i - i *j BULLETIN 358 Published monthly by the New York State Education Department NOVEMBER I 90S Secondary Education Bulletin 27 SYLLABUS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 1905 PAGE Historical sketch 3 Introductory notes 10 English 16 First year English 19 Second year English 20 ' "hird year English 22 Fourth year English 23 English grammar 27 History of the English language and literature 29 Latin and Greek 31 Latin 32 Greek 35 Modern foreign languages 38 German 38 French 42 Spanish 45 Mathematics 48 Advanced arithmetic 48 Elementary algebra 49 Intermediate algebra 52 Plane geometry 54 Solid geometry 54 Trigonometry 54 Advanced algebra 55 Physical science 58 Physics 58 Chemistry 82 Biologic science. 105 Biology 105 Elementary botany 109 Elementary zoology 113 PAGE Physiology and hygiene 119 Advanced botany 123 Advanced zoology 128 Physical geography and agricul- ture 132 Physical geography 132 Agriculture 151 History 158 Ancient history 162 European history. ., 182 English history 210 American history 226 Social science 248 Civil government 248 Economics. 268 Business subjects. 272 Elementary bookkeeping 273 Advanced bookkeeping 275 Business practice and technics. . 277 Business arithmetic 279 Commercial law 279 History of commerce . , > 281 Commercial geography 286 Business correspondence 291 Business writing 292 Stenography 292 Typewriting 293 Drawing and advanced drawing. 295 Drawing 297 Advanced drawing 313 Index 319 ALBANY NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 1905 H 3 6sm-AP5-5ooo Price 25 cents THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY C 00. 2>58> 22*i 11$*;: ms New York State Education Department Secondary Education Bulletin 27 SYLLABUS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 1905 HISTORICAL SKETCH In tracing the history of the Academic Syllabus we find its begin- nings in the very early records of the Board of Regents. The Board was organized under a statute enacted May 1, 1784. At a meeting of the Regents held at the Exchange in the city of New York, Feb. 28, 1786, it was ordered that a committee be appointed to consider "ways and means of promoting literature throughout the State." At the second meeting of the reorganized Board, Nov. 17, 1787, Erasmus Hall and Clinton Academy were incorporated and com- mittees were designated to visit these academies and Columbia College, the three institutions of the University at that date. At a regular meeting held in the Senate chamber at Poughkeepsie Feb. 26, 1788, a report to the Legislature was adopted, from which it appears that Erasmus Hall had 26 students, and Clinton Academy, 53 ; that the principal of Erasmus Hall in conjunction with the trus- tees had signified a determination that the classical and English departments should be regularly attended to by proper tutors ; that the first of these departments should comprise the Latin and Greek languages with geography and the outlines of ancient and modern history; that the second should comprehend the English language, reading, writing, arithmetic and bookkeeping; that the French language should also be taught to those that request it, and elocution be attended to in both departments; that the students of Clinton Academy were instructed according to their several classes; that the first consisted of 12 scholars in the Latin and Greek languages, logic, natural philosophy, mathematics and geography; that the second consisted of 17 in English grammar, writing, arithmetic and accountantship, and such of them as chose it were taught the French language; that the common school or class were taught reading, writing and arithmetic ; that in each of the classes speak- ing and reading in public formed a part of the educationjeceived ; -y- 4 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT and that the tutors appeared attentive to the instruction and morals of their pupils. In the written record of this interesting meeting which was held before the election of the first president of the United States we find the substantial outlines of (i) a curriculum for the elementary school, (2) a course of study for students prepar- ing for college and (3) a program of studies adapted to students whose education ends in the secondary school. The same report shows that Columbia College had 40 students instructed in the Latin and Greek languages, geography, natural and moral philosophy and the mathematics. At the next meeting of the Regents held in Albany Dec. 25, 1788, after "sundry papers respecting the state of literature in Columbia College and the academies incorporated by the University were laid before the Board," it was ordered that a committee suggest to the Legislature the "propriety of investing the University with some of the lands belonging to the public." The committee appealed to the Legislature in the following words : In our own State it was evidently intended that the University should possess and exercise a general superintendence over all literary establishments which might be formed among us and that it should direct the system in such a manner as would conduce to the harmony and interests of the whole. In the course of our duty we have seen with regret that several of the literary establishments in this State are destitute of funds for their support and involved in debt or dependent on private bounty. . . . Our attention would naturally extend not only to sub- sisting literary corporations but to the erection of academies in every part of the State; and it is obvious that the most important pur- poses might be attained by affording timely assistance to infant seminaries which must otherwise languish for a time and perhaps finally perish ... In this situation we trust that it will not be deemed improper to suggest that the lands belonging to the State at Crown Point, Ticonderoga and Fort George . . . would with careful management afford an income to the University. In accord with this appeal the Legislature Mar. 31, 1790, passed an act by which the University was invested with the authority to take possession of the lands designated in their petition together with "a certain island lying within the general bounds of the city and county of New York commonly called and known by the name of Governors Island . . . and from time to time to dispose of and apply the same for the better advancement of science and litera- ture ... in such manner and proportion as will best answer the ends of their institution. " By this same act ^1000 were appro- priated from the state treasury to be applied by the Regents with- out delay for the encouragement and promotion of science and literature. ^^ikos, Ao'yos and xp° vos > three simple nouns of the second declension, afford ample opportunity for showing English derivation of Greek words. The forms of Greek proper names, when written in the Roman alphabet, and their proper English pronunciation, should receive careful attention. Neatness in writing Greek words, correct forms of the letters, and exactness in the placing of accents, are to be enforced. Good habits may be formed quite as easily as bad ones; no slovenly or vague work should be allowed at any time ; the value of a right beginning can not be overestimated. First year. The examination on first year Greek will be ex- pected to test a thorough knowledge of forms in common use, and of the topics of grammar indicated in the following paragraphs: The sounds of the language and their graphic representation, the pronunciation of the vowels, particularly of o and v and of the diphthongs a' and ev, the classification of sounds, the real charac- ter of the aspirates and of the double consonants, the rules of euphony and the principles of accentuation must be thoroughly mastered. The student should know the inflection of all the main classes of nouns, adjectives and participles, but time should not be spent on rare forms. Further, the scope of the examination in- cludes the comparison of adjectives and the formation of adverbs. The reflexive and correlative forms of the pronoun should receive careful attention in regard both to form and use. The student must be able to form from the verb stem or from any inflected form given him the principal tense stem, and to inflect the tenses through- out the various modes. The present, the aorist and the future in all voices, and the perfect in the middle and the passive, are the most important forms. The analysis of Greek words should be made a constant exercise. By so doing much time is saved which would otherwise be spent in hunting up words of like origin in the diction- aries. The grouping of words with a common base or a common suffix should be practised, and yet work of this character should be introduced gradually as the various categories are reached, and should not be crowded into one or more lessons by itself. The student should know the formal use of the cases, of the modes in 2,6 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT simple sentences, of conditions, and of relative clauses and con- ditions in indirect discourse. Of importance further on are the uses of pronouns, particularly of the relative pronouns, also the use of the main conjunctions $va, /xrj, wore, /xeV, 8e, ci and idv, and of the modal adverb av. The student will be expected to translate into English an easy selection, and to form short sentences in Greek. The passages for translation may involve a knowledge of the vari- ous subjects enumerated in the preceding paragraphs. Second year: Xenophon's Anabasis. Four books of Xenophon's Anabasis are required for this examination. The candidate will be expected to translate any passages selected into good English which shall at the same time indicate as closely as possible the construc- tion of the original. He should be thoroughly familiar with the regular inflections, and be able to state clearly and to apply the most important rules of syntax. Thorough training in the laws of indirect discourse is strongly advised, and, as a preliminary to this care must be taken that the ordinary uses of the modes and their time relation are fully understood. Constant attention to the Eng- lish derivatives is also recommended as adding to the interest of the study of Greek. The student should be able to give the meaning of each constituent of compound words and the effect of each on the significance of the compound. The examination will include ques- tions on the subject-matter of the text, involving a general knowl- edge of the geography and history of the countries traversed by the expedition. The student will also be expected to have learned, through supplementary reading, histories or other works, the main facts of the narrative as a whole. Preparation for examination in Greek prose composition can be made only by careful, systematic drill in the translation of English into Greek. This should be car- ried on concurrently with the reading of the Anabasis. Principles of syntax illustrated in the author read should be applied in com- position based on the text. The examination in elementary com- position will be based on the vocabulary found in the first and second books of the Anabasis and rare words, if called for, will be given in the examination paper. All Greek words are to be dis- tinctly written and correctly accented. Third year: Homers Iliad. The examination will be on the first three books of Homer's Iliad, excepting the catalogue of the ships in the second book. Smoothness in translation without sacrifice of accuracy, and familiarity with Homeric syntax, will be expected. The student should have a thorough acquaintance with the rules of prosody and their exceptions, and the laws of hexameter verse. GREEK 37 The scansion of exceptional as well as regular verses from the text will be required. In oral practice the attention of the student should be carefully directed to the real meaning of quantity as made manifest by the musical symbols now found in all grammars. Homer's verses should not be baldly anglicized; and if the ear is first trained, the true rhythm is easily caught. A knowledge of epic forms sufficient to give certainty in recognizing the main types will be necessary, but the work in Homer is not expected to be primarily grammatical. It is of very great importance that there should be at least a general acquaintance with the whole story of the Iliad, through supplementary reading, sight reading or lec- tures, and special familiarity with those scenes and passages which are recognized everywhere as masterpieces of the world's literature. Prose composition should be continued throughout this year to the extent of one period a week. The aim of the work in general should be the review of Attic forms and constructions and the per- fecting of the student's ability to articulate simple clauses in con- nected discourse. The examination will consist of the translation into Greek of continuous prose, employing the vocabulary and idioms of the first four books of Xenophon's Anabasis. GROUP i (concluded) MODERN FOREIGN LANGUAGES German French Spanish Three grades of instruction in the modern foreign languages, elementary, intermediate and advanced, have been adopted in accordance with the recommendations of the Modern Foreign Language Association of America, the three grades corresponding normally to courses of two, three and four years respectively. The examination questions issued by the State Education Depart- ment will accord with this classification with the single exception that first year test papers may be provided for students intending to leave school or to discontinue the subject at the end of one year's work. The two suggestive paragraphs preceding the lists of texts and relating to the aims of the instruction and the work to be done, have been quoted from the Report of the Committee of Twelve [D. C. Heath & Co. Boston, 16c]. This report discusses at length the value of the modern foreign languages in secondary education, the qualifications and training of teachers and the several methods of instruction, and should be in the hands of every teacher of modern languages. The lists of suggested texts in German and French are in exact conformity with the recommendations of the committee on modern languages appointed by the Associated Academic Principals of the State of New York, and are inclusive of the texts proposed by the committee of twelve. The differences between the two lists are indicated as follows: 1 Not found in the list of texts recommended by the committee of twelve. 2 Placed in the intermediate list by the committee of twelve. 8 Placed in the elementary list by the committee of twelve. 4 Placed in the advanced list by the committee of twelve. GERMAN i Elementary requirement Aim of the instruction At the end of the elementary course in German the pupil should be able to read at sight, and to translate, if called upon, by way of proving his ability to read, a passage of very easy dialogue or nar- rative prose, help being given upon unusual words and construc- 38 GERMAN 39 tions; to put into German short English sentences taken from the language of everyday life or based upon the text given for transla- tion, and to answer questions upon the rudiments of grammar, as defined below. Work to be done During the first year the work should comprise: (i) careful drill upon pronunciation; (2) the memorizing and frequent repeti- tion of easy colloquial sentences; (3) drill upon the rudiments of grammar, that is, upon the inflection of the articles, of such nouns as belong to the language of everyday life, of adjectives, pronouns, weak verbs, and the more usual strong verbs; also upon the use of the more common prepositions, the simpler uses of the modal auxiliaries, and the elementary rules of syntax and word order; (4) abundant easy exercises designed not only to fix in mind the forms and principles of grammar, but also to cultivate readiness in the reproduction of natural forms of expression; (5) the reading of from 75 to 100 pages of graduated texts from a reader, with constant practice in translating into German easy variations upon sentences selected from the reading lesson (the teacher giving the English), and in the reproduction from memory of sentences pre- viously read. During the second year the work should comprise: (1) the read- ing of from 150 to 200 pages of literature in the form of easy stories and plays; (2) accompanying practice, as before, in the transla- tion into German of easy variations upon the matter read, and also in the offhand reproduction, sometimes orally and sometimes in writing, of the substance of short and easy selected passages ; (3) continued drill upon the rudiments of the grammar, directed to the ends of enabling the pupil, first, to use his knowledge with facility in the formation of sentences, and, secondly, to state his knowledge correctly in the technical language of grammar. Stories suitable for the elementary course can be selected from the following list: Andersen. Bilderbuch ohne Bilder Arnold. Ein Regentag auf dem Lande, 1 Fritz auf Ferien Baumbach 1 . Im Zwielicht, Waldnovellen Baumbach & Wildenbruch 1 . Es War Einmal Benedix. Der Prozess, Der Weiberfeind, Eigensinn, 1 Giinstige Vorzeichen Ebner-Eschenbach 1 . Krambambuli Eichendorff 1 . Aus dem Leben eines Taugenichts a For explanation of superior figures see p. 38. 40 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Elz. Er ist nicht eifersuchtig Gerstacker. Germelshausen, Irrfahrten* 3 Grimm 1 . Kinder-und Hausmarchen Heyse. Anfangtind Ende, Das Madchen von Treppi, L'Arrabbiata Hillern. Hoher als die Kirche Leander. Kleine Geschichten, Traumereien Meissner 1 . Aus meiner Welt Meyer 1 . Das Amulett Riehl 1 . Die vierzehn Nothelfer Schanz 1 . Der Assistent Seidel 1 . Der Lindenbaum, Die Monate, Herr Omnia Stifter 1 . Das Haidedorf Stokl. Unter dem Christbaum Storm. Geschichten aus der Tonne Wichert. An der Majorsecke Wildenbruch. Das edle Blut 2 Zschokke. Der zerbrochene Krug 2 Intermediate requirement Aim of the instruction At the end of the intermediate course the pupil should be able to read at sight German prose of ordinary difficulty, whether recent or classical; to put into German a connected passage of simple English, paraphrased from a given text in German ; to answer any grammatical questions relating to usual forms and essential prin- ciples of the language, including syntax and word formation, and to translate and explain (so far as explanation may be necessary) a passage of classical literature taken from some text previously studied. Work to be done The work should comprise, in addition to the elementary course, the reading of about 400 pages of moderately difficult prose and poetry, with constant practice in giving, sometimes orally and sometimes in writing, paraphrases, abstracts, or reproductions from memory of selected portions of the matter read; also grammatical drill upon the less usual strong verbs, the use of articles, cases, auxiliaries of all kinds, tenses and modes (with special reference to the infinitive and subjunctive), and likewise upon word order and word formation. The intermediate course is supposed to be the elementary course, plus one year's work at the rate of not less than four recitations a week. Suitable reading matter for the third year can be selected from such works as the following: a For explanation of superior figures see p. 38. GERMAN 41 Baumbach. Der Schwiegersohn, 3 Die Norma 3 Chamisso al . Peter Schlemihl Ebner-Eschenbach. Die Freiherren von Gemperlein Fouque. Undine Freytag. Die Journalisten Goethe. Hermann und Dorothea Groller 1 . Inkognito Hauff 1 . Das kalte Herz, Die Karawane Heine. Gedichte Heyse. Kolberg Hoffmann. Historisehe Erzahlungen Jensen. Die braune Erica 3 Lessing. Minna von Bamhelm Meyer. Gustav Adolfs Page Riehl. Burg Neideck, Das Spielmannskind. Der Fluch der Schonheit, Der stumme Ratsherr Rosegger. Waldheimat Schiller. Der Neffe als Onkel, Die Jungfrau von Orleans, Wilhelm Tell Uhland. Gedichte Wildenbnich 1 . Der Letzte 3 Advanced requirement At the end of the advanced course the student should be able to read, after brief inspection, any German literature of the last 150 years that is free from any unusual textual dil ; ; to put into German a passage of simple English prose; to answer in German questions relating to the lives and works of great writers studied, and to write in German a short, independent theme upon some assigned topic. Work to be done The work of the advanced course (last year) should comprise the reading of about 500 pages of good literature in prose and poetry, reference readings upon the lives and works of the great writers studied, the writing in German of numerous short themes upon assigned subjects, independent translation of English into German. Suitable reading matter for the last year will be: Freytag. Bilder aus der deutschen Yergangenheit 3 , such as Aus dem Staat Friedrichs des Grossen, Aus den Kreuzzugen, Karl der Grosse; Soil und Haben Fulda. Der Talisman a For explanation of superior figxires see p. 38. 42 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Goethe. Balladen (selections), Egmont, Goetz von Berlichingen, Sesenheim Grillparzer. Der Traum, ein Leben Hauff. Lichenstein Heine. Balladen (selections), Reisebilder 2a (selections) Kleist. Prinz von Homburg Korner. Zriny Lessing. Emilia Galotti, Nathan der Weise 1 Moser. Der Bibliothekar 2 Ranke 1 . Kaiserwahl Karls V Scheffel. Der Trompeter von Sakkingen 2 , Ekkehard Schiller. Balladen (selections) 2 , Das Lied von der Glocke 2 , Gustav Adolf in Deutschland 1 , Maria Stuart, Wallenstein Sudermann. Johannes Sybel 1 . Die Erhebung Europas Wagner 1 . Die Meistersinger Wilbrandt 1 . Der Meister von Palmyra Besides these texts there are excellent books like the following representing the so called "Realien" that offer very profitable reading: Stern 1 . Geschichten vom Rhein (2d year), Geschichten von deutschen Stadten (3d year) Prehn 1 . Journalistic German (3d year) Lodeman 1 . Germany and the Germans (3d year) Kron 1 . German Daily Life (2d year) There may be others of this class, but these are the only ones that have come to our notice. FRENCH 1 Elementary requirement Aim of the instruction At the end of the elementary course the pupil should be able to pronounce French accurately, to read at sight easy French prose, to put into French simple English sentences taken from the language of everyday life, or based upon a portion of the French text read, and to answer questions on the rudiments of the grammar as defined below. Work to be done During the first year the work should comprise: (1) careful drill in pronunciation; (2) the rudiments of grammar, including the inflection of the regular and the more common irregular verbs, a For explanation of superior figures see p. 38. FRENCH 43 the plural of nouns, the inflection of adjectives, participles, and pronouns; the use of personal pronouns, common adverbs, prepo- sitions, and conjunctions; the order of words in the sentence, and the elementary rules of syntax; (3) abundant easy exercises, designed not only to fix in the memory the forms and principles of grammar, but also to cultivate readiness in the reproduction of natural forms of expression; (4) the reading of from 100 to 175 duodecimo pages of graduated texts, with constant practice in translating into French easy variations of the sentences read (the teacher giving the English), and in reproducing from memory sentences previously read; (5) writing French from dictation. During the second year the work should comprise: (1) the read- ing of from 250 to 400 pages of easy modern prose in the form of stories, plays, or historical or biographical sketches; (2) constant practice, as in the previous year, in translating into French easy variations upon the texts read; (3) frequent abstracts, sometimes oral and sometimes written, of portions of the text already read; -(4) writing French from dictation; (5) continued drill upon the rudiments of grammar, with constant application in the construc- tion of sentences; (6) mastery of the forms and use of pronoun, pronominal adjectives, of all but the rare irregular verb forms, and of the simpler uses of the conditional and subjunctive. Suitable texts for the second year are: About. Short stories* 1 Bruno. Le tour de la France \ Chateaubriand 1 . Les aventures du dernier Abenc£rage Daudet. His easier short stories Dmmas 1 . Excursions sur les bords du Rhin Erckmann. Chatrian's stories Foa. Contes Biographiques, Le petit Robinson de Paris Foncin. Le pays de France Halevy 1 . L'Abbe' Constantin La B6dolli£rre. La mere Michel et son chat Labiche & Martin. La Poudre aux yeux, Le voyage de M. Per- richon Legouve" & Labiche. La cigale chez les fourmis Mairet. La clef d'or 1 , L'Enfant de la lune 1 , La tache du petit Pierre Meilhac & Halevy 1 . L'ete" de la St Martin Malot. Sans famine M£rim£e. Colomba a For explanation of superior figures see p. 38. 44 N EW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Nodier 1 . Le chien de Brisquet Sand 1 . La mare au diable Schultz 1 . La Neuvaine de Colette Verne. Selected stories 2 Intermediate requirement Aim of the instruction At the end of the intermediate course the pupil should be able to read at sight ordinary French prose or simple poetry, to translate into French a connected passage of English based on the text read, and to answer questions involving a more thorough knowledge of syntax than is expected in the elementary course. Work to be done This should comprise the reading of from 400 to 600 pages of French of ordinary difficulty, a portion to be in the dramatic form; constant practice in giving French paraphrases, abstracts or repro- ductions from memory of selected portions of the matter read ; the study of a grammar of moderate completeness ; writing from dicta- tion. Suitable texts are: About. La mere de la marquise ia , Le roi des montagnes 3 Augier & Sandeau. Le gendre de M. Poirier Beranger. Selected poems Copp£e. Selected poems Daudet. La Belle-Niveraaise, Tartarin de Tarascon 1 Dumas 4 . La tulipe noire, Les trois mousquetaires, Monte Cristo Hugo. Hernani, La chute Labicbe & Delacour. La Cagnotte La Brete. Mon oncle et mon cure" La Fontaine. Fables 4 Loti. Pecheur d'islande Micbelet. Extracts 3 Moliere. L'avare, Le bourgeois gentilhomme Racine. Athalie, Esther Sand. La petite Fadette Sandeau. Mademoiselle de la Seigliere Sarcey. Le siege de Paris 3 Scribed plays Sevigne\ Selected letters Thiers. L' expedition de Bonaparte en Egypte Vigny. La canne de jonc a For explanation of superior figures see p. 38. SPANISH 45 3 Advanced requirement Aim of the instruction At the end of the advanced course the pupil should be able to read at sight, with the help of a vocabulary of special or technical expressions, difficult French not earlier than that of the 17th cen- tury ; to write in French a short essay on some simple subject con- nected with the works read; to put into French a passage of easy English prose and to carry on a simple conversation in French. Work to be done This should comprise the reading of from 600 to 1000 pages of standard French, classical and modern, only difficult passages being explained in the class; the writing of numerous short themes in French ; the study of syntax. Suitable reading matter will be : Beaumarchais. Le barbier de Seville Corneille. Cinna, Horace 20 , Le Cid 2 , Polyeucte Dumas. La question d'argent Lamartine. Graziella Marivaux. Plays Moliere. Le misanthrope, Les femmes savantes, Les pr£cieuses ridicules Musset. Selected plays and poems Pellissier. Mouvement litteraire au XI X e siecle Racine. Andromaque 2 , Iphig^nie 1 Renan. Souvenirs d'enfance et de jeunesse Rousseau. Selected readings Sainte-Beuve. Selected readings Taine. Les origines de la France contemporaine Voltaire. Selections from historical works' Balzac, De Goncourt 1 , Maupassant, Zola. Selections SPANISH The requirements in Spanish are in substantial accord with the recommendations made for French and German by the committee of twelve of the Modern Language Association. 1 Elementary requirement Aim of the instruction At the end of the elementary course the pupil should be able to pronounce Spanish accurately, to read at sight easy Spanish prose, to put into Spanish simple English sentences taken from the lan- a For explanation^ superior figures see p. 38. 46 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT guage of everyday life, or based upon a portion of the Spanish text read, and to answer questions on the rudiments of the grammar, as denned below. Work to be done During the first year the work should comprise (i) careful drill in pronunciation ; (2) the rudiments of grammar, including the conju- gation of the regular and the more common irregular verbs, the in- flection of nouns, adjectives and pronouns, and the elementary rules of syntax; (3) exercises containing illustrations of the prin- ciples of grammar; (4) the reading and accurate rendering into good English of from 100 to 175 duodecimo pages of graduated texts, with translation into Spanish of easy variations of the sentences read ; (5) writing Spanish from dictation. During the second year the work should comprise: (1) the read- ing of from 250 to 400 pages of modern prose from different authors ; (2) practice in translating Spanish into English, and English varia- tions of the text into Spanish; (3) continued study of the elements of grammar and syntax; (4) mastery of all but the rare irregular verb forms and of the simpler uses of the modes and tenses; (5) writing Spanish from dictation ; (6) memorizing of easy short poems. Suitable texts for the second year are: Alarc6n. El nino de la bola, El capitan Veneno, El final de Norma Carri6n & Aza. Zaragueta Fernan Caballero. La familia de Alvareda Gald6s. Dona Perfecta, Marianela, El amigo manso, La corte de Carlos IV, Electra Padre Isla. Version of Gil Bias Valdes. Jose' Valera. El pa^jaro verde, Pepita Jimenez, De varios colores, El comendador Mendoza 2 Intermediate requirement Aim of the instruction At the end of the intermediate course the pupil should be able to read at sight ordinary Spanish prose or simple poetry . to translate into Spanish a connected passage of English based on the text read, and to answer questions involving a more thorough knowledge of syntax than is expected in the elementary course. Work t-o be done This should comprise the reading of about 500 pages of Spanish of ordinary difficulty, a portion to be in the dramatic SPANISH 47 form; constant practice in giving Spanish paraphrases, abstracts or reproductions from memory of selected portions of the matter read; writing from dictation; grammatical drill on all irregular verb forms that are likely to be met with in ordinary prose and poetry; the science of vowel change due to accent; word forma- tion with special stress on the use of qualifying suffixes; the uses of modes and tenses ; syntax of more advanced grade ; the writing of business forms and commercial correspondence. Suitable texts are: Ayala. El tanto por ciento Cervantes. Don Quijote, books 1-12 and 39-41 (El cautivo) Herreros. Me voy de Madrid, Independencia, iQuie^i es ella? Larra. Partir a" tiempo Nunez de Arce. El haz de Lena, Poemas Pereda. Pedro Sanchez, Sotileza Valera. Estudios criticos Zorrilla. Granada GROUP 2 MATHEMATICS i Advanced arithmetic 4 Plane geometry 2 Elementary algebra 5 Solid geometry 3 Intermediate algebra 6 Trigonometry 7 Advanced algebra In September 1902 the American Mathematical Society appointed a special committee to prepare standard formulations of college entrance requirements in mathematics in cooperation with com- mittees already appointed by the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education and by the National Educational Associa- tion. During the two succeeding years the committee devoted a great amount of time and energy to the work assigned them. After taking due account of previous work along similar lines and of existing conditions in the mathematical instruction of colleges and secondary schools, and after consulting the several interests con- cerned, they prepared a report which has been approved by various associations of teachers of mathematics and boards of examiners. This report has received the unqualified indorsement of a com- mittee representing the Associated Academic Principals of the State of New York and accordingly has been adopted by the Education Department. To this report, however, some detailed suggestions in algebra and trigonometry have been added and likewise a syllabus for a course of study in advanced arithmetic. The order in which the subjects and the topics under them are presented does not necessarily imply any preference as to the order of teaching either the subjects or the topics. ADVANCED ARITHMETIC This subject should be taken after the student has completed the courses in algebra and plane geometry. Special attention should be given to the theory of arithmetical processes, to clearness of analysis, and to facility and accuracy of computation. The following outline will indicate the scope of the examination. 1 The fundamental operations with integers and fractions (common and decimal). This involves the following: full explanation of the theory of the different operations; abridged processes in common use; devices for proving the correctness of operations, e.g. "the casting out of nines"; multiples of and 48 ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA 49 divisibility of numbers ; factoring ; least common multiple ; greatest common divisor, including proof by division; square root; cube root. 2 Tables and their use. This involves: the money tables of the United States, Great Britain, Germany and France; the tables of weights and measures in common use (troy and apothecary's tables excluded) ; the metric system ; reduction of denominate numbers ; longitude and time. 3 Percentage. Under this are involved the principles and problems of simple and compound interest; discount (bank and trade); present worth; stocks and bonds; taxes, duties and customs; commission and brokerage; partial payments computed by the United States rule; investments showing loss or gain. Intricate problems in compound interest, true discount, average of accounts, alligation, duodecimals and partnership involving time will not be included in the examinations. 4 Ratio and proportion. The principles of ratio and propor- tion with their applications should be thoroughly taught, but involved problems in compound proportion will not be a part of the examinations. 5 Mensuration. This should cover mensuration of the tri- angle, parallelogram, trapezoid, regular polygons, the circle, prism, cylinder, sphere, pyramids and their frustums, cones and their frustums; the applications of the principles of mensuration to measurement of the areas of fields, to cubic contents of tanks, bins, embankments etc. 6 Series. Arithmetical and geometric with their applications. ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA The four fundamental operations for rational algebraic expressions. Thorough treatment of these operations requires: i The ability to formulate necessary definitions in clear, concise language. 2 The ability to represent quantities and to indicate mathe- matical relations and operations by means of algebraic symbols, and to translate symbolic expressions into words, including a The algebraic representation of (i) even numbers, (2) odd numbers, (3) numbers in decimal notation, (4) common fractions. 50 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT b Removing symbols of aggregation from given expressions, and inserting specified terms of a polynomial within such symbols with facility and accuracy. Examples free from ingenious repetition of complications should be selected for practice. 3 The ability to add or subtract monomials or polynomials having either numerical or literal coefficients and exponents, with special attention to like terms having polynomial literal coefficients; e.g. (a + b)x and (2b+c)x etc. 4 Ability to find the product of monomials or polynomials having either numerical or literal coefficients and exponents, and to write by inspection the expanded forms of particular cases of (ax + b) 2 ; (a + b + c) 2 ; (ax + b) (ax-b) ; (x + a) (x + b) and (ax + 6) (cx + d). 5 Ability to find the quotient of (a) a monomial divided by a monomial, (b) a polynomial divided by a monomial or a polynomial, the coefficients and exponents in both cases being either numerical or literal, (c) a n ±b n divided by a±b. Factoring. Facility in factoring involves : i The recognition of a monomial factor whenever present. 2 Familiarity with the factors of: a Binomial, under the general form x n ±y n . 6 Trinomial forms (i) a 2n ±2a n b n + b 2n ; (2) ax 2 + bx + c; (3) a in + a 2n b 2n + b m . c Polynomial forms (1) ax + bx + ay + by; (2) simple poly- nomials of the third or fourth degree. Application of the principles of factoring in finding the highest common factor and the lowest common multiple. A clear form of presentation of written work is of vital im- portance here. Emphasis should be laid upon obtaining prime literal factors of each given expression as a preliminary step. Attention should be drawn to the H.C.F. and L.C.M. of expressions containing factors differing only in sign; e.g. i-x 2 and x 2 -i. Fractions, including complex fractions. 1 Reduction by factoring. 2 Multiplication and division of fractions. 3 Addition and subtraction with the manipulation of signs necessary to obtain the lowest common denominator. 4 Changing a given fraction to a mixed expression; a mixed expression to a fraction. 5 Complex fractions. ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA 5 1 Ratio. i Necessary definitions. 2 A ratio of greater inequality is diminished and a ratio of less inequality is increased by adding the same quantity to both its terms. 3 In a series of equal ratios, the sum of all the antecedents is to the sum of all the consequents as any antecedent is to its consequent. Proportion. i Necessary definitions. 2 If four quantities are in proportion, the product of the extremes is equal to the product of the means and conversely. 3 Transformations that may be made in a proportion by inversion , alternation, composition and division. Solutions of examples under this heading are practically worthless if written down without explanation. Simple equations both numerical and literal containing one or more unknown quantities. The usual work under this heading should be supplemented by : i The solution for any letter in the simpler formulas of physics in terms of the others. 2 Problems depending on simple equations. See remark under "Problems depending upon quadratic equations." Radicals. i Necessary definitions. 2 Reduction (a) to simplest form; (b) to same order; (c) to entire-surd. 3 Convention with respect to taking only positive sign. 4 Four fundamental operations for surds. 5 Rationalization of the denominator of a fraction when it is a monomial surd of any order. 6 Rationalization of the denominator of a fraction when it is a binomial quadratic surd. 7 Square root of polynomial algebraic expressions. 8 Square root of numbers expressed arithmetically. 9 Radical equations. Quadratic equations both numerical and literal. i Solution of the pure quadratic. 2 Solution of the affected quadratic, by (i) completing the square, (2) by factoring. 52 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 3 Equations of quadratic form involving one unknown quan- tity. 4 Radical equations resulting in quadratics. Simple cases of equations with two or more unknown quantities that can be solved by the methods of simple or quadratic equations. i One simple equation, one of second degree. 2 Two homogeneous equations of the second degree. 3 Symmetric equations of the third or fourth degree readily solvable by dividing the variable member of one by the variable member of the other; e.g. x + y=S> x3 + y 3 =3S- Good training at this point of a student's work should lead him to consider the possibility of some combination of the given equations resulting in simpler forms before employing a general routine method for the special case before him. Values obtained for the variables should be properly associ- ated in presenting written answers. Problems involving quadratic equations. It is assumed that students will be required throughout the course to solve numerous problems which involve putting questions into equations. Some of these problems should be chosen from mensuration, from physics, and from com- mercial transactions. Binomial theorem for positive integral exponents. i Proof by induction. 2 The nth term of a binomial expansion. INTERMEDIATE ALGEBRA This will include a thorough review of the elementary algebra together with the following additional topics: Interpretation of the forms -, • ' -. Imaginaries. Four fundamental operations for imaginary (not complex) numbers. Exponents. i Proofs'of (a) a m .a*=a m+< [ t m and q positive integers. (b) a m + a q — a m - qi m and q positive integers. (c) (a m )« =a mg t m and q positive integers. INTERMEDIATE ALGEBRA 53 2 Meaning of negative integral exponent. 3 Meaning of the fractional exponent. 4 Meaning of zero exponents. 5 Involution and evolution of rational and surd monomials. Facility and accuracy in application of the principles of the theory of indices, may better be acquired in solving a large number of simple exercises than by struggling with compara- tively few but very involved examples. Evolution. i Square root of a binomial quadratic surd. 2 Cube root of polynomials. 3 Cube root of numbers. Quadratic equations. Theory of quadratic equations, (i) Two and only two roots. (2) Relations between roots and coefficients of terms. (3) Formation of an equation from two given roots. (4) Values of very simple expressions symmetric in the roots of a given quadratic. (5) Nature of the roots of a quadratic. Progressions, arithmetical and geometric. Arithmetical. 1 Proof that with the usual notation k=a + (n-i)d. 2 Proof that with the usual notation s=2(a+0=2 ( 2 a+(n-i) d). Applications depending on these formulas. Geometric. 1 Proof that with the usual notation l=ar n ~ 1 . a(i—r n ) 2 Proof that with the usual notation s^=~ — . i-r 3 Proof that with the usual notation 5= — for an infinite i-r series, r< 1. Applications depending on these formulas. Graphic interpretation of equations. 1 Construction of the graphs of numerical equations, both simple and quadratic. 2 Determination of the roots of simultaneous numerical equa- tions, both simple and quadratic, having two variables by the graphic method. 54 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT PLANE GEOMETRY The usual theorems and constructions of good textbooks, includ- ing the general properties of plane rectilinear figures; the circle and the measurement of angles; similar polygons; areas; regular polygons and the measurement of the circle. The demonstration of original propositions and the solution of numerous problems, including loci problems. Applications of principles to the mensuration of lines and plane surfaces. SOLID GEOMETRY The usual theorems and constructions of good textbooks, includ- ing the relations of planes and lines in space; the properties and measurement of prisms, pyramids, cylinders and cones; the sphere and the spherical triangle. The demonstration of original propositions and the solution of numerous problems, including loci problems. Applications of principles to the mensuration of surfaces and solids. TRIGONOMETRY Definitions and relations of the six trigonometric functions as ratios; circular measurement of angles. Thorough treatment of this topic should include i Consideration of the functions of complementary angles. 2 Consideration of the functions of supplementary angles. 3 Familiarity with the expression of the trigonometric func- tions as lines in order that the student may readily trace changes in sign and magnitude of a function as the angle varies, and extend the definitions of the trigonometric functions to angles of any magnitude. 4 The derivation of the values of the six trigonometric func- tions for angles of 30 , 45 , 6o°. Proofs of principal formulas in particular for the sine, cosine and tangent of the sum and the difference of two angles, of the double angle and the half angle, the product expressions for the sum or difference of two sines or of two cosines, etc.; the transformation of trigonometric expressions by means of these formulas. ADVANCED ALGEBRA 55 Solution of trigonometric equations of a simple character. Theory and use of logarithms (without the introduction of work involving infinite series). i Clear definitions. 2 Proof that the logarithm of a product=sum of logarithms of its factors. 3 Proof that the logarithm of a quotient=difference between the logarithm of the dividend and that of the divisor. 4 Proof that the logarithm of a power of a number is found by multiplying the logarithm of the number by the exponent of the power. 5 Ready use of tables of common logarithms ; facility in inter- polation and use of the cologarithm. Applications to finding the values of surd expressions and the functions of given angles, etc. 6 Solution of simple exponential equations. The solution of right and oblique triangles, plane and spherical, and practical applications. i Derivation of formulas relative to right spherical triangles. 2 Derivation of formulas used in solving the oblique plane triangle. ADVANCED ALGEBRA The course in advanced algebra should cover a thorough review of all of the topics in elementary algebra and intermediate algebra, with more difficult applications than can be expected in the earlier study of those courses, together with the following additional topics : Permutations and combinations limited to simple cases. i Necessary definitions and meaning of symbols in general use. 2 Derivation of the formula for the permutations of n dissimilar things taken r at a time. 3 Derivation of the formula for the number of permutations of n things, taken all together, when p are of one kind, q of another, etc. 4 Derivation of the formula for the number of combinations of n dissimilar things, r together. 5 The number of combinations of n dissimilar things rata time is equal to the number of combinations of n dissimilar things n-r at a time. $6 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 6 Investigation of the value of r which gives the greatest number of combinations of n things rata time. 7 Exercises depending for solution upon any of the foregoing formulas or principles. Complex numbers with graphic representation of sums and differ- ences. 1 Graphic representation of complex numbers and of their sums and differences. 2 The four fundamental operations for complex numbers. Determinants, chiefly of the second, third and fourth orders including the use of minors and the solution of simple equations. 1 Necessary definitions and meaning of the notation in general use. 2 Fundamental principles of determinants. 3 Expansion of determinants of the second, third and fourth orders by general methods. 4 Determination of the sign of any particular term. 5 Evaluation of determinants by special devices suitable to the case under consideration. 6 The solution of simple simultaneous equations by the aid of determinants. Binomial theorem. 1 The expansion of any binomial into a series, the exponent being positive or negative, integral or fractional. 2 The finding of any root of a number approximately by the binomial theorem. Undetermined coefficients. 1 Identical equations. 2 Expansion of fractions into series. 3 Expansion of surds into series. 4 Decomposition of rational fractions. 5 Reversion of series. Series. 1 Convergency and divergency of infinite series. 2 Method of differences. 3 Summation of recurring series of the first, second and third orders. 4 Interpolation. Logarithms. 1 Meaning of terms used. 2 Distinction between common and Napierian logarithms. ADVANCED ALGEBRA 57 3 Use of logarithms in multiplication, division, involution and evolution. 4 Application of logarithms to the solution of exponential equa- tions. Detached coefficients. Synthetic division for a binomial divisor, and the determination of the remainder. Theory of equations. i Divisibility of equations. 2 Number of roots. 3 Formation of an equation from given roots. 4 Commensurable roots. 5 Composition of coefficients. 6 Fractional roots. 7 Imaginary roots. 8 Transformation a of an equation having fractional coefficients into another in which the coefficients are integral, that of the first term being unity; 6 of a complete equation into one in which the second term is wanting; c of an equation into another in which the roots shall be some multiple of the roots of the first or shall differ from those of the first by a given quantity. 8 Descartes's rule of signs. 9 Derived polynomials, io Multiple roots. Solution of higher numerical equations. i Horner's method of approximation to the roots of a numerical equation. 2 Graphs of equations and graphic representations of roots. GROUP 3 SCIENCE PHYSICAL SCIENCE 1 Physics Chemistry PHYSICS Topical syllabus in physics The course of instruction in physics should include : i Individual laboratory work consisting of experiments requiring approximately 30 double periods. Each student should perform at least 3 5 experiments not very different from such as may be selected from the appended list. 2 Instruction by lecture table demonstrations to be used mainly as a basis for questioning upon the general principles of physics and their applications. 3 The study of at least one standard textbook to the end that the student may gain a comprehensive and connected view of the more important facts and laws of elementary physics. Throughout the course especial attention should be paid to the common illustrations of physical laws and to their industrial applica- tions. Whenever the solution of numerical problems is required, the student should be encouraged to make use of the principles of algebra and geometry to reduce the difficulty of solution. I Introduction. A Metric system. Linear measure, units: meter, centimeter, millimeter. Square measure: centimeter only. Cubic measure : cubic centimeter and liter. Mass: kilogram, gram and decimal parts. Ratios: 2.54, 39-37, 2 - 2 - B Definitions: volume, mass, weight, density. C Masses of equal volumes are directly proportional to density. Volumes of equal masses are inversely proportional to density D States of matter. Defined and explained. (Kinetic theory of matter.) E Properties of matter: 1 Tenacity. 2 Surface tension. 3 Capillarity. 'In the preparation of the syllabuses in physics and chemistry valuable assistance has been rendered by teachers representing the New York State Science Teachers Association and the High School Teachers Association of New York city. 58 physics 59 II Hydrostatics. A Pascal's law. Problems on hydrostatic press, areas given, lever omitted. B Gravity pressure. Varying depth. " area. " density of liquids. " direction. " shape of vessel. Communicating vessels. Problems limited to rectangular areas. C Laws of buoyancy, i Archimedes principle. 2 Laws of notation. 3 Problems. D Specific gravity, i Definition. 2 Methods are applications of principles stated in I C above. 3 Specific gravity of solids. a Bodies heavier than water (weighing in air and in water) . b Bodies lighter than water (sinker method only). c Problems. 4 Specific gravity of liquids. a Bottle method. b Bulb method. c By balancing columns. d Problems. III Pneumatics. Gas pressure is due to (i) gravity, (2) molecular motion. A Atmospheric pressure. 1 Evidences of (qualitative). 2 Measurement by barometer. B Pressure due to molecular motion. Boyle's law. C Applications. Pumps. Air pumps (mechanical only) . Lifting pump. Force pump, air dome included. Siphon. IV Statics of solids. A General conditions of equilibrium. (Two kinds of motion, rotary and translatory, must be prevented.) 60 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT B Simplest case of equilibrium, two forces only. Definition of resultant and equilibrant. C Equilibrium of three parallel forces. Show the following facts: i Two forces in one direction, and one in the opposite direction. 2 The opposing force is between the other two. 3 The opposing force equals the sum of the other two. 4 Any two of the forces are inversely proportional to their distances from the third force. 5 Problems. D Moment of a force defined and explained. E Equilibrium of any number of parallel forces. Problems. F General law of gravitation. Weight: a special case, the earth being one of the two bodies attracting each other, i Causes of variation of weight. 2 Weight of a body defined as the resultant of the gravitation of the parts of the body. 3 Weight is proportional to mass. G Center of gravity. i Defined as the point of application of the force called weight. 2 C. of G. determined. 3 Problems. H States of equilibrium. Stable. Unstable. Neutral. / Equilibrium of three concurrent forces. i Parallelogram. 2 Resolution of forces (rectangular components only). 3 Problems. V Kinetics. A Define force, motion, velocity. B Uniform motion. i Newton's first law: inertia. 2 Problems. C Variable motion. i Define acceleration. 2 Uniformly accelerated motion (if initial or final velocity is zero). Problems. 3 Falling bodies (A = G = 980 or 32) a special case. PHYSICS 6l D i Momentum defined. Rate of change of momentum. 2 Newton's second law, "A force is measured by the change in momentum produced in unit time." F = M A or F T = MV, 3 Unit force gives to a unit mass a unit acceleration. 4 Weight of unit mass = 980 CGS units of force or 32 FPS units. E Newton's third law. To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. F 1 Work defined, and formula, Work = FL . Problems. 2 Energy defined. 3 Units of work and of energy, erg and foot pound only, = Unit force acting through unit distance. G 1 Law of conservation of energy. 2 Kinds of energy. a Potential energy defined and determined as equal to FL from law of conservation of energy. b Kinetic energy defined. Problems. H Power defined. Unit of power defined. Problems. / Machines, mechanical advantage, (problems) , mechanical effi- ciency defined and discussed. (Use terms effort and resist- ance.) J Lever, wheel and axle. Problems. K Pulley. 1 Single fixed. 2 Single movable. 3 Any number of pulleys with a continuous cord. Problems. L Inclined plane. (Effort parallel to incline.) Problems. M Curvilinear motion: centripetal force qualitatively illustrated. N Laws of simple pendulum. 1 As to amplitude of vibration. 2 As to weight of bob. 3 As to length of pendulum. Problems. 62 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT VI Heat. A Heat defined from standpoint of kinetic theory. B Temperature denned from standpoint of law of exchange. C Measurement of temperature. i Construction of mercury and glass thermometer explained. 2 Graduation of a thermometer and location of fixed points. 3 Reduction of C and F thermometer scales. Problems. 4 Limitations of liquid thermometers. 5 Metallic thermometers. a Compound bar. b Expansion of a wire. 6 Air thermometer: simplest form. D Sources of heat. i Sun. 2 Interior of earth. 3 Chemical change. 4 Friction. 5 Impact. 6 Compression. E Transmission or diffusion of heat. i Conduction. ^ 2 Convection. > Defined and discussed. 3 Radiation. J F Effects of heat. i Expansion. a Of solids. b Coefficient of linear expansion. Problems. c Expansion of liquids— anomalous expansion of water. d Expansion of gases. e Absolute zero. / Law of Charles. Problems. 2 Change of state. a Fusion. b Vaporization, (i) Boiling. (2) Evaporation. 3 Rise of temperature. a Calorie defined. b Law of exchange of heat. c Specific heat defined and determined. Problems. PHYSICS 63 G 1 Heat of fusion defined and determined. Problems. 2 Heat of vaporization defined and determined. Problems. H Heat and work. 1 Joule's equivalent. 2 Simple noncondensing steam engine. 3 Gas engine. VII Sound. A Origin of sound. B Propagation of sound waves. 1 Amplitude of wave and loudness. 2 Length of wave and pitch. 3 Form of wave and quality or timbre. 4 Velocity of sound. C Reflection of sound, echoes. D Resonance. E Interference of sound, beats. F Harmony and discord. G Vibration of rods or bars free at one end (effect of length). H Vibration of strings (effect of length, tension, and mass per - unit of length). / Pitch of open and closed pipes. VIII Light. A Discussion of radiant energy. 1 The ether. 2 Transverse waves. 3 Wave length. 4 Light waves contrasted with heat waves as to : a Wave length. b Effects. 5 Velocity of light. B Definitions: Light, luminous bodies, illuminated bodies, transparent, trans- lucent and opaque bodies. C Rectilinear propogation of light in a homogeneous medium- 1 Shadows. 2 Pinhole camera. D Photometry. 1 Intensity of light (source) and intensity of illumination dis- tinguished. 2 Law of inverse squares. 64 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 3 Bunsen photometer. 4 Problems. E Reflection. 1 Law of reflection. 2 Regular. 3 Irregular (visibility of illuminated objects). 4 Plane mirrors, position and character of image. F Refraction. 1 Definition. 2 Explanation. 3 Index of refraction. 4 Laws of refraction. 5 Total reflection. a Critical angle defined. 6 Refraction by parallel sided plates. 7 Refraction by prisms. 8 Lenses: a Definition. b Classification. c Definitions of focus, conjugate focuses, principal focus, center of curvature, optical center, principal axis, second- ary axis. 9 Position and character of images formed by converging and diverging lenses. 10 Real and virtual images defined. 11 Graphical determination of size and position of images formed by lenses. I I I 1 2 Problems. — = 1 F Do Di 13 So : Si :: D : Di S = diameter. IX Magnetism and electricity. A Magnets, magnetic substance. B Magnets, natural and artificial; permanent and temporary. C Polarity. Laws of magnetic force: 1 As to like and unlike poles. 2 As to distance between poles. Problems. D Magnetic induction and molecular theory of magnetism. E Magnetic fields and lines of magnetic force defined and dis- cussed. PHYSICS 65 F Terrestrial magnetism evidenced by: 1 Magnetic compass. 2 Magnetic declination. 3 Dip. 4 Magnetic induction of the earth. X Current electricity. A Action in simple cell: 1 Chemical changes. 2 Theory of the production of difference of potential. 3 Local action and polarization. B Daniell cell. C Effects of current (qualitatively illustrated). 1 Magnetic. a Electromagnet. b Relation between direction of current and direction of magnetic lines of force. 2 Heating. a Fuse wire. b Electric heater. 3 Chemical. a Electrolysis of water. b Electroplating. c Storage cell. D Electrical quantities and units. 1 E.M.F.: volt. 2 Current: ampere. 3 Resistance: ohm. 4 Power: watt and kilowatt-hour. E E Ohm's law: C = — R Problems. F Measuring instruments: galvanometer, ammeter, voltmeter, resistance coils (rheostat). G Grouping of cells. 1 Series. 2 Parallel. Problems. E H Determination of internal resistance of a cell bv C = R + r K L I Laws of resistance of wires : R = Problems. D 2 66 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT / Joint resistance and current division in a divided circuit. Problems. K Fall of potential in a circuit. Problems. L Wheatstone's bridge. Problems. M Induced E.M.F. i How produced. 2 Intensity. 3 Direction. N Simple dynamo two pole field, single rotating loop, alternat- ing and direct. O Simple electric motor, two pole, H armature. P Applications: i Arc lamp. 2 Incandescent lamp. 3 Telegraph. 4 Telephone. 5 Electric bell. XI Static electricity. A Electrification by friction; two kinds of electrification. B Law of attraction and repulsion ; gold leaf electroscope. C Conductors and insulators; electrification by induction. D Difference of electric potential of two points. Laboratory syllabus in physics Notebooks — general directions, i The purpose of each experi- ment should be clearly stated in a brief title. 2 A brief description, usually accompanied by a drawing, should show how the experiment was done. Descriptions should be expressed in definite and complete sentences, and drawings should show the essential parts of the apparatus at the most significant part of the experiment. Drawings should be made in the form of plain outline diagrams and should aim at simple accuracy rather than at artistic finish. 3 Numerical data should always be recorded in neat tabulations. 4 Descriptions, drawings, observations and numerical data should be confined to left-hand pages of notebooks. Statements of rea- soning, calculations and conclusions should be written on right- hand pages. Calculations should be written out in full with inter- mediate and final results definitely named. Conclusions should refer directly to the expressed purpose of the experiment and physics 6y should follow from the data and reasoning as clearly and logically as the conclusion of a proposition in geometry follows from the given conditions and the proof. This arrangement of notes is not applicable to chemistry. 5 Experiments marked with a * are regarded as fundamental and should be included in every laboratory course. The remain- ing 10 experiments necessary to complete the minimum require- ment may be selected according to the equipment of the school and the judgment of the teacher. 6 Experiments not performed by the student should in general be performed by the teacher as demonstration exercises to be observed and discussed by the class. Brief notes of these and other demonstration exercises should be taken in class and written carefully in the notebooks out of class. Notes of experiments and of demon- strations should appear together in the notebooks in the order in which they are done. They should be numbered separately, however, as experiment i, experiment 2, etc. and demonstration 1, demonstration 2, etc. 7 Every notebook should contain an index at the beginning showing the title of each experiment and demonstration, and the page on which it may be found. INDEX OF EXPERIMENTS PERFORMED No. of exp. Title of experiment Page . I 1 1 ! I 1 8 When the notebook has been completed, the teacher should attach the following certificate to the inside of the front cover: High School N. Y. 190. . This notebook contains the original record of work done by in the laboratory of the High School under my immedi- ate supervision. The records of expsriments on the left-hand pages were written in the laboratory at the time when the experi- ments were performed. [Signed] Teacher of 68 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 9 A student taking the Department's examination must prepare a copy of the index of his notebook and attach it to his answer paper at the time of the examination. This copy of the index must bear (i) the teacher's indorsement certifying that it is a true abstract of the student's work, and (2) the teacher's rating of the notebook based upon a scale of 20. Notebooks, not submitted to colleges as a part of the entrance requirement, must be access- ible to the inspectors and be subject to the call of the Department for a period of six months subsequent to the completion of the course. 10 Schools- not equipped to perform as many as 35 experiments may offer 18 experiments selected from those designated by a star. In such cases notebooks shall be rated on a basis of 10 credits for maximum excellence. 1 1 Directions for performing experiments are to be regarded as sug- gestive rather than mandatory. It is expected that progressive teachers will adapt methods to conditions obtaining in their several schools. Experiment 1* MEASUREMENTS OF LENGTHS, AREAS AND VOLUMES Measure the various dimensions of a solid, of regular geo- metric shape, in centimeters and in inches. Calculate the areas of the several faces in square centimeters and in square inches. Calculate the volumes of the solid in cubic centimeters and in cubic inches. Determine the volume of the solid also by the displacement of water in a graduate. Experiment 2* MASS OF UNIT VOLUME OF A SOLID Weigh several solids whose volumes have been found, and thus determine their masses. From their masses and volumes find their several densities. Experiment 3 GRAVITY PRESSURE OF LIQUIDS By submerging a suitable gage in water to various depths, de- termine the relative pressures of the water at those depths. At any chosen depth turn the face of the gage in several directions without raising or lowering the center of the face. What relation between pressure and direction ? What relation between pressure and depth ? PHYSICS 69 Experiment 4 ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE! SINKING BODIES Find the loss of weight in water of some sinking solid, and with the aid of an overflow can find the weight of the water displaced. What relation between the two results? How might the result of this experiment have been anticipated from the conclusion of experiment 3? Experiment 5 ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE: FLOATING BODIES Weigh some body less dense than water, and then as in experi- ment 4 find the weight of the water it displaces. What relation between the two weights? How is the result of this experiment related to the result of experiment 3 ? Experiment 6* SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF HEAVY SOLIDS Weigh at least three different solids in air and in water. From the conclusion of experiment 4, find the specific gravity of each. Experiment 7 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF LIGHT SOLIDS Weigh some light solid, such as wood, in air. Weigh a suitable sinker in water, and then weigh the light body and the sinker in water. From the conclusions of experiments 4 and 5 calculate the specific gravity of the light solid. Experiment 8 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF LIQUIDS 1 Weigh an empty stoppered bottle ; then weigh when filled with water, and again when filled with another liquid. Find the specific gravity of the other liquid. 2 Weigh a heavy solid in air, in water, and in another liquid. From the conclusion of experiment 4 find the specific gravity of the other liquid. Experiment 9 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF AIR Weigh a large empty bottle (of at least 2 quarts capacity) fitted with tight rubber stopper and pinchcock. Pump the air from the bottle and weigh again. Open the pinchcock under water and later weigh the bottle with the water that has taken the place of the exhausted air. Calculate the specific gravity of the air. JO NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Care should be taken to see that the bottle and fittings are perfectly dry at first. No large weights should be taken from or added to the balance between the first and second weighings. It is best to obtain this difference of weight by moving the rider. Experiment 10 BOYLE'S LAW Find by means of a J tube with short arm closed, or with a gas burette, several volumes of the same mass of dry air when sub- jected to different pressures obtained by pouring mercury into the open arm (the barometric pressure at the time of the experiment to be used as the initial pressure). What relation between the volume of the air and the total pres- sure to which it is subjected? Experimental i* EQUILIBRIUM OF THREE PARALLEL FORCES IN ONE PLANE By means of three spring balances or two balances and a weight, find the values of three parallel forces acting at several different positions on a rod. What relation between the total force operating in one direction and the total force operating in the opposite direction ? What relation between the two outside forces and their respective distances from the middle force ? What general relation between any two forces and their respective distances from the third force? Experiment 12 PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS With four or more spring balances apply parallel forces at various points on a rod so as to produce equilibrium. How does the sum of the forces operating in one direction compare with the sum of the forces operating in the opposite direction? How does the sum of the moments tending to produce clockwise rotation compare with the sum of the moments tending to produce counter-clockwise rotation? Does this relation of moments depend upon the point selected as the axis of rotation? What points, then, may be selected as axes of rotation? Experiment 13* TO FIND THE POINT OF APPLICATION OF THE WEIGHT OF A BODY Weigh an irregular bar of wood (e.g. a lath with a block of wood nailed to one end) and balance it over a fulcrum to locate its center PHYSICS 71 of gravity. Hang a known weight to some part of the bar and balance over a fulcrum again. By the law of moments found in experiment 12, calculate the distance from the fulcrum to the point at which the weight of the bar must act in order to balance the known weight. How far is this point from the center of gravity of the bar ? Experiment 14 EQUILIBRIUM OF FOUR FORCES AT RIGHT ANGLES IN ONE PLANE On glass marbles support horizontally a square board in which are seven rows of holes at equal intervals, each row containing seven holes. With spring balances apply four forces at right angles so that equilibrium is produced. Note the direction, mag- nitude, and point of application of each force. What relation between the two forces acting in opposite direc- tions? What relation between the magnitudes of the two pairs of parallel forces and the respective distances between them? Select any hole in the board as an axis of rotation and find the sum of the moments of all the forces with respect to that axis. Select at least one other hole and repeat the calculation. What genera 1 law of moments seems to be demonstrated? Experiment 15* EQUILIBRIUM OF THREE CONCURRENT FORCES IN ONE PLANE The parallelogram of forces With three spring balances pull upon three strings that meet at a point. Slide the notebook under the strings and record accurately the direction and magnitude of each force. Draw lines to represent the positions of the strings, and measuring from the point of meeting lay off distances to represent the mag- nitudes of the forces. Upon two lines construct a parallelogram and draw a diagonal from the point of meeting. How does this diagonal compare in direction and magnitude with the line repre- senting the third original force? Experiment 16 RESOLUTION OF A SINGLE FORCE INTO TWO COMPONENTS AT RIGHf ANGLES Suspend a known weight from a point on the vertical side of a post or bar of wood fixed in an upright position. A spring balance should be included in the upper part of the suspending cord, and a light wooden rod about 15 inches long should be placed as a J2 NEW YORK SPATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT horizontal brace about 18 inches below the point of suspension to hold the weight away from the upright bar. Attach a spring balance to the outer end of the horizontal bar and note what ten- sion is required acting horizontally to permit the released bar to fall. Draw a right triangle whose sides shall represent the upright bar, the horizontal rod and the slanting string, and find the values of the vertical and horizontal components of the tension of the first spring balance. Experiment 17* THE INCLINED PLANE, WITH FORCE PARALLEL TO PLANE Incline a smooth board or plate of glass at an angle of about 30 with the horizon, and with a spring balance find the force necessary to draw a small loaded car up the incline. This force may be found by pushing the car gently up the incline and letting it follow the finger slowly back to a position of rest and then pushing the car a little down the incline and letting it follow the finger to a position of rest. The average of the two balance readings at rest will be the true force required to sustain or move the car with the effect of friction eliminated. Calculate the work necessary to move the car along the plane between any two selected points. Calculate also the work necessary to lift the weight of the car through the vertical hight represented by the difference of level of the two points. How do the two amounts of work compare with each other? Experiment 18 UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION With an Atwood's machine or with a smooth ball rolling down an inclined plane find the law of relation between total acceleration and the time during which the accelerating force has been operating. Experiment 19* LAWS OF THE PENDULUM! AMPLITUDE, MASS, LENGTH Swing pendulums of equal lengths but of different weights through "equal arcs and note the number of vibrations a minute. Swing the same pendulum through short and long arcs and note the num- ber of vibrations a minute. Note the number of vibrations a minute for pendulums of various lengths and find what relation there is between the length of a pendulum and its number of vibra- tions a minute. physics 73 Experiment 20* TESTING THE FIXED POINTS OF A THERMOMETER Completely cover the bulb of a thermometer with cracked ice contained in a funnel, and record the thermometer reading. Place the thermometer in the steam over a flask of boiling water and note the reading. From the barometer reading at the time of the experiment calculate the true temperature of steam. What is the freezing point error of your thermometer? What is its boiling point error? Experiment 21 COEFFICIENT OF LINEAR EXPANSION By means of a steam jacket and magnifying lever find how much a rod of brass, iron or aluminum increases in length for a known rise of temperature. By calculation find how much a rod 1 centi- meter long would increase in length for a rise of i° C. Experiment 22 INCREASE OF VOLUME OF AIR HEATED UNDER CONSTANT PRESSURE Obtain a heavy glass tube about 40 centimeters long and 1.5 millimeters in diameter of bore. This tube should be sealed at one end, filled with thoroughly dry air (drawn through a bath of sulphuric acid nearly filled with broken glass beads) and stopped near the open end with a mercury column about 4 centimeters long. Hold the tube either vertically or horizontally first in a bath of cracked ice and water and then in a bath of free steam. Measure the length of the air column both at the highest and the lowest temperature, and also note the barometer reading. Find by what fractional part of its own volume a cubic centimeter of air would be increased while its temperature is raised from o° C to i°C. Experiment 23 LAW OF HEAT EXCHANGE, METHOD OF MIXTURES At several different trials mix two known masses of hot and cold water at known temperatures, and note the temperature of each mixture. Calculate from the masses and changes of temperature the number of calories lost and gained by the hot and cold water respectively. How is the temperature change of each body of water related to its mass? 74 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Experiment 24* SPECIFIC HEAT OP A SOLID Wind a strip of copper, lead or zinc about 3 centimeters wide and long enough to make a coil weighing 400 or 500 grams, into a com- pact coil. Suspend the coil in free steam for about five minutes and then plunge it into a known mass (100 to 150 grams) of cold water at a known temperature and note the resulting temperature. How much heat is lost by one gram of the metal while its temperature falls one degree? Experiment 25* HEAT OF FUSION OF ICE Put about 100 grams of dry ice in small lumps into about 200 grams of hot water (about 5o°C) of known temperature, and note the resulting temperature. Weigh again to find the exact weight of the ice used. How much heat was used to melt 1 gram of ice? Experiment 26 HEAT OF VAPORIZATION OF WATER Pass dry steam into a known mass of cold water, whose known temperature is about io° lower than the temperature of the room, till the resulting temperature is about io° higher than that of the the room. Weigh again to find the mass of the steam introduced. By calculation find how much heat is given out by a gram of steam in changing from vapor to boiling water. Sound Experiment 27 VELOCITY OF SOUND IN AIR Arrange a large pendulum that may be seen for a considerable distance so that it will beat half seconds. The pendulum should be screened so that it may be seen only in the middle part of the swing. A sharp sound like the stroke of a hammer on a board or box should be made immediately behind the screen regularly as the pendulum reaches the lowest point of its arc. Observers should move away from or toward the pendulum till the sound of each stroke of the hammer reaches them at the same time with the next beat of the pendulum. The distance from the observer to the pendulum will represent the velocity of sound per half second. physics 75 Experiment 28* THE WAVE LENGTH OF A SOUND With a tuning fork and large (i£ inches) glass tube to be raised and lowered in a jar of water find the quarter wave length of the sound given by the fork. From the results of experiment 27 find about how many times a second the fork must vibrate. Experiment 29* NUMBER OF VIBRATIONS OF A TUNING FORK With a diapason tuning fork having large amplitude of vibration, and a heavy pendulum provided with a stylus or bristle obtain simultaneous records of the vibrations of the fork and pendulum upon smoked glass. Count the vibrations of the pendulum for several minutes to obtain its average rate a minute. Then by com- parison of records on the glass find the number of vibrations of the fork a second. Light Experiment 30* Place a paper screen with an oiled or paraffined spot in its center between a candle on one side and a group of four similar candles on the other. Move the screen back and forth until a position is found at which it is equally illuminated from both sides. Note the distance from the screen to each source of light. Repeat with two or three candles on one side of the screen and one on the other. What relation between the two distances and the quantity of light sent from each source? Experiment 31* LAW OF REFLECTION OF LIGHT Upon a horizontal sheet of paper stand a plane mirror, and draw a line marking the position of the face of the mirror. Stick a pin vertically in the paper about 5 centimeters in front of the mirror. Locate the image of the pin by two widely divergent sight lines. How are the pin and image located with respect to the face of the mirror? From the place where one of the sight lines crosses the mirror line draw a line to the pin. This marks the path of the incident ray from the pin to the mirror. At the point of incidence erect a perpendicular to the line of the mirror and measure the angles of incidence and of reflection. How do these two angles compare ? j6 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Experiment 32 IMAGES IN A PLANE MIRROR Repeat experiment 28 placing a drawing of a scalene triangle in front of the mirror. Locate the images of the vertices of the triangle and construct the image of the triangle. What conclu- sions may be made in reference to the position, character, and size of the image? Experiment 33 IMAGES IN A CONCAVE MIRROR By methods of experiments 28 and 29 determine the position, size and character of the image formed by a concave mirror when the object is placed (1) within the principal focal distance, (2) between the focus and the center of curvature, (3) outside the center of curvature. Verify the equation of the sum of the recip- rocals of conjugate focal distances with twice the reciprocal of the radius. What relation between the sizes of images and their dis- tances from the mirror? Experiment 34 THE PATH OF A RAY OF LIGHT PASSING THROUGH A GLASS PRISM Place a glass prism (a plate of glass about 5 centimeters square is best) on a horizontal sheet of paper and by sighting with pins as markers find the path of a ray of light by which some object is seen through the glass. In what direction is a ray of light de- flected in passing from a rarer to a denser medium, in passing from a denser to a rarer medium? At what angle of incidence would there be no deflection? Experiment 35* FOCAL LENGTH OF A CONVERGING LENS Find the focal length of a converging lens either by projecting an image of the sun on a paper screen, or by the method of observ- ing the position of the image of a distant object such as a tree or church spire. Experiment 36* CONJUGATE FOCI OF A CONVERGING LENS Project upon a small screen in a dark room images of a bright object placed at various distances from the lens, and note the PHYSICS 7J several distances of object and image from the lens. See if these iii distances conform to the law expressed in the formula 1 = — D Di F. What relation between the distance of the image from the lens and the size of the image ? What general relation between distance of object and distance of image from the lens? Magnetism and electricity Experiment 37* LINES OF FORCE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD By scattering fine iron filings over cardboard placed over mag- nets obtain diagrams of the lines of force (1) about a single bar magnet, (2) about two like poles, (3) about two unlike poles, (4) about two bar magnets placed at right angles to each other thus T, with a space of 2 \ inches or 3 inches between the magnets. What laws of mutual attraction and repulsion of poles seem to be illustrated by the curves? Experiment 38* LINES OF FORCE ABOUT A CURRENT-BEARING CONDUCTOR Pass a stout copper wire vertically through the center of a horizontal cardboard. Send a current from two or three cells through the wire, and with a small compass explore the magnetic field about the wire and mark out the lines of force. Sprinkle iron filings on the cardboard and draw the resulting curves. Re- peat the whole experiment with the current in the wire reversed. State a law of relation between the direction of the current and the direction of the lines of force about the conductor. Experiment 39* THE STUDY OF A SIMPLE CELL Stand a strip of copper and a strip of zinc, each with a few inches of copper wire attached, in the opposite sides of a tumbler two thirds full of very dilute sulphuric acid. Note what seems to happen about the strips both before and after the connecting wires are brought together. Repeat the experiment after amal- gamating the zinc. Place the end of one wire above and the other below the tip of the tongue. Connect the wires with a galvan- oscope. Reverse the connection of the wires and note the result. What is the effect of amalgamating the zinc? What does the 78 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT galvanoscope show in regard to the effect of the direction of the current ? Experiment 40* STUDY OF A TWO FLUID CELL Construct a cell having an amalgamated zinc in dilute sulphuric acid and a strip of copper in a solution of copper sulphate, using a porous cup to separate the liquids. Weigh both strips of metal; replace them in the cell; connect with a galvanometer; and take readings at five minute intervals for 20 minutes. Weigh the strips again and account for changes. Did any gas rise from either strip of metal? Why? What condition of the current is accounted for by this? Experiment 41 LAWS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE Internal With cell and galvanometer connected as in experiment 40, note the reading when the strips are drawn half way out of the liquid, when three quarters out, and when thrust in at the usual depth. Take readings when the strips are as far apart as possible and again when separated only by the wall of the porous cup. What is the effect of the size of the plate upon resistance? What is the effect of the distance between plates? Experiment 42 LAWS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE External Connect a cell and galvanometer with two meters of no. 28 or no. 30 copper wire. Increase the length of the copper wire grad- ually to 4 meters, and note the effect upon the strength of the current. Instead of a single copper wire use a double wire of the same size and find what length of the double wire gives the same resistance as the 2 meters of single wire. What effect has length upon the resistance of a wire ? What effect has area of cross-section upon the resistance of a conductor? Experiment 43 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR Wind about 50 centimeters of fine iron wire in a close spiral and connect in circuit with a cell and galvanometer. Note the reading physics 79 when the wire is cold and again when heated over a gas flame. What effect has a high temperature upon resistance? Experiment 44 EFFECT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT ON THE TEMPERATURE OF A CON- DUCTOR Introduce about 10 centimeters of very fine (no. 32) iron wire into a circuit with two cells connected in series. Slowly move one of the line wires along the iron wire so as to diminish the length of the iron wire in circuit. Note the temperature effect. Experiment 45 DISTRIBUTION OF CURRENT OVER THE BRANCHES OF A DIVIDED CIRCUIT Introduce a galvanometer into each of the branches of a divided circuit. By varying the lengths or cross-sections of the branches observe the manner in which the current seems to be distributed. Experiment 46 ARRANGEMENT OF CELLS TO PRODUCE THE STRONGEST CURRENT Arrange two cells in series and then parallel when the external resistance is furnished by short stout copper wires and five coils of a galvanometer. Repeat with the external resistance furnished by long fine wires and 15 coils of the galvanometer. The fine wire should be of German silver. From the galvanometer readings decide which arrangement is best for given conditions. Experiment 47* THE ELECTRO-MAGNET Wind a rod of soft iron with an insulated copper wire and connect with a cell. Try the lifting power of the rod on iron filings, tacks and small nails when the circuit is opened and closed. With a compass determine the nature of each pole of the rod. Reverse the connections with the cell and test the poles again. What re- lation between the direction of the current and the nature of the pole presented toward you? How do the results of this experi- ment agree with those of experiment 38? SO NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Experiment 48* THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH Connect a telegraph key and sounder (a simple homemade instrument is even better than an instrument from the shops) with a cell; and by the use of a compass determine the condition of the poles of the magnet when the circuit is open and when closed. Do the results of your observation agree with those in experiment 47? Experiment 49* THE ELECTRIC BELL Connect a small electric bell with a cell and by use of a compass determine the condition of the poles of the magnet when the hammer of the bell is pressed and held over toward the gong, and when the hammer is held away from the gong. By drawing and description show how the hammer is kept in motion. Experiment 50* STUDY OF AN ELECTROMOTOR t _ Pass the current from two or three cells through a simple motor and with a compass test the poles of the field magnet and armature while the armature is held at rest in several positions. With a simple drawing and explanation show how the current causes the armature to revolve. Experiment 51 EFFECT PRODUCED UPON A COIL OF WIRE MOVING THROUGH A MAG- NETIC FIELD With long connecting wires join a coil of 10 turns of wire, making a ring 3 inches in diameter, with the binding posts of an astatic galvanometer. Move the coil to a position in front of a strong magnet. Account for the effect upon the galvanometer. Draw the coil suddenly away from the magnet and account for the result as before. Experiment 52 STUDY OF A DYNAMO Connect a small dynamo with a galvanometer of five turns and cause the armature to revolve with slowly increasing speed. Ac- count for the effect upon the galvanometer, including constancy of direction. Repeat with a uniform moderate rotation and account for the small initial effect and its gradual building up or increase. PHYSICS 8l Experiment 53 ELECTROPLATING Attach a large clean wire nail to one terminal of a battery of three cells in series and a strip of copper [see Experiment 40] to the other terminal. Plunge both nail and copper strip into a solution of copper sulphate for a few moments and note the result. Re- verse the positions of nail and strip and repeat. Which arrange- ment is best? Upon which terminal (anode or cathode) is metal deposited? After the nail has been well coated, let it dry and then polish it by gentle rubbing with a dusty blackboard eraser. The copper plated nail may be nickel plated by attaching it to a suitable elec- trode in a solution of ammonium -nickel sulphate. Experiment 54 DEVELOPMENT OF AN ELECTROSTATIC SERIES Rub a glass rod with silk and present the rod to the plate of an electroscope. Rub a stick of sealing wax with flannel or catskin and present the wax to the plate of an electroscope. Determine with the electroscope the kind of electrification produced on each of six or eight different insulators, when each is rubbed with the others, and form a series such that each substance is positively charged when rubbed with any succeeding substance. 82 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT CHEMISTRY Topical syllabus in chemistry The course of instruction in chemistry should be based on the following : i Individual laboratory work consisting of exercises requiring 30 double periods of work; at least 25 of these exercises should be chosen from the appended list, all exercises marked with a * to be included. 2 Instruction by lecture table demonstrations, to be used mainly as a basis for questioning upon the general principles of chemistry and their applications. 3 The study of at least one standard textbook, to the end that the pupil may gain a comprehensive and connected view of the more important facts and laws of elementary chemistry. It is recommended that throughout the course especial attention be paid to the common illustrations of chemical laws and to their industrial applications. The general directions preceding the laboratory syllabus in physics excepting paragraphs 8 and 10 apply also to the syllabus in chemistry. The certificate attached to the notebook in chemistry should be expressed in the following words: This notebook contains the original record of work done by in the laboratory of the High School. All drawings, descriptions of processes, observed phenomena and numerical data were recorded in the laboratory at the time the experiments were performed. Introductory work It is recommended that the introductory work conform to the historical development of the subject, i.e. heating of metals in air, with an examination before and after heating. This examination should include weighing to show gain in weight, and the determination of the nature of the substance taken from the air. Oxygen. Element. Preparation by the decomposition of: Mercuric oxid. Potassium chlorate. Properties. CHEMISTRY 83 Physical: color, odor, solubility in water, weight relative to air. Chemical: tendency to form oxids, terms oxidation and combustion explained. Necessity to life. Hydrogen. Element. Preparation. Electrolysis of water. Action of certain metals (e.g. sodium) on water. Replacement in acids by metals. Properties. Physical: as with oxygen. Chemical: burns in air. Uses. Oxy-hydrogen light and blast lamp. Compounds. Water. Synthesis by weight and by volume. Law of definite proportions. Combining weights. Solution. Terms water of crystallization, efflorescent substance and deliquescent substance defined. Hydrogen peroxid. Uses. Law of multiple proportions. Atomic hypothesis. Development from laws of definite and multiple proportions. Chlorin. Element. Preparation. Electrolysis of brine (demonstration). Oxidation of hydrochloric acid (e.g. by manganese dioxid> Properties. Physical. Chemical: direct combination with other elements to form chlorids; action with water. Uses. Bleaching action. Compounds. Hydrochloric acid. 84 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Preparation: a chlorid and sulphuric acid. Properties. Physical. Chemical: a typical acid, e.g. action on litmus, and on metals. Uses. Digestive; preparation of chlorin. Composition by volume (determination with sodium amalgam, demonstration) . Avogadro's hypothesis. Development of reason for belief that the hydrogen molecule con- tains two atoms. Determination of the density of gases. Calculation of molecular weights from density. Introduction of formulas and writing of equations already studied With emphasis on atomic and molecular weight relations. Sodium (and potassium) Element. Preparation. Electrolysis of fused sodium hydroxid. Properties. Physical: color, luster, hardness, power to conduct heat and electricity. Chemical: action with water (evaporation of solution); study of hydroxid as a typical base, viz, action with lit- mus, action with acids (neutralization). Solution. Electrolytes (acids, bases, salts). Nonelectrolytes (sugar, alcohol, glycerin, distilled water). Ionization hypothesis. Atom and ion distinguished. Terms acid and base defined. Neutralization. Sodium and potassium compounds. Hydroxids. Commercial preparation and uses. Chlorids. Occurrence, purification and uses. Carbonates. Production. Solvay process. ( HEMISTRY 85 Uses. Washing, cooking. Nitrates. Occurrence and uses. Sulphur. Element. Occurrence. Preparation. Allotropic forms. Rhombic, prismatic, amorphous. Crystalline, form dependent upon temperature. Properties. Chemical: direct combination with copper, zinc, iron. Uses. Matches, vulcanizing, gunpowder. Compounds. Occurrence. Hydrogen sulphid. Preparation: ferrous sulphid and dilute acid. Properties. Physical. Chemical: combustion, action on metals, formation of sulphids by precipitation. Sulphur dioxid (sulphurous anhydrid). Preparation: burning of sulphur; reduction of sulphuric acid; action of an acid upon sulphites. Properties. Physical. Chemical: action with water, reducing action. Uses: disinfectant, bleaching, manufacture of sulphuric acid. Sulphur trioxid (sulphuric anhydrid). Preparation: "contact" process. Sulphuric acid. Preparation: sulphur trioxid with water (contact process). Properties. Physical: specific gravity and boiling point. Chemical: action on metals. Uses: dehydrating agent ; preparation of other acids with reason for same; illustrations of wide industrial use. 86 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Nitrogen. Element. Occurrence. Preparation. From air. Properties. Physical. Chemical: relation to combustion, general inactivity. The atmosphere. Proofs that air is a mixture : varying composition ; no energy reaction on mixing components; fractionation of liquid air. Other constituents: carbon dioxid — relation to plant and animal life; argon and helium as examples of inert gases; aqueous vapor. Compounds. Ammonia. Occurrence: decomposition product. Preparation: by-product of gas works; action of ammonium salt with strong base. Properties. Physical. Chemical: basic character of water solution, ammonium radical. Uses: refrigerating agent, deturgent. Oxids briefly considered. Nitric acid. Preparation: nitrates with sulphuric acid. Properties. Chemical: reaction with metals, oxidizing action. Uses: aqua regia; illustration of industrial applications. Nitrates. Fixation of atmospheric nitrogen (nitrification). Explosives. Elements of the nitrogen group. Phosphorus. Occurrence. Allot ropic forms. Use. Matches. Arsenic, antimony and bismuth mentioned. CHEMISTRY 87 Halogen group. Preparation of bromin and iodin. Comparison of physical properties. Heats of formation of compounds, e. g. hydrogen. Relative replacement. Carbon. Element. Distribution in nature and allotropic forms. Preparation of commercial forms. Charcoal, coke, boneblack, lampblack, gas carbon. Properties. Physical. Chemical: reducing action, formation of carbids, e. g. cal- cium carbid and carborundum ; relation to organic matter. Uses. Fuel, ore reducer, absorbent, decolorizer. Compounds. Carbon dioxid. Natural formation and occurrence. Preparation: carbonates with acids. Properties. Physical. Chemical: nonsupporter of combustion, formation of hard waters. Uses: mineral waters, bread-making, fire extinguishers. Carbon monoxid. Preparation: reduction of carbon dioxid by carbon. Properties: physical; chemical — combustibility, action on red corpuscles of the blood. Use: water gas. Silicon dioxid. Use. Glass, crown and flint. Calcium compounds. Calcium carbonate. Occurrence. Marble, limestone, shells. Properties. Solubility in water containing carbon dioxid. Uses. Building materials, making of quicklime, flux in iron furnaces. 55 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Calcium oxid and calcium hydroxid. Preparation and uses. - Mortar, its hardening compared with the hardening of cement. Calcium sulphate. Gypsum and plaster of paris. Calcium phosphates. Use in fertilizers. Bleaching powder. Uses. , Bleaching, disinfecting. Magnesium. Zinc. Metal. Preparation of commercial forms. Ingot, sheet mossy. Properties. Physical ; as with sodium. Chemical: action with acids, corrosion. Uses. Galvanizing, batteries,' brass. Compounds. Oxid as a paint base. Mercury. Metal. Properties. Uses. Scientific instruments, amalgams. Compounds. Chlorids (calomel, and corrosive sublimate)- Copper. Metal. Properties. % Uses. Conductor, electroplating, alloys (brass, bronze aluminum bronze). Compounds. Copper sulphate. Uses. Coagulum and fungicide. CHEMISTRY 89 Silver. Metal. Properties. Uses. Coin, jewelry, mirrors. Compounds. Uses in photography (developing, fixing, toning). Gold. Metal. Properties. Uses. Platinum. Metal. Properties. Uses. Aluminum. Metal. Preparation. Electrolytic process. Properties. Physical. ': Chemical: action with hydrochloric acid and with sodium hydroxid. Uses. Paint, conductor, common utensils, aluminum bronze. Compounds. Oxid. Corundum and emery. Hydroxid. Preparation from alum. Uses: mordant, water purification (coagulum). Iron. Metal. Metallurgy. Blast furnace process (cast iron). Puddling (wrought iron). Bessemer process (Bessemer iron). Open hearth process (steel). Comparison of cast iron, wrought iron and steel. Composition, fusibility, malleability and tenacity, magnetic permeability, tempering. Common uses of cast iron, wrought iron, Bessemer iron and steel. Protective coatings to prevent corrosion. 90 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Compounds. Oxids. Ferric oxid as paint base and rouge. Pyrite. Ferrous and ferric chlorids illustrative of change in valence (oxidation and reduction). Tin. Metal. Properties. Uses. # Tinned ware, solder, block tin pipes. Lead. Metal. Extraction from galena by roasting. Properties. Physical. Chemical: corrosion. Uses. Pipe, shot, alloys, (solder, type metal). Compounds. Red and white lead as paint bases. Compounds of carbon. Sources. Destructive distillation of wood. Gas, wood alcohol, acetic acid, charcoal. Destructive distillation of coal. Gas, ammonia, coal tar, coke. Distillation of petroleum. Natural gas, gasoline, kerosene, paraffin. Hydrocarbons. Marsh gas. Occurrence: natural gas and "fire damp." Properties. Substitution products. Chloroform and iodoform. Alcohols. Methyl alcohol. Ethyl alcohol. Preparation : fermentation. Uses: solvent, in beverages, preparation of ether. Aldehydes. Formaldehyde. Preparation: oxidation of methyl alcohol. CHEMISTRY 91 Acids. Formic. Relation to formaldehyde. Acetic. Preparation by fermentation of alcohol. Ethereal salts. Ethyl acetate. Fats. Soap making and glycerin Carbohydrates. Starch. Sugar. Cellulose. Laboratory syllabus in chemistry In the following outline the word exercise is used to indicate work occupying a double period; an experiment may occupy a double period or only part of a double period. Detailed directions for common experiments are omitted in most cases; the questions indicate the lines of thought to be developed from the experimental work. Exercise /* Experiment 1 HEATING OF METALS IN AIR Examine a bright piece of copper, of magnesium, and of zinc, noting in each case the color, luster and tenacity of metal. Hold the piece of copper in the outer flame of burner till red hot. Re- move from flame and examine carefully. In what respects does the surface material differ from the original copper? Repeat with magnesium. Results? Place about half a gram of zinc dust in a layer on the asbestos square. Direct on it from above the flame of a Bunsen burner. Results? Experiment 2 TO ?'IOW CHANGE IN WEIGHT OVER COUNTERPOISE, QUALITATIVELY, UPON HEATING ONE OF THE ABOVE METALS i Zinc dust in open crucible. 2 Magnesium ribbon in ignition tube. 3 Fine copper wire or gauze in open crucible. Has there oeen a loss or gam in weight? What explanation can be made for the change in weight ? 92 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Exercise II* Experiment 3 DECOMPOSITION OF A COMPOUND FORMED BY HEATING MERCURY IN AIR Heat a little of the red powder in an ignition tube. What sub- stance collects on the cooler portion of the tube a short distance above the powder? What is the difference between the behavior of a glowing splinter in air and a glowing splinter held in the test tube? What is the state of the substance that produces the effect? Of what is the red powder composed? Where did each of these substances come from when the red powder was made? Experiment 4 DETERMINATION OF PERCENTAGE OF OXYGEN IN AIR (VOLUMETRIC) Volume of air inclosed by graduate clamped with mouth down- ward and under water; oxygen absorbed by very small piece of phosphorous supported on a copper wire. What percentage of oxygen do you find in the air? Exercise III* Experiment 5 PREPARATION OF OXYGEN BY THE DECOMPOSITION OF POTASSIUM CHLORATE MIXED WITH MANGANESE DIOXID Heat a mixture of potassium chlorate and manganese dioxid in a test tube and collect the resulting gas over water. Small portion of gas tested with a splinter and remainder collected for experiment 6. Treat black residue with hot water, filter, and add silver nitrate to filtrate. Result? Then test solution of potassium chlorate with silver nitrate. Examine residue on filter paper. Which of the original substances seems unchanged? What proof have you of change in one of them? Where do you think the oxygen came from? Experiment 6 FORMATION OF OXIDS Burn carbon, sulphur, magnesium, red phosphorus and iron in oxygen. In each case note intensity of action, presence or ab- sence of flame, color of flame, character of product formed, and effect of solution of product on red and blue litmus. Also com- pare tenacity of iron with that of its products. CHEMISTRY 93 Exercise IV* Experiment 7 ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER Pass the current from two or three cells through acidulated water in the usual apparatus for electrolysis. What is the direction of the current? Which electrode is positive? Which negative? Apply terms anode and cathods. What do3s the splinter test show about the gas that collects at the anode? Is the same gas liberated at the cathode? How does the amount of gas liberated at the anode compare with the amount at the cathode? Experiment 8 DECOMPOSITION OF WATER BY SODIUM Fold a piece of sodium as large as an apple seed in dry filter paper and thrust quickly upward into a test tube of water inverted in water. A pair of iron forceps should be used to handle the paper and sodium. What gas collects in the test tube? Where does this gas come from? Exercise V* Experiment 9 PREPARATION OF HYDROGEN BY REPLACEMENT IN AN ACID BY A METAL Zinc or iron with hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid What advantage has this method over the previous method for preparing hydrogen? From what material does the hydrogen probably com2? Is thsre anything dissolved in the liquid, and, if so, what does it probably contain? Experiment 10 PROPERTIES OF HYDROGEN How do you determine the relative weight of hydrogen and air? Does it burn? Does it support combustion? Why must the joints of the apparatus be tight? Why do you discard the first portion of the gas collected? What is the effect of passing hydrogen over heated copper oxid? What becomes of the oxygen? A material which acts towards an oxid in this way is called a reducing agent. 94 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Exercise VI Experiment n EQUIVALENT OF SODIUM, MAGNESIUM OR ZINC What weight of the metal is required to liberate i gram of hydro- gen ? What name is given to this weight ? Exercise VII* Experiment 12 PREPARATION OF CHLORIN BY OXIDATION OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID Heat hydrochloric acid and manganese dioxid in a flask. From which of the original materials is the chlorin derived? With what does the oxygen of the manganese dixoid combine ? Experiment 13 PROPERTIES OF CHLORIN Into jars of chlorin gas plunge a lighted taper, and wet and dry colored cloths. Why do you not collect chlorin as you did hydrogen? Does chlorin support combustion? The taper is com- posed of carbon and hydrogen, what is the evidence that one of these elements is liberated ? Which one combines with the chlorin ? Sum up your evidence as to the tendency of chlorin to combine with hydrogen. Explain the difference in behavior of chlorin toward the wet and dry cloths. What is your conclusion as to the activity of chlorin ? Exercise VIII* Experiment 14 PREPARATION OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID WITH SODIUM CHLORID AND SULPHURIC ACID Heat common salt and sulphuric acid in a flask. Collect the resulting gas by dry displacement. Of what elements is hydrochloric acid composed? Where does the hydrogen come from? The chlorin? Why was sulphuric acid selected? (Class discussion) Experiment 15 PROPERTIES OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID How do you determine the relative weight of hydrochloric acid and air? Explain why the gas is not collected over water. Hydro- chloric acid is a typical acid. What properties, then, characterize acids? How can silver nitrate be used as a test for hydrochloric acid and other soluble chlorids? CHEMISTRY 95 Exercise IX Experiment 16 DETERMINATION OF WEIGHT OF A LITER OF OXYGEN Heat about 9 grams of dry potassium chlorate and 6 grams thoroughly dryed manganese dioxid in a dry test tube, with a loose plug of glass wool or dry asbestos wool above the powder. The gas is to be collected in a bottle of about 2 liters capacity. Weigh to a centigram the test tube, containing the mixture, and the upper part of the delivery tube before (and after) the heating. Measure volume of gas evolved. From this volume and its observed temperature and barometric pressure corrected for water vapor tension calculate the volume at o° and 760 millimeters. Using the weight of oxygen as found, calculate the weight of a liter under standard conditions. Exercise X* Experiment 17 ACTION OF SODIUM WITH WATER Put a piece of sodium not larger than an apple seed into a few drops of water in a crucible. Note action on water and effect of tilusoon on litmus. Evaporate solution to dryness. How does sodium behave when placed on water? What gas is liberated? Sodium hydroxid is a typical base. What are the characteristics of a typical base? Experiment 18 SODIUM HYDROXID AS A TYPICAL BASE Action on litmus, neutralization with hydrochloric acid and crystallization of product. What is the evidence that the characteristic properties of the acid and of the base have been destroyed? Is there any evidence of chemical change? Base your answer on temperature effect, crystalline form and taste of product. Exercise XI Experiment 19 DETERMINATION OF THE CONCENTRATION OF AN ACID AND OF AN ALKALINE SOLUTION BY TITRATION A normal solution of an acid contains 1 gram of replaceable hydrogen per liter. A normal solution of an alkali contains 17 grams of replaceable hydroxyl per liter. g6 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Problem. 10 c.cm of a half normal solution of hydrochloric acid exactly neutralize 5 c.cm of a solution of sodium hydroxid. How many grams of sodium hydroxid in a liter of the solution? Exercise XII* Experiment 20 FLAME TESTS Test nitrates of lithium, sodium, potassium, calcium, strontium and barium. Use cobalt glass with mixtures of sodium and potassium salts. What is the greatest difference in the flames ? To what part of the salt must this be due ? Why ? What use might be made of these flames in analytical work? What effect does the cobalt glass have upon the color of the flame given by the sodium nitrate solution? Why? To what extent is the potassium flame effected by the cobalt glass? Which flame do you see when you take a mixed solution of sodium and potassium nitrate ? Why can you not make the uot other one with the naked eye? When you use the cobalt glass, which flame of the mixed solution can be recognized? Ex- plain the use of the cobalt glass in making flame tests of mixtures of sodium and potassium salts. Exercise XIII* Experiment 21 SOLVAY PROCESS Preparation of sodium bicarbonate by the action of carbon di- oxid upon saturated ammoniacal brine. Dissolve 10 grams am- monium carbonate in 100 cubic centimeters ammonium hydroxid. Saturate this solution with sodium chlorid by shaking with fine salt. Pour off the clear liquid and through it pass carbon dioxid to saturation. Filter off deposit, dry between filter paper and examine. Exercise XIV Experiment 22 DETERMINATION OF WEIGHT OF WATER OF CRYSTALLIZATION Heat a known weight of crystals of barium chlorid to a constant weight in an open crucible, and weigh the residue. Calculate the per cent of water in barium chlorid and then the total number of molecules of water of crystallization per molecule of barium chlorid. CHEMISTRY 97 Exercise XV* Experiment 23 STUDY OF SULPHUR Slowly heat roll brimstone in a beaker till it fuses and boils. Pour a part into cold water and let the rest cool till crusted over. Then break the crust and pour out the melted sulphur beneath it. Study changes of sulphur while being heated to the boiling point. Preparation of allotropic forms, rhomb 1 :, prismatic, and amor- phous. Upon what does the form that sulphur assumes depend? What is the stable form at ordinary temperature? Exercise XVI* Experiment 24 PREPARATION OF METALLIC SULPHIDS Dry method Heat a mixture of iron filings and sulphur in a test tube. What is the analogy between the formation of sulphids and oxids? Experiment 25 PREPARATION AND PROPERTIES OF HYDROGEN SULPHID Treat a portion of compound formed in preceding experiment with an acid. Plunge a lighted splinter into a tumbler of the gas formed. What products are formed when we burn hydrogen sulphid and how do you recognize them? What does this show about the composition of hydrogen sulphid? Exercise XVII* Experiment 26 PREPARATION OF SULPHUR DIOXID Pour sulphuric acid upon copper turnings in a flask and collect gas by dry displacement. Concentrated sulphuric acid acts as an oxidizing agent. What is the usual action of a metal on an acid? Why do we not get this gas here? What becomes of it? How, then, do you account for the formation of sulphur dioxid? Com- plete the equation Cu + 2 H 2 S0 4 = CuS0 4 + + Experiment 27 PROPERTIES OF SULPHUR DIOXID Physical, odor, solubility; chemical, acid character of solution, bleaching action, reducing power. Is the water solution of sulphur dioxid acid or basic? Does dry sulphur dioxid give the same re- 98 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT action? A chemical compound that combines with water to form an acid is an acid anhydrid. Is sulphur dioxid such a substance? Complete the following equation: H O + S0 2 = How does the formula of the product differ from that of sulphuric acid? What is the name of the process by which this compound could be converted into sulphuric acid? The test for sulphuric acid (or other soluble sulphate) is the formation of a white precipi- tate with barium chlorid and which is insoluble in dilute hydro- chloric acid. What is the effect of the sulphurous acid on a dilute solution of potassium permanganate? Has the sulphurous acid undergone the change referred to above? What terms can be ap- plied respectively to the sulphurous acid and the potassium per- manganate ? Exercise XVII) * Experiment 28 PREPARATION OF AMMONIA Mix lime and ammonium chlorid with water in a flask. Com- plete the equation Ca(0H) 2 + 2NH 4 CI = + Ca Cl 2 = + + CaCl 2 Why is calcium hydroxid used? (Think why sulphuric acid was used in the preparation of hydrochloric acid.) Experiment 29 PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA Invert a flask of ammonia gas over water. Physical, solubility; chemical, basic character of water solution. Exercise XIX* Experiment 30 PREPARATION OF AND TEST FOR NITRIC ACID Heat potassium nitrate and concentrated sulphuric acid in a retort. Collect the distillate. Why do we use sulphuric acid in this preparation? Why not use hydrochloric acid? Exercise XX Experiment 31 PREPARATION OF NITRIC OXID Heat strong nitric acid and copper in a generating flask. What is the usual reaction of a metal on an acid? Why do we not get this gas here? What becomes ol it? How, then, do you account for the formation of nitric oxid? Complete equation 3 Cu + 8 HN0 3 = 3CU (N0 3 ) 2 + + CHEMISTRY 99 Experiment 32 PROPERTIES OF NITRIC OXID Invert a test tube of nitric oxid over water. By pouring upward from another test tube introduce air or oxygen. What are the evidences of chemical change when nitric oxid comes in contact with air? What change has occurred? Exercise XXI* Experiment 33 STUDY OF BROMIN Gently heat a mixture of potassium bromid, manganese dioxid and sulphuric acid in a test tube. Preparation ; solubility in water, carbon disulphid, or chloroform; replacement by chlorin. What compounds would we expect to have formed by the addition of sulphuric acid to potassium bromid? How is the action modified by the presence of manganese dioxid? Why? Is bromin more soluble in water than in carbon disulphid? What characteristic color does bromin give to carbon disulphid? Why does not po- tassium bromid solution impart this color to the disulphid? Why does the coloration appear after the chlorin is added to the potas- sium bromid solution? State the relation between the heats of formation of potassium bromid and potassium chlorid to the action which has occurred. (Class discussion, Experiment 34 ACTION OF SULPHURIC ACID ON POTASSIUM BROMID Explain the use of the materials selected for this preparation What chemical reaction would you expect? How do you account for the production of bromin? Account for the formation of sul- phur dioxid (compare with the action of sulphuric acid on copper) • Exercise XXII* Experiment 35 STUDY OF IODIN Heat a mixture of potassium iodid, manganese dioxid and sulphuric acid in a test tube. Preparation; solubility in water, alcohol, potassium iodid solution, carbon disulphid or chloro- form; replacement by bromin and chlorin; starch test. Ex- plain the use of the materials *as in the preparation of bromin - Determine relative solubility of iodin in water and in carbon disul- phid, and the characteristic coloration in carbon disulphid. De- IOO NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT termine, by method used in previous exercise, the relative replace- ment of chlorin and iodin, and of iodin and bromin. Arrange these halogen elements in the order of their relative replacement, and state the relation of the replacements to the heats of formation of their potassium compounds. Experiment 36 ACTION OF SULPHURIC ACID ON POTASSIUM IODID What chemical reaction would you expect ? How do you account for the production of iodin ? Account for the formation of the hydrogen sulphid? Compare with the action of sulphuric acid on potassium bromid. Which of the three halogen acids is the most stable? Which has the greatest heat of formation? Which is the most easily oxidized (i.e. the best reducer) by sulphuric acid? Give your reasons. Exercise XXIII* Experiment 37 PREPARATION OF CARBON DIOXID Complete the equation: Ca C0 3 + H CI • = +CaCl 2 = ...+ ... +CaCl 2 Why can any of the common acids be used in preparing carbon dioxid ? Experiment 38 PROPERTIES OF CARBON DIOXID Physical; chemical, nonsupporter of combustion, acid character of water solution, reaction with limewater (temporary hardness). Is carbon dioxid an anhydrid? Why? What is the first effect of carbon dioxid on limewater? Write equation. What further effect occurs on continued passing of the gas? How does the resulting liquid differ from distilled water in its effect on a soap solution? Under what conditions is calcium carbonate soluble in water? Why is such a water called "hard"? Can such a hard water be softened by boiling? What became of the calcium car- bonate? Devise a test for a carbonate? Exercise XXIV Experiment 39 FOUR WAYS OF PREPARING SALTS Direct combination, neutralization, displacement due to vola- tility, displacement to insolubility. Students are to devise methods from principles already taught. CHEMISTRY IOI Exercise XXV Experiment 40 ACTION OF COBALT NITRATE ON IGNITED OXIDS OF ALUMINUM, ZINC AND MAGNESIUM Experiment 41 IDENTIFICATION OF SIMPLE SALTS, TREATED AS UNKNOWNS, CON- TAINING ABOVE METALS Exercise XXVI Experiment 42 BORAX BEAD TESTS FOR COBALT, MANGANESE, CROMIUM, IRON AND NICKEL Experiment 43 ACTION OF METALS ON SALT SOLUTIONS Zinc on solutions of lead, silver, mercury, and copper; copper on solutions of lead, silver, mercury, and zinc. In each case name the material deposited. What part does the metal added play? In what previous experiments have similar actions occurred? Exercise XXVII* Experiment 44 CHEMICAL EQUIVALENT BY DISPLACEMENT Quantitative displacement of one of the metals in exercise XXVI. Weigh a small rod of pure zinc and place in a solution of copper sulphate. Collect the deposited metal on a filter, wash with alcohol, and weigh when dry. Reweigh zinc rod. Given the equivalent of zinc, calculate the equivalent of copper. Copper and silver nitrate might also be used to advantage. Exercise XXVIII* Experiment 45 MORDANTS AND DYEING To a solution of alum add ammonium hydroxid to precipitation. Write equation. Does ammonium hydroxid precipitate litmus from solution? Add litmus solution to the solution containing the pre- cipitated aluminum hydroxid. Shake and allow to settle. What is the color of the supernatant liquid ? What becomes of the litmus ? Such a combination is called a lake. (One or two other lakes 102 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT should be made using logwood, cochineal, carmine etc.) Mordant a piece of cotton by soaking in alum solution wringing, then dip- ping in ammonium hydroxid solution. Wring. Where is the precipitate of ammonium hydroxid? Boil cloth in litmus solu- tion. Boil a piece of unmordanted cloth in a solution of lit- mus. Wring and thoroughly wash both pieces of cloth. What is the use of a mordant ? This exercise can be extended to illustrate the use of other mordants. Exercise XXIX Experiment 46 REDUCTION OF FERRIC TO FERROUS CHLORID To a solution of ferrous sulphate add a solution of potassium ferricyanid. Result? This is a test for a ferrous salt. To a solution of ferric chlorid add potassium ferrocyanid. Result? This is a test for a ferric salt. To a ferric chloride solution add hydrochloric acid and iron (card teeth of fine iron wire). Boil. Test small portions until the solution fails to give the test for ferric iron. What iron salt is there now in the solution? Complete the equation FeCl 3 + H (nascent) === ? Write another equation to account for the hydrogen. Experiment 47 OXIDATION OF FERROUS TO FERRIC CHLORID To a ferrous chlorid solution add hydrochloric acid and a strong oxidizing agent, preferably hydrogen peroxid or nitric acid. Apply the two tests for iron salts. What kind of iron is now in solution ? Complete equation Fe Cl 2 -f H CI -+- O == + [oxidizing agent] Such a change in valence as illustrated in experiment 45 is termed reduction; that in experiment 46 is termed oxidation. Why? Exercise XXX* Experiment 48 SILVER SALTS IN PHOTOGRAPHY Prepare silver bromid. 1 Show that light is capable of initiating the reduction of silver bromid by treating exposed and unexposed portions of the salt with a developer. A developer is a reducing agent capable of con- tinuing but not initiating the reduction of a silver halide. CHEMISTRY IO3 2 Add "hypo" to (i) freshly prepared and unexposed silver bromid; (2) silver bromid unexposed but mixed with developer; (3) exposed and developed silver bromid. Results? "Hypo" is the last solution used in preparing a negative. Why is it called the "fixer?" or Experiment 49 CYANOTYPE OR " BLUE PRINT" PROCESS Coat well sized paper with ferric chlorid. Place some opaque object or design on the paper and expose to the sunlight. Then float paper on potassium ferricyanid solution. Remove and wash thoroughly. Where is the deepest color developed? Which set of iron salts gives this color with potassium ferricyanid? What has happened to the ferric chlorid, and what was the cause of the change? (The "sizing" in the paper takes part in the reaction.) Exercise XXXI* Experiment 50 FERMENTATION Fermentation of sugar; distillation of product; iodoform test for alcohol. What is the gas liberated during the fermentation? What other compound is formed? The boiling point of alcohol is 7 8°. How do you explain the elevation of boiling point during distillation? (Continue distillation until one fourth of liquid has passed over.) Add lime to distillate and redistill noticing tem- perature. Why is the lime used? Identify second distillate by applying a match to a very small portion in watch glass, and by applying iodoform test with another portion. Exercise XXXII Experiment 5 1 QUALITATIVE SEPARATION OF LEAD, MERCURY (" OUS") AND SILVER Exercise XXXIII Experiment 52 PREPARATION OF AN ETHEREAL SALT Ethereal salts or esters. Dissolve about a gram of sodium ace- tate in a very little water and then add a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid. What acid would be made by this combination? To the test tube now add a few drops of alcohol. Warm and 104 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT notice the odor of the ethyl acetate. Write equation to show its formation, viz, C 2 H 5 OH (alcohol) + (acetic acid) — (ethyl ace- tate) + Experiment 53 SOAP-MAKING Place in a porcelain dish a piece of fat the size of a marble and add 4 cubic centimeters of alcohol and 10 drops of a 50% solution of sodium hydroxid. Heat very gently stirring constantly. Con- tinue boiling until the odor of alcohol is no longer perceptible. The alcohol is used as a common solvent for the fat and the alkali. The tallow is mainly glyceryl stearate C 3 H s (C X 8 H 3S 2 ) 3 , stearic acid is H(C l8 H 3S 2 ). Write the equation when the glyceryl stearate reacts with the sodium hydroxid to form sodium stearate or soap. This is the residue left in the dish. GROUP 3 (continued) BIOLOGIC SCIENCE 1 Biology Physiology and hygiene Elementary botany Advanced botany Elementary zoology Advanced zoology BIOLOGY For all high schools that have adequate laboratory equipment and teachers of the requisite scientific training, a first year course in biology consisting of some study of botany, zoology, and human physiology, is recommended. Some of the reasons for such a course are as follows: i The natural interests of students on entering the high school are extensive rather than intensive. Hence, a course in science dealing with a wide range of facts appeals to boys and girls more strongly than does a more thorough consideration of a smaller number of topics. 2 It is advantageous for students to study both animals and plants, because in this way only can the essential processes that underlie the phenomena of life be emphasized. 3 A minimum of 30 lessons in human physiology is required by law for the first year. If the study of the human body is pursued in connection with elementary botany and zoology, it will be possible to treat in a comparative way processes that relate to all living organisms. High schools that are not prepared to teach such a course in biology may conduct a half year course in either botany or zoology and a half year course in human physiology. The first year courses in biology are designed to give students a general conception of the wide range of forms in plant and animal life; to lead them to observe the various processes carried on by plants and animals, and to study only so much of structure as is necessary for a clear comprehension of these processes ; and to help them understand the general structure of the human body and the way to care for it. It is, of course, impossible in 190 lessons to consider with any degree of thoroughness the subjects of botany, zoology, and human physiology. Hence, an advanced course in either botany or zoology is offered to students who are especially interested in biological science, or who are preparing to teach nature study in the elemen- tary schools, or who wish to present one of these subjects as an 'The syllabus in biology was prepared at the request of the Education Department by a committee selected from the teachers of biology in New York city. 106 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT admission requirement for college or as a preparation for the medi- cal school. Unless the student has one of these ends in view, he ought to broaden his training by choosing some other science for the later years of the course. General suggestions relating to first year courses The study of botany should precede that of zoology and human physiology because material for plant study can be readily obtained at all times of the year ; because there is often less objection on the part of students when the beginning is made with plants; and because human physiology treats of the most specialized type of life, and should, therefore, be considered last in the course. The physiology of plants, animals and man can be made more intelligible by a consideration of the simple principles of physics and chemistry. Experiments should, therefore, be performed with a few of the common elements and compounds. These experiments may come either as an introduction to the subject of botany or physiology, or in connection with the various topics to which they are most closely related. The individual student should, of course, be supplied with a specimen of each of the forms studied. It is essential, therefore, that teachers of biology be furnished with a certain amount of perishable material for botany, zoology, and huma'n physiology. So far as possible the experiments in biology should be performed by the individual student. Demonstrations of more difficult experiments should be made by the teacher. If the pieces of apparatus and the dissected specimens used for demonstrations are carefully preserved from year to year, each school will in time have a valuable permanent equipment of this sort. Field work in biology is one of the best methods of arousing interest in the subject. This may be conducted by the teacher with groups of students in the woods, fields, and parks; or work may be carried on by the individual student, and reported to the teacher for suggestion and assistance. Too much emphasis can not be laid upon the importance of actual study of specimens. Textbook study alone of plants and animals means the waste of time and energy of student and teacher alike. Textbooks should be used, however, to "supplement the laboratory and field work. Oral recitation is also necessary, for by this means attention is called to important facts, and the student is led to see things in their proper relations. BIOLOGY I07 Conditions for favorable study of the topics suggested below vary widely in different parts of the State. Each teacher should, there- fore, select those topics that can be studied to best advantage. The order in which the various subjects may be considered is of less importance, too, than is the presentation of each at a time when satisfactory material can be obtained. Notebooks and examinations. A carefully prepared notebook is an indispensable part of good laboratory work in biology. This laboratory notebook should contain drawings and descriptions of the animals and plants studied by the student, together with an account of the experiments he has performed or observed. Outline drawings with a hard lead pencil are recommended, and each part should be carefully labeled. In describing experiments, students should be careful to distinguish between observed results and conclusions. If the work is recorded on separate sheets of paper, these can be arranged in logical order and bound at the end of the course. The work in biology furnishes admirable material for expression by means of drawings and written composition. Hence, the laboratory notebook should be carefully inspected from time to time by the teacher to see that it contains accurate descriptions and drawings carefully labeled. The student should also prepare an index stating the drawings made, the experiments performed and the descriptions written in his laboratory notebook. After each title in this index he should place some mark to indicate whether the work has been done in the laboratory or outside the laboratory. This list must not include any copied drawings, dictations or abstracts. A student taking the Department's examinations must prepare a copy of the index of his notebook and attach it to his answer paper at the time of the examination. This copy of the index must bear (1) the teacher's indorsement certifying that it is a true abstract of the student's work, and (2) the teacher's rating of the notebook based upon a scale of 20. Notebooks must be accessible to the in- spectors and be subject to the call of the Department for a period of six months subsequent to the completion of the course. For students who wish to take the examinations set by the De- partment four different questions papers in biologic subjects will bo prepared, as follows: 1 A paper for students who have taken the first year course in biology (botany, zoology, and human physiology). Students taking this course in first year biology should be prepared on the topics marked with a * in botany under B (Seeds and seedlings), D (Stems) Io8 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT F (Leaves), G (Flowers), together with the * topics under any four of the other six main subdivisions:^ (Introductory experiments in chemistry and physics), C (Roots), E (Buds), H (Fruits), / (Algae and fungi), J (Mosses and ferns) ; on the topics marked with a * in zoology under A (Protozoa), F (Crustacea), (7(Insecta), J (Amphibia), together with the * topics under any one of the following seven groups of animals: C (Coelenterata) , E (Annelida), H (Mollusca), / (Fishes), K (Reptiles), L (Birds), M (Mammals); and in human physiology on the topics marked with a * under A (Introductory experiments in chemistry and physics) , B (Foods) , C (Digestion and absorption), D (Blood), E (Circulation), together with the * topics under any one of the other seven main subdivisions: F (Skeleton), G (Muscles), H (Respiration), / (Skin and kidneys), / (Nervous system), K (Special senses), L (Bacteria and sanitation). 2 A paper for students who have taken a half year course in botany. Students that take this course should be prepared to answer the questions based upon any of the topics not marked optional outlined under B (Seeds and seedlings), D (Stems), F (Leaves), £ (Flowers), and under any four of the other six main sub- divisions: A ( Introductory experiments in chemistry and physics) , C (Roots), E (Buds), H (Fruits), / (Algae and fungi),/ (Mosses and ferns) . 3 A paper for students who have taken a half year course in zoology. Students that take this course should be prepared to answer the questions based upon any of the topics not marked optional outlined under A (Protozoa), F (Crustacea), G (Insecta), / (Amphibia) , and under any four of the following seven groups of animals: C (Coelenterata), E (Annelida), H (Mollusca), I (Fishes), K (Reptiles), L (Birds), M (Mammals). 4 A paper for students who have taken a half year course in human physiology. Students that take this course should be prepared to answer the questions based upon any of the topics not marked optional outlined under A (Introductory experiments in chemistry and physics), B (Foods), C (Digestion and absorption), D (Blood), E (Circulation), and under any four of the other seven main subdivisions: F (Skeleton), G (Muscles), H (Respiration), / (Skin and kidneys), / (Nervous system), K (Special senses), L (Bacteria and sanitation). The topics marked optional are inserted by way of suggestion for possible additional work, but no questions on these topics will appear in the examination papers of the Department. ELEMENTARY BOTANY 109 ELEMENTARY BOTANY A Introductory experiments in chemistry and physics. These experiments are grouped here for convenience. They may be performed either as an introduction to the subject of botany, or in connection with the various topics to which they are most closely related. 1 Observation of the characteristics of a few of the more common chemical elements, e. g. carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, iron. 2 Study of oxygen and the air. *3 Oxidation and the formation of compounds. 4 {Optional) Tests for acid, alkaline and neutral substances. 5 (Optional) Experiments to determine favorable and unfavor- able conditions for evaporation. *6 Test for starch. *7 Test for grape sugar. *8 Test for nitrogenous substances or proteids. *q Test for fats and oils. 10 (Optional) Test for mineral matters by burning plant tissue. B Seeds and seedlings. I Dicotyledons. 1 Exterior of fruit and its parts. 2 Interior of fruit, with arrangement and attachment of con- tents. *3 Form of seed; coats; explanation of markings on seed. Drawings. *4 Internal structure of seed; cotyledons, plumule, hypocotyl. Drawings. *5 Position of stored food; tests for food materials. *6 Early stages of seedling to show change in parts of embryo. Drawings. *7 Method of breaking through the soil. *8 Later stages of seedling. Drawings. II Monocotyledons (corn). 1 Arrangement of grains on cob ; protection afforded by husk. *2 Form of grain; external markings, including silk scar. Drawings. *3 Internal structure; endosperm, cotyledon, plumule, hypo- cotyl. Drawings of sections. *4 Position of food; tests for food materials. *5 Early stages of seedling to show changes in embryo and endosperm. Drawings. HO NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT III Experiments in germination. i Rate of growth of seedlings as affected by differences in temperature. *2 Necessity of air for the germination of seeds and growth of seedlings. *3 The gas given off by germinating seeds. *4 Use of the endosperm of the corn. 5 The effect of continued darkness upon seedlings. 6 Seedlings grown at home to determine daily changes in various parts. IV (Optional) Gymnosperms. i Arrangement of seeds in cone. 2 Exterior of seeds, with adaptations for seed dispersal. 3 Interior of seeds, relation of embryo and endosperm. Draw- ings. 4 Stages in growth of seedling. Drawings. Suggested material for study of seeds and seedlings: bean, pea, morning-glory, four-o'clock, castor bean, squash, radish, sun- flower; corn, wheat; pine. C Roots. *i External appearance and internal structure; roothairs (position and function) ; rootcap ; region of growth ; epidermis, cortex, and central cylinder. Drawings. *2 Origin of secondary roots; adventitious roots. *3 Microscopic study of root tip. *4 (Optional) Description of specialized types. *5 Functions of roots. 6 (Optional) Tests for foods. 7 Adaptations to environment. 8 Experiments to demonstrate: *a The process of osmosis. *6 Response of roots to the force of gravity. c Region of most rapid growth in roots. d (Optional) Region that is most sensitive to gravity. e (Optional) Downward pressure of growing roots. / (Optional) Parts through which liquids rise. Suggested material for the study of roots: roots of pea, bean, corn and radish seedlings; willow, spiderwort; carrot, parsnip, dahlia, sweet potato; water hyacinth, duckweed; ivy, orchid; mistletoe, dodder. ELEMENTARY BOTANY III D Stems. i Surface characteristics. *a Relative position of bud and leaf scar. *b Nodes and internodes *c Yearly markings; lenticels. d Flower scar. e Ruptures of outer layer with explanation. */ Drawings of stem. 2 Internal structure. *a Study with hand lens cross-sections of typical dicotyle- donous stems; location, description and use of pith, wood, medullary rays, cambium, bast, cortex and epidermis. Drawings. *b Appearance of medullary rays in quarter sawed wood; study of woods valuable in commerce. *c Cross-section of monocotyledonous stem; location, descrip- tion and use of rind, pith, and fibro-vascular bundles. Drawings. d {Optional) Microscopical study of dicotyledonous and mono- cotyledonous stems. 3 {Optional) Description of specialized types of stems (e. g. cactus, honey locust or hawthorn, potato, Solomon's seal or iris, hyacinth or onion, myrsiphyllum).. 4 Adaptations of stems to environment. *5 Course of sap through stems. 6 Experiments. a The effect of continued darkness upon stems. *b The response stems make to light. Suggested material for the study of stems: horse-chestnut, beech, linden; corn, rattan, bamboo; morning-glory, grape; cactus, honey locust, hawthorn; potato, iris, hyacinth, crocus; myr- siphyllum, asparagus. E Buds. *i Relation to branches, to leaves and to general form of trees. *2 Methods of bud protection. 3 Contents of buds. 4 Time of formation of buds and of bud opening. Suggested material for the study of buds: horse-chestnut, willow, tulip tree, sumach or sycamore, spicebush. F Leaves. *i General structure and parts of dicotyledonous and mono- cotyledonous leaves. Drawings. 112 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT *2 Functions of leaves; photosynthesis, respiration, transpira- tion and assimilation. *3 Microscopic study of surface of epidermis. 4 Microscopic study of cross-section; epidermis, air chambers, mesophyll, and fibro-vascular bundles. 5 (Optional) Modifications of leaves; special adaptations of leaves to perform their functions. 6 Experiments to show: a The rate of transpiration. *b Photosynthesis. *c The liberation of a gas by green aquatic plants in sunlight. d (Optional) Conditions under which oxygen is given off. *e Effect of light on movements of leaves. / (Optional) Response of leaves to touch. Suggested material for the study of leaves: apple, holly or moun- tain laurel, beech; rose, pea, clover or oxalis; corn; pine; tropaeolum, hydrangea, elodea, rubber plant; sundew, pitcher plant, venus flytrap. G Flowers. *i Gross structure and function of all parts. Drawings. *2 Location and structure of ovules and pollen; the process of fertilization ; development of ovule into seed. *3 Methods of securing pollination. 4 (Optional) Types of inflorescence. 5 Recognition of common flowering plants. Suggested material for the study of flowers: buttercup, cherry or cinquefoil, tulip, gladiolus, evening primrose, syringa, bou- vardia, mountain laurel, jack-in-the-pulpit, snapdragon, butter- and-eggs, pansy, sweet pea, white daisy, golden-rod. (Wild flowers have not been included to any extent in this list, be- cause of the danger that their use in the large classes of city high schools might hasten the extinction of many species.) H Fruits. *i Origin of fruit from flower. 2 Distinctions between seeds and fruits. *3 Types of fruits ; external and internal structure. Drawings. *4 Adaptations for seed dispersal. Suggested material for the study of fruits: maple, elm, linden, pine, cocklebur, stick-tights, pea, bean, peanuts, dandelion, milk- weed, oats, wheat, lotus, jimson weed, various kinds of fleshy fruits. ELEMENTARY ZOOLOGY 113 / Algae and fungi. *i Spirogyra or Zygnema. Color, form, structure; cell contents; life history. Drawings. 2 Yeast plant or bread mould. *a Form, color, structure, reproduction; economic importance. Drawings. b Experiments to determine favorable conditions for the growth of fungi. 3 (Optional) Nitella. Protoplasmic movements. 4 (Optional) Nostoc or Oscillatoria. Habitat; adaptations to environment; color, form and structure of colony; reproduction. Drawings. 5 (Optional) Fucus. Form, color, structure; habitat; adaptations to environment. Drawings. 6 (Optional) Sac fungi (Microsphaera) . Description of ripened fruit, and its relation to the mycelium ascus and ascospores; economic importance. 7 (Optional) Rusts and smuts (wheat rust and corn smut) . Economic importance. 8 (Optional) Mushroom or shelf fungus. Habitat; description; economic importance. 9 (Optional) Lichens (Physcia or Cladonia). Description and structure. J Mosses and ferns. *i Study of a moss (Polytrichum or Funaria). a General appearance, parts. Drawings. b Degree of differentiation of sexual and asexual generations. Reproductive organs, fertilization; life history. *2 Study of a fern (Poly podium or Nephrolepis). a Degree of differentiation of parts, description of each, includ- ing sori. Drawing. b Life history, including laboratory study of prothallus, sporo- phyte, sporangia and spores. ELEMENTARY ZOOLOGY A Protozoa. I Amoeba or Paramoecium. *i Form of animal; cell body (cytoplasm); nucleus; cilia or pseudodia; contractile vacuole. Drawing. 2 (Optional) Ectoplasm; en doplasm; food balls ; Tvater vacuoles ; micronucleus. 114 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT *3 Feeding; locomotion; function of contractile vacuoles; respiration; elimination of solid waste; reproduction by fission; habitat. 4 Digestion; assimilation; growth. II Related topics. i Comparison of Amoeba with a ciliate form. 2 Protozoa as food for higher forms. 3 {Optional) Foraminifera and chalk formation. *4 The cell as a structural and physiological unit. 5 Conjugation in certain protozoa. B {Optional) Porifera. I Grantia or Leucosolenia. i Shape; attachment; osculum. Drawing. 2 Cloaca; pores; canals; skeleton. Drawing. 3 Methods of feeding; breathing; excretion. 4 Reproduction; life history. 5 Differentiation in character of cells. II Related topics. i Commercial sponge: character of skeleton; collection and preparation for market ; incurrent pores ; cloaca ; oscula. 2 Habitat of sponges. 3 Spongilla, or other fresh-water sponges. C Coelenterata. I Hydra or Sea anemone. *i Shape; external parts. Drawing. 2 Experiments to determine the action of the column and the tentacles. 3 Ingestion of food (in case the living sea anemone is used). *4 Respiration; excretion; mode of locomotion. *5 Reproduction. *6 Method of obtaining food; digestive cavity. 7 {Optional) Structure of body wall. *8 Habitat; means of protection. II Related topics. *i Recognition of coral ; sea anemone; medusae; hydroids. 2 {Optional) Study of a medusa. Drawing. 3 Alternation of generations in hydroids. *4 Economic importance of corals. D {Optional) Echinodermata. I Starfish. i Form; radial symmetry; spines; branchiae (gills); madre- porite, mouth; ambulacral areas; movable spines; tube feet. Drawing. ELEMENTARY ZOOLOGY 115 2 Nerve ring; radial nerves; eye-spot. 3 Mode of locomotion and feeding; respiratory, digestive, water vascular and reproductive system. 4 Habitat; adaptations for protection; economic importance. 5 Distinct body cavity; three layers of cells in body wall; skeleton. II Related topics. 1 Recognition of such forms as sea urchins ; brittle stars ; sand dollars. E Annelida. I Earthworm. *i General form; differences between anterior and posterior ends; differences between dorsal and ventral surfaces. *2 Segmentation; bilateral symmetry; setae (bristles). *3 Situation of mouth ; "lip"; vent. 4 {Optional) Girdle; one pair of the reproductive openings. *5 Experiments: flow of blood in dorsal and ventral blood vessels; methods of locomotion; degree of sensitiveness in different parts of the body. *6 Drawing of exterior. 7 {Optional) Parts of alimentary canal, and function of each; circulatory system ; nervous system ; nephridia and excretion. Drawing. *8 Respiration; mode of feeding. *9 Economic importance. 10 {Optional) Life history. II Related topics. 1 {Optional) Brief comparison of sandworm and earthworm. *2 Life history of the tapeworm and trichina. F Crustacea. I Crayfish or lobster. *i Regions; structure of abdomen; swimmerets; carapace; legs ; mouth parts (especially second maxillae and mandibles) ; antennae; stalked eyes; form, function and attachment of gills. Drawings. 2 Vent; opening of green glands; mouth. 3 {Optional) Comparison of structure of appendages. *4 Experiments with the crayfish to determine the methods of locomotion; action of eyestalks; action of the gill bailer; use of antennae and pincers. *5 Habitat; habits; protective coloration. Il6 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 6 (Optional) Structure and function of the stomach, in- testine and "liver," heart and main blood vessels; blood and circulation; nervous system. Drawings. II Related topics. *i Economic importance of decapods; molting; recognition of several decapods. 2 (Optional) Comparison of crab and crayfish. G Insecta. I Locust (short horned grasshopper). *i Regions; kinds of appendages found on each. *2 The number, structure and connection of the segments of the abdomen. *3 Spiracles ; tympanic membrane ; ovipositor. *4 Divisions of thorax ; number, situation and structure of legs and wings. *5 Compound and simple eyes; antennae; mandibles. 6 (Optional) Study of the cornea of compound eye under the microscope. *7 Drawings. *8 Experiments: methods of locomotion; manner of eating and drinking; breathing. 9 General structure of tracheae. *io Economic importance of the grasshopper and of other mem- bers of the same order. *n Life history. *i2 Recognition of crickets, grasshopper (long horned), cock- roaches; walking sticks. II Related topics. *i Structure of a bee and a butterfly compared with that of the grasshopper to bring out similarities and differences; life history; habitat; economic importance of bee, silkworm, and destructive caterpillars. 2 Drawings of bee and butterfly. 3 (Optional) Structure of a bettle, a fly, and a bug compared with that of the grasshopper; life history; habitat; econ- omic importance. *4 Cross pollination of flowers ; protective coloration. 5 General principles of classification. H Mollusca. I One of the following: fresh-water mussel, soft-shelled clam,- hard-shelled clam. *i Bivalve shell; hinge; umbo; lines of growth. Drawing. ELEMENTARY ZOOLOGY 117 *2 Mantle; siphons; gills; labial palps; foot; abdomen; ad- ductor muscles. Drawing. 3 (Optional) Heart ; intestine ; location of liver and kidneys. *4 Experiments: action of cilia of gills and palps; currents in and out of the siphons ; pulsation of heart. *5 Respiration; food getting; locomotion. II Related topics. *i Recognition of oysters, clams, snails, slugs, scallops. *2 Economic importance of mollusca. 3 (Optional) Study of a live snail to determine tentacles and their action; eyes; creeping disk; method of feeding and creeping. *4 Habitat of the mollusca studied. I Fishes. I Perch, goldfish or any bony fish of fair size. *i Shape; regions; situation of eyes; absence of eyelids; external parts of the eye; number and situation of the nostrils; demonstration to show that nostrils do not lead to the mouth; gill cover; number, situation and structure of the fins; scales. Drawing. *2 Situation and shape of teeth; tongue; opening into gullet; color, number, situation and structure of gills. *3 Experiments to demonstrate the means of locomotion; movements of the eyes; feeding; respiration. 4 (Optional) Shape, situation and function of the parts of the digestive system ; the heart and blood vessels leading to the gills ; blood and circulation ; b rain with nerves to nostrils and eyes; spinal cord. Drawing. II Related topics. *i Recognition of several kinds of bony fishes. *2 Economic importance of fishes. 3 (Optional) Life history of bony fishes ; care of young. J Amphibia. I Frog or toad. *i Regions; situation, and external parts of the eyes; eyelids; tympanic membrane; nostrils; mouth; front and hind legs, with parts of each ; character and color of skin. Drawing. *2 Opening to mouth cavity from nostrils; Eustachian tubes; position and character of the teeth; shape, attachment, and action of tongue; glottis. *3 Position, shape and function of the parts of the digestive system; the kidneys and the lungs; the heart and its parts; arterial trunk and its branches. Drawings. Il8 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 4 Blood, with study of corpuscles; brief account of entire circulation. 5 {Optional) Brain and its parts; olfactory and optic nerves; spinal cord. Drawings. *6 Life history; habits; means of protection. *7 Experiments to demonstrate the various methods of loco- motion; method of getting air into the lungs; action of eyes and movements of eyelids; circulation in web of frog's foot or in tadpole's tail. II Related topics. *i Recognition of salamanders, newts, toads and frogs. 2 {Optional) General characteristics of amphibia. *3 Habitat of various forms; economic importance of frogs and toads. K Reptiles. I Lizard or turtle. *i Regions; eyes and eyelids; nostrils; ears; the shell and its function (in case the turtle is used) ; number and parts of the legs; scales. Drawing. *2 Position and character of the teeth (or beak of turtle) ; shape and attachment of tongue. *3 Experiments to demonstrate : methods of locomotion ; manner of eating and drinking; movement of eyes and eye- lids; respiratory movements; withdrawal into shell of tail, head and legs of turtle. II Related topics. *i Recognition of turtles, lizards, alligators and snakes. 2 {Optional) Habitat and life history of reptiles ; hibernation. *3 Economic importance of reptiles ; poisonous reptiles. L Birds. I Pigeon or English sparrow. *i External parts of eyes; eyelids; position of nostrils; beak; location of ears; parts of legs and wings; extent of wing surface; arrangement of the larger feathers on the wings and tail ; scales on legs. Drawings of head and leg. *2 Experiments to demonstrate: methods of eating and drink- ing; respiratory movements; action of eyes and eyelids; methods of locomotion; perching. *3 Shape and attachment of tongue; absence of teeth. 4 {Optional) Structure and function of the parts of the diges- tive system ; situation and function of the lungs and air sacs ; the significance of hollow bones; the heart and its parts; circulation. PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE I IQ II Related topics. *i Recognition of common birds; nest building, and care of young. , *2 Economic importance of birds in destroying harmful insects and other animals; protection of birds. *3 Life history; migration; molting; bird songs. 4 Structural adaptations of birds for flying, such as shape of >.>]/, powerful pectoral muscles, great surface of wings, structure and arrangement of feathers on wings, air sacs, hollow bones. 5 {Optional) Special structural adaptations of birds for swim- ming, perching, scratching, wading, climbing, and preying upon other animals. M Mammals. I Rabbit, cat, squirrel, or any available mammal. *i Regions; eyes and their external parts; shape, size and position of ears; nostrils; parts of legs; differences between the front and hind legs ; characteristics of hair. *2 Experiments to determine: methods of locomotion and of obtaining food. *3 Kinds of teeth, and the use of each. 4 Skeleton : spinal column ; skull ; ribs ; girdles ; bones in legs ; brief comparison with human skeleton. II Related topics. *i Recognition of common animal belonging to the same order as the one studied; economic importance. *2 The comparative study of two prominent additional orders of mammals ; the common animals in each order ; structural characteristics common to the animals of each order ; habits ; habitat; food; economic importance. (The Rodents, Car- nivora and Ungulates are suggested.) 3 {Optional) A demonstration of the internal organs of some mammal used as food; heart and principal blood vessels; stomach and intestines; kidneys; lungs; brain and spinal cord. The function of these parts should be taken up in con- nection with the study of their structure. PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE A Introductory experiments in chemistry and physics. If plant study precedes human physiology, most of these ex- periments should be performed in connection with the study of plants. 1:20 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT *i Observation of the characteristics of a few simple chemical elements, e. g. carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, iron. *2 Study of oxygen and the air. *3 Oxidation, and the formation of compounds. *4 Tests for acid, alkaline and neutral substances. *5 The principles of osmosis. *6 Test for starch. *7 Test for grape sugar. *8 Test for nitrogenous substances or proteids. *9 Test for fats or oils. 10 {Optional) Test for mineral substances by burning foods. B Foods. *i Necessity for foods. *2 Nutrients (food principles) present in various common foods. 3 {Optional) How plants manufacture food. *4 Adulterations in food and impurities in water. *5 Uses of the nutrients (water, starch, sugar, proteids, fats, mineral matters). 6 Relative value of common foods for fuel, growth and repair. 7 Principles involved in cooking of foods. 8 Economy in purchase and use of foods; daily diet. *9 Discussion of stimulants and narcotics. C Digestion and absorption. *i Position, general structure and functions of the parts of the alimentary canal, and of the principal digestive glands. *2 Kinds of teeth; structure and care of the teeth. *3 Experiment to show digestion of starch. *4 Functions of saliva and of gastric juice. 5 Functions of bile and pancreatic juice. *6 Absorption of food into the blood. .*7 Hygienic habits of eating; the causes and prevention of dys- pepsia. *8 Effect of alcohol on digestion. 9 {Optional) Microscopic structure of parts of the alimentary canal and of glands, io {Optional) Composition of digestive juices. ii {Optional) Stages in the process of swallowing. 12 Experiments to show digestion of fat, proteid, and mineral matters. 13 {Optional) Study of teeth, tongue, stomach, and intestines of other animals (e. g. dog, rabbit, sheep, chicken). PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 121 D Blood. *i General structure of blood; corpuscles and their functions; plasma and its uses. *2 Clotting of blood. *3 Quantity of blood and its distribution in the body. 4 {Optional) Microscopic study of blood corpuscles of man and of other animals. 5 Effect of food, fresh air, and rest on corpuscles and plasma. 6 {Optional) Study of color, temperature, and chemical com- position of blood of other animals. E Circulation. *i Position, shape, size, protection of the heart. *2 Chambers of the heart; valves of the heart and their action; the blood vessels connected with each chamber of the heart. *3 Position, gross structure, and use of arteries, veins and capil- laries. 4 Sounds of the heart; cause of pulse; variations in pulse rate. *5 General course of blood in pulmonary and systemic (includ- ing portal) circulation. *6 Changes in the composition of blood as it passes through various organs of the body (walls of alimentary canal, lungs, muscles, kidneys, skin). *7 The lymph; its composition and uses. 8 {Optional) The lymphatic system. 9 Effect of exercise on the circulation. *io Treatment of cuts and bruises. *n Effects of alcohol on circulation. 12 {Optional) Regulation of blood supply to various organs of the body; congestions and inflammations. 13 {Optional) Study of circulation of other animals (e. g. earth- worm, frog, bird, mammal). F Skeleton. *i General structure and uses of the spinal column, ribs, ster- num, bones of arm, leg, pectoral and pelvic girdles. 2 {Optional) Structure of a typical vertebra and of atlas and axis. 3 Adaptations shown in the skull for protection of nervous system and organs of special sense. *4 Gross internal structure of a long bone and of a rib. 5 Chemical composition of bone. *6 Gross structure and action of ball-and-socket and of hinge joints. 122 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 7 Fractures, dislocations, sprains; hygiene of the skeleton. 8 Differences as to composition and structure between the skeleton of a child and of an adult. 9 {Optional) Comparative study of the skeletons of various animals in the museums. G Muscles. *i The uses of voluntary and involuntary muscle tissue. *2 Arrangement of voluntary muscles and their gross structure. 3 {Optional) Microscopic structure of muscle. 4 Blood and nerve supply to muscles. *5 Necessity of food, fresh air, exercise and rest for healthy muscle. 6 {Optional) Use of muscles in standing, walking and running. 7 {Optional) Structure and uses of involuntary muscles in organs of digestion and circulation. 8 {Optional) Comparative study of the methods of locomotion of various animals. H Respiration. *i Necessity for respiration. *2 General structure and functions of the air passages, lungs, and chest cavity; action of the ribs and diaphragm in caus- ing enlargement of chest cavity. *3 Changes in air and blood in the lungs. *4 Hygienic habits of breathing ; effect of exercise ; tight clothing and respiration; suffocation and artificial respiration. *5 Proper methods of ventilation, and of sweeping and dusting. 6 {Optional) Diseases of the respiratory organs. 7 {Optional) Comparative study of respiration in various animals. / Skin and kidneys. *i Layers of the skin; hair, nails, and glands of the skin; general structure and uses. *2 Importance of cleanliness. *3 Treatment of burns. 4 {Optional) Microscopic structure of the skin. 5 {Optional) Comparative study of the exoskeletons of differ- ent kinds of animals. 6 Position and gross structure of the kidneys. 7 Changes in blood in the kidneys. / Nervous system. *i General functions of the nervous system. ADVANCED BOTANY 1 23 2 {Optional) Structure and functions of the nervous system of the frog as an introduction to the study of the human nervous system. *3 Gross structure and functions of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. 4 Demonstration of microscopical structure of nerve cells and fibers of the spinal cord. 5 {Optional) Principal cranial nerves; origin, distribution and functions. *6 Necessity of food, fresh air, and rest for the healthy activity of the nervous system. Effect of alcohol on nerve functions. 7 {Optional) Functions of the sympathetic nervous system. 8 {Optional) Comparative study of the nervous system of various animals. K Special senses. *i Organs and sensations of touch, taste and smell. *2 The eye; its form, protection, principal parts and their uses; sensations of sight; care of the eyes. 3 The external, middle and internal ear (general structure only) ; sensations of sound; care of the ears. 4 {Optional) Sensations of temperature, pain, hunger and thirst. 5 {Optional) Comparative study of the sense organs of other animals. L Bacteria and sanitation. *i Changes due to the growth of bacteria (souring of milk, de- composition etc.). *2 Diseases due to bacteria; methods of sterilizing wounds; the prevention of disease (methods of disinfection, quarantine, immunity). 3 Municipal sanitation: water supply and drainage; work of the board of health and of department of street cleaning. ADVANCED BOTANY' A student should be qualified by laboratory work, demonstrations, and by the use of textbooks to answer questions on all the topics in the syllabus excepting those marked Optional. He should also prepare an indexed laboratory notebook in which stress is to be laid upon accurate drawings and precise expressive descriptions. 'The syllabus in advanced botany is based upon the report of the committee on botany of the science dapartmBnt of th3 National Eiucational Association, modified by a committee of the Society for Plant Morphology and Physiology. 124 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT This notebook should contain (i) laboratory work to illustrate fairly completely at least the following six main topics as outlined below under A (Anatomy and morphology) ; The seed, The shoot, The root, The flower, The fruit, and The cell) ; (2) records of at least 1 5 physio- logical experiments illustrating as many as possible of the seven main topics outlined under B (Physiology), but at least the first four; (3) carefully labeled drawings of forms to illustrate at least the following groups of plants (see part II below): two types of algae (preferably Pleurococcus to show method of growth to four celled stage, and detailed study of Spirogyra), three types of fungi (pre- ferably bacteria to show shape and motion, yeast to show method of reproduction, and mucor to show mycelium and reproduction), one type of Bryophytes (preferably a moss), two types of Pterido- phytes (a true fern with its prothallus, and one other type, pre- ferably Selaginella) , and representatives of six families of Angio- sperms. It is difficult to outline satisfactory notebook require- ments in ecology. This branch of botany should, however, form a part of every good course, and clear accounts of field trips should appear in the notebook. In rating the notebook, no credit will be given for dictated work, lecture notes, or drawings copied from charts and textbooks. Work done outside the laboratory should be marked home work. A student taking the Department's examination must prepare a copy of the index of his notebook and attach it to his answer paper at the time of the examination. This copy of the index must bear (1) the teacher's indorsement certifying that it is a true abstract of the student's work, and (2) the teacher's rating of the notebook based upon a scale of 20. Notebooks, not submitted to colleges as a part of the entrance requirements, must be accessible to the in- spectors and be subject to the call of the Department for a period of six months subsequent to the completion of the course. Part I The general principles of (a) anatomy and morphology, (b) physiology and (c) ecology A In anatomy and morphology. The seed. Four types (dicotyledon without and with endosperm, a monocotyledon and a gymnosperm) ; structure and homo- logous parts. Food supply; experimental determination of its nature and value. Phenomena of germination and growth of embryo into a seedling (including bursting from the seed, as- sumption of position and unfolding of parts). ADVANCED BOTANY 1 25 The shoot. Gross anatomy of a typical shoot, including the relationship of position of leaf, stem (and root), the arrange- ment of leaves and buds on the stem, and deviations (through light adjustment, etc.) from symmetry. Buds, and the mode of origin of new leaf and stem ; winter buds in particular. Specialized and metamorphosed shoots (stems and leaves). General structure and distribution of the leading tissues of the shoot; annual growth; shedding of bark and leaves. The root. Gross anatomy ot a typical root; position and origin of secondary roots; hair zone, cap and growing point. Specialized and metamorphosed roots. (Optional) General structure and distribution of the leading tissues of the root. The flower. Structure of a typical flower especially of ovule and pollen; functions of the parts. Comparative morphological study of at least three marked types, with the construction of transverse and longitudinal diagrams (preferably a tulip or other lily, Fuchsia or Oenothera, and sweet pea or other member of pea family). The fruit. Structure of a typical fruit, especially with reference to changes from the flower, and from ovule to seed. (Optional) Comparative morphological study of six or more marked types, with diagrams. This comparative morphological study of flowers and fruits may advantageously be postponed to the end of II, and then taken up in connection with classification of the Angiosperms. The cell. Cytoplasm, nucleus, sap cavity, wall. Adaptive modi- fications of walls, formation of tissues. As to the study of the cell, it is by no means to be postponed for consideration by itself after the other topics, as its position in the above outline may seem to imply, but it is to be brought in earlier along with the study of the shoot or root, and con- tinued from topic to topic. Although enough study of the individual cell is to be made to give an idea of its structure — a study which may very advantageously be associated with the physiological topics first mentioned under B — the principal microscopical work should consist in the recognition and in the study of the distribution of the leading tissues. B In physiology. Role of water in the plant: absorption (osmosis) , path of transfer, transpiration, turgidity and its mechanical value, plasmolysis. Photosynthesis: dependence of starch formation upon chlorophyll, light and carbon dioxid ; evolution of oxygen, observation of starch grains. 126 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Respiration: necessity for oxygen in growth, evolution of carbon dioxid. Digestion: digestion of starch with diastase, and its role in trans- location of foods. Irritability: geotropism, heliotropism and hydrotropism; (Op- tional) nature of stimulus and response. Growth: localization in higher plants; (Optional) amount in germinating seeds and stems ; relationship to temperature. Fertilization; sexual and vegetative reproduction. Although for convenience of reference, the physiological topics are here grouped together, they should by no means be studied by themselves and apart from anatomy and morphol- ogy. On the contrary, they should be taken up along with the study of the structures in which the processes occur, and which they help to explain; thus, photosynthesis should be studied with the leaf, as should also transpiration, while digestion may best come with germination, osmotic absorption with the root, and so on. The student should either try, or at least aid in trying, experiments to demonstrate the fundamental processes indicated above. C In ecology. Modifications (metamorphoses) of parts for special functions. Dissemination. Cross-pollination. Light relations of green tissues; leaf mosaics. (Optional) Plant societies; mesophytes, hydrophytes, halo- phytes, xerophytes; climbers, epiphytes, parasites (and sapro- phytes), insectivores. (Optional) Plant associations, and zonal distribution. The topics in ecology (particularly the first four and in part the fifth) like those in physiology, are to be studied not by them- selves, but along with the structures with which they are most closely connected, as cross-pollination with the flower, dissemina- tion with the seed, etc. The fifth and sixth may most advan- tageously be studied with G in part II. In this connection field work is of great importance, and for some topics, such as the sixth, is indispensable, though much maybe done also with potted plants in greenhouses , photographs, and museum specimens. It is strongly recommended that some systematic field work be considered as an integral part of the course, coordinate in definiteness and value as far as it goes with the laboratory work. The temptations to haziness and guessing in ecology must be combated. ADVANCED BOTANY 1 27 Part II The natural history of the plant groups, and classification. A comprehensive summary of the great natural groups of plants, based upon the thorough study of the structure, reproduction and adaptations to habitat of one or two types from each group, sup- plemented and extended by more rapid study of other forms in those groups. Where living material is wanting for the latter, preserved material and even good pictures may be used, and a standard textbook should be thoroughly read. The general homol- ogies from group to group should be noted. In general in this part of the course much less attention should be given to the lower and inconspicuous groups, and progressively more to the higher and conspicuous forms. Following is a list of recommended types from which, or their equivalents, selection may be made: A Algae. Pleurococcus, Spirogyra, Vaucheria, including zoosporic stage. Fucus. (Optional) Batrachospernum. B Fungi. Bacteria, mucor, yeast, Puccinia (or any powdery mildew). (Op- tional) Mushroom. Bacteria and yeast have obvious disadvantages in such a course, but their great economic importance may justify their introduction. C Lichens. Physcia (or Parmelia). D Bryophytes. In Hepaticae, Frullaria (or Radula or Porella or Marchantia). In Musci, Mnium (or Funaria or Polytrichum) . E Pteridophytes. In Filicineae, Aspidium or equivalent, including, of course, the prothallus. (Optional) In Equesetineae, Equisetum. In Lycopodineae, Selaginella (or Isoetes). (Optional) Lycopo- dium. F Gymnosperms. Pinus or equivalent. G Angiosperms. A monocotyledon and a dicotyledon, to be studied with reference to the homologies of their parts with those in the above groups ; together with representative plants of six of the leading sub- divisions and principal families of angiosperms (preferably 128 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Liliaceae, Rosaceae or Ranunculaceae, Violaceae, Labiatae, Leguminosae, Compositae) . Classification should include a study of the primary subdivisions of the above groups, based on the comparison of the types with other (preferably) living or preserved material. The principal subdivision of the Angiosperms, grouped on the Engler and Prantl system, should be understood. The ability to use manuals for the determination of the species of flowering plants is not considered essential in this course, though it is desirable. It should not be introduced to the exclusion of any part of the course, but may well be made voluntary work for those showing a taste for it. It should not be limited to learning names of plants, but should be made a study in the plan of classi- fication as well. The preparation of an herbarium is not required nor recommend- ed, except as voluntary work for those with a taste for collecting. If made, it should not constitute a simple accumulation of species, but should represent some distinct idea of plant associations, or of morphology, or of representation of the groups, etc. ADVANCED ZOOLOGY 1 A student should be qualified by laboratory work, demonstra- tions, and by the use of textbooks to answer questions on all the topics in the syllabus excepting those marked Optional. He should also prepare an indexed laboratory notebook in which stress is to be laid upon accurate drawings and precise expressive descriptions. This notebook should contain outline drawings, carefully labeled, of the external and internal structure of a protozoan, a coelenter- ate, an annelid, a decapod crustacean, and a vertebrate [see C below], together with labeled drawings of the external structure of at least three other animals (preferably an insect, a mollusk, and a second vertebrate). The laboratory book should also contain carefully prepared notes on the forms enumerated above, and descriptions of other animals used for demonstrations [see A below.] In rating the notebook no credit will be given for dictated work, lecture notes, or drawings copied from charts and textbooks. Work done outside the laboratory should be marked home work. A student taking the Department's examinations must prepare a copy of the index of his notebook and attach it to his answer paper at the time of the examination. This copy of the index *The syllabus in advanced zoology is based upon the report of a committee of the American Society of Zoologists, Eastern Branch. ADVANCED ZOOLOGY 120, must bear (i) the teacher's indorsement certifying that it is a true abstract of the student's work, and (2) the teacher's rating of the notebook based upon a scale of 20. Notebooks, not submitted to colleges as a part of the entrance requirement, must be accessible to the inspectors and be subject to the call of the Department for a period of six months subsequent to the completion of the course. The following outline includes the principles of zoology that are indispensable to a general survey of the science. It is not intended to indicate the order of study of the topics; this must be left to the teacher and the textbook. A The general natural history — including external structure in relation to adaptations, life histories, geographical range, rela- tions to other animals and to plants, and economic relations — of common vertebrates and invertebrates so far as representatives of these groups are obtainable in the locality where the course is given. (The types suggested are a mammal, bird, lizard, snake, turtle, newt, frog, dogfish (or other shark), bony fish, clam, snail, common crustaceans, spiders, myriapods, insects representing at least five orders, starfish, earthworm, hydra, sea anemone, Para- mecium.) Actual examination of these common animals should be supplemented by reading giving natural history information about them and their relatives. 1 It is not expected that there will be time for making extensive notebook records of this natural history work. So far as time permits, drawings should be made and notes written, but most of the work along this line should take the form of laboratory demonstrations. B The classification of animals into phyla and leading classes (except the modern subdivisions of the worms) and the great characteristics of these groups. In the case of insects and ver- tebrates the characteristics of the orders. The teaching of classi- fication should be by practical work so as to train the pupil to recognize animals and to point out the chief taxonomic characteristics. The meaning of species, genera and larger groups should be developed by constructive practical work with representatives of insect or vertebrate orders. C The general plan of internal structure, not the anatomical min- utiae, of one vertebrate (preferably frog or fish) in general com- parison with human body ; an arthropod (preferably a decapod) ; an annelid (earthworm or Nereis) ; a coelenterate (hydroid, hydra or sea anemone) ; a protozoon (a ciliate, and amoeba when pos- X A large part of this natural history information will be gained from the nature study of the elementary school and from the course given in the first year of high school. 130 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT sible). In place of any of above types not locally available there may be substituted a second vertebrate, a mollusk, an insect or an echinoderm. The functions of the chief tissues and their positions in the body of a vertebrate should be pointed out. {Optional) Tissues should be examined first with the unaided eye, in such a structure as a frog's leg, and then with a micro- scope a demonstration should be given of the relations of cells and intercellular substance in epithelium and cartilage, and if possible in other tissues. D (1) The general physiology of above types, involving the es- sentials of digestion, absorption, circulation (respiration), cell- metabolism, secretion, excretion and nervous functions. This should apply comparatively the essentials of elementary work in human physiology . Demonstrations and experiments, such as are suggested in high school textbooks on human physiology, should be introduced, or recalled if not previously well presented in elementary physiology, in connection with the discussion of the chief functions. So far as practicable structure and function should be studied together. (2) {Optional) Comparison of the general life processes in ani- mals and plants (in connection with botany if zoology is first studied). E The very general features of asexual reproduction of a proto- zoon (preferably Paramoecium) ; alternations of generations in hydroids; reproduction and regeneration of Hydra; the very general external features of embryological development in a fish or frog; and the most interesting features of development in the case of other animals studied. {Optional) The general cellular nature (not centrosomes and the like) of germ cells, fer- tilization and cell division in developing eggs should, so far as possible, be demonstrated and briefly described. F The prominent evidences of relationship, suggesting evolution, within such groups as the decapods, the insects and the verte- brates, should be demonstrated. A few facts indicating the struggle for existence, adaptation to environment, variations of individuals and man's selective influence should be pointed out; but the factors of evolution and the discussion of its theories should not be attempted. G {Optional) Some leading facts regarding the epoch-making discoveries .of biological history and the careers of such eminent naturalists as Darwin, Huxley, Pasteur and Agassiz should be presented. ADVANCED ZOOLOGY 13I The above outline of a course in general zoology should be de- veloped on the basis of a course of laboratory study guided by definite directions. This should be supplemented by the careful reading of at least one modern elementary textbook in general zoology. GROUP 3 (concluded) Physical geography Agriculture PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY This syllabus has been prepared after repeated conferences with some of the best known teachers of physical geography in high school, normal school and university, who on urgent request have courteously contributed suggestion, advice and material. The outline is intended to suggest work for 190 class exercises and in conformity to general opinion is expressed quite in detail as few schools have hitherto assigned the subject for a year course. It is not expected that teachers will place equal emphasis on all the divisions or that students on completing the course will be equally familiar with all the topics. Such parts of astronomy and of geology as are more closely related to the subject and are thought more suitable for students in secondary schools are included. As some schools will offer the subject in the second year and others in the fourth year, two sizes of type are used, matter in large type being more essential and sufficient for a satisfactory second year course which meets the college entrance requirements, while that in small type may be introduced into a more thorough course given in the fourth year. In view of the recommendation of the N. E. A. committee it is suggested that as much time be devoted to the study of the land as is devoted to the study of the rest of the subject herein outlined. At every step the relation of man to the topic under consideration and the manner in which he is affected by it should be carefully noted as this is the important aspect of the study. It is thought that not less than one class exercise with its accompanying study period, consecutive if possible, should be devoted each week to laboratory work. In this time the student should perform exercises having an aggregate value of at least 40 selected from a list not essentially different from the one given. It is suggested that the class accompanied by the teacher make field excursions to the number of not less than four in the fall and four in the spring. The results of laboratory and field work with the dates should be carefully recorded by the student in a notebook, of which an accurate index should be prepared by the student. A student taking the Department's examination must prepare a copy of this index and attach it to his answer paper at the time 132 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 133 of the examination. This copy of the index must bear the teacher's indorsement certifying that it is a true abstract of the student's work, and the teacher's rating of the notebook based upon a scale of 20. Notebooks, not submitted to colleges as a part of the entrance requirement, must be accessible to the inspectors and be subject to the call of the Department for a period of six months subsequent to the completion of the course. The earth as a planet I Origin. i Nebular hypothesis, planetesimal theory. 1 2 Solar system: sun, planets, planetoids or asteroids, satellites, some comets. a Relation of sun to earth: nature, size, distance, attraction heat, light, eclipses of the sun. b Relation of other planets (and planetoids) to earth : nature ; general idea of size, order and distance from sun; motions, light; phases; distinguished from stars. c Relation of moon to earth: nature, size, distance, revolution, rotation, light, phases, eclipses of the moon, other satellites. d Comets: nature, recognition, time visible, celebrated comets. e Meteors and falling stars : time when most numerous. 3 Stellar systems. II Shape: oblate spheroid. i Cause: gravitation, plasticity, centrifugal force caused by rotation. 2 Evidences: change of visible constellations with change of latitude, curved shadow on moon, increase of horizon with increase of observer's altitude, upper parts of vessel seen farthest, variation of time with longitude, circumnavigation, weight of a body nearly constant but increasing slightly with latitude. 3 Consequences: some of above evidences (partly from other causes), division of the earth's surface into climatic zones, variation of plant and animal life depending on climate, necessity for commerce. III Size. i Measurements: polar and equatorial diameters, circumference, area. 2 Comparison with measurements of sun and moon. 3 Method of determination : problem of Eratosthenes. 4 Relation of gravity: effect on human life and interests. x Matter in small type is suggested when the course is given in the fourth year but is not advised for the second year. 134 N EW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT IV Structure: interior, centrosphere ; crust, lithosphere; water, hydrosphere; air, atmosphere; directions up and down; points zenith and nadir. V Motions. i Rotation: time, direction, distance, axis, poles, equator. a Results and evidences: apparent daily motion of all heavenly bodies about earth or polestar, division of time into day and night, effects on habits of life, bulging at equator and con- sequent flattening at poles, deflection of currents in water and of winds, eastward deflection of falling bodies, Foucault's pendulum. b Directions: north, direction in a straight line toward (i) a point on the horizon, (2) a point in the heavens; south, the opposite of north; east, (1) direction in a straight line toward a point on the horizon, (2) a direction of curved motion, rotation and revolution; west, the opposite of east. 2 Revolution: time, direction, distance. a Orbit: size, shape, construction of an ellipse, sun at north focus, perihelion and aphelion, plane of orbit, equinox and solstice used to designate both position and time. b Inclination of axis, inclination of axes of other planets. c Results of inclination of axis and revolution: change of seasons involving variation in period and angle of insolation, location of tropics and polar circles. 3 Motion with solar system through space. VI Localization of places. 1 Latitude: definition, use. a Instruments for determining: plumb and level with card protractor and pin to cast shadow, compass. b Establishing a meridian: by direction of polestar, by shortest shadow of vertical rod on horizontal plane, by use of compass. c Determination of latitude: by altitude of polestar, by alti- tude of sun at meridian. d Increase in length of degrees toward poles. 2 Longitude: definition, prime meridian, use. a Determination of longitude: by chronometer, by telegraph, by comparing local time with calculated time of observed astronomical events. b Decrease in length of degrees toward the poles. VII Time. 1 Gregorian calendar, Julian calendar, meaning of old style (O. S.) and new style (N. S.) and of double year .figures for dates between Jan. 1 and Mar. 25. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 1 35 2 Solar, sidereal and lunar day. 3 Mean solar time: equation of time, determination of local noon by observation of shadow on meridian corrected by applying equa- tion of time, by use of sextant. 4 Civil day : from midnight to midnight. 5 Conventional day: beginning at international or intercalary date line. 6 Standard time in the United States. VIII Magnetism. 1 Properties of a magnet. 2 The earth a magnet: theory to account for magnetism of earth, magnetic poles and meridians, magnetic declination, agonic lines, isogonic lines, mariners compass. 3 Magnetic inclination: magnetic equator, isoclinal lines, dipping needle. IX 4 Maps and map projection. 1 Advantages and disadvantages of maps as compared with charts and models. 2 Use of contour lines, hachure lines or varied colors to show relief. 3 Scales: varied for different purposes. 4 Methods of projection: Mercator's, stereographic, globular, orthographic, cylindric, conical. The air I Atmosphere. 1 Definition. 2 Origin and future as indicated by nebular hypothesis. ' •' 3 Function of air as a whole: diffuses light; conducts sound; enables birds to fly ; reduces weight of bodies immersed in it ; retains heat; by its movements produces waves and ocean currents, moves ships, drives windmills, transports rain, snow and other objects, destroys property and life. II Composition of air : mechanical mixture. 1 Oxygen. a Probable origin and reason for its presence in the air. b Nature, relative abundance, distribution. c Function: necessary to animal life; oxidation, rusting, burning. 2 Nitrogen. a Probable origin and reason for its presence in the air, lack of affinity for other elements. b Nature, relative abundance, distribution. c Function: dilutes oxygen, enriches soils through medium of nitro- gen-gathering plants. I36 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 3 Carbon dioxid. a Nature, origin, relative abundance, distribution. b Function: necessary to plant life, action when dissolved in water. 4 Water vapor. a Nature, origin, relative abundance, distribution. b Function: necessary to both plant and animal life, source of clouds and precipitation. 5 Dust. a Nature and origin: inorganic, pulverized rock, ashes, solid parts of smoke; organic, decayed plant and animal tissues, living germs. b Distribution : chiefly over land in low altitudes in dry weather. c Effects: influences color of sky; promotes precipitation, decomposition and disease. 6 Other elements: argon, krypton, helium etc. III Pressure and density. 1 Relation of pressure to density and to temperature. • 2 Evidences of pressure, distinction between pressure and weight, weight of a given volume of air at sea level, weight determined by volume and pressure. 3 Measurement of pressure. a Mercurial barometer: essential construction, e;. entials to ac- curate reading, meaning of variation in reading, reason for using mercury instead of other liquids. b Aneroid barometer: construction, compared with mercurial barometer as to advantage in construction and in use. c Barograph: construction and use. 4 Relation of pressure to altitude: a Probable depth of the air. b Reduction of barometer reading to sea level. c Reduction of barometer reading to standard temperature. 5 Variation in pressure at constant level. a Station constant with time varied, pressure curve. b Time constant with station varied, isobars, barometric gradient. c Isobaric charts' for the world for January and July, cyclone or low and anticyclone or high. IV Temperature. 1 Temperature and heat distinguished. 2 Sources of heat : sun, insolation defined and its relation to heat and temperature considered, other heavenly bodies, internal heat of earth. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 1 37 3 Measurement of temperature. a Liquid thermometers: construction, scales, maximum and minimum. b Metallic thermometers : construction. c Thermograph: construction and use. 4 Different capacities of land, water and air for absorbing, reflecting and transmitting the heat of insolation. 5 Ways in which air is warmed and cooled. 6 Elements affecting temperature: a Distribution of heat: determined by alternation of day and night and change of seasons. b Pressure: association of lows with high temperature and of highs with low temperature. c Latitude: decrease of about i F. for increase of one degree in latitude. d Altitude: decrease of about i F. for increase of 300 feet in altitude. e Bodies of water. / Cloudiness. g Prevailing winds. h Exposure: sunny slopes, valleys, relative position of moun- tains. 7 Variation in temperature. a Station constant with time varied, temperature curve, time of maximum and minimum. b Time constant with station varied, isotherms, temperature gradient. c Isothermal charts: for the world for January and July, heat equator, cold pole, crowded isotherms. 8 Heat belt and areas: tropical with temperature 70 F. or above, temperate with temperature between 70 F. and 30 F., frigid with temperature below 30 F.; more regular in southern hemisphere than in northern hemisphere, reasons. Movements of air. 1 Definition: winds, currents. 2 Inauguration of movement: theoretical explanation. 3 Classification of winds as to origin. a Terrestrial: planetary, due to excessive heating at equator and rotation of the earth, found in regions of equatorial calms, trades, tropical calms, antitrades and circumpolar winds. I38 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT b Cyclonic winds: irregular winds induced by local highs and lows which themselves move with the terrestrial winds where they occur; tropical cyclones originating within the tropics and dying out in the belt of westerlies or antitrades, equinoxial storms; extratropical cyclones originating in summer in temperate latitudes, in winter in high latitudes; cold and hot waves. c Continental winds: in summer and winter; sea and land, valley and mountain breezes, by day and night. 4 Deflection of winds from barometric gradient to right in northern hemisphere and to left in southern hemisphere, Ferrel's law. 5 Migration of terrestrial wind belts: monsoons, lagging behind the sun. 6 Paths of cyclones and anticyclones in the United States and adjacent waters. a In the North: usually southeast to the Mississippi valley, then northeast to the Atlantic. b In the South: usually northeast across the continent. c Of tropical cyclones from the West Indies : northwest to the vicinity of Florida or Carolina coast or farther inland, then northeast. 7 Change of temperature in vertical currents: due to expansion or com- pression, fall of 1 F. for 166 feet rise. 8 Velocity of winds. a Measurement: anemometer. b Classification. (1) Calm: no perceptible movement, less than 1 mile an hour. (2) Light: moving leaves on trees, less than 10 miles an hour. (3) Moderate: moving small branches, 10 to 15 miles an hour. (4) Brisk: swaying branches and raising dust, 15 to 25 miles an hour. (5) High: swaying trees and raising leaves and twigs, 25 to 40 miles an hour. (6) Gale: breaking branches and uprooting trees, 40 to 60 miles an hour. (7) Hurricane: destroying houses, above 60 miles an hour. VI Humidity. 1 Absolute and relative: dew-point and its relation to tempera- ture; measurement and instruments, hygrometer, psychrom- eter, hygrodeik. 2 Condensation. ' a Causes : changes in temperature and pressure. b Forms: clouds, cirrus, stratus, cumulus, nimbus; fogs; dew; frost; precipitation, rain, snow, hail, sleet. c Distribution: causes, winds, barriers; results, deserts, semiarid and well watered regions. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 139 d Measurement: rain gage. e Rains: cyclonic, tropical, monsoon. VII Weather and climate. 1 Elements: temperature, precipitation, cloudiness, winds, impurities in the air. 2 Controlling factors: latitude; altitude; distance from ocean or other large body of water; position with reference to mountains, terrestrial wind belts, paths of lows and highs. 3 Lows and highs: relation to local winds, precipitation and temperature. 4 Weather maps. a Construction and distribution by the United States govern- ment. b Interpretation. 5 Forecasting: limits and benefits. 6 Climatic belts and regions. 7 Changes in climate: recent and remote. VIII Electric and light phenomena . 1 Lightning, St Elmo's fire, aurora. 2 Rainbow, colors of sky, coronas, sun dogs, moon dogs, halos, loom- ing, mirage, zodiacal light. The ocean I Area, distribution, characteristics, functions, adaptations. II Sea water. 1 Composition: varies with locality. 2 Density: varies with composition and temperature, only slightly with pressure. III Exploration of ocean: sounding and dredging. 1 Instruments: for ascertaining depth temperature, rate and direction of current and for obtaining samples of bottom, water and life at desired depths. 2 Use of instruments and immediate results. IV Depth: maximum and average. V Temperature: sources of heat and elements controlling tem- perature, horizontal and vertical variations, temperatures of deep equatorial seas and of deep mediterraneans accounted for. VI Movements of ocean waters. 1 Wave movements. a Causes: winds, influence of moon and sun, seismic disturb- ances. 140 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT b Movements of wave form and of water particles in wave. c Parts: crest, trough, front, back. d Qualities: hight, length. e Modified forms, chiefly of wind waves: rollers, breakers, surf, undertow. / Effects of wind waves: modify shore line; aerate water; destroy sea walls, docks and vessels; effects modified by use of oil; furnish power to ring bells, blow whistles, pump water, etc. g Interval of tides (tide waves): lagging behind moon, estab- lishment of the port, unequal period of rising and falling. h Varieties and stages of tides: spring, neap, flood, ebb, high water, low water, slack water. i Modifications of tide waves: bores, races, tides in special places. j Effects of tides: modify shore line, prevent stagnation of water in harbors, carry waste out to sea, affect navigation, open inlets in reefs and bars, bring food to fixed forms of animal life, furnish power to tide mills and for raising heavy weights as ships and bridges. k Earthquake waves: unexpected, effects. 2 Currents and drifts. a Defined, contrasted with waves. b Exciting and modifying causes: prevailing winds; changes of level due to evaporation, precipitation, expansion; rota- tion of the earth, Ferrel's law; obstruction by shore lines. c General movements in all oceans: whirls with center calm, sargasso sea. d Atlantic currents: equatorial and counter equatorial cur- rents, gulf stream, Greenland and Labrador currents, antarctic drift. e Pacific currents: equatorials, counter equatorial, Japan, Humboldt, north Pacific. / Indian currents: south equatorial, Malabar, Mozambique, west Australian, antarctic drift. g Polar currents. h Effects: modify climate, Alaska, British Isles, Labrador; transport icebergs, icepacks and floe ice, of which note origin, characteristics and dangers; distribute plant and animal life ; supply driftwood to shores destitute of growing timber; affect navigation. Creep : slow movement of cold water at bottom of ocean toward equator, evidence, cause, effect. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY I4I VII The ocean floor. 1 Relief: compared with that of land, character, cause. 2 Origin and composition of material. a On continental shelf: chiefly washings from land, gravel, shingle, sand, mud. b In deep water: remains of minute marine life, pteropod ooze, globigerina ooze, diatom ooze, radiolarian ooze. c In deepest water: volcanic and meteoric dust, red clay. 3 Possible future: by successive uplifts deep ocean bottom may become continental shelf , coastal plain, plateau, faulted mountains; mud and clay may become shale or by metamorphosis slate; coral, shells, pteropod ooze and globigerina ooze may become limestone or by metamorphosis marble; diatom ooze and radiolarian ooze may be- come silicious rock or by metamorphosis quartz rock. VIII Life in the ocean. 1 Controlling factors: temperature, light, pressure, currents, oxygen, food. 2 Regions. a Littoral: conditions propitious, vary with locality and season, favor varied forms; mangrove trees, seaweeds, mammals, numerous and valuable fishes, minute and larger shell-bearing forms, lobsters, crabs, barnacles, sponges, corals. b Pelagic: forms similar in all localities; conditions at bottom nearly uniform and unpropitious ; fishes, shell-bearing forms, crabs, starfish, corals. Water other than ocean I Source : precipitation, rainfall. II Disposal. 1 Evaporation: controlling factors, amount, effect on tempera- ture. 2 Sinking into the earth: ground water. a Position: depth below surface of the earth. b Destructive action: erosion and corrasion by its rivers, falls and lakes; solvent action increased by carbon dioxid in solution, effects on salt and limestone, caverns and life in them, sink or swallow holes. c Constructive action: deposits as veins, stalactites, stalag- mites ; deposits on reappearing. d Reappearance: springs, wells, artesian wells, mineral springs, hot springs, geysers. 142 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 3 Run-off: small streams, rivers. a Correct ideas: river, source, banks, bed, mouth, basin, system, divide, slope, base level. b Work of rivers: drainage of water and waste; corrasion of bed producing valleys, falls, potholes, alluvial terraces; corrasion of banks producing meanders, oxbow lakes, widening of flood plain; transportation of drift on surface, stones and pebbles by rolling along bottom, sand and mud in suspension, salt and lime in solution; grinding, polishing and comminuting load. c Normal cycle in life history of a river: youth characterized by falls, rapids, lakes, V-shaped valleys; maturity when previous features have disappeared, profile of equilibrium or grade, migration of divides; old age characterized by flood plains, oxbow lakes, elevation of river bed affecting tributaries and distributaries, natural levees, deltas and conditions favoring delta formation. d Cycle interrupted and new cycle introduced: by depression producing drowned valleys, bays, dismembered rivers, estuaries, filled valleys; by elevation producing revived rivers, reversed rivers, intrenched meanders, antecedent rivers, ingrafted rivers, river terraces, alluvial terraces; by change of climate from moist to arid producing wadies, salines, salt lakes, play as; by change of climate from warm to glacial producing extinction of rivers by ice sheet. e Lakes: (i) relation to rivers; (2) formation: by uplift, original lakes on coastal plain ; by natural progress of river cycle, oxbow lakes, lakes dammed by sediments; by glacial action, lakes in glaciated regions; by accident such as land- slips, lava flow, work of beavers; by volcanic action, crater lakes; (3) water: generally fresh, becoming salt if evapora- tion is large in proportion to outflow; (4) destruction: by filling with plant or animal matter, salt, silt brought in streams, material driven by winds, dunes; by draining consequent on tilt of earth's surface, deepening of outlet, new outlet; by evaporation; (5) function: store and purify water, regulate river flow, compare St Lawrence and Ohio rivers, promote navigation, affect climate. / Life in rivers and lakes: compared with life in ocean. g Falls and rapids: origin, recession upstream, grade reaches between falls, economic importance of falls, location of cities. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 1 43 III Glaciers. i Kinds: continental or ice sheet, alpine. 2 Present and former ice sheets : glacial periods, evidences. 3 Formation: manner and needed conditions. 4 Movement: causes, rate, advance, recession. 5 Moraines: source, classification, disposal. 6 Work: corrasion, scratching, grooving, polishing; transporta- tion; deposition; plowing out valleys parallel to movement, filling valleys not parallel to movement ; formation of terminal moraines, kames, eskers, drumlins. 7 Disposal: melting in place giving rise to rivers, carried away by ocean currents as icebergs. 8 Comparison with rivers. The land I Area, distribution, characteristics, functions, adaptations. II Surface : compared with the floor of the ocean. III Rock. i Definition. 2 Classification. a By composition: (i) Silica: quartz; rock crystal; amethyst; chalcedony, sard, carnelian; agate, onyx, sardonyx; jasper, bloodstone; opal, hydrophane; sand, pebbles; flint, horn- stone. (2) Alumina: alumina, sapphire, corundum, emery. (3) Lime: carbonate as common limestone, calc spar, chalk, tufa, stalactites, oolite, marl, dolomite, marble; sulphate as plaster, satin spar, selenite. (4) Silicates: feldspar as orthoclase, albite, labradorite; mica; hornblende, asbestos, pyroxene; talc, soapstone, serpentine, chlorite; garnet; tourmalin. b By origin: (1) Sedimentary: silicious and argillaceous sand- stone; silicious, calcareous or ferruginous conglomerate as pudding stone, breccia; shale; limestone. (2) Igneous: trap rock as basalt, greenstone, porphyry, amygdaloid; volcanic rock as trachyte, lava. (3) Metamorphic: granite, gneiss, mica schist, syenite, marble, anthracite coal. c By structure: unstratified, stratified. 3 Common rocks: study to secure ready identification. IV Minerals. 1 Definition, composition, characteristics. 2 Classification. a Native metals and ores. 144 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT b Other minerals of direct and important economic value. c Minerals of importance as making rocks. d Other minerals not important in this study. V Soil : formation ; residual, transported ; varieties ; adaptations. VI Causes of change. i Diastrophism. a Causes: cooling, shrinking, wrinkling. b Results: continents, ocean basins, changes in local topogra- phy of land surface and ocean floor. 2 Isostasy: suggested adjustment of earth's crust to load, producing from sea bottom new land areas, near and parallel to present coast line, temporary islands and mud lumps at the mouths of delta- forming rivers. 3 Volcanism. a Probable causes. b Definitions: volcano, cone, crater, eruption etc. c Classification of eruptions: explosive due to expansion of gases, oozing due to hydrostatic pressure, mixed. d Phenomena of eruption: before, during and after. e Products of eruption: gaseous, liquid, solid, economic. / Classification of cones: ash (steepest), lava (flattest), ash and lava (intermediate). g Classification of volcanos: active, dormant, extinct. h Volcanic sheets and necks. i Distribution of active volcanos: proximity to ocean, asso- ciation with young and growing mountains. 4 Erosion, transportation, deposition. a Causes: gravity, change in temperature, chemism, moisture, wind, wave, current, stream, sand driven by wind, plant and animal life. b Results: modification of the larger features of relief pro- duced by other causes, in general increasing the strength of relief to maturity, then decreasing that strength to old age. VII Geographic cycle. i Influences determining length. a Initial elevation of land. b Vigor of eroding agents or character of climate. c Resistance of rocks. 2 Close of cycle: production of peneplain. VIII Forms of relief. i Plains: regions of slight elevation, fairly smooth surface and relatively horizontal strata. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 1 45 a Coastal plain: uplifted continental shelf, (i) Narrow: simple drainage. (2) Broad: production of belts, artesian wells. (3) Embayed: drowning of former marginal iand. (4) Ancient: now often far from ocean. (5) Economic importance of coastal plains. b Alluvial plain: built up by river at flood stages. (1) Change in position of stream in flood plain, meandering, migration. (2) Slope: away from stream, high front lands, swampy back lands. (3) Drainage: turning of tributaries down- stream as they enter flood plain, distributaries. (4) Fitness for life: soil fertile and easily worked, unhealthfulness, danger from overflow. (5) Protection against overflow: levees, outlets. c Lacustrine plain. (1) Filled and drained lake basins: fertility, fitness for life. (2) Dessicated lake basins: salt plains, characterize arid regions. d Glacial plain. (1) Cause: chiefly continental glaciers. (2) Deposits: unassorted and unst ratified, till. (3) Lakes: numerous, due to youth of plain. (4) Characteristics: angular and scratched pebbles and boulders, balanced rocks, sometimes polished and grooved bed rock. e Plain of denudation: origin, characteristics. Plateaus. a Definition: differ from plains only in elevation. b Dissected plateaus, canyons. c Old plateaus, mesas, buttes. d Broken plateaus: faults, fault line, fault plane. e Economic importance of plateaus. Mountains. a Definition: distinguished from plateaus. b Causes: diastrophism, volcanism. c Classification. (1) Block: due to uplift and faulting, analogy to broken plateaus. (2) Domed: broad arch or open fold, due to buckling of strata from lateral pressure, or to intrusion of laccolite. (3) Folded: both simple and complex, probably due to lateral pressure producing anti- clines and synclines; anticlinal valleys and synclinal ridges. (4) Massive: not properly mountains but mature plateaus. e Life history of mountains. (1) Youth: steep slopes, land- slips, avalanches, earthquakes, ridges, peaks, bare ledges. (2) Maturity: lowered peaks, water gaps, passes, revealed mineral deposits. (3) Old age: approach to peneplain, I46 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT production of monadnocks or relict mountains, deep waste cloak, uniform and forested slopes. / Hight: dependent on initial elevation, vigor of eroding agents, resistance of rocks, age of mountains. g Mountains as barriers: retard or prevent uniform distribu- tion of temperature and rainfall, distribution of plants and animals, commerce and the spread of civilization; con- servativeness of the inhabitants of mountains. h Climate. i Economic value: health resorts, timber reserves, mineral and rock wealth. IX Shore lines. 1 Definition. 2 Regular shore line, resulting from: a Migration of shore line seaward due to movement of earth's crust. b Migration of shore line seaward by building of sand reefs parallel to shore, filling lagoons and inlets; cusp and crescent outlines. c Migration of shore line seaward by formation of river deltas. d Smoothing action of waves and currents producing sea cliffs, bay -head and barrier beaches, land-tied islands. e Smoothing action of ice foot in high latitudes. 3 Irregular shore line: resulting from migration of shore line landward due to movement of earth's crust; characteristics as islands, caves, drowned valleys, dismembered rivers, promon- tories. 4 Modification of shore lines by plant and animal life. a Plant life: mangrove trees in tropical ocean, marsh and eelgrass in other localities. b Animal life, specially corals. (1) Conditions of temperature and depth of water favoring the growth of coral. (2) Fringing reefs. (3) Barrier reefs: relation to fringing reefs. (4) Atolls: theories as to origin, relation to barrier reefs. 5 Lake shore lines: miniatures of ocean shore lines. 6 Abandoned ancient shore lines: beaches and benches. 7 Sand dunes along the shore. 8 Harbors. a Classification: river, delta, estuary, fiord, lagoon, sand bar, sand spit, atoll, crater. b Advantages and disadvantages of various classes. c Economic importance: location of cities. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 147 LABORATORY EXERCISES IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY The numbers in curves indicate the values assigned to the exercises, i a Construct an ellipse to scale showing the correct shape of the earth's orbit. b Show the position of the earth at equinoxes and at solstices with dates. c Distribution of sunlight at each of these dates. d Direction of rotation and revolution ; distance of the earth from the sun at aphelion and at perihelion (2). 2 a Construct diagrams showing the positions of the earth, sun and moon at the several phases of the moon. b Position of the moon during the month with reference to the earth's equator. c Explanation of phases and reasons why eclipses do not occur every month (1). 3 a Construct diagrams showing partial and total lunar eclipses. b Construct diagrams showing partial, total and annular solar eclipses. c Calculate the length of the shadows of the earth and the moon and the diameter of the earth's shadow where the moon passes through it (2). 4 a Study Eratosthenes's method of finding the size of the earth. b Determine the length of the circumference of a circle by this method. c Check any error by finding the length of the circumference by simple geometrical means (1). 5 a Construct a diagram showing the determination of the length of the solar, the lunar and the sidereal day. b Comparison of values with an explanation (1). 6 Determine the length of day at any latitude at any time of the year (1). 7 Find the place of sunrise and of sunset at any latitude at any time of the year (1). 8 a Plot the curves of a shadow cast by an upright post at any latitude at the time of the solstices and of the equinoxes. b Interpretation of curves (2). 9 a Find a north and south line. b Find the civil time of local noon (2). 10 a Measure the angle of altitude of trees, towers and sun. b Construct these angles (1). 11 Determine relative heat received from the sun at different altitudes (2). I48 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 12 Construct and interpret sunrise and sunset curves (1). 13 Determine the observer's latitude from: a Sun's altitude. b Elevation of north pole (2). 14 a Make a Mercator's projection of latitude and longitude lines. b Sketch in continents from a globe (2). 15 Make a modified Lambert's projection fixing the meridians, parallels, tropics and polar circles (1). 16 a Make an orthographic polar projection of the northern hem- isphere locating the Tropic of Cancer and the polar circle. b Locate all lines showing latitude and longitude (1). 17 Interpret a contour map as to drainage, distances, slopes and relative hights (1). 18 Make vertical sections from contour maps (1). 19 Make a contour map from given data (1). 20 Make interpolations between meridians and parallels (1). 21 Experiment with Foucault's pendulum (1). 22 Determine altitudes by use of barometer (1). 23 Determine the dew-point and calculate from data the relative and the absolute humidity (1). 24 Account for differences in isothermal charts of the world for January and July (1). 25 Account for position and migration of heat equator and cold pole (1). 26 a Study isobaric charts of the world for January and July. b Account for terrestrial winds in these months (1). 27 Interpret records of thermograph, barograph and wind direction and study their mutual relations (1). 28 a Keep for one month a daily record of pressure, temperature, wind direction, state of sky, humidity, location of approaching low, precipitation. b Plot pressure and temperature curves. c Study of mutual relations of conditions recorded (5). 29 Study the general wind direction about centers of low and high areas from weather maps (1). 30 Find the direction and average rate of the progressive move- ment of a storm center in the United States (1). 3 1 Make an isobar map of the United States from furnished data (1) . 32 Make an isotherm map of the United States from furnished data (1). 33 Study the distribution of cloudiness and rainfall about several storm centers (1). PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY I49 34 Forecast weather conditions from furnished data (i). 35 Study cold waves and northeasters (i). 36 Plot curve representing daily rainfall for one year at a given station from given data (i). 37 Plot tidal curve for a given station for the month of January from given data (i). 38 Interpret the tidal curve as to spring and neap tides and diurnal inequality (i). 39 Test sea water for density, taste and amount of gas and of solid matter in solution (2). 40 Construct a diagram showing high, low, spring and neap tides and make explanation (1). 41 Study trade routes across the Atlantic and Pacific oceans from pilot charts (1). 42 Make an orderly arrangement of nine minerals to show a scale of hardness (2). 43 Study quartz, feldspar, mica and calcite as types of rock- forming minerals (2). 44 Study two ores of each of the following: iron, copper, lead and zinc (2). 45 Study samples of soil (2). 46 Study salt, sulfur, gypsum and graphite as types of nonmetallic minerals of direct economic value (2). 47 Study 8 or 10 common rocks (2). 48 Construct a river profile (1). 49 Study regular shore lines, Atlantic City topographic sheet (2). 50 Study irregular shore lines, Boothbay, Me. topographic sheet 51 Study glacial topography, Whitewater topographic sheet (2). 52 Make a collection of glaciated and of water-washed pebbles (2). 53 Study the Appalachian mountains, Harrisburg sheet (2). 54 Study volcanic effects, Mt Shasta sheet (2). 55 Study river development, a young region, Ottawa, 111. sheet (2) . 56 Study river development, a mature region, Charleston, W. Va. sheet (2). 57 Study river development, an old region, Caldwell, Kan. sheet w- 58 Study Mississippi river, upper course, Savanna, 111. sheet (2). 59 Study Mississippi river, meanders, Mississippi river sheet no. 14 (2). 60 Study Mississippi river, natural levees, Donaldsonville, La. sheet (2). I50 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 61 Study Niagara falls, survey and maps (2). 62 Study a drowned river valley (2). 63 Study a plain, Wicomico, Md. sheet (2). 64 Study a plateau, Kaibab, Ariz, sheet (2). 65 Study distribution of coniferous, deciduous and tropical forests, and the relation of such distribution to climate (2). 66 Study distribution of areas producing the most important grains and the relation of such distribution to climate (2). 67 Study distribution of areas producing the most important fiber plants and the relation of such distribution to climate (2). 68 Study distribution of areas producing the most important fruits and the relation of such distribution to climate (2). 69 Study distribution of animal life and its relation to climate (2). 70 Study distribution of human population as to density and the relation it bears to soil, climate, water power, harbors etc. FIELD EXCURSIONS In making field excursions the points to be studied will depend on the locality. Such topics as clouds and their movements, weathering, erosion, transportation, deposition, river currents, waves, tides, rocks, minerals, foldings, faults, dikes, evidences' of upheaval and subsidence, natural slope of different materials, land forms, location of highways, soil, falls, rapids, water power, harbors and distribution of plant and animal life are of special importance. AGRICULTURE 151 AGRICULTURE 1 This outline presents an orderly arrangement of work for a three period course for one year. It should preferably be pursued in the second year of the high school, after the pupil has completed a year's work in biology. The student must also have some knowledge of elementary chemistry; if this knowledge has not been obtained in the study of biology, one or two weeks should be devoted to it before the specific subjects of the course in agriculture are undertaken. The pupil should have an elementary knowledge of chemical com- bination and also of the 14 elements chiefly concerned in the com- position of soil and the production of plants and animals: (1) carbon; (2) hydrogen; (3) oxygen; (4) nitrogen; (5) sulphur; (6) phosphorus; (7) iron; (8) calcium; (9) magnesium; (10) potassium; (11) sodium; (12) chlorin; (13) silicon; (14) aluminum. Abundant laboratory work should be provided, at least one period out of the three, every week. 2 Agricultural operations are conducted for two immediate pur- poses: to raise plants, and to raise animals. Plants are raised either for their own value or for their use in the feeding of animals. In studying agriculture, therefore, it is well to begin with the plant, then proceed to the animal, and then consider questions of practice and management that grow out of these subjects. Part I The plant and crops The study of the plant may be provided for under two general heads: (1) the plant itself; (2) the environment that influences or modifies the plant. Section 1 The plant itself CJnder section i,the plant may be studied in relation to (a) compo- sition ; (b) structure ; (c) physiology ; (d) heredity and plant-breeding. On the assumption that the student has covered categories a, b and c in his work in botany, these subjects are omitted here; therefore, only part d, together with a classification of agricultural plants, is outlined here. A Classification of economic plants. 1 Cereals. 2 Grasses. 3 Legumes. 4 Vegetables. l This syllabus lias been prepared at the request of the Education Department by represent- atives of the faculty of the College of Agriculture, Cornell University. 2 It is expected that an outline of laboratory exercises to accompany the topical syllabus will be issued in the fall cf 1905. 152 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 5 Fruits. 6 Tubers. 7 Roots. 8 Sugar plants. 9 Oil plants. 10 Fiber plants. 11 Stimulants. ■] 12 Medicinal and aromatic plants. 13 Timber crops (forestry). 14 Flowers and ornamental plants. B Heredity and plant-breeding. 1 Principles. 2 Processes. 3 Steps in improvement of plants. a Variation: environment, crossing. b Selection. c Testing hereditary power. 4 Illustrations of improvement in plants. 5 Methods of improvement. Section 2 Environment of the plant The subject of environment may be studied under the following heads: (a) light and heat; (b) air; (c) soil; (d) moisture; (e) applied plant food; (/) repressive and noxious agencies. C Light and heat. 1 Relative interdependence. 2 Effect. 3 Influence of character of light. 4 Influence of seasons. 5 Temperature for germination and growth. 6 How modified: by a Color. b Evaporation. c Topography. d Character of soil. e Cultivation. f Rolling. g Thickness of planting. h Fermentation. i Artificial means: screens, electricity, artificial heat. D Air. 1 Function above ground. a Oxygen. b Carbon dioxid. AGRICULTURE 1 53 2 Function in soils. c Oxygen. d Nitrogen. e Removal of carbon dioxid. 3 Processes of soil ventilation. /By diffusion. g By expansion and contraction of air due to temperature. h By expansion and compression due to barometric pressure. i Suctional effect of gusts of wind. / Air absorbed by rain water. k By removal of water through drainage, evaporation and transpiration of plants. E The soil — function of the soil. i As rootholds and mechanical supports of plants. 2 As sources of plant food. F The soil — origin. i Disintegration and decomposition of rocks. 2 Erosion, transportation and deposition of sediment (by water and ice). 3 Sorting out of sand, silt and clay by running water and deposition of soils of different texture as a result of sorting. 4 Movement of soils by wind. 5 Decay of animal and vegetable materials. Humus. G The soil — physical composition. i Solid matter: mineral, organic. 2 Liquid matter: impure water or soil solution, air. 3 Gaseous matter: carbonic acid gas, water vapor. H The soil — kinds of soils: peat, muck, clay, loam, sand, gravel, stony soils. I The soil — texture of soils: relation of texture to air, retention and movement of water, drainage, temperature, weight and solidity, roothold of plants. J The soil — plant food in the soil and air (general survey), i Elements essential to plant life. 2 Elements found in minerals. 3 Elements and compounds in air (oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxid, ammonia). 4 Elements in water (hydrogen, oxygen and dissolved oxygen). K Moisture. i Purpose. 2 Importance. 3 Quantity required. 4 How modified: by 154 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT a Kind of soil. b Topography. c Fertilizers and amendments. d Cultivators. e Drainage and irrigation. L Plant food. i According to constituents. a Nitrogenous. b Phosphoric. c Potassic. d Amendments. 2 According to form. e Green manures. Cover crops. / Animal manures. Farm manures. g Commercial manures or fertilizers. M Plant food (farm manures), i Properties. 2 Sources. 3 Uses. 4 Preparation, care and handling. 5 Application. 6 Economy. N Plant food (commercial fertilizers). i Sources. 2 Uses. 3 Application. 4 Economy. 5 Offices of the leading elements of commercial fertilizers — nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus. Repressive agencies, i Insects. 2 Fungous diseases. 3 Acidity of soil. 4 Toxic agencies and untoward conditions. P Farm crops. Actual study of the leading crops of the community. The products themselves should be actually handled and studied in school, as ears of corn, beans, wheat (in head and straw if possible), potatoes, oats, fruits, vegetables. Determine physical character- istics, as weight, size, shape, color etc. Discuss the methods of growing the crop : its place in the farm scheme and in the rota- tion; methods of preparing the land and tillage; fertilizing; AGRICULTURE 1 55 harvesting; marketing; insect and fungous enemies; its im- portance in the community ; history. At least one crop should be thus studied in detail. Part II Animals and animal husbandry Q The kinds of domestic animals. i Classification of common domestic animals. Mammals. Cattle, sheep, swine, horses, asses, mules, dogs. Birds: fowls, ducks, geese, pigeons, turkeys. Insects: bees. 2 Zoological relationships: origin, history of domestication, purposes for which ke^t, races, breeds and varieties of each. R Nutrition of domestic animals, i Relations of plant and animal life. 2 The chemical elements of nutrients: their number and occurrence in plants and animals. 3 The compounds of animal nutrients. a Water: in living plants, feeding stuffs, the animal. Its occurrence and functions. b Mineral matters (ash) in the~plant and in the - animal: amount and distribution. c The nutrients. 5 Nutrition {continued). The nutrients in detail, i Protein. a Nomenclature. b Examples. c Composition. d Physical characteristics e Variability. / Occurrence. g Distribution. 2 Carbohydrates. a Examples. b Composition. c Physical characteristics. d Nitrogen — free extract and crude fiber. e Starches. / Sugars. g Occurrence and distribution. 3 Fats and oils. a Character and composition. b Occurrence and distribution. I56 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 4 Functions of the nutrients. a Protein. b Carbohydrates and fat. c Relations to one another. d Nutritive ratio. e Food as a source of energy. / Heat relations. T The digestion and utilization of food. 1 The digestive tract. 2 Ferments. 3 Conditions influencing digestion. a Palatableness. b Quantity. c Stage of growth of plant. d Effect of methods of preservation and storage. e Grinding. / Addition of salt. g Frequency of feeding and watering. h Determination of digestibility. 4 Distribution and use of digested food ; also elimination of wastes. U Foods. 1 Pasturage. 2 Forage and fodders: green and dried fodders, soiling, silage. 3 Roots and tubers. 4 Concentrated feeding stuffs: grains and seeds, commercial by-products. V Rations. 1 Food requirements of different animals for different purposes. a For maintenance. b For work. c For growth (young animals). d For flesh (fattening) . e For milk, eggs, wool etc. 2 Combination of fodders into rations. / Amount of nutrients. g Amount of water (succulence) . h Relative proportions of protein and nonprotein (nutritive ratio) . i Palatableness. j Effect on product. k Economy. AGRICULTURE 157 W Animal products. i Flesh: beef, mutton, pork, poultry; relation; compo- sition; quality as determined by age and condition of animal ; relative suitability as food for man ; economy. 2 Eggs: composition; quality as affected by food of fowl; methods of preservation ; economy. 3 Milk. a Source ; kind of animal ; physiology of secretion ; methods of milking. b Quality; chemical and physical properties; natural varia- tions as affected by animal, by food, by environment, by adulteration. c Determination of specific gravity, fat, organisms, im- purities, adulteration. X The animal. (The animal form as related to production) i Animal mechanism in relation to speed and force, types of animals for production of milk and beef, wool and mutton, eggs and flesh. Correspondence of individual to type. Standards or scales of points; methods of scoring 2 Selection of animal with reference to future generations; heredity; variation; evolution of modern forms from simpler types. Part III Farm schemes and management Y Farms schemes, i Kinds of farming. 2 Rotations, considered as to history, principles and systems. 3 Lay-out of farms, as to arrangement of fields, lanes, water supplies, buildings. Z Farm practice, i Tillage. a Purpose and effects. b Methods. 2 Drainage. c Purpose and effects. d Methods. 3 Irrigation. e Purpose and effects. / Methods. GROUP 4 HISTORY Ancient history English history European history American history In December 1880, the University of the State of New York sent out to academic schools a summary statement of examinations in which were definite suggestions in regard to the scope of the instruction advisable in the different fields of academic study. These suggestions were submitted to the academic schools with a request for careful consideration and criticisms and evidently form the basis of succeeding Regents syllabuses. The fields of history recommended in these suggestions of 1880 were American, English, Greek, Roman, civics and economics, and the entire out- lines for the six fields covered only four pages. In 1883 a noted educator undertook the editorship of a peda- gogic library and chose the subject of history for the initial vol- ume because he thought that no subject so widely taught was taught so poorly ; and it is significant that six university professors or distinguished writers of history contributed to the contents of that volume. The estimate of history teaching made in 1883 is, perhaps, still valid; but the intervening years have been a period of promise and progress. The publications referred to seem to mark the beginnings, in this country, of cooperative effort to secure bet- ter secondary teaching in general and specially better teaching of history. The growth of cooperative spirit among history teachers may be traced in the formation of the Committee of Ten which met at the University of Wisconsin in 1892, in the Columbia Conference of 1896, in the appointment of the Committee of Seven, and its report in 1899 and in the formation of history teachers associations in New England, in the North Central States, in Nebraska, California and Indiana and in the Middle States and Maryland. The results of these various efforts are as follows: a uniform course of history for secondary schools has been planned and widely adopted; uniform requirements for admission to college supplemented by uniform entrance examinations have been pro- vided; a movement to articulate the courses of college history with those of the high school has been started; a wisely adapted course of history for elementary schools is now under considera- 158 HISTORY 159 tion; tendencies to overemphasize the use of local history and sources in secondary schools have been checked; better methods of history teaching are gaining ground in both high school and college; the demand for specially trained history teachers is grow- ing ; better textbooks in all the fields of history have been abund- antly provided. One of the most important results of these cooperative efforts has recently appeared in the publication of a History Syllabus for Secondary Schools 1 prepared by a special committee of the New England History Teachers Association. This committee was instructed "to prepare ... a report on practical methods of teach- ing history, with such topical outlines, references, and bibliographies as shall help teachers to put into operation such suggestions for reform in history teaching as may be applicable to the conditions in secondary schools." The committee began its work early in 1900 before the syllabus revision committee of the Associated Academic Principals could organize, and issued a preliminary report in 1901. At an early date, the committee charged with the revision of the history syllabus for New York State determined to keep in touch with the work of the New England committee, and to adopt, so far as expedient, a report that would embody the experience of the best history teachers of New England. Through the courtesy of authors and publishers, the general surveys and topical outlines in ancient, European and American history of the syllabus prepared by the committee of the New England History Teachers Association 1 are presented to the teach- ers of New York State. Some slight but important modifications seemed necessary. A syllabus of English history based wholly on a 1 epical treatment has been prepared with the hope that topical Leaching will thereby be promoted. There is no serious difference in the topics presented in the English history syllabus of the New England committee and in that of New York State. The bibliographies and references of the New England syllabus may be used with profit by both teachers and pupils. In presenting the following extended syllabus, it is not pro- posed to prescribe a larger amount of subject-matter as a burden 'History Syllabus for Secondary Schools, Outlining the Four Years' Course in History Recommended by the Committee of Seven of the American Historical Association by a special committee of the New England History Teachers Association; published by D. C. Heath & Co., Boston 1904; published also in parts for the use "of pupils; contains invaluable bibliographic references and suggestions for teachers and pupils. i6o NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT for the memory. On the contrary there has been an earnest effort to select such topics in the various fields as are most sus- ceptible and most worthy of assimilation; to present historic happenings in their proper perspective; to analyze historic move- ments and thus to show the relations of events that, to the pupil's mind, might seem isolated; to provide a moderately large range of topics not for the sake of prescription but to encourage academic freedom; to lead to the use of the notebook, the encyclopedia, the library, the atlas and collateral reading; to commend the good textbook not as a tyrant but as a guide. It is specially worthy of note that the past should be constantly compared with the present; that history can be assimilated only through the imagination; that the imagination should be helped by the judicious use of historic fiction, 1 source material 2 and well chosen pictures. The attention of history teachers is directed to the valuable helps that may be secured from the State at a trifling cost. The lanterns and slides for visual instruction that have been furnished to every school employing a superintendent may be borrowed by other schools. Traveling libraries, collections of photographs, lanterns and lantern slides are loaned by the Home Education Department to any academic school. Courses. The following courses of history in the order given and with the prescribed time allotments are either required or recommended. Minimum recitation time Maximum recitation time Allotted year of the second- ary course a Ancient history 3 periods a week 5 periods a week first or second b European history 3 periods a week 5 periods a week second c English history 3 periods a week 5 periods a week third or second d American history 5 periods a week fourth or third x See "Historical fiction," History Syllabus for Secondary Schools, p. 28, 29. 2 See "Sources," Report of the Committee of Seven, p. 100-10; also, Historical Sources in Schools. Macmillan. HISTORY l6l i Recommended only for large high schools and academies that maintain four year courses in the different fields of secondary study: a, b, c and d. 2 Recommended in general for high schools and required of all schools maintaining courses of study preparatory for the teachers academic certificate or for entrance to normal or training schools: a, c and d. 3 Required of all schools sharing in the apportionment for non- resident students: c and d. It should be noted that the order in which the different fields of history are studied is most important. The courses planned are progressive. American history, which includes civil govern- ment, demands a fair acquaintance with English history, and English history will be much better apprehended by those who have had their imaginations stirred by a study of the ancient peo- ples. European history is recommended only for large high schools for two reasons : it is difficult to find time for four years of history in the ordinary high school program; the most essential portions of European history must be studied as a part of English history. Long experience has shown that the study of English history is most productive if deferred to the third high school year. Civics and economics as separate high school studies are not recommended, though, to meet certain public needs, separate examinations in these subjects will still be given. Throughout all the courses in history comparisons should be made with present customs, forms of government and economic conditions. Teachers of American history who have not been specially prepared by courses in civics and history will do well to continue the use«of a separate textbook in civics ; but the study of history and the study of civics should be united in a single topical course 1 and it will be the duty of each teacher to provide for his class a course in which civics and history will supplement each other. The courses as planned, whether they are to be taught three periods or five periods a week, are continuous, extending through a year. The skilful teacher whose recitations are limited to three a week will take advantage of the opportunity to secure from the class a larger amount of collateral reading than would be possible with half year courses. By the use of "topics for advanced pupils," the syllabus may be adapted almost equally well to the needs of classes whether maxi- 1 Teachers of American history may find help in the bibliographic refer- ences of the syllabus of civil government. 1 62 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT mum or minimum time is required. Among the topics assigned for advanced pupils have been included some based on source material that may profitably be used by younger pupils, provided the necessary time and proper library facilities are afforded. It is not believed, however, that any of these extra topics will prove so easy as to seem unworthy of attention. They may form the basis of much valuable composition work. It is not intended that every pupil or that any pupil shall be held responsible for every additional topic or for a majority of these topics. Different topics may be assigned to different pupils, to different groups of pupils or to some specially interested in history work. Many of the topics may not specially appeal to a particu- lar teacher or class and need not be used at all. Some of the topics proposed may suggest other topics more interesting to the class. Used with freedom, the topics will enliven the teaching; used thoughtlessly or blindly, they will prove more of a hindrance than a help. Though this syllabus is based on the experience of many suc- cessful history teachers, it is not presented as an oracle nor as a finality in history teaching. History as a culture study is a new- comer among the subjects of the secondary curriculum. Before every thoughtful teacher lie unexplored continents and uncharted seas. Within the next five years it will doubtless appear that much historical material now assigned for secondary study should be omitted or very lightly touched on. New material, better methods of presentation and different emphasis may be expected as teachers gain truer knowledge of the youthful mind and of adolescent interests. Specially should great effort be made to reawaken the dormant imagination of childhood, to encourage youthful tend- encies to self-activity and to vitalize historic truth. ANCIENT HISTORY TO 800 A. D. The study of history is valuable in so far as it promotes culture, service and progress. A narrow teaching of historic events is therefore almost useless. These truths are specially applicable to early high school work in ancient history. The immaturity of pupils at once demands and makes difficult the attainment of cul- tural results; yet if the pupil obtained nothing from ancient his- tory but a panorama of vivid mental pictures, an acquaintance with some of the heroes and patriots of the ancient world, a dawning consciousness of our heritage from the past, the study would be ANCIKNT HISTORY 163 worth while. Somewhat more than a mental picture gallery how- ever may reasonably be expected. The problems appearing in the ancient development of popular governments are comparatively simple if translated into modern terms, and running comparisons with modern movements not only help to an understanding of ancient politics but stimulate interest in present civic conditions. The transition from the more or less local patriotic treatment of history in the elementary grades to the comprehensive study of peoples far distant in time and place will be made easier to the pupil if the teacher make early and full use of maps, pictures, stereopticon slides and standard guidebooks. One is not likely here to err by excess. The wealth of illustrative material leaves slight excuse for faint or grossly inaccurate mental pictures of ancient life. 8 I The oriental nations. II Ancient Hellas: early develop- ment. 2ooo(?)- 750 B.C. Ill State and national development in Greece to the foreign wars, 750-500 B.C. 1 Introduction: scope and course of ancient history. 2 Egypt, 5ooo(?)-525 B.C. 3 The Tigris-Euphrates valley, 5000 or ear- lier-538 B.C. 4 Syria (I) The Phenicians. 5 Syria (II) The Hebrews. 6 Media and Persia, 85o(?)~5i4 b.c. 7 Summary and review of the oriental na- [ tions. f 8 The land and the Aegean basin, j 9 The people: migration and expansion. J 10 The Epic or "Homeric" age, 1000-750 b.c j ( app roxim ately ) . I 11 "Greek reconstruction of early history." [12 The states, and the beginnings of leagues. f 13 Age of colonial enterprise. 14 Order of political evolution. I 15 Growth of Sparta: a military aristocracy. -{16 Growth of Athens : progress toward democ- | racy. I 17 Intellectual progress of Hellas, 500 b.c (_ 18 Bonds of union. x The following general surveys, and outlines of ancient European and American history were copyrighted 1901 and 1904 by Walter H. dishing. 164 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT General survey of the field (continued) *» 0) C X 4J 0) o . U O a, C IV Foreign wars of the Greeks: independence. 560-479 b. c. V The preeminence of Athens, 479- 431 B.C. VI Wars between the Greek states: a century of strife, 461-362 B.C.; the Mace- donian invasion. VII The empire of Alexander ; "The mingling of the East and West.** 336-146 B.C. VIII Early Rome; and the Roman republic to its supremacy in Italy. 75 3 (?)- 2 6 4 B.C. IX Rome becomes supreme in the Mediterranean basin, 264-133 B.C. r 19 j 20 1 2i i 22 f23 I I 1*5 f26 27 28 29 I 31 32 .33 f34 I 35 [36 r 37 138 39 40 I 41 42 43 44 [ 45 46 I Lydian and Persian conquests in Asia Minor. Scythian expedition and Ionic revolt. The Persian invasion, 492-479 B.C. "The Punic invasion," 485-480 B.C.: Car- thaginians in Sicily. The Delian league and the Athenian empire, 477-461 B.C. The Periclean age and the Athenian democ- racy, 461-431 B.C. Intellectual life ; the Athenian genius. The Athenian attempt at land empire, 461- 445 B.C. The Peloponnesian War, 431-404 B.C. The new learning. The hegemony of Sparta, 404-371 B.C. The attempted hegemony of Thebes, 371- 362 B.C. The Western Greeks, 410-300 B.C. (ap- proximately). Literature and art, 400-350 B.C. The rise of Macedon, 359-336 B.C. The career of Alexander: conquests, char- acter, and achievements. 336-323 b.c. The Hellenistic period: disintegration of Alexander's empire; the Hellenistic king- doms and Hellenistic culture. 323-146 b.c. Greece to Roman intervention; attempts at federal government. 280-200 b.c. The land and the people. Early Rome : sources of our knowledge ; the legends and their value. Regal Rorfle: government, religion, and society. The early republic: struggle between the classes; triumph of the plebeians. 5o9(?)- 286 B.C. The early republic: the establishment of Rome's supremacy in Latium; wars with its neighbors. 5o9(?)~338 b.c. The conquest of Italy : wars with the Sam- nites and Greeks; organization. 338- 264 B.C. The struggle with Carthage for Sicily : the First Punic War, 264-241 b.c. "The extension of Italy to its natural boun- daries"; wars in Africa and Spain. 241- 218 B.C. The struggle between Rome and Carthage for the supremacy in the West : the Second and Third Punic Wars. 218-133 b.c. Rome becomes supreme in the eastern Medi- terranean: conquest of Greece and Asia. 216-133 B.C. ANCIENT HISTORY l6 = 15 f47 48 X The ancient world under Roman rule during the change^ from the republic j to the monarchy 133-31 B.C. I The organization of Rome's foreign con- quests : the provincial system. The effects of conquests and the provincial system on society, politics, and manners. | The revolutionary attempts at reform under; the Gracchi, 133-121 b.c. "The rule of the restoration"; victories of Marius; Social War. 121-88 b.c. The struggle between Marius and Sulla; rees- tablishment of senatorial rule. 88-79 B.C. Pompey and Caesar: affairs in the East and: at Rome; Caesar in Gaul; Civil War. 1 79-48 B.C. The rule of Caesar, 48-44 b.c. The struggle for the succession, 44-3 1 b.c. Roman culture and society in the "Cicer- onian age." The ancient world under the Romans empire, 3 1 b.c. -3 7 5 A.D. f 56 The establishment of the empire: constitu- tion; frontiers. 31 B.c-14 A.D. I 57 The Julian and Flavian Caesars, 14-96 a. d. 58 The Roman Empire under the Good Em- perors, 96-180 A.D. 59 The Roman empire under the Soldier Em- perors, 180-284 A.D. 60 The Roman Empire under the Absolute Em- perors, 284-375 A.D. [61 The rise and triumph of Christianity. XII The transition period from an- j cient to medieval history, 376-800 A.D. f 62 The invasions, and the fall of the Western Empire, 376-476 a.d. 63 The West: continued invasions, and forma- tion of Germanic states. 476-774 a.d. 64 The East: one Emperor (Constantinople); anewprophet. 476-732 a.d. 65 "The rise of the Christian Church." 66 The growth of the Frankish power: a new Emperor. 486-800 a.d. 67 Retrospect, from the Euphrates to the Rhine Outline of ancient history I The oriental nations. 1 Introduction: scope and course of ancient history. a Races of men. (1) Difficulty of determining original and secondary races. (2) Philology and history. (3) Arbi- trary classification by color. b Caucasian or white race ; probable mixed origin and assumed subdivisions. c Location and progress of the historic nations : east to west. d Arbitrary divisions of ancient history: oriental, classical, and Germanic periods. 1 66 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Topics for advanced pupils: A Geographic ideas of the ancients. B Physical geography of the East. C Relative value of historic studies. 2 Egypt, 5°o°(?)-5 2 5 b.c. a The Nile region, (i) Physical features and their influence. (2) Remains of ancient civilization. b The people and their political history. (1) Supposed origin. (2) Political development: Pharaohs of Memphis; Pharaohs of Thebes; the New Empire — Sais. (3) Successive invasions of Egypt. c Civilization. (1) Classes and occupations; early strikes; political corruption. (2) Arts, sciences, and literature. (3) Religion. d Special contributions to European progress. Topics for advanced pupils: A Accession of Psammetichus. B Inundations and sources of the Nile. [ C Obelisks. D Ancient and modern irrigation systems. E The Sphinx. F F Sources of Egyptian history. 3 The Tigris-Euphrates Valley, 5000 or earlier-538 B.C. a The land. (1) The two rivers and their influence. (2) Sources, remains, and relative antiquity of civilization. b The people. (1) Supposed origin. (2) Cities: Ur, Nineveh, Babylon. (3) Successive empires and wars: Chaldean (3800- 1250 b.c); Assyrian (1250-606 b.c); Babylonian (606- 538 B.C.). c Civilization. (1) Classes and industries: mode of life. (2) Arts and sciences. (3) Religion and literature. d Special contributions to European culture. Topics for advanced pupils: A Ur of the Chaldees. B The long duel between Babylon and Nineveh. C The uses of clay in the Tigris-Euphrates culture. D Nebuchadnezzar and Daniel. E Sennacherib and Hezekiah. F Capture of Samaria. G City of Babylon according to ancient accounts. R Capture of Babylon by Cyrus. / The hanging gardens of Babylon, and the walls. J The fifth chapter of Daniel. ANCIENT HISTORY 167 4 Syria (I) The Phenicians. a The land and the people, (i) Origin and character. (2) Cities: Tyre, Sidon. b Enterprises and influence. (1) Commerce: sea routes and colonies, Carthage. (2) Dissemination of arts and alphabet. 5 Syria (II) The Hebrews. a The people and their homes. (1) Origin and character. (2) Successive locations: nomadic life, Egypt, Caanan. (3) Political development: patriarchs, judges, kings, the two kingdoms, the captivities, the restoration. b Religion, literature and world influence. It is suggested to the teacher that helpful studies of early patriarchal life may be made in the story of Abraham, and of tribal government in the record of the judges. Topics for advanced pupils: A The exaltation of Tyre. B The capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. C Return of the Hebrews from Babylon. D Idolatry among the Hebrews. E The sanitary features of the Mosaic law. F The Levites. G Siege of Jerusalem by Titus. H Oriental features in the reigns of David and Solomon. 6 Media and Persia, 85o(?)~5i4 b.c. A very general view here; more in detail under Greece. a The land and the people. (1) Origin and relations with neigh- bors. (2) Kings and their conquests: military development. (3) Political organization under Darius. b Civilization. (1) Art. (2) Religion and literature. (3) Mor- als. c Persia's contribution to European progress. 7 Summary and review of oriental nations. a General features of oriental history: government, religion, economic life, science and arts, existing remains. b Comparisons and contrasts of the Nile and Euphrates cultures (by topics a, b, etc., and subtopics already given in sections 2 and 3). c The blending of the two cultures. (1) Entry into Egypt through Hyksos and Hebrews. (2) Assyria and Egypt: conquests. (3) Syria: mercantile exchange. d Transmission of culture to the west . (1) Phenicia. (2) Asia Minor: Lydia and Croesus. e Consolidation: the Persian empire. 1 68 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Topics for advanced pupils: A Accounts of the Medes and Persians found in the Bible and in Hero- dotus. B Condition of Persia after corruption had set in. C Coinage of the Lydians. D TheHittites: "The forgotten empire. " E The source of Greek music. Map work: The oriental nations, with boundaries and dates. II Ancient Hellas: early development 2ooo(?)~75o B.C. 8 The land and the Aegean basin. a Physiography, (i) Diversity of features. (2) Climate and products. (3) Contrasts with seats of Eastern culture already studied. (4) Geographic advantages, and influence of the land on the people. b Political divisions. (1) States of the mainland. (2) The Island states, "Stepping-stones." Map work: Two outline maps of the Balkan peninsula, the Aegean and Black seas, and Asia Minor; one to show the physical features, the other to be kept as a progressive historical map throughout the study of Greece. 9 The people: migration and expansion. Much of this is still debatable ground, and opinions are not settled; new light is constantly coming from excavations, specially in Crete. a "Pelasgians." b Early and later Aegean culture as shown by archeology: Tiryns and Mycenae (3d and 2d millennium B.C.). c Conquests by Greeks, coming in waves, 1500 B.C. on; fusion, expansion. d Oriental influence, real and mythical. Topics for advanced pupils: A The ancient palace. B The life work of Dr Schliemann. C Early peoples of Greece according to Herodotus and Thucydides. 10 The epic or "Homeric" age, 1000-700 B.C. (approximately). a The source — Homer: historical and literary value. b Social and political organization: family and government. c Religion. d The Trojan War and the return of the chiefs. e The Dorian invasion, and the settlement of Asia Minor. ANCIENT HISTORY 169 Topics for advanced pupils: A Early Greek art. B Homeric life as pictured in the Iliad and the Odyssey furnishes many valuable topics in source work. 11 " Greek reconstruction of early history." a Genealogy: Hellenes and subdivisions. b Legends of local heroes: Heracles, Minos, Theseus, Jason, Oedipus. c The Hesiodic poems (specially The Theogony). d Chronology. 12 The states and the beginnings of leagues. a The thriving city centers before 700 b.c. b The city state. c Amphictyonies. Map work: On an outline map indicate by means of colors the Delian and Delphian leagues. Include also principal city centers. Ill State and national development in Greece to the foreign wars, 750-500 B.C. 13 Age of colonial enterprise. General accounts are all long and detailed and need to be cut. This lesson may be well treated by classroom drill on a large board map. a Causes of colonization. b Character and organization of a colony; connection with mother city. c Chief centers. Map work: The Mediterranean basin, with principal colonies, distinguish- ing Ionian, Aeolian, Dorian, and Achaean. 14 Order of political evolution. a Monarchy to aristocracy (oligarchy). b Tyrannies. c Democracies, or reversion to oligarchies. d Growth of popular discontent. Topics for advanced pupils: A Polycrates. B The wooing of Agariste. C The Sacred War. D Sicily. Naukratis and Cyrene. 15 Growth of Sparta: a military aristocracy. a Place and people. b Institutions and government ; myth of Lycurgus. 170 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT c System and aim of education ; mode of life. d Messenian wars ; the Peloponnesian League. Topics for advanced pupils: A Lycurgus. B War songs of Tyrtaeus. C Spartan women. Map work: Peloponnesus, showing Spartan sphere of influence, 500 b.c, 16 Growth of Athens. Progress toward democracy a Place and people ; mythic monarchy. b Eupatrid rule: Cylon and Draco. c Solon "the Wise." d Tyranny: Pisistratus and the Pisistratidae. e Cleisthenes's changes. 17 Intellectual progress of Hellas to 500 b.c. a Art. b Poetry: the lyric age. c Philosophy. d Deepening religious sense. 18 Bonds of union. a Common language and ancestry. b Religion: temples, oracles, festivals. c Amphictyonies and political leagues. d Greek games. Topics for advanced pupils: A Greek oracles. B The Pantheon of Homeric and historic times. C The Athenian Constitution. D Solon and Croesus. E Eleusis and the mysteries. F Delphi and its priesthood. IV Foreign wars of the Greeks : independence. 560-479 B.C. 1 9 Lydian and Persian conquests in Asia Minor. Review section 7 d (2), 70; and section 6. a Croesus. b Cyrus and Cambyses. 20 Scythian expedition and Ionic revolt. a Darius; the northern frontier ; the Hellenic tyrants. b Sardis, Lade, Miletus; results. Map work: The chief Ionian cities. 21 Persian invasion, 492-479 b.c. There is still danger of spending too much time on wars. ANCIENT HISTORY I7I a Causes; resources of Greeks and Persians; expeditions sent by Darius (Marathon, 490 B.C.). b The 10 years respite, 490-480 B.C.: Themistocles and Aristides. c The third expedition: Xerxes (Thermopylae and Salamis, 480 B.C.; Plataea and Mycale, 479 B.C.); results. Topics for advanced pupils: A The Alcmaeonidae. B Monuments of victory erected by the Greeks. C The battle of Salamis from Greek authors. D Cambyses and Darius. E The Scythians. F Xerxes 's preparations. G "The Wars of Liberation. " H Aristides and Themistocles. 22 "The Punic invasion," 485-480 B.C.: the Carthaginians in Sicily. a "Western Greece ": chief centers and previous history. b Carthage: understanding with Persia. c Gelon: Himera and results. V The preeminence of Athens, 479-431 B.C. 23 Delian League and the Athenian empire, 477-461 b.c. a Themistocles and the fortification of Athens. b Aristides and the leadership of the Asiatic Greeks. c Cimon and naval victories: the league becomes an empire. d Political parties at Athens; attitude toward Sparta. Topics for advanced pupils: A For debate : the ethics of the Athenian policy. B The government of Athens during the period of Athenian ascend- ency. C Pausanias. D Athens's treatment of subject states. Map work: The Athenian empire at its greatest extent, about 456 b.c. 24 The Periclean age and the Athenian democracy, 461-431 b.c. a Foreign policy: Egypt, Persia, Cyprus. b Government: magistrates and assemblies. c Education: the aim and the means. d Social life. e Pericles the man : his character and influence. 25 Intellectual life; the Athenian genius. a Art: beautification of the city; sculpture. b Literature: drama and history. c Philosophy. 1J2 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Map work: Athens, with her fortifications, and principal buildings. VI Wars between the Greek states: a century of strife, 461-362 B.C. ; the Macedonian invasion. 26 Athenian attempt at land empire, 461-445 B.C. a Pericles's policy and alliances. b Wars with Peloponnesians and Boeotians. c Thirty Years Truce. Map work: Athenian empire and the states allied with Athens and with Sparta, 431 B.C. 27 Peloponnesian War, 431-404 B.C. a Causes: resources of each side. b Periods. (1) Indecisive, 431-421 B.C.: Cleon and Brasidas. (2) Sicilian expedition (with interval preceding), 421-413 B.C.: Nicias and Alcibiades: (3) Persian activity, 413-404 B.C.: Alcibiades and Lysander. c Results; political condition of Hellas. Topics for advanced pupils: A Extracts from funeral oration delivered by Pericles. B Thucydides's account of the Sicilian expedition. Map work: The Syracusan campaign. 28 The new learning. a Socrates. b The Drama (Euripides and Aristophanes). Topics for advanced pupils: A Alcibiades as an illustration of his times. B Sophists and rhetoricians. C Thucydides and Herodotus compared. 29 The hegemony of Sparta, 404-371 B.C. a Policy of Sparta: Lysander. b Wars: Agesilaus. (1) Persian: Anabasis; Antalcidas. (2) Domestic: Peloponnesus, Chalcidice, new Athenian league, Leuctra. c Estimate of Spartan power, and reasons for her failure to secure Hellenic unity. ANCIENT HISTORY 173 Topics for advanced pupils: A Contrast and comparison between the first and second leagues of Athens. B Contrast and comparison between the rule of the Four Hundred and the rule of the Thirty. C Lysander. D Agesilaus. E Comparison of Sparta and Athens. 30 The attempted hegemony of Thebes, 371-362 b.c. a Leuctra. b Policy of Epaminondas: Peloponnesus, Persia, Athens. c Mantinea and the end of Theban leadership. 31 The western Greeks, 410-300 b.c. (approximately). I . a Outline of the Sicilian history in review [see section 22]. b Dionysius 1. c Timoleon, the Liberator. 32 Literature and art, 400-350 B.C. a "From poetry to prose." (1) History: (compare Xenophon with Herodotus and Thucydides). (2) Oratory: Lysias and Isocrates. (3) Philosophy: Plato. b Art. Section 32 may be treated after 33, and may then include Demosthenes and Aristotle, as well as Lysippus. 33 The rise of Macedon, 359-336 B.C. a Hellenes and Macedonians. b Philip: training, character, aggressions. c "The end of Greek freedom," 338-336 b.c. (i) Chaeronea, 338 B.C. (2) Relations established by Congress of Corinth (with comparison of Congress of Corinth, 481 b.c). (3) His- tory of the idea of Hellenic conquest of Persia, Cimon to Philip. Topics for advanced pupils: A The development of military formation among the Greeks. B Pelopidas. C Epaminondas. D Timoleon. E The Athens of Demosthenes. F Extracts from the orations of Demosthenes. VII The Empire of Alexander ; "The Mingling of the East and West." 336-146 B.C. 34 The career of Alexander, 336-323 b.c. a Early life. b The conquest of Asia Minor and Egypt, 174 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT c The conquest of Persia and the farther East. d The character of Alexander; estimate of his work. Topics for advanced pupils: A The military system of Alexander. B Special battles. C The Persian empire. D Alexander's siege of Tyre. E Alexander's conquest of Egypt F The murder of Clitus. G The mutiny of Alexander's army. H Alexander's plans. / Death and character~of Alexander. Map work: On an outline map trace the route of Alexander's march, marking his battles and the most important cities founded by him. 35 The Hellenistic period, 323-146 B.C. a The disintegration of Alexander's empire: the wars of the Diadochi, 323-280 B.C. b The Hellenistic kingdoms. (1) Egypt and the Ptolemies. (2) Syria and the Seleucidae. Topics for advanced pupils: A Invasion of the Gauls. B Rhodes and Pergamon. C Hellenism: society, literature, and art. 36 Greece to Roman intervention; attempts at federal govern- ment 280-200 B.C. a Achean League (Aratus). b Its conflict with Sparta (Cleomenes) leads first to Macedonian, then to Roman, intervention. VIII Early Rome; and the Roman republic to its supremacy in Italy. 753 W-264 B.C. 37 The land and the people. a The land: the peninsula of Italy and its relations to the Mediterranean basin; climate and products of Italy. b The people: remnants of early peoples; the Italian stocks; the invading nations (Etruscans, Gauls, Greeks, and Pheni- cians) . Map work: On outline maps mark: (1) mountain system; (2) rivers; (3) the political divisions ANCIENT HISTORY \J$ Topics jor advanced pupils: A The Etruscans. B The Greek colonies in Italy. C The Gauls. 38 Early Rome: sources of our knowledge. a The legends and their value. b Buildings and other remains. (1) The walls. (2) The cloaca. 39 Regal Rome: organization. a The government: king, senate, assemblies. b The people: patricians, plebeians. c Religion. Topic for advanced pupils : The Roman family. 40 The early republic : the struggle between the classes ; triumph of the plebeians. 509(?)-286 b.c. a The establishment of the Republic. b The economic and social condition of the plebeians, leading to the establishment of the tribunate. c The laws of the Twelve Tables. d The admission of the plebeians to the magistracies (Licinian laws) . e The admission of the plebeians to the assemblies (Hortensian law). / An outline of the Roman constitution in 286 b.c: magis- trates, senate, assemblies, functions of each (use textbook and dictionaries of antiquities). 41 The early republic: the establishment of Rome's supremacy in Latium. 509(?)~338 b.c. a Wars with neighboring nations, Volscians, Aequians, and Etruscans. b The invasion of the Gauls and the sack of Rome. c Rome and the Latins. 42 The conquest and organization of Italy, 338-264 b.c a The Samnite wars, 343-264 b.c b The war with the Greeks (Pyrrhus), 280-272 b.c c The organization of Italy: colonies; roads. d The military system. Map work: On outline map mark (1) the following colonies: Ostia, Norba, Placentia, Cremona, Ariminum, Luceria, Venusia, Beneventum, Paestum, Parma. (2) the Roman roads before 133 b.c I76 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Topics for advanced pupils: A The colonial system B Roman road making. C Livy's account of the secession of the plebeians. D Livy's account of the Decern virate. E Battle of Caudine pass. ! F Roman army. IX Rome becomes supreme in the Mediterranean basin, 264-133 B.C. 43 The struggle with Carthage for Sicily: the first Punic War, 264-241 B.C. a Carthage. b The war. V ' c Sicily, the first Roman province Topics for advanced pupils: A The victory of Duilius. B The defeat at Drepana. C The fleet built by private subscription. D The treaty at the end of the First Punic War. 44 "The extension of Italy to its natural boundaries"; wars in Africa and Spain. 241-218 B.C. a Wars of Rome in the North (Gallic and Jllyrian) , 229-222 B.C. b Sardinia and Corsica. c Wars of the Carthaginians in Africa and Spain (Hamilcar). Topics for advanced pupils: A The acquisition of Sardinia. B The siege of Saguntum. 45 The struggle between Rome and Carthage for the supremacy in the West: the second and third Punic Wars. 218-133 B.C. a Hannibal's march into Italy. b The war in Italy. (1) Successes of Hannibal: three great battles won; three great cities captured. (2) Final success of the Romans; loyalty of the Latins. c The war in Africa and in Spain. (1) The Scipios in Spain 218-212 b.c. (2) The battle of Zama, 202 B.C. (3) The treaty. d The establishment of the supremacy of Rome in the western Mediterranean, 201-133 b.c. (i) The Third Punic War, 149- 146 b.c. (2) Subjugation of Spain, 133 b.c. Topics for advanced pupils: A The character of Hannibal. B Hannibal's passage of the Alps. C The battle of Trasimenus. D The battle of Cannae. E The treaty at the end of Second Punic War F The siege of Syracuse. ANCIENT HISTORY 177 Map work: Trace the route of Hannibal's invasion. 46 Rome becomes supreme in the eastern Mediterranean, 216- 133 B.C. a The acquisition of Greece. (1) The condition of Greece. (2) The First and Second Macedonian Wars (Cynoscephalae, 197 B.C. (3) The Third Macedonian War, 1 71-168 B.C. (4) Macedonia a Roman province; destruction of Corinth, 146 B.C. b The acquisition of Asia. (1) War with Antiochus, 192-189 B.C.; settlement of the East. (2) The kingdom of Pergamon, 133 B.C. Topic for advanced pupils: The Eastern States and their rulers. X The ancient world under Roman rule during the change from the republic to the monarchy, 133-31 B.C. 47 Organization of Rome's foreign conquests. a The provinces to 133 B.C. enumerated: Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, Hither Spain, Farther Spain, Illyricum, Macedonia and Achaia, Africa, Asia. b The client states enumerated: Numidia, Libya, Egypt. c The provincial system. Map work: Mark the boundaries of the Roman provinces in 133 B.C. Topic for advanced pupils: A provincial governor of the worst type as described by Cicero. 48 The effects of conquests and the provincial system on society, politics, and manners. a Agrarian conditions. b The classes: optimates, populares, equites. c The government: senate, magistrates, assemblies. d The introduction of Hellenism; art; poetry. Topics for advanced pupils: A Cato the Elder. B Scipio Africanus C Scipio Aemilianus. D The drama. E Introduction of foreign luxuries. F Supremacy of the senate. 49 Revolutionary attempts at reform under the Gracchi, 133- 121 B.C. I78 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT a Tiberius Gracchus: attempts at agrarian reform, 133 B.C. b Gaius Gracchus: attempts at a revolution in the Constitu- tion, 123 B.C. Topics for advanced pupils: A The position of slaves. B Lives of Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus. 50 "The rule of the Restoration," 121-88 b.c. a The war with Jugurtha, 111-105 b.c. b The invasion of the Cimbri and Teutones (Marius), 113-101 b. c. c Internal affairs. (1) The rule of the nobles. (2) Attempts at reform by Saturninus and Glaucia and by Drusus. d The Social War, 90-88 b.c Topics for advanced pupils: A Life of Marius. B War with Jugurtha. 51 The struggle between Marius and Sulla; reestablishment of senatorial rule. 88-79 B - c - a The revolution of Marius and Sulpicius, 88 b.c. b The rule of the Marian party (Cinna), 87-84 b.c. c The struggle between the parties of Marius and Sulla: the first civil war, 84-82 B.C. d The rule of Sulla, and the Sullan Constitution, 82-79 b.c Topics for advanced pupils: A The life of Sulla. B The character of Sulla. 52 Pompey and Caesar, 79-48 b.c a Affairs in the East. (1) The condition of the East; (Mith- ridates). (2) The campaigns of Sulla, 86-84 B -C (3) The campaigns of Pompey and his reorganization of the East, 66-63 B.C. b Affairs at Rome. (1) The conspiracy of Catiline, 66-63 b.c (2) The first Triumvirate, 60 b.c c Caesar in Gaul, 58-51 b.c (i) The condition of Gaul. (2) Caesar's campaigns. (3) Organization of conquests. d Civil war (Pharsalus, Zela, Thapsus, Munda), 49-48 b.c Map work: Mark the boundaries of the new provinces. Topics for advanced pupils: A Cicero as a public man. B Character of Pompey. C Caesar's army. ANCIENT HISTORY 179 D The conspiracy of Catiline. E Caesar in Gaul 53 The rule of Caesar, 48-44 B.C. a The condition of the Roman world b The reforms of Caesar. c The estimate of Caesar. 54 The struggle for the succession, 44-31 b.c. a Civil war: the overthrow of the liberators (Philippi, 42 b.c). b The rivalry of Octavius and Antony: the West against the East (Actium, 31 b.c). 55 Roman culture in the "Ciceronian Age." i 1 a Literature. (1) Cicero. (2) Sallust. (3) Caesar. b Education. Topics for advanced pupils: A Cicero as seen in his letters. B Character of Antony. XI The ancient world under the Roman empire, 31 B.C.-375 A.D. 56 Establishment of the empire, 31 B.c-14 a.d. a The constitution: survivals of the republican system; the princeps; changes in the government of the provinces and the city of Rome. b The frontiers. (1) The East. (2) Alpine region. (3) The Northwest (Teutoberg forest, 9 a.d.). c Literature of the Augustan age. (1) Virgil. (2) Horace. (3) Livy. Topics for advanced pupils; A Provinces under Augustus. B Augustus as a builder. C Character of Augustus. D The worship of the emperor Map work: Mark the provinces; distinguishing between the imperial and the senatorial. 57 The Julian and Flavian Caesars, 14-96 a.d. .3 The constitution: growth of monarchical ideas. b The empire. (1) The East. (2) The German frontier. (3) Britain. c Emperors. I The condition of the empire and society. (1) Life in the towns: (a) appearance; (b) government; (c) amusements (d) Pompeii; (e) the Graffiti; (/) country-houses. (2) L in the provinces. (3) Travel and correspondence. Commerce. l80 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Topics for advanced pupils: A The destruction of Jerusalem. B The classes in the towns. C The finances of the towns. D The education of the Roman in imperial times. E Roman amusements. F The eruption of Vesuvius, 79 a. d. G Peculiar customs of the Romans. H The burning of Rome. J Roman trade routes. 58 The empire under the ''Good Emperors", 96-180 a.d. a The government and administration. b Extension and consolidation. (1) Trajan (Dacia and Meso- potamia), 98-117 a.d. (2) Hadrian (travels and fortifica- tions), 117-38 a.d. (3) Marcus Aurelius (Marcomanic War), 161-80 A.D. c The condition of the empire in the second century. d "The Silver Age of Literature." Topics for advanced pupils: A Correspondence of Trajan and Pliny. B Marcus Aurelius. C Life of Pliny the Younger. D Forum of Trajan. E Hadrian's villa at Tivoli. Map work: Mark the additions of Trajan. Indicate the fortifications of Hadrian. 59 The Roman empire under the soldier emperors: a century of revolution. 180-284 A - D - a Typical emperors. (1) Septimus Severus, 193-2 11 a.d. (2) Caracalla (extension of the Roman franchise), 211-17 a.d. (3) Elagabalus, 218-22 a.d. (4) Aurelian, 270-72 a.d. Topics for advanced pupils: A The new Persian Empire. B The conquest of Palmyra. C The wall of Aurelian. D The arch of Septimius Severus. 60 The Roman empire under the absolute emperors, 284-375 a.d. a Absolutism: Diocletian, reorganization of the empire. b Const antine, transfer of the capital to Constantinople. c The provincial organization. d Bureaucracy of officials. Topic for advanced pupils: Society in the fourth century a.d. ANCIENT HISTORY l8l Map work: Mark the prefectures and dioceses. 6 1 Rise and triumph of Christianity. a Attitude of Roman government toward Christianity. b The persecutions. c The triumph and establishment of the Church. d The organization of the Church. Topics for advanced pupils: A Christianity in the Roman Empire. B The contribution of Christianity. C The catacombs. XII Transition period, 376-800 A.D. 62 Invasions, and the fall of the western empire, 376-476 a.d. a The Germans. b The invasion of the West Goths (Alaric), 376-410 a.d. ; sieges of Rome by Alaric. c The invasion of the Vandals (Geiseric), 378-455 a.d.; the sack of Rome. d The invasion of the Huns (Attila), 378-453 a.d.; battle of Chalons, 451 a.d. e The last Roman emperor in the West, 476 a.d. / The causes of the decline of Rome. g The influence of Rome. 63 The West: continued invasions, and formation of Germanic states, 476-774 a.d. a Condition of Europe in 476 a.d. b Italy: Ostrogoths, 493-552 a.d. (Theodoric) ; Lombards, 568-774 A.D. c Britain: the Anglo-Saxons. d Gaul: the Franks. e Spain: "decaying kingdom of the Visigoths" (to 711 a.d.), f Results of invasions: fusion of the two peoples (language, law). Topic for advanced pupils: Theodoric. Map work: Map showing routes of migrations and final places of settle- ment. 64 The East: one emperor (Constantinople); a new prophet. 476-732 A.D. a Justinian: conquests, and codification of the law. b The rise of Mohammedanism : Mohammed ; his religious sys- tem; Saracen conquests. 1 82 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Topics for advanced pupils: A The Iconoclastic controversy. B B disarms. C The siege of Constantinople by the Saracens. D The Saracen conquest of Spain. E Important teachings of the Koran. 65 "The rise of the Christian Church." a Early organization of the Church ; growth of the Papal power to 600 A.D. b Differences and divisions. c Monasticism. Topics for advanced pupils: A Pope Gregory the Great. B The life of St Columban and the work of the Irish monks. C Influence of the early Church. D The Benedictine rule. 66 The growth of the Frankish power ; a new emperor. 486-800 A.D. a Clovis and the Merovingians. b The Carolingians as "mayors"; battle of Tours, 732 a.d. c The Carolingians as kings ; Lombardy . d Charlemagne: the king crowned emperor, 800 a.d. Map work: Empire of Charlemagne. Topics for advanced pupils: A Boniface and his work. B The Salic law. C The conversion of Clovis as told by Gregory of Tours. 67 Retrospect, from the Euphrates to the Rhine. MEDIEVAL AND MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY 800-1900 A. D. The study of medieval history in the high school presents pecu- liar difficulties. Historically considered the Middle Ages lie farther from modern life than the age of the Antonines or the age of Pericles. Both teacher and student find but little in present day life which can be used to make clear the life of the Middle Ages. In the United States the church and the university are the only great medieval institutions which have survived, and these are so different in their present condition that we get only a poor illustration of their place in medieval times. EUROPEAN HISTORY 1 83 Therefore, because the student gets so little apperceptive material for this work from his own environment the teacher should make special efforts to furnish the students' imagination with an abund- ance of concrete material out of which rich and full mental pic- tures can be constructed. Typical, as well as important events, customs, and institutions should be fully and vividly described. The best means of producing mental pictures are the well written text, carefully selected references, the teachers' descriptions, pic- tures, photographs of medieval remains and of paintings of medieval scenes. Again, this strange history may be made more real and interesting by relating it, as far as possible, to the lives of the great men of that age. It is well to make clear how feudalism made national life almost impossible in the Middle Ages, and how, in the absence of the print- ing press and of means of rapid communication, national feeling grew slowly in a people scattered over great areas. In passing from the Middle Ages to modern life the student must not only keep in mind the great events which marked the transi- tion, but also the change in ideas and movements which accom- panied the transition. Such a view will show the student that the ending of one period and the beginning of another can not be accur- ately marked by a date, but that the germs of the new period are in the old. Modern history compels the student to carry in mind two series of facts, the events belonging to the development of the leading European nations and the movements common to Europe as a whole. As the student makes his way into the 18th and 19th cen- turies industrial conditions and commercial rivalry become more and more important. In order to preserve continuity in the study the student must constantly trace events and movements back to their roots. In order to mark progress in history the student must constantly point out the differences between the period under discussion and earlier periods. 184 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT a £ g K c a, General survey of the field c 3 82 i5 I The Carolingian empire and the rise of feudalism, to the ioth century. II The papacy and the beginning of the new German-Roman empire, to 1254. Ill The formation of France, to 1328. IV The East and the crusades 1096-1270. V Christian and feudal civilization. VI The era of the Renaissance, 14th and 15 th centuries. VII The Protestant Revolution and the wars of religion 1517-1648. f 1 The development of the Christian church. 2 The consolidation of the Frankish kingdom to 768. T I 3 The wars and conquests of Charlemagne. 1 4 The founding of the empire of Charlemagne,' 800 A. D. 1 5 The decline of the Carolingian empire, and the formation of separate monarchies. 1 6 The beginnings of feudalism. 2 7 Germany and Italy, to the death of Otto the Great, 973. 8 The struggle over the right of investiture, to 1122. 9 Frederick 1 (Barbarossa), 1152-90. 1 10 Innocent 3 and his position in Christen- dom, 1198-1216. 11 Frederick 2 and the fall of the Hohen- staufen. 12 The rise of the Capetian dynasty, to 11 80. 1 13 France under Philip, Augustus and St Louis, 1180-1270. I 14 Philip the Fair, 1285-1314, and Pope Boni l v face 8, 1294-1303. 1 f 15 The East before the crusades. 1 f 16 The first crusade, 1096-99. 1 J 1 7 The kingdom of Jerusalem and the second I 1 crusade. 1 I 18 The third and fourth crusades. 1 1 19 The end of the crusades. 1 f 20 The church in the 13th century. 1 I 2 1 Medieval schools and universities. 1 The life of the military classes. 1 Peasant life. 1 Towns and town life. 1 M Medieval commerce. 1 [id Germany and the Empire, 1 2 73- 1 493. I 2 I 27 France in the 14th and 15th centuries; the I I Hundred Years War. 2, I 28 The consolidation of Spain into a powerful monarchy. I 29 Political and social conditions in Italy in the 14th and 15th centuries. The beginning of the Renaissance in Italy ; the revival of learning. I 3 1 The fine arts during the Renaissance. The age of the great discoveries and inven- tions. Reforming movements of the 15th century. 34 The eve of the Protestant revolt in Ger- many. 35 The Lutheran revolt, to 1525. 36 Charles 5 and the Protestant revolt in Ger- many, 1526-55. 37 The Protestants in Switzerland, to 1531. 38 John Calvin and his work. 39 Rise of Protestantism in France, to 1572. 40 France under Henry 4. 41 The Catholic reformation and the Jesuits. 42 The revolt of the Netherlands, 1 568-1648. 2 ^43 The Thirty Years War, 1618-48. ' 3 22 23 24 25 30 31 32 33 EUROPEAN HISTORY | S. ■3.8 a 1795- d In Siberia: early explorations and settlements. Special map work: Sketch map showing the gains in territory made by Russia in the 18th century. 50 The beginnings of the Prussian state, 1 640-1 740. a The Hohenzollerns before 1640: how they acquired their three territories (Brandenburg, Prussia, Cleves) ; geographic position of these territories and its future significance; the task of the Hohenzollerns. b Frederick William, the "Great Elector," 1640-88: character; gains of territory by Treaty of Westphalia; his position in his own lands and in Europe. c How the Elector of Brandenburg acquired the title of " King in Prussia," 1701. d Frederick William 1. 1713-40: how he made Prussia a mili- EUROPEAN HISTORY 199 tary state and a prosperous country; his foreign policy; the "tobacco parliament " ; good and bad side of his character. Topics for advanced pupils: A Origin of the Hohenzollern family. B Frederick William's reception of the Salzburg Protestants. C Frederick William's true and legendary character. 51 Frederick the Great, 1740-86. a The youth of Frederick the Great. b The War of the Austrian Succession, 1740-48: death of Em- peror Charles 6 and Frederick William 1 in 1740; the Prag- matic Sanction; Maria Theresa and her difficulties; Fred- erick the Great and his ambitions ; his invasion of Silesia ; interests of France and England ; results of the war. c The interval of peace: reforms in Prussia and Austria; Maria Theresa's secret alliances and their purpose; Frederick's perilous position; his change of policy and alliance with England. d The Seven Years War, 1756-63: how Frederick defended Silesia; his occupation of Saxony; the battles of Rossbach, Leuthen and Zorndorf ; Frederick's critical position in the last years of the war; change in Russia's policy; effect of the war on the rivalry between Prussia and Austria. e Frederick's later years: his share in the first partition of Poland; Frederick's character and death, 1786. Special map work: Sketch map showing the extent of Prussia's territory at the death of Frederick the Great. 52 Frederick the Great in time of peace. a Personal appearance; habits and popularity of "Father Fritz." b Frederick as musician, author and philosopher; life at Sans Souci; Voltaire's visits and quarrels. c Frederick's measures for the welfare of his people. d Frederick a typical "enlightened despot": his idea of a ruler's duty; comparison of Frederick with Joseph 2 and Catherine 2; the advantages and disadvantages of govern- ment by "enlightened despots." e Frederick's place in history: his importance in Prussian and in German history; Frederick a national hero. / German literature in the age of Frederick the Great. Topics for advanced pupils: A Frederick and Voltaire as typical representatives of the 1 8th century B Joseph 2 as an enlightened despot. 200 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 53 The expansion of England. a In North America: settlements at Jamestown, Plymouth, and Boston; conquest of New York; characteristics of the English colonies in America ; struggle between England and France for North America; England's gains by the peace of Utrecht, 1713; Wolfe and the capture of Quebec, 1759; the peace of Paris, 1763; how England lost her Thirteen Colonies ; the share of France in the American Revolution. b In India : English trade settlements in India ; French settle- ments and policy toward the natives; struggle between England and France for India; the "Black Hole"; Clive and the battle of Plassey, 1757; Warren Hastings and the English government of India. c How the wars in Europe were connected with those in America and India. d Decline of France in the 18th century. Topics for advanced pupils: A What were the differences between the French and English col- onies in North America? B John Law and the Mississippi Bubble. X French Revolution, 1789-95. 54 Abuses and evils of the Old Regime. a Inherent weaknesses of an absolute monarchy; incapacity, folly and indifference of Louis 15; reckless extravagance; lettres de cachet. b Survival of feudal abuses : lack of uniform laws and adminis- tration ; feudal privileges of nobility and higher clergy with- out corresponding duties ; absenteeism. c Political and social evils: taxation; taille and gabelle ; op- pression of government officials. d Economic evils: lack of roads, of freedom of work, and of commerce; poverty and hardships of the peasants and parish priests. Topics for advanced pupils: A Society and life in Paris before 1789. B The army and its officers before 1789. C Decline of respect and love of the people toward the king during reign of Louis 15. D Origin and justification of the system of privilege. 55 Growth of a revolutionary spirit before 1789. a The Parlements of the 18th century: how they called atten- tion to the existing evils and proposed "fundamental laws. " EUROPEAN HISTORY 201 b Influence of the writers: Voltaire's attack on the church; Rousseau's Social Contract; Montesquieu's Spirit of the Laws; the Encyclopedists; the new school of economists. c The effect of the American Revolution. d How the people came to realize the evils of the Old Regime ; the desire for liberty, equality and fraternity. Topics for advanced pupils: A Influence of England on the growth of revolutionary ideas in France. B Admiration of the French for Benjamin Franklin. C Expulsion of th3 Jesuits from France. 56 Louis 16 (1774-93) and attempts at reform. a Louis 16's character; comparison with his grandfather; his marriage with Marie Antoinette. b Turgot's ideas and reforms (1774-76) ; why his reforms were opposed by every class of society ; Turgot's dismissal. c Attempted reforms of Necker and Calonne ; the Assembly of Notables, 1787. d Impossibility of financial reform; growing demand for a meeting of the Estates-General. Topic for advanced pupils: Beaumarchais. 57 The beginning of the Revolution and destruction of the Old t Regime, 1789. a The Estates-General of 1789: Sieyes's pamphlet, public opinion, and the cahiers; meeting of the Estates-General at Versailles, May 5, 1789; how should it vote; the "National Assembly" and "Tennis Court Oath" (June 20). b Fall of the Bastile (July 14); its real and legendary im- portance. c Decrees of Aug. 4; establishment of a national guard. Topics for advanced pupils: A Character and policy of Mirabeau. B What people in England thought of revolution in France. 58 The attempt to make a constitution, 1789-91. a The "Declaration of the Rights of Man," and the division of France into departments. b Position of the king : the veto question ; scarcity of bread ; "To Versailles," Oct. 5. c Financial measures — assignats and confiscation of church property; civil constitution of the clergy and the "non- jurors"; emigration of the nobles. 202 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT d The flight to Varennes (June 20, 1791), and its conse- quences; unpopularity of Marie Antoinette. 59 The failure of the Constitution and fall of the monarchy, 1791-92. a The Legislative Assembly (Oct. 1, 1791-Sep. 20, 1792): hostility of Jacobin and Girondist parties; decline of the assignats; opposition of the clergy; weakness of the king; continued emigration of nobles. b Interference of Europe in the French Revolution: the Declaration of Pillnitz; its effect on feeling in France; decree against the emigres; declaration of war against Aus- tria; decree of "the country in danger"; the "federates" of July 14, 1792, and the Marseillaise; manifesto of the Duke of Brunswick. c Insurrection of Aug. 10 and its results. Topic for advanced pupils: Why the French people hated Marie Antoinette. 60 The first French republic and the war against Europe, 1792-93. a The advance of the invaders : feeling in Paris ; Marat and the newspapers; the September massacres; the cannonade of Valmy, Sep. 20, 1792. b Establishment of the Republic: meeting of the National Convention; the three parties and the leaders; the mon- archy; proclamation of the Republic and the "Year 1"; trial and execution of the king. c The spread of the Revolution ; victories and conquests of the "volunteers of 1792"; how the revolutionary ideas spread into other countries ; how they were checked ; Dumouriez. d The Committee of Public Safety and expulsion of the Girond- ists (June 2, 1793). Topics for advanced pupils: A Cause of the September massacres. B Trial and execution of Louis 16. 61 The Reign of Terror, 1793-94. a Opposition to the Revolution: peasants in Brittany and La Vendee ; alliance with England ; Charlotte Corday. b The guillotine and its victims. c The Reign of Terror: the revolutionary calendar and wor- ship of Reason; the three factions of the Mountain (Robes- pierre, Hubert, Danton) ; character and rule of Robespierre; the festival of the Supreme Being. EUROPEAN HISTORY 203 d The fall of Robespierre, July 27, 1794: reaction after the Reign of Terror. Topics for advanced pupils: A Madame Roland. B Charlotte Corday. C The revolutionary calendar. XI Napoleon Bonaparte and the Napoleonic wars, 1795-1815. 62 France in 1795. a France and Europe: successes of the French against Eng- lish, emigres, and Dutch (the "Batavian republic"); peace with Spain and Prussia, 1795. b Beneficial progress achieved in France during six years of revolution. c The Constitution of 1795 or the "Year 3": the "Directory"; unpopularity of the Convention; Bonaparte's "whiff of grape shot." d Napoleon Bonaparte's early life and opportunity: nation- ality; education; boyish ambitions and occupations; his part in the siege of Toulon ; marriage ; personal appearance and habits; his opportunity in 1795. 63 General Bonaparte in Italy and Egypt, 1796-99. a Bonaparte's first campaign in Italy, 1796-97: why Bona- parte was given the command; how he encouraged his sol- diers ; how the French army differed from the Austrian and Sardinian armies ; battles of Lodi and Areola ; siege of Man- tua; fate of Venice; treaty of Campo Formio, 1797; the Cisalpine Republic ; Bonaparte's reception on his return to Paris. b The Egyptian expedition : its purposes and the causes of its failure ; how it illustrates Bonaparte's character and plans. Topics for advanced pupils: A Bonaparte's treatment of the conquered Italians. B Bonaparte's plans of conquest in the Orient. 64 Bonaparte as consul, 1799-1804. a The coup d'etat of 1799 (18th Brumaire) : what happened in France while Bonaparte was in Egypt ; his reception in Paris on his return ; the coup d'etat; constitution of the Consulate ; how the First Consul kept the real power in his own hands. b Bonaparte's second campaign in Italy, 1800-1: battle of Marengo; Moreau at Hohenlinden; peace with Austria at LuneVille (1801) and with England at Amiens (1802). 204 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT c The interval of peace (i 80 1-3) and reconstruction of French institutions: the Concordat; decrees in favor of emigrant nobles ; renewal of old habits and society ; the Code Napoleon and its importance; schools, scholars, and the Legion of Honor; Bonaparte's colonial projects ; Louisiana. Topics for advanced pupils: A Bonaparte's reconstruction of Germany. B How the United States secured Louisiana. C Bonaparte's idea of good society. 65 The Napoleonic empire, 1804. a Royalist plots against Bonaparte: the execution of the Due d'Enghien and its effect on Europe. b Restoration of the empire: Napoleon 1 the "successor of Charlemagne"; how old Europe regarded the new emperor. c Renewal of war: Malta; occupation of Hanover; coast blockade; changes in the dependent kingdoms; prepara- tions for the invasion of England; Napoleon's weakness on the ocean; the battle of Trafalgar, 1805. , 66 Napoleon's campaigns from Austerlitz to Tilsit, 1805-7. a Campaign against Austria, 1805: capitulation of Ulm; battle of Austerlitz; end of the Holy Roman Empire; Francis 2, "Emperor of Austria"; the Confederation of the Rhine. b Campaign against Prussia, 1806: battle of Jena. c Campaign against Russia, 1807: battle of Eylau; terms of the treaty of Tilsit. d Napoleon's "continental system": purpose; difficulty in execution ; its effect on the European powers. Topic for advanced pupils: The effect of Napoleon's continental system on the United States. 67 The national uprisings against Napoleon, 1808-12. a The Spanish revolt, 1808-9: importance of Spain and Por- tugal to Napoleon's plans; Joseph's troubles; Napoleon in Spain; how the opposition to Napoleon in Spain differed from previous opposition. b The Austrian revolt, 1809: Austria's hopes; battle of Wagram; Austria's humiliation; Napoleon's second mar- riage; his annexations; position in Europe in 18 10; elements of weakness in his empire. c Napoleon's invasion of Russia, 1812: purpose, causes of failure ; its effect on Napoleon's power. d The Prussian rising, 18 13: social and military reforms in EUROPEAN HISTORY 205 Prussia; Frederick William 3 's proclamations; beginning of the "War of Liberation." Map work' Sketch map of Europe showing Napoleon's empire and de- pendent states in 18 10. 68 The downfall of Napoleon, 18 13-15. a Leipzig, 18 13: importance of this battle for Napoleon and ior Europe. b Elba, 1814: invasion of France by the allies; exhaustion of France; desertions from Napoleon; Napoleon's abdication ; how he lived at Elba. c Waterloo, 1815: Napoleon's return and reception; the "Hundred Days"; the battle of Waterloo, June 18, 1815; Napoleon's second abdication. d St Helena, 18 15-21: how Napoleon passed the days of his exile ; his character ; his place in history. Topics for advanced pupils: A How far was Napoleon favored by circumstances? B Napoleon's writings. C What in his career did Napoleon regret ? D Napoleon's hold on his soldiers. XII Growth of nationality, democracy and liberty in the 19th cen- tury. 69 The congress of Vienna and Metternich's system of absolutism. a Forces in the development of Europe in the 19th century: nationality; popular sovereignty and constitutional govern- ment ; equality ; personal liberty ; the press ; industrial and commercial progress; colonial expansion; European con- gresses. b The congress of Vienna, 1814-15: principle of legitimacy; territorial problems and their settlement; constitutional arrangements ; failure of the congress to take account of the new forces in the development of Europe in the 19th century. c Metternich's system of absolutism, 1815-48: aims of Metter- nich and Czar Alexander; the Holy Alliance; struggles against absolutism in Spain, Germany and Italy. Map' work: Sketch map of Europe in 18 15 showing the territorial settle- ments of the Congress of Vienna. Topics for advanced pupils: A Talleyrand at the Congress of Vienna. B Origin of the Monroe Doctrine. 206 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT In the 19th century the nations of Europe have come into closer contact with each other, and their history becomes more and more interwoven; this is partly the result of the introduction of railroads, steam vessels, and mag- netic telegraph, and the daily newspaper. This fact has led some historians to treat the 19th century chronologically, showing this close interrelation; this method is perhaps more scientific and scholarly, but also more difficult. It is simpler and easier for young students to follow the development of but one nation at a time. This topical method is the one followed in this out- line. 70 The Paris revolutions of 1830 and 1848. a France after the restoration of the Bourbons : comparison of France in 1789 and in 1815; the Charter; Louis 18; Charles 10; reactionary measures. b The July Revolution in Paris, 1830; democracy and the press; Louis Philippe, "King of the French"; his charac- ter and reign ; effect of the revolution on Belgium and Poland. c The February Revolution in Paris, 1848. d The second republic, 1848-52: what the socialists wanted ; what the people of France wanted; Louis Napoleon, his character and ambitions. 7 1 France under Napoleon 3 and the third republic. a The second empire, 1852-70: Louis Napoleon's coup d'etat of Dec. 2,1852; its democratic character ; mistakes of Napoleon 3's foreign policy; the Franco-Prussian War; the surrender at Sedan, 1870. b The Paris Commune, 187 1. c The third republic, 1870- ; Thiers; the Constitutional Laws ; difficulties of the Third Republic ; reasons for its stability. Topics for advanced pupils: A Gambetta. B The pope and the third republic. C The present government of the third republic. 72 The unification of Italy. a State of Italy in 181 5: Italy a "geographical expression" ; effects of Napoleon's conquests and reforms; Austrian pos- sessions and influence in Italy. b Struggles against Austrian absolutism, 1815-48: the Car- bonari; Mazzini; the revolution of 1848; Charles Albert and the Constitution ; failure of the first war against Austria. c Union of Italy under Victor Emmanuel 2 (1849-78) : position of Piedmont in Italy ; Cavour's aims and diplomatic achieve- ments; the war of 1859 with Austria and its results; Gari- EUROrKAN HISTORY 207 baldi's career and additions to the kingdom of Italy; the Roman question; final union of Italy, 1870. d The Papacy: how its power was affected by the union of Italy; "the prisoner of the Vatican"; Leo 13 and his policy. e The kingdom of Italy since 1870: parliamentary govern- ment ; economic distress and emigration ; colonial failures. Topics for advanced pupils: A The march of "The Thousand. " B Napoleon 3 's policy toward Italy. C Garibaldi's career in America and Italy. D Vatican Council, 1869-70. E Present government of Italy. Map work: Sketch map of Italy in 1870, showing, with dates, the ad- ditions to Piedmont since 18 15. 73 The struggle for liberty and unity in Germany, 1815-58. a The German Confederation of 1815: its defects and weak- nesses ; Metternich's influence ; why Austria and Prussia were rivals ; Prussia's customs union (zollvereiri) and its importance. b The revolutions of 1848: growth of liberalism since 1815; at- tempts to suppress it; effects of the Paris revolution of 1848 on events in Prussia, Austria, Hungary and Italy. c First attempts at German unity: the Frankfort Parliament and its failure; Prussia's humiliation and isolation. Topic for advanced pupils: March Revolution in Berlin, 1848. 74 The foundation of the German empire under Bismarck and William 1 (1858-88). a Preparation for conflict: reorganization of the Prussian military system; Bismarck's earlier career, his character, and policy of "blood and iron"; his victory over the Prus- sian Parliament. b Triumph of Prussia over Austria: the Schleswig-Holstein War, 1864; the Austro -Prussian War of 1866; end of the German Confederation; the North German Confederation, 1867; Austria's position after 1867. c The Franco-Prussian War, 1870-71: causes; German vic- tories; proclamation of the New German Empire; "Em- peror William 1"; Alsace-Lorraine. d Germany since the Franco-Prussian War: the Triple Alli- ance ; William 2 ; German colonial policy ; the power of the Social Democrats. 208 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Topics for advanced pupils: A Comparison of French and German preparations before the war of 1870. B Bismarck as a statesman. C The principles, leaders, and power of the Social Democrats in Ger- many. 75 Austria-Hungary under Francis Joseph 1, 1848-. a Various races in Austria-Hungary: their characteristics and ambitions; the Pan-Slavic movement. Map work: Sketch map of Austria-Hungary showing the various races and where they live. b The revolutions of 1848: flight of Metternich; accession of Francis Joseph; revolts in Bohemia and Hungary; Hun- garian Constitution of 1848; suppression of these revolts. c Establishment of the Dual Monarchy, 1867: decline of Aus- tria's influence in Germany and Europe after the revolu- tions of 1848; effect of the Prussian and Italian wars of 1866; restoration of the Hungarian Constitution; estab- lishment of the Dual Monarchy and the Compromise (Aus- gleich) of 1867. d Austria-Hungary since 1867: acquisition of Bosnia and Herzegovina; Austria's interests in the Balkan peninsula; internal difficulties in the Austro -Hungarian government. Topics for advanced pupils: A Kossuth's career in Hungary and America. B Present government of Austria-Hungary. 76 Turkey and the eastern question. a The Ottoman Turks: their conquest of Constantinople, 1453 ; later gains and losses of territory; extent of the Ottoman empire in 18 14; its government; the subject peoples ruled by the Turks ; why this rule has been hated. b The War of Greek Independence, 1821-29: the kingdom of Greece and its subsequent history. c The Crimean War, 1854-56: Russia's ambitions; "The Sick Man of Europe"; causes and results of the war. d The Russian -Turkish War of 1877-78: revolts from Turkish rule; the "Bulgarian atrocities"; Russia's demands and at- tempt at enforcement; Congress of Berlin (1878) and its settlement of the Eastern Question. e Turkey and the Balkan states today: their ambitions and troubles; the Macedonian question; the Armenian ques- tion ; policy of England and of Russia in the Near East. EUROPEAN HISTORY 209 Map work: Sketch map showing the states of southeastern Europe at the present day. 77 Development of Russia^kTthe 19th century. a Alexander 1, 1801-25: French influence in Russia under Catherine 2; Russia's part in the Napoleonic wars; Alex- ander i's early liberal and later reactionary policy. b Nicholas 1, 1825-55: his character, and domestic policy; beginning of the Slavophil movement; the Polish revolt of 1830; effects of the Crimean War on Russia. c The liberal movement since the Crimean War: Alexander 2 ; emancipation of the serfs and its effect; other liberal re- forms; Polish revolt of 1863; Nihilists and their methods; policy of "Russianization" and its results. d The expansion of Russia toward the Pacific: the trans- Siberian railroad. Topics for advanced pupils: A The Jews in Russia. B The Siberian exile system. C The present condition of the peasants in Russia. D The "Russianization" of Finland. E The censorship of the press in Russia. 78 The expansion of Europe. a Revival of interest in colonial expansion toward the close of the 19th century. b European discovery and partition of the African continent: Livingstone and Stanley ; Egypt and the Suez canal ; Algiers ; the partitioning of 1884; the Boer War and its results. c Europe in Asia and the Far East: English in India and in the Straits Settlements; China's condition; her cessions to European nations; Japan as a wodd power; her war with China; shall China be partitioned? d The Anglo-Saxons in Australasia and the Pacific: the voy- ages of Captain Cook in the 18th century; English settle- ment at Botany bay; discovery of gold in Australia; the Australian Commonwealth, 1901; Hawaii and the Philip- pines. e Comparison of the colonial power and possessions of England, France, Germany, and Holland. Map work: Sketch map showing England and the principal English colonies at the present day. 210 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Special map work: Sketch map showing European colonies and spheres of in- fluence in Africa. Topic for advanced pupils: How England governs her colonies. 79 The material progress of the 19th century. a The Industrial Revolution: its effect on manufactures, com- merce, population and everyday life. b Inventions and improvements in means of transportation. c Inventions and improvements in means of communication and of the spread of knowledge. d Changes in the art of war and attempts at prevention of war. e Discoveries promoting the health and comfort of mankind. Topics for advanced pupils: A The penny post. B The average circulation of your daily newspaper. From what for- eign cities does the current issue contain despatches ? ENGLISH HISTORY English history is recommended as a study for the third year of the high school course, and may profitably be pursued throughout an entire year. English history stands next to American in close interest to us, because more American institutions may be traced to England than to any other country. For this reason a knowledge of English history is necessary to a thorough understanding of our own. The influence which the rivalry of England with France and Spain had on the exploration and occupation of America, that of the shifting political conditions in England from 1600 to 1700 on immigration, the share which the Petition of Right and the Bill of Rights had in shaping the first 10 amendments to our Constitution; these are instances where the development of our own institutions can not be understood well without knowing English history well also. It is recommended that the history be studied first as a narrative in chronologic order of succession; that as the study of each period is concluded, a careful reexamination of the period be made topically as outlined in this syllabus, and that lastly, topics of pri- mary importance, like Parliament, religion, naval power, com- merce, manufacturers and popular customs shall be reviewed separately to note the changes and the development of the Eng- land of today from the England of the past. The maps suggested in the syllabus should each be carefully drawn by the student in connection with his chronologic study or ENGLISH HISTORY 211 his first topical review, using the maps to illustrate and fix the facts then under discussion. Other maps should be studied to recall the extent and the power of England's rivals among the nations. The frequent use of pictures as illustrative material is urged. The teacher should also see that no student confines himself to any one textbook, for the work is better understood and better remem- bered by obtaining the views of different authors. Two hundred periods may well be given to English history itself ; but some teachers who can avail themselves of the maximum time allotment may find it advantageous to use about 80 periods for a short survey of general European history before entering on the more limited field. 16 I Britain to 449 A.D. II Saxon England 449-1066. Ill Norman England <| 1066-1154. I 20 IV England under the"! Plantagenets 1154-1485. 12 V Tudor England, i 1485-1603. I r VI The Puritan revolu- \ tion and the royalist reac- I tion, 1603-88. 1 The land. 2 Early Britain. 3 Roman Britain, f 1 Saxons and Angles. ) I 2 The Saxon supremacy. \ J 3 The struggle against invasions. 2 1 4 Establishment of Christianity. , 1 I 5 Government and life in Saxon [ England. 1 ' 1 Establishment of Norman rule. 2 2 The Church and the crusades. 2 3 Life of the feudal period. 2 1 England and France. 4 2 Ireland, Wales and Scotland. 2 3 Constitutional development. 6 4 The Wars of the Roses. 2 5 The Church. 2 6 Commerce and manufactures. 2 7 Life in Plantagenet England. 2 1 Establishment of centralized mon- archy. 2 Extension of national power abroad. 3 3 The Church of England. 3 4 The development of trade and col- onies. 5 Life in Tudor England. 1 The division between kings and Parliament. 4 2 Civil war and commonwealth. 3 3 Restoration and Revolution. 4 England and the continent. I 5 Ireland. 6 Commerce and colonies. • 7 Religious history. I 8 Life and literature. 212 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 16 VII Constitutional monarchy 1 688-1 820. 19 VIII The British Empire 1820-1905. Establishment and development of constitutional monarchy. Relations with Scotland and Ireland ; the Jacobites. Conflicts with.France on three conti- nents. The colonies. Manufactures and commerce; the industrial revolution. The Wesleyan movement and other reforms. National life, learning and literature. Parliamentary reform. Government in England at the pres- ent time. Taxation and trade. Industrial progress. Colonies. Foreign affairs. Ireland. Literature and science. Social conditions. Outline Britain to 449 A.D. 1 Britain, the land. a Situation. b Physical features. c Resources. Map showing the chief physical features and natural resources of Great Britain. 2 Early Britain. a The earliest inhabitants and the traces left by them. b Celtic tribes: characteristics and customs of the Britons; the Druids and their influence; trade and travel between Britain and the continent. 3 Roman Britain. a The Roman conquest: Caesar's invasions and results; the real conquest. b Roman rule: Suetonius and the destruction of the Druids; Agricola ; extent of Roman rule ; effects of Roman rule. c Withdrawal of the Romans: causes; remains of Roman occupation. Map showing Roman roads, towns and walls. Topics for advanced pupils: A A picture of Britain gained from Caesar's Commentaries. ENGLISH HISTORY 213 B Survivals of Celtic customs, institutions and language. C How a Roman road was built. D Description of the Roman walls in Britain. II Saxon England. 449-1066 1 Saxons and Angles. a The people: their European home; customs, institutions. b The conquest: causes of the invasion; manner of coming; destruction of Roman and Celtic institutions; sections of Britain occupied. 2 The Saxon supremacy. Development of the Saxon kingdom: fusion among the tribes; Egbert ; supremacy of Wessex ; character of the union estab- lished by Egbert. Map showing political and racial division of Britain about 600 A.D. 3 The struggle against invasions. a The Northmen: their early home, race, manner of life, their enterprise and daring in colonizing; the invasion of England. b Great Saxon leaders: Alfred; treaty of Wedmore; the Dane- law ; Edgar ; Dunstan. c The Danish kings: renewed attacks and successes of the Danes; dominions and government of Sweyn and Canute. d Edward the Confessor and Earl Godwin. e Harold: his difficulties; claim of William of Normandy; the battle of Senlac. Map of England in Alfred's day. 4 Establishment of Christianity. The early English church : Augustine ; the Roman and Irish mis- sionaries; council of Whitby; monasteries and abbeys; life of the monks, their routine industries, schools, hospitality. 5 Government and life in Saxon England. a Government: moots; courts; trial by ordeal; the Witan and its power ; selection and power of the king. . b Life among the Saxons of the 10th century: the village and its folkland; homes and furnishings; food; clothing; agri- culture ; trade ; manufactures. Topics for advanced pupils : A Origin and government of the shires. B The Saxon hundred and township. C Charlemagne, his empire, government and attention to education. D Alfred's government of England. 214 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT E The settlement of the Normans in France. F The vikings, their education and manner of life as described in Du- Chaillu's Viking Age. G Canute's letter to his people. H A ground plan of a monastery. I Conversion of Northumbria. J The northern monasteries. K Edmund Ironside. Ill Norman England. 1066- 1 154. 1 Establishment of Norman rule. a Completion of the conquest : castle building ; grants of land ; crushing of Northumbria; defeat of Hereward; victories over Malcolm; the Domesday book and the Salisbury Oath. b Characteristics of William the Conqueror. c Tyranny of William Rufus. d Government of Henry 1: the Saxon marriage; Charter of Liberties; king's courts; Robert's claim to the throne; Tinchebrai; Normandy an English duchy. 2 The Church and the crusades. a Double control by Church and state: organization of the Church ; Church courts and what they did ; relations of Wil- liam 1 and Gregory 7 ; strife of investitures ; the Church and learning; churchmen as statesmen. b The crusades : causes ; interest of the Church in the crusades ; Robert of Normandy and the first crusade. 3 Life of the feudal period. a Feudal relations: duties of lord, vassal and serf. b The feudal estate: the castle; the manor; division of lands. c Reasons for the development of feudalism. d Differences between English and continental feudalism. e Warfare: weapons; manner of fighting; treatment of prisoners; knighthood and chivalry. / Antagonism of Norman and Saxon: reasons and effects. g Education; manufactures; trade; travel; amusements. h Language and literature: language of court, Church and field ; language of different sections ; Geoffry of Monmouth and the legends of King Arthur ; the troubadours and their songs; the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Topics for advanced pupils: A The Domesday book. * . B Land holdings under the Normans. ENGLISH HISTORY 215 C Ground plan of a feudal castle. D Battle of Senlac. E Hereward the Wake. F Comparison of Norman and Saxon characteristics. G Lanfranc. IV England under the Plantagenets. 1 154- 1485. 1 England and France. a Henry 2 and his dominions. Map of the territory ruled by Henry 2. b Weakness of England under John and Henry 3: loss of Normandy; gradual loss of other possessions. Map showing England's possessions in France at the outbreak of the Hundred Years War. c Beginning of the Hundred Years War: claim of Edward 3 to the French throne; Crecy; the Black Prince; Poitiers; Treaty of Bretigny; truce of 1375. Map locating principal battles, sieges and strongholds of the Hundred Years War. d Renewal of war with France: Henry 5 revives claim to the French crown: Agincourt; progress of the war; Bedford; work of Joan of Arc ; close of the war. Map showing conditions in France when Joan of Arc be- gan her work. 2 Ireland, Wales and Scotland. a Ireland: early history; Henry 2 in Ireland; the English Pale; life on the island. b Wales: early relations with England; the Welsh marches; conquest by Edward 1 ; revolts and reconquest. c Scotland: border warfare; overlordships ; award of Nor- ham; alliance of Scotland and France; Dunbar and the fall of Balliol; rising of Wallace; union of England and Scotland; Bruce; Bannockburn; recognition of Scottish independence in 1328. 3 Constitutional development. a Organized government: political condition of England at the accession of Henry 2 ; character of Henry 2 ; royal power increased by conquest of the barons ; scutage ; judicial reforms; the council; Henry 2 and the Church; sale of charters by Richard 1 ; plans of Henry 2 carried forward by Richard's justiciars. 2l6 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT b Magna Charta: King John and his quarrel with the barons; part taken by Stephen Langton; granting the charter; principal provisions and importance of the charter in English history. c The first Parliament: Henry 3 and the Barons' War; char- acteristics of the king ; grievances of the people ; Provisions of Oxford ; divisions among the barons and results ; rule of Simon de Montfort; Parliament of 1265; Evesham and its results. d The Model Parliament and taxation: Edward i, character, aims and policy; composition and importance of the Model Parliament ; confirmation of the charters. e Parliament deposes Edward 2. / House of Lords and House of Commons: character of Ed- ward 3 ; division of Parliament into two houses ; Parliament and taxation ; the Good Parliament. g Parliament and Richard 2 : rule and deposition of Richard 2 ; Parliament elects Henry 4; strength of Parliament under Henry 4. h Decline of parliamentary power: the regency and weak rule of Henry 6 ; divisions among the nobles ; rivalry of Lancas- ter and York. 4 Wars of the Roses. a Causes for civil strife : condition of the country ; the barons ; character of Henry 6 ; rivalry of Lancaster and York. b Course of the war: division of the country; battles of St Albans, Wakefield and Towton; triumph and rule of Ed- ward 4; quarrel between Edward 4 and Warwick; Tewks- bury and Barnet; death of Edward 4 and usurpation of Richard 3; Bosworth Field and accession of the Tudors; results of the wars. Map showing divisions of the country and battles of the Wars of the Roses. 5 The Church. a Church and state: strife between Henry 2 and Thomas a Becket ; quarrel between John and the pope ; establishment of papal power; increase of the wealth of the Church; the statutes of mortmain, provisors and premunire, why they were passed and what they did. b The friars and their work. c Lollards: causes of the Lollard movement; Wyclif- persecu- tion of the Lollards. ENGLISH HISTORY 21 J Commerce and manufactures. a Commerce: merchant gilds, merchants of the staple; fairs; the Hanseatic League; merchant adventurers. b Manufactures: early manufactures; coming of the Flemish weavers; development of woolen manufactures; craft gilds. Life in Plant agenet England. a General progress: union of Saxon and Norman; growth of towns; decrease of villeinage; increasing wealth and im- portance of the artisan class. I The Peasants' Rising: the Black Death and its effect on in- dustry; statute of laborers; growth of democratic senti- ment ; Wat Tyler's rebellion and its overthrow ; permanent results. c Warfare: weapons and armor; religious military orders, their organization, power and decadence ; decline of chivalry ; use of gunpowder. d Intellectual progress : development of the English language ; Chaucer ; Wyclif ; Langland ; cathedral building ; rise of the universities ; introduction of printing. e Travel and amusements ; home life of noble and peasant. Topics for advanced pupils: A The principles of Magna Charta that have become embodied in ! f English and American government. B The interdict and the excommunication. C The contest between Gregory 7 and Henry 4 of Germany. D A summary of the relations between the Papacy and English sov- ereigns covering the reigns of William 1, Henry 2, John and Ed- ward 1. E A comparison of the Peasants Rising and the Jacquerie. F Life in England as portrayed by Chaucer. G Feudal England as seen in Ivanhoe. H The Steelyard. I The restrictions and dangers of commerce in the Plantagenet period. J Trade routes in the Middle Ages. K A medieval fair. L The introduction of the printing press into England. M The early use of gunpowder in war. N The character of Richard 3 as seen in Shakspere's Richard 3. Tudor England. 1485-1603. The establishment of centralized monarchy. a Henry 7: condition of the country, Church, nobles and middle classes after the Wars of the Roses; law against maintenance and livery; the Court of the Star Chamber; benevolences; artillery; avoidance of foreign wars. 2l8 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT b Henry 8 : the personal government of Henry 8 as seen in his treatment of his wives, his ministers and Parliament; di- vorce of Katherine ; Act of Supremacy ; confiscation of the monasteries; creation of a "new nobility." c The nation's acceptance of despotism: growing power of the middle classes; control of Parliament by the Crown; gen- eral characteristics and policy of the Tudors. 2 Extension of national power abroad. a The Tudor peace policy : marriage alliances and diplomacy of Henry 7 ; the foreign policy of Wolsey ; the caution of Eliza- beth. b The war with Spain : causes of the war ; the Armada and its effect on national spirit ; defeat of the Armada ; Elizabethan seamen. c England's position at the close of the Tudor period. Map showing Europe and Spanish Empire, 1550. 3 The Church of England and the rise of Puritanism. a Condition of the church at the opening of the period : wealth ; judicial courts; political power and influence. b Rise of Protestantism: doctrines of Wyclif ; Luther's revolt; attitude of Henry 8 toward Luther's teachings. c The break with Rome: divorce of Katherine; dissolution of j the monasteries; translation of the Bible; the Ten Articles; Act of Supremacy ; the Pilgrimage of Grace ; the Six Articles ; treatment accorded to heretics ; the church as left by Henry 8. d The Protestant revolution under Edward 6 and his ministers : measures of the government ; attitude of the nation. e Catholic reaction: Mary's aims; the attitude of Parliament and the nation toward Mary; the Spanish marriage; re- union with Rome; persecutions; results of Mary's policy. f The moderation of Elizabeth: repeal of heresy laws; the Thirty -nine Articles ; growth of Puritan ideas ; effects of the Armada and the wars in the Netherlands on religious senti- ment. g The Church in Ireland and Scotland. 4 Trade and colonies. a Trade: decay of gilds and trade organizations; rise of the middle class ; debasement and restoration of coinage ; com- ing of artisans from the continent; gain of Flemish trade; laws protecting manufactures and regulating trade; estab- lishment of navy. ENGLISH HISTORY 2IO, b Colonial enterprise: explorations of the Cabots, Drake and Raleigh; colonizing attempts of Gilbert and Raleigh; establishment of trading companies. 5 Life in Tudor England. a Social and economic changes: modes of living; the house, city and country ; decay of old towns ; rise of new centers of population; wheat fields versus sheep pastures; increase of pauperism and its causes; laws for relief of the poor; intro- duction of firearms. b Intellectual awakening: growth of the spirit of adventure and enterprise; the New Learning, its nature; Erasmus, More, Colet; establishment of new schools and colleges; the drama; the theater; Shakspere and Bacon. Topics for advanced pupils: A The Utopia of Sir Thomas More and America. B The revolt of the Netherlands. C Why heretics were put to death. D Spanish power in the 16th century. E Political reasons for the coquetry of Elizabeth. F Achievements of Elizabethan seamen. G The execution of Mary Queen of Scots H The gild and the modern trade-union. / The earliest attempts of the English to colonize America. J The poor laws of Elizabeth. K A day at Elizabeth's court. VI The Puritan revolution and Royalist reaction 1603-88. 1 Division between kings and Parliament. a Beginning of strife: change in national spirit about 1600; personality of James 1; Hampton Court Conference; issues in the first Parliament; Gunpowder plot; divine right of kings; rule of favorites; Bacon and the revival of impeach- ments. b Increasing differences between Parliament and the Crown: characteristics of Charles 2 ; the Petition of Right ; tonnage and poundage; Laud's policy and religious strife; the disso- lution of 1629 and the emigration of Puritans; monopolies; ship money and Hampden's resistance; Wentworth's meas- ures ; Laud and the outbreak in Scotland ; the Short Parlia- ment. c The Long Parliament: meeting of the Long Parliament; impeachment and execution of Strafford ; measures limiting the power of the king; division of Parliament on religious questions; intriguing of Charles for support; the Grand 220 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Remonstrance; attempt to seize the five members; civil war. 2 Civil war and the commonwealth. a The first civil war: rival parties, their leaders and support; outbreak of the war ; Cromwell and the Ironsides ; Scottish alliance; Solemn League and Covenant ; Marston Moor; di- visions in the parliamentary party; the Self-denying Ordi- nance ; the New Model ; Naseby ; negotiations of the king. b The second civil war: alliance of the king with the Scots; the battle of Preston ; Pride's Purge ; trial and execution of the king. c The Commonwealth: the Rump Parliament, conquest of Scotland and Ireland; Cromwell as Lord Protector; con- stitutional experiment ; fall of the commonwealth. Map showing how England was divided between Puritan and Cavalier and the battlefields of the Puritan Revolution. 3 Restoration and revolution. a Political conditions: character and policy of the king; the nation and the doctrine of nonresistance ; Parliament and taxation ; the royal dispensing power. b Religious settlement: Act of Uniformity; penal legislation against dissent; condition of the Catholics and aims of the king. c Charles 2 and Louis 14: aims of the French king; war be- tween England and Holland; the secret treaty of Dover; the Declaration of Indulgence ; the Test Act ; Titus Oates ; the Exclusion Bill; Whigs and Tories. d Overthrow of the Stuarts : national fear of a Catholic despot- ism ; assertion of dispensing power by the king ; Catholics in office; a standing army; Declaration of Indulgence; pe- tition and trial of the seven bishops. e William of Orange: position and character of William; the summons to England ; flight of James 2 ; Parliament and the succession. / Results of the Revolution : Bill of Rights ; Act of Toleration ; Act of Settlement. 4 England and the continent. a James 1 : foreign policy of James 1 ; the Thirty Years War. b Cromwell: Navigation Act; war with Holland; war with Spain; England's influence in Europe during Cromwell's protectorate. ENGLISH HISTORY 221 c The restored Stuarts: wars between England and Holland; secret alliance of Charles 2 and Louis 14 ; the designs of Louis 14. Ireland. Ireland reconquered: condition of Ireland in 1600; Went- worth; rebellion of 1641 ; conquest by Cromwell; the Crom- wellian settlement. Commerce and colonies. a Colonies in America : colonies founded in America during the Stuart period; influence on the American colonies of the civil and religious dissensions of the mother country; the navigation laws; war with Spain, Jamaica; war with Hol- land, the New Netherlands. b Commerce: trading posts in India; some of the principal articles of commerce in the 17th century. Religious history. a An age of religious intolerance: causes of the intolerance; religious parties of the period ; laws to establish conformity ; the King James version ; effects of the Gunpowder Plot on the position of the Catholics in England ; Laud and his policy ; attitude of Scotland toward the use of the prayer book ; the church question in Parliament; religious settlement of the Restoration; royal tolerance; national intolerance; re- ligious conditions at the close of the period. Life and literature. a Life: manner of life, dress and amusements of Cavalier and Roundhead. b Literature : establishment of the Royal Society of London and its significance ; King James version and its influence on the English language; the first newspapers; Milton; Bun- yan; Newton; Harvey. Topics for advanced pupils: A Gunpowder plot. B Plantation of Ulster. C Spanish journey. D Impeachment of Strafford. E Attack on the five members. F Trial of King Charles 2. G Fall of the Rump Parliament. H Flight of Charles Stuart from Worcester. / Cromwell's work. J The plague of 1665. K The great fire of 1666. L Jeffreys on the Western Circuit. M Trial of the seven bishops. 222 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT VII Constitutional monarchy 1688- 1820. 1 Establishment and development of constitutional monarchy. a Constitutional gains: Mutiny Act; Toleration Act; Bill of Rights ; Act of Settlement. b Growth of political parties: Whigs and Tories; the Sep- tennial Bill. c The Cabinet : party government through the Cabinet ; Horace Walpole ; methods of controlling Parliament ; personality and influence of the Hanoverian kings. 2 Scotland and Ireland. a The Revolution in Scotland: Claverhouse; the union of 1707; the Jacobites; the risings of 17 15 and 1745. b Ireland: course of King James 2; siege of Londonderry; battle of Boyne, the treaty of Limerick and now it was disregarded; condition of Ireland through the 18th century; home rule 1 782-1800; the rebellion of 1798; the United Kingdom 1801. 3 Conflicts with France on three continents. a Rivalry of William 3 and Louis 14: French support of the Stuarts ; league against Louis ; La Hogue ; the war in Amer- ica ; the Treaty of Ryswick. b The War of the Spanish Succession: the causes; the allies; Marlborough and his companions; Gibraltar, Acadia and Hudson bay; attitude of English parties toward the war; treaty of Utrecht. c The War of the Austrian Succession: causes; allies; Detingen, Fontenoy, Louisburg; Treaty of Aix la Chapelle. 1 War continued in the colonies: strife for the Ohio valley; Braddock's defeat; rivalry with the French in India; the work of DuPleix and Clive. e Seven Years War: causes; allies; Pitt's administration; British successes; Wolfe; Treaty of Paris. The Revolution : aid from France for the American colonies ; the allies against England ; Yorktown ; treaties of peace. g The French Revolution: conditions in France 1789; the English feeling at first concerning the French Revolution; the Reign of Terror; war on the revolutionists; rise of Na- poleon ; battle of the Nile ; the Treaty of Amiens. h The war with Napoleon: coalitions against Napoleon; the work of Nelson; Austerlitz and Jena; Wellesley and the Peninsular War; commercial warfare leading to war with the United States; Napoleon in Russia; Elba; Waterloo; St Helena. ENGLISH HISTORY 223 Colonies. a America: colonial policy of European nations; English re- strictions on colonial trade; aims of George 3; Whigs and Tories in England and America; outbreak of the American Revolution ; war in New England ; the Declaration of Inde- pendence; war in the Middle States; Saratoga and the French alliance ; war in the South ; Yorktown and the inde- pendence of American colonies; loss of other colonies; change in the treatment of colonies. b India: the East India Co. 1750; French rivalry; Clive and Dupleix; conquest of Bengal; methods of governing India; Warren Hastings; the Mahratta War. c Canada: conquest; loyalty during the American Revolu- tion; the Hudson's Bay Co.; constitution granted 1791. d Australia and New Zealand : discovery; convict settlements ;' wool growing. e Minor colonies: the West India colonies; sugar raising; slavery; Cape Colony, acquired, surrendered, regained; Gibraltar, St Helena. Manufactures and commerce: the industrial revolution. a Changes in manufacturing : the coming of the French Hugue- nots ; coal mines and iron works ; inventions and the use of machinery ; the factory system ; new centers of population ; effects on the working classes. b Agriculture: improvements in tillage and breeding; de- crease of small landholders. c Canals. Reform movements. a Religious reforms : religious conditions in the first part of the 1 8th century; the Wesleys and Whitfield. b Philanthropic reforms: Howard and the prisons; Wilber- force and the slave trade ; changes in penal laws ; care of the poor. c Political reforms: Pitt's influence in purifying politics; Burke and economic reforms ; freedom of the press. National life and literature. a Life of the people : dress and social customs; roads; means and methods of travel. b Banking and finance: Bank of England; national debt; South Sea Bubble. c Education: Sunday schools and day schools. d Writers: Pope, Swift, Addison, DeFoe, Adam Smith. 224 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Topics for advanced pupils: A The siege of Londonderry. B The massacre of Glencoe. C Blenheim. D The union of Scotland and England. E The coffee house. F The battle of Plassey. G Pitt the war minister. H Pitt and the American colonies. / A comparison of political conditions in England and America in 1765. J Nelson at Trafalgar. K Watt and Stephenson. VIII The British Empire 182 0-1905. 1 Parliamentary reform. a The "rotten boroughs": reforms demanded after the Ameri- can Revolution ; effects of the French Revolution on public sentiment; the contest of 1832; results. b The Chartists : Chartist demands and their treatment ; exten- sion of suffrage in 1867 and 1884. 2 Government in England at the present time. a The Constitution : its nature ; how it may be changed. b The voters. c Parliament : the peerage : the House of Lords and its com- position; the House of Commons, how chosen and how dissolved. d Executive powers: the place of the king in the government; the Cabinet, how chosen; powers and duties of the Cabinet. e The judiciary. 3 Taxation and trade. a The Corn Laws: conflicting views of Peel and Cobden; repeal of the Corn Law b The Navigation Law: repeal of the Navigation Law; English imports and exports; effect of the free trade policy on the development of English trade. c Present methods of taxation. 4 Industrial progress. a Public improvements: the development of the locomotive; railroad building; McAdam and Telford; the telegraph; cheap postage; steamship lines. b Trade-unions. c Present manufacturing centers. Map showing manufacturing and commercial cities uf tH9 British Isles. ENGLISH HISTORY 225 5 Colonies. a Canada: The Hudson's Bay Co.; the rebellion of 1837; the Dominion; the Constitution of 1867; development of the country. b India: enlargement of British territory; the Sepoy Mutiny; proclamation of the empire 1876; Burma; the present gov- ernment and condition of India. c Australasia : discovery of gold ; development of the country ; confederation of 1901. d South Africa: rivalry of Dutch and English settlers; in- dustries and development of southern Africa; the South Africa Company and its work; the Boer Wars; present conditions. e Possessions and minor colonies: the Suez canal, how ac- quired; the English in Egypt; Central Africa and South Africa; strongholds and coaling stations. c Relations of the colonies to the home government : methods of British rule ; growth of the imperial idea. Map showing British empire with dates of acquisition of its dependencies. 6 Foreign affairs. a Rivalries and alliances with other countries: the Crimean War, causes, allies, results; English attitude toward the Civil War in the United States ; the Alabama Claims and the principle of arbitration; the Berlin Congress; the English occupation of Egypt. b England's position among the nations of today. 7 Ireland. a The famine of 1845-49: causes and results ; emigration. b Land tenure : the Irish Land Acts ; the Land League. c Agitation for Home Rule: the Fenians; Parnell and Glad- stone. 8 Literature. Leading English authors of the 1 9th century : poets ; novelists ; essayists and critics; historians; scientific writers. 9 Social conditions. a Agriculture: land tenure in England, Scotland and Ireland; decline of agricultural prosperity ; reasons for the decline of agriculture. b Labor: condition of laborers in factories before 1830; Shaftesbury and the reform of factory laws; present con- dition of labor. 226 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT c Philanthropic reforms: criminal laws; prison management; relief of the poor ; tenement house reforms ; social effects of the writings of Dickens, Reade, Kingsley and Besant. d Growth of cities: causes for the rapid growth of cities; municipal ownership of street railways, gas companies, waterworks and other public utilities. e Education: the Education Acts and their effects; English schools and universities. Topics for advanced pupils: A How the Reform Bill of 1832 was passed. B The oppression of children in factories. C Charge of the Light Brigade. D Imprisonment for debt. E Imperial federation. F Growth of religious toleration in England as seen in the legislation toward Catholics and Jews. G The life and influence of Victoria. H The power of Edward 7 compared with that of some one of his predecessors. THE NEW AMERICAN HISTORY The recent substitution of America for " United States" in desig- nating the location of the ambassadorial and consular offices of this country is an external evidence of a fundamental change that has come into our conceptions of our own history. The scientific investigations of distinguished foreign scholars like DeTocqueville, Von Hoist and Bryce have been followed by the creation of a new school of American historians whose work has been to show that the American Constitution was not "struck off at a given time by the brain and purpose of man," but that the history of America, like that of every other country, has been an outgrowth from pre- vious conditions — that America has never occupied an isolated position, but that it has been influenced throughout its develop- ment by other nations and that it has in its turn influenced them ; that we can not understand present conditions in our own country without studying how these conditions have come to be; that patriotism no longer means adhesion to the statement, "My country, right or wrong, My country," but a united effort on the part of all its citizens to make the country right. This new point of view of the historian has been reflected in the textbook written for the schools. This no longer presents in flam- boyant style the traditional spectacular events that collectively have been called "the history of the United States," but it treats AMERICAN HISTORY 227 the history of the country as a natural development. It is no longer a heterogeneous collection of miscellaneous facts chrono- logically arranged — but it is an orderly presentation of related events. It is not based on rumor, traditions, theories and pre- viously conceived ideas, but on careful investigation of the authori- ties used. It does not assume that " advanced work in history con- sists in reading larger books and more of them," but it adapts both matter and method to the capacities of those who are to use it. The textbook for the elementary and grammar grades presents the picturesque and imaginative side of history in order that the child may have a vivid picture of the conspicuous events of the past. The textbook for the secondary school places emphasis on under- lying causes and on the development of great movements in order that the boy may appreciate the unity of history. The new teacher of American history is both a cause and a result of the new textbook. He appreciates the importance of treating American history as a continuous development from European his- tory — not as a disconnected series of special creations. He under- stands that all society is organic in character and that therefore history can not be taught as a description of inorganic matter. He knows that the essential in teaching the American Constitution is to teach its underlying principles as they were developed from political conditions, not to teach isolated, unrelated facts. He does not "put the cart before the horse," to use the homely phrase, and attempt to teach civics as a disconnected subject made up of abstractions and constantly fluctuating facts, but he teaches it as an outgrowth of the political conditions of the country. He realizes that it is far more important to know why every state in the Union has its own Constitution and how the functions of the state government resemble or differ from those of the federal government than it is to learn by heart the names of the state officers and the amount of salary attached to each office. He com- prehends that in material as well as in spiritual affairs ' ' the things that are seen are temporal, but the' things that are unseen are eternal," and he teaches not the boundaries of various assembly and senatorial districts, but what were the historical conditions that gave rise to a representative legislative body and why that body was composed of two houses. He uses the newspaper, not as a purveyor of transient gossip, but as an intelligent aid in the inter- pretation of the past by the present. He welcomes pictures in his work, not that of Sir Francis Drake discovering the Pacific, but that of the New England town with its meeting house and its school- 228 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT house ; not the picture of the battle scene that might be labeled any- one of a hundred conflicts, but the plan of a Southern plantation showing the relative location of its numerous buildings; not the' photograph of the reigning political boss, but the seal of the federal government and what it signifies. He utilizes outline maps, not to locate the counties in a state, but to show the territories explored by different nationalities and the routes taken by the pioneers in their westward march. He uses a hundred tools in his work where his unskilled predecessor used but one, and the resulting product is not a crude caricature of the past but a faithful, scientific and ar- tistic delineation of the development of America from Europe. The teacher of today who teaches American history appreciates Professor Maitland's apostrophe of the map of England — "that most wonderful of all palimpsests r" He sees in the map of America another most wonderful palimpsest whereon have been written the hopes and aspirations and discouragements, the failures and suc- cesses of Spaniard and Frenchman, Swede and Hollander and Eng- lishman, of monk and friar, of fur trader and lumberman, of fron- tiersman and immigrant, of political refugee and religious enthusiast. How indeed, he may say, can he know the real America unless he knows it in its European home ? How can he train those who may be called on to legislate for the Italians in their American home unless they have been taught the failures and successes of that great uprising for independence and unity that culminated in the establishment of the kingdom of Italy — how understand the Ger- man of the Northwest without a knowledge of the idealism in politics art, literature, and music that found expression in the revolutionary uprising of '48 and sent the flower of German youth to our shores — how deal in wisdom and patience with the Hungarians coming to us unless we realize the passionate aspirations for political liberty of the Hungarians in Europe — how assimilate the nearly one million foreigners who come annually to our shores unless we know why they left their native land as well as why they have come to us? If then the new American history strikes its roots deep down into European soil it is because the hight and the strength of the tree demands it and because its very life depends on it. The committee presents the outline of American history in the hope that it may be of service to the teacher of today. AMERICAN HISTORY 229 n n 1 Discovery and exploration before 1607. II Southern colonies, 1607-1760. Ill New England, 1620-1760. IV Middle colonies, 1609-1760. V Colonies in the 1 8th century, to 1760. VI Union and independence, 1760-83. VII Critical period, 1783-89. VIII Federalist supremacy, 1789-1801. IX Jeffersonian Republicans, 1801-17. X Reorganization, 1817-29. XI National democracy, 1829-44. General survey of the field 1 Land and resources. 2 Discovery of America. 3 Exploration and early settlement before Jamestown, 149 2- 1607. 4 Virginia, 1607-1760, a typical Southern colony. 5 Maryland, a typical proprietary colony. 6 Carolinas and Georgia, the Southern fron- tier colonies. Beginnings of colonization of New Eng- land. 8 Early Massachusetts, a typical New Eng- land colony, 1629-50. 9 New England, 163 6- 17 60, typical devel- opment of American institutions. 10 Dutch and English in New York. 11 Pennsylvania, "A Quaker Experiment in Government"; New Jersey and Dela- r 7 f 12 Political and economic development. 1700-50. ! 13 Struggle between France and England for ] North America, 1 6 89- 1 7 63. I 14 The colonies in 1760; political, social andi [ economic conditions ; comparisons. J 15 Causes of the Revolution, 1760-74. ] 16 The Revolution, 1775-83. { 17 Confederation and Constitution. 18 Organization of the government. 19 Foreign relations, 1 793-1 800. 20 Fall of the Federalists. 21 Domestic policy of the Republicans. 22 Expansion. 23 Struggle for neutral rights. 24 Economic reorganization. 25 Westward migration and internal im- provements. 26 Slavery and the Missouri Compromise. 2 7 Monroe Doctrine and Panama Congress. 28 Political reorganization and triumph of Jackson. 29 Nullification in South Carolina. 30 Overthrow of the United States Bank; financial questions. 31 Antislavery agitation, 1831-38. 1- 1; 2 2 23O NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT XII [ 32 Annexation of Texas, and the Mexican Slavery in the ! War. territories, f 33 Struggle over slavery in the territories 1844-60. [ XIII f 1 Secession and the ! 34 Secession of the Southern States. Civil War, ] 35 The Civil War, 1861-65. i 1860-65. • ( J f 36 Reconstruction, the New South, and the Xiy race problem. Problems of ' 37 Political problems: civil service, foreign ce \ relations, municipal government. 18 6^-1004 ' 3 8 Economic problems: currency, tariff 5 " 9 4 ' trusts, labor, transportation. t 39 Summary and review of American history.! 1 Outline Discovery and explorations before 1607. 1 The land and its resources. a Physical features. b Effect of this environment. c Availability of land of United States for building a nation. Map work: Indicate on outline map the most important physical features of America. 2 Discovery of America. How and why the discovery came in 1492. Important results. a Why the Norse discoveries were in no sense a true discovery of America. b European conditions at close of 1 5th century leading to dis- covery. c Columbus: his early career and how it trained him for dis- covery ; ideas ; attempts. d The discovery. e Columbus's character and place in history. / Conclusion : the importance of the discovery ; its effect on com- merce, colonies, wars, diplomacy, industrial life. Additional topic: The naming of America. Map work: On an outline map, trace Columbus's first voyage, indicating dates when points were reached. AMERICAN HISTORY 27,1 3 Explorations and early settlements, before Jamestown, 1492-1607. a Spanish: objects; regions; reasons for failure. b French: objects; regions; reasons for failure. c English: objects; regions; reasons for failure. Additional topics: A Character of Spanish rule. B The contest between the Huguenot and Spanish colonies in Florida. C Spanish motives and policy. D The Elizabethan seamen; their character and work. E The Spanish Armada, and Spain's loss of sea power. Why is this event important in American history? Map work: a The regions discovered or explored by each nation to be pointed out on map. b On outline map of world, represent voyages of Columbus, Cabots, Vasco da Gama, Magellan, Verrazano, Drake, with dates, and in colors (Spanish, yellow; English, red; French, blue). c On outline map of United States, show in colors (as above) the explorations or settlements of Spanish (De Leon, Cortes, Pizarro, De Vaca, Coronado, De Soto, and St Augustine) ; French (Cartier, Huguenot colonies, Acadia) ; English (Raleigh colonies). d Map of world showing Spanish possessions after seizure of Portugal (1580). II Southern colonies, 1607- 1760. 4 Virginia, a typical southern colony. a New motives and methods of colonization in 17th century. b Reasons for early failures in Virginia, 1607-19. c Reasons for greater success, 1619-24, under leadership of Sandys and Southampton, and the party opposed to abso- lutism. d Labor question: early troubles; indented white servants and negro slaves. e Development of representative government and spirit of independence, after annulling of charter, 1624. (1) Self- government during Puritan supremacy in England. (2) Bacon's Rebellion, causes, changes proposed, results. (3) Quarrels between assemblies and governors; the sub- jects, the significance. / Pictures of early Virginia. g Government of Virginia, a typical royal colony. 2$2 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Map work: a Physical features. b Counties, with dates, illustrating westward movement. Additional topics: A John Smith as adventurer, governor and historian. B Education, including William and Mary College. Governor Ber- keley's ideas. C Political and economic effects of the cultivation of tobacco. D "The coming of the Cavaliers." E "Westward growth of Old Virginia," and settlement of the Shenan- doah valley. F Virginia life in 18th century. 5 Maryland. a Government of Maryland, a typical proprietary colony. b Development of representative government in Maryland. c Religious toleration in Maryland. (1) Provision of charter and desire of Lord Baltimore. (2) The Toleration Act of 1649. (3) What is said about religion and religious freedom in the Constitution of the United States, and in the Consti- . tution of your own state . Compare with the provisions of the "Toleration Act" of 1649. d "Some characteristics of Maryland." 6 Carolinas and Georgia, the southern frontier colonies. a Independent spirit in the Carolinas. b Frontier Life of North Carolina. c Life in South Carolina. d Georgia: its twofold object; its services; its characteristics. Additional topic: Puritans in the Southern colonies. Ill New England (1620-1760). 7 Beginnings of colonization of New England. Character and aims of Puritans, Pilgrims and Plymouth colony. a Origin and aims of English Puritans (before 1608); special ideas of the Separatists ; treatment of the Puritans by Eliza- beth and James 1 ; how the Separatists around Scrooby be- came Pilgrims; why the Pilgrims left Holland; Mayflower Compact ; landing and settling at Plymouth ; early govern- ment and life. 8 Early Massachusetts. A typical New England colony, 1624-50. Objects (religious, political, economic). Character of government and life. a Causes and character of the Puritan exodus to Massachusetts in 1630. AMERICAN HISTORY 233 b Founding of Massachusetts: charter, how obtained, pro- visions; Cambridge agreement, transfer; settlement of Bos- ton and adjoining towns. c Rise of representative government in Massachusetts, 1631-50. d The threefold danger, 1634-36. e Local government in Massachusetts, its origin and form, town meeting, and selectmen. / Education, morals and religion in Massachusetts in 17th century. 9 New England, 1636-1760. Typical development of American institutions. EXPANSION (BY EXPULSION AND EMIGRATION). WRITTEN CONSTITUTIONS a Founding of Providence and Rhode Island, 1636-40. b Founding of Connecticut. c Founding of New Haven: aims of founders, difference be- tween their government and that of Connecticut, the blue laws. d The northern settlements, later, New Hampshire and Maine: reasons for settlements; character; relations to Massachu- setts. FEDERATION e The New England Confederation, 1643: articles, administra- tion, services. RELATION WITH SUBJECT RACES, AND WITH QUAKERS AND WITCHES / New England treatment of the Indian in 17th century: land, trade, missionary work, Pequot War. g The effect of the Indian as neighbor and enemy on the colonist. h Treatment of Quakers by Massachusetts. i Witchcraft delusion. SELF-GOVERNMENT AND INDEPENDENT SPIRIT j Overthrow of the Massachusetts charter. k The tyranny of Andros and the Revolution of 1689. / Independent attitude of Massachusetts toward English gov- ernment, 1630-1760. m Provincial New England, 1692-17 60: contests with royal governors; paper money; commerce; Harvard and Yale; the "Great Awakening"; literature. SELF-GOVERNMENT— DEMOCRATIC SPIRIT-PUBLIC SCHOOLS n Colonial governments of New England. o Social and economic conditions in New England in 1760 (in- cluding education). 234 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Additional topics: A John Winthrop : his character and his statesmanship. B The Body of Liberties, 1641, the first New England code of laws, compared with Magna Charta. - C Why was Roger Williams banished from Massachusetts? Map work: New England in 17th century: indicate rivers, chief towns mentioned in reading, boundaries of colonies, location of chief Indian tribes (to be marked 1650 or 1700, according to map followed). IV Middle colonies, 1609- 1760. 10 New York. a Under the Dutch. (1) Political, religious and industrial ideas of the Dutch in Holland. The long struggle with Spain. (2) Holland and commercial enterprise; voyages of Hudson and the founding of trading posts ; the fur trade and friendship with the Indians. (3) The West India Co. and the pa- troons. (4) Growth of the colony and the demand for self- government. (5) The struggle for self-government: contest with Governor Kieft, causes and results; renewal of the popular demand under Governor Stuyvesant, effects; why the people did not oppose capitulation to the English. (6) Conditions in New Netherlands in 1664: population and classes; leading occupations; churches and religion; schools and education; comparison of Dutch and English colonies. b Under the English. (1) Meaning of the surrender (1664). (2) English neglect of schools. (3) Slow progress toward' self-government: Governor Nichols and the Dukes Laws 1665; the first assembly ; the Charter of ^Liberties, 1683; de- struction of the representative assembly ; the Revolution of 1688 and Leisler's rule; representative government reestab- lished under William and Mary. (4) The French and Indian Wars 1 688-1 7 63. (5) Social, educational, religious and economic conditions, 1700-60. Additional topics: A "Of the reasons and causes why and how New Netherland is so decayed," 1650. B Peter Stuyvesant. C Old Dutch customs in New Netherland. D The struggles of the Dutch and the English for a representative assembly. E Reasons for greater success of England than of Holland as a colonizing nation. AMERICAN HISTORY 235 F The Iroquois Confederacy. G New York in the Intercolonial Wars. H Indian trails and modern routes of transportation. / French, German and Scotch settlements in New York. J Strategic points in colonial New York. K The Zenger trial. L The importance of Albany in colonial times. 11 Pennsylvania, "A Quaker experiment in government." New Jersey and Delaware. a Colonial New Jersey: occupation by the English; the Quaker purchase; Penn's purchase; East and West Jersey, 1674; New Jersey as a crown colony, 1702; character of the people. b The principles of the ''Friends," or Quakers: political, moral, religious. c Life and character of William Penn. d The founding of Pennsylvania. e The Quaker Constitution. / The Quaker government, 1682-1756. (1) Religious and civil liberty. (2) Relations with the Indians. (3) Quaker atti- tude toward war. (4) Extent to which Quakers con- trolled the government. (5) Slavery. g Social and economic conditions in Pennsylvania, 1760 (or 1765). h Relations with Delaware, "The Territories." Additional topics: A Quaker organizations and discipline. B The virtues and limitations of Quakers and Puritans. C A comparison between the Quaker policy toward the Indians in Pennsylvania, 1682-1756, and the Puritan policy in New England in 1630-76. D The Quakers' attitude toward slavery E The measure of success of the Quaker experiment. F Delaware; settlement, relations with Dutch and with Pennsylvania. V The colonies in the 18th century, to 1760. 12 Political, social and economic development of the colonies, 1700-50. a Political development. (1) Progress in self-government taxa- tion; elections; free speech. (2) Defense of charters. (3) Boundary disputes: with France; with Spain; between in- dividual colonies. (4) Attempts at union: specially in 1690, and Albany Plan, 1754 ; what is shown by their failure. b Economic conditions and development. 236 . NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT c Social development: population — immigration, expansion, increase; religion (specially "Great Awakening"); edu- cation; literature; newspapers. d General character of the period. Additional topics: A Outline of the political and economic development in the pupil's own state, 1700-50. Use, if available, the topics and subtopics above, so as to indicate what progress was made in these lines in the state. B Same for pupil's own town. 13 Struggle between France and England for North America, 1689-1763. a French explorations and settlements in the St Lawrence and Mississippi valleys, 1604-17 18: Port Royal in Acadia, 1604; Champlain at Quebec, 1608; La Salle and the Mississippi, 1682; settlement of Louisiana, 1699; New Orleans, 1718. b Contrast between French and English methods of coloniza- tion in North America: political, religious, social, economic. c The "Second Hundred Years War between England and France," 1689-18 15: its world-wide importance; the chief events in America to 1748. d Strength and weakness of the French and of the English in 1754. (1) In Europe: military resources; attitude of each of the mother countries toward its colonies. (2) In America: geographic conditions; population; military resources; political, social, economic conditions. e Expulsion of the French, 1754-63, the "French and Indian War". (1) Theater of war; lines of invasion. (2) Causes and beginnings. (3) Early failures of the English, 1754-57. (4) New plans and leaders, and conquest of Canada, 1757-60: Pitt; Wolfe; Quebec. (5) Terms of peace; geographic and political results of war to England, France, America, India. Map work: a Possessions of France, England and Spain in North America in 1756; English and Spanish possessions in North America in 1763. b Theater of war; showing river valleys, lines of invasions, forts, battles. Additional topics: A Were the English justified in: (1) the attempt to expel the Acadians (2) the method used? AMERICAN HISTORY 237 B Character and work of the elder Pitt. C Battle of the Plains of Abraham and capture of Quebec. D Character and work of the Jesuits in North America in the 17th century. Review or examination topic: "The means, the character, and the spirit of the two combatants [in the French and Indian War], and why one succeeded where the other was defeated." 14 Condition of the colonies in 1760 (or 1765), political, social, and economic; comparisons between the three sections. a Economic conditions. (1) In the Southern colonies (Vir- ginia, the typical colony) : occupations; means of communi- cation. (2) Contrast between economic conditions in the South and in New England. (3) Comparison between eco- nomic conditions in New England and the Middle colonies. b Social conditions. (1) In Southern colonies: classes; slavery; plantation life; religion, churches and church services; edu- cation ; amusements (Virginia, typical colony) . (2) Contrast between social conditions in Southern and New England colonies. (3) Comparison between social conditions in Southern and Middle colonies (Pennsylvania or- New York as typical colony) . (4) Comparison between social condi- tions in New England and Middle colonies (Pennsylvania or New York). c Political conditions. (1) Contrast between forms of local government in New England and Virginia: causes and re- sults. (2) The system of local government in New York and Pennsylvania: comparison with New England and Virginia. (3) The three forms of colonial government. (4) General similarities in political conditions in the 13 colonies. d General conditions. (1) Inherited institutions and their de- velopment. (2) Elements in common among the colonists: institutions, character, ideals. (3) Effects of diversity and similarity on later development. (4) Means of travel and communication between the colonies. (5) Population of the colonies in 1760: numbers; character; distribution. Additional topics: A Colonial amusements. B Slavery in the colonies, 1619-1760. C Colonial taverns and turnpikes. May be made a topic for investi- gation in local history. D Religion: including toleration, church and state, and clergymen. E Education and literature F Foreign trade. 238 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT VI Union and independence, 1760-83. 15 Causes of the American Revolution, 1760-83. a Underlying causes of the Revolution : fundamental difference in ideas and conditions between England and the colonies in 1760. (1) In social conditions (including religion). (2) In economic conditions. (3) In political ideas and conditions : two kinds of "representation"; the English view as to the government of the colonies; the view in the colonies — ex- amples in the Writs of Assistance and the Parson's Cause. b The immediate causes of the Revolution, 1763-74, resulting from these fundamental differences. (1) Grenville's three new schemes of colonial control. (2) The trade laws and attempts at enforcement. (3) The Stamp Act: (a) its purpose; (b) the arguments of its supporters; (c) the ar- guments of its opponents. (4) The Townshend Acts and resistance to them, 1767-69: (a) Massachusetts Circular Letter, 1768; (6) Pennsylvania Farmer's Letters; (c) Vir- ginia Resolves of 1769. (5) Boston Massacre, 1770. (6) Committees of Correspondence, local and colonial, 1772 and 1773. (7) Boston Tea Party, 1773. (8) The five repressive acts of 1774, the "Intolerable Acts." (9) Con- tinental Congress, 1774: (a) demand for it; (b) declaration and resolves ; (c) American Association and Nonimportation Agreement. c A summary of the causes of the American Revolution : brief but in chronologic order, and with definite examples. Additional topics: A Popular feeling in America 1765-75; as shown in handbills, broad- sides, songs and illustrations. B Modern English views of the causes of the Revolution. C What were some of the chief constitutional principles involved in the disputes, 1760-74, with specific illustrations of each? D How Samuel Adams stirred up the spirit of revolution. 16 The. Revolution , 1775-83. Map work: a Sketch map, showing three fields of campaign (New Eng- land, Middle States, the South), with dates [see topics, 6, c, d] for each of three regions, and for 10 or 12 most import- ant battles. b Boundaries proposed by French court, 1782. c Territory of the United States according to the treaty of 1783, showing also the territory of Spain and England. AMERICAN HISTORY 239 a Comparison of antagonists: population; resources; leaders; theater of war; strategy. b The campaign in New England, 1775-76: importance of Lexington and Concord, of Bunker Hill, of evacuation of Boston. c The turning of the tide in the Middle States, 1776-80. (1) The work of Washington. (2) Burgoyne's campaign. (3) French alliance: political effects; military aid. d Campaign in the South, 1778-81. e Growth toward independence, 1775-76. (1) The king's rejec- tion of "Olive Branch" petition. (2) Formation of new state governments. (3) Beginning of a national govern- ment, 1775. (4) Hiring of the "foreign mercenaries." (5) Thomas Paine's Common Sense. f The Declaration of Independence. Read it through carefully and state. (1) Its ideas as to the source and the purpose of democratic government. (2) Some of the definite acts re- ferred to in the list of grievances. g The treaty of peace, 1783. h Difficulties of the Americans. i Services of Washington in the Revolution. j Patriotism and lack of patriotism during the Revolution k Causes of success: American, English, European factors. (1) Importance of the aid of France. (2) "How England was hampered and weakened." / The widespread results of the Revolution in America and Europe. m Justification of the Revolution. n Advantages and disadvantages of the Revolution. Additional topics: A Franklin's services to America in the Revolution. B The Loyalists and their treatment. C The Conway Cabal. D Arnold's treason. E Naval warfare; John Paul Jones. F The services of foreign officers in the American army. G Account of a battle in which a pupil's ancestor took part. H John Andre* and Nathan Hale. / Diplomacy of the Revolution. J The Revolution in the minds and hearts of the people. K The battle of Oriskany. L The Tories in New York. M The Formation of the government of the State of New York. N The Services of Peter Schuyler, 24O NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT VII The critical period, 1783-89. 17 Confederation and Constitution. PART 1. CONFEDERATION a Articles of Confederation: history of formation; leading features ; defects ; merits ; attempts to amend. b Weakness of the government : dealings with the army ; for- eign relations. c Disorders in the states : boundary disputes ; trade discrimina- tions; paper money craze. d Social, economic and political conditions and progress, 1783-89. e The Northwest Territory: claims of the states; cessions (influence of Maryland); organization of the territory; rights guaranteed to people. Map work: The claims of the states to western lands. PART 2, CONSTITUTION / The federal convention: steps leading to convention; the great compromises; find in the Constitution the clauses which constitute the great compromises. g Ratification of the Constitution. h Preliminary study of the federal Constitution: (1) Con- gress: numbers, terms, qualifications and mode of election of members of each branch; mode of making laws (three possible ways) ; powers of Congress ; special powers of each house (what special or exclusive powers does the Senate have as compared with the House) ; find in the Constitu- tion all the acts which require more than a simple majority vote. (2) The president: qualifications, term, manner of elec- tion (comparison of old and present methods) ; powers (note relations with Congress, and appointing power). (3) The judiciary: kinds of courts; tenure of judges; jurisdiction of courts (general features only). (4) Division of powers be- tween state and national government. Additional topics: A Describe the two forms of territorial government laid down in the Ordinance of 1787. B Find four or five rights guaranteed to the people of the Northwest Territory, and note their appearance in the Constitution. C Compare the Constitution with the Articles of Confederation with reference to: (1) representation; (2) methods of raising money: (3) voting in Congress; (4) amendments. AMERICAN HISTORY 24I D Contemporary accounts of the defects of the Articles of Con- federation. Show how each defect was remedied by the Constitution . E Contemporary arguments against ratification of the Constitution. F The contest over ratification in Massachusetts; in New York; in Virginia. VIII The Federalist supremacy, 1 789-1801. 18 Organization of the national government. a Inauguration ; executive departments ; inferior courts ; first 10 amendments. b Financial system, and formation of the Republican party. (1) Tariff. (2) Debts. (3) Excise. (4) National bank. (5) Formation of parties. Additional topics: A "Our republican court": titles, ceremonials, levees. B The first slavery debates; import tax; petitions; fugitive slave law, 1793. C Political writings: newspapers, pamphlets, foreign editors. D Find in the Constitution three limitations on the power of Con- gress to tax. E Resemblances between the Constitution of the United States and the Constitution of the State of New York. F The services of Alexander Hamilton. 19 Foreign relations, 1 793-1800. , a Outbreak of war between England and France. b Relations with France: Genet; X, Y, Z affair; war of 1798; treaty of 1800. c Relations with England: Jay's treaty; constitutional ques- tions involved. d Relations with Spain: Mississippi question and the treaty of 1795. Additional topics: A Attacks on Washington. B Washington's farewell address. C Treaties : how made ? May the House refuse to vote money neces- sary to carry out a treaty ? Can a treaty alter a law of the United States? Can a law supersede a treaty? 20 Fall of the Federalists, 1 798-1801. a Alien and Sedition Acts ; Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. b Party organization and conflicts, and the election of 1 800-1. IX The Jeffersonian Republicans, 1801-1817. 21 General principles and domestic policy of Jefferson's adminis- tration. 242 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT a Inaugural address. b The civil service under Jefferson. c The attack on the judiciary. d Financial policy: reduction of debt; retrenchment in army and navy. 22 Expansion. a Louisiana Purchase; territorial and constitutional impor- tance. b Oregon; Lewis and Clark expedition, 1803-6. Map work: The United States at the close of Jefferson's first term. Additional topics: A The Federalists' secession projects. B Why did Hamilton accept Burr's challenge? C Burr's conspiracy. D War with the Barbary pirates. 23 Struggle for neutral rights. a Aggressions by England and France on neutral trade: Berlin and Milan decrees ; Orders in Council ; impressments. b Retaliatory measures : nonimportation ; embargo ; noninter- course act; Macon's bill no. 2. c The War of 181 2: causes, French, English and American; comparison of strength ; military and naval warfare ; oppo- sition to the war (Hartford convention) ; treaty of peace. Additional topics: A Group all the clauses of the Constitution which relate to war. B The speaker of the House of Representatives. C New York State in the War of 181 2. D Battle of Plattsburg. X Reorganization, 1817-29. 24 Economic reorganization. a The tariff: effects of the events of 1808-15 on commerce, agriculture and manufacturing; protectionist arguments; attitude of the political leaders, Clay, Calhoun, Webster and Randolph; tariff acts of 1816, 1824, 1828. b Banking: evils of state banks; the second United States Bank, 1816. 25 Westward migration and internal improvements. a Westward migration: influence of conditions on the sea- board ; methods and routes of travel ; conditions of western life, 1800-30. AMERICAN HISTORY 243 b Internal improvements: need of better communication be- tween East and West; political and economic results of the Erie canal and the railroads; the constitutional question in- volved. c The Indians in Georgia and the question of state sovereignty. Additional topic: Give an account of some local industry that was established in the first quarter of the 19th century. 26 Slavery and the Missouri Compromises. a Slavery extension, 1 783-1818: constitutional recognition of slavery; Fugitive Slave Act, 1793; economic and political effects of the cotton gin; balancing of states; extent of slavery, 18 18 (map). b The struggle for Missouri: significance of the contest; first compromise (Tallmadge, Thomas) ; second compromise (Clay) ; constitutional questions involved ; cite the sections of the Constitution of the United States relating to these questions. Map work: Status of slavery, 182 1. Shade the portions of the country affected by the compromise. 27 The Monroe Doctrine and the Panama congress. a Conditions leading to the Monroe doctrine. b Earlier statements of the principles of the doctrine. c Contemporary comment on the doctrine. d Later developments of the doctrine. e The Panama congress. 28 Political reorganization and the triumph of Jackson. a Growth of nationalism as shown by Supreme Court decisions. b The "scrub race for the presidency," 1824-25. c New political methods, and the election of 1828. d Personal features of Jackson's administration: Jackson's character; the Kitchen Cabinet; the spoils system intro- duced into national politics. Additional topics: A Indian troubles, 1824-28, 1830-32. B Jackson as a type of American frontier life in 1829. C Internal improvements. D Public lands. XI National Democracy, 1829-44. 29 Nullification in South Carolina; the question of state sov- ereignty. 244 N EW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT a The "great debate": nullification in theory. b The contest with South Carolina: nullification in "practice. c Compare the action of South Carolina in 1832-33 with that of (1) Virginia and Kentucky in 1798-99; (2) Massachusetts in 1813-15; (3) Georgia in 1825-27. [see sections 20, a; 23, c (Hartford convention, etc.); and 25, c, or 28, Additional. Topic A]. 30 Financial questions, 1830-42. a Jackson's war on the bank: objection to the bank; election of 1832 ; removal of deposits; censure and protest. b Financial depression, 1837-40: "pet banks"; distribution of surplus revenue; specie circular; panic of 1837; inde- pendent treasury, 1840 (1846). c Whig financial measures; Tyler's bank vetoes; tariff of 1842. Additional topics: A Nominating conventions. B "Why great men are not chosen presidents." C Ashburton treaty, 1842. 31 Antislavery agitation, 1831-38. a Actual conditions of slavery. b Revival of the slavery question: a period of general moral and religious revival ; new character of the agitation ; leaders. c Northern opposition to the abolitionists: public meetings and protests ; riots ; social ostracism. d Constitutional questions involved: right of petition; free speech; use of the mails. XII Slavery in the territories, 1844-60. 3 2 Annexation of Texas and the Mexican War. a Independence of Texas. b Annexation of Texas : Tyler's attempt ; the election of 1844; how annexation was accomplished. c War with Mexico : immediate origin ; campaigns of Taylor, Scott, Fremont and Kearny; Wilmot Proviso; treaty of peace. 33 Struggle over slavery in the territories. a Compromise of 1850: slavery in the Mexican cession. (1) Settlement of California. (3) Discussion of compromise measures. (3) Workings of the Fugitive Slave Law: the Shadrach case; the underground railroad; Sumner's speech in favor of the repeal of the law. AMERICAN HISTORY 245 b The Kansas-Nebraska Act and the struggle for Kansas: Douglas's real object; Topeka and Lecompton constitu- tions ; civil war in Kansas ; English bill. c Dred Scott Decision, 1857 : slavery throughout the territories d Lincoln-Douglas debates, 1858: the issues denned. e John Brown's raid, 1859. / The election of i860: split in the Democratic party; the Republican convention ; the campaign. Map work: a Show by a series of maps the status of slavery in 185 1, 1855, i860. b Show by a series of charts the sectionalization of political parties in the elections of 1852, 1856, i860. Additional topics: A Webster's services to the idea of national union. B Clay's character and services. C Uncle Tom's Cabin. D Cuba and the Ostend Manifesto E The Isthmian canal question. F The Know-nothing party. G The panic of 1857. XIII Secession and Civil War, i860- 1865. 34 Secession of the Southern States. a Underlying causes ; process of secession ; Constitution of the Southern Confederacy. b Attempts at compromise. c Abraham Lincoln and his policy. Map work: Seceding states. Indicate, also, the loyal, but slave-holding, states. Additional topic: Summary of state sovereignty ideas, 1 783-1861. 35 The Civil War, 1861-65. a Fort Sumter, and the uprising of the North. b The sections in 186 1 compared: population; economic re- sources; military spirit. c General plan of campaign and chief military events. 186 1 Bull Run, and the organization of the eastern army by McClellan. 1862 East: Peninsular campaign, Antietam, Fredericksburg; West: Opening of the Mississippi — Forts Henry and Donelson, Shiloh, New Orleans; eastern Ten- 246 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT nessee: to isolate the Gulf States. 1863 East: Chancellors- ville, Gettysburg; West: Vicksburg; eastern Tennessee: Chickamauga, Chattanooga. 1864 East: Grant's move on Richmond, Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley; West: Sher- man's march from Chattanooga to Atlanta; "from Atlanta to the Sea"; Thomas's campaign and its importance. 1865 Closing in on Lee; Appomattox. 1861-65 The work of the navy. d Financial management of the war: tariff; internal taxation ; paper money ; national banking system. e Attitude of Europe toward the war. / Conditions incidental to war; enlistments; bounties; prison life ; camps ; railroad and telegraph ; sanitary and Christian commissions ; work of the pupil's own town or city. g Northern opposition to the war. h Emancipation. Additional topics; A Grant's military ability. B Lee as a general. C Draft riot in New York city. XIV Problems of peace, 1865- 1904. 36 Reconstruction, the new south, and the race problems. a Principles of reconstruction: policy of Lincoln and of John- son; congressional policy; the Reconstruction Act of 1867; constitutional amendments. b Process of reconstruction: conditions in the South at the close of the war ; southern opposition to the f reedmen ; f reed- men's bureau; carpetbag government; struggle between Congress and President Johnson. c The new South and the race problem: economic develop- ment; social and industrial progress of the negro; revision of constitutions of Southern States. 37 Political problems since 1865. a Party contests: Liberal Republicans, 1872; Hayes-Tilden contest, 1876-77; Democratic triumph, 1884; split in Demo- cratic party, 1896; party issue. b Civil service reform. c Foreign relations, 1 865-1 904: purchase of Alaska ; treaty of 187 1 with Great Britain, and the Geneva award; Venezuelan affair, 1895; annexation of Hawaii; war with Spain; Philip- AMERICAN HISTORY 247 pine problem; independence of Cuba; American policy in China; Isthmian canal. d Problems of municipal government. 38 Economic problems since 1865. a The tariff: attempts to reduce the war tariff; Cleveland's tariff message, 1887; the McKinley Act, 1890; the Wilson Act, 1894; the Dingley Act, 1897 ; movement for reciprocity and tariff reform. b Currency : resumption of specie payments ; the silver coinage struggle. c Combinations of labor and of capital : labor unions ; trusts ; strikes and lockouts; growth of railroads; regulation of in- terstate commerce; the Northern Securities case. 39 Summary and review of American history. a Chief factors in the progress from colonies to nation, from 1607 a.d. to the present. b The United States at the present day: population; re- sources; conditions, social, political, economic. c " Some reasons why the American republic may endure." Additional topics: A Summary of the principal changes made in the Constitution of the State of New York by the revisions of 182 1, 1846 and 1894. B Dangers that threaten free government in America. GROUP 4 (concluded) SOCIAL SCIENCE Civil government Economics CIVIL GOVERNMENT Introduction That the public school exists for good citizenship is axiomatic. It follows then that definite instruction in regard to civic rights and duties and the general functions of government should occupy no inconsiderable place in the school curriculum. Unfortunately the teaching of civil government hitherto has not produced satisfactory results. Too often it has yielded words without ideas, phrases without meaning. Even if the ideas gained by the pupil have been clear, they have been neither vivid nor closely related — mere memory burdens to be carried to the exam- ination and then dumped. In truth, the subject is difficult of approach. Two avenues are open to the pupil, experience and historical knowledge; but most high school pupils, even, have had small experience of government beyond the home and the school and very many have had little his- torical instruction. Experience is the only possible road for the grade pupil; but both approaches should be traversed by the advanced pupils of the high school. If, then, civics in the high school is to be anything more than a review of civics in the grades, if it is to fill any worthy and respect- able place in the curriculum, it must rest on some foundation of historical knowledge and specially on some knowledge of that peo- ple from whom nearly all our best institutions of government were derived. In regard to the extensive syllabus here presented, the following explanations are offered. Civil government is not recommended, and will not be accepted, as a substitute for the course of American history, which has been planned to include continuous instruction in civics. American history will receive the credits of a five hour course while civil government is offered as a two hour course. Students who pur- sue the course of American history as outlined in the history syl- 248 CIVIL GOVERNMENT 249 labus will receive "credit for civil government on all certificates which call for civics. This outline has been prepared for those who specially need the subject of civics for professional certificates or for civil service examinations and for those who can not find time for the full course of American history. It is hoped that this outline will prove of some value to teachers of American history who wish specially to emphasize civil govern- ment in their teaching and to any who, may find the bibliographic references adapted to their library facilities. The bibliographic references have been made from a compara- tively small number of books most of which either are, or should be, in every high school library. For obvious reasons all references to books commonly used as textbooks of civil government in this State have been excluded; but teachers may greatly add to the value of this outline by making for their own classes appropriate references to five or six standard textbooks. It is not expected that each pupil will search each reference con- tained in the syllabus; though teachers should become familiar with all the references, that they may assist pupils to make wise selections of material, properly organize notebook work and know the subject-matter on which examinations may be based. It is earnestly desired that this syllabus may lead to an in- creased use of the notebook and the library — of the notebook as an aid to self-expression and self -activity, of the library as a door- way to intellectual fellowship. 3 *\3 1- General survey of the field "0 a* 5 I Government. 1 The necessity for government. 2 The purpose of government. [ 3 Departments of government. 1 2 2 5 II Early forms of government. 1 Patriarchal. ) 2 Clan. J 3 Tribe. ) 4 State. ) 5 Federation. 1 2 2 8 Ill Colony planting - in America. ' 1 Conditions in England that favored colony planting. - 2 English origins of American government. 3 Typical American colonies. 4 Local governments ; town and county. 2 2 i 250 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT *-> CO Vg t; x ?• CD M 13 M *4 General survey of the field {continued) IV Government in the colonies prior to the Revolution. Steps toward colonial union. VI The Revolution and Articles of Confederation. VII The Old North- west Territory. VIII The Constitution. IX Politicaljparties. X Present govern- ment as developed under the Constitution. XI Foreign relations. XII The Govern- ment of New York State. 1 Nature of the first charters. 2 The necessity for self-government. 3 The need for control by the home govern- ment. 1 The New England Confederation 2 The first colonial congress. 3 The Albany Congress. -| 4 The Stamp Act Congress. 5 The first Continental Congress. 6 Strife of colonial legislatures with royal and proprietary governors. 1 Causes of the Revolution. 2 The second Continental Congress. 3 Formation of state governments. 4 The Articles of Confederation. {• The land. A national territory. The federal convention. Adoption of the Constitution. Departments of government established. Miscellaneous provisions of the Constitu- tion. Overlapping powers. Amendments. / The elastic clause. ) General principles on which parties divided The Federalists. Jeffersonian Republicans. Reorganization of parties. Democrats and Whigs. Republicans and Democrats. Party machinery. The suffrage and its extension Congress at work. The executive department. Federal courts. The civil service. Taxation. Territories. 1 International law. 2 Diplomatic agents. 3 The Monroe Doctrine. 1 The first Constitution. 2 Revisions of the Constitution. 3 Present government of New York. CIVIL GOVERNMENT 251 Cities the first states. Roman municipia. Cities the centers of medieval progress. Drift of population toward cities. American city charters. City government. Outlines of civil government Government. 1 The necessity for government. a The family, the school, the playground. Reference: Dole, American Citizen, 3-13. b The school district, the town, the village or city, the county- References: Nordhoff, Politics for Young Americans, 45 and 126; Dole, American Citizen, 51-54. c The state and the nation. References: Dole, American Citizen, 55-57; Constitution of the United States, art. I, § 8-10. 2 The purpose of government. References: Hinsdale, The American Government, 10 and 11; Nordhoff, Politics for Young Americans, 17-24. Additional topics: A An analysis of a copy of the school rules,- of the rules of a debat- ing or literary society, of the rules of baseball, to show duties and prohibitions or to show the purpose of the rules, i.e. instruction or punishment of offenses. B The reading of a copy of the proceedings! of the last town meeting. C A partial analysis of the annual report of the proceedings of the board of supervisors, showing the different classes of resolutions: (1) providing for taxation, (2) auditing bills, (3) caring for county property, (4) relating to care of criminals and paupers. D A partial analysis of the city or village ordinances, showing the principal subjects of legislation, such as (1) streets and sidewalks, (2) waterworks, (3) public health, (4) fire, (5) general misde- meanors. E A selection, from the index of a recent copy of the laws of New York (session laws), of several of the most important subjects of legislation. F A selection from a recent copy of the Congressional Record of some of the most important subjects of national legislation. ! If not published, apply to town clerk. 252 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 3 Departments of government. Division of the functions of government into legislative, execu- tive, judicial. References: Constitution of the United States, art. I, II and III; Nordhoff, Politics for Young Americans, 28, 29. Additional topic: A chart showing how government is divided into legislative, executive and judicial departments in the state, the county, the town, the village or city. II Early forms of government. Reference: Hinsdale, American Government, 14, 15. 1 Patriarchal. References: Genesis, ch. 13, 14; Myers, Ancient History, 355, 356; Morey, Outlines of Roman History, 28, 29; Bury, History of Greece, 69, 70; West, Ancient History, 260-66; How & Leigh, History of Rome, 40. 2 Clan. References: Genesis, ch. 37, 46; How & Leigh, History of Rome, 41 ; Larned, History for Ready Reference, see " Gens "; International Cyclopedia, see " Clan." 3 Tribe. References: Anderson-Flick, History of New York State, 6; Pelham, Outlines of Roman History, 22; How & Leigh History of Rome, 44, 45; Bury, History of Greece, 69-75. Possible confusion, may arise from different uses of the words "clan" and "tribe" by different authors. Mistakes maybe avoided by remem- bering that strictly speaking the clan is the enlarged family, bound together by blood ties and that the tribe is a larger unit made up of clans. Midway between the Greek clan, genos, and the Greek tribe, phyle, was the phratry or brotherhood and between the Roman clan, gens, and the Roman tribe was the curia. Similarly in England we find the "hundred," apolitical division intermediate between the town and the shire. 4 The state. a The Greek and Roman city-state. References: Morey, Outlines of Roman History, 30; Myers, Ancient History, r?v. ed., 127, 128, 358; West, Ancient History, 91-94. b Fusion of the tribes or smaller kingdoms in England. References: Green, Short History of England, 44; Coman & Kendall, History of England, 37; Cheney, Short History of England, 56. CIVIL GOVERNMENT 253 The federation. a The Confederacy of Delos. References: Bury, History of Greece, 328; West, Ancient History, 159-60; Myers, Ancient History, 202. b Rome and Italy. References: Pelham, Outlines of Roman History, 97-104; How & Leigh, History of Rome, 133-35; Morey, Outlines of Roman History, 93, 94; Myers, Ancient History, 401-3. c The States General (Holland). References: West, Modern History, 177, 242-44; Myers, Mod- ern History, 368-75. d Switzerland. References: Myers, Middle Ages, 418-20; West, Modern I History, 174. e Iroquois confederacy. References: see ,: Iroquois," Larned, History for Ready Refer- ence-, Parkman, Conspiracy of Pontiac, ch. 1; Elson, History of the United States, 38, note. Ill Colony planting in America. 1 Conditions in England that favored colonial enterprise. a England and Spain; Gilbert, Raleigh, Drake, Hawkins. References: Thwaites, Colonies, 37, 42, 43, 52; Gardiner, . Students 1 History of England, 447; Eggleston, Beginners of a Nation, 14-18; Green, Short History of the English People, 413-20. b Economic conditions in England. i References: Fiske, Old Virginia, I, 46-49; Thwaites, Colonies, 53. 65; Cheney, Short History of England, 367, 368. c Religious and political differences. References: Thwaites, Colonies, 114, 115; Fiske, Beginnings of New England, 65, 66, 68-71; Gardiner, Students 1 His- tory of England, 481, 482; Eggleston, Beginners, 118, 119. 2 The English origins of American government. a The town, the parish, the shire or county, the hundred, the moots. References: Green, Short History of the English People, 3,4; Gardiner, Students* History of England, 31, ^^; Cheney, Short History of England, 79, 80; Andrews, History of England, 43-45; Fiske, Beginnings, 27, 28; Thwaites, Colonies, 55. 254 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT b Representative government. References: Fiske, Beginnings, 20-23, 31-33; Hart, Actual Government, 39-43. c Personal rights. References: Hart, Actual Government, 21-23; see, English histories, Magna Charta, Petition of Right, Habeas Cor- pus Act, Bill of Rights; Macdonald, Select Charters, First Charter of Virginia, §15. 3 Typical American colonies. a Virginia: Jamestown and other settlements ; Sandys 's Con- stitution. References: Thwaites. Colonies, 69-73; Elson, United States, 60-67; Eggleston, Beginners, 27-31; Hart, Contemporaries, I, 206-18. References: Thwaites, Colonies, 73, 74; Elson, United States. 67-69; Fiske, Old Virginia, 184-88; Eggleston, Beginners, t 53-58; Hart, Contemporaries, I, 218-25. Additional topic: Locate on a map of tide water Virginia some of the boroughs repre- sented in the first House of Burgesses (16 19). References: Fiske, Old Virginia, I, 186 and frontispiece map. b Massachusetts: Plymouth and Mayflower compact; Massa- chusetts Bay; representative government. References: Thwaites, Colonies, 113-24; Elson, United States, 99-103; Higginson, Larger History, 153-58; Hart, Con- temporaries. I, 344. References: Thw 'aites, Colonies, 124-29; Elson, United States, 105-8; Fiske, Beginnings, 98-106; Hart, Contemporaries, I, 373-82. Additional topics: A Massachusetts and other New England colonies, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, Maine. References: Thwaites, Colonies, 140-53; Elson, United States, 111-19. B Map of Eastern Massachusetts showing 12 towns settled prior to 1640. References: Large map of eastern Massachusetts and a standard encyclopedia. c New York; purpose of the settlements; demands for self- government under Kieft and Stuyvesant; transfer to the English; first representative assembly, town meetings, charter of liberties; division of New York into 10 counties. CIVIL GOVERNMENT 255 References: Thwaites, Colonies, 198; 200, 201; 203-5; Elson, United States, 135, 136; 140-42; see also Roberts, Pren- tice, and Anderson-Flick, histories of New York. Additional topics: A Map of New York State, showing principal settlements made in the Hudson and Mohawk valleys prior to 1700. Reference: A standard encyclopedia; see names of principal towns. B The process of state formation compared with biologic cell growth Reference: Overton, Applied Physiology, 12, 13. C Communism in the Jamestown and in the Plymouth settlements. References: Thwaites, Colonies, 72, 73, 117, 120, 121; Elson, United States, 65, 102, 103; Eggleston, Beginners, 48, 49, 56, 180, 186, 187; Fiske, Old Virginia, I, 166, 167. 4 Local governments; town and county. References: Thwaites, Colonies, 55-58; Elson, United States, 214-15; Bryce, American Commonwealth, I, 589-93; Hart, Actual Government, 169-76. Additional topics: A How local government was modified by geographic and industrial conditions in Virginia and Massachusetts. B The parish in New England and the parish in Virginia. References: Eggleston, Beginners, 275-325; Fiske, Old Virginia, II, 3 J -44. C Beginnings of representative colonial government in Massachusetts, Virginia and New York compared. References: Fiske, Beginnings, 105-6; Fiske, Old Virginia, I, 186, 187; Thwaites, Colonies, 127, 128, 205; Roberts, New York, 188-90, 192. D Beginnings of representative government: Connecticut, Pennsyl- vania and Maryland. IV Government in the colonies prior to the Revolution. 1 Nature of the first charters. References: Thwaites, Colonies, 60; Elson, United States, 61; Fiske, Old Virginia, 51, 52, 64; Hart, Actual Government, 42, 1st par. 2 The necessity for self-government. References: Hart, Actual Government, 41, 43, last par.; Fiske, Beginnings, 105; Fiske, Old Virginia, I, 186, 187, 240, 243-49, 284. 3 The need for control by the home government. Spanish, French and Dutch settlements in America; Indians; commerce; disputes between colonies; religious intolerance. Additional topic: Find in standard histories how affairs in the colonies called for regula- tion by the British government. 256 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT V Steps toward colonial union. 1 New England Confederation, 1643. References: Macdonald, Select Charters, no. 19; Fiske, Begin- nings, 153-62; Thwaites, Colonies, 156-59; Elson, United States, 120-21. 2 The first colonial congress, 1690. References: Elson, United States, 144, 163, 164; Roberts, New York, I, 207, 208. 3 The Albany Congress; Franklin's plan of union, 1754. References: Thwaites, Colonies, 270-71; Elson, United States, 176, 177; Old South Leaflets, no. 9; Franklin, Autobiography, ch. 10; Roberts, New York, I, 316, 317. Additional topic: Summary of the legislative powers granted to the Grand Council in Franklin's plan. Reference: see sections in italics in Old South Leaflets, no. 9. 4 The Stamp Act Congress. Cause; how called; acts; results. References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 44-53 ; Fiske, War of Independence, 39-51; Elson, United States, 224-27; Hart, Comtemporaries, II, nos. 138, 141, 142, 143; Macdonald. Select Charters, nos. 57 and 59. Additional topic: From the "Declarations of Rights and Grievances of the Colonists," select six of the most important declarations. Reference: Hart, Contemporaries, II, no. 141 or Macdonald, Select Charters, no. 59. 5 The First Continental Congress. Cause; how summoned; acts; results. References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 60-63 > Elson, United States, 234-36; Fiske, Revolution, I, 100-10; Mac- donald, Select Charters, no. 72, 73; Green, Short History of the English People, 777, 778; Gardiner, Students' History of England, 780, 782. Additional topics: A Select three important constitutional principles set forth in the "Declaration and Resolves" 1774. Reference: Macdonald, Select Charters, no. 72. B Committees of Correspondence. References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 57, 61; Elson, United States, 234-36; Fiske, Revolution, I, 77-80. C Classes of colonies ; points of similarity. References: Hart, Actual Government, 43, 44; Thwaites, Colonies 58-63; Elson, United States, 210-13. CIVIL GOVERNMENT 257 6 Strife of colonial legislatures with royal and proprietary governors. References: Thwaites, Colonies, 271-77; G. Bancroft, History of the United States, II, ch. 15, pt 3, or Larned, History for Ready Reference, 2335; Roberts, New York, I, 220, 230, 256, 268-78, 287. Additional topics: A The principal features of the Constitution of the United States that were foreshadowed in colonial governments. B Popular rebellions in Virginia and in New York; Bacon and Leis- ter; causes and results. See indexes of standard histories. VI The Revolution and the Articles of Confederation. 1 Causes. a Internal causes: taxation by representative bodies a funda- mental doctrine in England and America; the American theory of representation as opposed to the English theory and practice; spirit of liberty in the colonies. References: Green, Short History of the English People, 760; Gardiner, Students' History of England, 771; Elson, United States, 228; Hart, Formation of the Union, 65, 66; Hart, Contemporaries, II, nos. 138, 143; Cheney, Short History of England, 587, 588; Lecky, American Revolution, 84-92. b External causes : character of George 3 ; Navigation Acts and their evasions; Writs of Assistance; the Stamp Act, the Townshend Acts; repressive measures; attacks on colonial legislatures and colonial courts; the American Revolution, in some respects, an outgrowth of party strife in England. References: Green, Short History of England, 761, 762: Hart, Formation of the Union, 45-56; Elson, United States, 231- 35; Fiske, War of Independence, I, 51; 63; 64-76; Coman & Kendall, History of England, 389-90; Cheney, Short His- tory of England, 589-92. 2 The second Continental Congress 1775. First acts and attitude; change of attitude; Declaration of Independence. References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 73-74; 75-80; Elson, United States, 243-44; 250-54; Fiske, Revolution, I, 158-63; Hart, Contemporaries, II, no. 186, 188 Hill, Liberty Docu- ments, 183-203. 258 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 3 Formation of state governments. References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 80-82 ; Elson, United States, 252: 326; Hart, Contemporaries, II, no. 187; Hart, Actual Government, 46-48. 4 The Articles of Confederation. References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 104-6; 109, no; 1 1 5-1 7; Elson, United States, 318-24; Hart, Con- temporaries, II, no. 189; III, no. 41; Fiske, Critical Period, 94-100; 104-9; 1 17-19; J 50-56 ; Higginson, Larger History of the United States, 292-97 ; Hill, Liberty Docu- ments, 216-26. Additional topics: A Find in some standard history or histories references to the most important grievances mentioned in the Declaration of Independ- ence. Reference: Declaration of Independence, found in many of the standard textbooks. B Find in the Articles of Confederation principles embodied in the Constitution. References: Old South Leaflets, no 2; Hill, Liberty Documents, 204. C A summary of the difficulties that disclosed the weakness of the Articles of Confederation. References: See § VI, 4 of this syllabus. VII The Old Northwest Territory. 1 The land. The boundaries; the George Rogers Clark expedition; treaty of 1783; conflicting claims of Virginia, Massachusetts, Con- necticut and New York. References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 94, 95, 97; Elson, United States, 292 ; 313 ; Old South Leaflets, no. 40 and 41. 2 A national territory. Cession to the United States and its importance ; the Ordinance of 1787 and its provisions. References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 107, 108, also maps 2 and 3 ; Elson, United States, 3 19, 3 20 ; Hinsdale, The Old North- west, rev. ed., see preface maps and p. 165; Hinsdale, American Government, ch. 41; Hill, Liberty Documents, 228- 43; Fiske, Critical Period, 203, 213; McMaster, United States, I, 507, 508. Additional topics: A Map showing the conflicting land claims to the Northwest Territory of Virginia, Massachusetts, Connecticut and New York. CIVIL GOVERNMENT 259 B Principles of the Ordinance of 1787 that were afterward incor- porated in the Constitution or were adopted by state govern- ments. References: Old South Leaflets, no. 13, or Hill, Liberty Documents, 228-36; Constitution of the United States. VIII The Constitution. 1 The federal convention. Causes; the three great compromises. References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 121-23; Elson, United States, 321-25 ; 330, 331 ; Hinsdale, American Govern- ment, ch. 8 and 9; Fiske, Critical Period, 223-90. 2 Adoption of the Constitution; the first 10 amendments or "Bill of Rights." References: The preamble of the Constitution; Hart, Forma- tion of the Union, 128-32; Elson, United States, 334-37; Hinsdale, American Government, 127-29; Fiske, Critical Period, 336-50; Hill, Liberty Documents, 261-63. 3 Departments of government established. References: Constitution of the United States, art. I, II, III; Hart, Actual Government, 53, 54. a The legislative department: the House of Representatives; composition, qualifications and choice of members, special powers; the Senate, composition, qualifications and choice of members, special powers; general powers granted to Congress ; general powers denied to Congress ; legislative powers denied to states. References: Hill, Liberty Documents, 245-52; Hinsdale, American Government, 144-232; standard textbooks of civics, consult indexes; Bryce, American Commonwealth, I, ch. 10 and 13. Additional topic: A chart showing powers granted and powers denied to each house, to Congress, to the states. b Executive department: the president; qualifications, term, manner of election, powers, removal from office. References: Hill, Liberty Documents, 253-56; Hinsdale, American Government, ch. 31 and 32; standard textbooks, see " President " in the indexes; Bryce, American Common- wealth,!, 53-58; Hart, Actual Government, 273-77; Elson, United States, 805-12; Wilson, Division and Reunion, 270, 271; Hart, Actual Government, 304, 305. 20O - NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT c Judicial department: organization and powers; appoint- ment of justices and judges; terms of office; constitu- tional provision in regard to salaries. References: Hinsdale, American Government, 296-300; stand- ard textbooks, see indexes, 4 ' Federal Courts," "Judiciary," etc.; Hart, Actual Government, 296-301. 4 Miscellaneous provisions of the Constitution. Persons ; states ; the public debt ; the supremacy of the general government. References: Constitution of the United States, art. IV and VI; Hinsdale, American Government, ch. 40, 41, 42, 44; standard textbooks. 5 Overlapping powers. Executive and judicial powers conferred on Senate and House; legislative and judicial powers conferred on the President; independence and authority of the judiciary. References: Constitution of the United States, art. II, § 2, If 2; art. I, §2, If 5; §3,116; §5, U 1 ; § 5. T »- art. I, § 7, If 2 and 3; art. II, § 3; art. II, § 2, H 1 and 2. art. Ill, § 1 and 2; Hinsdale, American Govern- ment, 295. Additional topic: Make a chart showing the exceptions to the usual division and dis- tribution of powers among the legislative, executive and judicial departments. 6 Amendments. Two methods of proposing amendments; two methods of ratifying amendments; the first 10 amendments; the nth amendment and its relation to the doctrine of states rights; the 12th amendment and its cause; the main provisions of the 13th, 14th and 15th amendments. References: Constitution, art. V; Hinsdale, American Govern- ment, 340, 341; Hart, Actual Government, 58, Tf 4, 59 ; Hins- dale, American Government, ch. 47, 48; Hart, Formation of the Union, 142, 146; Wilson, Division and Reunion, 259-70; Elson, United States, 340, 793, 796, 798, 799. 7 The elastic clause. References: Compare the preamble and art. I, § 8, 1f 18, of the Constitution; Hinsdale, American Government, 130, 232-35; Elson, United States, 348-51; standard textbooks of civil government. CIVIL GOVERNMENT 26 1 IX Political parties. 1 The general principles on which the people divided into parties. References: See references on 7 of the last section; Hart, Formation of the Union, 130; 133-35; I 4°~4 I i Fiske, Criti- cal Period, 329, 344-46; Old South Leaflets, no. 12 second number of the Federalist; Hill, Liberty Documents, 267. 2 The Federalists in control, 1 789-1801. a Organization of Congress, of Cabinet, and of national courts; the speaker of the House. References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 142-46; Elson, United States, 342-44; Hart, Actual Government, 297; Hinsdale, American Government, 284-91, 293, 294. Additional topics: A Limitations in the Constitution on the national taxation. B Jay's treaty. b Revenue and finance: the tariff, the excise; the public debts; the National Bank. References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 146-47; 148-51; Elson, United States, 343; 344-48; Lodge, Life of Hamil- ton, 108-14; Hart, Contemporaries, III, no. 78; Hart, Contemporaries, III, no. 85 and 86; Riverside Biographical Series, lives of Jefferson and Hamilton; Hart, Actual Government, 394-96. Jeffersonian Republican or Democratic-Republican party, 1801- 17: Federalists in opposition. a The party policy: decentralization; decrease of army and navy; repeal of tax laws; attack on judiciary. References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 180-85; Elson, United States, 380-83. b Reversal of Jeffersonian theory in the purchase of Louisiana. References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 188; Elson, United States, 383-86. c The War of 1812- foreign relations; advent of young Repub- licans afterward National Republicans and Whigs ; failure of peace policy; the Hartford convention and collapse of the Federalist party; industrial changes caused by the war; protective tariff. References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 191-98; 203, 204; 217; 221; 225-29; Elson, United States, 394; 400-3; 413; 446; 45 J -53; Schurz, Life of Clay, I, ch. 5. 4 Reorganization of parties, 1817-29: the Democratic Repub- licans in control. 262 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT a New movements, new issues and new methods. References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 224-31; 238-41; 245-51 ; 253-55 ; Wilson, Division and Reunion, 4-7 ; 9-17 ; Elson, United States, 452, 453; 456-61; 464, 466. b Rivalry of Clay and Jackson and the formation of new parties. References: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 17-26; Elson,' United States, 468, 469 ; lives of Jackson and Clay ; Schurz, Clay, and Sumner, Jackson in the American Statesmen Series, are full and interesting; Brown, Jackson in the Riverside Biographical Series, is brief but good. 5 Democrats and Whigs, 1829-61. a Jackson: the United States Bank; nullification. References: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 34, 35; 59-65, 72-82; Elson, United States, 480, 481; 487-96. b Texas: revival of sectional controversy; Abolitionist and Free Soil parties. References: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 143-47; 165; 169; Elson, United States, 533, 534. c California and the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850. References: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 172-78; Elson, United States, 540-56. d The repeal of the Missouri Compromise and the triumph of the Republican party. References: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 182-8 5 ; 187,188; 199-208; Elson, United States, 571-79; Hart, Source Book, nos. 108, 109, in; Old South Leaflets, no. 82, 83. 6 Republicans and Democrats, 1861 . a Union or disunion. References: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 208-12; 215; 218-21; 226, 227; 232, 233; Elson, United States, 628-33; 639-45; 712-16; 730-32. Morse, Life of Lincoln, b The 13th, 14th and 15th amendments. References: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 259-69; Elson, United States, 793-94; 796; 799. c Reconstruction of the South. References: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 2 54-57 ; 260-62; 266-70; 275, 276; Elson, United States, 791-805; Hart, Source Book, no. 129, 130, 131, 132. d Tariff, finance and commerce. References: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 290-92, 294,296; Elson, United States, 829-32; 864; 865-68; 874; 875; 878,879; 886-89; Hart, Source Book, no. 136. CIVIL GOVERNMENT 263 7 Party machinery. Original intent of the Constitution in regard to the choice of president; the election of Jefferson; the 12th amendment; the election of 1876 and 1877; the Congressional caucus; nominations by state Legislatures ; nominating conventions ; party platforms ; the machine ; party leaders. References: compare Constitution of the United States, art II, § 1, ^ 2 and the 12th amendment; Hart, Formation of the Union, 172 and 173; Wilson, Division and Reunion, 17, 19, 62, 63; 283-86; Elson, United States, 372; 466; 507; 835-41; Hart, Actual Government, 87-112; Hinsdale, American Government, ch. 29 and 30; Bryce, American Commonwealth, ch. 53-63. Additional topics: A Make a chart showing in parallel columns the names of the two principal opposing parties and the policies favored by each. B Find arguments for or against the election of president by popular vote. X Present government as developed under the Constitution. 1 The suffrage and its extension. a Civil and political rights ; naturalization ; voting. References: See indexes, standard textbooks of civil gov- ernment ; Hinsdale, American Government, 216-17. b History of the suffrage. References: Elson, United States, 326; 479, 480; 796-98; Thwaites, Colonies, 142; Hart, Formation of the Union, 14; 246; Wilson, Division and Reunion, 15, 16; 268-70; Hinsdale, American Government, ch. LIV; Hart, Actual Government, 66-71; 82-84. c Woman suffrage. References: Bryce, American Commonwealth, II, 549-62; Hart, Actual Government, 70. 2 Congress at work. a The speaker of the House. References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 142; Elson, United States, 868; Hinsdale, American Government, 151, 152; Hart, Actual Government, 231-33. b The Senate and its prerogatives. References: Hart, Actual Government, 216-19, 2 7 I i Elson, United States, 805 ; 852-53 ; Hinsdale, American Government, 160-63; Bryce, American Commonwealth, I, 104-10. c Legislative committees and legislative debate; compare House and Senate. 264 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT References: Hart, Actual Government, 233-36; 239-40; 242; 248, 249; Hinsdale, American Government, 192, 193; Bryce, American Commonwealth, I, 154-58; see standard textbooks of civil government for committees, bills. d The making of a law. References: See standard textbooks of civil government. 3 The executive department. a The Cabinet: present Cabinet compared with the first Cabinet; appointment and removal of Cabinet officers; general duties of each department of the Cabinet. References: See standard textbooks of civil government; Hart, Formation of the Union, 144-45; Elson, United States, 343, 344; Hart, A dual Go vernment, 277-82; Hins- dale, American Government, 284-91. b President's powers under the Constitution; the president's influence. References: Constitution of the United States, art. II, §2 and 3; see Standard textbooks of civil government ; Hinsdale, American Government, ch. 32; Hart, Actual Government, 269-74; Bryce, American Commonwealth, I, 224-27. 4 Federal courts. a Classes of courts: Supreme; Circuit Court of Appeals; Circuit Courts; District Courts, Court of Claims. References: Hinsdale, American Government, ch. 34; Hart, Actual Government, 301-4; see standard textbooks of civil government. b The jurisdiction of federal courts: cases involving the Con- stitution ; federal law ; federal parties and states. References: Hinsdale, American Government, ch. 35. 36; Hart, Actual Government, 309-14; Bryce, American Commonwealth, I, 241-43; standard textbooks of civil government. c Federal writs: habeas corpus, mandamus, injunction. Reference: Hart, Actual Government, 307, 308. d The United States courts and federal statutes. References: Bryce, American Commonwealth, I, 268-71; Hart, Actual Government, 318, 319. 5 The civil service. a History. References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 174; 179; 180; 246; Wilson, Division and Reunion, 27-34; 277; 293, 294; Elson, United States, 381-83; 484; 853-56; Hart, Source Book, 363-65; Hart, 'Actual Government, 282-90. CIVIL GOVERNMENT 265 b Civil Service Commission. References: Hart, Actual Government, 290-92; Bryce, American Commonwealth, II, 847. c Difficulties in enforcing civil service laws. References: Hart, Actual Government, 292-94; Bryce, A merican Commonwealth ,11,27; 13 9-4 1 . 6 Taxation. a Direct and indirect taxes. b Constitutional limitations on the taxing power of the United States. c Constitutional limitations on the taxing power of the states. d General policy of the United States in regard to direct taxes. e Advantages and dangers of indirect taxation. References: Constitution of the United States, art. I, §8, 11 1 J § 9» 11 4-6 ; § 10, If 2 and 3 ; standard textbooks of civil government; Hinsdale, American Government, 194-98; 240, 241; 246; Hart, Actual Government, 383-406. Additional topic: Natural limitations of taxation. References: See "Taxation" in standard textbooks of political economy. 7 Territories. a The first territorial organization. References: [See § VII of this syllabus.] b Accessions of territory. References: Hinsdale, American Government, 332-35; Hart, Actual Government, 335-46. c Organized dependencies or territories. Elson, United States, 898, 899; Hart, Actual Government, 364-69. d Unorganized or temporary dependencies. Hinsdale, Ameri- can Government, 330-33 : Elson, United States, 900-2 ; Hart, Actual Government, 371, 37 2. XI Foreign relations. ' ] 1 International law. References: See dictionaries, cyclopedias and standard text- books of civil government for the definition of international law. 2 Diplomatic agents, the general classes. References: Hart, Actual Government, 433-39; standard textbooks of civil government. 3 The Monroe Doctrine. References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 241-44; Wilson, Division and Reunion, 272; Elson, United States, 463-64; 778, 779; 884. 266 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Additional topics: A Make a chart of important treaties negotiated by the United States showing briefly the terms secured. B Make a list of 10 important rules generally recognized as parts of international law. C Arbitration between England and the United States. D The Hague Conference, 1899. References: Pupils should find their own references to the above topics and cite their references in their paper. XII The government of New York State. 1 The first Constitution of New York. References: Hart, Formation of the Union, 80-82; Elson, United States, 252; Roberts, New York, II, 434-36; Prentice, History of New York, 255-61. 2 Revisions of the Constitution. References: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 12-16; Elson, United States, 480; Roberts, New York, II, 562-71; Prentice, History of New York, 378-80; 404, 405 ; Anderson- Flick, Short History of the State of New York, 136-38; 186- 87; 272-73. 3 Present government of New York. References: Constitution of New York State; standard text- books of civil government. a Citizens and their rights. b Voters and voting. c The Legislature: the Senate, the Assembly; special powers of each branch; restraints on legislation; appropriation bills. d The executive: qualifications and powers; the veto; ad- ministrative offices. e The judiciary: classes of courts; choice of justices and judges. / State debts and state credit; local debts and local credit. g The school system. h County government. i State militia. j Amendments. Additional topic: Find resemblances between the Constitution of New York State and the federal Constitution. XIII Cities. 1 Cities the first states. References: [See § II, 4, a of this syllabus.] CIVIL GOVERNMENT 267 Roman municipia. References: Myers, Ancient History, 396; Morey, Outlines of Roman History, 93. Cities the centers of medieval progress. a City charters. References: Green, Short History of the English People, 92, 93 ; Taswell Langmead, English Constitutional History, 83 ; Gardiner, Student's History of England, 168-69; West, Modern History, 121-27. b Italian cities. References: Robinson, Readings in European History, I, 304, 305; West, Modern History, 127-29; Myers, Middle Ages, 291-95. c Hanseatic League. References: West, Modern History 129-32; Robinson, Readings in European History, 412-15; Myers, Middle Ages, 289-93. d Medieval cities and education. References: Myers, Middle Ages, 308, 309; West, Modern History, 194-99. Drift of population toward cities since 1800. References: Elson, United States, 478; Hart, Actual Gov- ernment, 181, 182; Bryce, American Commonwealth, I, 622. American city charters. References: Hart, Actual Government, 183-88; standard text- books of civil government; Bryce, American Commonwealth, I, 623. City government. General powers and duties of aldermen, mayor and city judges; the city boards. References: standard textbooks of civil government; a copy of the local city charter; Hart, Actual Government, 186-99. Additional topic: Municipal ownership of public utilities. References: Standard textbooks of political economy ; Bryce, American Commonwealth, J, 648, 649. 268 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT ECONOMICS I Production. i Nature. a Environment: climate; land surfaces; geologic character. b Natural agents: animate agents; inanimate agents. 2 Wealth. a Nature of wealth: distinction between the popular con- ception and the economic conception of wealth; material wealth; immaterial wealth; characteristics of material wealth. b Utility: definition; utility as measured by money. c Factors in production of material wealth: natural agents; land; labor; capital. 3 Labor. a Historical : gild period in England ; domestic period in Eng- land; factory period in England; problems to which the factory system gave rise ; methods of agriculture and of manu- facture before the Industrial Revolution ; the Industrial Revo- lution ; hardships to labor during the process of readjustment ; the French Revolution of 1848 in its relation to labor and capital; the French Commune, its economic significance. Industrial changes in the United States following the War of 181 2; rapid industrial development in the United States. b Kinds of labor: productive labor; unproductive labor; physi- cal labor; mental labor. c Labor as a factor in production: changes wrought by labor; division of labor ; separation of employments ; specialization of skill ; influence of specialization of skill on combination ; division of labor, its advantages and disadvantages; division of labor limited by the nature of the process, by amount of capital, by extent of markets. 4 Capital. a Nature of capital: the root idea of capital; fixed capital; circulating capital; productive capital. b Production of capital : beginning of capital ; growth of capi- tal ; ability and disposition of the individual to save capital. c Capital as a factor in production: the workman's tools; the manufacturer's plant and working capital; the capitalist's investments in industry and in commerce; borrowed capi- tal as a factor in production. ECONOMICS 269 II Exchange. 1 Value. Nature of value; nominal value, real value; distinction be- tween value and price; normal value; value in exchange; general rise of values impossible. 2 Money. a Nature of money; primary function of money. b Historical: barter; need of common denominator of value; various commodities used as money in the past ; silver and gold coinage in the United States; silver and gold dollars of 1792; weight of the gold dollar reduced (1834); coinage of silver prohibited (1873); the Bland Act; the Sherman Act and its detrimental effects ; repeal of the Sherman Act. c Metallic money : qualities of good metallic money ; qualities of gold and silver fitting them for use as money; relative merits of gold and silver for use in coinage; the world's present and prospective supply of gold and silver; the gold standard; Gresham's Law; bimetallism; international bi- metallism. d Credit money: convertible and inconvertible notes ; inflation; present forms of paper money in use in the United States, their security and stability of value. 3 Banks and banking. a Historical: Jewish money lenders; Florentine banks and bankers; origin and development of banking in England; the Bank of England; origin and development of banking in the United States ; the United States bank ; state banks ; "wildcat banks"; national banks. b Functions of banks: deposits; loans; discounts; fluctuation in rates of discount ; domestic and foreign exchanges ; issues of notes; bank money, its limits and safeguards ; reserves and their management; excess and scarcity of currency. 4 Credit. a Nature of credit: forms of credit; book accounts; checks; drafts and bills of exchange; loans; call and time loans; negotiable paper; bank credits; the clearing house. b Useful functions of credit : standard of deferred payments ; value in developing the natural resources of a country and in promoting its industries; value in mercantile enterprises. c Abuse of credit: overconfidence ; extravagance in personal consumption ; promotion of doubtful and shady enterprises ; overcapitalization; speculation; the cause of commercial crises. 2/0 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 5 International trade. Based on comparative cost of production; balance of trade; fluctuations in trade balances; advantages of international trade. Free trade and protection : English practices past and present ; past policies in the tariff for revenue ; repeal of the Corn Law in England United States regarding protection tariff for protection; the laisser-faire doctrine; leading arguments for free trade and for protection stated and com- pared; relative strength of these arguments as forming a basis of action on the part of the United States govern- ment; tariff revision; reciprocity. Ill Distribution. i Interest. a Nature of interest: causes giving rise to interest; owner- ship of capital. b Rates of interest: causes of differences in rates in different countries and localities at different times ; volume of loanable money; risks involved in loans; security and permanency of investment ; the returns of industry as a factor in interest rates ; probable general tendency of interest rates to decline ; influences tending to retard decline in rates. 2 Rent. a Nature of rent: ground rent; agricultural rent; house rent. b Rent values: causes affecting the rent values of farms, houses and stores in different localities and at different times; improvements as affecting rents; the "unearned increment"; diminishing returns from rents; urban rents. 3 Wages. a Nature of wages: nominal wages; real wages; customary wage; living wage. b Remuneration of labor: labor regarded as a commodity; the labor market; supply and demand; Ricardo's "iron law of wages"; standard of comfort; underpaid service; the workman's just share; wages as influenced by cost of living, by individual characteristics, by efficiency of ser- vice, by agreeableness of occupation, by social esteem, by personal risks and chances of success, by opportunities for promotion; wages as affected by the extensive use of machinery, by modern methods of industrial organization, by extensive international trade; wages as influenced by labor organizations; the wages of women. ECONOMICS 271 / 4 Profits. Nature of profits: normal profits; abnormal profits through monopoly; tendency of profits to a minimum; profits in times of business prosperity; profits in times of business depression; business methods and business management as affecting profits. 5 Taxation. Nature of taxation: the right of government to levy taxes; proper objects of government expenditure ; difficulties attend- ing taxation ; general principles that should govern in taxa- tion; direct taxes; indirect taxes; general property tax; the single tax; methods of raising revenue practised by the United States government; methods of raising revenue practised by the New York State government IV Applied economics. 1 Modern industrial organization. a Steps in industrial evolution: individual endeavor; part- nership; corporation; giant industries, trusts. b The capitalist and entrepreneur: functions of each in the modern industrial system. c The trust: nature of a trust; purposes in its organization; effect on volume of production, cost of production, and selling prices; effect on wages of workmen; evils arising from the organization of trusts; proper methods of regu- lating and restraining trusts. 2 Relations of labor and capital. a Causes of the conflict of labor and capital ; evils to labor and to capital lesulting from this conflict; origin of trade- unions; trade-unions in England; labor organizations in the United States; useful functions of labor organizations; influence of labor organizations on workmen; the "walking delegate"; the strike as a remedy for labor troubles; the boycott; the lockout; conciliation, mediation, arbitration. b The proper .elation of labor and capital — partners in in- dustry; effect of such relationship on wages and profits. 3 Socialism. a Various uses of the term socialism ; features common to all modern socialistic schemes; objections to socialism as a scheme for the production and distribution of wealth. b Communism: profit-sharing, its possibilities and dangers; municipal ownership of public utilities; nationalization of the telegraph and telephone; land nationalization; the nationalization of capital. GROUP 5 BUSINESS SUBJECTS Elementary bookkeeping Commercial geography Advanced bookkeeping Business correspondence Business practice and technics Business writing Business arithmetic Stenography Commercial law Typewriting History of commerce BUSINESS CREDENTIALS Four state business credentials are offered as follows: (i) state business diploma, (2) state stenographers diploma, (3) state busi- ness certificate, (4) state stenographers certificate. Diplomas Diplomas are issued only to those who have an education equiv- alent to graduation at a registered New York state high school. If the course has not included American history, civics, and econo- mics, 1 Regents examinations in these subjects must be passed. State business diploma. To obtain the state business diploma candidates having the required preliminary education must be certified as having completed a year's course in a registered pro- prietary business school. Students who have completed a four year commercial course in a registered high school are also eligible to obtain the diploma, but every candidate is required to pass examinations in elementary bookkeeping, advanced book- keeping, business practice and technics, business arithmetic, com- mercial law, history of commerce, 1 commercial geography, 2 business correspondence and business writing. State stenographers diploma. The state stenographer's diploma is granted on the same terms as the state business diploma, except as to the technical examinations, which are as follows: stenog- raphy (second test) 3 100 words a minute passed at 90%; type- writing; business correspondence. Certificates State business certificate. This credential will be granted, with- out regard to preliminary education, to any candidate who passes the technical examinations set for the state business diploma. English history or ancient history may be substituted for economics. typewriting and stenography (ioo word test, passed at 90%) may be offered in place of commercial geography and history of commerce for the state business certificate. 8 There is a first test (50 words a minute) open to the student. Each test is given 2 counts, but one who completes the second test is credited with the first also. 272 ELEMENTARY BOOKKEEPING 2J$ State stenographers certificate. This credential will be granted, without regard to preliminary education, to any candidate who passes the technical examinations set for the state stenographers diploma. Credentials should be claimed. Business and stenographers credentials when earned should be promptly claimed by the schools, with remittance of fee. Outlines of the work. Tests for the state credentials will be based on the following outlines: ELEMENTARY BOOKKEEPING The chief divisions of this subject toward which the examina- tions are mainly directed are as follows : computations ; records of business ; business forms and correspondence ; technical terms. i Computations. The candidate should be able to make at sight all ordinary business computations, relating to: Extending and footing a bill of items. Simple interest and other problems in percentage,' bank discount and true discount or present worth. Interest when partial payments have been made. Commission and brokerage. Simple problems in partnership settlements. Rapid calculation and ready use of fractions. 2 Recording business transactions. The candidate should be able to open a simple set of books for an ordinary business, by single entry or by double entry, and to make entries necessary to record any ordinary transaction in such a way that the exact na- ture of the transaction may be clearly understood. The candidate should be able to change a set of books from single to double entry, and to explain the main points of difference between the two sys- tems. He should be acquainted with the following books, inti- mately as to the first five, and generally as to the others, so that he may be able to present a page or a folio of his own ruling from any one of them: Daybook-journal (commonly called "the journal"). Cashbook. Ledger. Check book. Bank pass book. Sales book. Invoice book. Bill book. 274 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 3 Business correspondence and business forms. Business letters should be characterized by brevity and clearness. The brevity that falls short of complete statement is inexcusable. The usages and courtesies prevailing among intelligent business men should be duly observed, but beyond these observances the purely business letter should contain only the words needed to state the business in hand with clearness and certainty. The candidate should be acquainted with some method of filing for convenient reference business papers, such as letters, statements, accounts sales and invoices. He should know the law concerning the making and indorsement of commercial paper and clearly understand the mean- ing of the different forms of indorsement. He should know the law concerning the presentation of commercial paper for payment or for acceptance and the action to be taken in case of nonpay- ment or nonacceptance. He should be able to make out in correct form such papers as: Bills of goods and receipts for the payment of money. Promissory notes and time drafts. Bank checks and sight drafts on individuals or firms. Bank drafts on other banks and specially on New York city banks. - Invoices, monthly statements, accounts sales and deposit tickets. Trial balances, statements of the condition of a business and balance sheets. 4 Technical terms. Candidates should be able to explain any terms pertaining to bookkeeping or to general business that are in common use among business men and occur in the ordinary text- books on bookkeeping, including such signs and abbreviations as are in common use. Suggestions. The course outlined is expected to fit the student to keep the accounts of an ordinary business by either single entry or double entry. Ample justification for the large amount of work in computa- tions required in connection with elementary bookkeeping is found in the very inefficient preparation in arithmetic of the students who come up to the high schools. Explicit clearness is of great importance in all records made in books of original entry, as these records, after certain preliminary' proofs, are admitted as evidence in the courts. The journal is usually a principal book and book of original entry. The cashbook, in the pure single entry system, is always an auxil- iary book, used for keeping an account of the cash. In double entry ADVANCED BOOKKEEPING 275 it is usually a principal book and a book of original entry, and as such is the posting medium for all cash items. Extra money columns are often used in the cashbook and sometimes in the journal. The ledger is the book of accounts and the index to all business trans- acted. The check book is a book of blank check forms with stub attachment on which is usually kept the record of all checks drawn and of all sums deposited in the bank. The bank pass book contains the record, made by the bank, of all moneys deposited by a customer, and when written up and balanced shows the con- dition of the account on the bank books. The sales book and the invoice book are books of original entry, often used as principal books. The bill book is an auxiliary book used as a record of time paper. In some cases it is used as a principal book. The daybook or blotter is sometimes used as a history of the business transacted. In such cases it becomes the book of original entry, and the trans- actions are posted, through the journal and other books to the ledger. The uses of the daybook have been largely superseded by the daybook-journal usually called the journal. "Interest & discount" should not be used as the name of a ledger account. Interest is always interest — whether it be paid for the use of money already enjoyed; or as a deduction from the face of a note when discounted at a bank; or as a rebate when an interest-bearing obligation is paid in advance of maturity. The term "discount" is better employed in connection with the purchase or sale of commodities where abatements are allowed, as merchan- dise discount or trade discount, in which connection the student is not likely to be confused by the term. ADVANCED BOOKKEEPING The test in advanced bookkeeping demands a higher degree of technical knowledge than is required for the elementary examination It calls for ability not only to open and keep accurately the accounts of any ordinary business, but also to apply to that business such devices as tend to save time and avoid errors. The candidate should have a clear theoretical knowledge of all the books of account in common use, supplemented by a considerable practical knowl- edge. Not only the journal but the cashbook, sales book, invoice book and sometimes the bill book, will be used as principal books of original entry. The journal will not be used for transactions that can be conveniently recorded in the other principal books. The candidate should have a working knowledge also of such subsidiary ledgers as articulate with the main ledger, specially the 276 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT sales ledger and the purchase ledger, which are used somewhat extensively. Special columns in the cashbook and sometimes in the journal are valuable aids to the bookkeeper and should be understood by the candidate. The voucher system of bookkeeping s in use in many lines of business and should not be overlooked. The distinctive book in the voucher system is the voucher record. Candidates should be able to : 1 Make in good form (on paper ruled with faint blue lines only) all ruling necessary for a page or folio of any ordinary book of account or for any statement from the books ; 2 Explain the difference between single and double entry book- keeping and change any set of books from single to double entry or from double to single entry, and know the names and functions of the accounts used in bookkeeping ; 3 Take up and continue any practicable set of books, in what- ever intelligible form they may have been kept, whether in mer- cantile, manufacturing, commission or transportation business, and whether the business be carried on by an individual, a firm, or a corporation ; 4 Make such statements from and entries or changes in, the books of a business as may be necessary when a partner is admitted or when ownership is changed from an individual proprietor or partnership to a corporation ; 5 Make quickly, accurately and in good form bills, accounts sales, statements of account, commercial paper, bills of lading and business documents in common use, and furnish at short notice a statement of the condition of the business. 6 Explain clearly the terminology of bookkeeping. Suggestions. The importance of books of original entry should be strongly emphasized, and the teacher should see that every entry in such books in made so clear that its meaning is unmis- takable. In the commercial courses of high schools much of the bookkeep- ing instruction can be given advantageously in well graded classes. Discussion by the class, subject to moderation and correction by the teacher, will tend to fix the important principles firmly in the minds of the students. In actual writing of accounts, however, individual instruction can not be dispensed with. This is one of the strong points of the private business school which the high school can not afford to neglect. It enables the bright student to do better work and more of it and the dull one will be saved from con- tinuing in wrong methods. BUSINESS PRACTICE AND TECHNICS 2^ It is of vital importance that the instructor know that each student is thoroughly grounded in the work he has taken. This can be ascertained by frequent special tests, and no student should take up any new work until he can show that he has mastered the old. A half day devoted occasionally to a written examination and followed by a searching quiz would be of great value to student and teacher. This does not apply to bookkeeping alone, but also with almost equal force to arithmetic, commercial law, and busi- ness practice and technics. BUSINESS PRACTICE AND TECHNICS The test presupposes a 'practical general knowledge of the manner of conducting business and some familiarity with the methods and practice that should prevail in every well regu- lated business office. The student will buy and sell merchan- dise for cash, on account and in exchange for time paper. He will operate as an independent merchant, as a member of a firm and eventually as the head of a large wholesale establishment. In the course of his practice career he will deal with other students, alone and as members of firms, and with one or more wholesale establishments. He will have ample capital to begin with and will open an account as a customer of the bank, through which he will get all necessary knowledge of banking from the customer's point of view. He must have a watchful eye on his business, must sustain his credit by paying his bills when due, must look carefully after his collections, his commercial paper and his price list. In order to do business it is necessary for the student to know something of the usual rules and practice in buying and selling breadstuffs, and other farm products; meat products; cotton, wool, hides and other raw materials; lumber, iron and other building materials; mineral products sold on a commercial scale; fruits and groceries; dry goods and all ordinary commodities; stocks and bonds. He should have some general knowledge of the prevalent customs in the business of transportation on the high seas, the great lakes and navigable rivers and by canal or railway; in the business of manufacturing and insurance; and should also know something of the more important rules and customs governing transactions on the stock exchange, the produce exchange and similar centers of trade. This knowledge is not expected to be in any sense technical, but broadly general. The student should be able to keep the accounts of an ordinary business and to make out all papers in the regular order of such business. 278 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Suggestions. In the business practice department the transac- tions should be, so far as circumstances will permit, counterparts of those occurring in actual business, and they should be con ducted with the earnestness and exactness which characterize the model man of business. With this spirit prevailing, it will be the pride of every student to carry out with precision the most minute rules of business custom and etiquette. This work is closely correlated with bookkeeping, arithmetic and commercial law, and gives rise in great part to the work in those branches as well as to much valuable practice in the use of English and in penmanship. Every student in the department should be required to perform independently and in accordance with the principles and models furnished him the whole series of connected operations arising out of his commercial dealing. The books, stationery and appliances used in the course should be modern, of good material and of the most approved form used in business houses. Strict accuracy should in all cases be demanded. It is assumed that the student who has learned to keep accurately a set of books in one reasonably complicated business will readily adapt himself to the peculiarities of any other line of business which he may be required to take up. Sufficient time should be allowed the student in each office or subdivision to gain a knowl- edge of details. Letters and business papers should be carefully filed by modern methods for convenient reference, and all original documents should be securely guarded. Special instruction should be given along these lines, which also include modern methods of copying and duplicating. The student should also be brought occasion- ally face to face with emergencies that require prompt action. In this department the student will gain familiarity with the use of invoices, accounts sales, accounts current, bills, receipts and every kind of formal business statement; of express receipts, rail- way receipts and more formal bills of lading, of warehouse receipts, drafts, checks, promissory notes and all ordinary forms of business paper. He should also acquire ability to write a good business letter, and he should be taught to combine clearness with brevity. Every letter or other document written here should be scrutinized by the teacher, and corrections suggested when necessary. Stu- dents whose handwriting is deficient in legibility or neatness should receive such "individual instruction as may be necessary, and should be required to devote extra time to practice till the deficiency Jis overcome, A bad writer can not be a successful bookkeeper. COMMERCIAL LAW 279 BUSINESS ARITHMETIC This test requires a high degree of skill and absolute accuracy in business computations, such as weights, measures and prices in various kinds of business (including a practical knowledge of the metric system). Candidates should be able to solve any problem in ordinary business, and have such familiarity with principles as will enable them to make use of the simplest and most certain. They must have a good working knowledge of denominate numbers, aliquot parts, percentage in its numerous applications, such as trade discounts, commission and brokerage, profit and loss, interest, present worth, bank discount and partial payments. They should be acquainted with the principles of ratio and proportion and be able to apply them in the solution of problems. They should be able to solve problems in insurance, exchange, equation of accounts, partnership settlements, opera- tions of incorporated companies, stocks and bonds, taxes, duties, banking, storage and general average. Suggestions. In the Regents examinations in business arith- metic no credit will be given to any answer that is erroneous as to computation. If the candidate proceeds on a wrong principle (as for example, computing interest on a basis of 360 days to the year when required to compute on the basis of 365 days; or making a mistake in some table of denominate numbers) yet makes no error in computation, he will be allowed half credit on his answer. The justification for this requirement is that inaccurate com- putation is of no value in the countingroom or elsewhere. Rapid calculation in addition, subtraction, multiplication, cancelation, interest and discount should be a daily exercise. Work in bill making, partnership settlements and the like should appear as far as possible in the form of statements, on paper ruled by the student. Such work tends to increase largely the student's efficiency in the knowledge and practice of accounts. The students should not be allowed to tie themselves down to rules. Select business problems and let them be solved by business methods, founded on analysis and reason. The arithmetic of business should be emphatically the arithmetic of common sense. Frequent tests should be given. COMMERCIAL LAW The test in commercial law demands a thorough knowledge of those phases of the law that are of constant application in business life, including the drawing of contracts and other business docu- 280 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT ments. Candidates should have an exact knowledge of the laws relating to negotiable paper and other contracts in common use. They should have a fair practical knowledge of the laws relating to interest and usury, sales of personal property, partnership, agency, liens, bailment, warranty, guaranty, insurance, attachment, garnishment, corporations, common carriers, stoppage in transit, real estate, banking, taxes and duties. Candidates should be familiar with the provisions of the statute of limitations and with the 4th and 17th sections of the statute of frauds and New York legislation thereon. They should have a general knowledge of the interstate commerce law and the national bankruptcy law and be able to fill out or draw up in concise legal form any contract or agreement, check, note, bill of exchange, bill of sale, power of at- torney, bill of lading, deed, mortgage, lease, notice of protest, or other document relating to the foregoing subjects. Suggestions. Ignorance of the law excuses no one. The pur- pose of this course is to protect the student from the anxieties and losses of lawsuits, by acquainting him with some of the under- lying principles of the law, and with the drawing of contracts and other business papers in simplest legal form and with the least verbiage consistent with clearness. It is not expected that the student will draw any but the simplest papers from memory; but knowing all the particulars of a contract he should be able to draw it concisely and legally. He should not be required to write from memory any of the complicated printed forms, but simply to fill in what needed to be written. The teacher of commercial law need not be a practitioner in the courts. He need not even be a lawyer, but he should be one who knows the law. He may lecture on the law, but he should not do too much of it. The class should have a chance to do much of the talking, subject to correction when necessary. The chief object is to fix permanently in the minds of students the un deviat- ing principles of the law and this can usually be done most effect- ively by an analysis of cases, real or hypothetical. Judicious dis- cussion by the class, within proper limits, should always be allowed when time permits. Some reliable textbook should be in the hands of the students for careful study. It is desirable that the teacher of bookkeeping and business practice have a working knowledge of commercial law, as correla- tion of these studies will be of great value. When the class in book- keeping is called to draw its first check, promissory note or draft, it should be instructed in the provisions of law relating to negoti- HISTORY OF COMMERCE 28 1 able paper: the duties of the drawer or maker for the protection of himself and others into whose hands the paper may rightfully come; the liability incurred by the indorser and how it may be limited or otherwise modified; the duties and obligations of the acceptor; the precautions to be exercised on the part of the payee and the payer. 1 All of these will be subjects of live interest to the student who has just drawn his first promissory note or check. When as a young merchant in business practice he signs a lease for his place of business, the important law points bearing on leasehold should be made clear to him, and so also of the fire insur- ance policy on his goods. If possible, the document or matter under discussion should be before the class, either written on the blackboard or in print or writing in the hands of every member; and the subject should not be dropped until every student is able to draw the document, and state the important points of law which bear on it. Members of the class should be allowed all the latitude for discussion consistent with good discipline and necessary time limits and every member should be encouraged to participate. Such discussion promotes confidence and clearness in expression of ideas. HISTORY OF COMMERCE History should connect the present with the past. As commer- cial geography portrays the commerce of today, so the history of commerce should depict in broad lines the commerce of past ages. In preparation for the test the candidate should acquire a general knowledge as to the origin and early development of commerce, should be able to trace its influence on the world's civilization and should become acquainted in a broad, general way with the great discoveries, public works, inventions, legislative enactments and other important influences by which the progress of commerce has been affected. A more intimate acquaintance with the com- mercial history of our own country will be required. The student should reach a clear understanding of the begin- nings of commerce as the inevitable outcome of man's needs and desires. In tracing its earlier history he should note the more striking incidents with which its development has been accom- panied. This naturally demands some knowledge of the peoples and of the countries or cities that in earlier times have been noted for commercial enterprise: Egyptians, Hebrews, Ishmaelites 'The negotiable instruments law, recently passed by New York and some other states, •hould be consulted as to commercial paper. 282 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT (Arabs), Phenicians, Greeks; Carthage, Rome, Palmyra, Massalia (Marseilles), Athens, Corinth, Magna Grecia^ Byzantium; slavery in Greece. Phenicia: commercial policy; commanding position; inland, river and maritime trade; carrier for all employers; inland trade with Hebrews and Egyptians ; ship builders and navigators ; trade on the high seas; close relations with Solomon; Sidon and Tyre; breadstuffs imported; Carthage; other colonies; early currency. Egypt: agriculture and manufactures; importers of hides, furs, fine woods, etc., and of slaves; the Nile river. Greece: a seafaring people; taught by the Phenicians; fruits, breadstuffs and raw materials; extensive colonization; flourishing trade between colonies and mother cities; slavery. Athens in the time of Pericles. Commercial and economic effects of the con- quests of Alexander. Importance of Rhodes; fairs and markets in Greece. Roman commerce and industries: Romans not a commercial people; imports of Rome; exports; balance of trade, how adjusted; trade gilds; decline in agriculture; slavery; encouragement of in- dolence; Roman roads and posts; commercial tribunals; Roman currency; decay and fall of Rome. Five centuries of uncertainty and unrest: Theodocian code; ecclesiastical law. The Eastern Empire: Justinian (A. D. 527-65); conquests in Italy, Africa and Spain; Amalfi; Pisa; silk culture in the west. Mohammedan empire (622-732): marvelous growth; trade and manufactures; character of workmanship; splendid cities; Arab civilization in Spain; permanent contributions to the world's industries. Karl the Great (771-814): education, agriculture and commerce and the keeping of accounts; a semimilitary system; relations with distant rulers ; stimulates the growth of towns ; a commercial treaty with the king of Mercia; protection to traders in the realm of Karl. Feudalism: its essential feature; causes of its institution and growth; its primary effects on the classes of persons involved; how it affected the growth of towns; two contrary influences on trade. Merchant gilds and craft gilds: reasons for their founding; object of the merchant gilds; of the craft gilds; influence of mer- chant gilds in the towns; how members of craft gilds became! freemen. HISTORY OF COMMERCE 283 The crusades: general influence on trade; how they affected the commerce of the Italian city republics; special commercial conces- sions; how England was benefited. The career of Venice; her consular system. Florence as a financial center and manufactur- ing city ; chief causes of the decline of Italian cities. Leagues against pirates and robbers. The Hanseatic League {circa 1 1 69): object; Hamburg and Liibeck; rapid growth of the league; growth in power and increase in commerce; monopoly; factories (agencies); the "London Steelyard;" the factories at Novgorod and Bruges; eminent services of the league. Fairs and markets: their function in commerce; surviving fairs. Early English commerce: trade in tin with the Phenicians; a trade with Gaul in other products. King Alfred founds a navy. Wool the most important commodity through the Middle Ages: exported; manufactured; the main source of revenue. Influence of foreign immigration on the woolen industry. The Jews in England; Black Death (1348-50) carries off one third to one half of the population; slow but steady breaking up of manorial system. The Netherlands in the Middle Ages: Ghent; Antwerp. German expansion: colonization. The travels of Marco Polo. Medieval currency, banking and credit; general influence of medieval commerce on the development of civilization. Invention of gunpowder, the mariner's compass, the astrolabe and the art of printing; a new route to India; discovery of America; circumnavigation of the earth; economic effects of the Protestant Reformation; the Peasants War. Commerce under the Tudors. Henry 7 builds ships and extends commerce. Wool and other exports carried in English ships to most of the maritime countries of Europe; commercial treaties. Henry 8. Chief economic event; influence on agri- culture; effects on the woolen industry ; advance in prices. The Portuguese establishment in India, how won and how lost. Rise of the Dutch Republic; commercial expansion; leading bankers; the Dutch in America; the French and English in India. Spanish ascendancy in the west. Opportunity for commercial supremacy; leading states united by marriage; victory over the Moors by capture of Granada; monopoly of a new world; greatest world power ; natives enslaved to work in mines ; Spanish treachery ; beginning of African slave trade in the New World ; colonial policy and its results. 284 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Early navigation laws of England (1381-1600) ; England in the reign of Elizabeth; slave trade; opening of trade with Moscow; grants by James 1 of lands in America (1606); early shipbuilding industry in American colonies; first restriction of American colo- nial commerce (1619) ; the European system of colonization ; coloni- zation of America; Charles 1 attempts a monopoly of American commerce (1628-39); the sole market theory; slavery in Europe and America; export and import trade of the American colonies confined to British or colonial ships (1650); enactment that the "enumerated articles" should not be exported direct to foreign countries without being first brought to England and reshipped by English merchants (1660); smuggling by colonists ; no foreign com- modity allowed to be sent to the colonies unless actually laden at an English port and carried by an English ship (1663); colonists forbidden to carry on manufacturing; the commercial policy of Colbert (1664); the treaty of Utrecht (1713). The Seven Years War (known in America as the French and Indian War, 1756-63). A struggle for a continent; Pitt's supreme effort in the interest of colonial, maritime and commercial supremacy for the English people. Economic causes of the American revolution. Woolen manufac- tures forbidden (17 19); iron manufactures forbidden (1750); hats not allowed to be sent from one colony to another ; colonies encour- aged to produce raw materials for English manufacturers; con- traband trade with French and Spanish settlements; writs of assistance; stamp tax (1765); Pitt's protest against taxation with- out representation; colonists form associations for buying only their own manufactures; England imposes duties on tea, glass, paints and pasteboard (1767); "Boston tea party" (1773); port of Boston closed and charter of Massachusetts annulled; all trade with the colonies forbidden (1775); Continental Congress; articles of confederation; France helps the colonies and forms an alliance with them ; Spain joins France against England. Coalition against the "right of search." Commerce and industries during the Revolution: free trade; all goods accepted except English; establishment of iron manu- factures by the Congress; wool manufactures; reciprocity with France; the Continental Congress declares for free trade (1778); equipment for the Continental army; a factory started (1790) ; the cotton gin; a flood of English goods follows the treaty of peace ; English goods cheaper in New York than in London ; paper money; manufacturing establishments closed; workmen beggared. HISTORY OF COMMERCE 285 Local protection. Each state reserves the right to regulate its own commerce ; intolerable clashing of state tariffs leads to the for- mation of the federal Constitution ; a single system of commercial policy adopted; tariff of 1789; import duties 5 to 10%; 30 to 50% on tonnage of foreign vessels. Beginning of modern cotton manufacture in the United States (1790); shipbuilding; causes of the backwardness of manufactures; first application of steam in the United States (1800) ; conditions of agriculture, commerce and manufactures (1808); status of Ameri- can shipping (1795) ; increase in rate of duties (1 789-1808) ; tariffs to 1807 founded on fiscal needs; embargo act (1807); noninter- course act; effects of these acts on commerce, on American shipping and on manufactures. War of 181 2, causes, effects; protective tariff (18 16), why imposed; effects. The "reciprocal liberty of commerce" act (18 15). The English industrial revolution ; five great inventions and their radical influence on the industries and commerce of England; temporary suffering of working classes and small farmers; the mining industries. The French Revolution and continental war. Napoleon's continental system; broken by Russia. Decay of the Nether- lands; revival of Holland; Belgian development; Switzerland; Russia's growth, commercial policy, railways; revival of Italian trade ; commercial decay of Spain. A leaning toward protection. Transportation in the United States. Stage coach, turnpike, saddle horse and ox team; river navigation; steamboats (1807); flatboats on the Ohio and Mississippi; great reduction in freight rates; Cumberland road; many canals projected; the Erie canal; navigation on the great lakes; first railroad begun (1828); first railroad in New York (about 1832) ; total railway mileage in 1835, 760; in 1850, 8571 miles. The Savannah, an American sailing vessel having auxiliary steam power, crosses the Atlantic; first regular line of steamers between United States and Europe (1838). Morse telegraph, invented 1835, fairly established in the early "forties"; first and second ocean telegraph cable (1858-66); com- mercial treaties ; reciprocity treaties. England adopts free trade and repeals the corn laws; extraor- dinary commercial and industrial progress; colonial trade; in- fluence in Africa; discovery of gold in California and Australia (1848-49); the Zollverein in Germany. Pan-American congress. 286 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Population of the United States increased by immigration; causes and inducements. Increased agricultural production and increased demand for goods; financial crises and panics, causes and results. The American Civil War, economic causes and results; effects on other countries; cost, in money, to United States. The Suez canal: its importance; its chief beneficiaries. The American Isthmian canal. Other important canals. Transcontinental railways; the Interstate Commerce Commis- sion. The Franco-Prussian War and its results. Trade and industry of Germany and France since the war. Detached territory and colonies of the United States. The fisheries of the United States, value of the catch; approxi- mate capital invested in manufacturing industries. The renaissance of the Southern States; trade of the United States with foreign nations now includes exports of American silks, woolens and cottons to Europe; domestic commerce of the United States; American shipping; commercial and economic effects of Spanish-American War. Prevailing trade conditions and policies of European and other foreign countries. Suggestions. The history of commerce naturally links itself with commercial geography and the same general methods are applicable to both studies. Maps should be studied to identify localities and outline maps should be used as tests. It is recom- mended for both studies that topics be assigned at least once a week to individual members of the class, for investigation and writ- ten report to the class. The reports should be discussed in class and each member allowed to question the author on any matter not fully understood. The teacher should observe the discussion and see that no erroneous conclusions are reached. 1 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY The test in commercial geography presupposes some general knowledge of mathematical, physical and political geography. Candidates should be able to give in a general way the location and physical features, approximate size and population, form of government and prevailing language of the important commercial J For many valuable ideas on the study of history, see article, " History," by Dr C. A. Herrick, Director School of Commerce, Philadelphia Central High School, in Com- mercial Education in High Schools, University of the State of New York, College Department, bulletin 23, June 1904, 20c. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 287 countries of the world, and should have a knowledge of the relative commercial activities of those countries and of the leading products (specially exports and imports), routes of travel and transporta- tion, chief seaports and ocean or other routes by which these are connected with other trading ports of the world. Physical features. Land. Continents; islands, continental and oceanic; coast forms, cape, promontory, peninsula, isthmus; relief forms, mountains and mountain systems, plain, plateau, basin, desert. Water. Ocean, sea, gulf or bay, strait, sound, lake, river; cir- culation, including waves, tides, ocean currents. Atmosphere. Constant winds, including trade winds, antitrade winds, monsoons. Inconstant winds, including land and sea breezes, cyclone or tornado, water spout. Moisture: grains to cubic foot of air; dew point; average annual rainfall. Climate. As determined by location, altitude, winds, ocean currents, high mountain ranges. Weather bureau. Predictions and signals. Political. The political divisions of each continent or grand division, their capitals, forms of government, population and language. Commercial. A study of countries and peoples as to commercial importance and efficiency, chief industries, trade with other coun- tries (specially the United States), leading commodities, value of exports and imports, internal communications, including routes of travel and transportation, chief commercial cities and seaports and the ocean routes and ship canals by which they are connected with the trading ports of the world. A fair knowledge of these matters and of the general character of the people will be required in the case of all countries studied. The State of New York. Physical features of the region in which the candidate resides; climate and soil; description of a familiar industry; industries peculiar to the State; leading industries; special industries in certain cities; industries that are declining; new industries; important manufactures; early methods of travel and carriage; rivers, canals and railways; pipe lines; the open door to the great West. United States. Richness and variety of raw materials; exports; imports; recent exports of silks and woolens to France, hosiery to Germany, cottons to Manchester and tin plates and bars to Wales. England is importing Lake Superior iron. 288 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Manufactures. New York State. Clothing; iron products; leather and its products; refined sugar, chemicals, steam engines and heavy machinery, agricultural machinery and implements, sewing machines, bicycles, wagons, typewriters, and other fine machinery and tools, printing presses and type, paper and books, electric machinery and supplies, pianos, shipbuilding, soap and candles, clay products, tin and copper goods, malt liquors, tobacco and cigars, furniture, knit goods, hats and caps, gloves. Pennsylvania. Importance in iron and steel working, woolen and carpet industries. Massachusetts. Leading in cotton and woolen mills, boots and shoes. Leading manufactures in other states. Development of manu- facturing in the Southern States. Internal communications. Mississippi river system, great lakes, Erie canal, Hudson river, Sault Sainte Marie canal, Welland canal, St Lawrence river; transcontinental railway systems and principal connections ; railway lines running north and south ; trunk railways of New England; trunk railways in New York; postal and tele- graph facilities; express companies. Seaport cities and towns. The six leading seaport cities, their position, population and influence; five cities on the New England coast, one each on the coast of Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama and Texas, and four on the Pacific coast, with the trade for which each is noted; seven important city ports on the great lakes, 10 river ports of the Mississippi system; 10 inland manufacturing or commercial cities of New York; 10 inland manu- facturing cities or towns of New England, three of New Jersey, five of Pennsylvania, one of Delaware and one each of Virginia, West Virginia, Georgia, Alabama, Tennessee, Indiana, Michigan and Wisconsin; six important mining cities and towns in the United States; the largest cattle market town; the chief coal oil town; four noted inland cities and towns near the pacific coast. Detached territory. Alaska. Furs, fisheries, forests, gold. Hawaii. Leading product, chief city, character of people, ocean communications. Puerto Rico. Two leading products, chief seaport, character of people. Philippine Islands. Commercial importance; hemp, sugar, tobacco, coffee, rice; chief port; character of people and progress of civilization; ocean communication. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 289 Ocean communications. Steamer routes: New York to Queens- town and Liverpool; New York to Hamburg; New York to South- ampton and London; New York to the Mediterranean; New York to Cape Town and Cape Town to Adelaide, etc.; New York coast- wise around Cape Horn to San Francisco; New Orleans to Liver- pool; New York to the Bermudas; New York to Havana; San Fran- cisco to Yokohama; San Francisco to Honolulu; Honolulu to Feejee Islands and Auckland. The Suez canal; other ship canals. Ocean cables. Postal facilities. Other countries hereinafter mentioned should be studied along similar lines to those laid down for the United States, but with less detail and in what is practically the order of the importance of their trade with the United States. Great Britain and her colonies Commercial importance. Values of exports and imports, a financial center, distributor of the world's products, merchant marine, trade with the United States, free trade. England and Wales; Scotland; Canada and Newfoundland; Ireland; British India, Ceylon, Hong Kong, The Straits Settlements and Aden, Australian colonies, British West Indies (Bahamas, Windward group, Trinidad, Bermudas, Jamaica and Turks island). Balize (British Honduras). British South American colonies (British Guiana). British possessions or dependencies in Africa (Cape Colony, Mauritius, Sierra Leone, Lower Egypt, Rhodesia. Other countries German Empire, France, Brazil, Belgium, Spain and Portugal, Italy. Holland (the Netherlands) and colonial possessions: Dutch East Indies, including Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Celebes, Moluccas, western half of New Guinea. Mexico, Japan, China, Russia and Siberia, Switzerland, Austria-Hungary, Turkey (including the Le- vant), Sweden and Norway, Denmark, Greece, Central American states, Venezuela, Argentina, Colombia, Chile, Uruguay, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Hayti and San Domingo. While in the foregoing list of countries, colonies and dependen- cies other than our own, only the names have been mentioned, it is expected that each of these will be given as much study as time will permit. Suggestions. In the study of commercial geography it seems desirable to proceed from the known to the unknown or faintly 29O NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT apprehended — from the home of the student and its environment, in widening circles, till the study embraces first the state, then the Union and finally the commercial world. As an introduction to this study it would be helpful to the student to have an intimate knowledge of some of the more common raw materials of commerce and to be able to trace them through the various processes of preparation to the finished product. Some of the commercial teachers in the high schools of our State have already begun to make collections of working specimens to be handled by the students and have also begun to collect specimens and products for permanent commercial museums. The principal of one of the largest commercial schools in the State writes: "The subject of raw materials and commercial products is the most interesting and should be the most important part of commercial geography . . . I find that our pupils get more information from their trips to the docks and to the factories and from their study of commercial products (which they have already collected in such abundance as to stock the museum in our new building) than they do from the textbook or from their col- lateral reading; so that the study of raw materials and commer- cial products is the center of our study of commercial geography." An able teacher in the English High School, Boston, says: "The field of the science is the study of those commercial products that man needs for his existence, and the various forms of industry and labor by which men produce those commodities and earn their living." 1 Maps will prove very valuable in the study of commercial geogra- phy — wall maps for fixing localities, followed by outline maps as tests. As our Boston teacher has well said: "A student who can indicate on an outline map the areas of production, trade routes, etc., knows his lesson and has the picture clear in his mind." In this connection lantern slides may be made of great value. The director of the Philadelphia Commercial Museum, says, in an article on "Some of the Equipment necessary for Commercial Schools" 2 : "Where the actual articles of commerce can not be secured they can still be adequately presented by means of the lantern slide; and this has no superior, indeed no equal as a means of protraying methods of packing, of shipping, of transportation generally and of docking and wharf facilities in the various parts of the world." 1 See Commercial Education in High Schools, p. 55 et seq. College Department bulletin 23 ,J See Commercial Education in High Schools, p.101 et seq. BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE 2<)I It is unnecessary to enlarge on the value of a good working library in connection with this study. In it should be found all the books on commercial geography. There are not many of them yet, but the list is growing. Reference books, government publications, Philadelphia Commercial Museum publications, trade journals and reviews are valuable aids. See Dr Herrick's list in Geography of Commerce, Trotter, p. xx-xxiv. Informal talks by business men and manufacturers would be of great interest to commercial students and would impress them strongly with the realities of business life. Among the more valuable recent publications of the State De- partment at Washington are Commerce and Finance of the United States, for November 1904; Review of the World's Commerce, for 1901 ; The Act to Regulate Commerce, as amended 1887-1903 ; Dingley Tariff Bill; U. S. Bankruptcy Law of 1898, as amended 1 903 ; and Special Consular Reports, particularly volume 4 (189 1) Port Regu- lations in Foreign Countries; volume 10 (1894) Extension of Mar- kets for American Flour; volume 12 (1895) Highways of Commerce (New Edition, 1899); volume 13 (1896-97) Money and Prices in Foreign Countries; volume 16 (1899) Tariffs of Foreign Countries; volume 32 (1904) Foreign Markets for American Fruits; volume 30 (1904) Emigration to the United States; volume 28 (1904) Com- mercial Travelers in Foreign Countries. A few of these special reports are out of print and can not be furnished by the department. BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE This test, which is intended specially for students in business and stenographers work, consists mainly of practical exercises in English composition which are to be rated according to their character, not only as to form, spelling, punctuation, capitalization and general neatness, but also in the more essential matters of exact use of words, sentence structure, clearness, logical sequence of ideas and paragraphing. The questions set will include letter writing on varied business topics, essays on various requirements of technical business education, correction of faulty composition, also drawing up or filling out, from statement or memoranda, business documents such as contracts or articles of agreement, bills of sale and power of attorney. Candidates may also be required to make reports and abstracts, to condense long articles (preserv- ing all important features), to write and answer advertisements and to compose short essays on business topics. No questions in technical grammar will be asked. 292 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Suggestions. Questions 1-3 are required and must be answered in order to obtain credit. These refer to the essays on require- ments of business education and are intended to show whether or not the candidate has the technical knowledge that would war- rant him in taking this examination. These questions are given alternatively, so that they may be answered from the point of view of the bookkeeper or of the stenographer and typewriter The necessary data for answering the other questions will be found in the paper set for advanced bookkeeping. 1 BUSINESS WRITING The requirements for this test are speed, legibility, accuracy, adaptability and neatness. There will be a speed test of 225 words to be written from unfamiliar printed matter in 15 minutes, and 600 figures to be written in 10 minutes. The remainder of the test will consist of the writing of business papers and letters from printed copy. Credits for the first six questions depend on speed, legibility, accuracy and neatness; for the others on legibility, ac- curacy, adaptability and neatness, without reference to speed. All answers must be written with pen and ink. Suggestions. While this test is given mainly for penmanship it has a further educational value in presenting correct business papers and model letters. By "adaptability" is meant the ability to make the writing accommodate itself to the space in which it is to be written; and this applies not only to the size of the letters, but to the distinctness with which they stand out for important words or phrases. Business writing should be so legible that any isolated word could be read with ease. Figures must be neat, correct in form and properly aligned. STENOGRAPHY There are two tests as follows: First test. Ability to write accurately in shorthand 500 words in 10 minutes and to transcribe the notes in 45 minutes, either in longhand with pen and ink or on the typewriter. Second test. Ability to write accurately in shorthand 500 words in five minutes and to transcribe the notes in 45 minutes, either in longhand with pen and ink or on the typewriter. Candidates for state business credentials must obtain at least 90% in this test. J For suggestions regarding business letters, see Commercial Education in High Schools, p. 21-23, College Department bulletin 23, June 1904. TYPEWRITING 293 Papers will be rated in proportion to the accuracy shown in taking down the letters or selections, in transcribing the notes and in spelling, use of capitals, punctuation and paragraphing. Each test is allowed two credits, but candidates who complete the second test will also receive credit for the first test. The examination must not exceed three hours. The candidates may be divided into groups for convenience in dictation, but the time limits for dictation and for transcription must be strictly observed. The shorthand notes and the transcript are to be promptly collected at the end of the period assigned for transcription. Suggestions. The matter for dictation will comprise usually, for the first test, three business letters containing about 250 words and a selection of about the same length. The second test will include two or three short letters and a selection of about 300 words. As much attention should be given to the reading as to the writing of the shorthand. The student should be required to read fluently, intelligently and with correct expression. TYPEWRITING The test requires the candidate to write on a typewriter ordi- nary matter at the rate of 50 words a minute for three minutes, and to copy unfamiliar printed matter at the rate of 35 words a minute for three minutes. Candidates are further required to have a general knowledge of such work as may rightfully devolve on an amanuensis in a business office, such as copying letters (press, roller copier or carbon), manifolding (carbon, mimeograph, neostyle etc.), filing letters, telegrams and other business papers; to make out correctly such common business papers as bills, receipts, checks, promissory notes and drafts; but this part of the test is much less comprehensive than that required in connection with business practice. Candidates should be able to compose routine business letters, and to correct examples of bad composition. They may also be required to send in carbon duplicates of portions of their examination work. Suggestions. Care should be exercised in selecting matter for copying or for dictation. No matter should be used simply be- cause it contains words that can be printed on the typewriter or taken in shorthand. The selection should have a broader purpose. Business letters intended for dictation should be closely scrutinized and, when necessary, corrected; and, so far as possible, in all other 294 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT matter chosen for transcription or dictation the teacher should assure himself that it is of a character tending to add to the student's general knowledge and to broaden his mind while it affords him required practice. It is expected that copying, filing, mimeograph and other work required by the syllabus will be actually done in the school, and described from personal experience. GROUP 6 ACADEMIC DRAWING AND ADVANCED DRAWING T N preparing this syllabus in drawing and outlining a general plan for the examinations which are to be a test of the work done in these subjects, an effort has been made to meet the needs of those schools which are not provided with trained art teachers, as well as of those that arc under such supervision. The course in drawing should be continuous throughout the four academic years and should pro- vide adequate instruction for 228 periods. The first examination should come at the end of the second year and the final test in advanced drawing should be made at the end of the high school course. " Drawing " will be allowed three counts and " advanced drawing " three counts. The work is to be done on drawing paper 8 x 10 inches, and all drawings are to be made suitable in size to fill the sheet. Place but two drawings on a page. The credits allowed each answer depend on conception, knowledge of principles, and execution. Power of expression should increase as the work progresses, and at the close of the course a high degree of excellence in execution will be expected. Drawings may be in pencil, charcoal, crayon, pen and ink, or water colors as the candidates prefer. With the brush as a medium, the point may be used at times for outline drawing. A simple effect is produced by the brush in the silhouette. A brush drawing may be done in flat tones, producing effects similar to those observed in posters, or the brush may be used to produce more detailed work. The pen is a more difficult medium than the pencil. Ordinary ink 2Q5 296 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT *t~$ f L7fKz may be used, though india ink is better. Instruction and practice should be given throughout the course in the use of the various mediums. Drawing is primarily a means of expression. Satisfactory results can not be expected if the practice in drawing is confined to the drawing class. Like writing, it should be applied generally in school work, and abundant oppor- tunity may be found in almost every subject. Scenes described in the reading lessons may be illustrated, cuts found in the textbooks may be reproduced, specimens and appa- ratus studied in the science classes may be drawn, the figures referred to in mathematics may be con- structed, etc. The principles of arrangement, composition, and de- sign should be applied to all work, and attention given to arrangement and to the placing of sketches and written matter in notebooks. Practice in drawing out of school hours should also be encouraged. A home sketchbook will afford recreation while at the same time it will lead the pupil to observe close- ly and record graphi- cally what he sees. While the quality of line and finish of the picture depends on skill in execution, it must not be assumed that drawing is wholly a matter of hand training. Quality of line and finish is to drawing what penmanship is to composition. Of great importance are thought, conception, knowledge and a desire to express, whether it be in line, light and shade, or color. The ability to express by drawings depends in a large measure on the development of the imagination, the power of carrying in the mind a correct and vivid picture of the thing to be represented. The study of the object is essential, . ACADEMIC DRAWING 297 but the student should also learn to draw without having it before him. This is specially true in industrial drawing, in which the object represented is made from the drawing, not the drawing from the object. In this work the order of development is, first the mental picture, then the drawing, then the construction of the object from the drawing. As to aim, the work in drawing should embrace: 1 Pictorial drawing or perspective, showing the appearances of objects. 2 Decorative drawing including design and ornamentation. 3 Constructive drawing, consisting of geometric constructions, projections, sections, developed surfaces, and working drawings, showing the facts of the object. As to method of execution, the drawings required will be: 1 Free-hand drawings, in which the pencil, charcoal or brush is guided by the eye and hand alone. 2 Instrumental drawings, in which the pencil is accurately guided by mechanical means. Attention of teachers and candidates is directed to the following suggestions and outline of requirements. ACADEMIC DRAWING 1 Pictorial drawing. Free- hand. This division includes objects and nature drawing, perspective, light and shade, and illustration. This study develops the power of observation, trains the eye to see form, tone and color, cultivates the imagina- tion, and gives power of ex- pression which is of great value in nearly all lines of work. Pupils should have much practice in free-hand drawing and use it in their daily work. They should first have practice in drawing by proportion, to judge by eye the relative size of one object compared with another or part of an object compared with the whole. They should know how to test their work by use of the pencil held at arm's 298 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT length and at right angles to the line of vision, though the eye should be the final test. It is not necessary to know how to draw an object in perspective by scientific methods in order to draw from objects. The principal aim is to train the eye to see perspective effects, and to draw freely and effectively. (Remember that the mere doing a thing is noL so important as the knowing how to do it.) The training that comes through doing is the object sought. It is better to observe and study phe- nomena than to adjust observations to fixed rules. Learn to draw by drawing. Teach the principles of perspective through the study and drawing of models, objects, doors swung part way open, interiors of rooms, furniture, buildings and scenes from nature. In this work the quality of line depends on the character of the object represented and the conditions under which it is seen. If it is near the observer and has sharp, well defined edges, the lines should be well defined. If it has less sharply defined edges or if it is remote from the observer or in shadow, its outlines should be represented by soft, broad or broken lines. Contours of objects with smooth, even surfaces are indicated by even lines; irregular and rough surfaces by broader, softer or broken lines; but if the lines are freely drawn and express the appearance of the object, their width and character are of secondary importance. In pictorial work expression by mass and light and shade may be required. In light and shade drawings the mass of shade should ACADEMIC DRAWING 299 define as nearly as possible the objects represented, and the values, that is, the relation of one tone to another, should be carefully con- sidered. Backgrounds should be inconspicuous. The terms light and dark and light and shade are not synonymous. ■Light and dark relates to tone values in a picture without regard to light, shade and shadow. It also refers to color values in objects; a blue object will be represented by a darker tone than a yellow object in the same light. Mass drawing is the representation of objects by masses of varying tone or color without special reference to outline. This kind of drawing should be practised both in tone and color. Light and shade refers to the effect that light has on an object. In drawing objects in light and shade care should be taken to see that the light comes from only one direction on the same group. The best results are obtained when the light comes obliquely from the side. Study the effects of objects lighted from the side, from behind, and from in front. Also the effects produced by 300 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT direct light, as sunlight, or by a single lamplight, and those produced by diffused light as on a cloudy day, or through a broad opening or several windows. Use pen- cil, charcoal and brush. For large, quick and effective work, as well as that requiring finish, there is no better medium than charcoal. The ease with which it is applied and removed, and its wide range of possibilities, make it a valuable medium for the artist. Hard charcoal is used for point work where fine finish and detail are re- quired, and soft charcoal for large masses and tone work. It is well to have both kinds. Soft charcoal usually comes in small round sticks, and the hard in small split sticks. For school work the hard is better, some of it will be soft enough. Almost any paper with a rough surface will do, but charcoal paper is better. The work may be left untouched or rubbed with the finger or stump. For tone work use a stick of soft charcoal, and holding it at a slight angle with the paper so it will make a broad line, cover the surface completely over. Rub down with a piece of cheese-cloth or soft rag to any desired tone. With chamois skin and kneaded rubber or art gum wipe out the light parts. Darker portions may be put in with charcoal and rubbed down with the finger or stump, or accented portions left untouched. Charcoal work needs to be set with fixativ (white shellac cut with alcohol) applied with an atomizer. ACADEMIC DRAWING 301 Tone work in charcoal can be used to good advantage both in pictorial and decorative work, by first covering the surface with the predominating tone, then wiping out the lighter masses, and putting in the darker ones. Good effects may be ob- ( tained by using gray and tinted papers, putting in the light with white crayon; also by using charcoal and water color together in the same sketch on white paper. It is expected that stu- dents will be familiar with the following terms and principles of free-hand perspective and will be able to apply them. A perspective drawing is a representation of an object presenting the same appearance as the object itself. In a perspective drawing the object is con- ceived as seen through a transparent plane called the picture plane. Straight lines are imagined running from all points of the object to the eye. The points where these lines pierce the picture plane are points of the perspective. 302 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT i Distance affects the apparent size of an object and parts of the same object; the farther an object or part of an object is from the eye, the smaller it will appear. 2 Position affects the apparent form of an object. 3 Surfaces seen obliquely are foreshortened, and do not appear in their true shape. 4 A circle seen obliquely appears as an ellipse. 5 Parallel lines retreating from the eye appear to converge to points called vanishing points. 6 Lines parallel to the picture plane retain their direction in the perspective. Hence vertical lines remain vertical and horizontal lines parallel to the picture plane remain horizontal. 7 Lines not parallel to the picture plane converge in the per- spective as they recede from the eye. The point toward which the perspective of any set of parallel lines converges is called the van- ishing point. 8 The eye level is an imaginary horizontal line which represents the level from which the object is seen. 9 The line of vision or line of direction is an imaginary line running from the eye to the axis of the object. io All horizontal lines, not parallel to the picture plane, vanish at the level of the eye. Hence those below the level of the eye slant upward in the perspective; those above the level of the eye slant downward. ii Lines perpendicular to the picture plane vanish in the eye level at a point directly in front of the eye. This point is called the center of vision. 12 All horizontals at an angle of 45 ° with the picture plane vanish in points at the right or left of the center of vision and as far from it as the eye is from the center of vision. 13 Linear perspective deals with the relative size and shape of objects, foreshortening and convergence of lines and planes. 14 Aerial perspective deals with the appearance of objects as affected by atmospheric conditions. Objects appear less distinct in form, light and shade, and color as ^hey recede from the eye; they lose their color and appear gray in proportion to their distance. Give much time to practice and drill in free-hand drawing to secure freedom and power of execution. The examination will require drawings of 1 The following solids : sphere, hemisphere, ovoid, cylinder, cone, cube, square prism, plinth, triangular prism, square pyramid, vase form. ACADEMIC DRAWING 303 / f . / \//7i '/ y y^ *■>>% 3%£ 1 >Y ^C\ % iT^ 2 Objects resembling a sphere and spheroids, as an apple, a peach, a turnip. 3 Objects having a general cylindric form, as a box, a fruit jar, a tumbler, a stovepipe, a hat. 4 Objects resembling the cone, as a carrot, a thimble, a beet. 5 Objects resembling the pyramid, as a spire, an inkstand, a metronome. 6 Objects having a general rectangular outline, as a box, a table, a door, a house. 7 Leaves, flowers, trees and other plant forms. 8 Familiar objects and groups of objects. 9 Simple landscapes. •10 Illustrations of stories end poems. To emphasize the value of attention to technic, copying from the flat may also be required. 2 Decorative drawing. Free-hand and instrumental. This sub- ject is not confined to ornamentation alone, but should enter into nearly all other work not only in drawing but in written work and manual training. The principles of arrangement, composition, design, and color should be observed in the notebooks of the science work as well as in the drawing class. In outline, mass and color 304 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Design does not mean merely the making of ornament to be applied to a surface or form. This is ornamentation. Design accompanies construction from foundation to finish, producing by perfect proportion, pleasing lines, and adaptation to purpose, a building or a piece of furniture or any object which is a thing of beauty in itself, without the need of applied ornament. Structural design is as much a part of decorative drawing as applied design, and should receive much attention. Design and construction should go hand in hand. Constructive design. This means the designing of actual ob- jects which may be constructed. In this work the design depends on the shape, proportion, and use to which the object is to be put. The student should be able to make designs for common and use- ful objects and to make them of suitable material; such as boxes, book covers, lamp shades, sofa pillows and other objects, to be made of cardboard and cloth ; book racks, wall brackets, wall cabi- nets, jardiniere stands, etc., to be made of wood ; baskets to be made of raffia and reed; mats to be woven of yarn and other material. Mechanical aids such as rule, compasses, tracing and transfer- ring may be employed in decorative drawing. Tracing paper may be used to repeat the unit by ^^■gSW care should be exer- J^yP ^3jy£S£^ cised in making harmonious com- £^0 %^9| K^V binations. ^-j ^^ ^^^ ^^ 1 Fitness to purpose is the un- /&jmm!$m* mat deriving principle of decoration. l&^XJ&Jp SSS 2 That which is used as deco- ration should not be of more -w- j ^ - importance than the object deco- fijfek J^SJftife^^ rated and should not detract PS Wk^LWM from the usefulness of that ob- 3 A part repeated to form a design is called a unit or motif of that design. 4 Geometric figures, abstract forms or spot units may be used as motifs or sources of design ; also conventional treatments of natural and historic forms. ACADEMIC DRAWING 305 5 Keeping the general characteristics of a natural form, omit- ting details and accidents of growth as the method of applying the design may require, is called conventionalization. 6 A unit of design may be repeated a About a center, forming a rosette or radial arrangement. In a rosette the units should spring from the center and should be united at the center by a strong central figure, or from the margin as in a wreath. 119 WM SPOT UNITS b In a line forming a border. In a border marginal lines should be used to give stability to the arrangement. c To cover a surface. 7 In a surface pattern or a border the unit repeated may be bilateral in shape or it may be a rosette or other figure. 8 A bilateral unit is one having an axis of symmetry, that is one which may be divided into two parts that balance. 9 A balanced figure is one in which the opposite parts are equal but not symmetric. In an original design requiring the use of plant forms, care should be taken to observe the laws of growth. In historic orna- ment the work will be confined to simple examples of the different styles. The units in historic ornament are either geometric figures or conventionalized natural forms. 306 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Satisfactory work, in this department involves a careful study of conventionalization and of the elementary principles of composi- tion and arrangement for decorative purposes, symmetry, repetition, and alternation. Students should also understand the principles of contrast, unity, strength, proportion, variety, rhythm, balance, har- mony, and repose. They should be able to make, from given units, simple geometric and floral designs for rosettes, borders, and sur- face patterns, applied to book covers, wall paper and useful objects. Simple designs in monograms, initial letters, head and tail pieces, tiles etc., will also be required. In making a design decide first what the design is for, how it is to be executed and of what material it is to be made. Lay out the form taking care that the proportions are good. If orna- ment is to be applied, decide on the motif, whether it be plant forms, historic ornament, or abstract forms. Arrange the orna- ment so that it will be related to the shape of the object or space to be filled, and divide the space into pleasing proportions. . Strive for simplicity. Remember that beauty results from a few well arranged forms rather than from a multiplicity of complicated detail. j Color. The study of color should be continued in the high school during at least the first two years. Students should be familiar with the terms used, as spectrum, standard, positive, pri- mary, secondary, tertiary, tint, shade, tone, hue, scale, pure, broken, gray, neutral, warm, cold, advancing, receding, complementary, color value, color harmony, contrast, rhythm, transparent, opaque, pigment etc. They should know the names of the pigments most commonly used and should be able to paint flowers, fruit, still life and simple landscapes. Also to do harmonious coloring in design work. 3 Constructive drawing. This includes the kinds of drawing known as geometric constructions, projections, surface develop- ments, working drawings, architectural and mechanical drawing. The work is usually done with instruments, but practice should be given in free-hand sketching. These subjects need not be taken up separately but the teacher should plan the exercises so as to include these operations. In this work accuracy is of special importance. Much practice in the use of instruments is necessary in order to secure good results. Instruments. The pencil for this work should be hard, and sharpened to a chisel edge instead of a point. It should be kept sharp by frequent rubbing on a coarse whetstone or piece ACADEMIC DRAWING 3O7 of fine emery paper. The construction should be made with this pencil under light pressure, producing very fine but sharp lines and well defined intersections. After the construction is com- pleted in this way, the drawing should be finished by retracing, with a softer pencil, or better still with ruling pen and india ink, such of the lines as need to be more distinct. The compasses (dividers) should have fine, hard points, one of which should be detachable for the purpose of substituting a pencil point or pen. The joint should be so tight as not to per- mit free, easy motion, otherwise the distance between the points is likely to vary when in use. The best compasses in this respect are those in which the opening is controlled by a spring and thumb screw. In laying off distances, the length desired should be taken from the scale by means of compasses, then applied to the line. A drawing board is absolutely essential to good results. It should be of soft wood, so that paper can be attached by thumb tacks, should be smoothly dressed on one side and its left-hand edge should be dressed to a straight line. A T square is also necessary. It is used as shown in figure 14, the head being pressed against the left-hand edge of the board. By sliding the T square along the board, means are furnished Fig. 14 for drawing accurately any number of horizontal lines. The two right triangles or set squares also shown in figure 14 are im- portant. In one the acute angles are each 45 °, and in the other they are 6o° and 30 . By resting them on the T square we are enabled to draw any number of lines perpendicular to those drawn by aid of the T square alone; also lines of 30 , 45 ° and 60 ° with those of either system mentioned. They also enable us to draw a parallel or a perpendicular to any line on the board and through any point. 308 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT The complete outfit shown in figure 14, consisting of a drawing board, T square and two set squares, costs from 35 to 75 cents, according to size. Geometric constructions. Candidates should be prepared to make the following geometric constructions. 1 To draw a line perpendicular to a given line (a) from a point on the line, (b) from a point outside the line, (c) at the middle point of the line, (d) at the extremity of the line. Application to construction of squares and rectangles when the sides are given and to bisection of a given line. 2 To draw a parallel to a given line (a) through a given point, (b) at a given distance from the given line. 3 To bisect a given arc or a given angle. 4 To construct an angle equal to a given angle. 5 To construct triangles whose sides are given; (a) equilateral, (b) isosceles, (c) scalene. 6 To divide a line into any number of equal parts. 7 To construct angles of 30 , 45 °, 6o°, 90 , or any number of degrees. 8 To draw a circumference through any three points. Application to finding center of a given circumference and to circumscribing a circle about a triangle. 9 To inscribe a circle within a triangle. 10 To draw a trefoil, a quatrefoil and a cinquefoil. 11 To draw a regular pentagon, hexagon and octagon. 12 To draw a curve having a given radius tangential to two given lines forming a right angle [pi. 2, fig. 20]. Projection (orthographic). It is not necessary for pupils to study orthographic projection before making working drawings, but high school pupils, after having made working drawings in the grades, should understand the elementary principles of this subject. Teachers should explain the planes and angles of pro- jection, and how projections are obtained. Drawings may be made in either the first or third angle, preferably the third, that is, place the top view above the front view, the left side to the left and the right side to the right of the front view [fig. 15]. Draw as many views as will be necessary to show all the facts of the object, and no more. Plan, front and side elevations mean the same as top, front and side views. The connecting lines may be drawn in very fine full lines or in dotted lines. All drawings should first be worked in pencil, and in fine full lines. If inked they may be in dotted black lines or fine full red or green lines [see fig. 15 and 16]. Plate i f e / V \ d \ / \ / a -\ a 1 i \ J I 9 \ C ct Fig. 15 *"H'~r' : Fig. 16 Fig. J 7 Conventional Lines Visible edges Invisible edges Shadow lines — — — Center lines Working ond Projecting lines Dimension lines Cross -section lines or ACADEMIC DRAWING 309 Development of surfaces of geometric solids except sphere and spheroids, and of common objects, and longitudinal and transverse sections of simple objects will also be required. Shadow lines are not necessary but are sometimes used in a working drawing. Light, if considered, is usually assumed to come from above and the left, and in this case those edges separating the light and dark faces are made heavier. In common practice the right hand and lower lines are made heavier, except when the forms are spheric or cylindric [fig. 18]. Working drawings. A working drawing is a drawing from which the object represented may be made. The dimensions should be indicated on the drawing by figures. Feet and inches may be rep- resented by marks of accent, thus : 4' 2" reads four feet, two inches. Make the dividing line of the fraction horizontal as J" not oblique as //'' 1 ^ : ? Dimensioning. This is the most vital part of a working draw- ing. The drawing might be drawn free-hand and out of proportion but the dimensions given must be accurate. Dimensions may be placed either outside or inside the drawing, whichever will be the most clearly read. When outside, place them about J inch or more away. When inside, put them in a clear space where they will not interfere with the drawing. They should be placed so as to read from left to right, and from the bottom upward. The arrow- heads should be acute angles, the vertex of the angles being at or opposite the points between which measurements are made [fig. 17]. If opposite, extension lines should be drawn from the points to be measured to the arrowheads [fig. 17]. If there is not room enough for the arrowheads between the lines place them outside. If there is not room enough between the lines for plain figures put them outside [fig. 17]. The distance from any point to round holes and cylindric objects should be measured to the center, not to the edge [fig. 18]. Show " over-all " dimensions on a separate line from those giving the shorter dimensions [fig. 17]. Indicate the radius of a curve as shown in figure 19. It is well to place a small circle around the center point so it may be readily found. Indicate the number of degrees in an angle as shown in figure 21. In drawing round or cylindric objects draw the view that shows the circle first, and draw the other view by projecting lines tangent to the circle. 3io NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Cross-sections may be made as shown in figures 22, 23, 24. Conventional lines used in working drawings. Visible edges and outlines are represented by full lines, which may vary some according to the drawing. A large open drawing requires a heavier line than a small intricate one. Invisible edges and outlines are shown by a dash line, lighter than the full line. Center lines are made with a dot and dash. Section lines should be finer than the full lines. Two pieces of material coming together should be sec- tioned in opposite directions [fig. 22]. Dimension and extension lines are fine full lines with a space left for the figures [fig. 17]. Connecting lines may be fine full or dotted lines. In a working drawing the connecting lines are usually omitted [fig- 18}. Scale drazmng. When a drawing is not made full size it is said to be drawn to scale. A drawing made to a scale of 3" — i', if = 1', \" = i', can easily be drawn with an ordinary ruler marked off in feet and inches. (1) In a scale of 3" = I', \ inch equals 1 inch; (2) in a scale of \\" = 1', \ inch equals 1 inch; (3) in a scale of §"■ = 1', T \ inch equals 1 inch; other scales, such as 1" equals 1', or h" equals 1', must either be bought or made. Pupils should be taught to make a scale and to use one. Figure 25 is a scale of \ ' == 1'. c' 7" b r M|ll|M|l> 16 3 2 3 SCALE i"=i' 4. \ 5 i Fig. 25 The space to the right of ° are feet and those to the left are inches. In laying off distances with this scale start at the ° point counting to the right for feet and to the left for inches, as shown in figure 25. The distance from a to b is 5' 7". If the same dis- tance is taken off with the compasses, put one leg of the compasses on the mark at 5 feet and open the compasses till it reaches to 7 inches. In making a scale use a piece of stiff paper or thin wood. Students should have much practice and drill in sketching objects from sight, dictation and memory, and in making free-hand work- ing drawings of common objects. The) will be required to make working drawings from free-hand sketches, dictation, and from measurement. Examples. From free-hand sketch. Make a working drawing of the object represented by a sketch. (Teacher make sketch.) Plate 2 7T i_jn -P l ; ' i i Fig. IS Scale one half full sine > ^7. J?/ Fig 20 Fig. 19 1 1 'W//M& ^ §» I Stile 1 1 1 J_ Panel / Rail Fig. 22 Section on line /I B Fig. 23 m\ ® "W/Z/J' Fig. 2 4 ACADEMIC DRAWING 3II From dictation. Make a working drawing of a square plinth resting on the top of a hollow cylinder. Show the dimensions. Or, make a working drawing of a block of stone 4 feet, 6 inches long, 2 feet, 4 inches wide, and 1 foot thick. Scale 1" equals i'. From measurement. Let the student make a working drawing of some object, as a box, slate, desk top, door, wheel, or model made in the shop. To make a drawing from measurement the student should first make a free-hand sketch of the object, judg- ing the proportions by eye. Measure the object and place the measurement on the sketch, and work from the sketch. In drawing to scale be sure to put on the full dimensions. Lettering. Lettering forms an important part of the work in drawing, and should receive much attention. Designs for book covers, cards, billheads etc., are often made by the use of letters alone. In mechanical and architectural drawing much importance is attached to good lettering; a good drawing is often spoiled in appearance by bad lettering. Students should practice lettering in their notebooks as well as on their drawing sheets. While good lettering depends largely on well formed letters, the spacing and arrangement of the letters and words are of great importance. Lettering is an exercise in design. Letters and words should be considered as spots. All letters are to be considered of equal importance; one should not attract more attention than an- other on account of its making a darker spot or leaving a lighter space. Each letter should be unmistakable and each word separated from another. Students should start with a simple letter, and learn one alpha- bet thoroughly. They will then have no difficulty with others. Take a plain Gothic letter as shown on plate 3. Begin with the capitals ; these are uniform in hight but not in width. Draw two light horizontal lines, the distance apart being equal to the hight of the letters. Study carefully the form and proportions of each letter. It will be observed that the letters B, E, H, S, X and Z. are larger at the bottom than at the top. (To test this look at them bottom side up.) Draw a third line slightly above halfway (this will vary with the different styles). Letters vary in width, but beginners may make them (if they are obliged to measure each letter) equal in width except they should make the M and W wider, and I, J, L and T narrower. By study it will be noticed that the spaces are not all equal. If the letters and spaces were made uni- formly equal the result would be that one part of a word would look darker than another, as in a and b. c and d look better. Do 312 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT not take printed matter as standard, for letters printed from type are not always well spaced. Begin by drawing each letter carefully. Make large letters with charcoal, chalk, or blunt pencil. Sketch in a light skeleton outline, free-hand, and strengthen to the desired thickness; if very large draw in double line and fill in. Be sure to make the lines very light so that changes may easily be made. Make small letters the same way but use a sharper point. Small letters are inked in with a pen ; large ones with a brush. When letters having a long vertical line, as I, H and B, come together the space should be greater than in such letters as C, O and S ; and when letters like A, L, P and V come together the space should be very small. Notice the spacing in words "lettering" and "hillside" [see pi. 3]. As a rule leave a space equal to the width of a letter H between the words. To make small or minuscule letters, draw two light lines the same distance apart as for capitals. Divide the space into three equal parts (this may vary), and draw a line through the upper point. In the two thirds space make the body of the letter, the " loop " in the upper part. Draw another line below these at a distance equal to the upper space for letters that go below the line [see e, pi. 3]. It is easier to make -slanting letters look well than vertical ones. In order to get them of an equal slant draftsmen sometimes make a series of parallel oblique lines with the T square and triangle at an angle of 60 or 70 ° to be used as guides as shown at f. Roman letters and those that have thick strokes, hair lines, ceriphes and spurs are more difficult and should be avoided by be- ginners [see g]. To avoid the common error of making the wrong stroke heavy remember this simple rule. If the letters are made without taking the pencil from the paper, the down stroke will be the heavy one as shown at h. The S is heavy in the middle not at the ends. W *** The capital I has no dot. Make periods the same width as the heavy part of the letter. Keep the same slant in all letters. In mechanical drawing avoid fancy lettering. When a given space is to be filled with lettering it will be found best to design the letters on another piece of paper and when just right transfer by tracing. Where lettering requires centering, it is often best to draw an axial line and work from the center each way [see i]. Plate 3 ABCDEFGHIJKLM N PQRSTUVWXYZ Hl)(:(l(>l()>iijkliimo|)qf.slii\ywxY7 LETTERING HILLSIDE LETTERING HILLSIDE £». AMNV tfX WXYZ GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS £ ■-*. Section nn line A -/i-gzg: ARCHITECTURAL DEVEIQPMENTS s§a nsbE&n unTEfeind A GOOD LETTER ADVANCED DRAWING 313 ADVANCED DRAWING The examination in advanced drawing will include 1 Pictorial drawing. Free-hand. A more extended application of the principles of perspective, and free-hand drawings of familiar objects and landscapes, figure drawing, light and shade, grouping, composition and color. To give power in landscape drawing, students should be encour- aged to make sketches of picturesque bits in their home sketch- book. It is quite a problem to select from a mass of detail, the essential points which make the picture. The tendency to crowd in many details should be avoided. In a drawing showing full values there is background, middle distance and foreground. Then technic in such pictures should always bring out clearly what is in the foreground with corre- sponding diminution of values to the background, which is the least distinct. In figure drawing look first for the effect as a whole, for action, character and proportion. Compare different parts of the figure to give relative size and shape. Grouping is the art of arranging objects in a pleasing manner. A row or a mere collection of objects is not a group in pictorial composition. The objects represented should be arranged with 314 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT reference to one principal object, to which the others are accessory, and they should be placed so that the eye may take in the whole group at once. Objects which are dissimilar in form and tone and are harmonious in color group well. Remember that variety is more pleasing than sameness. As two solids can not occupy the same space at the same time, care should be taken in the drawing of a group of objects standing at the same level, that the bases, if wholly represented, do not interfere. 2 Decorative drawing. Free-hand and instrumental. A more extended study of the principles of decoration and a higher degree of excellence in the work in design, including conventional plant forms, historic ornament, color and constructive design will be required. The examination will presuppose ability to make original designs in line, tone and color, showing good space relations, and a free conventionalization of plant form. A more comprehensive study of historic ornament is required than in the elementary syllabus. The work during these years should assume a practical nature. The designs should be for some purpose and should be worked out in the material best suited for the purpose. For stencil- ing on cloth use artist's oil colors and a brush having short bristles. Trays, dishes and other useful and ornamental forms may be made of sheet copper hammered into shape. Vase forms may be designed and made of clay, and if a pottery or large kiln is situated near by they can be fired and preserved. In schools where manual training is taught, objects to be made of wood should be designed and constructed, as wall brackets, wall cabinets, taborets, book racks, and furniture. Book covers may be made with appropriate ornamentation. Head and tail pieces may be executed in pen and ink [use drawing ink] and reproduced at a printing office. Work for reproduction should be made once and a half or double the size it is to be when finished. It is not expected that pupils will do all of the above work, but make a choice of one branch and learn to do that well. 3 Constructive work. Review the geometric problems found under " Drawing," and adti the following : 1 Draw a curve having a given radius tangent to two given lines forming (a) an acute angle, (b) an obtuse angle. A tangent must always be perpendicular to the radius, at the point of tangency. 2 Draw a curve having a given radius tangent to a given line and a given circle [pi. 4, fig. 29]. Plate 4 ADVANCED DRAWING 315 3 Draw a curve having a given radius tangent to two given centers [fig. 28]. Circles are tangent to each other on a line connecting their centers [fig. 28]. 4 Draw a reversed curve [fig. 29]. Students should be able to work out the following: projections of geometric solids in oblique positions, construction of ellipses, transverse and longitudinal sections of geometric solids and com- mon objects, development of surfaces of prisms, pyramids, cylin- ders, cones, frustums, and of common objects based on these forms, also of oblique sections of cylinders and prisms ; working drawings of common objects from sketches, dictation, and measurement. When drawing from measurement a free-hand working drawing should first be made, judging the proportions by the eye. Measure the object and place the dimensions on the sketch; then work from the sketch. If manual training is taught the students should make working drawings of the objects they make, first by free-hand, then with instruments. Students should be able to make plans and elevations of a small dwelling, a schoolhouse, shop, or other building. In schools where two lines of work can be carried out, the work in advanced drawing may be divided into two courses; i. e. art course and mechanical course. Students taking the art course will take architectural drawing, design and the study of art, historical and modern. This should be a continuation of the work done in the grades. Students should be familiar with the names of artists and their principal works, of the different schools, beginning with the old masters and ending with the modern artists. Not only easel pictures but sculpture and mural decoration should receive their just share of attention. Illustrations of such work by old masters together with modern work may be given by stereopticon lectures, arousing and sustaining the interest of students to a point where they can pursue the study independently. Art exhibitions, museums, photographs and books offer opportunities for becoming familiar with examples of fine art not sufficiently known and appreciated. Architectural drazving. The first thing to do in designing a build- ing is to decide what the building is for, the size, location and sur- roundings of the lot on which it is to be erected ; the limit of cost ; the material of which it is to be built; the size and number of rooms. Think it out and get a mental picture of it, and make free-hand sketches of the plans and elevations to get location of rooms, doors, 3l6 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT windows, stairs, chimney etc. Decide on the size and shape and while having the whole house in mind begin with the plan of the first floor. Building plans are usually made to a scale of -J" equals i'; preliminary sketches are often made to that of -J" equals i'. Locate the rooms, stairs, chimney, doors and windows. Be sure to leave room enough for the stairs. In figuring the stairs for an ordinary dwelling allow from 7 to 8 inches for the risers, and from 10 to 12 inches for the treads. The lower the riser the wider the tread. The sum of the two should be about 18 inches. Plan to have the parti- tions in the second floor over those in the first floor when possible. The bathroom on the second floor should be over or nearly over the plumbing of the first floor, not on the opposite side of the house. Each fireplace should have a separate flue in the chimney. While drawing the floor plans keep in mind the elevations. Keep all work in light lines for many changes will need to be made. Before starting the elevations draw a section of the framework showing the dis- tances between the floors, width of timber, finish, hight of windows etc. Draw the end elevation and project from this to the side elevation. When it is entirely finished in pencil, and all corrections and changes made, it may be inked in, or a tracing made in ink on tracing cloth from which blue prints may be made. Problems. Pupils may draw the second floor and cellar plans and side elevations of the house on plate 5. Design a mantle for the fireplace. Design a sideboard for the dining room. Design a color scheme with decorations for the dining room, and living room. Design a mat to be woven or hooked from rags for the sitting room. Design a house similar to this one. Mechanical drawing. Students taking the mechanical course will take free-hand object drawing by pictorial representation, and by working drawings, and instrumental drawing of geometric construc- tions, orthographic projection, surface developments and working drawings of machine details as, bolts, nuts, levers, cranks, cams, pulleys etc. For this purpose boys can obtain pieces of machinery at the machine shops, foundries and hardware stores or take parts of farming machinery. Students should be able to make working drawings to scale from a pictorial sketch, showing cross-sections. The examination questions will be arranged in groups to meet the different courses. Plate 5 F\o^1" ElLEV/VTiO^ Scale 4 =1-0" ADVANCED DRAWING 317 Books on drawing Each academic school library should contain one set of each of current textbooks on drawing, including manuals, and as many as possible of such reference books on art as the following. Adams, C. L. Mechanical Drawing. Boston. George H. Ellis Co. $2.25. For advanced drawing. Bailey, H. T. School Sanitation and Decoration. Heath $1.50. Batchelder, Ernest A. The Principles of Design. Chicago. Inland Printer $3. Bell, Mrs N. R. E. (Meugens). Elementary History of Art; Archi- tecture, Sculpture, Painting, by N. D. Anvers. 1889. Scribner $3.75. Brown, Frank C. Letters and Lettering. Boston. Bates, Guild Co. $2. Clark, Ernest E. A Handbook of Plant Forms. New York. John Lane Co. $2.50. Crane, Walter. Line and Form. Bell & Sons $2.25. Cross, Anson K. Mechanical Drawing. Ginn $1.25. Day, L. F. Nature in Ornament. Scribner $4.50. Dow, Arthur W. Composition. J. M. Bowles $1.50. Edminster, C. F. Architectural Drawing. New York. David Wil- liams Co. $2. Emery, M. S. How to Enjoy Pictures; with a special chapter on pic- tures in the schoolroom, by S. Skinner. Prang $1.50. Goodyear, W. H. History of Art. Ed. 7. Barnes $3. Hamerton, P. G. The Graphic Arts. Little $2. Thoughts about Art. Roberts $2. Hamlin, A. D. F. History of Architecture. Longmans $2. Hoyt, D. L. World's Painters and their Pictures. Ginn $1.40. Hurll, Estelle M. Riverside Art Series. Houghton 75c and 40c a' v. Jackson, F. G. Decorative Design. Lippincott $2. Theory and Practice of Design. Lippincott $2.50. Jepson, George. Cam Construction. Boston. L. Van Nostrand $1.50. For advanced drawing. Lilley & Midgely. Book of Studies in Plant Form. Scribner $1.50. Marquand & Frothingham. History of Sculpture. Longmans $1.50. Martin, Clarence A. Building Construction. Boston. Bates, Guild Co. $2. Mayeux, Henri. Manual of Decorative Composition. Appleton $1.50. Meyer, F. S. Handbook of Ornament. Hessling $3.60. Miller, L. W. Essentials of Perspective. Scribner $1.50. Morris, William. Art's and Craft's Essays. Scribner $2.50. Parkhurst, Daniel B. Sketching from Nature. Orange N. J. Author 50c. Perry, Walter S. Egypt and the Land of the Temples. Prang $1.50. Poore, H. R. Pictorial Composition. New York. Baker & Taylor $1.50. Redgrave, Richard. Manual of Design. Scribner $1. Ruskin, John. Modern Painters. 2v. Maynard, Merrill & Co. $3. Tadd, J. Liberty. New Methods of Education; Art; Manual Training; Nature Study. Judd $3. 318 XF.W YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Tarbell, F. B. History of Greek Art. Macmillan 6s. Van Dyke, J. C. Art for Art's Sake. Scribner $1.50. History of Painting. Longmans $1.50. How to Judge a Picture. New York. Eaton & Mains 60c. Vanderpoel, Emily Noyes. Color Problems. Longmans $5. Ward, J. Historic Ornament. 2v. Scribner $6. Weir, Irene. Pose Drawing. Ginn 50c. Wornum, R. N. Analysis of Ornament. Chapman 8s. Periodicals The School Arts Book. Worcester Mass. $1 a year. (Monthly) The Studio. New York. $5. (Monthly) The Craftsman. Syracuse. $3. (Monthly) Masters in Art. Boston. $1.50. (Monthly) Manual Training Magazine. Peoria 111. Manual Arts Press $1 a year. (Quarterly) Helps Audubon Bird Charts. Parts I and II. Prang $1.30 a pt. Bell's Supplementary Drawing Helps. Syracuse. Bardeen 10c a pt. Historic Ornament Plates. Colored. Prang $10.95. Pencil Sketches of Native Trees. Woodbury. Milton Bradley Co. 60c a set. Nature Drawings. Worcester Mass. Davis Press 60c. Pictures, blue prints and other helps. Teachers should keep informed on all matters pertaining to the work. INDEX The superior figures tell the exact place on the page in ninths; e. g. 273 s means page 273, beginning in the third ninth of the page, i. e. about one third of the way down. Academic diploma, requirements, i3 9 -i5 2 . Academic students, term denned, 5 9 . Agriculture, i5i 1 -57°; counts, n 9 . Algebra, counts, n 7 ; elementary, 49 7 -52 8 ; intermediate, 52 7 -53 9 ; ad- vanced, 55 8 -57 7 . American history, 2 2 6 6 ~47 5 ; counts, ii"; time allotments, 160 9 . Ancient history, i62 8 -82 7 ; counts, ii 9 ; time allotments, 160 7 . Apportionment based on examina- tions, 6 4 ; for attendance, 6 5 . Arithmetic, advanced, 48 7 -49 8 ;counts, ii 7 . Biologic science, ioS^i 2 ; counts, ii 8 . Bookkeeping, counts. 12 1 ; elementary, 2 73 3 -75 6 ; advanced, 27s 7 — 77 s . Botany, counts, ii 8 ; elementary, io9 x -i3 8 ; advanced, i2 3 8 -2 8 6 . Business subjects, 2 72*-94 2 ; counts, Caesar's Gallic war, 33 4 ~34 1 . Chemistry, 82 1 -io4 4 ; counts, n 8 ; topical syllabus in, 82^9 1 3 ; labor- atory syllabus in, 9i 4 -io4 4 . Cicero's Orations, 34 s . Civil government, 248 3 -67 8 ; counts, 11 9 . Classical academic diploma, require- ments, 15 2 . Classical students, use of term, 5 6 . Commerce, history of, 28i 6 -86 7 ; counts, 12 2 . Commercial geography, 286 8 -9i fl ; counts, 1 a 1 . Commercial law, 2 79 9 -8i 6 ; counts, 12'. Composition, see English composi- tion. Counts, distribution, n 1 -i2 3 ; change in system, 14 4 ; Credentials, requirements, i3 9 -i5 3 *, differentiated, 14 8 ; business, 272 s - 73 3 - Diplomaj see Academic diploma. Drawing, 295 1 -3i8 8 ; counts, 12 3 ; advanced, 3i3 1 -i6 9 ;bookson, 317 1 - 18 8 . Economics, 2 68 1 -7i 9 ; counts, ii". Education, history and principles of, counts, 12 3 . English, 1 6 2 -3o 7 ; counts, n 1 ; abolish- ment of first and second year tests, 13 8 ; examinations in first and second year issued on request, 13 8 ; first year, i9 1 -2o 7 ; second year, 20 7 - 2 1 9 ; third year, 2 2 1 -23 3 ; fourth entrance requirements in, 24 2 6 2 ; list of books for supplemen- tary reading recommended by the National Educational Association, 2 5 3 -29 2 . English composition, 1 7 2 ; in first year English, 19 6 , 20 6 ; in second year English, a i 1 , 21 7 ; in third year English, 2 2 3 , 2 2 8 -23 3 ; in fourth year English, 23 7 , 24*. English grammar, i7 9 -i8 6 , 29 s ; counts, ii 2 ; in first year English, 19 9 , 20 7 ; in second year English, 2 1 3 , 2 1 9 ; in third year English, 22', 23 s ; in fourth year English, 24 1 , 24 s . English history, 2io 4 -26 4 ; counts, ii 9 ; time allotments, 160 8 . English language and literature, his- tory of, 29 7 -3o 7 ; counts, 11*. 320 NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT English literature, i6 5 -i7 2 , 2 9 7 ~3o 7 ; in first year English, 19 2 , 20 2 ; in second year English, 20 8 , 21 5 ; in third year English, 22 1 , 2 2 7 ; in fourth year English, 23"*, 24 s . European history, i82 7 -2io 4 ; counts, 11 9 ; time allotments, 160 8 . Examinations, instituted, 5 7 ; Regents ordinance of 1864, 5 7 ; apportion- ment based on, 6 4 ; apportionment system abandoned, 6 5 ; purposes of establishing, 6 7 -7 8 ; growth, statis- ics.io 1 ; dates when first held, io 4 ; principles governing, i2 5 -i3 9 . French, 38 1 , 42 7 -45 7 ; counts, n 5 ; examinations covering first two years, 13 6 ; elementary require- ment, 42 7 -44 2 ; intermediate re- quirement, 44 2 ; advanced require- ment, 45 1 . Geometry, counts, n 7 ; plane, 54 1 ; solid, 54 3 . German, 38 1 -42 6 ; counts, n 5 ; exam- inations covering first two years, 13°; elementary requirement, 38 s - 40 4 ; intermediate requirement, 4o B - 41 5 ; advanced requirement, 41 5 - 42°. Grammar, see English grammar. Greek, 3i x -32 3 , 35 1 — 37 s ; counts, n 3 ; examinations covering first two years, 13 7 ; first year, 35 4 -36 2 ; se- cond year, 36 s ; third year, 36 8 ~37 3 . Historical sketch of syllabus, 3 3 -io 4 . History, i58 1 -247 6 ; counts, n 9 . Home science, counts, 12 3 . Homer's Iliad, 36 8 ~37 5 . Hygiene, ii9 9 -23 7 ; counts, n 8 . Laboratory practice, see Chemistry; Physical geography; Physics. Language and literature, i6 2 -47 3 ; counts, 11 1 . Latin, 3i 1 ~34 9 ; counts, n 3 ; exami- nations covering first two years, 13 7 ; first year, 32 4 -33 3 ; second year, 33 3 -34 x ; third year, 34 2 ; fourth year, 34°. Literature, i6 2 -3o 7 . See also English literature. Literature fund, established, 5 1 , prin- ciples governing apportionment, 5 2 ; law amending distribution, 6 3 . Mathematics, 48^5 7 7 ; counts, n 7 . Medieval European history, 182 7 - 210 4 . Modern European history, i82 7 -2io 4 . Murray, David, quoted, 6 7 -7 8 . Parsons, J. R. jr, i8gi syllabus edited by, 8 3 ; edition of 18 g§ pre- pared by, 8 6 -9 2 ; directs prepara- tion of igoo edition, 9 2 . Per cent required, 14 9 . Physical geography, i32 2 -5o 6 ; counts, 11 8 ; laboratory exercises in, 147 J - 5o 6 . Physical science, 58 1 -io4 4 . Physics, 58 2 -8i 6 ; counts, n 8 ; topi- cal syllabus in, 58 2 -66 6 ; laboratory syllabus in, 66 6 -8i 6 . Physiology and hygiene, ii9 9 -2 3 7 ; counts, 11 8 . Preparatory pupils, use of term, 5 8 . Psychology, counts, 12 3 . Punctuation, 18 5 . Regents examinations, see Examina- tions. Rhetoric, 17 2 ; in first year English, i9 6 ,2o 5 ; in second year English, 2 1 1 , 2 1 7 ; in third year English, 22 s , 2 2 8 -2 3 3 ;infourth year English, 23 7 , 24 4 - Science, io5 x -3i 2 ; counts, n 8 . Secondary schools and students, number, 9 7 . Shopwork, counts, 12 3 . Social science, 2 48 2 -7 1 9 ; counts, n 9 . Spanish, 38 1 , 45 8 -47 4 ; counts, 11 6 ; examinations covering first two years, 13 6 ; elementary require- ment, 45 8 -46 7 ; intermediate re- quirement, 46 8 -47 4 . Spelling, 18 5 . Stenography, 292 7 ~93 5 ; counts, 12 2 . Syllabus, historical sketch, 3 3 -io 4 ; first suggestions of, 5 7 ; David Murray on, 6 7 -7 8 ; edition of 1888, 7 8 -8 3 ; edition of i8gi, 8 3 ; edition of i8g$, 8 fl -9 2 ; edition of igoo, g 3 . INDEX TO SYLLABUS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 321 Trigonometry, 54 8 -55 5 ; counts, n 7 . Typewriting, 2 93 5 ~94 2 ; counts, 12 2 . United States history, see American history. Virgil's Aeneid, 34*. Watkins, Albert B., edition of 1888 prepared by, 7 8 -8 3 . Wheelock, Charles F., edition of igoo prepared by, q 2 . Xenophon's Anabasis, 36 s . Zoology, counts, n 9 ; elementary, ii3 8 -i9 8 ; advanced, i28 5 -3i 2 . r M