Rockyford cantaloupes. Accordingly in 1900 I located in Chicago continuing my contract with the Kouns Party and other Associations in the Rockyford country. My long experience in the business, enabled me to secure good re¬ sponsible parties in all the leading cities of the country to handle these cantaloupes for me. In the Chicago office, I was in daily touch by wire with all these agents, also, with the conditions of the cars in transit. These were inspected at the Missouri River and again at Chicago and forwarded to the different markets according to their condition, only the firmest and best stock being allowed to continue on the long journey to the seaboard. It has taken 'since 1899 to build up this system and secure agents who can always be relied on to give attention 'to the business at the proper time. The average price paid to the grower gradually increased from 1899 to 1903, averaging about a dollar per crate for the period of five years. The increase in price had two results which led to the almost complete failure of 1904: 1st the profits to the grower during the period of pros¬ perity led to more extensive planting, resulting in over-production; 2d, the profits to the distributors during the same period, led new men with¬ out a comprehensive knowledge to go into the field and contract as dis¬ tributors; this increased competition, led to the placing of many inferior melons which otherwise would not have been shipped, thus further over¬ crowding the markets and lowering the price below the point of profit¬ able production, and in the case of some firms at an actual loss to the grower. The poor results of 1904 materially decreased the acreage for 1905 and caused a much larger proportion of the melons to be handled by experienced distributors, so that the results to the grower were again satisfactory, reaching the highest average paid the grower in the his¬ tory of the melon industry in Colorado. To sum up the situation: The successful distributor must thoroughly know the source of supply; understand the handling of the melons from the field to the car, also the loading and cooling of cars, the proper re¬ frigeration, the conditions and requirements of the different markets, and must have capable and experienced agents to handle the melons in the different cities of the country. These, together with the support of an organization of growers, i6 Bulletin 108. who are loyal to their own best interests as represented by the objects of their association, will assure the prosperity of the industry. TRANSPORTATION. During the last nine years, 5,999 cars of cantaloupes were shipped out of the Rockyford district, being an average of 666 cars per annum. In 1904 the largest number were shipped, 1,182 cars, and in 1897 the smallest number, 121 cars. The transportation feature of the cantaloupe industry is perhaps the most important of any. In the early stages of the cantaloupe industry the largest cars in use measured from 32-34 feet in length, outside measurement. Today the predominating car is 40 feet, outside measurement, which allows 32 feet 5 inches inside length; 8 feet 2 inches width and 7 feet 3 inches in height. The crates are loaded lengthwise and space allowed between each tier for the circulation of the cold air. A 40 foot car per¬ mits 24,000 pounds or 366 standard crates of 66 pounds each, to be loaded in tiers not exceeding three crates in height, except a few tiers near the ice box. The warm air necessary rises to the top of the car, and if the cars are loaded more than three tiers high, the top tier generally arrives at its destination in a worthless con¬ dition. It has been the experience of all receivers during the past years that it is not best to load cars to exceed 24,00 pounds, or 364 prates. The system of icing the cars in vogue at present is to ice the empty cars at La Junta during the night and send them on . a special train about 6 o’clock in the morning to the Rockyford dis¬ trict and stations west, or by the east-bound freight to stations in the Las Animas district. • The initial icing requires about 9,000 pounds. After load¬ ing, the cars are returned to La Junta and re-iced with about. 6,000 pounds of ice. The melon train arrives at La Junta from stations in the Rockyford district about 9 p. m. After re-icing the cars they depart for the East on trains leaving La Junta about midnight. In the height of the season, the train is a complete melon train. During the very warm weather when the temperature ranges to 90 degrees and upwards, the rear vents are left open until Dodge City is reached. This is for the purpose of permitting the gases and hot air to escape from the car. Cars re-iced at Dodge City take an average of about 4,000 pounds of ice. The next icing station is Newton, Kan., where about 5,000 pounds more of ice are required. Argentine follows, with 4,500 pounds. The run from La Junta to Argentine is 36 hours. At La Junta, Newton and Argentine, the S. F. R. D. Co. and St. F. R. R. each have ice inspectors whose duty is to see that the cars are Development of Rockyeord Cantaloupe Industry. 17 properly iced in accordance with instructions. These require that the ice shall not be in chunks larger than 50 pounds and that the bunkers shall be filled to full capacity at each icing station. There is no salt used but the ice is properly packed into the bunkers. Argentine is a diversion point for most of the receivers and each has a representative to inspect the condition of the canta¬ loupes as well as the ice in the bunkers. On the report of the inspectors at Argentine is determined the diversion to long or short-haul points. The run from Argentine to Chicago is 30 hours. Cars are re-iced at Corwith, the outer yard of the S. F. R. R. at Chicago, and usually require from 2,500-3,000 pounds of ice. Full record of the movement of all cars is kept by the S. F. R. R. Co., being received by wire from La Junta, Dodge City, Newton and Argentine. Diversions may be accomplished at any point from the line of the S. F. R. R. on very short notice, by reason of this accurate record. Some through cars for the East¬ ern markets do not pass through Chicago but are given to the I. I. & I. R. R. or some other outer belt line which delivers to the East¬ ern connections without passing through Chicago, but on account of the advantage of inspecting cars at Corwith, it has been deemed advisible in late years to have all cars pass through Chicago. The melon train usually arrives at Corwith between 5 and 6 p. m., leav¬ ing ample time to re-ice cars and make Eastern connections. The Bohn patent refrigerator car is used by the S. F. R. R. Co. giving more satisfactory refrigeration than the old style for the reason that the ice tanks are not covered but separated by a grating only, thus allowing the cold to permeate the car, and in this manner the car receives the full advantage of the ice. In former years, cantaloupe cars were not iced prior to load¬ ing and then re-iced immediately after loading. The custom was to ice cars at La Junta, send them down to loading stations and not re-ice until cars reached Argentine. By that time the ice in the bunkers was practically exhausted, the melons ruined, and all the ice which could be put in the bnnkers could not restore the damage to the melons. The striking contrast of the present sys¬ tem of re-icing the cars immediately after loading and keeping the bunkers well filled to destination, uniformly brings the cars to des¬ tination in first class condition and claims for damages are reduced to the minimum. The time consumed in transporting cars from Chicago to New York is about 60 hours, and from Chicago to Boston about 84 hours. When cantaloupes are in good condition when picked and are loaded properly, the cars well iced and transported without unnecessary delay, they should arrive even on the Atlantic sea¬ board, in practically as good condition as when shipped. Bulletin 109 April, 1906 The Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Colorado Agricultural College. Cultural Methods for Sugar Beets PROGRESS BULLETIN By W. H. OLIN PUBLISHED BY THE EXPERIMENT STATION Fort Collins, Colorado. 1906 . The Agricultural Experiment Station. FORT COLLINS, COLORADO The state Board of agriculture Hon. P. F. SHARP, President . Hon. HARLAN THOMAS. Hon. JAMES L. CHATFIELD. Hon. B. IT. DYE. Hon. B. F. ROCKAFELLOW. Hon. EUGENE H. GRUBB. Hon. A. A. EDWARDS. Hon. R. W. CORWIN. Governor JESSE F. MCDONALD, [ President BARTON O. AYLESWORTH, \ Denver. Denver. Gypsum .... Rocky Ford Canon City. Carbondale. Fort Collins Pueblo. ex-officio. TERM EXPIRES ....1907 .. .1907 ....1909 ....1909 ....1911 ....1911 ....1913 ....1913 A. M. HAWLEY, Secretary EDGAR AVERY Treasurer Executive Committee in Charge P. F. SHARP, Chairman. B. F. ROCKAFELLOW. A A. EDWARDS STATION STAFF L. G. CARPENTER, M. S., Director C. P. GILLETTE, M. S. W. P. HEADDEN, A. M. Ph. De... W. PADDOCK, M. S. W. L. CARLYLE, M. S. G. H. GLOVER, B S., D. V. M. W. H. OLIN, M. S., . R. E. TRIMBLE, B. S. F. C. ALFORD, M. S. EARL DOUGLASS, M. S. S. ARTHUR JOHNSON, M. S. B. O. LONGYEAR, B. S. J. A. McLEAN, A. B., B. S. A. .Irrigation Engineer .Entomologist .Chemist .Horticulturist .Agriculturist .Veterinarian ..Agronomist Assistant Irrigation Engineer .Assistant Chemist .Assistant Chemist .Assistant Entomologist . Assistant Horticulturist .Animal Husbandman E. B. HOUSE. Assistant Irrigation Engineer F. KNORR. Assistant Agriculturist P. K. BLINN, B. S. Field Agent, Arkansas Valley, Rocky Ford O. B. WHIPPLE, B. A. Field Horticulturist ESTES P. TAYLOR, B. S. Field Entomologist OFFICERS President BARTON O. AYLESWORTH, A. M., LL. D. L G. CARPENTER, M. S.Director A. M. HAWLEY. Secretary MARGARET MURRAY. Stenographer and Clerk CULTURAL METHODS FOR SUGAR BEETS PROGRESS BULLETIN By W. H. Olin I. Sugar Beet Investigations Already Made at the Colorado Experiment Station.— Investigation work on sugar beets was begun by the Agricultural College before the organization of the Experiment Station. This was done under the direction of President C. E. Ingersoll who had great belief in the possibilities of sugar beets. The first bulletin on sugar beets issued by the Experiment Station was No. 7 in 1888. Since then it has pub¬ lished twelve bulletins on the subject of sugar beets. Most of these bulletins were prepared by the Chemical section of the Station and dealt quite largely with the chemical properties of beets and effect of soil conditions upon the crop. Prof. W. W. Cooke (Professor of Agriculture) in 1898 began a study of cultural methods, seeking to determine the best time for planting, best distance between rows, proper distance for thinning in the row and how to handle the irrigating water to obtain the best crop. These experiments were reported in bulletin 15 and were strongly in favor of early planting. Definite conclusions were not obtained upon the other problems, which still await solution. II. Cultural Methods of our Most Successful Sugar Beet Growers.— To learn the cultural methods practiced by our most successful sugar beet growers, question circulars were sent to 1000 beet growers well distributed in three beet regions of the State; Northern Colorado, Arkansas Valley and the Western Slope region. These growers were selected as representing the growers who were obtaining the best tonnage and therefore gettingthe most profitable crop returns. The circulars were sent out in June and October of the crop season 1905. They contained the following questions: 1. Number of acres you now have seeded in sugar beets? 2. Number of acres you had in sugar beets last year? 3. Date of seeding beets last year? 4. Date of seeding beets this year? 5. Amount of seed used per acre? 0. Do you tend your own beets? 4 THE COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION PLATE i. —desirable types of sugar beets (topped beets indicate method of topping) CULTURAL METHODS FOR SUGAR BEETS 5 7. If you employ labor, which have been the most satisfac¬ tory—Italian, Mexican or Russian help? 8. Do you fall plow or spring plow for beets? 9. How do you prepare your seed bed for beets? (Please name the operations.) 10. What rotation do you practic for beets—that is, what crops do you grow after beets, before you again plant the same ground to beets? 11. How many times do you cultivate your beets? 12. How many times and when do you irrigate your beets? 13. Do beets require more or less water than other crops? 14. How many loads of manure per acre do you consider best for beets? What kind? 15. How many seasons do you think you can obtain a satisfac¬ tory yield of beets without manure? 16. What is your experience with barnyard manure for beets? 17. Do you advise the use of commercial fertilizer for beets? If so, what kind? 18. What is the character of your soil? 19. What do you consider the after feed (tops, etc.) left on the ground worth? 20. What tonnage per acre did you harvest last year? 21. What was your net profit per acre last year? 1 22. What is the average expense per acre for growing beets on your land? 23. How do beets compare financially with other crops? 24. Would you advise your neighbor to grow sugar beets as a profitable crop? 25. What trouble have you had with insects or plant diseases attacking your plants? 26. To what space between plants do you prefer to thin your beets? Will a greater distance increase or decrease the tonnage and size of beets? 27. Have you grown a satisfactory beet crop on alfalfa sod? 28. Do you think a grain or other crop should be grown on al¬ falfa sod before planting to beets? 29. What is the effect of early and late seeding upon the yield and quality of beets? 30. Does late summer irrigation tend to ripen the beets earlier or does it seem to prolong the period of ripening? 31. When did you pull your beets this season? ' 32. What was your 1905 yield? 33. What was your per cent, tare at factory? 34. Was this caused by shape of beet, manner in which the beets were harvested, or dirt on beets? 35. What was the condition of the ground when you pulled your beets? 36. Was the beet crop a satisfactory one. in your neighborhood this season? What was the average tonnage per acre? 37. What suggestions in reference to sugar beet culture or prob¬ lems which you believe essential will you give us? It is to be regretted that many to whom this circular was sent neglected to send in reports. Less than 50 per cent, sent in a com¬ plete report from which we can quote. From the replies sent in to these question circulars, the following facts were gleaned: 1. Plowing of Beet Ground .—54 per cent, of those report- ing, plow their beet ground in the spring; 26 per cent, plow their 6 THE COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION PLATE II .—undesirable types of.sugar beets CULTURAL METHODS FOR SUGAR BEETS. 7 beet ground in the fall; 20 per cent, irregular, part of the time s pring plowing and occasionally disked potato ground. TABLE No. 1. PLOWING BEET GROUND AND RESULTING YIELDS (IN TONS PER ACRE). Sp ring Fall. Indif¬ ferent Arkansas Valiev. Western Slope 18 1 18.0 16 7 19 2 16 6 14 5 18.2 16.0 17.2 Northern Colorado Further data is necessary to show the value of fall plowing recommended for every section of the state growing sugar beets. 2. Date of Seeding .—Between first week in April and first week in June; 61 per cent, seed in the month of May. TABLE No. 2. TIME OF SEEDING AND AVERAGE YIELD PER ACRE (IN TONS PER ACRE). Localitv. April. May. June. Arkansas Valley. 19.3 20.6 18.3 Western Slope ... 17.6 17.7 Northern Colorado 15 7 18.4 *20.0 *OnIy one reported June planting, therefore it is not comparative. The study of time of planting shows more clearly than this table reveals that usually early planting is best for yield and qual¬ ity. 3. Amount of Seed per Acre .—The amount of seed used was from 12 to 25 lbs. per acre. The great majority reported using 15 to 20 lbs. per acre. TABLE No. 3. AMOUNT OF SEED PER ACRE AND AVERAGE YIELD (IN tons per acre). 12 lbs. 13 lbs. 14 lbs. 15 lbs. 16 lbs. 17 lbs. .18 lbs. 19 lbs. 20 lbs. 21 lbs 22 lbs. 23 lbs. 24 lbs. 25 lbs. Ark. Valley. 14 19.8 19.3 18 5 27.5 Western Slope *22 19.6 16 0 17.0 19.0 18 0 Northern Colo. *20 18 15 5 17.0 17.1 19.2 14 18.5 Average Yield.. 21 18 16 3 16.5 17 9 19 1 14 18 3 *Only one reported 12 lbs. seed per acre. The majority reported the use of from 15 to 20 Jbs. per acre. 8 THE COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION 4. Help Preferred. —46 per cent, of those reporting pre¬ ferred Russian labor. No particular class of laborers received a satisfactory vote from the rest. y. Space Thinned in Rows. —'This varied from 6 to 16 inches the average being 10.4 inches. TABLE No. 4. SPACES THINNED IN ROWS AND AVERAGE YIELDS. (IN TONS PER ACRE)., 8 to 10 in. 11 to 18 in. 14 to 16 in. Arkansas Valley. .. Western Slope .--- Northern Colorado. 18. 17.7 15.7 20. 19.7 18.4 28. 20. Average . 17.1 19.8 21.5 The majority reported from 10 to 12 inches. Further work is necessary on this point. The table clearly shows the advantage in point of yield for the wider spaces in the row. 6. Number of Cultivations. —44 per cent, cultivate 4 to 5 times. 31 per cent, cultivate 6 to 7 times. 25 per cent, stated they cultivated two, three, eight, ten or as many times as the crop seemed to require cultivation. TABLE No. 5. NUMBER OF TIMES CULTIVATED AND AVERAGE YIELDS. (in tons per acre.) 3 4 5 6 7 8 As oft^n as needed Arkansas Valley ... 20.0 16.6 20. 22.2 17. 18.5 Western Slope. 19.2 19. 17. 20.0 Northern Colorado 39.6 18.3 16. 18. *13.5 17.0 Average. 19.3 18.3 17.2 18.3 17.8 17. 18.5 * Only one reported This table does not give us positive data and further work is necessary to draw conclusions. 7. Times Irrigated. —56 per cent, report two to three times. 18 per cent, report four times. 15 per cent, report often as needed. From answers sent no definite data on yields could be obtained. CULTURAL METHODS FOR SUGAR BEETS 9 1 _ • COLO Af« EXPT, STA PLATE 111 . — VARYING TYPES OF SUGAR BEETS A—Burned off by stable manure unevenly distributed in row. B —Spiral constrictions on beet. C-Rapidly taper- ing beet a loss in tonnage. D Irregular spiral depressions on beets. E —Irregular growth of fibrous roots. IO THE COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION 8. To the question Do Beet Crops Require More or Less Water than Other Field Crops. 38 per cent, said more water. 30 per cent, said less water. 31 per cent, said same as other crops 9. Value 01 after Crop , Tops, Etc. —In answer to this, question, 65 per cent, placed the value between $2 and $3 per acre, while the average value assigned was $3 per acre. 10. Tonnage fdr 1904. — The average for those reporting was 17.4 tons per acre. The state average for the same year was. less than 12 tons. 11. Tonnage for 1095. — The average yield reported was 141^ tons per acre, which is several tons above the estimated aver¬ age of the State. This would indicate that 1904 was a more favora¬ ble year for beet culture than 1905, and that those reporting are among our most successful farmers in this industry. 12. Expense per Acre. —The expense differed according to locality from $20 to $50, but the average was $33.05 per acre. TABLE No. 6. COST OF PRODUCTION. Average yield per acre Tons Average cost growing per acre. Total in¬ come per acre. Cost of growing *ton of beets. Total profit per acre. Arkansas Valley.. 19.9 $31.10 $96.60 $1.56 $65.50 Western Slope . 17.7 34.80 85.20 1.96 50.40 Northern Colorado . 17.1 36.43 84.68 2.13 48.25 * Minus the tare. ij. Net Profit of the Crop. —The reports varied to a re¬ markable degree, from nothing to $75.00 per acre. It was almost impossible to strike an average, the greater number reporting be¬ tween $40.00 and $55.00 per acre. 14. To the question Number op Years Beets Have Been Grown on the Same Ground Without a Change of Crop? —The average was two years. However, most of these farmers have been growing beets but two years. 15. To the question Do You Manure Your Beet Land ?— 59 per cent, report they do, 41 per cent, report they do not. CULTURAL METHODS FOR SUGAR BEETS II TABLE No. 7. BEETS GROWN WITH OR WITHOUT MANURE. YIELD, TONS PER ACRE. With Manure Without Manure Arkansas Valiev 19 5 17.5 16.8 14.2 18.4 15.3 Western Slope Northern Colorado Average. 17.9 14.3 This table shows the value of manure for the beet °rower. More farmers in the Aikansas \ alley are using - stable manure or fertilizers than either of the other sections of the state. 16. Time of Pulling Beets. — Time of pulling beets was reported from September to November, the great majority harvest¬ ing in October. ij. The per cent, of Tare. — This was reported from 1 per cent, to 23 per cent. The majority, however, was less than 5 per cent. • Cause of Tare 75 cent, of the farmers reporting believed it was due to the dirt clinging to the beets when harvested. The rest attributed it to defective methods of harvesting and char¬ acter of crown growth. /p. Condition of Ground at Harvest Time. — The great majority report the ground very dry and cloddy at pulling time. This is largely governed by climatic conditions beyond the beet farmer’s control. 20. Is the Crop a Satisfactory One? — 80 per cent, of the reporting farmers declare it to be the most profitable crop which they can grow. The following statements are given by farmers hav¬ ing at least four years of successful experience in sugar beet culture: 1. The sugar beet crop is an expensive one to grow and should be grown on the very best land on the farm. . 2. One should not bring to the surface more than two inches of new soil in plowing. Ground which has not been worked holds its plant food in a form not easily available to the plant. The young beet plant does not obtain proper nourishment from such soil and is checked in the begin¬ ning of its growth. When proper conditions prevail, beet ground should be plowed at least 10 to 12 inches deep. When beet land is plowed in the fall, the soil is weathered, rendering plant food at surface easily available to young plants. 12 THE COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION 3. Beet ground should be as uniformly level as the lay of the land will permit. 4. Early planted beets have generally given the best yields. The seed bed should be warm, Moist , but not wet, for the best germination. 5 A uniform stand is seldom obtained when seed is covered more than two inches deep. The vitality of the beet seed does not seem to be sufficient to send the sprout out of the ground from greater depths Moisture conditions must indicate the depth to plant, as a shallowcovered seed makes a rapid growth with proper soil and moisture conditions. fi Earlv thinning of beets has given the best results, since young t>lants recover from the effects of the thinning process without too serious a delav in plant growth. The beet farmer aids in the thinning process by seeding not more than 5 to 10 acres at one time. His help can get over his entire field before the beets are too large for successful thinning. 7 Cultivation is for the purpose of keeping down weeds, prevent baking of the surface and give encouragement to continuous development of the beets. 8 The iudicioususe of water tends to produce well shaped beets, increases the'tonnage and gives a good sugar content, when proper sun and soil conditions prevail. 9 Each factory furnishes field superintendents who are assisting farmers to learn the efficient use of water in sugar beet culture. 10. Beet farmers should plan for at least four weeks of the growing season after the last irrigation to mature the crop. 11. The Colorado climate,sun and soils are well adapted to sugar beet culture. This industry seems destined to grow with the development of irrigation in the state. 12. The growing of beets requires a crop rotation which shall main¬ tain the humus and plant food elements in the soil. In Northern Colorado where sheep feeding is carried on quite extensively, the manure is care¬ fully saved, composted for a year, and then hauled to the beet lands. 13. A practical rotation of alfnlfa, potatoes or other cultivted crop, beets and grain is being gradually adopted. 14. The culture of sugar beets is. improving farm methods m all crop production. The Station has planned some cultural experiments with sugar beets and other root crops for the seasons of 1906, 1907 and 1908 for the purpose of determining the best methods for improving the quality and increasing the tonnage of these most profitable crops. Results will be given in other progress bulletins. Bulletin 110 April, 1906 The Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Colorado Agricultural College ALFALFA (Results Obtained at the Colorado Experiment Station) By W. P. HEADDEN PUBLISHED BY THE EXPERIMENT STATION FORT COLLINS, COLORADO 1906 THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION FORT COLLINS. COLORADO THE STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE Hon. P. F. SHARP, President , - Hon. HARLAN THOMAS, - - - Hon. JAMES L. CHATFIELD, - - Hon. B. U. DYE, - - - - Hon. B. F. ROCKAFELLOW, - - Hon. EUGENE H. GRUBB - - . Hon A. A. EDWARDS, - - - - Hon. R. W. CORWIN, - - - - Governor JESSE F. McDONALD, President BARTON O. AYLESWORTK, A. M. HAWLEY, Secretary EDGAR AVERY, Treasurer LE TERMS EXPIRES - Denver, - 1907 Denver, - 1907 Gypsum, - 1909 Rockyford, 1909 Canon City - 1911 - Carbondale, - 1911 Fort. Collins, - 1913 - Pueblo - 1913 ex-oTicio. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE IN CHARGE / P. F’ SHARP, Chairman B. F. ROCKAFELLOW. A. A. EDWARDS. STATION STAFF L. G. CARPENTER, M. S., Director , ----- - Irrigation Engineer C. P. GILLETTE, M. S., - ----- - - - Entomologist W. P. HEADDEN, A. M., Ph. D., - _____ Chemist W. PADDOCK, M. S., - - - - - - - Horticulturist W. L. CARLYLE, M. S., - - - - - - - - - - Agriculturist G. H. GLOVER, B.S.,D.V.M., - -------- Veterinarian W. H. OLIN, M. S., - - - - Agronomist R. E. TRIMBLE, B. S., - - - - - Assistant Irrigation Engineer F. C. ALFORD, M. S., ------- - Assistant Chemist EARL DOUGLASS, M. S , - - - - - - - - Assistant Chemist A. H. DANIELSON, B. S., - - - - - - Assistant Agriculturist S. ARTHUR JOHNSON, M. S., - - - - - - Assistant Entomologist B. O. LONGYEAR, B. S., - - - - - - Assistant Horticulturist J. A. McLEAN, A. B., B. S. A , - - - - - - - Animal Husbandman E. B. HOUSE, - -- -- -- - Assistant Irrigation Engineer P. K. BLINN, B. S., - - - Field Agent Arkansas Valley, Rockyford Western Slope Fruit Investigations, Grand Junction: O. B. WHIPPLE, B. A., - - -- -- - - Field Horticulturist E. P. TAYLOR, - Field Entomologist OFFICERS President BARTON O. AYLESWORTH, A. M., LL. D. L. G. CARPENTER, M. S.,. ---------- - Director A. M. HAWLEY, - - - Secretary MARGARET MURRAY, - - Stenographer and Clerk ALFALFA (Results Obtained at the Golorado Experiment Station) BY • , . ’ • • i » « ' , * i W. XL IIXLFVOOILN r - * . . . • . • *..»; * ♦ * ...» » . It has frequently been suggested to the writer that he should pre¬ pare a short bulletin on alfalfa, containing many of the facts presented in Bulletin No. 35 , and such others as may have been acquired since its publication. History.—This plant is known under the name of Medic, Lucern and Alfalfa. The latter is the name under which the Arabs intro¬ duced it into Spain, whence it was brought to the Americas. The plant with its Arabic name was introduced into California in the early fifties by the Chilians, and thence into Colorado.' ■ ' The plant has been known since 490 B. C. at least, for in that year it was introduced into Greece under the name of Medic, signifying that it came from Media. A’ .. Culture.—The methods of culture are quite uniform in all sections where the plant is grown, and all the data collected on this, subject show -that the methods now followed have been practiced in all es¬ sential features for centuries. The principal points are a well pre¬ pared seed bed, good, plump seed planted deep enough to assure ger¬ mination, which varies with the climate and soil from very shallow to three inches deep. The common practice is to drill in the seed with a protective crop, oats or spring wheat.' ' _ I have not yet seen or learned of alfalfa having been grown in drills and cultivated, except on a small scale, though there are records of such a practice and the results were excellent. The plants were set six inches apart, with two feet between the rows, and when cultivated and manured did not deteriorate at any age. The latter claim may well be doubted, but observations made on plants growing singly either without any, or with a pseudo-cultivation, and on plants grown in single drills with cultivation, strongly corroborate the claims made for the practice. 4 Bulletin 110 . Varieties.—The varieties of alfalfa experimented with, three French varieties, the Turkestan and the common home grown seed, have not shown material differences in composition. Whatever dif¬ ferences may have originally existed between the French varieties practically disappeared under our conditions of soil and climate. This was not the case with the Turkestan which was very uniform and distinct in habit. There are few plants which show greater individual differences than alfalfa grown from our home grown seed, and it would seem very probable that we could develop a variety superior even to the Turkestan by a little patience and judicious selection. Our common alfalfa presents two types, readily recognized by the growers; one has a dark green color and narrow leaves with red stems and usually deep violet purple flowers, while the other has green stems and much lighter flowers. The former is leafier and earlier than the latter, but is pos¬ sibly a little less vigorous grower. In the color of its leaves and habit of plant, the former resembles the Turkestan. Range of Soil and Altitude.—Alfalfa thrives in all of our Colorado soils which are not too wet. In some sections it is short lived due to winter killing, but I have seen fine alfalfa, on good soil with a favorable aspect, at an altitude of nearly 9,000 feet. The altitude at which it will do well varies with location and other conditions. Amount of Water Required.—Like other questions pertaining to a general practice the answer is difficult to give, but it is safe to assume that it will require from twenty to twenty-four inches of water to the acre to grow the three crops usually cut in this State. The Time of Cutting.—The first cutting is usually made between early bloom and half bloom. It is not so common to let it stand till the plant is in full bloom as it was at one time. If the weather is fav¬ orable the first cutting is made as early as possible to give a longer sea¬ son for the growing of the second and third cuttings. Some regard is also had for the purposes for which the hay is to be used. I believe that the best hay for feeding purposes is obtained by cutting when the plant is in full bloom, but it is the general practice to cut it in early bloom. Composition of Hay Influenced by Condition of Plant at Time of Cutting.—The chemical composition of the hay produced is not so materially affected by the condition of the plant at the time of cut¬ ting as we are wont to think. With us the weather exerts a big in¬ fluence on the rate of growth and early blooming of the plants, this is most marked in the second cutting in which the condition of half bloom, for instance, may correspond to an earlier period of growth in the first cutting, so far as composition is concerned. The following analyses taken from Bulletin 39 of this Station, give, I believe, a fair example of the range in the composition of alfalfa hay as affected by the time of cutting. Alfalfa. 5 Cutting / Condition of the Plants Air Dried Hay. Thoroughly Dried Hay Moisture Ash Ether Extract Crude Protein Crude Fiber l • 0 •rH fc. Total Nitrogen Ash Ether Extract Crude Protein Crude Fibre Nitrogen Free Ext. a b0 o CO H 2.624 2.508 2.687 2.606 1 1 1 1 Coming in bloom. In half bloom. In full bloom. Average. 7.22 7.92 6.38 7.17 9.81 11.89 10.57 10.76 1.15 1.26 1.31 1.24 15.16 14.46 15.73 15.12 36.49 32.8C 34.91 34.73 30.17 31.67 31.11 30.98 2.426 2.310 2.516 2.417 10.57 12.92 11.29 11.44 1.24 1.36 1.40 1.33 16.47 15.70 16.80 16.32 39.43 35.62 37.29 37.44 32.29 34.41 33.23 33.31 2 Coming in bloom. 4,43 12.70 1.71 17.68 27.47 36.01 2.858 13.28 1.78 18.50 28.75 37.69 2.990 2 In half bloom. 9.48 1134 1.50 17.14 24.27 36.27 2.743 12.53 1.65 18.94 26.81 40.08 3.032 In full bloom. 8.56 9.91 1.78 16.41 27.11 36.24 2.625 10.84 1.95 17.94 29.64 39.64 2 880 2 Average. 7.49 11.32 1.66 17.08 26.28 36.17 2.742 12.22 1.79 18.46 28.38 39.13 2.967 3 Coming in bloom. 8.64 12.24 1.72 16.53 24.30 36.57 2.645 13.39 1.88 18.09 26.59 40.04 2.894 3 In half bloom. 7.43 11.07 1.52 15.52 30.55 33.92 2.482 11.96 1.64 16.76 33.00 36.65 2.681 3 In full bloom. 8.36 10.66 1.83 15.59 30.18 33.38 2.495 11.63 2.00 17.01 32.94 36.42 2.722 Average. 8.14 11.32 1.69 15.88 28.34 34.62 2.540 12.33 1.84 17.29 30.84 37.70 2.766 For a large number of analyses and a discussion of the individual groups or fodder constituents see Bui. 35 , p. 90 , also pp. 13 - 25 . Relative Value of the Different Cuttings of Alfalfa.—I have stated in a preceding section that the usual practice is to cut alfalfa when it has not yet advanced to the stage of half bloom, though it is my opin¬ ion that the best general purpose hay is obtained by cutting it when it is in full bloom. There are good reasons why the practice of cut¬ ting it when in early to half bloom has come to be so generally adopted, but these reasons do not effect the subject discussed in this para¬ graph. I have also given the composition of the first, second and third cutting taken at the periods of coming into bloom, in half bloom and in full bloom, from which it appears that the extreme dif¬ ferences in the composition of alfalfa hay are less than they are fre¬ quently assumed to be. This fact explains the varying opinions held in regard to their relative values. There are some differences in com¬ position but they are not big enough to produce the differences which come under the notice of the feeder. The analyses given in the preceding table, in my judgment,faithfully represent the composition of good Colorado alfalfa hay grown under average conditions for Northern Colorado. That the analyses given really represent the composition of Colorado alfalfa hay is evident from the following ana¬ lysis which is the average obtained for the first cutting for three consecutive years; moisture, 6.86; ash, 10 . 65 ; fat, 1 . 54 ; protein, 15 . 00 ; crude fibre, 33 . 29 ; nitrogen-free extract, 32 . 12 . The above average is obtained from 19 closely agreeing analyses of first cutting alfalfa hay. 6 Bulletin 110 . In the analyses given in the table it will be noticed that the great¬ est difference in the percentage of protein is 1.27 per cent and this is in favor of the sample taken when in full bloom over the one cut in half bloom. We are justified in assuming that the preceding analyses are thoroughly representative of the composition of alfalfa hay cut at these different periods, and we will neglect any error introduced by assuming that the whole of the nitrogen is present as proteid and consequently all of equal value. In the analyses given it appears that the hay cut when the plants were in full bloom con¬ tains the largest percentage of proteids. We have so many analyses showing this to be the case in our samples, that we believe that it is true for alfalfa hay grown under the average conditions obtaining in Northern Colorado. The difference is seldom so great as that shown by the hay cut in half bloom and full bloom in the analyses given. In the samples given each 100 pounds of the thoroughly dried hays would contain 16 . 5 , 15 . 7 , and 16.8 pounds respectively according to which, if the proteids alone be the standard of value, the hay cut in full bloom is the best, but pound for pound they are as I have before stated almost equal. While this series of analyses gives these results others will show the earlier cut hays to have slightly the advantage. But chemical composition is not the only consideration to be taken into account. The weight of hay cut off of an acre at full bloom i§~ considerably more than the same acre would yield if cut in early or half bloom, probably from 10 to 15 per cent more. Regarding the degestibility of the hays made at the different stages of growth, using the proteids as our criterion) because we assume them to be the most valuable constituent, experiments show them to be very nearly alike, with a slight difference in favor of the hay cut at full bloom. We found the coefficient of digestion of the proteids in hay cut at the period of half bloom, by artificial digestion, to be 79.30 and 79.60 and by animal digestion 73 . 7 , 73.6 and 70 . 4 . Artificial digestion seems to be fairly reliable though a little too high. The error, however, is likely to be in the same direction in the case of both samples, if so the hay cut at full bloom is slightly preferable. As soon as alfalfa passes the stage of full bloom there is a decided fall in the amount of proteids present, the same is true of the nitrogen free extract.. The loss of proteids amounts to about 2.5 per cent of the weight of the hay and the proteids are according to the results obtained by artificial digestion less digestible than at either early,, half or full bloom. Effects of Differences in the Seasons.—That there are differences in the hay from season to season, within comparatively narrow limits of course, due to the distribution of rainfall and variations in temper¬ ature, is a fact generally recognized. In speaking of this subject in Bui. No. 39 I conclude from a series of samples taken over a period of three years and representing hay grown on four different soils, that, the composition of the first cutting is practically constant while that of the second and third cuttings is much less so, and in the latter we } probably find the maximum variation that can reasonably be attribu- • Alfalfa. 7 ted to the differences in the seasons. These differences amount to three P u P for CT , U( \ e r protein, eight per cent for the crude fibre and about three and a half per cent for the nitrogen free extract. t 1 1 Easil y I n J ured by Moisture.—In Cases where the al¬ falfa has been cut and left in the swath, a light rain of even a heavy dew produces a discoloration. The hay has a light yellowish brown color and in general a bleached appearance. The amount of injury indicated by this color doubtlessly varies greatly and there is a variety of opinion about the value of such hay.* In one instance in which some all alt a was cut and, owing to a succession of showers, was not stacked till 13 days later, we found very considerable changes, but we were not able to determine the total changes, for we were unable to de¬ termine the mechanical loss in the weight of the hay. The differences' shown by the analyses of samples taken as the hay was cut, and of others taken as it was stacked, showed a loss of more than one-third ot the crude protein and one seventh of nitrogen free extract, accom¬ panied by a very decided increase in the crude fiber, the percentage found m the injured hay being about 12 per cent higher than in the uninjured sample. The amount of rainfall was about 1% inches. Experiment shows that tepid water will dissolve 40.00 per cent out of c ass > third cutting alfalfa hay; further, fermentation sets in readily. These properties readily explain the fact that alfalfa is very sensitive to moisture. The remaining hay may still be good hay, though its color is not inviting. There may, however, have been a big loss, the remaining hay weighing possibly only a little more than six-tenths as much as should have been gathered, from the crop as cut, not reckoning any mechanical loss, which will certainly'have tak¬ en place. Loss of Leaves, Etc., in Making Alfalfa Hay.—The general custom in this part of Colorado is to rake the alfalfa into windrows as soon after cutting as is at all advisable, and complete the necessary cur¬ ing m windrow or cock as the case may be. This practice is the re- suit of the observed loss of leaves and breaking off of small stems in raking and handling, if allowed to over cure in the swath. The loss, that is the leaves and stems which fall or are broken, amounts under favorable circumstances, to about one-fifth of the crop, and can if it. J ^L- 1 ^i CeSSar '^ re P eatedl y handle the hay, amount to as much as two- thirds of the crop, which of course remains on the ground to enrich it. The Relation of Hay Gathered to Green Alfalfa.—The amount, or weight of hay gathered compared to that of the green alfalfa varies* within comparatively narrow limits. With us 100 pounds of first cut¬ ting alfalfa gives about 2/ pounds of hay, and 100 pounds of second cutting gives about 29 pounds. These figures do not,agree at all with figures obtained for other States. The amount of hay obtained * from 100 pounds of the green alfalfa, cut from early bloom to full bloom, has an extreme range of about four pounds. This is the case with the first and second cuttings. The Relative Amounts of Leaves and Stems.—Some varieties of alfalfa are smaller stemed and leafier than others. The Turkestan 8 Bulletin 110 . alfalfa as it grows with us is much leafier than our common alfalfa. Individual plants differ in this respect as much as the recognized var¬ ieties so it is a difficult matter to obtain any figures which may be applicable except in individual cases. The best figures that we have been able to arrive at relatively to this subject, is that the leaves seldom if ever equal less than 40 per cent of the weight of the plant, and frequently make up 60 per cent of the weight of the plant. _ I he rest of the plant is, of course, represented by the stems. This is an important consideration, for I have seen hay which has lost a very large proportion of its leaves before it was put into stack. Importance of Saving the Leaves in Making Alfalfa Hay.— The preceding paragraph shows that we are justified in assuming that one-half of the weight of the plant as cut, is represented by the leaves. The importance of this fact in hay making becomes very apparent when we further learn that nearly four-fifths of the crude protein con¬ tained in the plant is found in the leaves, and only one-fifth in the stems. The leaves also contain considerably over one-halt ot the nitrogen free extract and fat, while the stems contain nine-elevenths ot the crude fiber. It appears from these facts that the leaves contain very considerably more than half of those matters which we consider as of the most value as fodder constituents, i. e., the crude protein, nitrogen free extract and fat, on the other hand the stems contain almost 3-4 of the crude fiber. This statement of these facts brings out the wisdom ot the prac¬ tice of raking the alfalfa into windrows as soon after cutting as is at all feasible, and stacking or putting it into the mow with as little hand¬ ling as possible. The Composition of Alfalfa Stems and Leaves.— It sometimes hap¬ pens that the leaves are very largely shaken off, and the hay consists principally of the stems. I have seen such in the cock which was not unlike fine brush. The leaves in such cases are evidently lost as far as the hav making is concerned, but the stems make a fair hay, too good to be neglected, which is evident from their composition which is given below, together with analyses of timothy and native hays and alfalfa leaves. Alfalfa Stems . Timothy Hay (Colo.) Timothy Hay (Colo) Native Hay (Colo.).. Alfalfa Leaves.. Moisture Ash Fat Protein Fibre Nitrogen- Free Extract . .5.71 4.99 0.85 6.35 54.32 27.79 . ..6.49 9.34 2.99 5.62 31.54 43.99 . .6.58 7.21 1.43 7.45 40.71 36.52 . .5.13 10.64 3.13 6.98 31.38 42.74 .. .4.93 14.48 2.96 23.33 13.15 41.16 The leaves are lost, it is true, so far as making hay is concerned but they add materially to the betterment of the soil. We never have hay consisting mostly of leaves, but in feeding sheep and cattle it is observed that they seem to prefer the leaves, and there, is often a considerable portion of stems left. The preceding analysis shows that these stems are good fodder and a horse will eat them readily. The composition of the leaves is given in the preceding table. Alfalfa. 9 Alfalfa Requires Water to Make a Good Growth.—Our average rainfall may be taken at 14 1-2 inches. In addition to this it requires from 6 to 8 inches of water per acre to grow the three crops usually cut in this section. Alfalfa is a deep rooted plant and will live when once established on high land even, with the addition of a small amount of water, but it needs the above amount of water to make a good growth. Alfalfa Ensilage.—The considerable, unavoidable loss incurred m making alfalfa hay, say from 17.5 to 60 per cent of the crop, togeth¬ er with the desirability of having some succulent fodder, has led to experiments in making alfalfa silage. The silage is good and is read¬ ily eaten by cattle, the following analyses may be taken as represent¬ ing its composition; moisture, 8 . 98 ; ash, 13 . 19 ; ether extract, fat 2 . 93 ; crude protein, 14 . 18 ; crude fiber, 30.77 and nitrogen free extract 29.95 per cent. Plant Food Required to Grow a Crop of Alfalfa.—The excellent re¬ sults observed to follow putting land down to alfalfa for three or more years, leads to the conclusion that it enriches the soil. In a cer¬ tain sense this is the case, and the practice of seeding run-down land to alfalfa and leaving it in alfalfa for several years before breaking it up again to plant other crops, has been the salvation of this section of Colorado, and yet it does not follow that the alfalfa plant does not require a large amount of plant food. The average percentage of crude ash in alfalfa hay is not far from 10.00 per cent, or in a crop of 4 1-2 tons, 9,000 pounds, there will be 900 pounds of crude ash, which will contain 39.10 pounds of phosphoric acid, 231.5 pounds of potash (K 2 0 ), 62.8 pounds of chlorin, 208.8 pounds of lime (CaO). There are but few crops which will equal the alfalfa in its draft upon the resources of the soil in which it grows, but while other crops gather their food from a depth of two, four or five feet, alfalfa gathers its food from depths ranging from six to twelve feet—so on the assump¬ tion that the alfalfa plant has no greater power to gather its food than the wheat plant, for example, it has, owing to the greater depth to which its roots penetrate, from three to four times the depth of soil to feed on. This is an essential advantage, especially if the upper portions of the soil from which the wheat plant has to draw its food has already been partially exhausted by repeated cropping, as has been the case in many instances in this State. Most of our cultivated plants depend wholly upon the nitrogen stored in the soil for their supply, the alfalfa plant does so only in part, drawing a portion of its supply from the atmosphere. Though it may gather large amounts of this element from the soil, it probably returns more in the leaves that fall and the plants that die than it takes from the soil. Benefits Accruing to the Soil.—The statements of the preceding paragraph may seem somewhat contradictory to one another, and apparently contradictory to what is an acknowledged and well estab¬ lished fact, i. e., that cropping to alfalfa benefits our soils, and does not exhaust it as one would infer from the amount of potash (K2O) for in- 10 Bulletin 110 . stance, which it removes. That the plant requires a large supply of plant food is very evident, for we find it contained in the plant, but its little feeding roots which gather this food are. almost wholly below the depth at which ordinary crops feed, so this portion of the soil is resting while in alfalfa. Many of the plants die and rot, adding organic matter to the soil and facilitating the solution of the mineral constituents used by other plants. Not only do the plants die out, as is to be observed in almost any field of alfalfa, though I have seen some in which this was not apparent, but every crop grown adds materially to the upper soil by that portion of the plant which escapes being gathered as hay. The Value of the Stubble. —The amount of leaves and stems which fall and rot on the surface of the soil each year is always considerable, and is, moreover, high in manural value, but the addition of fertiliz¬ ing substances to the soil, which is effected by planting to alfalfa, is perhaps more strikingly set forth by the facts pertaining to the value of the stubble. The stubble of alfalfa taken to a depth of 6 1-2 inches, assuming an ordinary stand, weighs nearly 6 tons and contains over 36 pounds of nitrogen, equ.al to about 216 pounds of sodic nitrate, Chili saltpetre, in addition to 8 1-3 pounds of phosphoric acid and 15 1-2 pounds of potash. The alfalfa roots, however, reach a depth of 9, 10 and even 12 feet, on account of which the whole root system of the alfalfa can safely be credited, with twice as much nitrogen, etc., as is found in the stubble taken to a depth of 6 1-2 inches. The commercial value of this material is, at present prices, upwards of $ 35.00 per acre. Stand of Alfalfa.—This means the number of plants in a given area, I believe that one plant to the square foot will grow as much hay and of as good a quality as any number of plants. We have deter¬ mined the number of plants to the acre in a few instances and found it to range from 70,000 to 653 , 000 . The hay cut from the field with seventy thousand plants was as desirable, and so far as one could judge from the appearance of the hay, as fine as that cut from a field having 562,000 plants to the acre, but if one considers the benefit to accrue to the soil the thicker stand is to be preferred, for there will be more roots to penetrate the soil and their aggregate weight will be greater while they will penetrate the soil to quite as great a depth. I have dug out a seedling alfalfa plant nine months old whose root measured 9 1-3 feet, while its diameter at the crown was a little more than one quarter of an inch. The stand in this case was very good, probably not less than 400,000 plants to the acre. The soil in this case was an open sandy loam and very deep. Alfalfa Seed.—This seed varies considerably in size but the ger¬ minating power is usually high. The vigor of a young plant from a plump, mature seed is probably greater than that of a plant from a small, shrunken, immature one, but the germinating power of even immature seeds is high and their vitality is far greater than given in Bui. No. 35 ./ The statements made in it were .quite contrary to the Alfalfa. 11 views entertained at the time they were made, but are very conserva¬ tive in the light of the facts obtained since that time. The alfalfa seed in the highest state of perfection that I have seen it grown in Colorado, is of a greenish yellow color which it retains with but little change for years. I have some which I gathered 12 years ago and it is but little less bright, if any, than it was when I gathered it. I recently showed this seed to an expert in these matters who scarcely believed that it was not fresh seed and who, furthermore, declared that he had never before seen such alfalfa seed. I believe that we seldom obtain alfalfa seed which has attained its highest state of per¬ fection. I quite recently purchased a sample of the best alfalfa seed obtainable in the open market and by actual count there is only 10 per cent of this sample nearly equal to the run of the 12 year old sam¬ ple referred to above. The sample was purchased as choice seed at 15 cents per pound but the individual seeds were actually smaller than those in two samples of first quality screenings obtained ten years ago and grown at Rockyford, Colorado. The first quality seed pur¬ chased last season, 1905, run 288,267 seeds to the pound, while the samples of screenings run 259,340 and 266,233 to the pound respec¬ tively. The screenings are shriveled, probably because these seeds were immature when the plants were cut, and the plump, mature seeds have been separated by screening and winnowing. The Average Yield of Alfalfa Seed.—This is not above five bushels per acre. A yield of 9 or 10 bushels is a big one and above this is excep¬ tional. I have heard of as much as 14 bushels having been gathered, but a gentleman of large experience in growing alfalfa seed informs me that such a yield is very exceptional. The Vitality of Alfalfa Seed.—Sometimes we fail to obtain a good stand of alfalfa, even though we use the amount of seed per acre which experience has shown to be sufficient, say 20 pounds to the acre. Such failures, a few years ago, were usually attributed to the lack of vitality in the alfalfa seed,especially if the seed were a little old. It _was claimed that seed two or more years old had already so far lost its vitality as 'to be so good as worthless. This notion has prevailed a long while. Loudon says on this subject: “Great care should be had to procure it (Lucern seed) plump and perfectly new, as two year old seed does not come up freely.” The following"state¬ ment is made in North Carolina Bulletin No. 60: “The vitality of Lucern seed is so low that seed over one year old is scarcely worth sowing.” This statement is supported by two sprouting experi¬ ments .made with two year old seed, in one of which 6 per cent and in the other 12 per cent germinated. . * 1 showed in Bui. No. 35 of this station, pages 41-44, that this is a mistake. I recorded on page 43 of Bui. No. 35 the result of 22 ex¬ periments in which I used 11 samples of seed ranging in age from one to six years. The 11 samples have been preserved and two series of experiments have been made with them since that time at intervals of four and six years—giving me a range in the age of the seed from 11 to 16 years. 12 Bulletin 110 . Some of the samples (two) were kept in envelopes, the rest were kept in the specimen tubes in which they were put for the first experiment. During the first four years the in a table drawer in my sitting roonp and for the last six years room in the basement of the chemical laboratory. I will give the three series of experiments though the limits of this bulletin scarcely justify it. No. 1. Prime seed gathered by myself. No. 2. Prime seed purchased of Vandewark. No. 3. Prime seed purchased of P. Anderson & Company. No. 4. Prime seed furnished by J. E. Gauger. No. 5. Prime seed furnished by J. E. Gauger. No. 6. Prime seed purchased of P. Henderson & Company. No! 7. Screenings, first quality, J.E. Gauger. No. 8. Screenings, first quality, J. E. Gauger. No. 9. Screenings, first quality, J. E. Gauger. No. 10. Screenings, second quality, J.E. Gauger. No. 11. Screenings, third quality, J. E. Gauger ^ N ok The following table of results is reproduced from Bui. No. d5, ynge 43. Tnr.RTTLTS OF SPROUTING EXPERIMENTS 1896 No of Sample Quality Years Old Number of Seeds to the Pound Seeds Taken Seed Rotted Seeds Left Seeds Sprouted Average per cent Sprouted 2 206,837 \ 100 100 0 0 0 8 100 92 } 96.0 1 9 2 228,818 \ 100 100 1 0 9 6 90 94 } 92.0 Q Q 208,021 \ 100 loo 100 100 1 1 7 0 92 99 \ 95.5 O 2 .5 1 5 13 5 86 90 } 88.0 4 3 .{ 100 100 0 0 2 1 98 99 \ 98.5 u 6 .{ 100 100 5 5 1 3 94 92 } 93.0 b 7 8 Q 1 259,340 \ 100 100 23 20 11 13 66 67 } 66.5 screenings, ilisl quality. 2 344,123 \ 100 100 42 29 7 11 51 60 } 55.5 screenings, mst quaiivij . 3 266,233 j 100 100 24 16 1 1 75 83 } 79.5 screenings, mst .. 2 331,383 j 100 100 59 53 7 5 CO ^ £ 38.0 1U 11 bcreenmgs. seeuuu . . 1 312,385 | 100 100 66 48 1 5 33 47 f 8 .5 11 screenings, liiiiu. quantj. •• The results in this table show conclusively that neither of the requisites laid down by Loudon, that is, plump and new seed, are necessary so far as their germinating power is concerned and that the statement that two year old seed do not germinate freely, to say t Alfalfa. 13 nothing about the more extreme statement “that they are scarcely worth sowing,” is altogether a mistake. The screenings are composed of the small, immature and shrunk- en seeds. These seed are nearly all dark brown or green and shriv- eled—probably due to two causes; first because they were harvested while still very immature and second because they are infested with molds, at least molds develop readily during the sprouting experi¬ ments and many of the seed rot, but as the table shows such seed ger¬ minate freely even when two and three years old. Two years old screenings show a germinating power of 38.0 and 55.5 per cent, respec¬ tively, while a sample of three years old screenings shows a germina¬ tion equal to 79.0 per cent. The variation in the quality of the screenings from year to year is shown by the varying number of seeds to the pound, which in the screenings of some years is smaller than that for seed sold as prime seed in other years. The preceding table shows that a large percentage of the screen¬ ings rotted and that the percentage of seeds which rotted did not de¬ pend upon the age of the screenings but upon the samples themselves or the degree m which the samples were infested with the cause of the rot. It is strikingly evident from the table that none of the clean, hand-picked seed No. 1 rotted and only a few of any samples of prime seed, while as high as 59 and 66 per cent of the second and third quality screenings rotted. This rotting is most probably due to the fact that these seed were already infested by the bacteria and other organisms causing it before they were threshed. The samples of prime seeds and of screenings will not serve for the purpose of com¬ parison from this point of view, because they are from different sour¬ ces with possibly two exceptions. I have observed, particularly in my last experiments, that when the seed rot, the screenings of samples 10 and 11 for instance, they appear to be glued together in bunches of three and four seeds unless they have been very carefully distributed and that any sprout, however vigorous and bright, is attacked and distroyed if it comes in contact with such a mass. The colorless mucilagenous mass enveloping the seeds is crowded with bacteria. The samples of seeds used in the following experiments are the same samples used in 1896 except No. 12 of the series of 1906. RESULTS OF SPROUTING EXPERIMENTS— 1900 No. of Sample. Quality. 1 Prime seed. 2 Prime seed. 3 Prime seed . 4 Prime seed. 5 Prime seed. 6 Prime seed. 7 Screenings, first quality . 8 Screenings, first quality . 9 Screenings, first quality . 10 Screenings, second quality 11 Screenings, third quality . Age in Seeds per Percent. Years. Pound. Germinating. 6 206,837 92 6 228,818 80 6 208,821 70 6 78 7 66 10 72 5 259,340 53 6 344,123 25 7 266,233 42 6 331,383 42 5 312,385 25 14 Bulletin 110. No particular care or tricks of manipulation were used in order to seed'bec^un^er favorable Yond^ttensttm percentages of°seed^er^hia- failed to grow. No. of Samples 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 RESULTS OF SPROUTING EXPERIMENTS— 1906 Quality of Seed Age in Years Seed per Pound Prime seed . 1^ Prime seed . ^ Prime seed . .1^ Prime seed . ^ Prime seed . 1^ Prime seed . 1® Screenings, first quality ... H Screenings, first quality ... 12 Screenings, first quality ... 13 Screenings, second quality . . 12 Screenings, third quality ... 11 Prime seed . ^ 206,837 228,818 208,821 Per Cent. Germinating Average ( 94 259,340 344,123 266,233 331,383 312,385 288,267 91 84 80 73 76 70 76 66 66 69 57 30 36 21 11 28 48 11 17 14 14 65 70 92.5 82.0 74 i 5 73.0 66.0 i 63.0 33.0 16.0 38.0 14.0 14.0 67.5 Four other experiments were made with sample No. 1, because I eathered this seed myself in the summer of 1894 and the preceding tables sho w that in 12 years it has lost only 2.5 per cent of its germinat¬ ing power. The results at the end of five days were as follows. Seed Taken Rotted Hard Seeds Seeds Sprouted 100 f t 94 100 1 5 qq 100 1 f qq The average of these four experiments is 94.25 per cent which is very nearly as high as the result obtained with this sample m 1896 when h was only two years old. The results obtained with this sarn¬ ie 96 per cent germinating when the sample was two years old with «!.«„, precaution to pre- VeEt Sampfe N 0 o m 6”howT'quite a deterioration in the 10 years lapsing bampieiNo.os 4 . . when six years old this sample cut, though it hat, been hep. Alfalfa. 15 LI' b0t i ® ln a show ca < se > exposed to a strong light and to all t e changes of temperature for five seasons in Colorado; when ten years old showed a germination of 72 per cent and when 16 years old a germmation of 63 per cent. The conditions under which thTs sam- ple has been preserved, especially during the first.six years, were less t A f b e f S r th e Preservation of its vitality than would ordinarily be t a e - S ° 1 th ' nl ? saf e to conclude that the limit for the vitality good, mature alfalfa seed exceeds 16 years. T ^e screenings, as will be seen by referring to the tables, stand in the same relative order of vitality that they did ten years ago. The deterioration, however, is very marked for all of them. The screen¬ ings jotted badly m 1896, worse in 1900 and still worse in 1906. L-i • dl? eXp f!^® ntS 1896 as man y as per cent of them rotted w i e m those of 1906 as high as.86 per cent of the same sample rotted. ave previously stated that bright, vigorous sprouts were des¬ troyed by coming m contact with the rotting seed and owing to this fact, 1 doubt whether any plants would have survived, had the seed been used for actual planting. I endeavored to prevent the rotting bv wetting the upper piece of blotting paper with a solution of bichloride of mercury but when I stopped the rotting I practically stopped the sprouting. My solution was evidently too strong. I also made sepa¬ rate tests on samples No. 7, 8, 9 and 10 by first soaking them in pure water for two and a half hours and then for forty minutes in the bich¬ loride solution; this prevented the rotting but evidently injured the seed asi the results clearly show, of No. 7, 10 per cent, of No. 8,1 per cent of No. 9, 4 per cent and of No. 10, 3 per cent sprouted. Some of these sprouts were not strong but they were bright and healthy looking, they did not rot like the others. I call especial attention to sample No. 12 in the series of 1906 because it shows how different lots of this seed may vary. This sample was obtained in 1905 as a sample of prime, fresh seed, but the best of the seeds were small. It required 288,267 of them to make a pound, whereas, of No. 9, first class screenings, it required 266,233 seeds to make a pound. Only 42 per cent of No. 12 were good, bright seed and only 10 per cent of the sample could be classed as good, bright, plump seed, and these 10 per cent were smaller, actu¬ ally weighed less, than the average seed of sample No. 1. The Ti,^ e L Cen ^ were small, green or brown and many of them shriveled, inis 58 per cent would have been removed by proper cleaning. The results of the sprouting experiments indicate this clearly for 79 per cent of No. 9 sprouted when the seed was three years old and only 67.5 per cent of No. 12 sprouted when theseed was two years old. I may urt_ er remark that this sample, No.12, rotted badly showing that the rotting is due, as previously suggested, more largely to the sample than to its age. The Size and Length of Alfalfa Roots. —There is no subject on i/\# reater variet y of statements can be found than on this, lhe alfalfa root system as it develops in our soil is very simple as shown by the illustrations in Bui. No. 35. It consists of a tap root 16 Bulletin 110. with very few small side roots. Nothing in connection with this plant seems more marvelous to me than the fact that the simp e, root system of this plant can produce such a luxuriant growth of top. The average root, even at the crown, is less than 1-2 inch in diameter but I believe that the shortest normal root that I have dug up was about 6 feet long and the longest one 12 1-4 feet. Their ability to penetrate hard soil is very great, but of course there are instances m which some of the roots fail to penetrate hard layers. The average reader will understand that by hard soil I do not mean rock, still 1 have followed roots through layers of such tenacity that a pick was indispensible in removing the earth—and while the root was some¬ times twisted and crooked it was usually of good size and always healthy. , _ . ,, Anyone desiring a fuller discussion of these and many other points relative to alfalfa will find it in Bulletin No. 35, to which I have had occasion to refer repeatedly. Bulletin in May, 1906 The Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Colorado Agricultural College. A 1 fa 1 fa (A SYNOPSIS OF BULLETIN NO. 35) -BY- WM. P. HEADDEN > 4 PUBLISHED BY THE EXPERIMENT STATION Fort Collins, Colorabo. 1 90ft. The Agricultural Experiment Station. FORT COLLINS, COLORADO THE STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE Hon. P. F. SHARP, President . Hon. HARLAN THOMAS. Hon. JAMES L. CHATFIELD. Hon. B. U. DYE... Hon. B. F. ROCKAFELLOW. Hon. EUGENE H. GRUBB. Hon. A. A. EDWARDS. Hon. R. W. CORWIN. Governor JESSE F. MCDONALD, President BARTON O. AYLESWORTH, .. .Denver. _Denver. ... Gypsum- ... Rocky Ford .. .Canon City. .. .Carbondale. ... .Fort Collins ... Pueblo. | ex - officio . TERM EXPIRES ....1907 .. .1907 ....1909 ....1909 ....1911 ....1911 ....1913 ....1913 A. M. HAWLEY, Secretary EDGAR AVERY Treasurer Executive Committee in Charge P. F. SHARP, Chairman. B. F. ROCKAFELLOW. A. A. EDWARDS STATION STAFF L. G. CARPENTER, M. S., Director .Irrigation Engineer C. P. GILLETTE, M. S .Entomologist W. P. HEADDEN, A. M., Ph. D ...Chemist W. PADDOCK, M. S .Horticulturist W. L. CARLYLE, M. S .Agriculturist G. H. GLOVER, B. S., D. V. M .Veterinarian W. H. OLIN, M. S., .Agronomist R. E. TRIMBLE, B. S .Assistant Irrigation Engineer F. C. ALFORD, M. S..., .Assistant Chemist EARL DOUGLASS, M. S .Assistant Chemist S. ARTHUR JOHNSON, M. S .Assistant Entomologist B. O. LONGYEAR, B. S . Assistant Horticulturist J. A. McLEAN, A. B., B. S. A .Animal Husbandman E. B. HOUSE, B. S ....Assistant Irrigation Engineer F. KNORR .Assistant Agriculturist P. K. BLINN, B. S .Field Agent, Arkansas Valley, Rocky Ford E. R. BENNETT, B. S .Potato Investigations Western Slope Fruit Investigations, Grand Junction: O. B. WHIPPLE, B. A .Field Horticulturist ESTES P. TAYLOR, B. S .Field Entomologist OFFICERS President BARTON O. AYLESWORTH, A. M., LL. D. L G. CARPENTER, M. S .Director A. M. HAWLEY .Secretary MARGARET MURRAY .Stenographer and Clerk ALFALFA (a synopsis of bulletin no. 35 .) By Wm. P. Headden Bulletin No. 35 , issued in 1896 , is still in constant demand. This bulletin consists of nearly 100 pages, and covers a large part of the matters relating to this valuable plant. Because of its size, however, and its not being indexed, it is difficult to find a fact or statement to which one may wish to refer. Further, because of the unusually large edition issued, and the cutting down of the mailing list "made at the same time, there- a large excess, of which a number still remains. A synopsis, such as is here given, will take the place oFan index and will be useful both to those who already possess a copy of No. 35 and to those who may in the future receive one. This synopsis is therefore prepared as a supplement to bulletin No. 35 . Owing to its size it is not likely that No. 35 will be re-issued, as bulletin no, and this synopsis, will fill its place, so far as the demands of the general public are concerned. Copies of the original bulletin may still be obtained on ap¬ plication. 4 THE COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION PAGE Object and Scope of Bulletin 2 History of Alfalfa 2-4 Description of the plant; native place, probably Media, whence the name Medick; introduced into England 1650; cultivated by Greeks and Romans; culture has not been con¬ tinuous in Italy; brought to South America by the Spanish; brought from Chili to California in early fifties; 1854; brought to Colorado in the early sixties, 1862-3(?). Culture.4-8 Methods in vogue essentially the same as have been in use for centuries. Methods differ slightly for different soils and climates. Cold, wet winters and poor drainage constitute bad conditions for cultivation of this plant. It is customary to sow with a protective crop Seed .—Screenings produce good stand of healthy plants, suffi¬ cient to produce maximum crop. Seed bed should be deeply prepared and plants receive abundant water during first sea¬ son. Tap roots not always present. Transplanting has been practiced with good results. Three cuttings made in Eng¬ land and seven in Catalonia. Alfalfa yields better hay when sown broadcast than when sown in drills. Life of the plant is given as from two to fifty years. Alfalfa needs water to pro¬ duce a crop. Its long roots may enable it to live without much water, but not to produce a good growth. Alfalfa does well in a wide range of soils; also of altitude. 8-9 Varieties Two varieties, at least, in alfalfa as grown in Colorado; one has red stem, small, dark green leaves and dark purple blos¬ soms; the other has green stems, large and lighter green leaves, and lighter blossoms. The red stemmed plants are earlier and leafier than the green stemmed. Three French varieties experimented with did not retain their distinctive features. Turkestan alfalfa experimented with did not change its character. There are but slight differences in the composition of the varieties. Composition of Alfalfa, Hay, Heaves, Stems, etc. . . 9-32 Preparation of samples. Samples dried in the air and at 100° show no difference in composition. It is not well to dry above 100°, page 9. ALFALFA 5 PAGE Samples taken before bloom, beginning bloom, half bloom, full bloom, with seed formed and with mature seed. Samples of flowers, leaves, stems, roots, etc. Proteids in Alfalfa at Different Periods of Growth and in Alfalfa Hays at Ditferent Cuttings .io-ii The average percentage of proteids found in our laboratory samples, were: in first cutting alfalfa, about 14.0 per cent.; in the second cutting, 14.43 per cent.; in the third cutting, 13.05 percent. In the farm samples, first cutting, 14.92 per cent.; second cutting, 13.99 per cent.; third cutting, 13.47 per cent. Analysis of Alfalfa Hay as Cut and of the Same Dam¬ aged by Rain . 12 As cut, ash, 12.18; crude fat, 3.94; crude protein, 18.71; crude fibre, 26.46; nitrogen free extract, 38.71. Damaged by rain: Ash, 12.71; crude fat, 3.81; crude protein, 11.01; crude fibre, 38.83; nitrogen free extract, 33.64. First cutting hay contains more proteids than second or third cutting. Amount of proteids is nearly stationary from beginning to half bloom, and decreases after full bloom. Crude Fibre .13-16 Percentage of crude fibre varies a little, due to varieties; also to conditions of soil and moisture. Percentage of crude fibre increases with age of plant, but is fairly constant from the period of early to full bloom. Peroentage of crude fibre in supposedly distinct varieties grown in drills was the same as in ordinary hays. Percentage of crude fibre in second cutting hay is essentially the same as in the first cutting. The percentage in third cutting varies more than in the others, but averages about the same. Fat or Ethei Extract .16-17 The average percentage extracted is 1.539 per cent. Nitrogen Free Extract . I 7 _I 9 Average~percentages obtained from labratory samples were: For first cutting hay. 31.69 For second cutting hay.34.27 For third cutting hay.,32.72 Average percentages obtained from field samples were: For first cutting hay. 34.35 For second cutting hay.34.04 For third cutting hay. 34.74 6 THE COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION PAGE Moisture in Air Dried Hay .. • x 8 The moisture in the laboratory samples averaged 6.03 per cent, the field sample, 7.09 per cent.; under ordinary Colo¬ rado conditions the average will not be far from 6.5 per cent. Air dry alfalfa hay under our usual conditions absorbs moist- ture rapidly. One ton of ordinary air dry hay will readily ab¬ sorb llTpounds of moisture during a damp spell. Ash or Mineral Constituents . 19-21 The amount of ash present in alfalfa hay varies but slightly. The average for the first cutting is 9.08 per cent.; for second cutting 10.24, and for the third cutting 9.83 per cent, for our laboratory samples.. The results for the field samples were a little higher, 11.19, 10.48, and 10.07 per cent, for the respective cuttings. These figures are for the pure ash. A five-ton crop of alfalfa removes about 1,025 pounds of ash or mineral matter. Water in Alfalfa . 21-22 The average percentages of water in the first and second cuttings are 73.14 and 71.08. The water in the third cutting was not determined. Other determinations for the first and second cutting gave 74.76 per cent, for the former, and 72.80 per cent, for the latter. One hundred pounds of green alfalfa, first cutting, makes about 27 pounds of hay; and 100 pounds of second cutting makes about 29 pounds of hay. » Amids , Amid Nitrogen . 22-25 The amid nitrogen in the first cutting of alfalfa hay corre¬ sponds to 10.85 per cent, of the total crude proteids or albu¬ minoids, and 19.93 per cent, of the total in the second cutting, while we found but 5.03 per cent for the third cutting. Colorado samples differ greatly from Texas samples given in Texas Bulletin No. 20, 1892. The amids probably reach their maximum at about the period of half bloom, as they begin to disappear as the plants go out of bloom. The bloom itself is rich in amids (see p. 28 for analysis). About 20.28 per cent, of the total albuminoids being amids. Nitrogen as Nitric Acid . 25 Nitrogen is not present in this form—the result of 18 tests. Parts of the Plant. 25-32 Stems p . 25 .—Average diameter, 0.17 of an inch; height five and one-half feet under favorable conditions. Proportion from 40 to 60 per cent, of the plant; the rest of the plant is represented ALFALFA 7 PAGE essentially by the leaves. The fresh stems contain about 60 per cent, of their weight of water. The mechanical loss in making alfalfa hay is from 15 to 20 and even 66 per cent. Composition of alfalfa stems is that of a fairly good hay, p. 26. The amid nitrogen in the stems is very low. Leaves, p. 27 .—Alfalfa leaves affected by a fungus, p. 27. Fresh leaves contain 68.72 per cent, of water. The leaves are very rich in proteids up to half bloom, but are not so rich when past full bloom. The amids in the leaves are high, about 15.65 per cent, of the total albuminoids. The percentage of ash in the leaves is high, about 14.00 per cent. A large percentage of the leaves is lost in hay making, (p. 26). Flowers, p. 28 .— The flowers are important as they indicate the turning point in the development of the plant. The fresh flowers contain 72.69 per cent, of water. The composition of the flowers is similar to that of the leaves. Analyses p. 28 .—The amids are more abundant in the flowers than in any other portion of the plant. The flowers are not sufficiently abundant to account for the large amount of pro¬ teids in the hay cut when the plants are in half bloom. The ether extract of the flowers is not very high and does not foreshadow the large amount of oil in the seed. Review of Questions Relating to Alfalfa Hay Mak¬ ing . 29-32 The time of cutting; the influence of irrigation; the influence of growing on high and low lands; comparison of results ob¬ tained in Texas, New Jersey, and Colorado. The composition of the various cuttings shows but little variation. Composition is not the only factor in making a good hay. Analyses of alfalfa hays, laboratory samples, made from plants at different periods of development, grown without irri¬ gation, on low land and on high land, p. 31. Analyses of parts of the plant grown under same variety of conditions, p. 31. Analyses of alfalfa hays, farm samples, p. 32. Alfalfa and Clover Hay Compared. 32-33 Analyses of clover and alfalfa hays, p. 32. Green alfalfa yields 2.5 per cent, more hay and contains about 7.00 per cent, more digestible food than clover. Alfalfa, Red Clover and Pea Vine Ensilage Com¬ pared .. . . . 33-34 • The dry matter in alfalfa ensilage is 30.19 per cent. Analyses 8 THE COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION PAGE of alfalfa, pea vine and clover ensilages, p. 33. The pea vine ensilage was made from pea vines after the peas had been threshed out for canning purposes. The ash in alfalfa ensil¬ age is much higher than in the hay, indicating a considerable loss of dry matter. Alfalfa ensilage is eaten freely by cattle. The so-called “brown hay” is alfalfa hay which has passed through a fer¬ mentation in the stack and is considered an excellent fodder for cattle. Alfalfa ensilage is easily damaged by putrefactive fermentation. Analysis of damaged alfalfa ensilage, p. 34. Plant Food taken from the Soil by Alfalfa .... 35-37 Leguminous plants such as alfalfa are considered as nitrogen gatherers, and when they are incorporated with the soil in which they have grown add nitrogen to it, but when they are removed it is questionable whether this is so or not. The ash content obtained from our samples probably repre¬ sents the normal amount which a healthy alfalfa plant will take up. Table showing the pounds of the various plant foods removed by 1,000 pounds of alfalfa hay. One ton first cutting alfalfa hay removes 143 pounds of ash constituents; one of second cutting., 165 pounds, and one of third cutting, 127 pounds. Carbon, carbonic acid, and sand not reckoned. One ton clo¬ ver hay removes 128 pounds of ash constituents. Alfalfa Seeds. 37-44 Analysis of seeds, p. 31; analysis of ash, p. 92. Description and size of alfalfa seed, prime seed, 1st, 2d and 3d quality of screenings, p. 38. Amount of seed sown to the acre, p. 39. • . « What Constitutes a Good Stand of Alfalfa .... 39-40 Hay produced by single plants in thick and light stands. Number of stems thrown up by individual plants, p. 41. Stems produced by plants having much space are not larger than those produced by plants which are crowded; the size of the stems is influenced by other conditions. The amount of seed necessary to produce a good stand depends upon the vitality of the seed and the vigor of the plants produced. Vitality of Alfalfa Seed. 4 I_ 44 Alfalfa seed said to be low in vitality. Experiments made to refute this statement. Description of samples of seeds used. How the experiment were made. Results of experiments p. 43. “Hard Seed” explained and germinating power given, p. 43. Duration of experiment, three days, sufficient to form ALFALFA 9 PAGE a judgment of the value of the seed. Six-year-old alfalfa seed had lost but little or none of its germinating power. Screenings give good results even when two or three years old. Failures to obtain a stand are due to causes other than the lack of germinating power of the seed. Roots and Stubble of Alfalfa .44-64 The popular description of the roots exaggerated and errone¬ ous. Very large roots exceptional and not normal. The root system is very simple, Plates II to X. Fibrous roots are almost wanting. Spongioles found at the depth attained by the tap roots. Spongioles described. Depth Attained by the Roots. The depth attained by alfalfa roots varies with fehe soil; it may also be determined by the height of the water plane. Alfalfa roots are more tolerant of water than popularly sup¬ posed. Illustrated in Plate XIII. Locality in Weld County chosen for digging out samples of alfalfa roots, p. 48. Section of soil given, p. 48. Plants were five or six years old and vigorous. Roots had penetrated the hard layer and did not divide. Depth reached was eleven feet nine inches, ending in a soft sandy clay. At the next place chosen the soil was nearly uniform to depth attained by roots. This soil was a clay and was formerly used for making brick. Age of these plants five or six years; length of roots twelve feet three inches. Effect of raising the water plane, p. 49. Effect of Age on Size of Roots . 50 Observations show great variation; some nine months old roots are larger than others six years old. Death Rate of Roots .50 In five years from seeding two-thirds of the plants had died. . The yield of hay not affected. Dying out of the plants or thin¬ ning of the stand not objectionable provided it is uniform. The plants die in two ways, p. 51. The second mode of dying illustrated by plates XV, XVI and XVII. Alfalfa roots when cut off below the crown do not bud and reestablish the plant, and their power of throwing out adventitious roots is small. Alfalfa Roots Cut by Gophers .• . . . . 52 Alfalfa plants endure this root pruning to a remarkable extent. Nodules on Alfalfa Roots . 5 2 '53 These occur in three forms; as warty excrescences on the roots, in large colonies, and as single nodules. The first IO THE COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION PAGE form occurs near the surface; the second is most abundant at depths of from three to five feet; and the third at all depths up to eleven and a half feet. Illustrated in Plates XI. and XIV.; also shown in Plate XIII. Partial analysis of nodules page 53. Ratio of Roots to the Tops . 53-54 This ratio varies greatly with individual plants. In field culture it is more than an average alfalfa plant on which the top equals or exceeds the weight of the root. Alfalfa Stubble . 55 The stubble, taken to a depth of six inches, five days after cutting, is equal to about two thirds of the weight of the green alfalfa as cut by the mower. The dried stubble found per acre ranging from 2.5 to 3.34 tons. Composition of the Stubble . 56 Analysis of ash of stubble, page 92. Mineral constituents per 1,000 pounds of stubble, page 56. Composition op the Roots . 56-58 Analyses of ash of roots, bark, and inner portion, page 92. Methods of preparing roots—could not wash them, page 56. Fresh roots contain 60.41 per cent, water. Fodder analyses of root, page 57. Ash constituents are easily washed out of the roots. Properties of aqueous extract of roots, page 57. The presence of starch doubtful. Mineral plant food con¬ tained in each 1,000 pounds of air dried roots, page 58. Ash constituents dissolved out of roots by water equal 11.99 pounds per thousand. Phosphoric and sulphuric acids, but particu¬ larly potash, went into solution. Manurial Value of Stubble . 59 Each ton of stubble contains 8.31 pounds of phosphoric acid, 15.52 pounds of potash. 36.37 pounds of nitrogen; giving the value of the stubble at $6.75per ton, or $19.28 per acre. Manurial Value of the Roots . 60 The weight of roots per acre is nearly twice as great as that of the stubble, but is not so rich in phosphoric acid and nitrogen; the manurial value of the roots per acre is about $16. 58. Without assigning any value to the organic matter we have $35.90 as the value of the alfalfa stubble and roots. This food is within the reach of ordinary plants; wheat for example. If the alfalfa roots were removed, the soil would be found poorer than before the alfalfa was grown on it, es¬ pecially in nitrogen, the first nine inches of soil excepted, page 61. ALFALFA II PAGE The Leaves and Stems as a Top Dressing. 61-63 The leaves and stems which fall on the ground to become in¬ corporated with it amount to about one ton a year, which accounts for the fact that the first nine inches of soil in which alfalfa had been grown was found to contain more than half the nitrogen contained in the soil to a depth of nine feet, 8.9 pounds out of 17.0 pounds in all. There is an accumulation of plant food in the upper portions of the soil which is of material benefit. Elements of plant food contained in 1,000 pounds of leaves, page 36. Fodder analyses of leaves, p 27. Analyses of ash of leaves, p. 92. Fodder analyses of stubble and roots of alfalfa, p. 63. Analyses of ashes of stubble and roots, page 92. Elements of plant food in 1,000 pounds of stubble and roots, page 63. The Soil and Its Relation to Alfalfa Growing . . . 63-77 Weld county soil described, page 63-64. Ash constituents and nitrogen removed by 1,000 pounds of hay grown on this soil, page 64. Analyses of the ashes of the plants and roots of alfalfa grown on the soil. Chemical analyses of the five sections of this soil, page 65. The mechanical analyses of this soil, page 66. Physical condition of soil is good, and from a chemical standpoint the supply of phosphoric acid, potash and nitrogen is abundant. The total mineral con¬ stituents removed by a four and a half ton crop of alfalfa hay from this soil is 677.88 pounds; carbon dioxide not in¬ cluded. Respective amounts of the several constitutents, page 67. The nitrogen in the hay amounts to 200.79 pounds. Though the plant food in this soil is very abundant the ash content of the hay is about the average. Similar data rela¬ tive to Otero county soil, page 68. Analysis of Otero county soil, page 69. The plant food removed by the hays grown on these two soils bears no relation to the relative quantities shown by their chemical analyses. The ground water seems to have but little or no influence upon mineral matters taken up. Magnesia studied as a criterion. Composition of ground water encountered in Otero county soil, page 70. The sum of the lime and potash-magnesia included with the former and soda with the latter—is constant within narrow limits and suggests a partial interchange of functions, page 71. The magnesia and soda in the ash of the Otero county hay was not affected by the magnesia and soda in the ground water. Ashes of hays grown in alkali soils in Larimer county contained two or three times as much soda as the Weldor Otero county samples. Otero County Ground Water and Larimer County Seepage Water Stated in Grains Per Gallon. 72 The ground and seepage waters differ wholly from the river waters used in irrigation. These waters do not sustain ihe same relation to plant feeding that solutions do in water cul¬ tures. Analyses of ashes of the Weld county and Otero county hays given for comparison, page 74. 12 THE COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION PAGE Effects of Alfalfa Growing on the Soils Restated 74-77 78-89 Appendix Preparation of samples, page 78. Preparation of ash, page 79. Methods of analyses, pages 80-82. Determination of phosphoric acid, manganese, lime and magnesia, page 82. Determination of chlorine and sulphur, page 83. Loss of chlorin on incineration, page 85. Maximum, 2.38 per cent. Loss of sulphur on incineration, 2.0 per cent., page 87. Loss of phosphorous or phosphoric acid none, page 87. Some results obtained at other stations, page 89. Analyses of Colorado Alfalfa Hays and Parts of Plants 90 Analyses of hays, etc., pages 31 and 32. Same calculated on water free basis, page 90. Analyses of good alfalfa hay, first cutting, moisture, 6.04 per cent.; ash 9.30; fat, 1.19; crude protein, 14.41: crude fiber, 36.54; nitrogen free extract, 32.50; amid nitrogen, 0.372 per cent, second cutting, moisture, 6.61; ash, 9.91; fat, 1.18; crude protein, 16.11; crude fiber, 37.24; nitrogen, free extract, 28.90; amid nitrogen, 0.350 per cent.; third cutting, moisture, 5.78; ash, 9.38; fat, 1.61; crude protein 12 53; crude fiber, 39.35; nitrogen free extract, 31.35; amid nitrogen, 0.10 per cent. Compilation of Analyses Published Prior to 1896 . . 91 Ash Analyses—All Colorado Samples. 92 Description of Plates.94-95 Plate /.—The largest individual plant found in Colorado. Diam¬ eter of top. 18 inches, stems 360. Plate //.—Exhibits face of opening thirteen feet deep in alfalfa field on Experiment Station farm at Rocky Ford, showing root system and distribution in soil. Plates III . and IV .—Largest roots dug out, 11 feet nine inches long. Plates V. and VI.- Show typical root system of alfalfa as it grows in Colorado. Plates VII. and VIII.— Show alfalfa roots which have branched to a very unusual degree. Plate AT.—Yearling alfalfa plants grown in rich soil. Three feet nine inches. Plate X. —Alfalfa seedlings nine months old; roots nine feet three and three-fourths inches long. Plate XI. —Shows lower end of tap root nine feet eleven inches long. Shows tubercles at this depth. Plate XIII. —Shows mass of fibrous roots taken from gravel filled with water. Plate XIV — Shows large clusters-of tubercles 234 inches across as they were found at a depth of from three to five feet. Plates XV.,XVI. and XVII.— Show the progressive decay of the crown of the alfalfa plant. Plate XVIII.— Shows gopher eaten roots with the small ad¬ ventitious roots thrown out by the alfalfa plant. Bulletin 112 April, 1906 The Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Colorado Agricultural College. A Hopperdozrer -BY- P. K. BLINN PUBLISHED BY THE EXPERIMENT STATION Fort Collins, Colorado. 190A The Agricultural Experiment Station. FORT COLLINS, COLORADO THE STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE Hon. P. F. SHARP, President . Hon. HARLAN THOMAS. Hon. JAMES L. CHATFIELD. Hon. B. IJ. DYE. Hon. B. F. ROCKAFELLOW . Hon. EUGENE H. GRUBB . Hon. A. A. EDWARDS. Hon. R. W. CORWIN. Governor JESSE F. MCDONALD, President BARTON O. AYLESWORTH, . Denver. . .Denver. .. Gypsum — ..Rocky Ford. . .Canon City. . .Carbondale. .. Fort Collins .. Pueblo. ex-officio. TERM EXPIRES ...1907 .. .1907 ....1909 ... 1909 ....1911 ....1911 ...1913 ....1913 A. M. HAWLEY, Secretary EDGAR AVERY Treasurer Executive Committee in Charge P. F. SHARP, Chairman. B. F. ROCKAFELLOW. A A. EDWARDS STATION STAFF L. G. CARPENTER, M. S., Director .Irrigation Engineer C. P. GILLETTE, M. S .Entomologist W. P. HEADDEN, A. M. Ph. D ..Chemist W. PADDOCK, M. S . .Horticulturist W. L. CARLYLE, M. S .Agriculturist G. H. GLOVER, B S., D. V. M.Veterinarian W. H. OLIN, M. S., .. .Agronomist R. E. TRIMBLE, B. S .Assistant Irrigation Engineer F. C. ALFORD, M. S .Assistant Chemist EARL DOUGLASS, M. S .Assistant Chemist S. ARTHUR JOHNSON, M. S .Assistant Entomologist B. O. LONGYEAR, B. S . Assistant Horticulturist J. A. McLEAN, A. B., B. S. A.Animal Husbandman E. B. HOUSE, B. S .Assistant Irrigation Engineer F. KNORR . ... Assistant Agriculturist P. K. BLINN, B. S .Field Agent, Arkansas Valley, Rocky Ford Western Slope Fruit Investigations, Grand Junction: O. B. WHIPPLE, B. A.Field Horticulturist ESTES P. TAYLOR, B. S .Field Entomologist OFFICERS President BARTON O. AYLESWORTH, A. M., LL. D. L. G. CARPENTER, M. S. Director A. M. HAWLEY. Secretary MARGARET MURRAY. Stenographer and Clerk A HOPPERDOZER By P. K. Bunn Our native grasshoppers have been a common pest in the alfalfa fields for many years, principally infesting the edges of the fields, along side of dry ditch banks, fences, or other dry land, such locations affording their favorite breeding places. For several years it seems that the “hoppers” have been rapidly increasing. Their injuries to the hay crops, alfalfa seed and honey yield of the state amount each year to many thousands of dollars, beside the serious injuries to beets, beans, potatoes, cantaloupes and most other crops that may be growing adjacent to the field of alfalfa to which they are attracted each time after the hay is cut. The extent of their injuries the past season was unusually severe and quite general over the state. In the Arkansas Valley the alfalfa was almost stripped to stems in many fields, and the destruction of the bloom was so complete as to practically destroy the alfalfa seed crop east of Pueblo. The loss of the bloom also cut off the honey crop from one of the choicest honey producing sections of the United States, many of the apiarists being com¬ pelled to feed their bees during the summer months. Serious in¬ juries were also made on nearly all other crops by the grasshoppers from the alfalfa fields. The farmers resorted to spraying, driving and poisonous baits, as well as other precautionary measures, but with only meagre results. Having observed the shifting movements of the grasshoppers when the alfalfa is cut, it seemed evident that such a time offered a favorable opportunity to destroy the pest. It seemed that a hopperdozer could be used effectively behind the mower; accord¬ ingly a dozer was constructed on rather an inexpensive plan, one which any farmer with ordinary tools could make without the aid of a skilled mechanic. The bottom of the pan was a sheet of No. 24 galvanized iron 30 x 96 inches, the size of sheets usually carried by hardware dealers. 4 THE COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION This bottom was nailed with common six-penny nails to a frame made of two-by-fonrs that was 24 x 96 inches in size and being the same in length as the sheet of iron, but about six inches nar¬ rower, which allowed about three inches to be turned np and nailed to the outside of the frame on each side. This made the pan more secure. To prevent leakage a strip of tow candle wick- ing was nailed beneath the iron between two rows of nails. A coat of paint completed a water tight pan 24 inches wide in¬ side by eight feet long. To the ends of this pan were bolted sled runners four feet long, cut from a piece of 2 x 10 . The runners were so placed as to carry the pan about four inches above the ground. Fig. 1 shows the general plan of the pan with the runners attached, also four small 10 inch cast wheels bolted near the ends of the runners, also the dimensions as indicated. The wheels support the runners only one and a half inches and steady the pan over rough places. They lightened the draft and allowed the pan to be drawn over the hay without catching and dragging it. By hitching a horse in front of one runner with a short rope and with a longer rope from the other runner hitched into the hame staple of the harness, the wheels will carry the dozer at right angles and entirely to the side of the horse, thus preventing the hoppers from being frightened away from in front of the advanc¬ ing pan. At the back of the pan is a light frame three feet high secured by uprights that are braced in front to the runners. Over this frame is stretched a sheet of white table oilcloth with the smooth side to the front. Every grasshopper that hits the smooth surface of the oil cloth screen falls into the pan which is filled with about two inches of water and about a pint of kerosene oil on the surface. The lower edge of the oilcloth is nailed with strips to the inside of the pan at the back to prevent slopping. Plate I. shows the hopperdozer complete ready to hitch to and also views of it when in use and the manner of hitching. A HOPPERDOZER 5 CDS N ®*5 £ M o.2 S Ef — w bt £ E O) Je> O *h 03 oi O 0) 6 THE COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION The material and its cost to build the dozer at Rocky Ford was as follows: One sheet of No. 24 galvanized iron, 23 lbs. at 9 cts-$2.07 “ “ “ 2x4, 8 ft. “ “ “ 2x10, 8 ft. “ “ “1x4, 16 ft. Total _32 ft. at 21 cents_ 97 )C 3 yards of table oilcloth at 18 cents-- 54c 4 cast wheels__ __ --- 50° Bolts, nails and rope. ______ 40c 1 bill candle wicking____ jlOc Total cost_ $4.56 The hopperdozer was first tried on Mr. J. R. Roth’s six acres of alfalfa east of Rocky Ford, the field being so infested that in the evening when the hoppers climbed to the top of alfalfa stems they gave a yellow cast to the otherwise green field. They had completely destroyed the alfalfa bloom and the adjoining fields of potatoes and beets, and cantalopes were threatened as soon as the alfalfa should be cut. After getting a start of several swaths with the mower, the dozer was started. The first round with the dozer the horse walked outside of the alfalfa while the dozer covered the first two swaths of the mower. The movements of the horse frightened the hoppers from the edge of the field into the pan or farther into the field to be caught at some succeeding round with the dozer. In the first two rounds, a half bushel measure of grasshoppers was skimmed from the pan; more water and oil were added, and the work con¬ tinued to the center of the field, catching the hoppers more rapidly at each succeeding round. The last two swaths were so covered with hoppers that the mower was stopped and the dozer driven over this standing strip with the horse on a trot. The strip was about eight feet wide by seven hundred long, and once over and back on this strip, caught three heaping half bushels of grass¬ hoppers. Many of the hoppers were down in the hay and after about fifteen minutes they had crawled to the top, and covered the strip again, and again the drive was made and two half bushels was the result. The strip was left standing for several days and the dozer run over it several times each day catching many of the hoppers that remained on the field. The dozer was run over the field several times the day it was mowed and between nine and ten bushels of grasshoppers were caught besides many that got out of the pan but died from the effect of the oil bath. A careful count of the number of grasshoppers A HOPPERDOZER 7 in a given measure was made and it indicated that over thirty thousand grasshoppers were killed in each bushel caught. A large part of them were very small hoppers and only a few, at that time, July nth, had developed wings. Many alfalfa worms were caught when the dozer was run over standing alfalfa. The field has since been comparatively free from hoppers and no ap¬ parent injury was made on the adjoining crops. About ten days later the dozer was used on the field of Mr. J. B. B A yan. The hoppers had then developed wings so that many were able to fly too far, thus preventing a very successful catch, although several bushels of grasshoppers were killed on about two acres of alfalfa. Other farmers used the dozer and several other dozers of similar construction were built and used in the vicin¬ ity of Rocky Ford. In fields where the grasshoppers were unusually numerous, satisfactory results were made, yet it was evident in the experience of all that the dozer could be most effectually used early while the hoppers were small and could not fly, and espec¬ ially where the dozer was driven rapidy over standing alfalfa from 8 inches to 12 inches high; although it was demonstrated that large full grown grasshoppers could be caught and killed in the same manner early in the morning after a shower or heavy dew when the hoppers would be wet and numb from cold and too stupid to fly. Early one morning in August, after an evening shower, the writer observed that a piece of alfalfa was literally yellow with grasshoppers that had climbed to the top of the stems to catch the warmth of the first rays of the morning sun. A horse was immedi¬ ately hitched to the dozer, and coal oil not being handy the pan was filled with cold water onlv from a ditch near bv and the j j horse driven at a trot through the standing hay which was about 12 inches high. It was 40 rods across the field and back and by that time the pan was full of grasshoppers struggling in the water. These were immediately skimmed out with a screen and thrown into a milk can and the cover put on. After the second trip the can was more than full of grasshoppers pressed in tight. As there was no oil on the grasshoppers the can was carried to the yard where a flock of young chickens and turkeys fairly covered the can after it had been turned on one side, with the cover off, and they had discovered what it contained. The following morning be¬ ing wet and cold, we took an early start and in less than a half hour we had killed over four bushels of large grasshoppers on less than two acres; this time we used coal oil, as many hoppers seemed to escape when only water was used. The amount of oil required, will not exceed a gallon to the 8 THE COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION acre and usually much less. The oilcloth screen at the back of j the dozer is an important feature as it does not allow the hopper to stick to it and those that hit it fall into the pan and are killed. The wheels attached to the runners lighten the draft and en¬ able one horse to pull the pan to one side as explained and shown in Plate I., and also allows the pan to be drawn through standing alfalfa without trickling it down to any extent. For larger fields a longer pan, say from 12 to 16 feet, would doubtless be more eco¬ nomical, but a long pan would need divisions to prevent the water from flowing to one end 011 steep ground. A good example of the destruction of grasshopper eggs by early spring or winter discing of the alfalfa fields, was seen on the farm of Mr. C. J. Cover. His field was purple with bloom with comparatively few grasshoppers while all neighboring fields had been stripped of bloom by grasshoppers. Bulletin 113 June, 1606 The Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE % Colorado Agricultural College. Larkspur and Other Poisonous Plants BY GEO. H. GLOVER PUBLISHED BY THE EXPERIMENT STATION FORT COLLINS, COLORADO 1906 The Agricultural Experiment Station FORT COLLINS, COLORADO THE STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE Term HON. P. F. SHARP, President. HON. HARLAN THOMAS. HON. JAMES L. CHATFIELD. HON. B. U. DYE.. HON. B. F. ROCKAFELLOW. HON. EUGENE H. GRUBB. HON. A. A. EDWARDS. HON. R. W. CORWIN. GOVERNOR JESSE F. MCDONALD, PRESIDENT BARTON O. AYLESWORTH, Expires Denver .1907 Denver .1907 Gypsum .1909 Rocky Ford .1909 Canon City.1911 Carbondale .1911 Fort Collins.1913 Pueblo .1913 l ) Ex-Officio. A. M. HAWLEY, Secretary EDGAR AVERY, Treasurer EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE IN CHARGE P. F. SHARP, Chairman. B. F. ROCKAFELLOW. A. A. EDWARDS STATION STAFF L. G. CARPENTER, M. S., Director.Irrigation Engineer C. P. GILLETTE, M. S.Entomologist W. P. HEADDEN, A. M., Ph. D.Chemist W. PADDOCK, M. S. W. L. CARLYLE, M. S. G. H. GLOVER, M. S., D. V. M W. H. OLIN, M. S. R. E. TRIMBLE, B. S. F. C. ALFORD, M. S. EARL DOUGLASS, M. S. S. ARTHUR JOHNSON, M. S.. B. O. LONGYEAR, B. S. J. A. McLEAN, A. B., B. S. A. . E. B. HOUSE, B. S . F. KNORR . E. R. BENNETT, B. S. P. K. BLINN, B. S. .Horticulturist .Agriculturist .Veterinarian .Agronomist .Assistant Irrigation Engineer .Assistant Chemist .Assistant Chemist .Assistant Entomologist .Assistant Horticulturist .Animal Husbandman .Assistant Irrigation Engineer . Assistant Agriculturist .Potato Investigations Field Agent, Arkansas Valley, Rocky Ford WESTERN SLOPE FRUIT INVESTIGATIONS, GRAND JUNCTION: O. B. WHIPPLE, B. S.Field Horticulturist ESTES P. TAYLOR, B. S.Field Entomologist OFFICERS PRESIDENT BARTON O. AYLESWORTH, A. M., LL. D. L. G. CARPENTER, M. S.Director A. M. HAWLEY .Secretary MARGARET MURRAY.Stenographer and Clerk Larkspur and Other Poisonous Plants. BY GKO. H. GLOVER. According to the last statistics, there are something over $50,- 000,000 invested in live stock in the State of Colorado. The old open range conditions still prevail to some extent, and many of the vexatious problems which have hampered this industry from its inception remain unsolved. I deem it no presumption to say that there is no place on the face of the earth where the live stock industry flourishes less hamp¬ ered by disease, contagious or otherwise, than in the salubrious climate of the arid west. Not one of the great animal scourges that have decimated .the herds of the Orient for centuries, and some of which have in the past reached our eastern shores, have ever found their way west of the Mississippi river, thanks to an eternal vigilance on the part of the Federal and State authorities. The loss we suffer is not great from any one specific cause, but in the aggregate become a heavy burden. It has been estimated that the loss from poisoning of stock on the open range in the State of Montana is at least $100,000 an¬ nually. In this State it must be nearly or quite as great. The value of the animals actually lost does not, however, begin to represent the loss actually sustained by the industry be¬ cause of the presence of a few species of poisonous weeds. In many sections of this State ranchers have given up in despair and been forced to abandon otherwise ideal ranges. The animal mor¬ tality, combined with the injury done to those animals not actually destroyed, have curtailed the profits until the owner at last is forced into bankruptcy and the ranges are abandoned. Until the last few years no systematic effort has been made to investigate these poisonous plants of the western ranges.. Their identity, poisonous nature, and remedy was simply a matter of common report among the stockmen. In 1901 the U. S. Department of Agriculture sent two ex¬ perts (Chesnut and Wilcox), to Montana to investigate the plant poisoning of stock in that State, and their report has been of ines¬ timable value not only to the live stock industry of that State but to the whole country, more especially to the arid West. Other 4 Bulletin 113. bulletins from various State experiment stations, notably North Dakota, Idaho, Montana, have followed, and not only been of great practical benefit to the stockmen in identifying the most danger¬ ous of these plants, but seems to have aroused the spirit of inquiry on the part of scientists for more extended research regarding them. This bulletin is issued with the view of placing before the farm¬ ers and stockmen of the State a plain and concise statement, with illustrations, regarding larkspur and a few of our most common and most to be dreaded range plants. Early in the spring of 1905 the Colorado Experiment Station undertook a co-operative experimental investigation of loco and larkspur with the Department of Agriculture. The work with loco weeds has been carried on throughout the summer and fall, with headquarters at Hugo, Colo., under the direct supervision of C. Dwight Marsh, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, and the report will follow in due time. Poison weeds in general throughout the State, with special reference to larkspur, has been the subject of special inquiry by the Experiment Station, at Fort Collins, and in this investigation has been ably assisted by the Bureau of Plant Industry, at Wash¬ ington, by way of identification of plant, chemical analysis, deter¬ mination of lethal dose, etc. Out of the large number of plants known to be poisonous under certain conditions the two loco weeds known as white and purple loco, and several species of larkspur, have been singled out for special investigation at this time as they are held responsible for at least ninety per cent, of the loss in this State. While scattering reports come in from various sections of the State of loss which can be attributed unly to camas, lupin, hemlock, and various others, in the great majority of cases it is from the loco weeds in the east¬ ern half of the State and larkspur in the mountainous regions. Nearly every community of the State has been visited within the last year, and a fair knowledge of the most prevalent poisonous weeds obtained. In visiting various sections of the State, and by correspondence as well, I find that unless the plant under discus¬ sion is at hand there is no certainty that we both have the same plant in mind. There is no general agreement among stockmen themselves either as to the common names, identity, or symptoms from poisoning of even our most common poison weeds. White loco weed and rattle weed are spoken of as different plants; lark¬ spur is commonly called aconite; death camas as wild onions, etc. I have corresponded with different parties with reference to the loss sustained from larkspur, and upon receiving the specimens found them to be something entirely different. This, however, simply causes some inconvenience. It does not present a serious Larkspur and Other Poisonous Peants. 5 obstacle to their investigation, but incidentally furnishes an in¬ disputable argument in favor of the necessity of educating the stockmen as to their identity in order that they may the more effectually avoid them. In the realm of toxicology we are still groping in the dark, and our best scientists have laid down before many of the stupend¬ ous obstacles confronting them and acknowledge defeat. Here are some of the difficulties with which we have to contend: i. Some Plants Are Poisonous Only at Certain Stages of Growth, The lupine (wild pea—horse beans), are found growing in almost every section of the State and in great abundance on the Western Slope, and in many places are cut for hay; they are poison¬ ous only at the time of going to seed. Larkspur {Delphinium ), is very deadly early in the spring, and loses its toxicity almost en¬ tirely at flowering time. The death camas (Zygadenus venenosus), growing from a poisonous bulb, is very deadly early in the season, but gradually becomes less harmful and dries up in July. Sorghum and kaffir corn, which became popular forage crops in the non- irrigable sections of eastern Colorado, have produced such dis¬ astrous results from feeding green at certain stages of growth that their cultivation has been generally abandoned. In Bulletin N°* 37 , of the Idaho Experiment Station, is found the following bearing upon this subject: “The roots of the wild parsnip or water hemlock, which are so virulent in the early spring, have been fed to cows in the late summer and early fall without ill effect. An¬ other member of the same family, the hemlock water parsnip, has a root which is poisonous in the early spring, but harmless after midsummer, while the roots of another plant of the carrot family, poison hemlock, contain no trace of poison during March, April or May, although considerable quantities of the active principle coniin are present in the leaves and stems by May. Later in the season the roots also become dangerous.” 2. Unusual Conditions May Affect the Quantity of Poison in Plants: In sorghum and Kaffir corn a stunted growth, resulting from arid conditions, is best suited for the development of prussic acid, the most powerful poison known. The poisoning by Johnson grass (a near relative of sorghum), is no doubt due to the same cause, as shown by Crawford and by Jeffries. The common potato which belongs to the same genus as black nightshade, spreading nightshade, bitter sweet, and other dangerous plants, contains an active alkaloid solanine which develops in large quantities when potatoes become green from exposure to the sun. This is no doubt the cause of the sudden and mysterious death of horses in the vicinity of Greeley that had been turned into potato fields after digging time, many small potatoes having 6 Bulletin 113. been left on the surface exposed to the sun. *The wilted leaves of the wild cherry are poisonous. In the eastern section of the State a scrubby cherry is found growing along the small streams and arroyas, and some loss in cattle has been reported. Several species of cherry are found growing abundantly along the ravines in the mountains. 3. Poison Pound in Different Parts of Plants. Another dis¬ couraging feature in poisonous plant investigation is that the poison is not always found in the same part of the plant. In the case of wild hellebore, aconite, showy milkweed, thorn apple, and many others, the entire plant is poisonous. In wild parsnips the roots contain most of the poison. In lupines and yellow dock the seeds are dangerous. In potatoes the roots may be harmless and the tops poisonous. In the mountain laurel and wild cherry it is the leaves. In milkweeds the stems are said to be poisonous. In the crowfoot family it is found that the flowers are especially dangerous. 4. Variations According to Season, Climate, Etc. There are other serious difficulties to contend with in a systematic investiga¬ tion of this subject. The danger of certain plants varies according to season, climate, character of soil, etc., from year to year. A dry season is generally favorable for the development of poison in most plants. A plant may be poisonous in one country and harmless in another. Jimson weed is more acfive in America than in Europe. Some plants become less poisonous by cultivation, such as wild hellebore and aconite. Where the plants contain poison in small quantity the native stock obtain a certain amount of im¬ munity and will feed without harm on a range that will prove disastrous to other animals. The active principle may exist per¬ formed in the plant, which is generally the case, or it may be formed by the action of ferments during mastication and digestion. 5. Some Animals More Susceptible Than Others. Plants in¬ jurious to one species are harmless to others. The horse, mule, and goat eat poison ivy with impunity. Clover and alfalfa may cause a true intoxication, with bloating, under certain conditions, in ruminants; horses pasture upon the green plant without danger. Individuals of the same species show a wide divergence of sus¬ ceptibility to poisons. As has been well said, “What is one man’s meat is another man’s poison.” Poison ivy produces a violent inflammation of the skin on most persons. Some will escape and are apparently immune at one time, and equally as susceptible at another period of life. Throughout the vegetable kingdom, from bacteria all the way up to the mighty oak, we find species of plants poisonous under certain conditions, but few of them poisonous under all conditions. 7 Larkspur and Other Poisonous Plants. CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH POISONOUS PLANTS ARE EATEN. Most poisonous plants are bitter and are avoided by animals. When confined to a certain range and not interfered with, they learn to avoid them, but are frequently poisoned while being moved from one locality to another. When an animal is hungry it will eat weeds that it would not otherwise touch. While driving the held at the time of the roundup or to market they will be seen reaching for the tops of weeds that at other times would not be molested. It is a matter of common observation that the greatest amount of poisoning occurs under these conditions, and the rea¬ sons assigned are that animals when driven for some distance be¬ come ravenously hungry and have not time to make the same choice of forage plants as when at rest. The time of greatest danger is during or immediately after a rain or snow storm in the spring months. Alfalfa, whether green or cured, is known to be much more dangerous for cattle and sheep when wet from rain or dew. This seems to be the case with some poisonous plants, especially larkspur. The explanation most commonly proposed for this phenomenon, however, is that when the ground is wet the roots are more readily pulled and eaten, and being much more poisonous, the danger is enhanced. COMMON salt AS A PREVENTIVE AND ALKALI AS A SUBSTITUTE. There seems to be a diversity of opinion among stock raisers as to whether alkali, which is found in abundance in many sections of the State, is a complete substitute for common salt. There are several reputable stockmen on the Western Slope, whose suc¬ cess in business recommends their judgment, that have not salted their cattle for several years, and claim that in withholding the salt they lessen the liability to poisoning, and cattle at least do just as well without it. On the other hand, equally as responsible parties hold that, if salt is not supplied, the animals develop a taste for acrid plants, and thus the danger is increased. While we have no definite information at hand bearing upon this subject, it would seem that from a physiological standpoint alkali, which is mostly sulfate of soda, sulfate of magnesium, and carbonate of soda, would in a measure take the place of common salt, which is chlorid of sodium, but could not entirely do so. The assumption that lack of salt in some form causes animals to more readily partake of noxious weeds seems entirely reasonable. The drinking of alkali water is said to cause the death of cattle and sheep, with symptoms much like poisoning from larkspur. The reason for this assumption is due in a large measure to the fact that when animals are poisoned from various weeds they im- 8 Bulletin i 13. mediately start for water and are found after death lying adjacent to water holes, springs, and accessible streams. In some places the springs of purest water have been fenced in, the owner erroneously believing the water to have poisoned his stock. For the reasons already assigned, the finding of a number of sick or dead animals within a few yards of a spring has frequently caused the owner to suspect his neighbor of having maliciously placed some violent poison in the spring. preventive; measures. Prevention is better than cure. The all important question with the stockmen is how to prevent poisoning. The loss from this source, even though it be small, cuts directly into the profits. Reme¬ dies, no matter how efficacious, will only save a small percentage of them. As previously stated, poisoning is more likely to occur while they are being handled, but the aggregate loss will show that the great majority are simply found dead near a water hole adjacent to a patch of larkspur. There is no such thing as complete immunity from poisoning so long as animals are exposed to the weed. If the weed could in some way be eradicated, the problem would be solved. The possibility of displacing poisonous plants with forage plants has led to some experiments along this line by the Montana Experiment Station.* The forage plants tried were the smooth brome grass and the western wheat grass, or “blue joint.” It will require several years to determine finally whether this is possible. In the report of Chesnut and Wilcox, on “The Stock Poison¬ ing Plants of Montana/’** is found the following: The short-awned brome grass (Bromus marginatus Nees), a native species, is spreading rapidly in a number of localities in various parts of the State. In some places this grass had already displaced all other native plants and occupied the ground completely. On a cattle ranch near Au¬ gusta it has invaded a timothy meadow and entirely killed out the timothy as far as it has spread. This brome grass produces a heavy crop of hay, and a few stockmen, having noticed its good properties, are preparing to save seed for sowing upon other parts of the ranges. Although work along this line extends over only three or four years, the outlooK is promising, and it is perhaps not unreasonable to hope that by assisting the distribution of the brome grasses, blue joint, and other aggressive forage plants, the quantity of poisonous plants upon the range may be appreciably diminished. This, however, were it to succeed, would take many years. Introducing forage plants to supplant others in their natural habi¬ tat, on the millions of acres in Colorado ranges is not sufficiently promising to warrant much hope of its consummation in many years to come, if ever. The feasibility of grubbing out the weeds is worthy of more * Bulletins Nos. 15 and 45, Montana Experiment Station. ** Bulletins Nos. 20 and 24, U. S Department of Agriculture. Larkspur and Other Poisonous Plants. 9 serious consideration. This I have advised in some cases where the plants were growing in a circumscribed area. It is rather sur¬ prising the amount of land that can be cleared by three or four men in a day. In one instance a patch of aconite covering possibly two acres that had been a source of trouble for several years was finally cleaned out in half a day by four men. Of course, where the plants are well distributed over a range of several thousand acres this would be impracticable and all but impossible. There are many instances, however, where the loss in one year would pay for the digging out of every plant. The results of observation and experiment are conclusive that the most dangerous period is in the early spring, and that the plants not only become unpalatable but cease to be dangerous at the flowering period. The most effective means of prevention is for the stockman to become thoroughly fa¬ miliar with the different species of larkspur, and having located them, pasture the animals on non-infected ranges until the danger¬ ous period is past. The time that they can be placed on larkspur pastures will depend upon the season and the altitude. At high elevations (9,000 to 11,000 feet) it would not be safe before about the 15th of July. West of Fort Collins, at an altitude of 5,500 feet, the stockmen feel quite safe by the 20th of June. 10 Bulletin 113. Poisonous Plants. larkspur. ( Delphinium .) There can be no question but that the several species of larks¬ pur growing native in the mountainous districts of Colorado are a greater source of loss to the stockmen than all other weeds combined. While the larkspur is confined to the mountainous regions, it nevertheless holds true that in the aggregate mortality throughout the State from poisonous plants larkspur takes second place only to loco. We have no statistics at hand whereby we can estimate, with any degree of accuracy, the total loss, but judging from the reports of other western states and from information re¬ ceived from most every section of the State, it would seem that $40,000 annually is a conservative estimate. There are four species of larkspur found growing abund¬ antly in the middle and western portion of this State, and one found growing sparingly in the eastern plains section. Other species have been found in isolated places, but have not been especially accused of doing any harm, and their toxicity has not been proved. The four species found in the greatest abundance and named in the order of their importance, are purple larkspur, Delphinium Nelsonii, Greene; tall larkspur, Delphinium elongatum, (Rydb.) ; D. Geyeri, (Greene), and D. Barbeyi, (Huth). These all have the same characteristic flowers, and are found growing in the mountains at altitudes from 5,000 to 11,000 feet. The D. Penardii (Huth), has a white flower and may be seen growing adjacent to streams and in the arroyas on the plains as far east as the State line. In June last this letter of inquiry was addressed to one thous¬ and stockmen in the State, and a fairly liberal response was re¬ ceived. Dear Sir: The Experiment Station is conducting an investigation in connection with the U. S. Department of Agriculture, on the range plants of the State, poisonous to stock, and desires the benefit of your experience and observations on the subject. The information obtained will be collated and published and copies will be sent to all who have assisted with informa¬ tion and experience. The Experiment Station will more particularly take up the question of larkspur and poison plants other than loco. Please answer as many of the questions as you can, and forward the Larkspur and Other Poisonous Plants. i i blank promptly. Will you please send me samples of any plants you have reason to thing 1 cause trouble, including the flower, if possible. • GEO. H. GLOVER, Veterinarian. COLORADO AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION FORT COLLINS, COLO. LARKSPUR INVESTIGATION. 1. My name is. P. O. Address. 2. I have had experience with.on the Kind of stock range extending over.years; on ranges as follows: . in the . Give location Foothills .at elevation of.. . 3. I have lost.attributed to eating Kind of stock larkspur. 4. The loss has been. . ..per cent annually from. years’ experience. 5. The greatest loss of any one year was.% which was in.year. State 6. Of those attacked.% died ( or better,, state how many were attacked and how many died, giving size of herd). 7. What was your remedy for larkspur?. 8. The most successful remedy has been. 9. State what remedies or methods of treatment did not succeed. 10. Send samples of what you know as larkspur. 11. Do you believe larkspur to kill simply by bloat like alfalfa? Reasons . 12. About what is the altitude of your pasture. 13. About what time of year do you experience the greatest loss from larkspur? . 14. About what kind of livestock has suffered most in your vicinity from this cause? . 15. Do you believe lack of salt caused them to eat more of this plant than they would otherwise?. 16. Do you believe that rain, snow, etc., aggravate the trouble?. 17. Are animals in poor condition more liable to be attacked than those in good condition?. 18. Are they more liable to be attacked after or during a long drive? Name 12 Bulletin 113. The response to this letter of inquiry was, in some respects, disappointing. Of those who were courteous enough to reply, 93 per cent had experienced loss from various poisonous weeds, ranging from one-half of one per cent, to sixty per cent. Seventy- five per cent, of those replying acknowledged that while they had lost animals from some kind of poisoning, yet they were not familiar with larkspur, and expressed a profound ignorance regarding the identity of the plants mentioned. All kinds of harmless weeds were sent to the Station, presuming them to be larkspur, or some¬ thing equally as dangerous. Four expressed the opinion very emphatically that, while their ranges were infested with larkspur, yet they had suffered no inconvenience and did not expect to so long as the range was not overstocked and plenty of salt was pro¬ vided . In answer to question No. 4, the loss ranged from one to five per cent., covering a period of from one to twenty years. In ques¬ tion No. 5 the greatest loss in any one year ranged from one to sixty per cent. The latter being in case of a small herd being driven through the mountains where they came near being ex¬ terminated. Of those attacked the report was that from five to one hundred per cent. died. The remedies suggested were as follows: Bleeding from the ear-vein or under the tail. Tapping through the side and allowing the gas to escape. Turning the head uphill when down. Chasing the poisoned animals, and keeping them on the run. Slitting the skin in the forehead and pouring in turpentine. Tobacco, internally, in uncertain quantities. Bacon, cut into small strips and forced down the throat. Linseed oil given by drench. Bleeding and tapping through the side appear to be the uni¬ versal remedies, and most every answer contained an emphatic statement that animals could be saved by this treatment. Of the specimens sent, about one-half proved to be larkspur. In answer to question No. 11, forty per cent, believed larkspur to kill by bloat, like alfalfa, and that if they could be tapped soon enough, would all recover. The altitude ranged all the way from 5,000 to 11,000 feet. There was general agreement that the early spring was the most dangerous period. A few had lost cattle and sheep in August, at high elevations. The greatest loss was re¬ ported in cattle; next in sheep, and a few reported loss of horses. In answer to question No. 15, seventy-one per cent, replied in the negative, and the remaining twenty-nine per cent, were sure that lack of salt caused an abnormal appetite for noxious weeds. Practically all agreed that rain and snow, in some way, greatly aggravated the trouble. 13 Larkspur and Other Poisonous Puanis. In question No. 17, the answers were about equally divided between those who believed that condition of animals had nothing to. do with the case, and those who were confident that poor animals were more susceptible and those who thought fat animals more liable. All the answers to No. 18 were in the affirmative except two. The value of the information gained by this inquiry consists largely in the fact that it reveals in a measure the extent of the loss from these noxious herbs and lays bare before us evidence that the stockmen possess no reliable information regarding them or any other of the poisonous weeds. In one thing, however, they are all agreed, viz.: some poisonous plants are killing the animals from year to year and that it has become a heavy burden. Not knowing anything better, the old fashioned remedies, bleeding, bacon rinds, turpentine, etc., are tried, with indifferent results. This is not surprising, however, when we come to consider that it is only within the last few years that this subject has received any attention at the hands of investigators, and even now very little reliable information can be had regarding the chemistry, physiology, 01 satisfactory antidotes for the many deadly plants inhabiting the western ranges. Description, History, and Habitat. While there are several species of larkspur growing in the State, there are only two, the tall and the purple, found growing in sufficient quantities to warrant a serious consideration. They both have the characteristic spur shaped flower (cockspur), but in other respects differ widely. The tall (Delphinium elongatum) grows from one to five feet high, and has a pale blue flower. The leaves are broad and from two to six inches in diameter, and greatly resemble those of the wild geranium. It is found, growing along the streams, in moist places, and upon the north side of mountains at an altitude up to 9,000 feet. From the middle of March to the 4th of July, according to altitude, is the dangerous period for this plant. The tall larkspur resembles the aconite (Monkshood), both in its general appearance and toxic effect upon animals. They should not be confused, however, if careful examination of the flower is made, the larkspur having an appendage in appearance like a cock’s spur; while the aconite has a flower dark purple in color and with a top resembling a hood, hence the name monkshood. From the reports in other western states, especially Montana, it would seem that the purple larkspur, which is more generally eaten by sheep, is the more disastrous of the two. In this State it is quite the reverse. The tall larkspur is more abundant and the major part of the mortality is among cattle. The purple larkspur rarely exceeds two feet in height. The 14 Bulletin 113. leaves appear on a long stem in the form of a cluster, are finely divided, and in appearance are very different from the large oval leaf of the species previously mentioned. The flowers have the same appearance, save in color, which varies from a deep blue to a dark rich purple. It grows at high altitudes. In the moun¬ tains west of the Roaring Fork it was found growing at 11,000 feet, and at lower altitudes had been seen in full bloom on the 20th of April. Very little damage had been reported from this plant after May 1st. As both species of larkspur do their damage before the flowering season, it is of the greatest importance that stockmen familiarize themselves with the appearance of this plant before bloom and assiduously avoid it. Symptoms of Poisoning. The symptoms of larkspur poisoning are similar to those produced by aconite. The first thing noticed is a stiffness. The back appears to be arched and the legs are carried wide apart. There is usually some frothing at the mouth. The animal stumbles and falls, several times, and trembles violently. The throat is affected and there is persistent swallowing. Breathing is rapid and shallow. In severe cases violent convul¬ sions come on, in one of which the animal finally dies. Treatment. In cases where the bloating becomes extreme, we have not only the intoxication from the active poison in the plant to contend with, but the excessive accumulation of gas be¬ comes a mechanical condition, which of itself hastens or may even become the principal factor in causing the death of the animal. The practice of tapping through the left side into the rumen for the purpose of allowing the gas to escape in extreme cases is good treatment and has no doubt been the means of saving many an animal. Every stockman should carry a trocar with him while riding the range during the spring months to use for this opera¬ tion, and not be obliged to use the jack knife. The instrument can be purchased at hardware stores for one dollar or less. The re¬ sults of using it in the case of bloat in cattle or sheep from any cause are usually perfectly satisfactory, and the animals will not shrink in condition as is usually the case from using a knife. As previously stated, the most trouble occurs while the animals are being moved from place to place during the spring months.' In most cases the man is alone and may have several poisoned at the same time. He is therefore poorly equipped to undertake any complex treatment. His treatment must be simple, effective, and done without delay. The practice of turning them so that they lie with the head up hill is to be commended, as it relieves the pressure on the lungs and heart from the distended bowels. Bleed¬ ing is uniformly recommended and practiced by the sheep herders and cow men. It is difficult to see how it can be of any benefit, Larkspur and Other Poisonous Plants. and experimentally it has not proved to be so. One gentleman from the YVestern Slope, who besides being a successful ranch- m , a:was also a graduate physician, explains the beneficial results o beeding as follows: “It relieves the passive congestion in¬ duced by the paralyzing effect of the poison upon the heart.” It is- less than fifty years since bleeding was practiced on the lower animals as well as on the human, for every imaginable com¬ plaint, and it was considered uniformly efficacious. It has now been discontinued save m rare instances. It is a question whether the animals would not do just as well or better if left entirely alone The principal effect of larkspur, like aconite, is to depress the heart action; therefore the animal should not be chased or excited. • 4.u ^ wouI f be hard to conceive of a treatment more disastrous in this case than tobacco. Its action would be much like the poison and disastrous in the extreme. The use of bacon would be absurd Lard could be given in this case as it is in strychnine poisoning in dogs. Its value consists in mechanically retarding the absorption of the poison. The practice of slitting the forehead and pouring m turpentine is too absurd for serious consideration. This along with many other absurdities practiced in the name of curative medicine is to be looked upon as a relic of the superstitions of lormer days, and should, along with the magic of the witches mess pot, be relegated to the company of the empiricisms of a less enlightened age. As shown m the account of experiments which follow, we have at least two remedies which possess real antidotal value. These cases of poisoning occur in almost every instance in mountain ranges, far removed from any immediate assistance, and under the worst conditions imaginable. The remedies, whatever they are, must be something that can be carried on horse back and easily and quickly given. As a chemical antidote, potassium permangan¬ ate and aluminum sulfate in equal parts in doses of from thirty to fifty grains (five to ten grains for sheep), dissolved in at least a pint of water, is given at one dose, by drench. This remedy so highly. recommended by Chesnut and Wilcox in their Montana investigation, has been repeatedly tried at this Station with most satisfactory results. I believe this remedy to be a practical one for the stockmen. When operating within easy access to water the powders can be carried ready for solution and given without much delay. With slight inconvenience the solution can be carried ready for use. It is important to see that the powder is completely dissolved. It should then be given at one dose, exciting the animal as little as possible. A number of drugs have been tried experi¬ mentally upon sheep and rabbits, with the hope of finding some¬ thing easy of application that would counteract the depressing effect i6 Bulletin 113. of the poison upon the heart and circulation. Most of them were disappointing in the extreme. Stimulants are indicated (alcohol* camphor, ammonia, strychnine, etc.,), and all are more or less beneficial. Glonoin (nitro-glycerine) injected hypodermically, re¬ vived the heart’s action and abated the alarming symptoms for a time. This, however, did not appear to be a true physiological antidote. Atropine, given in one half to one grain doses, hypodermically, gave satisfactory, and in some cases, astonishing results. Every stockman should keep on the ranch a hypodermic syringe for in¬ oculating his calves against blackleg, and in this way become familiar with the use of the instrument. The atropine tablets can be secured at any drug store. A small vial of boiled water may be carried in the vest pocket and the remedy quickly prepared and given to a number of poisoned animals. The dose is one-half to one grain for cattle and horses and one-twentieth of a grain for sheep. I have no hesitancy in strongly recommending potassium perman¬ ganate, when used in the way indicated, as a chemical antidote, and the atropine as a physiological antidote. Either drug may be repeated, if necessary, in half an hour. In case these remedies are not at hand, any one of the following stimulants might be tried: Whiskey, in two-ounce doses, for cattle or horses; aromatic spirits of ammonia, two ounces well diluted with water, for cattle and horses. Spirits of camphor, one ounce. Fluid extract of bel¬ ladonna, two drachms. Nitrous ether, two ounces. For sheep, give one-fourth the amount. Results of Experiments. In accordance with an agreement entered into with the Department of Agriculture, whereby we were to conduct a co-operative investigation of loco, larkspur, and other poisonous plants, larkspur was gathered at intervals throughout the spring months. The first was gathered on April 26th, when it was about four inches high, and the last on June 12th, at which time the flower was in full bloom and the plants were beginning to dry up. It was dug with roots attached and after drying ten days, was sent in five pound packages to the Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. On October 10th Doctor Crawford reported as follows: “The method used in testing the physiological activity of plants was to weigh accurately five grams of the powdered plants, then extract this over night with twenty c. c. of water, and ten c. c. alcohol added mainly as a preservative. The following day the extraction with water and squeezing was continued until the fluid became colorless. The fluid was then evaporated to dryness in vacuo about 40° C., and the residue made up to 30 c. c. with water. Any number of c. c. would do as well. The alcohol was given off in vacuo. PLATE I.* Purple Larkspur, Young Plant. . (Delphinium bicolor ) Almost indistinguishable from D. Nelsonii of Colorado. * All Plates, except Plate VIII., are from U. S. Dept, of Agriculture, Chesnut and Wilson Bulletin 26, Div. of Botany. PLATE II, Purple Larkspur in Flower. (.Delphinium bicolor , D . Nelsojiii Greene) PLATE III. Tall Larkspur. Shown as D. glaucum in Bull. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept, of Agriculture. Much the same as D. elongatum of Colorado. PLATE IV. Death Camas (.Zygadenus venenosus.) Larkspur and Othkr Poisonous Plants. iy The First Batch Collected April 26tli, 1905. Cau S ea C M °'disturb e ance. t0 a P ‘ S < subcutaneo « sl y). weight 730 grams. 3 c. c. in guinea pig, no symptoms. 6 c. c. in guinea. Killed. 6 c. c. injected into guinea pig, 28 5 grams, killed in 3 3 minutes. 4 c. c. injected into guinea pig, 352 grams, no symptoms Repeated: 5 c. c. killed guinea pig weighing 19 6 grams. Died in 55 minutes. 4 c. c. injected into guined pig, 299 grams. No symptoms. Evidently lethal dose for this solution lay between 4 to 5 c. c. Second Stage, Gathered May 16tli, 1905. Solution corresponding to 4 c. c. of No. 1 caused no symptoms in guinea pig weighing 445 grams, while 5.3 c.c. gilled one of 350 grams, but death was delayed longer than with extract of first stage. Third Stage, Gathered in June, 1905. Solution corresponding to 4 c. c. caused no symptoms in guinea pig weighing 376 grams. 5.3 c. c. caused no symptoms in guinea pig weighing 500 grams. 6.6 c. c. caused no symptoms in guinea pig weighing 480 grams. . Evidently lethal dose is much higher and the plant loses much of its activity in development. This report is very conclusive in proving that the plant con¬ tains an active poison, and further in substantiating the claims of experienced observers that the plant loses much of its toxic proper¬ ties as it approaches the flowering period. Correspondence with those who have had wide experience with larkspur elicits the fact that animals often eat considerable quan¬ tities of the plant without injury. Rabbis lived for days on a on a spare diet of dried purple larkspur, but succumbed readily to the more tempting bait of the green. It is not the purpose of this bulletin to give a detailed report of laboratory experiments. The results will be briefly summarized at the conclusion of this report. As proof, however, of the state¬ ments made regarding the difficulties of securing accurate knowl¬ edge of the toxic properties of plants under any and all conditions, the following experiment is interesting as well as instructive: Seven and one-half grams of dried purple larkspur fed to each of three rabbits on April 20th. No results. Seven and one-half grams of fresh purple larkspur from same patch fed April 25th to each of three rabbits. Two showed slight uneasiness, and one was bloated a little. One, showing less effect than the others, had eaten but three and one-half grams. On May 1st a like quantity from the same patch was given to the same rabbits under similar conditions. Results, two died, and the other distressed. O11 June 15th, the plants from the same source being in full bloom, but the leaves and stems dry, were fed to rabbits. Al- i8 Bulletin i 13. though very hungry, they at first refused to eat, but latei ate laige quantities of it without any ill effects. The experiments with tall larkspur were equally as confusing, fl he fact that the plants at one period of growth gave negative results was no guaranty that it would not be dangerous at another. The tall larkspur growing luxuriantly on the college campus proved to be very active, physio¬ logically, and furnished the best specimens for producing the physiological effects upon animals. In the experiments with anti¬ dotes this domesticated species was found to be very poisonous while in bloom in the middle of August. Two other species, D. Barbeyi, (Huth) and D. Geycri (Greene), found growing sparingly under conditions about the same as the species mentioned, were found to be poisonous. Their relative toxicity, however, was not considered, as they were not found in great abundance. The several conclusions arrived at with reference to larkspur are as follows: First, at least eighteen species, and several varie¬ ties of larkspur, have been found growing in the State. Four grow¬ ing in the greatest abundance are known to contain an active poison in sufficient quantities to be dangerous to live stock. Second, death is produced as a result of the presence of an active poison, and not from “bloat,” as many stockmen have claimed. Third, the toxic principle of larkspur has not yet been de¬ termined for these species, but is probably delphinine and allied alkaloids present in other species that have not been fully studied. Fourth, the plant loses its toxic qualities as it approaches the flowering season and finally becomes harmless. # • Fifth, two species, because of their abundance, are doing- most of the damage, i. c., tall larkspur (Delphinium clougcttuiii '), and purple larkspur (Delphinium Nelsonii.) Sixth, stockmen generally have little knowledge of the identity, poisonous nature, or satisfactory remedy for larkspur. Seventh, considering the enormous loss and the fact that larkspur is usually found in circumscribed areas, it would seem feasible, in many localities at least, to undertake its eradication by the grubbing hoe. Kighth, by avoiding the areas where larkspur abounds duiing the months of April, May, and June, the loss can be reduced to the minimum. Ninth, in potassium permanganate and atropia sulphate, re¬ spectively, we have a chemical and physiological antidote of leal practical value. Stimulants are indicated. Tapping should be done with trocar and canula high up on the left side, aftei first mak¬ ing slight incision on the skin with a knife. In case of extreme Larkspur and Other Poisonous Plants. 19 distention this operation should not be delayed. The value of bleeding is questionable. All measures which tend to depress the animal, such as forcible exercise, tobacco, aconite, etc., are posi¬ tively harmful. If on sloping ground, the head should be turned up the hill. death camas. (Zygad'enus Venenosus, Wats.) Other names: Wild lobelia, poison camas, poison grass, wild onion, poison sego, mystery grass, wild leek, crow foot. Description.. As will be seen from the accompanying plate, this plant bears a strong resemblance to the wild onion. On ac¬ count of its bulb it has also been mistaken for the prairie lilly or Indian sego. The bulb of the sego ( Calochortus ) is edible and has furnished food for travelers and generally eaten by the Indians. The wild onion is no doubt a harmless plant. Early in the season death camas looks like grass. It starts a little earlier than grass, and being more succulent and devoid of disagreeable odor or taste, is eaten freely. Wher e Found. The plant is found growing in every county in the mountain districts of the State. It is not found in the east¬ ern plains district. Its favoiite habitat is along shallow ravines where theie is slight seepage. It is often seen, however, growing singly and widely scattered over the high mesas and in shallow de¬ pressions commonly found in such places. It is not nearly so abundant nor so widely distributed as larkspur. The camas is much more abundant in the northern part of the State. While the loss from camas is no doubt small as compared with larkspur, yet for several reasons it is to be looked upon as one of our most dangerous poison weeds. Stock on the range are usually thin in the spring and ravenously hungry for the first green for¬ age that appears. Camas starts a little ahead of grass and is relished by all kinds of range stock. All parts of the plant are extremely poisonous and an animal does’ not need to eat a large quantity to become fatally poisoned. In Bulletin No. 37, of the Idaho Experiment Station, is found the following; “During the past year the tops were found by the Agricultural De¬ partment at Washington to contain a poisonous substance, one of the powerful veratrine alkaloids. The bulbs which have been reputed poison¬ ous were not examined. A study of this part of the plant in the Chemical Laboratory of the Idaho Experiment Station showed the presence of at least three alkaloids similar to veratrine, the most important of which appeared to be related to violent poison hellebore, a single milligram, which is only one-fiftieth of a grain, killed a frog in two minutes. The dose of strychnine fatal to the frog is twice that amount, from which some idea of the intensely poisonous nature of the bulbs may be gathered.” Symptoms. The symptoms of poisoning by camas are characteristic. At first they appear to be excited, are unsteady 20 BURRETIN 113. in their movements, breathe rapidly, stagger, and fall. They ap¬ pear to be completely paralyzed, but in full possession of their senses. Spasms come on more or less severe according to the amount eaten. In mild cases .only a slight stiffness of muscles is noticeable, and this soon disappears. In severe cases of poisoning the animal will lie flat on its side, unable to even raise the head, and death will be delayed for several hours. Treatment. Chesnut and Wilcox experimented with several antidotes, among the most promising of which was potassium per¬ manganate, given by the mouth, and strychnine, atropine, mor¬ phine, and caffeine, hypodermically. In their first report the potassium permanganate is found to be a valuable physiologi¬ cal antidote. The strychnine and atropine had little if any curative value. In further experiments with the active principle, these authors recommended caffeine diuretin. The directions for giving the potassium permanganate as an antidote will be found in connection with the treatment for poison¬ ing by larkspur. water hEmrock. (Cicuta occidentals, Greene.) Other names: Wyoming water hemlock; cowbane; spotted cowbone; wild parsnip; snake weed; spotted parsley; death of man, etc. Description. This plant is more commonly spoken of in Col¬ orado as wild parsnip, and is confused with at least three other species, which it greatly resembles on account of the similarity in the umbrellalike expansion of the top. It is often mistaken for the cultivated parsnip, which it re¬ resembles to some extent. It is not, as many have supposed, the cultivated parsnip gone wild. On the contrary, it is a distinct species and can be distinguished from the garden species by having a white flower. It arises from a bunch of thick tuber like roots, which when cut and pressed will yield a gummy secretion which con¬ tains the active poison. The seeds also contain the poison and the foliage early in the season. Where Found. This plant abounds throughout the entire Rocky Mountain region. It is found in wet or swampy places, along streams, on ditch banks, and often invading the meadows. It is found growing on the plains east of the mountains, more sparingly but under similar conditions. Symptoms. There is manifest symptoms of great pain; the animal performing much the same as when suffering from colic. This is followed by frenzy and spasms. The breathing is labored. There is frothing at the mouth and finally unconsciousness, the PLATE V. Wyoming Water Hemlock (Cicuta Occidental is.) PLATE VI. Lupine (Lupinus sericeus.) PLATE VII. Aconite. (Aconitum columbianum.) PLATE VIII. Rubber Plant (Hymenoxys floribundu.) Larkspur and Other Poisonous Peants. 21 animal dying in violent convulsions. In bad cases of poisoning the animal may die in fifteen minutes. In milder cases it may live for several hours or even days with symptoms less pronounced. Treatment. The decomposed state of the bowels after death indicate that it is a violent, irritant poison. The remedy most available and effective to counteract this condition is melted lard, or linseed oil, morphine in three grain doses hypodermically, or laudanum in ounce doses to relieve pain are indicated. Chloral hydrate for the same purpose has been recommended, but being itself very irritating* should not be used. rupines. ( Tnpinus) Other names : Wild pea, wild bean, blue bean. There are several species of the lupine, but they resemble one another so closely, that a person knowing one will have no difficulty in recognizing the others. They belong to the pea family the same as the loco weeds, and the two have often been confused. The different species of lupine are found growing extensively in the central and western half of the State, by the road side, in the meadows, and on the mountain side. It is generally eaten throughout the season by all kinds of range animals and is cut extensively for hay. The poison is confined en¬ tirely to the seeds. It blooms about June ist at an altitude of 6,000 feet. Most of the cases of poisoning observed in this State have been in sheep and from eating lupine seeds in hay. When the pods become ripe most of the seeds fall to the ground and the lupine hay may be fed with safety, and it makes a valuable forage crop. It is when the plants are cut a little green or during damp weather and the seeds are retained in the pods in large quantities that trouble occurs. Symptoms. The symptoms are characteristic. In chronic poisining ( lupinosis ) there is a yellow appearance of the skin and mucous membranes. The urine is highly colored or bloody, de¬ praved appetite, clammy mouth, and general appearance of un¬ thriftiness. This chronic condition has been seen in horses of this State more than in other animals. Sheep are very fond of the seeds, and where they are accessible, eat them in large quantities, producing the disease in the acute form. In the acute poisoning the animal rushes about in different direc¬ tions in a state of frenzy. It finally falls in a fit, has violent spasms and dies, usually inside of two hours. Treatment. In severe cases the violent symptoms come on so rapidly that it seems all but useless to try to save them. In less violent cases of poisoning melted lard, bacon grease, or linseed oil 22 Bulletin 113. are usually obtainable and might be given to advantage. Laud¬ anum or morphine to counteract the nervous condition. Potassium permanganate as recommended for poisoning by larkspur promises the best results, but must be given early. the: rubber prant. (Hymenoxys Moribund a , (Gray) Cockerell. During the summer and fall of 1895 severe losses among sheep were reported from Middle Park on account of this plant. It can not be considered as a truly poisonous plant for as far as we know it contains no active poisonous principle. When eaten in large quantities, however, it forms an indigestible rubbery mass, which obstructs the bowels. POISONING BY ARKAIyl. Because of lack of salt or great thirst, concentrated alkali water is often drank in large quantities, and with fatal results, especially by cattle. The symptoms are bloat, frothing at the mouth, and scours. Animals poisoned from either weeds or alkali are commonly found adjacent to water holes. This fact combined with the similarity of symptoms, makes it difficult or wellnigh impossible for the ordinary observer to determine the cause with certainty. Prevention would consist in salting the stock regularly, and being careful when they are first turned on the range to see that they do not have access to alkali water holes until they have become accustomed to the dilute form of the salts. Treatment would consist in tapping them through the left side with trocar or knife in case they become excessively bloated. Opium, oak bark, tannin, and aromatic sulphuric acid are indicated. Larkspur and Othe;r Poisonous Plants. 2 Synopsis of Symptoms and Treatment for Poison Weeds. CATTLE. Poisoned on Mountain Ranges. —Bloat, stiffness of legs, continuous swal¬ lowing, twitching of muscles, shallow breathing; in April, May, or June,— Larkspur. Treatment. —Puncturing rumen when bloated; potassium per inangan- ate by drench; atrophin'e hypodermically; stimulants of whiskey, ammonia, camphor. Poisoned in a Field of Stunted Growth, of Sorghum or Kaffir Corn.— Bellowing, staggering, breath has odor of almonds, suddden death; late in summer,—Prussic acid from eating the corn. No treatment. Poisoned in Low Ground. —Convulsions, frothing, excessive urination, not many affected at one time; in the early spring and fall,—.Wild parsnip. Treatment. —Melted lard, linseed oil, laudanum, morphine. Poisoned in Alkali Districts.^— Bloat, diarrhoea, frothing, occurring usually in late summer or fall,—Alkali. Treatment. —Tapping, linseed oil, opium, tannopine, aromatic sul¬ phuric acid. Poisoned in Open Range. —Emaciation, unsteady gait, involuntary rock¬ ing of the head, special sense disturbed, crazy when disturbed,—Loco. Treatment. —Take them up and feed grain. In Mountain Ranges.—Stumbling, weaving, stiffness in legs, paralysis, do not lose consciousness, usually a number affected,—Death Camas. Treatment. —Potassium permanganate and aluminum sulfate dissolved in water. HORSES. In the Mountain Ranges. —Violent colic, frenzy, blindness, spasms, bloody urine; in the late summer or winter months, or from feeding lupine hay in seed,—Lupines. Treatment. —Potassium permanganate, morphine, melted lard, linseed oil. On the Farm. —Tardy breathing, fever, stupor, costiveness, stumbling, head pushed against wall, or hanging on manger,—Mouldy hay, fodder, potatoes, carrots, etc. Treatment. —Salicylic acid,, potassium iodide, creolin, internally; purga¬ tives. In Alkali Districts. —Bloating, scouring, frothing, sweating,weakness; (Alkali). Treatment. —Tapping, laudanum, linseed oil, aromatic sulphuric acid, stimulants. In low Pastures and Along Ditch Banks. —Great pain, frothing, frequent urination, spasms; occur in May or June, or in fall and winter when roots of hemlock have been plowed to the surface,—Water Hemlock. Treatment. —Aloes, morphine in large doses, potassium permanganate, linseed oil. SHEEP. Mountain Ranges in August or Lupine Hay in Winter. —Crazy, running in every direction, convulsions, bloody urine,—Lupines. Treatment. —Same as for cattle. In Mountain Ranges. —Stiffness, stumbling, paralysis; do not lose con¬ sciousness; many affected; occurs in April, May, and June,—Death Camas. Treatment. —The same as for cattle. In Mountain Ranges. —‘Bloating, stiffness of front legs, convulsions, shallow breathing,—Larkspur. Treatment. —Same as for cattle. 24 Bulletin 113. Some Useful References. Blankinship, J. W. Poisonous Plants of Montana. Proc. 5th An. Sess. Pacific N. W. Woolgrowers’ Assoc, pp. 49-54. 1902. Brodie, D. A. A preliminary report of poison parsnip in western Wash¬ ington. Wash. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 45, pp.5-12. 1901. Chesnut, V. K. Some common poisonous plants. Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agric. 1896, pp. 137-146. Chesnut, V. K. Thirty poisonous plants of the United States. U. S. Dept. Agric., Farmers’ Bull. No. 86, pp. 3-32. 1898. Chestnut, V. K. Principal poisonous plants of the United States. U. S. Dept. Agric., Div. Bot. Bull. No. 20, pp. 1-60. 1898. Chesnut, V. K. Preliminary catalog of plants poisonous to stock. 15th An. Rep. Bureau Animal Ind. 1898, pp. 387-420. Chesnut, V. K. Some poisonous plants of the northern stock ranges. Year¬ book U. S. Dept. Agric. 1900, pp. 305-324. Chesnut, V. K. and E. V. Wilcox. The stock poisoning plants of Montana. U. S. Dept. Agric., Div. Bot. Bull. No. 26, pp. 1-150. 1901. Hedrick, U. P. A plant that poisons cattle, Cicuta. Ore. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 46, pp. 3-12. 1897. Hillman, F. H. A dangerous range plant (Zygadenus). Nev. Exp. Sta. 'Newspaper Bull. No. 5. (1893.) No. 21, (1897). Ladd, S. F. A case of poisoning—water hemlock. N. Dak. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 35, pp. 307-310. 1899. Ladd, S. F. Water hemlock poisoning. Ibid. No. 44, pp. 563-569. 1900. Morse, F. W. q,nd C. D. Howard. Poisonous properties of wild cherry leaves. N. H. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 56, pp. 112-123. Nelson, B. S. Feeding wild plants to sheep. U. S. Dept. Agric., Bureau Animal Ind. 15th An. Rep., pp. 421-425. 1898. Ibid. Bull. No. 22, pp. 10-14. 1898. Pammel, L. H. Poisoning from cowbane (Cicuta maculata, L.) Iowa Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 28, pp. 215-228. 1895. Rich, F. A. and L. R. Jones. A poisonous plant—the common horse-tail (Equisetum arvense). Vt. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 95, pp. 187-192. 1902. Slade, H. B. iSome conditions of stock poisoning in Idaho. Idaho Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 37, pp. 159-190. 1903. Vasey, George. Plants poisonous to cattle in California. Rep. U. S. Dept. Agric. 1874, pp. 159-160. Wilcox, E. V. Larkspur poisoning of sheep. Mont. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 15, pp. 37-51. 1897. Wilcox, E. V. Lupines as plants poisonous to stock, etc. Montana Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 22, pp. 37-53. 1899. Williams, T. A. Some plants injurious to stock. S. Dak. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 33, pp. 21-44. 1893. Willing, T. N. Poisonous plants. Dept. Agric., N. W. Ter. (Regina). Bull. No. 2 (1900) and No. 3 (1901), pp. 27, 28. Bulletin 114 May, 1906 The Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Colorado Agricultural College. Insects and Insecticides. -BY C. P. GILLETTE PUBLISHED BY THE EXPERIMENT STATION Fort Collins, Coloraio. 1906 . The Agricultural Experiment Station. FORT COLLINS, COLORADO THE STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE Hon. P. F. SHARP, President .Denver. Hon. HARLAN THOMAS.Denver. Hon. JAMES L. CHATFIELD.Gypsum.... Hon. B. U. DYE.Rocky Ford Hon. B. F. ROCKAFELLOW.Canon City. Hon. EUGENE H. GRUBB.Carbondale. Hon. A. A. EDWARDS.Fort Collins Hon. R. W. CORWIN.Pueblo. Governor JESSE F. MCDONALD, ) ~ . President BARTON O. AYLESWORTH, $ ex '°JJ lC10 TERM EXPIRES ....1907 ....1907 ....1909 .... 1909 ....1911 ....1911 ....1913 ....1913 A. M. HAWLEY, Secretary EDGAR AVERY Treasurer Executive Committee in Charge P. F. SHARP, Chairman. B. F. ROCKAFELLOW. A. A. EDWARDS STATION STAFF L. G. CARPENTER, M. S., Director .Irrigation Engineer C. P. GILLETTE, M. S.Entomologist W. P. HEADDEN, A. M., Ph. D.:.Chemist W. PADDOCK, M. S.Horticulturist W. L. CARLYLE, M. S.Agriculturist G. H. GLOVER, B. S., D. V. M.Veterinarian W. H. OLIN, M. S.,.Agronomist R. E. TRIMBLE, B. S.Assistant Irrigation Engineer F. C. ALFORD, M. S....Assistant Chemist EARL DOUGLASS, M. S.Assistant Chemist S. ARTHUR JOHNSON, M. S. .Assistant Entomologist B. O. LONGYEAR, B. S. Assistant Horticulturist J. A. McLEAN, A. B., B. S. A. Animal Husbandman E. B. HOUSE, B. S .Assistant Irrigation Engineer F. KNORR.Assistant Agriculturist P. K. BLINN, B. S.Field Agent, Arkansas Valley, Rocky Ford E. R. BENNETT, B. S.Potato Investigations Western Slope Fruit Investigations, Grand Junction: O. B. WHIPPLE, B. S.Field Horticulturist ESTES P. TAYLOR, B. S.Fieli? Entomologist OFFICERS President BARTON O. AYLESWORTH, A. M., LL. D. L G. CARPENTER, M. S. Director A. M. HAWLEY... Secretary MARGARET MURRAY. Stenographer and Clerk CONTENTS. INSECTS. Introductory Note . Insects Injurious to the Apple. Attacking the Fruit... Codling Moth, Carpocapsa pomonella Linn. Howard’s Scale, Aspidiotus howardi Ckl. Attacking the Foliage. Leaf-roller, Archips argyrospila Walk. Fall Web-worm, Hyphantria cunea Dru. Tent Caterpillar, Malacosoma fragilis Stretch. Apple Flea-beetle, Haltica sp. Brown Mite, Bryobia sp. Apple Plant-louse, Aphis pomi Fabr. Scale Insects (mostly on bark). Grasshoppers. Attacking Trunk and Branches. .. Buffalo Tree-hoppers, Ceresa sp. Borers, Flat-headed, Crysobothris femorata Fabr- Borers, Twig, Amphicerus bicaudatus Say. San Jose Scale, Aspidiotus perniciosus Comst.. Putnam’s Scale, Aspidiotus ancylus Putnam. Howard’s Scale, Aspidiotus howardi . Scurvy Bark-louse, Chionapsis furfura Fitch . Woolly Aphis, Schizoneura lanigera Hausm. Oyster-shell Bark-louse, Lepidosaphes ulmi Bousche Attacking the Roots . Woolly Aphis, Schizoneura lanigera Hausm. Insects Attacking the Pear ... Pear-tree Slug Eriocampoides limacina Peck. Pear leaf-blister, Phytoptus pyri . Howard’s Scale, Aspidiotus howardi Cockerell. Insects Injurious to the Plum. Attacking the Fruit. Plum Gouger, Coccotorus prunicida Walsh. Plum Curculio, Conotrachelus nenuphar Herbst. Attacking the Foliage. Fruit-tree Leaf-roller, Archips argyrospila Walk. Slugs, Eriocampoides limacina Peck. Brown Mite, Bryobia sp. Plant-lice, several species. Attacking Trunk and Branches. Peach Borer, Sanninoidea exitiosa Say. Flat-headed Borer, Chrysobothris femorata Fabr. Scale Insects, several species. Insects Injurious to the Cherry. Several species referred to. Insects Injurious to the Peach. Peach Twig-borer, Anarsia lineatella Zell. Peach Borer, Sanninoidea exitiosa Say. Plant-lice. Insects Injurious to the Grape. Achemon Sphinx, Pholus achemon Drury. Eight-spotted Forester, Alypia octomaculata Fabr .. Stem Borer, Amphicerus bicaudatus Say. Tree Cricketts, CEcanthus sp.. . Cottony Scale; Pulvinaria innumerabilis Rath. Grape Flea-beetle, Graptodera chalybea II1. PAGE 5 6 6 6 6 , 14 7 7 , 17 7 8 8 8 , 18 8 11 11 12 13 13 12 13 13 6 , 14 14 14 , 15 15 13 14 , 15 15 16 16 14 , 16 17 17 17 17 17 7 , 17 16 , 18 8 , 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 21 21 22 22 22 22 22 22 23 Grape-Leaf-hoppers, Typhlocyba sp. 23 Grasshoppers. 23 Insects Injurious to Currants and Gooseberries . 23 Imported Currant-borer, Sesia tipuliformis Clerk .. 23 Currant Saw-fly, Pristiphora grossularise Walsh. 23 Currant and Gooseberry, fruit maggot... 24 Currant and Gooseberry, fruit worm. 25 Insects Injurious to the Strawberry . 26 Strawberry Leaf-roller, Ancylis comptana . 26 Strawberry Crown-borer, Tyloderma fragarise Riley. 27 INSECTICIDES. Preparation and Use. 28 Substances that Kill by Being Eaten. 28 1. White Arsenic. 28 2. Arsenic Bran-mash. 29 3. Paris Green. 29 4. Scheele’s Green (Green Arsenoid). . 31 5. Arsenate of Lead. 31 6. Arsenite of Lime. 32 7. London Purple. 33 8. Bordeaux Mixture. 33 9. White Hellebore. 34 10. Borax. 34 Substances that Kill by External Contact. 34 11. Soap. 34 12. Whale-oil Soap .,. 35 13. Fish-oil Soap . 35 14. Kerosene Emulsion. 35 15. Kerosene-milk Emulsion. 36 16. Kerosene and Crude Petroleum. 36 17. Gasoline. 37 18. Turpentine. 37 19. Lye and Washing Soda. 37 20. Lime. 37 21. Lime, Salt and Sulphur Wash . 37 22. Pyrethrum or Buhach. 38 23. Tobacco. 38 24. Sulfur . 39 24. Hot Water. 39 Substances that Kill by Being Inhaled. 39 25. Carbon Bisulfide-“Fuma”. 39 26. Hydrocyanic Acid Gas. 40 Substances that Repel. 41 27. Naphthaline, Gum-camphor and Moth-balls. 41 28. Tobacco. 41 29. Ashes . 41 30. Lime, Plaster and Road Dust. 42 Insect Traps. 42 31. Lights. 42 32. Sweetened Water, Cider, Vinegar, Etc. 42 33. Bandages . 42 34. Hopper-dozers or Hopper-pans. 43 35. Sticky Substances. 43 The Application of Insecticides. 43 In the Dry Way. 44 In the Wet Way. 44 Pumps. 44 How to Spray . 46 Nozzles to use.'. 46 Manufacturers of spraying machinery. 47 % INSECTS AND INSECTICIDES By C. P. Gillette. The present bulletin is issued to supply the constant call for information in regard to the common insect pests and the rem¬ edies that are commonly used for their destruction or prevention. It is really Bulletin 71 revised and somewhat enlarged. The most important additions are the short articles upon two Currant and Gooseberry insects, the Currant and Gooseberry fruit maggot and the Currant and Gooseberry fruit worm. The most important omissions are in cuts of spraying apparatus. No attempt has been made to include all of the insects in¬ jurious to fruits in the State, nor to give the methods of preparing all the insecticides of importance. The station will be glad to re¬ ceive inquiries concerning any other insect pests that may be troublesome in any manner to residents of Colorado. Always send specimens of the insects and their injuries when possible and give as much information in regard to habits and injuries as you can. Fuller information in regard to any insect mentioned in this bulletin will also be given upon request. In the second part of this bulletin the insecticides mentioned are numbered, so that in the first part, which treats of injurious insects, the remedies recommended in each case are referred to by number for the sake of brevity. Many remedies that are rarely of importance and other sup¬ posed remedies that are of little or no use, are left out of this bul¬ letin. The attempt is to give the more important remedies for use in this State. 6 THE COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION PART I. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE. ATTACKING THE FRUIT. * CODLING MOTH. Flesh-colored larvae eating into the fruit and causing wormy apples. The first brood of larvae (worms) begin eating into the fruit when early apples are about an inch in diameter. This brood is not very numerous but it developes into a second brood that comes on late in the summer which is very much more numerous. The moth and its eggs are shown at Plate I., Figs. 3 and 4. Remedies —The arsenical poisons are, by far, the best remedies we have for this insect. See remedies 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. The combination of Bordeaux mixture (8) with the arsenites is very popular farther east where fungus diseases are prevalent. Make the first application as soon as the blossoms have faded and nearly all fallen. Continue the application till every calyx (blossom) is filled with the liquid. Repeat the application in one week. Or, if you were very thorough in the first treatment and if no blossoms have opened since, it will probably be better to follow the plan of Mr. Art. Roberts, of Paonia, and make the second application thirty days after the first, and then make a third application after another thirty days. Whether or not a large number of applications are needed will depend upon the number of wormy apples that appear during July and August. If heavy showers follow a treatment, it is usually well to repeat the application. This is not so necessary if arsenate of lead is used. Upon the thoroughness of the first and second applications the suc¬ cess will chiefly depend. Just what degree of benefit may be expected from later applications has not been thoroughly determined. *Professor Cordley, of Oregon, seems to have proven that late spraying is very im¬ portant in that state. Bandages (36) are also of considerable service if carefully attended to, and if the worms are very numerous. Lights to trap the moths are valueless. Screen cellar windows and doors where fruit is kept. Plate 2, Fig. 1, shows blossoms from which the petals have fallen and also small apples with their blossoms (calyces) tightly closed so that little or no spray could be forced into them, all upon a single spur of a Duchess tree at one time. The blossoms at (a) are in just the right condition to receive and hold the poison. The two apples should have received the spray a full week earlier. In such a case two early sprays are needed. HOWARD’S SCALE (Aspidiotus Howardi ). This scale is occasionally found upon apples in Colorado. It closely resembles the San Jose scale but seldom causes the red blotch where it rests upon the fruit. Fig. 6 of Plate I. shows this scale upon pear. For remedies see San Jose scale on a following page. *Bull. 69; Or. Exp. Station. INSECTS AND INSECTICIDES 7 ATTACKING THE FOLIAGE. LEAF-ROLLERS. The fruit tree leaf-roller (.Archips argyrospila ) is a green larva with a black head and measures about three-fourths of an inch in length when fully grown. The larvae begin to hatch with the opening of the buds of the apple trees in the spring. They attack at once the tenderest leaves and fold them about themselves for protection. When abundant they may completely defoliate the trees. They disappear during June and do not appear again until the following spring. In the meantime the' eggs may be found in little gray patches anywhere upon the bark of trunk or limbs. See Plate I., Fig. 5. Remedies .—Crush as many as possible of the egg patches during winter and early spring. The best remedy is to spray thoroughly with one of the arsenites 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, as soon as the first leaves are out. Re¬ peat in one week. Make a third application in another week or ten days if it seems necessary. Protect the toads and insectiverous birds, as both feed freely upon the rollers. The blackbirds are especially destructive to them. FALL WEB WORM |(Hyphantria cunea) This insect is often mistaken for the next species. The webs Fig. 1.—Fall Web-worm: a and 6, caterpillars; c, chrysalis; d, moth. (Howard, Yearbook, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture, 1895.) 8 THE COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION are larger and loose or open and the caterpillars stay in them to feed. When the leaves within the tent are devoured, the web is extended so as to take in more foliage. These tents also appear later in the season than those of the following species. They will seldom be noticed before the middle of July. The adult in¬ sect is a white moth, sometimes speckled with black. See Fig. i. Remedies.. —The same as for the following species except that it is not practical to collect the eggs which are deposited upon the leaves. TENT CATERPILLAR. ( Malacosoma fragilis.) This insect also hatches as soon as the leaf buds open, and builds small webs in the forks of the branches. A large number of caterpillars inhabit a web or tent, which is increased as necessity requires. See Plate I., Fig i. Remedies. —While the foliage is off, collect the large egg-clusters which are stuck to small limbs. They are covered with a dark, spongy material and are quite readily seen, appearing as galls or swellings of the limbs. If this remedy has been neglected, spray with the arsenical mixtures (3, 4, 5, 6 8). While the tents are small they may be cut out and burned if on small limbs. If on large limbs they may be burned out with a torch. APPLE FLEA-BEETLE. ( Haltica sp.) The apple flea-beetle is a small inetalic-green insect, about an eighth of an inch in length, which jumps or drops from the foliage when disturbed. It is most abundant on young trees or nursery stock or sprouts. Remedies — Any of the arsenical mixtures (3 to 8] are effectual in de¬ stroying this insect or driving it from the foliage. It can usually be driven from the leaves by the application of dry substances, such as lime, ashes, plaster, etc., (30, 31). BROWN MITE. ( Bryobia sp.) The brown or clover mite is extremely small and its presence is usually first detected by the faded, sickly appearance of the foliage. See Plate III., P A ig. i. The trees appear to need more water. The mites feed upon the leaves but deposit their red eggs upon trunk and limbs. When very abundant, these eggs color the bark red, which is most often noticed during winter. Remedies —To destroy the eggs while the trees are dormant (during winter) use lime, salt and sulfur mixture (21); kerosene emulsion (14), quadruple strength; whale-oil soap (12), quadruple strength, or crude petroleum (16). To kill the mites during summer use kerosene emulsion or whale-oil soap of ordinary strengths. It is far better to treat the eggs. APPLE PLANT LOUSE. ( Aphis pomi .) A green louse curling the leaves of apple trees, most abundant INSECTS AND INSECTICIDES 9 PLATE I. Fig. 1—Western Tent-caterpillar: A, female moth; B, O, males. D, apple twig with egg masses (M). F, cocoon. 3, egg-mass of American Tent-caterpillar. Life size. Fig. 2—Cottony Maple scale: A, scales mostly hidden by secretion. Life size. Fig. 3—Codling moth: A, wings closed; B, open. Enlarged about I. Fig. 4—Apple showing white egg of Codling Moth (under letter F). Life size. Fig. 5—Fruit tree leaf roller: A, moth, wings open; B, closed. C, D, egg patches, hatched. All life size. Fig. 6—Pear with Howard’s Scale. The young appear as minute white specks. Life size. Figures from photos by the author. IO The COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION Fig. 1—Moths of Peach Borer. Fig. 2—Peach tree bandaged with paper. Fig. 3—Peach tree with wire screen. All after Slingerland, (Bull. 176, Cor nell Expt. Station,) PLATE 4 INSECTS AND INSECTICIDES late in the season, after the middle of July. See eggs on apple twig, Plate 3, Fig. 4. These are minute black objects. Remedies .—For the destruction of the eggs, proceed as for the de¬ struction of the eggs of the brown mite above. To destroy the lice, apply kerosene emulsion (14), or whale-oil soap (12), thoroughly and in a man¬ ner to bring the liquid in contact with the bodies of the lice. SCALE INSECTS. For the treatment of scale insects it is advisable, in each case, to write to the Experiment Station for specific direction. Specimens of the scale should also be sent. Otherwise, use the treatment rec¬ ommended for San Jose scale—on page 13. GRASSHOPPERS. Several species. Those that fly from tree to tree can probably be managed best by means of arsenical sprays (3 to 8), when safe to use them. Those that crawl up the trunks into the trees and jump to the ground when disturbed, can quite largely be kept out of the trees by the use of arsenic bran-mash (2) used freely about the border of Fig. 2.—Hopper-dozer or Hopper-pan. (After Riley.) the orchard, and by sticky bands (35) of Raupenleim, tree tangle¬ foot, printer’s ink, or even cotton batting, about the trunks of the trees. If the sticky bands are used they should be spread upon strips of cardboard which have first been wrapped about the trunks. 12 THE COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION Fig. 3.—Rocky Mountain Locust, laying eggs in the ground; a, a, females with their abdomens in the ground; 6, an egg-pod broken open; c, scattered eggs; d, egg-packet in the ground. fAfter Riley.) Grasshoppers that injure orchards usually come from adjoining alfalfa or grass fields. In such cases the free use of the hopper pan (34) in the alfalfa or grass field is the best remedy. One of the hopper-pans is shown at Fig. 2. *At Fig. 3 female grasshop¬ pers are shown in the act of depositing eggs in the ground. ATTACKING TRUNK AND BRANCHES. APPLE TWIG-BORER (Amphicerus bicaudatus) A cylindrical, mahogany-colored beetle, about one-third of an inch long, boring holes in twigs of apple, pear, cherry and other trees and grapevines. See Fig. 4. Fig 4.—Apple Twig-borer; a, beetle dorsal view; a beetle side view; b, pupa from beneath; c, grub, side view; d, apple twig showing burrow; e, burrow in tamerisk with pupa at bottom; /, stem of grape showing burrow. All enlarged except stems showing burrows. (Marlatt, Farmer’s Bulletin 70, Div. Ent., U. 8. Dept, of Agr.) Remedy .—Cat out the infested stems and destr oy the borers. _ *A very successful hopper pan made and used by Mr. P. K. Blinn at Rocky Ford is described and illustrated in bulletin 112 of this station. INSECTS AND INSECTICIDES J 3 BORERS, PLAT-HEADED. (Chrysobothris femorata) A whitish grub boring beneath the bark of apple and other trees and peculiar in appearance in seeming to have a greatly en¬ larged flat head. Fig. 5. Remedies-—Remove with a pocket knife whenever found. Protect the south side of the trunks of the trees BUFFALO TREE-HOPPER. (Ceresa sp.) Three-cornered, greenish to brownish insects, about a third of an inch in length. They jump when disturbed and puncture twigs of trees and stems of plants for the deposition of their eggs. From these punctures oval scars result. See Plate 3, Fig. 3. Remedies .—Infested twigs may be pruned away and burned during winter or spring. Probably clean culture is the best prevention. Keep down all weeds and unnecessary vegetation in and about the orchard. SAN JOSE SCALE. (Aspidiotus perniciosus.) This insect is very easily overlooked and may be present in sufficient numbers to kill trees before its presence is discovered by the orchardist. They may infest trunk, twig, fruit, or foliage. The scale is nearly circular, about one-sixteenth of an inch in diam¬ eter, dark gray in color with a darker spot at the center. Anyone finding such scales upon any tree should send examples at once to the Experiment Station for examination, as there are several spe¬ cies closely resembling each other in outward appearance. As yet this scale is unknown in Colorado orchards. See Plate I., Fig. 6, which shows a closely related species on pear. Remedies.— Spray with lime and sulfur mixture (21) while the trees are dormant. Or, spray with whale-oil soap (12) in the proportion of two pounds to a gallon of water, or with crude petroleum (16) during winter. If trees are very badly infested, it will often be best to cut and burn them. PUTNAM’S SCALE. (Aspidiotus ancylus .) Very closely resembling the preceding species. Central spot on the scale reddish. Remedies the same. i 4 THE COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION HOWARD’S SCALE. (Aspidiotus howardi.) This scale can hardly be distinguished, in external appearance, from the preceding species. It is the only scale that seems to be at all com¬ mon in Colorado orchards. The central nipple is orange red and the scales are often quite light colored. Its presence should be promptly re¬ ported to the Experiment Station. Remedies the same as for San Jose scale above. SCURVY BARK-LOUSE. (Chionaspis fur fur a.) Small white scales resem¬ bling scurf or dandruff on the trunk or branches. There are two sizes; the females are larger and oval, and the males are very small and slender. See Fig. 6. Remedies the same as for the San Tose scale. Fig R.—Scurvy Bark-louse; a, twig showing J scales of female louse; b, twig showing scales of male louse; c, scale of female greatly en¬ larged; d, scale of male greatly enlarged. [Howard, Yearbook, U. S. Dep of Agr., 1894.] WOOLLY APHIS (Schizoneura lanigera .) Small dark lice more or less densely covered with a white flocculent secretion. If the lice are crushed in the hand they leave a red stain. The lice attack chiefly tender bark about wounds or on tender growing shoots. Fig. 7.—Woolly Aphis, root form: a, small root showing swellings caused by the lice; b, wingless louse show¬ ing woolly secretion; c, winged louse. (After Saunders.) Remedies. —Early in the sea¬ son, when' the white patches begin to appear on trunk and branches, paint them over with pure kerosene (16), crude petro¬ leum, or a very strong kero¬ sene emulsion (14), or whale- oil soap (12) mixture. If the lice become abundant late in the season, apply kerosene emulsion or whale-oil soap in ordinary strength but with a great deal of force and a coarse spray in order to wet through the waxy secretion which covers them. This insect also attacks the roots. See Fig. 7. INSECTS AND INSECTICIDES *5 4 OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE. (Lepidosaphes ulmi.) Scales of the same color as the bark of the tree, about one- eighth of an inch long, curved and small at one end. Very easily overlooked. See Fig 8. _ Remedies the same as for the San Jose scale. Fig. 8.—Oyster-shell Bark-louse: a, female scale from below, showing eggs, greatly enlarged; b, the same from above; c, female scale on twig, natural size; a, male scale enlarged. [Howard, Yearbook, U. S. Dep. of Agr., J894.] ATTACKING THE ROOTS. WOOLLY APHIS. (Schizoneura lanigera.) This insect attacks the roots as well as the trunk and branches. It causes warty excrescences and often the destruction of the greater portion of the smaller roots. (Fig. 7). The description of the louse is the same as for the trunk form mentioned above. Remedies .—Remove the earth about the crown for a distance of about two feet, put in four to six pounds of tobacco dust (or double this amount of stems) and cover again; then irrigate. If tobacco can not be procured, use kerosene emulsion (14) or whale-oil soap (12) of the ordi¬ nary strengths in its place, pouring in a liberal quantity. INSECTSIATTACKING THE PEAR. Any of the insects mentioned above as attacking the apple may be found attacking the pear, except the woolly plant-louse, and the same remedies should be employed. i6 THE COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION » PEAR-TREE SLUG. (Eriocampoides limacina) Slimy dark-colored larvae with the head end much the larger, somewhat resembling snails, resting upon the up¬ per surface of the leaves, which they skeletonize. See Fig. 9. Two broods each year. Remedies.—Apply white hel¬ lebore (9) or any of the arse¬ nical mixtures (3-8), by dusting or by spraying. Freshly slacked lime (20)or wood ashes (29) freeley dusted upon the larvae will kill most of them. This is an easy insect to control and should not be allowed to continue its seri¬ ous injuries to the pear, Fig. 9.—Pear-tree Slug: a, adult fly; 6, larva fLic or slug with f-limy covering removed; c, plum and CUerry in tills same as preceding in natural condition; d , fof oc dnincr leaves showing slugs and their injuries. State as it na;> uccn (Marlatt, Circular 26, Second Series, U. S. vear? Dep, of Agr., Div. Entomology.) Ine P aSL iew y Ccllb - PEAR LEAF BLISTER (Phytoptus pyri ). Small dark spots upon the leaves, sometimes very abundant and involving the greater portion of the surface. The diseased portion is thickened also and at first is green like the rest of the leaf. The leaves often fall prematurely. Fig. 10-Plum Gouger: a, plum pit showing hole for exit of gouger; 6, gouger; c, side view of head of gouger showing beak and antenna. (Riley & Howard, Insect Life, Vol. II., U. S. Dep. of Agr., Div. of En¬ tomology.) Remedies .—Spray the trees while dormant with kerosene emulsion (14), treble strength; whale-oil soap (12), one pound to two gallons of water; or with lime and sulfur mixture. Gather and burn as many of the fallen leaves as possible. HOWARD’S SCALE. (Aspidiotus howardi.) This scale is too common in Colorado orchards. It is a close relative of the pernicious, or San Jose scale, but so far, has been most com¬ mon upon plum and pear. Pears, or any fruit affected with scales/should be reported promptly to the Experi¬ ment Station. See Plate I., Fig. 6. Remedies.—The same as for San Jose scale mentioned under apple in¬ sects. INSECTS AND INSECTICIDES !7 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE PLUM. ATTACKING THE FRUIT. PLUM GOUGER. (Coccotorus prunicida.) A small but rather robust snout-beetle about a quarter of an inch in length; color a leaden gray with head and thorax oeherous yellow; wing covers smooth without prominent humps on them. The beetle eats pin-holes in the growing plums in which it lays its eggs. The larva or grub eats into the pit and feeds upon the kernel, and later eats a hole out through both pit and flesh of the plum just before the plum matures (Fig. io). The only insect in Colo¬ rado injuring the fruit of the plum to any extent. Remedies. Jar the trees early every morning, or in the evening, from the time the blossoms are out till very few beetles can be obtained, catch¬ ing them on a sheet spread beneath. It only takes a very few beetles to do a great amount of harm, as I have found by actual count that a single female may lay as many as 450 eggs.* Gathering and destroying fu- s . n » plums during the early part of July would nearly exterminate this insect. Spraying with an arsenical poison (3,4, 5, 6,7, 8) once, a few days before the trees blossom, and once or twice after, will give con¬ siderable protection. Use the poisons in two-thirds ordinary, or standard strengths. Arsenate of lead (5) is probably the safest to use on the foliage of the plum. PLUM CURCULIO. (Conotrachelus nenuphar.) This beetle is often confused with the preceding. As yet it has not been reported in Colorado. It is liable any year to appear in our orchards and all should be on the look out for it so as to do all possible to stamp it out or prevent its rapid spread. It is as destruct¬ ive to the European varieties of plums as the codling moth is to apples. The beetle is brown to blackish in color, is about one- fifth of an inch long, and has two prominent humps and numer¬ ous smaller ones upon its wing covers. The beetle makes a cres¬ cent shaped cut in the flesh of the fruit where an egg is deposited and the grub does not enter the pit but feeds on the flesh outside ofpt, causing the fruit to fall. Remedies.—Jarring and spraying as in case of the preceding species. Should anyone find what he thinks to be the work of this in¬ sect in an orchard, it is hoped he will notify the Experiment Sta¬ tion at once. ATTACKING THE FOLIAGE. FRUIT-TREE LEAF-ROLLER. (Archips argyrospila) See under apple insects. Use the poisons only two-thirds as *Insect Life, III., p. 227. 18 THE COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION strong on the plum as on the apple. Arsenate of lead is least likely to injure the foliage. SLUGS. Skeletonizing the upper surface of the leaves. See pear-tree slug. Use the same remedies. BROWN MITE See under apple insects. Remedies the same. PLANT LICE. Two or three species attack the foliage of the plum badly in Colorado. Remedies the same as for apple plant-louse. Other insects attacking apple foliage may be found on plum, where they are destroyed by the same treatment in either case. ATTACKING TRUNK AND BRANCHES. THE PEACH BORER (Scinninoidea exitiosa.) This insect often attacks the plum. For its treatment see peach enemies. FLAT-HEADED BORER. See under apple enemies. SCALE INSECTS. See under apple enemies. When scales are found it will be well to send specimens to the Experiment Station for identifica¬ tion and advice. Howards’s scale and Putnam’s scale both occur on plum in the State. They have been injuriously abundant in a few isolated cases only. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE CHERRY. The insects attacking the cherry in Colorado are the Fruit- tree Leaf-roller, Tent Caterpillar, Fall Web-worm, Brown Mite, Plant Lice, Scale Insects, Grasshoppers, Flat-headed Borer, Twig Borer, Buffalo Tree-hoppers and Pear Slug mentioned above. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE PEACH. PEACH TWIG-BORER. (Anarsia lineatella.) This is the worst insect enemy of the peach in Colorado at the present time. As soon as the buds begin to open in the spring, a small brownish larva with a black head eats into the buds and INSECTS AND INSECTICIDES 1 9 PLATE 2. 1—Blossoms from which the petals have fallen and still in good condition to receive the spray. Also apples with calyces closed. Fig. 2 -Spraying scene in orchard of Mr. Bergher, Palisade, Colo. Photos by the fillf rt A ^ ( THE COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION PLATE 3. Fig. 1—Grape leaf showing bleached, appearance due to grape-leaf hopper. Fig. 2—Eight-spotted Forester (Alypia 8-maculata): A, moth; B, larva. (Typhlo- Nearly life Fig. 8—Appie twigs iniured by Buffalo Tree-hopper (Ceresa sp.) Life size. Fig. 4—Eggs of apple, plant-louse on apple twigs. Natural size. Photos by author. INSECTS AND INSECTICIDES 21 destroys them. When the new shoots start, the borer eats into them causing them to wilt and die. Many of the second brood of this borer eat into the peaches, causing a gummy exudation and ruining them for market. The larvae that appear in the spring spent their winter in little excavations which they made in the fall in the bark of the trees. See Figs, n and 12. Remedies . —Early in the spring, just before the buds open, spray the trees with lime and sulfur wash (21). Whale-oil soap (12) in the propor¬ tion of a pound to two gallons of water. Fish-oil soap (13) diluted once with water, or kerosene emulsion, will doubtless do the work nearly or quite as well as the lime, sulfur and salt. Many of the larvae may be caught under bandages (33) used as for the codling moth. Mr. E. P. Taylor has had excellent success with arsenate of lead (5) at Palisade, Colo., this season. Fig. 11.—Peach Twig-borer: a. twig of peach showing little masses of chewed bark above the larval burrows; b, the same enlarged; c, larva in winter bur¬ row, enlarged; d, hibernating larva greatly enlarged. (Marlatt, Bulletin 10, N. S.,U. S. Dept, of Agr., Div. of Entomology.) Fig 12.—Peach Twig and Borer: a, young shoot wilting from attack of borer; b, adult larva enlarged; c, chrysalis en¬ larged; d, tail end of chrysalis showing hooks. (Marlatt, Bulletin 10, N. S., U. S. Dep. of Agr., Div. of Entomology.) THE PEACH BORER. A yellowish white borer attaining the length of about one inch, boring beneath the bark of the lower trunk, crown and larger roots. See Plate 4. Remedies .—Carefully inspect the trees every fall and spring, remove some of the earth next the crown, and search for and remove the borers with the aid of a pocket knife. Their presence is usually indicated by the exhudation of a gummy material upon the bark. Shields of stout paper or wire screen placed about the trunks and left therefrom the 1st of June till the 1st of August will serve as a means of protection from egg- laying. The paper screen is the better. (See Plate 4, Figs. 2 and 3.) PLANT LICE. The plant lice that attack the foliage of the peach may be 22 THE COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION treated in the same way as the apple plant-louse mentioned above. The black peach aphis, which does its chief injury to the roots, should be handled in the same manner as the woolly aphis of the apple. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE. THE ACHEMON SPHINX. (Pholus achemon.) Hairless caterpillars devouring the leaves. When small, each caterpillar has a long dorsal spine on the last segment of the body. When nearly grown, the spine is represented by a shining black spot. These larvae resemble the large tomato “worm.” Remedies .— Any of the arsenical poisons (3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8) may be used as recommended for apple leaf-rollers. Pyrethrum (24) may also be used as powder or spray, but to kill, it must come in contact with the cater¬ pillars. Handpicking is the best remedy in a small vineyard. This insect is also bad on Virginia creeper. THE EIGHT-SPOTTED FORESTER. (Alypia octomaculata.) A dark-colored caterpillar, about one and one-half inches long when fully grown. A close examination will reveal numerous small black and white cross lines and a few red ones to each body segment. See Plate 3, Fig. 2. Remedies .— The same as for the preceding species. This insect also infests the Virginia creeper. STEM BORER. See apple twig-borer, which also attacks the grape. TREE CRICKETS. [CEcanthus sp.] The female cricket punctures stems of grape and other plants and in each puncture deposits a long cylindrical egg. The punc¬ tures are usually in rows lengthwise of the stem and look like needle thrusts. Remedies. Cut out badly infested stems. Keep the vineyard clean ot all weeds. COTTONA SCALE. [Pulvinaria innumerabilis .] This scale, commonly found infesting soft maple, sometimes attacks grapevines. See Plate I., Fig. 2." Remedies . —Kerosene emulsion made strong, so as to be one-fifth kero¬ sene, thoroughly sprayed during the winter or early spring is very ef¬ fectual. TV hen the little lice first hatch from the scales, about the last of no? e ’-n h S °^ dina fy sprays of kerosene emulsion (14) or whale-oil soap (12) will destroy them. If the spraying is delayed till a heavy scale has formed over the lice, stronger applications will be required. INSECTS AND INSECTICIDES 23 GRAPE FLEA BEETLE. (Graptodera chalybaea) A small steel-blue beetle appearing early in the spring and again in midsummer and feeding upon the foliage. The beetles deposit eggs which soon hatch into small dark-colored larvae which also eat holes in the leaves. Remedies — Arsenical poisons (3-8) sprayed or dusted upon the foliage. If unsafe to use poisons, dust freely withPyrethum (22). GR\PE-LEAF HOPPERS. (Typhlocyba sp.) Small jumping and flying insects, often called “grape thrips.” The insects often fly out from the vine in great numbers when the latter is jarred and return quickly to the under side of the leaves. As a result of the punctures and the extraction of the sap, the leaves lose their dark green color and at first are minutely specked and freckled with white, as shown at Plate 3, Fig. I. Fater the leaves shrivel and die. The red spiders, brown mites and thrips cause a similar appearance of the foliage they attack. Remedies.—Spray forcibly with kerosene emulsion (14),kerosene and water (16), or whale-oil soap (12) very early in the morning while the in¬ sects are dormant and drop readily from the leaves. Burn dry leaves, dead grass and other rubbish in the vicinity of the vineyard during winter or early spring, on a cold day. GRASSHOPPERS. Remedies .—Use arsenical spray (3 8) where safe. If not safe to spray, use the arsenic-bran mash (2) freely about the borders of the vineyard and about the vines. Make free use of hopper-pans (34) in adjoining fields to reduce the number of hoppers before they reach the vineyard. Plow or thoroughly harrow the ditch banks and the borders of the field late in the fall to destroy as many of the eggs as posible. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE CURRANT. IMPORTED CURRANT-BORER. [Sesia tipuliformis .] Yellowish white larvae burrowing in stems, giving rise to wasp-like moths in June. The moths closely resemble those of the peach borer, shown at Plate 4 > Fig. 1. Remedies . — Cut out the infested stems and burn them during winter or early spring. Also keep the old wood well trimmed out of the bushes, and always burn promptly the parts cut out. CURRANT SAW-FLY. [Pristiphora grossulariae.] A green larva, about half an inch long when fully grown, feeding upon the leaves of currant and gooseberry bushes. Ap¬ pearing late in June and again about the last of August. The adult insect is a black four-winged fly about the size of a house- 1 24 THE COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION fly. The eggs are deposited, one in a place, under the epidermis of the leaves. Remedies .—The best remedy for this pest is white hellebore (9) dusted lightly over the foliage in the evening. If this is carefully done, nearly every larva can be found deadunder the bushes next morning. Arsenical sprays (3-8) may be used either dry or in water, as for other leaf-eating insects. These poisons should not be used before the currants are picked. Pyrethrum (22) may be safely used at any time. THE CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY FRUIT MAGGOT (Epochra canadensis). A two-winged fly about the size of an ordinary house fly, but yellowish brown in color and with dusky bands across the wings, appears among the bushes when the berries are about half grown and “stings” the fruit with its sharp ovipositor. In each puncture an egg is deposited just beneath the skin as shown at 4.47 15.14 15.0 86.2 75.70 71.23 10.8 29 34 4 Sulphate of Potash. 100 Nitrate of Soda. 199 9.12 17.89 14.2 85.8 89.45 80.33 12.0 5 Nitrate of Soda. 426 12.7S 18.60 14.6 85.7 93.00 80.22 9. 26 6 No Fertilizer. 14.76 14.0 87.2 73.80 73.80 14. 24 7 Nitrate of Soda. op 6.36 16.16 15.0 85.3 80.80 74.14 10. ~2T 8 Nitrate of Soda. 214 Acid Bone Meal. 215 9.28 15.93 14.71 15.2 85.3 79.65 70.37 15. 15. 24 9 Complete Fertilizer. Acid Bone Meal. 187 Nitrate of Soda. 187 Sulphate of Potash . 94 11.06 15.0 86.3 73.55 62.49: 10 No Fertilizer . 12.18 15 2 84.9 60.90 60.90 13.2 18 11 No Fertilizer. 13.63 15.2 88.7 68.15 68.15 8.6 30 Average. 1 15.58 14.9! 86.5 $77.90 27 The effect of complete fertilizer although more favorable than in the previous two years, indicates the same general tendency, in the apparent neutralization of the action of nitrate of soda in the presence of potash and phosphoric acid together, as derived from the fertilizer; the yield being about the same as the unfertilized plat, two plats removed, less than the nitrate and acid bone meal plat ad¬ joining, but much more than the unfertilized plats adjoining on the other side. All the results seem to indicate that the increase in yields was chiefly due to nitrate of soda used alone or with the other elements, and that there was no additional net profit from the application of over double the quantity of the smaller amounts. Taking all the factors into consideration a careful comparison of Plats 5 and 6 and conservative estimates seem to indicate that on soil capable of producing from 13.5 to 14.5 tons per acre without fertilization, about 200 pounds of nitrate of soda caused a gross in¬ crease of $20 per acre with beets at $5 per ton, or a net increase over the cost of fertilizer of about $6 to $7 per acre. In appearance the size and shape of the beets grown in this ex- 14 BULLETIN 115 periment were excellent, the average weight per beet of the 200 sam¬ ples being twenty-seven ounces, or 1.7 pounds. The sugar content and purity of the beets analyzed were in gener¬ al satisfactory, and about as high as the average of the district this season (1905). Both the sugar content and yield of sugar beets were somewhat below the average of previous seasons in Northern Colo¬ rado and elsewhere, largely due to the late spring and copious rains in the earlier part of the growing season, which caused a more luxur¬ iant growth of tops or leaves than usual, but which proved rather un¬ favorable to the production of a proportionate increase in weight of the sugar beet crop. RESIDUAL OR AFTER EFFECTS OF MANURES AND FERTILIZERS Experiments on Field F, 1903-4-5. —From the plats on Field F, to which manures and fertilizers were applied in 1903 , the data of which is given in Table 5, the beets were harvested separately and other data secured in the following two years in order to determine the residual or after effects of the manures and fertilizers used. Some very interesting facts were disclosed, that data being given in Table 11 . Table 11. RESIDUAL ON AFTER EFFECTS OF MANURE AND FERTILIZERS APPLIED ONE YEAR ONLY ON FIELD F, 1903 so CD p 3 o' cd 1-5 1 77 3 _6_ 7 KIND OF FERTILIZER Applied in 1903 only I Amt. per acre—Tons Cow Manure.60 Cow Manure.30 Cow Manure.15 Pounds Nitrate of Soda.1'0 10 Nitrate of Soda.1 0 N itrate of Soda.10 Raw Bone Meal.200 No Fertilizer. Raw Bone Meal.200 Thomas Phosphate.. ..400 (or B asic Slag) _ Complete Fertilizer. Nitrate of Soda.50 Dried Blood.75 Acid Bone Meal.250 Sulphate of Potash.CO Carbonate of Potash.75 (from Tobacco Ashes) Complete Fertilizer. Nitrate of Soda.10" Dried Blood.25 Acid Bone Meal.>50 Sulphate of Potash..f0 Carbonate of Potash.75 (from Tobacco Ashes) Averages.... Yield in Tons per acre 1903 1904 1905 > < CD rs P3 dQ CD cc HCJ CD 33 (X Quality of Beets 1903 C/2 £ £2 rj cd CD CD y 1 c+- z** a o CD 35 24. V 25.10 25.25 25.67 25.61 21.46 21.72 22.60 20.63 22.3. 23.4., 19.68 15.82 20.31 19.13 16.94 16.17 15.55 14.57 14.57 16.94 17.78 16.10 17.07 16. D !per ct "3 cc. 2 CD CD —t- lbs 19.87 13.1 j81.0 2.44 82."|2.CO 19.99 20.44 14.3 14.4 20.91 13.3 19.»y lb.49 18.01 17.59 14.61 15.18 i6.79 14.9 15.1 15.1 15.1 84.211.51 83.3 2.56 83.8 2.03 b5.0 87.3 84.4 16.1 87.9 16.49 15.99 18.2" 14.6 84.4 17.59 16.02 19.01 2.04 2 23 2.13 1.59 2 12 X CD -i C CD o x X 14.6 84.4,2.06 j47 51 46 47 33 31 37 42 45 1904 45.3 cc P TQ 3= i-s X CD CD p. C io. 2 X p “J o o CD tts 15.8 15 9 14.9 16.2 15_8 6 0 14.4 15.2 15.0 15.4 2 - — CD ‘ CT X^ v CD —t lbs 2.13 X CD r-j O CD H o w I : 1905 c U CD .-t- 3 » 3 -i M. I 84.3 2.13 41 4 85.0 1.18, 42.3 28.1 86.3 87.4 8675 87.6 8775 87.3 8771 84.3 86.3 1.33, 1.18 37. i.13^9.7 1.0440b 1.22 38.1 1.32 39.6 1.23 42.6 1.08 40.8 1.23 39.0 FERTILIZER EXPERIMENTS WITH SUGAR BEETS. 15 Some facts as to the effects of cow manure will be especially in¬ teresting. A positive residual effect is noted the second year. 'The difference between the manured plats and the other plats which had received more of less ineffective fertilizers was even more largely in favor of the manure the second year, than the year of its application. For instance the difference between the averages of the three manured Plats 1, 2 and 3, and the unfertilized or ineffectively fertilized Plats 6 , 7 and 8 in 1903, the year of application, was 3.2 tons and the sec¬ ond year 3.5 tons, in favor of the manure. In the third year after application the residual effects entirely disappeared in the case of the cow manure, the difference in fact be¬ tween the plats just given, being a small fraction or 0.16 tons against the manure. While there are interesting after effects the second year of the application of manure, the yields are not proportionate to the amounts used in the previous year, being only slightly more with sixty and thirty tons than with fifteen tons. Thus if the cost and the expense of the application are deducted, there is little if any net profit from the increased yield of sugar beets in the year of the application, of a moderate or large amount of manures, but that the returns are found in the succeeding year therefore clear profit except for the expense of topping and delivery of the ex¬ tra quantity. It is also seen that large to excessive quantities of manure used are sheer waste, and that returns as good if not better are obtained with medium amounts. In the case of ariy residual effect from nitrate of soda where it was used in any quantity alone or with potash or phosphoric acid, leaving out its use in Plat 3, with manure, which obscures its effects' in Plats 4, 5 and 10, on the face of the returns, there actually appears to be beneficial after effects, although this is probably a coincidence due to some inherent difference in the quality of soil on these plats for it would be almost absurd to suppose that an easily soluable, and in the soil, unstable compound like nitrate, would remain until a second season. Comparison of the sugar content of the beets of the three manured plats and the unmanured Plats 6, 7 and 8, previously mentioned, shows a difference between the averages the first year of 1.7 per cent' and the second year only 0.3 per cent. The difference in yields be¬ tween the two was greater the second year than the first, but of course with a lower average yield all around. The purity coefficient shows a difference of 2.5 and 1.9 when compared in the same way. The point of the whole matter is that in the second year the sugar content and purity of the beets from the manured plats, with higher yield, was just about as good as that of the unmanured plats with low¬ er yield, which was not the case the first year the manure was applied. Acknowledgements for furnishing the raw materials for these experiments are due Mr. Wm. S. Myers, of the Nitrate of Soda Propo- 16 BULLETIN 115. ganda; Armour Fertilizer Works, Omaha; German Kali Works, New York; and Colorado Packing and Provision Company, Denver. Relation of Size and Amount of Fresh Beet Tops to Quality of Sugar Beets.—In the samples taken for analysis in all the fertilizer experiments of 1903 and 1904, the beets were carefully cleaned, weighed and the tops consisting of crown and leaves, removed in the approved manner, and beets weighed again. Considerable data was then secured of value, especially as regards the amount of beet tops, in relation to the size of the beet, quality and yield and fertilizers used. The detailed data is given in Tables 12 and 13, and the sum¬ mary in Table 14. Table 12.. DATA AS TO THE RELATION OF SIZE AND AMOUNT OF FRESH TOPS TO QUALITY OF SUGAR BEETS, 1903 1 Plat Number Number of Beets in Sample Average Weight Per Beet in Pounds P^r Cent Tops Sugar • m Beet 1 Purity Co¬ efficient 2 12 2.17 40 15.6 85.6 3 12 3.13 55 15.0 83.6 FIELD C 4 12 2.25 43 15.1 84.4 Total Area Sampled 5 12 2.46 58 14.8 83.2 0.6 Acres 6 12 2.33 52 15.5 85.4 7 12 2.33 46 15.7 86.4' \ Averages... 72 2.45 49.2 15.3 84.7 Field F.—1 Acre.... 1 12 2.44 72 13.1 81.0 2 12 2.00 47 14.3 82.8 3 12 1.51 51 14.4 84.2 4 12 2.56 46 13.3 83.3 5 12 2.03 47 14.9 83.8 6 12 2.04 33 15.1 85.0 7 12 2.23 31 15.1 87.3 8 12 2.13 37 15.1 84.4 9 12 1.59 42 16.1 87.9 - 10 12 2.12 45 14.6 84.4 Averages. 120 2.06 45.3 14.6 84.4 Field E.—0.2 Acres.... 1 12 1.67 41 15.1 87.3 2 12 1.88 44 ^15.3 7 85.9 - . vjr 1 si Averages 24 1.78 42.5 57 15.2 y 86.6 There does not appear to be any definite relation between these various factors, although there are some indications that the larger beets with large percentage of tops have somewhat lower sugar con¬ tent and purity. The opposite is true in a few cases. Beet tops have come to be of considerable value, being pastured by cattle and sheep with success. The value of the beet tops thus pastured has a market price at present of from $1.00 to $3.00 an acre and sometimes more. As to palatibility it has been found that sheep FERTILIZER EXPERIMENTS WITH SUGAR BEETS. 17 will readily leave alfalfa hay for beet tops, but that the crowns are not readily eaten. Cattle, however, will eat the crowns clean. Table 13. DATA AS TO THE RELATION OF SIZE AND AMOUNT OF FRESH BEET TOPS TO QUALITY OF SUGAR BEETS, 1904 Plat Number Number of Beets in Sample Average Weight Per Beet Pounds 1 Per Cent Tops 1 Sugar in Beet Purity Co¬ efficient Field C.3-Area 1.2 Acres 1 12 1.28 39.0 16.8 89.1 2 12 1.12 42.5 15.3 86.6 3 12 1.29 41.3 15.3 88.8 4 12 1.42 41.8 14.6 86.2 5 12 1.70 41.1 14.3 89.0 6 12 1.44 43.4 15.6 87.9 7 12 1.58 37.0 15.2 88.0 8 12 2.24 46.9 15.3 86.1 9 12 1.93 51.9 15.4 88.8 10 12 2.66 51.1 14.8 85.5 11 12 1.28 36.6 16.4 89.0 12 12 1.23 41.5 15.8 88.1 Averages.. 144 1.60 43.8 15.4 87.8 Field F.—Area 1 Acre—. 1 12 2.13 41.4 15.2 84.3 2 12 1.18 42.3 15.8 85.0 3 12 1.33 28.1 15.9 86.3 4 12 1.18 37.1 14.9 87.4 5 12 1.13 39.7 16.2 86.5 6 - 12 1.04 40.8 15.8 87.6 7 12 1.22 38.1 16.0 87.5 8 12 1.32 39.6 14.4 87.3 9 12 1.23 42.6 15.2 87.1 10 12 1.08 40.8 15.0 84.3 Averages—. 120 1.23 39.0 15.4 86.3 Field B.—Area 1 Acre.... w 12 1.92 54.0 14.6 89.0 N 13 1.57 53.2 13.9 86.8 1 Averages... | 1 26 | 1.75 | | 53.6 | | 14.3 | 87.9 Table 14. SUMMARY OF AMOUNTS OF BEET TOPS AND QUALITY OF SUGAR BEETS FIELD Area Acres Number of Determinations Total Nnmber of Beets Analyzed Average Weight Per Beet Pounds Yield of Beets Per Acre Tons Green ►U H® co 2 CD » Pounds £ Per Ton of Beets Tops o o * •a "•n GO CD a rt Sugar in Beet Purity Coefficient 1903... .. Cl 0.6 6 73 2.45 27 13.28 984 49.2 15.3 84.9 1903_ F 1.0 10 120 2.06 23 9.96 906 45.3 14.6 84.6 1903.. E 0.2 2 24 1.78 20 8.50 850 42.5 15.2 86.6 1904... C3 1.2 12 144 1.60 13 5.70 876 43.8 15.4 87.8 1904..... F 1.0 10 120 1.23 18 7.02 780 39.0 15.4 86.3 1904... B 1.0 2 25 1.75 22 11.80 1073 53.6 14.3 87.9 18 BULLETIN 115. The average weight per beet of all samples analyzed is found to be 1.76 pounds, and the average fresh green tops 44.2, from 42 deter¬ minations of 12 samples each. The average yield of 19.8 tons will thus produce 8.75 tons of fresh green tops. The loss of weight in thorough air drying or curing has not been determined, but it is believed that one-eighth of the green weight would be a reasonable estimate. Calculating the green tops at 44.2 per cent of the net weight of beets the relation of tons per acre and tops would be as follows: Beets per acre Fresh green tops Estimated Tons air tons per acre tons weight per acre 20 8.84 1.10 15 6.63 .83 10 4.41 .55 Table 15. YIELD OF FRESH BEET TOPS BY GATHERING AND WEIGHING ALL THE TOPS AFTER HARVESTING BEETS FIELD F. 1904— -ONE TENTH ACRE PLATS, Yield of Beets Tops Tops Per Ton Per Cent Plat No. Per Acre Per Acre of Beets Tops Tons Tons Pounds 1 19.57 10.65 1088 54.4 2 20.23 5.85 578 28.9 3 19.03 5.88 618 30.9 4 19.20 4.64 484 24.2 5 17.90 5.11 571 28.5 Note— Tops on Plats 2 to 5 were allowed to remain on the ground from three to five days after topping. The data given in Table 15 was obtained by gathering and weighing all the tops of a known area, with yield of beets, from one to five days after topping. A considerable per cent was lost in this way, being impossible to gather. There was also considerable loss in weight from evaporation in those last gathered. It will be seen that the percent of tops from Plat 1 with an excessive amount of leaves by actually gathering all the tops, is greater than the figure obtained from the sample beets, the sample showing forty-one per cent and the gathered leaves fifty-one per cent of the beets harvested. Data in Regard to Maturing Period of Sugar Beets.—The data given in Tables 16, 17 and 18 was obtained in cooperative work with the Bureau of Chemistry, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. All the analyses of 1902 were made by the Bureau, and that of other years in the laboratory of the local sugar factory by the courtesy of Mr. Booraem. The samples were taken every week beginning with the last week in September and continuing until the beets were all harvested or until prevented by freezing of the ground. The manner of taking the samples consisted of digging all the beets from a fifty foot row, each successive digging adjoining the other, counting, cleaning, par- FERTILIZER EXPERIMENTS WITH SUGAR BEETS. 19 tially topping, weighing the beets and analyzing twenty-five average specimens. . In the samples shipped to Washington the sugar content and purity is based on the first weight of the beets, thus allowing for evaporation and shrinkage. The weight per beet and estimated yield pei acre is a little higher than the actual for the reason that all the crowns were not removed in trimming. The difference is also seen m the actual yield of each plat when harvested, being somewhat less than the tonnage from the samples. Table 16. SAMPLES FROM FIELD D, 1902 Date of Sampling September 17 September 26. October 3 _ October 10 ... October 17 ... October 24_ October 31_ November 7 . November 14. November 21 November 28. December 5 . Average- Mean Weight of Topped Beets in Ounces Pounds 19 .6 1 .23 24 .5 1 .53 25 0 ' 1 .56 27 0 1 .69 27 4 1 .71 22 9 1 43 27 0 1 69 22 0 1 38 23 4 1 46 26 9 1 68 26. 1 1 63 27. 2 1 70 24. 9 1 . 56 Sugar in Beet Per Cent V Purity Co¬ efficient 12.9 80.5 12.1 78.3 10.5 74.0 9.8 66.6 13.2 81.4 14.3 83.8 13.9 80.4 14.7 87.0 14.4 84.3 13.7 78.0 13.6 79.1 13.0 79.7 13.0 79.4 Estim d Yield Per Acre | Tons 20.2 26.0 25.7 27.3 24.2 25.5 31.8 24.4 26.6 28.6 26.7 25.7 26.0 W killing frost. Sept. 20-21, 6 inches rain, i leld of whole Plat when harvested was 25.4 tons Average space between beets 9.3 inches but with 9% of the beets missing the majority T we 8.56 inches apart. J J Table 17. SAMPLES FROM FIELDS F AND E, 1903 Field F. Plat 6 Date of Sampling » ^ Mean Weight of Topped Beets Ounces | Pound Est.Yield Per Acre Tons Sugar in Beet Per Cent Purity Coeffi. September 26 ... October 6 .. October 10 October 17. October 26_ November 3 Average.... 19.8 22.9 23.5 17.4 25.1 25.9 22.4 1.24 1.43 1.47 1.09 1.57 1.62 1.40 20.4 19.7 24.2 21.8 22.2 23.8 22.0 14.8 16.7 15.7 18.5 16.2 15.9 16.3 82.0 83.6 81.1 81.6 85.3 81.7 82.5 Yield of whole plat when harvested 21.5 tons. Spacing 8.2 inches Nov. 7. Sugar in beet 15.1.- Purity 85.0. 20 BULLETIN 115. (Table 17, Continued.) On Field E | September 26 U-- 1.47 23.5 20.7 13.8 79.1 October 6 _ 1.40 22.4 21.2 15.3 sl. 5 October 10__ 1.53 24.5 19.6 15.6 79.7 October 17_ 1.45 23.2 22.8 14.4 80.4 October 26_ 1.25 20.0 21.7 16.2 87.3 November 3 __ 1.67 26.7 25.3 15.1 77.6 Average__—. 1.46 23.4 21.9 15.1 80.9 Yield of whole plat when harvested 19.8 tons. Spacing 10.5 inches. Nov. 7. Sugar 15.1% Purity 87.3. Table 18. SAMPLES FROM FIELD F, PLAT 6, 1904 Date of Sampling Mean Weight of Topped Beets in Ounces | Pounds Est.Yield Per Acre •Tons Sugar in Beet Per Cent Purity Coeffi. September 22 ---. October 12--- October 15.... October 20*—-.—-- October 22-...-.. Average.—... 16.2 18.1 16.0 16.6 16.8 16.7 1.01 1.13 1.00 1.04 1.05 1.05 17.6 18.8 16.7 18.2 17.8 15.4 16.2 16.7 15.8 16.4 16.1 83.5 88.4 87.9 87.6 89.1 87.3 * Average of 12 samples. Yield of whole plot when harvested 16.9 tons. _. ^ Average space between beets 8.9 inches. The data secured offers some interesting evidence as to the prog¬ ress of ripening in the sugar beet, the most striking being the com¬ paratively slight increase in sugar content and purity, or yield, after the last week in September. The data for 1902 is especially interesting, showing the effects of the early freeze of September 12 of that year, which destroyed the leaves. This was followed in a week by a heavy rain amounting to six inches, causing the beets to put forth an entirely new set of leaves. The effect of the renewed growth is plainly seen in the great decrease of sugar content and purity reaching the minimum twenty days after the rain on October 10. PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS AS TO THE USE OF FERTILIZERS ON SUGAR BEETS IN COLORADO The Kind to Use.— Nitrogen is the only element which has proven of practical value giving decided profit over the cost of application. Its use in the form of nitrate of soda with potash and phosphoric acid together in “complete” fertilizers, has not been as effective in increasing the yield, as nitrate used alone. On the contrary there are decided indications that the effect of the nitrate has been largely neutralized when so used, although the quality of the beet has been good. fertilizer experiments with sugar beets. 21 # Although nitrogen from nitrate of soda has been effective in in¬ creasing the yield, no sufficient comparaive tests have been made as to the effect of nitrogen from the less soluble organic fertilizers such as dried blood, tankage, or cottonseed meal. It is probable that the same amount of nitrogen from those sources would be less effective although this is offset to some extent by the fact that their cost is less and more could be used. WHERE AND HOW TO USE NITRATE OF SODA The Soil. —It is probable that nitrate of soda could not be used profitably on soil which is in condition to produce close to the maxi¬ mum yields of the particular locality without manures or fertilizers. It also must be understood that fertilizers, no matter how effective, will never take the place of proper preparation of the soil and care of the crop. It is absolutely necessary that the soil be in good physical condition in order to enable plants to use the plant food therein, or added to it. For our conditions the most satisfactory practice would probably be to use nitrate of soda along with a light coating of manure. The maximum effect of both would be secured in this way. Depending upon conditions it will require a yield of sugar beets of from six to ten tons or more to cover cost of production. No land is likely to be planted to sugar beets which will not produce that much. The high average yields are in the neighborhood of twenty tons per acre. The profitable application of nitrogenous fertilizers then will probably be on soils which, without manure or fertilizers, will range in yield from ten to fifteen tons per acre. ANY INJURIOUS EFFECTS OF NITRATE The Beet. —Our Colorado soils and climate have shown an ability to produce a high quality of beet under good average conditions. The quality of the beet is also largely controlled by the proper irri¬ gation. Manures are chiefly valuable for the large amount of nitrogen they contain, besides the humus, and it has been shown that even ex¬ cessive quantities of manure will lower the sugar content only from one to two per cent, and purity two to four per cent. Excessive quantities of nitrate of soda will do the same, but neither is recom¬ mended. The presence of more active nitrogen than the plants can use lessens the yield. It might be reasonable that as active nitrogen acts as a stimu¬ lant it will induce the plants to absorb so much of the other available elements in the increased crop, that there would be none left over for the next crop. Our soils contain ample supplies of both potash and phosphoric acid held in reserve, which are constantly being liber¬ ated or made available in the soil, and of lime we have something to spare. • It is claimed that nitrate of soda has a tendency to make the soil more compact or less easily workable. Even if such is the case, and it has not been observed in our experiments, it is difficult to see how 22 BULLETIN 115. this could take place with the frequent cultivation and hoeings sugar beets are bound to receive. Granting that there is some truth in both claims advanced, the soil would have ample time to recover during the rotation with other crops, which is imperative for best all round results. It is well known that crops do not use the same amounts of food elements, and while growing they give an op¬ portunity for those elements to accumulate which are best used by a succeeding different crop. How Much to Use.—The limit of profitable application of nitrate of soda on land which is naturally capable of producing from ten to eighteen tons per acre is probably from 150 to 300 pounds per acre. The larger quantity gives more profit on less productive land than on more highly productive soil. This is largely due to the fact that there seems to be a certain limit to the productiveness of a soil, due more or less to its present physical state of condition, no matter how -much available plant food is present. In one case 580 pounds per acre applied to land which produced 11.5 tons without fertilization, gave a small profit, but not nearly as much in proportion as was derived from smaller amounts applied on the same land. In another case 300 pounds applied to a soil which produced twenty-eight tons per acre without fertilization increased the yield, while 100 pounds applied to the same soil, was without effect. Larger quantities can sometime be applied, depending on the soil, with an increase in yield it is true, but the margin between the returns from the increased yield and the cost of the fertilizer, will not be as great as when smaller quantities are used on the same soil. A point will be reached where cost of the fertilizer applied will equal the increase in yield. And in the case of nitrate of soda an amount much beyond that point, will decrease the yield even below the normal productiveness of the soil. WHEN AND HOW USED Details of Application.—Cost.—No matter in what manner the nitrate is applied it must be prepared by breaking up the lumps and coarse particles and passed through a one-fourth or one-third inch sieve or screen. It can then be broadcasted before the last harrowing before seeding, which is probably the best method, or sown with the combined seeder and fertilizer drill with the seed. The broadcasting can be clone with an endgate seeder or fertilizer sower, or with drills made for the purpose. When sowing the nitrate at the same time as the seed by the use of a fertilizer attachment to an ordinary beet seed drill, the writer has found that unless the material is kept agitated it is likely to “bridge” similar to beet seed, and stop feeding. As to the cost of application it has been found that by the use of an endgate sower, two men with a team and wagon are able to cover from forty to fifty acres per day at an expense of $6.00 per day, or at forty acres per day, fifteen cents per acre. The screening of the nitrate and resacking should not exceed five cents per hundred. FERTILIZER EXPERIMENTS WITH SUGAR BEETS. 23 With a fertilizer drill distributor with one man and a team, half that number of acres could probably be covered. When drilled with the seed the only duty would be to keep the hoppers or cans full and pre¬ vent ‘bridging.' 1 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS (1) Our Colorado soils generally contain ample supplies of pot¬ ash and phosphoric acid, and an excess of lime. (2) The native soil is generally somewhat deficient in nitroo-en ait humus, both are supplied by growing leguminous plants like al- talia, peas, vetches, or beans, or from sheep and stable manures. JNitiogen, but not humus, can be supplied by commercial fertilizers. (3) Nitrogen in the form of nitrate of soda is the only element which has had any decided effect in increasing the yield of suvar beets over the cost of application. J gar (4) Potash and phosphoric acid, from sulphate of potash raw bone meal, Basic slag, dissolved or acid bone, and phosfate rock' used alone or together, have very little or no effect upon the yield. (5) There are strong indications that potash and phosphoric acid from fertilizers, largely, if not entirely, neutralize the effect of nitrate of soda upon the yield of sugar beets, although the quality of the beet is good. # 1 J (6) No difference in results were obtained between applying the nitrate of soda at the time of planting, or in part at the time of planting, and m two applications during the growing season. (7) The net profit from reasonable quantities of manure if cost of manure and Hs application is considerable, is mainly obtained in the after effects m the succeeding year, while there appears to be no residual effect the third year after application. (8) An excess of nitrogen from manures or fertilizers over what the p ant needs lowers the yield and the quality of the sugar beet some though not much. ~ (9) Reasonable quantities of manure were fully as effective as large or excessive quantities. (10) Refuse lime cake from the sugar factories as a fertilizer on sugar beets was of no benefit. 11() Soluble fertilizers applied to the seed favored strong o- er _ mination. & • ! ! Very hlgh su S ar content and puritv seem to go with low yields, although there are exceptions. . (13) bertilizers will not take the place of good preparation or cultivation of the soil, or good care of the crop. The soil must be in good physical condition to make the best use of fertilizers applied ., (, 14 ) The tops were about forty-four per cent of the weight of the clean beets. A fifteen ton crop of sugar beets will produce 6.6 tons fresh, green tops. It is estimated that this will air-dry to one- eighth the original weight or 0.8 of a ton. Bulletin 116 June, 1906 The Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE # Colorado Agricultural College THE COTTONY MAPLE SCALE By S. A. JOHNSON PUBLISHED BY THE EXPERIMENT STATION Fort Collins, Colorado 1906 THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION FORT COLLINS, COLORADO THE STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE term EXPIRES Hon. P. F. SHARP, President , ------- Denver, - 1907 Hon. HARLAN THOMAS, - ------ Denver, - - 1907 Hon. JAMES L. CITATFIELD, ------ Gypsum, - 1909 Hon. B. U. DYE, - - - - - - - Rockyford, - 1909 Hon. B. F. ROCKAFELLOW, ------ Canon City - 1911 Hotf. EUGENE H. GRUBB ------ - Carbondale, - 1911 Hon A. A. EDWARDS. - -- -- -- - Fort Collins, - 1913 Hon. R. W. CORWJN, ------- _ p ue blo - - 1913 Governor JESSE F. McDONALD, \ ^ ... . President BARTON O. AYLESWORTK, r' X "° 1C1 °- A. M. HAWLEY, Secretary EDGAR AVERY, Treasurer EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE IN CHARGE j , P. F. SHARP, Chairman B. F. ROCKAFELLOW. A. A. EDWARDS. STATION STAFF L. G. CARPENTER, M. S., Director , ----- Irrigation Engineer C. P. GILLETTE, M. S., - ----- - Entomologist W. P. HEADDEN, A. M., Ph. D., - - - - ____ Chemist W. PADDOCK, M. S., - - - Horticulturist W. L. CARLYLE, M. S., - -- -- -- -- - Agriculturist G. H. GLOVER, M. S., D. V. M., - _______ Veterinarian W. H. OLIN, M. S., - Agronomist R. E. TRIMBLE, B. S., _____ Assisj pant Irrigation Engineer F. C. ALFORD, M. S., ------- -- Assistant Chemist EARL DOUGLASS, M. S, - - - - - - - - Assistant Chemist S. ARTHUR JOHNSON, M. S., - - - - - - Assistant Entomologist B. O. LONGYEAR, B. S., - - - - - - Assistant Horticulturist J. A. McLEAN, A. B., B. S. A , - - - - - - - Animal Husbandman E. B. HOUSE, M. S., ------ Assistant Irrigation Engineer F. KNORR, _-_ ______ _ Assistant Agronomist P. K. BLINN, B. S., - - - - Field Agent, Arkansas Valley, Rockyford E. R. BENNETT, B. S., - - - - - Potato Investigations Western Slope Fruit Investigations, Grand Junction: O. B. WHIPPLE, B. S., - ----- _ _ Field Horticulturist E P. TAYLOR, B. S., - - - - - - - - Field Entomologist OFFICERS President BARTON O. AYLESWORTH, A. M., LL. D. L. G. CARPENTER, M. S., - - - - - - - - - - - Director A. M. HAWLEY, - -- -- -- -- -- - Secretary MARGARET MURRAY, - - - ------- Clerk I The Cottony Maple Scale Pulvinaria innumerabilis Rathvon. BY S. ARTHUR JOHNSON. The past few years have witnessed a recurrence of the cottony maple scale in injurious numbers in several parts of the United States. The present outbreak has brought about a greater activity in the use of remedial measures than ever before, and though the control of the insect has not yet been .accomplished, sufficient has been learned to point the way. It is the purpose of this bulletin to gather the im¬ portant points of economic literature and the series of experiments and observations made at this station so that what is now widely scattered may be immediately available to those who need the information. The most bitter complaints of injury at all times appear to have come from places where the maple tree is cultivated for shade. The reasons for this are not positively known, but we are tempted to speculate that it f is due to the artificial conditions under which the trees are placed. Under forest conditions the insect appears to be kept in check by its natural enemies, which doubtless', find shelter and pro¬ tection in their native haunts which are denied them among trees planted on private grounds and in parks. Thus far the remedies and their application are rather expensive, but are amply justified when we consider that a beautiful tree is the work of years and cannot readily be replaced except by a repetition of the long years of waiting. SYNONOMY Riley in the report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for 1884, has summarized the synonomy of the species to that date and to that article I am chiefly indebted for this paragraph. The insect was first described as Coccus innumerabilis by Dr. S. S. Rathvon of Lancaster, Pa., in the “Pennsylvania Farm Journal” (Vol. IV, pp.256-258, Aug., 1854.) Five years later, Dr. Asa Fitch redescribed it in the “Trans¬ actions of the New York State Agricultural Society” (Vol. XIX, pp. 7/5-776) under the name of Lecanium cicericorticis . A third descrip¬ tion was made by Walsh aed Riley in the American Entomologist (Vol. I, p. 14, 1869) as Lecanium acericola , the previous descriptions, having been overlooked. A closely allied form on the osage orange, received from these last writers the name L . maclurce . After the pub¬ lication of the names given by Riley and Walsh, Dr. Rathvon called the attention of these entomologists to his description and subsequent <% 4 BULLETIN 116. correspondence showed that the species were identical. Glover in 1877 revived Fitch’s name of Lecanium acericorticis which had been overlooked up to that time. While this portion of the problem of synonomy was being thrashed out, Mr. J. Duncan Putnam was making a careful study of the life his¬ tory. Four articles came from his pen. The first three were printed under Walsh and Riley’s name of Lecanium acericola . (*). The fourth article is a very thorough study of the life history covering some fifty pages of text and accompanied by two plates. (**). In it the author, at the suggestion of Prof. Riley, restored the original name of innumerabilis and transferred the species to the genus Pul- v in aria. While this discussion appeared to clear the field to the point given it was far from doing so. It appears that Walsh and Riley, Putnam and other writers had collectively confused at least three distinct species. This state of affairs was discovered by Dr. Howard and unraveled by him in 1900. (***). In their original article Walsh and Riley had really included two species in both the cut and description; one in which the female reached the adult stage on the twigs and corresponds to P. innumerabilis Rathv., and a second which matures on the leaves and receives the name P. acericola W. & R. A third form, P. maclura occurring on osage orange had been considered synonymous with P • innumerabilis by some writers. Prof. Cockerell has since examined this and considers it entirely distinct. To the western form the latter writer has given the varietal name of occidentalism If this should prove to be a distinct species it will raise again the question of its introduction. Some of the scales found on food plants widely separated from maple may yet be found to be distinct from P. innumerabilis. § DISTRIBUTION This insect is a native of the United States and our literature dates from its discovery by Dr. S. S. Rathvon in Pennsylvania. It has, however, long been widely distributed over the country. (See Fig. 1.) Mr. Sanders calls attention to the fact that the insect is preeminently an inhabitant of the upper austral zone, though some¬ times it penetrates the transitional. In other words it is found in the middle zone of states extending from the Atlantic coast to the Rocky mountains. Outside of this range it is found northward in New York, Michigan and Wisconsin. To the south, branches appear to follow the highlands into Tennessee, Georgia and North Carolina and at the western extremity into Texas. Mr. Gossard found it on pecans in Florida, where in some cases, it was doing considerable injury. In the western states the pest is reported from Washington, Oregon, Idaho and California (both northern and southern) where it is believed to be an introduced insect. *(Prof. Davenport Academy of Nat. Sci.,Vol. I., p. 37, 1876; Davenport Daily Gazette, June 5,1877; Trans. Iowa Horticultural Soc., 1877, pp. 317-324.) **(Proceedings Davenport Acad. Nat. Sci., Vol. II, Part V., pp. 297-347,1879.) ***(U. S. Dept. Agr. Division of Entomology, Bui. 22, n. s.) THE COTTONY MAPLE SCALE 5 FOOD PLANTS The host plants of this species are very widely distributed among trees, shrubs and vines. Sanders states that the list comprises forty- seven varieties and species. But few of these are of economic im¬ portance for they are seldom badly infested. The greatest sufferer is the food plant from which the insect receives its name, the soft or silver leaved maple ( Acer sacca?dnum ). Next in importance are the box elder ( Acer negundo ), black locust and elm. It has also been found in large numbers on pawpaw in Illinois. Mr. H. E. Weed gives as less seriously affected, linden {Telia) , Virginia creeper (Ampelopsis quin- quifolia ), bittersweet ( Celaslrus scandens), sumac ( Rhus ), grape ( Vit is ) , and willow. Together with some of the above, other writers have mentioned poplar, beech, hawthorne, sycamore, hackberry, mul¬ berry, poison ivy, rose, basswood, and ash. In Georgia the oak is re¬ ported as being seriously affected. Singularly, sugar and Norway maples seem to be but little injured even where they are surrounded by badly infested host plants. Among fruit trees, the pear is the greatest sufferer. Apple, plum, peach, currant and gooseberry are also sometimes attacked. Some plants serve as hosts during the summer, but do not appear to winter over the insect. A list given by Mr. Weed includes Spircea Van Houtenii, S. arguta, S. prunifolia, Philadelphus ^randifloris, P. coro- narius, Cornus mascn/a, C. sibej-ica, C. stolonifera, Ribes aureum, R. sangui- nium , Hydrangea, Rudbeckia , Syringa and Vibernum. The western form, which is known as occidentalism appeal's to be fastidious in its tastes or has imbibed the western spirit of a desire 6 BULLETIN 116. / for new things, for Mr. Piper states that it is n6t found abundantly on the native maples, but infests currant, gooseberry, plum, pear, haw- thorne, mountain ash, Lombardy poplar, weeping willow, currants {Ribes sanguinum) , and species of willow (Salix flavescens and S. lanadrd). A careful study of the forms on all of these food plants has not been made and it will be wise to make a mental reservation as to the identity of the species in some cases until further evidence is forth¬ coming. The economic history of the insect shows that its destructive abundance in certain localities is periodic. The data at hand fail to show that this periodicity is amenable to any law, though there have been two periods of general abundance over its range. The statement has been widely circulated that the scale is seldom injuriously abundant two years in succession, but this has been proved to be untrue within the past few years in widely separated localities. In the early eighties there was a general visitation of the pest and Dr. Forbes 'made a num¬ ber of preliminary experiments looking toward control. On this occa¬ sion the insects appeared in great abundance in 1880 and 1884, subsid¬ ing to insignificant numbers during the intervening years. A second scourge occurred during the past five years and is reported by Mr. Chittenden as being more generally abundant over its range than at any previous year. The city parks of Denver and Chicago seem to be the storm centers. In the latter place the lower limbs of the silver maples have been killed in great numbers, leaving the trees unshapely in appearance. Many hundreds of trees have been killed outright. In Denver the destruction has been, perhaps, less severe, but weeks were spent cleaning dead limbs out of the parks and many trees along the more crowded streets have been injured to such an extent that they are practically worthless. LIFE HISTORY When the sap begins to flow in the food plant the young hiber¬ nating females begin to suck up the fluid rapidly and to grow. In a few weeks they have increased their size about four times. At this stage the scales, which before may have been unnoticed because of their flat position on the bark and similarity to it in color, become suddenly conspicuous on account of the white cottony mass of wax which is thrust out from under the posterior end. This mater¬ ial is, composed of wax threads spun from the ventral glands of the animal, especially those located on the margins, and serves as an ovisac. (See Fig. 2.) The quantity is enormous for the size of the insect. The extrusion of it gradually raises her body from its flat position on the twig until it stands out at an angle of some sixty degrees or even vertically. During this period the egg laying proceeds. This takes place at different times in different localities and seasons, varying with the temperature and in some cases with the food plants. In Florida when thi^ scale appears on pecans, Gossard states that the ovisacs become conspicuous during April and May. In most other places they appear in May or June. THE COTTONY MAPLE SCALE 7 The egg laying extends over almost the entire period of cotton secretion, but is most active during June. In many cases it doubtless begins in May and extends, in some cases at least, into July. Fig. 2. Females of the cottony maple scale: a, ovisac opened to show eggs ; b, females with cottony mass partly secreted; c, slightly enlarged female ; d, parasitized winter form ; d’ the same slightly enlarged ; e, hibernating winter form. All except c and d’ natur, al size. (Drawn by Miss M. A. Palmer). The eggs aie tiny oval spheroids, pale cream in color. The num¬ ber as given by the older entomologists is from one to two thousand. These figuies are probably somewhat too large and more recent writers have reduced the estimate. Cotton mentions from three hundred to one thousand and Sanders says that the number may reach fifteen hundred. The egg hatching likewise consumes considerable time. To quote from Dr. Howard on observations made in Washington, D. C.; “The young lice hatch early in summer, usually in June, but occassionally at least as early as May 22. The hatching period usually extends on into early July but may last until August.” Seasonal influences appear to bear considerable weight. Mr. H. E. Weed makes the following note of conditions in Chicago in 1904: “During the past summer the eggs were slow in hatching, as the season was very backward. Up to June 25, practically no eggs were hatched. Two ciuite warm days occ urred about July 10, and this served to bring them out.” In the visitation of 1884, Dr. 4 orbes states that the young were abundant by the middle of June, but in some localities 25 per cent of the eggs were not hatched on July 19. Colorado observations give the following: “June 22, 1901. Scales from Delta and Montrose were full of eggs, but no lice hatching yet.” “July 2, 1902. All hatched and beginning to scatter from twigs of soft maple from Colorado Springs.” “Denver, June 10, 1904. The scales are just be ginning to raise and expose the cottony secretion of the louse. I find on examin¬ ing these scales that a few eggs have already been deposited.” The foregoing notes were made by Prof. Gillette. On July 15, 1905, I visited the parks of Denver and found that most of the eggs had already hatched. In fact, unhatched clusters were very difficult to find. There appears to be an unexplained phenomena in that the eggs laid on some trees hatch at times differing 8 BULLETIN 116. from their neighbors. Young lice have been known to appear upon box elder before maple. The newly hatched young remain a day or two in the ovisac and then migrate to the leaves where they attach themselves to the ribs or, rarely, to the young twigs. In doing this they prefer the under sides and larvse so situated appear to grow more rapidly than those other¬ wise located. In times of serious infestation these locations soon be¬ come preempted and the young swarm over every green thing within a short radius of their home. It is in these cases that the summer food plants serve as hosts. On some of these they seem to prosper fairly well. Dr. Forbes found that the males reached maturity on straw¬ berry plants, and, as an isolated maple tree which had been thoroughly treated during the summer was reinfested in the fall, concluded that the females had found their way back from temporary food plants. Shortly after the young begin to feed a delicate waxy scale forms over the back. The first molt occurs in from three to four weeks from the hatching of the egg. It was observed in Washington as early as June 10. At this time the insects are about twice their size at hatching. After this molt the differences in the sexes is observable. “The males grow more slender and soon cease to increase in size, covering themselves with a thin coating of wax.’’ At this stage, according to Howard, the second molt takes place beneath the scale and a propupal stage occurs. (See Fig. 3.) Fig. 3. PULVINARIA IMMUMERABILIS : a, adult male ; b, antennae of same ; c, leg of same; d, second stage of pupa; e, cast skin of same; f. true pupa ; g, cast skin of same All greatly enlarged, b and c still more enlarged. (Howard Bui. 22, Div. of Ent< m., U. S. Dept. Agr.) “In a few days the pupa casts its skin and assumes the true pupa form, which, during its earl ier stages is a pale green color, becoming dark flesh color at a later date.” “The antennae which up to this time were seven-jointed, had now become eight- jointed. There seemed to be two propupa stages. After casting the second skin, THE COTTONY MAPLE SCALE 9 the male larvae looses its rostrum and its anal cleft, although the wing pads have not yet developed; the antennae are stout and laid backward without perceptible joints, and that end of the body is furnished with two long conical tuberculae. After the third skin is cast, an apparent propupal stage is found which bears wing pads reaching to the abdomen; the claw of the tibia is lost, and between the posterior tubercles has appeared a stout, rudimentary style.”—Howard. “A long pair of wax filaments is secreted from the anal extremity and these continue to grow during the life of the insect. It is the protrusion of these filaments from beneath the waxy scale which indicates the approaching exclusion of the male.”—Riley. The changes in the female scales are less conspicuous but never¬ theless characteristic. After the first molt they broaden posteriorly and have a slight dorsal carina. When the males appear, they have undergone a second molt and changed from pale yellow to light green and are marked with a brown dorsal stripe the whole length of the body. The males appear during the latter part of August or first of Sep¬ tember, copulate with the females in a few days and die. The summer injuries are most conspicuous on the leaves. Dr. Forbes states that in 1884 many trees at Bloomington, Ill., had lost a considerable portion of their leaves by August 16, and the others were blackened and dwarfed, giving the branches a bare and unthrifty look. In early October the gravid females desert the leaves and find places for hibernation on the branches and twigs. Immense numbers drop to the ground with the falling leaves which results in a great loss of life from the inability of many to find their way back. The position sought is the under sides of the twigs and smail branches, the lower branches of the tree being usually most densely populated. Many locate around the crotches and on the upper sides of the twigs. The scales are still quite flat and about one fourth grown, varying from one and one half to two and one half millimeters in length. The posi¬ tion assumed on the twig is more often lengthwise than crosswise and the number may be as great as the bark will accomodate. (See Fig. 2 e.) The color changes at this time from a light green to light brown. It is very doubtful if any nourishment is taken from this time till the spring activities begin. The mortality, outside of parasitism, during this period is considerable and varies greatly with different twigs and trees. The check twigs counted from trees in Denver showed this to vary from twenty-five to sixty-two per cent. SPREAD OF THE INSECT But few instances of the transportation of the insect have been observed, and these are of such a nature as to account for but a small portion of the infestation. The most fruitful source in the past has doubtless been through the transplanting of trees, for this is done when the insect is firmly attached in the hibernating stage. Over short distances they may be transported on the feet of birds or clinging to the parts of insects. The eggs hatch during summer when there is little migration among birds so that great distances are probably not made in this way. It is not probable that many migrations of this kind arc made in the fall when the insect is moving from the leaves to the twigs, since the insects at this time are probably too large to be readily carried by these means. Either the newly hatched young or gravid females may be transferred from tree to tree by the interlocking of limbs or by 10 BULLETIN 110. first falling to the ground. Prof. Garman found a goldfinch’s nest covered on the outside with nests of Pulvinaria. Mr. Hubbard believed that spiders were the chief means of transportation. ENEMIES As might be expected, the cottony maple scale, being a native insect, is preyed upon by a wide range of enemies which includes both those which prey upon insects in general, and the groups which confine themselves to a smaller range of hosts. The only instance of a vertebrate being among the group was observed by Dr. Howard, when he saw an English sparrow eating the waxy masses in Washington. That these birds do not offer much hope of relief is evident when we remember that the most serious outbreaks of the pest have occurred in those places where this sparrow is most abundant. The Arachnida have come to the rescue but once and that was when the harvest mites were found by Miss Murtfeldt feeding upon the eggs in Missouri. The larvae of a species of lace winged flies ( Chrysopa ) and two species of assassin bugs ( Reduviidc ?) were found by Mr. Putnam to feed upon the scales. In Denver, the nymphs of what Mr. Ashmead has determined as Corizus hyalinus were found working among the egg masses. Probably more important than any of the foregoing are the ever faithful ladybirds. Chilochorus bivulnerus during all stages of its life, but especially while young, feeds upon this insect. Several species of Hyperaspis notably H. signata, //. bigeminata and //. binotata do good service, while to these must be added Rhizobius ventralis. The larvae of a species of'small moth, described by Prof. Com¬ stock (*) as Dakruma (. Lcstilia ) coccidivora did very effective service in Washington, D. C. According to Dr. Howard: “This caterpillar flourished upon the twigs upon which the scales were close¬ ly massed together, and ate its way through the mass from one scale to another, spinning a close rather dense web as it progressed. Each caterpillar in this way destroyed very many scale insects. The writer has always thought that it was due to this insect alone that the cottony cushion scale ‘ almost disappeared from the Washington shade trees in the close of 1879, and was never seen here again until, in the summer of 1898, nineteen years later, it became once more rather conspic¬ uous, although by no means as abundant as in the former year. The Dakruma not only destroys the old wornout female, but devours her eggs and young larvae with avidity. The caterpillars are very active, moving about freely within their silken passages. They were to be found full grown on June 24, spun their cocoons within the silken tunnel, and remained ten days in the pupal state. The moths issued from July 17 to August 13, soon thereafter ovipositing and laying their eggs, which hatched in six days. Whether another generation of moths issues the same year has not been determined.” Prof. Riley states that in Florida this larvae attacks “a large Lecaniuvi on magnolia, a coccid allied to Dactylopius and the com¬ mon “turtle back scale.” But the credit for the most, effective work of eradication of the cottony maple scale is due after all to the chalcid parasites. The general insect enemies are helpful at all times, and in some cases be¬ come quite important, the Daknnna larvae have been locally beneficial, (*) Report Dept. Agr., 1879, 241-243. THE COTTONY MAPLE SCALE 11 but the scale is never able to withstand the onslaught of the chalcid parasites. The most important of these is Coccophagus lecanii Fitch This minute parasite was reared by Putnam during his study of the insect and appeared in Washington,. D. C., in such numbers in 1898 as to interrupt the experiments of Dr. Howard. It is very widely dis¬ tributed and has been reared from other scales of the Lecanine group. The adult is a minute, black four-winged fly, marked with a crescent shaped yellow patch in the middle of the body above. Dr. Howard states that less than one per cent of the larvae which settled upon the leaves under his observation escaped destruction by this parasite. The scales were stung during midsummer. They afterward turned black and the parasites emerged through holes out of their backs. The development of the parasite was very rapid, not occupying more than two or three weeks.. Mr. Putnam believed that there were two generations, but Dr. Howard thinks that there may be many more. Closely allied to this species is C. flavoscutellum which does for the southern range of the scale the work accomplished in the north by C. lecanis. Its range, however, is not confined to the south for it has been reared by the writer from scales taken in Denver. The other chalcid parasites appear to be of less importance. Cornys fusca Howard is a common parasite on Lecanine scales and widely distributed. Aphycus Pulvinaria; Howard was reared by Mr. Putnam, and Atropates collUii Howard was bred in both 1889 and 1891 by Dr. Howard from females of the cottony maple scale from Brooklyn and Roslyn, N. Y. Eunotus lividus Ashmead has been reared in March and April from old scales, the parasites spinning clusters of stout cocoons under the bodies of the old scales. Specimens were reared by the writer from egg masses taken in Denver during July. (See Fig. 4.) In each case, however, there was but one cocoon under each scale. Specimens of Cheiloneurus albicornis have been found in our breeding cages. Fig. 4. EUNOTUS LIVIOUS, greatly enlarged, with male and female antenna above¬ still more enlarged. (Howard Bui. 22. Div. of Entom., U. S. Dept. Agr.) ' REMEDIES The history of the remedies is very brief owing to the fact that 12 BULLETIN 116. the insect has not often been a serious pest in any one locality long enough for the problem to be worked out. Summer Treatment. —In 1884 Dr. Forbes made a number of pre¬ liminary laboratory experiments on the effect of insecticides on young lice. A leaf dipped in per cent kerosene emulsion showed that the lice were killed. A branch treated in the same way showed a mortal¬ ity of three-fourths in twenty-four hours. A branch sprayed with the same preparation showed one-half dead after four days. A branch dipped in five per cent solution killed all. Whale oil soap appeared to be less satisfactory for the larvae were not all killed with a solution weaker than one pound to two gallons, and these strengths all did greater or less injury to the foliage. In the summer of 1904, Mr. H. E. Weed did considerable spraying in the parks of Chicago. The work began in the middle of July and extended to the first of September. Kerosene emulsion of eight or ten per cent strength was used at first, but afterward increased until fifteen per cent was reached. The results I give in his own words: ‘Practically none of the insects were killed with either the eight or ten percent emulsions. An examination at Prof. Forbes’ office of leaves sprayed with 12% per¬ cent some days after showed that something over fifty per cent were killed but the death of some of these was doubtless due to natural causes. The fifteen per cent emulsion killed the greater portion of the Pulvinaria , but as this strength took practically all of the leaves off the boxelder, all from the lindens and fully one-half from the maples, the remedy was at least equal to the disease.” The failure of these later treatments compared with those of Dr. Forbes is doubtless due to the age of the young scales. It is probable that the greater portionof the young larvae were protected by waxy ex¬ cretions of considerable thickness by the middle of July. From ex¬ periments which are described below I am convinced that the newly hatched larvae are very easily killed. Kerosene emulsion as low as five per cent and Good’s whale oil soap as weak as one pound to four gallons appeared to be entirely effective. From the foregoing it must appear that a summer spray for the young scales alone must be a very protracted and expensive task. It is probable that a weak spray will not be effective on a scale more than a week or ten days old. The greater portion of the eggs hatch probably between the middle of June and the first of August. Thiswould neces¬ sitate from four to six very thorough treatments to greatly reduce the numbers, even granting that all of the lice may be reached by each spray, a condition which anyone who has had very much practical ex¬ perience would hesitate to admit. In the summer of 1904, the writer made a number of preliminary experiments for the purpose of pointing the way to a summer treat¬ ment. Since these have not been published before they are given in full. The first eleven were treated on July 3, and the others on July 5. The examinations were all made on July 14, and eggs which appeared to be alive in Nos. 4, 5, 10, and 16 were isolated and examined July 26. TABULATED STATEMENT OF TESTS WITH INSECTICIDES EXP. CONDITIONS. INSECTICIDE RESULTS 1 Large scale full of unhatched Ker. Emul. 50% Everything soaked eggs. Some larvae kerosene with oil and dead, running about. THE COTTONY MAPLE SCALE 13 TABULATED STATEMENT OF TESTS WITH INSECTICIDES (CONTINUED) EXP. CONDITIONS INSECTICIDE RESULTS 2 Four large scales. Eggs and larvse. Ker Emul. 33 1-3% Everything soaked kerosene with oil and dead 3 Several large females. Eggs and larvse. Do. 25% Everything appears to be dead. 4 Mass of females. Eggs and larvae. Do. 20% Emulsion penetrated well. A few eggs un der one scale ap¬ peared to be alive, but failed to hatch by VII, 26. 5 Isolated females. Eggs and larvae. Do. 15% Larvse and most eggs dead. Two scales had fresh eggs un¬ der them, some of which had hatched by VII, 26. 6 Isolated large female Do. 10% Larvse reached are dead. Emulsion did not penetrate. Abundance of eggs and larvse in center of masses. 7 Clustered females. Well protected eggs and larvae. Do. 5% Exposed larvae and eggs under smaller scales all dead. Large masses with many young. 8 Scattered females. Tak-a-nap, 1 lb to 1 gal. water. Penetrated and k illed well. Two 1 i ve 1 ice under one scale. 9 Large masses. Do., 1 lb to \}/2 gal. water Everyth ing appears to be dead. 10 Masses of females and eggs. Do., 1 lb to 2 gal water. Everything dead ex¬ cept possibly one large mass. Eggs did not hatch by VII, 26. 11 Isolated females. Do. 1 lb to 3 gal. water. Penetrated well. Everything dead. 13 Isolated scales. Not large. Good’s whale oil soap, 1 lb to V /2 gal. water. Eggs and larvse all killed. 14 Many females, larvae and eggs. Do.l lb. to 2 gal water. Masses penetrated and everything killed. 15 Do. Do. 1 lb. to 3 gal water. Everything exposed, dead. A few live larvse under two scales. 16 Clustered females. Do. 1 lb. to 4 gal. water. •Eggs and larvse k illed where reached. Penetration poor. Eggs from center masses hatched by VII, 26. 14 BULLETIN 116. The preparations were applied in the laboratory by means of an atomizer. An examination of the table shows that eggs and newly hatched larvae are easily killed even with the weakest strengths used. The point of difficulty is to secure a treatment which will penetrate the cottony masses. The experiments must be considered indicative at best, but they show that kerosene emulsion twenty per cent or more in strength, and fhe soaps at the rate of one pound to two gallons or stronger, will probably be effective. These insecticides cannot, of course, be used as a spray on the foliage. • It will be necessary to apply them by means of a sponge or brush. To Sum Up .—Summer treatments in practical experience have proved a disappointment, and must be considered a makeshift at best. If they become necessary, it will be better to combine two methods. As soon as the cottony masses appear, or certainly before the eggs have hatched in large numbers, trim out and promptly burn the infested twigs and such limbs as may be removed without seriously marring the appearance of the tree. The remaining masses should then be thorough¬ ly soaked with a strong kerosene emulsion or soap solution not less than one pound to two gallons in strength, the insecticides being ap¬ plied with a brush or sponge. Winter Treatment.—During 1903 and 1904 the writer conducted a series of experiments in the parks of Denver under the direction of Prof. Gillette, and with the consent and assistance of the park author¬ ities. Since these were published in detail with the Proceedings of the Association of Economic Entomologists (Bu. of Entom. Bui. 52) they will be but briefly reviewed here. Preliminary laboratory experiments conducted during January, 1903, in which lime sulfur salt, kerosene emulsion, and hard whale oil soap were used showed little or no benefit from the first substance. Kerosene emulsion killed satisfactorily when twenty-five or more per cent in strength. The next application was twelve and one half per cent in strength and did not seem to be effective. Hard whale oil soap one pound to one gallon worked well, killing all exposed scales. The weaker strengths did not show an appreciable value. These experi¬ ments were repeated a week later, with practically the same results, except that the whale oil soap did not furnish such favorable data. The following winter two series of experiments were conducted in Curtis park, Denver. In the first, kerosene emulsion killed satisfactor¬ ily as low as twelve and one half per cent kerosene. Tobacco stem decoctions were entirely inefficient. Bowker’s tree soap at two pounds to one gallon shriveled the scales; at one pound to two gallons, killed two-thirds. Much to my regret, the test of one pound to one gallon was overlooked in checking up. This was unfortunate because this insecticide promised to be more useful than any of the so.aps previously used. In the second series, kerosene emulsion again killed as high as ninety-four per cent when, only twelve per cent kerosene in strength. Lime sulfur salt was again a total failure. Hard whale oil soap at one pound to one gallon killed ninety-eight per cent of the scales. As a result of this work kerosene emulsion, one-sixth kerosene, was 15 THE COTTONY MAPLE SCALE / / recommended and used in the parks of Denver. In July, 1905, I care¬ fully examined Fuller park which had been treated in this way and was surprised to find it clean. Not more than a dozen of the cottony masses were to be found and there w r ere practically no scales on the leaves. A reexamination of the same park in January, 1906, however, showed that almost every tree was infested with a few scattering females, which proved, I think, that the eradication of the scale is a practical impossiblity. The climate of Denver is much drier than that found in most parts ol the insect’s range. The last set of experiments, however, were conducted during a wet period, but the results did not appear to be seriously affected. Mr. Braucher writes me that kerosene emulsion has been used in the Chicago parks about twenty per cent in strength with most excellent results. The winter treatment is the ideal one from a number of considera¬ tions. The insects are more easily reached, for the twigs and limbs are exposed. Insecticides may be used in sufficient strength to kill with¬ out injury to the tree. The hibernating females are generally on the under sides of the limbs and most abundant on the lower branches, which makes the application more easy. The amount of insecticide required is less than half what it would be in summer. To Summarize. —The cottony maple scale may be controlled by a winter treatment of kerosene emulsion fifteen per cent or greater in strength, and probably by whale oil soap at the rate of one pound to one gallon. It may be necessary to use a higher percentage of kerosene where the climatic conditions are unfavorable. Eradication of the scale is not to be expected and only such trees and areas should be treated as are threatened with serious injury. Too great stress cannot be laid on the thoroughness of the work. The tree should be treated from both sides and from beneath each limb. After treatment each tree should be carefully inspected and the missed spots “touched up.” The kerosene emulsion should be carefully made. It is better to use more soap than the ordinary formula, since soaps vary somewhat in emulsifying powers and the satisfaction of a good emulsion more than repays the slight extra cost. During 1906, the Denver park authorities used in part a soft naptha soap. Twigs which had been treated with this emulsion were sent to this office and examination showed all the insects to be dead. 16 BULLETIN 116 LITERATURE 1854—Rathvon. Pennsylvania Farm Journal. Yol. IV, 256-258. Original description with figures. As COCCUS INNU MERABILIS. 1859--Fitch. Transactions, N. Y. State Agricultural Society. Yol. XIX, 775-776. Redescribed as LECANIUM ACERICORTICIS. 1869—Walsh and Riley. American Entomologist. Yol, I, 14. Redescribed as LECANIUM ACERICOLA with which it was confused. 1876—Thomas. Prairie Farmer. July 22, 1876. 1876—Putnam. Proceedings of the Davenport Acad, of Nat. Sci. Yol. I, 37. As LECANIUM ACERICOLA. 1876— Clover. Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Agr., p. 44. As LECANIUM ACERICOR¬ TICIS. 1877— Putnam. Transactions Iowa Horticultural Society. Vol. XII, 317-324. As LECANIUM ACERICOLA. 1878— --Miss Smith. Seventh Report. Insects of Ill., pp. 120-131. Figures. 1879— Putnam. Proceedings of the Davenport Acad. Nat. Sci., Yol. II, 293-347. Most thorough account of the life history, with two plates. Restores name of INNUMERABILIS and transfers species so the genus PULVINARIA. 1882— Osborn. Transactions Iowa State Hort. Soc., Yol. XVII, 209-211. 1883— Comstock. Second Report. Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta., p. 137. 1834—Forbes. Fourteenth Report of the State Entomologist of Ill., pp. 103-109. Life History. Preliminary experiments with insecticides. 1884— Riley. Report U. S. Commissioner of Agr., pp. 350-355. Synonomy. Life history. Food . plants. Mode of spreading. Enemies. 1889— Lintner. Sixth Report N. Y. State Entomologist, pp. 141-147. Description. Life his¬ tory. Remedies. Bibliography. 1890— Riley and Howard. Insect Life. Vol. Ill, 125. 1890—Packard. Fifth Report U. S. Entom. Com. pp. 412-416. 1893—Hopkins. W. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 229. 1893—Piper. Washington (State) Exp. Sta. Bui. 7, pp. 123-125. Life history of the form OCCI- DENTALIS. 1900—Howard. Div. Entom. U. S. Dep. Agr. Bui. 22 (n. s.) 8-16. Life history. Parasites. 1905—H. E. Weed. Bureau of Entom. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 52, pp. 88-91. Conditions in the Chicago Parks. 1905—Johnson. Bureau of Entom. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 52, pp. 85-86. Experiments with winter spraying. 1905—Smith. N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 181, pp. 12-15. 1905—Sanders. Bureau of Entom. U. S. Dept. Agr. Cir. 64. 1905— Gossard. Florida Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 79, p. 313. On pecans. Life history notes. 1906— Cotton. Ohio Dept. Agr. Orchard and Nursery Inspection Bui. 7, p. 34. Life history. Bibliography. University m UUnois library Bulletin 1 1 7 January 1907 The Agricultural Experiment Station - OF THE * f Colorado Agricultural College THE COLORADO POTATO INDUSTRY BY E. R. BENNETT PUBLISHED BY THE EXPERIMENT STATION FORT COLLINS, COLORADO • 1907 The Agricultural Experiment Station FORT COLLINS, COLORADO THE STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE Hon. P. F. SHARP, President , Hon. HARLAN TROMAS, - Hon. JAMES L. CHATFIELD, Hon. B. U. DYE, Hon. B F. ROCKAFELLOW, Hon. EUGENE H. GRUBB - Hon. R. W. CORWIN - Hon. A. A. EDWARDS, - - Term Expires Denver. 1907 Denver. 1907 - Gypsum. 1909 Rocky Ford. 1909 Canon City. 1911 Carbondale 1911 Pueblo. 1913 - Fort Collins. 1913 Governor HENRY A. BUCHTEL, President BARTON O. AYLESWORTH, | ex-officio. Executive committee in charge. P. F. SHARP, Chairman. ~ B. F. ROCKAFELLOW. A. A. EDWARDS. STATION STAFF L. G. CARPENTER, M. S., Director C. P. GILLETTE, M. S., W. P. HEADDEN, A. M., Ph. D., - WENDELL PADDOCK, M. S , - W. L. CARLYLE, M. S., - G. H. GLOVER, M. S., D. V. M., W. H. OLIN, M. S., - H. M. COTTRELL, M. S., - R. E. TRIMBLE, B. S., F. C. ALFORD, M. S., EARL DOUGLASS, M. S., S. ARTHUR JOHNSON, M. S., B. O. LONGYEAR, B. S., E. B. HOUSE, M. S., - Irrigation Engineer - Entomologist Chemist ' Horticulturist Agriculturist - Veterinarian - Agronomist Animal Husbandman Assistant Irrigation Engineer Assistant Chemist Assistant Chemist Assistant Entomologist Assistant Horticulturist Assistant Irrigation Engineer Assistant Agronomist Valley, Rockyeord Potato Investigations Grand Junction. - Field Horticulturist - Field Entomologist Field Agent, Arkansas F. KNORR, - - - P. K. BLINN, B. S., E. R. BENNETT, B. S., - Western Slope Fruit Investigations O. B. WHIPPLE, B. S., - E. P. TAYLOR, B. S., - OFFICERS President BARTON O. AYLESWORTH. A. M., LL. D. L. G. CARPENTER, M. S., - -- -- -- - Director A. M. HAWLEY, . Secretary MARGARET MURRAY, - Clerk THE COLORADO POTATO INDUSTRY. A Preliminary Report Based on One Season’s Study, Partly Aided by State Appropriation of 1905 E. R. BENNETT The: Potato Industry or Colorado has a number of pecul¬ iarities. The total yield of the state (8,000,000 bu.) as com¬ pared with some of the other great potato producing states is not large. In the East the great yield of potatoes comes not from any one area but for the most part from small acreages on each of the many small farms over the whole of a state. In Colorado the po¬ tatoes are grown only in certain restricted and well defined districts. On these areas potatoes are the most important product and the other crops are an adjunct to or an element in the system in the preparation of the land for this crop. It is not an uncommon thing in these districts to see fields of from forty to one hundred acres of potatoes on farms of a quarter section. The problems confronting the growers in this State, as to cultural methods, insect pests and fungous diseases, are also radi¬ cally different from those of the Eastern States. Many of the fertile irrigated tracts do not produce potatoes successfully, though they are near and similar in most respects to the so called potato districts. Why this is so has not so far been satisfactorily explain¬ ed. The writer has spent the past summer in studying the con¬ ditions and methods under which the potato is grown in some of the more successful districts and comparing the methods employed at different places. Of the potato producing sections of the State, the irrigated land surrounding Greeley known as the Greeley District, the water shed between the Arkansas and the Platte Rivers known as the Arkansas Divide, a small section of the San Luis Valley, the Valley of the Roaring Fork of which Carbondale is the center and the Uncompahgre Valley are the most important. A few other small mountain valleys produce a limited quantity for the local mining trade. The Greeley District exceeds all the others as to area and amount of potatoes produced. It is about twenty miles long from northwest to southeast and twelve or fifteen miles wide at its greatest width. It includes about 200,000 acres of land, though probably not more than one-eighth of this tract is ever put in pota¬ toes at any one time. The total yield per year of this tract is from 9,000 to 14,000 cars or 4,000,000 to 6,000,000 bushels. Comparatively few varieties of potatoes are grown in Colo¬ rado. Nearly all the known varieties have been tried at one time ' 4 The Colorado Experiment Station. or another and only a few have proved profitable. The districts differ somewhat in the varieties grown owing partly to the market demands and partly to the difference in soils, elevation and length of seasons of the different places. THE POTATO INDUSTRY The GrEEEEy District. Potatoes have been grown in this district since the foundation of the Union Colony in 1870 . At first the bottoms of the Big Thompson produced the most, then the “blight,” probably Rhizoctonia. became so bad there that practi¬ cally none have been grown for several years. After the Big Thompson bottoms began to fail as a potato producing section, they were grown in and near the town to the south of Greeley. Then the blight became so bad that few«could be raised in and around town which is mostly on the Laurel* sand loam of the river bottom. As the country north and east of town became broken up, the industry was given a new impetus. As the cultivated area grew the production of potatoes increased but was limited both as to area of land devoted to potato growing, and yield, till alfalfa was brought in as a part of the re¬ gular rotation about 1886 . Previous to that time alfalfa had been grown to some extent but it was not thought possible to break it up successfully. From 1886 on, the yield of potatoes increased and potato growing as an industry became one of the leading occupa¬ tions of the farmers north and east of the town. Mr. Boyd in his “History of Greeley” written in 1890 says: “the shipments for the past five years from the Greeley District have been from 1,000 to 1,800 cars a year.” Now the shipments are from 8,000 to 14,000 cars. The blight (Rhizoctonia) has given trouble more or less from the beginning. The Colorado potato beetle has caused some loss at times. Mr. Boyd says in his history of Greeley: “In 1889 , fourteen thousand pounds of Paris Green were sold at Greeley and Eaton for spraying potato vines for the striped potato beetle.” Locusts have occasionally caused some damage. On the whole, adverse conditions have been fewer than in most potato growing sections of the United States and the growth of the industry has been normal and constant. The history of the other potato districts of Colorado is simi¬ lar to that of Greeley. The Carbondale District. Potatoes have been grown in the Carbondale District to some extent since its early settlement. Growing potatoes as a commercial industry, however, did not begin till within the last eight or ten years. At present the production *U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Soils, 1904. The Colorado Potato Industry. 5 is limited only by the amount of irrigated land on the mesas and in the valleys of the Roaring Fork and Crystal Rivers. The soil and climate of these valleys are admirably adapted to the growth of potatoes. Owing -to the high elevation and the proximity of high mountains, this district has a shorter growing season than the Greeley District and potatoes are planted correspondingly earlier. The soil is for the most part a red or blackish sandy loam on the mesas with a somewhat gravely soil in the river bottoms. The methods of culture are similar to those practiced in the Greeley District. Alfalfa is rotated with grain and potatoes. One difference in practice is that seed is planted closer. The hills there are nine to twelve inches apart instead of thirteen to fifteen inches. The rows are also a little closer together being from thirty to thirty-six inches apart instead of thirty-eight or forty. Few places can compete with the Carbondale District either in yield per acre or in quality of the product. The yields per acre vary on the different ranches according to the natural conditions of the soil and the fertilizers and methods of cultivation used but a high average yield is maintained. Here as at Greeley nearly all the potatoes raised are of the late varieties. Early potatoes do not yield sufficiently well to pay, nor come early enough in the season to bring the maximum price of early potatoes. The most popular variety is the Improved Peachblow, sometimes known as the Red or White McClure. Other varieties are the Pearl, White Beauty, Carmon No. i and Challenge. The output for the valley is from 300 to 500 cars, or from 150,000 to 250,000 bushels. Quite a large per cent of the West Slope potatoes find their way to special markets for hotels and dining car service. The re¬ mainder supply the mountain towns or are sent into the same mar¬ kets as the other Colorado potatoes. The San Euis Valley District. The culture of potatoes in the San Luis Valley is somewhat different from that of the other potato districts of the State. The crop has been grown there since the early settlement of the State. Before the railroad was put through the valley, potatoes were freighted by wagon to Lead- ville and other mining towns. Alfalfa is not grown to any extent in the valley but peas take its place in the rotation. The soil varies in different locations but that on which potatoes are grown is a dark sandy loam underlaid with gravel. Sub-irri¬ gation is practiced here. The gravel contains water at only a short distance from the surface so by running water in shallow ditches twenty or thirty feet apart, the water table is raised so that the moisture is brought to the surface. 6 The Colorado Experiment Station. The varieties grown are the Monroe County Prize, Rural N. Y. No. 2 , Pearl and Champion. The yield is at present about 400 cars. Most of these potatoes are marketed in New Mexico or Texas. The tendency toward running out is not so noticeable here or at Carbondale as in the Greeley District. In fact the same seed has been kept at both these places for at least fifteen years without deteriorating. The Divide District. The Arkansas Divide is the only place in the State of any extent where potatoes are grown without irrigation. Conditions cannot so well be controlled and the yield is correspondingly less. A specialty is made of growing pota¬ toes for seed in this locality. As much of this seed is used in the Greeley District the same varieties are grown. The culture given the crop is similar to the other places ex¬ cept that more surface cultivation is necessary to conserve the limi¬ ted amount of water though the rainfall is considerably in excess of other parts of the State. METHODS OF POTATO CULTURE IN THE GREELEY DISTRICT Owing to the character of western soils, system of irrigation, large acreage of potatoes per farm and rotation of crops, the me¬ thods of potato culture in Colorado differ somewhat from those of other sections of the country. At first the methods of irrigation and cultivation best suited to the conditions here were not well understood but since it was found that alfalfa could be success¬ fully broken up and that deep cultivation was most beneficial the methods have not changed to any considerable extent. There is a prevailing opinion that potatoes require a certain kind of soil. There undoubtedly is a relation between the yield and quality of potatoes at certain places and the different soils. Just what this relation is, however, has not as yet been success¬ fully explained. Good yields of potatoes are produced on several different soils and failures occur on all of them. Soils. The soils used for potatoes 111 the Greeley Potato Dis¬ trict are: *Billings loam, Colorado fine sand, Colorado sand, Bill¬ ings clay loam and to a certain extent Laurel sand loam. The Billings loam is a heavy soil well mixed with sharp gran¬ itic gravel. It has a depth of from two to five or six feet. This soil is underlaid with gravel which gives good under drainage. More care has to be exercised in handling this soil because if worked when too wet or too dry, it is more liable to become lumpy than are the lighter loams. The Colorado fine sand loam is intermediate between the Billings loam and the Colorado sand. It is generally deeper than * U. S. D^partm^nt of Agriculture, Bureau of Soils, 1904. The Colorado Potato Industry. 7 the Billings loam and does not pack or become lumpy so easily as the latter but on the other hand it contains less gravel. These two soils, constitute by far the larger part of the successful po¬ tato district north and east of the town of Greeley. The Billings clay loam is finer than either of the others. It has less gravel and is so deep that the under drainage is not good. This soil occupies narrow strips in the creek bottoms and while it often produces good crops of potatoes it is liable to serious attacts of fungous diseases. The Colorado sand is coarser in texture, contains less nitro¬ genous matter and requires more water to produce a crop but where proper rotation of crops and cultural methods have been employed, good results are obtained. The Laurel sand loam, which is the first bottom land of the Poudre River Valley, is not very different from the other sandy loams but in most places the water table is close to the surface and potato growing on this soil in not uniformly successful. All these soils contain more or less alkali but not enough in most cases to prevent the development of plants except where water stands and evaporates. Preparation oe Potato Land. The preparation of the land for potato growing is probably the most important item of the work. The difference between new land broken for potatoes, old land and alfalfa land is most marked. The new land produces a very clean grade of potatoes but does not give so good a yield as land either preceeded by potatoes or alfalfa. Alfalfa land gives the largest yields and is less liable to disease than where potatoes succeed potatoes. The universal practice is to rotate so as to preceed potatoes with alfalfa. Rotation oe Crops. The most common rotation is alfalfa two or three years, potatoes two years or where beets are grown, pota¬ toes one year, and beets one year, then grain two years. Sometimes wheat or oats are only grown one year but experience has shown that in the majority of cases, the first year of grain following potatoes or beets produces so much straw that the young alfalfa is smothered out if grown. The grain, owing to the reduced fertility of the soil, is not so large the second year and makes a better nurse crop for the alfalfa. Another rotation practiced to some extent is alfalfa two years, potatoes one year, wheat one year, potatoes one year, grain, then alfalfa again. This system while not very generally practiced has some possibilities in the way of blight control which will be spoken of later in this report. The number of years alfalfa should be allowed to grow to get the land in the best condition for potatoes is an open question. While by far the majority of growers allow it to stand but 8 The Colorado Experiment Station. two years, it is the opinion of some authorities and many of the best practical farmers that it would do most good if left tluee years. Some think that even six or seven years would be better. Winter sheep feeding has changed the rotation to some extent. When enough sheep are fed to produce a good coat of manure for the potato fields, potatoes are followed with potatoes twice 01 potatoes once and once with beets. Very substantial gains in yield of both potatoes and beets have resulted where manure has been used. The use of manure on land here as well as in the Eastern states is cumulative in its effects and benefits particularly the*heavy soils in two ways. The physical condition of the soil is improved by being made more porous and friable so that it will hold moisture better and of course, plant food is also added to it. Plowing. In the preparation of the land for potato growing the plowing is not the least important. This is sometimes done in the late fall but more commonly in the spring from the latter part of April to May 15 th. Fall plowing gives good results but ordinarily time for doing the work cannot be found at that season or the land may be too dry to make plowing possible. The depth of plowing ranges 'all the way from six to twelve inches but nearly as many plow eight inches deep as all other depths taken together. The work is generally done with four horses and a 14 - 16 ” plow. When alfalfa is being broken the plows used have a wide share so that all the alfalfa roots are cut off at the bottom of the furrow. A practice that is to be commended in other places as well as on the irrigated land of Colorado is that of following the plow immediately with the smoothing harrow. This is done partly to mellow the soil and prevent the formation of lumps but mostly to conserve the moisture. Experiments have demonstrated that the loss of moisture by evaporation is much-less where this is done than where the plowed land remains for a time without harrowing. In this State the practice is to harrow all the land that is plowed each half-day before leaving the field. Harrowing and Leveling. In many fields scrapers are used after the first harrowing to fill the hollows and take down any ridges that are liable to cause trouble in getting water evenly distributed over the field. The amount of work required to fit the land for planting after the first harrowing and leveling depends on the character of the land. With average loamy soils one or two subsequent harrowings are sufficient to put the soil in per¬ fect condition for planting. If the soil is heavy or has been packed by rains, the disk harrow is used and followed by the smoothing harrow. UMil if i f ,i±uiu.u i/im’iii iJhijumiuiiHiULwwjuu:uimwiit niiiJiniiiLiii iL'uawumiuim PLATE I. CULTURAL OPERATIONS. Furrowing. 2. Digging. 3. Cultivating. 4. Planting. PLATE II. Conveniences for Cutting Seed Potatoes. Notice the Knife in the Board. PLATE III. Irrigating Potatoes—alternate rows. PLATE IV. POTATO CELLARS. 2. Exterior. I. Process of Construction 3 Interior Thk Colorado Potato Industry. 9 Planting. Much diversity of opinion prevails among the growers as to the details of preparing seed and planting. The general practice is to select seed from the stock which is left over winter in the storage cellar for the spring market if home grown seed is used. If not, the seed is purchased from the Divide country, the mountains or from the East. Medium to small seed is used by the majority of growers. Some make a practice of greening the seed. That is the seed is spread in a thin layer on the floor of the dugout a few weeks before planting time. The ventilators and doors are left open to admit the light. Occa¬ sionally the* potatoes are shoveled over to give a uniform expo¬ sure so that by planting time the tubers have become hardened and green, and the sprouts, if there are any are short and green instead of being long, slim and pale. The formailin or corrosive sublimate treatment is seldom used. Cutting* is done by hand. The number of eyes depends on the variety as some varieties of potatoes have many eyes while others have few. The usual aim is to leave two eyes on a piece, but the rule is not arbitrary. In fact the work coming at the busy season makes it necessary to employ inefficient help so that some pieces are left with many eyes while others have none. A method of cutting shown in Figure 2, Plate I, is thought to facilitate the work to some extent, fl he potatoes aie shovelled into a bin or hopper made of a dry goods box raised on legs. The back is made higher than the front so that the potatoes will run down to the opening. In the bottom are cracks to let out the soil that is shoveled up with the potatoes. The cutting is simple. An old case knife or a shoe knife is fastened to the end of a piece of plank or board in such a way that the potato can be pushed against the knife and fall from it into the basket beneath. The seed is planted soon after cutting as it is thought that the vitality of the buds rapidly becomes lowered as the seed drys out. Various substances are used on the cut seed that are sup¬ posed to be beneficial by drying the cut surfaces and preventing the work of insects 01 fungi. Air slaked lime, flowers of sulphur and gypsum (land plaster) are all used by different growers. All these are used in the same way. The cut seed is piled on a floor, the material is scattered on and then mixed by shoveling the pile over till the dust is brought in contact with each piece. Varities. Very few early potatoes are grown. Early var¬ ieties have frequently been tried but the yield is seldom satisfac¬ tory and the crop cannot be marketed in time to get a high enough price to make up for the deficiency in yield. Mammoth White Pearl leads all the other varities in acreage and generally in yield. Rural N. Y. No. 2 is second in popularity and some to The: Colorado Experiment Station. Ohios and Snowflakes are planted. Nearly all the known vaiie- ties have been tried in this district at one time or another but none of them have been able to compete with those named. The long* potatoes tend to become longer and roughened and in a yeai or two degenerate or revert to what is supposed to be the ances- ter of our present race of potatoes. Owing to this tendency for seed to “run out” the same stock is not used more than two or three years. Planting. All planting is done by machinery. Among the different makes of planters used are the Aspinwall, the Evans, the Superior, the Robins and the Excelsior. All these planters require cut seed. Very little difference can be seen in the work of any of them. Four horses are used with these planters and five to seven acres planted is considered a days work. The rows are from thirty-six to forty inches apart, with a distance between plants in the row of thirteen or fifteen inches. Cultivation. Very soon after planting the first cultivation is given. The ridge left by the planter shows the rows so the plants do not need to be seen. The object of the first cultivation is two-fold. First the tramping of the four horses used on the planter packs the ground solidly. This needs to be loosened to areate the soil and prevent loss of moisture by evaporation. Second the alfalfa or weeds that are starting are killed. For this work, four horses on a heavy four shovel John Deere type of cultivator are user. The shovels are set to run as deep in the soil as they will go which is from eight to twelve or thirteen inches. They are also set so as to throw the soil toward the potato rows, thus beginning the hilling or ridging process which is character¬ istic of potato culture in this locality. This operation leaves the soil loose but more or less lumpy, and with a rough uneven sur¬ face, especially on the heavy soils. The harrow immediately fol¬ lows the cultivator to re-establish the soil mulch. These two operations destroy the young weeds so there is little trouble in keeping the field clean. The number of cultivations depends upon the weather condi¬ tions and rapidity of growth of the vines. The cultivator is used a second time as soon as the plants are large enough so that the rows can be easily followed. This time the shovels are not run quite so close to the row but to the same depth unless the plants are much developed. In that case the inside shovels are raised so as not to injure the root system. Sometimes two cultivations are all that are given but ordinarily a third follows the second by a week or ten days and if the vines do not get too large or irrigation become necessary, cultivation is continued. Each time the cultivator is used more soil is thrown toward the potato rows The Colorado Potato Industry. ii and the hollow between the rows becomes deeper, thus ditching is more easily done. Ditching and irrigating are delayed as long as possible. The rule is not to irrigate if it can be avoided till the potatoes are in bloom or the tubers set. Ditching. The ditching is done with a narrow double mold board plow. Three horses are attached and the plow is run once in each row at about the depth of cultivation or ten to twelve inches. This ditching takes the place of one cultivation and if the ground is hard or if the first irrigation fills the ditches to any extent, the operation is repeated so as to make the ditches deep enough to keep the water below the surface of the potato ridges. Irrigation. .The details of irrigation depend upon the size and contour of the field to be irrigated. Many of the fields are arranged so that the rows are from one-fourth to one-half mile long. If the land slopes sufficiently and continuously across the field from the supply ditch, the problem is simple. At the first application the water is turned into a lateral at the head of the rows. A canvas dam is placed in the lateral so as to hold the water back and raise it into the rows. After the water has run in these rows a sufficient length of time to thoroughly wet the soil, the canvas dam is pulled out and reset farther down the lateral, and the water is stopped by blocking the heads of the irrigated rows with soil. In large fields the water is run in al¬ ternate rows only. The head of water let into the rows depends upon the slope and length of rows. If the rows are short and the incline steep, the head must be small or the stream will reach the far side so quickly that enough water will not be used to thoroughly wet the soil. On the other hand, if the rows are long and the land nearly level the head of water is increased so as to force it along the rows faster, or a transverse ditch is cut through the middle of the field so as to shorten the distance that the water has to flow. If ridges occur in the field transverse ditches are run along at their top and irrigating is done both ways from it. When the water has run in the ditches till it seeps through to the unirri¬ gated row, the soil is sufficiently wet. At the second irrigation the water is run in the rows not irrigated the first time. As the vines become large, the irrigation becomes more difficult owing to the lodging of the vines in the ditches, till at last , considerable trouble is sometimes experienced to get the water through. On the other hand as the vines grow larger the soil is more protected from the sun so that the evaporation becomes less and the plants suffer less from want of water. 12 The; Colorado Expe;rime:nt Station. of Trr 0F X y ATER USED T ° Grow Potatoes. The number t , A/ ca ions and amount of water used per acre varies with e min f°, f Il S ? T? am T ° Unt ° f rain falL With avera S e seasons UD the nl! r f0r . May ’ and ear] y J ul y is sufficient to bring up the plants and grow them till the tubers begin to form. Irri- ren °;r^, b r n must b , e c T tmued at intervais of o ne wee k to less the T he K C1 " 0P ! S devel °P ed - Fo ur or five irrigations un- be . a dl T one will carry the crop through. A is best ° opinion Pf evalIs as t0 tlle amount of water that growers hold? ’? - lrrl & atln f Potatoes. Most of the successful fs iter? c t lat 111 general to ° much rather than too little water show the Some measurements taken on the E. R. Bliss ranch show the amount of water actually used in growing a crop of potatoes both on alfalfa land and on old potato land The an- mad? a? folT P ° ta |°, field w l dch was preceeded by aifalfa were ehveiw of 1 Z i Y 257 , T Water ran hours with a i 06 fL l 4 5 fee P6 1 SeCOncL August 1 and 2 - 2 7 hours with 1.96 feet per second. August 8 and 9, 24 hours at 2.1*1 feet per n Ml 80a ^ l6> 30 h ° UrS at 2 '37 feet p 3 er second, n all 893,916 cubic feet of water was used. This field was 1218 feet one way by 639 feet the other. This gives an area of S.TA? “ , ' 7 ' 88 “ d * ^of ..ter It, i„ II o k f r 3'/6 niches. The ram fall by months from April till October was: April, 3.04 inches; May, 1 73; June no- Tulv 2 - 2 4 . tigust, .64 and September, 2.31, or 11.05 inches' The Sep' Sy er did a litt7e a if m ° Stly in , the J atter part 0f tbe month and pro- rainfah ' V left L?/ t0 6 . P ° tat ° cro P- If the September a mail is left out, the precipitation that should be counted as 2 faU U 2 fh the . gr0wth of the cr °P will be 8.75 inches. The used 01 the croii f‘m S , US , ^ inCheS aS * e total water three years TtMs ET ^ ? 1&d P!‘ ev,ousI y been in alfalfa for ee years. It is Billings loam soil (clay loam) with Quite a lai ge pei cent of sharp granitic gravel. The soil is about two drainage The field eeP ’ with gravel > 80 it has good •» r-/»d 8 s n "„ c &ka^: atoes June 1st. The yield of Pearls on this field was above nn sacks pei acre which is near the maximum for the season. 5 The field adjacent to this one which had grown potatoes the year before gave somewhat different results as to amount of water required, yield of potatoes and time of ripening d he applications on this field were iust nrevimie .u on the alfalfa land potato field. The firstIT £uS m a discharge of 4.05 feet per second and the second 18 hours a 1.96 feet per second, the third 16 hours at 2.31 feet pe. second The Colorado Potato Industry. i3 and the fourth 24 hours at 2.37 feet per second or a total of 668,232 cubic feet of water. This field was 1,300 feet long by 660 feet wide which gives an area of 858,000 square feet or 19.74 acres, and a depth of water over the field of 9.35 inches. The difference in the irrigating water between the old potato land and the alfalfa land was *4.41 inches. This field was planted just previously to the alfalfa field and the potatoes ripened (or the vines died from Rhizoctonia) about two weeks earlier. The yield was about 130 sacks per acre as against something over 150 sacks for the alfalfa land. Frequently a greater difference than this results between alfalfa land for potatoes and land preceeded by other crops. It would hardly seem that the difference comes from the amount of plant food in the soil for after potatoes have been grown 011 soil even three years, the cereals grown on it will pro¬ duce heavy crops. The difference in the amount of water can be attributed to the physical condition of the soil in the two fields. The decay¬ ing alfalfa stems and roots make the land more porous and the first irrigation particularly takes more Water to fill the soil. Harvesting the Crop. The potato harvesting is done so far as possible with machinery. The diggers used are the Peter Brown and the Doudon type of machines. With these the potatoes are plowed out and elevated over carriers that separate the tubers from the soil and leaves them scattered on the ground. Four or six horses are used on these machines. One machine will keep from ten to fifteen men busy, depending on the yield, picking, sacking and hauling from the field. While these machines are not perfect, they leave the potatoes well separated from the soil, providing the soil is not too wet nor the vines and weeds to numer¬ ous. Sometimes a harrow is run over the field before digging to knock down and tear out some of the vines that would clog the digger. When several rows are dug (depending on the number of pickers) the picking and sacking begins. The potatoes are picked in baskets and dumped onto the sorter. This machine is simply a frame on runners to which a horse may be attached to keep it alongside the pickers. On this frame, two seives, made of heavy wire, are placed, slanting to the back so that the large potatoes that will not go through the upper seive roll down into a sack. The smaller ones go through onto the lower seive which is a finer mesh and roll into another sack while the very small potatoes and soil fall through the second seive to the ground. If the potatoes are to go direct to the market, the sacks are filled and set off on the ground. A man follows the sorter and with a needle and coarse twine closes the sacks by sewing up the top. The filled sacks are then loaded onto wagons and hauled H The Colorado Experiment Station. to the markets. These sacks are made of coarse burlap and hold from no to 120 pounds of potatoes. All potatoes are marketed in this way. Much expense in handling - and loss fiom stoiing is avoided by this system of marketing direct from the field but on the other hand, the markets are often over supplied and the price reduced, by throwing such a large quantity of potatoes onto the market at one time. With the present conditions, however, the marketing of a large per cent of the ciop from the field is necessary owing to lack of storage capacity on the farm. If the potatoes are to be stored in the “dugouts” or potato cellars, the sacks are only partly filled in the field then taken to the dugout and emptied into bins. The Storage House. The dugout or storage cellar is dis¬ tinctly a dry clfmate or western feature. While its principles of construction would not adapt it to places of heavy lainfall, it is not only cheap but most efficient as a storage place foi potatoes and other root crops in this climate. Being surrounded by soil on all sides, a nearly constant temperature is easily maintained. The loss from shrinkage by evaporation is also less than in ordinary cellars. The construction of the dugout is simple. An excavation is made in the ground of the required dimensions for the cellar and of a sufficient depth to give soil for covering the top. A frame of posts, timbers and rafters is then made as for a building This frame is covered with wire netting or brush. Over this two or three feet of straw is placed and this covered with soil to a depth of six to twelve inches. Figure 1, Plate IV, shows the method of covering the cellar with soil. Ventilator shafts are put in at regular intervals to give air circulation and keep the temperature from rising too high. Most of these dugouts have an alley through the center with doors at either end so that the wagon may be driven through. Double doors with a dead air space between are used as a protection against frost. These dugouts are often filled to their full capacity in the fall to hold the crop for a rise in price. If they are stored while the weather is yet warm the ventilators and doors are left open nights to give a circulation of cold air and closed during the heat of the day. In this way the bins are gradually cooled down and by giving close attention to the temperature the whole mass is kept as cool as possible without danger from frost. During the winter considerable care has to be exercised to prevent the temp¬ erature of the dugout from rising from the heat developed by the stored potatoes. This is regulated by opening and closing ‘the ventilator shafts as the case demands. The Colorado Potato Industry. 15 MARKETS The position which Colorado occupies in respect to markets is one of the most important factors in making the industry pro¬ fitable. Her geographical position is such that advantage can be taken of a shortage of crop either east or west of the mountains. And at the same time she is far enough away from the potato pro- • ducing central states to avoid, to a great extent, the glutted mar¬ kets that frequently occur when large crops prevail in the Miss¬ issippi valley and in the Cake Region. The cities of the east slope of the Rockies with Texas and New Mexico ordinarily get the large share of the crop but not infrequently the Pacific Coast, Central States and even New York and Boston are markets for the Greeley product. Practically all Colorado potatoes are put on the market in sacks. This system is somewhat more expensive than shipping loose in the cars as sacks cost from $6.50 to $8.00 per hundred. The system of sacking, however, has an advantage in that less time is required in handling the crop and the system is growing in favor in all the potato growing sections. POTATO PESTS The insect enemies and diseases of potatoes of Colorado are so different from those of the eastern states that the work done there on this subject is of little value to the Colorado, potato grower. Insects. The striped or Colorado potato beetle is a native of this state, yet the damage done by this beetle is now ordinarily so slight that no attention is given it by the growers. The flea beetle is, however, a serious pest.. Comparatively little is known of the life history of this insect. There are several species similar in gen¬ eral appearance that do more or less damage. The worst one is the black flea beetle (Epitrix cucumeris). The last of May or the first of June these little flea-like beetles may be seen in quan¬ tities feeding on the weeds along the fences and ditch banks. They are black or dark brown, shiny and about one-tenth of an inch long. When disturbed, the insect jumps and disappears, a trick that gives it the name of “flea beetle.” How they pass the winter is not known. Their presence is most noticeable by the appearance of the foliage that has been eaten, as the numerous little holes or light spots on the leaves of potatoes as well as to¬ matoes and the cucurbits are due to them. These perforations in the foliage injure the plant by rducing the leaf surface and also by giving entrance into the leaf of various plant diseases. Just how much the yield of tubers is cut down by this injury to the foliage is difficult to estimate. Later in the season the insect deposits eggs on the underground stems of the plants. The lar- 16 The Colorado Experiment Station. vae soon appear as very small white worm-like bodies on the potatoes or underground stems. These larvae are slender and from an. eighth to one-fourth of an inch long. If tubers are care¬ fully taken from the soil early in the season where these insects are prevalent, the larvae may be found burrowing into the tuber about one-third of the body being inside. At a casual glance they appear not unlike short root hairs growing from the surface. The injury caused by this insect produces the pimply effect so often seen in potatoes on the market and is often confused with or may be classed as one of the forms of scab. No practical re¬ medy is known for this insect in this state. Spraying with Bor¬ deaux mixture and arsenites destroyes or repells them but the ex¬ pense of application of this remedy prohibits its use under the system of growing used here. When potato planting is delayed till June first, the injury to the foliage is avoided to some extent- for by the time the plants are up the insects have sought other feeding grounds. This insect is quite generally distributed over the country but is more prevalent in some places than in others and is also more numerous some seasons than others. The past season they have been particularly numerous, probably owing to the preceed- ing mild winter. Not infrequently scabby or injured potatoes are infested with numerous small white worms so that there is quite a general opinion that the scabbiness or injury is caused by them. This is not usually the case. The injury or scab is caused by some other agent and the worms, which are saprophitic, work in the dead tissue and by so doing are credited with the damage. When earth worms are particularly plentiful the potatoes may be made dirty as a re¬ sult of the worms crawling over them and leaving a slime to which the soil sticks. Fungous Diseases. The fungous diseases of Colorado potatoes differ widely from those which cause the serious losses of the East. Early blight (alternaria) can be found but so far as is known little or no damage has resulted from it. The late blight (Phytophthora infestans) has never appeared at all. Corticium Vagum B. & C. (Rhizocionid ). The serious fun¬ gous pests of Colorado are mostly those that work below ground. Bulletins Numbers 70 and 91 by F. M. Rolfs describe the one fun¬ gous disease that causes most of the loss to potato growers of this state. This disease evidently is not new to this locality for Boyd in his History of Greeley in speaking of the potato industry during the Seventies says: “For the first two years potatoes did well near Greeley on this side of the river. For some twelve years none could be raised in and around town. They did, as a rule, 1. Surface Scab. PLATE V. SCAB OF POTATOES. 2. Deep Scab. 3. Apparent Scab—work of the Beetle. I. PLATE VI. HABITS OF GROWTH. Rural N. Y., No. 2. 2. Improved Peachblow. 3. White Pearl. The Colorado Potato Industry. 17 no better on newly broken sod than on old sand. Heavy manuring of the land did not help the matter. The vines were struck with a rust or blight. This fungus made the leaves thick and stiff, and undoubtedly destroyed the sap and prevented the leaves from carrying on their function.” This is a good superficial description of the effects of this fungus as it looks in the field. From its past history ll is evi¬ dent that meteorological conditions have a strong influence on the behavior of this fungus. Probably there has been no year since the growing of potatoes began in this State that the disease has not been present, but much of the time, at least in the more fa¬ vored locations, its attacks have been so light that it did not at¬ tract the attention of the growers. A high temperature, exces¬ sive moisture, alkali and a compact soil are all conditions that probably favor the development of the fungus. It has been gen¬ erally supposed that this disease is introduced into the fields with the seed potatoes as nearly all seed tubers have more or less of the fungus on their surfaces in the form of scab or the black dirt¬ like patches of the sclerotia stage of the disease. Experiments with treating the seed with formalin and corrosive sublimate show, however, that the disease occurs just the same whether the seed is infected with the disease or clean. This fungus is not confined to the potato plant alone. In fact it is not known just how many plants act as a host for it. Peas, beans, beets, alfalfa and many weeds are known to be subject to its attacks. The curious fact remains that though the fungus works on alfalfa, potatoes fol¬ lowing alfalfa are not generally as badly diseased and produce a larger crop than when they succeed themselves. General Appearance and Eeeects oe the Fungous on Potatoes. To the ordinary observer, this disease does not be¬ come noticeable till the middle or latter part of the growing sea¬ son. If the plants be examined carefully at any time from the first sprouting of the seed till the harvest, some of them will be found affected with the fungous. Plate II of Bulletin No. 92 of this Station shows the appearance of the disease in the first stages. Not infrequently if missing hills are examined at the time the plants are breaking through the ground the sprouts will be found to have started, but the stems have been girdled with a brown or black canker that stops growth. But if the injury is not serious enough to kill the plant at this stage, it will have a sickly yellow appearance and die soon after getting through the ground. From the time the plants first come up, all through the season, here and there through the field, will be found what the growers call “blighted plants.” The leaves are thickened, and with the White Pearl especially, the leaves draw up close to the 18 The Colorado Experiment Station. stem so as to show the under side and give the ends of the vines a rosette appearance. Microscopical examination of the foliage or upper stems of these plants shows no traces of disease. If the plant be pulled from the ground, the stem will frequently be found scabby, black, or rusty with the center of the stem discolor¬ ed. If the attack is unusually severe or in the last stages, the whole stem may be entirely decayed below the surface of the ground. In other cases the bark of the stem may seem fairly smooth and clean, but a split stem will show a discolored center. In this case the disease has started at the base of the stem, that is, at the junction of the stem and the old seed. Sometimes healthy looking vines will have rusty canker spots on the stems and no apparent injury result. It appears to be only those vines that are either entirely girdled or those diseased on the inside that are destroyed. The fatal effect on the plant of this disease comes from the hyphae of Rhizoctonia crowding into the cells of the stem and stopping the circulation by clogging. In cases where the disease works only on the outside of the stem, large vines with no potatoes are frequently produced or sometimes little po¬ tatoes are formed at the axils of the leaves all along the stems. The past season has been unusually favorable for the development of the disease. The loss from it in this state was probably not less than two and a half or three million bushels. The writer found here and there diseased plants in all fields visited during the early part of the growing season. Diseased plants gradually became more numerous, as the season advanced, but were not numerous enough to be considered a menace till the latter part of July, and the first of August, when a large part of many fields showed the disease. By the last of August growth had stopped in nearly all the fields and hardly a plant could be found that was not more or less diseased. Great variation in yield resulted. Fields of Pearls that developed early, yielded one hundred and fifty or more sacks per acre while other near by fields, particularly Rurals, did not exceed thirty sacks per acre. The question of yield this year seemed to be simply a matter of how far the tubers were developd when the growth was stopped by the fungus. Experiments in the laboratory have proven, that at least a large part of the so called scab of potatoes in this state is a direct result of the action of this fungus. Sometimes it attacks the tubers causing a greater or less degree of scab without causing any apparent injury to the vines. Again both the vines and tubers are affected and frequently the vines are destroyed and no scab will appear. Some localities are so subject to the disease that potatoes can seldom be produced at all. Why the fungus develops these peculiarities, what conditions The Colorado Potato Industry. i9 make it more prevalent in some localities than in others, and what remedies or methods of culture will prevent the loss from this disease are problems that are yet to be solved. Treatment. Some experiments were made with treatment of soils with copper sulfate at the rate of thirty-five pounds to the acre to test its value as a preventative of the trouble. No effect either way could be detected. Cultural methods em¬ ployed by different growers have also been carefully noted but with no definite results, other than that all the fields that pro¬ duced satisfactory yields were given deep cultivation, while the small plots, as those planted in gardens even in the most success¬ ful potato growing districts, that were cultivated with one horse or kept clean with a hoe, produced nothing. Many fields that re¬ ceived deep cultivation were also failures. SUGGESTIONS TO THE GROWERS Although the potato industry of Colorado is new and only partly developed, the reputation of the product for high and uni¬ form quality is known in all the markets of the country. Few places have the natural advantages for producing the high grade product that the irrigated potato sections of Colorado possess. Because of the high altitude the season is comparatively short without extremes of heat. The nights are cool. The amount of moisture can for the most part be controlled and the soils are deep and rich. All these conditions give the grower an opportunity to produce in the potato the same standard of excellence that is maintained by the fruit growers of the West. We are not prepared to recommend many changes in the me¬ thods of culture practiced in the potato growing sections of this State, as those already in use are the results of a number of years experience in the application of scientific principles of soil manage¬ ment to a system of farming that is hardly known in the East. Undoubtedly the greatest need among the potato growers is or¬ ganization. This is particularly true of the Greeley District. The compactness of the district, value of the property and large out¬ put of the crop, are factors that might make a growers organi¬ zation there, a success, where in a more scattered or less wealthy community, good results would be less easily obtained. It is not our purpose in this report to suggest or recommend any scheme of organization. The advantages to be gained are many. At present there is no uniform system of grading. Scabby or mis¬ shapen potatoes may be put on the markets with the best grades. There is nothing to hinder potatoes from any place being sold as Greeley potatoes. With a registered trade mark and a uniform system of grading this could be prevented and the association 20 The Coeorado Experiment Station. label on each sack would be a guarantee of quality, as is that of the various fruit growers associations in the West. Comparative¬ ly few consumers have any knowledge of varieties in potatoes. The people who buy Greeley potatoes and get a certain color and quality expect to get the same thing at the next purchase. If many varieties are grown and all go under one name disappoint¬ ment is sure to follow and the reputation of the product is injured. Only a few varieties are now grown. One or two of these do better than any of the others so there is little reason for growing any but these standard varieties for the general market. SEED TREAMENT Results from the use of formalin or corrosive sublimate treat¬ ments have not been such that we can recommend their use. Both substances have caused more or less trouble from retarding the germination of the seed and in some cases the seed has been killed by their use. In these cases it is probable that the material was used too strong or the seed was left in the solution too long. Granting that the use of these materials will clean the seed of infection of the scab, the treatment is practically worthless so long as the soils are contaminated with the fungus. The so-called “greening” of the seed potatoes as practiced by some growers in the Greeley District is undoubtedly beneficial. The treatment of cut seed should receive more attention than it ordinarily does. It is a well known fact that cut seed, allowed to stand for any considerable length of time, shrivels badly and the buds become weakened. Treating the fresh cut seed with air slaked lime, land plaster or sulphur tends to form a crust over the cut surface so as to prevent drying to some extent and they also tend to prevent the action of various fungi, worms and insects. These materials have not been experimented with sufficiently to know which of them is the best, but so far, observations of re¬ sults have led us to favor the use of the flowers of sulphur as being more repellant to disease than the other two. POTATO MACHINERY The subject of machinery is one of general interest. All machines do fairly good work but none have been perfected. Near¬ ly all the machines used in the state are made in the eastern states and are adapted to the conditions there. Some of the later mo¬ dels of planters are improvements on the older styles but none of them get a perfect stand of plants. Much depends upon the depth that it is desired to plant, and the depth of planting depends somewhat on the variety to be planted. Varieties differ consider- The Colorado Potato Industry. 21 ably in their habit of growth. Tubers are borne on root stocks or under ground stems that always grow from the stem of the plant above the old seed tuber. Figures 3, 1 and 2, Plate VI, show the characteristic habit of growth of Pearl, Rural N. Y. No. 2 and Improved Peachblow. The Pearl sends out short root stocks just above the old seed so that the tubers are formed closely around the center of the hill and at about the depth that the seed is planted. Rural N. Y. No. 2 has a longer rootstock and is apt to start high¬ er above the old seed so that the tubers are more scattered in the hill. Some of them are deep in the soil and others will be close to or at the surface of the ground. The Improved Peachblow is still more irregular in its habit of tuber growth. These peculiar habits of growth make less difference under the hilling system of culture employed in the irrigated districts than where the level system is practiced. With most machines the seed is planted too shallow rather than too deep. Many potatoes that are supposed to be planted four or five inches deep are really not more than one or two in¬ ches under the level surface of the soil. If the soil is sufficiently moist this does no harm but if the soil is dry at the surface, a poor stand is apt to result. ROTATION OF CROPS AND RHIZOCTONIA The rotation of crops as practiced in this state does not tend to lessen the amount of disease. The Rhizoctonia which causes the blight and a greater part of the scab of potatoes works on al¬ falfa as well as potatoes. So far as is known the disease does not live on the cereals so that is has been suggested that if potatoes could be preceeded by wheat or oats, instead of alfalfa, the amount of the disease might be lessened. The efficiency of a rotation of this kind is doubtful, however, as it is probable that the disease lives in the soil more than one year without any host plant, more¬ over the loss of the beneficial effects of alfalfa upon the soil would possibly be more than the ordinary loss from the disease. SELECTION A large part of the improvement in plants has been brought about through selection. This applies to plants propagated by vegetative parts as well as those propagated by seed. All the do¬ mesticated species are originated either from crossing or varia¬ tions and are fixed in their particular characteristics by selection. The different varieties of a species may be called the variations of that species. When a variety is planted year after year it is sure 22 The Colorado Experiment Station. to revert or change its characteristics (that is run out) if selection of seed is not practiced. This is particularly true of a species that has such a great number of varieties as the potato. Varie¬ ties in this way are frequently subdivided into types. In a small way this may be seen in any potato field. A good example may be found in the Improved Peachblow. Some hills will be found that have from one to three large tubers with possibly a few very small ones. The large ones are apt to be cracked so as to be un¬ salable. Other hills may have one large tuber with several others grading down to the very small specimens. Now and then will be found a hill with from eight to a dozen medium sized perfect shaped tubers. Every man has in his mind an ideal type of the variety that he grows. HOW TO SELECT SEED POTATOES When digging, hills will be found, all the tubers of which will conform to this ideal. If these tubers be saved and planted, a large part though not all of them ought to produce potatoes like the seed. These should be selected again by hills and all should be discarded except potatoes from those hills which approximate the ideal type. The longer this selection is carried on, the greater should be the proportion of tubers like the original selected type. The usual objection to this selection, in practice, is that at digging time when the work must be done, the grower is too busy getting in the crop to take time for improvement of future crops. The selecting can be done, however, without taking a great deal of time. When the digger is running, one man should follow with a basket and select the most desirable specimens of tubers from hills that conform to his ideal type of that variety. Ordinarily the ma¬ chine will leave the tubers in such shape that the individual hills can be separated. In this work do not look for perfect tubers only. Select perfect tubers from hills in which all of the tubers are of good shape and of sufficient number to give a good yield even though some of them are too small for market. With this system of selection enough seed potatoes ought to be secured in one day to plant at least one acre of land. These po¬ tatoes should be sacked, labeled and put in a cool place by themselves. The following spring they should be planted at one side of the field where they can be staked off from the rest of the crop. Most growers prefer to plant potatoes, that are intended for seed, late. A very rich soil is not desirable for growing seed potatoes be¬ cause of the tendency to produce overgrown tubers. This may be overcome to some extent by planting more seed to the hill or planting the hills closer together. When digging time comes the The Colorado Potato Industry. 23 same process of selection and elimination should be gone through again. In this way the improvement of type and yield may go on from year to year. Many growers prefer green or immature seed to that which is fully developed. Experiments along th'S line with plants pro¬ duced from seed rather than by vegetative parts have shown that im¬ mature seed tend to produce an early maturing plant and also one that tends to produce more fruit to the amount of plant tissue but at the expense of vitality and size of plant. This law does not necessarily hold good with the potato since the repi oduction is accomplished by means of the vegetative portion of the plant. Experiments along this line with the potato have not been carried far enough to give definite results. COST OF GROWING The cost per acre of growing potatoes varies to a consider¬ able extent according to the soil, season and price of labor. One year with another an average of the different farms would not be far from the foil wing figures which are taken from a pamphlet is sued by the Greeley Commercial Club. Plowing land- f _ $2.50 Leveling and harrowing_ | QQ Seed Potatoes___ 5 00 Planting- 1.50 Cultivating_ 2.50 Irrigating-- J .50 Digging- 750 Sacks- 7.50 Marketing- 6,00 $35.00 This estimate is based on what is considered a good yield or from 200 to 300 bushels per acre. The first six items are prac¬ tically uniform, whatever the yield may be, while the last three depend upon the yield per acre, so that a poor yield or a failure, reduces the cost per acre by about one half and an extremely large yield increases it accordingly. The price of Colorado potatoes has a wide range from year to year, but the average price for the past ten years has been 65c per hundred lbs. 1 Bulletin 1 18 January, 1907 The Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Colorado Agricultural College Western Slope Fruit Investigation 1906 REPORT Field Horticulturist By O. B. WHIPPLE The Agricultural Experiment Station FORT COLLINS, COLORADO THE STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE Hon. P. P. SHARP, President , Hon. HARLAN THOMAS, - Hon. JAMES L. CHATFIELD, Hon. B. U. DYE, Hon. B F. ROCKAFELLOW, Hon. EUGENE H. GRUBB Hon. R. W. CORWIN - Hon. A. A. EDWARDS, Denver. Term Expires 1907 Denver. 1907 - Gypsum. 1909 Rocky Ford. 1909 Canon City. 1911 Carbondale 1911 Pueblo. 1913 Fort Collins. 1913 Governor HENRY A. BUCHTEL, \ _ President BARTON O. AYLESWORTH, \ ex '°^ lcl ° Executive committee in charge. P. F. SHARP, Chairman. B. F. ROCKAFELLOW. A. A. EDWARDS. STATION STAFF L. G. CARPENTER, M. S., Director - Irrigation Engineer C. P. GILLETTE, M. S., ------- - Entomologist W. P. HEADDEN, A. M., Ph. D., - - - - - - - Chemist WENDELL PADDOCK, M. S. ,.Horticulturist W. L. CARLYLE, M. S.,.Agriculturist G. H. GLOVER, M. S., D. V. M., - - - - - - Veterinarian W. H. OLIN, M. S., - ... - - - Agronomist H. M. COTTRELL, M. S., - - - - - - Animal Husbandman R. E. TRIMBLE, B. S., ... - Assistant Irrigation Engineer F. C. ALFORD, M. S., ------ - Assistant Chemist EARL DOUGLASS, M. S., ------ Assistant Chemist S. ARTHUR JOHNSON, M. S., - - - - Assistant Entomologist B. O. LONGYEAR, B. S., - - - - Assistant Horticulturist E. B. HOUSE, M. S., - - - - - Assistant Irrigation Engineer F. KNORR, .- Assistant Agronomist P. K. BLINN, B. S., - - Field Agent, Arkansas Valley, Rockyford E. R. BENNETT, B. S., - - - - - Potato Investigations Western Slope Fruit Investigations, Grand Junction. O. B. WHIPPLE, B. S.,. Field Horticulturist E. P. TAYLOR, B. S., ------- Field Entomologist OFFICERS President BARTON O. AYLESWORTH. A. M., LL. D. L. G. CARPENTER, M. S., - - - - - - - - Director A. M. HAWLEY,.. Secretary MARGARET MURRAY, - - . Clerk The Western Slope Fruit Investigation. INTRODUCTORY. , R d ® ^ V 0n ° f frult growers of Mesa county appeared before the ^ griculture in December, 1905, and requested help from the xperiment Station in questions troublesome to fruit growers of that vic¬ inity especially along the line of plant diseases, insect pests, and, subse¬ quently, damage from seepage. .■ Associate( ^ Fruit Growers of Mesa county felt the need of the wx>rk sufficiently to pledge $1,500 toward the cost of such investigation. The conditions surrounding the Experiment Station did not permit its funds to be used for that purpose. Realizing the immediate need, the State Board ot Agriculture decided to appropriate money from other funds to carry on the mvesLgatmn for the year 1906, until the meeting of the Legislature, with the expectation that the Legislature would enable the work to be con¬ tinued. „ mves tigation in a general way was to include two men, a Field orticulturist, and a Field Entomologist, with headquarters in Grand Junction, and subsequently seepage investigations were undertaken. The Field Horticulturist worked under plans prepared by Professor Paddock and reported directly to him; the Entomologist worked in connection with the Field Horticulturist and also worked under the plans prepared by Prof. C. P. Gillette. The seepage investigations were under the direction of Professor Carpenter, and were carried on by Prof. E. B House and Mr F. L. Payne. Under the instructions, every orchard in Mesa county was to be visited as soon as possible, and inspected, particular attention being given to spraying, pear blight, crown gall, woolly aphis and all orchard pests, cultivation, drainage and irrigation, and in fact, all orchard operations and an orchard survey was to be conducted at the same time, and an endeavor to get the history of each orchard as far as possible. In this way, it is possible to find the causes contributing to successes and failures, and to decide what practices have proven most successful. Blanks were prepared for the study. In the seepage investigation, a detailed study was to be made of the location of the seeped lands, and an attempt to determine the cause, in order to be able to prescribe a remedy. While it was expected that sev¬ eral years would be required, the scope of the work expanded, and with the development arising from experience, a smaller part was completed than expected. The Field Horticulturist at Grand Junction is Mr. O. B. Whipple, who was transferred from Assistant Horticulturist at Fort Collins to take charge of the work. The Field Entomologist is Mr. E. P. Taylor, a grad¬ uate of the State Agricultural College of Fort Collins, and formerly As¬ sistant State Entomologist of Illinois, and in the seepage investigations Prof. E. B. House, ,of the Experiment Station staff, and Mr. F. L. Payne of Wichita, Kansas, who had before assisted in conducting similar investigations. This is a report of the Field Horticulturist to the Director for 1906. It was not originally intended for publication, but it is believed it will be useful, and therefore is issued as a bulletin. The other related reports are in preparation. It is desirable that the work should be carried on for a series of years and should extend as soon as possible to other fruit growing dis¬ tricts, as desired by Professor Paddock and the fruit growers of the West¬ ern Slope, and this continuation depends upon funds available for the pur¬ pose. L. G. CARPENTER, Director. Report of the Field Horticulturist for 1 906. O. B. WHIPPLE. My time as field horticulturist has been largely devoted to the study of orchard conditions in Mesa county.' During the season I have made two trips to Delta county to investigate the conditions there. I find it nearly impossible to divide my time to any great extent with other counties. After more experience in field work under these conditions the work can, no doubt, be carried on over a larger territory. Very little experimental work has been undertaken during the past season as it seemed best to follow conditions in the field one season that we might take up experimental work more intelligently the ensuing year. In my work I have given special attention to plant diseases, cultivation, watering, pruning and the collection of data on the fruit industry. The interest taken in the work by the growers has been very gratifying, and at no time have we experienced any difficulty in securing the co-operation of careful growers in carrying on ex¬ periments. The success of our work depends to a large extent upon this friendly co-operation of the fruit growers. Our cor¬ respondence with growers has not been all we desired but will no doubt increase as we become better acquainted and the plan of our work better known. Requests for information have been numerous but on account of the limited time spent in the office, some growers have no doubt become discouraged in trying to reach us by telephone. I have tried to spend as many evenings as possible in the office where I hope the growers will learn to find me. The orchard survey work has not progressed as rapidly as we at first hoped it would on account of the time required for other investigations. This survey has been carried on in con¬ nection with other work as far as possible. This part of the in¬ vestigations can no doubt be pushed more rapidly during the re¬ mainder of the year, and, while the summer season is the ideal time for this work, I think the object of the survey can be accom¬ plished during the winter season. PLANT DISEASES. Observations on plant diseases have been very interesting and some important conclusions have been reached. 6 The Colorado Experiment Station. ALTERNARIA. Experiments were undertaken during the season to determine the best method of controlling this rot which was thought to be damaging* the fruit and foliage of Keiffer pear and Ben Davis and Gano apples. Three orchards were selected where severe injury was reported during the summer of 1905 and ex¬ periments outlined. Inquiries among orchard men led me to be¬ lieve that a part of this injury, at least, might be due to spray¬ ing, and the experiments were planned with this point in mind. In one orchard a block of seventy-five Keiffer pear trees was se¬ lected and divided into blocks I, II and III. Block I was sprayed with Bordeaux mixture (3-4-50) on April 14th. The buds were well started at this time and were out far enough to expose the in¬ dividual blossom stems. This block was again sprayed on May 8th with Bordeaux mixture (2-4-50), with 3 lbs. of arsenate of lead added to each fifty gallons of Bordeaux for the first codling moth spray. Block II was sprayed on May 5th and 8th with Bordeaux applied at the same strength and with the same insecticide as used in block I, and was again spraved with the same material on lune 8th. Block III was sprayed with arsenate of lead only, during the entire season. O11 July 10 th block II was divided, and half was spray¬ ed with arsenite of lime while the remainder and all other blocks were sprayed with arsenate of lead. A light rain followed and black blotches on the fruit were quite noticeable by the first of Au¬ gust. All other blocks sprayed with arsenate of lead during the en¬ tire season were perfectly clean. This indicates that the injury in the part of block II sprayed with arsenite of lime was due to burn¬ ing. In the second orchard a block of fifty Keiffer pears and a block of fifty Gano and Ben Davis apples were selected for experi¬ ments. The block of Keiffer pears was divided into two blocks and block I was sprayed on May 8th, or just after the blossoms had fallen, with Bordeaux mixture (2-4-50) with two and one half pounds of arsenate of lead added to each fifty gallons of Bor¬ deaux. The brand of arsenate of lead used was of poor manu¬ facture, and on May 23rd the check trees making up block II and sprayed on May 12th with arsenate of lead only, were found to be badly burned,while the foliage and fruit of block I showed no injury. The injury on block II was mostly to foliage though some fruits were burned, most of which dropped early. Block I was saved by the excess of lime in the Bordeaux which combined with the free arsenic in the lead. A good grade of lead was used on all blocks after this spraying. Block I was again sprayed on June 9th with Bordeaux mix- Fruit Investigation, 1906. 7 ture and arsenate of lead. No further signs of burning or Alter- naria rot appeared on either block during the remainder of the season. The fifty Ben Davis and Gano apples were sprayed with Bor¬ deaux on the same dates as the pears, leaving the remainder of the or¬ chard as a check. The owner being anxious to get the first cod¬ ling moth spray on at the proper time, applied it five days earlier. Both blocks were injured severely by this first spraying with lead. Most of the injured fruits dropped early and at picking time no injury from burning or Alternaria was noticeable on the fruit of either check or sprayed trees. On the shaded portions of large trees sprayed with Bordeaux a slight russeting of the fruit was noticed but not serious enough to cause damage. The experiments in the third orchard were practically the same, only on a smaller scale. A good grade of arsenate of lead was used and no injury from burning or Alternaria rot was found at picking time. With these experiments, and after observations in many other orchards the following conclusions were reached: First; that Alternaria is in most cases a secondary factor in causing the decay of fruit. Second; that it does not seem to be able to gain entrance to the fruit through healthy tissue, unless it be in cases where it enters the core cavity through the calyx tube, but may follow any injury, as spray burn, bruises or worm holes. During the season it has been found under these conditions, as well as on blighted fruit spurs of the pear and in the germ cavity of peaches with split pits. Third; that Keiffer pears cannot be sprayed with any degree of safety with other than a standard make of arsenate of lead. The nearer mature the fruit, the more liable it is to injury, and if possible, no sprays should be applied later than July 10th. With thorough spi'aying early in the season,- applications later than this date are unnecessary. Fourth; that if Gano and Ben Davis apples are to be sprayed with arsenite of lime, special care should be given to its preparation and a good clear day selected during which to apply it. •PEAR BLIGHT. Pear blight has been severe on many varieties of pears this season and many neglected orchards are practically gone. Where reasonable care is given to cutting out affected limbs, most var¬ ieties are doing well. By very careful cutting, many growers are proving that pear culture is still profitable. A great deal may be accomplished, I believe, in selecting varieties. Comparisons made during the season of pear orchards seeded to grass with those under cultivation seem to show little difference in the amount of blight. The Flemish Beauty, Clapp Favorite and Idaho, fortunately three worthless varieties from a commercial standpoint, should . never be planted, as they blight badly. Not only this, but trees of these varieties should be taken out. While it is possible that these Varieties may be worked over to other varieties to advan- 8 The Colorado Experiment Station. tage, it seems very probable from observations of the season that sooner or later blight will get into the trunk and kill the tree. So often does this seem to be true in the case of the Idaho that it would seem advisable to discourage the working over of this var¬ iety. Some of the commercial varieties which seem to be most free from blight are Keiffer, Anjou, Mt. Vernon, Garber, Howell and Seckel. Ee Conte, Sugar, Bose and Sudduth, four varieties not so well known, seem to be quite free from blight. Unfortun¬ ately when once attacked, Bartlett seems to suffer quite severely. Winter Nelis is fairly resistant, while Clairgeau seems to suff er severely from attacks in the trunk and larger branches. Persis¬ tent cutting out, I think, will do much to save the pear orchards. If it does not pay to cut out the blight, it does not pay to grow pears and owners of badly infested orchards should pull them out. Many growers pronounce their pear orchards the most profitable piece of land on the ranch, but these are men who cut out the blight. The general practice with these men is to cut out blight at least three times during the summer. Blossom and twig blight in the apple seems to be on the in¬ crease and has attracted a great deal of attention the past sea¬ son. It has not only caused a loss of crop, but a great deal of anxiety in regard to the future of the trees attacked. However, the only loss seems to be in the destruction of the crop before it has set, and the killing of whole fruit spurs carrying blighted blos¬ soms. Only in a few sweet apples and in very severe cases has the blight done any damage to larger limbs. The general tendency seems to be for the blight to kill the spur back to the branch from which it springs and then die out. In especially bad cases in Tolman Sweet we have found branches of one and two year old wood killed. Even where the fruit spur is hardly more than a bud, it seems to be an exception for blight to do any damage to the branch from which it springs. There seems to be some difference in varieties as to their re¬ sistance to blossom blight. All the sweet apples blight badly. The Ralls, Dr. Walker, Wealthy, Pewaukee and Jonathan are also subject to severe attacks. No varieties seem to be immune in badly infected orchards, but the Winesap, Gano and Ben Davis are as resistant as any. However it seems hardly possible to give definite lists, for there are exceptions, and the tables are often turned. “Twig blight'' is also bad in some varieties, as the sweet apples, Jonathan, Pewaukee, Red Romanite, Willow Twig and Transcendent Crab. In this case the blight rarely affects more than the current season’s growth. Badly blighted pear trees neglected by the owner of the orchard or a nearby neighbor were often found to be the original source of infection in these badly blighted orchards. With more careful cutting out of pear blight, Fruit Investigation, 1906. 9 I think the blossom and twig blight in apples would tend to de¬ crease. Some growers have trimmed out all blighted spurs and, while it improves the looks of the tree enough to pay for the trouble, I hardly think leaving these spurs would increase the liability to attack the following year, as by mid-summer all blighted spurs are thoroughly dried and it would seem impossible for any hold¬ over blight to exist in them. I believe pear trees are, in the ma¬ jority of cases, responsible for carrying the blight through to the next blossoming season. PEACH MILDEW. Probably owing to the unusual amount of rain during the early part of the season, peach mildew has been of more impor¬ tance than usual. Losses from those of small per cents to those of total crops have been reported. Measures used in com¬ batting this disease should be of a preventative nature rather than as a cure. After the fungus has once obtained a good foothold on the fruit, nothing can be done to save the peach. The fungus may be killed, but the flesh underneath refuses to grow and at ripening time we have a one sided peach or a peach with a sunken spot on it. The disease is capable of destroying a crop in a short time and prompt action is important. Observations made in orchards where the attack was severe show that one thorough spraying with half-strength Bordeaux (2- 4-50) will destroy the mildew. Thorough winter spraying of in¬ fested orchards with 'full strength Bordeaux should prove a very important safe-guard. The first appearance of the disease in early summer should be followed by prompt action on the part of the owner, and the orchard thoroughly sprayed with half strength Bordeaux. A week’s delay in some orchards often means a loss of fifty per cent of the crop and two weeks a total loss. GUMMOSIS. Cases of Gummosis in peach trees have been found occasion¬ ally. Gum starts to flow from the trunk or larger branches dur¬ ing the early part of the summer and large drops are formed on the bark, often reaching an inch in diameter and are nearly as round as marbles. In severe cases the tree dies in the latter part of the season. While the number of cases reported need cause no alarm, the loss of a single tree in an orchard does not add to its value, and with reasonable care, I think the loss might be avoided. IO The Colorado Experiment Station. While no large number of trees have been treated, experiments seem to show that a vertical slitting of the bark about the affected trunk or branch during the early stages will save the tree. Use a sharp knife for this work and do not be afraid of cutting too deep. Make the cuts about two inches apart. While I do not pronounce this a sure cure in all cases, it seems worthy of a trial on trees in the first stages. When the drops of gum reach the size of marbles, the tissues are broken down to such an extent that no practical method of treatment would save the tree. ROOT ROTS. Two apparently distinct forms of root rot are found. One form, which is proving the least destructive of the two, seems to show no preference for varieties, and confines it¬ self to that part of the tree below the ground. The other seems to work exclusively on the Ben Davis and Gano. and the trunk as well as the roots are affected. The disease often extends upward into the large branches. The first indication of the disease is the appearance on the trunk of spots of a chocolate color. When peeled off the bark has a peculiar marbled appearance, the diseased portions standing out in sharp contrast to the healthy tissue. The disease soon kills the bark and it dries down to the wood, taking on a dark brown color. Two seasons are required for the disease to kill the tree. The first season the trunk is girdled and the foliage drops early. This early ripening of the foliage is often the most prominent symptom, and diseased trees can be easily picked out in the early fall. Trees showing an early bronzing of the foliage are generally found girdled by this disease. The sec¬ ond season the tree starts into leaf as the normal tree, generally set¬ ting fruit, and dies in mid-summer, the fruit and leaves clinMne*. I he disease seems to be infectious, as the trees appear in groups, and in many cases it appears as though it were carried by water. When a diseased tree is found, several more are generally found in the same row. However, other varieties besides the Ben Davis and Gano may stand in the same row with diseased trees on either side and show no sign of contracting the disease. The fact that Ben Davis and Gano are very tender as regards the application of arsenical sprays has suggested to my mind that the trouble may be due to arsenic collecting about the crown of the tree and kill¬ ing the bark. However, the fact that trees sprayed with arsenate of lead and arsenite of lime are alike affected, seems to be contrary to such a hypothesis. Fruit Investigation, 1906. 11 / Prompt removal of the trees affected seems at present to be the only treatment that can be suggested. Reports indicate that the disease has only been in the orchards two or three years at the most. Soil conditions seem to have no relation to the disease, as it is found on all kinds of soils. CROWN GALL. Only a few cases of crown gall have come to my observation in Mesa county, a few trees having been killed by it. A disease which appears very much the same and no doubt the same disease that is called crown gall by other stations, seems to be doing con¬ siderable injury to the Vinifera vineyards of this section. Rose of Peru seems to suffer most severely. Muscat, Tokay and Corn- ichon have been found affected, however. When the disease at¬ tacks the crown of the plant, death seems to follow in one or two years. When the canes are affected, growth seldom starts from above the gall, but new growth starts from below and the plant keeps alive, but bears very poor crops. While it is probably transmitted from plant to plant in the vineyard, this is uncertain, but observations in the vineyards seem to bear out the statement. I think it would be well to remove diseased vines and give closer inspection to nursery stock. Under the present system, grapes are passed without inspection. PHYSIOLOGICAL TROUBLES. Many yellow pear trees are found in the valley. Observations seem to indicate poor soil conditions, probably due in most cases to excessive watering. The foliage takes on a yellow cast, and in the last stages the leaves become thickly sprinkled with small deadened spots and fall from the tree. The trees grow more enfeebled from year to year and are finally pulled out. SMALL PEACHES. Many growers claimed that their peaches did not attain the customary size while they were very sure that they had thinned as carefully as in previous years. There is no doubt some truth in the assertion and also a cause. The peach trees were severely frozen in most localities during the winter of 1904-05. Not only were the peach buds killed, but the wood was damaged to quite a serious extent. Many of these trees were not pruned as heavily as they should have been following such a freeze, and did not make 12 The Colorado Experiment Station. a good recovery. The winter of 1905-06 was less severe and the fruit buds passed the winter safely. While the growers thinned their peaches as carefully as usual, the trees, having failed to fully recover from the severe freeze in one growing season, were un¬ able to mature the normal crop. Where severely pruned, the trees matured their crop well. Following severe freezes which injure the wood, it would be well to thin the first crop more closely. COPPER SULPHATE INJURY. Copper sulphate has been placed about trees with injurious results by some orchard men. When taken up by the roots the material blasts the foliage and causes it to fall. The most tell¬ tale effect is a blackening of the outer ring of the sap wood and cambium. When taken up by the roots in a concentrated form, the wood and bark near the base of the tree are killed in strips of varying width. Nearer the top where the material spreads more, the tendency is for the leaves to drop, and later a new growth starts. The upper limbs probably recover. The strips of bark on the trunk and limbs, however, seem to be perfectly dead. The stock solution used in spraying with arsenite of lime, prepared b}^ dissolving white arsenic in water and sal soda, is very destructive to plant life. The general practice of keeping this solution in the orchard under a tree should be discouraged. If a small amount is spilled, or if the vessel leaks, the material will soon kill the tree. In fact, it almost appears as though in some cases the material will kill peach trees when placed under them in an open vessel. The fumes given off when boiling this solution will kill trees without a doubt, and this boiling should be done some distance from the orchard. I have seen trees standing twenty feet from an open packing house door killed on the side next to the packing house in which the material was boiled. Some Ben Davis and Gano orchards have shown a very sickly yellow color during the summer, and investigations have shown that the trees were suffering from arsenical poisoning. The trees were sprayed with arsenite of lime in which the quantity of lime used was deficient, or with an arsenate of lead which contain¬ ed a large amount of free arsenic. The growth of foliage is scant and the color yellow. Though the material may have been used only once, the effect seemed to last through the season. There seems no reason to believe but that the trees will recover the coming season. THINNING APPLES. Experiments were undertaken in thinning apples during the eaily part of the season. An orchard was selected in which large Fruit Investigation, 1906. •13 blocks of Jonathan and Winesap were carrying a very heavy load. The thinning was- done in the early part of July. The apples were actually counted on some trees and a definite number left. Assuming that from 150 to 160 apples of these varie¬ ties make a box of fancy apples, the trees were thinned to produce from six to twelve boxes. The trees were eleven years old and the best results on the Jonathan seemed to come from trees yielding eight boxes, running about 160 apples to the box. Trees bearing more than this, run smaller in size and less uniform. The Winesap gave better results when thinned to about six or seven boxes. Trees of Jonathan thinned to eight boxes would yield 95 per cent or over fancy fruits as far as size and color were concerned. Unthinned trees which packed about sixteen boxes gave 50 per cent of small fancy fruit, but on the days the thinned trees were stripped not 50 per cent could be picked from the unthinned trees on account of poor color. At least 25 per cent did not reach a good color. Thinned trees which picked twelve boxes required two pickings and run on an average about 90 per cent fancy. These trees averaged about fifteen feet in height and had a twenty foot spread. Observations will be made next season on the thinned and un¬ thinned trees to determine the effect of thinning on the ensuing year’s crop. The rule followed was to leave only one fruit on a spur and remove those from the tips of limbs. Observations on un¬ thinned trees showed that apples on the tips of limbs seldom reach a good size. GRAPE GROWING. The associations and growers have complained of poor results in shipping grapes. The trouble seemed to be that they molded before they got to market. Correspondence was taken up with California growers and observations carried on in the vineyards during the season. From California rules, and from my own observations, I be¬ lieve the growers use more water than is necessary. In one case, I actually found the bunches shriveling from excessive watering. The reason some varieties do not ship well is no doubt because they are not ripe enough. The short season does not give them time to thoroughly mature. The California people say a grape must be ripe to ship well. Another point, I believe, is carelessness in packing, in not cutting out injured berries nor allowing the stems to wilt. Grapes packed tight while the stems are stiff crack easily and this gives entrance to mold. Owing to the method of pruning practiced to allow of easy covering, many of the bunches come in contact with the ground and should be thoroughly dried before packing. Experiments have been taken up to determine a more r 4 The Colorado Experiment Station. satisfactory method of pruning - which will hold the grapes off the giound and still allow of the vines being - easily covered. The gen¬ eral tendency seems to be to prune too short, and light crops of inferior bunches are the result. No varieties should be pruned shorter than four eyes, and the Muscat, Sweetwater, Sultana, Em¬ peror and Thompson. Seedless should be pruned to eight. Some system of training must be found which will hold the fruit oft the ground. More care should be given to watering. Three waterings, I believe, are enough. Dry soil conditions should pre¬ vail during the ripening period. As to varieties, the Flame Tokay and Cornichon seem best adapted to the Palisade region where early frosts do not strike. For the rest of this district, Muscat, Rose of Peru, Tinfadel and Chasselas Victoria must be used, blame Tokay may succeed on early soil where the soil conditions can be well controlled. Thomp¬ son Seedless, Sultana and Sweetwater do well, but do not sell. Grape mildew (Uncinula spiralis) has caused some loss in vineyards, and experiments have been started this fall to determine the best method of controlling it. One block was given a fall treat¬ ment of Bordeaux before covering, and other blocks will be sprayed the coming season and various fungicides tested. Expei iments wei e undertaken to show the value of sacking Vimfeia giapes to piotect them from rots and mildew and to im¬ prove their appearance. The cost of sacking was found to be about one-half cent pei pound for most varieties, while those pro¬ ducing larger bunches can no doubt be sacked at one-half this cost. The earlier varieties seemed to fare very well in sacks, unless they were subject to cracking, as some of the more tender skinned var¬ ieties aie. Bunches in sacks laying on the ground split and molded badly. Foi the late vaiieties sacking proved to be a failure as it retarded the coloring and ripening and seemed to give no protec¬ tion from frost. The stems were frozen the first frosty night and the bunches wilted and failed to ripen. The Muscat and Thomp¬ son s Seedless did veiy well sacked and their appearance was much improved. SETTING YOUNG TREES. I 1 actically all the systems of laying out orchards and plant¬ ing young trees are used in the fruit sections of western Colo¬ rado. The distance of setting varies from i6’xi6 ’ to 3o’x32’ for apples and from I 2 ’ xi 2 ’ to 2 o’x 2 o’ for peaches, but the experienced growers are giving the greater distance. The practice of setting Missouri Pippin, as fillers, in with the standard varieties of apples is quite common. In the peach districts peaches are often used for the same purpose. I hardly think the prac¬ tice is to be encouraged, as the average grower will not take them out Fruit Investigation, 1906. 15 before they crowd. The tendency is to leave them in until the shape of the other trees is ruined. Trees as a rule are not handled carefully in transplanting and a larger per cent is lost than is necessary. The most common method of setting is to plow a furrow and with a little additional digging, set the titees in this. For the first watering, the water is generally run through this furrow. It is then filled, or left open for other waterings. Many leave it open the whole season, but it is generally thought best to fill it in and water from the sides before the sun gets too hot. The practice of leaving this furrow open for most of the summer seems to give good results, but there is a tendency, I believe, to set too deep. I think it a very good me¬ thod if the furrow is very shallow. The most common method of watering is to fill this furrow after the watering at planting time, and run new furrows on either side of the row and as close as possible. This system will give excellent results if the man who is irrigating sees that water passes all the.trees properly. It is poss¬ ible to water trees too often, however, and the man who is inclined to water too heavy should keep his ditches at some distance from the trees. With a scant supply of water, the system of watering- in the original furrow in which the trees were set will give the best results. Young orchards are either cultivated, or planted to secondary crops. The most common secondary crops are canta¬ loupes, potatoes, corn, oats and white beans. Cantaloupes do well on the lighter soils but other crops are generally sown on heavy soils. Oats is a poor crop for the young orchard, as it is generally cut just in time to force the grasshoppers to eat leaves and bark from the trees before frost. The cutting of any noticeable growth in the orchard at mid-season is a dangerous practice on this account. On sandy soils cantaloupes are proving a favorite crop. The fur¬ rows for watering the cantaloupes should be as far from the tree rows as possible that late watering of the trees may be avoided. This is very important in young peach orchards. Many inexper¬ ienced growers water their peach trees too late, and as a result, have them killed back during the winter. Young trees are seldom pruned carefully enough after the first year, and long, willowy branches which bend to the ground with the first load of fruit is the result. Greater distance in plant¬ ing should be urged and more care in regard to the forming of the young tree. Too many second class trees are set, the growers failing to realize that a poor tree is dear at any price. GENERAL ORCHARD CONDITIONS. It is a general practice among orchard men to water too much and neglect cultivation, and often the soil is handled very poorly. A large per cent of the soil is rather heavy to be handled well under i 6 The Colorado Experiment Station. irrigation, and with the method of watering commonly used, it is often impossible to, touch these soils with the cultivator from the first watering in early summer until the following spring. It is often the case that shallow furrows and a large head of water are used and the result is a flooding of the whole surface. When dry enough to work again, the soil has run together and the surface is so hard that it is impossible to cultivate it, and the grower resorts to frequent watering to keep the orchard going. In these soils the water settles slowly and a smaller head run in deeper ditches would no doubt prove more satisfactory. I think growers with these heavy adobe soils should also re¬ sort to the planting of cover crops to improve soil texture They could gradually be brought into shape where they could be more easily handled after irrigation. Growers, as a rule, pay too little attention to the sub-soil. Too often, the rule follow¬ ed is, if you can kick up dust on the surface, irrigate. The ap¬ pearance of the tree indicates to a great extent its needs, but after all, it is an examination of the sub-soil which, most surely deter¬ mines whether the orchard needs water or not. General rules which it might be well for growers tc follow in applying water are as follows : The more sandy the soil, the greater the number of ditches, the shorter the run in both time and distance. The longer the ditches, the larger the head. The stiffer the soil, the fewer and deeper the ditches, the long¬ er the run in time and distance, and the smaller the head. PROBLEMS FOR THE ENSUING YEAR. Some of the problems for the coming year as brought out by this season’s work are as follows: Pear Blight and its control, giving especial attention to tne form known as blossom blight in apples. Peach mildew and the effects of lime-sulfur wash as a winter spray in comparison with Bordeaux mixture. Grape mildew (Uncinula spiralis) and its control and the ef¬ fect of winter and summer spraying. Observations on grape growing in general with reference to watering, pruning, packing and shipping. Further study of the root-rots of apples to determine, if pos¬ sible, the causes and remedies. February 1907 v-*\ Bulletin 1 19 The Agricultural Experiment Station -OF THE- Colorado Agricultural College Western Slope Fruit Investigation 1906 Report of The Field Entomologist --BY- E. P. TAYLOR f PUBLISHED BY THE EXPERIMENT FORT COLLINS, COLORADO 1907 STATION The Agricultural Experiment Station. FORT COLLINS, COLORADO the State Board of agriculture Hon. P. F. SHARP, President .Denver Hon. HARLAN THOMAS.. .. .Denver.. Hon. JAMES L. CHATFIELD.Gypsum..'. ' Hon. B. U. D1:E.Rocky Ford. Hon. B. F. ROCKAFELLOW.Canon City Hon. EUGENE H. GRUBB..Carbondale” Hon. A. A. EDWARDS.Fort Collins Hon. R. W. CORWIN.Pueblo. Governor HENRY A. BUCHTEL, ) President BARTON O. AYLESWORTH, TERM EXPIRES ....1907 .. ..1907 ....1909 ....1909 ....1911 ....1911 ....1913 ....1913 A. M. HAWLEY, Secretary EDGAR AVERY Treasurer Executive Committee in Charge P. F. SHARP, Chairman. B. F. ROCKAFELLOW. A. A. EDWARDS STATION STAFF L. G. CARPENTER, M. S., Director .Irrigation Engineer C. P. GILLETTE, M. S.Entomologist W. P. HEADDEN, A. M., Ph. D.Chemist WENDELL PADDOCK, M. S.Horticulturist W. L. CARLYLE, M. S. ...Agriculturist G. H. GLOVER, M. S., D.V. M.Veterinarian W. H. OLIN, M. S.,.Agronomist R. E. TRIMBLE, B. S.Assistant Irrigation Engineer F. C. ALFORD, M. S.Assistant Chemist EARL DOUGLASS, M. S.Assistant Chemist S. ARTHUR JOHNSON, M. S...Assistant Entomologist B. O. LONG1EAR, B. S. Assistant Horticulturist H. M. COTTRELL, M. S.Animal Husbandman E. B. HOUSE, M. S .Assistant Irrigation Engineer F. KNORR. .Assistant Agronomist P. K. BLINN, B. S.Field Agent, Arkansas Valley, Rocky Ford E. R. BENNE1T, B. S.Potato Investigations Western Slope Fruit Investigations, Grand Junction: O. B. WHIPPLE, B. S.Field Horticulturist E. P. TAILOR, B. S.Field Entomologist OFFICERS President BARTON O. AYLESWORTH, A. M., LL. D. L. G. CARPENTER, M. S. A. M. HAWLEY. MARGARET MURRAY... . .Director Secretary .Clerk WESTERN SLOPE FRUIT INVESTIGATION Report of Field Entomologist* SEASON OF 1998 E. P. Taylor, Grand Junction, Colorado The principal lines of work for the season have been— (1) Experiments upon practical methods of controlling the prin¬ cipal insect pests of the orchard. (2) Collection and study of other economic insects. (3) Visitation of orchards by request or otherwise. (4) Attendance at fruit growers’ association meetings, farm¬ ers’ institutes, county fairs, horticultural society meet¬ ings, etc., where questions relating to the work of this office were being considered. The experiments carried on with injurious insects have been in cooperation with orchard men whose loss from these pests has invited tests of measures of control. The experiments have served as practical demonstrations in each neighborhood in which they were carried on, and have served as object lessons at the same time they were revealing new facets. They have been the objects of the deepest local interest. The territory covered by the demonstra¬ tive experiments has been thus far limited to points lying in the lower Grand Valley, principally in the orchard sections surrounding Grand Junction, Palisade, and Fruita. CODLING MOTH. (Cydia pomonella Linn.) Introductory —The codling moth has received the greatest share of attention. Spraying experiments have been completed in five orchards of the locality and the results successfully answer the prin¬ cipal questions relating to the control of the insect. Probably no district in the United States is better equipped with modern spraying apparatus than the orchard district of Grand Valley. Nearly $100,000 are invested in spraying apparatus in the county of Mesa alone, but in spite of this fact, codling moth ravages have injured the fruit to the extent of a great many hundreds of thou¬ sands of dollars annually for some years past, and in spite of the fact that some orchardists have applied as many as ten or more sprayings per season. The past season has cost the growers, by careful estimate, over $36,000 for material used in making up their *This bulletin is a companion to Bulletin 118, which gives the report of the Field Horticulturist for 1906, Western Slope Fruit Investigation. The general plan for the entomological investigations were made by Prof. C. P. Gillette, and the work was under his direction. The work was rendered possible by other funds than the government appropriations for the Experiment Station, a considerable portien from the fruit associations of Mesa County, and the remainder from the State Board of Agriculture. 4 COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION. arsenical sprays. This season’s work has determined these failures to be due to several causes: (i) lack of thoroughness of method; (2) lack of proper spraying material, and (3) lack of knowledge of the exact life history of the moth. The experiments demonstrated that this pest, the most impor¬ tant of all to the gruit grower of Colorado, may be cot?rolled by arsenical sprays applied properly and at the correct time' The number of sprays required to control the moth in an orchard will depend principally upon (1) previous infestation of orchard; (2) proximity to other infested orchards; (3) efficiency of earlier sprays, and (4) variety of fruit. To obtain results of greatest practical value to the fruit grower, orchard blocks of considerable size were chosen and given treatment in the most thoroughgoing and intelligent manner. Records of every detail were tabulated, and at the close of the season, in determining results, very large numbers of apples were given hand-to-hand inspec¬ tion. For example, over 100,000 apples, representing upwards of 600 bushel boxes, were given a prost critical examination to reveal, as nearly as possible, the exact outcome of the experiment. Life History Studies —A study of the life history of the moth carried through the season showed many things of vital importance relating to the proper time to spray. No great variation or change of habit of the moth was noted. The time required for the passing of each stage of the insect was practically identical with other obser¬ vations of the insect in the state. The time or dates of transfor¬ mations of the moth were found, however, to be much earlier than for the majority of the other fruit sections of Colorado, and some varia¬ tion exists between the different portions of the Grand Valley, trans¬ formations taking place earlier, as a rule, in the region about Palisade than in the country surrounding Grand Junction or Fruita. , Parasites —Natural parasites of the insect were studied, one of the most interesting being the minute bee, Trichogramma pretiosa , laying its eggs and developing within the tiny egg of the codling moth. Bands —The use of bands is not discouraged, but they can not be depended upon alone to control the moth. If used, the old ones which have remained on the tree through the winter should be cleaned up by April 1st to prevent larvae from changing to pupae and moths making their escape. They should also be gone over at least every ten days through the summer until the middle or latter part of August, after which there will be little danger of moths emerg¬ ing until the following spring. Spraying Experiments —As stated, spraying with arsenicals was the standard remedy adopted, and the studies were made upon (1) Time to spray; (2) Kind of spray, and (3) Way to spray. Time to Spray —The time to apply the first spray in the experi¬ ment conducted was determined by the condition of the calyx of the bloom, and that of the later sprays by careful and systematic obser¬ vation for the appearance of the eggs of the moth. Close observation of the calyx will determine when it is in an FIELD ENTOMOLOGIST. 5 ideal condition for spraying. This time should be following the drop¬ ping of the petals but before the closing of the calyx. A period not to exceed from five to seven days for any one variety would cover the time when this first spray should be applied. Sprayed too early or before the petals are fallen, bees about the bloom are in danger of being destroyed, and, sprayed too late, the green sepals will have come together at their tips, closing the calyx cup against all possi¬ bility of being filled with the poison. The center blossoms are invariably the first to open their petals and first to drop them. They are first to close their calyces and most likely to set fruit which will remain without dropping from the tree. It is therefore evident that this first spraying should be done with these blossoms in mind. The first eggs do not appear for several weeks later. When the young larvae hatch from these eggs, the larger per cent of them enter at the calyx, and if the first spraying has left the calyx containing a liberal amount of poison, their first meal will, in all probability, be their last. Sixty per cent or more of the first generation larvae, according to this summer’s observations, entered at the calyx. For the remaining forty per cent or less entering at the side or stem end of the apple, a second spray must be applied early enough to coat the surface of the small apple with poison before the hatching larvae make their appearance, and this coating must be maintained upon the fruit until the first generation’s eggs have hatched. Other conditions being right, two sprayings with an adhesive arsenical will perform this end, and the first generation thus prac¬ tically destroyed. There being but two full generations of the insect through the season, if the first be destroyed there should be no second left with which to contend. As stated above, however, in common practice there will be cases where more than two sprays are necessary, and these additional ones should be directed against the second generation. Any one may determine the proper time to spray by observations, upon time of egg appearance, though in practice this is more or less difficult for the average orchardist. The date of appearance of the blossoms upon fruit trees is de¬ pendent upon meteorological conditions for the spring. These same conditions regulate the initial appearance of the adult moth, and as its times for transformation are fairly constant thereafter, it seems possible that a general rule may be made for common use, based upon the blooming of the fruit in spring. Such a general rule is herewith presented, thought to be dependable, at least in the general locality wherein it was determined, and if conclusions above stated are correct, the rule should apply for other points as well. Observations upon the time of appearance of the insect in any of its stages could be made to supplement the general rule. The efficiency of the first two sprays suggested will largely determine the necessity of the later sprays. The dates given are those applying to the blooming and spraying of Jonathans at Fruita this year, and should be considered 6 COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION. as subject to variation with place, season, and variety. The egg ob¬ servations were made upon trees receiving no treatment throughout the season. HOW TIME TO SPRAY WAS DETERMINED IN EXPERI¬ MENTAL ORCHARD. Petals dropped—calyces open_May 11 First spray_May 11 First eggs seen_May 21 Numbers eggs seen _...June 1 Second spray_June 2 First generation, eggs maximum_June 13-19 First generation, eggs minimum_June 28 Second generation, eggs begin_July 2 Third spray—(suggested)_July 2 Second generation, eggs abundant_July 17 Fourth spray—(suggested)_July 18 Second generation, eggs maximum_July 25-31 Fifth spray—(suggested) _August 1 Second generation, eggs diminished to about - Sept. 1 The time in which an orchard must be completed with the first spraying will be of greater importance than the time required for second or other later sprays. Power spraying outfits make it possi¬ ble to cover larger orchards in less time than with hand apparatus, but it has been found that under ordinary conditions one good power outfit should not be expected to cover more than twenty acres of full¬ bearing orchard at the first codling moth spray. In apple orchards of mixed varieties those blooming first should be sprayed first. Pears do not close their calyces as quickly as apples, and their first spraying may be longer delayed. Kind of Spray —The experiments of the year demonstrated that Swift’s arsenate of lead was slightly superior to the arsenite of lime so far as killing effect upon worms was concerned. The difference seemed to be less than 4 per cent, but though the cost of the lead is considerably more, it is probable that with a heavy yield of fruit of high market value the lead would probably more than pay for the dif- ference in cost. It is more convenient and less liable to injure foliage. Other brands of arsenate of lead were used with nearly equal suc¬ cess in controlling the worms, but some samples had been improperly made and caused injury to foliage and fruit from an excess of free aisenic contained. Arsenite of lime, used with sufficient lime, will TIME TO SPRAY— GENERAL RULE. (1.) Petals off-caly¬ ces open. (2.) (a) One month from full bloom. ( b ) Three weeks from center calyces closing. (c) When apples are about t in. diameter. (3) One month from ( 2 ) (4) Two weeks from (3) (5) Two weeks from (4) FIELD ENTOMOLOGIST. 7 cause no injury to trees under ordinary conditions, though it is more liable to do injury than properly made lead arsenate. Injury to trees from arsenical sprays is more or less dependent upon variety of fruit and meteorological conditions at time of or following spraying. A practice among some orchard men the past season in Mesa County has been to use arsenate of lead for the first and second sprays, and if fur¬ ther spraying is found necessary the cheaper arsenite of lime is sub¬ stituted. Arsenate of lead was used at the rate of 12 pounds paste per 200 gallons of water in the experimental orchard. Arsenite of lime was used at the rate of 1 pound arsenic, 4 pounds sal soda, 30 pounds lime per 200 gallons of spray, the arsenic and sal soda being boiled together in a small quantity of water for fifteen minutes until dissolved, after which the lime slacked with water to form a milk was added. , , Both arsenate of lead and the arsenite of lime sprays, from their white coating upon the leaves, produce a shading effect, which in our arid climate serves a secondary beneficial effect by reducing transpi¬ ration by the foliage. Method or Way to Spray —In the experiments of the year it was shown that the method of application had more to do with success than a difference of the insecticides used. The variation between poor spraying and very good spraying might well vary between 20 per cent and 98 per cent, while, as shown, the two insecticides showed variation of only about 4 per cent. For the 12-year-old apple trees in the experiment at Fruita, an average of 12.9 gallons of spray was applied per tree for the first spray, and 9.9 gallons were used for later ones. For the early spraying a coarser spray of liquid, such as would be given by a Bordeaux nozzle or a coarse Vermorel nozzle cap, is desirable. At this spraying the tree should be drenched with a strong, driving, coarse spray. It should be directed straight into the calyx cups that a maximum amount of poison may be placed in position there. It was determined by actual count that at spraying time aver¬ age apple trees had two-thirds of their blossoms pointing in an up¬ ward direction and one-third in a downward direction. It is, then, apparent that spray must be directed downward upon the tree as well as upward through the branches. It was found necessary with full¬ bearing trees, in order to insure thorough work, that spraying be directed downward from the top of a tower constructed over the spray wagon. Where power outfits are used, and where the rows are of such a distance apart that the inner halves of any two can be treated from a point midway, it will be found that on medium to large trees, two men upon the tower and one man spraying upward from the ground will be found most satisfactory. Spray poles eight to twelve feet long should be used by both ground and tower men. In one of .the experimental orchards the height of tower man’s reach was twenty- five feet above the ground. 8 COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION. For the later sprays, a nozzle producing a fine mist is desir¬ able. A nozzle of the double-vermorel type, arranged in such a way that the direction of the nozzle can be placed at any angle with the spray pole, is wanted. The size of aperture wanted in the nozzle cap will depend upon the pressure maintained. The higher pres¬ sures can be directed through larger apertures and still produce as fine a spray. Higher pressures economize upon material and time, and under ordinary conditions are most desirable. In the experiment conducted upon the orchard of Mr. G. W. Marchant, of Fruita, two sprayings with Swift’s arsenate of lead (12 pounds per 200 gallons) applied at the times indicated in the above table, and in a thorough manner, produced 98 per cent winesap, 95.6 Ben Davis, and 91.8 Jonathan apples free at picking time from all worm holes. Picked, unsprayed Jonathans in a block in the same orchard gave only 43.1 per cent free from worm holes, and 49 per cent of the apples, by actual count, originally borne by the trees, had fallen to the ground, 96 per cent wormy before picking. Onlv 15 per cent of the total crop of sprayed Jonathans fell to the ground as windfalls, and 74.1 of these were perfect apples. The apples in the sprayed plats were treated with a repetition spray following a heavy rain, though by comparison with plats left untreated with such spray it was found that the additional or repetition spray was unnecessary. The complete details of this summer’s experiments and obser¬ vations upon the codling moth will be available in a special bulletin issued by the Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station, which bul¬ letin is now under preparation. HOWARD SCALE. (Aspidiotus howardi Ckll.) This pest is one of greatest importance to the pear growers of parts of Colorado. Besides the pear, it is known to infest prune, plum, apple, almond, and certain shade and forest trees. The life history of the insect was partially worked out during the year and experiments conducted showed the insect to be possible of cheap and complete control by spring applications of the lime and sulfur wash. As a bulletin is also soon to be issued upon this pest and its rem¬ edies, based principally upon this season’s investigations, details of the work on the insect may be ommitted in this general report. PEACH TWIG-BORER. (Anarsia lineatella Zell.) Introductory —Experiments conducted at Palisade have demon¬ strated the great value of arsenate of lead against the twig-borer of the peach, which caused considerable damage to the peaches in this and other localities of Western Colorado. Former recommendations for the control of this insect have been for spring applications of lime and sulphur washes. This has in fact, been a most successful treatment, but the use of lead arsenate against the twig-borer of the peach is destined to meet with equal popularity when its efficiency, cost, and convenience of preparation and application are considered. FIELD ENTOMOLOGIST. 9 The peach twig-borer is one of the most important pests to the peach growers of Western Colorado. All of the peach spraying car¬ ried on in the Grand Valley the past spring was directed against either the peach aphis or the peach twig-borer. It is estimated that this pest cost the peach growers of California over a million dollars in the four years following 1898. To the grow¬ ers of Grand Valley it has cost much loss for some years past, and its distribution on the Western Slope of the state seems to be quite gen¬ eral wherever peaches are grown. Life History and Injury —The injury is caused by a small pinkish brown worm, with black head, measuring, when fully grown, about one-half inch long. The worm is the larval or immature stage of a small greyish moth. The winter is passed by the larvae, still very minute, in small chambers hollowed out within the spongy tissue of the bark at the crotches of small limbs. The chamber is lined with silk of the larva’s secretion, and the only evidence of the presence of the chamber is in a very small and inconspicuous heap of frass or peach-wood dust standing outward from the mouth of the burrow. Early in the spring, at about the same time the foliage of the peach show 1 ? as small green tufts upon the twig tips, the larvae leave their burrows and attack the. tender twigs, boring into them near their tips and down through their pitch, forming galleries from one-third to one and one-half inch in length. Examinations of infested peach trees at Palisade last spring showed these bored twigs wilting and. turning brown early in the month of May. Later in the season, twigs bearing half a dozen leaf tufts near their tips would have each bored and killed and from all appearances by the same larvae. This injury to the terminal twigs constitute an important injury to the tree. Young peach trees are usually worst infested, their growth being sometimes greatly retarded. On the 18th of May a number of larvae were taken in peach twigs at Palisade and kept in water in a closed cage at my insectary. An examination of the cage May 24 showed that two of the larvae had already changed to brown chrysalids or pupae, both emerging on May 28. On May 20 many larvae were also found concealed about the base of the tree at the surface of the earth and hiding about the bark, and it seems that at this date the majority of the larvae, which hibernated over winter in the small bark cavities, have now completed their feeding on the twigs and are descending for pupation. As stated, the usual habit of the first or hibernating brood of larvae is to burrow into the twigs. A few instances were "found, however, where small peaches, still no larger than a pea, were burrowed into, leaving the fruit with a hollow cavity within. The small second generation worms were seen beginning their work early in June. It is this generation which brings about another and by far the greater amount of injury to the peach crop. Larvae from this generation make their way directly into the forming peach 10 COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION. itself, and the “gummy” peach is the result. Projecting bits or masses of exuded gum appear on the surface, and from their appear¬ ance and impaired keeping qualities they are rendered unfit for mar¬ ket. Some peaches containing larvae of the twig-borer find their way into boxes to be marketed on account of having the borer deep in the peach or within the pit without external signs of habitation. Such fruit, however, is first to soften and decay, and should be ex¬ cluded, if possible. Control —At Grand Junction last spring I received many inquir¬ ies from peach growers as to the best measures of twig-borer control. So far as published accounts were available, contact insecticides, such as kerosene emulsion or lime and sulfur wash, were the ones considered most effective. The previous spring Mr. Frank Berger, of Palisade, and a few other growers of that place, had used arse¬ nate of lead as a spring spraying, instead of the lime and sulfur wash ordinarily used, and reported no injury from twig-borer follow¬ ing. As none of these orchards had portions left with no spray, I could not determine for certainty whether the favorable results re¬ ported by these orchardists was due to the effectiveness of the spray or to the lack of original infestation by the twig-borer. To determine this it seemed necessary to prove the value of the arsenical spray by an experiment carried on in an orchard where a considrable portion was left untreated, which was done in the five- year-old peach orchard of ninety-two trees belonging to Mr. S. L. Carson, at Palisade, where a portion was sprayed with arsenate of lead, another with the lime and sulfur wash, and a third part left with no spray. The arsenate of lead was used at the rate of 5 pounds of the paste to 50 gallons of water. The lime and sulfur wash was used at the rate of 15 pounds lump lime and 15 pounds flowers of sulfur per 50 gallons of water, the two ingredients being boiled together in a small amount of water for forty-five minutes, then diluted with enough cold water to make fifty gallons of spray. The spraying was done with a hand pump and sprayed trees thoroughly coated over all bark and twig surface. The two sprays, as applied, were of about equal cost—each a trifle over 1 cent per gallon, exclu¬ sive of cost of preparation. The arsenate of lead spray was far less inconvenient, and was quicker in preparation, and was also more pleasant to prepare and apply. The spraying was done on April 14, at which time the majority of the blossom buds showed their pink tips, but as a rule were un¬ opened, with the essential parts of the blossom still concealed by the folded petals of the flower. Some varieties, however, in each plat were farther advanced and some with as many as 87 per cent of the blossoms open. The comparative insecticidal values of the two sprays were ap¬ parent through the season from the number of injured twigs per tree, and also from the number of gummy peaches per tree occur¬ ring upon each plat. FIELD ENTOMOLOGIST. „ . A striking difference was apparent when the number of injured twigs per tiee weie bi ought into comparison by observations made in May and shown in the following table: A COMPARISON BETWEEN LIME AND SULFUR WASH AND ARSENATE OF LEAD AGAINST PEACH TWIG-BORER. Spray. Date Spray¬ ed. No. trees spray¬ ed. No. trees exam¬ ined. Date exam¬ ined. ] t Total No. injur¬ ed twigs count¬ ed. Aver¬ age No. in¬ jured twigs per tree. Per Cent. Ben¬ efit. Conclusions. Lime and Sulfur.... 14 Apr. 38 17 9-18 My 72 4.23 90 Good. Arsenate of Lead.. 14 Apr. 3d 16 »( 20 1.25 97 Better. Check . No spray 18 8 C6 342 42.75 0 Circumstances prevented the keeping of an exact record of the number of wormy peaches taken from each plat, but a very notice¬ able difference was noted at time of picking—a difference quite as marked and corresponding in results with the figures shown in the above table. In fact, the owner of the orchard invariably picked the wormy peaches from the plat not treated and found scarcely any fruit damaged in either of the plats sprayed. It may be said that arsenate of lead, applied in the spring at the time the buds of the peach are beginning to open, will control the peach twig-borei as effectually and cheaply as the lime and sulfur wash, up to this time the most universally used. Any arsenate of lead spray applied to peach trees must not contain free arsenic, as they are easily damaged by impure lead or lead di¬ luted with watei to contain too high a per cent of the poison, though puie. Groweis using 3 pounds lead per 50 gallons water were equally successful, and from the susceptibility of peach to injury, this latter strength is recommended, instead of the stronger spray used in the experiment reported above. PEACH-BORER. (Sanninoidea exitiosa Say.) Disttibution This dangerous insect has been found present in some peach orchards of the Western Slope. Our species is the same as the one found in Eastern states, causing such widespread damage to peach trees. It is evidently a pest which has come into the orchards along with nursery stock brought to us from some infested part of our country Injury and Life History —The injury is one resulting from the burrowing of a yellowish-white larva, which, when fully grown, some¬ times measures one and one-fourth inches in length. Signs’of the presence of the borer are the gummy exudations coming from the crown of the tree at the top of the ground. Infested trees examined early in the summer showed larvae of sizes varying from one-fourth to one and one-fourth inches in length. Some small larvae were then barely concealed beneath the peach gum on the outer bark. 12 COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION. Other larger larvae were within extensive chambers, extending up and down through the wood, sometimes an inch beneath the bark. Trees badly infested are completely girdled and killed. The insects'spend the winter as larvae, and in the early summer change to pupae within a brown cocoon or cell from seven-eighths to one inch long by one- fourth to five-sixteenths inch in diameter, usually projecting into or from the gummy mass at the base of the tree. The first pupa was found formed within these cocoons on the 15th of June, though the majority were being formed about the middle of July. The pupae yield moths, the female of which are of a blackish-brown color, with partially transparent wings and a black body, circled at about the middle with a beautiful orange band. The males are smaller and more slender than the females and have a number of smaller, less conspicuous bands of yellow about the abdominal segments and with more nearly transparent wings. The first moths appeared on July 6, though the maximum number were not appearing until about August 11, a singular fact, since these moths are known to come out in greatest numbers in New York state and at Washington, D. C., from one and one-half to two months earlier in the season. Eggs are laid upon the rough bark about the crown of the tree. The eggs, when laid, are oval and of a brown color. Large numbers are deposited by each female. On August 6, a single female gave by dissection about 400 eggs, 250 of the number at that date being brownish in color and well formed, while 150 were white and still embryonic in nature. Experiments Begun —Its importance made it seem advisable to test remedial measures, and various old and some new methods of combatting the pest were begun in June, and the final results are still pending. Following are the measures under comparison in the experiment: (1) Carbon bisulfide, 1 ounce per tree about crown. (2) Tobacco dust, 2 pounds per tree about crown. (3) Tarred felt and wire shields about base of tree. (4) Lime dust, 2 pounds to 4 pounds per tree about base of tree. (5) Dirt removed and larvae removed by hand. (6) Banking earth about tree’s base. (7) Tree washes. (8) Trees not treated in same orchard to be used as comparison. GREEN APHIS OF APPLE. {Aphis pomi.) Importance —The unusual abundance of this aphid the past sea¬ son upon apple and occasionally upon pear on the Western Slope has made it necessary to make observations upon and carry out in¬ secticidal tests against it. Life History —The green aphis winters as eggs upon the twigs of the tree, and the past spring a very large per cent withstood the winter. They began hatching about Grand Junction about April I, continuing for two weeks or more. The young hatched at about the same time the first traces of green foliage appeared, and thus found tender food upon which to feed at once. FIELD ENTOMOLOGIST. i 3 In the latter part of Apiil winged insects appeared and a general spreading of the pest from tree to tree and orchard to orchard took place. Multiplication was enormously rapid. The injury continued to increase in severity through the summer. Lace wings and syr- phus fly larvae, as well as the adults and larvae of lady beetles, served to do much good later in the season, but did not succeed in reducing the aphids enough to prevent great injury. Eggs of the green aphis were first found in the fall at Grand Junction on October 16. When first laid, the eggs are green, but finally turn to a glistening black. Injury —They have been a great hindrance to the growth of young apple trees set the past spring or the preceding year, and older trees have not been exempt from their attacks. Missouri Pippin apples of all ages have suffered heavily, the aphis apparently preferring this variety to any other common in the Valley of the Grand. Badly infested trees through the summer present a most disgusting ap¬ pearance, the aphids becoming so numerous that the whole tree as¬ sumes a sticky coating of the secretion from the bodies of the insect. This “honey dew” secretion attracts swarms of flies and ants, and the trees often emit a very disagreeable odor. The effect upon the tree, if young, is a severe retarding of its growth. A form of injury noted this season, thought to be due to this insect, was an odd and greatly deformed growth of the fruit itself. Nero and Winesap apples were found affected in this way. The young apples, when only from one-fourth to one-half inch in diameter, had been so thickly covered with aphids that their growth had been suddenly checked. Later on, their growth had been re¬ sumed principally from the outer end of the apple, producing what might be called a “double apple,” with a constriction at the middle point. Other apples were caused to grow in greatly gnarled or knotted forms. All were greatly dwarfed in size, seventeen Winesap apples at harvest time being contained, in one instance, within a common match box. Treatment —Trees heavily infested had their leaves tightly curled, due to the presence of myriads of the aphids upon their under surfaces.' With the aphids thus concealed within the curled leaves, it was found almost impossible to cover their bodies with any contact spray ap¬ plied, and the practice of summer spraying against them was any¬ thing but a success. Individual trees were, in cases, cleared up, but other trees near by and left untreated usually very soon reinfested them. Spring and early winter treatments were also carried out in experiments against this insect. The spring spraying was directed against the eggs of the pest and gave the best promise of its successful control. In an experi¬ ment with a number of contact sprays applied April 5, just after the eggs had begun to hatch, it was found that the lime and sulfur wash proved the most successful. In this instance, 15 pounds of lime and 15 pounds of sulfur per 50 gallons of water were used, and practically all of the eggs and hatched aphids were destroyed. 14 COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION. In December, kerosene emulsion and soluble petroleum sprays were given egg-covered trees, and the per cent of eggs destroyed at time of hatching this spring will be determined. Further experi¬ ments for the control of this pest are planned, including a large series on contact insecticides to be used this spring. WOOLLY APHIS. ( Schizoneura lanigera.) Importance —Probably more important to the fruit growers of Western Colorado than the green aphis is the woolly aphis of the apple. The past season this pest has ranked second only to the cod¬ ling moth in destructiveness in the Grand Valley, and has been of first importance in other counties of the Western Slope. Life History —Many lived through the winter upon the roots of the apples, and a few survived the winter upon the branches above ground. During the winter of 1905-06 the • temperature at Grand Junction, according to the United States Weather Station, did not drop as low as the zero point, and the unusually mild winter perhaps had much to do in the great abundance of the insect this past summer. In May many of the aphids above ground had already secreted their woolly coverings of white, and in cases heavily infested the water sprouts about the base of the-tree. By the month of July, countless myriads of them were to be seen crawling over all parts of the tree and fruit, as well as upon the ground through the orch¬ ards. Winged ones were noted first at Fruita September 6. Parasites —Parasites have done some service in helping to keep in control the pest, but have not been abundant enough to reduce the number of insects to a point below injury. Lace wing and syr- phus-fly larvae, as well as adults and larvae of lady beetles, have been most prominent in preying upon this aphis. Some observations upon the habits and life history of these parasites have been made. Injury —Roots and tops were attacked throughout the season, the twigs being sometimes entirely coated with the woolly secretion cov¬ ering the bodies of the insects. Such infested twigs were greatly dwarfed, the bark on the twigs caused to split and grow in a gnarled and misshapen form. The "honey dew” secretion from the insects in some cases coated over the peeling of the fruit itself, leaving the surface so sticky and discolored that apples were disgusting in ap¬ pearance and most unpleasant to handle. Grafts and top-worked trees suffered most heavily in the spring, and their injury continued through the summer. So thick were the insects upon the branches that apple pickers working in the trees had their clothing covered with crushed bodies and the white secretion of the insect. Roots about the crown of the trees were gnarled and knotted, resulting in the dwarfing of the trees, the production of undersized fruit, and, in exaggerated cases, the outright destruction of the trees themselves. Experiments in Progress —Summer sprays, as with the green aphis, where the infestation was so severe and so general through the orchards, proved of small practical value. FIELD ENTOMOLOGIST. V/ > This pest is of such importance that careful and exhaustive ex S »S“« .!.«m aeiay. in the fall and early winter a lone list of inserH- Cl es were applied to infested trees, and the list will be duplicated this coming spring, and it is hoped that by the comm- fan some practical suggestions upon an effective method of controfof the nest may be reported. Tobacco and carbon bisulfide upon the roots of the rees, and kerosene emulsion, whale oil soap, and tobacco decoct on byTrchardTe,TTh" ^ ^ the , P revio ' ls Prices of SS o-iw u™ i , h measures, soluble petroleum sprays, tree tan- ough trkl and many ° ther methods of contro1 will be given thor- A NEW INJURY TO PEAR AND APPLE BUDS Description— On the 4 th of May, an injury to buds of near on Att f nf P aC f d o nt ° P 6ar u° Cks about one month'earlier was observed ; ttention to the injury had been called by the owner of the -rafted trees, who had observed that his grafts, which should have been starting readily off into growth, were being held back by some insect grow! apparent y was eatln S awa y the buds as soon as they started to Examination on May 4 showed the injury to be caused bv a tinv chrysomehd beetle ( Myochrous squamosus LeC.) greyish-brown in color and less than one-fourth inch long. No published accounts of TlTtf Li 1 ” 5 kind from this beetle have been found, and it is prob- he^ Ip ha T f 118 ob , servatl °" of mjmy is the first recorded against the etle. It caused enough trouble, however, to require some remdial measures Unless something had been done greater damage would have resulted, and, as it was, some of the attacked grafts were de- stroyed by having all buds eaten away. The beetles were discovered about the bases of the grafted pear trees, hiding beneath clods and in crevices of the earth. The principal injury was done to pear buds, though specimens were also taken ee mg upon the buds of apple borne by twigs near the ground. nni et rLTu r6 K t foUn , d beneath cIods about the apples. Not only did the beetles attack the buds upon grafts, but they were found eating into the pear leaf and fruit buds high up into the tree In one instance, a beetle was watched eating away the petals of an open p ear btossom. Search was made about the trees for a weed or plant which could have served as a natural food plant for either adult or larvse, but none was found. As many as a dozen beetles were in cases, collected about the grafts of a single small tree or about'the base of the tree. The injury continued through the month of May and beetles kept in cages at my insectary were kept alive through the month. of June. Many of the beetles were found floating on the water in irrigating ditches late in May, and later adults were taken hiding beneath bands placed upon trees to capture codling moth larvse. Control Several measures of control were suggested or used. A spray of arsenate of lead applied to the buds was tried and thought to have been of considerable benefit. The owner of the orchard prac- l6 COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION. ticed hand picking of the beetles, but the process would be entirely impracticable upon any number of trees. The winged beetle ap¬ peared to be more of a crawling insect than a flying one, which sug¬ gested the possibility of protecting young grafts by placing bands of “Tree Tanglefoot” or other adhesive bands about the tree trunks to keep the beetles from ascending in the spring. MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS. A great many other injuries to fruit or field crops by insects, rodents, etc., were observed through the season. . \ pink-bodied aphis of undetermined species was found doing con¬ siderable damage to peach buds, blossoms, and young fruit early in the spring. Specimens were first seen April 13, at which time peaches were showing first bloom. The larger, flat-bodied, pinkish aphis first observed gives birth to young, which cluster about the blossoms and about the forming peaches, still very small sucking f F 0 ^ sap and causing many to fall to the ground. Later m the season, peach leaves are curled up by the aphids, but all seem to d jsappw late in May. The injury is thus done early in the season at the time fruit is setting. Application of the lime and sulfur wash just before the buds open is suggested as a means of control, and this and ot e measures of treatment will be tried in an experimental way the com- • • Observations were also made upon aphids infesting plums, elms, Injuries to cantaloupes were noted, caused by leaf miners, the common red ant of the prairies, and prairie dogs. In some orchards the green fruit worm caused injury to from io to 25 per cent of the young forming apples, but in orchards receiving proper codling moth spraying the injury is much less severe or reduced beneath A pear leaf blister mite, probably of a different species from that causing the injury in Eastern States, was observed in great num¬ bers through the summer, causing the blackened curling of the pear leaves at the tip of the twigs, as well as producing minute blisters upon the leaves and causing them to drop from the trees prema¬ turely. It is thought that a late spring spray with the lime and sul¬ fur wash will also control this pest. . , Other orchard pests observed, studied, or experimented upon in attempt at control were the buffalo tree hopper, tent caterpillar, hawk moth larvae, grasshoppers, thrips, brown mite, pear and cherry slug, terrapin scale, Putnam scale, and numerous parasitic or preda- cbus insects doing beneficial service in the orchards. Bulletin 120 July 1907 The Agricultural Experiment Station -OF THE- Colorado Agricultural College The Howard Scale ESTES P. TAYLOR PUBLISHED BY THE EXPERIMENT STATION Fort Collins, Colorado I The Agricultural Experiment Station. FORT COLLINS, COLORADO THE STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE TERM EXPIRES Hon. JAMES L. CHATFIELD. Hon. B. U. DYE. Hon. B. F. ROCKAFELLOW, President Hon. E. H. GRUBB. Hon. R. W. CORWIN. Hon. A. A. EDWARDS. Hon. F. E. BROOKS. Hon. J. L. BRUSH. Gypsum.1909 Rocky Ford.1909 Canon City.1911 Carbondale.1911 Pueblo..1913 Fort Collins.1913 Colorado Springs.. .1915 . Greeley.1915 Governor HENRY A. BUCHTEL, ) ~ . President BARTON O. AYLESWORTH, ) ex -°JJ lC10 A. M. HAWLEY, Secretary EDGAR AVERY Treasurer Executive Committee in Charge B. F. ROCKAFELLOW, Chairman. A. A. EDWARDS. B. U. DYE. STATION STAFF L. G. CARPENTER, M. S., Director .Irrigation Engineer C. P. GILLETTE, M. S....Entomologist W. P. HEADDEN, A. M., Ph. D .Chemist WENDELL PADDOCK, M. S.Horticulturist W. L. CARLYLE, M. S. .. .Agriculturist G. H. GLOVER, M. S., D.V. M .Veterinarian W. H. OLIN, M. S.,.*.Agronomist R. E. TRIMBLE, B. S .Assistant Irrigation Engineer F. C. ALFORD, M. S ..Assistant Chemist EARL DOUGLASS, M. S .Assistant Chemist S. ARTHUR JOHNSON, M. S . .Assistant Entomologist B. O. LONGYEAR, B. S . Assistant Horticulturist E. B. HOUSE, M. S .Assistant Irrigation Engineer F. KNORR .Assistant Agronomist P. K. BLINN, B. S .Field Agent, Arkansas Valley, Rocky Ford E. R. BENNETT, B. S ..Potato Investigations Western Slope Fruit Investigations, Grand Junction: O. B. WHIPPLE, B. S .Field Horticulturist E. P. TAYLOR, B. S.Field Entomologist OFFICERS President BARTON O. AYLESWORTH, A. M., LL. D. L. G. CARPENTER, M. S. Director A. M. HAWLEY. Secretary A^UUP MURRA Y. Clerk THE HOWARD SCALE. Jlspidiotus howardi C/^II. -by- ESTES P. TAYLOR. INTRODUCTION. The extensive injury wrought in parts of the State of Colorado to pear, prune, plum and other fruit and shade trees by this insect makes it one of especial interest to the horticultural industry at this particular time. Further, the pest is the nearest ally of San Jose or Chinese Scale, well known as the most destructive of all fruit tree enemies.* The Howard Scale is one of peculiar importance to fruit growers of this state since its first discovery was made in Colorado and fruit growers of no other state as yet consider the pest with the same degree of interest. So far as is known, two states only, Colorado and New Mexico, harbor this insect. The history of the insect is all of comparatively recent date. It was first discovered by Prof. C. P. Gillette at Canon City, on August 31, 1894, upon the fruit and bark of prune and wild plum. These first specimens were sent to Dr. L. O. Howard of the Bureau of Ento¬ mology, U. S. Department of Agriculture and to Prof. T. D. A. Cock¬ erell, then of the New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station, but now of the State University of Colorado at Boulder. Dr. Howard pronounced the insect a new species and Professor Cockerell applied to it the name Howard scale.* Professor Cockerell later encountered the scale at Albuquerque, New Mexico, in August, 1895, upon the fruit of silver prune which determination was verified by Mr. Pergande of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, from material furnished him. The next published mention of it is from Professor Gillette in the Annual Report of the Experiment Station for 1901 when he reported its occurrence for the first time upon fruit trees of the Western Slope. Mr. H. E. Mathews, horticultural inspector for Delta county had, during that season, sent specimens of the scale taken from pear and * A most exhaustive and complete treatise on “The San Jose or Chi¬ nese Scale” has recently been issued by Mr. C. L. Marlatt as Bulletin No. 62 , Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture. This bulletin should be in the hands of every Colorado fruit grower. It may be had by applica¬ tion to the U. S. Dept, of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. * The original description was published in Canadian Entomologist,. XXVII p. 16 ( 1895 ). Prof. Wilmon Newell published, in 1899 , from Iowa, Contributions from Dept, of Zoology and Entomology, No. 3 Iowa State College, an article upon “The North American Species of the Sub-genera DiaspicLiotus and Hemiberlisia. of the genus Aspidtous ” including Prof. . Cockerell's original description of A. howardi Ckll. and giving as its habitat Colorado and New Mexico. More recently it has been given posi¬ tion in “Tables for the Identification of Rocky. Mountain Coccidae” (scale insects and mealy bugs), published by Prof. Cockerell. 4 THE COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION plum trees severely attacked. In the report for 1902 Professor Gil¬ lette reported his discovery of it upon the leaves of white ash trees in Denver. Though the insect has been previously reported in various ento¬ mological publications, and notes have been given upon habits and portions of its life history, nothing, up to the present bulletin, has been published upon its control. In Mesa county the Howard scale was found, by the writer, to be doing much damage. It was found in practically all localities where its food plants were known and at elevations above sea level varying from something over 4,000 feet to nearly 7,000 feet. Dr. S. M. Bradbury, horticultural inspector for Mesa county, reports that what he has taken to be Howard ScaT has been known in the Grand \ r alley as a pest upon pears and other fruits since they were first grown here. In many instances fruit growers observing the infestation of their trees by a scale insect had suspected the presence of San lose scale, while others supposed it to be the Putnam scale common in other states upon certain shade and fruit trees. The fruit growers and fruit growers’ associations of the Grand valley have given hearty co-operation in offering their orchards and mater.als for experimentation and otherwise aiding in bringing new data to light. Also acknowledgements are due members of the Bureau of Entomology at Washington for cuts furnished and determinations made; to Miss Miriam A. Palmer, entomological artist, of the Experi¬ ment Station for original drawings of the insect, and to Professor Gil¬ lette for valuable suggestions and much special assistance given. FOOD PLANTS. Notwithstanding the occurrence of this insect upon shade as well as fruit trees it is primarily an economic pest of the latter. In my •observations it has been taken upon the following fruit trees: pear, prune, plum, almond, apple and peach. By far the greatest injury has been done to pear and by many orchardists it is popularly called the ‘'pear scale.” Bartlett pears seem to be most commonly infested of varieties grown in Colorado. Certain varieties of fruit will often become heavily infested and require spraying long before sorts more nearly immune show any noticeable number of the scales. Next to the near, the prunes and plums seem to be the most suscep¬ tible. It seems that Wild Goose and other varieties of American plums show infestation more generally than the Japanese varieties. Silver prune trees are often found encrusted. Almonds, though grown to a limited extent in Western Colorado, seem to be quite susceptible to its ravages. It is rather the exception than the rule to find apples attacked. A singular preference is shown, however, for the Grimes Golden. Scores of instances have been noted where trees of this variety show infestation and other varieties growing near by are totally exempt. THE HOWARD SCALE 5 Slight infestation has also been found upon Bailey Sweet, White Winter Pippin, Snow and Jeneton. Peach trees are practically exempt, probably only becoming slightly infested when standing very close to other varieties which are more commonly attacked. This is of rare occurrence, peaches and most varieties of apples being practically uninjured by the insect—a singu¬ lar fact in consideration that the San Jose scale is most destructive to peaches and apples. Numerous cases are known of its existence upon native plum trees growing in the state. Of the shade trees re¬ ported infested, we have the white ash and the maple, the latter reported by Professor Cockerell. From its appearance only in the two states named it seems prob¬ able that it originally lived upon native trees or plants and found suitable food upon the fruit trees planted adjacent to them in recent years. NATURE OF DAMAGE. Injuries from this insect are seen in the dwarfing of the trees robbed of their sap. crack'ng the bark, killing the tree outright, and in an unsightly pitting of the surface of the fruit with discoloration about the points of scale attachment. Upon the greener portion of the pears, the side shaded during growth, this reddening is more noticeable than upon the sun-exposed side. Some of the pits or inden¬ tures contain single scales and some bear clusters of several. In the case of yellow-skinned plums these reddened blotches about the scale are most noticeable and objectionable. With dark colored plums,, prunes and pears, the scales appear as many small white specks scat¬ tered over the surface (plate I, fig. V). With the pear, deep pits are also found in the skin, with Bartletts some of these measure nearly one-fourth inch deep and as wide across at the top. (See plate I, figs. V. and VI). More often the scales are grouped into clusters about the calyx or stem end of the fruit. All fruit so injured is excluded from the fancy grades and placed in the cheaper ones if not rejected entirely. Early descriptions of the insect gave it as a pest principally upon the fruit instead of the tree. The tendency to infest the fruit is perhaps greater than with other closely related scale insects, but the attack is also directed to bark, twigs and leaves. A marked ten¬ dency is shown for the insects to crowd outward to the tips of the branches where the bark is more easily pierced by them or where more succulent and tender tissue such as leaves or fruit is available. When the twigs become heavily infested with the scales they may almost hide the bark as shown in the prune twig in plate I, fig. IV. If allowed to go unchecked upon trees most susceptible to their attack, the result will be a complete coating over the bark with an incrustation of the bodies of the insects and their scale secretions. Trees allowed to remain in this condition might be completely killed, and would bear only scale-covered fruit and eaves. The fruit would be quite unmar¬ ketable and the leaves, browned and impoverished by their sap sucking 6 THE COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION parasites, would drop from the trees prematurely. Before spraying became generally adopted in the Grand Valley, the products of whole pear orchards were rendered unmarketable. DESCRIPTION AND LIFE HISTORY. This scale belongs to that class of insects receiving their food by sucking the juices of the plants to which they are attached. Having no mouth parts with which to chew their food, stomach poisons or arsenical sprays are without value applied to them. They must be controlled by contact sprays. They are of minute size and many times when but moderately abundant upon trees escape notice except by the trained observer. Every fruit grower should acquaint himself with the appearance of the pest and, if possible, be able to distinguish it from its nearest relatives. This will not always be possible for the average orchardist and it will be advisable to send samples of scale insects found upon the trees to the entomologist of the Agricultural Experiment Station, for determination. This should be done to avoid the mistake of maintaining more dangerous forms of insects which might be introduced by chance. The figures of Plate 2 show the insect drawn from life, but enlarged, represent its various stages, de¬ tails of structure and general appearance and will aid in the deter¬ mination of the species. The male is the only form bearing wings and it is winged only upon becoming adult. All females and the males throughout the greater part of the year spend their lives attached and immovable upon the bark, leaves or fruit and it is during this time that the damage to the host plant is done. It is during this period of their lives that the hard, scaly coating forms over them as a protecting covering. The scales are secretions from the body of the insect concealed beneath. A short period is spent by both sexes crawling over the surface of the tree or its fruit before settling down for feeding. This period ,of but a few days duration at most, follows the hatching of the young from eggs deposited beneath the scales. At this time the very minute insects are scattered over the infested bark, appearing to the naked eye as mere specks of yellow orange dust. They are much smaller than newly born young San Jose scale. For so small an insect they are very active. One under observation traversed a distance of one-half inch in one minute. When it finally settles down it inserts its beak through the epidermis of the plant and, if a female, from that time to its death does not move. If a male, it remains stationary through its development to the adult and then equipped with wings, comes out from beneath its covering for the fertilization of the full grown females still beneath their scales. When first attaching itself to the bark the secretion of the scaly covering commences. The newly settled individuals appear as very small white specks, as at that time the white fibers of the secretion have not yet become matted together nor assumed the darker hues. The female scale in developing assumes a circular outline and lies slightly convex upon the surface. Individually when matured, it is of a pale THE HOWARD SCALE 7 grayish color, much lighter than the partially matured or even fully grown female of San Jose scale. The female insect when fully grown is, in diameter considerably less than the head of a common pin. She is orange-yellow in color, and broadly pyriform or pear-shaped. It is only through a higher power of the microscope that the char¬ acteristic markings at the tip of the abdomen (Plate 2, figs. I and II). distinguishing this insect from such close relatives as the Putman or San Jose scales, can be observed. The male scales are more elongate than the female scales, being oval in outline and often much darker in color. The male insects when fully grown and emerged are winged, of very minute size, and pale yellowish brown in color with black eyes which show plainly in the developing pupa while still beneath the scale. The chief difference in the general appearance of Howard scale from its nearest allies is in the distinct pallidness of many of the scales.* Badly infested trees have a grayish appearance over their bark much as if a layer of ashes covered the tree. When rubbed, this gives the surface a greasy or buttery appearance caused by the crushing of the bodies of myriads of the yellowish parasites which had been se¬ creted beneath their grayish armors. Orchardists should be able to detect their presence long before the infestation has reached this stage. At first appearance, individual scales upon the bark will exhibit only inconspicuous grayish dots. If upon the branches of the apple, these dots will be surrounded by reddened areas in the bark, which will be noticed before the insect is seen. If upon the twigs of fruit . trees other than apple these reddened blotches in the bark will be less noticeable. > The winter is spent as immature insects. On March 19, in the spring of 1906, some female scales were found well grown and pale gray to dark brown in color. Others among these were smaller in size, some circular and some oval in outline. All smaller sized scales near their centers showed a whitish area, in some cases dusky gray. In the center of the white area which occupied about one-third of the surface of the scale covering, a small whitish nipple was seen sur¬ rounded by a rather shallow or indistinct furrow or ring. Both ring and nipple were much less conspicuous than in the case of San Jose scale at this stage. On account of the weathering, most of them showed their summits as smooth or bald areas reddish or orange in color. The oval male scales were found to yield adults as early as April *The original description of the insect as published by Prof. Cockerell in Can. Ent. XXVII p. 16 , 1895 . is as follows: Aspidiotus howardi n. sp.-—Female scale, circular, flat, about iy 2 mm. diam., pale grayish with a slight reddish tinge; exuviae sublateral, covered, dull orange secretion over exuvie easily rubbed off Female broadly pyriform, orange; margin of terminal portion thick¬ ened, very finely striate showing a violet color in some lights. Plates spine¬ like, spai ingly branched. Median lobes very large and prominent, close together but not contiguous, obliquely truncate, slightly crenate. Second pair of lobes small, broad and low. Third pair practically obsolete. There are conspicuous wax ducts. See Plate 2 , Fig. ia. 8 THE COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION 3 in the orchard, at which time several winged specimens were seen in process of fertilizing the matured females. Examination of infested trees at Grand Junction, February 9, 1907, showed the male larvae beneath the scales already with their black eyes apparent. No pupae were yet formed. Material taken indoors upon twigs has yielded males as early as February 22. The males seemingly emerge throughout the greater part of the summer. Early in June many newly hat:hed insects of both sexes were beginning to crawl actively over the bark. By June 9 many had set¬ tled down, thickly covering the bark with the early summer brood. Some were upon the small pears also and .others were seen upon the upper and lower leaf surfaces. Many at this date had well developed scale coverings already secreted over them. Oval eggs, pale yellow and with blunt ends, were found,showing the females to be oviparous rather than viviparous as in the case of the San Jose scale. The exact time required for hatching is evidently short for through the summer are usually to be seen from one to a dozen minute yellowish-orange colored and newly hatched young.beneath each of these scale coverings along with small clusters of eggs. In cases, no eggs but only dusters of the very minute young, are to be found beneath the female scales and it has been suggested by Professor Gillette that they are occasionally born living. In Western Colorado it is probable that at least three and perhaps four generations are developed during the season, including those living through the winter in an immature stage. These generations, however, greatly overlap one another making a continuous succession of individuals appearing throughout the season. MEANS OF DISTRIBUTION. The most common method of distribution of scale insects over long distances is well known to result from the shipment of infested nursery stock. Since almost all of the new orchard plantings within the state are of nursery stock from states free from this pest, and as little nursery stock is shipped away at present, this phase of the question does not appear to be of any particular consequence. The local transmission of the insect is largely dependent upon outside forces as the only time during which the female has power of locomotion is for the short period from its hatching beneath the scale covering to the time it settles down to feed at a fixed point upon the plant. This interval of activity is, however, of short dura¬ tion and no great distance can be traversed in the time by so small an insect. Except for dispersal over single trees the insect must depend upon outside agencies in spreading. Such agencies are the wind, other crawling and flying insects upon the trees, as ants and lady beetles, birds and chickens or live stock at large in orchards. Irrigation ditches evidently transport the minute active individuals which have been blown or washed from infested trees. It is also likely that the common operations of the orchard, such as cultivation. l’J.ATK I 10 THE COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION pruning- and picking of fruit serve, to some extent, to carry the movable ones from one tree to another. The effect of an infested orchard in infesting surrounding orchards is one of the most serious phases of the problem. On account of this scale spreading so slowly, it is noteworthy that well directed efforts of control are likely to be followed by quicker and more last¬ ing results than when orchardists wage warfare against more active insects. Howard scale parasite, Prospalta anrantii How., greatly enlarged. After L. O. Howard, Bur. of Ent., Washington, D. C. NATURAL ENEMIES. In a count made upon badly infested pear trees March 19, 1906, of a large number of scales, about 31 per cent contained no living insect. This did not, however, correctly represent the natural mortality of the insects due to weathering. Some of the dead scales resulted from parasitic or predatory insects. Early in June and again in the month of August adults of an interesting little bee parasite were observed. Specimens were deter¬ mined as Prospalta aurantu How., and the observation according to Dr. L. O. Howard is the first record of the parasite infesting "this insect. The minute bee develops within the body of the insect and eats a small round hole through the scale where it makes its escape. Dr. Howard reports that th's parasitic bee has been reared from San Jose scale and is effective against nine other species of scale insects common in different parts of the United States. A cut of the adult parasite is shown, greatly enlarged, in Fig. 1. Adult and larvae of a common lady beetle, Chilocorus bivulnerus, also played some part in the destruction of the scale. The beetles winter as adults and have been seen as early as February crawling over the bark performing their useful work. Adults of the beetle have shiny black outer wings each bearing a beautiful spot of red. The beetle in its various stages is shown in Fig 2. Last summer small spiders were observed destroying the newly hatched scale insects upon infested pear trees. Webs spun across the PLATE II t2 THE COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION calyx end of pears were found filled with the wings and remains of male scale insects which had been entrapped and destroyed. Unpro¬ tected female insects were also found to have formed a portion of the spider s food, though those protected by scales were apparently unmo¬ lested. FIGI RM 2 Lwice-s-tabbed lady-beetle, Chilocorus bivu'nerua, larva, pupa and adult natural size. After Bu eau of Entomology, Washington, D. C. Natural enemies, though very useful, do not usually succeed in reducing this pest to a degree making spraying unnecessary. REMEDIES. Experiments in Mesa County.— The first spraying aga’nst this insect in Mesa county, according to the statements of local fruit grow¬ ers, was about six years ago when the finding of “scaly” fruit called the attention of the growers to the necessity of steps toward control. The first material used seems to have been sprays of whale oil soap. These sprays, though expensive and inconvenient, proved fairly efficient in the hands of growers thorough in their methods and careful in pre¬ paring the mixture. At the time of the writer's first examination of pear orchards in the Grand Valley many were found which had been most successfully treated with the lime-sulfur-salt spray. Great va¬ riety of opinion existed regarding the method of preparation, the proper formulas and the best way and time in which to apply the spray. Sufficient difference of opinion existed to make spraying experiments advisable. Accordingly the pear orchard of Mr. Ray D. Garrison, east of Grand Junction, well suited to the experiment was selected and given treatment with the permission and co-operation of the owner. The orchard consisted of about 200 medium sized trees, of Bartlett, Clapp's Favorite, P. de Esta, Buerre de Anjou and Flemish Beauty varieties, the last being largely left untreated the pre¬ vious year and now thickly covered by the scale. The spraying was done April 3, 5 and 6, 1906, just before the opening of the fruit buds, and a thorough coating was given to all parts of the tree. Upon all plats spraying was done with the same degree of thoroughness. The insecticides used were variations of the lime and sulfur washes, kero¬ sene-lime emulsion prepared by combining kerosene with lime, and scalecide. Scalecide is an oil treated chemically so that it may be mixed with cold water without separation. It is a commercial product and is sim- THE HOWARD SCALE 13 pie to prepare for spraying. It requires no special manipulation and is pleasant to apply. Scalecide was sprayed upon trees in another orchard and gave most promising results. The kerosene-lime emulsion proved a failure, as too great difficulty was encountered in mixing the materials. The lime and sulfur sprays were, from, all standpoints, most satis¬ factory. They were used in the experiment as follows: (1) Rex lime and sulfur, diluted i to n with cold water. (2) . Rex lime and sulful, diluted 1 to 8 with cold water and 15 pounds lime added per 50 gallons spray. (3) Time-sulfur-soda wash prepared without use of external heat and boiled by the soda and heat of the slaking lime. Thirty pounds lump lime, 15 pounds sulfur and 5 pounds caustic soda per 50 gallons water were used. (4) Time-sulfur wash prepared in the usual way by boiling 45 minutes with external heat and composed of 15 pounds lime, 15 pounds sulfur per 50 gallons water. A portion of the trees were left unsprayed for comparison. Before spraying, counts were made which showed 69 per cent of the lice living and 31 per cent dead from natural causes. These comparisons for all plats are shown in the following table: LIME-SULFUR WASHES AGAINST HOWARD SCALE ON PEAR. « Spray Formula Cost per 200 gallons spray Date Spray’d Scales on bark Apr. 25 Per cent dead Scales on pears Aug. 17 Per cent pears pit’d Commercial Rex Lime- Sulfur Rex, 1 gallon Water, 11 gallons $4.15 3-5 Apr. 74.9 -1.0 do. Rex, 1 gallon Water, 8 gallons Lime, 2f pounds $5.70 6 Apr. 85.2 2.8 Self-boiled Lime-sulfur soda Lime, 30 pounds Sulfur, 15 “ Caustic Soda, 51b Water, 50 gallons $3.45 6 Apr. 95.0 1.0 Lime-sulfur Boiled Lime, 15 pounds Sulfur, 15 pounds Water, 50 gallons Boiled 45 min. $2.00 5 Apr. 93.8 0.6 Check Not Sprayed 48.0 96.1 The above spraying observations were made upon both treated and check trees throughout the season. Two means of comparison 14 THE COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION • indicated the results. The first was that shown in a count made April 25, of living and dead insects upon the bark; and the second, of more practical interest, a comparison shown by a count on August 17, at the time of the last harvest, of the number of pears showing pits upon their surfaces. COMMERCIAL REX MIXTURE. Rex is a concentrated lime and sulphur mixture prepared by boiling together the two ingredients until combined and removing for use only the clear, reddish liquid free from sediment. It is a product prepared and sold by Rex Stock Food Co., of Omaha, Neb. It has been formerly used as a stock dip in the West. For spraying, it has only to be diluted with cold water. Lime may be added if desired. The lime is added so that a white coating may be left upon the tree indicating where parts have been completely covered, and to hold the spray temporarily upon the surface, causing more of the mix¬ ture to dry and adhere than would do so if applied as a clear liquid. Referring to the preceding table, it will be seen that both strengths were effective in reducing the number of scales upon the trees so that injury to the fruit was prevented. The slight difference in their effec¬ tiveness may be practically overlooked when these two results are compare with the 96.1 per cent of fruit rendered unfit for market upon the unsprayed trees. Some of the infested pears, unsprayed, bore at picking time no less than 328 attached scales of varying sizes. The scales dead upon the tree on April 25, twenty days after spraying, was 85.2 per cent upon the Rex of stronger dilution, and 74.9 per cent dead upon trees sprayed with the weaker mixture. The action of all lime-sulphur sprays is continued for a considerable time after spraying. The former figure represents the increased effectiveness produced by an increase in strength and the addition of milk of lime. Both may be classed as of value in comparison with the 48 per cent dead upon the check. It will be remembered 31 per cent of the scales indicated by count were dead at the beginning of the experiment and the per cent scales dead as counted upon April 25 on sprayed plats included the 31 per cent shown to be dead from natural causes without treatment. The per cents given, therefore, under estimate the ratio of benefit actually derived from the sprays. In summing up it may be said that Rex lime-sulphur diluted one to eight with cold water with lime added as per formula is an effective spray against the Howard scale. It is not recommended as more effective than the standard orchard-boiled lime and sulphur washes. As was shown by experiment, the latter were slightly more effective than the Rex even when used at the stronger strength, but the ease and convenience of preparation of the Rex recommends it to the use of orchardists not fitted with the appliances for boiling their own spray. Some growers prefer to pay more for material and save the time and labor of preparing their own mixture. Examination of the scales shows them more loosely attached to the bark than is the San Jose scale, thus affording less resistance to the spray in coming in contact with the body of the insect. THE HOWARD SCALE 15 In the spring of 1906, in the orchard section of the Grand valley, a carload of 30,000 pounds of Rex was used experimentally as a spray principally against this insect, and in the spring of 1907 five car loads were shipped into the above section for use against this and other orchard pests. Upon Howard scale results have been satis¬ factory. The spray has the disadvantage, as a commercial product, of being subject to variation in strength without knowledge of the consumer. The orchardist compounding his own spray material may feel more confident of his product. The Rex mixture was to be had the past season by growers at Grand Junction for 25 cents per gallon, making the cost of 200 gallons of spray of the recommended formula about $5.70, or a trifle less than 3 cents per gallon. Lime: and Sulfur Mixtures. The lime and sulfur wash mixed in the right proportions, properly boiled and correctly sprayed is the most satisfactory spray thus far used against Howard scale. Lime and' sulfur was originally a stock dip used in California and was first demonstrated to be of value as an insecticide in 1886.* It was then taken up as a scale treatment in the East and is now very widely used and considered the standard scale remedy. It is also valuable as a dormant tree spray against many other insects and is of known fungicidal value, controlling the peach leaf curl of some states. Different formulas have been adopted in different states. Some recommend slightly more lime than sulfur in order to insure the com¬ bining of all sulfur. Others contend that equal parts of lime and sulfur are best when a strong quick lime, high in calcium, is used. The belief that equal portions of lime and sulfur, as a rule, produce as strong a solution, chemically, as is possible to secure, is endorsed in a recent bulletin by J. R. Haywood of the Bureau of Chemistry* The addition of salt formerly recommended may be safely discontinued. It adds nothing to the killing effect of the spray, increases cost, makes the spray more unpleasant to use and harder upon machinery. The addition of copper sulphate (blue vitriol) to the formula has been recommended by some experiment stations, by others it is considered without insecticidal value,* and by some it is regarded as a positive injury to the insecticide properties of the spray.* Variety of practice in the preparation of the spray is to be found. All methods provide for chemical union between lime and sulfur brought about by heating with water. The heat may be supplied in a variety of ways externally and the spray has been made by heating with caustic soda, potassium sulfide or an increased amount of Quick lime. The so-called self-boiled lime-sulfur-soda wash used in the experi- * Bulletin No. 166, Calif. Agr. Exp. Sta., 1905. Bulletin No. 101, Bur. of Chem. U. S. Dept, of Agr., Feb., 1907. * Ill. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bulletin No. 107, 1906. * Wash. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bulletin No. 76, 1906. THE COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION 16 ment referred to is a common formula where both quick lime and caustic soda produce the heat of the mixture.* Another formula sometimes used by growers provides for an excess of quick lime to produce the boiling heat. Others use this method except that hot water is required to quicken the slaking process. The formula using caustic soda, probably the best of the above self-boiled mixtures, though saving cost of boiling by fire, increases the cost of the mixture. At average local prices at the point where the experiment was conducted, the cost of the mixture was $3.45 per 200 gallons as compared with $2 per 200 gallons for the standard orchard-boiled wash. It has seemed to the writer that attempts at preparing the mix¬ tures without the aid of external heat has usually resulted in leaving a portion of the sulfur uncombined. This is indicated by the yellow color of the mixtures so prepared. A wide difference in the color of the sediment was noted in the mixtures prepared by different methods in the experiment. The ratio of sediment to liquid also showed wide differences. The strength of the lime-sulfur wash will depend upon the strength of the soluble portions and upon the sedi¬ ment. The sediment is supposed to gradually decompose into nascent sulfur, which remains upon the tree and continues destructive to insect life for a considerable time. An excess of coarse sediment in the spray is a disadvantage in that it clogs the nozzles and increases the wear on the pump. Lime-sulfur washes were originally boiled by fire two hours or more. Later observations show that less time is sufficient. About forty-five m’nutes will generally form as effective a spray as can be secured, though the proper time required for boiling must be indicated by the changing of the undiluted mixture in the boiling vessel from a yeflowish to a dark amber color. A properly boiled mixture, after diluting for spraying, will be of a reddish orange color and have a greenish sediment. The lime and sulfur should be boiled in about one-fifth the total amount of water and then diluted with either hot or cHd wMtt to make desired quantity of spray. Undiluted mater'al should not be allowed to remain over night in the boiling vessel, for it will harden. Standard lime-sulfur mixture is intended for imme¬ diate use. So caustic is the spray that the hands of one using it should be protected by gloves. Apparatus should be rinsed with water each time after using. Directions tor Preparing Standard Lime-Sulfur Wash. The following formula and brief description for preparation of a small amount of the standard lime-sulfur wash is recommended for Howard scale. Formula. Quick or lump lime .15 pounds Flour or flowers of sulfur.15 pounds Water.50 gallons To prepare fifty gallons of spray place seven to ten gallons of *N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta. Geneva, Bulletin No. 247. THE HOWARD SCALE 17 water in the boiling vessel. While the water is being heated by a hot file, mix in a separate vessel fifteen pounds sulfur with enough water to form a thin paste. Add this sulfur paste to the water and bring the mixture to a temperature just below the boiling point. Now add fifteen pounds good lump lime. A violent slaking will at once take place. Keep cold water at hand, adding if necessary to prevent boiling ovei the sides of the vessel or to keep the mixture from becoming too thick. After the lime has ceased slaking, keep steadily boiling for forty-five minutes, stirring almost constantly, when it will be ready for dilution with hot or cold water to make up fifty gallons of spray. It is then ready to be strained and applied. Time to Spray. Late spring will be the best time to spray for this insect, though a fall application, after the leaves are off, will be effective. It should always 'be borne in mind that the lime-sulfur wash is a caustic spray designed only for dormant trees and not to be sprayed upon trees in foliage. Late spring is preferable to early spring sprayings. It should not be delayed too late lest there be danger of injuring the tender fruit buds. Pear buds, though swpllen may, ordinarily be sprayed with safety even when the minute green leaves are showing beyond the tips of the bud scales. After the green leaf rudiments are in view a cluster of rudimentary pears, each borne by separate pedicel or stalk, will be found within each swollen bud. One may probably spray with the mixture up to the time these bloom stalks separate into distinct buds, just before unfurling their first petals. Orchardists should begin their spring spraying for this pest in ample time so that it may be completed before it is too late. The time allotted will depend upon local conditions such as size and number of trees, and kind of apparatus. Application. Success in spraying against this insect, as with others, depends more upon the thoroughness with which the spraying is done than upon any other detail. All portions of the tree, from the tip of the twigs to the base of the trunk must be completely coated. Trees must be sprayed from all directions. Strong winds at time of spraying will sometimes make this a difficult undertaking. The tips of twigs around the outside of the tree and in the top should not be neglected. Fortunately the spray is of such a color that parts of the bark left uncovered may be readily detected. If such spots can be found, the spraying there should be repeated. Apparatus. Kind of apparatus used in preparing the wash will depend largely upon the amount to be used. Prepored in a small way, iron kettles are found suitable, such as are shown in plate I. fig. II. For small amounts a very convenient and inexpensive boiling vat is made with No. 18 sheet iron bottom with fourteen-inch planks for sides. The ends of the tank are formed by bending upward the two ends of the iron bottom, without forming sharp angles. The outside dimensions are 6 ft. by 2 ft. 6 in. Before nailing on the iron bottom to the edges of the plank, insert a strip of felt between wood and iron and coat with a heavy lead paint. Nail THE COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION 18 on the sheet iron tightly and mount the tank upon brick sidewalls. A low brick chimney is constructed at the rear connecting with the fire box beneath the vat. Such a vat is large enough to prepare 200 gallons of spray or more at once. There are many of these vats used about Grand Junction. Boiling lime-sulfur with steam is by far the best method. Portable steam cookers, such as are used for cooking stock food ,are suited admirably to the purpose. Some spray machinery manufacturers have boilers on the market well adapted for this work. With them the boiling may be done in wooden barrels. A steam pipe or coil from the boiler is directed into the mixture and the strong jet of steam auto¬ matically stirs the liquid while the boiling is progressing. Where large quantities are to be prepared, a steam boiling plant, such as the one shown in plate I, fig. I, will be needed. This plant is built upon most improved and modern ideas and is found indispensable for preparing lime-sulfur wash upon the 240-acre orchard of Mr. John Ashenfelter at Montrose. A large steam engine beneath supplies the steam, which is conducted in pipes into the boiling barrels, ten of which are arranged in a row upon an elevated platform. At one end of the building and at a higher level are the water storage tanks filled by gravity and supply¬ ing the water for boiling and dilution. The small building at the rear is built for a storage warehouse. The plant has a boiling capacity of 400 gallons of spray and the boiling barrels are emptied by gravity directly into the spray tank. The photo shows one spray tank in process of being filled. The material may be applied by good strong hand pumps or larger spray outfits. A large number of gasoline power sprayers are in use for applying the mixture in the Grand Valley. Long spray poles and long lengths of hose are desirable. Nozzles of larger aper¬ tures than those used where a fine mist is desired are preferable. A well appointed equipment will greatly lessen the cost and incon¬ venience of lime-sulfur spraying against the Howard scale. This is important since lime-sulfur spraying has become an essential part in the routine of orchard work. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Aspidiotus howardi Ckll., Can. Ent. XXVII, p. 16 (1895) Aspidiotus howardi Ckll., Bull. 19, N. Mex. Kxp. Sta., p. 106 (1896) Aspidiotus ( Diaspidiotus) howardi Ckll., Bull. 6, l 1 . S. Dept. Ag., p. 21 (1897) Aspidiotus howardi Ckll., Gillette, Bull. 38, Colo. Exp. Sta. p. 37 (1897) Aspidiotus (Aspidiella) howardi Leon., Kiv. Pat. Veg., VI, p. 229 (1898) Aspidiotus howardi Berl. e Leon, Annali di agr., p. 107 (1898) Aspidiotus howardi Ckll., Forbes, 20th Rept. Ins. Ill., p. 16 (1898) Aspidiotus howardi Ckll., Newell, Contr. la. Ag. Coll., No. 3, p. 10 (1899) Aspidiotus (Aspidiella) howardi Leon., Gen. e Spec. Diaspiti, Asp. p. 55 (1900) Aspidiotus howardi Ckll , Gillette, Rept. of Entomologist, Colo. Agr. Exp. Sta. p. 16, (1901) Aspidiotus howardi Ckll., Gillette, Rept* of Entomologist, Colo. Agr. Exp. Sta. p. 7 (1902) THE HOWARD SCALE Aspidiotus howardi Ckll. (1906) Aspidiotus how'irdi Ckll., (1907) Gillette, Bull. 114, Colo. Agr. Exp. Sta. p. 16 Taylor, Press Bull. 30 Colo. Agr. Exp. Sta. SUMMARY. (1) 1 he Howard scale is present in injurious numbers in many fruit orchards of Colorado. ( 2 ) The pest was first discovered in this state and is supposed to have originated upon plants native to the locality. ( 3 ) It is less destructive than the San Jose scale which, so far as is known, is not present in the state. (4) The insect has been found to infest many varieties of fruits, but is primarily a pest of pear, plum and prune. . (5) Damage may result from the insects attaching themselves to either tree or fruit, where they absorb the sap as parasite. Trees may be killed outright or fruit may be rendered unmarketable from its “scaly” appearance. ( 6 ) The insects when attached to the surface of fruit or tree are of minute size—about the size of a pin head. (7) By rapid rate of increase they may produce enough individuals to completely encrust the surface of the plant attacked. It is their rate of increase and gregarious habit of life which make them so destructive. ( 8 ) The female insects are wingless throughout their entire lives and except for a short period following hatching are entirely motionless. (9) The spread of the insect is dependent largely upon agencies out¬ side the control of the insect. ( 10 ) Samples of scale insects found upon fruit trees should be sent to the entomologist of the Agricultural Experiment Station for determ¬ ination. ( 11 ) Natural parasites and predaceous insects preying upon the pest do much to hold it in check but have not, in the past, increased enough to make other measures unnecessary. ( 12 ) The lime-sulfur wash applied in late spring before the buds open has been found a complete and practical remedy. KEY TO ILLUSTRATIONS. Plate I.—I, Plant for steam cooking several barrels of lime-sulfur mixture at once, owned by Mr. John Ashenfelter, Montrose, Colo.; II, cooking lime-sulfur in kettles; III, Aspidiotus howardi , (A) scales upon pear twig, (B) dead females’ scales of last year, (C) young living female scales, (D) adult male scales, a male emerging at d—all enlarged seven times—drawn by Miriam A. Palmer; IV, photo of dead and living scale upon prune twig, considerably enlarged; V, pear showing large scales in depressions, also young white scales scattered about, somewhat enlarged; VI, pear with scales removed showing pits caused by the lice. Plate II.— Howard scale, Aspidiotus howardi Ckll. I, Pygidium of female showing dorsal characters on the left (A), and ventral characters on the right (B), a, wax ducts; b, oval dorsal glands; c, grouped ventral glands, X 190; II, the same, showing variation in the number and form of the glandular hairs or plates; III, newly hatched young, x 95; IV, adult male, X 62. Original drawings by Miss Miriam A. Palmer. Fig I.—Howard scale parasite, Prospalta aurantii greatly enlarged. After L. O. Howard, Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C. Fig. 2. — Twice stabbed lady-beetle. Chilocorus bivulverus ; larva, pupa and adult enlarged and the adult natural size. I I ■> / / % * UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS-URBANA 630.7C71B nmu c . 001 BULLETIN. FORT COLLINS 102-120 1905-07 3 0112 019442737