THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY The person charging this material is re- sponsible for its return on or before the Latest Date stamped below. Theft, mutilation, and underlining of books are reasons for disciplinary action and may result in dismissal from the University. UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN DEC 6 1971 L161— 0-1096 The following slips have been prepared for insertion in card catalogs Nebraska-Geological Survey. The Sand and Gravel Resources and Industries of Nebraska, by George Evert Gondra. P. 0. Lincoln, Nebr., 1908, (Publications of the survey, v. 3. part 1.) Nebraska-Geological Survey. The Sand and Gravel Resources and Industries of Nebraska, by George Evert Gondra. P. 0. Lincoln, Nebr., 1908. (Publications of the survey, v. 3, part 1.) Condra, George Evert The Sand and Gravel Resources and Industries of Nebraska. P. 0. Lincoln, Nebr., 1908. (Nebraska - Geological Survey, v. 3, part 1.) LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL To His Excellency GEORGE LAWSON SHELDON, Governor of the State of Nebraska: Sir:— I have the honor to transmit herewith a report en- titled Tlie Sand and Gravel Resources and Industries of Ne- braska, prepared by George Evert Condra, Professor of Geog- raphy and Economic Geology in the University of Nebraska. . Very respectfully, Erwin Hinckley Barbour, State Geologist. The University of Nebraska, Department of Geology, Lincoln, February 1908. Of ilK jjwvfhsity of nuNOis 19 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ERWIN H. BARBOUR, STATE GEOLOGIST VOLUME 3, PART 1 . The Sand and Gravel Resources and Indu^ries of Nebraska. BY GEORGE EVERT CONDRA SCIEMTIFIC STAFF 55 ' I H \\5 ERWIN HINCKLEY BARBOUR, State Geologist, Director GEORGE EVERT CONDRA, Geography and Economic Geology CARRIE ADELINE BARBOUR, Assistant Geologist, Invertebrate Pale- ontology EDITH LEONORE WEBSTER, Assistant Gurator State Museum E. FRANK SHRAMM . Assistant ROY V. PEPPERBERG, Assistant ^ BERTHA L. MELICK, Recorder . U. G. CORNELL, Scientific Photographer and Engraver ) ^ COUMTY GEOLOGISTS AND HYDROGRAPHERS " H B. DUNC ANSON, Nemaha County PERCY PURVIANCE, Fillmore County E. P. WILSON, Dixon County HAROLD J. COOK, Sioux County ASSOCIATES IN THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA SAMUEL AVERT. Agricultural Chemistry, Soils CHARLES E. BESSEY, Botany LAWRENCE BRUNER, Entomology GEORGE R. CHAT BURN. Strength of Materials GEORGE A, LOVELAND, Meteorology C. R. RICHARDS, Fuel Value of Materials O. V. P. TOUT, Civil Engineering HEN'RY B. WARD, Zoology ROBERT H. WOLCOTT, Zoology, Ornitl.ology WITH THE ASSISTANCE AND CO-OPERATION OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY GEORGE OTIS SMITH, Director 296927 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 https://archive.org/details/secondfinancials3190barb CONTEMTS Card Catalog’ Title Page Scientific Staff Letter of Transmittal Contents Illustrations Introductory Field Studies Samples Acknowledgement Nature, Origin and Properties of Sand Origin Classification. Quick Sand Black Sand Volcanic Ash Coral Sand Auriferous Sand Mineral and Rock Composition . . . Quartz Feldspar Mica Harnblende Calcite ' : . Iron Oxides Manganese Oxide Clay Sand-forming Rocks .■ Granite Syenite liasalt Rhyolite Andesite ■ Gneiss Schists Sandstone, Limestone, etc I’hysical and Chemical I’roperties. . Color Cleannes'; Fineness or Size of Grain Sharpness and Form of Grain. . Specific Gravity Weight Voids Refractoriness Chemical Composition 8 Contents The Sand-bearing Formations 38 General Structure 38 Carboniferous Rocks 40 Pennsylvanian Sand • 40 Triassic and Jurassic Rocks 41 Morrison Formation 41 Dakota Formation 41 Sand in the Dakota Formation 42 Gravel and Pebble Rock 44 Benton Formations 46 Niobrara Formation 46 Pierre Shale 46 Laramie Formation 46 Tertiary Formations 46 The Chadron 48 The Brule 48 The Gering 49 The Arikaree 49 Pliocene Sand and Gravel Plain 51 Tertiary Sands and Gravels 51 Glacial Deposits 52 Till Plain Sands 52 Glacio-fluvial Sand Plain 54 Glacio-fluvial Sands 56 Cobbles and Bowlders 56 Comparison of Tertiary and Glacio-fluvial Sands 58 The Loess 58 Alluvium 58 Dune Sand 59 Methods of Production and Extent of Trade 60 Sources of Sand -60 Methods of Mining 60 Simple Loading and Hauling 61 Loading at Local Use Pits 61 Tunneling 62 Shoveling onto Cars 63 Loading with Team and Scraper 63 Bucket Elevators 64 Sand Pumping 64 Boat Dredging 64 The Steam Shovel 65 The Clam Dredge 65 Production and Trade 69 * Production for Local Use '12 Production for Shipment 72 Total Production and its Value 72 Supply and Demand 72 Washing and Screening 74 Contents 9 Shipment 74 Sand Storage 74 Delivery 75 Production by Districts 75 Missouri River District 7(5 Quality of Missouri River Sand 80 Niobrara District 8'i Elkhorn District..' 83 Loup District 85 Platte District . . •. 86 The North Platte 86 Sidney and Chappell 88 In the Vicinity of Kearney ; . . 89 Grand Island 91 Central C’ity 91 Columbus '. 91 Schuyler 91 Fremont 91 Fremont Ice Company Dredge 94 Lyman Dredge 94 Dredging at Valley ’. 97 Lyman Dredge 97 Woodworth Dredges 97 Ashland Dredge 99 Meadow Dredges ; 99 Louisville Dredges 105 Cedar Creek Production 108 Orea])olis Production... 109 Source of Platte Sand in General Ill Quality of Platte Sand Ill Amount of Platte Sand 112 Area of Platte Sand Subject to Development 112 Commercial Movements of Platte Sand 113 Rank Sand along the Lower Platte 114 Production in the Wahoo Valley 114 Production in the vSalt Creek Valley 117 Gravel in the Dakota Formation 117 Production South of Richfield 119 Cedar Creek Pits 123 Cullom Gravel Pit 127 Nemaha District 129 Rig Rlue District 131 Little Rlue District 133 Republican District 138 White River District 141 Mechanical Analyses 142 ses of Sand and Gravel 147 Table Showing Fses 147 Contents Mortar and Concrete 148 Historical 148 Mortar Sands 149 Mixtures and Proportions . 151 Plaster • 152 Masonry Mortar 153 Mixing^ Concrete 153 C’ul verts and Abutments 155 Concrete Piers 157 C’oncrete Dams 157 Irrigation Ditches 158 • Water Pipes 158 Tanks and Reservoirs 158 Sewers * 160 Subways and Tunnels 160 Monolithic Foundations and Walls 160 Monolithic Houses 160 Artificial Stone 161 Table Showing Distribution of Plants 164 Block Machines -. 164 Curing 165 Facing 165 Sand-Cement Brick 167 Fence Posts 167 Other Uses of Concrete 167 Sidewalks 168 Sand as a Moisture Pad .168 Pavements 169 Roofing Gravel 172 Street and Road Making 173 Railroad Ballast _ 175 Sand-Lime Brick 178 Production in the United States 178 Systems of Patents 178 Raw Materials 179 Processes in the Manufacture of Brick 180 Nature of the Bricks 182 Constitution of Sand-Lime Bricks 182 Plants in Neighboring States 184 The Plant at Hastings 186 Engine Sand 1^6 Bedding Sand 190 Moulding Sand 190 Properties of Sand 190 Glass Sand and the Glass Industry 192 Nature of Glass 192 Quality of Sand Required . 193 Analyses of Glass Sand 194 Preparation of Glass Sand 196 Southeastern Kansas District 196 Economic Aspects 198 Minor Uses of Sand and Gravel 200 Poultry Yard 200 Sanding Wood 201 Sanding Walks 201 ILLtSTRATIONS PAGE Fig. 1. View in the Sand Laboratory, University of Nebraska 14 “ 2. A sand draw between Fndicott and Steele, Jefferson Co.. ... 18 3. Sieves 27 ‘‘ 4. Diagram to show uniformity coefficient 30 “ 5. Sharp, angular and round quartz and feldspar grains 31 “ 6. Platte sand, showing grading from fine to coarse grains... 32 “ 7. Preliminary Geological map of Nebraska, show distri- bution of Pre-Tertiary Formations 39 “ 8. Outcrop of Dakota Sandstone near mouth of Salt Creek, Cass County 43 9. Gravel in the Dakota Formation 45 10. Preliminary map of Nebraska showing areal distribution of the Post-Cretaceous Formations 47 11. Sand in the Gering Formation. Photo by N. H. Darton .... 48 “ 12. A pebble channel in the Arikaree 50 13. Bowlders and bowlder clay exposed in railroad cut twelve miles west of Lincoln 53 14. Sand pocket in Kansan Till near Pleasant Dale, Nebraska. 54 ‘‘ 15. Glacial sand ridge near Fairbury 55 “ 10. Glacio-fluvial sand exposed two miles northwest of DeWitt. 57 17. Dunesand, Cherry County. Photo by R. A. Emerson 59 “ 18. Sandpit near Cambridge 01 “ 19. Hauling and loading gravel. Cedar Creek 02 “ 20. Sand pumping. Meadow 03 ‘‘ 21. Sand dredge, Louisville, formerly owned by S. H. Atwood Company (5() ‘‘ 22. The Anchor and Stiff-knee, or Lower Tower 08 23. Stiff-knee and Anchor at the large Lyman Dredge. Meadow OH 24. Close view of the State’s largest clam dredge 70 ‘‘ 25. An unusual form of clam dredge 71 “ 20. Engine sand in storage, C. B. & Q. railroad, Lincoln 73 “ 27. Loading sand wagons for city trade. Photo by Roy V. Pepperberg 75 “ 28. View in railroad pit at Tekamah 77 29. Outline showing location of sand pit west of Tekamah 78 “ 30. Sand pit in Dakota Formation, Bennett 81 31. Bank of glass sand near Valentine 82 “ 32. Sandy alluvium along the Middle Loup, near Halsey 85 33. Overloaded North Platte near Scott’s Bluff. Idioto by N. H. Darton 87 31. Outline showing location of sand pits west of Fremont 92 “ 35. Fremont Ice Company Dredge 92 30. Lyman Dredge west of Fremont 93 “ 37. Outline showing location of dredges at Valley 94 .38. Lyman Dredge, Valley 95 39. One of the Woodworth Dredges at Valley 90 40. Lyman Dredge on C. B. & Q. Railroad, east of Ashland. ... 98 “ 41. Outline showing location of dredges and pits, Meadow 100 “ 42. Large lakes j)roduced by sand dredging at Meadow 100 “ 43. Lyman Dredge on C. R. J. & P. R. R., Meadow 101 “ 44. The large Lyman Dredge on the Missouri Pacific, Meadow. 102 “ 15. General view of the Lyman Sand Pumping Station, Meadow 103 “ 40. The Woodworth Dredge, Meadow 105 “ 47. Outline showing the location of dredges at Louisville 100 “ 4S. Platte River Sand Com])any Dredge 107 “ 49. Outline showing location of sand ])rodiiction at ( ’edar Creek 108 “ 50. The S. 11. Atwood Company Dredge, Cedar (’reek 110 ILLUSTRATIONS 51. Sand Pumping near Oreapolis Ill 52. Sand and gravel pit, Wahoo 115 55. Stratified gdacial sand in a railroad cut between Milford and Pleasant Dale IKi 51. Outline showing the arrangement of gravel pits formerly worked southeast of Richfield 118 55. View of the Upper Van Court Gravel Pit 118 5fi. View of the Lower Van Court Gravel Pit 120 57. One of the abandoned gravel pits located west of Cedar Creek 122 • 58. View of the Omaha Gravel Company plant taken when oper- ation began 121 59. Omaha Gravel Company’s plant, Cedar Cr<^ek 126 60. Cullom Gravel P t, Photo by E. G. Woodruff 128 61. Section of Cullom Gravel Pit 129 62. Sand Pit near Salem 150 65. The Campbell Sand Pit near Brickton. Photo bv Prof. E. H. Barbour ■; 155 61. Outline showing distribution of sand and gravel in the vi- cinity of Fairbury 155 ()5. Rock Island Sand and Gravel Pit 156 66. One type of concrete mixer 151 67. A Concrete Subway, Milford 156 68. Concrete Abutments and Piers of the Rock Island Railroad near Lincoln. Photo by Prof. E. H. Barbour 157 6u. Concrete Dam at Beatrice. Photo by Prof. E. H. Barbour.. 156 70. Reinforced Conqrete Reservoir for City of Lincoln and the University of Nebraska 159 71. House of L. E. Wetling, Washington St. The first example of a Monolithic house in Lincoln 161 72. Artificial Stone Plant at Fairbury 162 75. Forms of Concrete Blocks '■■■ 165 71. Concrete Fence Posts 167 75. Sand used in brick pavement, Lincoln 170 76. Roofing Gravel 175 77. Sherman Hill Ballast on U. P. R. R., Kearney 175 78. Glacial Gravel Ballast used on Northwestern Railroad, Fremont 176 _ 79. Section of Sand Ballast used on C. B. &: Q. R. R 177 ' 80. Hardening cylinder at Hastings Sand-lime Brick Plant.... 181 81. General view of Sand-lime Brick Plant, Cedar Rapids Iowa. 185 82. Section of C. B. & Q. Engine Sand House, Lincoln 188 85, Sanding an Engine 189 The Sand and Gravel Resources and Indu^ries of Nebraska By GEORGE EVKRT CONDRA INTRODUCTORY Sand and gravel are Nebraska’s most important mineral resources. The extensive use which is made of these mater- ials in the building and trade industries not only in our own but in adjoining states, is a factor of economic importance in the industrial development of Nebraska. The attention of the writer was incidentally called to this fact in 1898 while making a trip through southwestern Iowa. It was particularly no- ticeable that building operations, both public and private, were retarded in consequence of the inability to get prompt ship- ments of Nebraska sand. This condition suggested the advisa- bility of making a study of This particular resource, the results of which are embodied in this report. The course of this in- vestigation in the collection of data has extended, at intervals, over a period of nine years. Field Studies. — Field studies covering most of the state were carried on in connection with the State Geological Survey and the Federal Survey. The leading objects of such investigations were to determine th’e quantity, quality, and accessibility of the various arenaceous deposits. It seems more important that our citizens should know the location, character, and extent of this li NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY particular resource, the development of which is to assume larger and larger proportions, than for them to learn of the present development only. To this end each sand-bearing formation was traced along its line or area of outcrop in the state and studied in detail. Consecpiently, the stratigraphic distribution of the various arenaceous formations receives more emphasis in this report than is usual in similar papers. Anoth.er phase of field 3tudy was to gather data respecting the various methods of mining and the amount of production in the various localities. At each dredge and pit data were obtained on the location, form and size of the onening; on the amount, quantity and value of the production : on the method of mining, the amount of labor employed, and on the use and destination of the product. Samples. — Samples were collected from the principal dredges and pits and from sand-bearing formations irrespective of pro- duction. In this connection it should be stated that the samples were selected with considerable care, the object being to se- Fig-. 1. View in the Sand Laboratory, University of Nebraska. ACKNOWLEDGMENT 15 cure an average of the pit-run of sand. In some places the asses a number 30 sieve after one minute continuous sifting of a 500 grain sam])’e.” iMigineers now favor the Ottawa standard rather than the artificial sand. If a sand does not have the degree of fineness desired for 30 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY any particular purpose it can be either ground, screened or graded to the proper condition as the case may demand. Graded sands are composed of grains of various sizes, vary- ing relatively from fine to coarse. When sifted they are caught, in part, on each of several sieves. The degree of a sand’s uniformity, showing whether the grains are mainly of the same size, or whether there is a great range in their diame- ters, is designated by what is cahed the “uniformity coefficient.” This is ol^tained by sifting the sample; plotting a curve to show the percent of each size of grain according to a millimeter or inch measurement (Figure 4.) ; and erecting at right angles Figure t. Diagram to show uniformity coefficient. from the base (which shows the diameter of grains) two lines to the points where the curved line intersects the 10 per cent and 60 per cent lines. The vertical lines thus drawn vary in distance apart, if plotted for different sands. In the figure, the verticals are erected from the .25 and i. millimeter points. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES 31 The ratio between i and .25 is 4, the uniformity coefficient. ‘'As a provisional l)asis winch best agrees with the known facts, the size of grain where the curve cuts the ten percent line is considered to be the ‘effective size' of the material. This size is such that ten percent of the material is of smaller grains, and 90 percent is of larger grains than the size given.'’ The ‘uniformity coefficient' is a term used to designate the ratio of the size of grain which has 60 percent of the sample finer than itself to the size which has 10 percent finer than itself." i The writer is now determining the uniformity coefficient of each of the leading sands of the state, the results to be published in a later report. The degree of fineness of a sand is sometimes determined and designated. Fif^. 5. Stiarp, angular and round quart// (b) and feldspar (a) grains. Sharpness and Form of Grain. — 1'hese related properties are usually over emphasized by builders who, with few exception^', I Hazen, pp. 54t^, 550, Kept. St. Board of Health, Massachusetts, 1892. 32 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Specify “sharp sand” for any and all uses. Experiments made during recent years seem to discredit these early assumptions and to show real virtue in the rounded grains for certain purposes. The highest degree of sharpness is found in crushed quartz, (Figure 5) Fe’dspar, simi’ariy treated, is likewise sharp, but its grains have c'eavage faces (Figure 5). Natural abrasion incident to the formation of sand reduces the sharpness and angularity and at the same time gives the grains a more regular form. Sand is classed as sharp, angidar, and round (Figure 5 ). The grains when much rounded are-sub-spherical in foriii. Fig. G. Platte sand, showing grading from fine to coarse grains, magnified two diameters. ^ The sharpness and form of grain are best determined by the use of a low power microscope which reveals these properties and shows another feature, the nature of the surface of the grains, equally well. By pressing a sand between the thuml> PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES 33 and fingers one may detect its grit which denotes sharpness. It has been proved by laboratory tests that the condition of the surface of sand grains as regards cleanness and roughnesb Is a fundamentady important factor which should demand con- sideration in the selection of buihling Sands. Clean sands, the grains of which show faces that have been roughened by abrasion are preferred since they are thought to produce the •strongest mortars. i\Iost Nebraska sands are either angular or rounded, not sharp. Specific Gravity. — Sands are composed mostly of minerals wdiose specific gravity ranges from 2.57 to about 3, taking water as the standard. Certain minor ingredients are consid- erably heavier. Most sands range in specific gravity from about 2.6 to 2.66 the average being about 2.64 or 2.65. This property has no very important place in practical sand testing, at least in Nebraska, where its variation is small. However the specific gravity of each leading sand has been determined. The La Chatelier apparatus was used in making the tests. Weight. — The weight of a sand depends upon mineral com- position, form, size, and grading of grains, and the amount of •compaction. The round grained graded sands are heaviest. The weight is usually given in grains or in pounds, the volume of sand considered being a cubic centimeter or a cubic foot. The simplest and best method for practical work is to weigh a cubic foot of sand measured in some standardized vessel. Dry, loose sands range in weight from 75 to 115 pounds, or more per cubic foot. Dry sands under coiujiaction range be- tween -jO and 125 lbs. ]>er cubic foot. When the weight is 100 lbs. ]:er cubic foot, a cubic yard of sand weighs 2700 lbs. In testing one should make the sanpile moderately com])act. Another ])i*actise, less common among sand users, is to weigh up 100 c. c. of sand and from that determine the weight in cubic feet using the fo'lowing fonmda: “l^'rom the weight in grams of 100 c. c. of sand .... obtained in the determination of voids. . -.,the weight per cubic foot in ])ounds can be found by multi- 34 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY plying- by the factor .625.” Often the operator Vvbshes to de- termine the weight of a cubic foot of sand after he has tested the voids and specific gravity. The following description shows a method often employed where a standard measure is not at hand. A cubic foot of sand, specific gravity 2.65 wouM weigh 165.625 lbs. if it had no voids. Sand is sofid, except its voids. Therefore by substracting the percent of voids from 100, we find the percent of sofid material. ' For examp’e, the sample shows Avoids .35 and specific gravity 2.65. Such a sand would Aveigh 165.625 lbs. if solid, but it is on’y .65 percent soud. Then 65 percent of 165.625 lbs. is 107.6^ lbs., the weight of the cubic foot of sand. As a rule Nebraska sands are heavier than the average on account of their form of grain and grading. The range is be- tween 88 and 124.8 lbs. per cubic foot. Voids. — This property refers to the pore space in sand and has its greatest importance Avben the sand or gravel is to be used for concrete construction or for any other purpose AAdiere the voids are to be filled Avith cement. The interstices are small in fine sand and large in coarse sand. HoAveA'er, the total space is greater in fine than in coarse sand. A graded sand has the loAvest percentage of voids, especially so if its grains- are rounded. The range in A'oids of Nebraska sands is betAA^een: 26 and 48 percent. Tavo methods are employed for determining Avoids. In one,, a given bulk of sand is placed in a graduated beaker or in a re- ceptacle of knoAvn capacity ; then Avater is sloAvly and carefully introduced, in such a manner as to displace all of the air in the sand. By measuring out a certain quantity of AA^ater, plac- ing it in the vessel and then adding sand, the test is made Avith a larger degree of accuracy. The amount of Avater thus in- troduced in this test is equal in volume to the Avoids. The next step is to determine the percent of the voids. The hydration method just outlined, because of probable errors, should not be used excepting in testing coarse sand. The sources of error are the presence of moisture in the sand and the inability of CHEMICAL COMPOSITION 35 the operator to remove the air from the voids. As a result, tests made in this way usually show too little void space, es- pecially in fine or medium sand. A more reliable test is to place the water in a vessel and displace it with sand as sug- gested above. The other method of testing voids is known as the specific gravity-weight method. The first step is to find the specific gravity of the sand, which usually is 2.64 or 2.65. Then if the specific gravity is 2.65, 100 c. c. of the sand, if sofid, should weigh 265 grams. But, if we weigh 100 c. c. of sand the result is not 265 grams, but only about 163 grams, or 102 grams less than it would weigh if there were no voids. The difference in weight is due to the voids. Next, by finding what ])ercent 102 is of 265 we have 38.49 which is the percent of voids. In many cases sand users find it most convenient to use the cubic foot. The determination then, is as follows — The speci- fic gravity being 2.65, sand, if solid, would weigh 165.625 lbs. per cubic foot. The actual weight, however, is much less be- cause of the voids. If the weight is no lbs.' we have a deficit of 55.625 lbs. per cubic foot. This represents the weight of saixi which would be required to fill the voids. The rule is, to weigh up a cubic foot of sand, moderately compacted, and sub- tract its weight from 165.625 and then find what percent the difference in weight is of 165.625. For example, find the voids of a quartz sand whose weight is 105 lbs. per cubic foot. 165.625 minus 105 ecpials 60.625. Then 60.625 divided by 165.625 ecpials 36.57, the voids. fifiie heavy sands are low in voids, and light sands are high in voids. Where exact results are desired, it becomes necessary for the operator to determine the s])ecific gravity of a sand for use in working out the weight and voids. Refractoriness. — Pure (piartz sand stands a high degree of heat without fusing. It is, on this account, classed as a refractory substance. fi'lie refraction decreases with the ])resence of calcite, alkalies, and iron oxides. 1 he following silicate minerals serve also to increase the fusibility, and in the order named, — horneblende, garnet, 36 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY mica if in fine plates, and feldspar. IMost of these re- quire a high degree of heat to fuse them, but less than chem- ically pure silica. Chemical Composition. — Sands vary considerably in chemical composition. Pure quartz sand, which is not an absolute reality in nature, is silica (Si O2). It contains 46.6 percent silicon and 53.33 percent oxygen. Feldspar, mica, hornblende, and other silicates, when present, make the composition more complex ad- ding silica, alumina (AI2O3). potassium oxide (K2O), sodium oxide ( Xa 20 ), calcium oxide (Ca O), magnesium oxide C^Ig O) and iron oxide (Fe 203 ). Iron oxide is found in the silicates and as a stain either in or on quartz grains. Clay impurity is essentially a hydrated silicate of alumina. Limestone fragments are calcium carbonate (Ca CO3). Chemical analyses of sand are not easily made. Approximate analyses in which only the Si O2, AI2O3 and iron content are determined take little time and effort, but ultimate analyses which have more value occa- sion much labor and expense. Conclusions reached in this paper are based on ultimate analyses, too few of which have been made to warrant a fuller discussion of the chemical nature of our sands. This part of the research should be continued. Only enough data are at hand to warrant certain general conclusions concerning the composition of the leading sand-bearing formations. When the conditions in the state demand a fuller utilization of the sands it will become necessary for some one to extend these analyses. However, for most uses now in vogue it makes little difference what the composition is. but if the state ever manu- factures glass it will then be necessary to know accurately. The chemical work of this paper was done by Mr. George Borrowman. IM. A., Adjunct Professor of Chemistry. The L^ni- versity of Nebraska. The method fol'owed by IMr. Borrowman is described by him as follows: ‘‘The samples were first dried at 100 degrees centigrade. About two grams of the finely pul- verized dried material were then fluxed with about five times its weight of mixed sodium and potassium carbonates and the analysis proceeded with as in the analysis of a clay, i. e. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION 37 the silica was determined by dehydrating the acid solution of the carbonate fusions ; the iron and aluminum were precipitated by the basic acetate method, dissolved in hydrochloric acid, half the solution taken for determination of the iron by potas- sium permanganate ; both constituents were precipitated by am- monium hydroxide in the other half and weighed as oxides. The lime was determined by precipitating as the oxalate and titrating with permanganate ; the magnesia, by precipitating as magnesium ammonium phosphate and weighing as the pyro- phosphate. The alkalies, sodium and potassium, were es- timated by the indirect method, i. e. separating them as the pure chlorides by the Lawrence Smith process and then determining the chlorine by silver nitrate solution. From these data the al- kaline oxides were calculated. Sulphur trioxide, carbon diox- ide, organic matter and manganese oxide were not determined.’’ 38 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CHAPTER II. THE SAXD BEARING FORMATIONS. This chapter treats of the general structure of Nebraska; the origin, stratigraphic position and description of the leading sand producing formations. General Structure. — For more than fifty years geologists have studied the structure of Nebraska and adjacent states. Much of this investigation has been carried on by the United States Geo’ogical Survey in co-operation with the State Geolog- ical Survey. Though the survey is not finished in Nebraska, enough data are at hand to warrant a definition of the structure: BeMw the mantle rock is a bed rock composed of many nearly horizontal formations lying one above the other. The exposed bed-rock formations range from Carboniferous to Tertiary in age and consist for the most part of limestones, chaTs, shales, clays and sandstones. The oldest rocks exposed come to the surface in the southeastern counties and are overlaid to the west by a succession of newer formations (Figure 7). SAND BEARING FORMATION 39 LPROMie PIERRE ' NlOBRRRfl pPRULE GREENHORN GRPNERQ5 OaHOTR i PERMIRN PENHSYLVRNIRH, 40 NEBRAS :a geological SURVEY The following is an outline of the formations and deposits of the state, not including those of Pre-Pennsylvania age. Quaternary [■Qune sand J Loess I Alluvium [Glacial Deposits Tertiary An un-named formation, probably of Pliocene age. Ogalalla ; ^ Ogalalla probably is Pliocene. The Arikaree - Loup Fork Beds - Gering and Arikaree are of Gering \ ^ Miocene age. Chadron !’ River Beds. Oligocene age. Cretaceous < Laramie Formation Pierre Formation Niobrara Formation ^ Carlile Benton Group - Greenhorn i Graneros Dakota Formation ^Morrison Formation Jurassic Trias sic { R“presented by reddish, arenaceous shales and gypsiferous de- posits under the Western counties. Not exposed in Nebraska. Permian < "The upper formations of this series ar^ not exposed in Nebras- ka. Probably they may underlie some of the central and western counties. Fort Riley Florence Flint Matfield Shales ^Wreford Formation Pennsyl- vanian { Several formations consisting of limestones, shales, clays, some sandstone and coal. The principal sand-bearing formations of economic impor- tance, .named in the ..order of their age. are the Dakota, Arikaree, Ogalalla, the un-named Pliocene sands, the Glacial and Alluvial deposits. Carboniferous Rocks. — These, represented in two systems, extend under the entire state and outcrop in valleys of the southeastern counties. The Pennsylvanian system, consisting of nine or ten limestone and shale formations, contains a rela- tively small quantity of sand and sandstone. The Permian sys- tem overlies the Pennsyvlanian rocks and outcrops in the Big Blue Valley in the vicinity of W'ymore. Blue Springs, Holmes- ville and Beatrice. Pennsylvanian Sand . — This occurs in sandstone and only at SAND BEARING FORMATION 41 a few places, as at Peru, and south of Falls City. Such rocks form a low bluff or escarp along the river and railroad just southeast of Peru. Here the stone is massive, friable, and light to buff in color. Its sand tests as follows: color light to yellowish: specific gravity 2.64; voids 42 per cent; impurities — clay, iron stain and mica flakes; mineral con- tent largely quartz, some hematite, calcite and mica flakes ; grains angular; in fineness, practically all grains pass the 50- mesh with the largest amount remaining on 60-mesh. About 5 to 10 percent passes the 1 00-mesh. The exposure south of the Big Nemaha River at Falls City is variab’e in structure and texture. It consists for the most part of an arenaceous shale, but at places it is a sandstone contain- ing numerous rusty iron concretions at the surface. In general, it may be said that the Pennsylvanian sands and sandstones of our state are of little economic importance and that they do not seem to warrant further prospecting. They are too fine for plaster and concrete, and not adapted for glass making. They might be used in grading other sands and for bedding cars. A further factor should not be overlooked ; it is that the stratigraphic extent of the sand, both horizontal and vertical, is poorly defined. Horizontally it grades into either sha’e or limestone within short distances. Triassic and Jurassic Rocks. — These “Red Beds” are thought to underlie western Nebraska in their extension between the Black Hills and exposures along the Rocky Mountain front. Morrison Formation. — fl'he clays and shales of this basal member of the Cretaceous are not ex])osed in tlie state. The Dakota Formation. — This member of the Nebraska sec- tion was first described in Dakota (bounty, — hence the name. No formation is better known to our citizens, and that on ac- count of its importance as a source of artesian water, l)rick clay, sand and gravel. I'he Dakota rests unconformably on an uneven surface of Carboniferous rocks along its line of outcro]) in Nebraska and probably conformably on the Morrison formation under the western counties. The uneveness of the Carboniferous sur- 42 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY face upon which the Dakota lies was produced bv stream erosian when eastern Nebraska was a land surface. It was a long period of gradation occupying part of the interval between Permian and early Cretaceous times. During the latter part of this interval, the Jurassic deposits were laid down in a sea which occupied the region of \\*yoming and western Nebraska. Then came the ^Morrison and Dakota formations as fresh water and shallow sea accumulations. The Dakota is for the most part, a tangential deposit made by streams a’ong migrating shore lines. Its sediments in east- ern Nebraska seem to have been carried westward by rivers whose load was gathered in Iowa and bordering states. The average thickness of the formation is about 300 ft., being least along the line of outcrop at Ponca, Tekamah. Fremont, Ash- land, South Bend. Lincoln. Beatrice. Fairbury, and Steele and thicker under the central and western counties. The Dakota formation consists of sandstones, clays, shales, sand, gravel, conglomerate and thin beds of lignite. At places it presents three phases which are: i. massive sandstones at the base : 2. shale and clays with thin sandstones near the mid- dle : and 3. massive and thin bedded sandstones at the top. These are hardly constant enough in position across the state to warrant a division of the formation into three members. Approximately one-half of the formation is arenaceous, con- sisting of sandstone, sand and gravel. The sandstone is mas- sive and cross bedded at places. For examp’e, this condition occurs near the mouth of Salt Creek (Figure 8). The stone ranges from a loosely cemented form to a quartzite with silic- ious cement. At places it is concretionary, containing an iron oxide cement. The prevailing color of the sand and sandstone where they are exposed in ledges, varies from ocherous yellow to rusty brown. It is lighter at places, being nearly white where the iron stain is absent. The rock contains pyrites of iron which weathers readily thus giving the iron rust. Sand in The Dakota Formation. — This occurs naturally as such and is produced from friable sandstone by crushing. The sand is light, yellowish or brownish in color, varying with the SAND BEARING FORMATION 43 Fig. 8 Outcrop of Dakota San Jstone near Mouth of Salt Creek, Cass County. amount of iron stain. It contains some clay ini])nrity, a small percent of calcium carbonate as a coating- on trains, and llakes of mica, ^^ellowisli and brownish concretions, one-eii^ditb inch to one-half inch in diameter are found in some samples. 'Fhese concretions seem to result from the oxidation of the sul])hide of iron. 'J'he sand is (piite uniform in g^rain as is shown bv tests made of samples collected from various localities. .44 NEBRASKA GE0L03ICAL SURVEY The grains are angular to rounded and composed very largely of quartz coated with oxide of iron. The composition of a sample collected near Lincoln and analyzed by Mr. George Borrowman. Instructor in the Department of Chemistry, Uni- versity of Nebraska, is as follows: Silicon Si O2 95 - 7 ^ Iron Oxide FecOs 1.81 Aluminum Oxide AI2O3 -49 Calcium Oxide Ca 0 •25 Magnesium Oxide MgO .16 Sodium Oxide Xa20 Potassium Oxide K2O .01 L'ndetermined 1-45 Total loo.OD The largest range in composition of dillerent samples is in the iron oxide. The calcium carbonate also varies in quantity,, but its amount is never as large as most geologists have thought. W e do not know just how important a place this sand may assume in the economy of the state. It is evident from the physical analyses that it is not well suited for the purposes of construction. Under proper treatment, the sand would pro- duce at least a low grade of glass. There is a large supply of this material, usually in accessible places, especially in the southern part of Jefferson County. Gravel and Pebble Rock. — These occur locally in the Dakota formation ( Figure 9). the largest deposits being lenticular bod- ies in the vicinity of Louisville; along the lower Platte. They have been described as channel deposits, and apparently there is nothing that fully refutes this supposition. The gravel bodies grade vertically and laterally into sandstone, being en- closed by the latter except where they rest on the Carboniferous rocks or they are exposed at the surface. It is now known that the gravel was derived from sedimen- tary and not from granitoid rocks as was formerly supposed. However, much of it has come from primary rocks at an earlier SAND-BEARING FORMATIONS 45 Fig. 9 Gravel in the Dakota Formation 46 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY period. The gravel has a filler of sand, and at places the whole mass is firmly united by iron oxide into what is popularly called “Peanut rock.” The gravel grains and pebbles are com- posed of durable minerals and rocks, such as flint, chert, free vitreous quartz and quartzite, free quartz predominating. As a rule the coarse and fine materials are mixed indiscriminately. At places, they are banded in an exposure according to sizes. Benton Formations*. — These contain no arenaceous deposits of any consequence. The lower division, the Graneros for- mation, overlying the Dakota, carries arenaceous and carbon- aceous shales and very thin layers of sandstone. It is overlaid by 20 to 30 ft. of Greenhorn limestones and shales. This lime stone is composed very largely of oyster-like fossils. The up- per member of the Benton is a thick shale-like division known as the Garble formation. Thin beds in it are arenaceous. Niobrara Formation. — This yields no sand. It is chalk rock lying between the Carlisle and the Pierre shale. The thickness is 200 to 400 ft. Pierre Shale. — The Pierre outcrops extensively in the Repub- lican Valley, and in Cedar, Knox, Boyd, Holt. Dawes and Sioux uounties. It consists of dark, bluish and grayish shales which, when wet, are popularly known as soapstone. Laramie Formation. — The outcrop area of this division is Small in Nebraska. It is in Scotts Bluff County, near the Wyo- ming line. The formation carries shales, lignite, and sand- stones which have no importance in sand production. Tertiary Formations. — These lie upconformably on a Cret- aceous floor and come to the surface in the central and western counties (Figures 8 and 10). The system contains two prin- cipal divisions, — the White River Group and the Loup Fork Beds. Darton has separated these into six formations which, in order of age, are the Chadron, Brule, Gering. Arikaree, Ogalalla and an un-named formation. The \\ hite River Group includes the Chadron and the Brule, both of Oligocene age. The Gering and Arikaree of the Loup Fork are Miocene and the two other formations appear to be of Pliocene age. In SAND-BEARING FORMATION 47 Figure 10. 48 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY general, the White River beds are clayey and the Loup Fork, sandy in texture. The Chadron or the liasal member of Nebraska’s Tertiary has a maximum thickness of 8o or 90 ft. It outcrops at the foot of Pine Ridge, in the Niolirara Valley near Valentine, and in the North Platte Valley close to the WNoming line. Its typical material is a light greenish-gray arenaceous clay. Coarse, dark gray sands, representing channel deposits, lie at the base of the formation and at different higher levels. The Brule Formation overlies the Chadron and has a thick- ness of from 300 to 600 ft. It is a pale ])ink, arenaceous clay con- taining irregularly disposed gravel and cong’omerate beds. The formation underlies 'much of north western Nebraska. It out- crops 'an Lodge Pole Valley, North Platte Vadey, along the Figure 11. Sand in the Gering Formation SAND-BEARING FORMATION 49 north face of Pine Ridge, and probably in the Niobrara Valley in the vicinity of Valentine. The Gering beds lie on the Brule in two areas, one in the vicinity of Gering, Scotts Bluff Oounty; and the other in Sioux and Dawes counties. Its thickness varies, the maximum being 200 ft. and the average less than lOO ft. The materials have wide range in texture ; they are fine sands, friable sandstones (Figure ii) and beds of conglomerate. By some, the Gering is regarded as the base of the Arikaree which caps the High Plains of the western counties north of the Platte. The Arikaree is 400 ft. thick near Scotts Bluff and about 500 ft. thick in Sioux and Dawes counties. This member is com- posed, for the most part, of fine, gray sand which contains beds of clay, volcanic ash, and a series of old conglomerate-filled channels (Figure 12). The sand is usually feebly cemented by calcium carbonate. The Ogalalla, 50 to 125 ft. thick, is the cap rock of south western Nebraska. It outcrops along the Republican from near Franklin westward to the state line, and in the Dodge Pole, and North Platte valleys. The most noticeable feature of the Ogalalla is its “mortar bed” rock, popularly known as magnesia. It forms light colored bands in valleys, noticeably so in the Re- publican Valley. This stone is sand and gravel heavily-charged with a calcareous cement. Local areas contain a silicious binder with the result that the stone at such places is a quart- zite, usually greenish in color. The Ogalalla contains beds of volcanic ash, layers of sand and large de])osits of gravel and pebbles, 'fhese coarser materials are of Rocky Mountain ori- gin, having been carried eastward by rivers. Among the minerals which com])ose the ])ebbles are free (piartz and ortho- clase. lAdds])ar ])ebbles are a noticeable feature on certain residual slo])es and on ])ebbly benches. Mica and hornblende are found in the granitoid rocks, (iranitcs. Syenites, Gneiss, hornblendic schist, rhyolite, basalt, and (juartzite ])ebbles and cobbles were collected from the residual slopes. 'J'he pebbles have diversity of form,; the (piartz jiebbles are rounded; feld- spar has fiat faces and angular fcjrms; fragnients of hornblemle Figure 12. A pebble channel in the Arikaree SaNd-be:aring forma tioi^ 5i schist are flattened ; and basalt fragments are irregular with jagged surfaces. The Pliocene Sand and Gravel Plain . — Lying beneath dune sand, loess, and at places under glacial deposits of the central and east-central counties, is an un-named formation which con- sists of vast quantities of sand interstratified with clay. The formation is exposed in South Dakota, along the Missouri in Knox and Cedar counties and southward across Nebraska. The plain retains its form and position in some of the uplands, but has been removed by streams along the valleys. Its east and west limits have not been definitely determined because of the over-lap of Quaternary deposits. However, the plain extends westward to and against the irregularly eroded edge of the Ogalalla and Arikaree formations. It comes to the surface in Holt County and at points in Knox, Cedar, Wayne, Platte, Webster and other counties, where in each case it is a sand producer. Beds of coarse sand belonging to this plain outcrop at an e’evation of 390 to 400 ft. above the Missouri River in Knox County, where Professor James E. Todd has shown their re- lation to the overlying glacial materials. Future research may prove that this sand ])lain is for the greater part of early Qua- ternary age and not Pliocene. Tertiary Sands and Gravels. — These vary greatly in ciualily in the different formations and forms of (lei)osits. y\s a rule the sand is dirty, except in the un-named formation, the leading nn- ])urities being clay, lime carbonate and volcanic ash. In some ])laces the sand is clean, but this is the exce])tion. An- other feature in which the extremes are shown is in fineness, hhne, medium and coarse sand may be associated with pebldes. d'he i)revalent mineral in the finer sands is (juartz. Feldspar is a feature in the coarser grades and in the pebble dej>osits. Most of the d'ertiary sand is too fine for use in constructicm. d'he coarser materials, however, may ])rove to be of importar.ee. Occuring as they do in irregular pockets and channels and un- der heavy strip|)ing, their i)rosi)ccting and development will 52 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY always have a large element of uncertainty which is sure to act as a drawback. Residual and out wash sands and gravels coining from the dis- integration of Tertiary formations is of better grade and more accessible. It should supply the local demands and trade. Glacial Deposits. — These accumulations were broughi into Nebraska from both the north and west during glacial times. Thus far it has not been conclusively determined just how many glacial invasions the state experienced. It is deiinitely known, however, that one ice sheet reached Nebraska and that there may have been two or even three glacial invasions. Evidence at hand indicates that the state has one principa- till sheet, the Kansan, and a glacio-fluvial sand plain which, mav prove to be of Pre-Kansan age. It is thought by some that tl.e Iowan and A\hsconsin invasions reached northeastern Ne- braska. This, however, is not well proved. The Kansan till sheet is composed of bowlder clay, sand, gravel, cob- bles and bowlders (Figure 13). The clay is yellowish and brownish when weathered, otherwise it is bluish. It is • studded with bowlders, some of them being of large size. The clay or till proper is not distinctly stratified. Usually it presents the structure of a typical ground marainic de- posit. The till sheet, usually thin, has a maximum thick- ness of about one hundred feet in the western part of Lancaster County. No one has determined just how far west the ice sheet extended in Nebraska. A line joining the eastern part of Boyd County, York, Geneva, and Hebron repre- sents the exposed western boundary of the till as it is now known -(Figure 10). The Till Plain Sands. — These occur in three forms or condi- tions, i. e. as sand bodies, sand beds and sand plains, generally known by the names, sand trains or gravel trains. The sand bodies occupy pockets in the bowlder clay (Figure 14). Their origin is not fully understood by the writer. The pockets or bodies vary from 10 or 20 ft. to 100 ft. or more in diameter. This sand usually is stratified and sometimes cross bedded, evincing its water concentration. It is light to rusty in color and clean to dirty; it varies from fine to coarse and from subcircular to SAND-BEARING FORMATION 53 Figure 13. Bowlders and bowlder clay exposed in railroad cut twelve miles west of Lincoln. angular in size and form of grain. The leading impurities are rock hour and the yellow oxide of iron. Vitreous (juartz is the prevailing mineral with feldspar, hematite, magnetite and horn- hlende as minor constituents. The sand beds or trains are larger than the sand bodies, d'hey have not been fully investigated. A deposit of this kind is exposed at Burnham, near Lincoln. The sand at this place is coarse and dirty. Further study may prove that the glacial sand and gravel de])osits at Martinshurg, 'rekamah, A\'ahoo, and Fairhiiry are ex])osed ]>arts of large valley trains, d'hey a])pear to represent glacial drainage ways, filled with glacial wash. ^J'heir exact structural relation to other glacial (lei)osits has not been conclusively determined. A small sand ])lain lying between brownish and bluish bowl- der clay is exposed in the deep railroad cuts between Bleasanl- dale and Milford. Its extent has not been determined. From the above description it should he ap])arent that the till plain sands are very irregularly distributed. 54 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY The Glacio-Fluvial Sand Plain. — This sheet of sand and gravel is lOO ft. thick at some places. It lies below at least a part of the till plain and extends westward under the loess an unknown distance. The arenaceous materials are plainly stratified. Bowlders occur in the sand near the contact with the till plain. The origin of the sand plain materials is not well understood. Geologists believe, however, that they are in part river deposits of western origin and in part glacial materials of northern origin. The bowlders aiid cobbles were, without much doubt, carried to their position from the north. Much of the sand and gravel were brought from the west by streams during glacial times. Just what caused these streams to drop Fig-. 14. Sand pocket in Kansan Till near Pleasant Dale, Nebraska. their heavy load in eastern and central Nebraska is not known. Neither is the relation between these sand ])lain materials and certain Pliocene sands definitely understood. We are quite con- vinced, however, that the sands which contain glacial bowlders have a wider distribution in Nebraska than is usually thought, and that they have some relation to the Pliocene sands. I'hey appear to be older than the Kansan Till. Formerly the author SAND-BEARING FORMATION 55 accounted for the presence of bowlders in this sand and gravel, provisionally, by supposing that they had been carried to their position during the Kansan ice invasion and incorporated with river wash which came from the west at that time. It was thought that the presence of ice dams in valleys of east-Howing streams might have caused these rivers to aggrade the valleys with gravel and sand and to overflow southward around the west edge of the ice sheet. This condition would have caused the streams to mix their sand with glacial materials from the northern territory and to cover the region west of the glacier with materials of western origin. At that time the author did not know conclusively that the sand plain extended eastward under the till plain. Tlie next supjiosition was that the sand was aggrade(^. as outwash ahead of the glacier. According to this notion, the heavy frontal wash caused the east-llowing rivers to aggrade first their valleys and then the general surface. Such a process might have been enacted in either the Kansan or Pre-Kansati time. The concejition that the sand plain is glacial outwash fai's to have the full significance which it otherwise demands from the fact that the sand phiin rises rapid'y to the westward from the edge of the tid plain. If it were not for this fact, Fi^. 15. Glacial sand ridf^e near Fairbury. 56 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY granting that the surface slopes at that time were about as they are now, we might assume that the sand plain was formed ahead of the ice and that the till proper came later, when the ice over-rode the sand plain. Notwithstanding the strong ob- jection to this view, we may say that it is not an improbable ex- ])hination of the conditions. The Pre-Kansan or Aftonian sheet of Iowa and the Glacio- fluvial plain of Neliraska are similar in some respects. Each contains sand, gravel and erratics. They have similar positions with respect to the Kansan till sheet. What appear to be disconnected areas of the glacio-fluvial sand plain occur in the eastern part of Nel)raska and hence not far from typical ex- posures of the Pre-Kansan of Iowa. 'Jdie facts warrant the 'statement that th.e sand jilain of Nebraska may be of Pre- Kansan age. Old soil lines if found between the till and glacio- fluvial sands, would be regarded as more conclusive evidence of the age of the latter. If tliis sand plain proves to be iden- tical with and a part of the Aftonian sheet of Iowa, Nebraska has two drift sheets. Glacio-fluvial Sands. — The proliable origin of these has been described. Such sands are exposed at many places along* the Big Blue and Little Blue valleys, as at Fairbury (Figure 15), DeWitte (Figure 16), and Ulysses. They underlie a large part of the Loess plains as has been determined by well records and from valley exposures. The quality of sand is somewhat variabT and the quantity large. A given pit may contain beds of coarse and fine and of clean and dirty sand. Quartz and feldspar are the leading minerals. An average sample when sifted is retained in part on every sieve from No. 10 to No. 100. Samples from gravelly layers are retained mostly on mesh to. A further discussion of the properties of glacio-fluvial sands is given at other places in this report. Cobbles and Bowlders. — These are a feature in the glaciated portions of Nebraska. They occur both in and on the till, and also in the eastern part of the glacio-fluvial plain. It is evident SAN1>‘BEARING FORMATION 57 Fi^'. 16. Glacio-flavial sand exposed two miles northwest ot DeWitt. that most if not ail of tliese‘ coarse materiahs are of northern origin. 'I'hey range in size from small cobbles to bowlders, five, ten, fifteen and even twenty feet in diameter, d'heir rock composition is as follows: 1. Sioux Quartzite, d'his is found in at ^east three co'ors, ])ink, ])nr])’ish red and brownish red. It constitutes fn'lv half of the state’s glacial bowlders. 2. (ii'anite. d here are se\'eral coarse textured forms of granite, of reddish, gray and dark colors. 3. Syenites. A few kinds. 4. (bieiss. Several forms. 5. ^ Mica and hond)lende schists. 6. (Greenstone. 7. dVa]) Rock. (S. lyimestones and Sandstones of Rre-carbouiferous age. 9. Ivocal rocks, — as ( Greer.horn limestone, Dakota sandstone, and Pennsylvanian limestones and Hints. 58 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Comparison of Tertiary and Glacio-fluvial Sands. — Only the Miocene and Pliocene Tertiary are considered in this connection. The first noticeable point of comparison is that the prevailing minerals in each are quartz and feldspar. Each sand shows these as free minerals which have been formed from granitoid rocks in the Rocky ^lountains. The feldspar in both seems to decrease in amount from west to east : but this has not been proved conclusively. In each there is relatively more quartz in the finer sand, and more feldspar in the coarse sand or gravel. The cleanness in each kind is due in part to the method of origin, but mostly to conditions brought about sub- sequent to the deposition of the beds. Chemically the sands are similar with the possible exception that more calcium and potassium oxides are found in the Tertiary. Iron stain is more prevalent in the glacial deposits. It would seem that we are warranted in concluding that much of the glacio-fiuvial sand is Tertiary material which was worked over during glacial times and that the primary source of each was about the same except that the former received some of its materials from the north. The glacio-fluvial and Pliocene sands are so much alike at places as to make it nearly impossible for the geologist to distin- guish between them. In the absence of fossils, and strati- graphic distinctions, the only remaining evidence of value is the presence or absence of bowlders and other materials of northern origin. From an economic standpoint it is not very necessary that the two classes of sand should be distinguished since they are so similar in kind. The Loess. — This is the fine grained, massive, buff-colored subsoil of about haT of the state. (Figure lo) It is highly are- naceous, containing fine sand and a relatively large proportion of silt. The amount of sand in the loess increases with depth westward across the Loess Region. Locally the loess is quite sandy near its base. At some places it is separable into bluish and yellowish divisions. The loess is for the most part a wind deposit. Alluvium. — This is of stream construction usually in valley- bottoms. In Nebraska it consists largely of sand and gravel jjiterstratified with thin beds of clay. The story of the origin SAND-BEARING FORMATION 59 of alluvial deposits is an interesting one, but need not be recited in this connection. That rivers both make and fill valleys de- pending upon the conditions under which they work, is gener- aky understood. It will suffice to say that most of Nebraska’s larger rivers, have, within recent times, built thick alluvial deposits. The alluvia of the Platte, Missouri, Niobrara, Re- publican and Blue rivers range from 25 to 200 ft. in thickness. The alluvial formation is tl e source of a large part of our sand production. It is more fully described in Chajiter IV. Dune Sand. — This, the prevailing surface formation of the Sand Hill Region, has wide range in the state (Figure 10), covering about 18,000 S(|uare miles. Notwithstanding its large areal distribution, there is less of the formation than most geol- ogists have supposed. At places it forms only a thin mantle above water-laid sands. The dune sands (Figure 17) are wind modifications of the Arikaree, Pliocene, and alluvial deposits. They have little importance as materials of construction. The color is gray and the mineral content principally quartz. Fig. J7, Pimesand, Cherry county. Photo by R. A. Emerson. 60 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CHAPTER III . METHODS OF PRODUCTIOX AND EXTENT OF TRADE. In this chapter consideration is given to 1)oth sand and graveh but it has ] een deemed advisable to give more space to the former. In a broad way, the winning of any 'mineral material such as stone, c’ay or sand from the surface of the land' or from underground is called mining. A more restricted usage of the term is that in wh.ich it stands onA' for the winning of coal and meta'uferous materiahs. The sand of trade is a mineral pro- duct and the act of producing it by the different methods employed is now very generally called mining. Sources of Sand. — It is obtained from sand bars and open- ings called lianks and ])its ; these terms have a loose meaning, with no technical distinction. Any sul)-circular opening from which sand is secured whether in a bar or elsewhere is generally known as a sandpit. The dredges operate in water-filled pits, ^hence it is not necessary to distinguish between dredge-pits and other forms of openings. The term “sand bank,” according to popn’ar usage denotes a place of sand production along a bank or bluff. There seems to lie no valid distinction between pit and bank opening. .METHODS OF MIXING. The methods employed are simple and most of the production is from open pits. As a rule the method employed at a place is controlled by the conditions under which the sand occurs. The structure, stri])ping, and transportation facilities inflnence in large measure the extent of mining. The presence of water in alluvial sands acts as a check on some methods of operation. METHODS OF MINING 61 Another factor shoiihl not lie overlooked: it is the sand trade. A period of exteifsive bnihling- causes an increase of production, and thereby calls for improvement in the methods of mining. Simple Loading and Hauling. — This method prevail in re- gions where sand is worked only locally or where it is so plentiful as to have no monetary value. People from the farm and town drive to a creek bed, sand draw, or a small pit, which may be the common source of supply for the neighborhood, and secure the sand by shoveling it into wagons. If the sand occurs in a pTce not easily reached with teams, it is carried to the wagons in buckets. In some places it is handled twice in loading, i. e. first shovelled to a place accessible by team and then into the wagon. Under ordinary conditions it does not take long to load a ton or a ton and a half of sand. The load is hauled a short or a long distance as the case may demand and scooped out onto the sand pile where it remains until used. Loading at Local Use Pits. — These pits are widely distrib- uted in the state. Most of them are located along valley-sides and are known as sand banks or as sand pits. Usually, the sand Fij^. 18. Sandpit near Carahridg-e. 62 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY at such places lies near the surface and requires very little strip- ping of soil and subsoil preparatory to mining. As a rule the stripping thickens in the slope above an opening, and on that ac- count the direction of working is parallel with that of the valley, at most places. This requires the minimum of expense in production, but limits the size of pits. ]\Iaterials overlying the sand are removed with plow and scraper. Wagons are driven into the pits and the drivers do the loading by hand, selecting the quality of material desired (Figure i8). Tunneling. — Sand is mined by tunneling at some locations, one of which is near Falls City where glacial sands are exposed in deep ravines south of the big Nemaha River. Here the sand is overlaid with bowlder clay and loess which are too thick to be removed by the stripping process. The tunnels cave in after heavy rains and are at no time perfectly safe places in which to work ; the cost of this form of mining is too great for profitable production. Tunneling is more successfully employed in gravel mining at the Curom Gravel Pit (Figure 59). Fig. 19. Hauling and loading gravel, Cedar Creek. METHOD OF MINING 63 Shoveling onto Cars. — The railroads often run short spurs to sand pits along their lines. The loading is done almost en- tirely by hand at many of these places. Though this method is slow, large pits have been formed in this way at Tekamah, Kes- terson, WTstern, Atkinson, and several other points. At times the hand-shoveling is done by section crews, but, when a large production is needed, it is done by larger forces of men. This production is handled very largely for rairoad use; but a part of it is for other purposes. In some cases the sand or gravel is hauled to railroads by teams, and there shoveled onto cars for shipment (Figure 19). Loading with Team and Scraper. — This method is employed at most dredging stations. ( Figure 36) and also at railroad pits. Both the slusher, or small scraper, and the wheel scraper are used. The sand is drawn onto a bridge-like structure which extends over the loading track or switch. The car to be loaded is pushed or drawn under the bridge which has a small opening (the trap) in its central portion through which the scraper- Fig. 20. Sand pumpinj^, Meadow 64 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY load is dumped. By moving the car the load is properly adjusted without much shoveling. This is cheap mining since it does not demand much outlay for loading machinery. The method gives an opportunity to select coarse or fine material, but it cannot be employed where the sand lies below the water table. Bucket Elevators 1 — These should be more generally used. They work well, where the lift is not great, and save labor. The only conveyors of this kind now operating in the state are at Brickton six miles south of Hastings, and at Wahoo. At the first named place the sand is moved to the conveyor by team and scraper. At A'ahoo it is hauled from- a nearby pit in wagons and wheel scrapers. Sand Pumping. — This method is employed at two peaces in the state in loading river sand. The water-fihed sand is pumped from the river (Figure 20) through pipes either to a large storage basin or to cars. The cost of machinery is small and the production relatively large for the outlay. However, sand pumping from the Platte is not successful because of a lack of constancy in the quality of the sand produced. The river has too strong a tendency to fill an opening in its bed with fine sediment, known to trade as quick sand. Otherwise, coarse gravel might be pumped from the deeper levels of the river bed making this method of production desirabT and profitable. Boat Dredging. — Several years ago a boat dredge was oper- ated at Cedar Creek (Figure 49) by Mr. Hugh Murphy. It proved to be the fastest method of mining yet empMyed in the state, a car being loaded in about ten minutes. Notwithstand- ing this fact there are a few drawbacks to this method. The railroad spur must of necessity be placed dose to the lake and the dredge. Water running from the loaded cars washes the grade, causing the track to slide into the lake or ])it. Another hindrance is found in the fact that it is not possible to dredge as deep as is necessary to secure coarse sand. However, in spite of these obstacles there are points in favor of the boat dredge and there is talk of again installing one of them on the Platte. Method of minting 65 The Steam Shovel. — This method of loading has been em- ployed at times in the state but only for short periods when railroads have found it necessary to secure large amounts of sand for ballast and surfacing track. The largest production of this kind was handled by the Great Northern Railroad during the year 1906. The Clam Dredge. — There are twelve dredging stations in Nebraska (Figure 21). The equipment and parts of such a jdant are the following: 1. Railroad spur or switch. 2. Engine and engine house. 3. Towers and anchors. 4. Double cable. 5. Carrier and block. 6. Clam dredge. 7. Draw cable. 8. Scrapers, shovels, etc. for stripping and loading. 66 NEBRASKA GEOLCX^ICAL SURVEY 1 Sand Tjouisville, formerly owned by S. II. Atwood Company. METHOD OE MINING 6^ The plants operate along the lower Platte, producing from sandy alluvium where the stripping is thin and the water table near the surface. They are located on railroad switches which extend to accessible sand ground near towns. The cost of a p^ant, not including the switch, is about $3,000.00. The problem of installing a dredge is to secure a place with a large amount of desirable sand, favorably situated with re- spect to transportation facilities and markets; and to anchor a movable tramway which will carry heavy loads. The double cabT or tramway has a length from anchor to anchor of 300 to 350 ft. It is ij/2 or in. in diameter and firmly attached at each end to trees or to a “dead man” (Figures 22 and 23) which is made by depositing several tons of stone on a firm platform, d'he double cable is elevated on two towers, the taller one, near the switch, being 30 or 35 ft. high. The towers are 180 to 250 ft. apart. The clam jiroper (Figures 24 and 25) weighing about 3,000 ])ounds, is constructed of heavy 5^in. crucible steel. Its halves or clams are hinged tb a steel bar three inches in diameter, and attached to the clam-head l)y heavy chains and levers. The c’am-head or block-head, as it is sometimes called, weighs 500 jiounds. It contains heavy jndleys through which the draw cal)le ') 4 in. in diameter, ]>asses. 'I'he weight of the dredge, block- head and sand are sujiported by a carrier which runs on the double cable. 'The carrier weighs about 1,500 jiounds. W hen operating, the dredge, block-head, and carrier run out on the double cable to the tri])-block by grax'ity. Mere the carrier is held by a trigger and the open clam and the block- head descend to the water and sand. 'I'he block-head strikes and catches the hinge-bar and as the (Iredge st.arts to rise the c’am shells close in on the sand scoo])ing up a load. 'Phe dredge ascends to the carrier; a vertical bar strikes the tri]> and the heavy load is drawn in on the double cable to the tower where it is automatically dumped into the car. Wdiile working at an average rate the dreclge makes a trip in about eighty seconds, varying with the distance and depth. When rushed NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Fig. 22. The Anchor and Stiff-knee, or Lower Tower. Fig. 23 Stiff-knee and Anchor at the large Lyman dredge, Meadow. PRODUCTION AND TRADE ()9 the rate is sixty seconds or less. The sand carried each trip weighs from 2000 to 4000 pounds. From 8 to 15 cars of sand, averaging 40 tons each are loaded in this way in 8 to 10 hours. Dredging extends to depths of 30 to 80 ft. As the sand is re- moved a lake is formed in which the water remains at about the same level as that in the river. d'he lake is enlarged in the direction in which the dredging progresses, the tramway being moved a distance of 50 or 60 ft. when the sand has been dredged ont to a desired de])th. The lakes made in this way are utilized for lish culture, boating, swimming, and the i)rodiiction of ice. Clam dredging has both advantages and limitations. Mining l)y it is relatively chea]), and it enables the ])rodncer to obtain coarse sand from be’ow the water table. Rainy weather offers very little hindrance, d'he greatest drawback is found in the inabi.ity to obtain sand of different degrees of fineness from a pit. That is to say it is impossible to load either coarse or hue sand at a dredge without great inconvenience. The coarse and the fine are rim together as commercial sand. The dredges are operated 9 to 10 months of the year, in some cases longer. The shut-down comes during cold weather when the water-soaked sand freezes in cars, making it very difficult to unload them. PRODUC'riON AND 'I'kADlC It is encouraging to note that the volume of sand production in Nebraska is steadily increasing, d'his increase in the trade has jirogressed so ra])idly that many jirodncers and dealers find it difficult to snp])ly the trade. Sand and gravel are sold by coal and lumber dealers in the small towns with other materials of construction. I'liese mer- chants advertise their lime, cement, coal, and sand. 'I'he trade is sjiecializing in Omaha, ffincoln, Iff'emont, Beatrice, Ilastings, Nebraska City, and other leading cities. Platte sand is now shi])])ed to many ])laces in the state and to jioints in Iowa, Kansas and Missouri. 70 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Fig. 24. Close view of the State’s largest clam dredge. PRODUCTION AND TRADE 71 Fi^. 25. An unusual form of Clam dredge, NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Production for Local Use. — It has not been possible for the writer to obtain full data respecting the amount of this produc- tion. By compiling the reports obtained from various coun- ties the number of local use pits is estimated at between 800 and 1000. These supply varying quantities of sand, ranging from a few loads a year to as high as 10 and 12 wagon loads or more a day. As an estimate I would place the annual pro- duction of the state for local use at 400,000 yards. This sand is worth very little at the pits but prices range from 50c. to $r.oo a yard on the market. The sand mined in the state for local use is widely distributed and much more important than is generally known. Production for Shipment. — With the recent industrial de- velopment there has come a demand for the best grades of sand, a demand which with the improved facilities for transpor- tation has localized production. The result is that sand is now mined and shipped from the leading producing centers to the towns and cities. Large quantities of shipped sand are hauled from these places to the country. The railroads and cities are the largest consumers. There are about 40 sand shipping stations in the state, the largest of which are the Platte dredges. The total production for shipment last year was 800,000 cubic yards of which over 500,000 came 'from the clam dredges. The value of the pro- duct loaded at the pits and dredges varies from 7c. to 20c. a yard. The sand is delivered to consumers at about one dollar a yard. Total Production and Its Value. — The amount of production for last year was about 1,200,000 cubic yards. This is sufficient to load 40,000 cars, or to make a train over 300 miles long. The market value of this production was about $1,000,000. The production during the current year has been greatly augmented, the increase being used for ballast and for building. Supply and Demand. — The amount of sand in the state is both increasing and decreasing. There are places where the Platte River is building up its bed with sand of Rocky Moun- PRODUCTION AND TRADE 73 2H. Enoine sand in storao’e, C. B, A: Q. railroad, Lincoln. 74 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY tain origin ; yet it is carrying sand from the state at the same time. Evidence seems to show that our rivers are nearly in balance so far as intrenchment and aggradation are concerned. The valleys are only so many trenches which have been in part eroded in sand bearing formations. While we recognize that the actual amount of sand in the state may be decreasing, this should occasion no alarm, for the transient load of our streams is many fold more than can ever be utilized, not to say anything of the vast quantities in the Glacial and Tertiary sand plains. The permanence of the sand supply of Nebraska is assured. The demand for the various grades of sand and gravel is rapidly increasing in the state. Bordering states are looking to Nebraska for an increase in their supply. The quantity of accessible gravel of good grade is not equal to the demand. Washing and Screening. — Thus far, with few exceptions, no attempt has been made to either screen or wash sand at the p’aces of production. It would seem, however, that the trade, as it is now organizing, \vould demand a product that is ready for use. The screening might be done with less expense at the dredges than at the ]daces of sand consumption. As the industry further develops, we may expect more up-to-date methods of preparing the jiroducts for market. Sand thus prepared will demand a higher price, but the results will be more favorable to all concerned. Shipment. — As regards the e(|uij)ment for railroad shipment, there is not much to be said. Open flat cars (gondolas) (Figure 26) with a capacity of 80,000 to loo.ooo ll)s. are em- ployed. They are loaded by methods already described and unloaded by hand shovel, except from ballast cars from which the sand is either dumped or plowed off. It would seem that the railroads would hud a less expensive method for hauling and handling engine sand and that some form of sand car should be designed for general shipment. Sand Storage. — Most sand dealers use simple forms of stor- PRODUCTION BY DISTRICTS 75 age made of board enclosures. Others place the sand in closed bins from which the retail trade is supplied. Since sand is affected but little by weathering agencies, there is no special need for housing it except to prevent waste and to economize hand'ing. The Burlington railroad stores 50 to TOO cars of engine sand (Figure 26) in a simple enclosure at Lincoln. Delivery. — The delivery from cars or from storage in small towns is made with farm wagons. In cities some means of conveyance better designed for the purpose is employed (Fig- ure 27) and the sand is unloaded by hand dumping. Sand wag- ons of this kind carrying 4,000 to 8,500 lbs. of material are used in Omaha and Lincoln. The cost of this delivery is about 35c. or 40c. a yard. Fij?. 27. Loading? sand waj^ons for city trade. Photo by Roy V, PeT)i>erber^r PRODUCTION BY DISTRICTS. It is not possible for the writer to satisfactorily separate the state into districts, since there is no logical basis for division The most feasible division seems to be to 76 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY sejiarate the state into divisions which correspond in their posi- tion to the drainage basin. According to this liasis the dist- ricts are — the ^lissonri River, Niobrara, Elkhorn, Lonp, Platte, Big Nemaha, Big Bine. Little Bine, Republican, and A'hite River. Physical analyses of the representative sands of each district and of the state in general are shown by tables at the end of this chapter. THE MI::^S()LR1 RIVER DISTRICT. T1 e sand bearing formations in this part of the state are a’lnvium. drift. Tertiary, Dakota, and a sandy member of the Pennsylvanian. The Pennsylvanian sands were considered in Chapter II and since they have very little econ- omic importance it will not be necessary to extend the descrip- tion. The Dakota formation is prominently exposed along the Missouri River in Dixon, Dakota, Thurston, and Burt Counties, where it supplies a small part of the local demand. It should become of value in the district, since its friable sand rock is favorably located, if the product is ever used in glass making. The Tertiary sands in the district, which, according to Pro- fessor Todd, are of Pliocene age, outcrop in the ^lissouri \’alley from western Knox County eastward to Dixon County. They consist of thick sheets of fine sand, and of coarse sand and gravel. Except near the mouths of ravines and along certain tributary valleys as the Baziie and the Bows, the overlying stripping is so thick as to preclude all possibility of profitable production, even though favorable transportation facilities should be secured. Quite large exposures of coarse sand, part Pliocene and part glacial, occur along Bazi e Creek, north of Creighton. The sand plain which comes to the surface near Creighton extends eastward in the up’and to Dixon County and is worked near Hartington and Co’eridge. It is evident that enough sand is exposed in the Bow Valleys of Cedar County to supply all that local use may ever, demand. PRODUCTION BY DISTRICTS 77 Fig-. 28. View in railroad pit at Tekamah 78 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY At Ponca, sand and clay are mined from the same opening in the northeast part of town. The clay overlies the sand. This sand evinces water deposition, but is of glacial origin. Near Martinsburg, Dixon County, is an extensive deposit of glacio-fluvial sand. It is mined at different places in- the vicinity, but only for local use. The largest pit is about three- quarters of a mile northeast of the town. A large bank pit- is located high on a Missouri River bluff near the boundary line between Dixon and Dakota counties. The product was shipped to Sioux City on barges. Glacial deposits have yielded hundreds of cars of sand and gravel at Tekamah, Burt County (Specimen i*). The larg- est pit is on a spur of the Chicago, St. Paul Minneapolis and Omaha railroad (Figure 28). It is about 2p2 miles west of the city. The opening is 250 x 650 ft. in its largest dimensions (Figure 29). ^ See tables showing mechanical analyses pf one hundred specimens, PRODUCTION BY DISTRICTS 79 The stripping ranges from a few inches to four or five feet in thickness. The sand averages medium coarse, but varies considerably in fineness and in other respects at different places in the pit. It is gray to yellowish in color and clean to dirty. Glacial bowlders occur at all levels in the sand which has a maximum vertical exposure of 35 ft. About 70 large bowlders lie scattered over the floor of the pit. They are mostly Sioux quartzites, granites, gneiss, and arenaceous limestones. Sand is loaded at this place by hand-shovel, and by team and scraper. The output has been used very generally and ex- tensively by the railroad for ballast and other purposes. The pit also serves the local trade. One-half mile south of this place is the King pit from which Tekamah obtains a large part of its supply. There are two pits north of Tekamah, one three miles and the other eight miles from the city. It is not known how large the sand supply is in Burt County, yet it is safe to say that only a small quantity of the available product has been mined. The sand lies uncomformalily on the Dakota formation and is exposed in several slopes in the vicinity of the large railroad pit. It appears to lie in old glacial drainage ways, located along the east face of an escarpment of the Dakota formation. If the sand was coarser it would have a larger utilization. Thick stripping is a hindrance at places. The local sand supply at Blair is small. Near Omaha, bank pits are operated at Florence (Specimen 2), east of South Omaha, and south of Gibson. The sand deposits in the vicinity of Omaha have been thoroughly prospected by Mr. Hugh Murjdiy. d'hough the quality favors mining, the thick strip- ping entirely jirevents it at some places. 'I'he production in the Kearney and llasbrook pits below Gibson is to be increased (Specimen 5 ). Certain contractors in Omaha prefer this sand to that supplied from the Platte dredges. As a result of this preference, stripjiings 10 to 40 ft. thick are being removed from above a large body of sand. 'J'lie sand is yellowish gray, to iron yellow in color. It is medium grained and angular to sharp. Pebbles of Sioux quartzite, vitreous quartz, granite 80 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY and feldspar occur in it and are removed by screening. Not much sand is pr.oduced in the Missouri River counties south of the Platte. The river sand is coarser south of Plattsmouth than to the north and on that account is made use of to some extent in construction as at Nebraska City (Speci- men 7). A coarse sand is found at the bluffs about two miles north of Peru (Specimen 8). Small pits are operated for local use in the ATeping MTter and Little Nemaha valleys (Figure 30), (Specimen 9). Quality of Missouri River Sand. — Samples for study were collected from sand bars at various points between Sioux City and Kansas City. Laboratory examinations warrant the fol- lowing description : The river sand is gray when dry; the grains are subangular and fine, much of the sand passing mesh 100. Vitreous quartz is the predominating mineral. Hematite, hornblende, and a considerable showing of mica flakes are the accessory minerals. Clay is the principal impurity. A sample taken at Omaha has the following chemical analysis : Silica 76.49 Ferric oxide I.OI Alumina 1773 Calcium oxide 2.33 Magnesium oxide .89 Sodium oxide •33 Potassium oxide .96 Undetermined .16 Total 100.00 It is evident that the dark mica contains much of the magnesium and that the clay gives the high percent of alum- inum oxide. Though the supply of the ^Missouri River sand is large it is not probable that much of it will ever be used in construction unless it is for the purpose of grading other sands (Specimens 3 and 4). That the sand is coarser south of Plattsmouth is PRODUCTION BY DISTRICTS 81 Fig. 30. Sand pit in Dakota Formation, Bennett. 82 NEBRASKA GEOLOGIC AE SURVeY Fig- 31. Bank of glass sand near Valentine. shown hy specimens 6 and 8. Analyses of sands of the district are shown by the tables at the end of the chapter. THE NIOBRARA DISTRICT. The production here is obtained from Tertiary, glacial and allindal deposits. Dune sands occur in some places, but they are not a source of supply (Specimens lo and 12 ). Since the region is not thickly settled, production for local use is small. However, the supply is large, especially so in the vicinity of Long Pine where the Northwestern Railroad loads with a steam shovel during the summer months. The pit is on a spur about one mile west of the town. The output is used for ballast, con- crete, and other railroad purposes. Engine sand has been se- sured from a pit southwest of Long Pine. Sand in this part of the district is thought to be of Pliocene age. Stripping is either thin or nearly wanting: the sand is gray to yedovvish and medium to coarse grained. It requires screening when used for plastering. In the central and western parts of the district farmers and ranchmen find it convenient to ol)tain their sand supply from valley-wash along the small streams. The source of the coarse t^EObuOTtON BY DISTRICTS 83 sand of these stream beds usually is in the Tertiary formations. In the vicinity of Valentine is found what may prove to be a g ass sand (Figure 31). It occurs at a number of places near the city. Mr. Cornell has fully prospected all of the different banks near the town. The sand is light gray in color and runs ov'er 97 per cent silica (Specimen ii). Its physical properties are shown in one of the tables. Pockets of glacial sand and gravel lie on the slopes, south of the town of Niobrara and along Verdigre Creek. They have been worked for ballast and for use in concrete by the North- western railroad. The unfavorable conditions under which they occur does not favor extensive working. The Niobrara River carries a heavy load of fine to medium fine sand. This alluvium, though not deep, is fine grained above and coarse near its base. THE ELKHORN DISTRICT. 1'here is sand production at or near most towns in this district. The sources are the un-named Tertiary beds, irreg- ularly disposed glacial deposits, and valley-wash. The sand plain comes to the surface in Rock and Holt Coun- ties where it has supplied many trainloads of sand for railroad purposes and the demands of the country and towns. Two large pits located about midway between Stuart and Atkinson, are served by spurs of the Northwestern railroad. Mr. E. C. Bishop, Deputy State Superintendent, furnishes the following description of the pit which is now producing. “The opening, about three-fourths mile long, has been worked back 50 ft. to 125ft. and to a depth of 10 to 15 ft. The pit is owned and opera- ted by the Northwestern Railroad. Stripping is thin; in fact most of it is mined with the sand. For eight years loading has been done with hand shovel. The sand is coarse, stratified, dry above and dam]) below (S])ecimens 13 and 14). It is used for surfacing the road-bed. The out|)ut has been 10 to 24 cars a day. The ])roduct goes as far east as Fremont and for a consid- erable distance to the west.” Sand of this quality might be produced at various places 84 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY in this vicinity, yet most of it is not coarse enough for railroad use. Neligh is supplied from local sand banks and from bars along the Elkhorn River. Mr. C. W. Crum describes the sand resources and production in ^Madison County thus: “Two miles north of ]\Ieadow Grove is a large deposit of coarse sand near the surface. It is easily mined, stripping be- ing a small item. This production is used in road making and for roofing. There are four sand pits on the hill slopes near Madison. Their product is of two grades; one contains fine sand which is used as a filler for brick sidewalks and the other is a clean white sand of good quality for plastering. Sand in these pits is overlaid with loess, which thickens in the hills, making extensive mining impossible. Consequently the pits are small and not of much importance. A large gravel pit is located about three miles southeast of Norfolk from which practically all of Norfolk’s building material of this kind is secured, and some of the product is shipped to other towns. Small pits are operated about one mile east of Norfolk. The same formation which is worked here extends under a part of Norfolk and along the valley in the opposite direction to Stan- ton County. River sand is also used at Norfolk, and at Battle- Creek. Tilden obtabis sand and gravel from a bank pit. Six miles northwest of Tilden, in Antelope County, are two gravel pits on the north side of the river. Stanton obtains gravel and sand from the river bed. A gravel pit 8 miles north west of the city has been operated 21 years. Bank sand lying above the level of the bottom land and overlaid by’ the loess is mined at Wisner, West Point, Scribner, and Hooper. Sand is shipped from Scribner. There are a few sand pits on the North Fork of the Elkhorn. Two of these are being worked. One is located four miles and a half southeast of Pierce and the other, 7 miles north by northwest of Pierce. The production from these places is sufiicient to supply local demands. The conditions in the Logan Valley are similar to those along the Elkhorn. The sands of Wayne County appear to be of PRODUCTION BY DISTRICTS 85 little consequence. Usually they lie too far below the surface. Most of the county is supplied by shipment from Hartington and the Platte. Nine miles northeast of Wayne is a coarse sand worked in an open ])it. Wakefield, Pender and Lyons have small pits and each has shijiped a jiart of the j)roduction. Oakdale supplies local trade and small shipments. Formerly sand was mined in a pit just below the station at Thurston. d'HE LOUP DISTRICT. The production here comes, for the most part, from a sand p’ain lying below the loess and from river lieds. A small part of the sand in the eastern part of the district is of glacial origin. The dune sands are not used to any extent ( Siiecimens 15 and j6). The Middle Loup has deposited coarse sand and gravel along its bed between Halsey and Thedford (Figure 32). The larg- est accumulations of this kind are about six or seven iniTs above Halsey. This material is being loaded and shijiped to Broken Bow where it proves to be a good grade of commer- cial sand for certain purposes. According to one report it does not seem to be well adapted for use in the manufacture of cement blocks. Fig. 32. ^andy alluvium along the Middle Loup, near Halsey. Dunesand shows in the distance. 86 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL StJRVEY Mr. J. G. W. Lewis reports the following for Custer County: “There are sand and gravel pits in at least the fo'lowing localities in the county: near ^lason City, Ansley, Sargent, Gates P. O., Calloway and ArnoVl. The pits near Ans ey, Mason City and Sargent Tad in production. The gravel and sand used in Broken Bow is shipped largely from Ravenna. Very little sand is shipped out of the county. The production is used for bui ding in the various loca ities.” At most pTces in this part of the state, the bank sands are covered with 6 to 15 in. of soil. The Loup Rivers contain much sand some of which is suited for bui'ding purposes (Specimens 17, 18, 19), but it is not very accessible to markets. Extensive sand deposits occur in the river-bed near Ravenna, St. Paid, Ful’erton, and Genoa. In most p’aces it is fine and worked to supply only a part of the local use. Bank pits supp’y mo^'t of the demands. Similar conditions prevail in each principal va'ley of the Loup System. Ord is supplied by a number of pits, but mostly from one just southeast of the city (Specimen 20). Here, beneath about three feet of stripping, is 8 to 12 ft. of coarse building sand. Evidently it is of Rocky Mountain origin. Boone County ships most of its supply from Oakdale, Fre- mont, and Columbus, local deposits being too fine for most purposes. Newman Grove produces no sand. Its supply comes mostly from Fremont. There is a large pit in Platte County, near Lindsay, from which Newman Grove and vicinity secured sand before the railroad was built. THE PLATTE DISTRICT. This district produces most of the State’s sand and gravel. The production comes from the Dakota, Tertiary, glacial and aduvial formations, the last named leading in amount. For the purpose of description the region is divided into subdistricts. The North Platte. — Here occur vast quantities of coarse sand (Specimen 21) and gravel both in the river and on the valley-slopes. The deposits are all of Rocky Mountain origin, PRODUCTION BY DISTRICTS 87 Fi«:. 33. Overloaded North Platte near Scott’s Bluff. Photo b\ N. H. i>arion. 88 NEBRASTA GEOLOGICAL SURVEV having been carried to their position at different periods by rivers. The Platte is now bringing in much sand and gravel at flood stages and dropping it as valley-wash at low stages (Figure 33). This deposit contains a large number of min- erals and rocks whose fragments range in sizes from fine sand to cobble stones. The valley-sides contain conglomerate rock which, for the most part, is the same as the stream gravel except for its greater age and its matrix. Residual gravel and pebbles are formed by the disintegration of conglomerate beds. In some localities such accumulations have a bench form and are there called terrace gravels. Thus far the North Platte’s arenaceous accumulations have not been utilized very generally. The conditions here do not, as a rule, favor mining on a large scale. This is especially the case with the Tertiary in which the gravel occurs as ])Ockets and channel deposits. The Burlington railroad has obtained dirty sand and gravel for ballast in a pocket at Vance. Careful search should reveal a sand and gravel supp’y of impor- tance in this region. The most dependable source is thought to be in the river bed. The rapid agricultural development which is assured for this region will require materials for construction purposes, of which sand is the most accessible. With this demand should come prospecting and an increase of production. The gravels and sands are quite sure to become the leading building mater- ials, and, if the right kinds can be found they will be used for ballast. Some of the present production is used in irrigation construction. Sidney and Chappel. — Coarse sand of late Tertiary age oc- curs at different places in the Lodge Pole Valley but appar- ently in largest quantities near Sidney and Chappel. Sma’l pits are worked for local use at Sidney and some sand is shipped in from Co’orado. The slopes north of Chappel con- tain coarse gravel and pebbles, but the amount of accessible material here has not been determined. At places it is over- laid with loess. Thus far the production has been small. The PRODUCTION BY DISTRICTS 89 towns obtain their sand supply from the valley-wash of small ravines. ^ The South Platte. — Test wells sunk along the bottom lands of this valley for the purpose of determining the rate of under how, have shown that the alluvium is thick and composed of coarse materials. Sand of the desired fineness and quality for local use is hauled from sand bars which usually contain sands of different degrees of fineness, within a small surface area. North Platte and Lexington obtain most of their sand from the Platte, finding an adequate supp’y with only the expense of hauling (Specimen 22). In the Vicinity of Kearney. — In this part of the district the supply comes from the Platte, and a sand plain which out- crops in the valley sides below the loess. Mr. F. W. Montgom- ery of Elwood reports the following for the northern part of Gosper County: “The sand pits of the county are not favorably located for extensive working. The sand is furnished by the Platte River and two bank pits. One of these pits is situated on section 28, township 8 N, range 21 W. It is on the east side of Plum Creek Valley and is reached, at its present state of development, by drifting. If worked extensively, the clay stripping would be from 2 to 20 ft. thick. 'Phe other pit is situated on section 24, township 6 N. Range 23 W. It is an outcrop in the right bank of Elk Creek; and if worked to any extent the stri])ping would become 2 to 10 ft. thick. A few thick layers of light colored magnesia rock lie immediately above the sand. The sand in both pits is of excellent cpiality for plaster when screened, but contains too much coarse gravel to be used otherwise. These pits are too far from railroads to be worked commerciaMy at a ]>rofit, the sand taken from them being merely for use in the immediate vicinity. iClmwood ships sand from Lowell.” Kearney’s large supply of sand comes from the Platte Hood plain and from sand bars. 'The city is underlaid with sand and gravel at a (le])th of four or five feet. At places enough good ])laster and masonry sand is removed from a cellar excavation to su])])ly all that is needed in a large building. The flood plain at Kearney is thought to 90 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY be aliont 200 feet thick. Prof. A. J. Mercer of Kearney reports as follows: ‘Alost of the sand usechin Kearney comes from the north channel of the Platte River. It requires experience here in selecting the sand as all grades may be found at the same place. (Specimens 23 and 24). A few pits are worked, but even these are in an old bed of the Platte covered with a few feet of soil. The N. L. Hoover pit was opened in 1889. Since its opening it has produced 20,000 yards of sand of which 5,000 yards were shipped and the remainder used at home. This sand has been used mainly for plastering. The M. Braiding pit was opened in the spring of 1905, and about 500 tons taken out during the season. Its product is used for cement walks, filling, brick-laying and plaster. The sand at these pits is covered with about three feet of stripping. Much sand was hauled from the river during the past year for different uses. The Kearney Hydraulic Stone Company used 5550 tons in the manufacture of stone for the walks of the State Normal building and 3750 tons for other buildings in the city. Knutsen and Isdell used 750 yards in mortar for the walls, and plaster at the State Normal Building. Dr. A. O. Thomas has used 100 tons in the manufacture of artificial stone for his residence. John H. Beebe Hauled 6700 tons from the Platte and used it in the construction of sidewalks in the city. In all about 18,000 tons of sand were used in the city during the year 1905.'’ Formerly a pit was operated on a Burlington spur about two and one-haff miles east of Kearney. The opening is one- fourth mile long and is worked back 75 to 100 ft. This may prove to be a suitable place for a dredging station. Sand is produced for shipment and local use from a pit about half a mile east of Lowell station. Formerly the loading here was by hand shovel, now it is with team and scraper. The spur and pit are south of the Burlington railroad. The opening is 200 yds. long and 100 ft. wide, the working extend- ing to the water line, The sand is alluvial and the stripping thin. PRODUCTION BY DISTRICTS 91 Grand Island. — The production and conditions here are sim- ilar to those at Kearney. The sand is taken from an old channel of the Platte and from excavations for cellars and foundations. The Union Pacific pit is the largest producer. The product from this and two openings west of the city is used for local use. There is some shipment southward to towns along the St. Joe and Grand Island railroad. Central City. — This part of the state is well supplied with Platte River sand as is shown by the following from F. A. Marsh, who -reports for Central City and Merrick County. “Perhaps a dozen sand pits are operated in Merrick County for local consumption only. The sand is used almost ex- clusively for building purposes. Mr. D. Y. Clark of this city is engaged in the manufacture of cement blocks and brick. Mr. W.F. Porter of Kearney also operates a plant of the same kind here. Most, if not all of the soil is underlaid with thick beds of sand. The depth of soil varies from zero to ten or twelve feet. There are large areas where sand suitable for building purposes may be easily obtained. So far as I know, but little of our sand has been used by the railroads. Very little sand has ever been shipped out of the county, and of course no one woidd think of shipping it in, considering our home supply.” Columbus. — There is shipment from this city to towns in the Loup Valley. The local supply is large. The coarse sand comes mostly from the Platte bed (Specimen 25) and the finer material, for plastering, from the Loup River. Schuyler. — About eight sand pits are in operation near this city. d'he cjuality of the sand and the conditions for ])ro- duction are about the same as at Columbus and Central City. The northern part of Colfax County ships its sand from Scribner and h'remont. Fremont. — During the past three years much sand has been shipped from near this city. d'he Great Northern dredges operated south of the river, and loaded thousands of yarcjs of 92 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 1, FREMONT ICE Co. DREDGE /^sa FIT 2^ C^^im R.R. 5MND PIT , 3, LYMPN DREDGE /ind PIT Fig, 34. Outline showing location of sand pits west of Fremont. river and alluvial sand for ballast and for surfacing the road bed. A few small ])its south and southwest of Freir.ont are producing. Their product is hauled to market with teams. There seems to be no good reason why Fremont should not become a leading sand-producing center, since the supply is practically limitless and the transportation faci'ities permit shipment in all directions. Fig. 35. Fremont Ice Company Dredge. PRODUCTION BY DISTRICTS Fig. 36. Lyman dredge west of Fremont. 94 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Fig. 37. Outline showing location of dredges at Valle}’. One of the oVlest pits in this vicinity is operated on the Northwestern railroad about four miles west of the city. The loading is done with hand shovel. The product is used loca'ly and for shipment. The opening, on a siding north of the mainline, is one-half mile long and is worked back 200 to 300 ft. (Figure 34). The depth of mining is limited by the water table. The Fremont Ice Company’s Sand Dredge is located on the Northwestern rai’road about two miles west of Fremont (Figure 35). Sand is loaded with a large clam dredge, the direction of working being westward. The opening at present is about 175 ft. wide, 600 ft. long and 40 ft. deep. From six to twelve cars of commercial sand (Specimen 26) are loaded dai’y, the product being shipped to Lincoln, Omaha, points in Iowa, and as far northwest as Norfolk. The sand is fine above the waterline, and becomes gradually coarser with depth. The Lyman Dredge (Figure 36) was moved during the past year from Cedar Creek to a point about 4^ miles west of PRODCCTION BY DISTRICTS 95 Fig. 38. Lyman Dredge, Valley 96 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Ono of tho Woodworth dre(]^es at Valley PRODUCTION BY DISTRICTS 97 Fremont. It is now operating on a spur of the Northwestern railroad and shipping very generally over that system to points in eastern Nebraska (Specimens27 and 28). Dredging at Valley. — Figure 37 shows the locations of the three dredges at this place. They operate on spurs of the Union Pacific railroad.^ The Lyman Dredge (Figure 38) has been in operation eight years, loading 6 to 12 cars of thirty to forty yards each a day The product (Specimen 29) goes to a number of towns and cities in Nebraska and Iowa. The shipment is over the Union Pacific. The clam dredge weighs 2800 pounds and the car- rier 800 pounds. The engine is sixteen horse power, and the boiler is 18 horse power. Some loading of fine surface sand, mainly for bedding cars, is done with scrapers and teams. Stripping is from i to 3^^ ft. thick. The dredging is extended to a maximum depth of 60 ft., but usually to only 40 or 50 ft. The third lake is now in process of excavation. It took three years to dredge out the second lake. One of these lakes is used as a source of water for thousands of sheep owned and fed by Hon. W. G. Whitmore. The production of this dredge is nearly all sold as com- mercial sand. It is used for plaster, concrete, engines, pavements, and for car bedding, and to some extent for ballast. All below twenty feet in depth averages coarse. The Woodworth Dredges, two in number (Figure 39), are on a main line spur of the Union Pacific, which connects also with the branch to Lincoln and Manhattan. The first one of these to be operated was installed about eight years ago; the other in 1906. When the writer last visited these dredges, eighteen sand cars, mostly loaded, were standing on the siding, d'he two dredges load from fifteen to twenty-five cars daily (Si)ecimens 30,31). The engines are fourteen and twenty horse i)ower. Dredge number one was operated every week of the year ’05 — ’06. The dredging is progressing westward. O-ne clam has saw-tooth edges for tearing up small roots and brush that occur on the surface of the sand. vSome trouble has been experienced here with a thin bed of clay twenty feet NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Fig. 40. Lyman Dredge on C. B. & Q. Railroad, east of Ashland. ^‘kODUCTION BY DISTRICTS 99 from the surface. Aside from this the conditions and the qual- ity of sand are about the same as at the Lyman dredging station nearby. Enough sand has been loaded by the Woodworth dredges to result in the formation of a pit and lake looo ft. long, 200 to 250 ft. wide and 40 to 50 ft. deep. Below 50 ft. is a second c’ay bed which it is difficult to penetrate. The surface stripping ranges from 2 to 4 ft. in thickness. There is a good demand for the sand at 7 cents to 15 cents a ton loaded. The shipment is to Nebraska, Iowa and Mis- souri. The quantity of sand subject to dredging in the vicinity of Valley is very large. The only difficulty will be to secure suitable dredging places near the town and railroad. The Ashland Dredge. — During the past spring, Mr. Lyman installed a large dredge on the Main Line of the Burlington railroad at a point just east of the Platte bridge. The spur and dredge ( Figure 40) are south of the railroad and the di- rection of working is westward. This is one of the most desirable locations for a dredge in the state and the quality of sand (Specimens 32-34 \ according to Mr. Lyman, is about the best. The production goes to Lincoln and Omaha for general purposes, and to the Burlington railroad for use in ballasting and surfacing track. The Meadow Dredges. — Meadow station, on the Rock Is- land and Missouri Pacific railroads, is one of the best known dredging places in Nebraska (Figure 41 ). Large quantities of sand have been dredged out in years past (Specimens 37 — 39). Two lakes lying just south of the station and extending for about half a mi’e along the Rock Island track, and three large lakes (Figure 42) three-quarters of a mile west of the station substantiate this statement. At the present time four ])’ants are in operation. The first of these was instal'ed about 12 years ago by Mr. Lyman. Formerly it was located on a Rock Island switch at the lakes west of the station and norlh of the rail- road. While dredging there the three lakes were formed. At 100 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Fig-. 41. Outline showing location of dredges and pits, Meadow present the dredge (Figure 43) is operating on a Rock Island switch east of the station where it was moved in August, 1904. This plant, though not large, is well equipped. The clam weighs 2500 pounds; the carrier 750 pounds; the engine is 16 horse power, and the tower is 30 ft. high. The dredge is operated ten hours a day for an average of nine months or more a Fig. 42. Large lakes produced by sand dredging^ at Meadow. Fig. 43. Lyman dredge on C. R. I. & P. R. R., Meadow 102 NEBRASKA GEOLOGTCAL SURVEY Fig. 44. Tho Large Lyman Dredge on the Missouri Pacific, Meadow. PRODUCTIO]^ BY biSTRldTS 103 Fig. 45. General View of the L^man Sand Pumping Station, Meadow. 164 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY year, producing 6 to lo cars a day. Three men are employed, an engineer, a loader, and a team man, whose duty it is to remove one to two feet of stripping and to attend to the loading. At present, after two years of operation, two acres of land have been dredged to a depth of 50 feet. The production has been shipped mostly over the Rock Island, going as far east as Des Moines and west beyond Lincoln. The sand is used in engines, for pavement, sidewalks, plaster, concrete and for track finishing. For a while the product of this dredge ran too fine for most purposes except for plastering and the surface of asphalt pavement. Recently, when the towers and cables were moved westward, the sand became coarse again. The largest clam dredge in the State (Figure 44) was in- stalled on a Missouri Pacific spur southwest of Meadow station by Mr. Lyman in June 1904. Its production is from eight to fifteen cars a day. The author has seen as many as eighteen loaded cars of sand on the spur at one time. Dredging at the time the photograph was taken, was progressing eastward and to a depth ranging from 40 to 60 ft. The surface opening was 200x700 ft. in size. Stripping varies from one to two feet in thickness. Small deposits of clay are encountered in the sand at some places. The sand is coarse at the lowest depths. Some effort is made here to load the different grades of sand (Specimen 37), according to fineness, when demanded. Much of the fine sand below the grass roots is loaded by scraper and team, operating over a trap, located to the east or in advance of dredging. The production of this dredge and plant is shipped over the Missouri Pacific, most of it going to Omaha and to points in Kansas and Missouri. It is used in street making, plaster, concrete, and as engine sand. Mr. Lyman began sand pumping (Figure 45) from the Platte in 1906. By this method a large quantity of sand can be loaded within a short time. At present a large basin above water level is being filled from which sand can be loaded with the dredge during the coldest weather. PRODUCTION BY DISRICTS 105 The Woodworth Dredge (Figure 46) has operated for two years on a Missouri Pacific spur, working eastward. The sand here seems to be coarser (Specimen 38) than that produced at most of the dredges and on that account it is in strong demand by certain contractors. The metliod of operation and the amount of output are about the same as at other similar p'ants. Fig. 4(5. The Woodworth Dredge, Meadow. The view shows how sand is deposited on the bank for winter loading. Louisville Dredges. — 'Phese are owned by Mr. Lyman and by the Platte River Sand Co. (Figure 47). Mr. Frank Rand, now foreman of the last named dredge and for several years in charge of the other plant has furnished the writer with in- formation concerning the operations at Louisville. The Frst dredge installed in this vicinity operated first below town; then northwest of the Burlington station, until it was moved to the present position, north of the station in May 1903 (Figure 21). Jt was owned first by Mr. Robettsoiij ^incl tjwn by the S, 106 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Atwood Company, before Mr. Lyman secured it. Dredging is now progressing eastward on the Burlington railroad’s spur. Sand is removed to a maximum depth of 70 ft. without striking bed rock. The opening at preseiic is 200x650 ft. surface area. The clam carries a yard or more of sand each trip, being nearly as large as that at the Lyman dredge across the river. A 25 horse-power boiler and a twenty horse-power engine are used. The double cabel is anchored to trees. Very little strip- ping IS done, due to the fact that the sand is mined from an abandoned bed of the river in which there is a thin layer of soil. Mr. Rand removed a large walnut log from twenty-five feet below the surface, and a large number of fossil bones from various depths in this pit. Eight to ten cars are loaded a day for shipment to Lincoln, Omaha, Council Bluffs, Glenwood, Creston, and elsewhere. The product goes to about 50 towns in Nebraska, Iowa and Missouri. Cars average forty tons each. This plant supplies much of the Burlington railroad engine sand and large cjuantities of commercial sand (Specimen 41 '. Fine surface sand, used mostly in pavements (Specimen .j2), is loaded with scraper and team. Contractors are now asking for more of this sand than can be produced. Recently the production of this dredge has been extended to the limit for the purpose of supplying surfacing and l^allast for the Milford cut-off line of the Burlington rai road between Lincoln and Billings. PRODUCTION BY DISTRICTS 107 Fig. 48. Platte River Sand Company Dred; 108 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY The Platte River Sand Company’s Dredge (Figure 48) was installed during the spring of 1907. It is located three-quarters of a mile west of Louisvihe, on a spur of the Burlington rail- road. The pit is between the railroad and river and in an open stretch of the flood plain. Dredging is progressing west- ward. The equipment is in good condition and the technology is as elsewhere at similar stations. Just now the production is very large, and the plant is in operation night and day, sup- plying city trade and surfacing sand for the rai’road. The nor- mal production is about 10 or 12 cars a day of ten hours work. Fig. 49. Outline showing location of sand production at Cedar Creek. yet as many as 24 cars are loaded during a day working two shifts. Cedar Creek Production. — The first shipment of sand from Cedar Creek began more than 20 years ago, when Mr, Hugh PllODUCTION BY DISTRICTS 109 ‘Murphy and Mr. A. H. Parmalee Maded with teams and scrap- ers. Mr. Murpliy operated about three-c|uarters of a mile be’ow the station loading- for three or four years with teams and later with a l)oat dredge (Figure 49'. This dredge con- veyed sand from the water to the cars, fi ling ten to forty cars a day when w^orking at full speed. By these methods, sand was removed to a depth of fifteen feet over an area of four or five acres. The boat dredge was used about 10 years, its product going mostly for street making in Omaha. Mr. Parma, ee’s mining was in the first pit east of the station. No loading was done from below the water line, hence only fine sand was produced. However, thousands of cars of this grade were shipped during the five years of production. The clam dredge owned by the S. H. Atwood Company, began work just north of the Burlington station, in 1888, and dredged westward. At first about 400 cars of fine sand were loaded with teams. The dredge (Figure 50), after forming a pit 175 ft. wide, 9 to 36 ft. deep and 80 rods long, was moved a few rods farther west, where it operated until 1907. Some loading of fine sand was done here aTo wdth scrapers and teams. The production of this pit, 6 to 10 cars a day, was shipped over the Burlington railroad to various points in Ne- braska and Iowa. No dredge in the State has produced more engine sand. Cedar Creek sand is about the same in quality as that at Louisville, Meadow, and Valley, except that it averages finer (Specimens 44 and 45). Oreapolis Production. — A dredge was installed one mile and a half east of Oreapolis station in 1905. Since that time its production has been intermittent with an average of 7 or cars a day when operating. One end of the double cable is anchored on a sandbar and the other over a tower whichi stands on the river bank. Dredging is from the Platte River bed, hence there is no stripping. The plant is owned by the D. G. Lyman Sand Co., and shipment is on the Burlingtoni railroad to points in Nebraska and Iowa. Recently a sand pump (Figure 51) was put in at this place 110 NE RASK \ GEOLOGICAL S^UKVEY 50. The S. II. Atwood Company Dredg-e, Cedar Creek PRODUCTION" BY DISTRICTS nr Fig. 51. Sand Pumping near Oreapolis and at times its production has been in excess of that of the dredge. However, we need not expect a large production from this station unless the plan of operation is changed, since the Platte bed is not a dependable source from which to either dredge or sand pump. Source of Platte Sand in General. — This sand has been and is derived from several sources. The prevalent notion that all of it has come from the Rocky Mountains is an error for a stud}^ of samples taken at Fremont, Valley, Louisville and Cedar Creek disproves the idea. W’e now know that a part of the sand of the lower Platte was derived locally from glacial, Dakota, and Pennsylvanian formations, whereas the Tertiary rocks are an important source in the central parts of the state. Nevertheless, it is a well known fact that the source of the larger part of this sand has been in the mountains. Quality of Platte Sand. — The colors are gray to mottled, light pink, depending upon the relative amounts of quartz and feldspar. The size of the particles decreases downstream and, .as a rule, increases with depth. Near the western end of the 112 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY State, small pebbles are a feature at the surface of the alluviuin^ Fine sand covers the surface along the lower Platte. The* feldspar content decreases downstream and increases with* depth or with size of grain. The highest percent of silica is in the fine sand. Coarse sands contain the most AI2 O3, K2 O^. Ca O, and Fe2 O3. This is due to the feldspar. A sample taken at Valley shows the following chemical: composition : Si O2 ^ 5-35 Fe2 O3 .56 AI2 O3 8.14 Ca 0 .68 Mg 0 .16 Na2 0 .01 K2 0 2.13 Undetermined 2.97 Total 100.00 One noticeable feature of Platte sand is that it is gradedh This condition reduces the voids to the minimum. The* physical properties of samples collected at different places- in the district are shown by tables at the end of the chapter.. Amount of Platte Sand . — Platte alluvium is sandy and thick,, consequently the quantity of sand in it is very large. In width the flood plain varies from one and a quarter to over fif- teen miles (Figure 10). Most ofvthe alluvium is covered with soil; but at a short distance below the surface fine to coarse- sand is found throughout most of the bottom land. The- thickness of the deposit is 50 to 100 feet in the lower Platte,, and with few exceptions probably 100 to 200 feet thick west of Valley. The quantity of sand in the valleys is not chang- ing much at this time. At places the river is building up its- bed by filling in more than it removes whereas at other places removal progresses more rapidly than deposition. Area of Platte Sand Subject to Development. — Not all of the Platte bottom will produce sand of commercial grade. Im PRODUCTION BY DISTRICTS 113^ 3nuch of the flood plain the sand is covered too thickly with soil to permit of ^pnofi.table -mini-ng; Small patches of dune sand constitute a veneer or covering at places. Part of the Ibroad stretch of bottom land between Fremont and Grand Is- land is occupied by a bench or terrace in which only the gravel 'beds can be worked and these probably without profit. No« •doubt there are places where the quality of sand is of such a low grade as to entirely preclude dredging or any other method of mining. However, we are sure that a very large quantity of' .•sand ground awaits future production. The matter of favorable docations is the largest factor at present and not “sand in sight,” •since only a very small fraction of the land subject to produc- tion is being worked. One very significant fact is that sand ■production is developing westward along the Platte parallelling the growth of industry in that part of the state. Commercial Movements of Platte Sand. — The sand finds a market in a number of cities : Omaha and Lincoln are the principal consumers of the shipped product. Cities and towns near the river are supplied without shipment. The dredges are located with respect to railroads and mar- kets. They are distributed on raih'oads as follows: Rock Island i; Missouri Pacific 2; Northwestern 2; Union Pacific 3; and the Burlington 4. The production is widely distributed 'Over these systems, for rai‘road, country, and municipal con- sumption. It goes w'estwuird on the Northwestern, Union Pacific, and the Burlington to north central, central, and the •.south central parts of Nebraska. It is carried by the Rock Is- land to Des Moines and intermediate ])oints. fi'he Burlington •ships over its main line to all towns along the route as far as ‘Creston, Iowa, and over the Keokuk and Western lyine to all towns as far east as Grand River, Iowa. Platte sand is used .'generally throughout southwestern Iowa where it is stored at most towns for local use. 'fhe shii)inent to Kansas and .Missouri is over lines of the Burlington and Missouri Pacific. That sand has become an iiu])ortant freight commodity is ♦evidenced by the fact that several cars, and sometimes whole lU NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY trains of it are seen in the freight yards at division points^ 'The amount of Platte sand shipped in comparison with the- total production of the state, is rapidly increasing. Bank Sand Along the Lower Platte. — At several localities- are pockets of fine light-colored sand intermixed with grades- of darker color. This sand lies below the loess and at places under the till. The light colored sand shows evidence of water deposition, while some of the other deposits evince their aeolian origin. Quite pure sand occurs one fourth mile west of the Rock Isand Station at Southbend (Specimen 43) and at the National Stone Company quarry, two miies northeast of Louisville. Perhaps neither of these pockets is large enough to warrant working, however, even if the strippings were not thick. Certain persons have thought that the pro^ duct might be used in glass making. Coarse bank sand and gravel of glacial and Cretaceous age is; mined at a number of pits which are described at another place in this report. Production in V/ahoo Valley. — A broad stretch of countr}r lying east of Wahoo and extending from between Morse Bluff and Cedar Bluffs on the north to a point a few miles northeast of Ashland is underlaid with sand and gravel suitable for build- ing purposes, but usually covered with loess to a depth of 20' feet or more. The sand is fine above (Specimen 46) and coarse below. Wahoo Creek has cut into this sand plain at places and at a few of these points pits are being operated. There are four or five such pits in the vicinity of Wahoo from which sand (Specimens 47, 48) is mined for local use and for shipment. The largest one of these (Figure 52) is in the east part of the city and probably 300 yards from the Union Pacific station. The opening, located on the vahey-side, is subcircu- lar in form, about 200 ft. across and worked to a maximum depth of about 30 ft. The sand and gravel extend north- westward along the slope, westward under the city and prob- ably under the valley to the east. In all they occupy a very large area in this part of the district. Apparently they form a PRODUCTION BY DISTRICTS 115 Fig-, 52 Sand and Gravel Pit, Wahoo NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Ilfi Fijy. ;),‘5. This view shows stt*atiti3d glacial sand in a railroad cut between Milford and Pleasant Dale PRODUCTION BY DISTRICTS 117 -well-defined gravel train which extends in a northwest-south- '€ast direction along an old glacial drainage way. Unfortun- ately, most of the gravel is deeply covered with fine sand, clay, and loess. But, notwithstanding this fact, there are a number 'Of places where pits might be opened. Production in Salt Creek Valley. — As a rule this part of the -district is thickly covered with clayey till, and the alluvium is not very arenaceous. An underlying sand plain, not well de- fined, is exposed at the heads of a few tributaries, as between Denton and Berks and south of Martel. Formerly, a large local and railroad sand supply was obtained from this source in pits located a few miles southwest of Denton. Of the five pits formerly worked here, on^y one is operated at this time, and its production is for local use. The production from other pits in the southern part of Lancaster county has not assumed more than local importance. Recently a fine building sand (Specimen 66) was exposed in a •deep railroad cut on the Burlington railroad, near the head of Middle Creek, l^etween Pleasant Dale and Milford (Figure 53). A thick covering of loess and till will preclude any possibility •of working this deposit economically. Friab’e Dakota sand stone outcrops at a number of places in the district (Specimens 50, 51). It is worked in a limited way for local use near Davey, Ceresco, and Prairie Home. Two pits about one and a half miles east of Prairie Home were also operated several years ago. GRAVEL IN THE DAKOTA FORMATION This occurs at several places aTng the Platte between South Bend and Cullom Station, but in three principal areas, one being located mi’e west of Cedar Creek, another 3)^ miles southeast of Richhekl and the third south of the Platte and about midway between Cedar Creek and Cullom. Formerly these deposits were thought to be of glacial age, ibut Fisher and Gould proved conclusively that they are a phase 118 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY J, WOODWORTH PIT 2. PRKINS-SPERRMRN 3, LOWER VAN COURT i-, UPPER VANCOURT y y-'yf I '/' ^ '£i, Fig-. 54. Outline showing the arrangement of gravel pits formerly worked southeast of Richfield. Fig. 55. View of the Upper Van Court Gravel Pit PRODUCTION BY DISTRICTS 11^ of the Dakota. The gravel bodies lie near the base of the Da- kota formation, rising 20 to 75 ft. in it at placs. The base of the Dakota in this part of the state rests in an old Pennsylvan- ian valley and on a very uneven surface, as has been shown. The lowest part of the old valley seems to nearly parallel the Platte. In it were laid down the coarse channel deposits now known as gravel and pebbT rock. The river which occupied this course •probably flowed westward. The old gravel train, when intact, extended from a point ten miles or more southeast of Richfleld,. to and beyond Cullom and Cedar Creek and thence westward between Meadow and Louisville. Erosion removed the gravel to the east and a'ong most of the val'ey, leaving only the rem- nants which we now see as gravel bodies. The western ter* minus of the gravel train has not been determined. Viewed in another way, we may say that the Platte, during its later history, has lowered its course in and through this gravel for several miles in length, leaving on'y a few of the old meander-fi \s and outliers of graveh Probably most of the accessi 1 :>T gravel has been located, yet systematic prospecting may reveal new locations. -That the gravel extends eastward from the area of production southeast of Richfieul is known, bul: the lack of transportation faci ities there makes production for railroad and city use impossible. Thick stripping is the greatest hindrance to production. Producticn South of Richiielcl. — Mining l)egan here about twenty years ago. fldie Spearman switch was run from near Springfield to the gravel deposits and a'large 'imestone cjuarry. Four large gravel pits were worked ; they are known as the Parkins and S])earman , Woodworth ,Up])er Van Court and the Lower Van Court ])its (Figure 54). Two factors have forced the abandonment of these workings: first, the stri])ping has become gradually thicker as work ex- tended into the slopes; and second, the long railroad s])ur has not been ke])t in good repair. The (juantity of unmined gravel seems large, but unfavorably located. 120 NEBRASKA. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY The Parkins and Spearman pit was abandoned several yearsr ago and the track leading to it removed. The production from this source was very large. The Upper Van Court pit (Figure 55) is located east of the north terminus of the switch. The opening is 200x300 ft. in size. The section shows 10 to 12 feet of gravel which is overlaid by 8 to 13 feet of sand and rusty sandstone, 6 to ■8 inches of glacial material and 10 to 15 ft. of loess-like subsoil. Both the gravel and sand were mined for shipment. Loading was by scraper and trap. The product was screened and used for roofing in Omaha, Lincoln. Nebraska City, and Piattsmouth. In all, the pit was ■operated 15 or 16 years. Fig-. 56. View in the lower Van Court Gravel Pit. PRODUCTION BY DISTRICT 121 The other pit, owned by Mr. Van Court, is southeast of this one and on the opposite side of the ravine. It is 200x250; ft in size of opening. The gravel and sand are 15 to 18 ft. in depth (Figure 56) and overlaid by a pebble rock 4 ft. thick. The pit when last worked produced about half sand and half gravel. Then 150 cars a year were shipped from the two pits. Loading here was by the same method as that employed at the upper pit. The Woodworth pit, formerly owned by Mr. Cooley, pro- duced 400 cars of gravel during its last year of operation. '‘ The gravel here seems to be a continuation of that mined at the lower Van Court pit. If so, the deposit extends through the hill between the two places. When first opened, the output of this pit was hauled to Springfield in wagons and there loaded for shipment. The opening when abandoned was 150x400 ft. in size. The gravel bed was 18 ft. thick and overlaid with 10 to 15 ft, of stripping. Here and there in the gravel were thin seams of fire cLy and pebble rock. The base of the pit is about SO ft. above the switch. The gravel lies on Pennsylvanian limestone and shale, the eroded surface of which rises some 30 ft. higher a short distance to the west. The gravel at the Woodworth i^it was loaded by wheel- scraper and a sluice way. It was screened and w^ashed for roofing, but loaded without cleaning when sold to railroads for concrete and ballast. The pit- run brought 55c. a yard and the best grade of roofing gravel about ^2.00 a yard. Work was closed here about one year ago after having continued 18 or 20 years. Following westward from the Woodworth ]iit one sees more limestone and gravel. The Pennsylvanian rocks outcrop as a nearly continuous escarpment to a point southwest of Rich- field, where the Rock Island Railroad strikes the bottom land. Between that jilace and a point one mile west of Meadow sta- tion is a less bold valloy-side in which occur Dakota clay, sandstone, and small bodies of gravel. The largest known de- ♦fc 122 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY One of the abandoned gravel pits located west of C'edar (h’eek PRODUCTION BY DISTRICTS 123 posit of gravel is at the Wm. Wade pit southwest of Richfield. This opening exposes about 5 ft. of clay, 12 ft. of sand and gravel and 10 ft. of stripping. It is north of the Rock Island track, but the gravel extends northeastward under the roadway. It is not known just how much sand and gravel of economic im- portance may be secured at this place. However, the condi- tions do not seem to warrant the expense of further prospecting since the product is of no better quality, than dredged sand. Cedar Creek Pits — About one mile west of the station are three abandoned pits (Figure 57), formerly worked by the 8. H. Atwood and Newell Company and just beyond these is a pit recently opened by the Omaha Gravel Company. The old pits lie along the bluff and to the south of the Burlington railroad. They were extensively worked some ten years ago, but operation ceased on account of heavy stripping. In the largest pit, farthest east, are exposed 15 to 30 ft. of grav- el (Specimen 64), coarse below and fine above. It is underlaid by conglomerate, the “peanut rock,” which extends down to about the level of the railroad track. This rock grades latterally into sansdstone. \bove the gravel is a covering of glacial and loess materials 15 to 35ft. thick at the face. The pit is elong- ate in form and about 175 yards in length. Pit number 2 lies just west of number 1 and near number 3. The opening is subcircular in ground plan, and about 90 yards across. Here about 25 ft. of gravel are exposed beneath a thick covering of till and loess. The third pit shows, in section at the face, 25 ft. of sand and gravel, 4 to 6 ft. of glacial material and 7 ft. of loess. Below the gravel is a ledge of Dakota conglomerate and sandstone which rises 12 to 15 ft. above the the railroad spur. These pits have supplied a very large amount of Nebraska’s roofing gravel. The usual methods of bank-pit mining were employed. The loading was with team and scraper. The product was cleaned and sized in revolving screens. A large supply of gravel remains in the banks at these places, but it cannot be profitably worked under present conditions. 124 NEBRASKA GEOLCXilCAL SURVEY View of the Omaha Gravel C'ompany plant taken when operation beg-an. The gravel was sluiced to a small bin and then run by gravity into wagons. PRODUCTION BY DISTRICTS 125 For a number of years it was thought that there were no other places where new pits might be opened with profit in this vicinity, but during th3 past year the Omaha Gravel Company exposed a large body of sand and gravel a short distance from the abandoned pit No. 3. Professor Wm. G. Bishop, of the Nebraska Wesleyan University describes this plant and production as follows: Omaha Gravel Company Pit — This is located just west of the Atwood, Newell Company pits. It is semi-circular in form, about one hundred eighty feet in length, and when the writer visited it early in October, had been worked back in the center to a depth^ of forty feet. The gravel will average about forty feet in thickness, and is overlaid by four feet of stripping com- posed of glacial and loess deposits. The stripping gradually increases in' thickness toward the south, but less rapidly than at most points along the bluffs. Just below the stripping and lying on the' gravel is a ledge of conglomerate, averaging one foot in thickness. This rock is broken by means of picks and removed by scrapers to a nearby dump. The gravel is loose enough to be removed with scrapers without plowing. When the pit was first opened, its product was dumped from scrapers into a trap (Pig. 58), washing through a long sluice to a screen where the gravel and sand were separated, the gravel dropping into a bin conveniently lo- cated for loading and the sand conveyed to a dump beyond. The gravel of this bin was loaded into wagons and hauled three-fourths of a mile to the Atwood-Newell switch. During the past summer the Burlington railroad built a spur to the west side of the pit. This track, runs along the foot of the bluffs and is about sixteen feet below the floor of the pit. A slight change in the method of conveying the gravel and sand from the pit to cars was then made (Figure 59). The gravel is now dumped into the trap from which it is elevated sixteen feet by a cup conveyor to a board sluice, at the head of which several streams of water are running from pipes above. The volume of water is sufficient to carry the gravel rapidly along luice to a point just above the car, where smaller streams 126 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Fi^. 59. Omaha Gravel Company’s Plant, Cedar Creek t»RODtrCTl6N BY blSTRlCTS 1^7 of water play on the gravel as it passes over a screen. Here the gravel and sand are separated ; the former, being thoroughly washed, is dropped into a chute leading to a car below, and the sand and water pass through a chute to a car beyond. This method of loading economizes time and labor. The water used in the sluice way is obtained from the alluvial sands and gravels. It is lifted by a gasoline engine and a duplex pump. From them a large water main is run across the side track where it is connected with sixteen points, placed about five feet apart and extending into the ground to a depth- of twenty-two feet. The pump draws the water from these points into the main at the rate of five hundred gallons per minute and forces it from the main through smaller- pipes lead- ing to the sluice. A working force of ten men and three teams is employed at this pit. Some of the employes live with their families in tents and shacks located near by. The capacity of the plant is five cars daily. The gravel is shipped to Omaha, Lincoln, and Iowa points where it is used tor roofing and concrete work. The sand (Specimen 53) is used for plastering and engine purposes.” The Cullom Gravel Pit. — This (Fig. 60) is located south of the Burlington railroad and about midway between the Cedar Creek and Cullom stations. It is worked now for the third time, having been abandoned twice. Mr. Hedges, the present operator, has installed an engine and other equipment neces- sary for hydraulic working. The gravel is coarse, round, and dirty (Specimen 54), but in reality it is cleaned during the process of mining and thus it becomes a desirable product for roofing, driveways, and platforms. The production during the past year has reached 15 cars a week. The opening is a double pit; one part of it 90x200 ft. and the other 270x420 ft. in area. An average section here shows : Soil, loess and till Sandstone Gravel Sand o to 15 ft. 10 to 25 ft. 20 to 25 ft. 3 to 5 ft. Limestone and shale, exposed 6 to 8 ft. Fig. 60. Cullom Gravel Pit. Photo by E. G. Woodruff PRODUCTION BY DISTRICTS 129 Fig. 61, Section of Cullom Gravel Pit The section varies much, depending on the place where it is taken. The gravel stands as a nearly vertical, massive front (Fig. 6i). The cap of sandstone makes hydraulic working by tunneling possible. Though not entirely free from danger to the workmen the gravel is washed from the tunnels by hydraulic methods and is then carried through sluice ways to the cars. It is probable that a large amount of gravel may yet be removed from this place by the method now employed. THE NEMAHA DISTRICT. Alluvium along the Big Nemaha is clayey, consequently ^ts supply of sand is small. Probably the production from this source is confined to 15 or 20 small pits and openings along the valley bottom. The source of the local supply in the district is the bank pits in which glacial deposits are worked. Most of the pits are small, yet two or three of them have supplied sand for shipment. Johnson County has a number of small pits near Sterling, Tecumseh (Specimens 55, 56), and Elk Creek (Specimen 57). Very little sand is shipped into this county. 130 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Fijr. (52. Sand Pit near Salem PRODUDTION BY DISTRICTS 131 In Pawnee County the larf/est production is from openings near Pawnee City. The pro-duct here is dirty and discolored (Specimen 6o), but better suited for the usual purposes than is generally supposed. Several sand pits are operated near Table Rock (Specimens 58, 59). One of them may become a source of railroad supply if the quantity proves sufficient. Most of Richardson County’s production is at Salem (Figure 62) and Falls City. The largest pits at Salem are about one mile north of the station. Formerly the Burlington rail- road shipped from this source (Specimen 61). Hon. R. E. Grinstead has supplied the survey with samples from the place. The Wagner and Bramm pits supply Falls City with about 600 wagon loads a year. They are south of the river and two miles from the city. There are small productions one mile west of Humboldt, one mile north of Verdon, and at Dawson. Platte sand is increasing in shipment to this district. Falls City and Humboldt are its largest consumers. THE BIG BLUE DISTRICT. There are two pricipal sources of sand in this district, the glacio-fluvial sand plain and the alluvium of trunk and tribu- tary valleys. Most of the right hand tributaries of the river head in the Loess Plains. They have deepened their courses in the loess and underlying sand, exposing the latter along the valley-sides. Nearly all these small streams carry sand during their flood stages, dropping the load along their beds, making sand deposits which are a noticeable feature especially between Crete and DeWitt. The alluvium of the trunk Hream varies in the quantity of its sand content, being at some places clayey, and at others very arenaceous. There is some production from this source at Crete, Beatrice, and Wymore. Except at the points named most of the output of the district comes from the sand plain extending from near Ulysses and York southward across the district following down the main valley and into and out of the tributary valleys. This sand plain where exposed lies below the loess and is better defined in the west part of the 132 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY basin than on the east. There are many bank pits in this district. At Ulysses there has been considerable production for several years. The sand is clean, angular, and coarse. It is mined for local use and for shipment. The principal pit is i% miles southeast of the town. There are other openings in this vicinity and the production is limited only by the demand. York has four or five bank pits at the edge of the city. They are the source of the larger part of the local supply (Specimens 63, 64), the rest coming from the Platte dredges. Milford has a number of small pits, at least two of which produce some of our best concrete sand (Specimen 65). It is in these deposits that gold was found to exist in small quantities. In the valley northeast of Sutton are four or five openings from which the city receives an adequate supply of fine to coarse sand (Specimen 67). The sand beds extend under Sutton where they are reached in wells. Professor G. A. Gregory describes the production at Crete as follows : ‘‘The sand pit at the edge of Crete, south of town, is owned by S. R. Foss. It furnishes the bu'k of the material (Specimens 68,69) ^^r sidewalks and cement blocks in the city. About 1700 yards have been used during the past two years from 40 square rods, and the bottom of the deposit has not been reached at a depth of 10 feet. The product is worth 90c. a yard on the market in Crete.” Small pits are worked in Turkey Creek valley. Milligan’s sand supply is secured from an opening three miles northwest- of the town. Sand is exposed nearly continuously from Whlber (Specimen 69) to DeAVitt (Specimens 71,72), the best showing the largest quantity being two miles northwest of DeAVitt (Figure 16). The Burlington has obtained thousands of tons of coarse sand from near AAYstern. At Beatrice, some four pits supply the trade (Specimens 73, 74). They are located both on the bottom land and on the upland, within a radius of two miles from the city. The largest production near AVymore is from the Markle^ PRODUCTION BY DISTRICTS 133 Huston pit on bottom land one mile and a half east of the city. This pit supplies a good quality of sand (Specimen 76), and the owners are planning to ship the output. THE LITTLE BLUE DISTRICT. Except the Platte district, this has the largest production in the state. The structural conditions here are similar to those of the Big Blue Valley. However, the flood plain is more sandy and hence the alluvial sands have greater importance. The source of these river sands is mostly in the glacio-fluvial sand plain and in the smaller part in the Dakota formation. Bank sands and river sands resemble each other in physical proper- ties. In fact there are places, as at Fairbury, where it is diffi- cult to distinguish between them. In the vicinity of Brickton, some seven miles south of Hast- ings, large pits operate for shipment to Hastings and elsewhere. The production is on the Burlington raih'oad and near a small tributary of the LitFe Blue River. The stream has removed The Campbell Sand Pit near Brickton, Barbour Fig. 63. Photo by Professior F. H. 134 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY much of the loess covering at this place, reducing the stripping to a thickness of 5 to 10 ft. The loading is with scrapers and bucket-chain conveyors ( Fig. 63). The product of one of the largest pits is cleaned and sized in revolving screens as is shown by the figure. The sand of these pits is mottled pink in color, coarse, and quite clean (Specimen 78). The output and ship- ment is large. Many pits are operated along the upper tributaries of the Little Blue \"alley. Some sand has been shipped over the North WTstern from near Davenport and on the Burlington from Ayr. Production at Hebron. — The river sand here is coarse and plentifully exposed near the city (Specimen 79), The glacio- fluvial sand plain outcrops below the loess along the left slope of the valley below Hebron. Professor J. R. Fulk reports thus: “The Samuel White pit just east of the city is an important sand producer. The sand owned by Mr. White covers 70 acres to a depth ranging from 12 to 40 feet. It is mined in the usual way and supplied to Hebron and to the Rock Island railroad. Recently over 200 cars of this sand were shipped to Kansas and used for concrete construction by the Rock Island.'’ There are many small pits in Thayer County producing a variety of grades of sand, most of which are supplied to the local trade. In the Vicinity of Fairbury. — Here occur large areas of sand and fine gravel (Figure 64). Along Big Sandy Creek near Alexandria is a thick bed of coarse sand well suited for use in plastering and for the manufacture of artificial stone. The largest area of this lies near the mill south of the stream. At Powell and extending northward along the creek and railroad for three or four miles are small patches of gravel. All of Fairbury is underlaid with a coarse sand deposit which averages about 100 ft. in thickness. The sand is stratified, containing beds which vary from fine to coarse in texture and from gray to mottled flesh and iron yellow in color. At most places the upper part of the deposit is medium coarse, dry, and stained PRODUCTION BY DISTRICTS 135 with iron. Glacial bowlders, mostly Sioux quartzite and gran- ite, are embedded in the sand at all levels. Small bodies of bowlder clay are likewise found in the upper beds. The sand in the valley sides lies between the 1320 and 1400 ft. contours. It rests on the uneven surface of the Dakota formation and is overlaid, where not exposed, by bowlder clay and loess. On account of the uneven bed rock here it is not always an easy matter for one to determine the quantity of sand that may Fig. 64. Outline showing distribution of sand and gravel in the vicinity of Fairbury NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Fig. G5. Rock Island Sand and Gravel Pit PRODUCTION BY DISTRICTS ni be mined in a given area, at least from a surface examination. The logs of wells show that the deposit is thick and continuous at places.. The sands are thinnest where the bed rock is nearest the surface and thickest where it is deepest. This fact should be kept constantly in mind by persons who expect to locate a place for working. Since the Dakota is exposed here and there in the region, it is possibT for the geologist to trace its outcrops and at the same time determine the limits of the sand deposit. Figure 64 shows the distribution of the sand as it is exposed in the valley-sides. A favorable feature of the conditions at Fairbury is that the sand is high enough above the railroads to permit washing, screening and loading while moving it with gravity. The con- ditions here seem to warrant more extensive working. The sand should be screened for the trade in such a way as to supply several uses. There is wide enough range in the size of grains to produce all grades from fine sand to coarse gravel. One drawback to this mining is the fact that the product must compete with Platte sand on the Lincoln market and with the Hebron and Brickton sand on the Hastings market. The fact that only the beds which contain the finer sand have been opened up in certain cases has hurt the trade. One of the largest peaces of production in this district is on the Nelson branch of the Rock Island, three miles northwest of the city (Fig. 65). Many thousand yards of sand (Speci- mens 81,86) have been shipped form this place. The pit lies south of the railroad and has two openings, the largest being about 260 ft. long. It is worked back about 120 ft. d'he smaller pit is about one third the size of the larger. The stripping of soil and loess varies from i to 10 ft. in thickness. About 20 to 25 ft. of sand and gravel are ex])osed where the work- ing face is highest. The sands are light to rusty in color, plainly stratified and cross bedded. They are parted at places by thin seams of clays, 'fhe output ranges, in size of grain, from plastering sand to medium coarse gravel. Production has fallen off during the past few years because of an increase 138 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY in the stripping and because of the finding of more suitable sands for railroad purposes at other places. Most of the sand used at Fairbury comes from pits just northeast of the city (Specimens 82, 84). In many cases the local supply is obtained from excavations for cellars and foun- dations. A part of it comes from the river (Specimen 46). The shipment from small local pits is of little importance; the product goes mostly to Lincoln where its market price is a little higher than that of the Platte sand. A pit one mile west of the Burlington station at Kesterson was operated for many years for railroad use (Specimens 85, 86). The main opening is about 200 yards long and is worked back a distance of from 50 to loo ft. A mantle of loess, grad- ually increasing in thickness in the hill, is the principal cause for the decrease in output. Loading here formerly was by team and scraper. It is now by hand shovel . There is a sand pit about midway between Endicott and Steele, from which the product is loaded over a trap and shipped on the St. Joe and Grand Island railroad. The sand here is of glacial origin and overlies brick clay. Both products are mined and marketed. THE REPUBLICAN DISTRICT. Sand production here comes from the Ogalalla formation, the glacio-fluvial sand plain and from the alluvium. Further research may show that at least a part of the sand plain is of Pliocene age. The Republican river alluvium is sandy, and fine to coarse in texture. It is separated in some places by clay into upper and lower parts. The thickness of the alluvium in the trunk valley ranges from 10 to 50 ft., averaging about 25 ft. The width of the flood plain is one to two miles, including the low teraces. The gravelly base of the alluvium extends under the terraces. There is no marked difference in the fineness of surface sand from west to east as is the case with the Platte. Bar sand usually is grayish to pinkish in color. It is composed princi- Production by districts 159 pally of quartz and feldspar. ‘ Most of the tributary streams have sandy beds. Sand draws in Dundy county may be taken as an example of these for the western part of the district and a sand-strewn ravine near Amboy for the example to the east. In many cases the sand wash in these tributary valleys is clean and coarse grained. At such places it is well suited for building purposes. The Ogalalla formation is not an important source of pro- duction. However, its coarse materials may be used more generally when the country in which they occur is further de- veloped. While river sands are mined to some extent in each county their relative importance is greatest in the western part of the district. Throughout the Republican Valley the bank sand is used for concrete construction and the river sand for plaster. The sand supply in Dundy county comes from sand draws (Specimen 90) and from the river bed (Specimen 89). In Chase County, the Ogalalla formation is the principal source. Formerly sand and gravel of this age were mined in pits located about two miles west of Wauneta and used for ballast on the Burlington railroad. Mr. James O’Connell, County Superintendent of Hitchcock County, describes the deposits in the vicinity of Trenton thus: “There is a large sand bank one mile east of town and another three-quarters of a mile to the northwest. The deposit at each place overlies the Pierre shale. It varies from ten to fifty feet in thickness and underlies much of the upland in the country, outcropping along the valleys. It consists usually of fine sand on top, grading to coarse gravel at the base. A distinct bed of dry coarse gravel, ten to twenty feet thick, is exposed above the Pierre shale, on the south side of the river.” There are several small j)its in Red Willow County. McCook uses river and bank sands (Specimen 92). Two large pits, one northeast of the city and located in Furnas County (Figure 18) and the other northwest of the city and in Red Willow County, su])ply the larger part of the market at Cambridge (Specimen 93). 140 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY A bank pit about three miles east of Arapahoe has been worked for over 25 years (Specimen 94). ^^ hen first opened it furnished much of the sand supply of Furnas County. The product is coarse and clean. Recently, pits have been opened nearer the city. River sand is used here for plastering (Speci- men 95). Oxford obtains bank sand from both sides of the Republican Valley and a part of its supply from the river bed (Specimen 97). A coarse sand was recently found at a point four miles east of Oxford { Specimen 97). It is to be worked for local use. Professor J. C. Jensen furnishes the accompanying descrip- tion of the sands near Beaver City, Furnas County. — “There is an abundance of sand in this locality, most of it being found in banks. A bank pit southwest of the city affords most of the local supply (Specimen 98). It is owned by Mr. Carter who sel s the product at 25c. a load at the pit. The sand bed is five feet thick and probably extends for a long distance into the hill side. Stripping is ten feet thick. There are other sand workings in this vicinity but none of them produce gravel. Other towns in the county have sand supplies similar to ours.“ There are two sand pits near Orleans, three near Alma, and two at Republican. Superintendent Ed. IM. Short of Bloomington gives the lo- cations of fourteen pits in Franklin County which supply the town and country demands. They are mostly north of the river and at the edge of the upland. The sand lies beneath the loess. One of the pits is in Bloomington and three or four of them are from two to three miles north of Franklin. Red Cloud secures a coarse sand from bank pits north of the city (Specimen 100 ). The river sand here, as at Franklin, is too fine for use except as a filler and for plaster (Specimen 99I. Superior obtains her coarse sand for 50 c. a load from a pit about 2 miles northwest of the city, and fine plastering sand from the river. Several small gravel areas occur four miles northeast of the city. PRODUCTION BY DISTRICTS 141 THE WHITE RIVER DISTRICT. Production in ^this part of the state is largely a matter of the future, except at Chadron and Crawford. The district is only sparsely settled, consequently the demand is very small. Gravel deposits in the White River and Loup Fork beds can be utilized when needed, but as yet they have hardly become a resource. Two sand pits are worked on the Northwestern railroad about one mile west of Chadron. The product is used mostly for bedding stock cars. SAND SIFTING. TABLE 1. SAND SIFTING, TABLE 2. PRODUCTION BY DISTRICTS 143 5ll) 'a 0> (U C a ■j] a D3 ^ j in 'O o a 'S ^ o 5 0 C 03 6 d^ ai o O O' O 'O O o O -ti o CD O CO CM O o r-H CM O O O '-h (03 (M 1-H GO CD O CM O O' lO O CM 00 T— ( T— I 2| OiD'0OOOOOO'0OOOOi0»0OlDiDO )D oi GO --h T--H CO LCC O [d t-h r-^ )CC T--^ ^ 1-H CD O ^ »-D T-( 01 1— i CM 01 CM -H T— 1 01 ^ —H r-< o CVJ ID O O O O O O O lO O O O 'O O’ )D 'O O lO O cci )D -F ID Ci ^ X CO o' X CO cc5 I- X ID »Q O CO O o rs 13.0 15.0 16.8 10.0 14.0 16f 14.0 17.0 11.0 12.0 8.0 10.5 20.0 9.5 13.5 10.0 17.0 19.0 11.0 18.0 o ' ID« O O O 'O O O O' 'O O O O 'O tO O 'O -^1-H O O o 1 - I- X oi oI ID x’ CO oi r-^ o oi o 3? o gm' i- 1© »n »D ID O O o o ID O O O O O' 'O O' O’ O O <0 'O -O CX )fj ID CO ICC CD* -T O ^ »ccj CD O GO o' ID id' X X* ,-H ^ ^ ^ ^ /;v-| ,.;sj rM ^ 1 T-( o © ICC iD O 'O ICC ID O 'O O O 03 O O O O O iD 'O 'O O’ ID CO --f ci ID t-H d’i CO ID X d 1 CD iD iD 1 iD O O O iD ID O ID O O’ O 'O O O 'O O O' iD O iD oi CD ICC ^ id CO* ICC d1 1-h d1 d1 o' CO G^i rd id o ‘\ 1 OI o I—* t-H o » ID O D> ID ID iD ID ID O O' iD iD ’O iD O O O iD O 'O' ^ rd dI T-d o CD d 1 T-i oi d 1 CO rH o’ ID id ^ o CO 1 —’ o © 1 ID iD O ID o ID iD O O O O O ID O 'O iD iD iCC O 1 — (Ot— ti— irH ’!ot— !' r-(i— (cciol o CO X *■ . o oi T— I 1 o o 1 001 ID O O O iD ID O iD O ID iD O iD O iD O ID O O iD o I T-d CO -h ! rd CO o i cm' I d X rd -d I d o o i-i x' T-d CO — ' CM a MOj - 7} Jh O S-i 'X ^ Ld ci cu ^ O 'rH :^ OPlh -i-i ■ ■ ■ |0 o p-J M s O I- *■ ^ Dl s 53 I § D ^ ^ c o P3 o o Q S CU 'd I— I 1-H X r< d O ^ O I— I 'D -H o I CO Ol Ol Ol I - CO O O ^ 01 CO -H )D OIOIOICOCOCOCOCOCO CD X CO CO CO o o CO -T 144 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY UJ CQ < H d z H Q Z < c/l y y o> bl c s bi 'O ■£ bi >) C y •_2 0 £ 5 £ 32 c3 u :3 'w bt y •5 X X p 1 c 6 1 £ >. c d < X i i li .3 4 ^ as y z ! < >. y c 5 z: a . u X X 1 q; c >- c c ^ £ d c: 5? 3 d c s y 3 £ u Z w :>c *Sm X y: z y JI! 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Z — — — ^ rc 71 cc (D > ; 03 !o V5 id Z- -f M 'di -h X v: iZ lO cm’ 1- 9 9 lO id 9 Zc C/5 rc TC — U" 'M -f 9 9 h: c '© © 1 0 X — iO I- id d'i 9 Cdl CM X iZ t/5 'M v: •M — cc 0 M rc — CO rc3 O' 0 v: 3 0 iZ i~ iD -3 X CL '© r> it: — ■ id CM rc -d X 71 cm' -t 0 ; cm’ -4 — ' '^. — 71 i ' ^ o »r: iZ 0 iO \Z 0 lO lZ lO CD CD lO lO 77 CD j 1 w 'di -h CM — cc 0 — -f- CM - — ' — ' - ^ ' 1 »::t lO i" 0 lO lO 0 — ' CD i I © I© — — d'l 'M - ~t — - 0 iO - — 1 — lO iD 9 9 0 CM X 1 1 I© 'M — iZ — CdJ dC cdi 71 0 dd 0^ c 3 :; _ ^ 4^: 44 ; 1 — . — Q CL- CL> 0 • > i — _ L« • • • • •— y: X 9 > > > O CD C c ‘> zz 43 D 1 y X y: z 2 2 ? ? 0 x b c 2 D 0 ~z 5 — DD 0 z 0 — < D S 1 i_] w '' s-/ r-^ i £ i 5^ S CM rc -f iG LD X cr: 0 'Tl crc -t- ID 0 X © -r -r -r U" 'T iO ir: lTI iZ iD 1-. iZ SAND SIFTING, TABLE 4. PRODUCTION BY DISTRICTS GENERAL Bank glacial sand. Pit north of town Wagoner pit Fine bank sand Coarse bank sand Swesay pit, 1 mile south of town From C.B & Q. cut 3^4 east of Milford Glacio-fluvial sand Fine sand of Foss pit Coarse sand, Foss pit Ferguson pit Fred Donovan pit Pit 4 miles west of town H. A. Bales pit, sand from Dakota Form. Bozart pit Coarse bank sand Markle-Huston pit Moulding sand Glacio-fluvial sand Coarse gravel sand, pit east of city Fine sand. Rock Island pit W eight per Cu. Ft. O xi-t 1 - lO o lO o rH col-H (M o O O ir. X' Oi QO GO L'- lO CO CO CO CO CO -r-l CM ■rH 00 O lO CO ui CO ^ 00 oi CO rH 'oi -t ci lo o co" tL 00 t-h o oi 1 -H Ci O t-H t— ( Oc 1 — 1 O 1 ' O oc O oc O oc CO rH 1 -H 1 — I t-H 1—1 1— H 1-H 1— ( 1—1 1—1 1— < 1— < 1—1 1— H 1—1 1— 1 Voids O lO o O lO O lO lO O O ^ ^ CO CO O CO O X o o lO CM CO 'Ti -TI CO -h (M irc CC (M (M CO O X O CO ICC — ^ ^ cd OC oi o CM id oi cd cd cd cm* go -h cm* cd oi cd cm* CO-rtlCOOlCO^COCOCOCO'^CO-TCO-TCO-TCOCOCO Retained on Sieve No. 10 cDioircircioircxooooo oo ooo cdcdcdcMoccdcdcM*occdtLid cdicc -i^ocd T-l CO CO 1— li— ICO COM 1— (COi-i Passing- Sieve No. O O »rc »rc o O O t-h o O O O O lO O O icc lO o -d oi T-H o 00 1-3 00 tL cd 1 -H cd (Oi cd o cci cd t- 3 id cd —1 CM M 1— 1 CM OI CO CO 1— 1 Ol Ol Ol CM ^ 1 0^ 1 I.O o O O O 1-0 O O O O O lO O O O 1.0 O CO o i-d —3 oi 1-3 oi cd X* -|3 CM -d id oc cd cd cd cd — 1 CO ^ Ol OJ — < Ol M CO CO 01^01 Ol Ol OJ 1 oc 1 1.0 CO CO O O CO O O O O O CO O O O' O CO »0 CO' -d cd cd cd id 00 GO 00 td oi td cd cd ^ oi t- 3 id oi ^d ^ Ol 1 -H 1 -H -rHi— CM O 1 CO O O cr: CO O -T 'O O CO O CO O CO' O' lO O' O CO -O oi GO oi td cd 1-3 -d id oi -j3 cd 1-3 r-3 cd ■r-3 td (d -h :d 1—1 Ol Ol 1—1 — ' 1-H 1—1 1-H — © in O lO O O O O 'O O 'O CO O O' O 'O' O O O 'O — ICC -h ^ o id id ^* id 1-3 id ^ oi id cd M 1-3 cd cd id cd X* o 1-3 -d 1-3 cd 1 -H oi cd id 'd ^ -d o i cd oi Ol ic^ o! O i.O O O lO 1£0 Ol O O 00 ICO lO O O lO w O O u. cd oi ^ cd 00 1-3 oi 1-3 o*' cd 1 -H cd id d t- 3 -d 1-3 d oi o Ol 80 O' lO O ICO ICO O' o o ICO iCO ICO ICO O O iCO O' X CO ICO 1-3 ^ d 1-3 -d 1-3 1-3 d d d d 'd 1-3 d cd d d d o 06 ICO o iCO .CO ICO ICO ICO O ICO ICO iCO O ICO ICO 'O — h Ol I'-O d Ol d d 1-3 tL d 1 -H d d d i-3 1-3 d cd d d d 1 001 ; O O' ICO ICO O iCO Ol O O O' ICO O O ^ ^ F- Ol 1 1-3 1-3 d d d d 1-3 oi 1 -H 1-3 1-3 1-3 d i-3 d d d 1 X Locality j Salem . . . . ' Palls Pity York York Milford . . Milford . . Sutton.. . . Crete .... Crete . . . Wilber ... DeWitt. . . DeAVitt. . . Beatrice. . Beatrice. . BlueS’rgs W'ymore. . ' Wymore. . Bricktoii.. Hebron. . . Pairbury . Spec - men No. ' 1-H Ol CO -F ICO "O I- X O O — 1 Ol CO -h ICO CD I- X CO O' CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD L- L- I'- 1- I- I- 1- 1- 1- X 146 NEBRASKA GEOLOGIDAL SURVEY lr^ UJ OQ < H O z H Q Z < CD a ^ c? s 'a -s d :c ^ & F o ^ o ^ S 0) 4^ S 5 E Z ^ ^ a s J 'O 3 « 3 9-. 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X 00 >3 • 2 -h C U-r= > P h 2 o 3 o -r ® 3C — f" »r; X X X X X r: C -ri :rc X X C3 c; c: :r. t- X USES OP SAND AND GRAVEL 147 CHAPTER IV. USES OF SAND AND GRAVEL. The following' outline shows some of the leading uses of sand and gravel in Nebraska and adjacent states. I. IN CONSTRUCTION. A. Mortar and concrete. 1. Plaster and masonry. 2. Culverts, abutments, and bridges. 3. Piers. 4. Dams. 5. Irrigation ditclies. 6. Water pipes. 7. Tanks and reservoirs. 8. Sewers. 9. Subways and tunnels. 10. Monolithic foundations and walls. 11. Monolithic houses. . 12. Artificial stone. 13. Sand-cement brick. 14. Fence posts. 15. Sidewalks. 16. Pavements. 17. Curbs and gutters. P). Roofing. C. Street and road making (not concrete). D. Ballast and surfacing railroad beds. K. Sand-lime brick. II. ENGINE SAND. III. BEDDING SAND. IV. MOLDING SAND. : V. GLASS SAND. 148 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY VI. MINOR USES: A. Sanding walks. B. Sanding wood. C. AVood working. D. Fire and furnace sand. E. Filtration and sanitation. F. In the poultry yard. It should be apparent, from the above outline, that a full discussion of the sand and gravel industries cannot- be given in this chapter. The various sand-working industries are as- suming such importance as to require special reports from the survey. This chapter will serve only as an introduction to subjects a few of which are to be treated in subsequent bulletins. MORTAR AND CONCRETE. These materials though differing in their typical forms are not distinguishable at times. Alortar is an intimate hydrated mixture of sand and lime or of sand and cement. Concrete is cement mortar to which is added an intimate mixture of crushed stone, or other coarse ‘Aggregate.’’ Graded gravel when used in such a combination forms a product which is on the border line between cement mortar and concrete. Its particles are the fine and coarse aggregate. Time and cement are used for the purpose of binding the aggregates into a mass which becomes firm by “setting” or hardening. Lime mortar sets in the air, whereas cement mortaTs set in water, hence the latter are said to be “hydraulic.” Concrete is made in two general forms — plain and reinforced. The quantity of sand and coarse aggregate required for a structure of given strength is decreased by reinforcement. The very general use of sand and gravel in concrete is due largely to the great importance of Portland cement which makes the use of these materials possible, especially so in construction below ground and under water. Historical. — Alortar and concrete construction have been in vogue for many centuries, antedating the Christian era. No USES OF SAND AND GRAVEL 149 one seems to know just when and where they first came into use. The Romans made concrete as early as 175 B. C. They manufactured a natural cement from volcanic materials near Pozzuoli. A surviving and well known example of their early construction is the dome of the Pantheon which was erected at the beginning of the Christian era. It has a diameter of 142 feet and is heavy concrete supported on walls made of concrete and brick. The concrete industry has assumed importance in practically all countries. Its rapid development within recent years re- sulted very largely from the discovery and extensive manufac- ture and use of Portland cement. The use of cement mortar in concrete construction dates back only a few years in the United States, beginning about 1820, and rapidly expanding since 1880 when Portland cement began to assume importance. This method of construction is so recent that we have not fully developed the necessary standards for judging either the materials or the construction. Mortar Sands — The specifications for mortar sand vary greatly in different cities, but the differences seem to be due in part to the fact that the mortar is used for various purposes , and under different conditions. Numerous experiments have been tried by engineers to prove the value of the various quali- ties and kinds of sand. As a result of these investigations the essential features of mortar sands are now quite well known. A summary of conclusions is as follows : 1. Fine sand requires more cement than coarse sand to, produce a given strength of mortar. 2. Graded sands are more economical, since they have the least voids and require the minimum of cement or lime. 3. As a rule, a high degree of angularity and sharpness is desired if great strength is essential, but this condition gives more void space and hence requires the maximum quantity of lime or cement. 4. Coarse sand makes the strongest mortar, if its voids are completely filled. 150 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 5- Sand containing organic matter is not well suited for mortar making. 6. The strongest mortar is made from sands that pass the 20-mesh sieve and are caught on the 30-mesh sieve, if the voids are completely filled. 7. Sharp angular sands produce mortar high in tensile strength. 8. It is not known just how the mineral content of sand affects the strength of mortar. Probably the quality is best where the sand is composed mostly of quartz. 9. Clay or loam up to 15 per cent and probably 20 per cent of the volume of sand does not appear to de- crease the strength if a mortar is thoroughly mixed, according to experiment performed in Ohio. 10. Mortar containing over 10 percent of clay or loam should not be used under water. 11. The physical condition of a sand affects the readiness with which it can be worked in mortar making. Fine sand is difficult to mix. There is no general agreement concerning the requisites of a mortar sand. The following specifications are introduced for the purposes of discussion. “All sand used for mortar should pass a No. 10 sieve and 80 per cent of it should be retained upon a No. 74 sieve. It should be a silicious sand, as sharp as can be obtained within reasonable limits of cost. It should be free from ail vegetable or organic matter, and should not contain more than 10 per cent by weight of clay or loamy material.” The above specifications, written by Professor Eno, after he had tested all of the properties specified, represents about the present demand for a mortar sand, except that many operators now pay less attention to the degree of sharpness and empha- size the graded condition. The question that arises at this time is, whether or not Platte sands, so generally used, are suited for mortar. The USES OF SAND AND GRAVEL 151 following from City Engineer Grant of Lincoln, will clear up this point : “Platte River sand is not generally considered a first class mortar or concrete sand according to most specifications. It is clean, smooth and round to angular, but not sharp. How- ever, it is becoming known that form and sharpness have been over-emphasized. Platte sand, when carefully selected and combined produces a good mortar.” Other practical engineers have assured the writer that com- mercial Platte sand is especially well adapted for mortar mak- ing. The fine sand should be avoided. Sand is used in lime mortar primarily for the purpose of preventing shrinkage and cracking;., and secondarily on account of economy. It is cheaper than lime. It is used in cement mortar primarily for the purpose of decreasing the cost of construction. Mixing and Proportions. — The quality of a mortar depends more on the thoroughness of mixing than is usually thought. “The mixing should continue until the sand grains are all coated with a thin film of lime or cement, as the case may be, and until the voids are filled.” Each kind of sand and cement influences the amount of water necessary to make the strongest mortar. Too much or too little water greatly reduces the strength of the mortar. In general, fine sands and loamy sands require more water than do coarser and cleaner sands. Natural cements require more water than Portland cements. Mortars of i sand and i cement require more water than mortars having greater proportions of sand.” “Where mortar is placed where it will get very little additional moisture over that used in mixing it, sufficient water should be used to thor- oughly hydrate the lime.”^ The amount of labor required in mixing varies with the phy- sical condition of the sand and with the proportions and degree of perfection desired. “Some sands are all fine, some all coarse, while many are graded from very fine to coarse.” Eno. Uses of Hydarulic Cement, Fourth Series. Bulletin 2. Ohio Geological Survey 152 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Consequently, the proper proportions of sand to the cement or lime should vary in the mixture, with the nature of the sand. This means that the builder should know the mechanical analy- sis of the sand employed if the best possible mixtures are to be made and standard work is to be done. The methods of making the different kinds of mortar are well known, consequently they are not described in this report. The proportions of the mortar-making materials are ex- pressed by figures. For example, i of cement to 5 of sand by volume is designated thus — i 15. The proportions of materials used in mortar are about as follows : 1. In lime mortar i :2 and i 2. In natural cement mortar, from i :2 to i :5- 3. In Portland cement mortar, from i :i to 1:6. 4. In lime-cement . mortar, from i :3 to i :5, in Portland cement mixtures in which the lime does not' exceed 10 per cent of the cement by volume. In i :2 mixtures, lime equal to 20 or 25 per cent by volume of the Portland cement may be used. The addition of lime to a cement mixture increases plasticity, and thus facilitates plastering. Plaster. — This is used on walls and ceilings of houses: on exterior surfaces and in making the impervious lining of caves, reservoirs, etc. It is permeable or impermeable, and rough or smooth according to the character of the sand and the propor- tion of lime. Gypsum (Plaster of Paris) plaster is light colored and hard , consequently it is well adapted for the in- terior finish of walls and ceilings. Cement plasters are dark, hard, and very strong and impervious when not too lean, but are not readily employed on walls and ceilings because of their hydraulic nature. Lime plaster is employed for the first coats and for rough interiors. Sand is used in most of the plasters, but not in the same proportions. As a general rule, it should be clean, angular and coarse. If too uneven-grained it must be screened to the proper condition. Plasterers object to using fine sand as the USES OF SAND AND GRAVEL 153 plaster “falls through” and is difficult to use. The best Platte sand comes from a depth of 5 to 26 feet below the water line at the dredges. However, this cannot be taken as an in- variable rule. Plaster made of lean mixtures does not adhere strongly to stone and brick. For water-tight work, the proportions of Portland cement, sand, and lime paste may vary from 1:2:05 to 1:6:2. For ordinary purposes they range from 1:5:05 to 1:10:20. The proportions in lime-sand plaster range from 1:5 to I :i2. It may be observed from these proportions, remembering that the amount of plaster mortar now used is large, that the quantity of sand thus consumed in our state is very great, es- pecially so in the cities where tall buildings are erected. Masonry Mortar . — This is employed in laying brick, rubble, dimension stone, artificial stone, etc. Lime mortar is generally used in contruction above ground and where strong structures are not desired. Cement mortars are used in thick founda- tions, and in underground work and where great strength is demanded. The quantity of sand required in laying 1000 bricks varies from 3.8 to 15.2 bushels, being about 3.8 bushels with ^ inch joints; 9.6 bushels with ^ inch joints; 12.5 bushels with % inch joints; and 12.2 bushels with inch joints. Volume of Mortar in a Cubic Yard of Masonry.* For brick work, ^ inch joints 0.15 cu. yds. For brick work, ii^^ch joints 0.25 cu. yds. For brick work, inch joints 0.40 cu. yds. For squared stone masonry 0.20 cu. yds. For rubble masonry 0.25 cu. yds. For concrete 0.55 cu. yds. The richness of a mortar varies with the demands for strength and impermeability. Generally, clean coarse sands are preferred. Mixing Concrete — Mixing is resorted to for the purpose of bringing into intimate relations the cement and aggregate, *From the Directory of American Cement Industries. 154 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY thus making of them a hydrated mass which by ^‘setting” be- comes concrete. The mixing is done by hand where small batches are made and with mechanical mixers if the quantity is large (Figure 66). Fig. 66. One type of concrete mixer “In mixing concrete by hand a platform is constructed as near the work as is practicable, the sand and aggregate being dumped in piles at the side. If the work is to be continuous, this platform should be of sufficient size to accomodate two batches, so that one batch can be mixed as the other is being deposited.” “A very common and satisfactory method of mixing con- crete is as follows: First measure the sand and cement re- quired for a batch and mix these into mortar. Spread this mortar in a thin layer ,and on top of it spread the aggregate, which has been previously measured and well moistened. The tnixing^ is done by turning with shovels three or more times, USES OU SAND AND GRAVEL 155 as may be found necessary, to produce a thoroughly uniform mixture, water being added if necessary to give the proper consistency. The mixers, two to four in number according to the size of the batch, face each other and shovel to right and left, forming two piles, after which the materials are turned back into a pile at the center. By giving the shovel a slight twist the material is scattered in leaving it and the efficiency of the mixing is much increased.”* ‘Tt has been demonstrated that concrete can be mixed by machinery as well, if not better, than by hand. Moreover, if large quantities of concrete are required a mechanical mixer introduces marked economy in the cost of canstruction.”* There are many forms and kinds of mechanical mixers, oper- ated by steam, gasoline, and horse power. As a rule the method of mixing and the proportions and properties of the materials used are specified in all concrete construction of any consequence. As soon as mixed, a batch is either “deposited” in some form of monolithic construction or it is molded into products such as posts, bricks or blocks. If deposited it requires tamping. If mixed very dry it must be vigorously rammed to produce a dense mass, but as the proportion of water increases, less tamping is necessary. We will now describe a few of the forms of concrete con- struction, noting in most cases the quality and quantity of sand and coarse aggregate employed. Culverts and Abutments. — Six or seven years ago the rail- roads of the state began to use sand and either gravel or crushed rock in concrete culverts and abutments. Since that time such construction has assumed great importance, displac- ing the wood, iron, and stone structures. The Burlington (Fig. 67), Rock Island (Fig. 68) and the Union Pacific have each used thousands of cars of sand from the Platte, Fairbury, and other places for such purposes in Nebraska. In 1904 about 400 cors of Nebraska sand were shipped to Iowa for making cul- *From the Directory of American Cement Industries. 156 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY verts, abutments, and bridges on the main line of the Burlington between Creston and Pacific Junction. During the past year reinforcement has been employed very generally in such struct- ures in 1 13:5 and i :3 :6 mixtures. Fig. 68. Concrete Abutments and Piers of the Rock Island Railroad near Lincoln. Photo by Professor E. H. Barbour USES'OF SAND AND GRAVEL 157 Concrete Piers. — Probably no material is better adapted for this construction than concrete, especially in the broad sandy alluvial bottoms of our western rivers. Thus far only a few small railroad piers have been made of concrete in Nebraska, but the indications are that large bridges which are soon to be built across the Platte will rest on concrete piers. Concrete Dams. — These are replacing the brush, wood, and masonry dams. They are easily and readi’y anchored to sandy banks, much more so than other dams, and are not often seri- ously damage by either ice or high water. One of the first con- crete dams constructed in the state was placed across the Little Blue River at Fairbury. Others have been built at Ericsoni Deweese, Holmesville and Beatrice (Fig. 69). The materials used at these places were Portland cement, sand and either gravel or crushed stone. In some dams, as at Fairbury, only cement and sand were employed. The usual proportions of cement, sand, and aggregate are 1:2:5 and 1:3:6. Concrete seems to be one of the best-known materials for this purpose It is built in monolithic form with or without reinforcement. Fig. 59. Concrete Dam at Beatrice. Photo by Professor E, H, Barbour 158 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SUR\^Y The world's largest dams are now building with concrete, most of them being reinforced with corrugated steel bars and steel ca- bles. The proportions of materials usually, but not always, vary at different places in a dam, with the leanest mixtures near the base and the richest at the surface and top. The average is a I :3 :4 mixture. Irrigation Ditches. — Concrete is coming into use for both private and Federal construction of irrigation cana’s and ditch- es. The conduits are lined with mixtures which prevent leakage. This form of aqueduct is a marked contrast to the usual sandy or gravelly cana’s in irrigation regions. Con- crete head gates, flumes, and sections of ditches have been constructed in the North Platte Valley where local sand and gravel were used. Water Pipes. — Large sizes of these are now made in differ- ent states and countries with i 13 mixtures of Portland cement and coarse sand or gravel. The cost of a cement pipe is small in comparison with iron and the construction is more permanent. With its* abundance of cheap sand and gravel Nebraska may profit by the experience of other states in this regard. A pen stock was recently built of this material at the flouring mill at Milford. Tanks and Reservoirs. — Concrete, because of its cheapness and fitness for the purpose, is rapidly becoming a leading material for these forms of building. The tanks and reservoirs are rectangular or circular in form and built either above or below ground. They are used for the storage of grain, sand, coal, water and various other materials. An excavation for a cistern or reservoir is lined with a heavy I 13 :6 or I .’3 15 masonry concrete, and that covered with a 1 :2 :3 mixture or with a 1 13 cement mortar. Usually the in- terior surface is made impervious by adding a wash of neat cement. During the past year, a large underground reservoir was built under the sidewalk and park space near the Library Build- USES OF SAND AND GRAVEL 159 ing of the State University, Lincoln (Fig. 70). Mr. O. J. Fee, Superintendent of Grounds and Buildings at the University, furnishes the accompanying description of this : r;.'-' ,T i\»fubmr t-l'c to a * * 'i 1_ i k'e.toe. V '. ' ^ • • •' 'iJliU ' Crtrjf Jmurth bar h b» ■ J’ fonder mnat h«/tr as sMoms. attet plait a‘'lt’‘g lf- 0 * m ;?-v*i Honizonr^i. sccT/orit REmFOFtCe^D COriC/=tETE RESERVOIR, rojt, THE CITY or UHCOEn ^r/D THE urfiYCRsiTYor rfCBfr/fsifyr orrrce l SORT or conaTmjcTiorti Jbi,AiAndersa/%. £>e.s. ycirr/CRE sizcT/o.r(, “The reservoir is no ft. long, 20 ft. wide and 12 ft. deep, inside measurement. The capacity is 196,000 gallons. The reservoir is made of reinforced concrete, except the floor, in 1:2:4 mixtures and is lined with a richer mixture. The stone was crushed to pass a one-inch ring. The floor and cover are 6 in. thick and the walls taper from 15 to 9 in. as shown by the figure. The arrangement of bars and beams gives a net work 160 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY of steel reinforcement sufficiently strong to support the load.” Sewers. — Concrete sewers are now in use in some of the largest cities. In cross section they are circular, oval or arched. Their bases contain lean mixtures, running as low as i:6:io. The coarse aggregate is either gravel or crushed stone. The sides and arches of the sewers are made from 1:3:6 to 1:4:8 mixtures. Some monolithic sewers have been made from a i :2 :5 concrete mixture. Lincoln has just completed a reinforced storm sewer on south 12th street, using 1:3:7 mixtures, fac- ing with cement mortar. South Omaha is constructing a large concrete sewer. It is ii ft. in diameter and about 3 miles long. Subways and Tunnels. — These are readily and cheaply built with concrete in which sand and gravel are large ingredients. Monolithic Foundations and Walls. — Monolithic concrete construction has, recently, become the leading form of founda- tion for heavy masonry. It likewise makes one of the strongest and most permanent retaining walls where properly built. In general, lean mortar and coarse aggregate are employed near the base and finer aggregate and richer mixtures are used near the surface. Sea walls, breakwaters and tower foundations are some of the larger forms of this construction, the Galveston and Havana seawalls, the Buffalo break waters, and the foun- dation of Washington monument being examples. Monolithic Houses. — The “grout” house is the simplest build- ing of this kind, there being many of them, each one story high, in the western counties. Professor O. V. P. Stout reports a two story grout house located nine mi'es east of Bridgeport. Reinforced concrete is rapidly becoming a house-building material,' both in small and large structures (Fig. 71). The entire house, with little exception, is bui't of concrete, includ- ing the foundation, walls, partitions, floors, ceiling, stairways, roof and porches. A few of these houses have been erected in Lincoln and Omaha. They are fire proof and sanitary, and will last for generations without much expense for maintain- ^nce. The proportions range between 1:2:3 and 1:3:5 for all USES OF SAND AND GRAVEL 161 exposed parts. It wo*uld seem that we should expect an in- crease in the number of monolithic houses in Nebraska, ' because of the abundance of sand and the accessibility of cement, which in sures cheap construction. Very probably the houses will be made of blocks in the form of large reinforced monolithic units. Two walls of the Wallage livery barn in Grand Island are monolithic concrete. They are four stories high. It ap- pears that more material than necessary is being placed in monolithic walls. Fig. 71. House of L. E. Wetling, Washington St. The first example of a Monolithic house in Lincoln. From the forthcoming paper on Cement Its Uses and Its Possible Production in Nebraska by Pldwin H. Barbour. c>lrtificial Stone. — This is variously called cement blocks, con- crete blocks and artificial stone. During the i)ast four years the state has witnessed a rapid develo])inent of this industry. Various companies have sold machines and the right to manufacture certain shapes aud patterns of blocks (Fig. Tib- Hollow blocks, anchor blocks and two piece blocks have been advocated and promoted (Figure 7»I). A firm at Kearney has 1B2 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 72. Aftilicial Stone Plant at Faii-bury USES OF SAND AND GRAVEL 163 introduced machines for making two-piece blocks at probably 50 places in the state. Conditions favor the production of artificial stone, since lum- ber and other house-building materials are expensive, while sand is plentiful and cheap. The stone has been made too often in a careless manner, yet the improvement in technology has been rapid. Producers are beginning to study materials and methods. The use of graded materials, right mixtures, careful facing and more systematic wetting down of the blocks will result in the manufacture of blocks of a better grade and more permanence. Mixtures now range from i of cement and 5 of sand to i of cement and 13 of sand, the latter being too lean. Crushed stone is used for aggregate at p aces in 1:2:4, I :3 .-5 and i :3 :6 mixtures. Fig. 7:t. Forms of Concrete Blocks The following outline shows the distribution of 115 artificial stone plants in Nebraska, the list being only a part of the total number ; 164 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PLACE Alexandria . . Alliance Alma Ansley Arlington. . . . Ashland Atkinson Beaver City. . Beatrice Bloomington Broken Bow. Bridgeport. . . Bruning Cairo Cambridge. . . Cedar Bluffs. Cedar Rapids Clear Creek. . Columbus. . . . Creston Crete De Witt Elm Creek. . . Elmwood . . . . Fairbury Franklin Fremont F'ullerton Gothenburg. . Havelock . . . Hebron Hildreth Holdrege Kearney Kennard Lincoln Lexington Madison Minitare No. of Plants 1 2 3 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 •. ... 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 4 2 2 1 3 1 2 1 1 4 1 9 2 1 1 PLACE No. of Plants Mason City 1 Miller 1 Morse Bluff 1 McCook 1 Neligh 1 Nelson 1 Norfolk 4 North Bend 2 Oakland 1 O’Neill 1 Omaha, 6 large and several small plants at Omaha. Ord 2 Oxford I Papillion 1 Pender 1 Pleasanton 1 Red Cloud 2 Riverton 1 Sargent 1 Schuyler 1 Scotts Bluff 1 Sidney 1 South* Omaha 2 Stanton 1 Sterling 1 Stuart 1 Stratton 1 Superior 3 Tecumseh 1 Tekamah 1 Trenton 1 Ulysses .• 2 University Place 1 Valley 1 Wasson 1 Wilsonville — 1 Wymore 1 Block Machines. — Many slightly different makes of these are on the market. They fall into two general classes: those with vertical and those with horizontal face plates. The face- down machines seem to have the preference. A machine has a metal platform or stand and sets of molds and cores. It provides for the making of blocks of different sizes, forms, and facings with the least inconvenience possible in the processes of depositing and tamping the concrete, and removing the green blocks. During the past few years an attempt has been made to supplant hand tamping with mechanical presses, but not in USES OF SAND AND GRAVEL 165 all cases with satisfactory results. Machine tamping produces a heavy dense block, requiring more sand than is used by hand tamping. Curing. — Mr. H. A. Reid, of New York City, describes cur- ing as follows in his book on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete Construction: “The process of curing after the block has been moulded is the most important in the manufacture of concrete blocks. All blocks manufactured by the medium wet or me- dium dry process should be made under cover, and protected from the sun, from dry currents of air, and from frost until thoroughly cured. The block should remain on the pallet at least for from twenty-four to thirty-six hours. As soon as the concrete has sufficiently set so that the water will not wash the surface, usually from four to twelve hours after moulding, the blocks should be sprinkled two or three times daily for from seven to fourteen days. Plenty of water should be used to supply moisture to all parts of the block. Blocks should never be allowed to dry out on the surface until the center has cured. The moment the surface of the block begins to turn white it is a sure sign that it needs water. Too much water cannot be used. Care should be taken to so pile the blocks that they will receive moisture equally on all sides. The slower the drying of the block, the harder and tougher will it become. A sand floor kept wet may be used to insure a damp atmosphere.” “For curing, a dry mixture will require more moisture than a medium or wet mixture, and should be kept in moist atmos- phere for a longer time than the latter. In the former case blocks should be kept thoroughly moist for at least 20 days, while in the latter case about ten days will suffice.” Facing. — This process is coming into more general use. The facing is made of rich mixtures of Portland cement and sand in the proportion of from i :i to i 13. Sometimes a certain kind of crushed stone is added for its co’or effect. By the use of facing, a nearly impervious stone can be produced, using a porous concrete backing. This cheapens the cost of producing 166 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY a desirable product and also affords an opportunity to make any design or color of surface that may be desired. It is particularly necessary that the facing and the concrete backing of the cement blocks be thoroughly united either by tamping or by pressure. The face and backing should be placed at the same time. Comparative Fitness of Concrete Blocks in Construction. ‘‘The following are some of the advantages claimed for them: 1. The hollow form results in a saving of materials over brick or stone masonry, this often amounting to from 20 to 50 per cent. 2. The cost of laying concrete blocks is less than for brick work. This is due to the fact that the blocks, being large, have a much smaller number of joints, and require less mortar, and, being hollow, are of less weight than solid brick work. 3. A wall, properly constructed of good concrete blocks, is as strong or stronger than a brick wall of equal thickness. 4. Concrete blocks, being hollow, tend to prevent sudden changes of temperature within a house, making it cool in summer and easily heated in winter. For the same reason, if proper vents are provided, the interior of the house will be free from dampness so often met with in houses constructed of brick or stone. 5. The hollow spaces provide an easy means for running pipes and electric wires. These spaces may also be used wholly or in part for heating and ventilating flues. 6. Concrete blocks, being easily moulded, may often be used to replace cut stone, with considerable saving in cost. 7. The fire proof qualities of concrete are equal or superior to that of brick and stone. 8. The ease and rapidity with which a wall built of concrete blocks may be constructed make their use in many cases very desirable.”* ♦Reid. Concrete and Reinforced Concrete: pp. 855 and 856. USES OF SAND AND GRAVEL 167 Scind-cement Bricks. — These are made of cement and sand at a number of towns in the state. The product is very similar to artificial stone, the only essential difference being size. Coloring matter is sometimes added to the facing to produce an imitation of some particular kind of stone or to give a desired color to the bricks. Hand presses are used for compacting the mortar into bricks. Cement users are now looking with favor towards the installation of brick machines. Superintend- ent Marshall of Knox County reports a $25,000 cement-brick house at Bloomfield. Fence Posts. — One of the latest and most novel uses of sand is in the making of posts (Figure 74). Railroads are the largest producers, yet the number of moulds sold to farmers, cement users and park boards during the past year was unusually Targe. The posts used by railroads are made of plain concrete or more generally of iron with concrete bases. Those manufactured by the cement users are concrete with reinforcement throughout. Fig. 74. Concrete Fence Posts Other Uses of Concrete. — The number of additional uses is large, the following are a few of them: I. Water tanks and troughs. 2 .. Columns, chimneys, towers, monuments. 168 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVET 3. Veneer for buildings. 4. Drainage tile. 5. Furniture and vaults. Side Walks. — Sand is the largest ingredient in present day sidewalk construction in Nebraska. Formerly wooden walks prevailed in nearly all of the towns, but now they are only occasionally put down. The cities are building brick, cement, stone, and artificial stone walks. Omaha has a great deal of stone, brick, and wood walk. Lincoln has a few walks which tell the story of the days when pebble rock and tar were used. Among the smaller cities, Tekamah and Wahoo are among the best builders of cement walks. In section, a cement or concrete sidewalk according to city specifications shows three courses; the sub-base, the base, and the wearing surface. The sub-base consists of either cinders,, gravel or crushed stone placed about three inches deep. Ac- cording to the Lincoln specifications the base should be at least 3 inches thick, consisting of broken stone, slag or clean coarse gravel and sand and cement, in the proportions of i part cement, 3 parts sand and 4 or 5 parts broken stone. When gravel is used the proportions are i part cement and 4 parts gravel; to these are added a sufficient quantity of sand to fill all inter- stices, but the quantity of sand shall not exceed double the quantity of cement used. It is required that the gravel shall be composed of durable materials, the fragments being not larger than i inch or less than ^ inch in their largest dimension. The wearing surface is at least i inch thick and composed of the best grade of Portland cement mixed with sand and aggregate in the proportions of i 14. The sand shall be clean and graded from coarse to fine. “The crushed stone shall be composed of durable minerals or rock and screened through a one-half inch mesh.” The wearing surface is broken by expansion joints, dressed smooth, indented with a toothed roller, and covered with a sand moisture pad. Sand as a Moisture Pad. — “In building concrete sidewalks or other like construction, it is necessary to keep the concrete from USES OP SAND AND GRAVEL 169 drying too rapidly in order to prevent the formation of cracks, commonly called hair cracks. For this purpose a clean sand is spread over the surface in sufficient thickness to hold water for a days evaporation and then sprinkled to saturation. The sand blanket is sprinkled every day, usually, but oftener in hot windy weather. The covering is removed after the cement work has become thoroughly set, but not for some time after the necessity for wetting has passed. The blanket is needed at this time to prevent extreme variations in temperature, giving fewer expansion stresses and more uniform crystaliza- tion. Sand similarly placed on pavement, furnishes a good cushion until the cement ripens.”* A very general practice in the state has been to make a sub-base of tamped cinders and to cover it with a 1:3:6 base to a depth of 3 or 4 inches, dressing this with a 1:2 mixture of Portland cement and sand. There is now a tendency to do away with the sub-base and in some cases with the base and place a two-inch walk directly on the ground. Brick sidewalks have a sub-base of sand or cinders. Some- times a cushion of sand 1 inch thick is placed over the cinders. The san sub-base used in Omaha is 4 inches thick. The brick course makes the base and wearing surface. Sand sufficient in quantity to fill the joints is spread over the bricks. Walks are also made of artificial stone or cement blocks placed on a sand cushion and sub-base. According to Engineer Grant, Lincoln used 3,000 yards of sand in walks undei municipal control during the year 1906. This is about 12o cars. Omaha put down 293.30 miles of walk during the same year. Of this, 121.84 miles were brick; 78.75 miles, wood; 68.60 miles, artificial stone; 20.03 miles, stone; 3.75 miles, macadam; 28 miles asphalt; and .25 miles, tiling. Pavements. ~ This subject should be considered as a separate topic, but is placed here because pavements contain large quan- tities of sand in their construction. Pavements are laid in courses. Brick pavements require six inches or more of sand (Figure 75). In Lincoln many miles of brick pavement were *By O. J. Fee 170 NEBRASKA. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Sand used in brick pavement, Lincoln USES OF SAND AND GRAVEL 171 constructed a few years ago with two sand courses. The section is 4 to 6 inches of a sand base; a layer of brick, lying flat; 2 inches of sand, forming a cushion; and a wearing surface of brick on edge. Besides this it required about i inch of sand to fill the joints, making in all 7 to 9 inches of sand. Such pavements are on K, L, M, O, P, R and other streets of Lincoln. New brick pavement in Lincoln contains 4 inches of concrete as a base, 5 inches of sand cushion, and a wearing surface formed by brick on edge. This is covered with an inch of sand grout to fill the joints. Old brick pavement repairing re- quires 3 inches of sand, two being for cushion and one for the surface and joints. Omaha uses a 6 inch concrete base, in pro- portion of I 13:6; a sand cushion i^inches; and a vitrified brick on edge 4 inches. The joints are filled and the surface cov- ered with one inch of sand grout. Omaha built 18.75 niiles of brick pavement in 1906. Almost any Nebraska sand will do for cushion or bedding, but that used in concrete and for grouting should be more carefully selected. Asphalt paving, now increasing in mileage in the cities, is a large consumer of sand, but not so much so, relatively, as brick paving. The asphalt pavement is laid in concrete, binder and wearing surface layers or courses. The concrete course, 3 to 6 inches thick, and composed of 1 13 15 or i 13 :6 mixtures, requires nearly 2 inches of sand. Platte sand is very generally used for this purpose. The binder course, one or two inches thick, is made of an asphalt and crushed stone. It is covered with a wearing surface one or one and a half inches thick, which is composed of asphaltic cement, 5 to 15 per cent; sand, 75 to 88 percent; and pulverized carbonate of lime, 3 to 10 percent. Residence streets require only one inch of binder. The sand and cement are heated separately to about 300 de- grees Fahrenheit. The carbonate of lime is mixed with hot sand in the required proportion and the product is then mixed with the hot asphaltic cement according to specifications. The sand used in this course should be carefully selected by the 172 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY paving expert, since its grading is an important factor. Form and sharpness have less importance in the surfacing of asphalt pavement than most engineers have thought. It makes little difference whether the sand is round or sharp, except that a very sharp sand has a tendency to eat its way through the asphalt, coming to the surface. Mr. Hugh Murphy, one of the leading paving contractors of the west, carefully grades all sand used by him in asphalt paving. By this method he is able to produce a good paving material from the finer Platte sands which are now known to be well suited for this purpose. Stone and cement-block paving require a concrete base of about six inches; a cushion of sand, about 2 inches; and sand enough to fill the joints. Wood block paving also requires a large amount of sand in the cushion and base. Engineer Grant submits the following figures which show the amount of sand that was used in Lincoln pavements during the year 1906. Sq. Yds. Brick pavement, new 4»475 Brick Pavement, repaired 19,850 Asphalt pavement 36,800 Cu. Yds. sand. 600 1,650 ' 3700 Total 61,125 5.950 During the year 1906, Omaha put down 96.668 miles of pave- ment, of which 41.443 miles were asphalt; 25.476 miles were stone; and 18.752 miles were brick. Roofing Gravel. — This material is used very generally in flat roof construction (Figure 76). Omaha, Lincoln, South Omaha, Beatrice and Nebraska City have been the largest con- sumers. Mr. O. J. Fee, Superintendent of Grounds and Build- ings, the University of Nebraska, describes the construction thus: “For waterproof roof construction, gravel is used with either felt or composition paper and tar. The canvas or com- position is nailed on a clean-swept, tight board surface, in one, two, three, four or five ply, treating each ply with a coat of tar. Then gravel is added as an evenly placed layer, to the tar covered surface. All loose pebbles are swept off. USES OF SAND AND GRAVEL 173 This construction is used in place of tin or copper, being somewhat cheaper and more durable. It does not rust, nor buckle under expansion nor break in contraction. The gravel should be water worn, about diameter, or of such size as to prevent being carried off by the flowing of tar under a hot sun. It should be large enough to prevent the tar from flowing out and around the pebbles. Sharp gravel cuts through the subcoats rendering a leaky roof. It should be apparent from the foregoing description, that such con- struction is suited only to flat roofs. On steep roofs the tar flows off loosening the gravel and leaving the subcoats bare.” Roofing gravel sells at 50c. to $1.00 a yard at the pits and at about $2.00 a yard on the market. The principal sources are the pits near Richfield and Cedar Creek. Fig. 7G. Roofing Gravel Street and Road Making. — The use of sand and gravel for the simplest forms of street and road making is very general throughout civilized countries where there is an adequate supply of the matei^ls and it is not advisable to build costly 174 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY pavements and macadam roads. In its cheapest construction the sand or gravel is deposited without the preparation of a subgrade. It is laid somewhat evenly to a given depth over portions of the roadway. Where a road is to be ballasted in such a manner as to insure permanence the sub-grade is trenched, crowned and covered with a gravel course according to specifications. Such roads have been built in Indiana and other gravel producing states. The thickness of the ballast varies from about 8 to 12 inches and the cost ranges from $500 to $3500 per mile. It is not known just how generally Nebraska will build other than dirt roads. The demand for road-making materials is not great at this time. In districts where the natural road beds are clayey, i. e. either a gumbo or hardpan, sand becomes an important and much sought-for material. When mixed with the clay it im- proves drainage conditions and thereby produces a better road surface. In places where the natural road-bed is too sandy^ clay is in demand. As a rule our natural roads are more sandy than clayey. They drain readily and require the minimum ex- pense for maintenance. Notwithstanding these favorable con- ditions the agitation for better roads in the towns and rural districts is growing. This demand will call for large quanti- ties of stone, gravel and sand in the near future. The supply of sand and gravel can be secured from various sources, as at Tekamah, Wahoo, Fairbury, Hebron, Brickton and from the deepest dredging in the Platte alluvium. Thus far these materials have been used to some extent for ballast on streets at Arapahoe, Red Cloud, Fairbury, Beatrice, Lincoln, Wahoo, and other cities. Macadam roads, made of crushed stone and sand, are in process of construction in the vicinity of Auburn and Omaha. One of the roads at Omaha extends northward beyond Florence. Surface gravel for ballast should be about ii^ch in diameter, angular and quite free from dirt. Coarser materials can be used in the foundation. The important requisite for a good road USES OP SAND AND GRAVEL 175 gravel is that it shall pack well under travel. In this respect the “Sherman hill” gravel (Figure 77) (rotted granite) shipped from Wyoming, is one of the best materials. The rounded peb- bly gravel mined from the Dakota Formation is not well suited for this purpose. Fig. 77. Sherman Hill BsCllast on U. P. R. R. Kearney Railroad Ballast. — For several years, gravel has been one of the standard ballasts of the United States. It meets most of the requirements for the purpose and is used very largely where the source of supply is adequate and the cost low. The Northwestern railroad has ballasted many miles of its lines in Iowa with glacial gravel. This is graded in sizes from fine sand to cobble stone. During the past year material of this kind and from this source was shipped into Nebraska and laid along portions of the line between Blair and Lincoln (Fig- ure 78). As a rule Nebraska’s gravel is too fine for ballast. It seems better adapted for surfacing and for a subcourse. The North- western has mined thousands of cars of ballast near Stuart and Long Pine and used it on the Black Hills branch. This 176 NKBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY gravel serves well as a ballasting material where the rainfall is low. The Rock Island has used gravel, cinders, and crushed stone, but has recently brought most of its roadbed up to a standard stone ballast. The Union Pacific has been a large user of “Sherman gravel” which is a decayed granite (Figure 77). This material is angu- lar, not worn. On this account it meets the requirements more fully than does a river deposit. This ballast is used on the main line of the Union Pacific from Omaha to Cheyenne and at places on branch lines. It is employed -also for depot platforms and walks. The Rock Island is mining a similar deposit in Colorado and using it for the same purposes. Fig. 78. Glocial Gravel Ballast used on Northwestern Railroad, Fremont There is no residual granite of this kind in position in Ne- braska, consequently the long haul of these materials must continue. The excellence of this material in a subhumid cli- USES OF SAND AND GRAVEL 17T mate seems to warrant the large expense of ballasting with it. ‘Nebraska’s nearest product of this kind is found in the glacio- fluvial sand plain and deep down in the Platte flood plain. These gravels are water worn and not always coarse enough for ballast. Some of the North Platte gravel would yield a product similar to the “Sherman hill” if crushed. The Burlington railroad, under the direction of Chief En- gineer Calvert, has made a careful search along its lines for a high grade of gravel ballast. Coarse sands suited for surfacing have been located and worked, but thus far no large supply of really good gravel has been found that can be worked economically. During the past two years the Burling- ton has used many thousands of cars of sand on its Great Northern line between Sioux City and Lincoln, and on the new construction between Lincoln and Milford. This supply comes from the dredges. During the year 1906 dredges were loading sand and gravel from the Platte south of Fremont. This year much of the railroad supply is obtained from the Ash- land and Louisville dredges. The Burlington railroad uses a great deal of sand in ballast- ing. The new grades and dump are covered with 6 inches of sand (Figure 79). This is covered in time, with cinders and slag or crushed stone, making an elastic road bed which drains readily. 7U. Section of Sand Ballast Used on C. B. g. K. K. Formerly, some of the railroads used the rounded Dakota- gravel for ballast, but found that it is poorly fitted for the purpose. It proved most undesirable in deep cuts where there is seepage water. Another feature of railroad building in our state is becoming better understood. It is that there is large diversity in the sub- 178 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICCL SURVEY soil which is used for making the dumps. Some of it is very- clayey, consequently it slips badly in fills and is also readily gullied by rain erosion. This means that it has become nec- essary to cap such places with material that contains more sand. It might prove even more advantageous to mix the clay and sand in these dumps. SAND LIME BRICK. This industry is young in the United States. The first plant was installed at Michigan City, Indiana, in 1902. Since that time the number of plants and the production have rapidly in- creased. This is shown by the accompanying tables published by the United States Geological Survey. Sand lime bricks have been manufactured for many years in Germany, where they are said to have given satisfaction for a number of uses. When first introduced in the United States, it was claimed that they would successfully compete with clay bricks on the market and probably seriously affect that in- dustry. Notwithstanding the fact that there has been a rapid increase in the number of plants and in the production of brick, it is now becoming apparent that the clay brick industry is not affected to any great extent by the newer industry. Thus it appears that the possibilities of sand-lime brick have been somewhat overdrawn. In the presence of so many kinds of concrete construction and cheap cement, the industry finds a formidable rival. Usually the grade of brick produced has proved to be lower than was claimed. However, more exper- ience in the industry should result in the making of bricks which will have ready sale. Systems of Patents. — There are many slightly different meth- ods or systems of making the sand-lime brick, most of which are covered by patents. As a rule, each patent covers only one process in the manufacture. Mr. S. V. Peppel, who is our best authority on the subject of sand-lime brick, says that he sees no good reason why plants should not be built, or why good brick shoifid not be made, independent of all the patents and systems. USES OP SAND AND GRAVEL 179 The manufacture of brick is similarly done by all of the so-called systems. The American System, which is a modifica- tion of Kommick’s System, and the Huenneckes System, are employed at most plants in the United States. The last named system, as described by its promoters, employs the following- processes, which will serve in general to illustrate the method ■of manufacture. ‘'The lime is ground in a pulverizing mill; from the mill the pulverized lime falls into an apparatus which is used to measure out the required proportions of lime and sand, the latter ma- terial being simultaneously brought into another part of the apparatus. This measuring apparatus is adjustable, and will be so set, according to the quality of the sand and lime to be used, that it will measure off about from 94 to 96 parts of sand to about 4 to 6 parts of lime in weight. From this measuring apparatus the sand and lime thus measured off fall into a mix- ing apparatus in which the two materials are thoroughly blended together. This apparatus, like that previously men- tioned, runs continuously and turns the mixture over to an •elevator, which carries it wherever it may be wanted. The mixture is compressed into bricks in a press especially con- structed for the purpose. The freshly compressed bricks are stacked on iron tray cars, which, after they are loaded, are run into a long iron cylinder, * cylinder holding 10,000 to 20,000 bricks according to its length, is her- metically sealed and then subjected to the direct action of high-pressured steam fed by previously deposited chemicals. In this way the hydrated lime and the silicic acid of the sand combine and form a silicate of lime, which gives to the bricks their hardness and waterproof properties. After the bricks have undergone the action of the steam for ten or twelve hours, * * * they are ready for use.” Raw Materials. — Lime and sand are used in the manufacture, in proportions ranging between i to 10 and i to 25. Almost any river or bank sand is suitable. Ordinarly however, it re- quires grinding. The ideal sand is one which is graded from 180 NEBRASKA GOELOGICAL SURVEY coarse to fine, ranging between the 40 and 150 meshes with five or ten percent passing the latter. ‘‘A sand with too much clay in it will make a brick which will liuL stand up long under the attacks of severe weather.” “It would appear that clay up to ten or twelve percent is probably not dangerous, and possibly as small an amount as two and a half percent might be desirable.” The clay content, therefore, should be low, clean sand being preferred. It is thought by some that feldspar and other silicate minerals should not form more than 10 percent of the sand and that quartz sand is the best. Pure calcium lime has shown its superiority over dolomite limes in tests, hence is to be preferred. Hydraulic lime does- not appear to be well adapted to the processes. Processes in the Manufacture of Brick. — These are about follows, according to most systems : 1. Preparation of the sand and lime. 2. Mixing the ground sand and either ground or slaked lime. 3. Conveying to bins or to presses. 4. Pressing. 5. Conveying to cylinders. 6. Hardening bricks under pressure in a cylinder or kettle. 7. Removing bricks from the cylinder and placing them in storage. Dirty sand requires washing and coarse sand should be ground. For this purpose tlie Griffin Mill is in general use. Quick lime is ground if purchased in lump form and “slaked”^ i. e. hydrated either before or after it has been mixed with sand. The Swartz Machine is probably the best mixer; the pug mill type, however, is most used. Various kinds of conveyors are employed. The presses employed are simi’ar to those used in making pressed brick, but must be very strong and capable of withstanding an occasional overload, since sand is less elastic than clay and any excess of material placed in the mould will otherwise bring disastrous results if the safety limit is not USES OF SAND AND GRAVEL 28L large. “Since sand-bricks, when first pressed, are so tender that they do not stand pushing aroun'd without injury, the rotating table is the one thing characterizing the German press which recommends it, and it was the result of an effort by the German manufacturers to adapt the press to the needs of the industry.’^ Bricks are taken from the press by hand and arranged on cars or trucks. These cars thus loaded are run into the cylinder which is tightly closed by a strong door when filled (Fig. 8o). Fipi. South Carolina and Ten- $500 107.470 n 10 12.025 89,900 1,650 17.070 2b 4 4,451 25.524 350 2.875 28.399 Illinois and Wisconsin (a) (a) Indiana. 6 11,413 57,655 800- 7,500 65.905 Iowa 3 3,974 28,793 (a) (a) (a) (a) 1,384 38,652 TVTi phi pn n 12 24.841 155,883 1,577 12,893 (a) (a) 169.302 11,841 81.804 3,478 41,300 123,104 ^ortti C£trolinn 1 rade Review, 1»(X5. Total silica Alumina Lime below Alkalies below Oxide of iron below 75 to 85 per cent 7 to 10 per cent 2 per cent 0.5 per cent 6 per cent 192 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY was about $2,102,423. This includes that used for molding iron, steel, brass, brick and pottery. Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, and Illinois lead in production. GLASS SAND AND THE GLASS INDUSTRY There is a demand for glass production in Nebraska. Cer- tain persons are insistent upon the fitness of our sands for the purpose and are speaking favorably of the other conditions which also control the installation of plants. We are not yet ready to say that the conditions do, or do not, favor the making of glass in the state and this after having visited and studied the production in southeastern Kansas and in the vicinity of St. Louis. It seems, however, that we should describe the properties of glass sand, briefly outline the method of manufac- ture and note the factors which control successful production. Air. Ernest F. Burchard has studied and described practically all of the centers of glass production in the Mississippi Valley. All of the writer’s references, quoted in this connection, are taken from Air. Burchard’s reports in bulletins 285 and 315 of the United States Geological Survey. Nature of Glass. — “Glass is a fused mixture of the silicates of alkalies, alkaline earths, and of the more common metals.” The principal classes are plate, window, bottle, and flint glass. The leading glass-making materials are sand. Si O2 ; salt cake, Na 2 S 04 ; limestone, Ca C O3; sodium carbonate, Na2- C O3; carbon, C; and salts of lead, manganese, antimony and arsenic. Sodium nitrate, Na N O3 ; potassium carbonate, K2 C O3; and slaked lime, Ca (OH)2 are used in the manufacture of flint glass. Not all o,f these are placed in any one batch, and their proportions vary in the different types of glass. Sand is the major constituent of glass. To it is due the hardness, con- choidal fracture, brittleness, brilliancy, transparency and ab- sence of color, (when pure). Oxides of the metals give the colors. The a’kalies and alkaline earths are the fluxing agents. USES OF SAND AND GRAVEL 193 ‘‘In melting together the various ingredients employed in the batch or mixture it appears that silica under the influence of heat in the presence of a flux, forms silicates with sodium or potassium and calcium, lead, etc., and the alkaline silicate then dissolves the remaining silicates. It is this solution that solidi- fies into glass on cooling.” Quality of Sand Required. — “The sand should be nearly white in color, it should be of medium fineness passing a 20 to 50-mesh sieve. The grains should be uniform in size, even, and angular or less preferably they may be round.” “In a mix- ture of coarse and fine sand the finer sand is liable to settle to the bottom of the batch, thus preventing an even mixture of the materials and producing in consequence a glass uneven in texture.” “An excess of the chief impurity, iron, is usually avoided in the quarries by a careful selection of the whitest sand, although the whitest sand is not invariably the purest. Clay materials are objectionable because they cloud the glass.” “The quality of the glass depends largely on the quality of the sand. For the finest flint ware, such as optical and cut glass, water whiteness, absolute transparency, great brilliance, and uniform density are required, and only the purest sand can be employed, since slight impurities, especially small quantities of iron, tend to destroy these effects. For plate and window glass, which are commonly pale green, absolute purity is not so essential, but generally the sand should not carry more than two tenths percent of ferric oxide. Green and amber glass for bottles, and rough structural work can be made from relatively impure sand. It is not possible to establish an invariable rule in which a certain percent of silica is required. The so-called impurity in the sand may be of the nature of a fluxing agent, such as might be used, and if so it decreases the relative amount of silica but does not cause deleterious effects. Usually, however, a glass, sand should contain 96 percent or more of silica, the amount varying with the grade of glass produced. The fol- 194 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY lowing analyses are from Mr. Burchard’s paper in bulletin 215, United States Geological Survey. ANALYSES OF GLASS USED BY AMERICAN WINDOG GLASS COMPANY. Constituent No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 Silica ( Si 02 ) 99.990 99.714 99.659 99.579 Alumina ( AI 0 O 3 ) .008 .280 .310 .350 Iron Oxide ( Fe 203 ) Slight trace .006 .011 .021 Lime and Mag’nesia (CaO and MgfO. ) .002 .020 .020 .050 100.000 100.020 100.000 100.000 No. I is suitable for the very highest grades of glassware and flint glass. Nos. 2 and 3 are suitable for tableware, plate ^lass, chimneys, prescription ware, etc. and No. 4 is used for window glass. The following analyses are submitted by the Pittsburg Plate Glass Company as samples of sand used by its plants: ANALYSES OF GLASS SAND BY BY PITTSBURG PLATE GLASS COMPANY. Constituent No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 Silica ( Si O 2 ) 99.21 98.90 98.95 98.94 Alumina ( AI 2 O 3 ) .30 .20 .50 .30 Volatily Matter .21 .25 .24 .23 Iron Oxide { Fe 203 ) .003 .002 .0024 .0036 Lime (CaO) .20 .54 .30 .40 Magnesia (MgO) Trace .20 .10 Trace 99.923 100.092 100.0924 99.8736 USES OF SAND AND GRAVEL 195 For sands with analyses comparable with the above, no decolorization is attempted in manufacturing plate glass. Sand containing more iron than is shown in the tables may be used in making green glass bottles and cheap glassware, or, with the addition of decolorizing agents, in making window glass. Analyses of undeveloped glass sand from various localities. Constituent Location Sample Silica (Si02) Alumina (AI203) Iron Oxide (Fe 2o3) Lime (CaO) .2 ; ? i ^ • ’ ' ' >.v ..■•■•-* : U*i *.• -*. ■' .- -?[: •■ ’^ 7 i> • ' f ■ - s • ; • • • • . , . . ... ■-: vio ■;: ■ kM:!. V ;<- V,*. . -r „;;■- • •rjjptMl?.' .!• i;' ; , *K'?cn-* v%; ■ ■ir • -i*:*:; ^ ‘iv ■ ■ .i ■? '•' ! INDEX A AckruAvledgment, 15. Alluvium, 58, “ formation, 8(5. Analysis, sand, *112. “ glass, 194. Ande; ite, 24. Arapahoe, 14(5. Arikaree, 4(5, 49. Artificial stone, 161. ‘‘ ‘‘ plants outlined 1(54. Ashland, 14;>. Ashland dredge, 99. Asphalt, 171. Atkinson, 142. Atwood, S. H,, 122. Auriferous sand, 20. B Ballast, 85. Bank sand along Platte, 115. Barbour, Erwin H., 15, 18. Bard well, May, 15. Basalt, 24. Bates, Ross, 15. Beatrice, 131, 145. Beaver City, 14(5, Bedding sand, 190. Beehe, John H., 90. Benton Formations, 4(5. Berks, 11(5. Big Blue District, 129. Bishop, E. C., 83. Black sands. 20. Bloomington, 140. Blue Springs, 145. Bramm, 128. Brickton, 134, 145. Broken Bow, 85. Brule, 4(5. C Calcite, 23. Cambridge, 14(5. Carboniferous rocks, 40. Carlile, 46. Cedar Bluffs, 115. Cedar Creek, 144. Cedar Crt-ek production, 108. Cement Block machines, 164. Central City, 91. Ceresjo, 117. Chadron 46, 141. Chathurn, Professor in U. N. 15. Chert, 46. Chicago, St. Paul Minn. R. R 78. Clark, D. Y., 91. Classification of sands, 19. Clay, 24, 78. Cobbles and bowlders. 5(5. Cody, 142. Columbus, 91, 143. Concrete, 148. ‘‘ comparative fitness, 166. culverts, 155. “ curing, 165. “ dams, 157. “ ditches, 158. “ facing, 165. “ houses, 160 “ mixing, 153. “ other uses, 167. “ piers, 157. sewers, 160. subways, 1(50. “ specifications, 168. “ tanks, 158. “ walls, 1(50. “ water pipes. 158. Condra, Mrs. G. E., 15 Coral sand, 20. Cornell Engraving Co., 15. Cretaceous, 46. Crete, 131. 145. Crum, C. W., 84. Cullom, 117, 144. ‘ ‘ Gravel Pit. 127. Culverts, concrete, 147, 155. D Dakota, 46. 57. Dakota clay, 120. Dakota Formation, 41, 79, 86, 117 138. Dakota Formation, outcrop of, 42. Darton, 15, 4(5. Dams, concrete. 147, 157. Denton, 11(5. Do Witt, 145. Dredging, boat, 64. ‘‘ clam, ()5. Dundy County , 139. Dune sands, 59, 82. E Elk Creek, 89, 144. Elkhorn District, 83. Endicott, 146. Engine sand, 18(5. F Pairbury, 1.36, 145, 14(1. Falls City, 145. Feldspar, 17, 22, 51. Field study, 13. Fisher, C. A., 15, 118. Flint, 46. Florence, 142 Foss, S. R.. 133. Franklin, 14(5. , Franklin County, 140. Fremont, 91, !)2, 94, 143. Fremont dredges,. 91. Index 204 Fnlk. J. R.. 136. Furnas Countv, 140. G Gerino-, 46. 49. Gibson. 142. Glacial boulders. 79. Glacial deposits, 52. Glacial formation. 86. Glacial sand and trravel. 83. Glacio-fluvial sand plain. 54. Glass, analyses of, 194. economic aspects, 19c. factories. 198, “ industry, 192. Gneiss. 25. Gould. ('. N., 118. - Grand Island, 91. Graneros, 46. Granite, 16, 24, 57. Grant, City Enfrineer, Lincoln. 151. Gravel, 46. 48. 49. 51, 52. 53, 54, 55, 56. 58. 60. 64, 74, 117, 118. Gravel pit, 122, Heatrice. 131. '• ** Bramm, 128. Rrickton, 134. •• “ Crete, 131. “ •* r’ullom, 127. .. Fairbury. 1,36. ** •* Hebron. -135. •• Milford. 132. “ Sutton, 132. ‘‘ ** Turkey Creek, 1.33. “ ‘‘ Flysses, 1.32. ** “ Wao-ner, 128. ■' 'Wymore. 131. '■ ‘‘ York. 132. Gravel and Pebble Rock. 44. Gravel shipment. 126. Greg'ory, G. A.. 132. Greenhorn, 46. 57. Greenstone, 57. H Haig’ler, 146. Halsey, 85, 142. Hartinj^ton, 84, 85. Hebron, 1.35, 145. Hoover, N. L., 90. Hornblende, 23. Introduction, 13. Iron oxides, 23. Irrig-ation ditches, 147, 158. J Jensen, J. C.. 140. K Kansan Till, 54, 56? Kearney Hydraulic Stone Co.. 90. Kearney and vicinity, 89, 14,3. Kesterson. 146. L Laboratory study of sand. 15. Lancaster. 116. Laramie, 46. Lexington, 143. Little Blue District. 134. Limestones, 57. Lincoln. 144. Logan Valley, 84. Loess. 58. Long Pine, 82. Loup District. 85. Loup Fork, 46. Louisville, 14.3, 144. Louisville dredges, 105. Lyman dredge, 94, 97. Lyman. Mr.. 99, M Madison. 84. Marsh, F. A., 91. Martel, 116. Martinsburg. 78, Masonry mortar, 153. Meadow, 143. Meadow dredges, 99. Meadow Grove. 84. Mercer, A. J., 90. Merna. 142 McCook. 146. Mica, 16, 22. Mica and hornblende schists, 57. Middle Creek, 117, Middle Loup, 85. Milford. 117, 132, 145. Miocene, 43. Molding sand, 190. Monolithic walls and houses. 147, 160. Montgomery, F. W., 89. Morrison Formation, 41. Morse Bluff, 115. Morse. Professor in U. N., 15. Mortar sands, 140. “ mixing of. 151. Murphv, Hugh. 108. Nebraska Citv, 142. Neligh, 84. Nemaha District. 127. Niobrara. 46, 76. “ District, 82, Norfolk. 84. North Platte. 86. Northwestern R. R.. 82. ^ 0 O’Connell. James. 139. Ogalalla, 46. 49, 51. Oligocene, 46. 205 Index Omaha, 142. “ Gravel Company, 122. Ord, 142. Ottawa sand, 29. Oxford, 146. P Palmyra, 142. Parmalee, A. H., 109. Pavements, cement, 169. Pawnee City, 144. Pawnee County production, 128. Peanut rock, 46. Pennsylvanian sand, 41. Peru, 142. Perrin, Dale C., 15. Pierce, 46. Piers, concrete, 147, 157. Plaster, 147, 152, Platte River, 18. “ District, 86. Plattsmouth, 80. Platte sand, commercial movement, 113. R Railroad ballast, 175. Railroads and markets, 113. Red Cloud, 146. Red Willow County, 139. Republican District, 138. Residual gravel and sand, 88. Rhyolites, 24. Richards, Professor in U. N., 15. Richardson County, production, 128. Roofing gravel, 172. S Salem, 145. Salt Creek, 42. Salt Creek Valley, 116. Samples, sand, 14. Sand, 13, 17, 46, 78, 79, 80, 89, 90, 112 . Sand, Arikaree, 49. ‘‘ as moisture pad, 168. “ chemical analysis, 80. “ classification, 19. “ comparison, 58, ‘‘ composition, 21, 24, 36. “ delivery, 75. “ deposits, 82, 84,86, 88. “ districts, 76. “ dredging, 64, 65. ‘‘ dune sand, 59. “ exposures, 76. “ field study, 13. “ Gering, 49. “ glacial, 52. “ glacio-lluvial, 54, 55, 56. ‘‘ grading, 30. “ in Dakota Formation, 42. “ laboratory study, 15. “ loading and hauling, 61. “ markets, 113. “ mining, 60, 65. “ minor uses. 200. “ Ogalalla, 49. “ origin, 16. physical and chemical prop- erties, 25. “ Pliocene, 51. “ Platte, 113. ‘‘ production and trade, 70, 108, 115, 116. pumping, 64, 104. “ quality, 80. residual, 88. . “ samples, 14. “ shipment, 72, 106. sources, 60. “ specialized trade, 69. “ specific gravity, 33. *• supply and demand, 72. “ Tertiary, 51. ‘‘ testing, 26, 36. ‘‘ till plain, 52. “ total value, 72. “ tunneling, 62. uses, 150, 173, 190. “ washing and screening, 74. “ weight, 33. Sand-bearing formations, 38. “ “ “ outlined, 40. Sand dredge, Ashland, 99. “ Fremont, 94. “ ‘‘ Louisville, 105. “ ‘‘ Lyman, 94, 97. ‘‘ “ Meadow, 99. ‘‘ “ Valley, 97. “ “ Woodworth, 97, 105. Sand-lime bricks, 178. ‘‘ “ ‘‘ manufacture, 180. “ “ nature of, 182. “ “ “ constitution of, 182. Sand-lime brick, plants, 184, 186.. table of product- ions, 185. Sand pit, 78, 80, 83, 84, 85, 86, 90, 91, 92, 94. Sand pits, Berks, 116. “ “ Cedar Bluffs, 115. “ “ Ceresco, 117. “ “ Cullom, 117. “ “ Davey, 117. “ “ Denton, 116. “ “ Lancaster, 116. Index “ Martel. 116. Middle Creek. 117. " Morse Bluff. 115. *• Pleasant Dale. 117. Sand pits. Prairie Home. 117. *• “ Wahoo, 115. Sandstone. 17. 25. Sand supply. Ansley. 86. .. Broken Bow. 86. .. .i Calloway. 86. .. Bolumbus. 86. i i Fremont, 86. Gates P. O., 86. Mason City. 86. .. .i Oakdale. 86. Schist, 25. Sargent. 86, Schuvler. 91. Scotts Bluff. 143. Screening’ and washing, 74. Section gravel ptt. 127. Sewers, concrete. 147, 160. Shipment, sand. 74, Short. Ed. M., 140. Sidewalks, cement. 168. Sidney and Chappel. 88. Sioux Quartzite. 57. South Bend. 143. South Platte, 89. Standard sands, 29. State Geol. Survey. 13. Steam shovel. 65. Stout, Proffessor in U. X.. 15. Street and road making, Subways and tunels. 147, 160. Sutton. 132. 145. Svenites, 24. 57. T Table Rock, 144. Tanks, concrete. 147, 158. Tecumseh. 128. 144. Tekamah, 78. 142. Tertiary. 46. .51. .58, 74. 76. formations, 83. 86, Thedford. 85. Thomas. Dr. A. O.. 90, Till plain sands, .52 Trap Rock. 57. Trenton. 146. Triassic and Jurassic rocks, 41. Tunneling sand. 62. Turkev Creek. 133. U Ulvsses. 132. V Valentine, 83. 142. Valley, 143. \ alley Dredge. 97. Value of total sand production. Van Court gravel pit 119. Voids, 34. Volcanic ash, 20. W Wade, Wm.. 122. Wagner. 128. v^ahoo. 115. 144. Water pipes, concrete, 147. 158. White. Samuel, 135. Whitmore. Hon. C. W.. 97. Wilber. 145. Wisner, 84. Woodlake. 142. Woods. W. W. 15. Woodworth dredge. 97. 105. •• gravel pit. 120. Wvmore. 131, 145. Y York, 132. 145. NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ERWIN HINCKLEY BARBOUR, STATE GEOLOGIST VOLUME 3 PART 2 THE SKULL OF MOROPUS BY ERWIN HINCKLEY BARBOUR Scientific Contribution Geological fund of Hon. Chas. H. Morrill LINCOLN, NEB. WOODRUFF-COLLINS PTG. CO. 1908 IId^ARY OF THE UNlVERSiTY OF ILLlNOiS THE SKULL OF MOROPUS. During the summer of 1905 the Morrill Geological Expedition of the University of Nebraska had the good fortune to discover early in July the skull of Moropus. Associated with it were mian- dible, atlas and other cervicals, and various skeletal parts. Around it^ within the radius of a few feet, enough material was found for a complete restoration. It is the purpose of this paper to give a brief preliminary ac- count of Moropus, more particularly of the above mentioned skull, which is the only one known in any collection at the present time. Though this paper was written in the fall of 1905, for the sake of greater accuracy it was withheld from publication, awaiting the preparation of the material secured. However it must be presented in its original form, or not at all, for the labor incident to building and moving into new quarters precludes the possibility of making additions and corrections. There is so much of scientific importance attached to the skeletal parts and the skull of Moropus, as the writer believes, that accurate figures on a large scale, though not accompanied by descriptions will nevertheless be of interest to naturalists. The skull herein figured was found near the surface in the quarry on University hill. There are two Miocene hills facing the Nio- brara on the ranch of Mr. James Cook, at Agate, Nebraska, one of which has been designated Carnegie hill, because of the extensive bone quarry opened there by Carnegie Museum, the other University hill because of a similar bone quarry opened there by the University of Nebraska. The two hills are about two hundred yards apart, and are separ- ated by a slight notch at the top. They may be viewed as one hill, with a continuous bone layer across their summits. This bone bed is a singularly productive one, for jaws, skulls, vertebrae, limb bones, and ribs oc(uir in heaps. The bones of commonest occurrence are those of the Rhinoceros (Diceratherium) and of iUoropus. NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Of Moropus, vertebrae, ribs, limb bones, foot bones, and the interesting cleft terminal toe bones, mandibles, and teeth are common, but skulls are very rare. The Morrill Geological Collection has but two skulls, one nearly complete, the other fragmentary, but to a certain extent supple- menting the first. The palatine view of the better of the two shows a skull perfect save for the premaxillaries, which are missing. Unfortunately the top of this skull has been badly weathered, and part of the top of the brain box is missing, however its form is known from the second skull. The brain cavity is now worked out to the last detail, and a gelatine mould will show the lobes and convolutions perfectly. The very top of the cerebrum and cerebellum will be wanting in the cast but the correct form of the missing parts can be accurately supplied, from the second skull. The nasals and frontals are unknown as yet. The skull of Moropus bears a close resemblance to that of the horse in size and shape, and thinness of skull wall. It is much more trim and delicate than the robust bones of the frame would indicate. In point of size Moropus bones rival those of the Titan- otheres. There is no sagittal crest as in the European form. The occipital condyles are proportionally large, wide, and separ- ated by a deep notch. The basioccipital is in a plane with the palatine but the basisphenoid makes an angle to it. The tympanic bone is strongly inflated into an ovoid bulla whose axis is parallel to the median line of the skull. The external auditory meatus is small and situated midway between the post glenoid process and the occipital process. The auditory tube is about at right angles to the bulla. It is a bony sheath supported by alae adherent to the post-glenoid process. The accompany- ing plate of the skull of Moropus is on such a large scale, and the cranial parts so distinct that further descriptions are unnecessary, and space need not be occupied by measurements. The size of the skull seems to be out of proportion to the cervical vertebrae, which seem to be quite as large as those of Titanotherium. These are vertebrae of interesting form, the centra being greatly flattened, the cup being inclined obliquely upward, and the ball obliquely downward, the zygapophyses being uncommonly broad. Such THE SKULL OF MOROPUS o ^ 0^ in m CO O o' S ^ bX «.S I— I a; X i ^ c3 O ' O ^ O CO nC -+-5 a - 2 g o ^:i ^ (X) o ^ C ^ o § s S g 73 ;n3 izr: ^ 3 r^ O m ^ o ^ ■5 ^ O o3 0 33Pf m c3 1 LO'* _: o tnat snown m fig. 2. in the mandible, specimen No. 20-7-06, the angle is restored from the right side. Photographed from specimens in the collections of Hon. Charles H. Morrill The University Museum. ’ NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Fig. 2. — Top view of a fragmentary cranium of Moropus, § natural size. Young, and probably a distinct species. B Fig. 3. — Side view of the mandible of ^loropus. THE SKULL OF MOROPUS an arrangement doubtless made it possible to carry its head high. One is impressed by the number of oblique facets in the bones of Moropus. AFFINITIES OF MOROPUS. The Chalicotheres were widely distributed, their remains having been found in Europe, India, Asia and North America. Their geologic range is from the Oligocene to the Pliocene. The specimen herein described was found associated with Dai- monelix in the lower Miocene, or the Harrison beds, Sioux County. As to affinities there has been long and interesting speculation. , The large cleft terminal phalanges, which are so characteristic, were pro bablyA retractile as in the Cats and would incline one to classif)^ Moropus with the Unguiculates, but other characters point with greater certaint}^ to the fact that it was an Ungulate. It seems to have occupied a position intermediate between the two great groups. Cope, relating it to the Unguiculates, established a special order for it, the Ancylopoda. The relation of Moropus to the Edentates has had serious con- sideration, and also the possibility that it might occupy a position intermediate between the Edentates and the Ungulates. That it is an Ungulate and not an Unguiculate is generally ac- cepted, and that it is a Perisodactjde ungulate as Osborne first suggested, is evidenced by teeth, astragalus, carpus, and tarsus. The term Unguiculate-perisodactyle would be fairly expressive of the facts. Though apparently a most aberrant Perisodactyle its remark- able claw may in fact be a superficial adaptive modification rather than a fundamental morphological difference. Moropus was apparentl}^ an ally of Titanotherium, Osborne has said that ‘The group to which Chalicotherium belongs was derived from the Con- dylarthra of the lowest Eocene with affinities to the Meniscother- idae and primitive Perisodactyle. It represents a distinct order, the Ancylopoda (Cope). The likeness to the Unguiculates and especially to the Edentata is due to secondary adaptations and contains no proof of affinity.’^ That there are several species of Moropus seems certain to those NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Fig. '4. — Mandible of Moropus viewed from above, J natural size. THE SKULL OF MOROPUS who have studied their remains in the quarries. However, no attempt will be made at this writing to recognize more than the one form. Marsh’s Moropus elatus was found at Fort Niobrara Nebraska, hence in supposed upper Miocene, while the one pre- sented here was found at Agate, Nebraska, in supposed lower Miocene. The difference in geologic horizon seems sufficient to warrant belief in difference of species. It seems fitting to name the specimen herein illustrated Moropus cooki in honor of Mr. James H. Cook who discovered and made known the bone beds at Agate, Nebraska, and who, assisted by his son Harold J. Cook, has done so much subsequently to encourage paleontological investigation in that region. The above skull of Moropus was secured for the Morrill Geo- logical Expedition of 1905, by Mr. John H. Miller, of the class of 1906. When time permits this brief paper will be followed by a lengthier report on the skull, brain, skeletal parts and restoration of Moropus. The University of Nebraska, September 10, 1907. NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PRKMOLAK 1 MOI-AK I ^ t ; \ PRKMOLAK 2 PRKMOLAK ;< KOKAMKN ROTU.vm'M POSTKRIOR \ARKSj KXTKKNAL KORAMEN AUDITORY MAGNUM FORAMEN OVALE I CONDYLAR ♦ FORAMEN •PALATINE MAXILLA PAL.^IN'E PTERYGOID BASISPHENOID Fig, 5, — Key to Plate I, diawn from specimen No. 27-7-05; the col- lections of Hon. Charles H. ^lorrill, the University Museum. The skull and teeth are deeply etched by Daimonelix ‘^fibers”. SIONmi JO AUSM3A1N1I 3Hi JO AiiVcsn I NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Moropi Plate 1 jCooki, X i i SlONmi JO AilS83WNn 3H1 JO A8V8an Plate The Molar-premolar series of Moropus cooki, natural size. A. Top view. B. Side view. All parts distinctly etched by Daimonelix ‘ 'fibers. Vo?AnY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 12 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ERWIN HINCKLEY BARBOUR, STATE GEOLOGIST VOLUME 3 PART 3 SKELETAL PARTS OF MOROPUS BY ERWIN HINCKLEY BARBOUR Scientific Contribution Geological fund of Hon. Charles H. Morrill LINCOLN, NEB. WOODRUFF-COLLINS PTG. CO, 1908 SKELETAL PARTS OF MOROPUS BY ERWIN H. BARBOUR In the foregoing number, it was announced that the skull of Moropus had been discovered. Heretofore the genus had been known chiefly by scattered teeth and fragments, mostly toe bones, but now that the collections of Hon. Charles H. Morrill, Nebraska State Museum, have the skeletal parts necessary for the restoration of this remarkable animal, it seems advisable to supplement the brief illustrated report concerning the skull of Moropus with a similar paper concerning its skeletal parts. In brief, the main skeletal features of this unique and anomal- ous clawed-herbivore are, its small trim horse-like head; erect horse-like neck; prominent fore quarters, and retreating hind quarters; and, foremost of all, its fingers armed with great claw- like hoofs curving inward, suggesting that the animal may have been somewhat “pigeon toed.” The skull and cervical vertebrae of Moropus are strikingly like those of the domestic horse. In general appearance and point of size the skulls are identical, while the cervical vertebrae, though so similar in form, are about one- third larger in the case of Moropus. The above comparison has reference to Moropus cooki, or the great Moropus; the least, and the intermediate forms being left out of the present reckoning. As a mental picture, perhaps this creature had a body like a tapir, with high shoulders, a neck and head resembling the horse, and tridactyle hands and feet set with hoofs so compressed and modified as to resemble claws, and possibly used as such in gather- ing together boughs and tall grass, or in tearing roots from the ground. In life Moropus ])robably carried its head high, and its neck was flexible and arched like that of a spirited horse, though its head could plainly reach the ground. Of the cervical seiles, the zyga])ophyses are uncommonly large, and the spinous processes larger and higher, the keels more pro- nounced, and the several centra jiroduced jiosteriorly much be- yond those in the horse. 220 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY The axis shows an interesting persistence of a primitive char- acter in its peg-shaped odontoid process, which seems to be re- tained as a vestigial part, surrounded by the trough-shaped type of odontoid common to the Ungulates. The thoracic vertebrae are more robust than those of the horse, the spinous processes are higher and stouter, and the neural spines suffer little reduction in the lumbar region. Possibly the number of lumbar vertebrae was five, as indicated by a patholog- ical set, which was grown together, (an extreme case of senile exostosis). These were the posterior lumbars, and in front, and in line with them in the quarry occurred posterior thoracic vertebrae presumably in position. Of the sacrals there are four. The caucl- als were long and proportionally slim, indicating a long tail. Of the shoulder girdle and fore limbs, the scapula is best de- scribed by the accompanying figures, likewise the humerus and the co-ossified radius and ulna, of which several views are shown. The strikingly interesting part is the hand, which had three func- tional digits, each armed with powerful claws set like grappling hooks. The thumb is wanting, the little finger reduced and func- tionless, the middle finger long, and the second digit exceptionally strong. The co-ossified first and second phalanges, and the cleft ungual phalanx are best described by the figures. The pelvic girdle and hind limbs are shown in the illustrations. The femur of the European type lacks the third trochanter, which in the American form is strongly developed. The tibia is short and heavy, its trihedral form being somewhat obscured by the broad rounded crest. In the quarries at Agate, Sioux County, Nebraska, the preser- vation of all bones is nearly or quite faultless, and the number of Moropus bones met with is surprisingly large. As an example in the northern portion of the Morrill Quarry, on University Hill, the bone layer consists exclusively of Moropus. The number of young individuals comes as a surprise to every collector. Many epiphyses are off, and many sutures open even in well advanced adults. In old skulls the sutures seem to persist. Perhaps Moropus was a long lived creature, and consequently slow in maturing. Collectors are impressed with the fact that several legitimate species must be established on the bones re- vealed in this quarry, and yet fear of multiplying species restrains SKELETAL PARTS OF MOROPUS 221 mention of possible intermediate forms. One, however, is so per- sistently small, and its occurrence so frequent that its size may be counted a constant character, and for convenience it may be called the small Moropus, Moropus parvus. Judging by limb bones, and toebones it is about one-third to one-half smaller than Moropus cooki. 1 2 5 BONES OF MOROPUS PARVUS Fig. 1 — Atlas, top view, one-third natural size, partly restored. Fig. 2 — Same from below. Fig. li — Patella, one-third natural size Fig. 4 — Ulna, one- third_natural size. Fig. 5 — Part of the molar-premolar series, natural size. Uhotograi)hed from s})ecimens in the collections of Hon. Charles H. Morrill, The Nebraska State Museum, The Uni- versity of Nebraska. NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 999 MOROPUS PARVUS SP. NOV. Atlas vertebra essentially unlike Moropus cooki; length 115 mm (4i in.), width 150 mm (6 in.), as compared with M. cooki, which is 150 mm (6 in.) long, 180 mm (7 in.) wide. Note short thin neural arch with anterior notch about twice as large as that in M. cooki. Transverse process not produced anteriorly to over- hang the spinal nerve, as in M. cooki, and the posterior elongation not confluent with the postzygapophysis, but separated b}’ a pronounced notch at the vertebrarterial foramen. The atlas is chosen as the base of the species, and the other bones may belong to it or to some other closely related species. Postzygapophyses convex and not produced dorsally into acute edges, as in M. cooki shown in plate I, figure A. There are at hand molar-premolar teeth of three individuals, one young, one adult, one old, the last named being shown in figure 5, natural size, for direct comparison with M. cooki, plate 2 of preceding part. The cervical vertebrae are proportionally longer and slimmer, and with keel even more pronounced than in M. cooki. The above differences do not seem to be incident to variations of age and sex, and will be considered specific. The University of Nebraska June 26, 1908. (Printed and distributed, March, 1909.) PLATE I A. Atlas vertebra of Moropus cooki from above, nerve foramen and notch, anterior; tips of the transverse processes per- forated by the vertebrarterial canal. Specimen No. 98- 20-7-06, h natural size. Length 153 mm (6 in), width 175 mm (7 in). B. Same from below. Photographed from specimen in the. collections of Hon. Charles H. Morrill, The Nebraska State Museum, The University of Nebraska. Nebraska Geological Survey. Vol. 3, Part 3. PLATE I B PLATE II A. Axis of Moropus cooki, side view, showing great spine, expanded postzygapophyses, combined peg and trough- shaped odontoid process. Specimen No. 20-20-7-05, ^ natural size. Extreme height 172 mm (6f inches), extreme length, 210 mm (8i inches). B. Same from above. Photographed from specimen in the collections of Hon. Charles H. Morrill, The Nebraska State Museum, The University of Nebraska. Nebraska Geological Survey. PLATE II A Vol. 3, Part 3. PLATE III A. Fourth cervical vertebra of Moropus from above, showing'; broadly expanded zygapophyses, low spine, and obliques cup. B. Same from below, showing ball and pronounced keel. Length 195 mm (7f inches); width 167 mm (6| inches). Specimen No. 97-20-7-06, h natural size. Photographed from specimens in the collections of Hon. Charles H. Morrill, The Nebraska State Museum, The University of Nebraska. Nebraska Geological Survey. Vol. 3, Part 3. PLATE III PLATE IV A. Front, B. side, C. back view of the second thoracic* vertebra, I natural size. Specimen Xo. 42-20-7-08, exact height 315 mm (124 inches). D. Oblique, E. back view of the last lumbar vertebra. Specimen X'o. 10-20-7-05. Width across transverse proces- ses 246 mm (9| inches). Height 245 mm (9| inches) vertical diameter of centrum 68 mm (2f inches), trans- verse diameter 120 mm (4| inches). Photographed from specimens in the collections of Hon. Charles H. Morrill, The X'ebraska State Museum, The University of Nebraska. Nebraska Geological Survey. Vol. 3, Part 3. PLATE TV PLATE V Right Scapula of Moropus cooki, ^ natural size. A. Outer surface, B. inner surface. Specimen No. 65-20-7- 06. Resembles scapula of Diceratherium and Sus. Height 502 mm (19| inches). Width 330 mm (13 inches). Height of mesoscapula 90 mm (3^ inches). Spine over-hangs the postscapula. Glenoid, coracoid, and supra- scapular borders thin. Acromion and coracoid practically obliterated. C. Left humerus, anterior surface showing deltoid ridge and trochlea, about J natural size. D. Same, posterior view showing deep olecranon fossa. Length * of fragment, 551 mm (21| inches). Diameter of shaft, middle, 75 mm (3 inches), width of distal end, 205 mm (8| inches). Specimen 99-20-7-06. Photographed from specimens in the collections of Hon. Charles H. Morrill, Nebraska State Museum, The University of Nebraska. Vol. 3, Part 3. PLATE V. Nebraska Geological Survey. PLATE VI Co-ossified left radius and ulna. A. Side, B. front, C. back, ^natural size. Specimen No. 36-20-7-06. D. A younger individual, specimen No. 20-7-08. Extreme length of co-ossified radius and ulna 735 mm (29 inches), length of radius 596 mm (23| inches), width of distal end 150 mm (5| inches), width of proximal end of radius 134 mm (5| inches). Photographed from specimens in the collections of Hon. Charles H. Morrill, The Nebraska State Museum, The University of Nebraska. Nebraska Geological Survey. Vol. 3, Part 3. PL.\TE VI PLATE VII Co-ossified phalanges 1 and 2 of digit II, A. top, B. side, C. bottom. Length 126 mm (4| inches). Specimen No. 21-20-7-05. i natural size. D. Top, E. side, F. bottom view of the cleft ungual phalanx, right, II, specimen No. 22-20-7-05. Length about 155 mm (6 inches). | natural size. Photographed from specimens in the collections of Hon. Charles H. Morrill, The Nebraska State Museum, The University of Nebraska. Nebraska Geological Survey. Vol. 3, Part 3. PLATE VII PLATE Yin A. Right metacarpal No. II, front view, ^ natural size. Speci- men No. 105-20-7-06. Length 210 mm (8^ inches). B. Patella, side view; C. front; h natural size. Specimen No. 23-20-7-05. Vertical diameter 107 mm. D. Left calcaneum, specimen No. 79-20-7-06. h natural size. E. Occiput of Moropus, height 120 mm, \ natural size. Specimen No. 110-20-7-08. F. Hand with claw-like hoofs outlined, digits turned somewhat inward. G. Foot with part of tibia and fibula cut away to show calcaneum. Photographed from specimens in the collections of Hon. Charles H. Morrill, The Nebraska State Museum, The Universit}^ of Nebraska. Nebraska Geological Survey. Vol. 3, Part 3. PLATE VIII PLATE IX A. Os inominatum of Moropus, side view, gluteal surface, B. reverse view, sacral surface, natural size. Length 640 mm (25 inches); width of ilium 290 mm (114 inches). Specimen Xo. 18-20-7-08. C. Right femur of Moropus, back view. D. Same, front view, showing a strong third trochanter in the American form of Moropus. Length 655 mm (25 | inches). Mddth across proximal end 230 mm (9 inches), width of distal end 150 mm (6 inches), diameter of shaft just below the third trocahnter 100 mm (4 inches). Intercondylar notch deep and angular. Speci- men Xo. 44-20-7-08. §- natural size. E. Right tibia, length 470 mm (184 inches). IVidth of proximal end 134 mm (5j inches). 4 natural size. Specimen Xo. 20-7-05. Photographed from specimens in the collections of Hon. Charles H. Morrill, The Xebraska State Museum, The University of Xebraska. ■\ > Nebraska Geological Survey. Yol 3 3 PL\TE IX % / MOIIOPUS COOKI. (One twenty- firstJjN atiirarSize) Nebraoka Geological Survey. Vol. 3, Part 3. PLATE X, LIBRARY OF THE «»NIVERSITY OF ILUNOIS Nebraska Geological Survey. Vol. 3, Part 3. PLATE XI CONJECTURAL RESTORATION OF MOROPUS COOKI, BARBOUR OF THE ‘’DIVERSITY Of ILUNOIS 13 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ERWIN HINCKLEY BARBOUR, State Geologist VOLUME 3 PART 4 y TESTS OF THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE BY GEORGE R. CHATBURN TESTS OF THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE. By Georg-e R. Cliatburn. Since the use of concrete is becoming so general it seems quite appropriate that the tests of concrete in whicli any Nebraska material forms a constitnent part should be recorded where they may be obtained by those interested. Th^ following tests were made in the I'esting Laboratory of the University of Nebraska, and thongh very limited in number may be expressive of the qualities of concrete mixed from these materials. The tension tests are somewhat novel in that it is cus- tomary to make all tests of concrete either in compression or by cross-breaking. But as the stresses in direct tension, or as nearly direct tension as it is practical to make such tests, are comparatively simple stresses it was thought the results might be a better measure of the true qualities of the concretes than the ordinary crushing of cubes. It may be doubtful wliether these ideas were upheld by the actual tests. The tension-test s])ecimens were about the shape of the standard cement briquettes but of a size which gave a three inch scpiare, that is nine square inches, for the minimum cross section. See figures 1 and 2. The compression tests were made by using the ends of the tension-test pieces. Tlie bearing area was 21.6 square indies and the height 6 indies. These wmre placed between steel bearing ])lates and the loads ap])lied without embed- ding or (mshioning. The cross-breaking tests were made on beams 4x6x22 inches siqiiiorted on rounded steel bearings 20 inches apart and loaded in the middle till broken, the age of these beams being but one week. The breaking strength ])er square inch is calculated by the well known formula for the modulus of rupture, 8 PI S== 2 b(P 226 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY The proportions are given as cement: sand: gravel or broken stone, that is a proportion of 1: 2: 4 means a mixture made np of one part cement, two parts sand, and four parts gravel oi\broken stone. SHACKLE AND BRIQUETTE. Pig. 1. — Front view of shackle and cement briquette ready for testing, Fig. 2. — Same, side view. TEST OF CONCRETE TENSION TESTS OF CONCRETE Materials No Proportions Applied loads in lbs. Av. stren'th ner sq.in. 1 wk. 1 mo. 2 mos. 1 wk. 1 mo. 2 mos. fWahoo Gravel, 1 1 2 : 4 1000 1650 1 Western 2 “ 850 1903 102 198 States Portland 3 1 3 : 5 790 1610 1 Cement 1 4 990 1230 99 157 1 1 5 1 3 : 6 730 1540 1 6 825 1270 86 156 Weeping Water 7 1 : 2 : 4 1450 1320 Limestone, 8 1820 1480 182 155 Western J ! wStates 9 1 : 3 : 5 1110 1340 1 [ Portland 10 2000 2170 172 195 Cement 11 1 : 3 : 0 1450 1730 “ * 12 • ‘ 1050 1500 139 180 fWahoo Gravel, 13 1 : 2 : 4 700 1050 750 i Red Wing 14 i i 925 1300 770 90 131 84 ! Portland ! Cement 15 1 : 3 : 5 610 800 950 1 ‘i 1 16 585 10)0 650 6() 100 89 i 17 1 : 3 : 0 440 900 6()0 i 18 570 750 625 56 92 71 j Weeping Water 19 1 : 2 : 4 1050 1850 2200 1 Limestone, 20 fa i 1520 1850 2000 143 20(, 233 1 Red Wing 1 ! Portland 21 1 : 3 : 5 1100 1250 1 Cement • 22 1025 2000 950 118 222 122 1 1 23 1 : 3 : 6 745 1500 1030 1 24 ( i 850 1450 950 89 164 110 228 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY COMPRESSION TESTS OF CONCRETE Material No Proportions Applied loads in Pounds Aver’ge strength lbs. per sq. in. Age f Wahoo Gravel, 1 1:2:4 50540 1 mo. 1 Western States 2 03000 2700 1 Portland 3 1:3: 5 55100 t Cement 4 48750 2400 1 Weeping W^ater 5 1:2:4 71000 ( i Limestone, (i 70500 3270 . i < Western States 7 1:3: 5 02550 i ( Cement 8 105500 3900 CROSS BREAKING TESTS OF CONCRETE Material No Proportions Applied loads in lbs. Age. Remarks Actual Per sq. inch Avr’ge f Wahoo Gravel, 1 1:2:4 850 177 Iweek Tested edg’se 1 Western States 2 i i 780 162 170 ■{ Cement 1 3 1:3:0 100 07 ‘ ‘ flatwise 4 • ‘ 190 79 70 i i a . ( f Weeping Water 5 1:2:4 710 118 i i “ edg’se Limestone, 0 ‘ ‘ 1250 200 204 i i ^ Western States 1 Cement 7 1:3:0 400 125 . ( ‘ ‘ flatwise 1 8 i 415 130 128 4 i TESTS OF CONCRETE 229 The above tests indicate that concrete made from Weeping Water limestone is stronger in tension, in com- pression, and in cross-breaking than that from Wahoo gravel. It is but fair to say that the gi*avel used was not very clean. Had it been washed, possible better results might have been obtained: but whetlier the increased strength due to washing would pay for the added expense is a question yet to be determined. The University of Nebraska, Feb. 1908. (Crinted and Distributed February, lOOU) 14 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ERWIN HINCKLEY BARBOUR, State Geologist VOLUME 3 PART 5 THE FLINT BALLAST INDUSTRY OF GAGE COUNTY. NEBRASKA BY ERWIN HINCKLEY BARBOUR THE FLINT BALLAST INDUSTRY OF GAGE COUNTY NEBRASKA By Erwin Hinckley Barbour Ten years ago the cherty limestone ledges of Wymore and Blue Springs in Gage county stood unappreciated and relatively undeveloped. Though viewed then as so much waste land extending for several miles along the Blue liver, these same bluffs are now considered a natural re- source of consequence, and three mills base their industry on these selfsame beds. 4 to 5 ft. soil 4 to 6 ft. loose rock 4 ft. flinty limestone 2*4 ft. ‘ cut tintr ’ stone 7 to 9 ft. flinty limestone 4 ft. rubble A Item a t- injr lime- stf>ne and shale FUG. 1. Prior to 189;') the flinty limestone ledges of Gage county stood as waste land, unappreciated and practically undeveloped. Com- pare with succeeding views. This is a representative section. Photo- graph by C. .\. Fisher, for the Xebraska Geological Survey. 234 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY A wholesome lesson in the development of onr idle re- sources may, be drawn from these ^ ‘ worthless ’ ’ flint ledges, and one must reiterate the statement that if onr natural resources are few, it is incnmhent to make of them the most possible. The history of the flint ballast industry is brief and worth recording for the instruction of those who may have in mind the development of similar resources. THE G. H. DAVIS QUARRY About 1895 two young men, Frank K. Mayne, and M. H. Reed, leased the larger of the two tracts now known as the (j. H. Davis quarry. In 1900 Mr. Reed retired from this company and sold Ids interests to Mr. 5V. AV. Black. The firm of Black and Mayne then purchased the above mentioned tract which is shown in the map Fig. 9, and which contains 25.25 acres. FIG. 2. The crusher and quarry of ]\Ir. G. H. Davis southeast of Blue Springs and Wymore, on the tracks of the Union Pacific and Burlington railroads, huilt 1904, burned Sept., 1 906, rebuilt April 1 907. Mr. G. B. Cunningham, foreman. Negative No. 2-27-1-09 Hon. Charles H. Morrill's collection of geological photographs. THE G. H. DAVIS QUARRY 23 3 In Jan. 1902 the interests of Mr. Black were transferred to Mr. Gr. H. Davis and business was continued under the firm name of Davis and Mayne until Sept. 17, 1906. In 1903 Mr. G. H. Davis purchased and added to the quarry site a small tract of 14.2 acres adjoining. In 1904 tliis new firm built its first stone crushing plant, which was similar though smaller than the i^resent one shown in figure 2. It contained one No. 3 crusher, whereas the present plant has No. 3 and No. 5 crushers. The mill and quarry is in charge of Mr. G. B. Cunningham, foreman. FIG. 3. A general view of the G. H. Davis quarry above the crusher. Greatest thickness of (luarry face 42 feet. Negfitive No. 3-27-1-09 Hon. Charles H. Morrill’s collection of geological photographs. This mill was ('omphdihy destroyed by fire on tin* night oi* S(*))t. 4, 19()(5, art(*r whithi Mi*. Mayne ’s interests were transhoTcd to his ))ai*tii(n*, Mr. G. II. Davis, in whos(‘ name the* hiisimqss has sinct* hetm conducted. Mr. Davis proc(*(‘d('d to build the ci'iishing plant on broadei* nnd bettin* lin(‘S, bnt i'onnd th(‘ s(*ai*city of lnnib(n* 236 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY a serious hindrance. It was necessary to send to the Pacific coast for the heavy timbers, and four months passed before the material could be laid down. The new plant began operations April 19, 1907. The following is a summary of the output and the payroll by years: Year Cars shipped Ain’t of payroll The number of men employed varies according to de- inand from 50 to 80, falling occasionally as low as 25, and sometimes reaching 100. The financial depression shows its effect in the pro- duction of 1908. Of the cities and towns of the state Lincoln is the largest consumer of this stone. Large amounts are shipped to points in northern Kansas, some goes to Iowa, while other lots go as far as South Dakota, Wyoming, and Colorado. The railroads, particularly the Burlington and Union Pacific, are lieavy Imyers of the product. The stone of this quarry is used principally for founda- tions, for ballast, for concrete work of all kinds, such as liridges, ])iers, cement dams, etc. All kinds of stone considered, the capacity of the G. II. Davis quarry is lOCO tons a day. The Union Pacific tracks pass directly under the bins of the crusher, which i>Teatly facilitates the rapid loading of cars. THE S. H. ATWOOD AND COMPANY’S WYMORE QUARRY in Mar('h 1902 the S. 11. Atwood Co., whose name must always stand assoHated with large and important quarry 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 813 1,018 1,280 1,364 1,316 1,315 747 $ 8,623.85 14,395.39 21,426.49 21,164.89 21,647.83 25,880,16 14,121.56 AWOOD AND COMPANY’S WYMORE QUARRY "2^3?/ ^operations in the state, bought land, and built the first crush- ing plant about two miles southeast of Wy.more, notwith- standing some doubt at the outset as to the probable success of the undertaking. However, under the super- vision of Mr. W. M. Stewart, foreman, the industry flour- ished, and soon 125 men were regularly employed, and active operations have eontinued with a slight depression due to the panic of 1907, FIG. 4. S. H. Atwood and Co’s. Wymore quarry and crusher. Mr. W. M. Stewart foreman. Negative No, -3'-2 6--l“09 Hon. Charles H. Morrill’s -collection of geological photograjdis. On 1 put of the Atwood quarry: Year Tons Year Tons 1902 . .... . 85,000 • 1900 100,000 39o:t 1907 .... 85,000 to 90,000 1904 . . . . . . 100,000 1908 45,009 1905 100,0(X.) Worth ()K)c to 05c a ton Idle })ulk, flO ])er cent, of each year’s outjmt was scr(*eii(Hl liallast for railroads. In addition large amounts of stone were produced for foiindalions, ('oiK'nvte xvoi'k% rip-rap, and other uses in 2H8 NEBRASKA GEOLOaiCAL SURVEY this and adjoining states. For five years the towns and cities of Nebraska have drawn heavily upon this source of supply for the materials used in concrete base for street paving, concrete foundations and bridges, and for cement side walk. The stripping is light, there being five feet of overlying dark “ Loess, (presumably boulder- (ess Drift resembling Loess). Some 10 to 15 acres of stone, averaging 20 feet in thickness have been removed, and a quarry face three- quarters of a mile in length exposed. At the point of greatest thickness the quarry face measures 20 feet, but a pretty uniform thickness of 20 feet is maintained. In quari-ying, the rock is first ‘‘sx)rung’^ with dynamite, and then thrown down with })owder, some 15 to 20 kegs being used at a shot. FIG. 5. Main face in the S. H. Atwood and Go’s. Wymore quarry. This cherty ledge has been exposed for % of a mile by the removal of 10 to 15 acres of rock. Average thickness 2 0 feet. Negative No. 6-26-1-09, Hon. Charles H. Morrill’s collection of geological photographs. THE UNION PACIFIC QUARRY 2?>Si THE UNION PACIFIC QUARRY Preliminary to biiilding a crushing plant, Mr. E. IL Ulrich, Superintendent of quarries for tlie Union Pacific R. R. Co., purchased land within a mile of Blue Springs. Work was begun on the crusher, offices, and related build* ings April 20, 1906, and crushing operations began June 25, 1906. Owing to the proximity of ample material, wheel- barrows were at first used to carry rock to the chutes. As the quarry face retreated teams and stone carts were substituted, the work of development jirogressed rapidly, and soon 40 to 50 men, largely Bulgarians, were regularly employed under the superintendence of Mr. William G. Powell. The price of labor varies from $2.00 to* $2.50 a FIG. 6. The Union Pacific crusher and quarry, Blue Springs, Nebraska. Mr. William E. Powell in charge. Negative No. 4-27-1-09, Hon. Charles H. Morrill’s collection of geological photographs. day. Sti’ict regulations av(‘ 1-(‘ (*nfor<*(Ml by the conqiany to safeguard the enq)loye(‘s against a('('id(nits incident to blasting and (juari'V operations, and a f(‘(‘ of fifty cents a niontli was d(‘dnct(‘d fi'om (qu'li (jiiaiayman ’s monthly pay- ^40 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURTET check to entitle him to proper medical and surgical treat- ment by the company’s local physician, at Blue Springs^ or if preferred in a Kansas City liospitaL Output of the Union Paeifie quarry: 1906 Ballast Tons Screenings Tons Rip-rap Tons-> June & July 64 cai\s 2380. . .- 10 cars . .. 290.-., 1 car . . Aug . . 163 . . 6395 . . .. 40 “ . . ..1335.. Sept . .163 .. 7422. ...35 . 1255 . . Oct.. . . . . . 186 . . 8559. ...21 " . .. 776., Nov ... 74 .. 3410. 2 ... 72... Dec ...... ... 85 i J. . , 3577 . ... 7 ... 270... 1906... 1U07 . .7 Jo ..31743. ...115 . .... 3998... .. 30» Jan’y . . . . .. 69 ti. ... 2843. ... 16 . . . . 646 . . Feb .. T2 .. 1770. . . . 11 .... 418... March .. 90 ... 3526. ...12 ‘‘ . ... 506 . .. April . . 1-n .. 5403. .. .. 15 , .... 644.. 4 .. 209’ May , .123 .. 5794. .... 13 . . .. 611.. 6 .. 29T June . . . . . 105 ... 5709. ... 14 . ... 655 . . July . . loa i . . 5665 . . . . 16 . ... S03... Aug ..114 ‘ - .. 6259. ... 17 •• . . . 796 . . Sept 33 . . 1438. . .. 6 . ... 223.. 34 ..1388« Oct 22 . 1057. ... 4 . .. . . 209 _ 1907 . . .822 ..39464. ...124 . ...5511.. Total ...1557 . 71207. .. .239 9509 ...45 “ ..1924 THE UNION PACIFIC QUARRY 241 FIG. 7. Main face in the Union Pacific Quarry, Blue Springs, "showing a narrow bed of fiinty limestone above at A. and a nine foot bed below at B. The flint nodules are nearly continuous. Negative No. 5-27-1-09, Hen. Charles H. Morrill’s collection of geological photographs. FIG. 9. Flint ballast in use, Burlington Route. 242 ' NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Pei n sal of the foregoing results shows that the flint beds of Gage county yield a total product of 100,000 tons to 140,000 tons or more per year, valued at $65,000 to $100,000, that 100 to 200 men find employment at $2.00 to $3.00 a day, and that within a very few years a commend- able industry has been developed. FIG. 8. Map showing the location of the flint or cherty limestones of the Permo-carboniferous along the Blue river at Blue Springs and Wymore, Nebraska. The Union Pacific quarry, a mile southeast of Blue Springs, the G. H. Davis quarry beyond, and the S. H. Atwood quarry, Wymore, are each indicated in black, the position of the crushers in each case being left blank. The University of Nebraska. Febr. 1909 (Printed and distributed March 1909.) 15 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY EDWIN HINCKLEY BARBOUR, State Geologist . VOLUME 3 PART 6 A NEW GENUS OF RHINOCEROS FROM SIOUX COUNTY, NEBRASKA HAROLD J. COOK A NEW GENUS OF RHINOCEROS FROM SIOUX COUNTY, NEBRASKA * By Harold J. Cook The present geims is based on a siieeiinen (Xo. H. C. 105, CYll. of tlie writer) fonnd in an ex])osnre of the Lower Hariison beds, on the rancli of Mv. Janies TL (\)ok, at Agate, Sionx Comity, X'ebraska, at a point about four miles west of the Agate Spring Fossil Quarry. The bone- bearing horizon at this spot is nearly if not identicadly the same as that in the Agate Spring (^)narry, and these beds — tlie Lower Harrison — are now quite well established as a phase of the Lower Mioeene. Tlie type consists of a good skull, part of tlie left mandilile, and the atlas and axis. All are splendidly ])reserved, save that the sknll has been slightly twisted laterally in the region of the nasals. These remains were closely associated witli those of the little fonr-horned an- telope-like Syndyoceras, the three- toed horse Parahippns, a small camel, and other animals. In an earlier paper, this specimen was provisionally referred to tlie genns Aceratherinm (Coenopns),- but snb- se(jnent study seems to warrant its being generically siqiarated from that genns. Therefore, the name Meta- coenopns is proposed. In ^fetac'oenopns there is but one upper incisoi*, in contrast with two in Coenopns. The brain case is pro- portioiially largco*, the sknll is more robust, particularly in the anterior ])ortion, and is relatively deeper than in the lattei* genns. T\\(\ nasals are longer and heavier, as are the ])i-emaxilhi(‘. 'Hie t(‘eth are somewhat more hypsodont, and the mandible is deiqHM- and heavier than in (^)enopns. The contour of the sknll is (piite dilferent, being more smoothly tnni(‘d than in any known speices (>f (\umopns, and it do(*s not nan-ow so I'aiiidly anteriorly. In till* ty))(‘ of ]\r. (‘gr(*gins, th(‘ nasals are V(‘ry long, extending well Ixyvond th(‘ prinnaxilhne There is a slight NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 2 4t) downward thickening of the nasals at the point where a horn usually occurs in the Rhinocerotidae, which may indicate a rudimentary horn, but it is (piite different from the type of develojunent found in the nasals of the Dicer- atheres. The skull is relatively longer, proportionately narrower, and deeper than that of the contemporary Diceratheres. The atlas, axis, and mandible are heavier, and the mandible lacks the outward turn or flange com- monly found in the Diceratheres.^ fldie shape and propor- tions of the nasals differ radically in these two genera, being much longer and situated higher above the premax- illae in Metacoeno})us, and not showing the double-horn tendency found in Diceratherium. M. egregius appears to agree best among the known species with Coenopus ( Aceratherium) occidentalis, Leidy, found in the middle Oligocene of ^ outh Dakota and Ne- braska, but is a much more advanced type in many re- spects, notably in the development of the brain, the loss of an incisor, and the increased size. The anterior portion of the skull of Metacoeuopus egregius is relatively and actually longer and heavier than that of Coenopus occi- dentalis, and the skull of tlie latter is mucii more sharply pointed. Both the nasals and prema5:illae are longer and heavier, and the nasal aperture is much larger in the former type. M. egregius was a much heavier animal than C. occidentalis. In M. egregius, the temporal ridges unite in forming a sagittal crest, which rises quite abiuptly near the occiput, adding materially to the general saddle-shaped appearance of the skull. The grinding teeth show a comparatively simple pat- tern, and the first premolar is essentially a functional grinding tooth. On the iiremolars, the cingulum extends around the front and inner sides. The premolars are simple, having no anticrochet and only a suggestion of a crochet. The metaloph in the fourth upper premolar is not reduced in relation to the protoloph as in Coenopus, but is strongly developed. In tlie u])per molars, the anti- MEASUREMENTS 247 crochet is somewhat developed in the first and second, a moderate crochet is present, and a small crista appears in M A . The cingulum on the molars is interrupted on the internal face opposite both the protocone and liypocone. Dental formula: It p4 m4 MEASUREMENTS Mm. Greatest length 47^1 Extreme width across zygomatic arclies 245 Distance between orbits across frontals 140 Width of brain case 90 Length of upper molar-premolar seiles-left side.... 202 Length of upper molars, left side 102 Length of lower molars, left side. ... 100 Length of diastema P. 1 to ineisor 01 I larold James ( V)ok American Museum of Xatural llistoi'y, XTew York, December 9, 190S. (Printed and distributed .Marcli, IHOiO 1. See Am. Nat. Vol. XLII, .4ug. 190S. 2. See Leidy Proc. Ac Nat. Sci. 1850, 119, 276; 1853, 392; 1857, 89; 1 865, 1 76; Owen’s Rep. Geol. Surv., Wisconsin, etc. 1 852, 552. Leidy, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci., 1 85 1 331; 1 854, 1 57; Leidy. Jo. Ac. Nat. Sci.. Vol. VII, p. 220, 1 869. Osborn; Mem. Am. Mu. Nat. Hist., pp. 1 50-158. 3. See Barbour, Nebr. Geol. Survey, Vol. 2, Part 4. See Peterson, Science, XXIV, No. 609, pp. 281-282, 1 906. See Annals of the Carnegie Museum, Vol. IV, No. 1, 1 906. 248 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, EXPLAXA TIOX OF PLATE ] Three views, A. top. B. palutine. C. side vie w of skull of Metacoenopus Pljrrejrius. Nt natural size. NEBRASKA GEOLO'JICAL SURVEY VOLUxME 8. PART (i. 1‘EATF. 1 SKUI.E OF METACOENOPdS EOKECJIUS. (’OOK. ‘t library OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS , ^ ,f .' /'T ■ _• •■ 16 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ERWIN HINCKLEY BARBOUR, STATE GEOLOGIST VOLUME 3 PART 7 A SLAB FROM THE BONE BEDS OF SIOUX COUNTY BY ERWIN HINCKLEY BARBOUR Scientific Contribution Geological fund of Hon. Charles H. Morrill Xolmiska ( loolosxicnl Survey Part 7, Plate A Slab from the Bone Beds at Agate, Sioux County, Nebraska. Slab No. 3. Collection ot Hon. Charles H. Morrill, Geological Expedition, 1908. Explanation of Plate I. The slab shown in Plate I was cut out of the bone beds, Morrill Quarry, University Hill, at Agate, Nebraska, on the ranch of Mr. James H. Cook. Enough of the rocky matrix has been chiseled off to expose most of the inclosed bones. The slab is designed to show the public the significance of the words “bone quarry.” It is mounted in a heavy oak frame with plate glass front, and is attached to a wall in the State Museum. Dimensions, 6| feet by 4 feet. Parts of the following animals are represented: Rhinoceros, especially Diceratherium; Moropus cooki and parvus; Dinohyus; Dinocyon, etc. At the top to the left of center may be seen the canine and three incisors of a young Dinohyus. The length of canine, measured on outer curve, is 11 inches; large incisor 7 inches. The cervical vertebra at top, center, is Moropus parvus; the large metacarpal, right lower corner is Moropus cooki. Most of the smaller bones are Diceratherium arikarense. This specimen was prepared by Edwin G. Davis, University of Nebraska, Class 1909. Four such bone-slabs have been secured by the Morrill Geological Expeditions, which are sent out annually from the University of Nebraska. They attract the attention of all visitors, who count them interesting and instructive specimens, as well as unique. Nebraska State Museum, The University of Nebraska, June 1, 1909. (Printed and distributed June 26, 1909). 17 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ERWIN HINCKLEY BARBOUR, STATE GEOLOGIST VOLUME 3 PART 8 • RESTORATION OF DICERATHERIUM ARIKARENSE, A NEW FORM OF PANEL MOUNT ERWIN HINCKLEY BARBOUR Scientific Contribution Geological fund of Hon. Charles H. Morrill (loological Siirvey Vol. 3, Part 8, Plate o a ^ o ^ c ^ IS 'o a . .a w ;h OJ M ^ reserved in the type) is much reduced in size. M3 was small and single rooted. The lower canine is large and rounded anteriorly, but unfortu- nately the enamel is damaged on the posterior side of both lower canines, so it is impossible to state the nature of the posterior trenchant edge. The mandible is shallower than in the type of T. altigenis.® The skull is relatively short and broad. The postglenoid pro- cess is long and acute. The postglenoid foramen is situated about 4 mm. farther from the median line of the skull than the lowest part of the postglenoid process, thus being farther out than in T. altigenis, as described by Prof. J. C. Merriam. The other foramina are practically as in T. altigenis. The tympanic bullae are large and expanded. The palate is short 4 — E. D. Cope, Tert. Vert. PL. LXX, No. 10. r> — E. D. Cope, Tert. Vert. PL. LXXI No. 2. 6 — E. D. Cope, Tert. Vert., PL. LXVIII, No.^ 9. NEW CARNIVORA FROM MIOCENE BEDS 265 Fig. 2. Temnocyon Venator. Type specimen. Natural size. Left ramus, and crown view of M^, M No. H C 2 2 3. 266 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY and broad, in direct contrast to that of T. altigenis and T. ferox, in which the palate is very narrow, especially in the latter. This specimen was found about one-half mile west of Agate, Nebraska, in the Lower Harrison beds, and in approx- imately the same horizon as the Agate Spring Quarries. TEMXOCYOX PERCUSSOR, sp. nov. Type, (Xo. II C 116) a damaged pair of lower jaws, with a nearly complete dental series of an adult animal, little worn. This species compares most closely in size to T. ferox,' Eyer- man, but the type specimen is somewhat larger in this species than in the type of ferox, and the dentition is of rather dif- ferent proportions. The teeth are all very robust. Ml is distinctly longer than P 4 in T. percussor, while in T. ferox the antero-posterior diameter of these two teeth is nearly the same. Mi has the typical trenchant telonid which is strongly developed, with a vestigeal tubercle on the slight cingulum representing the entoconid. The metaconid is fairly well developed. The premolars are tall, as in T. altigenis, but much more robust. P 4 has the prominent accessory cusp well developed on the posterior side of the protoconid which is typical in the genus Temnocyon, and a broad, rounded, basal heel (3mm. in antero-posterior breadth). M 2 is relatively large, with a well developed protoconid. Unfortunately both jaws were broken at the posterior side of M 2 , so that it is im])ossible to tell anything abcut iM.v The canine was large and elliptical, showing no distinct posterior cutting edge. (There is some doubt as to this canine, — the right upper — be- longing to the same individual as the jaws, but as they were found closely associated, they probably belong together). This s})ecimen was found in the same location as the above species. XOTIIOCYOX sp. A fragment of a left mandilile (Xo. II C 115) containing 7 — J. Eyerman, Am. Geol. Vol. 17, p. 267. NEW CARNIVORA FROM MIOCENE BEDS 267 Fig. 3. Temnocyon percussor. Type specimen. Left lower jaw and crown view of teeth. Natural size. No. H C 116. 268 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY a sectorial apparently represents a large species of Xotliocyon, somewhat larger and heavier than X. geismarianns,® Cope. (As figured in Tert. Vert., pi. LXX, fig. 2.) There is a slight cingnlnm rnnning around the front of the tooth from the base of the protoconid interiorly to the base of the protoconid exteriorly. The entoconid and iiypoconid are nearly equally developed. There is a minnte accessory cnsp between the entoconid and metaconid. This cnsp is also l)resent in X. annectens, Peterson, and although I am not en- tirely certain that it is present in the type specimen, the draw- ing (fig. 15, p. 55, Annals Carnegie Mns. Vol. IV) seems to indicate its presence. It is present in two specimens in the collections of the writer. The metaconid is rather heavy. DAPHOEXODOX PEPICULOSUS sp. nov. This species is represented by the right mandible of a rather old individual (Xo. H C 222) with a fairly complete dental series. It is perhaps most closely related to Daphoeno- don snpnrbns,^ bnt it shows some marked differences. The mandible is built on a very robust plan, and indi- cates a heavier and more dolichocephalic skull than in snpnr- bns. The premolar region is longer and the dentition less- crowded than in the latter species. Ml is relatively smaller, and Mo and Ms relatively larger than in the type of D. snpnrbns. Although Mg is absent, the alveolns indicates that it was nearly as large as Mo. The pre- molars, except the first, have a posterior cnsp, similar to that found in some species of CAnis, Tephyrocyon,^*^ and other genera. If the drawings in Mr. Peterson ’s paper be correct in this respect, this cnsp does not appear in Po, or Pg, of the type of Daphoenodon snpnrbns, — and it certainly does not appear in two specimens referred to the latter species, in the collections 8 — E. D. Cope, Tert. Vert. PL. LXX, Xo. 2. 9 — O. A. Peterson, Annals Cam. Mus. Vol. IV, Xo. 1, pp. 51-53,. PL. XVIII. 10 — J. C. Merriam, Bull. Dept. Geol. Uni. of Calif. Vo. 5, No. 1,. pp. 6-10. NEW CARNIVORA FROM MIOCENE BEDS 26i) Fig. 4. Daphoenodon periculosus. Type specimen. Right lower jaw 9 ,iid crown view of teeth, natural size. No. H C 2 2 2. 270 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY of the writer. This accessory cusp is vestigeal in Po, hut quite i^romineut in P 3 , much as in Canis latrans. The heel of P 4 is very lieavy, and exjianded transversely. Found in the first mentioned quarry. This specimen (Xo. H C 224) was also obtained in the new quarry mentioned first in this article, and consists of a left maxilla, with Pq P^ and P\ The specimen is somewhat larger than the type of 0 . lepidus, and P^ was present, though greatly reduced, while absent in the type of lepidus. The present specimen may be a somewhat more primative form than the type of lepidus, or the presence or absence of this tooth may well be a variable character in this species. But until more complete material is found, little more can be defi- nitely said concerning the relationship of these animals. Fig. 5. Nothocyon sp No. H C 115. Fig. 6. Oligobunis cf lepidus, Mat- Part of right ramus, external view, thew. Left maxilla, external view, and crown view of M^, natural size. natural size. No. H C 22 4. MUSTELIDAE. OLIGOBUNIS cf. LEPIDUS, Matthew. Pi NEW CARNIVORA FROM MIOCENE BEDS MEASUREMENTS OP TYPE SPECIMENS. 271 a. — approximately. c. — From Cope’s figures, Tert. Vert. PI. LXX. 3 d cc 0 M in 0 a; d CJ 0 ci 3 Cj Length of skull, incisors to condyles inclusive. . . .al75 Width of palate between deuterocones of P^ 41 Width of palate between canines a 25 Greatest width of zygomatic arches ..all5 Greatest width of brain case 51 Length of superior dentition, posterior side of canines to posterior side of M^ 54 c67 c77 pi antero-posterior diameter c 6 P 2 antero-pcsterior diameter 10 cll c 9 P 3 antero-posterior diameter cI3 cl3 pi antero-posterior diameter 18 cl7 cl9 Ml antero-posterior diameter r2.5cl2cl4 M 3 antero-posterior diameter 5 c 4 c 7.5 Length of mandible, anterior side of symphysis to posterior side of condyle 136 Height of mandible below protoconid of M^ 25 28 Length of bases of molars 14 Length of premolar region, posterior side of ca- nine to M^ 29 Length of inferior dental series, posterior side of canine to posterior side of M^ 69 P^ antero-posterior diameter P^ antero-posterior diameter P antero-posterior diameter diameter diameter diameter Ill 8 antero-posterior antero-posterior antero-posterior antero-posterior antero-posterior Length of heel. 96 11 14 17 23 16.5 38.6 8.5 11 14.6 12 16 14.2 15 19.5 21 19 18.5 23.5 21.5 8 11.5 14 13 5 6 8 7 5 P3 Transverse diameter pi transverse diameter across deuterocone 10 cll cl2.5 Ml transverse diameter across deuterocone 17 cl5 c20 M 2 transverse diameter across deuterocone 9.5 c 9 cll Canine, antero-posterior diameter at tase of enamel H Canine, transverse diameter at base of enamel. . . H Canine, height above base of enamel a23 16 25.3 14 272 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY MEASUREMENTS. TYPE SPECIMENS. a. — From drawing on PI. XVIII. An. Car. Mus., Vol. IV. O M 'O 3 O M « o Q ^ m .a m d Greatest length of mandible Depth of mandible below protoconid of sectorial. ; P^ antero-posterior diameter P^ antero-posterior diameter P^ antero-posterior diameter P^ antero-posterior diameter M^ antero-posterior diameter M^ antero-posterior diameter M^ antero-posterior diameter (Aprox., as indicated by al- veolus) P transverse diameter 1 P^ transverse diameter P transverse diameter 3 P transverse diameter 4 M transverse diameter 1 M^ transverse diameter M” transverse diameter 3 mm. 203 38 12 14 19 24 16 14 6 7 10 11 10 . 5 mm. 182 a30 6 10 13 16 25 14 9 4 5 6 8 11 10 MEASUREMENTS. NOTHOCYON SP. Depth of mandible below Protoconid of M^ 17 M^, antero-posterior diameter 12.5 M transverse diameter 6 1 M^, length of heel 4 v^m OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS > i ir 19 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ERWIN HINCKLEY BARBOUR, Staie Geologist VOLUME 3 PART 10 COAL IN NEBRASKA By ROY V. PEPPERBERG COAL IN NEBRASKA By Roy V. Pepperberg UbUI February, 1906, Nebraska was termed “tlu’ slate witlioiit a mine,” and may still be called the state with but a single mine, and yet it would be impossible to tell bow much ])rospecting lias been done, or to estimate the number of thousands of dollars that have been spent in this state trying to develop paying mines from the thin beds of coal discovered throughout various parts of the state in the Car- boniferous and Cretaceous formations. The Cretaceous is a coal producing system in general, espe- cially in Colorado and Wyoming, and its members have played an important part in the history of coal ])ros])ecting in this state. Hie ])ui‘])ose of this ])a])er is to discuss the ocimrrence of coal in Nebraska in the different formations, which outcrop throughout the state, giving particular reference to the bed which is now being worked at Peru, Nebraska. A section of the rocks of Nebraska from east to west across the state may be seen in Ehg. 1. Pennsylvanian Formation. The formation outcrops along the Missouri River from a point north of Omaha to the southeast corner of the state, along the Platte River from Plattsmouth west to Ashland, and in the counties south of these points. They make up the surface or bed rock in all of Richardson and Nemaha coun- ties, nearly all of Johnson, Pawnee, and Otoe, and parts of K) Dune sand. (18) Loess — 0 to 100 feet. (17) Drift. (16) Eqiuis beds. (15) (14) Ogalalla — Pliocene Arikaree — 400 to 500 feet, Miocene. jLoup Fork 1 beds (13) Gering — 100 to 200 feet. (12) Brule — 200 to 300 feet. ( Oligocene (11) Chadron — 100 feet. ) Bad Lands. (10) Laramie ( ? ) ( 9 ) Pierre — 0 to 1.0 00 feet or more. ( 8 ) Niobrara — 2 00 to 4 00 feet. ( 7 ) Carlis’e — 100 to 500 feet. ( 6 ) Greenhorn — 2 0 to 3 0 feet. [■Benton group. ( 5 ) Graneros — 5 0 to 900 feet.. (?) J ( 4 ) Dakota — 300 to 400 feet. ( 3 ) Morrison (?) ( 2 ) Permo-carboniferous 200 to 300 feet. ( 1 ) Pennsylvanian coal-bearing, 1,000 to 1,200 feet. Hayden also observed, that “the beds of eastern Nebraska pass under the state and appear in the Black Hills and Mountains and there again show no indications of coal of any thickness.” COAL IN NEBRASKA 279 1 ^ C* ^BOM/eefoui TV^ ceoi/B Fig. 1. A geological section from the Missouri River to the Black Hills. Modified after Barton. The presence of thin seams of coal in the soiitliern part of the state has been observed since the time of earliest settle- ment, and many farmers in this section have dug enough coal from their farms to supply their domestic needs. This is however the extent of the production and most of these small mines were soon abandoned as unprofitable. The following coal analyses were made by the De]^artment of Chemistry, The University of Nebraska, and were run partly or entirely air-dry. No. 1 is from Nemaha Comity, No. from Cass Comity, No. 3 from Otoe Comity, and No. 4 from liichardson County: No. Moisture Vol. Comb. Matter Fixed Carbon Ash Sulphur 1 4.46 36.67 45.26 9.50 4.09 2 13.23 44.56 32.04 10.21 3 7.10 20.52 29.10 36.46 (i.81 4 7.87 31.52 50.36 10.26 • • • • 280 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY COAL EXCITEMENTS. The following account of a coal excitement was reported by Meek and Hayden as early as 1867 and records what was probably one of the first in this portion of Nebraska: " ‘^At Tecumseh a thin bed of coal has been opened, and is now worked with some success by Mr. Beatty. The drift is very similar to that before described in my report of Pawnee County, and extends into the bank about one hundred yards. Mr. Beatty has taken out about a thousand bushels of coal, which he sells readily at the mine for twenty-five cents per bushel. It is undoubtedly the same bed that is opened at Turner’s Branch and at Frieze’s Mill, in Pawnee County, but is not quite as thick or as good; it contains large masses of sulphuret of iron and other impurities. The coal seam here varies much in thickness, from ten to fifteen inches. The cap rock is a bed of limestone not more than two or three feet in thickness. A well was sunk in the village of Tecumseh sixty feet; a drill was driven down through the rock and hard clay a few feet farther, and passed through what the workmen thought to be three feet of good coal. This discovery created much ex- citement at the time, and increased the demand for public lands in Johnson County. It afterwards turned out to be the same seam of coal worked by Mr. Beatty on the Nemaha, and was only eleven inches in thickness. Tlie prospects, therefore^ for workable beds of coal in Johnson County are no better than in neighboring counties already examined.” A year seldom passes without reports of the discovery of a ‘‘workable bed of coal” in southeastern Nebraska, and the organization of a company to promote the development of the same. Funds are raised and drilling operations begun, or a shaft is sunk, and in each of hundreds of cases the re- sult is the same, money thrown away in the fruitless search for coal. In many cases the State Geologist is asked for his unbiased opinion as to the probability of the presence of coal 1. U. S. G. S. of Nebraska by Meek and Hayden, p. 34. COAL IN NEBRASKA 281 282 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY in some particular part of the state, and in no case does his answer, that it is probably not present in paying quantities, stop the coal excited people from spending their money. The towns that have had repeated coal excitements in the Pennsylvanian section are: Eulo, Humboldt, Tecumseh, Peru, South Fork, Nebraska City, Falls City, and Plattsmouth. Others might be added to this list including most of the towns ill the eleven counties above named. The coal that has been obtained is of fairly good burning quality, but runs high in moisture and ash, and compara- tively low in fixed carbon for a bituminous coal. Our coal beds range from four to thirty-six inches in thickness, and in some ])laces are found at a depth of many feet below the sur- face, making it entirely impracticable to mine. .edge of this area the coal bed varies from one foot in thickness to ap- proximately three feet. In the western edge it pinches out to a few inches. The only coal mine now being operated within the state is the Honey Creek Coal Mine at Peru. In this mine the coal is about thirty-three inches thick, and while it no doubt will prove to be a profitable working bed of coal, its importance is confined to a very small area. Relative to this mine. Pro- fessor E. H. Barbour, State Geologist for Nebraska, says, ' “It has certainly been the o])inion of geologists at large that 1. Nebraska Geolog’cal Survey. Vol. II, p. 3 5 5. COAL IN NEBRASKA 283 commercial coal of great extent was not to be expected in Nebraska, and the occnrrence of a workable bed in Pern does not materially change this opinion, for at best it must be local, being confined to x^erhaps a townshij) of two, as shown by the surrounding deep wells. Though limited to a square mile or so it is of im])ortance to this commonwealth.’’ H()NP.Y CREEK COAL MINE. Discovery and Development. A coal-like seam had long been observed outcropping along Honey Creek, four miles southeast of Peru, Nebraska. It is said to have been noticed first by Win. Vandiford some thirty- eight years ago, but was never thought to be of sufficient thickness to warrant mining. On Febrnary 11, 1906, while digging a road, AVm. H. Rader discovered that this coal seam thickened as it extended into the hill. ^his]iecting that this was a valuable discovery, Mr. Rader re])orted his observations to Messrs. George and Mead- ly, who had leased from A. M. Borst the land upon which the outcrop occurred. The curiosity of these men being aroused they commenced digging and tunneling into the hillside that day. iMay 1st, 1906, Mr. Medley’s interest was purchased by Mr. J. P. Hays and the work progressed under the name of Hays and Ceorge until November, 1908, when a conpiany was foi'ined with Mr. J. B. McGrew of Bloomington, Ne- braska, as ])resident. It is to be incor])orated as tlie Honey Creek Mining Company, with a paid np ca])ital of ^15,000. This company now o|)erates the mine with Mr. Stephen Geoi-ge in charge. Location and Topography. The Honey (’reek (kial Mine is hx'ated two mih^s south, and two miles east of Pern, in the N. W. (piarter, of Section 36, T. ()., R. If) E., N(‘niaha (’onnty, Nebraska. (See Fig. 4.) The tunnels No. 1 and No. 2 (See Fig. 7) entei* the north- west side of a large hill, the to])ography of which ( See Fig. 284 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 5) is observed to be that of a ridge 140 feet high and 2,071 feet long, tapering and pointing toward the north. On the north and west of this hill Honey Creek flows directly past the entrance of the mine and about twelve feet below it. On the east, just at the foot of the hill, is the B. & M. E. E. track at a level of ten feet below that of the mine, and about one hundred yards east of the track is the Missouri Eiver, into which Honey Creek empties. Extent and Quality of Coal. The extent of the coal is not definitely known as yet, but it is reasonable to suppose that it at least underlies all of COAL IN NEBRASKA 285 Honey Creek Hill with approximately the Fame thickness as in the portions now worked and it is very probable that the coal will he found in adjoining hills, where the same indi- cations may now be observed which led to the development of Honey Creek Coal Mine. The thickness of the coal in neighboring hills is not known; it is not likely that the bed thickens, while it is probable that it pinches out rapidly toward the south and west. Drilling should be done in these hills and the exact thickness and extent of the coal ascer- tained. Measurements made thronghout the Honey Creek Mine show coal varying from 29f4 to inches, with an average of 32.9 inches. The following measurements were made by the writer in a very careful manner in April, 1907: Measurement at No. 1 31 inches Measurement at No. 2 29f4 inches Measurement at No. 3 29% inches iNFeasurement at No. 1. . . 35 inches Measurement at No. 5 31% inches Measurement at No. 6 33% inches Measurement at No. 7 31 inches Measurement at No. 8 33%> inches Measurement at No. 9 31V2 inches Measurement at No. 10 35% inches Measurement at No. 11 31% inches 'Avei-age 32.9 inches Upon visiting the mine recently the writer was informed that as work progressed the bed of coal had thickened to 36 or 38 inches, but being unable to verify this statement by measurements, on account of the presence of water in the mine, these figures cannot be vouched for. Taking the tlii(‘kness at about 33 indues, it will i^npiire a little ovei- one scpiare yard to ])rodu(*.e a ton of coal. Since tli(‘re ar-e about 218,118 square yards in lloiu'v (5‘eek Hill, at the coal h^vel, there are about 218,000 tons of coal, ])roviding 1. P^or places at which measurements were taken see P^'ig. 9. ^86 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY the thickness of 33 inches is maintained thronghont the hill. In case the coal has now reached a thickness of 38 inches, as is claimed by the operators of the mine, the hill may con- tain as mnch as 250,000 tons of coal. Geology and Stratigraphy. Although the formations occnring at Pern, Nebraska, have ^ca/e L ■ I _ SOO Fig. 5. Topography of Honey Creek Hill, Sec. 3 6, T. 6, R. 15 E. Peru, Nebraska. Datum Plane mean sea level. Contour interval 20 feet. The two black bars are tunnels; the crossed circle an air shaft. COAL IN NEBRASKA 287 not been as carefully traced as they should be in order to positively identify them, still, as the result of tracing be- tween Nebraska City and Peru, together with the correlation of these beds by various geologists of the Nebraska, Kansas, Iowa, and United States Geological Surveys, the writer feels justified in pronouncing the formation here as an upper mem- ber of the Atchison Shales (Prosser’s Waubansee). It is possible that the Carboniferous fiora from the vicinity of Peru and Nebraska City recently described by the writer, and soon to be published by the State Survey, may, after its horizon is definitely known, change the i)osition of the beds as now regarded. Fig. 6. View looking east from Mr. William Rader’s across Honey Creek Valley. To the left throiigli the railroad cat may be seen the Mis- souri River. Tunnels 1 and 2 are numbered accordingly. At 2 the over- lying rock and shale are about 5 0 feet thick, at 1 about GO feet, and at the summit of the hill 120 feet. This exi)anding ridge for a mile or two to the south is known to be underlaid with coal. Compare Fig. 7. Nega- tive No. 2-1G-2-07. Hon. Charles H. Morrill’s collection of geological photographs, the University of Nebraska. A s(‘(dion of IIon(‘V (’r(d‘k Hill (See f’igs. 7 , S) shows the coal to be ov(M-laid and und(‘rlaid by a dai'k (‘ompact shale. 288 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY which weathers rapidly on exposure to the air. This latter property is cpiite evident in the mine where the roofing shale weathers and falls to the floor after being exposed for a few months. It makes, nevertheless, an excellent roofing for the mine. This shale is covered by an uneven layer of Loess varying from 10 to 75 feet in thickness. Fig. 7. A geologic?! section running north and south through Honey Creek Coal Mine, showing carboniferous overlaid with Drift and Loess. C — Old railroad cut; H — Honey Creek. Tunnels at 1 and 2. The general dip of these beds is toward the southwest, but is scarcely noticeable in the small extent of the coal area exposed. There is, however, a small, rather interesting syn- cline present, which is plainly evident thronghont the mine as far as now worked. The trough of this syncline crosses tunnel Xo. 2 about 50 feet from the entrance, running in a north and west direction. The seepage water from the mine runs into this syncline making what the miners term a “water course” by means of which the water is carried to a“sunk”' (See letter S Fig. 9) where the water is about four feet deep,, and from which place it is drawn out of the mine by means- t Fig. 8. Sectional view at Honey Creek Coal :\Iine, tunnel No. 2, show- ing room and pillar method of mining, t, tunnel No. 2; r, roofiing shale; c, coal bed with a maximum thickness of 3 5 to 36 inches, a minimum of 29 inches and an average of 32.9, or 33 inches in round numbers. COAL IN NEBRASKA 281 ^ of a syplion, which drains into Honey Creek. Method of "Working. When operation was begun on the mine two tunnels were dug extending about 150 feet into the hill, where the miners started to remove the coal on the xhan of the room-and-pillar system. This is done by working the coal from either side of the tunnel in long rooms, leaving a wall or pillar of coal some six feet wide on each side of the tunnel to support the roof, some timbering also being done. During the past year this system of mining was replaced by the long-wall method, in which all of the coal is removed, advancing the face in all directions at the same time in the form of a circle about the tunnel. As the face is advanced the roof is su])])orted by timbers placed along the entries, (Fig. 10) and the waste shale is ])acked against these props forming what is known as the “gob” or “packed wall.” The weight of the over- lying strata must be borne by this “gob” and by the time the roof has settled to a permanent position, it has com- pressed the material in the “gob” from 36 inches to 18 inches in thickness, having settled one half of the distance for- merly occupied by the coal, under the immense weight of the overlying shale and Loess. The coal is removed by hand, with the aid of picks and levers, and is transported from the mine by means of jiush- cars, which run on light rail tracks, to the dump, where it is em])tied on the storage pile, or loaded into wagons to be hauled to town or to the freight cars, which are close at hand.( Fig. 11). AVlien first ojierated the mine was ventilated in a very crude mannei', l)iit an air shaft has now been sunk tlii'ougli 40 feet of Loess and sliale, into the face of tunnel No. 2 at tlie ])oint marked by a crossed circle (See Fig. 5) and by means of this outlet (piite an air current is produced and |)roi)er ventilation insured. Physical and Chemical Properties. The Peru coal is what would be classed as a fair or medium 290 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY grade of bitimiinoiis coal. It does not come up to the standard of the average Iowa or Kansas coal but is as good in quality as some coal mined in those states. It is hard and com])act when first mined but soon slacks, crumbling to small pieces on exposure to the air. It is for this reason, a poor coal for shipping or storing, and is best adapted for immediate boiler or domestic use. Fig. 9. Ground plan of the Honey Creek Coal Mine. The numbers show where measurements weie made see page 285, letters, where coal samples were taken for analysis, see page 292. S. eauals “sunk”; the cross circle near 5 indicates the position of the air shaft. It has a specific gravity of 1.28, burns well, giving a good amount of heat and leaving a soft, red ash of rather large amount for a bitnminons coal. The first chemical analyses of the Peru coal were made in 1906 by L. J. Pepper berg, then a Fellow in the Department of Geology. The record of these analyses is given below: the first of the three samples is air-dried, the second water- soaked as mined, and the third is lignitic coal from Cumber- land, Wyoming, for com])arison: Coke Volfitile Fixed B. T. U per Volatile Fixed C. No. Moisture Matter Carbon Ash Total Lbs Coal Matter ]’(• (Min b. pc. of Comb. 1 10 . 4 5.25 36.28 8 .47 100 12,621 5 5.50 44 . 50 2 32 . 22 28.54 19.38 19.86 100 7,492 54 . 80 45.20 3 3.65 44 . 27 46 .18 5 . 90 100 14,100 54 . 90 45.10 These sam])les were taken from near the snrfa(*e and repre- sent weathered coal, which ex})lains the high per cent of mois- ture and ash. They are placed beside a Cumberland, Wyom- COAL IN NEBRASKA 291 l^ig. 10. Honey Creek Coal Mine, tunnel No. 2, showing method of timbering, eoal car, track, und three minei's. Negative No. 10-10-2-07. Hon. Charles H. Morrill’s collection of geological photographs. 292 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ing, coal for comparison, the volatile combustible matter be- ing practically the same per cent of the total combustibles in the two coals. In Aiiril, 1907, eleven samples were taken from various points thronghont the mine (Fig. 9, A to K inclusive) and have since been analyzed by the writer, in the laboratory of the Department of Chemistry, where laboratory privileges were freely extended to him while engaged in this work. The following are analyses rnn “mine-wet” according to the method approved by the re})ort of the Committee in the American Clieiiiic al Society Journal A Volatile Fixed Volatile No. Moisture Comb. Matter Fixed Carbuti Ash Carbon pc comb. Matter Sulphur pc. comb. 1 22 . 5 35 . 2 31 . 6 10.7 47.3 5 2.7 2 23.3 3 5.5 31 . 9 9.3 47 . 4 52 . 6 3 22 . 1 33 . 8 32.2 11.9 48 . 8 51.2 4 23.5 32.3 30 . 9 13.3 48 . 8 51 . 2 5 25 . 2 29 . 8 37 . 4 7 . 6 55.7 44 . 3 6 25 . 7 32.0 33 . 5 8 . 8 51.1 48 . 9 7 25.9 30 . 6 35.0 8 . 4 53 . 3 46 . 7 8 26 . 3 32 . 3 34.1 7 . ‘I 51.4 48 . 6 9 25 . 1 30 . 5 34 . 1 10.3 52 . 8 47 . 2 10 26 . 4 36.0 29 . 9 7 . 7 4 5.8 54 . 2 11 40 . 2 25 . 5 23.3 11.0 47 . 7 52 . 3 Av. 1-9 Z-i . 4 32 . 4 33 . 4 9.7 50.7 49.3 6.22 12 13.42 39 . 83 3 9.29 9 .46 13 26.84 32.14 34.19 6 . 83 14 28 . 47 28 . 63 35 .32 7.58 Samples Xos. 12, 13, and 14 are included for comparison, ttie first of these being from Blacksmith, Kansas, the other two from snb-bitnminons coal of Montana. The above samples show a decided improvement over the samples taken in 1906, with a marked decrease in the i)er cent of moisture and ash and a corresponding increase in the per cent of volatile combustible matter and fixed carbon. The per cent of fixed carbon in the coal has shown a decided in- 1. Volume 21, p. 1116-32. 2. The physical quality of the above coal is such that appreciable quantities of carbon were carried off when the fine powder was burned, making the per cent of fixed carbon low. COAL. IN NEBRASKA Fig. 11. The Honey Creek Coal Mine, entrance to tunnel No. 2. One of the proprietors, Mr. Hayes, stands at the right, the other, Mr. George, to the left. A group of miners stand at the entrance. To the right and left is a streak of weathered coal, which leads to a 33-inch bed near the entrance. Negative No. 8-16-2-07. Hon Charles Morrill’s collection of geological photographs, the University of Nebraska. 294 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY crease and this is the most important factor in determining^ the value of a coal. xVs stated above the coal shows much improvement on going further back into the mine, but after entering some dis- tance the ditference as shown by analyses is slight and is pure- ly local, indicating no probable change in the coal throughout the hill from that now obtained, at least in so far as chemical ]u*operties are concerned. Physically the coal has a better color, luster, and is harder than the coal first mined. Value The value of any coal depends essentially upon its: 1. Chemical contents. 2. Cost of working. 3. Relation to market. 4. Coking ])i*operties. 5. Surrounding formations with reference to the possible production of brick, lime, cement, etc. 1. The chemical contents of the Peru coal have been suf- ficiently discussed above. 2. The cost of working is a very important question in any mine, and under this heading many things might be suggested which affect the cost of mining coal. It is sufficient at this time merely to say that at the Honey Creek Mine labor is not high; the coal having parting planes is not hard to work; the seepage water and ventilation are easily taken care of; wood is at hand to supply such timbering as is necessary; and no shafts have to be sunk, so the coal is taken out on the level of the mine without much labor or ex])ense. However, it should be added that the thickness of the coal is not gveat enough but that the working-cost ])er ton will always run high, and especially so since it is mined by hand. 3. The relation of coal to market demands is self-evident,, and the conditions at Peru are quite favorable. Since it is not a good shipping coal, the importance of immediate con- sumption becomes greater. The Honey Creek Coal Mine has furnished most of the coal COAL IN NEBRASKA 295 used by tlie town of Peru and the State Normal School sit- uated there, for the past two years, and carload shipments have been made to Auburn, Brownville, Nemaha City, Orleans, and Eepnblican City. 4. The Honey Creek coal is not a good coking coal. 5. The overlying and underlying shales suggest the manu- facture of brick and various clay wares, and the burning of “gumbo” for railroad ballast. The writer has seen no limestone in the vicinity, which might prove suitable for the manufacture of Portland cement and which might add to the immediate uses and consequently increase the value of the coal. The actual value of the Honey Creek coal on the market is $3.50 per ton at the mine. Thus taking the figures as given above, namely that a 33 inch bed thronghont the hill con- tains about 218,000 tons, a value of $763,000.00 may be set on the Honey Creek coal, or in case the bed thickens so as to contain 250,000 tons, the value would be about $875,000.00. These estimates are necessarily but approximations. According to the terms of the original lease a royalt}^ of fifty cents per ton was paid to the lessor on all coal selling for three dollars a ton, and one dollar for coal selling for four dollars. The royalty has now been reduced from fifty to twenty-five cents per ton, so that when the entire hill is worked, if the above figures ai‘e correct and the present roy- alty n aintained, the lessor will have received lietween $54,- 500.00 and $62,500.00 as royalty from the coal removed. Output. The output of the Honey Creek Ccal Mine u]) to date is as follows: Feb. 11, 1906, to Aug. 31, 1906 A])prox 75 T $ 262.00 September, 1906, coal marketed 20 T 70.00 October, 1906, coal marketed 25 T 87.00 Novembei’, 1 906, coal marketed 50 T 175.00 December, 1906, coal marketed 70 T 245.00 Total for 1906 200 T $ 839.00 ■296 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Jainiary, 1907, coal marketed 85 T $298.00 Pebriiary 1 to 15, 1907, coal marketed 75 T 262.00 February 15 to 28, 1907, coal marketed. . . .114 T 399.00 September, 1907, coal marketed 63 T 220.00 October, 1907, coal marketed 96 T 336.00 November, 1907, coal marketed 138 T 483.00 December, 1907, coal marketed 75 T 262.00 Total for 1907 646 T $2,260 . 00 January, 1908, coal marketed 43 T 150.50 February, 1908, coal marketed 38 T 133.00 Marcli, i008, coal marketed 60 T 210.00 Closed on account of Ore and subsequent flooding until Nov. 1908. December, 1908, coal marketed 20 T 70.00 Total for 1908 161 T $563.50 January, 1909, coal marketed 30 T 105.00 February, 1909, coal mai*keted 30 T 105.00 Owing to a series of tires and cave-ins tun- nels No. 1 and No. 2 have been abandoned for several months, but a new tunnel is under construction. September, 1909, coal marketed 9 T 38.25 October, 1909, coal marketed 32 T 136.00 Total for 1909 Ill T $ 384.25 Grand total 1,118 T $4,046.75 A new company has been formed and mining operations are to be resumed in the summer or fall of 1910. Dakota Formation. The outcrops of this formation are shown by Figures 1, and 2 to occur in Jefferson, Gage, Lancaster, Cass, Saunders, Sarpy, Douglas, Dodge, Washington, Burt, Thurston and Da- kota counties. The formation is between three hundred and four hundred feet thick and like all other formations here discussed extends under the entire state west of the line of outcrop. (Fig. 2.) COAL IN NEBRASKA 29T Thin seams of lignite occur in the Dakota and have caused nearly as much excitement and loss of money as the coal seams in the Pennsylvanian. It has been worked somewhat at Ponca, Dixon County; (possibly Graneros, com])are page 293) ^"alparaiso, Saunders County; Homer, Dakota County,, and has been reached l)y drilling at two levels at Jackson, Da- kota County; in C^edar County; at Jamestown, Dodge County;, and along the Big Bine liiver near Milford and Crete. The lig- nite at these |)laces varies from six inches to two feet in thick- ness and is only of fair grade, running high in moisture and ash and weathering ra])idly on ex])osnre to the air. Pour analyses of Dakota County-coal by E. P. Burchard occur below. Samples No. 1 and No. 2 and No. 3 were obtained by drilling three miles north of Jackson and were air-dried; sample No. 4 is from Homer, partly air-dried: No. Moisture Vol. Matter Fixed carbon Ash Sulphur Total 1 4 . 99 41 . 63 27 . 14 25.72 1.22 100.70 2 4.03 51.40 33.66 10 .91 . • . • 100.00 3 6.50 28.00 49 . 30 16 . 20 100 . 00 4 17.85 44.27 26.00 10.91 1 . 14 100 .17 The largest production of this coal in one year was in 1897 when 550 tons were mined in Dixon County, selling for $1,- 500.00. As to working these lignite beds. Professor J. E. Todd, act- ing as State Geologist for South Dakota' said, “In my judgment it is alisolntely useless for peo])le to spend money in southeastern South Dakota, southwestern Minnesota, north- western Iowa, or northeastern Nebraska for the ])ur])ose of hunting for coal or in the work of develojiing su(*h isolated finds as occasionally may be struck; because there isn’t any large body of coal, lignite or otherwise and if thei*e were such deposits they could not be worked owing to the absence of a substantial covering and the presence of overwhelming sub- terrau(‘an floods of water.” A b(*d of lignit(* s(‘ven iii(‘li(‘s thi('k (possibly (ii'an(‘i-os,) was W()rk(‘d in 1903 at Pow(*ll, Jefferson County, along the 1. Newspaper clipping, Department of Geology. (Date and name ol paper unknown). ■29S NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Little Blue Eiver, and thin beds i'iinilar to this one may be found throug’hont the Dakota region. Lignite beds are worked in Jewel County, Kansas, and there is a possibility that the same beds may be found in the vicinity of Superior, Nebraska, of sufficient thickness to work profitably if not found too deeply covered with later deposits. Graneros Formation. The oiitcro}) of the Graneros is poorly defined, but occu- pies a narrow strip (Fig. 2 ) extending through Thayer, Jef- ferson, Saline, Seward, Lancaster, Saunders, Dodge, Burt, Tlmrston, Dakota, and Dixon C’ounties. It varies from foidy to sixty feet in thickness in eastern Nebraska and is 800 or 900 feet thick in the Black Hills. Idle only coal in this formation is found near its base and has been vrorked at Ponca, Dixon County. These are the same seams s])oken of in the Dakota formation and there is u difference of opinion as to which of these formations the coal belongs. It makes little difference, however, excei)t from a scientific standpoint. Throughout various parts of this region dark colored shales are found at the base of the Graneros and are invariably taken for coal or indications of coal, liy the well diggers and drillers and property owners. No important beds of coal are to be expected in this formation, and at such places where pros- pecting has been extensively done, as in Dixon and Jefferson Counties, it has been entirely without success. Near Jtubbel, Thayer County, occurs a dark carbonaceous shale, seven feet thick, which has been mistaken for coal many times and has caused much excitement in that vicinity. It will not Imrn nor is it even an indication that coal is present, and i^eojJe living in this section should become familiar with this shale so as to avoid such expensive mistakes in the future as have been made during ])ast years. Pierre Shale Formation. The Pierre Shale overlies the Niobrara and outcro])s south of the Missouri Eiver in Knox and Cedar Counties, along the COAL IN NEBRASKA 299 Niobrara River in Holt, Boyd, Rock, and JR'own CV)iinties, along the Republican \"alley from Re])nblican City to Ara])a- lioe and from McCook to the Colorado line and along Pine Ridge in the northern ])art of Sheridan, Dawes and Sionx counties west of the Wyoming line. Fi'oni east to west it increases in thickness ii]) to two or three thousand feet or more. (Pig. 1). As ex])osed along the Afissonri River between Chamberlain, South Dakota, and Cedar C\)imty, Neln'aska' and along the Re])nblican River betweei: Republican (dty and Oxford, the base of tliis formation contains a ^‘-n*bonaceons streak 10 to 30 feet thick which stands out in strong contrast to the nnderlyiim- Niobrara clialk-rock and like the dark-colored shale in the Graneros, has often been ])ros])ected for coal. Near Orleans, Harlan County, much ])rospecting is done in this shale, the farmers thinking that as they dig l)ack into the hillside the shale will be veidaced by coal. This is not the case, however, and i)ros])ecting here is absolutely useless. Laramie Formation. The Laramie, a coal-bearing formation of (^olorado and AVyoming, overlies the Pierre shale foimation and is the top member of the cx])osed Ch-etaceons in Nelnasfra. It is tlionght to underlie a i)a,rt of Banner, Kimball and the sonthern part of nieycnne Counties. 3die only ontcro]) known in Neliraska is in S('otts Bln ft (V)nnty,' neai* the Wyoming line, ft is bai'ely ])ossible that Laramie (‘oal may extend into westeiri Nebi-aska. It almost snri'onnds westeiri Nebraska, for it out- crops extensively in North Dakota, Afontana, Wyoming, and Colorado, in whi(‘h states it (rirries considerable amounts of coal. 33ie Laramie ('oal is a lignite and (xrrirs near the base of the formation in several beds, four to fourteen feet thi(‘k in all, and can lx* workexl prohtably wlu‘r(‘ it (xxnrs at the surface*, but as the* einterrip is feilleiwed bae-k it eli])s to such a grent ele*pth that it enimot be; weirkeel to aelvantage. 1. Traced l)y Dr. O. E. Coiidra. 2. Kei)orted by C. A. Fisher. 300 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Conclusion. In conclusion it may be said that Nebraska lies on the Tvest- ern border of the Carboniferous coal basin and on the eastern border of the Cretaceous field, and while thin beds of coal occur in these formations, it is not to be expected that much coal will ever be found in this State. Fruitless prospecting’ has already shown this to be true in the Pennsylvanian region of the southeastern counties as stated above. The same is true of the Dakota area, and it should be em|)hasized that if thick beds of coal were present, which is probably not the case, but at some distance below the surface, the presence of seepage water and of artesian water would make it impracticable to mine the coal. AVe should even discourage prospecting for coal in all Cre- taceous formations except the Laramie, in which it is possible, though not probable, that workable beds of coal will be found. In short then, however much it is desired, hoped, and be- lieved that beds of coal occur in Nebraska in sufficient thick- ness to su|)])ly the needs of this commonwealth, from present knowledge they probably do not exist. COAL IN THE UNITED STATES. Coal is by far the most important mineral product of the world. It is the only fuel used universally, and is the one of greatest commercial importance. The value of the leading mineral products of the United States for 1907, were: " Coal $614,798,898 Iron 529,958,000 Clay products 158,942,369 Copper 173,799,300 Oil and gas 174,329,148 Cold and silver 127,735,400 The above table shows coal to be of greater commercial value in the United States than gold, silver, co])per, oil and gas combined. This is not true, however, in all countries. 1. U. S. G. S. “Mineral Resources.’’ 1907. COAL IN NEBRASKA 301 for the United States is the leading nation in the production of coal. In 1907 the four leading nations were: United States, producing 480,363,424 short tons Great Britain, producing 299,970,677 short tons Germany, producing 226,773,605 short tons Austria-Hungary, producing 43,955,315 short tons The other nations follow with much smaller iiroductions, the output of the United States being 39.70 i)er cent of the entire output of the world. The increase in the consumption of coal has been astonish- ingly rapid. In the United States the consumption has in- creased over three-fold in the iiast twenty 3 "ears, and nearly seven-fold in the past thirty years. Mr. M. R. Campbell (United States Geological Survey) has estimated ' that at the ]U’esent rate of consuni])tion the coal reserves of the United States will last approximately four thousand years, ‘‘but if the constantly increasing rate, which has marked the consumption during the past ninety years, be maintained, our coal will practically be exhausted within one hundred years. Figure 12 shows the output of coal in 1906 in the leading coal producing states of the United States together with the approximate number of square miles of coal in the state. Distribution. Figure 13 shows the distribution of (‘oal in the United States. There are five principal regions, as follows in the oi'der of their iniportan(‘(‘: " APPROXIMATE AREA OP AMERICAN COAL. megion Area in Sq. Mi. Production in 1906 Pc. of total Bitm’s ' Appalachian . . 70,807 2 3 3,473,524 short tons 68 . 1 Central . 58,000 5 9,457,660 short tons 17.34 Carboniferous coal Western . . . . . 94,076 23,086,348 short tons 6.73 Michigan . . . . 11,000 . Rhode Island 500 Cretaceous \ Rocky Mts. . . . . 100,000 22,064,003 short tons 6 .44 coal 1 ' Pacific Coast. . 1,050 3,386,745 short tons 1. National Geographical Magazine, Feb., 1907, p. 138. 2. U. S. G. C. “Mineral Resources,’’ 1 906, p. f)86. NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 30 2 /, 2 a 0,000 ST OOO S T t1or7ta/7a ■f7,£OOSfm> /,S-^3,aOO S'. Texas p ■9/, SCO 5^ / I////70/5 3 S,eoO S^./T 7 /. A/.JOaAofo wm 3 S, SOo Sf. n/Ssaar/ 0 Z 3 , OOO 5 ^./ 77 / IO/X07 Z O, OOO 777 /. 7 S 7 , OOO S T Kaasas — 20,000 Sf m/ OOO S : Wyo/77//7a ■' /S, 909 S W.T//yj/7/a / 7 ^oo sy. m /i'erofacMy /S, 6 707 s^ / 77 / Jnd Terr/ tory /-*< 8 SO 5 f. r?/ Per/7Sy/ran/ a /9, oec sy 077/ A/eyvT7e//co / 3 , SCO Sty mi O^ye? /Z, 660 S^./ 77 / Co/orac/o //, 600 Sy/ 77 . SB, ■‘7 3-^, COO S ' sy /77/. S, 60 ^, OOO S' 3 7. 79£. OOO S.T e, ^ 33 , OOO sr Z 9Z3i,OOiO S T 7 7 , 660 , OOO S. r V 3 ,- 9 /'¥-OOOS^ /, 03-0, OOO S T ZS,SS- 3 , OOO ST a. eze, ooo s. t Fig. 12. Coal areas and output by states, 1906. Black lines equal area of coal fields. White space, followed by figures, show the short tons (S. T. ) mined. The lined area of Pennsylvania, equals anthracite. Modified after U. S. Geol. Survey. Kinds of Coal. Coal may be classified in two different ways, as to its purity and as to the amount of fixed carbon it contains. Under the first classification we have: 1. Pure Coal — low in ash. 2. Poor coal — high in ash. 3. Shaly coal — very high in ash. 4. Cbaly shale — not much coal. 5. Black or carbonaceous shale — jnst enough coal ta give it a black color. Under the second classification comes a series of coals which are considered as different stages in the evolution of coal from vegetable matter by the processes of time, pressure and the loss of hydrogen and oxygen. COAL IN NEBRASKA a0 3 STA(]p]S IX TIIP] COAL 8EHIES. 1. Peat. 2. Lignite. 3. Paib-bitnminons. 4. Semi-bitnminoiis. 5. Bituminous. 6. Semi-anthracite. 7. Anthracite. 8. Gra])liitic-anthracite. 9. Graphite. The princi})al ditYerence in these coals is the varying pro- portion of: 1. Phxed carbon. 2. AAlatile combustible matter. 3. Ash. Which together with the moisture and sulphur present^ total 100 per cent in any coal. 2C4 NEBRASKA GEOLOCxICAL SURVEY o Fig. 13. A coal maj) of the United States. The coal cast of Nebraska is of Carboniferous age; west of Nebraska the coal is of Cretaceous age. A, Ai)i)alachian coal field; C, Central coal field; W, Western coal field; M, Michigan coal fiel d; Rhode Island coal field. Ruled area, lignite. Modified after maps COAL IN NEBRASKA 30 » LAW RELATING TO A BOUNTY FOR THE DISCOVERY OF COAL. (Chapter 58, Compiled Statutes of Nebraska, for 1905.) Section 1. (Award for discovery of coal or iron.) That when it shall be made apparent to the Governor of Nebraska,, by affidavit or otherwise, by the owner or owners thereof, that a vein of coal not less than twenty-six inches in thickness and of sufficient capacity to pay to mine, and within such distance from the surface that it can be worked by modern methods, has been discovered, or vein or veins of good iron ore eighteen indies thick, it shall be the duty of the Governor to appoint a suitable person to examine the same, whose duty it shall be to report the jirobable extent and ca])acity of the vein or veins, all expense for said examination to be paid by the owner or owners of said mine. Said report being satisfactory to the Governor, he shall direct the Auditor to draw an order on the Treasurer for the sum of four thousand dollars, to be paid to the owner or owners of said mine of coal, and of two thou- sand dollars, to be paid for a vein of iron ore eighteen inches- thick. If the vein of coal discovered should be three feet thick and of a reipiired cajiacity, the sum to be paid shall be five thousand dollars. Said orders to be paid out of the gen- eral fund of the State treasury as before provided. Section 4. (S])ecimen of strata preserved.) It shall be the duty of the persons pros])ecting for coal, iron ore, crude oil, and gas, carefully to preserve s])ecimens from each stratum through which the shafts are sunk, or borings made, and if the bonus is obtained upon the conditions heretofore men- tioned in tliis bill, to de])osit the same pro])ei‘ly labeled, in care of the de])artment of the state for the future use of the commonwealth. Section 5. (Extent of Act.) The ])rovisions of this Act shall not ap))ly to any vchns of (‘oal oi* ii'on ore already discov- ei-ed, nor to any oil wells oi- gas wells ali'cady i)roducing, nor shall the ])rovisions of this i\(*t ap))ly to the dis(*overy of the sam(‘ v(‘in of coal or ii'on oi‘(‘, oi- oil ]) 0()1 or gas field already •306 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY •discovered, nor shall any award siiecified under the terms of this Act be paid for a second discovery of the same veins, pools, or fields within the limit of the same comity. Section 6. (Appropriations.) There shall be appropriated ont of the funds of the State Treasury for the purpose of this Act, not already appropriated, the sum of twenty-five thou- sand dollars. The appropriation carried with the above having lapsed, the following- bill was introduced into the thirtieth session of the Nebraska Legislature to cover the Pern coal discovery: House Roll No. 345— A Bill. For an act to appropriate the sum of ten thousand dollars ($10,000) for the purpose of encouraging the opening and development of coal and other minerals in the State of Ne- braska, and to provide for the expenditure thereof in ac- cordance with the provisions of section 7350, Cobbey’s An- notated Statutes of Nebraska. INTPonrCED BY AY. D. REDMOND. Introduced and read the first time Feb. 14, 1907. Read the second time Feb. 15, 1907, and referred to the Committee on Finance, 5Yays and Means. Be it enacted by the Legislature of the State of Nebraska: Section 1. That the sum of ten thousand dollars ($10,000) or so mncli thereof as may be necessary be and the same is hereby appropriated ont of any money in the general fund of the State not otherwise appropriated for the purpose of encouraging the opening and development of coal and other mineral interests in the State of Nebraska in accordance with the provision of section 7350 of Cobbey’s Annotated Statutes of the State of Nebraska. Section 2. The money appropriated by this act shall be paid l)y the State Treasurer ipmn the warrant of the Auditor of Public Accounts issued under the direction of the Govei-- nor of the State of Nebraska as ])i*ovided by law. COAL IN NEBRASKA 307 Section 3. Whereas an emergency exists this act shall take effect and be in force from and after its passage and approval. The above bill was reported favorably by the committee and had its third reading and was passed by the House March 27, 1907, by a vote of 68 to 17. The above bill took a like course in the Senate and was recommended “indefinitely postponed” l)y tlie committee. This re])ort was accepted March 30, 1907. A Bill— House Roll No. 482. Identical with the above, but carrying an appropriation for four thousand dollars instead of ten thousand dollars, wa.s brought before the thirty-first session of the Legislature of Nebraska by Fred Hector, but before action was taken upon this bill the Claims Committee allowed four thousand dollars on the claim of A. M. Borst of Pern, Net)., which made the ])assage of House Poll No. 482 unnecessary, as it was intended to cover this particular claim. Presented for ])nblication May 1908. Published March 1910. 20 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ERWIN HINCKLEY BARBOUR. State Geologist VOLUME 3 PART II Preliminary Notes on the Carboniferous Flora of Nebraska By ROY V. PEPPERBERG Preliminary Notes on the Carboniferous Flora of Nebraska. BY ROY V. PEPPERBERG. About the middle of July, 1907, while engaged by the Nebraska City Commercial Club in examining the geology of Nebraska City and vicinity, the writer was called to the farm of Mr. C. B. James to look at a l)ed of what was sup- posed to be tire clay. This proved to be a Carboniferous deposit of st]*atilied micaceous sandstone, interstratihed with a fine compact shale, botli of which are yellow in color and very fragile when wet. The exposure is about a mile and one-half northeast of Nebraska City and within twenty feet of the Missouri Eiver. A small creek draining into the river has cut through fifty feet of soil and loess into the underlying shale above described, the thickness of which has not yet been determined, extending as it does below the Missouri water level, (high water). AVhile examining this bed and taking samples of the same, the writer was much surprised to discover many leaf impressions in the shale. Numerous s])ecimens were collected and brought to the laboratory for study. The work done up to the present time is preliminary only, and before the Carboniferous flora of this state can be definitely known it will be ne(‘essary to make a careful EDITORIAL NOTE: After completing his studies, and after fulfilling all requirements for the Masters Degree, the writer of this paper submitted the following two-part thesis: 1. Coal in Nebraska, (Nebraska Geological Survey, part 10, Vol. 3). 2. Preliminary Notes on the Carboniferous Flora of Nebraska (the present paper). 314 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY search throughout the Carboniferous region in all of the southeastern counties of Nebraska. Since discovering the bed of Carboniferous leaves at Nebraska City, the writer has made two trips to the local- ity, collecting specimens from Nebraska City and Peru. The flora at Peru was observed by Meek in 1867 and recent- ly by Mr. N. A. Bengtson, Adjunct Professor of Geograpliy, the University of Nebraska. It occurs in a formation similar to, though more arenaceous than the one at Nebras- ka City. It is best described by Meek as follows: ^ ‘ ‘ Less than a quarter of a mile below the village of Peru there is an abrupt exposure of yellowish and light-gray, soft, somewhat micaceous sandstone, with large, round and compressed concretions of arenaceous matter, of consider- able hardness. Some of these concretions are oval in form. There are also very curious irregularly and obliquely ar- ranged seams and isolated masses of dark bluish shaly ^ matter and clay. These appear as if the sandstone had been irregularly erroded in places during its deposition, and the shaly matter deposited in the depressions and then more sand upon it again. Fragments of coal were also seen imbedded in the sandstone, along with stems of Catamites, and broken up leaves of ferns. The sandstone can scarcely be said to be stratified, but appears massive with the ex- ception of some oblique marks of deposition, and the in- tercalated seams of shaly matter. The latter are not con- tinuous for any distance, but often end very abruptly, or in other cases become much attentuated, and again swell out to a foot or so in thickness. They do not appear to conform to the bedding of the sandstone but cut obliquely across it at various angles, and yet their laminated structure, and fragment of plants, show they were deposited in water. This exposure of sandstone rises abruptly from the edge of the river at high water, to an elevation of about 60 to 65 feet. Its position is doubtless nearly the same as the lower * Meek-Kan./7c^dSc. XVI, p. 72 CARBONIFEROUS FLORA 315 part of Otoe City (now Minersville) section, tliongli it is more arenaceous here, and perhaps thicker.’’ It is very difficult to collect leaf impressions from this exposure except from weathered fragments, which cleave readily. The specimens found here are of an entirely dif- ferent character from those collected from Nebraska City, being composed largely of Calamariae, and stumps of some large tree which is as yet unidentified, but probably a con- ifer. Only one small fragment of a Nenropteris pinnule has been found so far, but it is very probable that others will appear when extended collecting is done in this bed. In Nebraska the leaf-bearing bed has not been traced but it probably extends through the Carboniferous counties, that is the extreme eastern part of the state. The only men- tion we find of its presence, besides the above, are such re- ferences as:* ‘^Fragments of plants are found in a yellow, micaceous sandstone at Nebraska City” again ^ ‘‘Two miles above Kulo fossil ferns are found in a bluish and drab arenaceous clay.” Both of these places are in the Carboni- ferous region and the “plants” and “ferns” referred to are undoubtedly Carboniferous flora. It is possible that the “fragments of plants” Meek found at Nebraska City were from the same formation as those of recent discovery, however the sections do not agree for lie records them as being fouml sixty-three feet above the Missouri river (high water mark), while the present bed occurs only a few feet above the same. Meek’s section was taken at least three miles south of the James farm and since the dip is toward the southeast it is improbable that the bed sixty-three feet above the Missouri river in this section should be present at all three miles above, for the entire section is not more than fifty feet above the river. This shows that if Meek’s section is correct there are two dis- tinct strata in which Carboniferous plants have been found 1. U. S. G. S. of Nebraska 1867, p. 109. 2. Meek-Kan./?rci,c^,Sc. XVI, p. 74. 316 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY at Nebraska City, ^ however the writer saw no evidence of plants in the bed to which Meek refers although a careful study was made of the beds outcropping between Nebraska City and Minersville (Otoe City.) Meek’s Rulo bed is perhaps in the same horizon as the Nebraska City and Peru beds, for indications confirm the supposed dip in that direction, first pointed out by Meek and Hayden and since confirmed by all who have worked over the same ground. The mention given the Carboniferous flora in 1867 being the only reference the writer has found upon this flora in Nebraska, is deemed important enough to give briefly the sections Meek made along the Missouri Kiver in which he found this flora: SECTION OF THE BEDS AT THE NEBRASKA CITY LANDING.^ Nature of Strata. Thickness Ft. In. E. Loess or blutf deposit, consisting of fine light- grayish pulverent silicious and more or less calcareous clay or marl, without distinct marks of stratification; rising back to a height of 80 to 90 Q D. Yellowish-gray micaceous, soft sandstone, laminated or in thin ripple-marked layers, ex- cepting 12 to 15 inches of the lower part, which is sometimes hard and compact, WITH FRAGMENTS OF PLANTS 10 O' C. Drab, ash, and lead-colored, and redish brown clays, with, near the middle a 9 or 10-inch hard bluish-gray argillo-calcareous layer, weathering to a rusty color 39 0 1. It is possible that there is a local dip to the North although? it Is not evident. 2. U. S. G. S. Nebraska 1867, Meek and Hayden, p. ID 1-2. CARBONIFEROUS FLORA 317 B. Several beds of hard, light-grayish, and yel- lowish limestones in layers of from 5 to 20 inches in thickness, with soft, marly clay seams and partings 12 0 A. a. Lead-gray and greenish clay, 4 feet: b. Eeddish-brown ferruginous, slightly gritty, indurated clay, 4 feet exposed above high water mark 8 0 Total below drift 69 SECTIONS OF THE YAKIOUS BEDS EXPOSED AT BBOWN^HLLE2 No. Nature of Strata. Thickness Ft. In. 14. Loess rising back with the slope from 30 or 40 to 100 0 13. Dark-bluish, very fine unctuous clay, becom- ing nearly black below, and weathering to a drab color 2 0 12. Yellowish-gray granular or sub-oolitic lime- stone; massive, but showing a disposition to divide into two layers 3 0 11. Unexposed 10 0 10. Whitish, soft argillaceous limestone; 6 to 8 inches thick 0 8 9. Red, purple, and greenish clays 10 0 8. Whitish and yellowish impure limestone; rather massive 3 0 7. Purple clay 1 0 6. Soft, whitish limestone 6 0 5. Bluish clay 5 6 4. Black shale and seams of impure coal, with IMPRESSIONS OP FERN LEAVES 1 0 3 . Blue clay, with fragments of coal and iron pyrites 20 0 1. U. S. G. S. Nebraska 1867, Meek and Hayden, p. 110. 318 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 2. Black, hard rock, vrith crystals calc spar. ... 2 0 1. Soft, yellow, micaceous sandstone, with irreg- ular seams and alternating laminae of black and greenish, more or less carbonaceous and sandy material, with fragments of coal. Many BROKEX LEAVES OF FERXS, PIECES OF CALAMITES, etc. Xenropteris Loshii (identified by Pro- fessor Lesqnerenx), and Coprolites of some Selachian fish, as determined by Professor Agassiz 57 Q SECTION TWO MILES ABOVE RULO OX THE MISSOURI RIVER.^ No. Nature of Strata. Thickness Ft. Im 7. Loess with perhaps some drift, 70 to 80 0 6. Massive yellow limestone 5 0 5. Gray and yellowish impure limestone and drab clays 4 6 4. Bluish and drab arenaceous clay With Fossil Ferns. Xenropteris hirsnta, and X. Loshii. . . 7 0 3. Coal 0 6 2. Indurated clay, called soapstone by the miners (not seen) 0 4 1. Bluish laminated sandstone, very soft, with thin streaks of black, and looking very much like No. 1 of the Brownville section 8 0 Most of the work on the Carboniferous flora of North America has been done by a few writers and confined to a few states. The forms thus indentified are very similar to or indentical with European forms, and by means of this flora, the beds of the L^nited States have been correlated with those of Europe at least in a general way. The ex- treme vertical range, however, of many of the species, 1. U. S. G. S. Nebraska 1867, Meek and Hayden, p. 114. CARBONIFEROUS FLORA 319 lessens the usefulness of this flora in determining- the exact age of the formation. Lesquereux’s work on the Carboniferous flora of Pennsylvania published by the Pennslyvania Geological Survey,^ is of a high grade and was found to be the best source of aid in identifying the flora at hand. The writer has endeavored to correlate the terraines with those of the Appalachian region by means of the flora, but has met with but partial success. The same difficulties are met with as confronted Dr. David White in his work on the “Flora of the Outlying Carboniferous Basins of South- western Missouri, ’ who says, ‘ ' Two obstacles are most im- ])ortant in preventing satisfactory determination of the age of plants and the correlation of their containing ter- raines with others whose stratigraphical position has been dertermined. The first one is the want of even a single paleobotanical section of the Trans-Mississippi deposits with which to compare our flora, with the exceptions of the flora from near the base of the Lower Coal measures in Henry County, Missouri, and a supposed sub-con- glomerate flora from Washington County, Arkansas, the floras of the entire Carboniferous series in the great western regions are essentially unknown. Al- though plant-bearing horizons have been reported in the diflerent state publications as occuring at various local- ities in the Lower, Middle, and Upper Coal-measures of the Trans-Mississippi states, no one has ever examined them, I 1)elieve, nor have we so much as a published list fi'om any fixed horizon.' (G)nsidering tliese circumstances it is very earnestly hoped that geologists in these states will cooperate in procuring and identifying plants from as 1. Coal Flora Atlas and Vol. P 1, 2, and 3. 2. U. S. G. S. Bulletin 98, p. 109-10. 3. “Two api)arent exceptions to this are two small collections Identified by Lesquereux from Ottowa and Osage City, Kansas; and a few plants from Jenny Lind and James Fork, Arkansas, * * * * of very slight correlative value.” 320 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY many fixed horizons as possible, in order to work out the flora associations and characteristics of the various stages in the different ascertained sections of the Coal-measnres, with a view to their final utilization in constructing stand- ard paleobotanical sections of the Carboniferous in those areas. The second difficulty lies in the unreliability of the recorded geographical distribution of the species and of the geological position assigned to some of the localities, seriously impairing the homitaxial trustworthiness of our Carboniferous flora except within broad limits.” The flora thus far found in southeastern Nebraska, although representing but a single horizon, does not con- tain a sufficient number of species to correlate it definitely with any horizon in eastern paleobotanical sections, so that even though the above difficulties do not exist, the distance between the sections together with the great vertical range of the species identified, would still make correlation of the beds very difficult. At the present time Carboniferous plants have been collected from two localities, Nebraska City, and Peru, the character of the flora of each being distinct from the other, but undoubtedly from the same formation and horizon. The Nebraska City collection represents pieces of over two hundred specimens, more than nine-tenths of which are Neuropterids, which is very remarkable and indicates an upland flora. It has often been observed that tlie Neurop- terids seem to crowd out the other species to a large extent and a few inches of shale or sandstone may separate a bed of these from a flora of entirely different character or facies. This seems to be the case in this horizon, for from all ap- pearances the strata containing the Nebraska City Neurop- terids must underlie the bed of Calamariae, etc., at Peru, extending toward the south into Kansas, where Meek and Hayden reported^ “On the Iowa Keserve, along the Great 1. U. S. G. S. of Nebraska in 1887 p. CARBONIFEROUS FLORA. 321 Nemaha Eiver in Kansas, jnst south of Rulo, Nebraska, the rocks in contact with the coal beds are as follows: Under- lying the coal beds, a bed of light gray fire clay, full of fragments of plants as fern leaves Nenropteris Loshii, and N. hirsnta, stems of rushes and calamites, and same as occur in the underlying clays of Ohio and Illinois coal fields.” At present the Calamariae have not been found at Nebraska City nor the Nenropterids at Pern, to any great extent, but it is very probable that further search will show them to be present at both places. In the Trans-Mississippi region the flora nearest the one at hand, both geographically and stratiographically, is the Elsdale flora at Onaga, northeastern part of Pottawatomie County, Kansas, which has been described by David White^ and F. F. Crevecoeiir.- The only species found in common in these two floras is Odontopteris, Asterophyllites equiseti- formis Brongn, and Nenropteris Scheuchzeri Hoffm, but it is very probable that others will be found in common as the horizon is further developed. The formation bearing the above flora from Onaga, is placed in Prosser’s classification,'^ “in the Wabaunsee stage of the Missourian series, beginning about 200 feet below its top.” The writer has placed the Nebraska flora in an upper member of the Atchison Shales (Prosser’s Wabaun- see) about 100 feet from its top, so that if these classifica- tions are correct, the two floras are probably separated by about 100 feet of shale. The formations between these places have never been carefully traced nor identified with certainty, but Peede is probably (‘orrect in his assuni])tion,‘^ that the section at Topeka, Kansas, corresi)onds to a section taken from the -bottom of the Minersville section to the top of the Nebraska 1. U. S. (L S. Bulletin 211, p. 115-116. 2. Kansas Academy of Science Vol. XVlIl, p. 124-1 28. 3. American Geologist, Vol. 36, p. 150. 4. J. W. Beede, Kansas Academy of Science, Vol. XVI, p. 83. 322 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY City section. This supposition seems to agree with observa^ tions made by Meek, Hayden, Prosser and Geinitz. In any event the Nebraska City beds must belong to- the upper part of the Atchison Shales, for the Cottonwood limestone has been unmistakably identified some distance north and west of Nebraska City lying conformably upon these shales. These conditions would lead one to suppose that the Nebraska City and Peru floras were of practically the same age as the Onaga flora, probably a little younger, however. Dr. White, in commenting upon this flora, says, should not be disposed to place it above the Conemaugh, or lowest Monongahela of the Appalachian trough, though it is, of course, possible tliat further search will bring to light younger forms.” The Conemaugh being the middle forma- tion of the Pennsylvanian, it is to be expected that a younger flora will occur in these supposedly Upper Pennsyl- vanian beds. If, upon further examination of this field, younger forms are not brought to light, we may conclude that these beds belong to the Middle instead of the Upper Pennsylvanian, where they are now placed. The following is a list of the Carboniferous flora now identified in Nebraska and contains specimens from two- orders, four families and twelve species. PTERIDOPHYTA. Filiciaes. Neuropteris Scheuchzeri, Hoffm. var. hirsuta, Lesq. var. angustifolia, Brgt. N. ovata, Hofi'm. (N. Loshii, Brgt.) Odontopteris, sp. Brgt. Equisetalis. Equisetites occidentalis ( ?), Lesq. E. sp. Calamites, Suck. CARBONIFEROUS FLORA 323 ^ C. sp. Asterophyllites eqiiisetiformis ( f), Sclilotli. Archaeocalamites scrobiciilatiis (f), Sclilotli. Lycopodiales. Lepidostrobus (Macrocystis), Salisburyi (?). L. sp. SPERMATOPHYTA. Gymnosperma. Coiiiferae (2) sp. IDENTIFICATION. Of the Nebraska City flora, Neuropteris Sclieiiclizeri is by far the most important and abundant species. In speaking of this species Dr. David White says,^ ‘‘Nenrop- teris Sclieiiclizeri is one of the most interesting of American Paleozoic Ferns, with regard to variation in a species. Ranging as it does, from near the base of the Lower Pro- ductive Coal Measures, or Alleghany series, to the highest beds of the Permian or Dunkard Creek series, it presents a valuable illustration of the modification of a species found at many horizons in a thick series of probably continu- ously deiiosited sediments. So far as my observations have extended in collections from American localities and hori- zons, it may be noted that, in general, both in the anthracite and the bituminous fields, the earliest representatives of the s])ecies, in the lowest coals are ])revailingly smaller, nar- rower, and more triangular ami pointed, the bail s fine, short and often invisible. A little higher, as for exani])le in the E or E veins, as numbered in the northern anthracite field by the Pennsylvania survey, the narrow, acute forms be- come rare and the jiroportion of broader, more obtuse i)in- nules increases, the ])innules becoming larger at the same time and more ('()ns})i('uously liirsute, while at the horizon 1. U. S. G. S. Monograph 37, p. 135-G. :324 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY of the Pittsburg coal and of the higher anthracite coals the leaflets are mostly broad and Ungulate, the hairs less plain; and again those pinnules from the Wayneshurg and Wash- ington coals, in the so-called Permian are almost exclusively broad, very large, rounded at the top, more broadly articu- late at the base, distinctly and rather broadly pedicellate, while the hairs are usually very obscure, if not absent. Thus the sequence from the earliest to the latest form, the series between two types would if considered independent- ly be properly regarded as distinct species, is marked by so many intermediate or transitional phases that it seems at present entirely impracticable to attempt to draw any lines of a specific grade. Yet the differences between the types prevailing at stages vertically distant are great enough to easily constitute varieties, if one does not attempt to carry the varietal distinction all the way through the in- tervening series. And, since these phases or forms are more or less peculiar to different portions of the vertical section, they possess a stratigraphic and correlative value, and deserA'e, therefore, some reference term and definitive -distinction. Some system of nomenclature will be necessary if the unquestionable geologic utility of these phases is to be rendered available. Accordingly, for the common early form that is characterized in general by its smaller size, narrow or tri- angular form, with small auricles squared on the quarter, the median nerve slender, the pedicel short and narrow, the hairs being delicate, often short or found with difficul- ty. I would use, in a varietal sense, the name ‘‘Angusti- folia,” which was applied by Lesquereux to most of the pinnules of this character from Henry County, Missouri. The varietal designation as suggested above should be credited to Bunbury. In this paper the writer has not tried to draw a -distinct line between the different varieties of Neuropteris ^cheuchzeri as different authors do not seem to agree on the CARBONIFEROUS FLORA 325-' distinction of the varietal terms, but it seems proper ta classify them in a general way into three varieties, namely: angnstifolia, hirsnta, and nnda, if sufficient differences can be found between these varieties. It is probable that more correlative value would be derived from the species of N. Scheuchzeri if it were broken up into two or three separate species with as marked lines of distinction as could be drawn. In this way tlie extremes of the species would receive a better classification, and the forms just between would lose none of their value by being placed on one side or the other of the line, by different authorities. ‘‘Though N. Scheuchzeri has not yet been re])orted from below the true Coal Measures, or Alleghany series, in the United States, it is not improbable that representatives of it may yet be found in what has been described as the “ Conglomerate series,” or better, as the “Pottsville series” or formation.”^ The following is the list of the geological ages and localities where the species Neuropteris Scheuchzeri Hoffm. is recorded as having been found." LOWER COAL MEASURES, B. Morris, Murpliyboro, Mazon Creek, Colchester, 111. (Lesq.); Spring Creek, Ind. (Lescj.) ; Union Cb., Ky. (Lesq.) ; C. Darlington bed, Cannel- ton, Pa. (Lesq.) ; Clinton, Mo. (Lesq.) ; I), or E. Sullivan Co., Ind. (Lesq.); (f) Shirley Knob, Cass Township, Pa. (I. C. W.) ; R. I. (Lesq.) ; Ottawa, 111. (Lesq.) ; Jenny Lind James Fork, Ark. (D. W.^ — Lesq.); Ottawa, Osage City, Kans. (Les(j.); Mansfield, Mass. (Marcou). LOWER BARREN MEASURES, 20 feet below Pitts^ burg coal, near Wheeling, W. Va. (F. & W.); (I) Bellaire, 0., 20 feet below Pittsburg coal (F. & W.). UPPER COAL MEASURES, G. St. Clairsville, Pom- 1. U. S. G. S. Monograph 37, p. 136. 2. Compiled by David White, U. S. G. S. Bull. No. 98, p. 114. ■326 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY :(,)UI8E/riTE8 OCCd I )EXTALI8, LE8QX. 8tems small, narrowly ribbed lengthwise; sheaths long and thick, cut at the margin in short, triangular, acute, largo teeth. EEPI1)08TK()P>U8 AXI) LEPIDOPIIYLLUM. 8trobiles (‘ylindrical or ovate, oblong, conical, variable in length, composed of sporanges (spore cases) sub-cylin- drical or clavate, emarginate at the apex, supported in the- middle lengthwise by bracts formed of a pedicel attached like the sporanges at right angles to the axis, linear or ob- lanceolate, either simple, not longer tlian the sporanges or prolonged into lanceolate obtuse or acuminate laminae,, curved upwards on the outside of the strobiles and imbri- cated on their sides, or merely inflated at the outer end and covering the apex of the sporanges by a rhomboidal small shield; spores triquetre on one side, half globular on the other, like those of the Lycopods, homorphous or dimor- phous. LEPID08TR0BU8 (MACROCY8TI8) , 8ALI8BURYI, 8tobiles cylindrical, very long, flexuous; axis broad, marked by long, narrowly oval scar impressions of the base of large inflated linear oblong sporanges, without any pedicel or support. CARBONIFEROUS FLORA. 329 The following fossils were gathered in the vicinity of the Nebraska City leaf bed, from overlying limestone beds: 1. Peotozoa Fnsniina secalica 2 . COELENTEEATA Loijliophyllum profimdnm 3. Echinodeemata Erisocrinus typus Zeocrinns mncrospinus 4. Molluscoidea Bryozoa and Brachiopcda Cyclotrypa (f) barberi Ulrich Septopora biserialis-nervata Productus semireticulatiis P. longispinus P. cora Spirifer cameratns Chonetes granulifer C. verneniliana Pugnax Utah Ambocoelia planoconvexa Seminnla argentea Enteletes hemiplicata Spiriferina cristata Derbya crassa 5. Moli.usca Avicnlopecten sp. Allorisma subcuneatnm Edrnondia sp. Nautilus sp. Euomphalus rugosus Bellerophon urii 1. The writer was assisted in the collection of the above fosslL by Edwin G. Davis, and in their identification by Miss C. A. Barbour. 330 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. Department of the Interior UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SUEVEY Washington, July 9, 1910. Mr. E. Pepperberg, Lincoln, Neb. ^ Dear Mr. Pepperberg: In my last letter to you reporting on the fragments you sent I promised to write you again should anything of inter- est or value develop from the microscopical examination of the specimens. Doctor Eeinhardt Thiessen, my assistant, to whom I turned over the fragments of partially petrified stems which you sent about three months ago and who examined them at my request, finds that the small, slender, fragauent, though not petrified so as to be translucent, is nevertheless ])reserved in great detail by means of marcasite. The type (Medullosa) which it represents has never, I believe, been found before in North America in the petrified state. It probably represents a new species and it would be of in- terest if you could secure additional material for study. The larger fragments examined were also found to belong to the same genus but the decay was so far advanced that it is not practical to attempt any further demonstration or description. Doctor Thiessen, who has been employed in the Tech- nologic Branch of the Survey, is now naturally in the Bureau of Mines, but I take the liberty of leaving the small specimen in his hands and I regard him as competent to undertake its description. Very truly yours, DAVID WHITE. Additional material will be placed in Dr. Thiessen ’s hands as soon as time will permit and interesting results may bo expected. Bresented for publication May, 1908. Fublished July, 1910. NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY VOLUME 3, part 11, PLATE I 3 FERN PINNULES: NEUROPTERIS. 1 to 6. Neuropteris Scheuchzeri, Hoffm. (var, angustifolia , Brgt.) Symmetrical base. Nebraska City. 7, 8. Same showing asymmetrical auriculate and pedicellate base. Nebraska City. 9. A portion of same enlarged showing nervation and short slender hairs. Nebraska City. UNIVER library OF THE SITY OF iLUxo; VOLUME 3, PART 11, PLATE 2 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY FERN PINNULES: NEUROPTERIS. Neuropteris Scheuchzeri , Hoffm. Nebraska Cily. library OF THE UNlVEROiTY Of ILUNO! NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY VOLUME 3, PART 11, PLATE 3 FERN PINNULES: NEUROPTERIS. Neuropteris Scheuchzeri, Hoffm. Nebraska City LIBRARY Of THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS PLATE FERN, BASILAR PINNULES: NEUROPTERIS. Neuropteris Scheuchzeri, Hoffm, Round, reniform, and oval basilar pinnules. Nebraska City library OF the university of ilunois NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY FERN PINNULES: NEUROPTERIS. Neuropteris Scheuchzeri. Hoffm. NebrasWa City UBRARY umwers^tv Of laiNWS i NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY VOLUME 3, PART 11, PLATE 6 FERN PINNULES: NEUROPTERIS. Neuropteris Scheuchzeri, Hoffm., Portions of fronds. Nebraska City. * ^ NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY VOLUME 3, PART 11. PLATE 7 FERN PINNULES: NEUROPTERI3. Neuropteris sp. Nebraska City. library OF TOE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY VOLUME 3, PART 11, PLATE 8 FERN STEMS: NEUROPTERIS, Neuropteris Scheuchzeri, Hoffm.. Carbonized Stems. Nebraska City. NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY VOLUME 3, PART 11, PLATE 9 FERN: NEUROPTERIS. 1, 2. Neuropteris ovata, Hoffm. (N. Losshii, Brgt.) ITop and bottom layers). Nebraska City. 3. Lepidostrobus (Macrocystis), Salisbury! (?) Peru. 4. Lepidostrobus sp. (sporangium of). Nebraska City. 5. Crossotheca (Carbonized and Internal sporangeal structure visible!. Nebraska City. NEBRBSKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY VOLUME 3, PART 11, PLATE 10 EQUISETALES; ASTEROPH YLLITES. FERN: ODONTOPTERIS. WOOD: GYMNOSPERMIC (LIMONITIC). 1. Asterophyllites equisetiformis, Schloth. Nebraska City. 2. Odontopteris sp. Brgt. Nebraska City. 3 to 5. Coniferae two sps. LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY VOLUME 3, PART 11, PLATE 11 1. Calamites Suck. Peru. CALAMITES. 2, 3. Calamites sp. Peru. tiSKAWr OMlVERsW^WlNOlS NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY VOLUME 3, PART 11, PLATE 12 PITH CASTS AND STEMS OF EQUISETALIS. 1 to 4. Calamitean pith cast. Nebraska City. 5. Exquisetalis sp. Peru. 6. Exquisetalis occidentalis (?j Lesq. Peru. Exquisetalis sp., Peru. 7 . library OF THE university W ILUNOtS 21 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ERWIN HINCKLEY BARBOUR, STATE GEOLOGIST VOLUME 111 PART 12 PRELIMINARY NOTICE OF A NEWLY DISCOVERED BED OF MIOCENE DIATOMS ELEANOR BARBOUR Scientific Contribution Geological fund of Hon. Charles H. Morrill LINCOLN, NEB. WOODRUFF HANK NOTE CO. 1910 PRELIMINARY NOTICE OF A NEWLY DISCOVERED BED OF MIOCENE DIATOMS By Eleanor Barbour The purpose of this paper is to announce the discovery of a bed of diatomite in the well known Miocene beds at Agate, Sioux County, Nebraska, and to review briefly what has been done in the study of fossil Diatoms in this State. Introductory to descriptions of this particular deposit, it may not be amiss to give a summary of some of the best known diatomaceous beds, and to show their occurrence in geologic time. That Diatoms date l)ack to the Devonian is shown by the discovery of remnants of these minute -plant frustules in the horn- stone, or chert, of the Corniferous limestone of North America. Abbe Castracane, an Italian diatomologist asserted in 1876 that he had discovered Diatoms in Coal from an English coal measure, l)ut their close identity with modern forms leads to the belief that the association was accidental. The I)ulk of fossil Diatoms occurs in and subsequent to Cretaceous time, l)ut two strictly authentic species are recorded in the Liassic. The Diatoms found in Creta- ceous and Tertiary deposits l)ear a striking resemblance to living forms. As examples of famous deposits l)elonging to these forma- tions may be mentioned, the fresh-water deposit at Berlin, a deposit at Konigsberg, and at Bilin in Bohemia, and a very ex- tensive de})Osit of marine origin from 20 to 80 feet thick on which the city of Richmond, Virginia, is built. The Church Hill tunnel was cut through this deposit three-fourths of a mile. Seward considers this bed at Richmond to be Cretaceous or Tertiary, while Nicholson cites it as an example of Miocene deposition. Diatom representatives of the lower Eocene have been discovered in the London Clays of that ])eriod. The de])osits found hereto- fore in Nebraska, belong ])r‘obably to the Clacial epoch. Samples from these beds have been examined, and the species described and figured by Professor Erwin II. Barbour and Clarence J. Elmore in a paper entitled '^The Diatomaceous Deposits of Nebraska” given before the Nebraska Academy of Sciences in 1894. 4 Miocene Diatoms The first diatomaceous deposit to be discovered in Nebraska was an excellent, pure white, layer, almost entirely free from foreign matter, found b'eptember 23, 1895, in Wheeler County. A few weeks later a larger deposit, of equal purity, was reported in Hooker County. Shortly after, deposits were found in Thomas, Blaine, Garfield, Greeley, A'alley, Sherman and Nance Counties, and students were sent from the University to search for diatomite and collect samples for the State Museum. vSeveral exposures w'ere found in Hooker County, varying from one to five or six feet in thickness, with about fifty feet of over- lying soil. The Thomas f'ounty deposit varies from eighteen inches to five feet in thickness, with the depth of overlying soil varying from one to three feet. The same beds are to be found in Greele}’, Nance, 4Tlley, and Sherman counties. The Hayes County samples consist of Diatoms and volcanic ash, which is of common occurrence in the State. The diatomaceous deposits of MTieeler and Greeley counties lie under a 1 ed of peat from two to three feet thick. In studying deposits from tlie above mentioned Counties, Mr. C. J. Elmore recognized the following list of Diatoms: LIST OF FOSSIL DIATO:\IS FROM THE DEPOSITS DESCRIBED BY PROFESSOR BARBOUR 1. Amphora oralis var. gracilis. 2. Bacillaria amphibia. 3. Bacillaria amphibia var. frauenfddii. 4. Bacillaria obtusa. 5. Bacillaria sinuata. 6. Bacillaria spcctahilis. 7. Bacillaria subtilis. S. Bacillaria vermiciilaris. 9. Cocconds placentula. 10. Cymatoplcura dliptica. 11. Cymatopleura solea. 12. Cym- bella cistula. 13. Cymbdla cuspidata. 14. Cymbdla cymbijormis. 15. Cymbdla cymbijormis var. parra. 16. Cymbdla gastroides. 17. Cymbdla inequalis. 18. Cymbdla lanceolata. 19. Cymbdla laevis. 20. Cystopleura gibba. 21. Cystophura gibba var. verdri- cosa. 22. Cystopleura ocdlata. 23. Cystopleura turgida. 24. Cysto- pleura turgida var. vertagus. 25. Cystopleura zebra. 26. Encyo- nema caespitosum. 27. Eunotia arcus. 28. Eunotia diodon. 29. Eunotia formica. 30. Eunotia formica vaia elongata. 31. Eu- notia lunaris. 32. Eragilaria construens. 33. Eragilaria construens var. venter. 34. Eragilaria dliptica. 35. Gomphonema acumina- tum. 36. Gomphonema constrictum. 37. Gomphonema gracile. Nebraska Geological Survey 5 38. GompJionema herculeanum. 39. Gomphonema intricatum. 40. Gomphonema montanum var. subclavatiim. 41. j Gomphonema parvulum. 42. Gomphonema turris. 43. Gomphonema vibrio. 44. Hantzschia amphioxys. 45. Hantzschia amphioxys var. major. 46. Melosira distans. 47. Meridion constrictum. 48. Navicula ambigua. 49. Navicula baciiliformis. 50. Navicula cuspidata. 51. Navicula dicephala. 52. Navicula elliptica. 53. Navicula limosa. 54. Navicula macilenta. 55. Navicula nobilis. 56. Navi- cula parva. 57. Navicula placentula. 58. Navicula placentula var. tumida. 59. Navicula pupula. 60. Navicula radiosa. 61. Na- vicula radiosa var. acuta. 62. Navicula rostrata. 63. Navicula serians. 64. Navicula sphaerophora. 65. Navicula trinodis var. inflata. 66. Navicula viridis. 67. Navicula viridula var. sles- vicensis. 68. Opephora pacifica. 69. Stauroneis minutissima. 70. Stauroneis phoenicenteron. 71. Surirayu spiralis. 72. Suri- raya splendida. 73. Synedra capitaia. 74. Synedra radians. 75. Synedra tenuissima. 76. Synedra ulna var. am phirhynchus. 77. Synedra ulna var. longissima. 78. Synedra ulna var. oxyr- hynchus. 79. Tabellaria fenestrata. 80. T etracyclus lacustris. A NEWLY DISCOVERED RED OF MIOCENE DIATOMS The new bed of Diatomite, herein described for the first time was discovered l:)y Mr. Harold J. Cook^ in the summer of 1908, near his home at Agate, Sioux County, and was visited twice by the writer while the Morrill Geological Expedition, sent out by the University of Nebraska, was camped there. A section of the bed exposed in a draw shows a thickness of eight to ten feet Imt the extent is undetermined. The material is fairly com})act and may l)e spoken of as rocky. Near this l)ed and on about the same level is a deposit, similar in chai’acter and texture, but more earthy. The ])resence of identical foians in both, leads to the conclusion that the second bed was derived from the first by disintegration. The Diatoms from this dej)osit differ noticeably, in almost every instance, from tlie fossil Diatoms of other known de})osits in the State, and still more widely from modern forms. This dissimilarity, alone, would indicate that they are of eai-lier origin. Preparatory to the study of the matei-ial from this dej)osit two hundred xylol balsam mounts wei-e made. In the Koniglich G Miocene Diatoms Sachsische Technische Hochschule of Dresden, where the writer enjoyed the privilege of a term of special study of modern Diatoms, the method used was to boil a drop of water, containing the living Diatoms, on a slip of mica until all organic matter was volatilized and then to attach the mica slip to a regular glass slide. The advantage of this method is its expediency rather than its permanency and. with the living material, the mica mount secures high refraction, but the fossil material does not clear up and give as good results with this style of mount. The aim in mounting the new diatomite was to get as clear and permanent mounts as possible with the smallest expenditure of time, so the material was vigorously boiled with hydrochloric acid for some time to remove impurities, and then decanted and washed. Then a drop was evaporated on a cover glass, and mounted with xylol balsam. In this way very satisfactory slides were obtained. The result of examination of these mounts reveals a wealth of new forms, among which fifteen well known genera and fifty species have already been recognized and drawn. The plan is to supplement this preliminary announcement later with fuller notes and more accurate data, with figures from the camera-lucida sketches, which the writer has already made, and with descriptions of i he new species and genera. LIST OF FORMS FOUND IN THE NEW MIOCENE DIATOMITE Achnanthes. 1. Achnanthes minutissima. 2. Achnanthes trinodis. Amphora. 3. Amphora pellucida. 4. Amphora proteus. Cocconeis. o. Cocconeis borealis. 6. Cocconeis sp. (undt.). 7. Cocconeis sp. {undt.). S. Cocconeis sp. {undt.). 9. Cocconeis sp. (undt.). Cocconema. 10. Cocconema janischii. 11. Cocconema lanceolatum. 12. Cocco- nema lineata. Cymhella. 13. Cymhella afpnis. 14. Cymhella amphicephala. 15. Cym- hella Crystula. 16. Cymhella ehrenhergii. 17. Cymhella gastroides. 18. Cymhella turgidnla. 19. Cymhella sp. {undt.). Nebhaska Geological Survey i Encyonema. 20. Encyonema cae8))itosinn . 21. Encyonema tur(/i(Ium. 22. En- cyonema sp. i undt.). Epithemia. 23. Epithemia argus. 24. E pithemia granulata. 25. E pithemia hyndmanii. 26. Epithemia turgida. 27. Epithemia zebra. 2S. Epi- theynia sp. (undt.). 29. Epithemia sp. (undt.). 30. Epithemia sp. (undt.). 31. Epithemia sp. {undt.). 32. Epithemia sp. {undt.). 33. Epithemia sp. {undt.). 34. Epithemia sp. {undt.). Fragilaria. 35. Fragilaria bidens. 36. Fragilaria capucina. 37. Fragilaria construens. 38. Fragilaria harrisonii. 39. Fragilaria sp. {undt.). 40. Fragilaria sp. {undt.). Gomphonema. 41. Gomphonema acuminatum. 42. Gomphonema claratum. 43. Gomphonema constiictum. 44. Gomphonema sp. {undt.). 45. Gomphonema sp. {undt.). 46. Gomphonema s]>. {undt.). Melosira. 47. Melosira granulata. 48. Melosira sp. {undt.). Navicula. 49. Navicula divergens. 50. Navicula elliptica. 51. Navicula formosa. 52. Navicula interru pta. 53. Navicula limosa. 54. Na- vicula major. 55. Navicula nobilis. 56. Navicula rheinhardtii. 57. Navicula subcapitata. 58. Navicula sp. {undt.). 59. Namcula sp. {undt.). 60. Navicula sp. {undt.). 61. Navicula sp. {undt.). Nitschia. 62. Nitschia communis. 63. Nitschia denticula. Stauroneis. 64. Stauroneis smithii. Surirella. ^ 65. Surirella splendida . 6(). Surirella sj)ir(dis. Synedra. 67. Synedra afjinis. 68. Synedra capitata. 69. Synedra crindal- lina. 70. Synedra chasci. 71. Synedra (/(dlionii. 72. Synedra superba. 73. Synedra sp. {undl.). Undt. si^^nifies species which ai‘(‘ j)i-(^suinal)I y lu'w. 8 Miocene Diatoms ECONOMIC ASPECT From an economic standpoint the diatomaceoiis deposits of this state have, so far, not proved to be of great importance, possibly because of the lack of exploitation. A small amount is put up in cans by local dealers and sold as a polishing power for which pur- pose it is well suited. The living Diatoms play an important part in the purification of water owing to the fact that diatomin, a substance very anal- ogous to the chlorophyll of higher plants, has the j^i'operty of decomposing the carbon dioxide of the air by the aid of solar light, and assimilating the carbon, and at the same time rejecting the oxygen. The scope of Diatoms in this work of water puri- fications is almost boundless as these tiny organisms are of uni- versal distribution, occurring as they do in fresh water, salt water, the cold water of the arctics, and even in the hot waters of the Yellowstone National Park. They are also to be found in abun- dance in moist earth. In the stagnant pools of our smaller streams and in the large marshes of our greater streams, as the Platte and Missouri, Diatoms flourish in vast numbers and serve a useful purpose in the purification of these bodies of water. Diatoma- ceous earth or diatomite, sometimes improperly known as in- fusorial earth, has been of undoubted economic importance, although recent inventions and discoveries seem to have displac- ed it in the market and re.stricted its use. At one time diatomite was used extensively as a non-con- ductor; as an abrasive; in the filtering of water; and in the manufacture of dynamite. At present it is employed chiefly as an abrasive, and certain silver polishes on the market are said to be composed essentially of these siliceous frustules. The University of Nebraska April, 1910. Distributed Mav 25, 1910. 22 NEBRASKA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ERWIN HINCKLEY BARBOUR, State Geologic VOLUME 3 PART 13 SECOND FINANCIAL STATEMENT By ERWIN H. BARBOUR SFA'OXI) FINANCIAL STATFMFNT. Fewin Hinckley Barboue. The first financial statement appeared in Volume II, Part 8, pages 364- to 388. In the above mentioned paper will be found statements respecting the scope of the Nebraska Geological Survey, reports published, resources of the state and the ])rogress made in their development, finished manu- scripts, invoice of furniture and apparatus belonging to the State Survey, exchanges, and a financial statement con- cerning the bienniums 1902 and 1903, 1904 and 1905, 1906 and 1907, to February 15, 1907. The present report, beginning February 15, 1907, will continue the financial statement for the succeeding bien- niums, 1908 and 1909, 1910 to February 15, 1911. Statements respecting our natural resources and indus- trial development will be published separately in Volume IV, Part 2, under the title ‘^Development of Our Natural Resources, A Report of Progress.’^ The present geological regime dates from 1891, at which time there were only private funds for use in field work and for the publication of reports, and it was not until 1892 that the State began to maintain its Geological Sur- vey. The affairs of the Survey are conducted on the policy of too rigid economy for the welfare to our resources and industries. No salaries are paid and gratuitous services are relied upon, as far as is possible, and in spite of the fact that the funds of the State Survey have as yet never exceeded $1,250 a year, an unusual amount of field work has been done and extensive and representative collections brought together, three volumes printed, the fourth partly done, the fifth, sixth and seventh ready for the printer and a few pieces of office furniture and apparatus procured. All property belonging to the State Survey is properly marked, recorded and invoiced, and stored in fireproof quarters in the State Museum. A WORM) OF EXPLANATION. Respecting the typography and appearance of certain reports, a word should be said in explanation. The director of the State Survey specifies the kind and quality of paper, type, etc., while the State Printing Board advertises and lets all contracts for printing, which, according to law, must go to the lowest bidder. Consequently certain manuscripts fall into unfortunate hands and inferior work is the result. Whoever serves in an editorial capacity is the one censured for these errors, not the printer. And, while we would not indulge in apologies, we feel disposed to mention certain extenuating circumstances. While it seems to be the only course to pursue, it is none the less unfortunate that state reports should go to the lowest bidder, for the best is none too good for the people. The lowest bidder is not infrequently a young and relatively inexperienced village printer with little knowledge of the fitness of things in book-making. Being over-sanguine he is tempted oftentimes to submit bids too low for possible profit, the inevitable result being hurried and inferior workmanship. Fired by hope of gains and reckoning badly on the costs, some exceed the limit of credit and fail, and then peddle their contracts to others. This has happened twice in the past nine years. In one case a printer on the verge of bankruptcy held one of our reports of 150 pages on the press, blocking subsequent reports for a year or more, by virtue of the fact that this state job gave him standing with his creditors. After foreclosure the contract was peddled to three others in succession before it was finally done. However deeply we may deplore such experiences they seem at times inevitable. Work done under such circum- stances cannot come up to standard, and must to a greater or less degree disa])pointing to the reader, the di- rector, and especially so to the authoi*, who devoted two or three years gratuitously to its pre])aration, and who must feel that the excellence of his work is misrepresentc‘d by in- ferior press work. While there is a penalty danse covering snch wanton delay, it is so worded as to be easily evaded and thus rend- ered inoperative. In justice to the general printing profes- sion these cases may be counted exceptions, for as a rule onr printers are well equipped and their intentions good, making all relations with them in an editorial capacity pleasant and profitable. TIIK LIBKAKY OF TIIF XFBHASKA GEOLOBICAL suino^v. The library of the Nebraska Geological Survey, which now includes some 2,500 books, miscellaneons publications and pamphlets, is on the exchange list of the various scien- tific societies, the Geological Surveys of the several states, the several departments of the government, learned so- cieties and private authors. Though properly stamped and recorded to the credit of the Nebraska Geological Survey and provisionally cataloged, formal cataloging cannot be undertaken until later. Ultimately the library of the Ne- braska Geological Survey, like that of older states, will be- come an asset of importance. FTXAN( 1 AT. STATEMENT. 1907 . Feb, 19 Cornell Engraving Co $ 69.98 Feb. 19 Erwin H. Barbour (expenses) 2.66 Mar. 6 Edith Webster 27.90 Apr. 4 Western Publishing Co 35.76 May 2 Edith Webster 32.70 June 19 E. H. Barbour (expenses) 2.40 June 19 Edith Webster 28.20 June 19 Bertha Melick 6.13 June 19 Bertha Melick 34.20 June 19 Edith Webster 47.40 June 19 W. O. Forbes 7.00 June 19 Cornell Engraving Co. 38.98 July 6 Lincoln Photo Supply Co 10.84 July 6 Bertha Melick 37.80 July 6 Harry Porter 1.95 July 6 Edith Webster 55.50 Sept. 21 Cornell Engraving Co 108.99 Sept. 21 Edith Webster 37.20 Sept. 22 Eugene Gill 26.82 Sept. 27 Bertha Melick 26.10 Oct. 11 Bertha Melick ■ 13.20 Oct. 11 Edith Webster 24.30 Oct. 11 R. V. Pepperburg 35.61 Oct. 22 Ed. Davis 79.97 Oct. 2 5 G. E. Condra 2 5.86 Nov. 11 Edith L. Webster 18.45 Nov. 12 Western Publishing Co 108.75 Nov. 20 M. R. Barbour 11.50 Dec. 18 Edith Webster 22.80 Dec. 18 Harry Porter 27.50 Dec. 18 R. V. Pepperburg 5.94 Dec. 18 American Express Co 4.30 1998 . Jan. 13 Edith L. Webster $ 17.10 Jan. 24 R. Hindmarsh 8.00 Jan. 24 Bertha Melick 19.50 Jan. 31 Cornell Engraving Co 42.60 Feb. 25 Edith Webster 27.60 Feb. 28 Asnel L. Wilson 11.35 Mar. 7 American Express Co .69 Mar. 23 U. G. Cornell 80.28 Apr. 18 American Exj)ress Co 1.74 Apr. 18 Edith Webster 22.20 Apr. 30 R. V. Pepperburg 15.40 Apr. 30 Edwin G. Davis 19.45 May 19 Edith Webster 30.60 June 2 Rollin Joseph 4.70 June 16 Cornell Engraving Co 87.24 June 24 Alden Bumstead 21.40 June 24 Edwin G. Davis 3.52 July 2 E. H. Barbour 21.31 July 2 Maud Melick 11.95 July 2 E. F. Schramm 13.50 July 2 Edith Webster 47.70 July 15 American Express Co .... 1.13 July 18 Bertha Melick 49.50 July 29 Edith Webster 53.10 Aug. 6 Bertha L. Melick 32.40 Aug. 14 Edith Webster 43.20 Aug. 17 Lincoln Photo Supply Co 3.15 Sept. 8 G. E. Condra 6.45 Sept. 19 Bertha Melick 22.95 Sept. 19 Edith Webster 52.80 Oct. 19 C. H. Eaton 90.00 Get. 21 Edith Webster 19.50 Xov. 20 Edith Webster 18.30 Xov. 21 Cornell Engraving Co 4 6.97 1909 . Feb. 18 Edith Webster $ 8.11 Mar. 6 Cornell Engraving Co 95.80 Mar. 27 York Blank Book Co 312.90 Apr. 9 York Blank Book Co 13.42 Apr. 24 American Express Co 2.95 Apr. 24 Lincoln Transfer Co 4.00 May 10 Erwin H. Barbour (expenses) 24.34 May 12 Alden Bumstead 9.00 May 29 U. G. Cornell 43.35 June 14 Maud Melick . . . 12.30 June 14 Bertha Melick 40.50 June 25 Bertha Melick 51.15 June 25 York Blank Book Co 53.36 June 25 York Blank Book Co 41.72 July 17 Cornell Engraving Co $ 61.16 July 19 Edna Mantor 30.30 July 19 E. H. Barbour (expenses) 3.09 Aug. 3 Edith L. Webster 53.70 Aug. 14 Edith Webster 3.08 Aug. 26 R. V. Pepperburg 29.12 Dec. 14 F. J. Priddet 9.25 1910 . Jan. 13 Harry Porter $ 2.50 Jan. 19 Cornell Engraving Co 4.19 Jan. 21 Bertha Thornburg 17.00 Mar. 10 Bertha Thornburg 19.25 Mar. 16 Edwin G. Davis 7.82 Apr. 13 Cornell Engraving & Photo Co. 12.87 Apr. 29 Lincoln Photo Supply Co 8.15 Apr. 29 Hardy Furniture Co. Invoice No. 15-4-10 37.75 Apr. 29 Koska Glass & Paint Co 9.91 May 14 Bertha Thornburg 30.25 June 7 Etta Carpenter 4.25 June 23 C. N. & W. Ry. Co 21.02 July 6 C. N. & W. Ry. Co 8.63 July 14 York Blank Book Co 32.40 July 16 Bertha Thornburg 64.50 July 16 Cornell Engraving Co 41.63 July 16 E. F. Schramm 130.00 July 16 E. F. Schramm 32.48 July 21 E. H. Barbour (field expenses) 68.85 July 22 Cornell Engraving Co 69.55 Aug. 9 George W. Bonnell, Agent 3.90 Aug. 12 York Blank Book Co 79.45 Aug. 23 Erwin H. Barbour (field expenses) 15.64 Aug. 25 Edith Webster 88.55 Sept. 1 Miller & Paine 8.10 Sept. 1. Nebraska Paper & Bag Co 7.40 Sept. 19 C. H. Eaton 180.62 Sept. 19 Robert Graham 244.70 Sept. 20 Ed Davis 339.73 Sept. 29 E. H. Barbour (team hire) 199.98 Oct. 22 Cornell Engraving Co 12.23 Nov. 1 York Blank Book Co 39.73 Dec. 15 Bertha Thornburg 70.50 Jan. 9 Bertha Melick 7.10 Jan. 13 Harry Porter 1.25 Feb. 2 Bertha Thornburg 33.00 A Acknowledgment 15 Aceratherium 246 Agate 209, 215, 220, 245, 254, 258 Agate Spring Quarry 245, 258, 261 Alluvium 58, 278 Alluvial formation 86 American Museum of Natural History 262 Analysis, coal 279 Analysis, Dakota County lignite 297 Analysis, sand 112 Analysis, glass 194 Ancylopoda 213 Andesite 24 Arapahoe 146, 299 Area, Approximate of American Coal 301 Arikaree 46, 49, 278 Artificial stone 161 Artificial stone, plants outlined 164 Ashland 143, 277 Ashland dredge 99 Asphalt 171 Asterophyllites equisetiformis 328 Atchison Shales 328 Atkinson 142 Atwood, S. H 122, 236 Atwood Company’s Quarry, output 237 Auriferous sand 20 15 Ballast 83 Bank sand along Platte 115 Barbour, Erwin H 15, 18, 207, 217, 231, 251, 255, 282 ” Eleanor 331 Bard well. May 15 Basalt 24 Bates, Ross 15 Beatrice 131, 145 Beatty, Mr. 280 Beaver city 146 Bedding sand 190 Beebe, J. W 321 Beebxe, John H 90 Bengtson, Mr. X. A 314 Benton Formations 46 Berks 116 Big Blue District 129 Bishop, E. C r 83 Black sands 20 Black, W. W 234 Blacksmith, Kansas 292 Bloomington 140 Blue Springs 145, 233 Borst, A. M 307 Bramm 128 Brickton 134, 145 Broken Bow 85 Brownville, section at 317 Brule 46, 278 B. & M. R. R 284 Burt County 296, 298 Butler, B. S 262 C Calamariae 327 Calcite 23 Cambridge 146 Canidae 262 Canis latrans 270 Carboniferous 278 Carboniferous Flora 277 Carboniferous Flora, Preliminary Notes on 313-330 Carboniferous rocks 40 Carlile 46, 278 Carnegie Hill 209 Carnegie Museum 209 Carnivora, New, from Lower Miocene of Western Nebraska .. 259-274 Cass County 278, 296 Cass County, Coal of 279 Cedar Bluffs 115 Cedar County lignite 297 Cedar Creek 144 Cedar Creek production 108 Cement Block machines 164 Central City 91 Ceresco 117 Chadron 46, 141, 278 Chalicotherium 213 Chatburn, George R Chert Chicago, St. Paul, Minnesota R. R Chemistry department. University of Nebraska Clark, D. Y Classification of sands Clay Coal, analysis ” distribution in U. S ” excitements ” in Nebraska ” kinds of ” law relating to bounty for ” Map of U. S ” prospecting ” stages in ” values Cobbles and bowlders Cody Coenopus Columbus Concrete Concrete, tests of strength of ” tension tests of ” compression tests of ” cross breaking tests of ” comparative fitness ” culverts ” curing " dams ” ditches ” facing *' houses ” mixing ” other uses ” piers ” sewers ” subways ” specifications ” tanks walls ” water pipes Condra, Mrs. G. E Cook, Mr. .James ” Harold .J 215, Cope, E. D Coral sand 243, 213, . 15, 223, 225 46 78 .279, 290, 292 91 19 24, 78 279 301 280 277 302 305 304 282, 300 303 294 56 142 245, 246 91, 143 148 225 227 28S 228 166 155 165 157 158 165 160 15 3 167 157 160 160 16 8 158 160 158 15 209, 254, 258 245, 259, 261 262, 264, 271 29 Cornell Engraving Company 15 Cretaceous 46, 277, 278 Cretaceous formation 299 Crete 131, 145 Crete, lignite seam at 297 Crum, C. W 84 Cullom 117, 144 ” Gravel pit 127 Culverts, concrete 147, 155 D Dakota 46, 57, 278 Dakota clay 120 Dakota County 296, 298 ” ” lignite 297 Dakota Formation 41, 79, 86, 117, 138, 296 Dakota Formation, outcrop of 4 2 Dams, concrete 147, 157 Daphoenodon 261 ” periculosus 268 ” supurbus 268 Darton 15, 46 Davis, Edwin G 254 Davis, G. H., Quarry of 234, 235 ” G. H. Quarry capacity 236 Day, John 261 Denton 116 DeWitt 145 Diatoms, Newly Discovered bed 331 Diceratheres 246, 258 Diceratherium 209, 246, 254 Diceratherium arikarense, two restorations of 215 Dinocyon 254 Dinohyus 254 Dixon County 298 Dixon County lignite 297 Dodge County lignite 297 Dodge County 296, 298 Douglas County 278, 296 Dredging boat 64 Dredging, clam 65 Drift 278 Dundy County 139 Dune sands 59, 82, 278 E Edentates Elk Creek 213 89, 144 Elkhorn District 83 Endicott 146 Engine sand 186 Eocene 213 Equisetites occidentalis 328 Equisetites Schp 328 Equus beds 278 Eyerman 262, 266 F Fairbury 136, 145, 146 Falls City 145 Falls City, coal excitement 282 Feldspar 17, 22, 51 Field study 13 Fisher, C. A 15, 118 Flint 46 Flint Ballast Industry 233 Formations, in Nebraska 278 Foss, S. R 133 Franklin 146 Franklin County 140 Fremont 91, 92, 94, 143 Fremont dredges 91 Friezes Mill 280 Furnas County 140 Fulk, J. R 136 G Gage County 296 Gage County, flint ballast industry of 233 Geological Map of Nebraska 281 Gering 46, 49, 278 Gulley 261 Glacial boulders 79 ” deposits 52 ” formation 86 Glacio-fluvial sand plain 54 Glacial sand and gravel 83 Glass, analysis of 194 ” economic aspects 198 ” factories 198 ” industry 192 Gneiss 25 Gould, C. N 118 Grand Island 91 Graneros 46, 278 Graneros Formation 298 Granite 16, 24, 57 Grant, City Engineer, Lincoln 151 Gravel 46, 48, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 58, 60, 64, 74, 117, IIS Gravel Pit 122 ” ” Beatrice 131 ” ” Bramm 128 ” ” Brickton 134 ” ” Crete 131 ” ” Cullom 127 ” ” Fairbury 136 ” ” Hebron 135 ” ” Milford 132 ” ” Sutton 132 ” ” Turkey Creek 133 ” ” Ulysses 132 ” Wagner 128 ” ” Wymore 131 ” ” York 132 Gravel and Pebble Rock 44 Gravel shipment 126 Greenhorn 46, 57, 278 Greenstone 57 Gregory, G. A 132 H Haigler 146 Halsey 85, 142 Harrison beds 213 Harrison, lower 261 Hartington 84, 85 Hayden 278 Hayden and Meek 280 Hector, Fred 307 Hebron 135, 145 Homer, lignite seam at 297 Honey Creek Coal Mine 282, 283 ” ” ” ” measurements 285 ” ” ” ” geological selection 288 ” ” ” ” method of working 289 ” ” ” ” physical and chemical properties 289 ” ” ” ” ground plan 290 ” ” ” ” output 295 Honey Creek Hill, topography of 286 Honey Creek Hill, geological section 288 Hoover, N. Hornlende 23 Hubbel 29 8 Humboldt, coal excitement 282 Hypotemnodon 262 I Identification of Carboniferous Flora 323 Introduction 13 Iron oxides 23 Irrigation ditches 147 , 158 J Jackson, lignite seam at 297 James, Mr. C. B. 313 Jam.estown, lignite seam at 297 Jefferson County 296,298 Jefferson County lignite 297 Jensen, J. C 140 Johnson County 277, 280 K Kansan Till 54,56 Kearney Hydraulic Stone Co 90 Kearney and vicinity 89, 143 Kesterson 146 L Laboratory study of sand Lancaster Lancaster County Laramie Laramie Formation Law, relating to bounty for coal . . Lesquereux’s Coal Flora Atlas .... Lepidostrobus and Lepidophyllum Lexington Limestones Lincoln Little Blue District Loess Logan Valley Long Pine Loup District Loup Fork Louisville Louisville dredges Lyman dredge Lyman, Mr 15 116 278, 296, 298 46, 278 299 300 319 328 143 144 134 .58, 278 84 82 85 46 143, 144 . . . .105 . .94, 97 99 M Madison Marsh, F. A 9 ]^ -’'lartel Martinsburg Masonry mortar Materials, kinds tested 227, 228 Matthew, W. D 261 Mayne, Frank K 234 McCook 140 ^ 299 Meadow 443 Meadow dredges 99 Meadow Grove 84 Measurements of Honey Creek Mine 285 Measurements of Type specimens Temnocyon 271, 272 Meek and Hayden 280 Mercer, A. J 90 Merna 142 Merriam, J. C 262, 264, 268 Mesocyon 262 Mesocyon coryphaeus 264 Metacoenopus 245, 246 Mica 16, 22 ^lica and hornblende schists 5 7 Middle Creek 117 Middle Loup 85 Milford 117, 132 145 Milford, lignite seams at 297 Miller, John H 215 Miocene 43, 213 ” lower 245 ” hills 209 Missouri River 277 Molding sand 190 Monolithic walls and houses 14 7, 160 Montgomery, F. W 89 Moropus 210 ” affinities of 213 ” cooki 219, 221, 222 ” European type 220 ” Marsh’s 215 ” skeletal parts 219 ” skull of 209 Morrill Collection of Photographs 234, 235, 237, 238, 239 241, 287, 291, 293 Morrill Geological Collections 210 Morrill Geological Expedition 209, 215, 258 Morrill, Hon. Charles H 219, 331 Morrill Quarry 220 Morrison 278 Morrison Formation 41 Morse Bluff 115 Morse, Professor in U. N 15 Mortar sands 140 Mortar, mixing of 151 Murphy, Hugh 108 Mustelidae 270 N Nebraska, at edge of Carboniferous basin 300 Nebraska City 142, 313 ” ” Carboniferous plants at 320 ” ” Coal excitement 282 ” ” List of fossils 329 ” ” Section at 316 Nebraska Geological Survey 258 Nebraska Geological Survey, Volume II 258 Nebraska State Museum 219 Neligh 84 Nemaha County 277 Nemaha County, Coal of 279 Nemaha District 127 Neuropeteris Loshii 326 ” localities of 325 ” ovata 327 ” scheuchzeri 326 Niobrara 46, 76, 209, 278 ” Port 215 ” District 82 Norfolk 84 North Platte 86 Northwestern R. R 82 Nothocyon 266, 270 ” geismarianus 268 ” annectens 268 ” measurements of 272 O O’Connell James 139 Odontopteris Brgt 327 Ogallala 4 6, 51, 5!) Ogallala, Pliocene 27S Oligocene 46, 213, 246 Oligobunis lepidus 261, 270 Oligobunis, measurements of 271, 272 Omaha 142, 277 Omaha Gravel Company 122 Ord 14 2 Osborne 213 Otoe County 277 Otoe County, Coal of 279 Ottawa sand 29 Oxford 146 P Palmyra 142 Parahippus 245 Parmalee, A. H 109 Part 1, Sand and Gravel Resources and Industries of Nebraska. .1-206 Part 2, The Skull of Moropus 207-216 Part 3, Skeletal Parts of Moropus 217-222 Part 4, Tests of Strength of Concrete 223-230 Part' 5, The Flint Ballast Industry of Gage County 231-242 Part 6, A New Genus of Rhinoceros from Sioux County 243-250 Part 7, A Slab from the Bone Beds of Sioux County 251-254 Part 8, Restoration of Diceratherium Arikarense. A New Form of Panel Mount 255-258 Part 9, Some New Carnivora from the Lower Miocene Beds of Western Nebraska 259-274 Part 10, Coal in Nebraska 275-310 Part 11, Preliminary Notes on the Carboniferous Flora of Nebraska 311-330 Part 12, Preliminary Notice of Newly Discovered Bed of Miocene Diatoms 331-338 Pavements, cement 169 Pawnee City 144 Pawmee County 277, 280 Pawnee County Productions 128 Peanut rock 46 Pennsylvania Formation 277 Pennsylvanian sand 41 Pepperberg, Roy V. 275, 277, 311, 313 Perisodactyle 213 Perrin, Dale C 15 Peru 142, 277, 320 ” Coal excitement 282 ” coal. Chemical analysis 290 ” topography of Honey Creek Hill 286 Peterson, O. A 261, 268 Photographs from Hon. Charles H. Morrill’s collection 211, 212, 214, 234, 235, 237, 238, 239, 241, 287, 291, 293; plate 2, part 2, plate 1 to 9, part 3, plate 1, part 7, plate 1, part 8 Pierce 46 Pierre 278 Pierre Shale Formation . .298 Piers, concrete 147, 157 Pine Ridge 299 Plaster 14 7, 152 Platte River 18, 277 Platte District 86 Plattsmouth 80, 277 Plattsmouth, Coal excitement 282 Platte sand, commercial movement 113 Pliocene 213 Powell, lignite seam at 297 Preliminary Notes on the Carboniferous Flora of Nebraska. . .313-330 Preliminary Notice of a Newly Discovered Bed of Miocene diatoms 313-338 Pteriodphyta 322 Q Quaternary 278 R Railroad ballast 175 Railroads and markets 113 Red Cloud 146 Redmond, W . D 306 Red Willow County 139 Reed, M. H 234 Republican District 138 Residual gravel and sand 88 Rhinoceros Diceratherium 209 ” New genus of 245 ” New Fossil 258 Rhinocerotidae 246 Rhyolites 2 4 Richards, Professor in U. N 15 Richardson County 277 Richardson County, Coal of 279 Richardson County sand production 128 Roofing gravel 172 Rosebud, Upper beds 261 Rulo, Coal excitement 282 8 Salem Salt Creek 4 2 Salt Creek Valley Samples, sand 14 Sand 13, 17, 46, 78, 79, 80, 89, 90, 112 ” Arikaree 49 ” as moisture pad 168 ” chemical analysis 80 ” classification 19 ” comparison 58 ” composition 21, 24, 36 ” delivery 75 ” deposits 82, 84, 86, 88 ” districts 76 ” dredging 64, 65 ” dune sand 59 ” exposures 76 ” field study 13 ” Gering 49 ” glacial 52 “ glacio-fluvial 54, 5 5, 56 ” grading 30 ” in Dakota Formation 42 ” laboratory study 15 ” loading and hauling 61 ” markets 113 ” mining 60, 65 ” minor uses 200 ” Ogallala 4 9 ” origin Id ” physical and chemical properties 25 ” Pliocene 51 ” Platte 113 ” production and trade 70, 108, 115, 116 ” pumping 64, 104 ” quality 80 ” residual 88 ” samples 14 ” shipment 72, 106 ” sources 60 ” specialized trade 6 9 ” specific gravity 33 ” supply and demand 72 ” tertiary 51 ” testing 26, 36 ” till plain 52 ” total value 72 ” tunneling 62 ” uses 150, 173, 190 ” washing and screening 74 ” weight 33 Sand-bearing formations 38 ” ” ” outlined 40 Sand dredge, Ashland 99 ” ” Fremont 94 ” ” Louisville 105 ” ” Lyman 94,97 ” ” Meadow 99 ” ” Valley 97 ” ” Woodsworth 97, 105 Sand-lime bricks, 178 ” ” ” manufacture .. 180 ” ” ” nature of 182 ” ” ” constitution of 182 ” ” ” plants 184, 186 ” ” ” table of productions 185 Sand Pit 78, 80, 83, 84, 85, 86, 90, 91, 92, 94 Sand pits, Berks 116 ” ” Cedar Bluffs 115 ” ” Ceresco 117 ” ” Cullom 117 ” ” Davey 117 ” ” Denton 116 ” ” Lancaster 116 ” ” Martel 116 ” ” Middle Creek 117 ” ” Morse Bluff 115 ” ” Pleasant Dale 117 ” ” Prairie Home 117 ” ” Wahoo 115 Sandstone 17, 25 Sand supply, Ansley 86 ” ” Broken Bow 86 ” ” Calloway 86 ” ” Columbus 86 ” ” Fremont 86 ” ” Gates, R. 0 86 ” ” Mason City 86 ” ” Oakdale 86 ” ” Sargent 86 Sarpy County 278, 296 Saunders County 296, 298 Schist 25 Schuyler 91 Scotts Bluff 143 Screening and washing 74 Section, geological 279 ” at Nebraska City 316 ” at Brownville 317 ” at Rulo ' 318 ” gravel pit 127 Seward County ^ 298 Sewers, concrete : 147, 160 Shipment, sand * 74 Short, Ed M 140 Sidewalks, cement 168 Sidney and Chappel 88 Sioux County 213, 220, 258 Sioux Quartzite . . . 57 South Bend 143 South Dakota, State Geologist of 297 South Fork, Coal excitenrent 282 South Platte - 89 Standard sands 29 State Geological Survey 13 State Museum 254 Steam shovel 65 Stewart, W. M. .* 237 Stout, Professor in U. N 15 Street and road making. Subway and tunnels . .147, 160 Superior 298 Sutton 132, 145 Syenites 24, 57 Syndyoceras ...245 T Table Rock 141 Tanks, concrete 147, 158 Tecumseh 128, 144, 280 Tecumseh, coal excitement 282 Tekamah 78, 142 Temnocyon, altigenis 263, 264, 266 ” ferox. 266, 271 percussor 266 ” Venator 262, 263, 265 Tertiary 46, 51, 58, 74, 76, 278 Tertiary formations 83, 86 Thayer County 298 Thedford 85 Thomas, Dr, A. C 90 Thurston County 296, 298 Till plain sands 5 2 Titanotherium 210 Trap Rock 57 Todd, Professor J. E . 397 Trenton 146 Triassic and Jurassic rocks 11 Tunneling sand 62 Turner’s Branch Turkey Creek *. . . 133 U Ulrich, E. H Ulysses • 132 Ungulate . . .213, 220 Unguiculates 213 Union Pacific Quarry . . . 239, 240 Union Pacific Railroad Company 239 University Hill . . .209, 221 University of Nebraska V Valentine 83, 142 Valley 143 Valley Dredge 9 7 Valparaiso, lignite seam at . . .**. . . 297 Value of total sand production . . .72 "van Court gravel pit 119 Voifis : . .34 Volcanic ash 20 AV Wade, Wm 122 Wagner 128 Wahoo . . . 115, 144 Washington County . . .278, 296 Water pipes, concrete . . .147, 158 Weeping Water White, Dr. David . .- .319, 330 White, Samuel 136 Whitmore, Hon. C. W 97 Wilber Wisner Woodlake .’ Woods, W. W Woodworth dredge 97, 105 ” gravel pit Wymore ” limestone ledges of ” quarry Y York 132 , 145 library university of lUJtWR >«