THE IMPEOVEMEI^T OF THE HEALTH OF CHILDREN AND ADULTS BY NATURAL MEANS. IITCLUDING A HISTORY OF FOOD AND A CONSIDERATIOlSr OF ITS SUBSTAKTIAL QUALITIES. BY J^MES K^^IGMIT, M.33., MEMBER OF THK MEDIOO-CHIRURGICAI. FACULTY OP MARYLAND, OF THE DISTHTCT MEDICAL SOCIETY OF OHIO, AND OF THE COUNTY AND CITY MEDICAL SOCIETY OF NEW YORK ; AND PHYSICIAN AND SURGEON TO THE INSTITUTION FOR THE RELIEF OF THE RUPTURED AND CRIPPLED, NEW YORK. NEW YORK: G. P. PUTNAM'S SOKg, TWENTY-THIRD STREET AND FOURTH AVENUE. 18 75. ExTi-JKBD, accor-ling to Act of Co;:gi-css, ia the year 1SG3, by JAMES KNiaUT, M.D., In tilt Clerk's onice of the District Court of tlie United States for the Soutliern D;stvict cf Ke-v-^York. e/3 REMOTE STORAGE PEEFACB. The principal object of this work is to present to the public intelligible information, deduced from well-deter- mined facts, upon the best means adapted for the im- provement of the physical condition of delicate children, and for the maintenance through life of a tolerable con- dition of good health. To render this information as comprehensible as pos- sible, the book opens with a premise of the various un- favorable influences that tend to the enervation of the physical powers of parents ; and this is followed by an outline of man's organization, development, and proper sustenance, and by an elucidation of the relations which exist between the vegetable and animal kingdoms, w^hence his subsistence is obtained. In treating of these, the author has, in addition to the recital of his practical experience, availed himself of the most favorably noted publications on physiology and chemistry, simplifying their language in the hope of being thus able to facilitate a profitable j^erusal by the unsci- entific reader, and to induce him to make practical ap- plication of those modern discoveries that tend to the improvement of his physical condition. Private hygiene claims a more general consideration than is usually given it by families and individuals ; for the maintenance of a good normal state of health is iv PREFACE. possible if a proper knowledge of the subject is ac- quired. Therefore, to this end, much habor has been expended in the selection of the reliable information which will be found in these pages. Tiiis work, however, is not intended to supplant the invaluable services of ex- perienced physicians and surgeons, whose skill must be relied on in arresting the encroachments of disease. It is designed wholly as an index to the best means of im- proving the physical condition of our degenerating race, by pointing out to the heads of families and individuals the prudential practice that will tend most directly to the increase and maintenance of vital or living force, so as to enable it to resist the influences of unavoidable contingencies inimical to health. To avoid as much as possible the tedium of dry, di- dactic reading, interesting historical incidents, relating more directly to the food of man, have been somewhat freely interspersed through some of the chapters ; and information, w^iicli can not fliil to be of use, is given u23on the most improved means of preserving food in a wholesome form for consumption at times when it can not readily be obtained fresh ; while it terminates with a few practical remarks on air, temperature, bathing, ex- ercise, and clothing, and with instructions in the means of arresting bleeding from accidental causes, and in the most elfectual methods of restoring suspended animation. In a Avord, an effort has been made to present, in as com- pact yet com^Dlete a form as possible, important informa- tion that, if heeded, will obviate many of the ills of life to which the human family is constantly exposed. New-York, May, 1868, SECom Editioe^. The very favorable reception of the first edition of this work, and a renewed demand for co|)ies, induced the publish- er to advise the author to permit them to publish a second edition in a more acceptable form than the first. To their suggestion we have consented, being impressed with a desire to tender the heads of families, for the benefit of their cliil- dren, the result of our professional experience f6r over thirty years, and of our special work durhig the past eleven years, in the supervision of the treatment of over 30,000 patients, in the *' Hospital for the Belief of the Ruptured and Crippled," where children from the age of four to that of fourteen, laboring mainly under constitutional chronic disease, are re- ceived for treatment. Careful obseiwation of their history, and that of their families, clearly confirms the opinion, that timely care under judicious home influence Vv^ould have greatly modified, if not in many instances prevented or arrested, the progress of much suffering for the patients, and distress of their parents and friends. This book is intended to impart important information upon this subject. March, 1875. CONTENTS. PART I. A PREMISE ON MAN'S HEALTH. CHAP. PiiGJ? I. - - Physical Traitsting conducive to Health 19 The condition of man's health viewed comparatively — Improve ment in the physical condition of man's offspring an obligatory duty — Sickness the great suLduer of man — The entailment of dis- ease upon our oflspring a sad reflection— The enforcement of laws and dogmas by the ancients to tlie advantage of tlieir children — The beneficial influence of muscular exercise common to both sexes — Encroachment of new diseases — Mental atta,inment not in- compatible with means for physical development— Chiklren can only be improved in proportion to home influences— The organs of the system that suffer most from mental perturbation— Tho most common ailment, Dyspepsia, a monster malady of Protean form. II. — Dangers attending undue Mental Excitement 30 Influence of the mind upon the physical organization of man — The dire efl'ects of political excitement ; they are increased by alcohol- ic drinks — The children of politicians predisposed to scrofula- Torture endured by scrofulous children from adventurous treat- ment—Scrofula curable in succeeding generations — The means of alleviating physical sufl'ering — Deteriorating influences on child- ren, and most serious efl'ects produced thereby. III.— Importance of proper Hygienic Eegulations 36 Means of obviating unfavorable influences— Careful family nurture can diminish the virulence of scrofula — The prosperous laborer is blessed with the most numerous and healthy family of children — The advance of knowledge, when properly applied, of great advantage to the laboring classes— Unfavorable circumstances that continue to surround the indigent laborer— How to remove them. PART II. HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. I.— Animal Life— The Nervous System— Assimilation— Nervous Sensation and Exhaustion 4t How animal life is sustained — Organization of the animal system in relation to the vital forces— Nerves, their distribution and va- rious functions— Assimilation and growth dependent upon invol- untary motion — Nervous sensation as manifested — Nervous euer- gy, how exhausted, and the means of accumulation. vi CONTENTS. CHAP. PAGE ...51 II.~The Sensokium Commune— Muscitlar Motion. All sensations are received by the Sensorium Commune^ and result in ideas — Impressions made upon the body are recognized and termed Consciousness — The pleasurable senses of sight and sound — Advantages obtained from all the senses — Muscuhir motion and its advantages— Motion of muscles controlled by the will, termed Voluntary Motion — Organs of sense dependent upon muscular mo- tion — IServes of voluntary motion distinct from nerves of sensa- tion, and termed Motor Ner^^es. in. — Anatomy of the Brain and Nerves ........ 5a The brain and nerves descrioed — Comparative view of the lower and higher order of animals— Description of the spinal cord, and its distribution of nerves — Intermingling of the spinal nerves with the sympathetic nerve and its ganglions — The anatomy of the brain, iilustrating the several portions — The wonderful opera- tion of the nervous system beyond our comprehension. IV. — ^Vitality, or the Living Principle — Temperaments 58 Vitality, or the living principle, incomprehensible— Whence energy to support muscular motion is obtained — Comparative influence of electricity in supplying nervous energy — Temperaments, and their influence upon individual character— Circumstances alone govern the temperaments of individuals for good or evil. V. — Completeness of the Human Form — Organs of Nutrition 62 Admirable arrangement of the human form — The importance of the hand almost equals speech — The various organs of nutrition and their functions— The living animal form in constant motion, thus expendmg sustenance, termed Nutrifion — Animalized material- - The process termed Asi^bidlatiori accomplished through the organs of Circulation and liespiration. VI. — ^Muscular Motion and the Circulation of the Blood 65 ' Man's inability to approach in completeness nature's works — Con- tractility constitutes all muscular motion— The heart a powerful muscular motion, sustaining the circulation of the blood — The anatomy of the heart fully described. VII.— Processes of Digestion and Nutrition 70 Nutrition, as supplied to the system through the Lacteals^ termi- nates in the Thoracic Duct — Chyle the product of digestion — Change in the mass of food eaten first takes place in the stomach — Gastric fluid reduces all natural fluid to a pulp, which is acted upon by a peculiar motion of the stomach — Chyme is formed iu the stomach, and Chyle in the intestines. Vni.— The Depuration of the Blood an]^ Evolution of Heat 74 Blood is purified in the skin and lungs, and heat is thereby deve- loped—structure of the lungs described — Their functions. IX.— Anatomy of the Vocal Organs. 78 The vocal organs described— The Human Voice capable of every possible sound — How sound is produced. X — Chemical Changes in Respiration— Vital Functions — Chemical changes that take place in the air we breathe — ^Vital force an independent power in the animal system. 80 CONTENTS. vii PART III. NUTRITION — CLIMATE — SANITARY AIDS. CHAP. PAaK L— The Necessity of Nutrition — The Influence of the Atmo- sphere 85 Nutrition essential to the sustenance of animal life — Its depend- ence on chemical changes — Different conditions of tiie atmosphere in relation to the requirements of the animal system — Animal temperature and its maintenance under varied circumstances. n. — Influence of Climate on the Sick, and the Benefits de- rived FROM Vegetable Diet 89 Climatic influence on Invalids— Citizens benefited by going to the country in the warm season, and by strict adherence to a vegeta ble diet — Pernicious qualities of stale fruit and vegetables. III. — The Formation of Living Animal Matter— The Necessary Food for the Young 92 The component parts of blood as derived from food — Carnivorous and graminivorous animals considered in relation to food— The young obtain from milk all that is essential to growth and vigor. IV. — The General Food of Man 97 An examination of the general food of man — Fibrin and Albumen are products taken up by the blood, whether from vegetable or animal food — Mixed food most suitable for man — Carbonaceous food predisposes to fat and bile. V. — The various Tissues that constitute the Human Body — Vi- tal Force or Living Power 102 Bichat's enumeration of the various tissues that constitute the en- tire form of man — Muscular motion dependent upon vital force — Means of expending vital force, and assimilating it. VI. — Influences of Climate and Atmospheric Electricity 103 The influence of climate on the animal system — Means of adapta- tion to unfavorable circumstances— The electrical condition of the atmosphere — A sufficiency of electricity an excitant to man's ener- gy, and the reverse when there is a deficiency — The influence of a deficiency of electricity in the atmosphere. VII. — Local Influence from Heat and Moisture, and the Influ- ence OF Cold 109 Heat and moisture — The disturbing influence of electricity in the atmosphere — Similarity of results in vital force in the resistance of atmospheric iniluence and in the accumulation of muscular power for labor — Means of sustaining the animal system under the influence of cold — Variations can be made conducive to improve- ment in health.. VIII. — City Life predisposes to Scrofula — The Injurious Effects OF Draughts of Air 113 The influence of city life in inducing a scrofulous diathesis — The various unfavorable and unavoidable difficulties that exist— The formation of tubercles under certain circumstances — The serious injury sustained by the human system from concentrated draughts of air, and the means of obviating the iniluence. IX.— Prospects or Eblief to Scrofulous Children Ill Relative prospects of relieving scrofulous children — The means of curing scrofula — It can be eradicated. X.— Deieterious Influences and Disinfectants 120 Unfavorable condition of the atmosphere in densely populated •r Vlll CONTENTS. HAP. PAGB cities— Deleterious influences engendered by carelessness— Disin- fectants and the proper methods of applying them. XI,— Dangers attending Excessive Eating— Warming and Venti- lating Apartments — Causes of Diphtheria and Consump- tion 12£ People under favorable conditions become large eaters — Children require more food than adults— The importance of selecting suita- ble locations for country resort — The proper method of heating dwelling-houses, and the means of ventilating them— How diph- theria and consumption are engendered. PART IV. THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD. I.— Nutriment Classified 133 The food of man divided into two classes — Nitrogcnized sub- stances, or the articles that form blood — Non-nitrogenized sub- stances, or the elements of respiration. 11. — The Actual Nutriment obtained from Food 135 Chemistry in relation to man's normal condition of health— Organ- ized elemental substances the result of vegetable life — Analysis of vegetable and animal substances used as food — Food designa- ted for the seasons. III. — Injurious Effects of Unripe Fruits 140 How unripe fruits afi'ect the system — They are most injurious to young children — Means of relief when injury has been sustained. IV. — Pernicious Effects of Stale Meat and Vegetables— Nutri- ment obtained from Fish and Flesii-meat 140 Stale meat and vegetables very detrimental to the human system — Analysis of meat— Nutritious qualities of fish investigated and determined by comparative density. V. — The most Nutritious Food of Man, and the best ways of Preparing it 149 The several modes of cooking meat — Its nutritious qualities, and the methods by which it is rendered most digestible— How to pre- l^are meats for invalids — Milk and Eggs: their nutritious qualities — The composition of milk. VI.— Milk and Butter: their Properties and Preservation 152 The properties of milk under various circumstances— Milk well adapted to nourish the young, but not sufficient food for adults — Human milk compared with that of various animals — Cream as a diet — Butter and its component parts — Cheese only lit food for hearty laborers — Means of preserving milk, and the several methods of doing so— Various modes of preserving butter. Vn. — Nutritive Qualities of Eggs 15S The peculiarities and properties of eggs and their nutritious quali- ties — Deleterious eflect produced by eating stale eggs. VIII.— The Natural Food for Infants, and its Substitute IGQ The primary growth and development of the babe, and its proper nourishment — x'Vdvice to mothers who are unable to suckle their oflspring — The milk that sliould be selected — Regulations to be observed in nursing — Influences that tend to vitiate human milk CONTENTS. ix — Afflictions caused thereby, and tlieir proper treatment— Means to be adopted for the sustenance of infants whose mothers arc unable to suckle them. 1X.~The Production of Fat : its Causes and Consequences 170 The nature and tendency of vegetable food— The production of fat is the result of a deficiency of oxygen in the system— Diabetes and its treatment- -Its injurious eflects. X.— Starch and Sugar as Articles of Diet 173 Starch is a most abundant product of the vegetable kingdom — The various plants from which starch is manufactured— Change of starch into sugar — Plants from which sugar is obtained — Amount annually produced— Constiiuents of various kinds of sugar — Pro- cess of malting— Pure sugar not a nutritious diet. XI.— The History and Manufacture of Sugar 181 Sugar was known from the earliest ages — ^The Venetians brought it into Europe — Its introduction into America — The latest im- provements in the manufacture of sugar— Its antiseptic proper- ties — The preparation of fruit jellies. XII. — The Four Varieties of Fermentation . 185 The processes of fermentation and their results — Changes in the germination of seeds and the ripening of fruit— The fermentation of grape sugar and the change of sugar into alcohol — Yeast essen- tial to form vinous fermentation— Formation o9 acetic acid, or vinegar — Putrefactive fermentation — Heat and cold arrest fermen- tation—How to preserve meat and vegetables. PART V. CEKEALS AND LEGUMES. I.— The Nutritious Elements of Vegetable Food 191 Vegetables that contain the greatest amount of nutrition — The cerealia stand at the head — From them are obtained gluten, fibrin, albumen, and casein, and all the mineral substances essential to the formation of the animal bo:!}^ — A greater digestive effort re- quired to obtain sustenance from vegetables than from meat — Albumen soluble in water — Fibrin found in the juices and seeds of plants — It is not soluble in water — Is convertible into albumen — Albumen in the .egg is changed into hbrin — Leguminosae pro- duce the greatest aniount of casein — Casein abounds in the milk of the mammalia — Oils from vegetables consist of two kinds, volatile and fixed — Why animal oil is more inflammable than starch or sagar— C'il is a suitable diet in extreme cold— Volatile oils produce the various fragrant scents— Fixed oils make a per- manent stain — Oils rapidly absorb oxygen. IT.— The Relative Nutriment in Seeds eaten by Man— Introduc- tion OF Grain Plants 195 Relative nutritious qualities of seeds — Grain plants are all annual — Their stems contain silex (flint)— They came from the East — Coflee, tea, and cotton traced from the East toward the V/est — Traditions in regard to the early cultivation of grain— An Ameri- can Indian tradition relative to the origin of maize, etc. — Wheat a proof of the civilization of the ancient Egyptians — It is disco- vered in their sepulchres— Cerealia grown before the time of Noah's flood — Bread made by Abraham's wife — Joseph's dream X CONTENTS. of the sneaves— Pharaoh's dream of seven ears on one stalk— Humboldt on the migration of plants— Man has selected for his food about twenty of the most abundant seed-bearing grasses- Bread grasses not originally found in Mexico— Wheat mtroduced into that country by a slave— By whom it was carried into Peru— ■ —The first wheat that reached Q.uito— The Spaniards introduced wheat into America— Spring wheat less hardy than winter wheat — Advantages to be derived from growing spring wheat. III. — Wheat and the Manufacture of Buead 302 Analysis of the nutritive qualities of wheat— Winter wheat more nutritious than summer— Ditierence in wheat grown in warm and cold regions — One of the most desirable varieties — The structure of a grain of wheat and its nutritive parts described — Properties of cerealin — It is essential to promote digestion— The weight of wheat and average yield of flour— Pernicious eilccts of fats in flour— They are increased by baking — When bread is most solu- ble— Ordinary mode of making bread— Inj urious effects that may arise— When properly fermented sugar is formed— Skill required to make good bread — How to obtain a proper fermentation— How to make yeast. IV. — Rye: Its Qualities and Uses 200 Rye, as a nutrient, stands next to wheat— It was not known in ancient India and Egypt— Pliny mentions its cultivation— Its use south of the Baltic Sea— In Sweden it is made into cakes — How it is grown in Lapland — Fungous growth on rye — Its poisonous qualities— Favorable condition for its growth— Its eftects in bread — Serious consequences resulting from it in various countries- Animals and insects poisoned by it— Good qualities of rye— Im- portance of the rye crop— A good fertilizer— Rye not so readily digested as wheat— Owing to its saccharine qualities, it is most readily malted — Is made into ardent spirits, and is much used as a substitute for coflee. v.— Barley, Malting, and Brewing 214 The countries in which barley has been discovered— The several ■ varieties— Cultivated by the Jews in the earliest ages— Grains Ox it found in the Egyptian catacombs — Egyptian traditions respect- ing it— Barley is best suited to a northern climate— It is not so nutritious as wheat— A grain the measure of one third of an inch Barley extensively cultivated for brewing into malt liquors — Fer- mented liquors made from barley at a veiy early date — They are still made in Egypt and Nubia — The Anglo-Saxons drank ale and mead — The old ale knights of England — Attachment of the Eng- lish to ale — The introduction of hops into ale forbidden by Henry VIII.— Large consumption of malt and hops in Great Britain — Mode of manufacturing malt — Process of making malt liquors — Good qualities of pure fermented liquors — German lager-beer aflbrds no nutriment, and is very intoxicating — The lager-beer of the United States is diflcrent — Amount of beer manufactured in the United States. VI.— Oats, the Original Bread-Grain 222 Oats cultivated two thousand years ago by the Celts and Germans — Known to the Egyptians, Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans — Used for bread before the more nutritious grains were introduced — Yet prized in some peculiar forms of cooking — Compared with other grains— Incidents connected with the use of cereals in England in former days — Grain was ground in a hand-mill, called a quern — The bread formerly eaten by the French peasantry — Wheaten- bread a great luxury i)^ England in the last century— Fatality of the plague increased by the want of nutritious food — The " Black Death''— Oats the most readiiy grown of the cereals. CONTENTS. xi \] I. —Rice: its Uses and Cultivation PAGE .. 238 Rice a marsh plant— Known 3000 years before the Christian e-ra — Contains the lease nutriment of all the cereaiia — Is much culti- vated in all warm climates — Was known to Strabo, and grown in Babylon and Syria— Its great value in North-America— When in- troduced, and by whom — The rice grown in Carolina and Georgia is the finest in the world — Rice is made into various dishes of cookery — Is boiled and eaten vv^ith milk or molasses — An excel- lent diet for children — Prevents thirst when eaten after salt meats —The effects of fluids in regard to digestion— How to remove the ailments caused by over-indulgence in rich food — The cultivation of rice in Georgia and South-Carolina — The bobolink, or rice- bird— Its destructive habits in the rice-field — The Chinese make a kind of wine out of rice, and the people of the East distill from it ardent spirits. VIIL— Indian Corn and its Preparations 233 Indian corn indigenous to America— Cultivated by the Indians, but not mentioned by the first voyagers to Virginia— Hospitality of the natives — During Grandville's second visit, Lane learned to smoke tobacco, and afterward introduced it into England — Cap- tain Smith obtained maize from the natives— First slaves intro- duced into Virginia— Maize now cultivated in Egypt, India, China, Greece, and Italy — The Mexican Indians prepared sugar from maize, also spirituous liquors and common drinks— Large quanti- ties disiilled lu the Southern and Western States-^rUsed for fat- tening cattle— Its fattening and muscle-making properties com- pared with those of other plants— Agricultural products of the United States— Unripe corn considered a delicacy — Preparations from corn — Corn- bread only suitable food for healthy persons — Mucli eaten in the Southern States— Why it is not injurious — Cooling eflect of perspiration — Carbo.naceous food generates fat, bile, or sugaf— Starch conduces to, diabetes — Proper food for a warm climate, and for children confined to tke house. IX. — Buckwheat AND its Varieties -. 243 Buckwheat, called in Germany heecli-wTieat^ introduced into Eu- rope in the sixteenth century— Has no affinity with the cereaiia — Is used very extensively as a bread grain — When green, is excel- lent fodder for milch cows— The grain is good for domestic ani- mals — Affords more muscle than corn — Is hard to digest — In Dantzic it is largely distilled into spirits — The several varieties of buckwheat and analogous grains. X.— Millet, Sorghum, and Imphee 246 Millet commonly grown in the East-Indies — Was known to the Greeks and Romans — The several varieties — The Borgkum mc- charahini a native of India — Its introduction as a sugar-produc- ing plant into tlie United States— 7/y^^;Aee, or African sorghum— The sorgho flourishes in the various climates of the Union— Its numerous merits — Its manufactnre into sugar— Its general use — The stalks form nutritious fodder for cattle — Yield of sugar and molasses per acre— Various methods adopted to obtain the same — Alcoholic drinks manufactured from the sap — Uses to which the sced-^, husks, etc., can be applied — Mode of cultivating sor- ghum—Expenses attendant upon cultivation and manufacture, and tlie profit per acre— Means of testing the presence of acid in molasses— How meat is preserved with molasses— Importance of the sorghum plant— Invaluable uses of molasses. XL— Peas, Beans, AND Lentils 258 Peas amd beans most nutritious, but difficult to digest— For horses and oxen they txceed all other food in nutriment; — The garden pea cultivated at a very remote period— Several varieties of peas xii CONTENTS. — The chick-pea an object of devotion— Where it is cultivated — Much used by the Spaniards — Was the parched pulse of the He- brews — Eastern trade in parched peas— Garden and field peas— The bean known at an earlier period than the pea— Kyanetes, the god of beans, honored by the Athenians— The bean considered an impure fi'uit by the Egyptians — Was in ancient times the symbol of death — Cultivated in China 2822 years before tlie Cliris- tian era— Is made into flour and bread by the Abyssinians— Is largely cultivated in Barbary — Varieties of beans— The kidney- bean — The lentil grown in France and Italy — Msa^e into soup in Catholic countries as a limited diet for fast-days— Is the most nutritious of the leguminous seeds — Eaten by the Hindoos when engaged in laborious work. PART VI. ESCULENTS AND FHUITS. 1.— The Potato 205 Properties of esculent vegetables— The potato most nutritious and of the utmost value to man— Can not be superseded— Found growing wild in Chili — Indigenous to America, and thence trans- ported to England in 1583 — Arrives at its greatest perfection in the temperate zones— Quality improved by culture— Peculiar efiect of cultivation upon esculents and fruits — The potato improved by change of locality — As a diet, exempts from disease — When eaten with rich food, improves the digestive functions— Its use would avert excessive mortality — Too much fluid creates a craving for large quantities of food — Value of esculents— Comparative amount of nutriment in common articles of diet. II.— Plants of which we Eat the Leaves, etc 2T5 Value of esculents as food — Have been used for diet in all ages — Asparagus cultivated to perfection by the Romans — Cabbage most digestible in a raw state — Kohlsalat and sauerkraut — The lettuce much prized by the Persians — It is a wholesome dixit when eaten with dressing — Vinegar is a promoter of digestion— Oil arrests fermentation in the digestive organs — By whom sugar should not be used in dressing — Remarks apply equally to the dressing of all salads— Celery a most valuable salad-plant — In its wild state is rank and unpalatable, but when cultivated is sweet and agreeable — Is a great promoter of digestion — Parsley of the same family as celery. ^. III. — Fruits: theie Properties and Qualities 279 Fruit desirable as an adjuvant in diet — Promotes digestion, and lessens the demand for hearty food— All fruits are not deficient in nutrunent — Their medicinal properties — They contain organic acids — Table of gases found in these acids — They are appropri- ated to the uses of the body — The fruits in which specific acids are found. IV. — The Apple and the Pear 283 The apple the most Vciluable fruit— The prophet Joel refers to it — It is also mentioned by Shakespeare — Manufacture of cider favored by Charles I. — The consequences of partaking of impure wines — Wild apples and pears, where found — The pear has a much wider range than the apple— The cultivation of apples and pears moet improved by the Romans — The varieties mentioned CONTENTS. xiii by ancient writers— Their number at the present day— A know- ledge of good fruit not encouraged in tlie United States — Unripe fruit pernicious even when cooked. y.— Stone-Feuits, the Grape, etc 286 Stone-fruits are divided into two families— Tlie seed, bark, and leaves contain hydrocyanic acid— The peach a wholesome fruit— The cherry and the plum not so wholesome— Want of disposition in many to cultivate fruit-trees — The noble-hearted traveler Bur- chell — The misfortunes of Sickler, the German horticulturist — The peach cultivated in the earliest ages — It is mentioned in the books of Confucius— The original home of the cherry— The grape one of the first fruits cultivated by man— Is indigenous to several countries — Varieties produced by crossing — American grapes— The properties of the smaller fruits identical with those described. PART YII. BEVERAGES AND CONDIMENTS. I. — Water and Stimulant Drinks 293 Fluids essential to life — They are injurious when not dissipated from the body, and when taken to excess — Mucli evaporation dis- sipates animal heat, which is essential to health — The digestive functions impaired by fluids — Water the most salutary drink — It prolongs life when nutriment can not be obtained — Instance of a man who lived fifty-three days on water alone — Water very bene- ficial to robust persons — Pernicious eff"ects of alcoholic drinks — ■ Constant excitement exhausts the system — The propriety of giv- ing stimulants to aged and infirm persons doubtful — Alcoholic drink as a medicine serves an invaluable purpose. II. — Excess of Fluids Injurious to Children 299 Children's health impaired by partaking largely of fluids— Their digestive powers are thereby enfeebled— A cause of cliolera in- fantum— Proper food for the young— How to keep milk for inlants — Regulations to be observed in feeding them. III. — Prepared Drinks— Iced Water— Acidulated Drinks — Nu- tritious Fluids 301 Prepared drinks taken for gratification — Their eff'ect on different- ly constituted persons — Iced water as a drink— It is sedative and reduces sensibility — Relieves drunkenness — Is hurtful to the mouth, throat, and stomach— Its sedative effects are injurious — Acidulated drinks only salutary to some persons — Nutritious fluids — Soups only suitable for persons of energetic digestive povfers— Concentrated juices of meat beneficial. , IV —Tea and the Tea-Plant SOQ Tea, coffee, cocoa, and chocolate fornt nutritious drinks — They contain a peculiar strengthening power— Dilution impairs their virtue, and is injurious to persons of weak digestive powers — —Cream adds to their nutritious qualities— Tea first introduced into Europe by the Dutch — Immense amount now im])orted into Europe and America— The mode of preparing tea for the market —The diflerent varieties— How to preserve its good qualities— For what it is efficacious — It is an antidote for poison. xiv CONTENTS. CHAP. TAGB v.— CorrEE AND ITS Pkeparation 313 The flowers of the cofi'ee-tree exceedingly fragrant— The fruit and seed — Cofiee sold at Constantinople in 1554— Was supposed to be intoxicating and its use forbidden— It was afterward per- mitted and taxed— Great consumption of colfee by the Turks -It was carried westward by the Venetians The colfee-plant first introduced into Europe in 1714 — Was conveyed to the West-Indies — Coffee indigenous in Arabia — Mode of planting and of gather- ing the berries— How coffee should be roasted — The proper way to prepare the beverage— When sugar and milk should be added — The beneticial eilects of coffee in peculiar cases — Persons to whom it is injurious— Consumption of coffee in the United States. VI. — Cocoa and Chocolate 318 Chocolate made from the seeds of the Theobroma— The Theobro- VKt cacao cultivate<«l in Mexico in the time of the Aztecs— Uses and properties of its seeds— The cacao-tree, its foliage, /lowers, and fruit — The modes of manufacturing chocolate— Cocoa and broma— The use of chocolate in various countries. VII. — Condiments and theib Qualities 321 Condiments not only render food palatable, but are promoters of digestion— The more acrid varieties pernicious — The condiments most conducive to health — Salt and vinegar — Sugar, cream, but- ter, and oil render rich food obnoxious, but are advantageous when taken with plain food — Aromatic spices must be taken with caution — On'ons and garlic have a sedative effect— When sugar disagrees with dyspeptics— Salt essential to sustain health — Its absence engenders worms in the stomach — Salt provisions pro- duce scurvy — Vinegar in moderation conducive to health — It ren- ders fatty substances more digestible— When taken in excess, it is injurious. PART VlII. INCENTIVES TO HEALTH AND MEANS OF RELIEF IN CASES OP ACCIDENT. I.— Bathing and the Functions op the Skin 32T The external application of fluids most grateful to man when fatigued— Bathing employed as a curative means —Was a religious observance among the ancients— Scriptural history of bathing— The Greeks indebted to the Egyptians for its knowledge — Cruel practice of the Spartans— Excessive cold water injurious—Judg- ment required in bathing— Sedative ett'ects of cold water danger- ous to some constitutions — Structure and organization of the skin —How it is acted upon by cold water— Relief afforded by the cold bath in cases of fever and inflammation — When the application of iced wate-r is beneficial— The warm bath and its remedial qualities— The hot bath and its stimulating ettects— Is dangerous to persons of full habit— Precautionary measures— How to pre- pare a vapor-bath— Application of the fumes of alcohol or the spirit vapor-bath — The foot-bath and local applications. n.— Clothing and the Efej^cts of Cold Wi Clothing contributes to health— The evils attendant on being in- sufficiently clad— Neatness in dress commands respect— Children sacrificed by fashionable clotliing— Drafts in street cars a prolific cause of death— Concentrated drafts of air decidedly injurious— CONTENTS. XV UAP, PA.GB Efiects of cold on the young and the aged— Cold air acts upon the system like cold water— A torpid skin the result of sedentary ha- bits—Exercise, not clothing, the proper remedy— Clothing should be worn in accordance with surrounding circumstances — The skin best protected by flannel— How children should be dressed by day and night— Flannel retains heat, but linen absorbs it— Cold feet must not be permitted— How they can be prevented— Sacrifice of women and children by wearing thin shoes and stockings— Expo- sure of the limbs of children tends to paralysis— Treatment of - paralyzed parts— Waistbands and high-laced boots injurious to children — The necessity for frequently changing underclothing — Persons who should be carefully guarded against cold. III.— Physical Exercise 355 Exercise a manifestation of life— It is essential to its well-being —The first exercises of the infant — Discipline necessary in the exercise of children — Objections to the cradle— Riding more bene - ficial to children than being carried— Causes which lead to children becoming tender — How it is that poor children endure great ex- posure — Their habits of life — The practical lessons we obtain from them— Modification in treatment necessary for delicate child- ren-Vital force exhaustive— It is increased by gradual demand —Muscular activity maintained by nutriment — The benefits which accrue from active exercises— The injurious efiects of fatigue — When 2^cc^sive exercises are advantageous — Pleasure should be associated with exercise— When exercise is most salutary— Spe- cial exercises for the restoration of lost powers — Excessive exer- cise should be avoided— Treatment in cases of deformity— Club- feet and their cure— General deductions. rV.— Mental and Physical Exercise 371 Mental and physical powers must be exercised equally to insure longevity — The eft'ect of such combined exercise on difi^erent classes— Suggestions for the social improvement of laboring men — The greatest amount of work is not achieved when the entire time is devoted to labor or study — Gloomy forebodings prejudi- cial to health — Tke efiects of constant excitement— Traveling the best exercise — The beneficial influences of a sojourn in the coun- try — When mountain air should be avoided — The influence travel- ing exerts upon the mind and body — How travelers should be clothed— 111 health the result of moral causes — Disorganization of the brain and spinal marrow, and its treatment — The eflfects caused by exposure to rapidly moving air — Persons should be careful in giving advice to valetudinarians. v.— Means op Relief in Cases of Accident 383 Importance of timely aid when an accident occurs— Wounds and their treatment — Suspended animation from drowning — Sufi'oca- tion from foul air — Sufibcation from common burning gas — Gene- ral rules to be observed in cases of sufi'ocation— Sufl'ocation by choking— Suspended animation from cold— Extensive burns or scalds— Syncope, or fainting— Poisoning. ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE ANATOMY OF THE BRAIN, 5G THE HEART AND BLOOD-VESSELS, 68 ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS, 78 ELECTRICAL MACHINE AND USEFUL APPARATUS, ... 144 SECTION OF A GRAIN OF WHEAT, MAGNIFIED, .... 204 VERTICAL SECTION OF THE SKIN, MAGNIFIED, ... 333 PART I. p. j-'REMISE ON yVlAN'S |^EALTH. CHAPTEE I. PHYSICAL TRAmilSra CONDUCIVE TO HEALTH. The Condition of Man's Health viewed comparatively — Improve- ment in tli^ physical condition of man's offsprino^ an obligatory duty — Sickness the great subduer of man — The entailment of dis- ease wpon our offspring a sad reflection — The enforcement of laws and dogmas by the ancients to the advantage of tjieir children — ■ The beneficial influence of muscular exercise common to both sexes — Encroachment of new diseases — Mental attainment not incom- patible with means for physical development — Children can only be improved in proportion to home influences — The organs of the system that suffer most from mental perturbation — The most common ailment, Dyspepsia, a monster malady of Protean form IN order to ascertain what is most conducive to the improvement of man's health, it is absolutely ne- cessary that we should investigate his normal condition, and discover the agencies that are most instrumental in impairing it. The full development of the organi- zation, the complete performance of all the organic fanctions, and the enjoyment of an agreeable condi- tion, may be considered as approximating to that desirable state of existence — perfect health. Dr. SouTHWooD Smith, in his " Philosophy of Health," defines the same " as the natural and easy exercise of 20 A PKEMISE ON MAn's HEALTH. all tlie functions — constituting a state of actual pleas- ure;" in wliicli case, lie adds, " the usual, the perma- nent, and natural condition of each organ, and of the entire system, is pleasurable." Dr. James Johnson states that this might be true if we were in a state of nature ; but, 'in our present condition, there is scarcely such a thing as perfect health." Unfortu- nately, however, perfect health is often a negative rather than a positive quality — an immunity from suffering rather than the " pleasurable" condition described by Dr. Smith. All experienced medical writers incline to this conclusion with regard to the health of man in his present situation. Hence, his offspring must be considered as. in a comparative state of health, for " the sins of the father are visited upoji the children." The infant brings w^ith it predis- positions to disease peculiar to the parents, which are developed in its progress through life, modified or aggravated, as circumstances may determine. Great improvement, however, in the health of tlie offspring, may be obtained by careful training, which is an obli- gatory duty enjoined upon parents; for they have assumed a responsibility not to be avoided under any pretence, other than that of physical or mental inabil- ity. It is a responsibility due, not only to the child, but to that Creator who has blessed them with a like- ness of themselves, in a living being, and implanted in their hearts that dee^^ love which is only fully real- ized when the child is afflicted with pain, and the hand of death is upon it. We are all aware that wealth can not procure health and ease, much less happiness or life. It would be PHYSICAL TRAINING PKOMOTES HEALTH. 21 considered an nnjiist dispensation of Providence to have permitted the purchase of that which is the poor man's joy — good health — the want of which reduces the affluent to worse than indigence. The bed of sickness and suffering is the greatest subduer upon this side of the grave. If properly considered, it aff*ords us consolation to know that the affliction is for our good, although it may have resulted from our own in- discretion ; but it can not be made a consolation to the parent who has entailed suffering upon his offspring, either by neglect or ignorance of what is most condu- cive to their welfare. It is universally admitted that there is a degeneracy of physical power in our race at the present day, com- pared with that of the ancients, which should invite our attention to the means successfully adopted by the latter to develop energy and strength. Their method of enforcing hygienic training would most certainly not be applicable in this enlightened age, but it serves to awaken the inventive genius of our advanced intel- lect. The religious ceremonies of the ancients had a most potent influence in the preservation of health. In the observance thereof they w^ere very strict, and it was a part of their belief that their sanitary code was the mandate of Heaven. Hence, Brahma had no difficulty in introducing the vegetarian doctrine. He prohibited the use of animal food, and was most rigid- ly obeyed by all his adherents, much to their advan- tage in health, as they lived in a very hot climate. It was the same with the Hebrews, who were forbid- den to eat pork, an observance to which they strictly adhered, believing it to be a divine command. The 22 A PEEmsE ON man's health. abstinence tlierefrom was of mucli benefit to tliem, be- cause, in the eastern country which they inhabited, the swine were afflicted with the leprosy, a supposed contagious disease of most loathsome character, that could be communicated to man. Lycurgus, too, made a law for the guidance of the Greeks, in which it was decreed tliat all children born with deformity or de- fect should be destroyed. Its object was to preserve and improve the form and physical capacity of the Spartan children, so that he could rely upon them, when they reached man's estate, as protectors of his government. And that their well-formed muscles might be invigorated and attain extraordinary strength, he introduced pliysical training as essen- tial to both sexes, and thus produced a stalwart race. No attempt at educating the mental f^xculties, or restraining the exuberant spirits of these Spartan children, was allowed before the expiration of the first seven years; consequently, the full energies of the system were expended in the development of the physical frame. When seven years old, both mental and physical training were enforced by the laws of the country. Under these laws the children were subjected to a regular course of discipline in public, and in common were exposed to atmospheric changes of every kind, and were compelled to undergo severe exercises in the gymnasium, the practice of which in- creased with their age. At the same time, their diet was very simple, and but little varied. This rigid system of training both the sexes before marriage must have produced that great similarity of constitution, as well as that vigor of health, which PHYSICAL TRAINING PROMOTES HEALTH. 23 is at the present time exhibited in our rural dis- tricts, where women work in tlie field with men. In some German settlements, the female is quite equal in muscular force to the male, possessing sufficient strength to shoulder three busliels of wheat, (sixty pounds to the bushel,) and to throw tlie load upon a horse, preparatory to taking it to the mill to be ground into flour. How many men are there in our large cities who could accomplish this feat ? Not one out of ten. Such strength may not be required for the ordinary pursuits of life, yet it is of great value to the possessor, as it is a protection against the vicissitudes of our climate. It also tends to mitigate maternal suf- fering, as is evinced in the districts alluded^o, where women engaged in rural pursuits are not, in many in- stances, confined to their beds more than twelve hours. Tliese well-known facts ought to be sufficient to induce us to make at least an eflfort to improve our physical constitution. We thus find tliat the ancients enforced sanitary measures both by religious dogmas and by legislative enactments, and thereby produced nations of the most healthy and hardy races of men that ever lived. A knowledge of this truth shows our deficiency in pub- lic sanitary measures for the protection of the health and the lives of our people, who suflfer from increasing deterioration of their physical powers, and from the encroachment of new diseases, which are frequently pronounced by practitioners in medicine to be of an extraordinary type, and entitled to new names. Our condition is, consequently, truly alarming, and the attention of the people should be invited to the sub- 24 A PRElNnSE ON MAn's HEALTH. ject, so tliat it may be corrected by a united effort, which can only be made when the public are fully aware of their situation. Religions dogmas, it is true, would not be tolerated at the present time ; nei- ther would legislative encroachment upon the prerog- atives of the heads of families be submitted to. The consideration of this all-important topic must, there- fore, be left with the enlightened and educated classes, whose example would surely be followed. If they, for instance, prevented their children, during the first seven years* of life, being confined for unreasonable hours in school, limited them to a simple and nutri- tious diet, caused them to take daily exercise in the open air, enforced little or no restraint other than moral instruction, and clothed them in a dress that would permit freedom of muscular motion, their wise example would, in a reasonable time, become popular and be of great advantage to the health and pleasure of the young, who are ever ready to test their agility and muscular energy with their companions. Trials of activity and strength were the delight of the Spar- tan youth ; and athletic sports still form part of the inherent disposition of the young, and are to them pleasurable pursuits which invigorate both the mental and physical powers. Such exercises, however, to have a beneficial efi^ect, must be carefully regulated by stated periods of rest, determined by powers of endurance and predisposition to constitutional weakness ; and, by good management, such predispo- sition may be much improved, and attain power to resist the influence of ordinary surrounding circum- Btances prejudicial to health. It must be borne in PHYSICAL TKAINING PROMOTES HEALTH. 25 mind that the Spartan children were kept on plain nourishing food, and were not submitted to any re- straint for the first seven years ; and that after that age a gradual training, regulated by legislative enact- ments as to the exercises, which were uniform and severe, tended to develop muscular power without injury from its severity. These children had no con- stitutional derangement nor hereditary weakness ; for their parents, having experienced a similar course of treatment in their youth, were vigorous and healthy, and transmitted their hardy organic ten- dencies to their olFspring. Though the Spartan children were mainly trained for the development of muscular power, .mental edu- cation is not incompatible with such exercises, if not too excessive. But, in viewing the advantages to be obtained from physical training, properly balanced by moral and mental culture, we perceive many seem- ingly almost insurmountable difficulties that super- vene, discouraging alike to teachers of schools and to those who have the responsibility of taking charge of our children. After laboring most assiduously, yet unsuccessfully, for the improvement of youth, they are unable to account for their want of success, the reason for which is attributable to their being unac- quainted with the former habits of the children, a knowledge whereof would throw much light upon the subject. The irregularities or intemperance of parents, in regard to the ordinary government of many fami- lies in fashionable life, is very apparently manifested in their children by an obtuseness of nervous sensibil- ity, which nervous condition is caused by excessive 26 A PREMISE ON man's HEALTH. indulgence in extraordinary excitements. Sucli child- ren can only be improved in proportion to the extent of home influences brought to bear upon them, unless tliey are placed under the exclusive charge of judi- cious teachers. The only means of accomplishing this result is in early life, by a systematic and vigor- ously enforced course, which, if adopted, will improve their mental and physical powers, and often rescue them from latent morbid tendencies. It is to a knowdedge and just appreciation of these •facts that we are most desirous of drawing attention, in the hope that they will induce parents who subject themselves to pernicious influences to have, at least, regard for their children, and thus save them from the inevitable result of such conduct — ill health. The relation between the mental and physical forces of the system is so close that excesses in the latter seriously impair the former, and excesses in the former still more seriously impair the latter. For instance, too much mental exertion at any period of life is inimical to health. Those engaged in scientific, mechanical, mercantile, political, or other pursuits requiring great mental exercise, naturally experience physical disabil- ity. But the depressing passions consequent upon failure, an exalted condition of the mind c];eated by great excitement, and a morbid tendency to excitabil- ity, which may be prompted by a desire to imitate others wdio indulge in constant excitement, are most injurious of all. These present examples of intem- perance of the most insidious character, which niJ-Uii- fests itself in encroachments upon the necessities re- quisite to the maintenance of good health, — in the PHYSICAL TRAINING PKOMOTES HEALTH, 27 rejection of food of a proper kind at stated times, and in the loss of sleep at the proper pei-iod for rest, or in taking too nmch sleep at irregular hours. And it is these encroachments, added to excessive nervous excitement, that is deteriorating the constitution of man, and is giving us, at the present day, a weak, degenerate race. An occasional freak of over-indul- gence produces no permanent injury, and may even be repeated at long intervals with seeming impunity ; but we may rest assured that a continuance of such action will always affect the person so indulging in proportion to the stamina he possesses. Hence, we find some people persisting in these habits with appar- ent impunity, whilst others suffer sevei^ely for their temerity. We probably more directly observe the influence of the mind upon the body, when it is caused by un- avoidable and unfavorable circumstances, than when it is occasioned by indulgence in what is most exu- berant to our tastes, such as in ambitious designs, in hilarity, or in gazing upon scenes that are astonishing and exalting to the imagination. Here is an illustra- tion. A man receives astounding intelligence of some most distressing character. His mind, his brain, his whole nervous system are agitated and disturbed ; his appetite fails, or, if he partakes of food, it is not prop- erly digested; fever supervenes, and his whole frame indicates a depressing influence. It is remarked, from an actual change in his features, that he appears older than he really is. In a word, the organs not imme- diately under the control of the will, or not directly connected with the intellectual portion of the body, 28 A PREMISE ON MAn's HEALTH. — tlie organs of digestion, circnlation, nutrition, and secretion, — are all disturbed, and their functions dis- ordered. The mental effects upon the corporeal system are those which naturally attract most attention. Yery few, comparatively speaking, are exempt from trouble. From the laborer, who is most probably the least afflicted, to the millionaire, all have their griev- ances. There is, consequently, to be found in every rank of society a depression of the nervons system, which tends to produce debility, and to induce a gradual failure of the physical organization to per- form its wonted functions. This depression is fol- lowed by various types of disease, which can only be palliated for a time by the skill of a physician, whilst the evil is continued. The most common ailment is dtjspepsia^ a disorder of not very distant origin, which Dr. Johnson calls a "monster malady of Protean form." No mention is made of dyspepsia in ancient records, nor was it even known in the middle ages. It is, doubtless, the oftspring of civil- ization and refinement, of sedentary habits and intel- lectual culture, of physical deterioration and mental perturbation — a Proteus which assumes the form and usurps the attributes of almost every malady, mental and corporeal, that has scourged the human race since the creation of the world. The physician, pressed for an explanation of this malady, quiets his patient by saying that it is a nervous derangement, or the result of a diseased liver, stomach, spleen, brain, or spine. But he must not call it hypochondriasis or hysteria, for by so doing he would give oflense, and probably PJIYSICAL TRAINING PROMOTES HEALTH. 29 be discharged from further attendance. Dr. Johnson states that it is not difficult to discover the clue to the diversity of opinion which exists with regard to dys- pepsia. This Patho- Protean affliction is not, per- Iiaps, in strict language, an entity, a single disease sent down from heaven or springing from the bowels of the earth, but rather a morbid constitution or dis- position, produced by the various moral and phj^sical causes we have alluded to, and moulding numerous other maladies into its own semblance. Although the multitudinous causes of this evil must operate in a variety of ways, yet there are two principal channels through which it flows upon man much more frequently than through others — namely, the brain and tlie stomach, but chiefly the former. The moral impression on the brain and nerves is infinitely more injurious than the physical effect of food and drink upon the stomach, however improper such ali- ment might be. The multifarious relations of man with tlie world around him, in the present era of social life, are such as must inevitably keep up a con- stant source of perturbation, if not irritation. This trouble of mind is not solely, or even principally, ex- pended on the brain and nerves, but upon the organs of the body most intimately associated with the brain, — upon the digestive organs, including the stomach, the liver, and the bowels. CHAPTER II. DANGERS ATTENDING UNDUE MENTAL EXCITEMENT. Influence of the mind upon tlie physical organization of man — Tb 9 dire eflPects of political excitement ; they are increased by alco- holic drinks — The children of politicians predisposed to scrofula — Torture endured by scrofulous children from adventurous treatment — Scrofula curable in succeeding generations — The means of alleviating x)hysical suffering — Deteriorating influ- ences on children, and most serious effects produced thereby. THE play of the mind upon the physical organi- zation of man, of which we spoke in the previ- ous chapter, has received special attention from some of our most erudite medical waiters, especially from Dr. Johnson. We have no desire to frighten our po- litical aspirants, but we can not refrain from quoting from that acknowledged eminent authority what he has stated as a part of his experience. He writes : " During the French Revolution whole classes of diseases were produced, and especially that of the heart. These are now rapidly multiplying from the excitement of politics. Excitement is a w^ord not sufficiently expressive. The hatred which exists now between people of different politics is such, that health is incompatible with its continuance. One half of the present violent politicians w^ill as- EVIL EFFECTS OF UNDUE MENTAL EXCITEMENT. 31 suredly die of disease of the heart, or of some great internal organ. Scarcely a day — even an hour — passes withont my seeing exemplifications of this principle. If the votaries of political ambition could see with me a few of the efiects of that ambition — or, even of that perturbation of mind attendant on po- litical struggles — they would fly in dismay from the baleful contest." This portrays a great similarity to what is con- stantly being enacted in our political contests — hatred, envy, and turbulent manifestations, not un- frequently terminating in the loss of life. These con- tests are sustained by whole classes of political oppo- nents for years ; but, near the close of ^ach election, the most violent perturbations of mind, incited by alcoholic drinks, are experienced, and the physical powers suffer from an actual neglect to take food. If what has been stated by one of the most talented and experienced practitioners in the science of medicine that England ever produced be true, the prospects are by no means encouraging as to the certainty of life among our political aspirants, or as to the robust health of their offspring. In such children the scro- fulous diathesis w^ill most undoubtedly prevail in all its protean form of ailments. These ailments are not only more insidious and quite as numerous as those produced in adults by dyspepsia, but they exhibit a more decided character to the experienced practi- tioner. They are: Inflammation of the eyelids and nostrils ; eruptions of the skin, varying from rough- ness to that of decided pustules ; secreting incrusta- tions ; engorgement of the glands, frequently suppu- 32 A PREMISE ON MAN's HEALTH. rating and discharging from the internal ear and imder the jaws, known as Kincfs Evil / engorgement of the glands of the bowels, producing an enlarge- ment and hardness of the abdomen, which tends to a constant looseness of the bowels ; emaciated limbs ; humpback ; white swelling ; and tubercular consump- tion. Many children, having a decided scrofulous ten- dency, are largely developed and exceedingly rotund in form. These, from unfavorable influences, are eventually affected with some of the above ailments, and thus show their defective organization. Such child- ren are usually late in teething, and are subject to en- largement of the joints, to bow^ legs, and to irregular development of the chest and head. If they enjoy fair digestive powders, and are not placed under the old starving course of treatment, many of them will maintain sufficient vital force to withstand an in- credible amount of torture, such as they would suffer from extending by mechanical force their contract- ed muscles morbidly affected by local irritation, from violent movement periodically applied to enfeebled limbs, from sudden crushing of distorted joints, and from tearing of the ligamentous attachments, and attempting to keep a limb in position where there is no sustaining socket to retain it, the result of which is extensive abscesses. In such cases the patient may escape, and live for several years. Here we have an important matter for consider- ation, namely, that a patient is able to endure what would be considered sufficient cause to impair the health of a hale person. It is reasonable to supj)ose EVIL EFFECTS OF UNDUE MENTAL EXCITEMENT. 33 that, by careful hygienic treatment, many of these ailments would be modified, and this horrible sutFer- ing from adventurous treatment thereby avoided. For, if the patients have sufficient stamina to withstand such an exhausting ordeal, is it not a probable inference that they might be restored to a standard of health that would throw otf much of the scrofulous taint, which is nothing more than an enfeebled condition of certain organs tliat fail to fully perform their wonted functions ? Their offspring would not then be subjected to this supposed hereditary malady, and consequently would not be exposed to treatment like that which we have described. Scrofula is curable in succeeding generations. It is readily induced in one generation, by depressing influences upon the human system, and from various causes which it requires the utmost care to avoid. And this avoidance can only be accomplished by a knowledge of the human economy in its physical, in- tellectual, and moral relations. It must be admitted, in this enlightened age, that the study of man is most important. To acquire a knowledge of our own nature, and of the circumstances which surround us, is not only interesting, but the possession* of such in- formation enables iis to escape much unnecessary suf- fering. The subject m.ust be considered not in one particular alone, but in all ; the intellect, the body, the feelings, and the affections — all must be studied and appreciated, severally and collectively. Many of the o;rievous ills which mark our course tlirouc^h life must be ascribed to defective education, to de- teriorating circumstances, and to want of determina- 34 A PEEMISE ON MAN's HEALTH. tion on the part of parents to maintain a restrictive government over tliemselves and their children. The greatest barriers to the improvement of the human race are selfishness, jarring interests, and conflicting opinions, together Avith too low an estimate of the dignity of Imman nature. It is the duty of every lover of his fellow-man to strive to ameliorate pain. The starting-point toward " the alleviation of physical suffering is a close study of the laws which govern our organization; for, if these laws are violated, we can not hope for a continu- ance of good health. Many of the ailments to which we are subject in childhood may be mitigated, even where it is impossible to prevent the development of the disease. Hence, it should be understood that we have power, at least, by hygienic treatment, to control many maladies of ordinary occurrence ; and this should be forcibly impressed upon the minds of parents, so that by their own efforts they may mitigate a vast amount of suffering to which their children are predis- posed. The tender and sensitiA^e nerves of the young can not be exposed to extraordinary excitement without sustaining iwjury from over tension. Their sensibility for acquiring the more sedate essentials to intellectual improvement thereby becomes impaired, and an un- favorable impression is imparted to the physical organ- ization ; whilst an inability to resist unfavorable in- fluences, antagonistic to their vital energies, is also produced, which influences, under unimpaired consti- tutions, are overcome as they advance in age. But this good result can only ])C obtained by individuals EVIL EFFECTS OF UNDUE MENTAL EXCITEMENT. 35 who have been placed under proper regime in early life, and are exempt from hereditary infirmities. To accomplish it, careful training in mental and physical exercises — rather restricting the mental so that the physical may be more fully developed — is necessarj^, especially during the first seven years of childhood. Much care should also be taken to guard against sudden changes of the weather, and against wearing too heavy clothing at one time, and an insufhciency of apparel at another. Great precaution, too, is re- quired to preserve children of this tender age from witnessing exciting scenes, such as those which create an apprehension of danger or lead to great exaltation of the mind, and which are ofttimes enacted at places of public amusement in our large cities ; even music in excess, as, for example, extraordinary performances thereof, is injurious. These influences are hurtful in degree even to mature growth and development ; for inadvertance of the nature alluded to has entailed timidity upon individuals through life, and has caused the grossest superstitions to be entertained even against the person's own reasoning. The recital of frightfully portrayed scenes is also equally pernicious to youth. It is well known that sudden fear produces upon the human system the most painful sensations of all the depressing influences that affect the mind, and some- times causes instant death; whilst timidity, in its continued or chronic form, gradually impairs the physical powers, and dwarfs the development of intel- lect and energy, if not also of stature. CHAPTER III. IMPORTANCE (3F PROPER HYGIENIC RECJTTLATIONS. M^ans of obviating unfavorable influences— Careful family nurture can diminisli tlie virulence of scrofula — The prosperous laborer is blessed with the most numerous and healthy family of children — The advance of knowledge, when properly applied, of great advantage to the laboring classes — Unfavorable circumstances that continue to surround the indigent laborer — How to remove them. IN order to obviate the influences of hereditary physical infirmities, careful hygienic training must be commenced at birth. AVhen both parents are unhealthy, the offspring can not be sonnd. The union of many unfavorable circumstances tends to tliat result. Careful culture will do much to modify, as irregularity will assuredly aggravate, the conse- quences of a faulty organization. Thus it is that many enjoy tolerable health, in whom latent disease awaits only a suitable excitant ; but this latent disease may never be developed, from the disposition being BO modified by prudent nurture when young, that it is not easily excited into activity in after life. On the other hand, children of the most healthy parents be- come delicate in consequence of unfavorable circum- VALUE OF HYGIENIC TRAINING. 37 stances — from improper regulations with regard to air, exercise, food, and clothing, and from depressing moral influences. Children, like plants, require the light and heat of the sun, otherwise they languish and deteri- orate. Their digestive powers are weakened by an insufficiency of nutritious food, and by fluids contain- ing little or no nourishment. Foul air retained in rooms from necessity, or from an apprehension of catching cold by the admission of fresh air, also tends to impair the digestive organs. Tlue same result likewise ensues from the want of exercise, caused by children being prohibited from participating in sup- posed rude or boisterous enjoyments, which are essen- tial to the development of the body, though, perhaps, they are not in strict accordance with the rules of what is considered good deportment. The effect of this mistaken care is a weakened or- ganization, which, if not apparently developed in the person submitted to over-watchfulness, will exhibit it- self in his or her progeny. Scrofula, rickets, mesen- teric and pulmonary consumption, caries of the spine or humpback, hip disease, white swelling, and glandu- lar enlargement, terminating in extensive abscesses, as w^e have already stated, are the attendants which await such a feeble ^and disordered constitution. It is thus that imagined hereditary diseases are induced. If it w^ere otherwise, it would be natural to conclude that they originated w^ith the first parents of mankind^ which is certainly not the case. They are, on the contrary, the fruits of our own imprudence. The hab- its of parents and the manner in which they train their children, can produce or avert these evils, as wel] 38 A PKEMISE ON MAN's HEALTH. as increase or diminish their virulence. It does not fol- low that because one or both parents may be the off- spring of a scrofulous person or persons, the children, if properly nm'tured, will suffer from a strumous pre- disposition. We have abundant proof of this fact. Persons enjoying the most robust health, and not pre- senting a scrofulous feature, are the grand-children of those who have been afflicted with hip-disease, caries of tlie spine, (humpback,) etc. Again, we have others suffering most severely from those diseases, and yet the origin of the disorders can not be traced back even to the third or fourth generation ; but, on careful ex- amination, it will be discovered that some deteriorat- ing influence in the parents, or some circumstances pertaining to nurture, have be^n at fault. Parents of well-developed physical proportions often impair their physical organization by excessive mental exertion and anxiety, or exhaust their powers by extraordinary efforts made in the fascinating and successful pursuit of ambitious desigiis, either of which will entail an enfeebled progeny. Like consequences also result from irregular habits of living, such as gratifying pur- suits during the night, interference with seasonable rest, the disposition to indulge in long repose in the morning, and eating to excess and at irregular pe- riods. These indulgences are unfavorable to the vital forces, wdiicli are essential to the production of a vig- orous and healthy progeny ; and their ill effects are quite apparent in many opulent families of our large cities, the number of whose children who arrive at the age of manhood, or are even born, being very limited wlien compared with those of mechanics or laborers VALUE OF HYGIENIC TRAINING. 39 \vhose physical powers are increased in proportion to the force required at their work. Employment in tlie open air increases both the muscular vigor and the demand for sustenance, which sustenance is reh ished by the out door operative with a zest unknown to the epicure, whose palate requires to be pampered with food of an artificial nature ; while the former en- joys his simple fare with a relish which the art of cookery can not produce for the latter. The plain diet of the working man serves to raise a numerous and healthy family of children, all other matters be- ing equal, to enjoy the privileges of the liberal men- tal training which is furnished them by our most in- valuable public schools. Where the social amenities of life, with a full knowledge and appreciation of the true source from whence those blessings come, are inculcated to this ^class of persons, their condition is most delightful and desirable, for they enjoy an almost unsullied happiness ; their cares and responsi- bilities arevery limited, and their prospects promising. Energetic on account of their vigorous health, their children are prompted to elevate their position in life, and even aspire to, and actually fill the most honora- ble stations in the gift of our free country. It is of great interest to us all that we should fully understand the means whereby the health of mankind can be improved. When we scrutinize the health of those within our cognizance, it is painfully apparent that their organization is almost always defective-. Some constitutions yield to circumstance > which oc- casion no change in others. Many persons pass through life in the enjoyment of tolerably good health 40 A PREMISE ON MAN'S HEALTH. and strength, but who, nevertheless, as we have re- marked, transmit to then* offspring a constitution tliat yields to morbid influences. The advance of civiliza- tion has led to the production of a better supply of the necessaries of life, has tended to lessen the sever- ities of labor, has clothed us with comfortable gar- ments, and given us a sufiiciency of food and fuel, and, furthermore, has bestowed upon us medical attend- ance by skillful practitioners. These are all inestimable blessings which ouglit materially to better the condi- tion of man. Every thing, as we liave fully demon- strated, that diminishes the tendency to disease, alike promotes temperance, cleanliness, and industry, and perfects the organization ; while, on the other hand, if a person is exposed to cold or to damp air, or if his labor is excessive and protracted beyond physical en- durance, and his food is scanty in supply and bad in quality, grief, wretchedness, and disease are the inevi- table consequences. And it should be borne in mind that it is in childhood, especially, that injurious moral and physical agents operate with the greatest force ; for it is before the joints are knit and the constitution is fully formed, that the causes heretofore stated pro- du-ce their most dire effects. Judging from what is daily presented to our obser- vation, we feel assured that it would contribute much to the improvement of our health, and that it would also redress many of the ills of life, if it were made a part of our general education to convey a knowledge of the structure and functions of the human body, and of the various agents, both beneficial and otlierwise,by which we are surrounded from the cradle to the grave. VALUE OF HYGIENIC TRAINING. 41 Siicli a course would enable many to make a better provision for their wants, both immediate and prospec- tive, as well as open out a multitude of resources which are now overlooked ; while the continued oper- ation of superior agencies would effect the most salu- tary changes in the condition of our race. The state of the very indigent is less encouraging, for they must submit to unfavorable circumstances. The remuner- ation afforded them for their services is very limited. The amount earned daily by the poor laborer is not more than one half of what the mechanic receives, and not one fourth of the salary paid to the clerk or salesman ; hence his inability to procure suitable clothing, sustenance, or habitation. Th6 condition of the poor is truly deplorable ; yet adults, when tem- perate and cleanly in their habits, enjoy fair health. But the arduous labor which persons of this class un- dergo, together with the want of wholesome diet, effi- cient clothing, and comfortable abodes, are the common causes which deteriorate their physical powers ; and this deterioration is most conspicuous in the health of their children. Scrofulous diathesis prevails ; their digest- ive organs are in an abnormal condition, and are easily impaired by the unwholesome food dealt out to them in our grocery shops ; and they are rendered still worse by habitual indulgence at their meals, in large quantities of liquid food, such as soup, weak tea and coffee, and from eating poor bread with a very limited quantity of meat. Still more detrimental to their health is the indulgence, in the summer time, in fruit, which has been rendered poisonous by comparatively long expos- ure to noxious gases arising from other decomposing 42 A PREMISE ON man's HEALTH. matters, which gases are readily absorbed by all fruit. To illustrate this fact of the absorbing nature of fruit, place some in a drawer with camphor or a lemon, and in a few hours it will be rendered unpalatable. The same influence pertains to vegetables, rendering them very insipid compared with tliose freshly gathered. This combination of pernicious influences, constant- ly operating, morbidly changes all the enfeebled func- tions ; and, in direct ratio to the straitened circum- stances of the persons exposed to them, induces chronic disease, caries of the spine, (humpback,) hip disease, white swelling, and other scrofulous alfections. A very limited indulgence in eating stale fruit and vege- tables, wliile the system is unfavorably impressed by warm weather and close apartments, produces cholera infantum, wliich is not unfrequently followed by par- alytic seizures of one side — of an arm, a leg, or even of both legs. Irritative fever, from teething, also causes similar efiects in enfeebled children, and not unfre- quently in children better circumstanced. That un- wholesome food is the most prolific cause of cholera in- fantum has been fully exemplified, especially in institu- tions where food for the little patients is carefully select- ed and prepared, and where a sufiiciency of fresh fruit and vegetables is given daily during the heat of sum- mer, for under that regime they have not only escaped cholera infantum, but have progressed most favorably. This result has been witnessed by the author in the In- stitution for the Relief of the Ruptured and Crippled, of which he has cliarge. He has even fouud the prog- ress, under such treatment, to be more favorable in summer than during the winter season, in consequence VALUE OF HYGIENIC TRAINING. 43 of tlie patients, from tlieir enfeebled pliysical powers, requiring more warmth than they would when in or- dinary healtli. Many scrofulous patients are so weak at first as to be unable either to walk, or, what is worse, to have control of themselves ; yet, under these very unfavor- able conditions of health, the little sulferers, during the summer months, have had perfect immunity from not only the premonitory symptoms of the fatal dis- ease to which allusion has been made — cholera infan- tum — but also from analogous ailments, although at the time they have been confined to the house, ow- ing to their very infirm condition not permitting out-door exercises. The sad truths which we have here related invite re- flection in regard to the situation of our industrious day- laborers, who are compelled, by unavoidable circum- stances, to submit to their sorrow^ful position. It is cer- tainly painful to contemplate that there are, in this land of liberty and abundance, the soil of which yields all that ^is necessary for man's health and happiness, people so sunk in poverty, and doomed to severe labor for a mere pittance. Persons wdio are more favorably situated can scarcely imagine the consuming nature of the day-laborer's excessive toil, and how heavy is the burden which he is compelled to bear. But bod- ily suffering is not all that he has to endure ; for his morality is seriously assailed by necessitated associa- tion in tenement houses with the vile, the ignorant, and the profane. The deplorable condition of moral and physical suf- fering, at present experienced by a large number of 44 A PREMISE ON MAn's HEALTH. the laboring classes, can only be alleviated by philan- tliropy, and by a knowledge of hj^gienic regime / and the latter is only to be obtained by a thorough insight into the physical organization of the human body. It is tlie object of this work to present such an insight in as plain and comprehensive a manner as the subject will admit ; and the writer trusts that an accurate understanding thereof will prove of great advantage to every grade of society. PART II. J^UMAN ;i^NATOMY AND j^HYSIOLOGY. CHAPTER 1. ANIMAL LIFE — THE NERVOUS SYSTEM — ASSIMILATION NERVOUS SENSATION AND EXHAUSTION. How animal life is sustained — Organization of the animal system in relation to tlie vital forces — Nerves, tlieir distribution and various functions — Assimilation and growtli dependent upon involuntary motion — Nervous sensation as manifested — Ner- vous energy, liow exhausted, and the means of accumulation. UK bodies are sustained and increased in size by aliment — solid, fluid, and aeriform — elabo- rated into vitalized or living tissues of variously con- stituted organs, the sustaining substance of wliicli con- sists exclusively of organized matter. Vegetables de- rive tlieir nourishment from inorganic matter, and thereby become organized compounds for the nour- ishment of animals. Before considering the aliment which nourishes and develops the human body, together with the qualities of such aliment, it is essential that the reader should be made acquainted w^ith the organization of the vital forces which govern the artfully contrived form, made up of flesh and bones. The flesh, or muscle, contracts and elongates, and thus causes motion and assists to sustain the bones in position. The flesh and bones are surrounded with fat and membrane, and an outer covering of skin, hair, and nails — the whole constitut- 48 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. ing the fair form of liumanity. The heart, with its numerous tubes, known as arteries^ sends forth blood to the superficies and to all internal parts ; the veins return it again to the heart, after it has been operated upon by various organs, each one of which is sensible only to that portion of the compound constituting the mass of blood which is suited to its own functions, separating and appropriating such portion to a certain use. The w^hole operates in unison, extracting the nutrient parts from the blood, and rejecting the use- less, w^liich is thrown oft* as effete matter in solid, fluid, and gaseous forms. To put the beautiful arrangement of the nervous system into operation and to subject it to control, there is a grand centre — the brain and spinal marrow — >vhich sends forth millions of the most delicate fila- ments, denominated nerves ; and these nerves convey impressions to the great centre, whicli is the mysterious place where soul and body meet. Here presides the living principle w^liich is known by its acts as the mind or will. It is said that the mind receives all the impressions conveyed by the nerves, just as objects through the medium of light make impressions upon the optic nerve — the mind receives them, and we are made conscious of the object before us. Undulations of air whicli are produced by concussion and com- municate sound to tlie ear, and impressions made on the organs of taste, smell, etc., are all signified to the mind ; even the prick of a pin jn any part of the body, however remote, is instantaneously transmitted to the brain. Heat and cold are readily recognized, and wg are made conscious of the effvsct. The nerves, therO' THE NEKVOUS SYSTEM. 49 fore, are the peculiar and essential messengers of the organs of sense, through whicli we seek the interme- diate links between mind, bo,dy, and tlie material world. Yet we, creatures of the mind, often form ideas which are deceptive, in consequence of our being liable to a misconception of objects as they really exist; for it is only by gradual tuition that we can attain ability to discriminate with any degree of cer- tainty. In the animal organization, assimilation^ or the process of formation and growth, is carried on with- out consciousness, by means of internal nervous influ- ences. And here it must be observed that the process of nutrition progresses not only in healthy parts of the body, but in those where the nerves of external sensation and voluntary motion are paralyzed, as, for instance, a paralyzed arm or leg; for in. them the blood circulates and the limbs are nourished the same as if the parts were not paralyzed. Thus it will be noticed that we have a set of nerves not sub- ject to the mind or will, but still sustaining the func- tions of digestion, circulation of tlie blood, secretion, and even, to a limited extent, the restoration of parts, as the healing of severed portions of the flesh or bone. This is denominated invohmtary motion^ and it con- tinues as long as life exists. Communications are made along the telegraph wire by means of electricity. The nervous cords or tendrils convey communication in a somewdiat similar manner, for it is through them invisibly and instantaneously transmitted to the great centre of perception. All we know of such action is^ that it exists^j and is not 50 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. manifest after deatli ; consequently, it is the vital or living force, which under certain circumstances is in- creased or diminished. It is expended by all the motions, and most raj^idly by extraordinary exertion of body or mind. The laborer and the student, by over- arduous and incessant application, are made equally sensible of its failure; nor is the gourmand exempt from a restriction of the supply of vital force, which is in his case expended in digestion. The latter experiences his failure of vital force by a torpid condition and an inclination to sleep, induced by a concentration of nervous energy in tlie digestive or- gans. Though over-exertion leads to a desire for re- pose, the rest that is obtained after intemperance in eat- ing and drinking, or after excessive mental or physical labor, is not alw^ays successful in its restorative pow- ers; for sleep is only intended by a wise Providence to relieve those who are temperate in their demands upon the vital energy. Sleep is a necessary interim in labor, during which time there is an accumulation of vivified strength, sufficient to meet the ordinary requirements ; and this strength will increase by a slow, gradual demand for it. Hence, labor, mental or physical, if gradually and regularly. increased, will, after a time, produce extraordinary vigor and power, and cause the digestion to increase almost to gluttony. Under such circumstances, alcoholic drink and taking poisons to a great extent may be indulged in. It is by this ability to accumulate nervous energy that we are enabled to endure great hardships and changes of climate. CHAPTER II. THE SENSORIUM COMMUNE MUSCULAR MOTIOJS". All sensations are received by tlie Sensorium Commune, and result in ideas — Impressions made upon the body are recognized and termed Consciousness — The pleasurable senses of sight and sound — Advantages obtained from all the senses — Musculai motion and its advantages — Motion of muscles controlled by the will, termed Voluntary Motion — Organs of sense dependent upon muscular motion — Nerves of voluntary motion distinct from nerves of sensation, and termed Motor Nerves. IT is generally admitted that sensation arises from the action of natural ohjects on om* organs; but all that we know must be reflections of the mind. Any thing we see is impressed upon the eye, and deter- mined at the great centre, denominated the Sensorium Commune.^ from the impression made upon that organ. If we wish to do any thing, the command comes from the great centre, and muscular movement is put into operation. The sensations of touch, whether created by the fingers being placed upon an object, or by some impression made upon the body, are received upon a most sensitive orgaur— the skin — whence they are conveyed to the great centre. The utterances of the tongue are sounds producing undulations in the atmosphere, which act upon the organ of sound — the ear — and are conveyed to the sensorium. These sev- U. OF ILL LIB. 52 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. era! sensations are termed consciousness^ and are either pleasurable, painful, or indifferent. Being mental perceptions, they constitute ideas, followed by the emotions of thought, reflection, and action. When we contemplate the advantages and gratifi- cation we enjoy from each of our senses, and are in possession of all of them, who can refrain from giving thanks to that Almighty powder who has so w^onderfully blessed us? Most of our ideas owe their origin to the sense of sight. It is to it that we are mainly indebted for our acquaintance with the records of knowledge, the thousand varieties of beautiful birds and flowers, the works of sculpture and painting, and the gay tints of art, in seemingly endless diversity, and yet excelled by nature. And it is through it that we dis- cern every expression given by the eye, " the mirror of the soul," in which we behold intellect, the impulses of passion, of love, of hatred, and of scorn, as well as of apathy and ignorance ; and lastly, the melan- choly indications of misery and death. If it were not for sight, where would be our records of past time ? Where our improvements in the sciences, wdiicli have enabled us to advance upon the experiences of those who have preceded us ? Without the eye there would have been neither art nor artist, nor any written evi- dence either of human acquirement or of advance- ment in civilization ! Although the advantages w^hicli the sense of vision has conferred upon us are wonderful, those which we liave obtained through the medium of the sense of hearing are also astonishing. It is by the ear that man holds converse with his fellow-man. Without THE SENSORIUM COMMUNE. 53 it we could not enjoy the delightful prattle of our offspring, nor the cheerful influence of the sweet music of the human voice, whether in song or in whispering words of hope and consolation. With- out it all would be quiet. The sense of smell, too, when considered in connec- tion with the other senses, must be highly appreciated. It, likewise, contributes greatly to our pleasure. The appearance of the flower is not more delightful to us than the sweet odor wliicli we inhale from it, and it is much enhanced in our estimation by this property. By the sense of smell we are also regaled with the delicious fragrance of our food, our fruits, and our volatile oils — the perfumes of the latter being remem- brances of the flowers from which they were extracted. Food, it will be admitted, is made agreeable by the sense of taste, which, though often abused, is not the less appreciative. By this sense, we are frequently enabled to detect what would be pernicious to our health, while, at the same time, it contributes largely to our social gratification, and in a manner which is not otherwise obtainable. A choice delicacy sent to a sick friend often leaves upon the mind of the invalid a lasting impression of the kindness received. The sense of touch resides in the whole surface ot the skin, extending ever the body. It is subject to pleasing and painful impressions, and is one of the safeguards of the system. Nearly all painful sensa- tions are confined to the skin, as but slight pain is felt after the integument is removed. Our muscular eflforts are guided by the senses of sight and touch. The blind depend upon the latter, 54 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. wMcli becomes remarkably exquisite, and consequent* ly not only enables tliem to prosecute mechanical pursuits to a limited extent, but affords them amuse- ment in their leisure hours. It also offers them the consolation of being able to read, by the means of raised letters, and thereby opens to them the privilege of perusing the blessed Scriptures. Thus far we have been considering the functions of sensation and perception ; but how much enjoy- ment should we be deprived of if we were mere sta- tionary objects, having no power to move ourselves from place to place! Under such circumstances we should fail to enjoy the various changes of scenery presented in difierent localities, and should be denied the many advantages we derive from the movement of our limbs. Yet we not only possess this power to move, but we are endowed with the faculty of spontaneous action — voluntary motion, Tlie muscles move the limbs, the trunk, the head, and the organs of sense; and these movements are dependent upon a set of nerves, distinct from those of sensation. The mental act, or will to move, is directed by the great sensorium, through the medium of what are called motor nerves^ which are distributed to the muscles and produce purely physical action. They thus differ from those of sensation that produce perception, which directs our muscular movements, enabling us to travel and gratify our senses, and to labor and thereby pre- serve good health. CHAPTER III. ANATOMY OF THE BRAIISr AND The brain and nerves described — Comparative view of the lowef « and higher order of animals — Description of the spinal cord, and its distribution of nerves — Interniingling" of the spinal nerves with the sympathetic nerve and its ganglions — The anatomy of the brain, illustrating the several portions — The wonderful oper- ation of the nervous system beyond our comprehension. HAVING slight!)^ noticed tlie functions of the nervous system, it may not be nninteresting to the reader that we should now give an outline of the brain, the spinal marrow, and the nerves. The brain is usually described as a prolongation of the spinal marrow, from the fact that the lower order of animals have but a very small brain, compared with that of man; and in some animals having a spine there is scarcely any increase in size at the be- ginning or end of the spinal cord. In all animals having vertebrge, or spinal columns of backbones, there is an elongated cylindrical-formed mass of matter, known as the spinal marrow^ and, as is the case in man, lodged in the canal formed by the open rings in each of the backbones. This spinal marrow or cord is composed of six parallel columns, two in front, two in the middle, and two on the back ; all closely joined together, and so conjoined as to form a nni- 56 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. form cord, winch is of soft substance. On each side of the spinal cord or marrow, and between the bones, there jjroceed two sets of nerves — one set, coming from the back or posterior columns, being appro- priated to the functions of sensation, and the other, arising from the anterior, to those of voluntary motion. The nerves of sensation pass through a small ganglion, or mass of nervous matter, some short • distance from the spinal cord, and there unite with the nerves of voluntary motion and form a common trunk, giving off fibres to the organs of sense, to the muscles, and to all parts where sensation and motion are manifested. Each of these spinal nerves gives off branches to the ganglions formed by the sym- pathetic nerves which pass down on each side of the spinal column, parallel with and near to it. They are quite peculiar in formation, having at intervals ganglions or eulargements, and give off nervous fil- aments to the organs not suhjeot to the will — -described in another page of this w^ork as acting independent of the will, and denominated involuntajvij motion — • such as respiration, digestion, circulation, restoration of parts, etc. ; consequently their influence is exerted on all parts of the system, and in sympathy with tlie other nerves. The brain may be considered as an expansion of the upper portion of the spinal marrow, and is divid- . ed into several lobular portions. The first is oblong, passing up in front to near the centre of the brain, and is termed the medulla ohlongata. Another en- largement, which rises from the posterior or back column, and is styled the cere^jellum or lesser brain, VERTICAL SECTION OP THE BRAIN. 1. The cerehellum^ or lower portion of the brain. 2. The cerebrum^ or upper portion of the brain. 3. The medulla oblongata^ or upper portion of the spinal marrow. 4. The corpus callosum. A white band that connects the two hemispheres of the brain. 5. The septum lucidum. A soft por- tion of the brain that separates the two lateral ventricles. 6. The middle commissure. 7. The anterior commissure, 8. The posterior commissure., uniting portions of the brain. 9. The optic nerve, passing out to the eye. 10. The pituitary gland, located in the centre of the base of the brain. Its functions are unknown. 11. The arbor vitce, or "tree of life." The appearance of the cerebellum when divided longitudinally. 12. The pons varolii. That portion of the medulla oblongata that unites the upper and lower portion of the brain. 13. A transverse section of a portion of the spinal marrow. ANATOMY OF THE BRAIN AND NERYES. forms the lower back part of the brain. Next follow two small lobes, known as the ojptio tubercles^ which appear to spring from the middle portions ; and then come the large hemispheres, called the cereljral hemi- spheres^ which constitute the upper portions, and are formed from the front or anterior columns of the spinal marrow. In these front lobes are found a pair of tubercles, called the olfactory lobes^ and connected with the nerves of smelling. There are in addition to the parts here described several others wliich are only of interest to the anatomist. The moving principle of all this wonderful arrange- ment of tlie nervous system is completely liidden from man, who can only examine the structure and behold with admiration the eftect produced from surrounding influences. When it is stated that the contraction of the heart causes the circulation of the blood, inquiry naturally is made, wliat gives rise to the contraction % The reply is, the advent of the fluid ; and thus we rea- son in a circle. The impulse of the wdll causes muscles to act, of which we may not know the existence or the name ; yet, quicker than thouglit, the desired motion is accomplished. In. the performance of an expert pianist, who touches the keys with his fingers, and produces deflnite sounds in exact accordance with the notes systematically arranged to produce them, we have an inexplicable operation of the will and response of the muscles. This is evinced in the creation of har- monious strains with a rapidity of motion that exceeds thought, the fingers and other organs responding to the impulse of the will. Examples of the kind are of such frequent occuri'cnce that we do not attribute to 58 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. thorn any tiling remarkable ; but, upon reflection, we are filled with astonishment and admiration, and are compelled to admit that the elucidation of the matter is far beyond the comprehension of our limited reason. CHAPTER lY. vitality; or, the living principle— temperaments. Vitality, or tlie living principle incompreliensible — Whence energy to support muscular motion is obtained — Comparative influence of electricity in supplying nervous energy — Temperaments, and tlieir influence upon individual cliaracter — Circumstances alone govern the temperaments of individuals for good or evil. THE study of the vital force or living principle has been an unprofitable one, and must remain so as long as men persist in their attempts to pass beyond the boundaries of reason and experience. Knowledge of the subject, sufiicient for the business of life, is already ascertained, and any further inquiry into it can only prove a source of useless and perhaps inju- rious distraction of the mind. All the organs, and their relations with the nerves, from wlience they derive their energy, which v;e have just described, are supported by the organs of nutrition. To the latter we shall allude in subsequent pages ; but we wish here to impress upon the mind of the reader the fact that it is upon the integrity of the brain, nerves, and spinal marrow, that all the func- tions, even life itself, depend ; for, if the communica^ vitality; or, the living trikciple. 59 tion be interrupted, or the nerves cease to act, partial if not total loss of power ensues. As to what energy consists of, we must repeat, we do not know. It is very similar to electricity, but, like gravity, it is a name for certain ultimate phenomena ; and this is because some nerves regulate muscular motion, and others are a medium of sensation in general, while there are yet many more that serve specific purposes. Involuntary action is produced, the continuance where- of being essential to life, it could not be wholly left to our uncertain attention. The manner in which the nerves act, and the functions of many of them, are unknown ; but, as their functions vary, nervous energy is unlike that of electricity, which, though Sir WiLsoiq" Philip has made it digest the food in a rabbit's stom- ach, after the destruction of the nerve which gives energy to that organ, can not, however, be made to perform many other functions than those of a cura- tive nature — such as its employment as a means of renewing dormant powers; and for this, if judicious- ly used, it is a very potent agent, differing as much in its curative tendencies as in the sources from whence it is produced. It was galvanic electricity that pro- moted digestion in the rabbit's stomach ; but gal- vanic electricity has not proved very successful in restoring nervous energy to the powers of locomo- tion. Electricity produced by friction on glass, on the other hand, has succeeded far better in reinstating muscular energy in the limbs — as in cases of paraly- tic affection ; bnt even electricity of this nature, by its continuance in force, does not enable a man to 60 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. walk. Consequently, it is not a substitute for nervous energy. An exuberance of mental nervous energy inducing extraordinary action demands attention, from the fact that it is often made an excuse for actual excesses, and is generally believed to be uncontrollable, being re- garded as the temperament of the individual. Tem- perament, it is true, has much to do with the develop- ment and activity of the physical powers, but it has little to do w^itli the direction of the mental; it must, therefore, be considered an indulgence of an encour- aged propensity, and not an uncontrollable disposition. If properly controlled and directed, it may be made of great advantage to the individual blessed with an extraordinary quantum of nervous energy, whether used mentally or physically. Hence the ability of some to accomplish greater achievements than others, and, thereby, become enabled to benefit their less- favored fellow-men, who are not gifted with superior mental or physical force. Circumstances alone govern temperament. If a person is carefully educated, or if his course of life is properly directed, v/ith due regard to the leading traits of character, tlie temperament can be restrained, or encouraged and improved, by ju- dicious training, either mental or physical. Whether phlegmatic, sanguine, or bilious in temperament, we have varieties of constitution. Some persons are cold and indiiferent, but with proper training they can be made mindful of their fellow-creatures, and, as the^ are constant and staid in their habits, contributors to their happiness. Others are lively and ever ready to enjoy themselves even at tlie ex])enBC of injuring tiie TEMPERAMENTS. 61 feelings of tlieir most intimate friends. Such are of a sanguine temperament, are frivolous in disposition and acute in perception, but, under proper guidance, in whatever pursuit they are engaged in, their tenden- cy is to improve and to complete with refinement and elegance. Their disposition is frank, courageous, ani- mated, mild, and cheerful; their memory is happy, and their imagination lively and brilliant. Further- more, they are inclined to pleasure, and prefer taste rather than the indulgence of their passions. The bilious temperament is not so easily defined. Persons thus constituted usually Iiave a fine imagination, and a solid and deliberate judgment. They are often con- ceited, obstinate, and misanthropic ; have mdre genius than wit, are ardent in pursuit, and are well calcu- lated for the investigation of abstract sciences. Individuals possess these temperaments in a greater or less degree ; consequently, no correct opinion can be formed of any person who is presumed to be imbued, with one or other of them, as the constitutions of people difi*er so much, that there exist as munj varie- ties as there are individuals. It is only where one or other of the temperaments predominates, that the traits of character we have described can apply with an}' degree of plausibility ; and even these, as we have just stated, are subject to modification by education and other surrounding infiuences. Our pliysical ener- gies are subordinate to our moral and mental im- pulses. The infiuence of man on man, in modifying his oi'ganization and tendencies, is only inferior to that of nature herself. CHAPTER V. C0MPLETE2s"ESS OF THE HUMAN FORM — ORGANS OF KU- TRITION. Admirable arrangement of tlie liuman form — >Tlie importance of the hand ahnost equals speech — The various organs of nutrition and their functions — The living animal form in constant motion, thus expending sustenance, termed Nutrition — Animalized ma- terial — The process termed Assimilation accomplished through the organs of Circulation and Respiration, ri^HE admirable arrangements of the human form I merit special attention. The framework is of great strength and lightness, having hollow cylinders for shafts, while the contour is formed from masses of muscular flesh which perform acts of endless utility, the whole possessing great power, and presenting an appearance of grace, beauty, and dignity. The stat- ure is erect ; the limbs are supple and formed for pro- gression ; the joints are well knit ; the feet, plumb be- neath the frame, form an ample base ; and the fingers are fitted for innumerable diversified appliances. The hand, in fact, almost equals in importance the organs of speech. It certainly does not reason, but still it is the willing attendant upon our thoughts, and with tlie pen and with type perpetuates the products of the intellect, and presents to the human race the wisdom and genius of superior minds. OBGANS OF NUTRITION. 63 The month is conveniently placed for the reception of food, and the well arranged teeth, which contribute much to the beauty of the person, for the mastication of it. The brain, spinal marrow, heart, and lungs — • the most vital organs — are protected by bone ; and beneath the bone, and extending over the stomach, liver, ahmentary canal, and other internal organs, is a delicate vesture, called the peritoneum^ which covers the whole, and protects the organs while in the per- formance of their functions, namely, receiving impres- sions, elaborating nutriment, and rejecting waste and superfluity. The lungs are so admirably constructed, that the slightest efi^'ort fills their cells with air ; the eyes and ears are so situated as to be enabled' to receive impressions most readily, without being incommoded; and the limbs are so adjusted and placed as to give them the greatest possible latitude of movement. In a word, every portion of the human frame has been arranged in the manner best fitted to adapt all parts to the exigencies of our position. The human form, like all other animal forms, is, wdiile under the influence of life or the vital forces, in continual voluntary or involuntary motion. This motion can not be maintained without some sustaining medium that will suffice for the proper action of the organism f?fr the renovation of parts, for which pur- pose new materials are wanted and must be regularly supplied. Hence there exists a class of functions which perform a great number of operations essential to the maintenance of vitality, and are comprehended under the title of mitrition. Organized food is not only indispensable, but it must possess the chemical 64 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. properties of tlie animal substances with wliicli it is to be afterward incorporated ; and by being act- ed upon by certain organs, it undergoes a suitable change. This action is known as assimilation^ of which digestion forms the principal part. The next operation in the system is the distribution of this ani- malized nutriment, which is formed into blood and disseminated wherever it is wanted. The necessary motions for this purpose are given to the blood by the organs of circulation. The principal of these is the hearty which great vital organ impels the blood through the arteries and receives it back again by the veins. The next process is the purification of the blood by the chemical action of oxygen upon the accu- mulated carbon. This is accomplished by respiration. Another stage of nutrition appertains to the more immediate application of the purified material to the wants of the system — to the growth of the organs, to the reparation of their losses, and to the restoration of their exhausted powers. We may regard life as a continued series of actions and reactions, ever varying, yet constantly tending to definite ends. Most of the parts of which the body consists undergo continual and progressive changes in their dimensions ; the materials that have ^een united together and fashioned into the several organs, are re- moved and replaced by fresh materials, which, in their turn, are supplanted by new ones, though without any perceptible change of external form. In fact, all parts of our bodies are constantly undergoing transforma- tion, and contributing to our necessities by the very means from which we obtain warmth and strength. CHAPTER YI. MUSCULAR MOTION" AND THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. Man's inability to approacli in completeness nature's works — Con- tractility constitutes all muscular motion — The heart a power- ful muscular motion, sustaining the circulation of the blood — The anatomy of the heart fully described. T is only by life or the living principle that organic -i forms are prochiced. Human power can never approach in completeness the most simple of nature's works. The living body differs from inorganic ma- chinery, as it contains within itself a principle of mo- tion not referrible, as for as we can perceive, to any primary forces which exist in the inanimate world. This principle, which has been termed contractility^ produces the action of muscles, and enables the heart and arteries to propel the blood to the superficies and» all parts of the animal structure. The hearty a powerful muscular organ, receives a constant stream of blood, which gradually dilates an apartment, denominated the auricle^ the muscular fibres of which do not contract until they are stretched beyond a certain point, when, w^ith a sudden impulse, the blood is thrown, into another apartment called the ventricle. The ventricle, being rapidly distended, is excited to a quick and forcible contraction, and pro- 66 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. pels the blood into tlie artery with an impulse incom- parably greater than could liave resulted from the action of the auricle alone ; and, to prevent a retro- grade motion, very perfect valves are interposed be- tween the auricle and the ventricle. The auricle receives blood from two sources, the upper and lower vence cavce. The valves are composed of two loose membranes, the outer edges of whicli are attached ch'cularly to the aperture of communication between the cavities, and the inner edges project into the ventricle. By this means they perform, as it were, the office of floodgates, as they allow a free pas- sage to the blood, when it is impelled into the ven- tricles, and are pushed back the moment the ventricle contracts; in w^iich latter case they concur in accu- rately closing the aperture, and preventing the return of blood into the auricle. These valves being attach- ed to a wide circular aperture, are consequently re- strained from inserting themselves into the auricle. Each ventricle is provided with slender muscular cords, fixed by one end to the edge of the valve, and by the other to a part of the inner surface of the ven- tricle. By this arrangement the valve is always kept within the cavity of the ventricle, while the blood is propelled through the great artery termed the aoi^ta. In the auricles, the same purpose is answered by the oblique direction in which the veins enter it. The arteries, when distended, also contract, and in the aorta there are valves. These valves consist of three membranes, which have the form of a crescent, and are capable of closing the passage so closely that a drop of blood can not pass between them. CIKCULATIOK OF THE BLOOD. 67 From the aorta, large arteries are given off, and from these arteries numerous branches divide and subdivide, till the ramifications arrive at an extreme degree of minuteness, and are finally distributed to every organ and to the remotest parts of tlie system. And that parts may be provided for, in case of ob- structions, they frequently communicate with one another, and are said to anastomose. The smallest of them, which are finer than hairs, are termed cajpillary vessels; these frequently form disfiguring blotches upon the face, and particularly upon the faces of in- fants. After the blood, with the required nourish- ment, has been conveyed to all parts of the body, it is carried back to the heart, as we have previously stated, by the veins. The latter commence at the ex- treme ramifications of the arteries, and, in their pro- gress to the heart, the smaller branches join in succes- sion to form larger trunks till they finally unite in the vena cava. Of the veins, the larger are more numerous than the arteries, and many of them are supplied with valves, thus diff'ering from the arteries, as in the latter there are valves only in the aorta. These valves are more especially provided in the veins that pass over the muscles of the extremities, or which run imme" diately beneath the skin, and all open in the direction of the heart ; consequently, as long as the blood flows in its natural course, it meets with no impediment, whilst a retrograde motion is eflfectnally prevented. The communication of the capillaries.witli the veins is readily discovered under the microscope, especially in frogs and fishes, whose membranes arc very trans- 68 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. parent. Lewenhoek, on examining the eircnlation in tadpoles, expressed himself in tlie following terms : " The pleasure has oftentimes been so recreating to me, that I do not believe that all the pleasure of foun- tains or water- works, either natural or made by art, could have pleased my sight so well as the view of these creatures has given me." Phil, Trains, xxii. 453. The color of the blood, when conveyed by the ar- teries, is bright scarlet, and, when returned by the veins, dark purple — the change being caused by the quantity of carbon that has been thrown into the stream. After the blood has reentered the heart, it requires to be purified and again fitted for arterial circulation, an operation which is performed by the lungs and by a distinct set of arteries and veins. The vessels we have already described are subservient to nutrition, and are termed the greater systemiG circu- lation. Those, however, which circulate the blood through the lungs for the purpose of purification air, compose the system of the lesser or Tespiratory circulation. The blood passes alternately through the greater and lesser circulations — a complete apparatus being provided for each. The two compartments on the left side impel the blood through the greater systemic circulation, wdiile those on the right side are appro- priated to the lesser, or respiratory circulation. Thus the blood, in its passage through the human system, takes the following course : From the left ventricle it is propelled iixto the aorta, and thence diff'ased througli the arteries to every part of the system, finally ])ene- trating into all the capillary vessels. From the latter THE HEART AND BLOOD-VESSELS. GREATER CIRCULATORY SYSTEM, by which the blood is distributed to all parts of the body. A, the aorta^ or great artery, whence is distributed the blood which is impel- led into it from B, the left ventricle. Branches of the Arteries. — C, arteria innominata. D, right carotid. E, right siMavian. F, left carotid. G, left si(>b- claman. The Veins. — H, ascending xena cava., which returns the blood from all parts of the body and limbs to I, the right auricle. J, the descending mna cara.^ which con- veys the blood from the head to the right auricle, whence it is forced into K, the right ventricle. LESSER CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. K, the right ventricle, which forces the blood through the pulmonary artery. L L, branches of the pulmonary artery, by which the blood is conducted to the lungs to be changed into arterial blood. M M M M, iouY jyulmonary veins, by which the arterialized blood is conveyed to N, the left auricle, to be forced into B, the left ventricle, and thence to A, the aorta. O, an outline of pericardium, which incloses the heart. P P, the lungs, drawn small compara- tively to the size of the heart. Q, the trachea, or windpipe, and its branch to each lung. [Page 08. CIKCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 69 it flows, in its return to the heart, through the veins and the venoG cavce to the right auricle, which delivers it into the right ventricle. This right ventricle then impels the blood, thus received, into the pulmonary arteries of the lungs, whence it is distributed and acted upon by the oxygen of the air inhaled ; and it is next conveyed by the pulmonary veins into the left auricle, which throws it into the left ventricle, the point where it commenced its course. The right and left cavities are kept perfectly distinct from one another, and are separated by thick partitions — the wdiole being inclosed in one envelope termed tliej^^W- cardium. The two auricles and the two ventricles act in the following manner: At the moilient when the left ventricle is propelling its aerated blood into the aorta for the purpose of general nutrition, the right ventricle is driving the vitiated blood into the pulmonary artery of the lungs, in order that it may be purified by the influence of the air. Consequently, the same blood, which, during the interval of one pulsation, w^as passing through the lungs, is, in the next, circulating through the body ; and thus, the contractions of the auricles and ventricles impelling the blood through the arteries to be returned by the veins, all concur in the same general end. CHAPTER VII. PROCESSES OF DIGESTION AND NUTRITION. Nutrition, as supplied to the system through the Lacteals, tenni nates in the Thoracic Duct^Ghyle the product of digestion- Change in the mass of food eaten first takes place in the stomach — Gastric fluid reduces all natural fluid to a pulp, which is acted upon by a peculiar motion of the stomach — Chyme is formed in the stomach and Cliyle in the intestines. THE blood being tlie medium througli which nu- triment is distributed to the several parts of the body, there is a constant diminution in the quantity of that fluid which must be supplied ; therefore, for the purpose of such supply, we have another set of circulating vessels, called lacteals^ which terminate in the ihoraciG duct^ and this thoracic duct conveys what is called chyle into one of the large veins near the left auricle of the heart. Chyle is elaborated by the vital or living forces of the digestive organs ; and for its nutritious qualities is dependent upon the healthy condition of those organs and on the quality of the food taken. Digestion requires first the mechanical operation of the mouth. The food is masticated by the jaws and teeth, and is, at the same time, intermixed with the fluid secretions of the mouth, from whence it passes through the muscular tube or throat, called PROCESS OF NTJTKITION. 11 mojpTiagiis^ into the stomacli, the entrance of which is termed the cardia or cardiac orifice of the stomach. In the stomach tlie food undergoes various changes; and it is in it that the first digesting process takes place. What is called chyme is here formed, and here the nutritious matter is prepared to pass through the pylorus^ or pyloric orifice of the stomach, into the intestines. In the intestines it is further subjected to the action of several fluid secretions derived from the liver and pancreas. These secretions, acting upon the mass, produce from it chyle, ready to be absorbed by the lacteals. With open mouths, the lacteals arise from the inner surface of the intestines and pass along a membrane termed the mesentery ^ wliich' connects the intestines to the back. These lacteals form trunks which increase in size until they terminate in a reser- voir, or receptacle of the chyle. From this reservoir proceeds the thoracic duct^ which passes along the side of the spine upward to the vein, and enters the left auricle, where it deposits the chyle into the blood, which latter passes into the ventricle to be thrown out to all parts of the system. It is thus that nourishment is distributed. Each organ selects its own peculiar nu- triment, when new products are formed and new pro- perties acquired, adapted to the respective purposes which they are to serve in the animal economy. The whole is subservient to the higher purposes of vitality, and these powers themselves minister to the more exalted faculties of sensation and intellect. It would appear to be in the stomach that the first change takes place in the mass of food eaten. This organ is exceedingly simple in form in the liumau 72 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. family, being merely a receptacle. The duodenum is the first part of the intestinal canal, commencing at the pyloric orifice or exit of the stomach, and termi- nating in the jejunum. Its length is about twelve fingers' breadth, and, as it is only partially covered by \hQi jperitoneum^ it is susceptible of considerable dila- tation. The pyloric passage is constricted by a fold of the inner membrane, which latter is surrounded by a circular band of muscular fibres. This band performs the office of a valve or sphincter, and completely closes the orifice of the stomach during the digestion of its contents. The principal agent in digestion, as far as chemical means are concerned in that operation, and as influ- enced by the vital force, is a fluid secreted by the coats of the stomach, and termed gastric juice. This fluid reduces all natural food to a pulp, and is said to ]30ssess different qualities in different animals, acting only upon the food peculiar to the animal. Sir EvERARD Home has devoted much attention to the structure and action of the stomach, and it has been discovered that a peculiar motion is produced, w^hich completely intermixes the gastric juice with the mass of food. When different portions act in succes- sion, they propel the food from one part to another, and thus promote the mixture. The food remains for some time in the stomach, in order to be perfectly digested, for the accomplishment of whicli purpose the closing of the pyloric orifice would seem to be in- tended. The gastric jnice possesses a j)eculiar pro- perty of coagulating fluid albumen, such as the wliite of eggs, or milk; but it is not like* to an acid, as albu- PEOCESS OF DIGESTION. 73 minous substances are not rendered sour or acid wlien a natural condition exists. It is supposed that tins change from fluid to solid is for the purpose of detain- ing the food for some time in the stomach — all fluids, if not in excess, readily passing off — and thus preparing it to be thoroughly acted upon by the digestive powers of the stomach. We may hence infer that much fluid interrupts the process of digestion ; but of this we will treat in another chapter. Another remarkable property of the gastric juice is, that it corrects and arrests putrefaction. This is exemplified in animals which feed on carrion, as they are enabled to derive wholesome food from materials w^hich would other- wise taint the whole system with poison ancl be de- structive to them. " Thus it will be observed that the gastric juice is a peculiar animal secretion essential to digestion. The food, having passed througli the pyloric orifice, is now subjected to a further process of digestion, and the formation of chyle commences in the intestines. This chyle is formed out of the chyme produced by the stomach. Provision is made in the interior of the intestinal canal for subjecting its contents, Jlrst. to the action of an extensive vascuUir and nervous surface or great diff"usion of small blood-vessels; and secondly^ to various secretions derived from the liver and other sources which exercise powerful chemical changes on the digested aliment. When the system is in a healthy condition, a vigorous muscular action is exerted, termed the peristaltic motion; while inter- ruptions, caused by irregularities in a portion of the intestinal canal, tend to retard the progress of the ^4 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. aliment in its passage tlirougli, so that it may receive the full action of these several agents and yield the ntmost quantity of nutriment. As we have already stated, the chyle is taken up by the lacteals, to be conveyed by the tlioracic duct to one of the large veins near the heart. This is the course which every particle of nutriment has to take to nourish the system. The chemical composition of chyle appears to be very analogous to that of blood, into wliicli it is con- verted, and by it is carried to all parts of the system, to be deposited in the various organs, where it replaces the particles no longer of use, which latter are con- veyed by tlie veins and finally thrown off as effete matter. CHAPTER VIII. THE DEPURATION OF THE BLOOD AND EVOLUTION OP HEAT. Blood is purified in the skin and lungs, and lieat is thereby deve- loped — Structure of tlie lungs described — Their functions. A SECOND essential object of the circulation of the blood is the transmission of the nu- tritive matter to certain organs, where it is subjected to the influence of the oxygen of the atmosphere ; a process w^liich, in all warm-blooded animals, com- bined with the rapid and extensive distribution of the blood, diffuses and maintains throughout the body the DEPUKATION OF THE BLOOD. 75 high temperature required by the greater energy of the system. Hence, a vigorous influence is exerted in the hmgs upon the blood, for the purpose of eliminat- ing from it heat, the result of powerful chemical action. And the energy of every function is regu- lated in a great measure by the quantity of blood re- ceived by the organs so operating. The muscles of the- leg or arm, if extraordinarily exercised, are not only of a deeper color, but they maintain a greater amount of warmth, and are much stronger than limbs not so exercised. Tlie lungs consist of an assemblage of vesicles into which the air is admitted by a tube, called the trachea or windpipe, which extends downward from the back of the mouth, and parallel with, but in front of the msophagus or throat. The entrance to the windpipe is carefully provided with a cartilaginous valve, termed the epiglottis^ which is made to close by the action of the muscles that perform deglutition or swallowing, just previous to the passage of what is to be swallowed. Thus, great care is taken to guard this passage against the entrance into it of any solid or liquid food. At the upper part of the chest, the trachea divides into two tubes called the ironckia^ which pass to the lungs on either side. Both the windpipe and the bronchia are kept open by firm cartilaginous rings which are interposed betw^een their inner and outer coats, and are placed at short and equal distances from one another. The natural elas- ticity of these rings also tends to control the calibre of the tubes when breathing, ia addition to causing them to remain open. The bronchia then divide ^6 HUAIAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. and snbdivicle in regnlar order, and brancli like a tree throngh all the substance of the lungs, until their ten- der extremities terminate in the air cells. The carti- lages of the bronchia, situated near the trachea, re- semble the trunk of a tree, but the rest, like small branches, become weaker, more oblique and irregular, and further removed from eacli other, until the ex- tremities are little more than membraneous tubes. The hronchial cells^ into which the air is admitted in respiration or breathing, are spiral, and are at- tached to terminal branches of the bronchia. They have no communication with each other, but are held together by a minute cellular texture. Hales esti- mated that these cells were one hundredth part of an inch in diameter, and that their extended surface was ten hundred and thirty-five square inches. It is pretty generally admitted that, on an average, forty cubic inches of air are alternately taken in and ex- pelled at each ordinary act of breathing ; and it is supposed that about one hundred and seventy cubic inches more may be forcibly expelled after a common expiration, such as coughing, straining, etc. After that the lungs would contain within them one hun- dred and twenty cubic inches. Upon this estimate there remain in . the lungs, after an usual expiration, two hundred and ninety cubic inches of air ; and upon inspiration there are three hundred and thirty in them, which is the measure of their capacity in a dis- tended state. Since forty is nearly the one eighth of three hundred and thirty, it follows that it is only about one eidith of the whole air in the luna:s w^hich <-> fit undergoes a change during each successive act of STRUCTURE OF THE LUNGS. 11 breathing. Still, we possess the power of expelling, by a forcible expiration, fully two thirds of the entire quantity. It is on these bronchial cells that the ultimate branches of the pulmonary arteries and veins are dis- tributed, and inosculate or enter each other. The thin membrane of the cells and the coats of these minute vessels do not prevent the influence of the air upon the circulating blood; and it is here that the great chemical change in the blood takes place — a fact which should remind us that the lungs are extremely delicate organs, and how necessary it is that they should be naturally protected. The cavity, or chest, in which the lungs', together with the heart and its great blood vessels, are inclosed, is termed the thorax^ and is somewhat conical in form. The contents of the thorax are defended from compression by the ribs, which extend from the spine to the sternum or breast-bone and produce mechanical support, and are so arranged that they can enlarge or diminish the cavity and promote breathing. The base of the cone is inclosed by what is called the dia- jpTiragm^ which divides the chest from the abdomen, and forms a complete partition. Being a muscle, the diaphragm can be extended or contracted. It is per- forated, close to its origin from the spine or backbone, by four tub)es, namely, the oesophagus^ the aorta^ the vena cava^ and the tTioraciG duct The diaphragm is convex, inward to the thorax or chest ; and the direc- tion of its muscular fibres is such that, when those fibres contract thej^ bring down the middle part, which is tendinous, and render it more flat; and 18 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. then, when the ribs are raised, tlie cavity of tlie tho- rax is considerably enlarged. The air in the lungs, by its elasticity, expands the cells and draws in more air till tlie lungs are filled ; this is termed inspiration. The air is again thrown out by a reverse action, when the diaphragm tends upward and the ribs are lowered ; this is termed expiration. Hence the necessity of freedom from restraint, in order that a natural process of breathing may be maintained and the blood there- by fully acted upon, an operation which is of essen- tial benefit to the general health. CHAPTER IX. ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL OEGANS. Tlie vocal organs described — The Human Voice capable of every possible sound — How sound is produced. THE upper portion of the windpipe is formed by four cartilaginous rings, termed respectively thyroid^ cricoid^ and two arytenoid. These rings have a number of small muscles attached to them, and are lined by a mucous membrane, the latter hav- ing certain membraneous reflections which constitute the superior ligaments of the glottis^ or opening of the windpipe. This opening is covered by the ep)i' glottis already described. The several parts licre men- tioned constitute the organs of speech, or vocal appa- ratus, termed the larynx. Professor Charles Bell, LARYNX, OR ORGAN OF THE VOICE. 1 1. The superior cornu, 2. The cricoid cartilage, 3. The posterior crico arytmoid ligament. 4. The arytenoidus muscle. 5. The arytenoid cartilage. 6. The rima glottidis., or opening to the windpipe. 7. The chorda xocalis. 8. The thyro-arytenoid muscle. 9. The crico-arytenoid muscle. 10. The border of the thyroid cartilage. SIDE VIEW OF THE LARYNX. A. The weal chords. B. The arytenoid fold. 1. The ejnglottis. 2. Opening vf the glottis. 3. The arytenoid cartilage. 4. The arytenoid ejnglottidean bor- der. 5. The aryteiwidean muscle. 6. The arytenoidean cartilage. 7. The thyro-arytenoid muscle. 8. The crico-arytenoideus muscle. 9. The crico-ary- tenoideus posticus. 10. (^ricoid cartilage. 11. The tJiyro-epiglottidean muscle. This muscle draws down the epiglottis to close the entrance to the windpipe. 12. A cartilaginous ring of the trachea., or windpipe. ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 79 who lias given this subject much consideration, says : " The voice commences in the larynx, but rever- berates downward into the trachea and even into the chest, whilst it may be directed with different effect into the cavities of the head, mouth, and throat." The organ of the voice is, strictly speaking, neither a stringed instrument, nor a drum, nor a pipe, nor a horn ; but it is all of these together. We shall not be surprised at this complication if we will only take the trouble to consider that the human voice is ca- pable of every possible sound — that it can imitate every beast and every bird— that it is more perfect than any musical instrument yet invented — and that, in addition to the intonation of every variety of mu- sical note, it is capable of giving utterance to all the combinations in articulate language which ai'e heard in the different nations of the earth. The essential and primary part of the organ is the tliyreo-arytenoid ligaments, termed cordce vocales. The membrane which lines the larvnx is reflected over these liga- ments, so as to be drawn by them in their motions ; and this action is referred to when it is remarked that the organ is like a drum, for this membrane must vibrate in the air. The muscles of the arytenoid car- tilages draw tight the cordse vocales and their at- tached membranes, and thereby give them a certain tension. The air being at tlie same time expelled forcibly from the chest, a vibration of these ligaments and membranes is the result ; and sound is produced by the vibration being communicated to the stream of air. This sound, as it is above stated, may re- verberate along all the passages from the lungs to the 80 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. nostrils ; but, unless tliere be a certain vibration in the cords of the larynx, there is no vocalization of tlie breath. For example, a man in whispering articu- lates the sounds of the mere breath, Without that breath being vocalized and made audible by the vi- brations of the larynx. In singing, the vocalized breath is given out uninterruptedly through the pas- sages — the rising notes in the gamut being produced, first, by the narrowing of the glottis, and, secondly, by the rising of the larynx upward. These various movements with the muscles, tongue, and lips — modu- lating the vocalized breath, and modified by iT.ason — express alike conventional language and harmo- nious strains. CHAPTER X. CHEMICAL CHANGES IN RESPIRATION VITAL FUNCTIONe. Cliemical changes tliat take place in tlie air we breathe — Vital Force an independent power in the animal system. THE air we breathe — atmosplieric air — consists of tweuty-one per cent of oxygen and seventy-nine of nitrogen, with a mere trace of carbonic acid gas. When it has acted upon the lungs whicli contain the blood that needs to be purified, and is returned, it is then found that a portion of the oxygen has dis- appeared, and the place has been nearly, if not wdiolly, supplied by an addition of carbonic acid gas, to- gether with a quantity of watery vapor, and that a CHEMICAL CHANGES IN RESPIRATION. 81 small portion of the nitrogen gas has also been con- sumed. The action of the air produces a most obvious effect upon the blood, as it changes its color from a dark purple to that of a bright vermilion. It is transformed from venous to arterial blood, a change which accounts for the alteration that takes place in the component parts of the air inhaled. This process of aeration of the blood has much to do with the pre- paration of sustenance and heat for the animal body ; and thus it has been established by our most eminent chemists that oxygen is essential to- animal life. It is a supporter of combustion. The food we eat, and the fuel we burn, are materials composed of the same elements; and when oxygen urites w^ith those sub- stances, it eliminates heat. In like manner, when it unites with the carbon in the limgs, it forms carbonic acid which is thrown off in the breath. Oxygen is a colorless gas, inodorous and tasteless, and is in combination with nearly all of the sixty-four known elemental substances, which give it out and receive it under certain circumstances ; hence, its com- bination, and disposition to combine with the food we eat and the fuel we burn. It is also the most abund- ant element that we know of, constituting ei']!;ht ninths of water, twenty-one per cent of atmosplieric air, forty-eight per cent of granite and limestone, forty- seven of gneiss and sandstone, forty-six of slate, and forty-three of basalt — these being the most abundant materials that make up the crust of the earth. Carbon is found in a solid state, in which it is known as diamond, and we find it nearly pure in the form of charcoal. It is united with all organic sub- 82 HUMAIS" ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. stances, and is produced from tliem by decomposition in the form of carbonic acid gas, and, as previously stated, in the organized substances which form the food of animals; and we repeat this important fact, in order that the reader may the more readily comprehend the source from whence we obtain the heat that is eliminated in our bodies, and the chemi- cal relation of combustion and respiration, which are the same in effect. The materials in both cases are burnt up, and the result is carbonic acid, water, and heat, which are produced in the lungs and body by slow, silent combustion. Vital force is an independent power in the living animal body ; and it is under this influence that all parts of the body are produced from a peculiar fluid, which circulates in its organism by virtue of an influ- ence that resides in every part of an organ. All parts of the system are made to grow, and are sustained by the circulation of the blood and the aliment it con- tains. It is shown by experienced physiologists that, at each moment of life in the animal organism, a change of matter, more or less accelerated, is going on. A part of the structure is ti'ansformed into or- dinary matter, and loses its condition of life ; it is re- moved, and must be replaced with vitalized organic matter. Every motion and every manifestation of force is the result of a transformation of the structure, or of its substance. Every conception, every mental affection, is followed' by changes in the chemical na- ture of the secreted fiuids. Even every thought and every sensation is accompanied by a change in the composition of the brain. PART III. J^UTRITION ^jl^LIMATE ^^ANITARY JilDS. CHAPTER I. THE NECESSITY OF NUTRITION THE INFLUENCE OF THE ATMOSPHERE. Nutrition essential to tlie sustenance of animal life — Its dependence on cliemical changes — Different conditions of tlie atmospliere in relation to tlio requirements of the animal system — Animal tem- perature and its maintenance under varied circumstances. TO sustain animal life, we must supply matter suited for tlie sustenance of the various organs. The first condition of life is assimilation of what is known as nourishment ; and the second is a continual absorption of oxygen from the atmosphere to accom- plish that necessity ; so that at every moment of our lives we are taking in oxygen by means of the organs of respiration, and giving it out again in the form of carbonic acid and hydrogen. Thus certain parts of the body enter into combination with oxygen, wliich is introduced through the luiigs and skin, and given out in the form just stated. That most exact and learned chemist, Justus Liebig, who lias been relied upon for most of the statements in relation to animal chemistry which have been made in this work, states that, by accurate determination, it appears that an adult, taking moderate exercise, consumes thirteen and nine tenths ounces daily of the quantity of carl)on 86 NUTRITION" CLIMATE SANITARY AIDS. taken into the system in food, and that a portion passes otf in the form of excrement — in which form carbon is not combined with oxygen. This amount of carbon escapes through the skin and lungs as carbonic acid gas, and requires thirty-seven ounces of oxygen for its conversion into that gas. As no part of the oxygen taken into the system is given off in any other form — and as the carbon and hydrogen expended are, in a normal condition of health, replaced by carbon and hydrogen supplied in the food — it is clear that the amount of nourishment required by the animal body for its support must be in direct ratio to the quan- tity of oxygen taken into the system. Hence, quick breathing most rapidly consumes carbon, or, in other words, nutriment containing carbon, as is instanced in hard labor, or in a child, whose organs of respiration are naturally in a state of great activity. A child, therefore, requires food oftener, and in greater pro- portion, according to its size, than an adult ; and this extra supply is necessary in order to maintain good health, for a child bears hunger less easily than an adult. This is an important fact, and should be remembered. Again, an excess of food is incompatible with a de- ficiency of active breathing, or of effort to produce it by proper exercise. Therefore, persons who take but moderate exercise should limit the quantity of food to their condition or situation. Another fact to be impressed upon the mind is, that there are different conditions of the atmosphere which are affected by temperature and density. Atmos- pheric air is expanded by heat and contracted by cold, but equal volumes of cold and hot air contain INFLUENCE OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 87 unequal weights of oxygen. A given quantity of atmospheric air contains more oxygen in winter than in summer; so, at the poles, the air contains more oxygen than at the equator ; yet at both we inspire an equal quantity of air. Cold air becomes warmer during respiration in the air passages and pulmonary cells, where it acquires the temperature of the body ; and it requires a greater amount of carbon or nourish- ment to make up the amount of heat expended in warming it. Hence, a person at rest in a cold cli- mate requires an increase of food to sustain tlie activity that is going on in the system, and such food as contains the greatest amount of carbon. Fruits, upon which the inhabitants of warm cli- mates mostly live, contain about twelve per cent of carbon, whilst the bacon and train-oil eaten by the inhabitants of the frigid zones contain from sixty to eighty per cent of carbon, which amount is essential to their existence. A person would die from hunger in a much shorter time in a cold climate than in a warm one. Fruit would not sustain life in a northern lati- tud e, because a sufficient quantity of it could not be taken into the human stomach to supply the demand for carbon. From this we may learn that all animal creation is dependent upon oxygen for existence, and that, if the proper food can be obtained, we possess within ourselves a source of heat independent of sur- rounding circumstances. In whatever way carbon may combine with oxygen, the act of combination can not take place without the disengagement of heat. It matters not whether the combination takes place rapidly or slowly — at a high 88 KUTRITION CLIMATE — SANITARY AIDS. or a low temperature. Tlie amonnt of heat liberated is a constant quantity, and increases or diminishes with the quantity of oxygen introduced by respira- tion. And one remarkable fact is worthy of notice : the temperature of the body of man, and of every warm-blooded animal, in a healthy condition, is the same, whether situated in a climate of high or low temperature. In a cold climate, however, the rapid disengagement of heat requires more, food than a warm one, or an equivalent, either in clothing or heated rooms, which will diminish the urgent demand for such food, and will lessen the activity of the vital forces in the manner experienced in a warm climate. A person from a cold climate, visiting a warm one, finds liis appetite diminished, and may attempt to im- prove it by taking stimulants containing carbon, as all alcoholic drinks do. The temperature of the atmos- phere is so high that he is disinclined to take exercise in order to. increase respiration, consequently the whole amount of carbon is not consumed, and disease ensues, most commonly from an accumulation of bile. An explanation of this will be given in a future chapter. CHAPTEE II. INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE ON THE SICK, AND THE BENEFFIS DERIVED FKOM VEGETABLE DIET. Climatic influence on Invalids — Citizens benefited by going to the country in the warm season, and by strict ^idherence to a vegeta- ble diet — Pernicious qualities of stale fruit and vegetables. AFA VOR ABLE result is usually obtained by send- ing the sick, especially those laboring under dis- eased lungs, to a southern clime. The lungs, being in. a measure disorganized, fail to obtain in a cold climate sufficient oxygen to consume all the carbon produced from the food taken. In a warm climate, liowever, the diseased organs have sufficient power to place the diminished amount of food which is there taken in equilibrium with the inspired oxygen ; whilst in a colder zone the organs of respiration themselves would have been consumed in furnishing the neces- sary resistance to the action of the atmospheric oxy- gen. Thus it is, that pulmonary and inflammatory diseases are those which arise from an excess of oxy- gen, and are most frequent in a northern region. On the contrary, bilious or liver diseases are most prevalent in w^arm climates, as they arise from an ex- cess of carbon — bile consisting chiefly of soda and carbonaceous matter. This applies to all warm and confined locations, crowded cities, etc. And thus it 90 NUTRITION — CLIMATE — SANITARY AIDS. is that people are benefited by leaving them in warm weather, and resorting to the sea-shore or open conntry, where sufficient oxygen can be obtained to consume the excess of carbon ; but which, however, can only be fully accomplished by a strict adherence to a vege- table diet. Such a change is of the utmost importance in the improvement of our health, especially the health of our children, as it is only in the country that ripe fruit can be obtained, uncontaminated and free from the putrid vapors whicli arise from the decomposing masses of vegetable and animal matter in our sliops and markets, and which poisonous vapors are so readily absorbed by fruit. A few hours' exposure thereto is sufficient to injure the wholesome qualities of fruit or vegetables, and forty-eight hours suffice to make them deleterious. The fruit sold in large cities is often rendered really pernicious by venders mixing that which they have purchased on the previous day with their new supply, so that they can pass it off for fresh. There are honorable exceptions, of course ; but it is requisite that purchasers should be on their guard as much as possible. The same may be said of vege- tables as of fruit. Vegetables, too, are frequently received in large quantities or bulk from great dis- tances, and decomposition has taken place while in transit ; and they are then kept in boxes and barrels for a day or two before they are sold, increasing in in- juriousness with every day's delay. It is thus that we are deprived of the advantages obtainable from the very means provided by a bountiful Providence for the benefit of our health in the summer season. BENEFITS DERIVED FROM VEGETABLE DIET. 91 During the winter months we indulge in carbona- ceous food, as we have a sufficiency of oxygen to con- sume it. In the spring season, our system has accu- mulated an excess of carbonaceous matter, wliicli predisposes us to disease ; but in ordinary good health we possess within us means of resistance — a power of adaptation to circumstances which saves us from an immediate attack of sickness, that eventually must ensue, if not contended witli. AVe can readily be restored to a state of equilibrium, if we are not deprived of the means provided-^fresh fruits and fresh vegetables — for our principal diet during warm weather. So far, w^e have been considering the chemical action upon the blood which takes place in the lungs, and prepares it to supply nutriment to the general organization. It is here tliat the carbonaceous mat- ter is separated from the blood, and that which has been thrown off from the several organs, by change of particles, is rendered useful, for it is consumed in the lungs, and thus eliminates heat sufficient to main- tain the natural warmth of the body, and to preseive an equilibrium conducive to good health. CHAPTEE III. THE FORMATION OF LIVING ANIMAL MATTER THE NECESSARY FOOD FOR THE YOUNG. The component parts of blood as derived from food — Carnivorous and graminivorous animals considered in relation to food — The young obtain from milk all that is essential to growth and vigor. E will now take into consideration the several component parts of vitc^lized blood, prepared to make up tlie living organism of the body — namely, the nerves, muscles, and bones, the elements of which are contained in the blood, and have been derived from food. By the examination of the blood, chem- ists are enabled to inform us what food contains the greatest amount of nutriment or animal matter ; for, by a very simple process, some of the component parts of blood are detected, or can be separated. Blood, taken from a vein, if allowed to stand for some time, coagulates and separates, when a yellow- ish liquid called serum arises to the surface, and a gelatinous mass is formed, out of which soft, elastic fibres, called the fihrin of the blood, can be drawn by a stick, to which they will adhere, if it is passed several times through the mass. This is identical in all its properties with muscular fibre — it is, in fact, muscle, ready to be deposited and formed into shape. The remaining portion of the blood, serum^ contains FORMATION OF LIVING ANIMAL MATTER 93 all the properties of the white of eggs, and, when heated, coagulates and is converted into a white elas- tic mass called albumen. Blood contains seven chemical elements, among which are nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulphur; as also, lime to form the bones, iron, the coloring mat- ter of blood, several combinations of soda and potash, and carbonic, phosphoric, and sulphuric acids. The two most important parts of the blood which invite our attention are albumen and fibrin. The vital forces or living principle can change one into the other, and convert either of them into blood. Both contain nitrogen. All portions of the animal body that have a decided shape contain about seventeen per centum of nitrogen ; and carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen are also present. The two latter are sepa- rate, and not in proportion to form water. All kinds of food proper for nourishment must con- tain nitrogen, for the organs can not create it, nor is it absorbed from the atmosphere in tlie lungs. Water and fat are devoid of nitrogen. The inorganic con- stituents of the body are iron, lime, magnesia, com- mon salt, potash, and soda. We have thus far described the most important constituents that form the living body, and will now take a comparative view of some of the changes which occur in organized matter taken as food by carnivo- rous and graminivorous animals, in order to ascertain what constitutes the nutriment of the food of man. The food which carnivorous annuals take for nourish- ment is identical with those parts of their own organiz- ation which are to be renewed. It consists of the blood 94 NUTEITION CLIMATE SANITARY AIDS. andflesli of tlie graininiv^orous, but not of lioofs, hair, feathers, and bones, and is as readily assimilated as it is in man. This food, being decomposed, affords all that is necessary to snstain the system. The pro- cess of nutrition in graminivorous animals appears quite complicated. Their digestive organs are less simple than those of the carnivorous ; but this ap- pears . necessary , when we take into consideration the fact that, in order to give the amount of nutriment necessary to sustain the system, vegetables must be eaten in much larger quantities than animal food. Of vegetable food, seeds of the different kinds of grain, and roots and juices give the largest amount of nutri- ment in proportion to the bulk eaten. The nitro- genized forms of nutriment in vegetables are reduced to three substances, two of whicli are soluble in water and one is insoluble. These can be distinguished in the following manner : In nearly all vegetable juices, a separation takes place if they are allowed to stand for some timCo A gelatinous precipitate, commonly of a greenish tinge, is deposited ; and when this deposit is acted upon by liquids which remove the coloring matter, the residuum is of a grayish white substance. This is one of the nitrogenized compounds of vegetable nutrition, and it is known as vegetable fibrin. The juice of grapes is especially rich in this constituent, but it is most abund- ant in wheat and other cereals. It may be obtained tolerably pure from wheat flour, by a mechanical oper- ation of washing out the starch, and is then called gluten; but the glutinous property does not belong to vegetable fibrin, but to another substance found FORMATION OF LIVING ANIMAL MATTER. 95 only in wlieat. Yegetable fibrin ia identical with that found in the blood. The second nitrogenized compound remains dis- solved in the juice after the separation of the fibrin, and can be coagulated by boiling. "When the clarified juice of vegetables — such as cauliflower, asparagus, and turnips — is boiled, a coagulum is formed like that from the resume of the blood or white of eggs. This is known as vegetctble albumen^ and is found most abundant in oily seeds and nuts. The third nitrogenized constituent of vegetable food is especially interesting. It is chiefly found in peas and beans, and in leguminous seeds generally. It is termed vegetable casein^ and, like vegetable albumen, it is soluble in water, but it can not be coagulated by heat. When the solution is heated, a skin forms on its surface, and the addition of an acid causes a co- agulum, the same as when it is added to animal milk. These three nitrogenized compounds — vegetable fibrin^ albumen^ and casein — are the true nitro- genized constituents of the food of graminivorous animals, and contribute largely to the increase of mass in the animal body. Thus it seems that vege- tables obtain from inorganic matter elements to form organic substances for the food of graminivorous ani- mals. And these animals, in turn, form food for the carnivorous, or animals that can only subsist on ani- malized matter, which is first obtained fi'om the vege- table kingdom. Therefore, animal organism is a con- tinuation of vegetable life. The first substance capable of aff'ording nutriment to animals is the last product of the creative energy of vegetables. There are sub* 96 NUTRITION — CLIMATE SANITARY AIDS. stances in tlie animal system, sucli as sugar, starch, gum, pectine, etc., wliicli contain no nitrogen. With- out these, graminivorous animals can not subsist; at least one or more of those compounds is necessary. Milk is the nutriment of the young, both of grami- nivora and carnivora. It contains casein — a nitro- genized compound, which supplies not only nitrogen, but the chief constituents of blood and the earth of bones, in a very soluble form, capable of reaching every part of the body — as well as sugar, butter, starch, and gum, each of which substances contains carbon and hydrogen, in almost exact proportion to form water, into which they are readily changed. Heat is also eliminated from milk, and the organs are thus saved from being consumed by oxygen in breathing, for the demand for carbon must be supplied, as the want of it causes death by starvation. If car- bon is not supplied to the lungs from food or carbo- naceous compounds in the system, other than what are in combination with fibrin and albumen, the substance of the muscles will be consumed at the expense of the substance of the system — that is, after any accumu- lated fat, that may have been deposited, and which may be considered a reserve of carbon, has been ex- pended. In the change of matter which takes place in the system, the liberated nitrogen unites with hydrogen and forms ammonia, (commonly called hartshorn,) which passes off in the secretions and ex- crements. We learn from the above that graminivorous ani- mals do not obtain from the returned particles of organs, sufficient carbon for the action of the lungs, and THE GENERAL FOOD OF MAN. that their equilibrium woiild be destroyed if it were not for the sugar, gum, starch, and pectin e that make up the deficiency ; all of which products are readily obtained from vegetables. The carniv;^ra obtain an excess of carbon in their food, and do not require to procure it from other substances. Bile, composed of carbonaceous matter and several salts separated from the blood in the liver, is again returned to the circu- lation, and, if not in undue quantity, is essential to a healthy condition of the system. It must be con- sidered as one of the secretions that contribute to the formation of animalized products, like to tlie car- bon given ofl' in combination with oxygen in tjie form of carbonic acid, except that the salts contained in the bile are appropriated to their required use in the animal economy. CHAPTER lY. THE GENERAL FOOD OF MAN. An examination of tlie general food of man — Fibrin and Alba- men are products taken up by the blood, whether from vege table or animal food — Mixed food most suitable for man — Car bonaceous food predisposes to fat and bile. MAN partakes of both vegetable and animal food. The compounds obtained from vege- table food are similar, whether eaten by man or the herbivorous animals — namely, fibrin and albumen, which are nitrogenized compounds containing car- 98 NUTRITION — CLIMATE — SANITARY AIDS. bon in an animalized form. Fibrin and albumen are products ready to be taken up by the blood for distri- bution to all parts of the system, and are identical with what is obtained from animal food ; but a very large amount of vegetables must be eaten to obtain a small quantity thereof; and, consequently, a greater activity of the digestive powers is required than would be demanded by the amount of animal food that would produce the same result. This activity calls for an expenditure of carbon commensurate with the activity. If the digestive organs are not very vigor- ous, a deficiency of this element must be the result ; but if there is fat in the system, carbon will be sup- plied from that source. Hence fat, it would appear, is deposited to meet such an emergency. This fat is very similar to some of the component parts of casein, which contains fibrin and albumen in a soluble state, as well as butter, sugar, gum, etc. The three latter substances are formed of carbon and hydrogen in varied proportions, but are readily resolved into each otlier. Starch is also changed into sugar, and any of these vegetable products is easily converted into fat, which, when decomposed, gives off hydrogen. Hydrogen unites with oxygen to form water, and with nitrogen to form ammonia. The residue of carbon supplies respiration and adds to the formation of fat. In an infant there is not sucli a rapid change of particles of the organized system as in an adult; consequently, there is not so much carbon obtained from that source; but in the former there is an actual increase of size, which continues until it reaches ma- turity. The deficiency of carbon is supplied from the THE GENERAL FOOD OF MAN. 99 non-nitrogonized substances found in the casein — ■ namely, butter, sugar, and gum — while the soluble nitrogenized substances — fibrin and albumen — are distributed for the . sustenance and increase of the growth of the child. In a man compelled to live on animal food the car- bon would be furnished by the flesh, instead of by the butter, sugar, starch, and gum afforded him in a vegetable diet ; and would require, comparatively speaking, a very large amount of flesh. An import- ant fact to be considered here, is, that flesh is not de- composed merely for the purpose of yielding carbon, like butter, sugar, starch, and gum, but it forms or- ganiz'ed matter containing all the properties of blood. It is distributed to the general organization, and has to undergo the changes of all vitalized matter, which is thrown off after it has accomplished what it was designed for — the sustenance of the organization— and is replaced by other vitalized matter before it can supply carbon for respiration. To accomplish this, muscular motion is required to create activity in the system. Carnivorous animals are compelled to take exercise, probably by instinct, in order to be saved from disease. Witness the lion, tiger, and hyena, when confined in cages ; they are in constant motion. So with man ; if he lives solely on flesh, it is neces- sary for him to take exercise, otherwise he becomes diseased. It is then apparent that a mixed diet, with proper discretion, is most conducive to good health ; and that, if varied judiciously, it will cure most of our ailments. If we eat to excess butter, sugar, or vege- 100 NUTRITIOlSr CLIMATE — SANITARY AIDS. tables containing much starch, without inducing rapid breathing to get rid of a superfluity of carbon, bile or fat will accumulate — probably both. This is very injurious, as such accumulation produces some of the most formidable diseases that the physician has to con- tend w^th, one of which is diabetes. Sugar can be formed in the system from all fariixaceous food eaten ; and wdien the disposition to form it is once established, it is not easily changed, although an animal diet may be strictly adhered to. The carbon liberated from animal food unites readily with the free hydrogen, and sugar is thereby formed; while the nitrogen unites w^ith hydrogen and produces ammonia, which passes off in the form of ammoniacal gas. In the graminivora there is a tendency to the de- position of adipose matter. When it is desired to fatten an ox, hog, or any of the domestic animals, they should be confined in a warm stall, so that the expanded bulk of air to be breathed may not contain so much oxygen as it otherwise would. When thus confined, their activity in breathing is lessened, and the animals will consume more nitrogenized com- pounds, in the form of fibrin and albumen, tlian is re- quired for the reproduction and supply of carbon to the lungs. In addition to this, they will eat a large quantity of substances that are devoid of nitrogen, such as starch, sugar, and gum, which yield carbon readily, and are not required for respiration and heat. Warm apartments and want of exercise are equiva- lent to a deficiency of oxygen. Under these circum- stances the animals absorb much less oxygen than is required to convert the carbon of the substances^ THE GENERAL FOOD OF MAN. 101 usually, or under ordinary circumstances, destined for respiration, into carbonic acid ; and a compara- tively small portion is thrown off in excrementitious matter. The remainder is reunited with hydrogen to form fat, which, in the normal state, only appears in small quantity as a constituent of the nerves and brain. A hog fed on liighly nitrogenized food increases in mnscle or flesh ; when fed on potatoes, in consequence of the quantity of starch they contain, it gets very fat, with little increase of flesh. The milk of the cow, when stall fed, is rich in butter ; but when the cow is turned out to pasture, her milk contains more casein, and in the same proportion, less butter and sugar. In woman, beer and farinaceous diet increase the proportion of butter and fatten the child ; but, if she partakes of animal food, though she yields less milk it contains more casein, and the child becomes muscular and vigorous. This is the experience of Liebig, and of many other eminent chemists who have tested the truth of his statements. It is the result of discoveries made in that branch of the science of chemistry which is applicable to physiology — made with all the zeal and ambition by which learned men have been led to oppose innovation and to detect error. It is a result which has enlightened the world with flicts in phj^si- ology — facts that are made comprehensible by their agreement with the well known laws that govern chemical combination, and the knowledge of which is made subservient to vital force in the formation of or- ganized tissues and the performance of their functions. CHAPTER Y. THE VARIOUS TISSUES THAT CONSTITUTE THE HUMAN BODY YITAL FORCE OR LIVING POWER. Bicliat's enumeration of the various tissues that constitute the entire form of man — Muscular motion dependent upon vital force — Means of expending vital force, and assimilating it. WEBS, or, in physiological parlance, tissues, indicate the several peculiar parts of organs which form the animal body. Bichat assigns tlie term to all the solids of tlie body, and makes a total of twenty -one tissues. These are as follows : 1. Exhalent — numerous small vessels throwing off matter. 2. Absorbent — numerous small vessels taking up matter. 3. Cellular — the receptacle of fat. 4. Arterial — blood-vessels conveying the blood outward. 5. Yenous — blood-vessels returning the blood. 6. Nervous — animal, voluntary. 7. Nervous — animal, involuntary. 8. Osseous — relating to the bone. 9. Medullary— brain, etc. 10. Cartilaginous — white ends of bones. TISSUES FORMING THE HUMAN BODY. 103 11. Fibro-Cartilaginons— tendons. 12. Fibrous — muscular fibrin. 13. Muscular — the means of motion. Flesh cords that contract or extend, and give form to the body. 14. Muscular Organic — heart, stomach, etc. 15. Mucous — lining membrane of nose, throat, etc. 16. Serous — secreting membranes. 17. Synovial — secreting membrane about joints. 18. Glandular — organs forming secretions. 21. Pileous — hair, etc. The various organs that constitute the animal econo- my perform their functions from the foi'ce of a pecu- liar power, known as the vital force ; which force subjects natural laws to its control, and diminishes in power in direct ratio to its expenditure. We have already stated that this vital force or living prin- ciple is as incomprehensible to our perception as the force of electricity or magnetism, which, under certain circumstances, produces a somewhat similar effect, especially in relation to motion produced in the ani- mal body. We can only perceive the effect realized — action and motion. Action of the mind or will produces voluntary mo- tion. Involuntary motion, such as the circulation of the blood and the digestive organs, is produced inde- pendent of the will ; but for power of motion it is de- pendent upon the vital force, for all motion of the ani- mal system, is dependent upon that living principle and the organism upon which it acts. This organism 19. Dermoid 20. Epidermoid to the skin. 104 NUTRITION — CLIMATE —SANITAEY AIDS. requires a constant supply of sustenance — material that is acted upon to produce force, which is exhaust- ible and consequently requires renewing. A man exhausts vital force by mental and muscu- lar exertion. When walking, his erect position and action of lifting the legs from the earth are opposed by gravity ; but, in consequence of the vital force hav- ing the ascendency, the legs are lifted alternately from the earth, and the resistance of gravity is overcome for a time. The same result accompanies all exertion, just so long as a sufficiency of vital force is supplied ; and, as this force is accumulated in the animal econ- omy, it is limited in direct ratio to the amount of ali- ment eaten and properly digested ; the force, in fact, being dependent upon the change of matter in the sys- tem, induced by motion and exertion. Motion and exertion increase the ability to accumulate power to the extent of the animal development. As exhaustion follows exertion, rest is necessary to the accumulation of vital force ; and, if exertion and rest are both w^ell regulated, an equilibrium of force and development is established and made manifest, often to our aston- ishment. Extraordinary muscular power is obtained / under favorable circumstances ; which favorable cir- cumstances may be considered as the partaking of wholesome food, residence in a congenial climate, well- regulated habits of eating, thorough mastication of the food, and the consumption of no more than is required to sustain the muscular force to be exerted. The benefit of such precautionary measures is indi- cated by an invigorated disposition in twenty minutes after eating, and the absence of that drowsy dullness INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. 105 which follows over-eating and invites 2i siesta or sliort sleep. The latter condition induces a concentration of vital force in the stomach, so that it may digest the excess of food, which is done at the expense of the general system. CHAPTER VI. INFLUENCES OF CLIMATE AND ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. The influence of climate on tlie animal system — Mean§ of adapta- tion to unfavorable circumstances — The electrical condition of the atmosphere — A sufficiency of electricity an excitant to man's energy, and the reverse when there is a deficiency— The influ- ence of a deficiency of electricity in the atmosphere. CLIMATE exerts a powerful influence over the animal economy. The maintenance of good health under unfavorable circumstances requires, as we have before intimated, the exercise of good judg- ment and care. In a cold, condensed atmosphere we inhale the greatest amount of oxygen. This calls for an increased activity in the change of matter in the system, in order to produce a sufficiency of heat ; and, consequently, an increase of nutritious food and warm clothing is required. The rule applies to all degrees of temperature to which man may be subjected. In whatever place man may reside, the atmosphere is variable in temperature and quality, being cold at one time and moister and warmer at another, and his system is subject to its influence. In chronic diseases 106 NUTRITION CLIMATE SANITARY AIDS. his discomfiture is manifested at every change ; and a diseased joint, an old wound, or a mutilated limb will indicate change in the weather some time previous to its occurrence. It is not only the fact that a morbid condition of the system renders an individual so sus- ceptible, but it is equally true that the healthy are also subject to the same influences, and require an in- crease of vital force to resist them and tlius escape the actual injury which would otherwise ensue. The im- press is clearly perceptible in the countenance, and is evinced by the disposition of the most vigorous. A depression of spirits is apparent in all who do not pos- sess sufficient vital power to repel its approach, which depression increases in degree from the nervo-san- guineous to the atrabilious temperament ; and in the latter the despondency is so great that th.e person af- flicted labors under actual melancholy, and is often led to the committal of suicide. The sombre state of, the atmosphere which tends to so sad a result has been not inaptly designated ''suicidal weather," from the fact that it has been noted in both England and France that a greater number of suicides take place in the month of November, when such weather pre- vails, than in any other throughout the year. This peculiar influence of the atmosphere was noticed by the ancients, but up to the present time it has never been satisfactorily explained. It can not be owing to the sun being obscured by the clouds that the sad ef- fect is produced ; for, if such were the case, a percepti- ble change wonld be observed during tlie night, espe- cially in people of melanclioly dispositions. It can. ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. 107 therefore, be only attributable to a peculiar condition :)f the atmosphere. That the electrical condition of the atmosphere tends to produce a very decided effect is quite appa- rent. We feel it in tlie depression of our energies, and we observe it not only in children who conse- quently become irritable and indisposed to play, but in the cattle in the field and in the fowls about the barnyard when they huddle together and droop their heads with drowsiness ; and we further witness it in the countenances of our usually gay friends, for it causes their faces to assume a dull aspect which is quite at variance with their wonted nature. At such times the electrical machine will fail to produce the usual quantity of electricity — we refer to the electri- cal machine which collects electricity from the atmos- phere by friction upon glass, and condenses it in the metallic insulated conductor, (a means of obtaining atmospheric electricity,) the efi'ects of which upon the animal economy are quite different to those pro- duced by magnetism, electro-magnetism, or galvan- ism. The three latter seem to be aftbrded from metal directly, and are increased by decomposition. It is the experience of the author of this work that atmospheric electricity is decidedly the most effectual in its curative tendency ; that it gives increased tone to the nerves when applied in a continuous current, and that when interrupted it produces excitement. When a constitutionally delicate person is insulated and charged with atmospheric electricity, if that electrici ty is drawn off by metallic points for ten minutes, it will, in some instances, produce fainting; and the 108 NUTRITION — CLIMATE SANITARY AIDS. same operation will produce in all persons a depres- sion of energy and a tendency to relieve local conges- tion. As it is necessary that the modes in which at- mospheric electricity is applied must be varied to suit the peculiar constitution of the patient and the par- ticular nature of the disease, it must be inferred that, to insure safety and success, experience and judgment must be exercised in the application. It is not safe, then, to apply it without the advice and care of a skill- ful physician ; but, under such advice and care, it may be employed to most decided advantage in such cases as the removal of tumors, the restoration of suppressed secretions, the loss of power — as in paralysis and the consequent deformity — and in rheumatic and neural- gic affections. The changes in the electrical condition of the at- mosphere just previous to and after a heavy thunder- storm are very marked. Before the storm all animal creation seems to be depressed, and persons feel very languid from tlie oppressive atmosphere and the high temperature — the thermometer marking ninety de- grees, and scarcely a cloud to be seen. On trying the electrical machine at such a time, not a spark of elec- tricity can be produced, which is an unmistakable sign that a storm is approaching. After the storm, with the thermometer still standing at ninety degrees, all feel exhilarated, and ex])ress themselves delighted with the purity of the atmosphere, and the electric machine indicates a very great increase of electricity. This exhilaration manifests a resuscitation of a wanted power, and is a stimulus to the nervous system. It has been observed during epidemics, as, for in- INFLUENCE OF HEAT AND MOISTURE. 109 stance, on the several occasions when epidemic cholera prevailed in this country, that there v^as a very great deficiency of atmospheric electricity, and that the electricity increased in direct ratio with the dechne of the disease. The same result has been noticed in endemic disease. In unhealthy localities, such as marshy districts of country, when yellow-fe- ver, intermittents, and kindred diseases of a ♦low grade supervene, these proceed from the action of lo- cal causes, which produce a deficiency of electricity and consequent nervous depression, and a derange- ment of the circulation of the blood, both of which are occasioned by the excessive evaporation of water in the heated season producing a chilliness in the night. OHAPTEE VII. LOCAL INFLUENCE FROM HEAT AND MOISTURE, AND THE INFLUENCE OF COLD. Heat and moisture — The disturbing influence of electricity in the atmospliere — Similarity of results in vital force in the resist- ance of atmospheric influence and in the accumulation of mus- cular power for labor — Means of sustaining the animal system under the influence of cold — Variations can be made conducive to improvement in health. WATER, in the form of vapor, deprives the at- mosphere of electricity and heat. The re- sult is a rarefied condition of the air, caused by the absorption of heat from all surrounding bodies; and, after the sun has declined below the horizon, a con- 110 NUTRITION CLIMATE — SANITARY AIDS. densation of vapor ensues — a law of nature well un- derstood by all chemists. This leads to a chilliness of the superficies of the body ; and, warmth being essen- tial to the maintaining of the circulation of the blood in the skin, the internal organs become gorged, and remain so until some influence, as that of the returning sun, warms the body. Thus an alternate action of in- flux and reflux of tlie circulation is produced, which -in- duces disease, such disease being, if the two influences are not excessive, at first of a periodical character, as that of intermittent fever. But if, on the contrary, the influences are excessive, the virulent forms of dis- ease ensue, and more especially attack persons who are unacclimated. Under such circumstances, and under similar exposure, the inhabitant may only have an intermittent while the visitor will be seized with a typhoid fever, the system of the first being somewhat adapted to resist this extraordinary influence, from his having had previous attacks in a milder form. This vital power of resistance is cumulative, but it requires time to accumulate. The law of nature which here operates is similar to that by which vital force is gradually increased, so that, in course of time, a man is enabled to acquire suflicient strength to per- form the most arduous labors with apparent ease. Take, for example, men of equal development of mus- cle, one a clerk and the other a blacksmith ; the clerk would be unable to wield a ten pound hammer for an hour, while the blacksmith could ply it for hours with impunity. The power possessed by the black- smith could only be acquired by the clerk after six months' judicious exercise ; for it would require an in- APPROPHIATION OF VITAL FORCE. Ill crease of activity in the organism of the system and a more rapid change of matter, winch would necessitate a special disposition of the vital force. And that a different appropriation of the vital force is required, is evinced in the well-known fact that many men wlio labor but little consume more food than those w4io are constantly at work, yet they do not obtain mus- cular power as a result. In such cases the result- ant power from the proper elaboration of the food is probably exercised in the digestive process, and the excess of matter thrown off in tlie excreta — that is, when bile and fat do not accumulate. Here we w^ould call special attention to a know- leda:e of the fact that such indnlo;ence is unnatural and carries with it its own punishment, that of enmii^ a deplorable condition, for it tends to paralyze all the greater feelings by excess, and to torpify all the finer by disease. People who thus indulge eventually be- come both disgusted with this world and indifferent about the world to come, and not unfrequently lay violent hands upon themselves, for they find life a burden and are wwse than useless to society. It is sad to contemplate that such persons are often natu- rally possessed of fine mental as well as physical en- dowments, and that they cast away the precious gifts not only intended for their own happiness, but bestow- ed upon them in order that they may benefit their fellow-beings ; for it is a responsibility required of us all by our Creator, that, w^hen thus favored, we should contribute to the best of our ability to the happiness of our fellow-men. The penalty that is sure to follow this unnatural indulgence, even if it is practiced in a 112 NUTRITION CLIMATE SANITARY AIDS. moderate degree, should deter ns fr^^ving way to it, for bad habits are readily acqi;^j(|i^, butaj^oi^so easily controlled when it is our desire to repel them. The preceding remarks apply more'tJirectly to the inhabitants of our temperate zo^e. In the colder re- gions, the consumption ^of nutritious oleaginous food is necessary to enabfe man to keep up the animal heat and to *JMK cold. In the extreme north, the atmospheric influence is so great that an extr^^pj.-* dinary effort of the vital energy is required to |^i§?^nt the termination of life by freezing. The vital forc^ is, under these circumstances, actively exercised ^n Ihe digestive and assimilative processes, and rapid" changes of matter are thereby induced. Food con- taining tlie greatest possible quantity of carbon — such as pure fat, train-oil, etc. — is required to sustain the increased activity for the supply of heat ; which activ- ity is caused by the action of oxygen uniting with carbon, and is increased in consequence of there being an increased quantity of the latter produced from the * carbonaceous food, and an increased quantity of oxy- gen in tlie condensed cold atmosphere. Hence the necessity for taking this very nutritious food. The quantity of oxygen inlialed in a cold atmosphere far exceeds the amount taken in in a warm atmosphere, although, in both, equal volumes, by bulk, of air are taken in or inhaled. Consequently, a cool atmosphere sharpens the appetite. The increased quantity of oxygen inhaled, soon reduces the ordinary quantum of carbon, and induces a more rapid change of mat- ter ; and the result is, that if food is not supplied equal to the demand, the organism is acted upon, and CITY LIFE PREDISPOSES TO SCROFULA. 113 the system becomes enfeebled. This is the process tliat causes starvation. A person will starve in a cold climate much sooner than in a warm one, be- cause the oxygen inhaled actually consumes the sys- tem in exact ratio to the quantity inhaled. And here again we have before us an important established fact, namely, that the variations in the atmosphere make a very decided impression upon the animal economy. However, if those variations are properly considered and turned to account, they may be made conducive to the improvement of bad liealth, and may afford a means for invigorating enfeebled constitutions and establishing a tolerable condition of health. CHAPTER YIII. CITY LIFE PREDISPOSES TO SCROFULA THE INJURIOUS EFFECTS OF DRAUGHTS OF AIR. The influence of city life in inducing" a scrofulous diathesis — The various unfavorable and unavoidable difficulties that exist — The formation of tubercles under certain circumstances — The seri- ous injury sustained by the human system from concentrated draughts of air, and the means of obviating the influence. IT has long since been observed by medical writers that it is in large and densely populated cities that scrofulous tendencies predominate. Scrofula is nothing more than an enervated condition of the or- ganism of the system ; and it is more especially in 114 NUTRITION — CLIJMATE — SANITARY AIDS. cities that carbonaceous matter accumulates to excess. The results of the latter are morbid secretions, which derange the glandular tissues, the spongy bones, and the substance of the lungs and liver, and produce the formation of tubercles in those tissues. These little spherical concrete bodies have for a nucleus carbona- ceous matter, enveloped and in a quiescent condition. They are thus rendered dormant, and, notwithstand- ing their presence, a tolerable condition of health is maintained, and, in some instances, an accumulation of fat takes place. Children often possess well-devel- oped muscles and a rotundity of form, and yet have, at the same time, enlargement of the joints, w^hich evinces an abnormal condition of the spongy portions of the bones — a direct indication that there is a lodg- ment of tubercles in their interstices, as well as a derangement in the assimilative process. In some children there is a tardiness of teething, which indicates a want of ossific or bone pabulum ; and thus a yielding condition of the long bones of the legs, and, from the strength of the muscles, a curva- ture^of these bones is produced, which curvature is in- creased by the superincumbent weight of the body. Bow-legs is the result. If a child, laboring under this abnormal condition of health, is slightly bruised, an inflammatory disposition is induced, which exhibits itself in local inflammation, with a tendency to sup- puration from the acrid secretion that exists in the system, and has previously indicated its presence by an eruptive tendency, but which, however, will now cease, in consequence of the secretion concentrating in the excited part — the ankle, the knee, the hip, or DRAUGHTS OF AIR INJURIOUS. 115 tlie spine. And, after tlie local inflammation is de- cidedly established, an acrid discharge, that may have previously come from the nostrils and ears, will also cease, and the enlarged glands at the angle of the jaws, tad the enlarged tonsils and eruptive sores upon tlie skin, will all likewise disappear. The development of matter, which distends the diseased part, soon de- stroys a portion of the integument, and an excessive drain takes place at the expense of the general system to sustain such drain. If the first impression has not been so severe as to enfeeble the assimilative pro- cesses, the most nutritious and easily digested food must be resorted to in order to promote digestion and sustain the system. The greatest possible amount of oxygen should be inhaled, without subjecting the pa- tient to chilliness, as by chilliness the skin becomes enfeebled and can not resist the influence of cold to repel the blood from the surface, which failure of resistance produces a torpidity of one of the largest organic tissues in the system — the skin — and thus tends to increase excitement in the diseased part. The curative indications are, the sustaining of the system by nourishment, properly selected with a view to its being readily digested and assimilated, and the diff*usion, by every judicious and possible means, of this local excitement. For the better accomplishment of this desirable object, medicine, judiciously chosen and administered, is of great value. The advantages to be obtained from an atmosphere well charged with oxygen are great ; but care must be taken to obtain those benefits under the most favorable circumstpmces. The patient must not be 116 NUTRITION — CLIMATE SANITAKY AIDS. exposed to a concentrated draught of cold air, as it robs the system of its vital energy mncli more rapidly than that energy can be generated, and has a debili- tating influence far exceeding the advantages to be obtained from the increased quantity of oxygen taken into the system. If so exposed, the activity created by the chemical change which takes place, from the uniting of oxygen with carbon — evolving heat — would be expended to maintain the demand for heat ; and, if the patient is very feeble, the organism would have to furnish the deficiency. Consequently, a favor- able location must be selected in the country, and the room occupied by the j)atient kept in tempera- ture congenial to his or her sensibility, while atten- tion must be given to warm clothing. In addition^ the skin should be frequently cleansed and excited by wearing coarse flannel, and the extremities should be chafed with the warm hand, especial care being taken to keep them at all times warm. The remarks here made relative to the eff'ects of a draught of air are equally applicable to all conditions of life, and in degree to the ability of resistance to the influence, and they should be carefully observed by delicate persons. If warmly clad, out-of-door expo- sure in a dry, cold atmosphere, and especially when regularly resorted to, is very conducive to good health. The reverse of this is the consequence in a cold, damp atmosphere ; for moisture, in the form of vapor, is a rapid absorbent of heat, and robs the system of its vital energy, in direct, proportion to its inability to resist the unfavorable influence. CHAPTER IX. . PROSPECTS OF RELIEF TO SCROFULOUS CTIILDREN. Relative prospects of relieving scrofulous cliildren — The means of curing" scrofula — It can be eradicated. IT is requisite that cliildren, laboring under dis- charging abscesses, which weaken the system, should be thorouglily sustained, and their organism maintained in its integrity. Sustenance is necessary to sustain the excessive discharges, which otherwise w^ould reduce all the vital energy to a state of dissolu- tion. But if properly supported, the sequence is a recuperative tendency, and this must be aided by the skillful adaptation of surgico-mechanical appliances for the prevention of deformity, which, if not thus guarded against, would result from the loss of parts ; for, if the limbs or body are not kept in a normal position till a restoration of parts is accomplished, the diseased parts heal in their contracted condition, and the deformity produced is, in many instances, incura- ble. Persons thus situated are subjected to the im- positions of vile pretenders, to whom they resort in the hope that a cure may be attained by the use of some expensive mechanical apparatus ; and thus un- dergo excruciating torture, only to increase their deplorable condition. The majority of these cases are 118 NUTKITIOX — CLIMATE SANITARY AIDS. remediable by skillful treatment. They most fre- quently require a surgical operation first, and then the adaptation of properlj^ constructed a])paratus, made under the direction of an experienced surgeon, versed in the knowledge of the construction of sur- gico-mechanical means for the cure of deformity. In the incij)ient form of caries of the spine — that disease of the spine wliicli results in humpback — a properly constructed support of steel springs, so arranged as not to press upon the diseased part, is very valuable. Motion and attrition promote active absorption of the spongy portions of the bones, which is one of the principal causes of the deformity. Such mechanical support is. therefore, of inestimable value in the treat- ment of this disease, both as a curative and a prevent- ive of deformity ; and by such auxiliary means, inflammation will be arrested in the affected joints, as those of the hip, knee, or ankle. To save scrofu- lous children from these deplorable results, we must treat them upon sound, rational principles ; first, by considering their actual condition, and, secondly, by the resort to such inviwratino; and curative measures as will tend to relieve the morbid condition which has existed from their earliest life. We do not entertain a doubt but that, in most cases of a scrofulous tendency, the organism was primarily at fault, and failed to perform its w^onted functions in consequence of hereditary deterioration. This is a generally received opinion. It is also believed that the morbid condition can not be eradicated and a healthy one established ; but from this view we must beg leave to diff*er, and for the following reason: — SCROFULA CAN BE ERADICATED. 119 Witli very few exceptions, cliildren tlms predisposed grow and develop in size and form quite equal to those wlio are not, and, by ordinary care, escape the terri- ble affliction through childhood, the disease being only developed in adult age, most commonly in the form of consumption. We must certainly infer from this fact, that the tendency to morbid derangements can be modified. By ordinary care, even under the unfavorable con- dition of a city life, relief can be given to children who are hereditarily predisposed to scrofula, but in whom, liowever, after ihej have reached an age at which they are permitted the control of themselves, and then only hy some gross im.jpTvdence^ the latent mor- bid matter, known as tubercles, may be excited into an inflammatory condition, which will result in consump- tion. Now, as this tuberculous state can be rendered dormant by ordinary care, and can be kept so even under unfavorable circumstances, we entertain the belief that it can be eradicated, and are prepared to assert that it has been, under favorable conditions. We have remarked, it is well known that individuals having decidedly scrofulous parentage have enjoyed most robust constitutions. This we must attribute to their having been nurtured, during childhood, under the most favorable circumstances, the tendency of which is, as it is in the animal economy during growth, to throw oif and resist all morbid influences. Such is an undeniable fact, often realized by sending children out of our large cities for the improvement of their delicate health. And that desirable object is abnost invariably obtained without any special 120 N UTKITI O X — CLl M ATE — S ANITA II Y AIDS. care, other tliaii pertains to a country life — the adv^an- tages of a different atmosphere, phiiner diet, more regnhir habits in eating and sleeping, and less extra- ordinary excitement. Yet all of these advantages miglit be secured in a city home, with the single ex- ception of the atmosphere, Avhich, in the countiy, is purer, and in a more condensed form and liigher elec- tric condition. If, however, these conditions of the atmosphere do not exist in that part of the country resorted to, then there is nothing to be gained by sending a feeble child or an invalid adult out of town that could not be obtained in the city. And thus it is that many delii ate children are enabled to enjoy tolerable health m the city, and even to become ro- bust. In making these i*emarks, we have reference to a general feebleness, or want of stamina in the organism, unattended by disease of the lungs. t)ELETEEI0US INFLUENCES AND DISINFECTANTS. Unfavorable condition of the atmosphere in densely populated cities — Deleterious influences engendered by carelessness — Dis- infectants, and the proper methods of applying them. iHETlE exist in all large and densely populated M cities, and in other cities in proportion to their density of population, unavoidable causes of deteriora- tion of the atmosphere, even under the most favorable condition of the weather. There is the diffusion of an CHAPTER X. DELETERIOUS INFLUENCES. V21 excessive quantity of water in the form of vapor— -a powerful moans of depriving the atmosphere of its electricity, wliicli is a necessary stimulus to the animal system, and is essential to the maintenance of vivacity and vigor. And there is also a diffusion, or lightness of the atmospheric air, from tlie excessive quantity of heat recjuired througliout the year for various domestic and manufacturing purposes. Tlie last-named un- favorable influence can he modified by judicious ventilation and by keeping the apartments cool in winter, or never above sixty-five ctegrees of Fahren- heit, throughout the day. Sleeping rooms should be kept at a tenq^erature of between thirty-five and forty degrees. Much of this debilitating influence can thus be obviated : for the atmospheric air will be so con- densed that, when inhaled, it w^U aflford sufiicient oxygen to relieve the system of the accumulated carbon, unless a person has indulged in an excessive quantity of carb>onaceous food, such as fat meats, gravies, butter, cakes, pastry, sweetmeats, sirups, al- coholic drinks, etc. An overpowering of the digestive organs, without a suflSciency of vital force to enable them to perform their wonted functions, causes' a morbid action that impairs the whole system to such an extent as in some instances to terminate in paraly- sis and death. One other prolific cause of disease in densely popu- lated cities is most worthy of notice. It is that of a constant putrefactive fermentation of organized mat- ter — vegetable and animal— which diminishes and in- creases in ratio to unfavorable circumstances. Among these unfavorable circumstances, the most predomi- 122 NUTEITION — CLIMATE — SANITARY AIDS. nant are : close, ill-ventilated apartments, insnfflcient drainage from dwellings, and the aeciimnlations of substances wliicli readily tend to decay, and are per- mitted by carelessness to remain in cellars, vaults, and sinks. From tliese sources there is generated an ex- cessive quantity of poisonous gases detrimental to liealtli ; and from them even endemics and epidemics are sustained, but in direct proportion to tlie unfavor- able condition of atmospheric influence, as, for in- stance, an excess of heat or moisture. Living animal excreta, if permitted to accumulate by ill-constructed accommodations, generate an insid- ious and pernicious emanation which tends to impair the health, more especially of delicate persons. Latent diseases, as that of scrofula, are at times developed and maintained from this source of excitement, to the destruction of the unfortunate individuals thus ex- posed ; and it renders the more healthy susceptible to the influence of any existing endemic or epidemic that may prevail. Tliis easily accounts for apparently healthy persons, residing in what are, under favorable circumstances, healthy localities, being attacked by sorne predominant disorder, and, in some instances, for whole families falling a sacrifice to it. It must be most readily perceived by the reader that this deleterious influence is only engendered by the inattention of the heads of families to an in- cumbent duty which devolves upon them, that of super- vising the premises they occupy. Corrective means are within the power of the most humble occupant of an apartment, namely, cleanliness and disinfect- ants, which latter are readily and cheaply obtained DISINFECTAN-TS. 123 The price of a mug of beer, a paper of tobacco, or a glass of spirituous liquor would purchase a sufficient quantity of the chloride of lime to neutralize the foul emanations of a sleeping apartment in a tenement house for a week ; that could be accomplished by placing a tea-spoonful every other day under the bed, and, when replaced by a fresh supply, throwing it into the chamber or slop-pail. Each family doing this would deodorize and destroy all the foul emana- tions that would arise from what must be considered unavoidable accumulations about such apartments, or, indeed, in any occupied dwelling — a precaution of especial importance in crowded cities. This chloride of lime is the most convenient disinfectant for fami- lies, and the least objectionable; yet to some its odor is unpleasant. To disinfect sinks, water-closets, cess-pools, and sewers, sulphate of iron — commonly known as green vitriol — two ounces to the gallon of water, is the most eifectual means, and should be used during the sum- mer season twice a week in liberal quantities. Care should be observed in its use, as it leaves a permanent stain on white clothing. The burning of sulphur in apartments which are in a foul condition — infected with vermin or subject to mould or mildew — is the most effectual means known of cleansing and purifying them. The apartments, however, must he ttnocGitpied during the jproGSss * and to complete it, the walls and ceiling should receive two or three good coatings of wdiitewash made from unslacked lime, into which should be thrown a handful of common salt, as it makes the material more effectual and adhe*'e^.^ 124 KUTRITION — CLIMATE — SANITARY AIDS; These applications will render the most unwholesome rooms perfectly innoxious for a time ; but, if unfavor- ably located, and inhabited by careless, indifferent people, the process should be repeated very frequent- ly, in order to insure a favorable condition of health, not only to the inmates, but to their neighbors. A collection of fermenting putrefactive matter will ex- tend its influence to a wdiole neighborhood ; hence, it must be inferred that cleanliness in every part of it is the only reliable protection to the inhabitants against the poisonous effluvia which arises from an accumula- tion of filth. Home comforts, in an extended sense, comprise well- ventilated apartments, careful family discipline, whole- some food, comfortable clothing suitable to all seasons and atmospheric changes, and active exercise in the open air; and, to complete all, happiness and pleasur- able enjoyment. If children are brought up under these influences, all scrofulous taint will be eradicated in less than three generations, although such children may never go beyond the suburbs of a city. CHAPTER XI. DAJTGERS ATTENDING EXCESSIVE EATING WARMING AND VENTILATING APARTMENTS — CAUSES OF DIPHTHERIA AND CONSUMPTION. People under favorable conditions become large 'eaters — ^Cliildren require more food than adults — The importance of selecting suit- able locations for country resort — The proper method of heat- ing dwelling-houses and the means of ventilating theni — How diphtheria and consumption are engendered. r I IHE reader is a«:ain reminded that tlie vital force I can be accumnlatedj if time is given and a gradual increase of the quantity of food taken is ob- served and practiced. And so it- is that persons will become large eaters with tolerable impunity, though somewhat dependent upon circumstances. But, in order to take in a sufficiency of oxygen to relieve the system of the resultant carbon, the secreting organs must^ be active, and the lungs must perform their functions well, or disease will ensue, and that fre- quently of a most serious character. Some individuals possess a peculiarly active condi- tion of the organism ; and tlierefore, to sustain an equilibrium, they require a greater quantity of food than others not so constituted. In such persons the secretions are very active, and arr^ indicated by the 126 NUTKITIOJS" — CLIMATIS — SANITARY AIDS. soiling of their iinder-clothes. In adults tliis active con- dition of the organism is analogous to that of children in a healthy condition, with tlie exception that tlie excess in the latter is appropriated to their growth ; and, if they are not properly supplied w^ith food, not only will that grow^th he retarded, but their general health will be impaired. If children are under the influence of a bracing atmosphere in the country, the greater will be the impairment; but the reverse is the case if care be then taken to supply them with a suffi- ciency of wholesome food at regular stated periods. It is in this latter that consists the great advantage which accrues to a child's health when it is sent into the country, provided a suitable location has been se- lected, wdiich is, after all, of the utmost importance. To choose such a locality requires experience and judgment. To send a child laboring under an inflam- matory condition of the system to a mountainous region or to high, cultivated table-lands* would be add- ing fuel to the flame ; while to send one of naturally good constitution, but enfeebled by some unfavorable circumstances, to a low, marshy district, would but weaken the child still more. From these considera- tions it will be readily perceived that, in many in- stances, it would be essentially necessary to select an intermediate region. This remark applies equally to invalid adults, many of whom have been seriously injured by the indiscriminate selection of country resorts — such as the rural abode of some relative or friend, or a fashionable watering-place — which con- form to their desire rather than to wdiat might be most conducive to the restoration of vigor. A more WAKMING AKD VENTILATING ROOMS. 127 potent remedial agency can not be afforded to inA^alida than that of a suitable atmosphere. It tends directly to establish the normal performance of the functions of the organism which are deranged, most commonly and more especially when domiciled in very populous cities, by unfavorable surrounding circumstances. If apartments are properly ventilated, warmth ob- tained by means of steam or heated air can be ren- dered tolerable, even to the enjoyment of good healtli, comparatively speaking, and bearing in mind the other .injurious influences ever existhig in densely populated cities. If economy in the consumption of fuel as well as a ready distribution of heat to all parts of an ordi* nary dwelling are desired, the heating 'apparatus should be placed in the centre of the cellar. Large public buildings require more extensive arrangements, as much heat is dissipated by its being conducted in horizontal pipes to a great distance. However when a diagonal upward conduction is employed, the heat is not dissipated in the same proportion as it is in hori- zontal pipes; and consequently, from there being little, if any, loss of heat, it can thus be readily dis- tributed to the upper stories of a building. If the main dividing partition of a house is built of brick, branches of heating flues can be distributed with safety. Each room of a residence or other building should have placed in the floor, on one side of the room, two registers for the admission of heat, separated at equal distances from each other and from either end of the room ; and on tlie opposite side there should be two corresponding ventilating registers in the floor, connecting with flues extending to the top 128 NUTKITION — CLIMATE SANITARY AIDS. of the house or building ; and these ventilating flues, to be effectual in their operation, should serve only- one apartment, otherwise an interference would ensue from the opening of ventilators above or below. A large hall or apartment should be constructed in a similar manner, having, however, a greater number of registers. . In rooms thus provided, the heat which rises from the floor will be diffused throughout them. The tendency of the heat will be to ascend, but, there being no outlet above, it will be diffused, and ample ventilation established by the tw^o ventilating flues which have their egress above the roof. Under cer- tain conditions of the temperature of a room, cold air will be furnished bj one of the ventilating flues, and the heated air will pass out through, the other. If the door is thrown open, then both ventilators w^ill be en- gaged in conducting off the heated air ; but if the door is kept closed, fresh air will be supplied to the room in the manner stated. The admission of fresh air in this manner is of great importance. Room doors often shut very close, and heated air is frequently kept con- fined for hours in an apartment, wdiile, at the same time, it wUl be crow^ded w^ith people, who are thereby exposed to most serious consequences, Tlie ailments that arise from such exposure present various phases, wdiich are but rarely attributed to the real source. The ordinary mode of warming apartments by means of heated air is any thing but comfortable ; and the effect is, as generally expressed, that " the feet are freezing while the head is ovcr-hcated." This is wliat might rationally be expected^ v/ith, as is most fre- DIPHTHERIA AND CONSUMPTIOIS . 129 quently the case, a register for the admission of heated air placed a foot above the floor, and a ventilator about a foot beh)\v the ceiling. The consequence is that the heated air ascends to the ceiling and warms only the upper stratum of air, while the reverse should be accomplished, but it is impossible under such an arran.o'ement. With reo^isters and ventilators so situ- ated, there is no possibility of equalizing the tempera- ture of a room. If the ventilator is kept open, the heat will pass off, and the room will be uncomforta- bly cold. If closed, the air will become very impure, and tlie only relief will be to throw open all the inner doors and equalize the heat throughout the house. As this is not always convenient, the evit is endured, to the injury of the liealth, and particularly that of children and delicate persons. Cold feet determines the blood to the vital organs, which conduces to congestion and inflammation of the lungs and brain. If those organs are predisposed to such ailments, the result must be, at least, most un- favorable. Here is the source from which have main- ly sprung those violent inflammations of the throat that have been so very prevalent for the last few years — diphtheria and other congestive conditions of the mucous membranes of the fauces, larynx, and bronchia — and, in some instances, those bronchial af- fections that are not excited into an active condition until after months and years of alternate exposure to the predisposing influence. In the latter case,, the superficial vessels become weakened by distention, "and, owing to the exposure being repeated every win- ter, tliough relieved in the summer, never recover their 130 NUTRITION — CLIMATE SANITARY AIDS. lost tone, "but are, at last, under some extraordinary eircnmstance, excited into active disease of an incur- able character; for the parts affected having been pre- viously permanently indurated, the ultimate result is bronchitis. When a tuberculous condition of the lungs exists, consumption supervenes at an early day. It is more than probable that tubercles are engendered in the systems of children from their being confined in apart- ments lighted with gas, and warmed by the ordinary means of heated air, with defective ventilation. Un- der such circumstances, the apartments are kept very warm ; consequently there is a deficiency of oxygen to support healthy respiration, while an excess of carbonic acid gas is inhaled from the gas that escapes and is unconsumed by burning. And thus carbonaceous mat- ter is permitted to be returned in the arterial circula- tion intermingled with the animalized matter for the sustenance of the organism, and is deposited in the pa- renchymatous structures of the soft parts and spongy portions of the bones. When such foreign substances are lodged in the living system, the tendency is to in- case or cover them, and the granular cysts, known as tubercles, are thus formed ; and this tendency is great- er when the food consists largely of fats and other carbonaceous substances — of molasses, candies, and food containing much starch. Although bread is called the staff- of J/ife^ yet it is never depended upon solely to sustain life and vigor. The diet of children, who are confined in rooms so unfavorable to health, as those just referred to, should be lean meat in mod- erate quantity, bread, and milk that has had the cream tak^en off* PART IV. HE PhEMISTRY of j^OOD. CHAPTER I. NUTRIMENT CLASSIFIED. The food of man divided into two classes — Nitrogenized sub- stances, or tlie articles tliat form blood — Non-nitrogenized sub- stances, or the elements of respiration. AFTER a tliorougli investigation of the subject. Professor Liebig divides the food of man into two classes — nitrogenized and non-nitrogenized. The former is capable of conversion into blood; the lat- ter is incapable of such transformation. Out of those substances which are adapted to the production of blood all organized tissues are formed. In the normal state of health the other class of substances serves to support the process of respiration. The first may be called the ijlastic elements of nutrition — in other words, the animalized matter for replacing the particles of the organism which are "being constantly throwm off ; for, as stated in a previous chapter, a con- tinual change of matter is constantly going on in the living animal economy. The last may be denomi- nated elements of respiration^ as they consist of those substances that, by their union with oxygen, form car- bonic acid and water, which are thrown off in the breath, bile, etc., and that, by the same union, elimi- nate the heat of the body. 134 THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD. The articles of food wliicli form blood are designated as follows : Nitrogenized Substances. Vegetable fibrin. Animal flesh. Vegetable albumen. Animal blood. Vegetable casein. And those carbonaceous portions of food, termed elements of respiration, which are commonly more or less combined with what we eat, but at times taken separately, are as under : Non-Nitrogenized Svhstances. Fat, from whatever source. Pectine. Starch, found largely in the potato. Basorine. Gum, readily converted into sugar. Wine. Cane sugar, in various forms. Beer. Grape sugar, contained in fruits. Spirits. Sugar of milk, as contained therein. The reader will bear in mind that vegetable fibrin, albumen, and casein, when separated from vegetables, are identical with fibrin, albumen, and casein ob- tained from organized animal matter ; and that the diff'erence between vegetable and animal diet consists in its being possible to make a selection of those vege- tables which contain a less proportion of carbonaceous matter than is found in others. We are also able to avoid carbonaceous products that have been separated from vegetable and animal substances by art. To enable us to accomplish this, it has already been men- tioned that we have reliable chemical analvsis. CHAPTER IT. THE ACTUAL NUTRHVIENT OBTAINED FKOM FOOD. Chemistry in relation to man's normal condition of liealtli — Organ- ized elemental substances the result of vegetable life — Analysis of vegetable and animal substances used as food — Food desig- nated for the seasons. THE facts set forth in the precednig pages show that modern chemistry, by a rational exercise of reasoning in regard to man's normal condition of health, has taught us what is necessary for our proper sustenance and conduces most to development and strength ; and which may briefly be stated as being — 1st. An accumulation of force in direct ratio to the expenditure. 2d. Nutriment for the production of that force. 3d. Carbonaceous food, clothing, and all ordinary means that support and sustain animal heat, under ordinary and extraordinary circumstances. Strength is constantly being exhausted by both physical and mental exercise ; while warmth is dif- fused in direct proportion to the variations of tem- perature, which are continually operating — for a uniformity of animal heat is essential to the suste- nance of a normal condition of health. To obtain these in a rational manner, it is necessary that we 136 THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD. slioiild acquaint ourselves with the component parts of the food we eat. And this is not so difficult a matter as might at first be imagined, as we have for our guidance the truths that have been established by our learned chemists, who have carefully analyzed the constituents of the animal body, and have deter- mined what elemental substances constitute the vege- table organized substances that are essential to sustain the living animal economy. The elemental substances, as gases in their simple forms, are actually noxious. They must be first formed by vegetable life into organized compounds, in order to constitute suitable food for man ; and these are denominated primary compounds, or, by chemists, proximate elements. These primary com- pounds are furnished by animal and vegetable sub- stances as food, and are divided into two classes, car- boniferous and nitrogenous. The first class consists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen ; the second, of car bon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Tlie common substances which constitute or contain the gases of the first class are wood, starch, gum, sugar, and oil ; and those of the second, or nitrogenous, are albumen, casein, and fibrin. Wood, gum, and starch contain like proportions of gases : 12 parts carbon, 10 parts oxygen, and 10 parts lij^drogen. Cane sugar contains 12 parts carbon, 11 parts hydro- gen, and 11 parts oxygen. Albumen, fibrin, and casein contain each 40 parts carbon, 12 parts oxygen, 31 parts hydrogen, and 5 parts nitrogen. NUTRIMENT OBTiMNED PBOM FOOD. 137 From tliese^analyses we learn tlie nutrient powers of substances taken as food ; and from them we con- chide : 1st. That in cold weather fat is not only a proper but a necessary article of food, more especially in a country life, and to out-door laborers. •2d. That lean meat and vegetables, having a much inferior heat-sustaining power, are preferable for per- sons living in close, confined apartments, warmed by furnaces and lighted with gas. 3d. That a fat diet should be discontinued on the return of summer, or on going to a warm climate ; when all decidedly carbonaceous food and drinks should be avoided. 4th. Tliat after an examination of the food neces- sary to enable the system to meet increasing cold, we are the better prepared to understand what may be necessary to prepare tlie system to meet the required increase of heat. When the temperature daily increases or decreases, so that the system is more and more taxed to maintain its exact equilibrium, additional material will be re- quired, of one kind or other, as the case may be, to sustain the new expenditure of vital force. In au- tumn, there is a special supply of carbonaceous ma- terial and a corresponding appetite. In spring, we look for diverse indications in both external nature and ourselves. The first invites carbonaceous food of heating properties, while the last demands food of a -cooling nature. The productions of spring and summer are salads, fruits, vegetables, and the cereals. The two latter 138 THE CHEMISTKY OF FOOD. classes ripen late, so as to bring their consnmption in the cool rather than in tlie warm season of onr tem- perate zone. In the tropics, the supply of all four is always adequate to the demand ; while here we have in spring and early summer only salads and a limited quantity of fruit. Most of our garden and orchard fruits are composed of nearly the same constituents, namely, a little w^oody fibre, more or less sugar, and several acids, of which latter the most common are malic, citric, and tartaric. Two or more of these acids are usually found in every fruit, although one preponderates and gives the fruit its peculiar flavor, as the malic in apples and pears, and the citric in currants. At different stages of the growth of fruit those various substances are in different proportions, the w^oody fibre or cellular usually being the most abundant. It has been previously stated that woody fibre differs but slightly from sugar ; it will not, then, be difficult to comprehend the fact that, by the action of the acid of the fruit, what is cellular at one time may be found to be sugar at another. Previous to maturity, fruits are formed of a com- pact cellular tissue which contains the elements of woody fibre, and is filled with a liquid, a gummy sub- stance, in which there is very little sugar and a large quantity of free acid. When ripening, a part of the acid disappears by the action of oxygen under the in- fluence of the sun, the cellular tissue diminishes, and the proportion of sugar increases, insomuch that, in- stead of hard, woody, acerb fruits, we obtain, if the ripening has been complete, fruits that yield a sac- charine juice. — Turner. JSrUTRIMENT OBTAINED FROM FOOD. 139 The cliief elements of ripe fruits, therefore, appear to be water, gum, sugar, and acids, of which the only one still requiring our attention is the acid, and this will be further considered in the succeeding chapter. Fruits are decidedly more nutritious than young vegetable growth, and, if the system has been proper- ly relieved by eating very light diet in the spring, form a more suitable diet in the summer. As heat increases in the spring, the carbonaceous food required to sustain a sufficiency of heat during the winter be- comes oppressive, and the appetite fails in its keen zest for such diet. It is, consequently, then that the early growths of spring allure the imagination, from a universal impression that to eat them conduces to good health, and that they are, therefore, seasonable food. And as the mind alone, not the digestive or- gans, suggests the necessity of eating the usual quanti- ty of food, the light cellular watery vegetable growths of that season furnish the desired supply, without dis- tressing the systems of those who enjoy tolerably good health. In the spring of the year, hale persons usually feel oppressed, and indisposed to activity. Hence, it is an old custom to seek relief by purga- tives, and by filling the stomach witli nauseous teas made from herbs and roots, which certainly tend to do some good, in so far as they lessen the disposition to partake of nutritious food. Thus the system is afford- ed an opportunity to relieve itself of the excess of car- bon, which would otherwise form fat or bile, and eventually bring on a bilious fever, or some more serious derangement. From what we have stated, it may be inferred that 140 THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD. it is essentially necessary to tlie maintenance of good health, that in the spring, as warm weather approaches, we should abstain from eating so great a quantity of carbonaceous food as we had been accustomed to take during the w^inter ; and that during warm weather we should confine ourselves more directly to a vegeta- ble and fruit diet, wdien the fruit and vegetables can be procured fresh and uncontaminated by tlie foul gases generated in and emitted from decomposing matter which has accumulated in the markets and shops and renders them actually unwholesome. How unripe fruits affect the system — They are most injurious to young children — Means of relief when injury has been sustained. E have, heretofore, more than once stated that ▼ y fruits and vegetables, as obtained in our large cities, invite the special attention of the citizen, from the fact that they are often purchased from dealers as fresh, when, in reality, owing to the manner in which they have been conveyed to market, tliey are per- nicious. We will now offer a few remarks upon the injurious effects produced l)y eating unripe fruit, more especially in the case of young children ; and upon the means that should be adopted to afford relief when such injury is sustained. CHAPTER III. INJURIOrS EFFECTS OF UN RIFE FEIHTS. UNRIPE FEUITS INJURIOUS. 141 Fruits of all kinds are most frequently gathered be- fore they are ripe, as in such case they preserve a good appearance longer than they do when they are allowed to become fully ripe before they are plucked from the trees or vines. All the soft fruits of spring and summer do not, like the autumnal fruits, ripen weeks after they are gathered. The higli temperature arrests the tendency to the formation of sugar and neutralizing salts, and a disposition to fermentation en- sues, the effect of which is that the fruits, in propor- tion to their condition, are unwholesome, and fre- quently produce violent irritation of the bowels. In the ripening of flesliy fruits we must distinguish two operations, namely, that of growth and development, and that of ripening itself Fleshy fruits, and several kinds of berries, acquire, while ripening, a much great- er proportion of sugar than they contained before ma- turity, although full grown. Hipe fruits have not an acid taste, because they contain a larger quantity of basis, by which they are saturated, and not because they are disguised by sugar." — 3fidder. Now, to make up the deficiency of taste and flavor in berries purchased in cities, and to render them palatable, sugar must be added to cover the acid ; but it has no modifying eflfect, and merely disguises the flavor of the berries, w^hether they are raw or cooked. Fruits, when fully ripe, are very palatable and healthy, because they have a sufficiency of sugar generated and combined with other qualities, which can not be imitated nor given to unripe fruit. Neither can the unwholesomeness and imparted qualities of the acids be neutralized in the stomach of a delicate person by 142 THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD. the sugar whicli renders tlie fruit palatable ; but, on tlie contrary, it forms an acid, and actually increases tlie proneness to derangement. To correct this effect, a neutralizing dose of supercarbonate of soda or other alkali has to be taken, and thus physic is substituted for wholesome food. One of the most prolific causes of the fatality of children in our cities arises from their being, when only about a year old, usually supplied liberally with fruit. The very delicate state of the stomach at that age is such that it is as yet only capable of digesting the most bland of food ; consequently a more nutri- tious organized substance should be furnished to sup- port the rapidly increasing development of the body. A moment's thought must convince us that the effect of the acrid acids of imripe fruit upon so delicate an organ as tlie stomach of an infant must be to produce a most painful and serious derangement of the whole digestive apparatus. This acerb, pungent food is passed to the intestines, where morbid secretions of an exceedingly irritating character are elaborated ; and if, after the abnormal condition has been produced, the child is ]3ermitted to continue eating unripe fruit for a time, chalk mixtures or soothing-sirups will but seldom afford permanent relief. Those medicines only palli- ate, by neutralizing the acid and quieting the nervous irritation. They will not restore the wonted normal functions of the organs affected, and, therefore, a tend- ency to form the irritating secretions will remain, unless great care is taken to give the child a gentle, nourishing diet, and to avoid the use of any kind of food that conduces to acidity, as, for instance, sweet- UNRIPE FRUITS INJURIOUS. 143 ening in any form. In addition, strenuons efforts should be made to invigorate the system, so that the .healthy functions may again be established ; and nothing will probably conduce more to the attain- ment of this desirable object than a bracing atmos- phere. At the same time, care must be taketi to protect the skin from being chilled, and the blood from being thrown back in excess upon the vital organs. This would distend the larger blood-vessels, and make a serious impression upon the heart, and perhaps cause disease of that organ. Therefore, sud- den changes of temperature should be most carefully guarded against, by the wearing of clothing adapted to meet the variations of the weather. Many of the ailments of children may be attributed to eating acrid, irritating food, owing to its producing derangement of tlie nervous system, which often ter- minates in partial paralysis and deplorable cases of deformity. And here we would draw the attention of parents to the means, by a careful and proper treat- ment, of preventing deformity under such circum- stances. "When these seizures of paralysis take place in young subjects, whatever may be the cause, there exists a tendency to a restoration of poAver, especially, in the larger muscles, which present the first indica- tions of returning activity. And as there is not a cor- responding counteracting force in the opposing smaller muscles to produce a balance of action, the limbs are distorted in direct ratio to the increased power of the larger muscles. Let this diversity of action take place, for instance, in the muscles of the calf of the 144 THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD. leg, and the result is an inability to raise the front of the foot when an effort is made to walk ; the con- sequence of vv^hich is, that the foot will turn inward or outward, and the patient will eventually walk on the inner or outer ankle. The contraction of the stronger muscles keeps those in front of the leg and foot constantly extended ; even the bed-clothes, when the patient is in bed, contribute by their weight to keep the front of the foot extended. From this con- stant extension and want of action, the body of the muscles is absorbed, the foot is fixed in its abnormal position, and the limbs become emaciated to mere skin and bone. When the limbs have been thus de- formed, the most ready cure is made by dividing the tendons of the contracted muscles ; after which opera- tion there should be applied a skillfully constructed apparatus made of light steel, and so contrived that by its aid the limbs can be brought gradually to their natural position, and the extended muscles relieved. In a majority of cases the latter will recover their lost tone. Much assistance may also be derived from a judicious use of atmospheric electricity but it must * On the opposite page is given a diagram, in wliicli is repre- sented a macliine for obtaining electricity from the atmosphere, and the manner of applying it to local parts of the body. The upper balls, marked A and b, do not quite approximate, but have a space between them, which space can be increased or decreased by draw- ing the rod connecting b and c through the central ball. By in- creasing the space between A and B, the shock can be intensified to any desired degree. If the Ley den jar (d) and the cord attached to it (e) are removed, and the upper cord (f) kept applied to a per- son sitting on the table (g), the patient will be surcharged with electricity, the table beinof insulated by means of glass lep;s. On UNRIPE FKUITS INJURIOUS. 145 not be employed wliile the limbs are contracted, as it would impair the nervous energy remaining in the distended muscles and increase tlie energy in the con- tracted ones. A similar etfect would be produced by sea-bathing, liniments, etc. It will be admitted that prevention is better than cure. The timely applica- tion of properly constructed apparatus will not only prevent deformity from taking place in cases of par- alysis, but it will contribute to the restoration of power, as such apparatus maintains tlie paralyzed limbs in a normal position, and enables the patient to make exertions to move. Motion, when made by the efforts of the patient, contributes largely to the cure ; but passive motion, on being applied, fails to secure the determined efforts of the will, and, conse- quently, is not as reliable as that motion which ema- nates from the j^atient's own exertions. tlie upper left hand corner of the page will be found representa- tions of several instruments used in the application of electricity : H has a handle and a curved metallic stem, with a circular metallic brush attached to the end, and is for the purpose of drawing off electricity from a part where it is necessary to relieve pain or in- flammation ; I has a handle supporting a glass tube with a wire passing through it, and is used for applying electricity to internal parts ; j is a glass tube prepared as a Ley den jar, and gives a much softer shock than the jar, when applied to the machine in* its stead ; K has a handle and curved metallic stem, and is intended for draw- ing off electricity, either silently or in sparks, the latter mode being very stimulating when the electricity is drawn off in rapid succes- sion from a very limited portion of the body ; L is called a dis- charger, and has a handle surmounted by two curved metallic stems with metallic balls at their ends, which balls can be suffi- ciently separated to admit of one being applied to the body of the Ley den jar and the other to the ball at its top, and thereby any electricity that the jar may contain is discharged. CHAPTER lY. PERNICIOUS EFFECTS OF STALE MEAT AND VEGETABLES — ■ NUTRIMENT OBTAINED FROM FISH AND FLESH-MEAT. Stale meat and vegetables very detrimental to tlie liuman system — Analysis of meat — Nutritious qualities of fisli investigated and determined by comparative density. TALE, or partially decomposed, vegetables and kJ/ meats are alike the source of serions evils to the human system. In stale meats we have not the irri- tating acids to excite the mucous membrane of the stomach and bowels, but they create a more insidious deraugement, which tends to chronic disease, and en- feebles the constitution and predisposes it to scrofula. When vegetables become wilted, there is a concentra- tion of their juices, and a consequent chemical change, which is very perceptible from their loss of palatable flavor, the taste being very different from that of freshly gathered vegetables, such as peas, green corn, and lettuce, and, in a word, the whole catalogue of vegetables supplied by the markets in the spring, summer, and autumn. This fact should induce all persons to make at least an effort to correct the impo- sition practiced upon them by the venders of stale vegetables ; and the best way to accomplish it would be to encourage the gardeners by purchasing from STALE MEAT AND VEGETABLES. 14? them, and them alone, the freslily gathered products Avhicli they bring daily to our cities. A similar course would be advisable in tlie purchase of tender fruits. Decomposing animal substances vary very mnch in their injurious effects upon the system, and in degree to the efficacy of the digestive powers. If eaten con- tinuously for a time, they will prove seriously de- structive from engendering morbid secretions. Fi- brous meats, whether salted or not, if tainted, are decidedly detrimental to health. Fish, and shell fish, if in a state of decomposition, which readily takes place and is not always detected, are also injurious. The effect is often immediately felt in the stomach, and the foul matter thrown off, thus relieving the sys- tem from a more permanent injury. But if the matter is not ejected, a rash supervenes about the neck and face, and delirium and death sometimes ensue. Ordinary meats or flesh have a very great uniformity in their composition, which consists of fibrin, albumen, and fat. The relative proportions are as follow : Ordinary lean beef : Fibrin, 1 7-70 ., Albumen, 2-2 Salts, 1-13 Water, 7717 Acids and other matters, IS in 100 parts. Into the nutritive qualities of fish, as compared with other animal flesh, there has been but a very limited investigation. The flesh of fish is not so highly colored as that of some qnadrupeds used as food for man ; hence it does not contain so much iron as beef or mutton, but, like pork, it contains much oil. 148 THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD. Fisli predisposes to disease of the skin, and, if fried brown, is very indigestible, owing to the formation of a chemical product of a most acrid nature. Boiled fresh fish is comparatively light and easy of digestion. Salt fish is also light and easily digested, if it does not contain much oil and is finely comminuted. When fish that contain much oil, as shad, herring, and mac- kerel, are salted, the oil absorbs oxygen, and peculiar acrid acids are formed that seriously aff'ect delicate stomachs. The oil of fresh fish is easily digested, and to a considerable amount, even by very delicate per- sons. Consumptive patients take a table- spoonful morning, noon, and night w^th most beneficial effects. Cod-liver oil is given to very delicate cliildren, and generally agrees with their stomachs. The comparative density of the flesh of some of our common fish with that of other flesh has been investi- gated by Dr. John Davy, who reported the results to the Royal Society, Edinburgh. The task was under- taken under the supposition that density indicated the nutritive quality of muscular fibre, and elicited the following facts : Specific If^l^r^^ ^^'^^'^'y- Mattel Haddock 1056 20.2 Hake 1054 17.4 Pollock 1060 19.3 Whiting 1062 21.5 Cod-fisli 1059 19.2 Beef, Sirloin 1078 26.9 Veal, loin 1076 27.2 Mutton, leg: 1069 26.5 a^^^.fi^ Per cent Specific fg^.^ ^^•^^^^y- Matter. Mackerel 1093 37.9 Salmon 1071 29.4 Trout.... 1053 to 1063 22.5 Smelt 1060 19.3 Eel 1034 33.6 Pork, loin 1080 30.5 Com'n Fowl, br'stl075 27.2 Gray Plover, " 1072 30.1 These results," says Dr. Davy, " I wish to have considered merely as approximate ones." THE BEST MODES OF COOKING MEAT. 149 Here it will be observ^ed that the salmon, mackerel, and eel, contain more nutrition or solid matter than beef ; and that the specific gravity of salmon is greater than that of mutton. This is worthy of notice, as in- dicative of a nutritive quality. THE MOST NUTRITIOUS FOOD OF MAN, AND THE BEST The several modes of cooking meat — Its nutritious qualities, and the methods by which it is rendered most digestible — How to prepare meats for invalids — Milk and eggs : their nutritious qualities — The composition of milk. jj^LESTI meat is the richest in nitrogenized mate- 1 rial, as we shall hereafter very fully describe in this work. This fact will, however, now be re- ferred to in relation to the preparation of food. No food with which we are acquainted varies so much in its quality, from the various modes of cook- ing, as meat. Properly broiling is supposed to be the best mode of cooking it, as by that process most of the juice is retained. In boiling, if soup is to be made, the meat should be put into cold water and gradually heated. But when it is merely desired to boil the meat, it should be placed in a small portion of boiling salt water, in which it must be cooked, as then we retain the nutriment in the meat by coagulating the albamen. All salted meats have the albumen coagu- CHAPTEE V. WAYS OE' PEEPAEING IT. 160 THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD. lated, and therefore are not so easily digested as fresh meats when properly cooked. The elemental snbstance known as nitroo;en is found abundantly in vegetables; but it is only recently that chemists have determined the fact of the similarity of vegetable nitrogenous compounds to animal fibre or flesh. The various substances containin^j^ nitroo^en are all modifications of a principle, called by its dis- coverer, Mulder, protein^ a word derived from the Greek, and meaning literally, ^'I am first." It has the following compositions : Nitrogen, 5. Oxygen, 12. Hydrogen, 31. Carbon, 40. This substance is the basis of tlie three pi-inciples called albumen, fibrin, and casein, which we have fre- quently alluded to in describing both vegetable and animal compounds. Meat-flesh of all kinds, whether cooked or raw, contains the largest possible amount of protein, and aff*ords the most nourishment, in a given quantity. Therefore protein may be considered as the nutritious principle in food ; and meat-flesh must be placed at the head of the list of food for man. It is well known that that flesh has been the main reliance of man, as food, in his most primitive state. The savage lives almost exclusively on animal flesh, the greater portion being dried and salted, in which condition it is not very soluble but affbrds the greatest amount of nutriment. The best methods of preparing flesh-meat for the THE BEST MODES OF COOKING MEAT. 151 diet of invalids are the following : Lean meat from a full-grown, healthy young animal, soaked in cold water, (but not cooked,) yields the most nourishment in a given quantity, and is the most digestible form in which meat can be prepared. The next best mode of preparation is to fill a bottle with similar meat- beef probably being the best. No w^ater must be added. Cork the bottle, and then place it in a kettle of water, and let boil until the meat is cooked. The second is a more palatable preparation than the first, and is not so disgusting to a patient. But as in the second the juices are all retained in a concentrated form, discretion must be exercised as to the quantity to be given and the condition of the patient's diges- tive powers. The quantity of either preparation should be prescribed by a skillful physician, more especially as such very nutritious diet is only required in extreme cases of debility. Milk and eggs stand next in the scale of nutritious diet. Milk is perhaps one of the most natural articles of food, and comes nearer fulfilling all the conditions of a perfect diet than any other single substance. It is the food of the young of the most important class in the animal kingdom, (the mammalia,) for some period of its early life. It also enters largely into the diet of man. The composition of milk is by no means uniform, but in different animals varies greatly in the proportion of its constituents. It contains repre- sentatives of all classes of food. Taking the milk of the cow for an example, we find in it about 3 per cent of sugar, (carbon 12, hydrogen 12, oxygen 12,) which is a representative of carho hydrate compounds, 152 THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD. as starch and sugar, that have hydrogen and oxygen in proportions to form water. We also find about 4 per cent of butter, composed of several fatty bodies belonging to the second class, or liydrocarhonous^ com- ponents, as oils, fats, alcohol, etc., that contain hydro- gen in excess over oxygen. Casein, an albuminous compound of the third class, is found to the amount of 5 per cent. Of salts there is about 2 per cent, vary- ing to even less than 1 per cent. In this material, then, we have all the elements of nutrition. CHAPTER VI. MILK AND BUTTER : THEIR PROPERTIES AND PRESERVA- TION. The properties of milk under various circumstances — Milk well adapted to nourish the young, but not sufficient food for adults — Human milk compared with that of various animals — Cream as a diet — Butter and its component parts — Cheese only fit food for hearty laborers — Means of preserving milk, and the several methods of doing so — Various modes of preserving butter. MILK is a white, opaque liquid, witli a slight odor and sweet taste. Its density is greater than that of water, being 1.036. Fresh milk is always » alkaline from the presence of soda. By leaving it standing for some time, it separates slowly and imper- fectly into two portions. The superior portion is the cream, which is of a yellowish-white color, unctuous, and pleasant to the taste. Tlie lower portion is of a MILK AND BUTTER. 153 bluish wliite color : it is called serum^ and is a little more dense than the creani. Both portions are so nearly of the same specific gravity that they scarcely ever perfectly separate, more or less cream being con* tained in skimmed milk or serum. By long standing, the milk no longer remains alka- line, but becomes acid. This is lactic acid, which is produced by the breaking up of the sugar. Sugar is, carbon 12, hydrogen 12, oxygen 12; this is simply divided, making two atoms of lactic acid, (being, car- bon 6, hydrogen 6, and oxygen 6.) This lactic acid unites with tlie soda and neutralizes it, when the casein which was combined w^ith the soda is set free and coagulates, and thus forms what is called claljhered milk. Tlie action of the air on the Casein changes it; and a ferment being thus produced, the decomposi- tion of the sugar takes place. If the air is excluded, these changes will operate very slowly. The cream is made up of innumerable small spheri- cal cells, aoVo to 73^00 of \\\^\\ iu diameter. They consist of butter inclosed in an envelope. When this envelope is dissolved by the lactic acid, with the aid of agitation, (churning,) the particles coalesce and form butter in a mass. Of good cow's milk, the component parts of which are given in the next page, about three gallons vv^ill make one pound of butter — ordinary milk will not give so favorable a result. The salts contained in milk are : Phosphate of lime. Chloride of potassium, Phosphate of magnesia, Chloride of sodium, and Phosphate of iron, Free soda. .154 THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD. Although milk is well adapted to the nourishment of the young, it is not suited to the perfect nutrition of the adult ; because it does not afford nitrogenized material enough for the active service of adult life. Those animals whose young are enabled to run about almost as soon as born, yield more casein in their milk than is afforded by those whose young remain help- less for a greater or less length of time. The following are the component parts of human milk, and of that of each of the animals named : Milk. Casein. Sugar. Butter. Water. Salts. Total. Human, 1.80 6.50 8.10 87.98 0.62 . 100 Goat, 4.55 4.80 3.32 86.80 0.53 100 Cow, 4.48 3.77 4.00 87.02 0.73 100 Sheep, 4.50 5.00 4.2g 85.80 0.50 100 This shows above double the quantity of casein and less sugar in the milk of tlie cow than are found in human milk. Hence the necessity, when young children are fed on cow's milk, of adding an equal bulk of water, and of sweetening it."^ These additions make it nearly like a child's natural food ; and it is nearer still if the milk used is taken immediately from the cow. The longer the milk stands, if it is not con- fined from the air, the more injurious it is to the child. To render cow's milk, where it has to be kept for any length of time within forty-eight hours, wholesome food for a babe, it should be kept in a cool place and in a jug stopped air tight ; and previous to every re- petition of filling the jug, it should be cleansed with boiling water containing a small portion of potash or soda,, and then cooled. When the milk is u^ed, warm * Darby's (yhemistry, p. 382. MILK AND BUTTER. 155 water can be addecl to it, in order to make it agreea- ble to the child. The same precautions, with the ex- ception of adding water, are essentially necessary when milk is intended as food for an invalid adult ; for, as we have jnst^remarked, a very decided chemical change takes place in milk when it is left exposed to the at- mosphere. In such case, its tendency will be to gen- erate an acid in the stomach of persons so predisposed, and thus to produce serions inconvenience, as flatnlency and even irritative fever. Cream, as a diet, is very nutritious and easy of di- gestion. If eaten fresh, with wheaten bread, it is con- sidered an excellent article of diet, and similar to fresh butter and bread, which is a very wholesome food. Butter when analyzed consists of six acids. Buty- Tin gives to butter its agreeable odor and flavor. Several of the acids have a volatile tendency, and their evaporation leaves the butter rancid, and im- parts to it a disagreeable smell. Caproio acid has a sweet and agreeable odor ; while eapric has quite the contrary. The change takes place in butter when it is exposed to the atmosphere, and this is owing jto its absorbing oxygen rapidly, like other fats. When butter has become rancid, it is not only offensive, but v^ery injurious to digestion, especially when eaten with hot articles of food, or preparations of sugar, sirups, etc. ; f )r the most acrid acids are thereby generated in the stomachs of enfeebled persons, with a direct tendency to form bilious secretions. Cheese is nutritious, as it consists of casein in com- bination with rancid butter, which it contains largely ; and it is thus rendered indigestible to weak stomachs. 156 THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD. It is a suitable food only for hearty laboring persons, or those who exercise freely in tlie open air. To preserve milk for various purposes, as for use on long voyages at sea and in hospitals and places where fresh milk can not be readily obtained, many methods have been tried but found objectionable. About the year 1849, a discovery was made in France by Bra- CONNET, Grimaud, and others, under wiiich it was at- tempted, on a large scale, to evaporate milk with sugar, and turn it into sirup or a paste ; but the pro- cess proved a failure. Lignac, of that country, how- ever, succeeded in making what he called his conserve of milh^ which was exhibited at the French Exhibi- tion in 1849, where it drew the attention of the exam- ining judges, who decreed the silver medal to the ex- hibitor. LiGNAc's process is to add to a quart of milk, fresh from the cow, 3f oz. of sugar, and then to evap- orate it to the consistency of a thick sirup. About 60 per cent of the water passes off in this way. It is evaporated in large flat pans, the depth of the milk not exceeding three quarters of an inch. The pans are warmed by being set in warm water, which is then made hot. During the process of evaporation the milk is constantly stirred with a wooden spoon, to prevent the formation of a scum ; and after the evap- oration the residuum is filled into cylindrical tin boxes, which are next soldered, and then exposed for thirty minutes to a water bath at a temperature of 45^ of Fahrenheit. This temperature is obtained by adding to the water in the bath 6| ounces of salt and as much sirup for every quart of milk contained in the cans. When this conserve of milk is to be used, it is only MILK AKD BUTTER. 157 necessary to dissolve it in the same quantity of watef that it has lost by evaporation. A fluid is thus formed which has all the properties of fresh milk, and v^hich, like it, foams when boiled, and is said to secrete cream Avhen at rest. After a box is opened, the evaporated milk it contains w^ill remain unchanged for at least fourteen days, and even for a longer time, especially if the precaution is taken, after removing the quantity required for use, to replace the surface or skin over wdiat is left. The latest improvement in condensing milk consists in the employment of the air-pump, by which means the milk is protected from the influence of the at- mosphere or excessive lieat — a most decided advance upon all other metliods of a like nature. Butter can be preserved from rancidity for months, by means of salt dissolved and kept over it in well- made casks. But salt destroys the agreeable flavor by wliicli fresh butter is distinguished, and by its use there is an actual loss of some of the good qualities that render fresh butter easy of digestion. To preserve the sw^eetness and flavor of fresh butter, various experiments have been tried, and the greatest success has been obtained bv addins; to tlie salt em- ployed in the process of its manufacture one tliird or one fourth part of sugar. Butter thus prepared can be kept for a period of eight or twelve days, if packed solidly in small tubs, and the surface covered an inch in depth with water, having about flfty-six grains of sulphate of potash, or about the same quantity of pure vinegar, dissolved in the water. If the butter is to be sent away, place it in a tin 158 THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD. cylinder with the 023ening soldered up. For common purposes, glass or eartlien vessels, kept well closed, are tlie best and most convenient. When thus packed, butter may be kept for three months, pro- vided it is kept cool, at about 40*^ Fahrenheit. CHAPTER VIL NUTIUTIVE QUALrriES OF EGGS. The peculiarities and properties of eggs and tlieir nutritious quali- ties—Deleterious effect produced by eating stale eggs. THE component parts of eggs, the food of the young of those animals that do not secrete milk, are protected within a shell formed of the car- bonate of lime. In the process of the growth of birds, previous to their being hatched, air enters through the pores of the shell and unites with the phosphorus contained in the yolk. And thus is formed phosphoric acid, which dissolves a portion of the shell, and renders it easy for the young to burst when they are fully developed. The white of the egg is chiefly albumen in a state of solution — 15.5 of albumen in about 80 parts of water, and a little mucus and other matters. It also contains varied quantities of oleate and margarate of soda, sulphur, phosphorus, and nitrogen ; and coagu- lates readily by heat or alcohol. As food for man it is very nutritious, and principally forms animal fibre ; NUTRITIYE QUALITIES OF EGGS. but it is Iiard to digest when firmly coagulated. The vital centre of the egg — the yolk — contains more solid matter than tlie white. It consists of io per cent of albumen and casein, and about 30 per cent of fat in the form of margarin and olin. The yolk when eaten is more readily digested than the white, and affords more carbonaceous or heat-giving mate- rial. The coloring matter of the yolk consists of iron. The fat globules are similar to cream. A nitrogenous substance is found in the yolk, which substance con- sists of small quantities of nitrogen and phosphorus, and is known as cerehrin. There is a great similar- ity between the formation of the salts in tlie yolk of an egg and those in the blood of animals. In a word, we have in the egg all the compounds of elemental substances that constitute the organized animal body. Stale eggs are very pernicious as a diet, as they contain sulphur and hydrogenous compounds, and readily form sulphurated hydrogen, which is one of the most poisonous gases known to jchemists. When formed in the stomachy it produces the most distress- ing colic, and the flatulent wind which is consequent- ly expelled is of the most foul sulphurous stench. Every precaution should therefore be taken to avoid eating eggs that have been kept long. CHAPTER VIII. THE NATURAL FOOD FOK INFANTS, AND ITS SUBSTITUTE. Tlie primary growth and development of the babe, and its proper nourishment — Advice to mothers who are unable to suckle their olFspring — The milk that should be selected — Eegulations to be observed in nursing — Influences that tend to vitiate human milk — Afflictions caused thereby, and their proper treatment — Means to be adopted for the sustenance of infants whose mothers are unable to suckle them. THE nourishment for the young child is the pri- mary formation of stamina for the adult, and is the natural process by which tlie organic development and strength of man is promoted. This process is per- fect or defective in proportion to the state of the indi- vidual's health, and to the food that is partaken of possessing the proper nutriment. Milk, regarded as the nourishment of the infant, forms an important subject oi consideration to every one who takes an interest in the health and well-being of his race. When taken directly from the mother or nurse into the stomach, it is very much more salu- tary to the child than milk that has been exposed to the atmospheric air ; for, upon such exposure, it al- most instantaneously changes from its normal condi- tion, like blood that has been drawn and left to stand THE PROPER FOOD FOR INFANTS. 161 for a few moments. It is true that milk does not co- agulate in so short a time as blood ; yet it is affected by a loss proportionate to its animalized qualities. It is, consequently, not so readily assimilated, and thus, encroaching upon the forces of the system to prepare it for the sustenance of the body, causes a loss of de- yelopment — a notable physiological fact that ought to be heeded in the selection of food for babes. What- ever is difficult of digestion retards development. When mothers are unable to suckle their infants or to procure a suitable nurse, new milk should be se- lected that most nearly agrees with human milk in constituents. To assist in making the selection, we refer to page 154 for a table of the comparative con- stituents of the milk of animals that have been recom- mended. And, though, as w^e have already remarked, a child may thrive and do well by being fed upon good fresh cow's milk, diluted and sw^eetened, still the inquiry is often made. What milk approaches nearest to human milk, or can be best substituted for it ? This is readily answered by the table in question. In the consideration of the analyses it contains, it is ne- cessary that attention should be paid, first to the quan- tity of casein w^hich each description of milk contains — as casein is essential to the development of muscle and vigor — and then to the relative quantities of su- gar, butter, and water ; as the proportions of all these constituents require to be regulated in the preparation of a diet, so as to render it suitable to the actual phy- sical condition, of an infant, to a delicate, robust, or ordinary condition of health. The milk of the mare and that of the ass approach 162 THE CHEMISTKY OF FOOD. nearer the liuman milk than any of those we have com- pared, but they are not used in this country. Cow's milk diluted and sweetened is very suitable for a heal- thy child ; but, for one that is much emaciated and feeble, the milk of the goat is preferable, as it con- tains so much more casein or muscle-making mate- rial. However, goat's milk must at first be diluted with two-third parts of w^ater, and the quantity of wa- ter must be lessened as the cliild increases in strengtlu In order to avoid acidity, which is easily produced in a weak stomacli, the sweetening of milk may be dis- pensed w^ith. This treatment is considered suitable for children until they are six months old, when they may be permitted to take more nutriment ; but the increase should be gradual, especially if a tendency to scrofula is observable. When mothers can nurse their children, they should never deviate from the stated periods for nursing, as such deviation is not only decidedly injurious to the child, by depriving it of its necessary nutriment — a well-determined fact — but it also leads to the annoy- ance of having it continually fretting for the breast. In milking a cow, that portion of the milk, to the amount of one third, which comes first, will give much whey and very little butter ; the second portion will give less whey and more butter ; and the last, a de- cidedly greater quantity of butter and curd, or casein, than either of the others. As the same results take place in human milk, the fact suggests considerations of importance with respect to the suckling of infants. By this fact it is obvious that if a mother is in the habit of giving the breast at all times when her child THE PROPER FOOD FOR INFANTS. 163 is restless, she will not only encourage its disposition to fret, but will deprive it of the nutriment it ought to receive. Children treated thus never nurse a suffi- cient length of time to obtain the nutritious j)art of the milk, and the consequence is, tluit they only get the watery portion. Delicate children, who are the most indulged in this very bad habit, are most fre- quently kept feeble for the want of proper nutriment ; and thus it is that goat's milk has been resorted to for such children, with decided advantages in some instances, but with injury in others, owing to their not being able to digest it properly. There are in- numerable instances in which it would have been unnecessary to have resorted to goat's milt, provided proper regulations had been observed in giving the breast-miilk ; for then the children would have derived fully as much benefit from the latter alone as they gained from the former ; while in those having weak digestive powers it would have been far more bene- ficial to them if they had only taken the natural ali- ment. All that was wanting was the exercise, by the mothers, of a little judgment in the allowance of a sufficiency of tim.e for the food to digest, with other considerations. The constant eating of palatable, and, most com- monly, indigestible food, is one of the principal causes of ailment in adults who complain of feebleness and want of appetite for more substantial diet. They are in a similar condition to that of the feeble babe who is indulged with the breast too frequently, with the exception that the child has the advantage of one of nature's provisions — the power to throw off the exces- 164 THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD. sive quantity, and thus be saved from injury. But when children are thus over-indulged, they not unfre- quently throw off nearly the whole contents of the stom- ach, and the consequence is, that little is left to digest. They thereby become enfeebled and exhibit a ten- dency to an irritable condition of the glandular tissues and an enlargement of the abdomen, the development of which causes them to cease throwing otf from the stomach. An irritable condition of the bowels next takes place, and as the children grow older they have an insatiable thirst. It is then that tliey are said to be scrofulous, which derangement would have been avoided had they been subjected to proper treatment at an earlier age. The course to be pursued in such a case is plainly indicated — a bracing atmosphere ; warm clothing, but not in excess so as to produce much perspiration ; a bland, nutritious diet, given at regular stated periods and in moderate quantity ; and the usual quantity of fluid required by the child for drink daily diminished to a reasonable amount for a child in good health. If this course fails, after a fair trial, call in a physician. In a majority of cases, however, it will be unnecessary to do so, as, by the foregoing treatment, a restoration of good health will be brought about, if the child is not much over a year old. When much older, children are not so easily relieved. From this practical information, mothers and nurses are made conscious of the great necessity there exists for observing the means by which a child can be res- cued from an enfeebled constitution. Due attention thereto is an imperative duty that devolves upon them, and any failure to perform it may be a source of re- THE PROPER FOOD FOR INFANTS. 165 gret in after life; for they may have to reproach them- selves with the reflection tliat through their negligence much suffering has been entailed upon their offspring or charge — a fearful responsibility, not to man alone, but to a Higher Power that will hold them account- able for their heedlessness. The same regularity should be observed in suckling a child at certain hours as would be attended to by a well regulated family in partaking of meals, except that the child requires nursing more frequently w^hen very young. By the observance of such regularity the infant will generally empty the breast, and thus obtahi the greatest amount of nutriment. Mothers enjoying good health, and attending to this^rule, w^ill seldom secrete more than a sufficiency of milk for a healthy child, which alone will afford ample nutri- ment till it is six months old. When arrived at that age, a child may be permitted once a day to suck a piece of rare lean beef, witli a little salt upon it, which will have the effect of gradually strengthening the stomach. In a month or two more it may take a small portion of beef or mutton, and bread and milk as a general diet. When a year old, it should be weaned. Great care must, however, be taken to give the food also at stated periods, as the habit will induce regularity of the digestive process, which is one of the most salutary conditions of health, and the primary force in establisliing a good state of health, other things being equal. The milk of woman, under varied circumstances, differs materially in quantity and quality, and claims special attention, in order that unfavorable circum- 166 THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD. stances may be avoided or guarded against. Care should therefore be taken to avoid fasting too long and partaking of inefficient food, as, for example, much bread, tea, or coffee, witli little sugar and milk; and to guard against drinking much of inferior fer- mented liquors, especially when meat is not eaten, and intemperance in the use of vinous or alcoholic drinks. The milk of mothers and nurses who neglect these precautions contains much carbonaceous and watery secretion, and a very small portion of nitro- genous nutriment to form muscular fibre and sub- stance for the formation of bone. Consequently, children suckled from such a source are generally very faf^ when quite young ; but after the fourth or sixth month they lose part of this fat, and one or more of the following derangements ensue : — glandular enlargement about the neck ; fullness of the abdo- men, attended with hardness ; morbid and frequent evacuations; pains in the ears and discharges from them ; acrid watery secretions from excoriation be- hind the ears ; insatiable thirst ; and tardiness in teething or walking. Then follow enlargement of the bones at the joints; bow-legs; knock-knees; a small projection, like the knuckle, in the spine or backbone, which, if not cared for, results in hump- back ; pain in one or other of the knees, attended with enlargement, of the hip, which, if not pro23erly * We liere make tlie distinction between fat and flesli for an obvi- ous reason — that it is not flesli or muscle wliicli is formed under the circumstances aUuded to, but merely fat. Such a condition is now considered an abnormal one, and not essential to the growth of the animal body. THE PROPEIi FOOD FOR INFANTS. treated at this stage of the disease, results in hip dis ease ; an enfeebled condition of tlie digestive powers, etc. Here we have a catalogue of scrofulous indica- tions; but, thanks to a kind Providence, who is ever mindful of erring man, we are permitted to exercise our judgment and skill, in the cure of these fearful afflictions, and are blessed with success. Many child- ren thus afflicted are curable ; and this fact we w^isli to impress upon the minds of parents who have been induced to believe that scrofulous affections are incur- able, because of their being hereditary. This falla- cious idea has arisen from the failure of medicines alone to effect a cure while the most unfavorable circumstances have been permitted to exist ; and fre- quently from neglect to comply witli the advice of the most skillful physicians, whom parents and nurses will often deceive by mistaken indulgences to the child, and by assuming to themselves the respon- sibility of determining what is injurious or inoffensive in the treatment of the case. Those persons who tam- per with the health of their offspring or charge, and thus permit it to suffer through life, wdien it could have been cured, are guilty of an offense that in its culpableness almost amounts to a crime. Mothers and nurses who have at their command nutritious diet and other comforts of life, often labor under a very unfavorable condition of health for the suckling of a babe. Some are afflicted with indiges- tion or an acid stomach, caused by the food which they eat not being properly masticated, owing to their teeth being defective ; others indulge in eating very indigestible food, which weakens their digestive pow- 168 THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD. ers ; wliile there is yet another class who injure their organic functions by the lazy habit of lying too many hours in bed, or by being too much conlined in a close room. These are common causes which pro- duce unhealthy children. When mothers are afflicted wdth the ailments here described, either a good healthy nurse should be procured, or the child should be taken from the breast and judiciously fed. Extraordinary conditions of the mind — as grief, fear, anger, and sudden surprise — also produce a very marked effect upon the milk of nursing women. Sud- den emotions have been known to suspend the secre- tion of milk entirely ; and anger often changes its quality so as to make it injurious to the health of the child ; for, in some cases, it will produce griping pains, and, not unfrequently, most distressing nervous agita- tion, which sometimes results in convulsions and death. The milk of nnrses who are subject to nervous seiz- ures, as hysterics, has been knowm, during a parox- ysm, to become transparent and albuminous, and to rope like the white of an egg, and, in a few hours after the paroxysm has passed off, to gradually re- gain its ordinary character. Among other influences which tend to impair the milk of mothers and nurses, we may mention indo- lence, all undue indulgences, irregularities in taking meals, and staying up late at night, more especially if attended with extraordinary excitement. All these vitiate the milk in proportion to the extent of the indulgence. From what has been stated, the following conclu- Bions may be deduced : That the maternal milk is the THE PROPER FOOD FOR INFANTS. 169 proper food for infants. That mothers, except from the most m^geiit and unavoidable circmnstances, onght to suckle their offspring, and tlius avoid the risk of obscure unfavorable conditions of nurses, by which ' every precaution may be frustrated and the child in- jured for life. That the new milk from the mother constitutes the best nourishment, and that the eftect of it obviates the necessity of resorting to the bad practice of giving molasses and water, or other physic, to an infant just born, or a few hours after birth, when the child should be applied to the mother's breast, whi'ch is most in conformity with nature's laws in providing for the young. That mothers, while suckling their child- ren, should maintain an equanimity of mind, should avail themselves of proper exercise, pursue regular habits, eat wholesome food, breathe salubrious air, and sliould guard against all undue excitement or depress- ing influences of mind. That they should also con- scientiously observe regularity as to stated periods of suckling, and should have the breast emptied at each nursing; and that, when an excessive quantity of milk is seoreted at first, they should draw off a portion before applying the child. That next in suitableness to the mother is a healthy nurse, whose child is of the same age (or as near as can be) as that of the child to be nursed, which nurse sliould be kept in the house ; but if such a person can not be procured, the next resource is cow's milk, as fresh as it can be obtained, (but never kept more than twelve hours,) in which event good rich milk should be diluted with one half warm water, and sweetened moderately witli sugar. That milk obtained from a healthy, well-fed 170 THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD. animal is, after that of the mother or nurse, the only reliable food for a babe, as it contains all that is requi- site to form the animal body, and to sustain the organ- ism in the healthy performance of its normal functions. CHAPTER IX. THE PRODUCTION OF FAT, rrS CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES. The nature and tendency of vegetable food — The production of fat is the result of a deficiency of oxygen in the system — Dia- betes and its treatment — Its injurious effects. VEGETABLES enter largely into the food of man, and have a very decided tendency to produce fat. Professor Liei^ig states, that whether fat be formed by the decomposition of fibrin and albu- men, the chief constituents of the blood, or by that of starch, sugar, or gum, (vegetable products,) such decomposition must be accompanied by the separa- tion of oxygen from the elements of these compounds. But that the oxygen is not given out in a free state, because it meets in the general organism with sub- stances that possess the property of entering into com- bination with it. In fact, it is given out in the same forms as oxygen which is absorbed from the atmos- phere by the skin and lungs. Hence it may be inferred that a portion of these carbonaceous sub- stances are essential to the sustenance and increase of the body, but an excess of them overburdens. Upon THE rRODUCTION OF FAT^ 171 tliis subject Liebig says : ^' The abnormal condition which causes the deposits of fat in the animal body depends, (as was formerly stated,) on a disproportion between the quantity of carbon in the food and that of oxygen absorbed by the skin and lungs. In the normal condition the quantity of carbon given out is exactly equal to that which is taken in the food, and the body acquires no increase of weight from the accumu- lation of substances containing mucli carbon and no nitrogen. If we increase the supply of highly carbon- ized food, then the normal state can only be preserved on condition that, by exercise and labor, or by the oxygen obtained from exposure to a cold atmosphere, the weight of the body is increased, and the supply of oxygen augmented in the same proportion." He further remarks : " The production of fat is always a consequence of a deficient supply of oxygen, for oxygen is absolutely indispensable for dissipation of the excess of carbon in the food. This excess of carbon, deposited in the form of fat, is never seen in the Bedouin or in the Arab of the desert, who exhib- its with pride to the traveler his lean, muscular, sin- ewy limbs, altogether free from fat. But in prisons and jails it appears as a puffiness in the inmates, fed, as they are, on a poor, scanty diet. It appears in sedentary females of oriental countries ; and, finally, it is produced under the well-known conditions of the fattening of domestic animals. " In every period of animal life, when there occurs a disproportion between the carbon of the food and the inspired oxygen, the latter being deficient, fat must be formed. Oxygen separates from existing compounds, 172 THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD. and tliis oxygen is given out as carbonic acid and water. Heat being generated in the formation, these two products contribute to keep up the temperature of the body. Every pound of carbon which obtains the oxygen necessary to convert it into carbonic acid from substances which thereby pass into fat, must dis- engage as much heat as would raise the temperature of 200 pounds of water by YO^— that is, from 32^ to 102^." From this well-authenticated statement we learn the result of eating an excess of carbonaceous food — the formation of fat. This is one of nature's preserva- tive means when we are so situated as to be deprived of a sufficiency of atmospheric oxj^gen and exercise to maintain an equilibrium of healthy action in the sys- tem. We must remember that an insufficiency of oxygen predisposes to the formation of fat, and that when fat is not formed, (as it is well known that in many instances it is not,) the free carbonized matter remains in the system, where it tends to create bile, or, as we have stated before, is deposited in all parts of the system in the form of tubercles. Even sugar is formed, and thence arises the disease known as dia- ietes — a fearful malady, seldom cured, and quite as fatal as consumption. All vegetable food containing starch — and it is found in great quantity in ne'arly all vegetables — is readily changed into sugar when a disposition to diabetes is once established in the sys- tem. In such cases medicines afford but little relief, unless the patients are removed to a location where they can enjoy a bracing atmosphere, and are con- fined exclusively to an animal diet, with their exercise STARCH AND SUGAR AS DIET. 173 (and exercise is very necessary) graduated to what they can endure Avithont mnch fatigue. Exercise facilitates motion and activity in the organism, and creates an increased demand for oxygen, which will be readily supplied from the condensed or cool at- mosphere w^ell charged with electricity. , Stimulus will thus be given to the nervous system, which stim- ulus is very conducive to the relief of the sufferers, who are invariably much depressed in spirits, which very despondency increases the ailment by enfeebling the s.ystem. CHAPTER X. STARCH AND SUGAR AS ARTICLES OF DIET. StarcL. is a most abundant product of the vegetable king-dom — The various plants from which starch is manufactured — Change of starch into sugar — Plants from which sugar is obtained —Amount annually produced — Constituents of various kinds of sugar — Pro- cess of malting — Pure sugar not a nutritious diet. ""VTEXT to wood, stcirch is the most abnndant pro- 1 duct of the vegetable kingdom. It is found in all the grains and grasses, in tubers and bulbs, in the stems of many plants, and in the barks of various trees. It is contained in tlie cells of tlie plant, sometimes filling the cells, at other times lying loose in them. Although to the naked eye starch seems to be an im- palpable powder, yet, under the microscope, it is seen to be made up of regularly orgaiiized grains that re- 174 THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD. semble exceedingly minute seeds, and vary in size frpm g-Jo to -gV of a line in diameter, tJie largest of whicli are found in the potato, where they are formed in concentrated layers. These grains are un affected by cold water, but in hot w^ater they increase thirty- fold and form a transparent mass by solution. Dry heat breaks them up into star-shaped particles and renders them soluble. Tlie substance thus formed from flour is called British givm^ and is used exten- sively in manufactories, in the printing of calico, and for sizing. Starch forms a large par«t of the vegeta- ble food that we eat : wheat flour contains from 70 to 80 per cent ; corn-meal, at least 80 ; rice, 80 to 90 ; j)eas, 32 ; potatoes, 20 to 30 ; and beans, 30. The object of cooking these materials for man or beast is for the purpose of making the starch soluble, and therefore more easy of digestion. It is well known that animals will fatten much faster on cooked than on raw food. — Darlnfs Chemistry, Arrow-root is from the root of the Maranta arun- dinacea^ a West-Indian plant, which is now cultivated extensively in Florida and southern Georgia. When pure, starch should be perfectly free from odor or taste. The Bermuda arrow- root is the best. It makes a stiff*, strong jelly, is employed in making hlanc mange^ and in the production of various composi- tions in the culinary art, and, if prepared with milk, forms an agreeable light diet. Tapioca is from the root of tliose very poisonous plants of South- America, tlie Jatropha janirjha and the Joiropha maniJiot. The root is ground or bruised, and then pressed in coarse bags, whicli arc suspended STARCH A^q-D SUGAR AS DIET, 175 SO that tliey maybe twisted to compress the contents, when a milky juice rans therefrom into large vessels, and this juice contains the starch, which soon settles. The starch is then partially baked on hot stones, and by stirring is formed into the irregular grains in which the commodity comes to ns. Tapioca is partly solu- ble, on account of the baking it has undergone. What remains in the bag is called cassava^ and is used for making a coarse bread. The process of washing and cooking destroys the poison, and renders tapioca one of the most palatable forms of starch. It is made into puddings and gruels, the latter of which are much rel- shed by children — more so, in fact, than any other food. It agrees with the stomach, and if cooked wdth milk makes a nutritious article of diet. Sago is from the sago jpalm^ the Sagus Rumjpliii^ from the Moluccas, and is imported from Singapore. It is found in the shops under three forms^ namely, pearl sago, meal sago, and brown sago. Only the first has undergone a process of manufacture ; the tw^o lat- ter are merely distinguished by the manner in which they are put up. Sago is used as a mild diet for in- valids. One ounce of any of these varieties to a pint of water or milk is sufScient. Starches will not support life. They make fat, but not flesh, or brains, or nerves. But tliey are usually cooked with milk and eggs, which supply the mate- rials in w^hich starch is deficient. A child should not * be fed long on any of these starchy bodies exclu^ sively. The composition of starcli is as follows : Respirable Element?, or r.it-Maldijg. Carbon 13. Nitrag'en 0. llydrogciii 10. Muscle-Making. . 0. Oxyg-en. .... .10. 176 TtlE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD. Starch, we repeat, is readily converted into sugar, gum, or fat. In truth, it is discernible to all, that men and animals fed on sugar and starch get fat. LiEBiG has drawn attention to the fact that fat must be produced by a change in the chemical constituents of these substances, by wdiich change they are converted into oil. This deducement w^as at one time doubted by Dumas and the French chemists, but recent experi- ments have led to the conlirmation of Liebig's con- clusions. The fact is one of great practical import- ance, as it proves that persons may be living on food which w^ill cause them to get fat, but yet will afford no real nourishment for the muscular tissues that require nitrogenous substances. To convert starch into gum it is necessary to heat it to a temperature of 300°. After that it becomes soluble in cold water, and forms what we have njen- tioned is called in commerce British gum, wdiicli is substituted in the arts for the more expensive gums. If starch is boiled, and, after a small quantity of diluted sulphuric acid is added, boiled again, it is changed into dextrin."^ By continuing the boiling for several hours, and then neutralizing the acid by chalk, grape sugar is produced. In this process more sugar is obtained than there was starch. Starch is also changed into sugar by freezing, as is indicated by the sweetness of recently thawed potatoes. In ripening fruits, the starch is converted into sugar by the action of the organic acids. The ready manner in which sugar is obtained from * Maize is now being made, by tliis process, into molasses, on a limited scale. STARCH AND SUGAR AS DIET. 177 vegetable and even animal substances — from the lat- ter for medicinal purposes in small quantities for ex- j^eriment — but mainly from the vegetable kingdom, would suggest the idea that it ought to be one of the cheapest articles of food, in proportion to the quantity used. This would certainl^^ be the case, were it not for the fact that 'governments consider it a luxury, tax it accordingly, and rely upon it as one of the great sources of revenue, which it undoubtedly is, r.s persons in the most indigent circumstances indulge in its use. The demand for suo^ar is so o^reat that an immense amonnt of capital has been invested in the culture of the sugar-cane (saGGliarumofficinavuii%) and of the beet, as well as in the manufacture of sugar from those plants. Much capital has also been in- vested, but not so extensively, in the manufacture of sugar from the maple, palm, sorghum, and imphee, the two latter being now largely brought into cultivation. Of beet sugar, 362,000,000 pounds are produced annually on the continent of Europe. It is estimated that there are produced annually, throughout the world, 5,154,000,000 pounds of sugar, of which 4,527,000,000 are from the cane, 362,000,000 from the beet, 220,000,000 from the palm, and 45,000,000 from the maple. In the United States there were manufactured in 1860, according to the census tables, 230,982 hogsheads (1000 pounds each) of cane sugar and 40,120,083 pounds of maple sugar ; also 14,963,996 gallons of cane molasses, 1,597,589 gallons of maple molasses, and 6,749,123 gallons of sorghum molasses. The imports of sugar into the United States for con- sumption amount in value to $31,000,000 annually. 118 THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD. Cane sugar consists of 12 equivalents of carbon. 11 " " hydrogen. 11 " " oxygen. And one hundred parts of juice contain : Sugar, 18 per cent. Water and gluten, Yl " Woody fibre, 10 " Salts, 1 " Beet juice contains : Sugar, 10|^ per cent. Water, 81^ " Gluten, 3 " Woody fibre, 5 " Maple sugar {Mctple sap, Acer sacGliarlnurri) is the same as cane sugar, of which the sap of the tree yields 2J per cent, the remaining 97|^ per cent being almost entirely composed of water. Grape sugar differs slightly in its composition from that of cane, and is as follows : 12 equivalents of carbon. 14 " hydrogen. 14 " " oxygen. The sugar formed in the human system, in the dis- ease called diabetes, has the same composition as grape sugar ; so also has the sugar formed from honey, that of all the fruits, and that of starch. Grape sugar is not crystallized like cane sugar, but is similar to that pro- STAECH AND SUGAR AS DIET. 17-9 daced by the decomposition of many plants, as in freezing, etc. Sugar of milk is composed as follows : 24 equivalents of carbon. 24: " " hydrogen. • 24 " oxygen. Notwithstanding tlie apparent difference between this sugar and that of cane and grape, it is considered a true sugar. The medicinal substances known as manna and liquorice lack the proj)erties of sugar, (although they are sweet,) as they can not be converted into alcohol by fermentation. Karefied manna, called mannite^ consists of : 6 equivalents of carbon. 7 " ^' hydrogen. 6 " oxygen. MoLDER suggests that these, or similar formations^ are the result of the decomposition of grape sligar in the plants. Sugar is not so profusely distributed in the vegeta- ble kingdom as starch, but seems to be, in many in- stances, a result of starch, as in the ripening of fruit and in the germination of plants. A knowledge of the latter led to the process of malting for the purpose of producing sugar, which is essential to the fermenta- tion of beer. No vinous fermentation can take place without the presence of grape sugar ; and when cane sugar is added, it changes into grape sugar. Sugar is found in the cereal ia and other graminse, in many roots, as the carrot, turnip, parsnip, and in many other plants. 180 THE CHEMISTEY OF FOOD. Starch seems to be the first product in the cells of plants, at certain periods in the growth of which it is changed into sngar, and the sngar again into starch. Many plants contain sweet juices when young, but not wdien their grow^th is completed — take, for exam- ple, green peas. Sugar, wdien taken into the stomach, produces an eflect similar to that obtained from starch. When acted upon by oxygen, or, as now expressed, consumed^ it eliminates animal heat ; bnt when it is not con- sumed, it is like starch converted into oil and de- posited in the tissue in the foi-m of fat. From this result it is supposed to be nutritious. Pure sugar, however, is not nutritious, for it con- tains no nitrogen. Life can not be sustained by it, as has been fully determined by Majenbie. But much nourishment is obtained by eating of the sugar-cane, as it consists largely of gluten. (See page 1Y8.) Hence it is that negroes fatten and become so vigorous when they eat the sugar-cane and drink its juice during the season in which they gather it. Still, although it con- tains all the elements required to sustain thcgrowth of the animal body, w^e would not advise persons wdtli weak digestive powers to attempt to improve their health either by eating the cane or by drinking its juice. If not properly digested in the stomach, it forms various acids, but most frequently lactic acid, wdiich acts as an irritant, and produces serious nervous derangements, at times of a very alarming character. Under ordinary circumstances, sugar digests much more readily than starch, and, in the form of candies, is generally eaten by cliildren with impunity. This, HISTORY AND MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR. 181 however, is not always a safe practice ; nevertheless, when sugar is combined with from seventy to ninety per cent of wheat flour, and made plain and light in the form of bread, raised with a little soda, a whole- some diet is produced. The coarser kinds of sugar and molasses are the most nutritious, as they contain more or less of the glutinous impurities of the cane juice. CHAPTER XI. THE HISTORY AND MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR. Sugar was known from the earliest ages — The Venetians brought it into Europe — Its introduction into America — The latest im- provements in the manufacture of sugar — Its antiseptic proper- ties — The preparation of fruit jellies. IT would appear from history that sugar was known in Asia from the earliest ages. About the time of the Crusade, the Venetians brought it into Europe, when it was introduced as a medicine. After tlie dis- covery of the Cape of Good Hope, and wlien that route to the East-Indies was opened to navigation, sugar was made an article of commerce by the Portuguese. The cultivation of the cane was subsequently ex- tended to Arabia, Egypt, Sicily, Spain, and the Can- aries ; and, upon the discovery of the New World, to America, w^liere it has been pursued with great suc- cess, but not without the expenditure of a large amount of capital and many discouraging circum- 182 THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD. stances, which have been gradually overcome by the modern discoveries in chemistry. The first great discovery was the unfavorable influ- ence of the atmospheric air upon the juice, owing to its action upon the acids producing a very rapid change, and forming, with the nutritious element, uncrystallized compounds. Thus the necessity of im- mediate evaporation, or of the introduction .of some neutralizing material to arrest the action of the acids. For this purpose lime was first used, but it answered only partially, as the action of the air on the nitro- genized materials still produced the very result it w^as sought to avoid. Sulphate of lime, gypsum, or plas- ter of Paris, answered much Better, as the oxygen of the air united with the sulphur and prevented the changes taking place in the juice. Next, the high degree of heat necessary to produce evaporation of the water was found to be unfavorable to crystalliza- tion, and left great quantities of molasses ; but further assistance from science also overcame this difficulty. It was discovered that by the use of the air-pump a large proportion of the moist air could be removed from over the evaporating pans, and tliat one hundred and fifty degrees of lieat was sufficient to cause the necessary evaporation required to produce the con- sistency for crystallization, tlie result of which was that fifty per cent more sugar could be crystallized than by the old process. Molasses and coarse brown sugar are the result of the defective process of manufacture. Both contain more or less of the nutritious parts of the cane juice, which are separated from them by various processes of HISTORY AND MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR. 183 purifying. Sugar is now purified by passing tlie sirup througli granulated animal charcoal, or burnt bonea broken into grains about the size of wheat. One of the former methods was to intermingle some gela- tinous material, as bullock's blood, with the sirup, and then boil it ; and another, to submit the impure gran- ulated sugar to a process called claying. By the lat- ter the sugar was covered with fine claj^, after which was diflused over the clay just sufiicient w^ater to sim- ply percolate through it in very small quantity, and to carry ofif the molasses without dissolving the sugar. Loaf sugar was originally formed by a process of purifying. The sirup, wlien properly concentrated and partially clarified, was poured into conical-shaped earthen vessels, with the apex undermost, in order that the fluid and impurities might collect there and be drawn oflF by the removal of a plug. When per- fectly drained it w^as put up in paper and sold in that shape. It is now purified in large mass and broken up for the convenience of use. Pure sugar is hard, white, inodorous, and undergoes no change by exposure to air ; and, when two pieces are rubbed together, emits a phosphorescent light. It is soluble in an equal weight of cold water, and, to an unlimited extent, in hot water. It is also soluble in about four times its weight of boiling alcohol ; but the solution, on cooling, deposits large crystals. These crystals are four or six-sided prisms, beveled at the extremities. Sugar is insoluble in fourth-proof brandy or in any other alcoholic spirits of high proof. Liquors that dissolve sugar contain large quantities of water. Sugar is one of the greatest antiseptics with which 184 THE CHEMISTJRT OF FOOD. we are acquainted, as it not only preserves fruits and their juices, but also flesli meat, which it does better than salt. It preserves them by dissolving the albu- men and absorbing the water, by which means the fluids ajL'e converted into a thick sirup, and the air is thereby excluded. The success attending the preservation of fruits depends much upon the dryness and purity of the sugar used. The juice of the fruit alone should forn^ the sirup. By the effect of heat part of the juice is changed into sugar, and remains in the form of sirup — a form in v/hich sugar will retain its integrity although diluted with fluid substances equal to its own weiglit. When sugar is heated to tliree hundred and sixty-flve degrees, it melts into a viscid, colorless liquid, which, on being suddenly cooled, forms a transparent mass called harley sugar. At a liiglier temperature (about four hundred degrees) it loses two equivalents of w^ater, and is converted into a black porous mass, wdiich has, when cooled, a high lustre like anthracite coal, and is called caramel. In the preparation of fruit jelly ^ sugar unites witli a substance, found in all kinder of fruit and many vegetables, called pectine. When the juice of fruit is boiled, and sugar added, this pectine is converted into pectic acid^ which is ren- dered insoluble in water, and forms jelly. But, if boiled for a time after this acid is formed, another acid is obtained called metapectic acid^ which is solu- ble in water. In the latter case jelly will not be formed. This is the cause of failure in some attempts to make fruit jellies. The juice of fruit just ripe forms jelly most readily. If over ripe, the process will be VARIETIES OF FERMENTATION. 185 attended with miicli risk, and is most likely to prove a failure. The hardness of green fruit is mainly pro- duced by pectine and starch filling the cells more or less. As the fruit ripens, this hardness is dissolved by the organic acids changing the starch into sugar, and the fruit is thus rendered delicious. The test for the two varieties of sugar — grape and cane — is sulphuric acid. If poured on cane sugar, it turns it black, but it will not change the color of grape sugar. THE FOUR VARir:TIES OF FERMENTATION. The processes of fermentation and tlieir results — Changes in the germination of seeds and the ripening of fruit — The fermenta- tion of grape sugar and the change of sugar into alcohol — Yeast essential to form vinous fermentation — Formation of acetic acid, or vinegar — Putrefactive fermentation — Heat and cold arrest fermentation — How to preserve meat and vegetables. ^ UGAK, starch, gluten, and mucilaginous sub- stances have, under certain conditions, a strong tendency to decomposition. The process is known fermentation^ and has been divided into four varie- ties — saccharine, vinous, acetous, and putrefactive fermentation. One of the substances known to be subject to sac- charine fermentation is starch. When gelatinous starch, or amylon^ is kept in a moist state for a con- CHAPTEE XII. 186 THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD. siderable time, a change gradually ensues, and a quantity of sugar, equal to about half the weight of starch employed, is generated. The germination of seeds, as exemjjlilied in the malting of barley, is like- wise an instance of saccharine fermentation ; as are also the ripening of fruit and the freezing of potatoes and several fruits. Vinous fermentation is dependent upon the presence of sugar, water, and gluten, wliich form yeast. By it cane sugar is changed to that of grape, the change being essential to the production of vinous fermenta- tion. The temperature necessary to produce this change is from about 70° to 90°, at which heat yeast is formed in a very small portion, and continues as long as any sugar exists in the solution. The change from sugar is to alcohol, in solution with cai'bonic acid liberated during fermentation— forty-five parts of sugar will yield tw^enty-three parts of alcohol and twenty-two parts of- carbonic acid gas. Sugar, in solution, is not susceptible of vinous fer- mentation without yeast; but the juices of fruits and plants do not require it, if exposed to the atmosphere, W'hich is essential to produce fermentation. If juices are heated to 212°, and the air is excluded by corking them tightly in bottles, they may be preserved from change ; but a few moments' exposure to the air is sufficient for the absorption of oxygen. Acetous fer- mentation takes place, and finally axetic acid (vine- gar) is formed. When a liquor that has undergone vinous fermen- tation, or even alcohol diluted with water and w^ith yeast added to it, is exposed to the air in a tempera- VARIETIES OF FERMENT ATI ON. 187 tiire of 80° or 90°, an intestinal commotion ensues, lieat is developed, the flnid becomes turbid, and car- bonic acid is disengaged. These changes continue for a time, and then cease spontaneously. The liquor then becomes clear, and is found to be acetiG acid^ (vin- egar.) This process is acetous fermentation. Putrefactive fermentation differs materially from the other processes of fermentation, as complete decomposition takes place. Substances known as proximate principles, such as oils, resins, and alco- hol, are not liable to this kind of dissolution, and do not undergo putrefactive fermentation. Those substances alone are predisposed to this kind of fer- mentation that contain liydrogen in proportion to form water, and particularly those which contain nitrogen, with the exception of caffein^ a substance that will be treated of in a future chapter under the head of coffee. Moisture and a temperature of about 80° to 90° is most favorable to putrefaction. A tem- perature of 32° arrests it and all fermentation com- pletely. Fruits can be preserved from frost, and with- out injury, at 33° and 34°, a temperature frequently adopted for the preservation of very delicate fruit, such as pears, apples, and peaches. The gaseous products of putrefactive fermentation are light carburetted hydrogen, carbonic acid, and, when nitrogen is present, ammonia. The residue is vegetable mould, which contains much saline matter. Heat, like cold, but not as a general rule, ex- erts a most powerful influence in arresting fermenta- tion. The saccharine juice of the sugar-cane, or of fruit, may have yeast added to it, and fermentation 188 THE CHEMISTKY OF FOOD. may have commenced, yet a temperature of 120° will put a stop to the evolution of carbonic acid gas and the formation of alcohol; and in their stead, if this degree of heat is continued, lactic acid, gum, and manna will be produced. Thus it w^ill be observed that alcohol is formed at a low, and lactic acid at a high, degree of temperature in the chemical changes that operate in vegetable juices. The reverse, how- ever, takes place in animal secretions, of which milk furnishes us an example. When the temperature ot that liquid ranges from 50° to 75°, lactic acid is formed ; but if the temperature is raised to 90°, true vinous fermentation sets in, and alcohol and carbonic acid are the result. It is in tliis manner that the Tar- tars prepare an intoxicating liquid from mare's milk. Again, the influence of a low degree of tempera- ture has a remarkable eftect upon the masses of ani mal and vegetable matter. Whole carcasses will re- main unchanged for centuries at 32°, examples of which are found in the bodies of elephants cast upon the shores of the Polar Sea from icebergs, where they must have remained for many thousand years in an undecomposed condition ; while, as we have just stated, fruits can be preserved from decay at 33° and 34° without their sustaining injury from being frozen. At 40°, putrefactive fermentation will take place in flesh, and fruit will spoil. ^ A temperature of 212° will prepare meat, or vege- table substances ; and if they are, while at that heat, inclosed in air-tight vessels that will thoroughly ex- clude the oxygen of the atmosphere, they can be kept in a state of preservation for an indefinite period. PART V. IeREALS and pEGUMES. CHAPTER I. THE NUTIilTIOUS ELEMENTS OF VEGETABLE FOOD. Vegetables tliat contain the greatest amount of nutrition — The cerealia stand at the head — From them are obtained gluten, fibrin, albumen, and casein, and all the mineral substances essen- tial to the formation of the animal body — A greater digestive effort required to obtain sustenance from vegetables than from meat — Albumen soluble in water — Fibrin found in the juices and seeds of plants — It is not soluble in water — Is convertible into albumen — Albumen in the egg is changed into fibrin — Legumi- nosse prod ace the greatest amount of casein — Casein abounds in the milk of the mammalia — Oils from vegetables consist of two kinds, volatile and fixed — Why animal oil is more inflammable than starch or sugar — Oil is a suitable diet in extreme cold — Vola- tile oils produce the various fragrant scents— Fixed oils make a permanent stain — Oils rapidly absorb oxygen. HAVING in previous pages taken a view of the proximate elements of vegetation and tlieir ultimate analysis, we will now investigate the several varieties of vegetables which constitute the food of man. We (Commence with those that afford the greatest amount of actual nutriment ; these we find to be tlie cerealia^ and at the head of that family we place wheat ^ as it contains, next to flesh meat, the greatest amount of protein. All vegetables and ve- getable productions, as grain seeds and fruits, con- tain more or less of the elements that form protein — ■ carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. As these 192 CEREALS AND LEGUMES. have been fomid in all vegetables, and constitute tlieir greatest bulk, they are denominated the organiG elements. But with them are also found potash, soda, phosphate of June, and many other substances, in small proportion, but of the utmost importance in the performance of the several functions of tissues into which they enter. Plants supply the animal body with carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, in various for- mations. These constitute the tissues of the vegetable, from which are elaborated and appropriated gluten, fibrin, albumeu, and casein, and all the mineral ele- ments required for the perfect formation of the body. But to obtain these essential elements for the forma- tion of the animal organization and for the purpose of sustaining it, a greater bulk has to be eaten of vege- table substance than of animal production. A greater amount of digestive effort is consequently required to procure the necessary nutriment. From this we learn that man will not starve where vegetable food can be found ; for he can obtain from it the requisite nutri- ment to supply growth, strength, and heat — the essen- tials that sustain life. The albumen, fibrin, casein, and salts will be appropriated to the formation of the solids, soft solids, and fluids ; and the starch, sugar, and oil, to the support of silent combustion in the re- spiratory process carried on in the lungs, in like man- ner to the consumption of fuel by combustion, when, though there is no flame, heat is eliminated. Heat is continued until the fuel is exhausted, and main- tains in the human body, when in a healthy condi- tion, and under alb variations of climate, a tempera- ture of 98°, with sixty beats of the pulse and fifteen NUTRITIOUS ELEMENTS OF VEGETABLE FOOD. 193 respirations in a minute — man being the standard ; women and children maintain a higher temperature, have a quicker pulse, and breathe more frequently. Albumen^ whether vegetable or animal, is soluble in water up to boiling, but insoluble after. It con- tains, in addition to the elements that constitute it, two atoms of sulphur and one. of phosphorus. Cauli- flowers, turnips, and asparagus contain a large amount of albumen. Fibrin is found in the juices, fruits, and seeds of plants; and in the blood, lymph, and chyle -of ani- mals. - It is not soluble in water, alcohol, or ether ; and 'Contains but one atom of sulphur and one of phosphorus. -It is convertible into albumen, as may be seen in animals fed on flesh, for albumen is found in their blood. Albumen can also be changed into fibrin, as in the white of an which furnishes the muscle of the chicken. What was formerly called gluten, and abounds in wheat flour, is identical with fibrin. Casein is found abundantly in some vegetables and seeds, especially the legaminosse, as in beans and peas. It also abounds in the milk of all the mammalia, the casein in which is readily formed into cheese. It dif- fers from the last two substances in not containing any phosphorus. It is convertible into albumen, and, though present in milk, is not found in any part of the body. Still it subserves the purposes of the other nitrogenous substances in the sustenance of the ani- mal body. It is distinguished from albumen by not coagulating at a temperature of 167° ; also, by its being precipitated from its solution by a small quan- tity of all weak acids, and re-dissolved by an excess. 194 CEREALS AND LEGUMES. Oils obtained from tlie vegetable kingdom consist of two kinds, known as volatile and fixed oils. Tliey are present in nearly all plants and seeds. Wheat contains two to three per cent ; Indian corn, or maize, nine to twelve per cent ; oats, three ; rice, one ; cocoa- nut, forty-seven ; ground-nuts, forty-seven ; flaxseed, twenty-two ; mustard, thirty-six ; and ahnonds, forty- six per cent. Yolk of eggs also contains nearly twen- ty-nine ; milk, three ; and ordinary meat, fourteen per cent. Here again is a similarity of products from vegetable and animal substances. Animal oil, or oil of fat, consists of : Carbon, 11 Hydrogen, 10 Oxygen, . . . . .1 The large quantity of carbon and hydrogen which it contains renders it far more inflammable than starch or sugar. It is consequently much more suita- ble than those products for a diet when persons are exposed to extreme cold, as in the arctic regions. Only the fixed oils constitute the food of man. The volatile oils produce the various fragrant scents and flavors of plants, and leave no stain. A fixed oil makes a permanent grease-spot, and when pure has lit- tle or no taste or odor. Both are decomposable below red heat. When any of the fat oils are much heated, they give off* an exceedingly volatile acrid substance called acrolein. This substance is caused by decom- position. It is found more or less in the brown crust of meat that is fried or roasted, and is exceedingly hard to digest. Such fats as lard, butter, tallow, and olive NUTRIMENT IN SEEDS EA.TEN BY MAN. 105 oil rapidly absorb oxygen from the atinospliere, and form acrid acids, which are decidedly injurious to the digestive powers. Ointments, when exposed to the air, are also rendered acrid and stimulant, and are unfit for use after they have been made any great length of time. Hence ointments should only be. prepared for immediate use. THE RELATIVE NUTRIMENT IN SEEDS EATEN BY MAN — INTRODUCTION OF GRAIN PLANTS. Relative nutritious qualities of seeds — Grain plants are all annual — Their stems contain silex (Hint) — They came from the East — Coffee, tea, and cotton traced from the East toward the West — Traditions in regard to the early cultivation of grain — An Amer- ican Indian tradition relative to the origin of maize, etc. — Wheat a proof of the civilization of the ancient Egyptians — It is discovered in their sepulchre^^Cerealia grown before the time of Noah's flood — Bread made by Abraham's wife — Joseph's dream of the sheaves — Pharaoh's dream of seven ears on one stalk — Humboldt on the migration of plants — Man has selected for his food about twenty of the most abundant seed-bearing grasses — Bread glasses not originally found in Mexico — Wheat introduced into that country by a slave — By whom it was carried into Peru — The first wheat that reached Quito — The Spaniards introduced wheat into America — Spring wheat less hardy than winter wheat — Advantages to be derived from growing spring wheat. ^HE following analysis of tlie constituents and ali- JL mental qualities of the cerealia and leguminosse gives the number of parts in a total of a hundred their several varieties contain of water and ashes, and of nitrogenous and carbonaceous formations : CHAPTER II. 190 CEREALS AND LEGUMES. Water and ashes. Nitrogenous formations. Carbonaceous formations. Cerealia . . . ^ r Wheat, Rye, Barley, 10 17 20 11 12 7 parts. 14 - 11 " 1 " 23 parts. 18 " 72 69 69 88 81 70 parts. Legiiminosge ^ Oats, Rice, ^ Maize, ( Peas, < Beans, ( Lentils, 19 17 19 29 " 31 " 33 " 7 52 52 48 The grain-plants are all annual, and send np a straw or culluni, wliicli is eitlier hollow or contains pith, and is divided into joints. At these joints the leaves have their insertion, one at each joint, and on alternate sides of the stem. The outer covering of the stem contains silex (flint) in very fine 'divi- sion ; it is found in tlie aslies of burnt stalks, and forms the principal obstacle to the production of pa- per from straw. The leaves enfold the growing stalk and germinating grain, which, as they increase in growth and arrive at maturity, are liberated by the case falling backward. The ears of grain are placed on a stem, or racMs. A vaf iety called Egyptian wheat forms branches of rachis. Oats have naked branches, and the seeds on the end are csilled j)anides. Those plants from whose seeds we obtain our varie- ties of bread, wherever thoj are found, indfcate the presence of man. He has taken them with him to all the temperate regions of the earth; and, as they w^ere not designed for liim alone, graminivorous ani- mals have accompanied him. lie started from the East, and, as distant lands became his abiding place, different climates contributed to the number of grasses and animals. The period of the earth's his- INTRODUCTION OF GRAIN PLANTS. 197 tory at which man made his advent is not positively known ; for on this point we have only speculation without fixed data. In modern times coffee, tea, the sugar-cane, cotton, the banana, and some of the spices have been traced from the East toward the West. Man's acquaintance with the cerealia, however, so far precedes the transportation of these hixuries that the liistory of grain-plants seems to be lost in the vista of time, as is also that of those domestic animals which have accompanied him from his earliest migration. Hence, inferences have established probabilities, and tradition and mythology point to the gods as the first givers of these blessings. The Hindoos believe that Brahma descended rom heaven for the purpose of bestowing them upon his followers, and that he ex- cluded all animal food and forbade any indulgence in it. In Egypt Isis, in Greece Demeter, and in Home Ceres, have each accorded to them by classical writers some similar act of beneficence. The ancient Peru- vians, when discovered by the Spaniards, only culti- vated their maize on sacred ground around the Incas' Temple of the Sun, at an elevation of twelve thousand feet above the sea. The grain was first offered as a sacrifice to their god, and was then distributed among the people, who attributed to it miraculous powers. Dr. Franklin thus relates a traditional story of the American aborigines concerning the origin of maize and other plants, which he heard from an In- dian chief of the Susquehanna tribe : " In the begin- ning, OLir fathers had only the flesh of animals to sub- sist on ; and if their hunting was unsuccessful they were starving. Two of our young hunters, having 198 CEREALS AND LEGUMES. killed a deer, made a lire in the woods to broil some part of it. When they were about to satisfy their hunger, tliey beheld a beautiful young woman de- scend from the clouds and seat herself on that hill which you see yonder among the blue mountains. They said to each other : ' It is a spirit that, perhaps, has smelt our broihng venison, and wislies to eat of it. Let us offer some to her.' They presented her with the tongue. She was pleased with the taste of it, and said : ' Your kindness shall be rewarded. Come to this place after thirteen moons, and you shall find sometliing that w^ill be of great benefit in nourishing you and your children to the latest gene- rations.' T1iey did so, and to their great surprise found plants they had never seen before, but wdiich, from that ancient time, Iiave been constantly culti- vated among us, to our great advantage. Where her right hand had touched the ground, they found maize ; where her left hand had touched it, they found kidney- beans ; and where she had seated herself, they found tobacco.""^ Wheat is said to have been introduced by the Em- peror Chinnang into China, where it is reported to have been cultivated three thousand years before the Christian era. These various claims to supernatural agencies can only amuse, and leave us to conjecture and draw in- ferences. That the cereals were cultivated at a very early period is a just inference, and attests man's civilization. One of the proofs of the civilization of * Memoirs of tlie Life and Writings of Benjamin Franklin. By his grandson. Page 273. INTRODUCTION OF GRAIN PLANTS. 199 the ancient Egyptians has been the discovery of wheat in the sepulchres of tlieir kings, which were so perfect- ly inclosed that the atmospheric influence which w^ould have decomposed the grain was excluded for many thousand years. When discovered by the naturalists in the French army on its invasion of that country, the grains were found to have retained their form and color, and proved to be of a species that had never been discovered growing wild in any part of the world. That the cerealia was cultivated before the deluge is most probable, as the Bible says that " Adam's sons tilled the ground," and that it w^as promised to Noah and his people that "seed time and harvest should not cease." It also tells us that four hundred and fifty years after the flood Abraham directed his w^ife to prepare three measures of fine meal to make cakes upon the hearth for tlie stran«gers who visited him. This is the first intimation we have of flour being made from grain, or of bread being made and baked ; but we do not infer from it that flour and bread were then first made and baked. One hundred and forty years later it speaks of Joseph's dream of the sheaves, and of Pharaoh's dream, in which he beheld "seven ears of corn" upon one stalk, which Joseph interpret ed as representing seven years of plenty that were to come to the land of Egypt, as well as of Joseph having in those years " gathered corn as the sand of the sea.""^ This agrees w^ith the peculiarities of the wheat found in the Egyptian catacombs, known as Tritimm com- posihcm. It often produces seven ears on one stalk. Wheat is frequently named in the Bible, as we read in * Genesis xxxvii. 7 and xli. 5, 49. 200 CEKKALS AND LEGUMES. it of the finest of wheat," and of wlieat of Minneth." It would then appear to us not unreasonable to sup- pose that for man were created the domestic animals, the cerealia, and fruit, as they are all included in the general term fruits of the earth," which we are told, were given to man on his introduction to this planet. In taking a \dew of more modern times, we know, that wheat w^as taken into Europe by the Romans, the vine by the Greeks, and cotton by the Arabs upon their incursions hito Spain. Humboldt observes that the migration of these plants is evident ; but the hrst country of each is as little known as those of the dif- ferent races of men, who, from the earliest traditions, have been found in all parts of the globe.'^ "Wheat (TvitiGum vulgare^ Will.) is the most impor- tant and widely distributed of the bread plants, and has been selected from about four thousand grasses. Out of these man has chosen about twenty that are tlie most abundant seed-bearers and require the least labor to obtain their products, and has appropriated them for food for himself and his domestic animals. As soon as a division of labor was established, the agricultur- ist gave the surplus over his own wants to commerce, and, finding it profitable, availed himself of the ad- vantages to be obtained by the introduction of his produce into foreign countries. None of the bread-producing grasses of the East were found by the Europeans when they first visited Mexico. Wheat was first introduced into that coun- try, in the year 1530, by a negro slave belonging to CoKTEZ, who found three or four grains among some Geograpliie des Plantes, p. 35. INTRODUCTION OF GRAIN PLANTSr 201 rice ; and tliougli he made a most advantageous use of this great prize to the country, nothing further is known of him. A different story is told of the Span- ish lady (Maria d' Escobar, wife of Diego de Chaves) who bestowed a similar blessing upon Peru, by taking a few grains of wheat to Lima. Her name, together with the plan she adopted for effecting her object, that of carefully distributing the produce of successive harvests among the farmers, have been carefully noted by the historian. . Still the exact date when this event took place is unrecorded, but wheat bread was scarce- ly known in the city of Cuzco in the year 15 4T. The first grains of wheat that reached Quito were con- veyed thither by Father Jose Rixi, a Fleming, who grew them near the monastery of St. Fraftcis, where the monks still preserve and show, as a precious relic, the rude earthen pot that contained the seeds. His- tory thus informs us that wheat w^as originally in- troduced into America by the Spaniards, and it fur- ther teaches us that it has since been distributed throughout the whole continent in many varieties. The cultivation of winter wheat in the Middle States is now very common. Spring wheat {Triticmyi cestivum) is supposed to be a native of Siberia, and is the type of all the varieties called summer and spring wheats. It is less hardy than the winter wheat, and the whole plant has a more delicate appearance. The principal advantage to be derived from the grow- ing of this wheat consists in the security it offers against the injurious effects of cold and wet springs to which w^inter wheat is liable, and which sometimes so much impair it as to destroy all prospect of a harvest. 202 CEREALS AND LEGUMES. In such a crisis, the delicate but more rapidly grow- ing variety of spring wheat may be more confidently relied upon. When, at the close of winter, it is per- ceived that the seed sown in autumn has completely failed, it is a good custom to replace it with this wheat, or, when there are bare patches, to rake it into the vacant spaces, and thus restore the uniformity of the crop. CHAPTER HI. WHEAT AND THE MANUFACTURE OF BREAD. Analysis of the nutritive qualities of wheat — Winter wheat more nutritious than summer— DilBfer en ce in wheat grown in warm and cold regions — One of the most desirable varieties— The structure of a grain of wheat and its nutritive parts described — Properties of cerealin — It is essential to promote digestion — ■ The weight of wheat and average yi(?ld of flour — Pernicious effects of fats in flour — They are increased by baking — When bread is most soluble — Ordinary mode of making bread — Injuri- ous effects that may arise — When properly fermented sugar is formed — Skill required to make good bread — How to obtain a proper fermentation — How to make yeast. ACCORDING to the analysis of Sir Humphry Da>^y, the nutritive quality of spring wheat is not quite equal to that of winter wheat, the proportion being only 92|- per cent in the former to 9dt in the latter. The gluten or fibrin contained in the two kinds varies in a greater degree — that in winter wheat being 24 per cent, while that in spring is only 19. The winter variety is consequently the most desirable for WHEAT AND THE MANUFACTtTPvE OP BREAD. 203 tlie baker. A similar difference exists between wheat grown in our Northern and Eastern States and that raised in the Southern, Middle, and Western States. The greatest amount of starch is contained in the wheat that is produced in the colder regions. Its flour is termed by the baker sliort — hence less nutri- ment — and is less desirable for bread than that grown in warmer climates, as the loaf can not be made so porous or liglit, nor so large in size for the weight of flour used. It is, however, very desirable for pastry, as it requires much less butter or fat than the latter to shorten it and make it bake crisp. It thus appears that, to a certain extent, locality determines the nu- tritive quality of wlieat, which is true even of the finest varieties, if grown in localities unsuited to them. One of the most desirable varieties of wheat known is called the Landomir, which derives its name from a district in Southern Poland ; but to grow it equal to the sample obtained therefrom has disappointed the most skillful agriculturists. " The structure of a grain of wheat from which our flour is made," says Professor Dakby, " is not proper- ly understood, and its nature not properly appreciated. It is an object of the highest interest, since untold millions depend on its production; and were it better understood, and its constitution a matter of more uni- versal knowledge, the interests of society might be greatly advanced. The wlieat grain is a fruit, not a seed only. It is a one-seeded fruit, as though we had a one-seeded bean or pea-pod. The only difl*erence is that the pod of the wheat is closely applied to the seed, but in the bean or pea it is not ; the seed is 204 CEREALS AT^D LEGUMES. loose in one case, and closely enfolded in the pod in the other. The same is true of corn, oats, rye, etc. " The accompanying figure is a representation of a section of a grain of wheat from end to end, greatly magnified, so as to show it as it appears under the microscope. The membranes are represented as seoa- rated, so as to make them distinct. " The membranes, marked 1, 2, 3, 4, make up the pod: 1, the cuticle^ or outer skin ; 2, the ejndermis * 3, tlie epioarp * 4, tlie endocarp. These envelopes have no nutriment in them, are coh:)rless or of a light brown color, and form the toughest part of the bran. "No. 5 is the outer covering of the seed and gives color to the grain. It belongs to tlie bran, and takes no part in nutrition. No. 6 is an important portion of the seed, andought always to be, but is seldom, in the flour. It is mostly containerd in the shorts — a name given by the millers to a very fine quality of bran, which is sold as a supe- rior feed for cattle to that of coarse bran, in which there is little or no nutriment, though some will be found in the flour that adheres to it. This portion of the seed is nutritious, and medicinal in one sense, and its chemical relations are of the most important cha- racter, not only in alimentation, but in germination, as it protects the embryo from improper influences, and in a great degree controls the agencies that stimu- late vitality. It is composed of regular cells, filled witli a substance called cerealin^wliidi by its action de- composes starch, coii verting it into a soluble state, and liquefies gluten, or, properly speaking, vegetable fibrin. Dough loses its elasticity by standing, if this substance SECTION OF A GRAIN 1. The Cuticle^ or outer skin. ^. The Epidermis. 3. The Epicarp. 4. The Endocarp. 5. The outer covering of the seed that gives color to the grain. 6. First layer of the seed, having cells containing cerealin. OF WHEAT, MAGNIFIED. 7. Second layer of the seed, containing starch and gluten. 8. Third layer of the seed, containing starch and gluten. 9. Interior of the seed — nearly pure starch. A. The Germ. [Paf/e 2C4. WHEAT AND TPIE MANUFACTURE OF BKEAD. 205 is present and the temperature is moderately high. It bears a high temperature without losing its proper- ty of liquefying gluten, and it is, consequently, active durino- cookino; or bakino*. Bread that contains this material liquefies in the stomach and is easily digested ; while bread that does not contain it continues pasty, is with difficulty disposed of by the stomach, and causes dyspepsia and many painful symptoms. Ani- mals will die if they are fed on pure white bread, but they will flourish on bread made from the same grain if it contains this membrane. In the one case the cerealin is present, in the other it is wanting. No. 7 consists of cells filled with starch and glu- ten, and is the most nutritive portion of the grain. "No, 8 is like No. 7, but contains more -starch and less gluten. " No. 9 is nearly pure starch, and is but slightly nutritious. " Fine flour consists almost entirely of Nos. 8 and 9 and the shorts of Nos. 6 and 7, which are the healtli^- est and most nutritious parts of the grain. Flour ought to contain 6, 7, 8, and 9 ground together ; and whoever will devise a plan by which this can be ac- complished will confer a blessing on his fellow-beings. All the nutritious portions of the grain were intended to be eaten by man, but custom gives us the poorest j)ortion at the highest price, under the name of ' su- perfine flour.' " Flour containing all the bran is in- jurious from the irritating properties of that indi- gestible articV\ The average weight of a bushel of wheat is about sixty pounds. Inferior samples seldom weigh less 20G CEEEALS AND LEGUINfES. tlian fiftj-six pounds ; and the best as seldom exceed sixty-two pounds. A bushel of wheat of tW average weight, on being ground, will yield of flour 47 pounds. fine shorts 4J " coarse sliorts .... 4 " bran 2| " Loss of weight in grinding and bolting, 2 " 60 " As much flour is used in making pastry, cakes, and various dishes, in wdiich lard, butter, and other fats are employed, and most indigestible compounds are thus produced, it may be well to state that such compounds are far more injurious than the eating of buttered baked cakes or w^arm bread. The browner these compounds are baked, the more per- nicious they become, as the fat is thereby decom- posed, and acrolein^ one of the most acrid and indi- gestible substances formed in cooking, is produced and retained. The injurious effects of eating warm bread arise from its insolubility, and are increased by the use of rancid butter. Bread only" becomes solu- ble after it has bec(^me perfectly cool — about twelve hours after baking. By that time the cerealin has rendered the gluten or vegetable fibrin soluble. The mode of making bread claims special atten- tion. It is ordinarily made by adding to a certain portion of flour, mixed with warm water or milk, some substance that will excite fermentation, (as yeast either alone or infused in a mass of flour pre- pared for the purpose,) and thereby dough is pro- WHEAT AND THE MANUFACTURE OF BREAD. 207 diiced of proper consistency. This doiigli is kept warm to facilitate fermentation, foi; which pnrpose a uuiform temperature of about ninety degrees is required. If the temperature is below seventy degrees, and is con- tinued for a time below that point, an acid is formed ; yet the dough will rise and make light bread, but the very best qualities of good bread will be lost ; and, al- though soda may have been added, the saccharine prin- ciple will not be restored. In such a case the delicious, fresh, sweet taste. of well-made bread will be wanting, and much of its nutritious quality wasted. Such bread will have a decided tendency to generate acid in the stomach, and will possess the same insipid taste as un- fermented bread. On the contrary, wlien the dough is properly fermented, sugar is formed, as in ^the process of malting ; for, altliough in the one case we use flour, and in the other the wliole grain, the process is iden- tical — that is, the chemical action is the same ; and this action should be arrested in the dough at a proper time, by putting it into the oven for baking. As, in malting, the germinated grain is heated on the kiln to arrest the chemical process and secure the sugar generated in the grain, so, in baking, there is no loss of the gluten, but only "a change of starch and the organic acids to form sugar. The carbonic acid is set free, and the bread is thereby rendered sweet and light. To accomplish this very desirable end, great skill must be exercised, quite as much as is requisite in the preparation of malt. All persons at- tempting to bake loaf bread should make themselves proficient in the art, instead of " trusting to luck," as is most commonly the case with housekeepers 208 CEREALS AND LEGUMES. who pay no regard to careful practice, and wlio, conse- quently, seldom make two bakings of bread alike out of the same barrel of flour. It is owing to such very unskillful and careless practice that fermented bread has been disparaged, and new processes have been in- troduced of pufting up flour and water with carbonic acid gas, which, instead of developing the saccharine matter so very delicious in well-made bread, leaves it insipid to the taste, its only quality being that it does not impair the nutritive property of the flour. To obtain a proper fermentation, it is necessary to be prepared with a small quantity of yeast. This must be well difl*used througli the whole mass of dough made with warm water or milk, and kept at a temperature of not less than ninety degrees. Tlie dough, when thus prepared, may, however, be kept some twenty degrees above that point, with decided advantage ; for the quicker the fermentation is ac- complished the sweeter will be the bread, and the greater the nutriment it will contain. To make yeast, it is generally supposed that hops are essential. Such, however, is not the case. Hops only contri- bute flavor, and for that purpose they are used in making beer ; and as yeast is usually obtained from the brewery, it is thus that the idea has become estab- lished that hops are necessary to make yeast. Yeast for culinary purposes, is readily made by a mixture of milk and flour formed into a semi-fluid, at a tem- perature of not less than ninety degrees, and kept at that warmth till a brisk fermentation is established. It is then fit for use, and suitable for the fermentation of dough, or any purpose for which yeast is required. CHAPTER lY. EYE : ITS QUALITIES AND USES. Rye, as a nutrient, stands next to wheat — It was not known in ancient India and Egypt — Pliny mentions its cultivation — Its use south of the Baltic Sea — In Sweden it is made into cakes — How it is grown in Lapland — Fungus growth on rye — Its poi- sonous qualities — Favorable condition for its growth — Its effects in bread — Serious consequences resulting from it in various countries — Animals and insects poisoned by it — Good qualities of rye — Importance of the rye crop — A good fertilizer — Rye not so readily digested as wheat — Owing to its saccharine quali- ties, it is most readily malted — Is made into ardent spirits, and is much used as a substitute for coffee. RYE, {Secale cereale) — the bread-seed standing next to wheat in importance as a nutrient for man — was not known in ancient India or Egypt. The Greeks obtained it from Thrace and Macedonia. Pliny mentions its cultivation in Europe and Asia between 50° and 60° north latitude. I» America it grows between 40° and 50° north latitude. It consti- tutes the principal bread eaten by the inhabitants of the sandy districts south of the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Finland, and not only forms the chief article of consumption among the population of those little better than sandy deserts, but furnishes a suJSiciency for an export trade to the Russian ports. 210 / CEREALS AND LEGUliIES. In Sweden the inhabitants generally subsist upon rye cakes, which are baked only twice a year, and become, during the intervals, as hard as a board. LiNN^us relates that he observed in Lapland a curi- ous practice, w^hich consists of taking one part of rye and two of barley, and mixing them together, and planting the seeds so mingled as soon as the ground is capable of tillage in the spring. The barley grows vigorously, ripens early, and is reaped ; in the mean time the rye, being overshadowed by the barley, merely forms leaves, but after the latter is reaped, it strengthens so as to establish itself for the follow- ing year, when it yields an abundant crop. This very valuable aliment is subject to a disease which renders it not only noxious, but actually poison- ous. The diseased growth assumes a peculiar form, and is called horned or spurred rye, and, by the French, er- got^ from the fancied resemblance to a cock's spur. Tliis morbid growth consists of seemingly solid elongated masses, which spring from the ovary of the rye and other grasses. It is of a firm mealy consistence, with a concrete, scaly, or powdery crust. Willdenow, De Candolle, Fries, Quekett, and Dr. Robert Latham, have all carefully examined it, and tlie lat- ter, in a paj^r read before the British Association for the Advancement of Science, at Cambridge, drew attention to the fact that the attacks of this disease on other grasses besides rye were very frequent, and pointed out the danger of allowing animals to feed on grass so disordered. The disease is supposed to be pro- moted in growth by wet springs followed by unusually hot summers, which are favorable to the production of rye: its qualities and uses. 211 all fungi, the sporiiles being diffused, and only re- quiring such spring and summer weather to make their growth. TissoT, a French physician, has paid much atten- tion to the consequences on the human system of eating spurred rye. Bread made of rye thus diseased has an acrid and nanseous taste, and its nse is followed by spasmodic symptoms and gangrenous disorders. These effects can not, by any means, be classed among imaginary evils. In 1596, an epidemic prevailed in Hesse, which was wholly ascribed to the use of horned rye. Many persons wlio liad eaten of the diseased grain made into bread were attacked, and died, whilst others suffered from epilepsy and even insanity, from which they never recovered. Similar calamities also befell the people in various parts of Europe, between the years 1648 and 1736, the par- ticulars of which are recorded by Burgiiart, Hoff- man, and others. In 1Y09, this diseased condition of the rye occurred in a part of France to su(^h an extent that, in consequence of it, no fewer than five hundred patients were at one time under care of the surgeons of the public hospital at Orleans. The symptoms commenced with all the apparent characteristics of drunkenness, after w^hich the toes became diseased, mortified, and fell off. The disease then extended np the leg, and frequently attacked tlie body ; and this latter sometimes o^'curred even after the amputa- tion of the diseased limbs. The poisonous influence of horned rye is not ex- erted upon human beings alone, for both insects and larger animals have been fatally affected by it. Flies 212 CEREALS AND LEGUMES. that merely settled on it have heen killed. Deer, swine, and poultry, npon which experiments have been tried with it, have all died miserable deaths, some ill strong convulsions, others with mortified ulcers. The ergot of rye, or, as it is termed in our medical works, Secale cormttiim—m plain English, horned rye — has been admitted into our pharmacopoeias as a most valuable medicine in the hands of skillful practitioners, but, like all powerful and useful medi- caments, it has been improperly and unskillfully used. Rye is an important crop, and is usually grown on light soil. It is extensively cultivated and used for bread, especially in our Eastern States ; while it makes a cheap and most excellent food for cattle, when mixed and ground with oats and corn. The yield per acre is about seventeen bushels. The total produce of rye in the United States in 1860 was, ac- cording to the last census, twenty-one million one hundred and one thousand three hundred and eighty bushels. It has been found to be a valuable fertilizer, if grown among corn, and hogged down, as it is termed ; that is, the grain is eaten by the hogs from the straw, on the field, and then the straw is plowed in. It thus forms a cheap food for hogs, as very little is ex- pended for labor — a valuable consideration, particu- larly in our Western States, wliere labor is so scarce. Rye rates next to wheat in the amount of gluten or vegetable fibrin contained, hence its applicability for fermented bread ; but bread made from rye-flour is not so digestible or nutritious as wheaten bread. The grain contains about five parts of gluten to every hundred RYE : ITS QUALITIES AND USES. 213 of saccharine matter, which renders it suitable for malting or making beer or ardent spirits, of which latter there are about ten million gallons distilled annu- ally in this country. However, the produce of rye is comparatively small to that of barley, and, conse- quently, it is not so extensively used for those pur- poses. Eye changes rapidly from the vinous to ace- tous fermentation, which renders it undesirable for distilling. It is not suitable for food when there is a tendency to acidity of the stomach, or where the digestive powers are enfeebled. In the form of a vegetable acid, rye has been much used by tanners in the operation of what they call raising^ which is rendering the hide porous, so that it will more readily receive the tanning principle from the oak bark. The grain is also resorted to as a substitute for colfee. When mixed with the coffee-seed and roasted, it absorbs much of the aroma of the latter, which aroma would otherwise be thrown otf and lost ; and if an excessive quantity of r^^e is not used, the addi- tion is not easily detected in the finest qualities of the fragrant Mocha — in fact, the beverage produced is actually enriched by the mixture. CHAPTER V. BARLEY, MALTIiSTG, AND BREWING. The countries in wliicli barley lias been discovered — The several varieties — Cultivated by the Jews in the earliest ages — Grains of it found in the Eo^yptian catacombs — Egyptian traditions re- specting it — Barley is best suited to a northern climate — It is not so nutritious as wheat — A grain the measure of one third of an inch — Barley extensively cultivated for brewing into malt liquors — Fermented liquors made from barley at a very early date — They are still made in Egypt and Nubia — The Anglo- Saxons drank ale and mead — The old ale knights of England — Attachment of the English to ale — The introduction of hops into ale forbidden by Henry VIII. — Large consumption of malt and hops in Great Britain — Mode of manufacturing malt — Process of making malt liquors — Good qualities of pure fermented liquors — German lager-beer affords no nutriment, and is very intoxicating — The lager-beer of the United States is different — Amount of beer manufactured in the United States. BARLEY, {Hordeum vulgare^ Linn.,) an ancient writer"^ informs ns, grew abundantly and wild in the regions between the Euplirates and the Tigris. Its native country is placed by Willdenow on tlie banks of the Samara, a tributary of the Volga. C. A. Meyer found the two-rowed barley {11. disti- chiim) growing wild between Lenkeran and Baku ; C. Kocii discovered it on the steppes of Schirwan in ^ Voyage en Persie, 460. BARLEY, MALTING, ANT) BREWmG. 215 tlie soiitli-east of the Caucasus ; and Kotschy in Soutli-Persia. The six-rowed or winter barley {IT. hexastiehon) has been, the longest known. The Egyp- tians, Jews, and East-Indians cultivated it in the ear- liest times, and grains of it are found in the mum- mies of the Egyptian catacombs. The sj)rat or battle- dove barley, {ll, zeocriton^) sometimes called the rice barley, has shorter and broader ears than either of the above varieties, and seldom grows so tall. It fur- nishes an excellent meal, and in this respect is dis- tinguished among the varieties. Common barley came to Europe by way of Egypt, where, at the pre- sent day, the two and the six-rowed are still culti- vated. In ancient Greece both those varieties were grown, but with the modern Greeks the coipmon and six-rowed only are grown, and merely as fodder for horses. The Romans cultivated the two and the six- rowed barley in connection. In Europe, even to be- yond the North Polar Circle, and near to it in Asia and America, oats and barley are cultivated. The Egyptians have a tradition, that of all tlie grains, barley is the one which was first used as the food of man ; and that the art of cultivating it w^as imparted to their ancestors by the goddess 7^/6', who, having discovered the plant growing wild, instructed men how to cultivate it, so as to increase the quan- tity and improve the quality of its produce. We believe, however, that there is as little known about the native country of barley as about that of wheat, next to which, at the present day, it stands among the cereals in respect to the amount cultivated, whilst of cereal products that are manufactured into 216 CEKEALS AND LEGUMES. stimulant drinks, it ocenpies the head position. Bar- ley is, under certain circumstances, of even more im- portance to man than wheat. It can be cultivated over a wider range of climate, under greater extremes of temperature, and in lighter soils than wheat ; it is not so seriously affected by drought, and arrives so much earlier at maturity, that it can be grown in the short northern summers without failure. In Spain, two crops can be harvested within tlie year — one in the spring and tlie other in autumn. Barley sown there in June can be harvested in three months ; and it is stated that in the northern climates the growth is perfected in a still shorter time. Linn^us relates, in his Tour through Lulean Lapland, that he ob- served the commencement of the barley harvest on the twenty-eighth of July, although the seed had been sown only a few days before mid-summer ; the grain w^as then ripe, though not more than six weeks had elapsed between seed-time and harvest. Barley is not so nutritious as wheat ; it contains less gluten, more starch, and a small quantity of sugar, w^hich latter wheat does not possess previous to fer- mentation, as when preparing for bread and germina- tion. The average length ot a grain of barley is one third of an inch, which is the linear dimensions of a harley-corn — a measure formerly in use in England.*^ The cultivation of barley is very extenaive, as may be inferred from the immense amount of malt liquor that is consumed. In Ireland and Scotland large quantities of it are distilled into whisky. A con- siderable amount is also used for bread, and in the * See Ency. Brit., Art. Brewing. BARLEY, MALTING, AND BREWING. 217 preparation of pearl barley by decortication or the removal of tlie outer skin or bark. It is also groniul into meal and thus used for fattening, swine and feed- ing poultry. In ancient times horses were fed upon barley. Pliny relates that the Roman gladiators were called Hordearii in consequence of tlieir use of this grain as food."^ The preparation of fermented liquors is of very an- cient date. IIp:rodotus states that the people of Egypt, being without vines, made their wine from barley.f Dioscorides, one of the ancient Greek writers, also attributes the preparation of fermented liquor and the cultivation of barley to the Egyptians. Pliny, in his Natural History, gives the Egyptian name of this liquid as Lythum.X An intoxicating drink, used among the lower order of people, is made from this grain at the present day, both in Egypt and Nubia, and is there called Bouzah, The same people boil the green ears of barley in water and eat them with milk. Tacitus also informs us that, at tlie period ^ in which he lived, the Germans prepared beer from malted grain. The Anglo-Saxons drank ale and mead ; wine was a great luxury for their people of rank. In the Saxon Decalogues, preserved in the Cotton Library in the British Museum, a boy, who is questioned upon his liabits and^tlie uses of things, replies to an inquiry as to what he drank, Ale, if I have it, or water, if I have it not," and adds, ''Wine is the drink of the elders and the wise." Ale was then, as at this day, * Book xviii. c. 7. f Lib. ii. cliap. 78. X Nat. Hist., lib..xxii. cliap. 25. 218 CEREALS AND LEGUMES. sold to the people in houses of entertainment ; but a priest was forbidden by a law to eat or drhdv at cea- peOylethium^ literally a place where ale is sold.^^ After the Norman conquest wine became more commonly used, and the vine was extensively culti- vated in England. The people, however, held to the beverage of their forefathers with great pertinacity. Neither the juice of the grape nor of the apple were general favorites. The vassal song of the fifteenth century, whose burden was " Bring' us home good ale," is indicative of their attachment to that beverage. "The old ale knights of England," as Camden calls the sturdy yeomen of this period, knew not, however, the ale to which, in the next century, hops gave flavor and preservation. Hops appear to have been employed in the brew- eries of the Netherlands as early as the fourteenth century, but in England they were not generally used in the composition of beer till nearly two centuries afterward. It has been affirmed that the planting of hops was forbidden in the reign of Henry YI. ; and it is certain that Henry YIII. forbade brewers to put hops and sulphur into ale.f In the fifth year of the reign of Henry VL, it would, however, appear that the royal and national taste had for a time changed, for privileges were then granted to hop grounds. Tusser, in his Five Hundred Points of Good Hus- bandry, printed in 1557, thus sings the praises of this plant : * Turner's Anglo-Saxons, vol. iii. f Arcliseologj, vol. iii. BAELEY, MALTING, AND BREWING. 219 " The hop for his profit I thus do exalt, It strengtheneth drink and it flavoreth malt ; And being well-brewed, long kept it will last, And drawing abide, if ye draw not too fast." In the reign of James I. the plant was evidently not sufficiently cultivated in England for consump- tion, as there is a statute of 1608 against the impor- tation of spoiled hops. In 1830 there were forty-six thousand seven hundred and twenty-seven acres oc- cupied in the cultivation of hops in Great Britain ; and in 1845 the large amount of three thousand five hundred bales was imported into that country from the United States. Above thirty million bushels of barley are annually converted into malt in Great Britain ; and jiiore than eight million barrels of beer are annually brewed there, of which four fifths is strong beer. " In 1865 there were five hundred and eight million nine hun- dred and sixty-four thousand one hundred and sev- enty-six pounds of barley sent from the United States to Great Britain. Barley is the grain that is most commonly made into malt. The process consists in causing it to ger- minate and produce a root about the length of the seed, when the germination is suddenly checked by the grain being placed on a hot kiln to dry. The ob- ject obtained by this process is the conversion of the starch into sugar, which change is termed by chem- ists diastase. After the grain is perfectly dry, the roots are removed from it by a machine made for that * See article on Barley in " The Food of Man." Charles Knight & Co., London. 220 CEREALS AND LEGUMES. purpose, and the grain is then ground into meal, whicli is called malt. If the malt has been but slightly colored by heat, when brewed it will produce a pale liquid containing much sugar and nutritious matter ; but, as the color is deepened, the nutritious quality is diminished. The process of making malt-liquor consists in put- ting malt into water heated to one hundred and sixty degrees— a little more water being required than the bulk of malt used. From this is formed in a few hours a transparent, brownish, sweet liquid, termed by the brewers Qnust, If pure starch is placed in the miLst^ it will dissolve and increase the strength of the beer. ^To the imist thus formed an infusion of hops is added, which gives it a bitter taste in proportion to the strength of the hop infusion, and is said to im- prove the liquor ; it at least imparts to it an anodyne cpiality. The temperature is tlien reduced to about sixty degrees, wdien yeast is added, to promote fermen- tation ; and various liquors, such as strong beer, ale, porter, and brown-stout, are formed by slight varia- tions in the manufacture. Drugs, picriG acid^ are sometimes fraudulently used instead of hops, to give bitterness to strong beer. The most desirable con- stituent in beer is malt not too much browned. Strong beer, when carefully made, ought to contain about ten per cent of nutritive matter, whicli is one half as much as is contained in new milk. Hence it is used as a tonic diet and a stimulant ; but, owing to its usually containing from about six to eight percent of alcohol, too often to produce the latter effect. Ordinary beer very readily becomes acid ; but BARLEY, MALTING, AND BREWING. 221 there is a variety made by fermenting at a very low temperature — abont forty-five degrees — wdiicli does not become so. In the manufacture of the latter the yeast separates and falls to the bottom, and does not act oir the alcohol which preserves the liquor. It re- quires several weeks to accom^plish this process, when the beer is drawn off ; and the active nutritious por- tion having separated and settled at the bottom, the beer will not change and become acid by exposure. This is the lager-ieer oi Germany, but not that of the United States. It affords no nutriment whatever, and, if taken in large quantities, causes intoxication, and so saturates the system as to continue its intoxi- ating effect longer than any other beverage. It is, therefore, decidedly injurious to the nervous system. In 1860 there were used in the United States for the home manufacture of malt-liquo-rs, fifty-five thou- sand bales of hops — two hundred pounds constituting a bale. The demand for these liquors has been in- creasing for the last five years, more especially for that denominated with us lager-heer^ of which, w^e are informed, there is no regular standard of quality. It difiers materially from the German beer, as it readily becomes acid; and this proves that" in the process of manufacture it does not deposit its yeast, which, with the alcohol forms vinegar. It is an in- ferior quality of beer. There are manufactured and consumed annually in the United States, three mil- lion two hundred and thirty-nine thousand five hun- dred and forty-five barrels of beer ; while large im- portations are received of Scotch and Burton ale and London and Dublin porter. OIIAPTEE VI. OATS5 THE ORIGINAL BREAD-GRAIN. Oatg cultivated two thousand years ago by tlie Celts and Germans — Known to tijo Egyptians, Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans — Used for bread before tlie more nutritious grains were intro- duced — Yet prized in some peculiar forms of cooking — Compared with other grains — Incidents connected with the use of cereals in England in former days — Grain was ground in a hand-mill, called a quern — The bread formerly eaten by the French pea- santry — Wheaten-bread a great luxury in England in the last century — Fatality of the plague increased by the want of nu- tritious food — The Black Death " — Oats the most readily grown of the cereals. TTIHE native land of the common oats {Avena sa- I tiva^ Linn.) is not known ; but, like the other cerealia, this plant has excited attention as to its ori- ginal home, which has been located on the Danube. It was cultivated two thousand years ago by the Celts and Germans ; and has been transported from Eu- rope, where it originally supplied the bread-crop, to nearly all parts of the world. It was known to the Egyptians, Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans, by whom also the grain was used for bread ; and it continued in common use until the more nutritious cerealia were generally introduced, when it became more and more i:estricted to food for the poor, and for domestic ani- OATS, THE ORIGINAL BREAD-GRAIN. 223 mals. Even at tliis day it is eaten by the Irish, and Scotch, and is innch prized by them in some peculiar forms of cooking it. As a grain it is quite advan- tageous to man. The plant can be grown where nei- ther wheat nor barley will flourish, and it is the hardi- est of all the cereals. In damp, cool locations it bears a tolerable-sized grain ; but it will not stand heat and drought well, for under such circumstances its product is very scant. In contrasting this with other bread plants or grasses, its grain is found to contain the least quantity of nu- triment to a given bulk, and but a very small portion of saccharine matter compared with barley. It was formerly made into malt, but it is not used at this day for that purpose. The meal is sometipies recom- mended to very delicate persons as an article for mak- ing a light diet. In Scotland it is made into por- ridge and thin cakes, which are eaten by all classes, the poorer almost entirely subsisting thereon. A little book entitled "Vegetable Substances used for the Food of Man""^' contains an exceedingly inter- esting history of the oat. From this work we tran- scribe a few extracts which give an idea of the use of the cereal i a in England in past times. The Anglo-Saxon monks of the abbey of St. Ed- mond, in the eighth century, ate barley-bread, be- cause the income of the establishment would not ad- mit of their feeding twice or thrice a day on wheaten bread. f The English laborers of the southern and midland counties, in the latter part of the eighteenth * Published by Charles Knight & Co., London. f Turner's Hist, of the Anglo-Saxons, vol. iii. p. 25. 224 CEREALS AXD LEGUMES. century, refused to eat bread made of one third wheat, one third rye, and one third barley, saying that " they had lost their rye teeth. ""^ In a valuation of Colchester, in the year 1296, al- most every family was supplied with a small store of barley and oats. Scarcely any wheat is noticed in the inventory, and very little rye.f At that day the grain w^as usually ground at home in a hand-mill, called a qitern^ although wind and water mills were not uncommon. The general use of tlie latter machines was probably prevented by the compulsory laws by which the tenant was under ob- ligation to grind his grain at the lord's mill ; and, therefore, to evade the tax called mxdture^ the labor of the hand-mill was endured. In Wickliff's trans- lation of the Bible, there is a passage in the twenty- fourth chapter of St. Matthew thus rendered : Two wymmen schulen (shall) be gryndynge in a querne.'' Harrison, the historian, two centuries later, states that his w^fe ground her malt at home upon the quern. The author of The Food of Man" states that the English laborers had better food than the French, who, in the fifteenth centurj^, were thus described by FoRTESCUE : Thay drynke water, tliay eate apples, with bread right brown, made of rye." Locke, tra- veling in France, in 1678, remarked of the peasantry,, in his journal, Their ordinary food, rye bread and water.":]: A century earlier Harrison said of tlie agricultural population of England : As for wheaten bread they eat it when they can reach unto the price * Eden's Hist, of the Poor, vol. i. p. 526. f Capital and Labor, p. 68. % Lord King's Life of Locke. OATS, THE ORIGINAL BREAD-GEAIN. 225 of it, contenting themselves, in tlie mean time, with bread made of oats or barley, a poor estate, God wot !" This last-named author, in describing the dif- ferent kinds of bread eaten^at that day, after giving a description of several varieties, states : " Of tlie latter (brown bread) there were two sorts ; one baked as it cometh from the mill, so that neither tlie bran nor the floure are any whit diminished. The other hath no flonre left therein at all ; and it is not only the worst and weakest of all the other sorts, but also appointed in old time for servants, slaves, and the inferior kind of people to feed upon. Hereunto, likewise because it is drie and brickie in the working, some add a portion ot rie-meale in our time, whereby the rough drinesse thereof is somewhat qualified, and then ^it is named mescelin, that is, bread made of mingled corne.""^" In the Ilouseliold Book of Sir Edward Coke, in 1596, will be found entries of oatmeal for the use of the house, besides ^'otmele to make the poore folkes porage." About 1750 there was so small a qnantity of wheat used in England that it is stated in Eden's History of the Poor " In the county of Cumberland, it was only a rich family that used a peck of wheat in the course of the year, and that was used at Christmas. The usual treat for a stranger was a thick oat cake (called haverbannock) and butter. About this time, an old laborer of eighty-five remarks, that, when he was a boy, he was at Carlisle mai'ket with his father, and, wishing to indulge himself with a penny loaf made of wheat flour, he searched for it for some time, * Percy's Preface to the North umberland Household Book, Nicholas's edit. p. xiv. 226 CEREALS AND LEGUMES. but could not procure a piece of wlieat bread at any shop in the town." We ^YOukl Iiere request attention to a very important consideration in relation to the influence of nutritious food ; and would ask, Is it not thd primary modifying influence that supplies the power of resistance to the encroachment of malignant disease ? We believe that all other sanitary means are only auxiliary in a minor degree ; and that the fatalit^' of the plague, which so fearfully destroyed mankind, was greatly increased by the enfeebled condition of the lower classes, living in crowded cities, and subsisting upon such meagre diet as the liistorians of the period describe; for, from 1296 to 1Y97, the period covered by our extracts, more fearful scourges visited the earth than have been known of before or since. One of the most fatal epidemics, if not the most fatal that history records, was that which is known as the " Black Death," and occurred in the four- teenth century. It is said to have originated in Cathay, (China,) and to have traveled west, observing the course of plagues generally, as did the. epidemic cholera which has visited us several times. That most terrible pestilence commenced in 1345, and con- tinued its ravages with such destruction that at least one half if not two thirds of the human race perished in about eight years. It was most fatal in cities, and fell principally upon the poorer classes of society. In some places it only left one out of three, or one out of five, and many were wholly depopulated. In London, 50,000 dead bodies were buried in one graveyard ; in Venice, 100,000 persons perished by it ; in Florence, OATS, THE ORIGINAL BREAD-GRAIK. 227 the same number ; and in Lubec, 90,000. In Asia, it destroyed nearly twenty-four millions in one year. In Spain, the disease raged three years, and carried off two thirds of the people. This plague remained in England about a year, and during that time scat- tered such destruction that out of the whole popula- tion hardly one person in ten was left alive. Inl Ireland, great liavoc was made among the English settled in that island, but the native Irish were little affected, particularly those who dwelt in hilly dis- tricts. Plagues of more or less severity visited the world up to the end of the eighteenth century ; but the plague pro])er has, from that date, confined itself to a few outbreaks in oriental cities. It has entirely dis- appeared from the rest of the woild since agriculture ' became a studied science, and the people found them- selves liberally supplied with nutritious food. Oats are the most readily grown, under unfavor- able circumstances, of all the cerealia ; and it is to this cause we may infer that they were more culti- vated than any others of the cereals during those early periods in which the world possessed so limited a knowledge of agricultural science. Farming was , then considered as but a mere drudgery that was forced upon a certain class by the increase of popula- tion. CHABTER VIL RICE ; ITS USES AND CULTIVATIOlC; Rice a marsli plant — Known 3000 years before the Chris^i^jiEi era- Contains the least nutriment of all the cerealia — Is much cul- tivated in all warm climates — Was known to Strabo, and grown in Babylon and Syria — Its great value in North- America — When introduced, and by whom — The rice grown in Carolina and Georgia is the finest in the world— Rice is made into various dishes of cookery — Is boiled and eaten with milk or molasses — An excellent diet for children — Prevents thirst when eaten after salt meats— The efF^ects of fluids in regard to digestion — How to remove the ailments caused by over indulgence in rich food — The caltivation of rice in Georgia and South-Carolina — The bobolink, or rice-bird— 'Its destructive habits in the rice-field — The Chinese make a kind of wine out of rice, and the people of the East dis- till from it ardent spirits. RICE {Oryza sativa) is a marsli plant, indigenous to a warm climate, and was known 3000 years before the Christian era. It has a near resemblance to barley in its growth, but it contains the least nutri- ment of all the cerealia. It is supposed to have orig- inated in the East-Indies, and, it is stated, in the Sun- da Islands. It is now, and has l)een for ages past, cultivated in the whole of Southern and Eastern Asia, in Northern Africa, and in Southern Europe. It was known in the days of Strabo, and was grown in Baby- lon, Susiana, and Syria. It was introduced into eice: its uses and cultiyation. 229 Sicily by the Arabians. In tlie empire of China and throughout the continents and islands of the East-In- dies, the people live almost exclusively on rice and olive oil ; for rice is the reliable food of those parts of the Old World. The introduction of rice into the l^orth-American colonies has proved to be one of the great events which has contributed to the accumulation of wealth in our Southern States, and was the result of a fortu- itous circumstance. It occurred in the year 1694, when Thomas Smith, a planter of South-Carolina, an enterprising gentleman and much praised for his prudent administration, was Governor of 'that col- ony."^ A v(^s.-el from Madagascar, on her homeward voj^age to Britain, happening to call at Charleston, the captain presented the Governor with a bag of rice, which cereal he said he had seen growing in eastern countries, where it was deemed excellent food, and yielded a prodigious increase. The Governor di- vided the rice between several of his friends, who cultivated it, and found the result to exceed their most sanguine expectations. And from this circum- stance Carolina dates tlie rise of one of tlie staple com- modities which have tended to increase lier opulence. The rice grown in Carolina and Georgia is the finest in the world, far exceeding in quality any grown in the countries whence the seed was obtained. There is a constant demand for it at home and abroad. Still, rice has never been made a reliable bread grain in this country, where it is simply en:i ployed in the production of various dishes of cookery, but by no ^Hinton's History of tlie United States, vol. i. p. 207. 230 CEREALS AND LEGUMES. means to the exclusion of such other bread grains as Indian corn, wheat, and rye. When boiled in the grain until it becomes tender, and tlien eaten with milk, it forms an excellent light diet and an admirable food for children, for which j^urposes it is much used in some parts of the country. Eaten with molasses, it is taken as a dessert by the laboring classes, and w^ith much advantage to their health, particularly when it is partaken of after salted meats, as it prevents a thirst for water, the quenching of which would cause dilution of the digestive secretions. We would here remark that it is a most injurious practice, and one that be- comes habitual with many, for persons, when eating their regular meals, to take a quantity of coifee, tea, soup, etc. They will also drink several half-pints of w^ater — half a pint being the usual quantity contained in an ordinary tumbler or goblet. This habit often in- duces dyspepsia, and injures weak digestive powers. The same may be said of drinking large quantities of fluids of any kind immediately before eating. The direct tendency of such practice is to dilute the diges- tive secretions and thus to impair their wonted func- tions in the process of digestion. Persons, especially those residing in cities, too often indulge in eating rich dishes and indigestible com- pounds, and thereby induce an abnormal condition of the stomach, wdiicli results in morbid secretions. For these a curative may be found in the drinking of large quantities of water, (whether containing mineral salts or not,) two or three hours before or after micals, and more especially if the diet is then limited to plain bread and meat, boiled rice, and fruit, no fluid being eice; its uses and cultivation. 231 taken during the meal. But, in all sucli cases, a cure would be greatly accelerated by a bracing country atmosphere, and by well-regulated exercise in order to engender strength, care being taken to avoid fatigue, which under all circumstances must be strict- ly regarded as an indication to take rest, and as na- ture's monitor to the invalid. As the cultivation of rice in the United States is confined to a mere locality, the reader will be inter- ested by a description of the mode of culture adopted in South-Carolina and Georgia. The ground is pre- pared by the furrowing out of trenches, about eighteen inches apart, wdiich operation is performed about the first of IVLarch ; the seed is then sown in st;*aight lines, by negro women, after which the water, wliich has been prevented from overflowing the ground by dikes and flood-gates, is allowed to flow over it to the depth of several inches, and to remain upon it for a week. This promotes the germination of the seed ; and, in about four weeks from the time that the water has been drawn off, the plant will have grown to the height of three or four inches. Then the flood-gates are again opened, and the field is once more overflowed, and continued so for about two weeks, for tlie purpose of destroying the grass and weeds that have sprung up with the rice. After this the water is again withdrawn and kept off, and the rice frequently hoed to keep down the weeds and loosen the soil about the roots. It is reaped about the first of September, the harvest some- times continuing to October. The work is done -by negro men and women, who suffer much from sickness during its perform.ance. 232 CEREALS AND LEGUMES. About the time the riee-heads begin to fill and the grains to be fnlly develo23ed, constant vigilance has to be kept by the negro children, in order to drive off what is known in that locality as the rice-hird, but, from the peculiarity of its note or song, is called in the Northern States the bobolink. This being a very musical bird, it is much prized as a cage bird, and, among naturalists, bears the name of the Erriberiza oryzivora. The male b-ird is rather hand- some, and is six or seven inches long. The head and under part of the body are black ; the back is a mixture of black, white, and yellow ; and the legs are red. In spring and early summer these birds breed in the Northern States, and, about the begin- ning of August, migrate to the rice-fields, first visiting those of the island of Cuba, where the crop ripens the earliest, and then proceeding to those of South-Caro- lina and Georgia. They migrate in the night and in immense flocks, and are heard by the sailors at sea as they pass over the ocean on their way to the rice-fields, where in a few weeks they get so fat as to be enabled only to fly with difficulty. They are often shot, and eaten as a great delicacy. The Chinese make from rice a kind of wine which resembles a white wine known as Xeres j but the mode of manufacture is not known to others. In the East, ardent spirits are to a considerable amount manu factured from tliis cereal. CHAPTER VIII. INDIAN CORN AND ITS PKEPAKATIONS. « Indian corn indigenous to America — Cultivated by the Indians, but not mentioned by tlie first voyagers to Virginia — Hospitality of the natives — During Grandville's second visit, Lane learned to smoke tobacco, and afterward introduced it into England — Cap- tain Smith obtained maize from the natives — First slaves intro- duced into Virginia — Maize now cultivated in Egypt, India, China, Greece, and Italy — The Mexican Indians pl-epared sugar from maize, also spirituous liquors and common drinks — Large quantities distilled in the Southern and Western States — Used for fattening cattle — Its fattening and muscle-making properties compared with those of other plants — Agricultural products of the United States — Unripe corn considered a delicacy — Prepara- tions from corn — Corn-bread only suitable food for healthy per- sons — Much eaten in the Southern States — Why it is not injuri- ous — Cooling effect of perspiration — Carbonaceous food gene- rates fat, bile, or sugar — Starch conduces to diabetes — Proper food for a warm climate, and for children confined to the house. INDIAN COEN, or Maize, {Zea mays,) being so common in the United States, requires no de- scription. Naturalists all agree in determining its native region to be America, where the Indians were found cultivating it w^hen the country was first dis- covered ; although it is strange that it was not seen, or rather is not related to have been seen, by the first voy- agers to Virginia in 1584."^ The historian states that *Hakluyt, vol. iii, pp. 248, 249. 234 CEREALS AND LEGUMES. Amadas and Barlow, on making tlieir first visit to that colony, near the mouth of Albemarle Sound, were seve- ral times visited by the natives, and finally made a visit to them on an island called Roanoake, some twenty miles up the river. When they came to the island, they found at the north end a village of nine houses, built of cedar and carefully fortified. Here they were received by the wife of an Indian chief named Gran- GANiMO, who, after they had dried themselves, placed before them to eat some " wlieate like fermente ; sodden venison and roasted ; fish, sodden, boyled, and roasted ; melons rawe and sodden ; roots of divers kindes; and divers fruits." The drink of these people was found to be commonly water, but, adds the narrator, ''while the grape lasteth they drinke wine, and, for want of caskes to keep it all the year after, they drinke water, but it is sodden [which must mean prepared] with ginger in it and black sinamon, and sometimes sassa- fras and divers other wholesome and medicinable herbes and trees." In the friendly repast offered the travelers there is no mention of Indian corn, unless the " wheten ferment" was made of it, and what ren- ders this view most probable is that wheat was not cultivated or known by the natives. This chiefs wife (and, if a fair representative of the people, they were most hospitable) tendered her guests the utmost kindness with the greatest possible sim- plicity. The narrator states that "she commanded her people to drawe the t)oate on shore from the beat- ing of the billoe, others she appointed to carry us on their backes to the dry gl*ound, and others to bring our oars into the house for fear of stealing. When wo INDIA^iT CORN AND ITS PREPARATIONS. 235 were come into the outter roome, having five in her house, she caused us to sit downe by a great fire, and after tooke off* our cloathes and washed them, and dried them againe ; some of the women phicked of our stock- ings and washed them ; some washed our feete iu warm water, and she herself tooke great paines to see all things ordered in the best manner she could, mak- ing great haste to dresse some meate for us to eate. " We were entertained with all love and kindnesse, and with as much bountie, after their manner, as tiiey could possibly devise. We found the people most * gentle, lovang, and faithful, voide of all guile and trea- son, and such as live after the manner of the golden age. Their meat is very well sodden, and^they make broth very sweet and savorie ; their vessels are earthen pots, very large, white, and sweete; their dishes are wooden platters of sweet timber.'*' In 1586, Granville made his second voyage, and Heriot described the inhabitants and the country. Lane, the associate of Granville, then learned to smoke tobacco and relish it, and was the first to intro- duce the commodity into England. Since that early period, the propensity to indulge in the intoxicating influence of this nauseous weed has so increased that 267,267,920 pounds were sold in the United States in the year 1865 ; the average cost of manufacturing it being probably about one dollar per pound. This useless expenditure of money for a worse than useless indulgence would pay our public debt of two and a half billions in less than ten years. In May, 1607, Captain John Smith obtained corn {maize) from the natives in Virginia, and he states 236 CEREALS AND LEGUMES. that it became the common food of tlie new inhabi- tants, and was not only tlieir main reliance for many years, bnt the favorite bread grain in that part of the conntry of the Avhlte people, the natives, and the slaves ; some twenty Africans having been purchased, in June, 1619, from a Dntcli ship in the James river. These were the first slaves introduced into the colo- nies ; and their introduction inflicted upon us a most grievous ill, which time atoned for by the sacrifice of several hundred thousand lives. It is admitted by all tliat maize or Indian corn was unknown to Europeans before the discovery of America. It is now cultivated in Egypt, India, and China — to the inhabitants of wdiich countries it was also unknown previous to the discovery of this conti- nent — and it is likewise raised in Greece and Italy. It grows and produces grain in America from the south- ern tropic to 50^ north latitude. In Africa it is culti- vated on the western coast and to some distance in the interior ; and on the northern, upon the lands border- ing the Mediterranean. It is supposed to be indige- nous to Central America, and was, it is stated, carried to Mexico by the Zoltecs. The Peruvians make it their principal bread grain, and use it in various pre- parations. The Mexicans dedicated this grain, as the first-fruit, to their god Cintentl, (from Centli, maize,) m a similar manner to the dedication of wheat by the Greeks to their Demeter. Humboldt states that the Mexican Indians, previ- ous to the conquest of their country, were accustom- ed not only to express the sweet juice from maize- stalks, for the purpose of fermenting it into intoxicat- INDIAN CORN AND ITS PREPARATIONS. 237 ing liquor, but that tliey boiled it down to the consis- tence of a sirup, whicli, in his ojjinion, they were able to make into sugar. In confirmation of this opinion he recites a letter w^ritten by Cortez, who, in describing to the Emperor Charles V. tlie various pro- ductions, both natural and manufactured, which he found in the new country, asserts that among these were seen " honey of the bees and wax ; honey from the stalks of maize, which are as sv/eet as sugar-cane; and honey from the shrub which the people call maguey, {Agave Americana,) The natives make sugar from these plants, and this sugar they also sell." Humboldt furtJier informs us that the Mexican In- dians still produce from the juice or sugar made from maize several fermented liquors, some of which resem- ble beer, w^iile others are like cider ; and a spirituous liquor called jptdque de iiiahis^ or thaouili. Other more common beverages made from maize are known in that country by the name of chicha. In our Southern and Western States, large quanti- ties of Indian corn are distilled into spirituous liquor. This grain constitutes the principal crop i-aised in many localities, where it is used not only for distilla- tion, but for the fattening of hogs and cattle, and for the food of the people. Whisky, hogs, and cattle are found to be more readily transported to market, and with less expense, than the grain. Corn is supposed to be one of the most profita- ble crops of grain grown in the Western States. With a little extra cultivation, there have been raised 263 bushels of Indian corn upon one acre of 288 CEREALS AND LEGUMES. ground in the State of Indiana, and not upon a single acre, bnt npon eacli one of a ten-acre field. Under ordinary circumstances from 115 to 180 bushels have been gathered per acre off rich alluvial soil. "The authorit)^ from which we derive the last-named facts states that a vast portion of the crop is con- sumed by turning hogs out upon it as soon as the grain begins to harden, about the middle of Septem- ber. By this means the produce of the land is re- turned to the ground, in the form of the rich manure of the hogs, which only take away the increased fat they accumulate. This mode has sustained the soil in producing great crops. The advantages of employing Indian corn for the fattening of these animals will be elucidated by a comparison of the amount of fat-producing material contained in that grain with the amount found in the potato, and by contrasting the total amount an acre of land will yield from the two products. For the first we have the well-ascertained fact that 100 pounds of corn contain 73 pounds of fat-producing elements, and that the same number of pounds of potatoes contain only 55 pounds of those elements. And, if we adopt this basis, and calculate that an acre of w^ ell-cultivated land will produce 180 bushels of corn or 200 bushels of potatoes, which at GO pounds to the bushel will give a total of 10,800 pounds of the former and of 12,000 pounds of the latter, we find that the crop of corn will yield 7884: pounds of fat- producing elements, while that of potatoes will supply only 6600 pounds. This exhibits a difference of 1284 pounds, or more than twenty per cent, in favor of corn INDIAN^CORN AND ITS PREPARATIONS. 239 — an important consideration to the farmer in feeding stock, whether for market or for home consumption. As we liave here introduced tlie subject of com- parison as to the organic elements of corn and pota- toes, we will state the comparative quantity of muscle- making elements contained in each. In Indian corn we have about twenty-seven per cent of muscle-pro- ducing material, and in potatoes forty-five per cent. Consequently, a man must eat a largely increased weight of corn to that of potatoes to obtain an equal amount of strength ; and thus potatoes are superior to corn as a nutriment for man. Wheat-flour, how- ever, contains over sixty per cent, and affords more than double the nutriment contained in Indian corn ; therefore, in an economical point of view, wheat- flour is the cheaper. The average price in the port of New- York for Indian corn, jier bushel, for four years, was seventy-seven cents ; and of wlieat, per bushel, for the same time, one dollar and fifty-six cents. This determines that wheat produces the most economical bread in our cities, and it is without doubt the most palatable to the poor. To make up the deficiency in quantity, in order to satisfy the appetite, potatoes are the most suitable for persons who are either unaccus- tomed to eating corn-bread, or to whom it is unpalata- ble. Those who have been accustomed to eat it prefer it to all others ; and it is more or less eaten by our na- tive-born citizens in all parts of the country. By them cor!2 flour is frequently combined or mixed with flour mavl'd from wheat, rye, or buckwheat ; but there is only a small portion of flour thus mixed consumed in bread in comparison to the amount grown. 240 CEREALS AND LEGUMESr Indian corn is the leading agricnltural product of the United States, as set forth in the census returns for I86O5 during the ten years previous to which the coun- try was most prosperous. The following table gives the production of tlie leading staples of the country in the year in which tlie census was taken, with the value of the crop of each at the average wholesale prices of that year : Products. Quantity. Price. Value. . busliels 838,793,740 $0 77 $645,870,410 Wheat 173,104,924 1 56 270,043,681 172,643,185 0 43 64,236,570 2,154,820,800 0 12 258,578,496 434,209,461 0 8 34,736,757 187,167,032 0 8,419,816 A large amount of Indian corn is eaten before it has fully hardened in the ear, and, wdien rather hard, is very irritating to the stomach and bowels of delicate persons. In this unripe state, when boiled in the ear for the table, it is generally considered a delicacy, especially the variety known as " sweet corn." Of other varieties, when ripe, numerous dishes are made from preparations known as samp, hominy, farina, grits, and flour of the farina. The latter is designated as corn-starcli^ and is made into delicious puddings and delicate preparations very suitable for the sick. Both bread and cake are made out of corn-meal ; and the higher classes of persons have expensive compounds produced from it by the INDIAN COKN AND ITS PKEPAKATIONS. 241 addition of eggs, milk, and sugar. These compounds are palatable and nutritious, but very hard to digest ; and, consequently, have a tendency to generate acid iti the stomach. Corn-bread is only a suitable diet for hearty persons who have plenty of exercise in a free, pure atmosphere, whereby the fat generating portion can most readily be expended ; for a large amount of it must be eaten in order that a sufficiency of the muscle-making por- tion may be obtained to afford strength to labor. Here the question arises, Why is it that corn-bread is eaten to the greatest extent in oar Southern States, and during the warm summer season, with comparative impunity? Tlie reply is, that nature has made ample provision in the animal eoon^^yny for the relief of the system under such circumstances ; and thus we have tlie skin performing an important func- tion, that of secreting perspiration, much of which passes off in the form of vapor. For it is a well- known law in the science of cliemistry that water, in assuming the form of vapor, absorbs much heat from the body. The operation is identical with that of cool- ing water in a porous jug. A portion of the water contained in it percolates the porous material of which the jug is made, and is evaporated by the heat of the sun ; but that portion, before leaving the jug, absorbs an additional amount of heat from the remaining wa- ter, and thus deprives it of the warmth that constitu- ted it in equilibrio with the heated atmosphere. By this means the water remaining in the jug is rendered much cooler than tlie atmosphere. And it is in a simi- lar way that the body is relieved of its excessive heat. 242 CEREALS AND LEGUMES. We would here direct attention to a fact in relation to a person who is perspiring freely. The skin, if tested with a thermometer, or even with the hand of a person not perspiring so freely, will be found to be much cooler than many of the surrounding bodies. The skin thus cooled condenses much of the secreted fluid, and perspiration will be noticed to flow over the surface. Thus it is that the internal parts of the animal body, if in a healthy condition, are found to maintain the same degree of heat under all the varia- tions of temperature in different climates, and after eating of various kinds of food. Wlien the food con- tains much of the carboniferous substances and is not consumed in respiration, it generates in the sys* tem fat, bile, or sugar, each of which tends to an ab- normal condition of the sj'stem, more or less serious, fat being the least dangerous. Bile is the excitant of fever in various degrees of virulence, the more mode- rate forms of which are curable. Sugar, when gene- rated in the system, produces excessive secretion from the kidneys, and, as we have said, constitutes the dis- ease known as diabetes^ which is commonly considered to be incurable, but is providentially seldom induced. These remarks apply equally to all kinds of fari- naceous food, and are of importance in proportion to the quantity of starch such food contains. They are also applicable to oleaginous food — to fat and butter — • and to molasses and sugar, all of Avhich are subject to the same transformation as starch, more especially if quietude is indulged in. Motion, or exorciffein the open air, by causing an increase of perspiration, is the only reliable means of relieving the system when BUCKWHEAT AND ITS VAEIETIES. 243 it becomes overpowered or burdened by the excess of Tinsnitable diet, or by tlie heat of a tropical climate or a warm, close room. If persons thus situated would only submit themselves to a limited diet of wheat bread, fruit, a small quantity of lean meat, and to water for a drink, a tolerable condition of health might be re- gained, providing the mind were tranquil, and a sys- tematic regulation were adhered to in taking food and rest. These hygienic observances should be especially enforced in all cases where children are confined in the nursery-rooms of our modern houses that are heated by hot air and lighted with gas ; the only ex- ception being, that the growing child requires more food than an adult, and plenty of excise of both body and lungs. CHAPTER IX. BUCKWHEAT AND ITS VARIETIES. Buckwheat, caUed in Germany leech-icJieat, introduced into Europe in tlie sixteenth century — Has no affinity with the cerealia — Is used very extensively as a bread grain — When green is excenent fodder for milch cows — The grain is good for domes»tic animals — Affords more muscle than corn — Is hard to digest — In Dantzic it is largely distilled into spirits — The several varieties of buck- wheat and analogous grains. BUCKWHEAT, {Polygonum fagopijritm^ — or, as it is called in Germany, from the resemblance of the seed to that of the beechnut, heecJi-wheat^ — is said to have been introduced into Europe in the be- 244 CFKEALS AND LEGUMES. giniiiiag of tlie sixteeiitli century, and is supposed to liave been bronglit thither from the north-western regions of Cliina, whence it was distributed by the Saracens. It is now cultivated in the wliole of Middle and Nortliern Europe, as well as in Northern Asia. In Northern India and Ceylon it is confined to narrow limits, and is there of very recent introduction, com- paratively speaking. Buckwheat has no afiinity w^ith the cerealia ; it be- longs entirely to a different family of plants; but Ave notice it in this place because it is one of the bread grains nsed by man as food, and in the United States to a very considerable extent. In England it is not so used, but grown as fodder for cattle. When nsed as green fodder and gi^vento cows, it is said to increase to a great extent the excellence and quantity of milk. Much value attaches to it in consequence of its bearing great drought, and remaining green when all the other grasses in the meadows are dried up. It is also prized for its nutritive qualities when given in the grain to poultry ; and thus it is grown in England in secluded places for the feeding of pheasants and their preser- vation. The grain, wdien coarsely ground and mixed with oats, likewise constitutes excellent food for horses ; and, when used alone, for the fattening of hogs, which proves that it contains a large quantity of starch. It ferments most readily — much more so than Indian corn, as it contains more gluten or fibrin — and it con- sequently affords more strength or muscle-making material than the latter ; but it is very difficult to digest, and it is therefore only fit food for laboring people. The bread made from buckwheat flour, like that BUCKWHEAT AND ITS VARIETIES. 245 made from common maize, is, wlien cold, heavy and insoluble ; wliicli indicates the excessive amount of starch those grains contain compared with wheat. In Dantzic, large quantities of buckwheat are dis- tilled into spirits of a fine quality, and are used in the manufacture of cordials. Several varieties of this grain are used in differ- ent parts of the world as food for man ; but, as they are but little grown in our country, we will merely give them a passing notice. Polygonum tartariGiim is of the same family as our common buckwheat, but of a stronger growth. It was introduced into Europe at a much later period than that plant, and is there used for enriching the soil by plowing it under when green, and leaving it to decay. Another variety, known as Polygonum emarginatwn^ is grown in China and Nepaul. It is quite e(pial to the variety grown by us, one bushel of seed producing from forty-eight to fifty bushels of grain ; and its cultivation is very advantageous to the fiirmer, as it is often grown in ground that has been planted with wheat or rye in the fall, but the crops of which have been destroyed in the winter and spring. The farmer is thus enabled to obtain a crop of buckwheat, suffi- cient to remunerate him for his labor in preparing the ground for an unproductive v/heat or rye crop. On the discovery of America^ the inhabitants of New-Granada, Peru, and Chile were found cultivat- ing a somewhat similar grain, which they still grow, and find very productive; and it is rather remark- able that this particular grain has never been disse- minated to other parts of the world. It is the Quinoa 246 CEREALS AND LEGUMES. clienopodiiim^ (Will.,) and constitutes the bread of tlie inhabitants. The white quinoa is cultivated in Europe for its leaves (which are very like spinage) but not for the seed. The native inhabitants of the East-Indies cultivate as a bread grain the Amarantus frumentaoeiis^ (Roxb.) It yields quite equal to the quinoa, and is grown ex- tensively on the mountain slopes of Mysore and Co- imbatore. CHAPTER X. MILLET, SORGHUM, AND IMPIIEE. Millet commonly grown in tlie East-Indies — Was known to the Greeks and Romans — The several varieties — The Sorghum sao- charatum, a native of India — Its introduction as a sugar-produc- ing plant into the United States — Impliee, or African sorghum — ■ The sorgho flourishes in the various climates of the Union — Its numerous merits — Its manufftcture into sugar — Its general use — Thp stalks foi-m nutritious fodder for cattle — Yield of sugar and molasses per acre — Various methods adopted to obtain the same — Alcoholic drinks manufactured from the sap — Uses to wliicli the seeds, husks, etc., can be applied — Mode of cultivating sorghum — Expenses attendant upon cultivation and manufac- ture, and the profit per acre — Means of testing the presence of acid in molasses — How meat is preserved with molasses — Im- portance of the sorghum plant — Invaluable uses of molasses. THE common Millet^ {Panicum miliaceum^) com- monly grown in the East-Indies and other warm regions of Asia., is very little inferior in pro- ductiveness and profit to rice. Although a very small MILLET, SOKGIIUM, AND IMPHEE. 247 grain, it yields most abundantly, owing to wliicli cir- cumstance the name Qnille (a thousand) has been de- rived from it. Tliis grain was known to the Greeks and Romans at the time of Julius Cjesak. Strabo states that it throve excellently in Gaul, and was the best protection against famine. The Sclavonians are said to be very fond of a dish made from it, and call- ed by them Kasha prosiia. It is believed by some writers that it was this grain, and not the Indian millet, (Sorghum mdgare^) that the Emperor CiimANO introduced into China three thousand years ago. Major Denham, when traveling in Central Africa, found a species of millet to be the grain most in use among the people of all classes in Bornpu, and upon wdnch their animals also were fed. It was produced in great quantities, and with scarcely any trouble. The poorer people ate it raw, or parched in the sun, and were satisfied without any other nourishment for several days together. Bruised and steeped in water, it formed the traveling stock of all pilgrims and sol- diers. When cleared of the husks, pounded, and made into a light paste, in wliicli a little meloheia (the ehoo ochra of Guinea) and melted fat were mixed, it form- ed a favorite dish, and w\as called Tx,a(ldell,^ There are several varieties of millet, which are designated by their color only, as they do not vary in quality or size of seed ; some of these are single-spiked, and others much branched. Europe claims one vari- ety known Vi^Setaria Germanica ; and another, Setaria Italica^ which is generally grown to feed birds and poultry. *^ Denliam and Clapperton's Travels, p. 316. 248 CEREALS AND LEGUMES. The variety of millet that most especially demands our attention is tlie sorghum^ which is known by a diversity of names in the different countries where it is grown. In India it is called javaroy ; in Egypt and Nubia, dhoicrra j and in the West-India Colonies, Guinea corn^ the seed having been conveyed thither from the western coast of Africa, wdiere it is called imjyhee. The golden-colored seed produced by the Sorghum saccharatum is much used, and in a similar manner to rice, for puddings. Tlie plant is a native of India, and is cultivated largely in China and Cochin China. It Avas introduced into the island of Jamaica, and re- cently into our own country, as a sugar-producing plant for our South-Western States. The variety known as imi?]iee^ or African sorghum, has been still more recently introduced for the same purpose. There is, however, but a slight difference in the two varie- ties, probably a mere climatic change. The imphee is said to be more uniform and vigorous in growth than the other, and to contain the purest saccharine matter ; but much of this, we presume, depends upon soil, climate, and favorable seasons. The first reports on the culture of sorghum to any considerable extent in the United States appeared in 1856, the plant having been introduced into the coun- try but a few years previous. In that year, Mr. II. S. Olcoit, of the Mount Vernon Farm School, State of New-York, read a very interesting paper'^' upon the subject before th'j Farmers' Club of the American Reported in the Transactions of tlie American Institute, 1856, p. 324. MILLET, SOEGHUM, AND IMPHEE. 249 Institute, in whicli paper lie stated that the possibility of raising the sorgho in this country, even to the com- plete maturity of its seeds and the extraction of sirup from its juice, had been proved by actual experiment in Massachusetts, Yermont, Connecticut, New-York, Pennsylvania, J^ew-Jersey, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Maryland, Yirginia, District of Columbia, N^orth and South-Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana, Mis- souri, and Kansas, in all of whicli States, a greater or less amount of seed had been sown."^* Tlie fact of the adaptability of the plant to these wide extremes of territory makes its .introduction to tlie list of our economic plants a matter of general interest ; and especially at a period like the present, when there exists a general fe-ar with regard to the future productiveness of onr sugar plantations. We therefore present an exposition of its various merits, the subject being one that is daily increasing in its importance. As a sacchariferous plant, its superiority to the ordinary sugar-cane consists : , 1st. In its adaptability to all varieties of latitude as far north as the forty-fom^th parallel. 2d. In its being propagated from its owm seed, whicli is obtained in connection with the saccharine matter. 3d. In its ripening at a more convenient season of the year. 4tli. In its yielding two crops in a season. * Tlie cultivation of tins very useful plant is, at this time, 18G7, but very limited, being undertaken by but a few individuals in eacli of the States named. 250 CEREALS AND LEGUMES. From tlie first of these peculiarities, the smallest farmer in tlie New-England, Middle, or Western States is enabled to manufacture his own molasses and sugar, and is thereby relieved from the in- creased expense for these necessaries of life which is always attendant upon a failure of the crop of South- ern cane ; while the peculiar luxuriance of the sorgho in warmer latitudes makes it there a formidable rival to that plant. The great trouble and expense atten- dant upon procuring and saving the cuttings of the cane are entirely obviated with the sorgho ; and con- sequently, even thongh the actual yield of sugar per acre is much less from the latter than the former, it will be more likely to prove remunerative to the planter. The sorgho ripens three months before the cane, being ready for crushing in the State of Louisi- ana throughout August and September. It thus per- fects its seed in full time to escape frost, and its crop is, therefore, far less liable to failure than that of the cane. The uses of the sorgho are so various, every part and portion of the plant being valuable, as to have obtained for it from the National Intelligencer the name of vegetable sheep." A few of these uses ■we will enumerate: 1st. Soiling Cattle. — It gives two and even three crops of succulent stalks, which are very nutritious and grateful to stock. In July, the sorgho cane will have attained a growth of five or six feet, and, if then cut down for fodder, rattoons (young shoots) will spring up from the stands or stubble, and yield a bountiful harvest in the coming September and Octo- MILLET, SORGHUM, AND IMPHEE. 251 her. In Georgia, Mr. Redmond has obtained tliree^ crops of fodder ; and in South-Carolina, Governor Hammond has obtained sugar and seed fully ripe from the second crop, that is, after he had obtained one crop of fodder. 2d. Yield of Sugar. — M. Arequin, of Louisiana, calculates its product of good crystallized sugar at 1000 pounds to the acre ; while M. Yilmorin, of France, pots it at 2386 pounds. Ecicii llioiisand pounds of sugar will drip fifty-five galJonsoi' mohisses; but, if the object of cultivation be simply to obtain sirup, then we may count upon a product of four hundred gallons per acre under favorable circumstances. Colonel Peters, of Georgia, obtained four hundred and sixty-eight gallons, and this, too, with very incomplete apparatus. From all parts of the Union, reports have been received of the suc- cessful production of sirup and sugar from the sorgho sap. It has been obtained by various methods. One person pounded his stalks with a rolling-pin, next boil- ed them, and then evaporated the excess, water. Ano- ther crushed them with an ordinary grocer's sugar- mill, after which he twisted them and rinsed out the sap, from which pure sirup was obtained by boiling it in a sauce-pan. Still another cut the stalks into small pieces, which he boiled in water without any preparatory crushing or bruising ; while a fourth squeezed out the sap, by means of a pair of horizon- tal rollers, geared to an equal speed and driven by a couple of mules. But various as these methods are, they all establish the absolute presence of sirup in the sorgho sap, in the difterent States from whence 252 CEREALS AND LEGUMES. the reports have come ; and to obtain from it tlie largest amount of sugar possible, it is only necessary to apply tlie means adopted in the manufacture of cane- sugar, as previously pointed out in this work. Governor Hammond is of the opinion that the young- er sorgho-canes are richer in saccharine principle than the older ones ; but the experience of Professor Henze in France, and that of Mr. Olcott at the Farm School, indicate that the extreme richness in the sugar is attendant upon the full maturity of the seed. However, if the canes are allowed to remain uncut for some time after the seed has turned red and passed the milk state, a smaller per cent of sugar will be obtamed. The Zooloo Caffres increase the sweetness of tlie sap by cutting oft* tlie tops of the plants just as the seed- heads begin to show themselves. A like practice was successfully pursued in the United States in the pre- vious experiments to make sugar from sweet corn. 3d. Alcoholic Drinhs. — From the sap of the sorgho may also be obtained several fermented alcoholic drinks, such as brandy, rum, pure alcohol, and cider. M. AREQmN, howevei", says that the sorgho cognacs are greatly inferior to the usual ones; but this difference, Professor Henze remarks, is distinctly and entirely due to the imperfect methods of manufacture. M. ViLMORiN calculates the product of alcohol per acre at 180i gallons. 4th. Uses to which the Seeds ^ Ilushs^ etc.^ can he applied, — The seeds make a good meal, which has been prepared into cakes that have been pronounced al- most equal to those made from buckwheat The seeds, \ MILLET, SOKGHUM, AND IMPHEE. 253 too> are inucli relished by cattle, hogs, horses, and fowls. M. SiGARD, a manufacturer of Marseilles, has success- fullj^ used the hulls of the seeds for the production of a beautiful carmine for dyeing his linen and cotton goods. The National Intelligencer of Washington City states that the sap, if set with oxide of tin, gives a pink color to silken fabrics. Also that, after the seed has been removed from the tassels, the lattermay be made into brooms, and answer for that purpose almost as well as broom-corn. The usual yield of seed per acre is about twenty-five bushels, of thirty- six pounds each, but in some cases it is even more, and in others less. The soil most suitable for growing sorghum is rich sandy loam or bottom land ; but it will flourish very well on coarse gravelly soil, if care is taken to keep down the weeds, and, when planting it, to allow plen- ty of room. The seed should not be covered more than half an inch with fine mould, and previous to ])lanting should be soaked in hot water for a few hours. After the plants have made their appearance above the ground, the soil should be freely stirred witli the plow, so as to keep it loose about the roots. Mr. D. M. Cook, of Mansfield, Oliio, states''^ the ex- pense attending the cultivation and manufacture of sugar per acre in that State, in 1862, to have been as follows : The expense of cultivating and manufacturing an acre of sorghum is about tliirty-seven dollars. It may run possibly to forty-five or fifty dollars. My cane yielded about two hundred and tvrenty-five gallons to * Agricultural Report from Patent Ofdce for 1862, pp. 311-814 254 CEREALS AND LEGUMES. tlie acre, and of this about seven pounds to tlie gal- lon were crystallizable sugar, giving one tliousand five hundred and seventy-five pounds to the acre." Mr. J. H. Smith, of Quincj, Illinois, made one thousand five hundred pounds to tlie acre from the crop of 1861, and had, besides, one hundred and fif- teen gallons of good sirup. Brown sugar then re- tailed throughout the West at twelve and a half cents, and the wholesale price was ten cents per pound. Molasses sold readily at forty cents, wholesale. The profits may therefore be stated to have been as under : 1500 pounds of sugar, at 10 cents per pound, $150 00 115 gaUons of molasses, at 40 cents per gaUon, .... 46 00 $196 00 , Deduct expenses, 50 00 Balance, net profit, $146 00 Molasses from sorghum is now being used, when perfectly free from acid, for the curing of meat. The presence of acid is easily ascei'tained by immersing into the molasses a slip of litmus paper thus prepar- ed : Take half an ounce of litmus, which can be pur- chased from an apothecary, put it into an earthen ves- sel, pour over it half a pint of boiling water, and then let it stand in a warm place for two hours. Dip into this mixture slips of white wrapping-paper, which it will turn to a purple color, and then dry them, and afterward inclose them in a well-dried, wide-mouthed bottle, which must be kept from the light. When a strip of this litmus paper is used as a test, the presence of acid will turn it red or reddish in degree to the amount of acid contained in the molasses, or in any other substances to which it may be applied. MILLET, SORGHUM, AND IMPHEE. 255 To prepare the meat for curing with sorghum mo- lasses, it must be first covered with a strong brine for twenty -four hours, at the end of which tlie brine must be taken off, and subjected to the following treat- ment : To twen-ty gallons of brine add four ounces of saltpetre (nitrate of potash) and four gallons of molasses, and then boil the whole till a bright amber- colored solution is formed. When cool, carefully re- move the scum, and then again pour the liquid over the meat, and let it soak it for twenty days. Hams thus prepared, and then smoked, are of superior flavor. We have been led into these extended remarks upon the qualities and uses of the sorghum plant, in conse- quence of its apparent usefulness to man as food in so many different forms, and of the limited knowledge the people possess of it, owing to its very recent intro- duction into our country ; and the statements are espe- cially intended to invite the attention of our Northern and Western farmers to the cultivation of what may prove to them a most valuable crop, and may aftbrd to all sugar and molasses at a cheap rate. Molasses is much used by every person who can procure it, and is given with great advantage to children to eat w^ith their bread, as it obviates in them the desire to par- take excessively of fats and gravies, which are most indigestible articles of diet, and, if composed of pork, generate diseases of the skin and eyes. When eaten by children in robust health, molasses neither be- comes acid in the stomach nor possesses any tendency to impair the secretions. It is only inadmissible food for very delicate persons, in whom it is liable to pro- duce acidity. CHAPTER XI. PEAS, BEANS, AND LENTILS. Peas and beans most nutritious, but difficult to digest — For horses and oxen they exceed all other food in nutriment — The garden pea cultivated at a very remote period — The several varieties of peas — The chick-pea an object of devotion — Where it is cultivated — Much used by the Spaniards — Was the parched pulse of the He- brews — Eastern trade in parched peas — Garden and field peas — The bean known at an earlier period than the pea — Kyanetes, the god of beans, honored by the Athenians — The bean considered an impure fruit by the Egyptians — Was in ancient times the sym- bol of death — Cultivated in China 2822 years before the Christian era — Is made into flour and bread by the Abyssinians — Is largely cultivated in Barbary — Varieties of beans — The kidney-bean — The lentil grown in France and Italy — Made into soup in Catholic countries as a limited diet for fast-days — Is the most nu- tritious of the leguminous seeds — Eaten by the Hindoos when engaged in laborious work. HE products of leguminous plants form a very JL nutritious food for man, most invaluable to ro- bust persons, but ditlicult of digestion by those wlio possess enfeebled digestive organs. Peas and beans, when matured, contain more nitrogenous matter than the cerealia. This matter is, however, in a peculiar form, and somewhat resembles that found in the curd of milk, known as casein or cheese, which, we have al- ready indicated, is very indigestible, and not so solu- ble as fibrin and albumen obtained from lean meat. PEAS, BEANS, AND LENTILS. 257 But for the horse and the ox these products are very beneficial, as they exceed all other food consumed by those animals in the power of producing strength. Green peas {Pisum sativum) and green beans ( Vicia faba) do not contain as much of the nitrogenous mat- ter as the matured seed, and they consequently form a most excellent diet for the summer season, as they are easily digested. When they approach maturity, people with weak digestive powers must be cautious in eating them, or serious consequences may be the result. The common garden j^^?^ was cultivated in India at a very remote period, and it was also grown by the Greeks and Eomans. At the present day ij: is found growing wild about the Crimea, and along the coast of the Black Sea ; and its varieties are cultivated as far north as Hamnierfest and Lapland. The Pisicm arvence^ Linn., has been extensively distributed, and is now cultivated in Egypt and in many parts of India. There are many other varieties of peas ; as the Egyp- tian pea, {Pisum jomardi^) the Abyssinian pea, {P. Abyssinicum^) the sea pea, (P. mauriscum^) the Cape Horn pea, {P. Americanum^ and the European, or yellow flowering pea, (P. ochrus^ growing wild on the coasts of France and England ; but none of these are eaten where other food can be obtained. What is known in the East as the chick-pea, {Cicev arieiinum^ Linn.,) is of great importance to the people of that region. It was cultivated by the Jews, Greeks, and Egyptians in ancient times, and was made an ob- ject of devotion. The common people in Greece cultiyate it for food at the present day, and not 258 CEREALS AND LEGUMES. only eat it roasted during the winter months, but nse it like coffee. It is also grown in Egypt and Nubia, as far south as" Abyssinia, and on the heights of Lebanon ; as well as in Spain, where it is used both as a dyeing ingredient and an article of food, and is known by the name of garvanzos. The seed of this pea differs from that of the common pea in not becoming soft when boiled ; consequently the Spaniards do not cook it as w^e do ordinary peas, but strew it about other dishes for ornament, except in the case of a dish called oZZc^— composed of bacon, cabbage, pumpkin, and gar- vanzos — which forms a favorite dinner diet among those people. The chick-pea has been much esteem- ed among many nations from the earliest periods. It is most commonly parched, and thus prepared has continued to the present day to be an article of great consumption. According to Bellokius,^ this pea was the parched pulse which formed the common provision of the Hebrews when they took the field ; and Cassia- Nusf supposes it to have been the torrified seed men- tioned by Plautus and Akistophanes. frictum cicer seems to have constituted a part of the usual food of the lower orders at Rome. In Grand Cairo and Damascus quite an extensive trade is done in the sale of parched chick-peas, wdiich are purchased as a light article of food by travelers when they are about to cross the desert. These parched peas are highly recommended as being not only a nutritious diet, but of great advantage in promoting a free se- cretion of saliva, on account of their being very diffi- * Calm. Diet. Bibb. lib. ii. cap. 53. f Cassian. CoUat. PEAS, BEANS, AND LENTILS. 259 cult to masticate, and thus to a certain degree they prevent thirst. They are called by the Turks who sell them leUebhy, The peas grown in the United States are divided into two classes, those of the garden and that of the field. Of the former there are innumerable varieties as well as various qualities. Some mature in a much shorter time than others, and some vary much in fla- vor ; but all are prized for arriving at maturity in so short a period of time that a number of crops can be obtained in a season, and the table can be furnished with green peas from spring to autumn. The field pea, of which we have only one variety, is in constant requisition for provision for the crews of ships, on board of which an immense quantity is consumed. The hean has been known from a remoter age than the pea, or, at least, it has been noticed by historians at an earlier period. Like the cereajia, it had its divinity claiming devotional service. Kyanetes, the god of beans, stood upon the sacred road to Eleusis, and to him was dedicated the feast of beans, Kya- nepsia^ which the Athenians celebrated in honor of Apollo. The bean was held sacred by the Greeks and Romans, and it was much cultivated by the Jews. By the Egyptians it was considered an impure fruit, and was not allowed even to be touched. Pythagoras forbade his scholars to eat beans. In ancient times the black speck on the white flower of the plant was viewed as a mark of death; and the bean was in consequence considered to be the symbol of death. Though known to the Egyptians, the bean is not found in their catacombs, a circumstance which is probably 260 CEKEALS AND LEGUMES. owing to tlie abhorrence tliey had of it. The Greeks called the JS^elmnbium speciosiun the Egyptian bean," but this is a well known water-plant, having no relation whatever to the bean family. The Chinese cultivated the bean 2822 years before the Christian era. It was considered by them to have been one of the five different kinds of seeds that were introduced by the Emperor Chinang, whose memory they continue to worship, esteeming him as their great benefactor. The Abyssinians make a flour of beans, and bake bread of it. This bread is not very palatable to per- sons unaccustomed to it, but it is probably the most nutritious for healthy, active persons that is made. Along the northern coast of Africa beans are used as an esculent. Mr. Shaw states that beans are largely cultivated in Barbary, where they are eaten stewed with (jil and garlic, and form the principal food of every class. There are many varieties of beans, too numerous to be treated of in detail in this work ; but as all are generally known among us as a common food, the omission of any specific description of them is a matter of but slight importance. A small black bean, called by some the turtle-soup bean, is much prized by the Mexicans and through- out Central America, where it is extensively cultivat- ed, and, w^hen the seeds are ripe, eaten.. This bean is called by the people of that ^^itiion fricollis^ and with tliQm it is said to form a part of almost every meal. In the manner in which they prepare it travelers speak of it as being a most palatable food. PEAS, BEANS, AND LENTILS. 261 In Bornon, a kingdom of Central Africa, four kinds of beans, peculiar to the country and known by the general name of gafooly^ are cultivated and eaten by the slaves and poorer people. A paste compounded from beans and fish was the only food that could be found there by Major Denha^i and his companions in the towns near the river.*^ The kidney-hean {Phaseolics) is most commonly grown in our gardens. There are two varieties and many sub-varieties, all natives of foreign countries. The dwarf kidney-bean, {P, vulgaris^ a native of India and commonly called the French bean, was introduced into England in 1597. The P. multi- floris was introduced into the same country in 1633. The latter is our running bean, and, when growing, requires poles for support. Of this variety, there are the red and white flowering ; but these do not dilfer in any other particular. The lentil {Ervum lens^ Linn.) is a leguminous plant grown by the French and Italians. In most Catholic countries its seeds are made into soup, w^hich is eaten as a limited diet on fast-days ; and in addition they form an ingredient in other culinary preparations. Though the lentil was known at as early a period as the bean, it has never become so widely disseminated. Dr. Playfair states that it contains more nitrogenous matter than any of the legiiminosm^ and consequently is more nutritious, when digested, than any other of the leguminous seeds. The lentil is consumed in the East in considerable quantities ; and a curious proof of its value as a nutritious diet is afforded by the us^ * Denliam and Clapper ton's Travels, p. 317. 2C2 CEREALS AND LEGU^EES. made of it among the Hindoos, who always have re- course to it in addition to their rice, when they are engaged in rowing on the Ganges or in other labori- ous work. Rice, it must be remembered, even when eaten in large quantities, imparts to the system but little strength. TART VL /SCULENTS AND |^RU1T CHAPTEE I THE POTATO. Properties of esculent vegetables — Tlie potato most nutritious and of tlie utmost value to man — Can not be superseded — Found growing wild in Chili — Indigenous to America, and thence trans- ported to England in 1586 — Arrives at its greatest perfection in the temperate zones — Quality improved by culture — Peculiar effect of cultivation upon esculents and fruits — The potato im- proved by change of locality — As a diet, exempts from disease — When eaten with rich food, improves the digestive functions^ — Its use would avert excessive mortality — Too much fluid creates a craving for large quantities of food — Value of esculents — Comparative amount of nutriment in common articles of diet. ESCULENT vegetables contain a large amount of water and starch, and con:iparatively a very small proportion of fibrin or muscle-making material. Among these vegetables the potato takes the fore- most rank. It is not only a reliable food for man, sufficient to sustain life exclusive of other diet, but it is also of the utmost value when eaten with animal fiesh, as it forms with the latter a congenial combina- tion, from which a sustenance is elaborated that is invigorating to all parts of the animal system — to the respiratory organs as well as to the muscular. And yet the most strenuous efforts have been made by practical men to introduce other vegetables in its place, and to attribute to them the good (pialities it 266 ESCULENTS AND FKUITS. possesses ; but they have been eventually compelled to acknowledge their ntter inability to supersede it. The potato {Solanum tuberosum) is found growing wild in Chili and the islands to the south, about 45^ south latitude, but never more than a few miles in- land. This species, however, is widely different from the cultivated potato, the tubers being suudl and the flowers a pure white, and without the bluish tinge common in those of the latter. The younger Hooker has discovered in that region five varieties of th« wild potato. Other varieties are f )und in the East and West-Indies, and are known as the Solamim commer- sonii^ PoiR., the S. maglia^ Dun., and the 8. immite^ Dun. In Mexico, too, grow the Solanum demissum^ LiND., the/S'. Gardiophyllmn, Lind., and the S. verruco- sum^ ScHLECHT ; the latter of which is said to pro- duce small but palatable tubers, that are eaten by the foreign population of the country. All these varie- ties, however, unlike those of Chili, grow inland as w^ell as in the neighborhood of the coast, and on both elevated and low ground. The history of the early discovery of the potato is somewhat obscure, but eminent naturalists generally admit that it is an indigenous plant of America, and was transported from the Carolinas to England in the year 1586 ; after which it was disseminated over Eu- rope. Comparatively little notice was taken of it be- fore the beginning of tlie present century, wdien it excited a great amount of interest from the extraordi- nary dependence that it was found could be placed upon it as an article of food. The potato is now cultivated as far north as Bergen THE POTATO. 267 in Norway ; but it only arrives at its greatest perfec* tion in the temperate zones, where it has been known, under extraordinary cultivation, to produce over seven hundred bushels to the acre/*" That proper culture has improved its quality is evident from the estima- tion in which it was held at the beginning of the eighteenth century. In Mortimer's " Gardener's Ka- lender"for 1708, it is directed that the potato be planted in February (that is, in England) and as in- dicative that its character had not then become gene- rally known, it is remarked that " the root is very near tlie nature of the Jerusalem artichoke, although not so good and wholesome, but it may prove good for swine." At the present day it has arrived at the height of its perfection. It has, however, changed so much from its original nature, and the equilibrium of its organic relation has become so disturbed, that it now exhibits a tendency to decay ; and scientific natural- ists have, in consequence thereof, intimated the neces- sity of introducing the cultivation of the original wild potato, which it may require many years to bring to any thing like a state of perfection. Still, in the pre- sent state of art and scientific skill, the desired object may be accomplished after a few years' cultivation, notwithstanding that the attempts which have already been made to cultivate the wild plant have been attend- ed with but partial success. This is much to be re- gretted ; but in addition to experience, time is required to accomplish success, and this is especially weil * London Horticultural Society's Transactions for Marcli lOtli, 1833. Paper read hy Andrew Kniglit, President of tlie Society. 268 ESCULENTS AND FEUITS. known to practical cultivators of vegetables and fruits, Yi^lio have discovered that a continued series of like treatment often produces peculiar and favorable results. The peach grown in China has also changed, having now the pit on one side of the fruit, which it is not to be supposed was its original formation, but is ratlier the result of centuries of cultivation. From the eco- nomical method there adopted of training the trees against the wall, land being so very valuable, the pulp, in the course of time, has gradually increased in development toward the light ; for all plants have a natural tendency to grow toward the sun, their forms being equalized only when all parts are fully exposed to its influence. Change of locality aftects the potato very much and improves its quality. The very prolific and com- mon red potatoes, which, with us, are so rancid as to be only grown for the purpose of feeding stock, are sent to the Bermuda Islands as seed, and from this seed most delicious j^otatoes for the table are produced and returned to our markets. This and other most cogent reasons should induce perseverance in the cultivation of the original potato for a succession of seasons, in order to determine if it is possible to renew a health}^ variety from the wild tuber. Though it is universally admitted that the potato is a most valuable adjuvant in the food of man, it mast be conceded that it is not appreciated to its full value. Its congenial qualities are indicated by the robust health which is enjoyed by persons who make it tluiir principal diet, and who are usually exempt f;f'om the THE POTATO, 269 various ailments that affect those who make the cere- alia and animal flesh their chief food. The latter are subject to decaying of the teeth, mostly caused by defective digestion and the consequent acidity of the stomach; while their secretions are morbidly affected, and produce ichorous humors wliich create excessive itching in local parts, as well as roughness, blotches, and pimples on the skin. These derangements are but seldom if ever found upon persons who make the potato their leading diet. These morbid secretions result from the impair- ment of the digestive functions induced by the stom- ach being overloaded with highly nutritious food ; and this overloading is almost unavoidable when wheat- bread and meat are made tlie chief diet, because the proper or required amount of nutriment is contained in so small a quantity of such food that the appetiie is not satisfied with it, and an excess is generally taken, and produces heaviness and an inclination to sleep, which are direct indications of a superabun- dance of nutriment. In such an event rest is essen- tial in orAev that, by a concentration of the vital forces, the stomach may be relieved of its burden. Even then the food will not be properly digested ; but the relief obtained will render the person tempo- rarily unconscious of the injury his system has sus- tained, for the eiTects of his over-indulgence will not be immediately felt, but will be obscured, and, w^hen he does become sensible to them, will most likely be attributed to any thing but the true cause. And so biliousness will be attributed to a bilious temperament, and violent headaches to a constitutional nervous 210 ESCULENTS AND FEUITS. derangement or to over-exertion ; while no attempt will be made to account for flatulency and eructations, which will be only noticed for their inconvenience ; but they are the direct indications of an overburdened stomach, which has yielded to the fermentative pro- cess and eliminated gas that never results from the di- gestive functions when properly operating. This action illustrates statements made in a pre- vious chapter : that gluten or fibrin, of which wheat contains the greatest amount, is the active ingredient in fermentation, and that the final result of fermen- tation is acetic acid ; however, when fermentation is produced in the stomach, it is not always that acid, but sometimes other acids tliat are engendered. When the fermentative process takes place in the stomach, the digestive powers become so enfeebled tliat they are unable to act upon fats, such as butter, rich sauces, gravies, fat meats, etc., and leave them to become exceedingly acrid from chemical changes. The fer- mentation being active, regurgitation ensues and ex- coriates the throat, and this is soon followed by sick headaches and sucli other ailments as neuralgia, rheu- matism, etc., which are often attended with depression of spirits and foreboding of evil. These are the mala- dies which follow the eating of excessive quantities of very nutritious food, or, more properly speaking, of food containing the greatest amount of nitrogenous substances — albumen, fibrin, and casein — which can only be expended in severe exercise ; and such exer- cise is only effective when the system has become ac- customed to it. Muscle, which is the flesh of man or animals, when THE POTATO. 271 fully developed, affords force or strength. One thou- sand pounds of such flesh contains one hundred and sixty parts of nitrogen, while the same number of pounds of wheat contains but ninety-eight, of pota- toes but forty-five, and of corn but about twenty-five. Rice contains but little if any nitrogen. From this comparison we learn that people who lead a seden- tary life and do not require to expend muscular force in labor, and who, at the same time, wish to satisfy the appetite with quantity, without impairing the di- gestive powers, will find that potatoes will not only meet their requirement, but will allow of their eating with them a moderate quantity of lean meat, or fresh butter, to which maybe added a limited portion of wdieat loaf-bread that has been carefully fermented, and that, Avlien soaked in water, will not change, or will only produce a slight change, in the color of lit- mus paper. Persons who freely secrete perspirable matter of an oleaginous character, and who actually secrete nitrogen in the form of ammonia, in combina- tion with other secretions, can indulge with impunity in a tolerable amount of meat, and in reality require such a diet. Persons of enfeebled digestive powers will not only be able to digest potatoes, but they will find them to be a preventive to the forming of those acrid com- pounds that so frequently cause distress when fats are taken without a suitable quantity of farinaceous food to diff*use them. Maize or corn-bread usually disa- grees with this class of persons, as maize contains oil, and is therefore an unsuitable diet for them. Of all the cerealia, rice most resists the fermentative pro- 272 ESCULENTS AND FRUITS. cess : consequently, when it is well boiled, and is eaten with tender lean meat, broiled quickly and left quite rare, it forms the most suitable article of food for .persons having enfeebled digestive powers. It will not only suffice to satisfy the requirements of quantity, but it will diffuse the meat if the latter is well masticated, and will thus prevent it from becoming oppressive. The food will then be properly digested, and will eventually afford nutriment sufficient to in- vigorate the enfeebled organs, so that they will be enabled to perform their wonted functions without difficulty. Dr. Harkins, in liis " Medical Statistics," states, upon the authority of M, Yillerme, that of tlie child- ren born in the department of Indre, a locality in France possessing a very fine dry climate and a tem- perate people, one fourth die witliin the first year, one half of those left between their fifteenth and twen- tieth years, and three fourths of tlie remainder before they reach their fiftieth year. A very eminent phy- siologist, M. DuTRocHET, a resident in that depart- ment, attributes tlie cause of this extraordinary mor- tality to the food, which consists chiefly of bread, of which ^ he calculates every adult person eats two pounds a day ; and he is of opinion that, if a portion of potatoes and a small quantity of animal food were substituted for it, the people would both li^e longer and enjoy better health. But to the introduction of this desirable change two almost insurmountable dif- ficulties have been found to stand in the way — meat can not be had, and a strong prejudice exists agninst the eating of potatoes. With us, however, no such THE POTATO. 273 obstacles to the adoption of a healthy diet need be anticipated, nor any other short of a failure of the potato crop ; and the fear of this has led to. a special inquiry into the subject, which has resulted in the tlireatened calamity being averted by the partial suc- cess that has attended tlie introduction of new varie- ties of fair quality, which afford a liberal yield, and, wlien carefully gathered and protected, remain exempt from disccise. At the present time there is a sufficient supply of tliis esculent in the country to meet even one half of the whole amount of food required for the in- habitants ; and if potatoes were used to that extent, it would be most advantageous to tlie people, not only in a pecuniary sense, but in the improvement of health, and particularly the health of those who reside in densely populated cities. The stomachs of children are much impaired by the common practice of giving them large quantities of fluid diet, beyond which it induces a craving for a large amount of food, which continues through life. Such a condition is, in fact, that of most of our peo- ple, and it is entirely attributable to the cause here, stated. Under these circumstances, as quantity and not quality is required to satisfy the appetite, pota- toes and rice, or esculents which do not contain a large amount of nutriment, should be eaten in prefer- ence to much wheat-bread and meat, or other analo- gous diet. The very pernicious habit of giving large quantities of milk, milk-porridge, or other fluid diet to children should, most especially, be carefully avoid- ed. One fourth the quantity usually given would be ample sustenance for a child, and would be far 274 ESCULENTS AND FEUITS. more conducive to its health. The benefit would be apparent in after life, as then the craving to which w^e here allude would not exist, and there would be no desire to overburden the stomach with food, which, when taken, is frequently of too nutritious a quality, and consequently most injurious. The value of esculents as a diet can scarcely be over-estimated ; for, when used to dilute the very nu- tritious food that is indulged in by all v/ho can ob- tain it, they are very beneficial to health. As they vary but little in their nutritive qualities, the reader would derive little advantage from being presented with a description of the very many varieties that are now cultivated, or with the history of those that have been cultivated from the earliest ages. The comparative value of the common articles of diet, in so far as relates to the most important con- stituent of food, namely, nitrogenous matter, or pro- tein, (the properties of which we have already very fully described,) is very plainly illustrated by Dr. Lyon Playfair in the following table, which he presented in a course of lectures delivered before the Royal Agricultural Society of Great Britain : 100 pounds of turnips contain one pound of ])rotem. 50 " " potatoes 50 " " carrots " " " " " 25 " miU^ 9 " oat-meal " " " " 7i " wheat-flour 4 " lean flenli 3|- " " peas or beans " " " From this table it will be perceived that potatoes and carrots contain double the protein or nitrogenous PLANTS OF WHICH WE EAT THE LEAVES, ETC. 2l5 niritter found in turnips, but only half of tliat cor tained in milk, rather more than one seventh of that found in wlieat-flour, and a little less than one twelfth of that contained in lean meat. CIIAPTEE II. PLANTS OF WHICH WE EAT THE LEAVES, ETCa •Value of esculents as food— Have been used for diet in all ages- Asparagus cultivated to perfection by the Romans — Cabbage most digestible in a raw state — Kolilsalat and sap.erkraut — The lettuce much prized by the Persians — It is a wholesome diet when eaten with dressing — Vinegar is a promoter of digestion — Oil arrests fermentation in the digestive organs— By whom su- gar should not be used in dressing — Remarks apply equally to the dressing of all salads — Celery a most valuable salad-plant— In its wild state is rank and unpalatable, but when cultivated is sweet and agreeable — Is a great promoter of digestion — Parsley of the same family as celery. THOSE plants of which we eat the leaves, flow- ers, and young shoots — such as cabbage, spin- ach, asparagus, etc. — contain, with water and starch, only a small amount of protein in the form of albu- men ; but not a sufficient quantity of it to render them an efficient diet for man. Yet they are exceedingly be- neficial to health when eaten with the more nutritious kinds of food, and particularly in the spring and sum- mer seasons, when, indeed, they ought to be used al- most to the exclusion of highly nutritious articles of diet. It is evident that their good qualities in this 276 ESCULENTS AND FRUITS. respect have been long apparent, for they liave for ages been universally eaten by man, notwithstanding that they are so insipid to the taste as to require dressings to make them palatable. Cabbage {Brassica oleracea) was in cultivation by the Romans in tlie days of Columella, who states that it was a favorite edible with freemen, and in suf- ficient plenty to be an article of food for slaves. The ancient Germans also cultivated cabbage from very remote times, and were indebted to the Romans for its introduction. Spinach^ {Spinacia oleracea^) ac- cording to Beckman, was used as an edible substance in Europe in the year 1351, (having been previously used as a medicine.) Asparagus {Asparagus offici- nalis) is one of the most ancient known of culinary vegetables, and has ever been esteemed as a great luxury. It was held in much favor by the Greeks, and is described by Dioscokides."^ The Romans w^ere noted for their skill in its culture, w^hicli appears to have far exceeded modern cultivation. Pliny states that three shoots of aspar;igus grown in Ravenna weighed a pound. This far surpasses any thing we liave ever seen ; still, the plant being exceeding pro- ductive in a rich sandy soil, if only one or two eyes W'Cre permitted to grow from a large stool, as it is termed by gardeners, it would be possible to produce such monster shoots, instead of obtaining, as is now usually the case, some twenty or thirty small ones from the same stool or large body of roots, A large- number of esculent plants are oaten in their raw state. Some of tliese, when cooked, are thereby * Lib. ii. cliap. 151. PLANTS OF WHICH WE EAT THE LEAVES, ETC. 211^ rendered miicli more indigestible than when raw ; as, for instance, cabbage^ which, when dressed as a salad — in which form it is called Jwhlsalat^ the cab- bage salad of the Germans — is easy of digestion, and can be eaten by those who can not partake of boiled cabbage without injury. Smierkratct^ the sour cab- bage of the Germans — a preparation of raw cabbage made by a process of fermentation, in which it gene- rates the vinegar that pickles it — is also a most whole- some diet, and was formerly in great demand by per- sons taking long voyages at sea, owing to its being considered a preventive of that deplorable scourge known as the scurvy. It is, however, in consequence of its bulk, not now in much requisition for that pur- pose, having given place to lemon-juice, which is equally efficacious in preventing and arresting that disease, and possesses the advantage of requiring much less room on board a ship, where economy of space is ever an important consideration. The lettuce is one of the most universally cultivat- ed esculents now known, and consists of two varieties, the Lactuca capitata^ or heading lettuce, and the Lac- tuca crispa^ or curled-leav^ed. These varieties were cultivated by the ancient Greeks, and were known to the Persians in the time of Cambyses, and with the latter form to this day one of their most prized dishes. The common people eat the plant raw^ with olives, broad, and cheese. Lettuce is generally considered a most wholesome diet, as it usually agrees with very delicate persons ; but this may be partly attributed to the dressing, as it is generally eaten with a preparation made of oil and 278 ESCULENTS AND FRUITS. vinegar. Yinegar, if taken in dne proportion and not in excess, promotes digestion, and assists the diges- tive organs when very indigestible articles of food have been eaten, relieving those organs from tlie eifect of an indiscretion which might prove most serious, if it were omitted. Oil arrests fermentation, to which there is a tendency in enfeebled digestive powers, and by thus preventing the process, allows sufficient time for the accomplishment of proper digestion. The oil itself, however, is not readily digested ; but it is inof- ensive to the stomach when pure and not rancid. Su- gar is often used as a part of the dressing, but should not be indulged in by persons with weak digestive powers, as it is a promoter of fermentation, which, we repeat, terminates in the formation of acid in the stomach, to the interruption of healthy digestion. These remarks apply equally to the dressing and eating of salads, made from the various kinds of escu- lent plants, with the exception of Qelery, which, when well blanclied, may be eaten raw and without dress- ing. In this state it is a promoter of digestion, which quality it possesses in an eminent degree. Celery {Apiitm graveolens) is one of our most valu- able salad plants, and is a remarkable instance of the effects of cultivation. In its wild state, it is rank, coarse, and unpalatable ; but when propei'ly cultivat- ed and blanched, it is sweet, and of a very agreea- ble flavor to most persons accustomed to use it. The Italians do not blanch the plant, but use the leaves and seeds as ingredients in their soup, and consider them great promoters of digestion. Parsley {Aj)ium fetroselimiirh) is of the same family as celery, cUid is FRUITS, THEIR PROPERTIES AND QUALITIES. 279 supposed to be very wholesome. The celery plant is the production of a saline soil. It is found on the coasts of the Mediterranean, in Greece, Turkey, and in some of the salt marshes of this country ; it is the favorite food of the canvas-back duck, and is supposed to conduce to the fine flavor of that much admired game. It is of ancient notoriety, having been ad- verted to by Theophrastus, the Grecian philosopher. CHAPTER III. FRUITS, THEIR PROPERTIES AND QUALITIES. Fruit desirable as an adjuvant in diet — Promotes digestion, and lessons tlie demand for hearty food — All fruits are not deficient in nutriment — Their medicinal properties — They contain orga- nic acids — Table of gases found in these acids — They are ai:)pro- priated to the uses of the body — The fruits in which specific acids are found. ^ITH respect to frnits, we shall now confine our remarks to their peculiar qualities. In a previous chapter, in treating of the cellular substances, we compared with their properties those of fruit, and there entertained the opinion that salads serve the purpose of lessening the demand for more hearty food, and are most desirable as an adjuvant in diet in early spring, and until the summer fruits ripen, and are placed in the dietary catalogue. The remarks are equally applicable to both products as necessary food for man, for they are alike very conducive to health at all seasons, but more especially in our climate in 280 ESCULENl^S AND FKUITS. the snmmer and autumnal months. As the cold sea- son approaches, more hearty food is necessary to sus- tain the demand of the body for increase of animal lieat, and vegetables and fruits are then only required in less quantity, and as promoters of digestion. As we have thus represented fruits as useful in les- sening the demand for more nutritious diet, and as contributors of a medicinal property or promoters of digestion, the impression might be entertained tliat all fruits are deficient in nutriment. Such, however, is not tlie case. Some fruits are quite as nutritious as the potato, if not more so, especially tropical fruits. But it is the other most valuable properties which they possess that are most requisite in this climate, which induces a demand for a change of diet in accordance with the change of season, in order to maintain a tolerable standard of good health. These properties are the acids, the volatile oils, and the alkalies, which, though they do not contribute to the increase of the growth of nmscle, are essential to sustaining animal life. The acids are termed '^organic," and abound not only in fruits, but in most vegetables that are eaten by man, while in a succulent form. To those vegetables that are deficient in them, he almost in- variably adds, or has a desire to add, vinegar. The acids obtained from fruits and vegetables are the malic, tartaric, citric, and oxalic. The following table exhibits their compounds of the elemental gases: Apples contain Malic Acid, Grapes " Tartaric " Lemons " Citric " Rhubarb " OxaHc " Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen, 8 4 ' 8 8 4 10 12 5 11 2 0 3 THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. 281 These acids are generally supposed to be appropri- ated to the uses of the body, otlier than for the evolu- tion of heat, which results from the partaking of starch, oil, and sugar. Malic acid is found in more or less quantities in the pomaceous. family of plants, to which belong the apple, pear, quince, medlar, and others. The stone-fruits, or those that have hardened endo- carps, contain tartaric and malic acids in their pulp, and prussic or hydrocyanic acid in their seed proper. CHAPTER lY. THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. The apple tlie most valuable fruit — The prophet Joel refers to it — It is also mentioned by Shakespeare — Manufacture of cider fa- vored bv Charles I. — The consequences of partaking of impure wines — Wild apples and pears, where found — The pear has a much wider range than the apple — The cultivation of apples and pears most improved by tlie Romans — The varieties mentioned by ancient writers — Their number at the present day — A knowledge of good fruit not encouraged in the United States — Unripe fruit pernicious even when cooked. THE APPLE (Pyrus mains) must be placed at the head of all the fruits on account of its many good qualities ; for it is not only ve y refresh- ing and palatable, but it possesses in its numerous varieties the most diverse and delicious flavors. Pro- bably it is not so exquisite in taste as some of our very tender fruits, but still in this respect it will bear 282 ESCULENTS AND FRUITS. a fair comparison with tliem ; while it certainly far surpasses all in affording us its advantages through- out the year, and in great extremes of climate. It is said to grow wherever oaks thrive."^ The history of the apple dates from very early ages. "We find it spoken of by the prophet Joel, who re- marks that the vine is dried up, and the fig-tree languishetli ; the pomegranate-tree, the palm-tree also, and the apple, even all the trees of the field, are withered. "f Shakespeare repeatedly mentions it, and in a sentence in the second part of " Henry the Fourth " indicates that its cultivation was pur- sued in his day. In that play he makes Shallow say, " Nay, you shall see mine orchard, where in an arbor we will eat a last year's pippin of my own grafting, with a dish of caraways, and so forth." At the present time the many varieties represent, more or less, the flavor of almost every delicious fruit; and, in the shape of cider, affl)rd us a most refj'cshing beverage, that, when properly manufactured, quite equals some varieties of wine, and excels others, in its wholesome qualities. The planting of orchards for the manufacture of cider Avas favored by Charles 1. of England, so that its use might supersede that of wine, which was imported from France. But wine had then obtained such a position among the oj)ulent that with them it was f jund impossible to supplant it with a beverage that conkl be so easily procured by the common people. And this is the principal reason that cider is not now in more general use in the United States, instead of the miserable and un- * Von Busli's Travels, p. 40. t Joel 1 : 12. THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. 283 pleasant flavored wines that are either imported or prepared at home, and are drank at our tables, though they are quite disagreeable to the palate without the addition of sugar and ice. These additions, liowever, have not the least tendency to modify the well-known consequences of an indulgence in such fluids — gout, rheumatism, or neuralgia in all its various phases. The wild apple and pear are found in all temperate climates. We have a native apple in the United States, called the Pyrus coronaria^ or American crab-apple. In the forests of Europe, and in the Caucasus, are found the P. mollis^ or common apple, and thei^. communis^ or common pear, being indige- nous to those regions. In Balkair, in Hindostan, the prar-tree grows in large groves, while the apple-tree is more solitary in its habit. Both these wild species produce small, ascerb, bitter fruit. The j^mr {Pyrus communis^ LiisrN.) is said to have a much wider distribution than the apple. The gar- dens of the Phoenicians and of Thasos were cele- brated in ancient times on account of the excellent pears they contained. The ancient Romans were noted for having most improved the cultivation of both pears and apples, and some of the varieties they grew are known at the present day. The progress of cultivation in the production of va- rious kinds of pears and apples has been very conside- rable, l3ut a great number of years have been required to produce them. Theophrastus enumerates three kinds of pears and two of apples, and Cato six kinds of pears and seven of apples ; while Pliny knew of forty-one kinds of pears and thirty-six of aj)23les, and 284 ESCULENTS AND FKUITS. Palladius of fifty-six kinds of pears and tliirtj-seven of apples. At the present day the varieties of both may be numbered by hundreds ; but many of them are neither very distinct in character nor inviting to the palate. It is to be regretted that the names of only a very limited number of the finest varieties are known to either the rich or the poor in this country, where a perfect knowledge of the various species is solely confined to cultivators, which may be attributed to our horticultural and pomological societies being unsustained in their eff'orts to inculcate an acquain- tance with the choice fruits, and to the neglect of the people to avail themselves of their labors. It is through such sources alone that the people can become ac- quainted with them, and acquire a knowledge of the essentials requisite to produce fruit of the best varie- ties, and in perfection. As it is, the markets are generally supplied with inferior flavored qualities, which are obtained from the producers at very mode- rate prices, and which, when not fully ripe, possess to the latter the advantage of being able to preserve a fine appearance for a greater length of time than the finer qualities would. The consequence of all this is, that gross impositions are constantly being practiced, and thattlie people have palmed upon them apples and pears which should be condemned as pernicious, because of the effects that are produced by eating unripe fruit, or fruit which has ripened during warm weather in the barrels or baskets of some huckster. And this is the more to be regretted when we consider that there is nothing more grateful and salutary to the sick, even in an at- THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. 285 tack of irritation of tlie stomach and bowels, than good ripe apples or pears taken direct from the trees, pared and cored, and eaten in moderate quantity. But the granulated portion about the core of the pear, of which some varieties have more than others, should be carefully avoided by persons having weak diges- tive powers or an irritable condition of the stomach or bowels. And, above all,, fruit should not be eaten that has been kept in a confined room where there is decaying vegetable matter, or that, during the warm summer months, has been exposed to an impure at- mosphere for over forty-eight liours, as after such ex- posure it can not be eaten with impunity by either adults or children. The eating of all unripe fruit should be carefully avoided, it matters not wdiether it is raw or cooked ; for, as we have heretofore ex- plained, cooking only very slightly modifies the acids that are contained in it; and these acids are not only very different from those found in ripe fruit, but are decidedly injurious to the digestive organs. These remarks apply equally to all kinds of fi ,iit. CHAPTER V. STONE-FRUITS, THE GRAPE, ETC Stone-fruits are divided into two families — The seed, bark, and leaves contain hydrocyanic acid — The peach a vs^holesome fruit — The cherry and the plum not so wholesome — Want of disposi- tion in many to cultivate fruit-trees — The noble-hearted traveler Burchell — The misfortunes of Sickler, the German horticultu- rist — The peach cultivated in the earliest ages — It is men- tioned in the books of Confucius — The original home of the cherry — The grape one of the first fruits cultivated by man — > Is indigenous to several countries — Varieties produced by cross- ing — American grapes — The properties of the smaller fruits iden- tical with those described. * iHE stone-fruits, or Ainygdalece^ are divided into I two families of plants. The peach, nectarine, and almond form one ; and the apricot, plum, and cherry the other. They all exude gum, and their seed, bark, and leaves contain hydrocyanic acid. This very poisonous acid, however, has not any ten- dency to impair the good qualities of the fruit. • The peach {Amygdalus Persicd) is a most whole- some fruit to all persons who do not possess a very direct tendency to acidity in the stomach, and even to those who do the effect it produces is only felt for a very limited time, and is then usually followed by the beneficial result of exciting the bowels to action — for acidity of the stomach is generally attended with con- Btipation of the bowels. STONE-FllUITS, THE GRAPE, ETC. 287 The clierry {Prunus cerasus^ Linn.) and tlie plum (P. domestica) are mucli more decided in tlieir action on the boweis, aud can not be indulged in by many persons. This most probably results from the com- mon practice of swallowing the indigestible skins, as well as from the laxative effects of the tartaric acid contained in the pulp. All these fruits, so delicious and grateful to the sight and taste of civilized man, have been carried by him in his migration, and have been carefully cultivated wherever tire climate would permit. All persons, however, do not possess the disposition to provide even for themselves, much less for posterity. Even amono* us are to be found those who think it a lone: time for fruit-trees to grow, and, as they therefore conclude that they (5an not be much benefited by their produce, consecpiently do not think it worth while to plant them. But there are always some among men whose minds rise above this petty selfish- ness, even when they can not foreshadow^ a prospect of self-benefit. Of such was the noble-hearted travel- er BuKCHELL, wlio, when journeying in the interior of Southern Africa, presented to the chief of the Bachafins tribe a bag of peach-stones that had cost him much care, and most probably had much incon- venienced him in his long journey. ''Nor did I fail," remarks the benevolent man, " to impress on his mind a just idea of their value and nature, by telling him that they would produce trees which would con- tinue every year to yield, without further trouble, abundance of large fruit of a more agreeable flavor than any which grew in the country of the Bacha- 288 ESCULENTS AND FKUITS. fins." Says Humboldt : " Why have not every where the names of those been preserved who, in place of ravaging the earth, have enriclied it with phints nse- ful to the human race ?" For ages after tlieir day must the admiration of all liberal-minded men be felt and expressed for such public benefactors, of whom there are many names on record. The Transactions of the London Horticultural So ciety contain a most interesting memoir of Sickler, a distinguished naturalist of Germaity, who paid par- ticular attention to the cultivation of fruit-trees in the Duchy of Saxe-Gotha, and formed for the pur- pose three nurseries. The first of these, containing eight thousand grafted trees, was, in 1806, entirely destroyed by the French, after the battle of Jena, when Net's corps bivouacked in it. And again, after the battle of Leipsic, in 1814, the second nursery planted by the same eminent man was destroyed by the Cossacks. Yet, in 1817, he had planted and reared a third with his own hand, persevering in his good w^ork for the benefit of after generations, who should reverence his name with thankfulness when they taste of the fruits of his perseverance and labor. The history of the cultivation of the peach goes back to the furtliest antiquity. This fruit is believed to be the 2ao mentioned in the books of Confucius, who flourished in the sixtli century before the Chris- tian era, and it is said to be still grown to the great- est perfection in China and Japan. The species of phcrns includes the common cherry {P. cerasus^ Linn.) and the black cherry, {P, avium^ Linn.) The former of tliese was found growing wdld STONE- FKUITS, THE GRAPE, ETC. 289 in the mountain forests of Southern Caucasus, and was brouglit to Italy from Cerasunt, in Pontus, after the conquest of Mitueidates, seventy-four years before the Christian era. The grape ( Yitis mnifera^ Linn.) must be consi- dered one of the first fruits cultivated by man. It is indigenous to several countries, and, like the cherry, 'is said to have an origin in the southern part of the Caucasian mountain chain, where it is found growing wild, bearing an inferior-flavored fruit of small size. But the constant change of circumstances has, in the course of ages and under -skillful culture, resulted in so clianging the nature of the plant that it now pro- duces the most delicious fi-uit we are enabled to en- joy. There are many varieties of grapes that have been produced by intermingling, or crossing, as it is termed by horticulturists ; and the intermingling of other grapes with those that are indigenous to this country has had the effect of increasing tlie number of varieties cultivated by us. From the Northern Fox grape (F". laljrusca^ Linn.) has been produced the well-known Isabella grape^ which possesses the most valuable qualities of bear- ing a hue-flavored fruit, and of growing in the most confined situations, even in city yards, and of pro- ducing, under such unfavorable circumstances, an abundant crop. It may be truly called the poor man's friend ; for it is often found trained up the end of some of the most humble cottages, and loaded with luscious fruit, which supplies the occupants for weeks with a wholesome, delicious dessert, that their scanty incomes would not permit them to purchase. 290 ESCULENTS AND FRUITS. We have five other varieties of native grapes, some of them nuicli prized for their good qualities. The Muscatine or Southern Fox grape ( F. vuljnna^ Linn.) has a fine musk flavor, and from it has resulted the Scujppernong grajye^ which produces an excellent wine of most peculiar taste. The Catawba grape^ a deli- cious fruit, is also the result of some of the Southern varieties. It is a fine table fruit, grows most vigo- rously in the Middle States, and, in Ohio, is used almost exclusively for making the finer qualities of wine. The Winter grape ( Y. cordifolia^ Mich.) is very tart, but, when preserved in sugar, is much prized for the table. TlieF. (Bstivalis^ Mich., is a small black grape, posses- sing a most pleasant flavor and ripening in October. The other two native varieties are the V. hipinnata^ ToRR. and Gray, found growing in Virginia and Ken- tucky, and the y. ^7^od. The gastric juice, however, coagulates milk taken direct from the breast, as in the case of the nursing babe ; and, as such milk is not acid, the process is a healthy one, for it prepares the food for digestion by first causing the fluid to be absorbed. It is the curd so formed without acid that supj^lies the increase ot growth in the young that feed on milk. If the milk, when thrown off*, proves to be acid, it is evident that either the child's stomach 1ms been overburdened for some time, and has thus become enfeebled, which is the most probable, or that, from some fault in the health of the mother or of the nurse, the milk is not in a healthy condition. WATER AND STIMULANT DRINKS. 295 Water is tlie most reliable and grateful drink for man. J^atnre has furnished many admixtures of fluids in the juices of fruit, but none so satisfying to excessive thirst as pure water. It will even prolong life when nutritious food is not taken, as we have a well-known instance on record, reported by Dr. Mc- JSTaughton ia the " Transactions of the Albany Insti- tute, in the State of ISTew-York,-' for 1836. The case w^as that of a man who lived upon water alone for tif- ty-three days. For the first six weeks he walked out every day, and at times spent a great part of the day in the woods. Until about a week before his deatli he shaved himself, and even* on the last day he was able to sit up in bed. It was an instance of voluntary abstinence, resulting from a delusion under wliich the person labored, and which impelled him to refuse all proper nourishment. The water, which alone he could be induced to partake of, kept the secretions diluted, and the blood in a bland condition until the system was exhausted ; and thus his life was prolonged by his being saved from the effect of the concentrated fluids upon the brain, the result of which would have been, in the last stages of starvation, to have produced mad- ness, and to have hastened the terminfition of life by excessive irritation upon the great nervous centre. As there is, in all persons blessed with an abun- dance of vitality and robustness of body, a strong ten- dency to a concentration and acridity of the fluids, •such persons should make water their exclusive drink, ill order that they may maintain a normal condition of the system. If any persons can drink large quan- tities of water with impunity, it is those of full and 296 BEVERAGES AND CONDIMENTS. plethoric habit, and tliey would actually prolong their lives by so doing. But instead of this tliey often, to their injury, indulge in drinking wine, malt liquors, or brandy and like alcoholic drinks diluted with water ; or, if water is not drunk directly with the liquor, they will usually drink freely of it imme- diately after pure spirits are taken, in w^hich case it mitigates the influence of the alcohol in proportion as the latter is diluted. Water tlius operates equally in reducing the strength of all stimulating drinks, (for wine and malt liquors contain their own dilution,) and acts as a preventive to their so soon destroying or ex- hausting the nervous system as they would if taken undiluted ; but still their deleterious influence is cer- tain, and is perceptible after death upon certain organs. Let the beverage partaken of be beer, wine, or brandy, by its use such persons shorten the duration of life, and in direct ratio to the constitutional inability of the system to resist its influence. Thin persons often have a redundancy of vital energy, and they are thereby en- abled, when indulging to excess, to resist the influence equal to those who have a large development of fat and muscle; while, owing to their secreting powers being generally more a<3tive, they can do so even for a longer period of time. No reflecting and intelligent person will deny that severe and constant excitement exhausts the ability to sustain a long continuance of excitement. Alcohol is a stimulant to the nervous system, and not only ex- cites it to an extraordinary degree, but exlmusts the ability it possesses to accumulate power, so that the whole system fails to perform its natural functions if WATER AND STIMULANT DRINKS. 297 the stimulant is witlilield ; for then the hand trembles, the stomach fails to digest, the mind desponds, and a general depression supervenes.* In moderate drink- ing, as the drinking of beer and ale, a desire for its continuance is very manifest to all who indulge in it. This desire is caused by the nervous system failing to sustain its wonted healthy standard without the assist- ance of a stimulant. After a time, however, there will be a desire for an increased quantity of such stimulant, and this is a direct indication of the inability of the nerves to endure the preternatural excitement. Whenever stimulants have to be resorted to for the purpose of relieving a depressed mind, the dejection of which has not been induced by some misfortune or disease, it is evident that the nervous system is seri- ously impaired by over-stimulating. Persons can habi- tuate themselves to the use of a certain amount of stim- ulant drink, and of narcotic stimulants, as, for instance, Indian hemp^ opium, etc., and still they can with much care guard themselves against any increase, and seemingly sustain no injmy from the continuance. But v/e would ask. Why should they induce a habit that can not be discontinued without their suficring much inconvenience, and can not be continued witliout their running the risk of being tempted to increase its pernicious influences? Alcoholic drinks, tobacco, opi- um, chloroform, coffee, a^nd tea, all, vdien indulged in to satiate a desire, only tend stronglj^ to an increase of quantity without limit, owing to a morbid condition of the system creating a craving for an augmentation * Tlie withhold in (V of tobacco, aftoi' it lias been usod to excess, in- 298 BEVERAGES AND CONDIMENTS. of the pleasurable indulgence which they are pre- sumed to afford. For aged and infirm persons who labor under an inability to digest ordinary food to their physical ad- vantage, it is straiigely urged, even by experienced physicians, that alcoholic stimulants in the form of beer, ale, wine, or brandy are necessary adjuvants. In our opinion such a view requires careful investigation. If the system is exhausted beyond recuperative power, as is the condition of many aged and infirm persons, the efifect of administering stimulants will be pleasur- able, and will be to afiford relief for a very limited time; but then the whole powers of the system will be exhausted by the rapid expenditure of the vital forces, which can thus be only increased for the time to a limited extent, and the dissolution of the system will thereby be hastened. If, however, in place of stimulants, such persons were advised nutritious and easily digested food, exercise, and a proper tempera- ture of the body, so that they might maintain m statrt quo the sm.all quantity of vital force they possess, their lives might most probably be prolonged, if they were not invigorated to activity of muscular efl^brt, and their health thereby much improved.. As persons whose teeth are defective and whose digestive powers are feeble, most commonly desire food which they can not masticate, they drink excessive quantities of such fluids as tea. coflfee, and water, and thus dilute the digestive secretions. The most invariable conditions of such persons are a want of disposition to take exer- cise, and cold feet and chilliness induced by their suf- fering themselves to be thinly clad ; and thus their EXCESS OF FLUIDS INJURIOUS TO CHILDREN'. 299 circulation is enfeebled, and their demand for food lessened. Stimulant drinks are no substitutes for the deficiencies of the aged and naturally infirm, and must be pernicious in tlieir tendencies when taken by such persons, as they exhaust tlie vital forces in greater -rapidity tlian tlie system has ability to generate them. Alcoholic diink, as a medicament, often serves a most valuable purpose where there is recuperative ability, especially in cases where the system is in a state of torpidity from disease, or is laboring under some extraordinary depressing influence ; but it must be administered promptly and carefully. Being a diffusible stimulant, it excites tlie whole system, and if skillfully prescribed is higlily beneiicial ; but if it is continued after the desired effect is permanently established, injury is sustained by over-stimulation. CHAPTEE II. EXCESS OF FLUIDS INJURIOUS TO CHILDREN". Clnldren's lieaUli impaired by partaking largely of fluids — Their digestive powers are tliereby enfeebled— A cause of cliolera-in- fantum— Proper food for the young— How to keep milk for in- fants — Regulations to be observed in feeding them. WE once more repeat, for the purpose of treating the subject more thoroughly, that children ara often seriously injured by being allowed to drink ex- cessively of fluids. By such indulgence their digestive powers are enfeebled, and an irritable condition of tlie 300 BEVERAGES AND CONDIMENTS. st()mach and bowels is induced. It causes tlieni to liave enlargement and hardness of tlie abdomen, and to become irritable and peevish in disposition; and to gratify them they are given any quantity of drink, which is constantly increasing the difficulty. In the summer season, this practice induces cholera-infan- tum, which is at times curable by simpfy withhold- ing all drink except a few spoonfuls at a time of weak tea, and not very frequently, and by giving a nutritious diet — that is, fresh meat palatably seasoned with salt, and stale sweet fermented bread toasted and softened with milk. A young child eiglit or ten months old should be allowed to suck a piece of lean beef, under- done and uioderatelj salted, once or tw^ice a day, if nursing a healthy mother or nurse. If not, it should be supplied, in addition to the meat, with warm milk from a well-fed cow, about a third of a pint at a time. Unless milk can be obtained at all times fresh from the cow, that procured and not used in the morning should be kept through the day in a bottle closely corked, and, when a portion of it is taken out, recorked immediate- ly. Care should be taken to cleanse the bottle every moriiini>: with warui water and soda. There sliould be stated periods for giving the child its food, and an interval of not less than three hours between each peiiod, so that ample time may be allowed for the di- gestive process : lirst, for the fluid portion to. be ab- sorbed and diffused, and then for the undiluted secre- tions to act healthfully upon the remaining semi- sol id and nutritious portion of the food in the stomach. If the food is given in limited quantity, the more perfect will be the prepared nutriment for the sustenance and PREPARED DRINKS. 301 growth of the body. Excess in quantity, like fre- quency in drinking, partially arrests the digestive pro- cess, as it dilutes the secretions essential to the pro- per digestive action, and tends to a fermentative pro- cess. And, as a consequent, we have an accumulation of gases and flatulen<5y, attended with acidity of the contents of the stomach, which produces in the in- fant griping pains, and most frequently looseness of the bowels, and in the adult much niconvenience. Fluids in quantity have the least injurious effect ou the stomach when they are taken one hour before eat- ing, or two hours after ; while a moderate portion taken at meal time, with solid food, is not injurious to healthv persons. CHAPTER III. PEEPx\EED DRINKS — ICED WATER — -ACIDULATED DRINKS NUTRITIOUS FLUIDS. Prepared drinks taken for gratification — Tlieir effect on differently constituted persons. — Iced water as a drink — It is sedative and reduces sensibility — Relieves drunkenness — Is hurtful to the mouth, throat, and stomach — Its sedative effects are inj urious — Acidulated drinks only salutary to some persons — Nutritious fluids — Soups only suitable for persons of energetic digestive powers — Concentrated j uices of meat beneficial. PREPARED drinks are most frequently taken to induce a sense of gratification, other than tlie mere satiation of thirst. Hence varieties have been introduced, extolled by some and condemned by others. 302 BEVERAGES AND CONDIMENTS. This discrepancy usually arises from the impunity with which some persons can indulge in them, while others suffer much inconvenience from even a seemingly mod- erate use of them. The latter result may be attribut- able to weak digestive powers, and to the quantity of fluid taken, rather than to the effect of the ingredients from which the beverages are made ; and also to tlie drinks being taken at such unfavorable times that they interfere w^ith the digestive process. To drink im- moderatel}^ of any prepared beverage, especially if sweetened, and immediately after dinner, causes fer- mentation, and, if it is taken on a w^eak stomach, acidity is inevitably the result ; but if it is taken some two or three hours before or after dinner, no ill effects will arise, .particularly if the beverage is only slightly sweetened and a portion of light food is taken with it. However, confirmed dyspeptics should as much as possible avoid taking drink of any kind at all times, especially when eating nutritions food, and for some hours after. Iced water^ as a drink, has created much discussion in reference to its effects upon the S3"stem. To take a rational view of the subject, we must take into con- sideration the effect that cold, under different circum- stances, produces on man. All medical as well as other authorities admit that cold is a sedative. It lessens the activity of the circulation by allaying sen- sibility, and in proportion to its extent of application and continuance. Consequently it has been used to obviate pain in the performance of surgical opera- tions, in the extraction of teeth, etc. And recently, by means of the iced bath, it has been em])l(>yed to ICED WATER. 303 allay mental excitement, the result of long-continued drunkenness, and with most decided success.*^ The effect of cold upon the month, throat, and stomach is hurtful. The natural condition of these parts is to be constantly lubricated and rendered moist by a peculiar secretion. They have a sensitive surface, which, when moderately excited, secretes rapidly and makes a most decided demand upon the quantity of fluids in the system, which latter, under ordinaiy circumstances, meets the demand ; but, if the demand is not supplied, the system is notified of the defi- ciency, and of tlie supply desired, and this notifica- tion constitutes what is known as thirst. Cold being a sedative, consequently a small quantity of cold water will satisfy the thirst, and gratify the desire for mois- ture. But, unfortunately, we are always desirous of increasing oar gratification, and to accomplish this we take more of the cold water than is beneficial for us, and thereby produce a morbid derangement of the delicate membranes that line the parts alluded to. There is an increasing disposition in the economy of the animal system to resist extraordinary influences, if they are not in overwhelming force. The effect ot that force in this instance is to induce an increased sensibility of these tender membranes, which creates a greater craving for cold water ; and this is fol- lowed by a still further increase of such sensibility, amounting even to a sub-inflammation, when nothing but ice constantly used will satiate the desire for cold,, and its use often results in bronchial inflammations, a thickening of the membranes, and a loss of voice. * American Medical Times, vol. iv. p. 143. 304 BEVERAGES AND CONDIMENTS. Tlie final result is well known, namely, bronchitis, rheumatism, and enlargement of the glands. Such are some of the eifects of taking iced water too fre- quently, even in small quantities. Tliere is another most serious result that may be produced by taking large draughts of iced water sud- denly upon an empty stomach, or when much ex- hausted by heat. The sedative effect may be so de- cided as to entirely arrest sensibility in the coats of the stomach. Sucli a fatal consequence has been ex- perienced even by tliose accustomed to indulge in that beverage. A moderate use of iced water as a drink is, in many instances, of very great advantage to persons of en- feebled digestive powers, as a very small quantity of such fluid will satiate their thirst. In fevers it allays the feverish excitement — in slight cases it obviates the necessity for medicines ; while in the treatment of those that are more decided it is a most valuable adjuvant. All that is required to enjoy its delightful gratifica- tion is to be moderate in the use of it. If a sensntion of cold or a tremulous feeling follows the drinking of iced water, it is the indication that it has an injurious effect upon tlie system, and then a person ought not to indulge in it again until well satisfied that he is re- stored to a healthy condition. Acidulated drinks^ which are usually sweetened to make them palatable, and those made from sweet juices, are not only grateful but salutary to some per- sons, and, under peculiar circumstances, are quite desirable. But to those predisposed to acidity of the stomach tliey are decidedly pernicious, and should NUTKITIOUS FLUIDS. 305 never be indulged in by them. And here again we must remark that quantity may prove injurious even to those persons who may be benefited by a moderate indulgence in these drinks. The same objection, with reference to the partak- ing of quantity, also holds good w^ith regard to those fluids which are usually considered nutritious. Soups, though variously made, mostly contain the juices of meat ; but, in order to judge of their suitableness for digestion, and to determine the actual amount of nutriment they possess, we must ascertain tlie pro- portion of fluid they contain. As the fluids have first to be absorbed before digestion takes place, and as the digestive secretions are diluted and absorbed w^ith them, the amount of fluid will decid'e whether there will rem»ain a sufiiciency of these wonted secre- tions to digest the nutritious matter, and, in addi- tion, the amount of solid food that can be advantage- ously taken after the soup has been properly digested. Persons of energetic animal powers, who are ac- customed to eating soups, are not generally injured by them if they are taken in moderation. But deli- cate persons can not eat them with impunity, for they usually become acid in the stomach, from its want of ability to dispose of the excessive quantity of fluid and to digest the remainder, and the result which ensues is fermentation instead of digestion. The concentrated juices of meat are admissible in small quantities, and are of great value when properly taken by the enfeebled sick ; but, in order to be bene- ficial, their use requires the advice of an experienced physician. CHAPTER IV. TEA AND THE TEA-PLANT. Tea, coffee, cocoa, and cliocolate form nutritious drinks — Tliey contain a peculiar strengthening power — Dilution impairs tlieir virtue, and is injurious to persons of weak digestive powers — Cream adds to tlieir nutritious qualities — Tea first introduced into Europe by the Dutch — Immense amount now imported into Europe and America — The mode of preparing tea for the market — The different varieties — How to preserve its good qualities — For wkat it is efficacious — It is an antidote for poison. yrODEE-jN" discoveries in the science of chemistry ^3JL place among the nutritious aliments tea^ <^offee^ cocoa^ and chocolate^ as well as Paraguay tea^ used by the inhabitants of South-America. All of these are stated to contain a peculiar quality which is strengthening to the animal system, and is denomi- nated thein^ from its having been first discovered in tea, or thea^ the name of the plant from which the tea of commerce is obtained. A similar quality after- ward discovered to be contained in coffee, and called caffein^ was subsequently found to be identical with thein. The actual character of this substance has been discussed by chemists and physiologists, and it has been a subject of doubt whether it really affords nutritious matter, or, like quinine^ which is obtained from bark, it is merely an excitant of tone to the sys- TEA AND THE TEA-PLANT. 307 tern. Be tins as it may, it is a very remarkable fact that the use of those articles in winch it is found is almost universal, and the beverages they produce are not only drank by man, but are approved of as being most agree- able to his palate. And from this fact some are induced to believe that it must have been their nutritious cha- racter that led to their introduction and has sustained their extraordinary reputation. That the beverages possess most refreshing qualities is undeniable; and as these qualities are proportionate to their concentra- tion, it is evident that an excessive quantity of water lessens their favorable tendencies. The superabun- dance of fluid has an injurious effect on a weak sto- mach, and more especially in consequence of tlie bev- erages being sweetened, for they are thus 'rendered more liable to become acid. Rich milk or cream adds greatly to their nutritious quality, if they are not too much dihited with water. The greatest amount of injury sustained from the drinking of them is most probably due to a super- abundance of fluid and the sweetening, unless it be to the idiosyncrasy or peculiarity of a person render- ing him unable to tolerate one or other of the beve- rages, which is, after all, a matter of but rare occur- rence. Tea was first introduced into Europe by the Dutch East-India Company, in the early part of the seven- teenth century. A small quantity was sent, in 1666, from Holland to Lords Arlington and Ossory, of Eng- land ; and, in 1678, 4713 pounds were imported into the latter country, and constituted about the com- mencement of the tea trade. At the present time con- 308 BEVERAGES AND CONDIMENTS. siderably over 100,000,000 pounds are annually ex- ported from China to Europe and America. In tlie season 1851-2, there were exported 65,100,000 pounds to Great Britain; 34,327,000 to tlie United States; 8,829, 000 to Australia ; 3,000,000 to Holland ; 500,000 to India ; and 2,200,000 to other countries— making a to'al of 113,956,000 pounds ; while at the same time the exports overland to Russia amounted to about 15,000,000 pounds a year. The rapid increase in the consumption of this commodity will be apparent when we state that exactly thirty years before, in the season 1821-2, the amount imported into Great Britain was only 28,787,600, and into the United States, only 9,312,267 pounds. In the fiscal year ending June 30th, 1866, we imported 42,978,576 pounds, valued at $11,116,623, of which 30,199,000 pounds came direct from China, and 6,585,500 from Japan. And yet it is stated that, if Europe and America were to^ cease purchasing tea, the trade would not be materi- ally affected in China, so great is the home consump- tion. The Theaviridis and Theahohea are the plants from < which the varieties of tea are gathered. Those plants are indigenous to China and Japan, where their leaves have been used for making the beverage from time immemorial ; and, from tlie days of Confucius, tea has been the constant theme of the poets of the Flowery Land. Though tea is more or less cultivated for local consumption in all the provinces of China, that which is exported is grown in a part of the empire distin- guished as the ^' tea-country," and situated be .wen 25° and 32^ north latitude, and 115° and 122^ ...ist TEA AND THE TEA-PLANT. 309 longitude. The green tea district is about seven hun- dred miles from Canton, and the Tjlack tea district about four hundred miles from tliat city. Both varie- ties are conveyed to. the sea-ports by land carriage, chiefly by porters, and by the canals. There are but few species of the Thea^ which is of the same genera as the Camellia, The Thea viridis is said to be a much stronger growing plant than the Thea hohea. It flowers earlier in the season, and bears much larger leaves, those of healthy plants being from three to four inches long. Both plants may be found growing in many of our conservatories to great perfection. The first-named variety is sup- posed to furnish the leaves for the preparation of green tea. The smaller leaves of the TMa hohea are more numerous on the plant, and of a darker green, and, most curious to relate, are cured and known as Nach tea. Much special care is taken by the Chinese, in the gathering of the leaves, to preserve them Irom injury Of taint. Collectors are trained for the purpose at an early age ; and, for weeks before the harvest com- mences, they are prohibited from eating fish, or any other food of strong odor. They are also obliged to take a bath two or three times a day, and, when gathering, are not allowed to touch the leaves with the naked fingers. It is stated that the finest quality of leaves for making tea is often seriously injured by the delay of one night after they are ready to pluck, and thus the necessity for their being promptly gathered. Great care is observed to prevent noxious weeds from grow- 310 BEVERAGES AND CONDIMENTS. ing among the plants, as they are supposed to be in- jurious to the leaves. The finest qualities are obtained from plants about three or four years old : by the time the trees have arrived at the age of six years, the pro- duce has depreciated in quality, and they are then removed for a young plantation which is grown from seed. The leaves are gathered from one to four times a year, but most commonly the gathering is divided into three periods, the first about the middle of April, the second at midsumm.er, and the last in the latter part of August. The tender leaves gathered in the spring are those most prized for their good qualities as to color and aromatic flavor. Those of the second gathering are not of so good a color, and are consi- dered inferior in flavor ; while those of the hist are of a darker green, and of still inferior quality. The leav^es, as soon as gathered, are put into wide, shallow baskets, and placed in the air for several hours, avoiding a strong wind. The next process consists in wilting them on cast-iron plates heated by charcoal — about three quarters of a pound of the leaves being so treated at a time. They are con- stantly being moved about with a kind of brush till they are properly wilted, when they are taken in baskets to be rolled in the hands, after which process they are again placed on the heatad plates, but now of a lower degree of heat, so as to dry them perfectly without scorching them or injuring their flavor. The leaves are then placed on a table and carefully ex- amined, and every defective leaf taken out. The processes here described are, however, only applied to teas of the second quality, those of the first quality TEA AND THE TEA-PLANT. 311 beino; rolled and dried in a most careful manner, with- ont artificial heat to hasten their preparation. There are three kinds of green tea. The first is Gun- powder tea, which , is made from young leaves that have not arrived at maturity of growth, and are dried in the air ; this is the most highly valued article of tea. The next consists of the Hysons, which are very carefully picked, and dried with a moderate degree of heat ; they are called by the natives Ilyssaen, The third, called Song-lo^ a name derived from the moun- tain on which it grows, is the most common green tea. The hlach teas are of five kinds, and take their names from a mountain covered with tea plantations and called Bou-y, The first quality is called Sou- chong — the Chinese name being / the next, Pehoe, named by the cultivators Back-ho or Paclc-ho ; the third, Congou^ or Kong-fon / and the other two are teas made from alder loaves and called Padre- Souchong^ or Paosut'tcha, The latter are highly esteemed for some supposed medicinal quality. The Chinese consider tea too narcotic or stupefying when it is used in less than a year from the time that it is cured. They drink the infusion at all their meals, and without milk or sugar. The higher classes take it very strong and hot, while the laboring peo^ pie are compelled to take it very weak. The latter often beg the tea-leaves that have been used by foreign- ers, and boil them over again ; and they pronounce the tea they thus obtain as better than that w'hich they can afl:brd to purchase. To preserve all the good qualities in tea, it should be confined in narrow-necked, glazed earthen jars, kept 312 BEVERAGES AND CONDIMENTS. careful!}^ stopped. The Chinese have very costly jars of this kind for the purpose ; and, it is said, use the flowers of the plant, or the expressed oil of them, for the purpose of giving their tea a fine aroma. The teas sent to us are often much adulterated by the Chinese, who cure large amounts of foreign leaves for the purpose of mixing. Tea is less suited for young persons than for adults and aged persons. This is owing to the fact that it is not a sufficient substitute for nutritious food. Many aged people prefer their cup of tea to partaking of more nourishing diet ; but the practice of so taking it is much to their injury, as almost all they obtain from the tea, if takea strong and in small quantity, (which is the most beneficial method,) is a pleasurable sensa- tion and an invigoration of the system for the recep- tion of nutriment, as it promotes digestion. But, as it is usually taken with milk and sugar, from both of which a little sustenance is obtained, it satisfies the appetite to the exclusion of a desire for such food as is essential to the better nourishment of the system. Tea will relieve intoxication to a limited extent, and is most salutary in alleviating intense mental ex- citement. As an antidote for poison it is nearly as pow^erful a remedy as coff'ee. Cases of poisoning by tartarized antimony have been relieved by the ad- ministration of a very strong infusion of tea. CHAPTER V. COFFEE AND ITS PE,EPAKATION. The flowers of tlie coffee-tree exceedingly fragrant — The fruit and seed — Coffee sold at Constantinople in 1554 — Was supposed to be intoxicating and its use forbidden — It was afterward permitted and taxed — Great consumption of coffee by the Turks — It was carried westward by the Venetians — The coffee plant first intro- duced into Europe in 1714 — Was conveyed to the West Indies — Coffee indigenous in Arabia — Mode of planting ajid of gathering the berries — How coffee should be roasted — The proper way to prepare the beverage — When sugar and milk should be added — The beneficial effects of coffee in peculiar cases — Persons to whom it is injurious — Consumption of coffee in the United States. TFIE Coffee plant or tree {Coffee AraJnoa^ and called by some Jasminiim Arahicum^ from the deliclously sweet jasmine-like flowers wliicli it bears) possesses, when blooming, such a sweet and powerful fragrance that persons unaccustomed to its odor, upon passing a coffee plantation in flower, be- come intoxicated even to unsteadiness of step. The fruit is a red berry about the size of a cherry ; the pulp is quite insipid, and incloses two seeds formed as we receive them; but in the fruit these seeds are covered with a membrane, called parchment, that adlieres to them after tlie pulp is taken off, and has to be removed by machinery. The coffee- tree is of mjJerate size, grows erect from eight to .welve feet 314 BEVERAGES A]^D CON^DIMENTS. high, and lias long undivided brandies, wliieh are very slender, bend downward, and are furnished with evergreen leaves. The blossoms are white and set upon short flat stocks, and, as we have remarked, re- semble the flow^ers of the jasmine. Coffee was publicly sold in 1554 at Constantinople, where it was introduced as a beverage by Megalled- DiN, Mufti of Aden, in Arabia Felix, who had become acquainted with it in Persia. The Syrian govern- ment, however, interdicted its general introduction, on the supposition that it produced intoxication, which is incompatible with the strictness of the Mohamme- dan discipline ; and so great was the surveillance, that, at the capital of Turkey, the Mufti ordered the police to prevent any one from drinking coffee. But the passi(m among the people for its use was so great, that it was found impossible to enforce the proliibition ; and so the government becoming aware of this fact, and knowing that the coffee plant was indigenous to its own country, then sought to make it contribute to its own advantage by levying a tax upon the sale of the beverage, which impost subsequently produced a large revenue. The consumption of cofiee by the Turks is now so great as to induce the inference that it takes among them the place filled in other countries by wine and spirituous liquors, which are prohibited by the Moslem religion. And a supposed necessity for a supply of coffee is with them made a matter of such imperative importance that a man's w^ife, w^ho may be deprived of what is considered a reasonable quan tity, can present the deprivation as a legal cause for a divorce. COFFEE AND ITS PKEPARATIOX. 315 The Venetians, who traded much with the Levant, wei'e the first to promote cofiee in its advance west- ward. In 1615, Peter de la Ville, a Venetian at Constantinople, acquainted his friends in Italy of his intention to bring some home, and spoke of it as au article then unknown in that country. In 1671, was opened in Marseilles the first coffee-house established in that city, where prepared coffee was sold to the public as a beverage. It w^ould appear to have been made a subject of impost immediately on its introduc- tion into England, as we find a duty of fourpence per gallon of cofiee recorded in the Statute Book for 1660. From that time the use of coffee as a beverage extend- ed most rapidly ; in England it was sojd in public- houses, and had the advance of tea not only in the public estimation but in the date of its introduc- tion. The first coffee-tree introduced to notice in Europe was in 1714 presented by the magistrates of Amster- dam to Louis XIV., king of France, and by him placed under the care of the celebrated botanist, Jussieu. Some years after this, plants were conveyed to Suri- nam, Cayenne, and Martinique ; and in a short time tlie growing of coffee spread most rapidly. In 1732, its cultivation w^as considered of sufficient importance in Jamaica to call forth an act of the legislature in its favor. The coffee-tree is indigenous 'to Arabia. The several varieties are supposed to have been derived from one parent stock, and to have been created by climatic influence. All, however, require a uniform warm climate of a temperature of not less than fifty- 31G BEVEKAGES AND CONDIMENTS. five degrees of Falirenlieit. Excessive lieat is qnite injurious to the production of coffee, consequently cultivators plant at intervals, tlirougliout the coffee field, rows of umbrageous trees which screen the coffee- trees from the overpowering rays of the sun. The plants are in full bearing after three year's growth. The flowering lasts about two days. In one night the blos- soms expand and present a most peculiar effect, the appearance being very like that of a light snow-storm. The fruit is known to be ripe when the dark red ber- ries begin to fall from the trees. In Arabia, cloths are spread beneath the trees, as the people of that country do not pluck the fruit, but allow it to fall, which may account somewhat for the superior quality of the Arabian coffee. Coffee grown in the West-Indies, upon elevated, dry, light soil, is quite equal, and by some is even preferred to that of Eastern growth. Coffee is much improved by being kept for a time, and this is most probably the only reason why the Turkish coffee possesses such good qualities. Much depends upon the roasting of coffee. The application of heat produces important changes ; it causes the bean to increase in size and to lose about one third of its w^eight, and a volatile oil, possessing a very aromatic odor, to exude upon the surface of the seed. It should be roasted in a close revolving cylinder, over a moderate fire, until it changes to a chestnut brown color ; it should then be thrown into a glazed earthen vessel, having a close-fitting cover, 'and, after beino; well shaken for about five or ten minutes, set in a very cool place — the cooler the bet- ter — in order to cause it to retain the volatile oil COFFEE AND ITS PREPARATION. 317 which imparts to it its. delightful aroma. When ground, it should be only in quantity required for im- mediate use ; and when the infusion is being prepared, care should be observed to retain as much as possible of the vapor, for which purpose coffee-pots are now constructed, and are valuable inventions. The clari- fying of coffee by means of the whites of eggs and fish-skin deprives it of much of its good qualities — straining is far preferable. Milk, when used, should be hot. Milk and sugar add much to the nourishing qualities of the beverage, and assist in making it a most delicious adjunct to a breakfast. When taken after dinner, the milk and sugar should be omitted, as it is then intended only as a promoter of digestion, and the desired effect is much more decided witliout those ingredients. Like tea, only much more effectually, coflfee coun- teracts the effect of alcoholic drinks upon the brain and nervous system. It neutralizes the virulent effects of several of the vegetable poisons, such as opium and belladonna, and arrests excessive vomiting by allaying the nervous irritation of the stomach. Its influence on the brain is most happy, as it iu- creases the activity and energy of that organ, and re- moves a sense of fatigue and dullness of disposition. It also resists the influence of cold and damp, and therefore is of great service to those exposed to a humid atmosphere in the night, while it invigorates the system in a warm climate. These good qualities account for the universal use of coffee, as well as for its abuse, for it is often taken in excessive quantities to the exclusion of more nutritious food. It should not 318 BEVERAGES AND CONDIMENTS. be indulged in by persons of a plethoric or full habit, as its tendency is to increase the circulation ; conse- quently in persons thus circumstanced it induces such serious inconveniences as vertigo, congestions, and en- gorgements of blood-vessels in parts of the body pre- disposed to such ailments. Previous to 1860, about 177,111,923 pounds of coffee were annually consumed in the United States ; but in 1865, in consequence of the increase of price, the consumption fell to only 109.086,703 pounds, be- ing a decrease of 68,025,220 pounds for that year. CHAPTER VI. COCOA AND CHOCOLATE. Chocolate made fromtlie seeds of tlie Tlieobroma — The Theohroma cacao cultivated in Mexico in the time of the Aztecs — Uses and properties of its seed — The cacao tree, its foliage, flowers, and fruit — Tiie modes of manufacturing chocolate — Cooqa and broma — The use of chocolate in various countries. CHOCOLATE is made from the seeds of several varieties of the Theohroma trees, as the T, cacao^ tlie T. speciosumj^ the T, sylvestre^ and the T, siibin- camim ; but principally from the first-named. Theo- hroma, which signifies ''food for a god," was the generic name given to these trees by Lin^t^us as a mark of his opinion of the excellent qualities of their seeds. The Theohroma cacao has been cultivated in Mexico ever since the days of Mootezuma, and has COCOA AND CHOCOLATE. 319 been largely transplanted by tlie Spaniards into tlieir dependencies. In the Mexican langnage its seeds are called cacava quahidtl^ and the preparation from them, chocolatl. In. the times of the Aztec kings the seeds Avere made use of as money, and acted the part of small coins. For their good properties as a diet they have been highly extolled to the present day by all who have become acquainted with their use. ScHRADER analysed the cacao seeds, and discovered in them the same valuable principle that exists in coffee and tea, thein or caffein^ which contains the most nitrogenized substance found in vegetables. The cacao tree seldom rises above the height of twenty feet ; its leaves are oblong and pointed, and of large size; and its flowers are small and of a pale red color. These flowers are succeeded by oval-pointed pods, which contain a white pithy substance that is disagreeable to the taste and surrounds numerous seeds, each of about the size of an almond kernel, but of a rounder form. Some pods will contain as many as a hundred of these seeds. The outer covering of the seeds is a thin skin or husk of a light reddish-brown color, but internally they are of a dark-brov/n color. They are very oily and nutritious, although the Span- iards deny this fact, and thus excuse themselves for drinking chocolate on fast-days. The natives of Mexico prepare chocolate for use in the following manner, and have done so from the ear- liest ages to the present time : They first roast the seeds of the cacao in earthen pots, and then remove the husks, after which they beat the seeds between two stones, and form the mass into cakes with the 320 BEVERAGES AND CONDIMENTS. luuids. The process adopted in our own country dif- fers from this only in so far that instead of being beaten the seeds are ground, so as to enable the manufactnrer the better to form the mass into a smooth paste, to which he adds some flavoring, and then molds it into tlie shape in which the chocolate is sold. Chocolate, when pure, leaves but a small residuum in the cup ; it is, however, often much adulterated with browned flour and butter, which make it softer than the genuine article, and render it ofiensive to weak stomachs. Chocolate cakes should be kept from the air as much as possible, as, when exposed to the atmosphere, they have a tendency to become rancid and unfit for use. C(9(^6>(Q^ is the beverage made from the husks or shells of the cacao seed, which always have a small portion of the oil in them. It is w^ell adapted for delicate persons. The same beverage, when made somewhat richer, is called hroma. The fixed oil that is expressed from the seed is of a semi-solid consistence, and is used for making cosmetics. Chocolate is not extensively used in the United States ; but, when used, it is generally made too rich and oppressive to the digestive organs ; consequently cocoa and* broma are more advised to be taken as beverages when tea and coffee are inadmissible. In France, it is held in great esteem ; in Spain, it consti- tutes the ordinary breakfast ; and in Mexico, according to Humboldt, it is not considered an object of luxury , but rather one of prime necessity. OHAPTEH VII. CONDIMENTS AND THP:m QUALITIES. Condiments not only render food palatable, but are promoters of digestion — The more acrid varieties pernicious — The condiments most conducive to health — Salt and vinegar — Sugar, cream, but- ter, and oil render rich food obnoxious, but are advantageous when taken with plain food — Aromatic spices must be taken with caution — Onions and garlic have a sedative effect — When sugar disagrees with dyspeptics — Salt essential to sustain health — Its absence engenders worms in the stomach — Salt provisions pro- duce scurvy — Vinegar in moderation conducive to health — It renders fatty substances more digestible — When taken in excess^ it is injurious. THOUGH Coiullments deinaiid a distinct chapter in a Avork like this, still they are difficult to separate and define, as such articles as tlie onion, but- ter, sugar, and oil — nearly all of which we have al- ready discussed — may be classed among ijieni. The nature of condiments, as generally viewed, is to im- part a zest to food, to heighten its taste by an added relish, and thus to render it more palatable. But this is only one of the essential qualities they possess. The others are the promotion of digestion and the correc- tion of the injurious properties of certain kinds of food — in a word, condiments stimulate into action the * over-tasked digestive organs. It is not, however, claimed for thcni that they improve the tone of these 322 BEVERAGES AND CONDIMENTS. organs ; and, consequently, they may be dispensed with for a time without injury. But persons Avho accus- tom thems.elves to the use of the more acrid varieties find it impossible to do w^ithout them, and have even to increase the quantity in order to satisfy their de- sire for them in their food, wdiicli they thus render un- palatable and obnoxious to the natural taste ; and the result is that, in course of time, such persons can not digest their food without them. There are, however, some condiments, such as salt and 'yme^a^', wdiich are of actual benefit and are requi- site to sustain tlie system ; but they must be taken in moderation, otherwise they will impair the health. Sicgar^ cream, hutter^ and oil often invite the appetite to an indulgence in an excess of rich food, and really render such food more obnoxious by their intermixture with jt ; but when they are taken in moderate quan- tity w^itli plain food, they prove of actual advantage even to a delicate person. As mustard^ pepper^ all the aroinatic spices contain largely of volatile oil, the properties of which stimulate the nervous system, they should be taken with extreme caution. If taken to excess, their tendency is to im[)air the normal tone of the nervous system. The alliaceous plants, — garlic^ onions^ etc., — on the contrary, have a sedative influence upon the nervous system, and are nutritious, especially wdien boiled. This influence has naturally induced a fondness for them ; but as the efiect produced is very moderate, no injury can be sustained from it. Siigar^M eaten in a concentrated form — as in candies, preserves, and rich syrups — does not generally ofiend tlie stomach ; but when it is much diluted — as in cof- CONDIMENTS AND THJilK QUALITIES. 323 fee, tea, or other sweetened drinks — it lias a decided tendency to ferment and to form acid. . And thus it is that tea and cofiee disagree with dyspeptics who' can eat pure sugar with impunity. But from this it must not be inferred that dyspeptics can eat diet con- taining much sweetening without incurring inconve- nience and suffering from the indulgence. Salt is essential to the sustaining of liealth in nearly all animals. Those in a wild state obtain it from the earth in certain localities, which in this country are called salt-licks / and as these places are regularly visited and licked by wild beasts, they are often watched b}^ the sportsman in pursuit of game. Every farmer regularly supplies his cattle with salt in order to keep them in health. Children who have not been supplied with sufficient salt in their food are usually afflicted with worms; they become pale and bloated, and are without ability to digest their food. When thus afflicted, a judicious use of salt for a time will improve their health and rid them of the worms. Consequently, salt has been recommended as a remedy for the removal of worms in both children and cattle. The ancient laws of Holland,'' says Dr. Paris, " ordained men to be kept on bread alone unmixed with salt as the severest punishment that could be in- flicted upon them in their moist climate. The effect was horrible ; these wretched criminals are said to have been devoured by vforms engendered in their own stomachs.""^ Salt provisions can no more be endured with im ^ Paris on Diet, p. 78. 324 BEVERAGES AND CONDIMENTS. pimity during confinement tlian tlie deprivation of salt, as, under such circumstances, tliey are supposed to produce the scurvy ; while, in any case, if they are too much indulged in, or if salt is eaten in excessive quantity, disease of a milder form will be engendered. We thus learn that it is necessary to take even the essentials to health in moderation. Vinegar^ in moderate amount, is also conducive to health, and more especially if it is taken with cellulace vegetables. It is supposed by Dr. Paris to render fatty, gelatinous substances more digestible. And it is worthy of remark that vinegar dissolves muscular fibre — that is, lean meat — so that it will be- come like jelly and be soluble in hot water. This latter fact was discovered by a very noted chemist, Berzelius. The consequence is that, if it is taken into the system in excess, it must be injurious ; and it is well known that emaciation is produced in persons who freely indulge in the eating of pickles or lemons, the acids they contain being very detrimental to the sto- mach. Persons who in yontli have partaken overmuch of these acids have suffered through the remainder of their lives from that continual distress in the sto- mach which is known as heartburn, although they had long previously abandoned the indulgence which gave rise to it. PART VIII. JnCENTIYES to ^EALTHj EANS OF JIeLIEF IN ^ASES OF y^CCIDENT, CHAPTER 1. BATHING AND THE FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN. The external application of fluids rgost grateful to man when fa- tigued — Batliing employed as a curative means — Was a religious observance among the ancients — Scriptural history of bathing — The Greeks indebted to the Egyptians for its knowledge — Cruel practice of the Spartans — Excessive cold water injurious — Judg- ment required in bathing — Sedative effects of cold water danger- ous to some constitutions — Structure and organization of the skin — How it is acted upon by cold water — Relief afforded by the cold bath in casfs of fever and inflammation — When the application of iced water is beneficial — The warm bath, and its remedial quali- ties — The hot bath and its stimulating efiects — Is dangerous to persons of full habit — Precautionary measures — How to prepare a vapor-bath — Application of the fumes of alcohol or the spirit vapor-bath — The foot-bath and local applications. EOBABLY Hotliing is more grateful to man, JL when fatigued and oppressed by lieat, than bathing in a cool stream of water. And thus the bath has been resorted to not alone as a luxury when well, but as a cnrative means when sick — an idea in- duced from the relief it affords a person when he is tired and feverish from excessive toil. The flowing stream being one of nature's free provisions, and in primitive times the most convenient arrangement for cleansing and purifying the person, man in every stage of society has availed himself of the luxurious privi- 328 INCENTIVES TO HEALTH, ETC. lege it presented, wliile at the same time lie Las enjoyed the ricli advantage of inhaling the cool air of the shad- ed forest through which it passed. And as whatever affords Iiim the greatest solace and adds most to his comfort tends to excite his religious veneration, so bathing and visiting the sliaded forest have been en- joined as religious observances. The conviction innate in man of the virtue of purification, and of the essen- tiality of repentance — for which latter the silent forest offers a fitting place for^olemnity of thought as to his sinful nature — would naturally suggest these observan- ces as indispensable to obtain the forgiveness of an offended Deity. And that they were practiced in the primitive ages no doubt can be entertained, for we read that, before the days of Moses, bathing was resort- ed to, and was considered typical of moral purity. Jacob commanded his family to purify themselves and change their garments before they went to Betliel to sacrifice. In the book of Job we read of a similar pu- rification by snow-water, wln'ch proves that cold bath- ing is of very early date. The Egyptian priests on the occasion of extraordinary sacrifices washed their bodies three times a day. The Jewish priests , also washed their bodies before ofiiciating in the temple ; and the proselytes from heathen parents were immers- ed to their necks in the river, and were compelled to remain there until an exposition of some of the pre- cepts of the law was made by the priest. The Greeks were indebted to the Egyptians for their knowledge of bathing, as a part of the medical art, and very probably as a religious observance. These people, in common with the Jews, practiced BATHIXG AND THE FUNCTIOXS OF THE SKIN. 329 three kinds of puriiication — by bathing, immersing,^ or dipping, by washing of hands and feet, and by asper- sion or sprinkling."^ Extremes being ever the tenden- cy of man, he is tempted to accomplish the acme of perfection without considering the necessity of grada- tion, a compulsory restraint enjoined by nature ; and so he will suffer popular practice to usurp the place of his better judgment, and to lead him into tlie greatest extremes. The Spartans plunged their new-born in- fants into cold springs, and boasted of the robust con- stitutions of those that grew up. The practice could not be otherwise than successful in relieving them of feeble children, for only the robust could withstand the ordeal ; and thus a sacrifice was made of all the en- feebled. This cruel infliction was a submission to public opinion and pride. Many of those who were destroyed by the sudden violence would, in the course of time, by gradual inurement, have rivaled in health those who withstooi^ the severe shock ; for the feeble inftxnt, with proper care, often lives to enjoy a vigor- ous manhod and a ripe old age. An ordinary capability, by being excessively forced to meet some demand or to resist some extraordinary influence, is often thereby so impaired as to place the recuperative powers beyond the ability to resuscitate, and thus a check is given to the progressive vigor of the system. It is not uncommon for healthy and well- developed infants to disappoint expectation in adoles- cent age by becoming feeble, and exhibiting indica- tions of disease and deformity. It is, therefore, most prudent for parents to observe care, and to exercise * Bell on Bathing. 330 INCENTIVES TO HEALTH, ETC. judgment in the inurement of their offspring to such hardy treatment as cold bathing. Some children will bear it admirably, while there are tliose whom, w^ith caa'eful gradation of treatment, it will much improve ; but still there are others who will sink under its enforce- ment, and we must certainly consider it a cruelty to sacrifice these to the dictation of public opinion. These remarks apply not only to children, but to adults of delicate constitution. Many a valuable life has been sacrificed to popular practices, urged by un- reflecting friends, who have perhaps never given it a thought that, though all mankind are endowed with vital resistance and with ability to accumulate resisting power, yet some possess it to a far less extent than others. The responsibility of giving advice in such matters should alone be assumed by tliose who are most familiar with the constitution of an indivi- dual, and who are capable of making proper deductions from his or her past life ; and none are more capable of giving proper advice than an observing, long-con- tinued medical attendant, and the oldest, most inte- rested, and most reliable member of the family. Then any experiment should be carefully made, and the perseverance in it limited according to the improve- ment, and nevjer continued where actual benefit is not derived w^ithin a reasonable time ; but above all, it should be introduced gradually, if proper regard is had for the life of the individual or for his or her fu- ture health. Persons may die from the sudden sedative effect of cold water upon so extensive a surface as that of the whole body. It may so paralyze the nerves as to BATHING AND THE FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN. 331 greatly impair their vital energy, and tlius it may be impossible for the blood to return to the super- ficial blood-vessels; or it may induce a sudden revul- sion of blood from the surface to the large blood-ves- sels about the vital organs, and a consequent disten- tion of those organs, which may become permanent, and cause the life of the individual to be ever after seriously imperiled by rendering him liable to heart- disease and congestion of various organs. In order to enable the reader to comprehend more clearly the effects of bathing, we will here present a description of the structure and functions of the skin. We intentionally omitted this in a previous chapter, as we preferred to treat of the two subjects in conjunc- tion, so that they might be rendered more compre- hensible. The ski7i covering the body of an ordinary-sized man has a superficies of about fifteen square feet. It is composed of three lamince or layers. The outer one, called the cuticle or epidermis^ is readily separated from the middle layer by chafing or blistering, and has not any sensibility ; it is seemingly a mere outer protection to more sensitive parts. The next layer is of a soft, porous consistency, presenting a secreting surface, very perceptible when the outer layer is re- moved, and is exceedingly sensitive. This layer, call- ed rete mucosum^ consists of a profusiqii of small vessels conveying blood and lymph, and of a fine net-work of nerves; and it presents on its surface the color of the individual, which is perceived through the epidermis or scarf skin. The inner layer is of a dense, resisting character, and is called the true skin oy cJiorion. The 332 INCENTIVES TO HEALTH, ETC. outer layer permits the escape of perspirable matter and certain gases, wliicli are given out from the terminations of the small vessels referred to ; but at tlie same time it protects and to a certain degree pre- vents tlie introduction of mjurious substances. This protecting property is very apparent when the outer layer is removed, as then poisonous substances are most readily taken into the system and their effects manifested. This very extensive organ performs other most im- portant functions besides those of secreting insensible and sensible perspiration and eliminating gases. It also absorbs oxygen and nitrogen from the atmosphere, and performs functions somewhat similar to those of the lungs in respiration ; and this is especially the case in some of the lower orders of animals, such as the frog, wdiose skin is of more vital importance in sustaining life than the lungs. The skin is continued internally, and, by a slightly graduated modification, forms the lining membranes of the- nose, mouth, and internal organs ; hence the sympathy that exists between those membranes and the external skin. If the secreting function of the latter is impaired by constriction or enfeebled by ex- cessive evaporation, that is, by what we term taking cold," the internal mucous secretions, as, for instance, those of the nose and bronchia from the lungs, are in- creased, and diarrhea not unfrequently supervenes. By exciting the skin into its wonted action, and indu- cing a free perspiration, the internal activity is arrested, and in mild cases an equilibrium is established. But if an excessive irritability, amounting to congestion, is VERTICAL SECTION OF THE SKIN GREATLY MAGNIFIED. 1. The hairs passing up from their bulbs. 2. The eindermis^ or scarf-skin, hav- ing the appearance of scales placed one over the other. 3. The dermis, or true skin. 9. The rete mucosum^ forming the upper surface of the derma. It is this layer that contains the coloring pigment of the skin, as the black color of the negro. 4. The subcutaneous cellnlar tissue. This contains the fat-cells.^ sioeat^ glands, and ducts extending to the epidermis. 5. The fat-cells. 6. The aweat-glands. 7, 7. The arteries, giving branches to . glands, all parts of the skin, and hair-bulbs. 8. The sebaceous glands of the hair. 9. The rete mucosum. 10. fibrous filaments "^^xs^^^m^ the skin. 11. The hair bulb. BATHIXG AXD THE FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN. 333 established, tlien irritabiHty is kept up by the pressure of the engorged blood-vessels, and much excitement of the nerves is produced ; and this excitement requires for its relief a more decided medication, and if it is not relieved, disorganization ensues. The nerves, too, play an important part, more especially in fever, when they are morbidly excited, and constrict the secrethig vessels both internally and externally. If the irrita- bility is allayed, perspiration, accompanied by a move- ment of the bowels, ensues, and the patient obtains relief ; but as this object is not always readily obtain- ed, experience and skill are required to accomplish it. From this we learn that it is important to maintain the healthy functions of the skin, and that any extra- ordinary violence which produces a sudden interference with the action of those functions tends to derange the whole system ; and this derangement is in exact propor- tion to the deficiency of resistant power in the skin. From its exposed surface, this power is, in the adult, greater in that organ than in any other of the animal economy, but such is not the case in the new-born in- fiint. It can be accumulated by gradual invitation, where there is sufficient natural stamina to affijrd it; but the amount of such stamina is limited in each person to his actual physical strength. With the delicate an indiscriminate use of the cold 'hath and extraordinary exposure to cold, damp air are most common causes of incurable diseases. The appli- cation of cold water to the skin acts : First^ as a repel- lant, by constricting the secreting vessels and arresting nervous energy, and, as a consequent, numbness fol- lows, when the prick of a pin is scarcely felt ; and, if it 334 INCENTIVES TO HEALTH, ETC. is continued long, first tlie fingers, and then the limbs, fail to move with freedom. And, secondly^ it causes the natural lieat of the body to be conducted off so ra- pidly as to deprive the internal parts of their wonted heat — 98^ of Faln-enheit. Under such circumstances, experienced observers have remarked tlie circulation to decrease from ten to fifteen beats per minute, tlius to a considerable extent dhninishing the ability to fur- nish heat. In fact, so great is the benumbing effect upon the nervous system that, even after leaving the bath, the temperature of the body will remain for a considerable time below the natural level. Such has been the experience of Athell, Macard, Buchan", and Dr. Curry, all writers upon the use of baths. The effect of an impression like this upon a delicate, nervous person must certainly be most serious, and especially upon one whose circulation is feeble. For a considerable length of time after bathing, persons of this class usually experience cold, shivering languor, dullness of the senses, disinclination to thought and motion, and pains in the head and joints, all of which are accompanied by a feeble pulse ; while some per- sons have a gradual diminution of nervous power resulting in paralysis. The cold hath affords much relief in cases of fever, and, when applied locally, in some instances of local inflammation. It may also be of service to persons of robust constitution who do not labor sufficiently to expend their natural quantum of excitability, which renders them dull and sluggish, and at times sul)jects them to headaches and various ills of oppression, and makes tliem a])pcar to the superficial obsei'ver like BATHING AND THE FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN. 335 those who are afflicted with feeble constitutions. In such cases tlie cold bath, if persevered in at fre- quent intervals, acts as a sedative, and not only abstracts tlie superabundant heat, but lessens the dis- position to its accumulation. Hard labor would ac- complish similar good results. In cases of extraordinary excitement of the skin, amounting to actual irritation, caused by excessive heat — such, for instance, as results from taking very hot baths and having the surface irritated by stiif brushes or switching — water at the temperature of snow^ acts as a soothing sedative, and brings the sys- tem into a state of equilibrium, though at the time it is in one of actual exhaustion, inducing an inclina- tion for rest. And thus it is that a disposition to qnie- tude and apparent comfort follows the taking of one of the " Russian baths," which sensation is very analogous to the relief afforded to a person laboring under fever by the skillful application of cold water externally and internally. In both instances he is inclined to sleep, for in neither does he obtain either strength or vital energy. This fact teaches ns that cold baths are actu- ally injurious to tlie delicate young, to tlie enfeebled adult, and to the aged. Moderately cool bathing^ gradually reduced in tem- perature, may in some instances induce an abilit}^ in the system to resist the influence of cold; but even this practice must be carefully tested, for, if an indi- vidual has not the stamina to accumulate vital energy, he Avill be seriously injured by it. If the person is young and the practice is continued, all the indica- tions of scrofula will supervene ; and if advanced in 330 INCENTIVES TO HEALTH, ETC. age, then paralysis will be induced. These derange- ments may not follow immediately, but the impres- sion made will result in them. Iced water api:>lied locally, or as a general bath, affords most decided relief in cases of excessive ner- vous excitement. We have already remarked that persons prostrated by alcoholic intoxication have been relieved by pouring cold water on their heads ; and that in cases of delirinm tremens relief has been ob- tained by immersion in ice-water, by which sleep has been induced, even after opium had failed to quiet, so powerful is the effect of cold water as a sedative. Bathing in w\ater at the temperature of 98° has the least possible tendency to injure, and a direct ten- dency to benefit both young and old, especially when soap is nsed, for then not only the exposed surfaces, bnt the whole body, is cleansed. Thereby a most favorable impression is made upon the sentient nerves and secreting vessels ; and the obstructing secretions are softened and removed, wdiich is as essential to the enjoyment of perfect health as is the regulating of the bowels to stated periods, not exceeding twenty-four hours' interval. In order to maintain such health, w^asliing the surface of the entire body is not required so often as washing the exposed parts, but it should be practiced quite frequently, and more especially by persons having oleaginons secretions, which we have heretofore stated are very apparent npon their cloth- ing. A bath at the temperature just mentioned is usnally denominated the warm or tepid hath: the temperature, however, may be varied from Y5° to 98"^, as may be most congenial to the feelings of the per- BATHIN(i AND THE FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN. 337 son. In fact, it can be so ni edified as to render tlie warm bath one of tlie very best remedies for nervous irritability^, from whatever cause it arises, for impaired health, or for fatigue; and as illustrative of the latter we may mention tlie wayworn traveler, to whom it is one of the greatest luxuries, sootliing his nervous system, and removing from his skin tlie excessive o.ccumulation of dust and of cutaneous secretions pro- duced by extraordinary exertion, both of which act as irritants. Its sedative influence in allaying morbid irritability predisposes to a quiet sleep, during which the internal powders prepare and accumulate a dis- posable force for continued exertion. This is the proper bath for the feeble and delicate, if it is not immoderately indulged in. If feverish or much ex- cited, a longer continuance in the bath than would be ordinarily advisable may.be advantageous. But this greatly depends upon the condition of the person, as its sedative eifect upon the nervous system will lessen the circulation of the blood and enfeeble the physical powers; hence it is said, and truly so, that too fre- quent bathing or washing of delicate babes is inju- rious, as it lessens the excitement necessary for the attainment of growth and vigor. The hot hath is from 100"^ to 112°, and differs essen- tially from the warm or tepid bath, as it is a stimu- lant, and ought only to be used as such. While the latter soothes and disposes to mental and corporeal quietude, the former communicates heat to the body, and excites the nerves and the circulation of the blood to such a degree as to be exceedingly dangerous to persons of full habit. The condition of such persons 838 INCENTIVKS TO HEALTH, ETC. when under its influence is: Swelling of the fingers so as to preclude the possibility of removing the rings, congestion of the blood-vessels about the head, quick- ening of the pulse which becomes full, and rapid and laborious respiration which are followed by palpita- tion of the heart, wdiile Qven apoplexy has been known to ensue. These effects are produced in direct pro- portion to the duration of immersion, and to the tem- perature of the bath. A valuable precautionary measure, to avert the determination of excitement to the brain and nerves when taking a hot bath, is the application to the head of a sponge charged with iced water, which should be renewed and continued as long as the person is in the bath. The same practice should also be observed by persons under the influence of hot vapor from water, or of the fumes of burning alcohol, as they tend equal- ly with the hot bath to produce extraordinary excite- ment, first, of the superficies of the body, and, lastly, of the vital centres. When any of these agencies are resorted to as a means of counteracting internal irri- tation, and of establishing a healthy action in the skin, and when they are skillfully applied, they are most salutary remedies. The vapor of hot water, or the vapor-hath^ is most readily applied in the following manner : Take a blanket, gather up one of the narrow sides, and tie round it firmly a strong cord; after which, place within the end so tied, and close up to the tie, a hoop from a flour-barrel, and, so as to keep it in its place, fasten it by means of strips of cloth passed round the rim and pinned to the blanket. When raised up, this BATHING AND THE FUNCIIONS OF THE SKIN. 339 will form the top of a tent, to wliieli tlie rest of the blanket will supply tbe sides; and this tent may be easily suspended by attaching the top to one end of a strong cane, the other end being passed over the top of a door, partially open, and under the door frame. If within this tent is placed a vessel containing about two gallons of hot water, into which a few hot bricks are from time to time plunged, a sufficient amount of vapor will be generated and kept up to aftbrd a very decided vapor-bath for a person either standing or sitting within the tent. The spirit-vapor hath^ composed of the fumes of alcohol or ordinary spirits of good strength, may be applied as follows : Pin one extremity of a blanket about the neck of a person, and then seait him on an open-bottomed chair, after which spread the blanket over both the person and the chair, with the open side to the back ; next put under the chair a saucer placed on an ordinary porcelain plate, and containing about half a gill of alcohol, and then ignite the spirits with a lighted match. This vapor may also be conveyed into the bed of a sick person by means of a curved tin tube with a funnel-shaped end, the large end being placed over the alcohol, and the bedclothes being sufficiently elevated by rolled blankets placed a short distance from each side of the patient. The applica- tion of the spirit-vapor produces a most decided stim- ulant effect upon the skin, and is most valuable, as it excites and maintains the wonted circulation of the blood in that organ, and restores to it its secreting functions, which are always deficient when internal irritation exists, let it be of the stomach, the bowels^ 340 INCENTIVES TO HEALTH, ETC. or the lungs. It is also a valuable remedy in chronic rheumatism, and neuralgic aftections, hut more espe- cially in chronic derangement of the bowels, whether of children, adults, or aged persons. Local baths are often of great service, especially the foot-iath^ or jpediluviu7)i. In cases of excessive excitement about the head, throat, or chest, a very hot foot-bath is a valuable means of relief, and much ad- vantage is obtained by immersing the hands at the same time. Apoplectic seizures have been 'relieved by the application of very hot water to the feet and hands, and at the same time of pounded ice in a blad- der to the head. Cloths steeped in cold w^ater and applied to inflamed parts, and reapplied at frequent intervals or kept wet, is one of the very best reme- dies in cases of local inflammation. The safest prac- tice, however, with persons unaccustomed to bathing, is to use water at a temperature of about 70°. CHAPTER II. CLOTHING AND THE EFFECTS OF COLD. Clothing" contributes to health — The evils attendant on being insufficiently clad —Neatness in dress commands respect — Chil- dren sacrificed by fashionable clothing — Drafts in street cars a ]3roliiic cause of death — Concentrated drafts of air decidedly in- jurious — Effects of cold on the young and the aged — Cold air acts upon the system like cold water — A torpid skin the result of sedentary habits — Exercise, not clothing, the proper remedy — Clothing should be worn in accordance with surrounding cir- cumstances — The skin best protected by flannel — How children should be dressed by day and night — Flannel retains heat, but linen absorbs it — Cold feet must not be permitted — How they can be prevented — Sacrifice of women and children by wearing thin shoes and stockings — Exposure of the limbs of children tends to paralysis — Treatment of paralyzed parts — Waistbands and high-laced boots injurious to children — The necessity for fre- quently changing underclothing — Persons who should be care- fully guarded against cold. CLOTHING contributes largely to the health of man; and its imprudent use has been as much the cause of both physical and mental suffering as any other evil to which he is subject. Insufficient clothing has led to many persons for years lingering out a life of pain — persons who could not excuse themselves for their folly on tlie score of poverty, but wlio w^ere in- duced by a false pride to conform to the rules of some frivolous prevailing fashion, even against the wishes 342 INCENTIVES TO IIExVLTH, ETC. and advice of tLeir best friends. And tliere are many more who have had to experience the mental anguish attendant upon the loss of a fovorite child of bril- liant attainments, or upon the decease of some valued friend who has committed this species of self-immo- lation. Clotlies, when properly devised, not only contri- bute to personal comfort, but are conducive to liealth and longevity. Their conformation should be one of the studies of mankind, for the style of dress is often taken as an index to the character of the individual. Men and women wdio are tastefully attired invariably command respect, even tliougli the materials of which their habiliments are composed are of the most ordinary quality. Indeed, it is often the most costly material that is the most unfavorably fashioned, and contributes the least either to personal appearance or to personal comfort. Children are constantly being sacrificed, by their parents, in conformity to the fashion of the day, caus- ing the most sensitive parts of their bodies to be ex- posed, and, while so meagrely clad, submitting them to most unfavorable circumistances ; as, for instance, keeping them in overheated rooms, and then permit- ting them to encounter sudden drafts of air by run- ning out into the hall, especially when the outer doors are thrown open. Another grave error is that of per- sisting in confining them to the house, from the fear that they will catch cold if allowed to go out ; instead of which they ought to be properly clothed and exposed to the open air every favorable day. If thus clothed and exposed, and sudden drafts of air arc avoided. CLOTHING AND THE EFFECTS OF COLD. 343 children of moderately good constitutions will not "be attacked with croup and inflannnation of the lungs, and, all other circumstances being equal, will enjoy good health. Probably one of the most prolific causes of death to children arises from taking them out of warm houses, on mild days during the cool season, and almost im- mediately taking them into the city railroad cars. The doors at the ends of these cars are, on snch days, usually open; if not, it is highW probable that some mother of a family of children, wrapped up in her furs, and very warm from active walking for a few blocks, wnll enter one of them and order the windows down, little suspecting that for her own gratification she is endangering the lives of the children, and adults with delicate lungs, who may be her fellows-passengers. This is a most common occurrence. Twenty minutes' ride under one or other of these circumstances has caused the death of many an infant and adult, while an hour's walk w^ould have improved their health. The ride w^ould not be injurious if the front-door and the side-windows of the car were kept closed. The ven- tilators on the roof and the after-door are all that it is safe to leave open on a damp, chilly day. Even on the hottest day in summer, it is decidedly injurious to have merely both doors or a front-window and the rear-door open, thereby creating a draft, and only safe when all the side-windows as well as the doors of a car are open. In a word, it is a concentrated draft of air that passengers should guard against. When a person is in a quiescent condition, such a draft deprives the system of its vital enei'gies too rapidly, and in direct 344 INCENTIVES TO HEALTH, ETC. proportion to liis or her want of vigor. The most dehcate person is not injured by walking in the open air, even though it may travel with as much and even greater velocity than a draft would course through such a confined place as a passage-way, or througli an open window ; for tlie exercise of walking tends to the accumulation of energy equal to the expenditure. Five minutes' exposure, while a person is in a station- ary position, to a concentrated draft of air at a tempe- rature of seventy degrees, is more injurious than an hour's exposure wliile walking in the open air at a temperature of forty degrees; while in either case the influence of the air would be modifled by clothing and by the vigor and age of the individual. It is a w^ell-establislied fact that the young and the old are least able to resist the depressing influence of cold, and that the former are in general the least guarded against it. Dr. W, F. Edwards, in treating on the infl-uence of physical agents on the animal economy, has demonstrated by actual investigation that the young have at birth the least power of pro- ducing heat, and that this ability to generate heat gra- dnall}'^ increases, and in direct ratio of vigor, to adult age. He has also shown that heat parts fi'om chil- dren much more readily than from adults. Hence the necessity of protecting as much of the sur- face of the body of the child as it is possible, and of modifying the clothing in accordance with the tem- perature and the exposure. An excess of clothing during confinement in warm, close rooms has a direct tendency to enfeeble both young and old, as the skin thereby becomes exceed- CLOTHING AND THE EFFECTS OF COLD. 345 irigly sensitive to cold, fi'om wliicli it ought to be care- fully protected, especially the surface of the extremi- ties of tlie body. But this is not the only evil that arises from sucli a debilitating practice. In children an excessive perspiration is induced at the expense of the normal vigorous development of the internal orga- nization, tending to morbid derangement, which is very analogous to scrofula, and is most probably one of the primary causes of that ailment, as the proper organic functions are not sustained for want of a sufficiency of oxygenized air to maintain the skin and lungs in their w^onted action. The restless activity of children greatly favors them in the generation of vital force to resist the effects of cold. In this they differ decidedly from old people, who cannot exercise themselves, and wdio conse- quently require at all times much more clothing than children. However, both children and enfeebled per- sons, when in a quiescent state, should be properly protected against cold, and, under all circumstances, should never be allowed for any length of time to ex- perience chilliness or suffer from cold feet. The effect of cold air is very similar to that of cold water, and is proportionate to the susceptibility of the animal system from an enfeebled condition of the skin or from the general economy. Both repel the circulation from the surface upon the internal organs, and, if continued, disorganize them and eventuate in their destruction. A torpid skin is often the result of sedentary habits ; torpid bowels predispose to chilli- ness and cold feet. In such cases an increase of cloth- ing is not the proper reuiedy. Exercise in the open 346 INCENTIVES TO HEALTH, ETC. air, gracliiall}^ introduced, is the wiser course to pui*- sue ; but care must be taken not to overexert or fatigue the systeui, as a person so situated will not possess sufficient vital force to sustain an amount of exertion that might be considered even moderate exer- cise in anotlier, differently conditioned, though of like physical proportions. The exercise must be regulated by the amount a person can endure without feeling much fatigue, and it must be determined by the indi- vidual that he is wearing a sufficiency of clothing to keep himself comfortable under tlie existing circum- stances. Exercise is essentially necessary to excite the whole organization into activity, so that the wonted functions may conduce to the proper sustenance of the body. The Creator has so constituted man and all the living animals that, when under the influence of life, motion is essential to the maintenance of their respec- tive forms ; and if this law of nature is not obeyed, suf- fering is the penalty for the infraction. Clothing and artificial heat will not compensate for the neglect of exercise in the open and pure atn.iosphere. Health requires for its maintenance food -sufficient to afford a certain amount of vigor to be expeiided in exercise, the proper limit of which latter is marked by fatigue ; and enough clothing to protect tlie system un- der all circumstances, and by both day and night, from chilliness, but not an amount that will feel oppressive and make a person uncomfortably warm when qui- escent in a temperature of sixty degrees. Tlie cloth- ing should also be sufficient to protect the body from cold when walking ])riskly out of doors in a tempera- ture of fifty degrees. Wlicn the temperature is below CLOTHING AND THE EFFECTS OF COLD. 347 that point, it will be necessary to put on extra clotli- ing, but this should be removed wliile witliiti doors when the temperature is sixty-live degrees and over. During the summer, tlie clotliing should be light and not oppressive, and in our variable climate gauze flau- nel should be worn next the skin. The latter is es- pecially required by cliildren, for, as we have re- marked, young (children have less vital force tlian adults to resist the effects of drafts of air; and this shows the necessity of protecting all parts of a child's body and limbs in warm weather with very light fabric; but if this cannot be subuiitted to through the day, the child sliould be dressed during the night in some garment so contrived that it will be impossible for it to get naked. It matters not how light the ma- terial may be; if it is strong enough to be worn, it will be sufficient to protect the surface from excessive evaporation, which renders the skin cold to the toucli, and not only impedes the circulation in that organ, but predisposes to a derangement of the internal organs. The same precaution sliould be observed by delicate persons of all ages, and more especially by those living in unhealthy localities By the constant wearing of flannel, persons residing m very unhealthy districts, whose constitutions have been feeble, and whose health has been impaired by unfavorable influ- ence, have been not (mly relieved, but have had their constitutions rendered comparatively healthy. The good qualities of flannel consist in its not con- ducting ofl*the heat of the body, and in its protecting the surface or skin from being rapidly deprived of it; hence its beneflcial effect upon aged and feeble per- 348 INCENTIVES TO HEALTH, ETC. sons, who are unable to generate heat rapidly. Linen absorbs heat, and most decidedly so when moist. The sensation of cold is very manifest in damp linen, but not in damp flannel. Linen should not be worn by children, or by persons predisposed to diseases of the lungs or bowels, to rheumatism, or to catarrhal affec- tions, as the mucous membranes are invariably affected by a sudden cliill upon tlie skin, and often by cold, damp feet, wdiile at the same time the body remains warm. Tliis should never be suffered, if it is possible to guard against it. In cold, damp w^eather, boots or slioes sliould be worn that are large enongh to admit cork soles covered with flannel, which should be tacked fast to the inner soles. Good woollen socks or stockings sliould also be worn, and frequently clianged, as tlie ex- creta of the feet, which are very considerable in healthy persons, are confined by means of the leather and ab- sorbed hy the Avoollen. The secreting of the feet is one of nature's healthy processes, but it is often im- peded and arrested by the wearing of thin, light shoes and stockings, and by the failure to take free walking exercise. Unhealthy persons are almost invariably af- flicted wnth cold feet, cold hands, and torpid skins, which are curable in many cases by judicious clothing and exercise. They would, however, establish a good condition of health if they would induce an equilibrium of the circulation. Persons generally are well aware of the sympathy that exists between the feet and the internal parts of the system, and will inform their physicians that their ailments have been caused by getting their feet wet, most commonly by wilfulness or gross negligence CLOTHING AND THE EFFECTS OF COLD. 349 wliicli not iinfreqiieiitly costs them their lives. It is but seldoLH tliat the most vigorous in health can en- clnre wet feet witli impnnity. Men usually guard themselves against the danger by wearing water-proof boots or overshoes; but delicate w^omen will, and chil- dren are permitted to, wear light cotton stockings and single-soled shoes, and, in extremely wet weather, very light india-rubber overshoes. This self-sacrifice by women of health and life, and this immolation of their children to tlie god of fashion, is most devoutly prac- tised c And it is but seldom that an immunity from the sacrifice of health is permitted in the dress of either women or children. This deplorable condition of society, in the midst of free and liberal education, ought not to be tolerated, and would not exist if our most opulent families set an example by wearing ch:>thing suited to the exigencies of the seasons and to individual circumstances. If they would do this, they would fulfil the intention for which clothing w^as instituted — a protection against unfavorable at- mospheric influences, whether in or out of doors, care being taken while within doors not to overclotlie so as to enervate the system. To adapt ourselves to varied influences, special care is required. When the ordinary clothing is worn dur- ing extraordinary activity, such clothing should not be immediately removed, but comfort should be obtained by rest, avoiding a change of temperature. This is a salutary precaution, necessary to be observed by the most vigorous in liealth. But if under such circum- stances the clothing is removed from the neck, the upper portion of tlie chest, and the arms, a covering 350 IXCEXTIVES TO HEALTH, ETC. of some tliin fabric should be substituted, so as to im- pede the excessive ev^aporation that would affect tlie superficial circulation of the blood in those tender parts, which ought never to be exposed in either adults or children. In children, such exposure has been one of the most prolific causes of inflamniation of the throat and chest, while a like exposure of their legs and inefficient protection to their feet has fre- quently resulted in inflammation of the bowels. The revulsion of the blood from tlie surface in many in- stances establislies a permanent irritability of the nervous system, wdiich, fi'om slight exciting causes, terminates in the most serious derangements, among wdiich maybe classed paralytic seizures resulting in the deformity of one or more of the limbs. One of the most favorable auxiliaries in the cure of these cases of paralysis is the protection of the parts affected from the influence of cold, the temperature in these parts being always lower than that of the unaf- fected portions of the body. Whatever will contribute to the establishing of warmth therein is also beneficial, and so friction, manipulation, warm covering, and mo- tion, are efficacious. In such applications, however, care must betaken to prevent the larger muscles (as is their tendency) from contracting permanently in con- sequence of the w^ant of counteracting force in the lesser muscles, which is a cause of deformity that can only be obviated by skilfully constructed apparatus that will sustain the limb in a normal position, and will enable the patient to use it and thus obtain motion. But the most expedient course to pursue is the pre- caution to guard against the unfavorable influences CLOTHING AKD THE EFFECTS OF COLD. 351 that produce these sad afflictions. Clothing should be so fashioned as to subserve to the convenience of the varied movements of the body witliout constric- tion, and more especially constriction in a narrow space, such as is caused by the wearing of a girdle. Tlie tightened band that is most commonly worn about the waist has produced many most serious de- rangements in both males and females, but more es- pecially the latter, and has often subjected them to painful inconveniences, which, under varied circum- stances, are more or less serious. The laced boots now worn by children are a prolific cause of weak ankles, as they impede the circulation of the blood by constricting and depriving the cords or. tendons of the feet of their wonted freedom of action. The re- sult is the interruption of the growth and vigor of the ankle and the arch of the foot, which induces an in- ward tendency of the ankle and a ^delding of the arch of the foot. The high heels on these boots also con- tribute largely to the derangement. If the ankle re- quires support, it ought to be applied by the means of vertical steel bars, softly padded, and sustained by encircling bands of metal that will not compress the ankle, and can be worn within the shoes. The most firm leather that can be obtained will, after a few days' wear, conform to the shape and yield to the lateral tendency of the ankle, and will often contribute to the difficulty by impeding the circulation and main- taining the unfavorable position. Hence stiflfened laced boots ought not to be relied upon as a curative means for weak ankles, and should not be worn by young children, for their tendency is to weaken the 352 IN^CENTIVES TO HEALTH, ETC. anlde by limiting the motion. Higli slioe?, worn with leggings or gaiters, are tlie most comfortable and salu- tary for children during the winter season, wdien they are exposed to the cold air ; that is, if the shoes are sufficiently large for the feet, and will admit of thick, warm stockings, by the aid of which both the legs and feet are protected, while the blood is permitted to circulate freely and to contribute largely to the sustain- ing of warmth. The frequent change of underclothing is an essential requisite to the maintenance of health, as the ex- creta of the skin, which, we repeat, are considerable in healthy persons, are retained by the clothing, and will become more or less intermingled with the atmo- spheric air, and be returned into the system. The skin, we have previously remarked, performs a very similar function to that of the lungs; it therefore re- quires pure air for the promotion of health. Hence the necessity of observing cleanliness about the per- son, and of protecting the skin from any unfavorable influences, and especially from becoming enteebied by excessive perspiration and consequent evaporation, which produce chilliness, and from exposure to cold, which impedes the free circulation of the blood in that organ. If the circulation in the skin is interrupted, there will be an excess of blood in the internal mem- branes, which will predispose them to derangement, and, as cold is a most decided sedative, not unfre- quently induce a torpor of the whole system. It must not be inferred, however, that cold repels the heat from the surface internally, and that it is returned with increased vigor, even in robust persons. This is CLOTRIXG AND THE EFFECTS OF COLD. 353 not the ease. Tlie lieat is dissipated in the cold media, and the system is deprived of its natural quantum ; and time, in proportion to tlie vigor of the system, is required to accumulate the wonted status or natural condition. The reaction that takes place, and the seemingly increased glow of warmth, is a deceptive nervous sensation. The tliermometer, if placed in the mouth, will show a diminution of heat when this pleasurable sensation is experienced. And this proves the advantage tliat is obtainable from cold air or cold water in cases of fever, where there is an excess of heat in the skin ; and the reverse where there is an inability to accumulate a sufficiency of heat, in consequence of a feebleness of the nervous system, from which severe chills ensue, and, at times, torpor resulting in death. Children, constitutionally feeble persons, and the aged, should be carefully guarded against the influ- ence of cold. Where persons possess but little ability to accumulate an increase of temperature — such as there is in the normal condition of persons of sound con- stitutions, and, as is the tendency of the animal system, if sufficient stamina exists, and time is given for its ac- complishment — an appreciable amount can be ob- tained, under gradual exercise, by inurement to the cold bath, and by exposure to a limited degree of cokL But this depends upon the physical ability ; for where it does not exist, these influences are decidedly injui-ious. In the attempt to invigorate feeble chil- dren or delicate adults by exposure that others en- dure with impunity, all the indications of scrofula are produced, and sometimes some immediate fatal disease. Whatever has a tendency to enfeeble or ar- 354 INCENTIVES TO HEALTH, ETC. rest tlie vital energies of tlie system is injurious. Whether it be cold, fear, grief, want of proper nutii- ment, over-anxiety, excessive excitement or labor, confinement in overheated rooms, an excess of cloth- ing in warm weather, or exposure to an atmosphere deprived of its electricity, the eifects Avill be very analogous upon the animal syetem, and in ratio to its vigor and to age. These depressing influences are fearfully operating upon all classes of people at the present time ; but more especially upon the inhabi- tants of our populous cities. The millionaire ever anxious about his investments, the tradesman ever de- sirous for patronage, the master mechanic wrestling to complete his engagements with a profit, the poor laborer sorrowing over his increasing family or over sickness — the result of deprivations — and lastly, the reckless politician and the pursuer of pleasure and vice, all suffer from their irregular habits ; and it is these people who are the parents of those feeble chil- dren, the majority of whom so fearfidly enlarge our bills of mortality, wliile the survivors constitute our rising generation. To insure physical improvement, th^se apparent evils must be obviated, and the diet, the clothing, the exercise, and the temperature to which the people are subjected, must be carefully regulated. CHAPTER III. PHYSICAL EXERCISE. Exercise a manifestation of life — It is essential to its well-being" — The first exercises of the infant — Discipline necessary in the ex- ercise of children— Objections to the cradle — Riding more bene- ficial to children than being carried — Causes which lead to chil- dren becoming tender — How it is that poor children endure great exposure — Their habits of life — The practical lessons we obtain from them — Modification in treatment necessary for delicate chil- dren — Vital force exhaustive — It is increased by gradual demand — Muscular activity maintained by nutriment — The benefits which accrue from active exercises — The injurious effects of fatigue — When passive exercises are advantageous — Pleasure should be associated with exercise — When exercise is most salutary — Spe- cial exercises for the restoration of lost powers — Excessive exer- cise should be avoided — Treatment in cases of deformity — Club- feet and their cure — General deductions. THE starting-point in physical exercise is natu- rally the first movements of the living econ- omy, which are independent of the will, and are pro- duced h J the cofitr action and extension of the organized mnsGidar fibre. The heart contracts upon the blood, and by vital energy forces it out to tlie superficies of the body. It then, by this peculiar energy, and in- dependent of tlie will, alternates its action, and, extend- ing its fibres, thereby enlarges its cavity to receive a return of the blood ; this operation is facilitated by 356 INCENTIVES TO HEALTH, ETC. a contraction of the muscdar fibres in the blood-ves- sels, which also perforin their functions nnder the same influence, and alternate in tlieir action. By this means, we liave the circulation of tlie blood estab- lished in the animal body. The activity require^ to be sustained by the vital force, wdiich is exhaustive, and is supplied by the will bringing muscles into action subservient to desire, when muscular motion increases the demand and leads to the further develop- ment of the body. Growth and strength are depend- ent upon muscular activit}^, sustained by proper nu- triment; but every organ constituting the animal form, ^(^r se^ is limited in its power, such limit being determined by circumstances, the most favorably con- stituted having, as experience has to a certain extent proved, a maximum limit, that can only be developed by very propitious events. The new-born infant, in crying, freely exerts its lit- tle jaws and tongue, and the muscles of the chest and abdomen ; while at the same time the legs, the arms, and even the toes and fingers, are all put in motion. In addition to its own effoj'ts of voluntarij motion and exercise^ the babe soon learns to call loudly for han- dling — an instinctive impulse to its own adv^antage in the way of exercise. The first exercise to be recom- mended to an infant is to place it, when a few" days old, upon a soft pillow, and gently agitate it on the knee. This may be denominated passim exercise^ as the motion of the body is very similar to that ob- tained in riding, Avhich is independent of a person's own muscular effort. The practice may be increased as the vigor and strength of the babe increase, for it THYSTCAL EXERCISE. 357 will promote activity in the system, and be conducive to development. Infants wlio are much confined to a cpiiescent condition are liable to become dull, in- animate, and exceedingly fat. Exercise should not be given irregularly, nor at all tiuies. A regular discipline should be strictly en- forced, for such discipline is as essential to the exer- cise having a salutary influence upon the child as it is to the relief of the attendant. The natural dispo- sition of an infant induces it to sleep after it has been nursed or suckled, when all the powers of the system are concentrated to digest the food. This is beneficial to the babe, as the vigor it obtains from food is not ex- pended in outward form, as it is by labor, but is ap- propriated to the development of the bocly. After sleep, a brisk handling of the child will enliven the nervous energies of its system, and induce an appe- tite. Then, when a suitable interval has elapsed after digestion and exercise, the system will be benefited by a regularity of necessary supply, and the organic functions will be regularly performed, and never in- iured by being overburdened, as they would be by an irregularity in taldng food. As desire is prompted by the wants of the systern, and as habit governs desire, the child will be reconciled to this regularity. A due observance of stated periods for taking food, exercise, and rest are necessary to obtain a reasonable prospect of a healthy child. No imprudence in regimen contributes more to the catalogue of diseases and indescribable ill health, whe- ther in children or adults, than irregularity in taking food and rest, for neither of which is there such satis- 358 INCENTIVES TO HEALTH, ETC. factory desire as tliat induced by agreeable exercise. In order that the full powers of tlie system may be brought into their wonted vigor, a strong desire for food and rest is requisite. In fact, for the enjoyment of liealth in every period of life we are dependent npon regularity in partaking of food, exercise, and rest; and if regular habits are commenced in early life, and con- tinued, we insure both vigor of constitution and lon- gevity. Various exercises have been introduced for infants, the most common being rocking in the cradle. This is usually commenced after the child is a month or so old, and continued for about eighteen months, but the practice is condemned by many. The greatest ob- jection to the cradle is that its contracted form tends to an unobservable habit of coriiiniug the child's limbs, and caiises it to be rendered injuriously warm by the covering being compacted too closely about it. The latter induces excessive perspiration and leads to serious injnry ; for, npon the child being taken np, it is often exposed to the cool air, which, owing to an in- fant being more sensitive than an older person, pro- duces chill. However, nnder other circumstances, such an exposure would prove of actual benefit to its health. The rocking motion of a cradle, if moderate, is a pleasurable exercise for an infant, and is not objec- tionable ; but violent rocking and jolting is decidedly injurious, as it agitates the brain and endangers the intellect. It is a cruel treatment, and will often frighten a child into a state of quietude, even when it may be suffering from some internal pain. A nd again, PHYSICAL EXEPwClSE. 359 tlie cliild, when gratified witli moderate rocking, is frequently kept in the cradle when it would be much, to its advantage if it were carried out in the nurse's arjns, or were dandled on the knee. Either of these would give it a more perfect motion or agitation, with the additional advantages of a partially upright position of the body, and of air, both of wdiich are conducive to its health, are as essential as motion, and when combined are most beneficial. Still, taking an infant out into the open air should be introduced gradually and regularly, so as to inui*e it, as it ad- vances in age and strength, to out-door exercise ; be- sides, it should by all means be comfortably clad, and, when drawn in a little wagon, have the body placed m a nearly upright position. The exercise it obtains when so situated is preferable to that which it gets in the nurse's arms while walking, in addition to which it is more gratifying, and is therefore rendered more beneficial. When tlie: charcoal. When this gas is in great excess, as it almost inva- riably is in wells or cesspools, its effect is to instantly overpower a person exposed to it. But where it is gradually developed, as in the case of burning char- coal in a room, the first effect is a slight dizziness and an inclination to sleep ; and this is followed by an op- pressive feeling in the head, by impure blood being carried to the brain, by stertorous breathing, and, finally, by a deadly sleep. The person then becomes motionless, and at times apparently stiff, but it is not always so ; still, the warmth of the body usually re- mains natural for several hours. The means of relief to persons insensible from the effects of carbonic acid gas, from whatever source, con- sists in at once removing them to an open exposure of pure air ; in having them stripped of their clothing, and in placing them so as they can be most readily MEANS OF RELIEF IN CASES OF ACCIDENT. 389 liaTidled, laying tliein on tlie back with tlie shoulders and head moderately elevated. The arms and chest must then be exercised in the manner employed for restoring respiration in persons partially drowned, and the subsequent treatmen,t must be the same as that adopted m such cases. Suffocation f rom common Burning- Gas. — The gas used for lighting our dwellings is carhuretted hydro- gen. When it accidentally escapes into a bed-cham- l)er or nursery, it is exceedingly deleterious to the oc- cupants, and will explode with great violence if the room is entered with any kind of flame. Therefore, whenever the gas is suspected to be escaping, all lights should be extinguished, and all the doors and windows of the apartments thrown open, when they will be cleared of gas in ten or fifteen minutes. Should there be any suffocating persons in the rooms, they may be removed with impunity by those entering without a, light, as soon as the doors can be opened. Persons under the influence of this gas should be treated in a precisely similar manner to those suffoca- ted by carbonic acid gas. General Rules to he observed in cases of Suffocation, — In all cases of suffocation, the first effort to relieve tlie person is to supply the lungs with pure air, and by the best possible means alternately to inflate them and to expel the air from them. It has been demon- strated that, by elevating the arms above the head, and by then pressing them against the sides of the chest, and at the same time pressing the lower portion of the breast-bone, the first movement will cause the great- est possible amount of air to enter the lungs, and the 390 INCENTIVES TO HEALTH, ETC. second will cause the most perfect expiration of it to be accomplished, provided that the tongue is drawn forward. Manipulation, friction, and stimulant applications sliould be emph^yed, even to in a slight manner scald- ing the extremities, and, in desperate cases, the spine ; in fact, an effort should always be made to keep the body and limbs warm, and to warm them if cold. The head should be kept elevated, so that the impure blood may flow the more readily to tlie lungs, in or- der that it may be purified by the pure atmospheric air, which should be admitted into the room freely, even in cold weatlier, opening the w^indows if neces- sary. Suffocation ChoMng. — All cases of suflfocation, even those of suspension by the neck, should be treat- ed upon the principles liere stated ; as also sliould cases of choking or suffocation from an attempt to swallow too large a portion of meat or other substance, after the obstruction is removed from the throat. For this latter purpose, it is necessary to examine the back part of the mouth and down the throat as far as possi- ble. If the substance is just out of sight, it may be de- tected and often removed by the finger; or a pair of forceps may be directed to the place, guided by a finger of one hand, and the obstruction removed with the other. When the substance is large and not far down, it may also be extracted with a hook guided by the finger, or it may be forced out of the throat by slapping the person on the back, the body being at the same time thrown forward or elevated by the feet, head downward. However, the latter treatment MEANS OF RELIEF IS CASES OF ACCIDENT. 391 must not be continued if it is not immediately suc- cessful. If the obstruction is far down the throat, a piece of strong whalebone or ratan notched near one end, and a firm bulb of cotton covered with woven material tied firmly to it and smeared with any grease at hand^ must be used to dislodge the substance by forcing it into the stomach with the end so prepared, employing prompt and decided force. Sm])ended Animatioiifrom Cold. — Continued expo- sure to cold beyond an ability to resist its influeuce, at first produces a painful sensation, with numbness of the extremities ; then fallows a calmness and an irre- sistible inclination to sleep, and finally unconscious- ness. A person, when found in this state, should be wrap- ped in a blanket with the head uncovered, and con- veyed to a house, where the clothes should be removed in a cold room ; the body and limbs must then be rub- bed briskly with snow or iced water for a minute or two, after which they must be wiped with cold, damp towels, dipped at first in spring water or w^ater that is not frozen, and then in water the temperature of wdiich is gradually increased to that of tlie natural heat of the living body. When the skin is improving in temperature, the patient must be placed in a cold bed and covered with a blanket, and the lungs must be inflated as before described in treating of suffoca- tion from drowning. After recovery, the patient must be kept in a cool room comfortably covered. If the extremities are actually frozen, continue to occasional- ly apply to them cloths dipped in cold water, and be very careful not to use any warm applications ; if thus 392 INCENTIVES TO HEALTH, ETC. *:reated, they will, in most instaii^-es, be restored to a normal condition. In some instances, however, the toes, fingers, and ears may be past entire recovery, and even the death of them may ensue; under snch condition, a skillful surgeon alone can be relied upon. Extensive Burns or Scalds. — It nnist always be borne in mind that, if a burn or scald extends over much sur- face, especially about the neck, breast, or upper por- tion of the chest, the accident is dangerous, and in pro- portion to the depth and extent of the injury. "With some it is customary to apply cloths wet with cold water to the injured part; but such a procedure may be almost fatal in the case of an extensive burn, as it will create a shivering which will rapidly exhaust the nervous energy. Exposure to cold air produces a similar effect. The proper course to pursue is to cover the surface as quickly as possible with some emollient application, and for this purpose molasses and raw cotton have been used with decided benefit ; yet muslin dipped in molasses will answer a similar purpose. One good quality that molasses dressing possesses is, that it can be I'cadily removed when ne- cessary, owing to the molasses being very soluble in warm water. Another good application is an embro- cation made by mixing equal parts of linseed oil and lime-water, into which cloths must be dipped and ap- plied in divided portions ; for the whole surface of an extensive burn should never be exposed to the effect of the air, which is extremely irritating to the denuded surface ; besides, when an extensive raw surface is ex- posed to the painful influence of the atmosphere, the vital energy of the system is most rapidly exhausted. MEANS OF RELIEF IN CASES OF ACCIDENT. 303 Too mncli care can not be taken to preserve the strength and energy of the patient, and, therefore, frequent dressing must be avoided as ninch as possi- ble, and, when being dressed, only a small portion of the inflamed snrface must be uncovered at a time, in- variably re-covering one portion before exposing an- other ; while the patient, if so disposed, must be per- mitted to take rest before the w^hole is completed. A new application has lately been introduced and mucli praised for its soothing and liealing qualities. It is as follows: " Take chalk and linseed or common olive oil, and mix them in sucli proportion as will pro- duce a compound as thick as honey ; then add vine- gar so as to reduce it to the thickness of treacle, (nio- lasses ;) apply witli a soft brush or featlier, and renew the application from time to time. Eacli renewal brings fresh relief, and a most grateful coolness. If the injury is severe, especially if it involve the chest, give ten. drops of laudanum to an adult, and repeat it in an hour, and again a third time. Tq a child of ten years, give in like manner only three drops, and be- ware of giving any to an infant. This plan, with an internal stimulant according to age, as brandy or sal- volatile, (carbonate of ammonia,) or both, should be at once adopted ; and there need be no impatience for the arrival of the often distant doctor."^ As it regards the doctor, his presence should be pro- cured as soon as possible. When extensive burns are healed, the tender new skin inclines to contract, wdiereby it produces great * Braitlivvaitc's Retrospect, part xlvii. p. 162, 1863. 394 INCENTIVES TO HEALTH, ETC. deformity. This, however, may'^in a measure be ar- rested by keeping the injured parts covered fur months, or even a j^ear or more, with oiled silk, and by fi'equently anointing the parts with stramonium ointment, which can be obtained from an apothecary, or is readily prepared by stewing the green leaves of stramonium in lard. Syncope or Fainting, — Persons subject to fainting frequently give much alarm to otliers not familiar with the ailment, which, after all, is of but little con- sequence to those susceptible to it. But persons who faint from exhaustion, fatigue, long fasting, violent passion, severe pain, some friglitful scene, or from ex- treme anguish, require immediate attention. The usual appearance in such cases is a deadly paleness accompanied by insensibility, while the eyes become dim, the hearing is gone, a deep guttural groan es- capes the lips, the pulse stops, the breathing is imper- fect, and the voice fails. This condition must be re- lieved as soon as possible; and to accomplish it, the patient's clothing must be loosed and the body ex- tended on the floor without elevating the head ; the face must then be sprinkled with cold water, and, if convenient, the temples and about the mouth must be bathed with vinegar, while a little vinegar and w^ater must be given to drink, or be put into tlie patient's mouth ; in addition, the feet and hands must be sharp- ly slapped, and smelling-salts applied to the nose, but not too constantly. These means, if persevered in,, will usually relieve, when a gentle stimulant, such as spir- its of camphor or brandy, should be administered. Poisoning, — When persons in perfect liealth aresud MEANS OF EELIEF IN CASES OF ACCIDENT. 305 denlj attacked with sickness after partaking of food, and especially if tlie food has had a peculiar and un- usual taste, and when the sickness increases in violence and is attended by excessive nausea, by a burning sensation in the throat, by a disposition to continued vomiting without t^ie ability to vomit freely, and by a sense of suffocation, giddiness, or unusual drowsiness, it may reasonably be concluded that they are labor* ing under the effects of poison. In violent attacks of ordinary ailment, there is usu- ally some premonitory symptom or known cause, as, for instance, over-indulgence in eating some unwhole- some food ; but in such cases the nausea and vomiting are unattended with a burning sensatioixin the throat * nevertheless, there may be severe pains and cramps, but they are usually relieved by anodynes, stimulant applications, or emetics. Emetics are nearly always admissible in cases of vio- lent attacks of pain in and sickness of the stomach. In fact, emptying the stomach is the first thing to be done when poisons have been taken; and for this pur- pose the stomacli-pump is invaluable, but it is only the physician who can use it successfully. Still, much may be accomplished by employing the means at hand to produce vomiting, the most effective of which is to freely give the patient salt dissolved in warm water, about a table-spoonful of the former to a pint of the latter, or instead of the salt, a similar quantit y of mfistard; and this failing, the finger or the feather- end of a quill should be put down the throat In a w^ord, any thing that will excite vomiting may be used, and more especially if the case is that of a child who 396 INCENTIVES TO HEALTH, ETC. has been poisoned by eatftig poisonous seeds or ber- ries ; for if they are thrown off, ninch relief will there l)y be aftbrded. When much prostration or drowsiness supervenes, fresh-made, strong, pure cotfee, without milk or sugar, should be given freely, and the patient kept moving till the arrival of the doctor, who, when sent for, should be requested to bring the stomach-pump with him. Antidotes for poisons can, with rare exceptions, be used only by skillful physicians ; for the prescribing and advising of their use by inexperienced persons is only hazarding the lives of the unfortunate. Yet w^e repeat, in all cases of poisoning much good may be done before the doctor can be obtained, even to the saving of life, by the prompt administration of an > emetic and the causing of immediate vomiting ; and by such action the patient may even be out of danger before he arrives ; yet under no consideration should any thing be allowed to prevent his being sent for the moment it is discovered that poison has been taken. INDEX. PAGE Aborigines, tradition of, by Dr. Franklin, 197 Accident, how suffering and death may be averted in cases of, . . 383 Acrolein, the result of heating fat, rendering it indigestible, . . . 194 Adams and Barlow's first visit to America, 234 Ailments in children, one of the most prolific causes of, . . . . 142 Air as a conductor of heat, 381 composition of, 80 the true index which should regulate exposure to the, . . . 382 and light, advantages of, to health, . . . .... 3G5 Alcoholic drinks as a medicament, 299 eftects of, on aged persons, 298 when not to be indulged in, 297 Ancients, enforcement of laws by the, 21 Animal body, formation and sustenance of the, 47 sustained by assimilation, 85 various organs and economy of the, 102 Apartments, ordinary mode of ventilating, 128 Apple, history of the, 282 native crab-apple, 233 superior qualities of the, 231 Arrow-root, whence obtained and for what used, 174 Asparagus, very ancient cultivation of, 276 Assimilation essential to growth, 49 Atmosphere, electrical condition of the, and its influence on animals, . 107 sombre state of the, tends to melancholy, .... 106 various influences from difi'erent conditions of the, . 87, 814 Atmospheric air, concentrated drafts of, pernicious to health, . . . 331 influence of, upon spinal disease, 380 Barley, cultivated by the Jews, 215 cultivated in Lulean Lapland, 216 Egyptian traditions concerning, 215 importance of, compared with wheat, . . . . . . 216 native country of, 214 quantity converted into malt at the present day, .... 21P very ancient use of, in the preparation of liquors, . . . 2n 398 INDEX. PAGE Bathing, advantages of local, 340 antiquity of, as related in the Bible, 328 cold, beneficial in great excitement of the skin, .... 335 " impairs the vital organs, 334 " injurious effects of, . 330 in vrater at 112°, 337 mode of using spirit-vapor, 339 practiced by the Sparlans, 329 precautionary measures to be observed in, 333 when most grateful, 327 Beans, how used by the Hindoos, . . 262 made into flour by the Abyssinians, 260 not found in the Egyptian catacombs, 259 nutritive qualities of, 256 variety of, grown by the French and Italians, .... 261 Beef, component parts of lean beef described, 14t Beverages essential to sustenance, 293 water the most grateful of, 295 • when they impair digestion, 294 Bile, composition of, 97 and fat accumulate from eating food containing much starch, . . 100 Blood a medium of nutrition, 70 changed by oxygen gas, 75, 81 circulation of the, through the body, 68 " " within the heart, 66 component parts of, 77 Body, all impressions upon the, conveyed to the mind, .... 48 structure of the, an advantageous study, 40 Bone, absorption of, when diseased, promoted by motion and attrition, 118 formation of, 92 Bowel complaints in children, and means* of relief, 143 Bow-legs, common cause of, 114 Brain, brief description of the, 56 Bread eaten by the English laborers in the eighth century, ... 223 first mention made of, in the Bible, 199 proper mode of making, 206 grains, traditions in regard to, . 197 producing grasses not indigenous to Mexico, 200 Bronchial affections, probable cause of, 129 cells, quantity of air contained in the, 76 Buckwheat, qualities of, as a diet, 244 varieties of, 245 when.introduced into Europe, 243 Burns or scalds, treatment of, 392 Butter, chemical properties of, 155 various means of preserving, 157 Cabbage, ancient cultivation of, . . . 276 Caffein obtained from coffee, 306 INDEX. 309 PAGE Carbon, how eliminated, 82 Carnivorous animals, condition of, when confined in cages, ... 99 Casein, differs from albumen and fibrin, 193 found in abundance in vegetables and milk, 193 peculiar properties of, . . . ' 193 Celery, valuable properties of, . . . 278 Cerealia cultivated at an early period of the world's history, ... 198 man's acquaintance with, 199 Cheese, nutritive qualities of, ......... 155 Chest, cavity of the, described, 7T Childhood, advantages of a proper regimen during, 35 Children, growth of, _ . . 98 hardships endured by poor, 361 ■ how made hardy, 360 of scrofulous parentage, 38 of the Spartans, how trained, 25 partially paralyzed, means of preventing deformity in, . . 144 Chocolate, from what obtained, . 318 how prepared by the Mexicans, 319 qualities of, as a beverage, 320 Cholera infantum, common cause of, . . . . ... . • 42 Chyle, chemical composition of, 74 Cities densely populated unfavorable to health, . . . . . . 121 City habitations, how unfavorable influences in, can be modified, . . 121 homes, advantages that may be secured in, 120 Civilization, advantages of the progress of, 40 ' of the ancient Egyptians, 199 Clerk and. laborer, comparative condition of, 41 Climate, influence of, over the animal economy, 105 Clothing, advantages of change of, 352 essential to health, 341 evil effects of too much, 344 exercise necessary with, 346 how to fashion, 351 influence of, on delicate persons, 353 injurious effects of fashionable, 342 linen, when unsuitable to be worn, 348 suitable for summer wear, . . . . " . . . . 347 when necessary for an increase of, 345 when not to be removed, 349 Coffee, best mode of preparing, 317 cultivation of, , 316 first introduced into Syria from Persia, 314 influence of, on the sick, 89 injurious to plethoric persons, 318 introduced into England in 1660, 315 nutritious property of, 306 unfavorable to digestion when much diluted, . . . .41, 307 400 INDEX. PAGE Coffee, use of, as an antidote to vegetable poisons, 317 Cold, how the ailment is produced, 881 suspended animation from, and means of relief, .... 891 feet, injurious effects of, 129 Comforts in an extended sense, 124 Condiments, beneiicial effeois of, 321 injurious effects of, 322 properties of, 321 Contractility the normal function of muscles, 65 Cradle, as a means of exercise for the babe, 358 Cream as a diet, 155 Cripples, benefit of surgical operations in the treatment of, . . . 118 necessity for mechanical support in the treatment of, . . 117 Defective organization, causes of, 39 Deformity in infants, causes of, ... 166 how to prevent, 350 Depressing influences, effect of, 354 Diabetes, proper means of relief, 173 result of eating an excess of carbonaceous food, . . . 172 Diaphragm described, 77 Diet, Dr. Playfair's comparative value of, 274 mixed, most conducive to health, 99 suitable for different climates, 87 iDigestion, process of, 76" Sir Wilson Philip on, 59 Disease, entailment of, 20 in cities, prolific cause of, ]21 Disinfectants, use of, 123 Domestic animals, history of, . . . 197 process of fattening, 100 Drinks, acidulated, grateful to some persons, 304 prepared, effects of, upon diflerent persons, . . . . . 302 Drowning, means of relief from, 385 Drugs in beer, fraudulent use of, 220 Dyspepsia a modern disease, 28 Eating to excess, effects of, . . . 125 Eggs, chemical constituents of, 158 Electricity a means of relieving dormant powers, 59 as a curative in the treatment of disease, 108 deficiency of, during epidemics, 109 Electrifying machine, description of the, 144 Elemental substances, number of, 81 Esculent vegetables, p/operties of, 265 Excessive toil, consuming nature of, 43 Excitement, influence of, on delicate persons, 376 injurious to children, 34 Exercise, active and passive, defined, 364 active more beneficial than passive, 366 INDEX. 401 PAGE Exercise, commencement of, 355 effect of, in regard to taking food, 364 growtli and strength dependent upon, 356 how beneficial to poor children, 362 in the open air, advantages of, 359 recreative, advantages of, 3G3 salutary influence of, upon children, 357 special advantages of, 36T Fainting, means of relief in cases of, . . 394 Fat an abnormal condition of the body, ITl in the animal body, use of, 98 Feet, necessity for protecting, 348 Fermentation arrested by heat and cold, 18T putrefactive, substances most predisposed to, . . . 187 several varieties of, 185 vinous, formation of, 186 Fibrin and albumen, qualities of, 93 Fingers, unaccountable performance of, on musical instruments, . . 57 Fish, nutritive qualities of, 148 Flesh meat, best means of preparing for the sick, 151 " qualities of, 150 nutritive qualities of, 149 preserved in the icebergs of the Polar Sea, 188 yields all the properties of blood, 99 Fluids drank in excessive quantities injurious, 41, 299 effects of an excess of, on infants, 301 means of preparing, for infants, 300 Food adapted to temperature of the seasons, 137 diflerence in the requirement of, . . 126 eaten by the French laborers in 1678, 224 how injurious to children, 357 limited quantities of, most conducive to health, .... Ill of graminivorous and carnivorous animals, 94 plastic elements and investigation of, 133 to be nourishing must contain nitrogen, 93 French revolution, diseases the results of the, 30 Frightful scenes, pernicious eflects of, on youth, 35 Fruit, acids found in, . . . . . . . . . . . 280 advantages of, as a diet, 139 composition of, v^hen unripe, 138 impositions practiced in the sale of, 284 medicinal properties of, 280 necessary to health, 141 pernicious effects of, when stale or unripe, . . . .41, 140, 235 Sickler's perseverance in planting orchards, 288 stone, distribution of, in Southern Africa by Burchell, ... 287 " varieties of, .286 wholesome diet when ripe, 141 402 INDEX. PAGE Grain, description of, 190 grinding of, in 1296, 224 supposed origin of, . . 197 Grape, one of the first fruits cultivated, 289 varieties of, cultivated, 290 " . indigenous to America, 289 Gravity, influence of, when exhausted by standing, £65 Heads of families, responsibility of, as to the cleansing of their premises, 122 Health, important requirements of, olG normal condition of, . . 135 Healthy locations, advantages derived by removal to, .... 127 Heart, a powerful muscular organ, 65 Hereditary deterioration, result of, 118 disease can be mitigated, 34 " means of obviating, 36 predisposition controllable, 119 Home, comforts of, 41 influence, efl"ects of, 26 Hops, where first employed in breweries, 218 Human form, admirable arrangement of the, 62 Idleness, pernicious efl"ects of, . Ill Indian chief's wife, her reception of the first voyagers to America, . 234 Lidian corn a sugar-producing plant, 237 extent of cultivation of, . 236 indigenous to America, 233 obtained by Captain John Smith in 1607, . ... . 235 qualities of, as a diet, 241 value of, as a crop, 238 Infants, digestive organs of, how impaired, 164 nursing of, 169 prepared diet for, 161 proper food for, 160 regulation to be observed in administering food to, . . . 163 Inspiration and expiration described, 78 Intemperance, pernicious efl'ects of, 50 Jellies, cause of failure in making, 184 Joseph's interpretation of Pharaoh's dream, 199 Kohlsalat, the cabbage-salad of the Germans, 277 Labor and plain diet, advantages of, 39 how to accomplish the greatest amount of, 371 means of ameliorating the influence of, on man, .... 373 when most indisposed to, and how relieved, 375 when most oppressive, 374 Laborer, hard lot of the, 41 Laboring classes, means of relieving the condition of the, ... 44 liCttuce, cultivation of, by the Greeks, 277 qualities of, as a diet, 278 Life a continued series of actions, 64 INDEX. 403 PAGE Locality, choice of, for enfeebled children, . . . . . . . 126 Longevity, most effectual means of obtaining, STS Lungs, description of the, 75 result of oxygen and carbon in the, - . . 88 Malt, process of making, into beer, 220 Man, association of, with domestic animals, . . . . . . 197 comparative view of his health, 19 improvement of his offspring, 22 what his food consists of, 97 Meat, juice of, when beneficial, 305 pernicious effects of, when stale, 146 preserved at a temperature of 212% 188 proper modes of cooking, 149 Mental energy, exuberance of, tends to excesses, 60 Milk, as a nutriment, 96 chemical constituents of, 101, 151 latest improvement in condensing, 157 made into an intoxicating liquid by the Tartars, .... 188 of woman, nutritive qualities of, under varied circumstances, 101, 165 preparation of, for a babe, 154 preserving of, . 156 Millet, known to the Greeks in the time of Julius Caesar, . . . 247 productiveness of, 246 Mind, influence of the, upon the body, , , 27 Molasses, value of, for curing meat, 255 ' Motherfe, duty of, in giving nourishment to the babe, .... 165 Motion, involuntary, independent of the will, 49 voluntary, advantages of, 54 " subject to the will, . 56 Muscle, formation of, 92 Nerves, distribation of the, 56 formation of the, 92 Nervous system, moving principle of the, 57 New diseases, encroachment of, , 28 Nitrogenized and non-nitrogenized substances, 134 Nurses, employment of, for infants, . 167 Oatmeal eaten by the Scotch and Irish, 223 Oats, cultivation of, by the Celts and Egyptians, 222 Oleaginous food, necessity of, 112 Opium, not to be indulged in, , . , 297 Organic forms only produced by a living principle, 65 Organized food essential to animal life, 63 Organs of sense, enjoyment of the, 52 importance of the, ........ 58 Oxygen, greatest quantity inhaled in a cold climate, 112 result of a deficiency of, in the animal system, .... 171 Paralysis, fruitful cause of, 42 partial, produced by eating acrid fruit, 143 404 INDEX. PAGE Parents, sins of, visited upon their children, 20 Parsley, properties of, 279 Passions, depressing influence of the, 26 Peach, history of the, 288 peculiar growth of the, in China, 268 Pear, varieties of the, 284 wide distribution and ancient cultivation of the, .... 283 Peas, ancient cultivation of, 257 grown in the United States, 259 nutritious qualities of, . . 256 Spanish mode of cooking, 258 Physical powers, degeneracy of the, 21 training of the young, . . . . . . . . . 26 Plague, ravages of the, from 1296 to 1797, 126 Plums, species of, 288 Political excitement, elffects of, ... 31 ' Poisoning, antidotes for, 396 indications of, 394 proper treatment in cases of, 395 Popular influence, beneficial efi'ects of, 24 Potato, cultivation of the, . . 267 discovery of the, . 266 means of improving the quality of the, 268 nutritious properties of the, and its value as a food, . . . 271 Primary compounds, 136 Protein, definition and elemental constituents of, 150 Railroad cars, influence of, on health, . 343 Respiration, elements of, 133 importance of active, 86 Rice, introduction of, into the United States, 226 known 3000 years before the Christian era, 228 qualities of, as a diet, 230 Rye, importance of, as a crop, 212 made into cakes in Sweden, 210 poisonous nature of, when diseased, 210 procured by the Greeks from Thrace and Macedonia, . . . 209 production of, in Lapland, 210 unknown in ancient Egypt, . . 209 used as a substitute for coffee, 213 Sago, where obtained, 175 Sauerkraut, a wholesome diet, 277 Scrofula, confined apartments tend to, 130 curable in children, 32 influence of country air favorable in, 116 symptoms of, 115 tendency to, in densely populated cities, 114 virulent encroachments of, 361 and rickets the result of mistaken care, 117 INDEX. 405 PAGE •Scrofulous abf?cesses, necessity of sustenance for the cure of, . . . 117 indications in children, and proper means of arresting them, 169 Seasons, influence of the, on health, 91 Seeds, alimental qualities of, 193 comparative table of, 196 Senses, gratification afforded by the, 52 Sensorium Commune, the great centre of perception, .... 51 Skin, impairment of the, 333 important functions of the, 332 structure of the, 331 Slaves, introduction of, into the United States, 236 Sorghum, a variety of millet, 248 cultivation of, 248 valuable properties of, 253 Soups, effect of, . . . 41, 305 Spinach, ancient cultivation of, . 276 Starch, contained in the cells of plants, 173 properties of, 174 rendered soluble by cooking, 175 tendency of, to produce fat, 176 Starvation, cause of, 113 Strength, development of, ^ . . . 135 Suffocation by choking and tlae means of relief, 890 from burning charcoal and the means of relief, . . . 388 from escaped gas in rooms and the means of relief, . . 389 Sugar, antiseptic qualities of, in preserving fruits and flesh, . . . 184 chemical properties of cane, maple, milk, and grape, . . . 178 formed from starch, 176 history of, 181 manufacture of, and how improved, 182 not nutritious when pure, 180 quantity consumed annually in Europe and in the United States, . 177 tests of cane and grape, 185 Tapioca, plant from which it is obtained, 174 Tea, effects of, 41 gathering the leaves of, ... . . . ... . . . 310 introduction of, into Europe, 307 nutritious properties of, 306 preparation of, for market, 309 preservation of the good qualities of, 312 quantity used and where grown, 308 relieves intoxication and cases of poisoning, 312 varieties of, 311 Teething, tardiness of, 114 Temperaments, manifestation of, 61 Thein obtained from tea, 306 Thoracic duct and lacteals and their ofl&ce, 71 Tissues, enumeration of, 102 4CK> INDEX. Tobacco, first introduction of, into England, . not to be indiili^ed in, quantity sold in 1SG5, Traveling, advantages of, in coaches and on horseback, . effects of on the skin, .WtO favorable influence of, to health, . 3T7 Vegetable albumen, fibrin, and casein, description of, .... 134 food, properties of, Sft, 170 Vegetables, how rendered unwholesome, . . . / . . .42,90 organic elements of, and- their properties to sustain life, . 192 ^preserved at a temperatui;^ of 212", 188 Vertebrae, spinal marrow, and brain, «r 55 Vital force an independent power, 82 " defined, r " . . . . 50 how expended, 104 " knowledge of, not attainable, 58 " subjects natural laws to its control, 103 forces, organization and influence of, 47 power, cumulative, . . . HlO Vocal organs described, . % f . , 78 Warming and ventilating apartments, .. . . . ... . 127 Water, iced, ?is a drink, 302 " as a sedative, 303 " sometimes injurious, ' . . . . 304 power of, to sustain life, 295 taken to the exclusion of malt or spirituous liquors, . . 296 vapor of, its influence on the animal system, 109 Weaning infants, proper time for, 165 Wheat, brought into Europe by the Romans, 200 cultivation of, 202 first brought to Peru by a lady, ....... 201 found in the Egyptian catacombs, 199 introduced into Mexico by a slave, 200 nutritious qualities of, 202 structure of a grain of, 203 weight of, and result in flour, . . . . ; . . 206 fl,our, indigestible compounds made of, 206 Woman, strength of, developed b^ rural labor, 23 Wounds, treatment of, . . . . . •* . . . . 384 Yeast, preparation of, ... . . 208 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS-URBANA 301121 3411349