■CAHNKfc* n ■ S'mEh COMPANY PITTSBURGH, J»A. Q7Z Q2j 1st, 1912 . Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2017 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Alternates https://archive.org/details/steelsheetpilingOOcarn STEEL SHEET PILING [.ytUit TABLES AND DATA ON THE PROPERTIES AND USES OF SECTIONS MANUFACTURED BY CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY PITTSBURGH, PA. G0O9OVM512 Copyright, 1912, by CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY Pittsburgh, Pa. Ninth Edition, July 1st, 1912 o si G7 a_ C SUst )9 /£- STEEL SHEET PILING I OOl T HE Carnegie Steel Company is the pioneer in the manu¬ facture of rolled steel sheet piling, and is successor to the pioneers in the manufacture of fabricated piling sections. Since December 23d, 1904, the date on which it first rolled United States Steel Sheet Piling, the use of this product has passed the experimental stage aind steel sheet piling has come to be recognized by engineers everywhere as a safe, certain, efficient, and reliable tool in subaqueous construction. Invented in the first instance to replace wooden sheeting, its use has been extended to many lines impracticable of execution by that material. In the course of experience in its manu¬ facture and in contact with its actual use, this Company has acquired a large amount of information as to the successful accomplishment of the most varied classes of construction in which steel sheet piling has been employed, and the services of its trained engineers are at the disposal of engineers and contractors having such work in contemplation. The illus¬ trations of the methods of driving and pulling steel sheet piling and the notes on its uses given in this pamphlet are all drawn from that experience. In addition to the tables and data referring directly to steel sheet piling and its uses, there have been included, for the convenience of engineers, notes and a few tables on concrete, earth pressures, etc. Most of these tables are original and either computed at first hand for use in this book or compiled from a comparison of similar data in standard engineering works. The American Civil Engineers’ Pocket Book, edited by Mansfield Merriman, has been of most assistance in this direction and acknowledgment has been made in the proper place for data taken directly from that work. 568739 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY TYPES: Steel sheet piling is manufactured and sold by the Carnegie Steel Company under three forms: United States Steel Sheet Piling, Friestedt Interlocking Channel Bar Piling and Symmetrical Interlock Channel Bar Piling. The sections and weights of these three forms are shown in the tables which follow. They have been thoroughly tried out in all classes of construction and under the most favorable as well as the most unfavorable conditions of driving. Each of these forms has its distinct advantages. 1. United States Steel Sheet Piling- A simple, plain, rolled section ready for use as it comes from the mill without further fabrication. Each piece is complete in itself and all pieces of the same width are interchangeable. The strength of the section is uniform throughout and each pile of the same weight per foot is as strong as any other. In its profile it incorporates the advantages of the ball and socket joint, with sufficient clearance in the interlock for ease of driving and sufficient space for the use of a packing substance between its adjacent edges to insure watertightness. The section has been designed on a scientific basis; contact between the head and the socket is made by lines and not by surfaces, so that wedging action is prevented and the maximum strength is secured to resist forces in both lateral and longitudinal directions. The joints are flexible and permit the entrance of silt and clay into the interlock to aid in securing watertightness. They permit also the easy passing of boulders, old logs and other obstructions encountered in driving and the construction of circular or irregularly shaped pockets without the use of specially bent or fabricated pieces. In making closures for pockets, cofferdams, etc., such flexible joints allow distances to be gained or lost by longitudinal displacement in the joints themselves or by slight deflections from line. They are also an aid in bringing the piling back to its vertical alignment in either direction after a departure from it caused by meeting obstructions or careless driving. The clearance in the inter- 6 STEEL SHEET PILING lock between the ball and the socket is such as to insure ease in driving and pulling, but at the same time this clearance has been kept down to the minimum so as to make the section as nearly watertight as possible. Tests under identical conditions and experience in use have proved beyond question that United States Steel Sheet Piling is more easily driven and pulled than any other section hitherto placed on the market. The reason for this is believed to be the absence of a leading groove, combined with the line contact obtained in the joints. United States Steel Sheet Piling can only be furnished in the sizes and weights illustrated. Fig. 1—Dimensions of United States Steel Sheet Piling Sections 7 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY TABLE I.—ELEMENTS OF UNITED STATES STEEL SHEET PILING Section Index Description Area 2 Inches Neutral Axis on Center Line of Web Straight Section, Wt. per Sq. Ft. Regular Corner, Wt. per Lin. Ft. Width, Inches Weight, Lbs. per Lin. Ft. I 4 Inches r Inches S 3 Inches S* 3 Inches M 102 12 40 11.63 7.31 0.79 4.00 4.00 40 40 M 104 12* 38 11.20 8.35 0.87 4.30 3.97 35 38 M 103 9 16 4.71 1.45 0.56 1.13 1.51 21 16 S* is the average section modulus per horizontal foot of wall interlocked in place. 2. Friestedt Interlocking Channel Bar Piling— A fabricated section made of channels and zee bars; unsymmetrical as regards adjacent pieces, one channel having two zee bars full length and the next adjacent channel being plain, that is, without zee bars. The standard sections listed in the tables are made with 12" and 15" channels and special zee bars, but other sections can be furnished with any size or weight of channels which can be interlocked by the use of the special or standard zee bar sections, thus permitting a large range of possible weights and sizes. This type of piling section does not have the same strength in a longitudinal direction as the United States Steel Sheet Piling section; it has, however, sufficient strength for use in ordinary construction work. While the joints are not so flexible as in the case of the rolled section, there is a sufficient amount of flexibility to permit successful driving and pulling. When driven in a cofferdam or other structure sustaining lateral pressure from one side, the inner surfaces of the channels wedge tightly against each other so as to make the sections practically watertight without the use of packing strips or other packing material. Inasmuch as every alternate piece is furnished plain with the exception of the pulling holes, the sections possess a high salvage value in that some 40% to 45% of the channels can be withdrawn and used for structural purposes after their temporary use as sheet piling has been completed. 8 STEEL SHEET PILING Fig. 2—Assemblement of Friestedt Interlocking Channel Bar Piling TABLE II. ELEMENTS OF FRIESTEDT INTERLOCKING CHANNEL BAR PILING Composition and Dimensions of Sections Description Channels Zees a In. b In. c In. d In. e In. f In. i jh / g 1 / 2 In - In In. Lbs. perFt. In. Lbs. perFt. 12"x33 lbs. 12 20.5 3y 8 xy 8 8.6 m 1M 3H 2M 13^8 i y 8 6 10K 12"x38 “ 12 25 3 y 8 x% 8,6 m 1M 3y 2M 1 y 8 m 6 io y 8 15"x38 “ 15 33 4 y 8 x%, 9.2 IR lfk 4 K 3 l'A i% 7y 2 i3y 2 15"x44 “ 15 40 4 y 8 xy 8 9.2 1R 1 t 5 6 4^ 3 iy 2 7 y 2 13 1 2 Properties of Section, Axis X-X No. Description Sections Interlocked Z Bar Channel Plain Channel Regular Corner, Lbs. per Lin. Ft. Width, In. Lbs. per Sq. Ft. Area In. 2 I In. 4 r In. S In.3 S* In. 3 I In. 4 r In. S In. 3 I In.4 r In. S In. 3 1 2 3 4 12 12 15 15 33 38 38 44 8.54 9.86 12.60 14.46 14.54 18.62 28.90 36.77 1.30 1.37 1.51 1.59 6.84 8.72 11.74 14.88 7.55 9.62 10.44 13.23 17.18 19.26 28.70 31.92 1.25 1.25 1.37 1.36 6.53 6.94 8.98 9.54 3.91 4.53 8.23 9.39 .81 .79 .91 .89 1.75 1.91 3.16 3.43 46 51 61 68 S* is the average section modulus per horizontal foot of wall interlocked in place. Friestedt Interlocking Channel Bar Piling can also be furnished with double interlock, that is ; with two zee bars on 9 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY each piece, in which case the section possesses great stiffness and lateral strength and is suitable for very heavy and difficult driving conditions. 3. Symmetrical Interlock Channel Bar Piling— A fabricated section made of channels and zee bars in which each piece has a short zee bar on one edge and a long zee bar on the other. The long zee bar forms the interlock with the next adjacent section while the short zee serves to reinforce the top of the pile and to distribute the blow from the pile driving hammer uniformly over the width of the section. The lengths of the short zee bars are proportioned to the length of the entire piece so as to afford ample stiffness at the top of the pile for various driving conditions, as per the following table: Length of Piling 20 feet and under Length of Zee Bars 2 ' 0 " 2 ' 6 " 3' 0" 3' 6" 4' 0" 20 to 30 feet 30 to 40 feet 40 to 50 feet 50 to 60 feet While the pieces are right and left as regards position in the line and are, therefore, denominated symmetrical, the strength of the sections is uniform throughout and each pile of the same weight per foot is as strong as any other. The section is not as strong in a longitudinal direction as the United States Steel Sheet Piling, but it possesses a high radius of gyration and a large section modulus which makes it, by reason of its great lateral strength and stiffness, the most suitable of all three types for use under difficult driving condi¬ tions. While the tables show six standard sizes and weights, the piling can be manufactured, in a manner similar to the Friestedt Interlocking Channel Bar Piling, in a variety of sizes and weights to suit special conditions. 4. Driving Widths. The theoretical center to center driv¬ ing distances of the Friestedt Interlocking Channel Bar Piling and the Symmetrical Interlock Channel Bar Piling are shown on the tables of the Composition and Dimensions of Sections. The sections assemble very nearly to the widths given. 10 STEEL SHEET PILING Fig. 3.—Assemblement of Symmetrical Interlock Channel Bar Piling TABLE III.—ELEMENTS OF SYMMETRICAL INTERLOCK * CHANNEL BAR PILING Composition and Dimensions of Sections No. Channels Zees a In. b In. C In. d In. e In. f In. 1 1 ! g ! h / / 2 In. Description In. Lbs. perFt. In. Lbs. perFt. 1 10"x28 lbs. 10 15 3%x% 4.8 It® 1 6 3 2 1 IX 5 9 2 1 10"x34 “ 10 20 3 %x% 4.8 Wb TH 3 2 1 IX 5 9 3 12"x34 “ 12 20.5 3%x% 8.6 m m 3 X 2 M IX IX 6 10 % 4 12"x39 “ 12 25 3%x% 8.6 m IX 3% 2 % IX m 6 10 % 5 15"x39 “ 15 33 4%x% 9.2 1 R 1 B lj6 4% 3 IX m 7 X 13% 6 15"x45 “ 15 40 4%x% 9.2 1 th 1 T6 4% 3 l X IX 7Vi 13% Properties of Section, Axis X-X Description Sections Interlocked Single Section Regular Corner. No. Width. Lbs. per Area I r S S* I r S Lbs. per Lin. Ft. In. Sq. Ft, In. 2 In. 4 1 In. In. 3 In. In. 4 In. In 3 1 10 28 5.87 7.09 1 1.10 3.64 4.85 5.52 0.97 2.24 26 2 10 34 7.29 10,26 1.19 5 27 7.03 6.61 0.95 2,50 31 3 12 34 8.54 14.59 1.31 6.63 7.32 11.18 1.14 3.95 38 4 12 39 9.86 18.66 1.38 8.48 9.36 12.63 1.13 4.23 42 5 15 39 12.6028.96 1.52 11.44 10 17 19.33 1.24 5.68 51 6 15 45 14.46 36 82 1.60 14.55 12.93 21.60 1.22 6.07 58 S* is the average section modulus per horizontal foot of wall interlocked in place. 11 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY The 12" United States Steel Sheet Piling section drives to a maximum of llyf" and to a minimum of 11 the aver¬ age driving distance is 11}^"; it requires on an average 104 pieces to drive 100 feet of wall. The 12J4" section cannot drive less than 12it may drive 13jks" and will average about 13J4" ; 91 pieces should drive 100 feet of wall. The 9" section cannot drive less than 9"; it may drive to and will average about 9 }/i" \ 130 pieces should drive 100 feet. 5. Positive Interlocks. Experience in the manufacture and use of steel sheet piling indicates that a positive interlock throughout the entire length of the piece is absolutely necessary to resist much irregularity in earth or water pressure. The forms of steel sheet piling which have locks top and bottom, top or bottom or even intermediate locks have proven failures except for very light work, the earth or water pressure buckling the section between the locks and thus allowing the inflow of earth or water into the excavation. All the sections manu¬ factured by Carnegie Steel Company have, therefore, a positive interlock continuous throughout the entire length of the piece in both lateral and horizontal directions, which affords maxi¬ mum strength against sidewise deflection, distortion or the separation of the pieces due to local pressures, deformation in driving, etc. This positive interlock will resist distortion until the stress induced by the pressure exceeds the elastic limit of the steel from which the sections are rolled. 6. Composite Piling. While a positive interlock in both directions is desirable in all sheeting and is absolutely necessary in difficult conditions, there are places where such complete and positive interlocking is not necessary. In cases of short lengths and simple driving, plain I-beams may be used to form the sheeting, a shallow section being set transversely of the wall with the flanges of a deeper section fitting into its web. Plain corrugated sheets may be used for the same pur¬ pose driven through sand in lengths up to six or eight feet, dependent on the gauge which should not be much less than No. 16. In sandy conditions, such as obtain along the sea 12 STEEL SHEET PILING shore, a very simple sheeting may be made as shown in Fig. 4. This consists of 4" H-beams with 3x12" plank interfitting. The lower ends of the 3x12" plank may be beveled, as is customary in wooden sheeting, to insure tight driving, and the beams and the plank may be driven with a light hammer YS/////2ZZZ1 \// /722 Z/ //& Fig. 4—Composite H-Beam Piling or sunk by the use of a water jet. In grounds containing many small obstacles or in long lengths, say over 10 or 12 feet, it would probably be difficult to install the composite sheeting with sufficient accuracy. The 4" H-beam is admir¬ ably adapted to this use by reason of its wide flange width which affords ample bearing surface for the ends of the plank. 7. Method of Ordering. United States Steel Sheet Piling may be ordered by weight per square foot, weight per lineal foot or by section number. Fabricated sections must always be ordered by weight per square foot or section number as given in Tables II and III of weights and properties. If, however, standard structural zee bars are used instead of the standard piling zee bars, the make-up of the sections should be distinctly stated on the order which should specify the weight of the channel and the weight of the zee bar per lineal foot which go to make up the component parts. Orders should specify in all cases the number of pieces and the length required, whether with or without pulling holes, and the number and style of corners, whether right or left hand. If corners are not square, the angle to which they are to be bent must be stated. Orders for junction pieces should specify the junction piece mark as indicated on the pages of constructional details, Figs. 40 and 41. Piling should never be ordered by perimeter or girth of enclosure or by lineal feet, but always by the number of pieces and their length. 13 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY Steel sheet piling is estimated and invoiced on the theo¬ retical weights of its component members. STRENGTH OF SECTION: The strength of steel sheet piling to resist lateral pressure or the blows of the pile driver may be figured in accordance with the usual formulae from the proper¬ ties given in Tables I, II and III. The sections are made of medium steel in accordance with the specifications for structural steel adopted by the American Railway Engineering Association, and unit stresses customary in building or bridge work apply to them. In temporary constructions the safe working stress may be taken at 20,000 pounds per square inch or higher. It is preferable, however, to compute the normal pressures and to figure the steel at 16,000 pounds per square inch, thus providing a relatively larger factor of safety as a caution against unusual or unexpected temporary conditions. The 9" 16 pound United States Steel Sheet Piling and the 10" 28 pound Symmetrical Interlock Channel Bar Piling are adapted for sewer and trench work, for shallow pits, for wells of small diameter and any other places where the depths are not over 25 feet, the soil not too compact to allow of easy driving and the pressure not excessive. The 12" United States Steel Sheet Piling sections, the 12" and 15" Friestedt Interlocking Channel Bar sections and the 12" Symmetrical Interlock Channel Bar sections are suitable, if sufficiently braced, for driving in most classes of material to the depths usual in foundation work; they have been driven to depths of 85 feet. The 15" Symmetrical Interlock Channel Bar Piling, while suitable for medium construction, is particularly adapted to heavy construction, the great transverse strength of the heavier sections making them especially efficient for deep excavations and dams where high lateral pressure would otherwise require excessive bracing. While the choice of sections is in a way dependent upon the individual preferences of the user and his experience in the use of sheet piling, there are certain considerations which determine the suitability of each section for particular uses. 14 STEEL SHEET PILING 1. Lateral Strength. In cofferdam work or other excava¬ tions where the piling is exposed, proper bracing is essential and the spacing of rangers and bracing to be used will depend upon the character of the soil, the hydrostatic pressure, etc. No fixed rules can be set down; it is better to err on the side of excessive bracing than to take chances of failure. Economy in total cost of construction is better attained by the use of heavy piling and a small amount of bracing than by the use of light piling with a larger number of braces. One advantage of steel sheet piling is that owing to the strength of the material , waling pieces, girts or rangers may be spaced farther apart than would be necessary with ordinary sizes of wood sheet¬ ing and a more economical distribution of the material used for bracing is thus made possible. When driven and under pressure steel sheet piling must have strength similar to that possessed by any other beam loaded equally or unequally with earth or water pressure, and the resistance of the piling to transverse bending can be calculated by the known laws of flexure from the section moduli of the sections as given in the tables. In the case of the fabricated sections, the center line of the assemblement is not the center line of the individual members and it is, there¬ fore, necessary to refer all the calculations to a theoretical neutral axis and to give the properties of the assembled sections on the assumption that when interlocked together they will act as a unit, with the result that the calculations sometimes show the strength of the assemblement to be greater than that of its weakest member. While this assumption may not be theoretically correct, it seems to be the only basis on which the comparative strength of different types of piling can be computed. In using the properties of fabricated sections interlocked, it must thus be remembered that they are for comparative purposes only and do not have the same values as those published for homogeneous symmetrical rolled sections whose neutral axis does not change position after assemble¬ ment. In the case of United States Steel Sheet Piling, the 15 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY section modulus of the individual piece is the same as its theoretical section modulus when interlocked in place. The properties of the zee bar channels and the plain channels of the Friestedt Interlocking Channel Bar Piling and the proper¬ ties of the single sections of Symmetrical Interlock Channel Bar Piling are strictly correct. TABLE IV.—COMPARATIVE PROPERTIES OF STEEL PILING AND WOODEN SHEETING Section and Size Section Modulus, Inches 3 Moment of Resistance, Inch Pounds Section Modulus. Inches 3 Moment of Resist¬ ance, Inch Pounds Inter¬ Inter¬ Per Horizontal Single locked Single locked Foot of Wall 9" 161bs.U.S. 1.13 18080 1.51 24160 12Y 2 " 38 “ “ 4.30 68800 3.97 63520 12" 40 “ “ 4.00 64000 4.00 64000 10" 28 lbs. Sym. 2.24 3.64 35840 58240 4.85 77600 10" 34 “ 2.50 5.27 40000 84320 7.03 112480 12" 34 “ 3.95 6.63 63200 106080 7.31 116960 12" 39 “ 4.23 8.48 67680 135680 9.35 149600 15" 39 “ 5.68 11.44 90880 183040 10.17 162720 15" 45 “ 6.07 14.55 97120 232800 12.93 206880 2"x 8" Y. P. 5.30 6360 8.00 9600 3"x 8" “ 12.00 14400 18.00 21600 3"xl0" “ 15.00 18000 18.00 21600 3"xl2" “ 18.00 21600 18.00 21600 4"xl2" “ 32.00 38400 32.00 38400 8 "x 8" “ 48.00 57600 72.00 86400 6 "xl2" “ 72.00 86400 72.00 86400 8 "xl0" “ 106.70 128040 128.00 153600 8 "xl2" “ 128.00 153600 128.00 153600 10 "xl0" “ 166.70 200040 200.00 240000 10 "xl2" “ 200.00 240000 200.00 240000 12 "xl2" “ 288.00 345600 288.00 345600 14"xl4" “ 457.30 548760 392.00 470400 Relative values of the various sections together with their values per horizontal foot of wall are given in Table IV, and for purposes of comparison there are included corresponding values of long leaf yellow pine sheeting, so that the proper section to be used in substitution for wood may be easily obtained. The values given for steel are based on a fiber stress of 16,000 pounds per square inch, and those for long leaf yellow pine on a fiber stress of 1,200 pounds per square inch, which is that recommended by the American Railway 16 STEEL SHEET PILING Engineering Association for long leaf yellow pine and Douglas red fir. These fiber stresses may also be used for white oak. 2. Vertical Strength. When being driven the sections are forced to act as loaded columns, the load being applied by the blow of the hammer and its dead weight, and it is under these conditions that the piling is subjected to its most severe duty. The first condition of strength, therefore, is its ability to resist heavy driving without buckling or springing under the hammer and the polar moment of inertia of the section and its radius of gyration are of great importance. The careful engineer will select a material with a large radius of gyration and consequent stiffness, for if the piling has not the required stiffness, it may buckle under difficult conditions of driving, when the energy of the hammer will be spent, not in sending the piling down, but in distorting it and in overcoming the resultant friction between adjacent members. The radius of gyration of the section, however, need not bear any definite -proportion to its length. If the piling shows a tendency to spring, bolting blocks of wood to the leads of the pile driver will afford intermediate support to the piling, after which the driving proceeds with no more difficulty than if the piling were of shorter length. After the piling actually enters the earth, it is supported laterally and, therefore, stiffened by the adjacent soil, and the blows of the hammer need but overcome the friction. Steel sheet piling sections of great stiffness and rigidity have been driven in lengths exceed¬ ing 723 times their radius of gyration. 3. Longitudinal Strength. In an ordinary cofferdam braced in the usual manner, strength in the interlock to resist the tearing apart of the sections by direct tension due to unequal pressures is not often required; when it is, United States Steel Sheet Piling is recommended for use, as its longitudinal strength is greater than that of the fabricated sections. The average longitudinal strength per lineal inch of some of these steel sheet piling sections when made from the kind of steel already mentioned is as follows: 17 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY 9" United States Steel Sheet Piling.5,600 pounds 12 %" 38 Lb. United States Steel Sheet Piling.8,000 12" 40 Lb. United States Steel Sheet Piling.7,000 15" 39 Lb. Symmetrical Interlock Channel Bar Piling 1,500 These values are the values at the yield point of the material and should be reduced from one-third to one-half to obtain safe working unit stresses. The strength of United States Steel Sheet Piling in a longitudinal direction depends upon two factors; the opening of the jaw and the kind of material from which it is made. The former can be controlled by a careful selection of the piling sections at the mill, while the strength of the section may also be increased by an increase in the percentage of carbon which carries with it a higher elastic limit in the steel itself. Experiments indicate that without undue increase in carbon it is possible to obtain a longitudinal strength in the 12" sections up to 12,000 pounds per lineal inch, which is ample for any condition which has hitherto arisen. The longitudinal strength of the fabricated sections depends directly upon the thickness of the channel web. Tests on piling built up with 12" 40 pound channels show that a value of 5,000 pounds per lineal inch can be obtained. 4. Bracing. Steel sheet piling may be used for low dams or cofferdams without any lateral bracing, depending for its strength to resist water or earth pressure entirely upon the lateral stiffness of the section itself. The heads of water which will be safely resisted by such piling sections acting as cantilever beams are as follows: 9" 16 Lb. United States Steel Sheet Piling. 5' 9" 1238 Lb. United States Steel Sheet Piling. 8' 0" 12" 40 Lb. United States Steel Sheet Piling. 8' 0" 10" 28 Lb. Symmetrical Interlock Channel Bar Piling. 8' 6" 12" 34 Lb. Symmetrical Interlock Channel Bar Piling.. 9' 9" 15" 39 Lb. Symmetrical Interlock Channel Bar Piling.11' 0" When steel sheet piling is used in cofferdams of greater depths than these, it will be necessary to provide bracing as is done in the case of wooden cofferdams, and the diagram, Fig. 5 and Table V, give the hydrostatic pressures at various depths and the distance between the wales, together with the 18 STEEL SHEET PILING Fig. 5—Diagram of Water Pressures pressure in pounds per square foot which may be used for the calculation of the sizes of struts and wale timbers. The design of such bracing is as a rule a matter of experience and there are no standard types of construction. Steel may be used in the place of wood and there is shown on Fig. 6 a design for the interior bracing of cofferdams in which the wales, struts and posts are made of H-beams and the diagonal bracing is made either of timbers or rods as indicated. At the interior junctions of this bracing, the framing conforms to that in use in structural work generally. At the ends of the struts, provision is made for adjustment by the use of wooden wedges driven on the one hand to compel the struts to bear tightly against the uprights or waling pieces, and on the other hand to permit quick removal of the timbers when the coffer- 19 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY TABLE V. STEEL SHEET PILING STRUCTURES Subject to Hydrostatic Pressure MAXIMUM THEORETICAL WALE SPACING AND PRESSURES UNITED STATES STEEL SHEET PILING Num¬ ber of Wale 9' 'x!6 Lbs. 12%"x3S Lbs. 12"x40 Lbs. Dis¬ tance be¬ tween Wales, Feet Depth below Sur¬ face, Feet Pres¬ sure, Lbs. per Sq. Ft. Dis¬ tance be¬ tween Wales, Feet Depth below Sur¬ face, Feet Pres¬ sure, Lbs. per Sq. Ft. Dis¬ tance be¬ tween Wales, Feet Depth below Sur¬ face, Feet Pres¬ sure, Lbs. per Sq. Ft. 1 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 7.95 10.96 11.00 2 8.0 500 11.0 690 11.0 690 5.48 7.56 7.59 3 13.4 840 18.5 1160 18.6 1160 4.53 6.25 6.27 4 18.0 1120 24.8 1550 24.9 1550 4.02 5.54 5.56 5 22.0 1370 30.3 1890 30.4 1900 5.07 5.09 6 35.4 2210 35.5 2220 4.73 4.75 7 40.1 2510 40.3 2520 4.46 4.48 8 44.6 2790 44.7 2800 4.25 4.27 9 48.8 3050 49.0 3060 FRIESTEDT INTERLOCKING CHANNEL BAR PILING Num¬ ber of Wale 12" x33 Lbs. 12"x38 Lbs. 15"x38 Lbs. 15' 'x44 Lbs. Dis¬ tance be¬ tween Wales, Feet Depth below Sur¬ face, Feet Pres¬ sure, Lbs. per Sq. Ft. Dis¬ tance be- ween Wales, Feet Depth below Sur¬ face, Feet Pres¬ sure, Lbs. per Sq. Ft. Dis¬ tance be¬ tween Wales, Feet Depth below Sur¬ face, Feet Pres¬ sure Lbs.' per Sq. Ft. Dis¬ tance be¬ tween Wales, Feet Depth below Sur¬ face, Feet Pres¬ sure, Lbs per Sq. Ft. 1 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 13.59 14.74 15.14 16.39 2 13.6 850 14.7 920 15.1 950 16.4 1020 9.38 10.17 10.45 11.31 3 23.0 1440 24.9 1560 25.6 1600 27.7 1730 7.75 8.40 8.63 9.34 4 30.7 1920 33.3 2080 34.2 2140 37.0 2320 6.87 7.45 7.65 8.27 5 37.6 2350 40.8 2550 41.9 2620 45.3 2830 6.29 6.82 7.01 7.59 6 43.9 2740 47.6 2970 48.9 3060 52.9 3310 5.87 6.36 6.54 7.08 7 49.8 4 >3110 53.9 3370 55.4 3460 59.9 3750 5.53 6.00 6.17 6.67 8 55.3 3460 59.9 3750 61.6 3850 66.7 4170 5.28 5.72 5.88 6.36 9 60.6 3790 65.7 4100 67.5 4220 73.0 4560 20 STEEL SHEET PILING TABLE V—Continued SYMMETRICAL INTERLOCK CHANNEL BAR PILING 10 'x28 Lbs. 12"x34 Lbs. 15 / 'x39 Lbs. 15 "x45 Lbs. Num- Dis- Depth Dis- Depth Dis¬ tance Depth Dis¬ tance Depth ber below Pres- below Pres- be¬ below Pres¬ be¬ below Pres¬ of Sur- sure, Sur- sure, tween Sur¬ sure, tween Sur¬ sure Wale face, Lbs. per face, Lbs. per Wales, face, Lbs. per Wales, face, Lbs. per Feet Feet Sq. ft. Feet Feet Sq. ft. Feet Feet Sq. ft. Feet Feet Sq. ft. 1 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 11.73 13.45 15.01 16.26 2 11.7 730 13.5 840 15.(3 930 16.3 1020 8.09 9.28 10.36 11.22 3 19.8 1240 22.7 1420 25.4 1590 27.5 1720 6.69 7.67 8.56 9.27 4 26.5 1660 30.4 1900 33.9 2120 36.8 2300 5.92 6.79 7.59 8.22 5 32.4 2030 37.2 2320 41.5 2600 45.0 2810 6.22 6.95 7.52 6 . . . 43.4 2710 48.5 3030 52.5 3280 5.81 6.48 7.02 7 49.2 3080 55.0 3430 59.5 3720 5.48 6.11 6.62 8 54.7 3420 61.1 3820 66.1 4130 5.22 5.83 6.31 9 59.9 3750 66.9 4180 72.4 4530 dam is completed. The plan of construction submitted is based on the use of a single size section for waling pieces throughout the depth of the cofferdam. In the deeper panels, however, the bending stress in these sections may be too great safely to allow their use on clear spans center to center of the uprights, in which case short foot blocks may be used as shown; in the upper panels these will not, as a rule, be required. In order to facilitate the computation of cofferdam bracing, Tables VI and VII of the tensile and compressive values of H-beams, I-beams and square yellow pine timbers may be used. The H-beam is the best steel section for this work because it is especially adapted to resist compressive stresses as struts with a good degree of bending value and it is desirable in the interests of economy to keep down the number of sections employed in any particular cofferdam. Four I-beam sections are shown, however, which are suitable for cofferdam work, especially where higher bending values are required 21 22 STEEL SHEET PILING than those obtainable by the use of the H-beams. The fiber stresses have been figured in accordance with the specifications of the American Railway Engineering Association, as follows: Bending on extreme fibers of rolled steel shapes net section 16,000 pounds. Axial compression on gross steel sections 16,000— 70 -d where 1 is the length of members in inches, and r the least radius of gyration in inches. Bending on long leaf yellow pine 1,200 pounds per square inch on extreme fiber. 120 pounds, per square inch for shear parallel to the fibers. Average compression in pounds per square inch on long leaf yellow pine posts 1,200—18 d i n which 1 is the length and d the least width of the column, both in d inches. The total weight of steel required in the bracing of a steel braced cofferdam will approximately equal the total weight of wood and tie rods as framed in the usual manner. The first cost of the steel tracing will be, roughly, double that of the wood of equivalent strength, not taking the salvage value of the former material into account. TABLE VI. SAFE LOADS FOR STEEL BRACING In Pounds WALES STRUTS T ,pn crt.h I—Beams as Beams H—Beams as Beams H- Beams as Struts UUII5 on, Feet 8" 10" 12" 15" 4" 5" 6" 8" 4" 5" 6" 8" 18 25 31H 42 13.6 18.7 23.8 34.0 13.6 18.7 23.8 34.0 Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs 40 100 40150 4 37920 55240 1425025350 40100 6 2 5 2 0 48600 5 30330 52100 114002028032080 61560 46320 72420 668 30 6 25280 43410 63950 102060 9500 1690026740 51300 42780 64900 1 85060 7 21670 3721054810 89750 8140 1449022920 43970 39240 61050,83610 8 18960 3256047960 78530 7130 12680 20050 38470 35710 5720079560 121600 9 16850 2894042630 69810 6330 11270 17820 34200 32170 5335075500 124060 10 15170 2605038370 62830 5700 10140 16040 30780 4950071450 119570 11 137902368034880 57120 5180 9220 14580 27980 4565067390 110580 12 126402171031970 52360 4750 8450 13370 25650 4180063340 106100 13 11670 2004029510 48330 4380 7800 12340 23680 59280 101600 14 10830 1861027410 44880 4070 7240 11460 21990 55230 97110 15 10110 1736025580 41880 3800 i 6760 10690 20520 92620 16 9480 1628023980 39270 3560 ' 6340 10030 19240 88130 17 8920 1532022570 36960 5970 9440 18110 83640 18 8430 1447021320 34900 5630 8910 17100 79140 19 7980 1371020190 33070 8440 16200 20 7580 1302019180 31410 8020 15390 23 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY TABLE VII. SAFE LOADS FOR WOODEN BRACING In Pounds LONG LEAF YELLOW PINE Length Feet Square Timber as Beams Square Timber as Struts 6"x6" oo ** 00 10"xl0" 12"xl2" 14"xl4" 16"xl6" 6"x6" 8"x8" 10 ,/ xl0 ,/ 12"xl2" 14"xl4" 16"xl6" 4 5760 36720 5 5760 36720 6 4800 10 240 35420 6 5 2 8 0 7 4110 9750 34130 64700 8 3600 8530 16000 32830 62980 102000 9 3200 7590 14810 23040 31540 61250 100560 146880 10 2880 6830T3330 23040 30240 59520 98400 146880 11 2620 621012120 20950 31360 28940 57790 96240 144290 199920 12 2400 569011110 19200 30490 2765056060 94080 141700 198910 13 2220 5250 10260 17720 28140 40960 2635054340 91920 139100 195890 261120 14 2060 4880 9520 16460 26130 39010 25060 52610 89760 136510 192860258820 15 1920 4550 8890 15360 24390 36410 23760 50880 87600 133920 189840255360 16 1800 4270 8330 14400 22870 34130 49150 85440 131330 186820251900 17 4020 7840 13550 21520 32130 47420 83280 128740 183790248450 18 3790 7410 12800 20330 30340 45700 81120 126140 180770244990 19 7020 12130 19260 28740 43970 78960 123550 177740241540 20 6670 11520 18290 27310 42240 76800 120960 174720238080 Sewer trenches may be braced by the use of single timber runners and adjustable sewer braces, these braces being spaced five to six feet apart. Piling has been braced in trench work by the use of the collapsible braces alone, in which case the earth pressure forces the piling to take a catenary curve and thus resist the pressure by its interlocking strength in a longi¬ tudinal direction. This method may be employed where absolute alignment of the trench is not necessary. Care should be taken, however, not to overstress the piling so as to produce short bends which would interfere with its reuse. DRIVING : United States Steel Sheet Piling should be driven with the ball end of the section in advance, the socket end of each pile being driven down over the ball end of the preceding pile. In this way the interlocks are never choked or plugged at any time to resist or retard the driving of the adjacent pile or to separate, distort, shear, or destroy the interlocking arrangements to the impairment of their utility. Symmetrical Interlock Channel Bar Piling should be driven 24 STEEL SHEET PILING Monarch Hammer Ingersoll-Rand Hammer Goubert Hammer Arnott Hammer Fig. 7—Methods of Driving Sledges Wooden Dolly 25 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY with the long zee bar ahead, which serves to stiffen the free edge of the pile, the other being restrained by the adjacent sections already driven. Friestedt Interlocking Channel Bar Piling sections are driven alike in either direction, plain pile following zee pile alternately. In driving into densely compacted soils, the interlock may be prevented from clogging by the use of a small cast shoe inserted in the lower end; see sketch, Fig. 22. Steel sheet piling is driven in the same manner as wooden sheeting, Figs. 7 and 8. In light sewer work wooden mauls, sledges or wooden dollies hung from a tripod may be sufficient. It has been forced down with hydraulic jacks and levers, and the same conditions as obtain in driving wooden sheeting will ordinarily determine what kind of equipment is desirable. It is usually preferable to use some power driven hammer and in difficult conditions it will be necessary to use very heavy drop or steam hammers, several well known types of which are illustrated and described in the cuts and tables which follow. 1. Kinds of Hammers. So long as round bearing piles and wooden sheeting were used mainly in the construction of bridge piers and cofferdams where ample working space was available, they were power driven by drop hammers or by the steam operated gravity hammers originally invented by James Nasmyth. These hammers were usually made with recesses to fit the leads of the pile driver on which they slid and by which they were guided. With the extension of the cofferdam method to the construction of building foundations in close juxtaposition to adjacent walls and with the introduction of steel sheet piling and reinforced concrete sheeting, more compact hammers have been devised which may be used in the fixed leads of a land or floating pile driver or swung without leads from the boom of a crane or derrick and may thus be moved about from pile to pile within reach of the boom with¬ out shifting the derrick. Where a long line of sheeting is to be driven for dams, retaining walls, sewers, etc., hammers 26 STEEL SHEET PILING Steam Hammer, Fixed Leads Steam Hammer, Revolving Leads Fig. 8—Methods of Driving Drop Hammer, Fixed Leads Drop Hammer, Swing Leads 27 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY may be operated on cable ways being raised and lowered by a winch or chain block. Power hammers may be classified as follows: a. Hoist operated Gravity Hammers— The ordinary drop hammer or monkey, Fig. 9, a block of metal hoisted on guides by a man driven winch, a horse power or a hoisting or monkey engine to a position immediately over the pile. On release, the block falls by gravity upon the pile and delivers to its top a blow the energy of which, usually ex¬ pressed in foot pounds, is the product of the weight of the hammer multiplied by its fall. Owing to the length of time re¬ quired in hoisting, the interval between blows is great and much of the work of the high velocity blow is wasted in bruis¬ ing and battering the top of the pile, in overcoming the inertia regained after each blow, in producing needless vibration, etc. B. Steam Operated Gravity Hammers-Pile driving Steam hammers, originally designed for driving round wooden piles but modified by the use of special driving heads to suit steel piling or wooden sheeting, in which a heavy metal ram is raised by steam pressure and falls by gravity, delivering low velocity blows in rapid succession without so much lateral vibration, distortion of the pile top or recovery of inertia by the pile. The steam serves no other function than to lift the hammer. The energy of the blow is the product of the weight of the ram multiplied by its fall, as in the case of the hoist operated gravity hammer. No variation in speed, however great, can affect the force of the blow, unless valves Fig. 9—Drop Hammer 28 STEEL SHEET PILING are adjusted to trip the hammer at some¬ what less than full stroke. The hammer with the heaviest ram can do the most driving. The Cram Patent Steel Pile Hammer, Fig. 10, is made with a horizontal steam chest and a hollow piston rod through which the steam passes into a long hol¬ low cylinder which forms the ram, which in turn slides within an I-beam frame. The whole apparatus slides on a pair of leaders and.is raised or lowered by means of the bail at the top. The length of movement of the steam valve is adjust¬ able to suit the force of the blows to the work in hand. The Warrington Steam Pile Hammer, ^ tj Fig. 11, employs the main features of the old English Nasmyth hammer with improvements worked out by Mr. James N. Warrington. Its chief characteristics are a simple and positive valve gear, a short steam passage and a quick and wide opening of exhaust, avoiding both waste of steam and back pressure during the drop, turned columns con- Warrington Hammer 29 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY necting the cylinder and base, and a piston forged on its rod with a channel bar attached on each side to enable the hammer to drive below the bottom of the leads. The cylinder is long and vertical with steam ports at its base. The piston is solid and the ram short, heavy and solid except for the piston rod cavity, thus concentrating the weight of the ram as low down as possible. It is furnished with solid or open end bases and also with the improved McDermid base. c. Double Acting Ram Hammers—In this type of hammer a double acting steam cylinder is used. After lifting the weight, the steam is reversed and applied on top of the moving parts to propel the hammer downward at a greater speed than would be obtained from gravity alone. In this manner a shorter stroke can be used than with the steam operated gravity hammers and a greater number of strokes per minute obtained. The Fig. 12 Goubert Hammer pressure of the steam on the piston has no direct effect upon the pile; it only serves to propel the ram downward at a velocity proportionate to the area of the piston, the steam pressure and the freedom of its admission. In the Goubert Steam Pile-Driving Hammer, Fig. 12, the cylinder, a heavy solid steel casting, is the hammer that strikes the blow. It slides freely on guides that are part of the frame, and its mass is such as to absorb the effect of percussion. Its lower solid end strikes upon a loose anvil or dolly block, also of steel, that rests on the top of the pile, and it is of such large area as not to be injuriously upset by the effect of repeated blows. The piston and hollow piston rod are stationary and rigidly connected to the valve chest. 30 STEEL SHEET PILING The admission of steam is controlled by a rotary valve in the chest above the piston rod and a buffer spring limits the fall of the plunger. The parts are all heavy, easily accessible and renewable. The frame is arranged to slide on leaders if required and an eye is provided on the top of the chest for suspension from a derrick. The dolly block is of such a length as to permit driving two interlocking sheet piles at the same time and is made in the form of a cross to readily drive corner piles. The Arnott Pile Hammer, Fig. 13, is a double acting steam hammer, the frame or body of which is a single casting which forms the cylinder, valve chest and guides, and encloses the ram and the valve mechanism. The safety buffers and striking plate are also within the frame, so that nothing but the inlet valve or throttle is exposed. The piston and rod are one solid steel forging. The ram head is of solid steel and keyed to the piston rod. The piston, piston rod and ram head together form the ram. The ram head moves in guides machined in the solid frame. The valve is a simple rotative valve within a bushing and actuated by a spindle. The striking plate is of steel and the travel of the ram is controlled at the bottom of the stroke by striking the pile and at the top by the movement of the valve. Angles are bolted on the sides of the frame to take the leads when the hammer is to be used with a standard pile driver. fig. 13—arnott Hammer The New Monarch Steam Pile Hammer, Fig. 14, is a double acting steam hammer with working parts enclosed in a one-piece frame open on one side only to permit access to them. The piston and rod are forged from one piece of open hearth steel rigidly fastened into the striking 31 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY ram by a dowel pin driven through the ram and piston rod. The striking ram is made of forged crucible steel. The valve is located slightly above the lower end of the cylinder and is operated by direct contact with two sliding cams, one for the upstroke and the other for the downstroke of the ram. The rods carrying these rams are at all times in direct contact with the end of the valve spindle, eliminating any shock and much of the wear to the valve stems and also acting as a stop to the valve itself, thus securing regular opening and closing of the steam and exhaust ports when the hammer is in operation. In the No. 1 hammer the base of the frame is made with a conical recess to rest on New Monarch^Hammer the head of the pile. The base of the smaller sizes is made in an open cross, thus permitting the hammer to be used at right angles or parallel with the sheet piling and also for driving corner pieces of steel sheeting without the use of special caps. Jaws are cast in the sides of the frame to take standard pile driver leads. d. Percussion Piston Hammers— This type of hammer is con¬ structed on the principle of the air drill with the addition of a heavy base to rest on the pile. The blow is struck directly by the piston on an anvil block resting on top of the pile and the hammers are intended in the first instance for driving wooden sheeting and steel sheet piling. The No. 5 style Vulcan Sheeting Hammer, Fig. 15, is made with the piston and ram of steel forged in one piece. The base of the hammer is hollowed out to receive the strik¬ ing bar or anvil block which is a forging with a tee-shaped head at bottom to rest on the'pile and upon the upper end of 32 STEEL SHEET PILING which the ram delivers its blow. This striking bar is made in such a manner that, while it is free to travel down some distance with the pile when struck, it cannot drop out of the machine. The jaw in the base is 4" wide, 3^4" deep vertically and 10" long. The cylinder is 4" in diameter with a stroke from 7" to 8". Fig. 15 Vulcan Sheeting Hammer The McKiernan-Terry Pile Hammer is built in the same manner. The blow of the piston is delivered on the top of an anvil block contained within the base casting and its full force transmit¬ ted directly to the piling without the intervention of springs or buffers, though such buffers are provided at the top of the hammer to prevent damage on the recoil. A feature in the design of the hammer is the heavy base-block which, apart from giving strength to the ham¬ mer, provides the necessary weight to resist vibration due to the rapid stroke of the piston. The No. 1 and No. 3 ham¬ mers, Fig. 16, are built with a step on which the operator may stand to in¬ crease the effectiveness of the blow by reason of his added weight. The work¬ ing parts are readily accessible for lub¬ rication and renewal. The Nos. 5, 7 and 9 hammers, Fig. 17, apply the same principle to the driving of heavy piles. There are but two moving parts in these hammers and they are entirely enclosed. The rapid stroke is obtained . . « . . . Fig. 16—McKiernan- by the use 01 an accelerating piston Terry Sheeting Hammer 33 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY or cushion device which consists of a secondary piston moving within the hollow upper end of the main or ram piston and which increases the piston speed and the power of the blow de¬ livered on the pile in addition to the positive cushioning of the piston on its up stroke, thus preventing any possible damage to the top head of the hammer. The Ingersoll-Rand Sheet Pile Driver, Fig. 18, is made in one size only and its hammer is similar to the ordinary rock drill piston, except that the chuck of the latter is replaced by a flat striking or hammer end. It embodies all the super¬ iorities of design, material and workman - Fig. 17— McKiernan- ship which have Terry Pile Hammer . won a place for the Ingersoll-Rand rock drills as standards of power and economy. The adjust¬ ments are such that the piston cannot strike the front head of the cylinder when the anvil block is on the pile and an arrangement on the valve chest maintains a suitable clearance protecting the back head on the upstroke. The total weight of the machine is about 1,200 pounds, most of it being in the heavy foot-piece in which the weight is concentrated so as to absorb the reaction of the pile driver and to prevent its recoil from the pile head. The foot-piece has holes for the insertion of a bar to guide the piles in starting. While the hammer is constructed for Ingersoll-Ra A °d Hammer 34 STEEL SHEET PILING driving wooden sheeting, a loose steel head fitting any section of steel sheet piling can be provided with an oak or hardwood block between it and the anvil block, the head slipping over the pile and the wood block fitting the anvil block of the pile driver. All steam hammers may also be operated with compressed air, but larger exhaust openings are generally required. In driving, the full weight of the hammer should rest upon the pile. The hammer line should be just taut when not using guides or leaders, but should be quite slack when supporting the hammer in leaders. Keys and bolts should always be kept tight and the hammers should not be allowed to work or run unless they are resting or bearing on the piles. The weights and dimensions of these various types of hammers and the sizes of sheeting or piling with which they may safely be used are shown in Tables VIII and IX, compiled from data furnished by the manufacturers. TABLE VIII. WEIGHTS AND DIMENSIONS OF PILE DRIVING HAMMERS DROP HAMMERS Manufactured by Vulcan Iron Works, Chicago, Ill. Total Net Weight, Pounds Distance between Jaws, Inches Width of Jaws, Inches Duty. Size of Piles or Piling Hammer Will Drive 3000 20 8M Heavy concrete piles 2500 19 7M 18" square or round piles 2000 19 7 M 14" square or round piles 1800 18 6M 12" square or round piles 1500 18 6M 10" square or round piles 1200 16 5K 4"xl2" sheeting 1000 16 5M 4"xl2" sheeting 800 14 4M 3"xl2" sheeting 700 14 4 M 3"xl2" sheeting 600 13 4 M 2"xl2" sheeting 500 13 4^ 2"xl2" sheeting As compared with hoist operated gravity hammers, the advantage of the steam hammers consists in the fact that low velocity blows will force a pile down more quickly than high velocity blows, not to mention the reduction in the wear and tear on the outfit. In addition to the quickness of its 35 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY TABLE IX. WEIGHTS AND DIMENSIONS OF PILE DRIVING HAMMERS Size No. Total Net Weight, Lbs. Weight of Ram, Lbs. Dimensions over all Cylinder Steam Boiler H. P. Reauired Comp. Air. Free Air Der Min. Cn. Ft. Size of Hose, Ins. Distance between Jaws, Ins. Width of Jaws, Ins. Duty, Size of Piles or Piling Hammer Will Drive ta a 43 bC "53 w J? ■-S a a o> Q i a c3 Q a of M o Strokes per Min. WARRINGTON STEAM PILE HAMMERS Manufactured by Vulcan Iron Works, Chicago, Ill. 0 16000 7500 180 _ 1634 48 60 60 234 26 934 Heavy concretepiles 1 9850 5000 144 13 34 42 70 40 2 20 834 18" sq. or rd. piles 2 6500 3000 138 1034 36 70 25 134 19 734 14" sq. or rd.piles 3 3800 1800 96 8 30 80 18 134 18 634 10" sq. or rd. piles 4 1350 550 84 4 24 80 8 1 14 434' 4"xl2" sheeting 5 800 68 10 io 4 734 300 10 l 3"xl2" sheeting CRAM STEAM PILE HAMMERS Manufactured by A. F. Bartlett & Co., Saginaw, Mich. B 8400 5500 144 40 70 i 25 234 27 834 18" sq. or rd. piles C 5500 3090 144 40 70 | 18 2 20 834 14" sq. or rd. piles D 4200 2250 102 24 80 ' 15 134 20 834 10" sq. or rd. piles 1000 430 78 12 80 ' 15 134 12 534 4"xl2" sheeting ARNOTT PILE 1 HAMMERS Manufactured by Union Iron Works, Hoboken, N. J. 0 12000 2550 118 28 20 10 34 24 100 50 750 234 28 834 Heavy concrete piles 1 8000 1548 94 28 18 934 21 110 30 600 134 28 834 18" sq. or rd. piles 2 5500 890 81 25 15 734 16 130 18 300 134 25 634 14" sq. or rd. piles 3 4500 663 74 23 13 634 14 135 15 200 134 23 534 10" sq. or rd. piles 4 2500 363 60 20 11 534 12 150 10 150 134 20 434 6"xl2" sheeting 5 1400 214 47 17 9 434 9 200 8 100 l 17 4 4"xl2" sheeting 6 850 129 40 14 8 334 7 250 5 60 l 14 3 2"xl2" sheeting 7 400 70 31 10 6 2/4 5 300 3 40 34 10 3 l"x 6" sheeting GQUBERT STEEL PILE DRIVING HAMMER Manufactured by A. A. Goubert, New York, N. Y. 3 5000 1500 76 29 17 8 14 150 60 835 2 24 834 18" sq. or rd. piles 2 3400 800 62 24 14 634 10 160 30 380 134 22 634 12" sq. or rd. piles 1 950 200 43 16 1034 4 8 200 12 165 1341 4" sheeting NEW MONARCH STEAM PILE HAMMER Manufactured by Henry J. McCoy Co., New York, N. Y. 1 7000 1500 90 24 24 9 1234 125 35 600 2 24 834 18" sq. or rd. piles 2 4600 850 72 20 20 734 11 150 20 300 134 20 834 14" sq. or rd. piles 3 2800 450 54 18 18 434 7 175 15 150 1 18 834 6"xl2" sheeting 4 800 125 1 48 14 14 334 6 250 10 65 34 3"xl2" sheeting McKIERNAN-TERRY PILE HAMMERS Manufactured by McKiernan-Terry Drill Co. , New York, N. Y. 9 7500 1500 72 21 21 15 12 200 40 i 600 2 21 634 18" sq. or rd. piles 7 4500 800 65 21 17 1134 10 225 25 : 300 134 21 634 14" sq. or rd. piles 5 1500 200 59 11 11 7 834 250 20 : 200 134 11 434 4"xl2" sheeting 3 640 68 54 9 434 334 534 300 15 150 l 9 334 3"xl2" sheeting 1 145 21 42 8 334 234 334 500 10 100 34 8 234 2"xl2" sheeting INGERSOLL-RAND SHEET PILE DRIVER Manufactured by Ingersoll-Rand Co. , New York N. Y. Gl 1200 200 80 li H : ii 4 734 300 10 110 134 4"xl2" sheeting 36 STEEL SHEET PILING TABLE IX—Continued Steam boiler, horse power and free air consumption required to operate hammer and strokes per minute are figured on 80 pounds pressure per square inch. Duty of hammers given in usual wood units; steel sheet piling equivalents as follows: Hammers driving 2"xl2" sheeting will drive 9" piling to 20 feet penetration. Hammers driving 3"xl2" sheeting will drive 12" piling to 20 feet penetration. Hammers driving 4"xl2" sheeting will drive 12" piling to 25 feet penetration. Hammers driving 14" round piles will drive 12" piling to 40 feet penetration. Hammers driving 18" round piles will drive 15".piling to 60 feet penetration. blows, the weight of the entire hammer is constantly on the pile, so that it is kept moving at all times and no opportunity is afforded for the earth to become packed around the pile to increase its friction, as is the case when longer periods oi time elapse between blows. The weight of the hammer should be determined not only on the basis of the resistance of the soil, but as well on the weight of the individual piles to be driven. It should be sufficiently heavy to permit the pile to absorb its share of the blow and to have a surplus force to put the pile in motion. In the case of hoist operated gravity hammers, the use of a heavy hammer with a short drop is preferable, as a light hammer with a long drop has the effect, by reason of the inertia of the pile, of delivering a blow which tends to crush it rather than to force it down. 2. Water Jet. It has been found as a matter of experience that piling can be driven with the greatest advantage and economy by means of steam or drop hammers. In some conditions the use of the water jet may be of assistance, though the expense of driving is ordinarily increased thereby. In water jet pile driving a jet of water is conveyed to the point of the pile through a hose or pipe loosely tied or fastened to the pile and discharging below its point, thus loosening the soil and allowing the piling to sink by its own weight or with very light blows of a hammer. It makes very little difference whether the nozzle is exactly under the middle of the pile or not. The efficiency of the jet is greatest in clear sand, mud or soft clay; it is almost useless in gravel or in sand containing a large percentage of gravel or in hard clay. • A nozzle 37 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY is amply sufficient in sandy soils for jetting the sections of steel sheet piling illustrated in this book, and the supply pipe need not be more than 1" in diameter. 3. Pile Points. Special cutting shoes or pile points are not neces¬ sary with steel sheet piling, as its small end area allows it to cut its way through almost any material except hard rock. Stumps and submerged logs offer little hindrance to its progress. It has broken steel axles and penetrated soft rock. In the construction of the found¬ ation pits at the Hoffman House, New York City, it penetrated and split the boulder shown in Fig. 19. At the Kaw River bridge, Kansas City, it encountered a mass of logs and tree trunks some of which were as much as 30" in diameter. The piling cut its way cleanly through the obstructions, and the piece shown in Fig. 20 was brought up from within the cofferdam. At the Mt. Vernon bridge across the Skagit River, on the Great Northern Rail¬ road, it cut into a log 42" in diameter, and the marks left by the sockets of three sections are shown in Fig. 21. Its usefulness, however, depends very much on the care with which it is driven. It is . a modern tool of construction, but not guaranteed to take the place of saws, cold chisels or stonecutters' Fig. 21—42" Log Skagit River tools. Easy pulling and re-USe of the Fig. 20—30" Log Kaw River Fig. 19 —Split Boulder 38 STEEL SHEET PILING piling is dependent upon careful driving, which is also a pre¬ requisite for the insurance of watertightness. In connection with the use of piling with grout poured into the interlock to insure absolute watertightness in permanent in¬ stallations, it is necessary to have the interlock open clear to the bottom. This can be done with United States Steel Sheet Piling by the use of a cast iron shoe as shown in Fig. 22, or with a or 1 /% f rod bent up at the end, Fig. 23. With either of these devices, there may be a tendency for the piling to crowd back at the top during driving. This may be corrected by restraint in the opposite direction by the use of cables or otherwise. 4. Irregularities in Driving. Steel sheet piling should be driven as nearly vertically as possible. When, by reason of unequal pressure, the piling draws ahead at the top or bottom or otherwise departs from true alignment, such features should at once be corrected, otherwise there may be danger of forcing the sections apart and making them difficult to with¬ draw. The travel ahead of the piling at the bottom may be corrected by driving wedges, nails, etc., into the joints at the top and by keeping a forward strain on the top while driving. If dhe top travels ahead, it should be held back by cables or other means. While looseness in the interlock and flexibility make United States Steel Sheet Piling superior to all other forms, both for driving and pulling, this looseness and flexibility may under some conditions lead to lack of verticality, due, in the last analysis, to the unequal spacing of the sections caused by underground obstructions or otherwise. The natural tendency in driving any sheeting is for it to draw ahead at the 39 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY R. R. Spike or Round Rod Fig. 23 —Spacer top and to squeeze in at the bottom. This tendency may be obviated in this section and the maximum spacing secured by driving a railroad spike or a round, bent rod in the packing space at the bottom of the pile, as shown in Fig. 23. The size of this rod may be to dependent upon the opening of the jaw which may vary some¬ what by reason of unavoidable irregularities in rolling. In driving an enclosed area, such as a cofferdam, the correct spacing and vertically of the piling is of the most importance at the point of closure where the two lines may depart from the vertical in opposite directions. In such cases the bending of the leading lower corner of the piling before driving, so as to lead it in the desired direction, will tend to correct the departure and bring the sec¬ tions together properly. In case of wide de¬ viation from the vertical which cannot be cor¬ rected by the simple means outlined, special tapered pieces may be provided as shown in Fig. 24. These pieces are made by splitting a section lengthwise and uniting the pieces by rivets so as to form a wedge-shaped member. 5. Number of Pieces. Ordinarily sheet pil¬ ing is driven in single units. With the narrower sections and with pile drivers of the usual distance between leads, or with ham¬ mers swung from the derrick boom, it is very often possible economically to drive two or more pieces at once, as shown in Fig. 25. 6. Assemblement. Piling structures are sometimes assembled complete in position be- ITTirjiTTl) 1 Fig. 24 Taper Piece 40 STEEL SHEET PILING fore driving. While this is advisable in driving around areas of small dimen¬ sions, it is not necessary for successful results in larger structures if proper c&re be taken in driving. The best method in the latter case is to drive a corner to its full depth and to absolute verticality, and then to proceed by driving the subsequent pieces in succession around the area, making the closure at a point removed by three or four pieces from the corner first driven. The closure of a large cofferdam is a matter of some moment, and it is desirable when the closing corner is nearly reached to as¬ semble five or six pieces in position as spacers so as to get the proper alignment and distance. As the work proceeds, these pieces are successively driven a Fig. 25 few feet at a time until full penetration Three-Piece Driving is reached. In cases where the dimensions of an enclosure are so fixed as to prevent closure by the use of the standard width sections, special width sections may be provided as shown in Figs. 26, 27 and 28. These special sections are made by splitting the standard sections lengthwise and uniting them by means of plates and fillers-riveted together, or in case of small deviation, by the use of bolts and slotted holes. The open holes are intended to prevent separation of the pieces during shipment and for handling preparatory to driving. 7. Penetration. Piling should be driven to such a depth in firm strata as to insure a proper toe or footing. The amount of penetration will vary with the character of the material into which the piling is to be driven, but it should always be such that the safe bearing resistance of the material multiplied by the embedded area of the pile will be greater than the 41 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY k====KD Fig. 28—Adjustable Piece U. S. S. S. Piling thrust at the foot of the pile. The penetration should also always be such as to prevent the ingress of water or other materials underneath the foot of the pile. 8. Cautions. Steel sheet piling should never be driven to a refusal. If the character of the blow indicates that some obstacle has been encountered, it is always better to investigate conditions before driving farther. It is sometimes advisable to leave pieces projecting above the general level to be driven after the cofferdam or other area is excavated and the obstacle removed. Care should also be taken in the use of concrete. Concrete and steel bond together so tightly it is absolutely necessary that no considerable area of the steel and concrete should come in contact unless the piling is to remain per¬ manently in position. Heavy grease, building paper or thin boards may be interposed between the concrete and m « €2 CS « @| ©1 £)[ ©! 1 l 0j " a SI « a m r 0i i i m\ i i ©' tij 1 ©1 i Fm. 26 —Adjustable Piece Fabricated Piling ? : is Fig. 27—Adjustable Piece Fabricated Piling 42 STEEL SHEET PILING the steel to prevent adhesion. Steel sheet piling against which any large mass of concrete has set cannot as a rule be pulled; to attempt to do so will result simply in breaking out the holes in the piling and destroying the material. 9. Cost of Driving. The cost of driving steel sheet piling depends on a number of very variable factors, such as the kind of piling, the character and size of the structure, the character of the material to be encountered, depth of penetra¬ tion, type of pile driver, kind and weight of hammer, exper¬ ience of the crew, etc. The items which make up the driving expense are likewise variable, such as the prorata cost of the pile driving equipment, including the driver, hammer, hoisting engine, tackle, etc., with proper allowance for depreciation, etc., if owned by the contractor or its rental and maintenance cost if leased for the occasion; the daily expense in operation for labor, superintendence, etc.; cost of handling piles from the siding or boat to the driver; the cost of fuel, water, oil, waste, etc.; the cost of insurance on equipment, labor and material, etc. The sum total expense for pile driving crew and regular equipment does not vary very greatly and may usually be put down at $50.00 a day or somewhat less, but this is compli¬ cated by the introduction of steam hammers which can be used suspended from derrick booms and for that class of work which does not need a power hammer. In view of these vari¬ able factors in driving, cost figures must in the nature of the case be only approximate. Such figures, however, may be of some service in estimating the probable cost of complete installations and we, therefore, append from our records Table X, which gives a selection of the costs of driving various quantities and kinds of piling to different depths of penetration on jobs of the ordinary size and character. The actual cost of driving 19,654 lineal feet of 12" 40 pound United States Steel Sheet Piling (413 tons) in one installation per day of ten hours, was as follows: 43 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY I Foreman at $5.00 per day. $ 5.00 1 Engineer at 4.00 “ “ . 4.00 1 Fireman at 3.00 “ “ . 3.00 6 Workmen at 2.75 “ “ . 16.50 Cost of Maintenance and Operation. 7.00 Total Cost of Driving Crew Per Day .$ 35.50 Total cost of crew for 21 days.$74o.50 Handling and incidental expenses. 60.00 Grand Total for Job ..$805.50 Total cost per foot of penetration.4.1 cents Total cost per ton..$1.95 Piling driven in lengths of from 40 to 60 feet through sand and clay. TABLE X. COST OF DRIVING STEEL SHEET PILING. Mt. Carmel. . . .Ill. 12 35366 28 22 32 20 Drop 2.75 Sand, fine gravel Port Elizabeth ....S.A. 12 35 96 20 15 9 4 Drop 10.60 Stiff clay, silt Slow hammer, handling included Glen. .... Ohio 12 35 67 16 10 35 15 Drop 6.00 Rip rap, sand, gravel Hartnett. .Pa. 12 35 38 22 22 16 11 Drop 3.00 Filled earth, clay sand Des Moines... .... Iowa 12 35! 85 26 18 40 35 Drop 5.00 Clay, gravel Winnipeg. .. .Man. 12 35154 35 30 30 13 Drop 4.50 Clay, hard pan St. Cloud. . . . Minn. 12 35 61 18 18 35 20 Drop Drop 12.00 Labor, fuel, oil, etc. Labor and equip¬ ment Decatur River. .Ill. 12 35 72 14 11 11.90 Sand, gravel Louisville. .Ky. 12 35 113 30 21 100 80 Drop 5.00 Silt, sand Williamsport. . . . . .Ind. 12 35 28 12 12 Drop 6.64 Sand, coarse gravel Labor and equip¬ ment Butler. .Pa. 12 35 312 20 20 30 3 Steam 12.50 Sand, blue clay Price paid con¬ tractors Bloomer. ....Wis. 12 35 18 10 10 Maul 29.00 Quick sand Labor and equip¬ ment Albion. ....Neb. 12 35 35 26 10 14 6 Drop 10.00 Clean sand Rothchilds.... ....Wis. 12 35 50530 28 40 35 Steam 3.50 Coarse sand, gravel Neligh. ....Neb. 12 35 35 20 12 26 2 Drop 8.00 Sand f Much time lost Otisco Lake... ...N. Y. 12 35 46 20 18 15 3 Drop 17.00 \ Labor and equip- [ ment Hatfield. ....Wis. 12 35150 35 31 15 Drop 21.00 Sand, clay, gravel Newark. ..N. J. 12 35140 25 23 20 Steam 11.50 Gravel, sand, hard pan Minneapolis. . . . . Minn. 12 351 15 14 14 16 13 Steam 7.00 Sand, gravel, boulders Milwaukee.. . . ....Wis. 12 35 21 30 30 3012 Drop 7.90 Clay, quick sand, gravel Minnehaha. . .. . . Minn. 12 35 182 35 29 3413 | Steam 7.40 Sand, gravel Labor and equip¬ ment Evansville. ....Ind. 12 35105 20 19 8610 Drop 0.63 Clay, loam, sand St. Louis. ....Mo. 12 351 15 10 10 Drop 4.00 Clav, quick sand Barrow in Furness. Eng. 12 35 92 25 24 6 4 Drop 63.00 Marl Driven under water —diver Pittsburgh.... .Pa. 12 35,134 24 5 10520 Drop 5.00 River mud, silt Labor, handling 44 STEEL SHEET PILING TABLE X- -Continued Location Ki d £ nd £ t-H s a o H 05 fl B o 1 % 05 -d - - ft] 05 fft a _o *3 05 C 05 ft N D v< P< D S | ’x 0. ri- m jr *y. 1 ■a S 05 a . w o c 'o o ft 05 ft "S 05 o I Kind of Materia] Remarks on Cost UNITED STATES STEEL SHEET PILING—Continued 12 40 130 24 20 28 5 9.00 Evansville.Ind. 12 40 81 20 20 31 26 Drop 5.00 Close packed sand Evansville.Ind. 12 40 81 20 17 31 26 Drop 10.00 Close packed sand Kilbourne.Wis. 12 40 176 34 30 20 3 Drop 10.00 Sand Driving, handling Fargo.N. D. 12 40 58 20 20 20 8 Drop 10.00 Sand, gravel Inexperienced crew Pittsburgh.Pa. 12 40 400 Sp 50 33 12 Drop 14.80 Heavy clay Price paid con¬ tractor Brownsville.Pa. 12 40 335 25 20 60 8 Drop 3.90 Sand, clay, hard pan Brownsville.Pa. 12 40 77 45 44 20 15 Drop 15.00 Sand, clay, hard pan Labor, equip’t, etc. Waukegan.Ill. 12 40 17 14 10 10 6 Drop 11.40 Sand, gravel, hard clay Handling cost, 13.6 cents FRIESTEDT INTERLOCKING CHANNEL BAR PILING Chicago.Ill. 15 54 810 65 9 Steam 10.00 Silt, clay Omaha.Neb. 15 44 85 30 14 30 10 Drop 6.50 Slag, quick sand Inglis.Fla. 12 29 70 20 16 26 2 Drop 16.00 6 ft. into sandstone Price paid con¬ tractor West Point.Ky. 12 33 120 37 15 25 1 Drop 30.00 Mud, clay, gravel Very difficult job Berrien Springs... Mich. 15 41 900 30 30 35 14 Steam 11.00 Mud, sand, clay Labor, handling Rock Island.Ill. 15 41 21 17 16 15 12 Drop 14.50 Gravel, hard pan New York.N. Y. 15 38 75 15 15 Drop 20.00 Earth, sand, gravel Price paid con¬ tractor SYMMETRICAL INTERLOCK CHANNEL BAR PILING Preston Park.Pa. 15 39 142 40 34 22 8 Drop 5.33 Decayed vegetation, clay Evansville.Ind. 10 28 26 14 12 35 25 Drop 7.50 Clay, shale, cobbles Tomahawk.Wi3. 15 45 148 22 16 16 2 Drop 20.00 Very hard driving up to 290 blows per foot DRIVING APPLIANCES : : While steel sheet piling is ordinarily driven in the same manner as wooden sheeting, occasions arise which call for special devices and pieces to facilitate the work of construction. 1. Driving Caps. As a rule the use of a driving cap is commendable for the reason that thereby the piling can be better held in the leads of the pile driver and prevented from getting out of alignment. The character of the material encountered and irregularities in driving may also make it necessary to pull and to re-drive piles occasionally, thus making the use of a cap desirable. Where the piling is to be with- 45 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY drawn and reused, a driving cap should always be employed to prevent distortion of the tops of the piles. The steel driving caps illustrated herewith are lighter and more economical than cast iron or cast steel driving caps without any detraction from their efficiency, while defects in the production of iron and steel castings are overcome by the use of rolled structural shapes homogeneous in character. They are made of plates and angles riveted and bolted together to form grooves to hold the piles in position and to fit the pile driver leads and to form receptacles for wooden blocks properly to cushion the blows of the hammers. These wooden blocks, while shown in the figures, are not furnished by this Company. 0 c Ml la: 0 b L Driving caps, Styles C and D, Figs. 29 and 30, are intended for use in driving 9" or 10" steel sheet piling with mauls or light ham¬ mers where the lengths are short and the material loose, such as in ordinary sewer or Fig. 29 D riving Cap C trench construction, etc. They are made of steel plates and angles, forming a recess below for the piling and above for a wooden cushion plug, and weigh about 75 and 40 pounds respectively. Style D is more compact than Style C and is recommended for general use. Fig. 30 Driving Cap D Driving cap, Style F, Figs. 31 and 32, is intended for use with the standard pile driver. It is made of a steel striking plate 1%" or 2" thick with channel guides to fit pile driver leads, with guide angles which grip the pile by the use of set screws and with a square recess Fig. 3i— Driving Cap f formed of angles into which is inserted a round or rectangular wooden plug to insure the 46 STEEL SHEET PILING necessary resilience. The spac¬ ing of the bolts securing the guide angles to the under side of the striking plate is so arranged as to permit driving either longitudinally or trans¬ versely of the line. The wooden plug should be made of good, tough white oak or hickory banded with an iron or steel band. The weight of this driv¬ ing cap is variable, dependent upon the width of the pile driver leads and their distance apart. Average weight to suit pile driver with leads 6" wide and 18" apart, 270 pounds. Driving cap, Style H, Fig. 33, made likewise of plates and angles, can be used with mauls and light compressed air or steam hammers or with heavy steam hammers hung from derrick booms. It can also be swung between the leads and used with a pile driver where the distance between the leads is 16" or over. While Style F driving cap must be made of a width to suit the pile driving leads, Style H is made in a standard size with striking plate 10" wide, 12" long and 2" thick, and the wooden plugs, not furnished by the makers, are 9" square at the^bottom. Approximate weight, 240 pounds. Driving cap, Style I, Fig. 34, is a modification of driving cap, Style F, in Fig. 32—Driving Cap F 47 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY which below the striking been added so as to permit the rotation of the cap and thus drive piling at any desired angle. It is intended for use in driving circular construc¬ tions from a revolving pile driver. It can also be used in driving rectangular con¬ structions in connection with a steam hammer hung in swinging leads or suspended from a derrick boom. If used in the latter manner, the guide channels may be omitted. Approximate weight for the average pile driver with leads 6" wide and 18" apart, 480 pounds. plate additional plates have Fig. 34—Driving Cap I In using structural steel driving caps, care should be taken to have all bolts f firmly tightened up and the cushion so adjusted that the blow of the hammer will fall on it and not on the cap, the soft steel of which it is made being more readily damaged by the blow of the hammer than the metal of a cast iron cap. Blows may be offsetted as shown in Fig. 35. Orders for driving caps to be used with standard pile drivers should always state the exact distance between the leads (A), the width of the leads (B), Fig. 36, and whether they are wood or Fig. 35—Offset Blows , ... . , wood lined with iron. The shop will furnish caps to these figures, allowing for clearances in the jaws. 48 STEEL SHEET PILING 2. Followers. Pil¬ ing has been driven under water by the use of submerged air operated hammers, with, however, a re¬ duction in the force of the blow due to the buoyancy of the water. With types of hammers such as the Arnott and Goubert, it might be feasible to enclose all the working parts above the level of the striking plate and to fill the chamber so formed with compressed air, thus excluding the water above that level and making a miniature diving bell of the casing. In this way the re¬ sistance offered by the water cushion might be overcome and the difference between the movement of the ham¬ mer in free air and in compressed air would be negligible. In this case the force of the blow should be ap¬ proximately the same as above water and the only practical difference in its impact would be that due to the retardation caused by the greater density of the compressed air. Fig. 37—Follower The usual method of driving steel sheet piling under water or below the ends of the pile driver leads is by the use of a follower made of a piece of piling as shown in Fig. 37 with channels or projecting plates riveted thereto to fit over the section below. These followers are as a rule six or seven feet long but may of course be made to suit any conditions which arise. 49 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY 3. Spliced Lengths. 9" United States Steel Sheet Piling can be rolled in lengths up to 45 feet, 12" and 12 y 2 " sections in lengths up to 60 feet, while the fabricated sections may be made in single lengths longer than this. Where, how¬ ever, it is not desired to ship the piling in such long lengths, or the lengths needed are longer than can easily be rolled, or in cases where the head room will not permit the use of full length pieces, it can be driven in spliced lengths with or without splice plates, which are really necessary only where it is to be withdrawn and reused. As seen in Fig. 38, the splice plates or splice channels are riveted or bolted to the upper length of the piling, but connect to the lower length by bolts through slotted holes in the piling webs. The use of these slotted holes permits the blow of the pile driving hammer to be transmitted from the upper to the lower section without danger of shearing the bolts. 12" and 12 y 2 " Piling 9" Piling Fig. 38. Standard Splices FIRST STAGE OF DRIVING. Drive each piece its full length. DRIVING. Drive a short length on top of a long one, etc., to within ajDOut 4 feet of final position 9 3 10 11 12 4 5 6 15 w A combination with a long pile on top should — be driven first to final position, then each suc¬ ceeding com- 7 8 bination. THIRD STAGE OF DRIVING. Fig. 39 —Stages in Spliced Length Driving 50 STEEL SHEET PILING The detail in Fig. 39 shows the method and the stages of driving a deep cofferdam or other installation by the use of piling of two different lengths. The essential feature in the use of such lengths is always to retain the interlock; when this is done, the piling can be driven with the same certainty as if driven in full lengths. 4. Corner Pieces and Junction Pieces. Corner pieces for United States Steel Sheet Piling, shown in Fig. 40, are made by bending the sections to approximately 90 degrees in a gag press. Corner pieces for fabricated piling, shown in Fig. 41, are made by splitting channels lengthwise and uniting the split portion by the use of bolts and rivets. In an ordinary cofferdam driven continuously in one direction, the corner pieces are alike, and United States Steel Sheet Piling corners are reversible. When pulling holes are punched in the piling, all corner pieces are furnished with pulling holes at both ends, thus retaining the reversible feature. The corners for Symmetrical Interlock Channel Bar Piling are made with both zee bars full length so as to make them reversible. Orders for other than 90 degree corners must state inside angular measurement. Junction pieces are made by splitting sections in half lengthwise and by riveting the half pieces or pieces through angles to an integral section. Different forms of corner pieces and three and four-way junction pieces are shown on the pages of Constructional Details, Figs. 40 and 41, and may be ordered by the numbers given. The constructional details not only show typical positions of corner pieces and junction pieces, but also the preferable direction of driving. PULLING : Steel sheet piling, if not abused, may be with¬ drawn with facility and is re-usable indefinitely. It has been pulled and re-used more than fifty times without material damage. Good driving and easy pulling go hand in hand; careless, inaccurate driving necessarily means trouble and expense in pulling. The methods to be followed in pulling 51 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY 52 STEEL SHEET PILING Left Hand Left Hand Inside Corner Pieces Outside Corner Pieces Fig, 41—Constructional Details, Fabricated Piling piling will be dependent upon the equipment available and the character of the finished structure within the lines of the en closure. Within a reasonable length of time after driving, piling may possibly be pulled with the hoisting equipment used in driving, providing care has been taken to avoid irregularities in alignment or plumbing, the pile line being fastened directly to a clevis attached to the top of the pile to be pulled. In sewer and trench work wooden levers, with or without iron straps at their ends, have been successfully employed and would ordinarily be suitable for pulling any piling which may 53 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY be driven with a maul or a light hammer. In extremely difficult pulling, the lever principle has been extended and the piling in 50-foot lengths pulled by means of a box plate girder, one end of which rested on a fulcrum set on blocking and the other end was lifted by multiple blocks suspended from an A frame, the piling being drawn by a gripping device secured to the girder at a distance from the fulcrum equivalent to about one-fifth of the girder length. It has also been pulled by means of a braced frame, triple blocks, pulling clamps and ropes, as shown in Fig. 43. The use of hydraulic jacks has been recommended by some engineers, but it has been found practicable as a rule to accomplish the desired result by other means. * Fig. 42—Box Girder Pile Puller The power required to pull steel sheet piling is depend¬ ent, of course, upon its length and driving conditions. The Curtis Piling Puller will develop tractive force up to about seven tons and is suitable for light work. Sections in 50-foot lengths under difficult conditions of driving may require 100 tons or more for their extraction and more than that amount of traction was developed by the box girder shown, used by the Great Lakes Dredge & Dock Company, detail of which is more clearly shown in Fig. 42. Lengths of steel sheet piling under 40 feet are punched for pulling with two 1 y%' holes; lengths over 40 feet are punched with two additional holes, all as shown in Figs. 44 and 45. When difficult conditions are encountered and instructions are given when the order is placed, additional holes will be fur¬ nished without extra charge and spacing will be modified to suit. 54 STEEL SHEET PILING Curtis Puller Frame and Girder Derrick Block and Tackle Fig. 43 —Methods of Pulling Lever Frame and Tackle CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY O ■T'l "T i r~ n w i 1. I ■4*®: 1 1 i 1 < ► i —» i 1 1 / 1 1 >ti 1 - 1 c For i j • i 1 3" lengths over 40 l l 1 u 1 _4 feet i r\ _ / \3T \ J vJ 12" and 1234" Sections 9" Sections Fig. 44—Pulling Holes, United States Steel Sheet Piling In case the pieces are long and the four-hole punching is used, it may be necessary to secure special pulling clamps as are shown in Fig. 46 and which consist of plain plates riveted together with a spacer between and connected to a shackle by pin and cotter. These clamps should de¬ velop the full strength of the bolts which secure them to the piling. A puller for use in very heavy pulling work and designed and patented by Mr. J. E. Grady of the Great Lakes Dredge & Dock Com¬ pany, is shown in Fig. 47. It is made of a cast steel yoke with forged cams and serrated gripping devices which engage the pile. It is suspended from a derrick or an A frame by chains connected to pins through forged suspension bars which permit pulling at any angle. The pile passes up between the gripping devices and through the cast yoke, so that the puller may be attached at aiiy point. This kind of puller was used in pulling the piling at Black Rock Harbor and developed a traction of 300 tons. Fig. 45—Pulling Holes, Fabricated Piling 56 STEEL SHEET PILING Fig. 46—Pile Pulling Clamp If with these devices the piling refuses to come out, it may sometimes be started by light blows of a heavy hammer on the adjacent pieces to break the bond of any rust which may have accumu¬ lated and of the earth com¬ pressed in the joints. In the case of piling which may have to remain in place for a considerable time, the pulling at a sub¬ sequent date may be facili¬ tated by the lubrication of the joints when driving with graphite, grease or Fig. 47—Grady Pile Puller CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY other lubricant, which will prevent corrosion. This method of lubrication has also often been used to advantage on tempo¬ rary installations. The cost of pulling steel sheet piling is made up of almost as many variable factors as the cost of driving. In making estimates, it will be on the safe side to figure the pulling cost as about the same as the cost of driving or certainly not less than 75% as much. WATERTIGHTNESS : No steel sheet piling manufactured is absolutely watertight, as it is impossible to roll material with the accuracy necessary and slight irregularities of surface also result through shipping and handling. If the piling is made sufficiently tight to prevent ingress of water absolutely, there will necessarily be difficulty in the driving, which, in the case of material to be re-used, is of much more importance than a small leakage. Extreme watertightness of the inter¬ locking joint when exposed is not of much practical importance, except in cofferdam construction. If the river bed contains a fair proportion of sand or clay, the piling will pack itself below the bed level. Friestedt Interlocking Channel Bar Piling and Symmetrical Interlock Channel Bar Piling are practically watertight as driven, and absolutely so under many conditions by reason of the fact that the external pressure forces the abutting surfaces of the channel flanges tightly together and thus prevents ingress of water. Where, by reason of re-use or other cause, these sections show signs of leakage under water pressure, the leaks may be stopped by the use of street sweepings, manure or other fine material applied against the outside surfaces of the piling; the suction of the water after the pumps are started carries such material into the interlock. It is distinctive of the United States Steel Sheet Piling that while it is rolled as nearly watertight as other rolled types of piling, provision is made in the interlock for insuring more perfect watertightness in quite a simple way and in a way which does not depend for its success upon absolute accuracy 58 STEEL SHEET PILING in the process of manufacture. In clear water the piling may be made watertight with wooden packing strips which are assembled with the sections of the piling before driving. These packing strips swell in contact with the water, close the joints and effectually prevent leakage. Experience with them has demonstrated that they in no way interfere with the driving of the piling, as they rather act as a lubricant. These packing strips may be half round or rectangular in form, the latter being the better for the reason that contact is made with the inner surface of the interlock by lines rather than by surfaces and the friction of driving is also smaller. Pack¬ ing strips for 12" 40 pound piling may usually be 13^2 /r half round or 1} 4 /, x% ,, > for 12J^" 38 pound piling 1%" half round or 1 M"xK"- They need not be ordered to any specified length but may be gotten and used in random or ordinary stock lengths, pieces being inserted on top of each other un¬ til the desired space is filled. Packing strips for 9" piling may be made of shingling laths. The size of packing strips should be verified for each lot of material used so as to con¬ form to unavoidable irregularities in rolling and jaw openings. They should be of very dry, tough wood, preferably spruce or wood with similar grain, that will swell readily to a much larger volume when water soaked. Packing strips for United States Steel Sheet Piling are placed in the socket of the pile and driven down with it over the head of the adjacent pile. To prevent their falling out during handling, they may be secured by wedges, as shown in Fig. 48, driven at the top and bottom and at irreg¬ ular intervals, say five to six feet apart. These wedges are knocked out by the ad¬ jacent pile during the process of driving. In addition to these packing strips driven in the interlock, WEDGES 59 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY United States Steel Sheet Piling has been made perfectly watertight by driving the edges of shingles into the space between the head and the socket and small leaks may readily be corrected in that way. It may also be made watertight by the dumping of street sweepings, manure, etc., on the out¬ side of the piling to be carried into the interlock by the pressure of the water, just as is done in the case of the fabricated sec¬ tions, or by dropping coal-dust, dry whole wheat, etc., into the interlocking joints. CUTTING : In the few cases where it is necessary to cut steel sheet piling to an exact level and where time is not an important factor, it may be done by the use of hack saws. It has also been cut by the use of an electric arc at figures as low as 9 cents per lineal foot. It may also be cut by the oxy-acetylene method or by the oxy-hydrogen method, and from a number of results it has been computed that any large quantity of piling can be cut at a cost not exceeding 30 or 50 cents per lineal foot of cut, including current, labor and depreciation. USES : Since the date of the first experiments made by Luther P. Friestedt in 1899, steel sheet piling has been used in practically all the important classes of sheeting construction where wood can be employed and in a number of other classes of construction to which wood sheeting is not at all adapted. A few notes on these uses may be of interest:— 1. Cofferdams. The range of the use of the cofferdam method in the construction of piers and abutments has been greatly extended by the use of steel sheet piling by reason of the convenience with which it may be obtained, the ease and certainty with which it may be driven, the positiveness of its interlock, its watertightness without puddling and the ability to draw and to use it repeatedly. When more than one cofferdam is to be constructed, these considerations make it more economical than wood and each case of re-use materially reduces the proportionate cost to be charged against any 60 STEEL SHEET PILING particular installation. In multiple cofferdams this economy has amounted to 50% or more of the entire cost, and even in the case of single cofferdams of great depth, the use of steel sheet piling may be economical. Its use also reduces mater¬ ially the amount of bracing required in cofferdam construc¬ tion. This elimination of timber makes possible the reduction of the size of the cofferdam, or if the cofferdam is of the same outside dimensions, it secures the maximum possible working space. 2. Sewers and Trenches. Multiple installations are the rule in sewer and trench work where also the driving con¬ ditions are easy and the soil loose and where by drawing and re-driving ahead, the piling work may go forward continuously, the several sections being separated by cross bulkheads if water conditions or convenience so demand. United States Steel Sheet Piling has been used in such cases as high as fifty times and the cost of construction has not been more than 40% of the cost with wood, not counting the value of the piling at the end of the job. 3. Locks and Navigation Dams. In the extension of river and harbor improvements, steel sheet piling is used for both temporary and permanent constructions. It may be em¬ ployed, like wooden sheeting, in the construction of cofferdams within which lock walls, navigation passes, etc., may be built. The length of these walls and the magnitude of the operations usually permit large economy in construction by its use. After it has been used in the construction of the cofferdams, it may also be employed for permanent cut-off walls to prevent infiltration of the water below the foundation. 4. Dams. If properly driven to a firm bearing, 123^" United States Steel Sheet Piling will withstand unsupported an 8-foot head of water, while the standard fabricated sections will sustain such unsupported heads up to 11 feet. Such sections are entirely suitable for dams for small water power plants to be constructed effectively and economically by the use of 61 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY steel sheet piling alone without concrete reinforcement or other support save ordinary timber wales and bracing to maintain alignment. In arid regions the streams run dry or shallow in the dry season while under the surface of the bed there is flowing a considerable volume of underflow water, which may be much greater at all times than the visible surface water in the stream bed. Moreover, this underflow sometimes spreads over a considerable area of the stream valley beyond the confines of the normal banks of the surface flow, especially if the sub¬ surface strata consists of more or less porous material. Steel sheet piling forms a most excellent medium for the cutting off of this underflow and of bringing the water to the surface and holding it in a secure reservoir formed by the projection of the piling above the normal surface line. In such construc¬ tions nothing more need be provided on the down stream side of the dam in addition to the piling than a timber apron to prevent underscouring. The whole structure can be built at a minimum expense. Diaphragm dams consist essentially of a thin watertight diaphragm in an earthen embankment. Such a diaphragm is necessary in every earth dam to prevent burrowing animals or crawfish from making tunnels and also to insure that trickling streams of water do not develop into permanent channels. The economical construction of dams of this char¬ acter has been made possible by the use of steel sheet piling, whose positive interlocks enable the sub-surface diaphragms to be made with a certainty not possible with wooden sheet piling and with an economy not possible with concrete by reason of the elimination of the excavation necessary in the case of the ordinary puddle core, concrete core or masonry core wall. A diaphragm made of imperishable material like steel sheet piling fulfills all the requirements of the ordinary core wall with the additional advantage of accommodating itself by its flexibility to slight irregularities of settlement in the-dam. 62 STEEL SHEET PILING 5. Curtain Walls. As applied to power dams or navi¬ gation passes, the curtain wall differs from the core wall or diaphragm in that the latter is looked upon as a necessary part of the structure and arranged for in the plans of the engineer, while the curtain wall, though its effect is the same as that of the core wall, is an after consideration made neces¬ sary by contingencies that arise during or after construction. Steel she6t piling may be used as a curtain wall along the upstream face of dams and along the river side of the wing walls of new dams to effectively prevent the underscouring action of the water, making the foundations of such structures practically perfect. It may be used similarly in preventing the destruction of old dams which have been undermined by the scouring action of the water below the original foundation lines. It may also be used in the reinforcement of levees liable to destruction by high waters. 6. Retaining]Walls. In the construction of permanent retaining walls in building work in large cities, the use of steel sheet piling has been found very economical in many instances, as it results in entirely satisfactory construction of founda¬ tions and basements of buildings, whereas otherwise the work would have to be done at a much higher expense by the pneumatic caisson system. Driven before excavation in soils containing quicksand or water bearing strata, its use prevents the undermining of adjacent building foundations by movement of the strata. It also prevents in many cases the delay, expense and danger of underpinning adjacent buildings. 7. Circular Constructions. While circular constructions of large diameter may be driven with the fabricated sections, the driving of such sections in small circles can only be done by bending the pieces. 12" 40 pound United States Steel Sheet Piling, however, may be driven as it comes from the rolls in a circle of about 108" in diameter measured on the center line; 123^" 38 pound and 9" 16 pound may also be driven in circles of 96" and 54" respectively. Circles of these diameters 63 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY require 28, 23 or 19 pieces. For diameters less than these, the piling should be ordered bent to the required radius. This characteristic makes this form of piling readily adaptable to the building of pump wells, foundation pits, building caissons, etc. To drive such installations, a circular waling piece or template should first be set so as to secure the exact dimensions and proper spacing, after which the driving proceeds with absolute certainty. If the circle is of small diameter, the waling piece or template may be omitted and the piling assembled complete before driving so as to insure perfect closure. 8. Sea Walls and Loading Slips. In the case of the dia¬ phragm dam, the steel sheet piling is usually driven entirely below the surface. It may, however, be driven as a core in an embankment to prevent the inflow of sea water and its projecting tops may be capped with concrete to act at the same time as a permanent sea wall. A classic example of its use in this way was in the construction in 1909 of the Fort St. Philip sea wall on the left bank of the Mississippi River below New Orleans, where 1,508 tons were used in a wall 4,500 feet long. It has also been used as a permanent lining for docks and loading slips. 9. Mine Shafts. An important use of steel sheet piling is in the lining of mine shafts, especially where sunk to rock through quicksand. The difficulties of such constructions are well known and cases occur where the use of wooden sheeting is out of the question. In such cases shafts have been sunk by the use of steel and, with reasonable care in driving, such a use results in economical construction. Either type of piling may be used for rectangular shafts, but the flexibility of the section recommends United States Steel Sheet Piling for use in circular shafts. 10. Foundations for Cylinder Piers. In countries devoid of building stones suitable for piers and abutments, these struc¬ tures have been built by the use of steel cylinders sunk to the 64 STEEL SHEET PILING necessary depth or founded on concrete piers. These steel cylinders may be replaced and a considerable economy effected by the founding of such piers on concrete placed within a sheet piling shell from which the mud has been removed by a dredge or bucket. These sheet piling piers may extend to the bridge seat or may simply be used as a foundation for the steel plate cylinders. 11. Building Caissons. In building work piling may be driven around the outline of the column piers without any bracing or forms and may be filled with concrete and redrawn or else left in place, with the added feature in the latter case that the retention of the piling in the permanent structure, protected as it is by the cement, adds materially to its strength. 12. Bearing Piles. Where bearing piles in very long lengths are needed, four corner sections of United States Steel Sheet Piling may be driven to rock interlocked into position, the enclosed area excavated by some sluicing method and then filled with concrete up to the surface. Where the depths are very great, the piling may be spliced by angles, as shown in Fig. 49, and driven as is customary in splice length driving, care being taken at all times to maintain the interlock entire. 13. Composite Steel and Concrete Sheet Piles. Recently, sections of steel sheet piling have been split, punched and embedded in the edges of re¬ inforced concrete sheet piles to form dock walls, retaining walls and other structures in which heretofore wood sheeting or plain or rein¬ forced concrete sheet piles have been employed. The split piling sections, as shown in Fig. 50, [I form guides for each successive composite j| pile, provide a joint which will not permit the passage of water or semi-fluid material and insure a much more positive interlock than Fig. 49 ^ Bearing Pile is possible with the use of concrete alone, while C) 5 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY the embedding of the piling in the concrete prevents corrosion with the lapse of time. In this way are combined the merits of both classes of material. a. size of sheet Piles. The size of the sheet pile will depend upon conditions attending each installation and is a matter which must in all cases be left to the judgment of the designing engineer. The thickness of* the pile is determined by the amount of the load which it has to sustain and the character of the loading conditions, whether the pile acts as a cantilever beam fixed in the ground, or as a simple beam supported a short distance below the ground line by the material pene¬ trated and supported at the top end by the head blocks, tie rods, etc. The magnitude of the loading will depend upon the nature of the filling behind the sheet piling and can be figured approximately from the weight of the material sub¬ merged and unsubmerged and its slope of repose. It is cus¬ tomary to assume a net weight of 65 pounds per cubic foot for the submerged filling material, and 110 pounds per cubic foot for the filling above the water line, the slope of repose in the first case being 1 on 3, and in the latter case from 1 on 1% to 1 on 2. This load of course is to be increased by the sur¬ charge of dry material equivalent to the live load on the dock, wharf or retaining wall. After the thickness of the pile is 6G STEEL SHEET PILING fixed by these considerations, the face width is made a matter of convenience for casting, handling and driving. B. Split Piling Sections. The split sections of steel sheet piling used in the interlocking arrangements depend upon the weight and length of the complete units. Any section may be em¬ ployed, but 123 / 2 " 38 pound and 9" 16 pound United States Steel Sheet Piling sections are preferable on account of the longitudinal strength of their interlocks. The 9" section would be suitable for sheet piles with a cross section not over 18" square and in lengths up to 30 to 35 feet, while the 123^" section may be used for thick and long sheeting. The split sections may be united through the body of the unit by means of short tie rods spaced about two feet apart vertically, and are punched for the reception of these tie rods and in addition for the passage of the hoops or stirrups used in connection with the reinforcement of the pile. Several types of joints are shown on the drawing, and the object of the open spaces pro¬ vided is to permit the pouring in of cement grout when the piling is driven in water so as thoroughly to encase and protect the steel work. C. Casting. The reinforced concrete sheet piles may be molded or cast in a vertical or horizontal position in the usual manner by the use of steel or wooden forms. If steel forms are used, they should be lubricated with heavy grease so that the concrete will not stick to them, and the removal of wooden forms may be facilitated by coating them with whitewash before pouring. The reinforcing rods and wires may be supported on wooden or mortar spacers during the process of casting. The piles should be poured complete at one time; if it is necessary to stop work before a pile is finished, the surface should be left rough and should be well wetted before any additional concrete is poured in. During pouring th& surface should be well leveled and raked off and tamped at intervals so as to work any excess of cement to the outside of the forms. 67 CARNEQ l E STEEL COMPANY D. Driving. The piles after casting should be allowed to cure for not less than thirty days and may be driven in the same manner as ordinary wooden piling except that a cushion of some sort is needed on top of the pile, this cushion consisting usually of thin hardwood blocks nailed together, ropes or other suitable fibrous materials, or some type of compressed air cushion such as has been employed in driving round bearing piles. The hammer should be very much heavier than would be employed for wooden piling of corresponding length on account of the cross sectional area of the units and the inertia due to their weights. Piles may be beveled at the foot, if desired, so that the sections will drive into close contact with each other, although the steel sheet piling joint will serve to retain the pile in contact with its neighbor and at the same time insure watertightness. In all classes of soil, except soft clays or silt, it will be found advisable, and in most cases necessary, to use a powerful water jet, the size and capacity of the jet depending upon the size of the units to be driven. E. Anchorage. In a dock, wharf or retaining wall of great height, it may be desirable to anchor the tops of the units back to deadmen or other structures to increase the resistance of the sheet piling units considered as beams. Tie rods, if these are used, may extend to the outside face of the units through notches provided at the interlocking joints, the steel sheet piling interlock being cut short to allow this. They should have a bearing upon a continuous stringer or upon bearing plates sufficiently large to insure that the compressive stresses in the concrete under the bearing will not be excessive for the value of the tie rods in tension. It is obvious that reinforced concrete ties may be used in place of the steel tie rods, and that some form of concrete or masonry anchorage, either continuous or discontinuous, may be used in place of the wooden deadmen. f. uses. These composite steel and concrete sheet piles may be used in any situation where a heavy sheeting is necessary, such as in circular wells or pits, retaining walls, 68 STEEL SHEET PILING 69 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY docks, wharves, core walls for dams, etc., etc., Fig. 51. The use of reinforced concrete in these situations is rather new, but the United States Government has installed, in connection with the improvements at the Norfolk Navy Yard, reinforced concrete piles provided with tongues and grooves but without any positive interlock, having a cross section 18" on the face by 24" thick and 55 feet long. The Raymond Concrete Pile Company have also constructed a number of piers and bulkhead walls with concrete piles having plain rectangular cross section about 18" on the face by 12" thick, and in lengths of from 24 to 30 feet. The advantage of a positive interlock, which is not liable to damage in handling, is obvious in this connection. The use of reinforced concrete in certain types of retaining walls has been covered by letters patent; designers should, therefore, exercise caution in working out specific structures. DURABILITY OF STEEL PILING : An important factor in the use of steel sheet piling in permanent installations is its durability or its resistance to corrosion, a subject on which there is today much discussion but very little data. The resistance of the steel to corrosion depends somewhat on the amount of free acids in the material through which it is driven, the degree of its submergence in water, the amount of exposure, the action of light, etc., etc. In the core wall of a dam, steel is practically sealed from contact with the atmosphere and, therefore, the supply of oxygen, without which corrosion cannot be maintained, is limited; it is excluded from light which aids the corrosion of the naked steel or affects chemically any paint coating which may be applied to its surface; such water as comes in contact with the piling is pure or nearly so by reason of the filtering action of the material through which the piling is driven, and in consequence a very long life can safely be predicated for the steel itself, painted or not. The effect of pure or nearly pure water on steel or wrought iron is extremely small. Wrought iron bars placed in the sub- 70 STEEL SHEET PILING structure of the Chicago & Northwestern Railway bridge at Clinton, Iowa, and taken out in 1910, showed practically no corrosion though exposed to the sand and water of the Missis¬ sippi River for 47 years, even the original red lead paint showing thereon. Experiments conducted by the English Admiralty, Board of Trade and Lloyds show that on steel unprotected and exposed to the action of both weather and sea water, corrosion advanced at the rate of 1" in 82 years; when always immersed in sea water, 1" in 130 years; and when always immersed in fresh water, 600 years. The experiments of Mr. Robert Mallett show that wrought iron immersed in sea water will be rusted about .60" deep in 100 years. Observations made at the various United States Government navy yards are to the effect that unpainted iron and steel plates exposed to sea water will corrode .30" to .50" of metal in 100 years; in ordinary fresh water .02" to .03"; and in the atmosphere .25" to .30". Observations made at the steel lined timber crib of the Chicago Water Works Intake indicate a corrosion in pits of about X /Y in eleven years, due largely to wave and ice action rather than to the effect of the water, which is relatively pure; the YY plates of which the lining is made are exposed above the water line to the light and the weather, but the intake as a whole is giving good service and shows little corrosion below the .water line. On the basis of these data and in the light of the best accessible information on the rate of corrosion, it is probable that a life of 100 years may be predicated for steel sheet piling of YY thickness entirely submerged in fresh water, 50 years for the same piling entirely submerged in sea water, and 40 years when exposed unprotected to wind and weather, with the probabilities that its life will be longer rather than shorter. To further insure piling against corrosion, it may be pro¬ tected by the use of protective coatings, the best of which would be zinc applied by galvanizing. It would be entirely practicable also to paint it with two or more good coats of 71 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY paint, let it dry thoroughly and then drive it in fairly loose soil without serious danger of the abrasion of the coating. In sharp sand or under difficult conditions of driving, the chances are that the coating would be rather much abraded and in such instances a practical way to get the piling down with¬ out injury to the paint coat would be by jetting, which has already been done in an experimental way. Even when driven in hard ground, the chances are that enough of the paint would adhere above the zone of probable corrosion (that is, above the ground water line), to insure the practical integrity of the paint coating and therewith its long life and endurance. The ordinary sulphuric acid and accelerated tests for the corrosion of steel are tests of the solubility of the material in acid rather than indicative of the rate of natural corrosion. These tests, however, indicate that in soils or water containing acids a very simple means to insure endurance of the steel will be to alloy it with a small percentage of copper, which can be done at a slightly increased cost. The results of experiments in this direction have been corroborated by the long life of certain iron structures, such as the Newburyport, Mass., bridge, the iron of which analyses show to have con¬ tained traces of copper in sufficient quantity to make it practically untouched by the tooth of time. ADVANTAGES OF STEEL SHEETING AS COMPARED WITH WOODEN SHEETING: The advantages of wooden sheeting are its simplicity, convenience and the possibility of doing the necessary cutting and fitting with the simplest tools by unskilled workmen. Its disadvantages are many; its length is limited, it can be interlocked only in short lengths, it has to be crowded together under driving by beveling the edges, which does not always produce watertight joints, and a single line is only practical and watertight provided the line itself is made thick and heavy; after it is first installed, it is practic¬ ally worthless. There is no limit to the length of steel sheet piling and it 72 STEEL SHEET PILING , can be furnished by the mills in single lengths up to 60 feet and can be readily extended to greater depths by splicing. It is cut to required length at the mills without waste. It drives and pulls easier than wooden sheeting of corresponding strength. It interlocks throughout its entire length regard¬ less of depth. It is flexible, and slight irregularities in line due to earth or water pressure tend to close the sections more tightly together and to make it more watertight. It is always stronger and tighter than wooden sheeting of corresponding cost, and in multiple piers and extended trench work its availability for re-use makes it cheaper than wood. It can be driven ahead of the excavation and trench work operations can be made continuous. Its use in cofferdams reduces the amount of bracing required and thus effects a saving in the cost thereof. Each successive construction in which it is used increases the economy of its use. It is a modern tool of con¬ struction and can be carried from one job to the other until it is so battered and distorted as to be no longer suitable for use as sheeting. After its service is over, it still has a high scrap value. In estimating its first cost and the subsequent cost of handling, driving and pulling, these and other advan¬ tages must be taken into consideration. LATERAL EARTH PRESSURES: Retaining walls backed with earthy material are liable to lateral pressures which tend to overthrow them as well as to cause them to slide. The heavier the material and the less its angle of repose, the greater is the pressure. Let w be the weight of the earth per cubic unit, its angle of repose, h the height of the wall and P the total pressure. Fig. 52 shows a wall of piling retaining a level bank of earth, and the resultant horizon¬ tal pressure of the earth against the piling is V=y 2 wh 2 tan 2 (45 °—)/ 2 <£) which is applied at a distance Vs h above its foot. Fig. 52 73 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY Fig. 53 shows a piling wall which retains an inclined bank, whose slope makes with the horizontal an angle 8 less than <£. For this case the formula usually given is p__ Yz wh 2 cos 2 __ (1-fV sin sin ( —8) /cos 8) 2 and its point of application is also at Vs h above the foot. When 8 is equal to <£ this reduces to P=H wh 2 cos 2 . In these formulas the pressure is horizontal and hence normal to the piling. In the construction of retaining walls, the piling may act as a cantilever, or if the height of the wall is great, it may be anchored back to deadmen so as to bring it into the condition of a beam supported at both ends. At any event the penetration of the piling into firm material must be such as to prevent the slipping of the piling at its toe, which may be figured on the basis of its embedded area multiplied by the safe bearing value of the soil it penetrates. Fig. 54 shows a piling wall retaining earth pressure and loaded with a surcharge of track or other weights. In this case the effect of the load is to increase the lateral pressure. The total horizontal pressure against the piling is P=(Y wh 2 -|-vh) tan 2 (45°— VtfY) in which the symbols are the same as before with the addition of v, the weight of the load per square unit of surface. When v is as great as Y wh, the effect of the load is to double the pressure due to the earth alone. The point of application of P above the base is at a distance Ys h (wh+3 v)/(wh + 2v). This is greater than Vs h, but the most excessive load cannot raise it as high as Yi h. The values of the trigonometric functions referred to in the above formulas are shown in Table XI which follows: Fig. 54 Fig. 53 74 STEEL SHEET PILING TABLE XI. EARTH PRESSURES. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS FOR VARIOUS ANGLES OF REPOSE Slope Angle c f > Tan(45°-H<£) Tan s (45°- 1 on 5 11° 19' 0.8200 0.6723 1 on 4 14 02 0.7808 0.6097 1 on 3 18 26 0.7208 0.5195 1 on 2 26 34 0.6181 0.3819 1 on i y 2 33 41 0.5352 0.2864 1 on 1 % 36 53 0.5000 0.2500 1 on 1 45 00 0.4142 0.1716 \y 2 on 1 56 19 0.3028 0.0917 2 on 1 63 26 0.2361 0.0557 3 on 1 71 34 0.1623 0.0263 4 on 1 75 58 0.1231 0.0152 5 on 1 78 41 0.0990 0.0098 The pressures for different depths of wall are given in Table XII for weights of 90, 100 and 110 pounds per cubic foot of materials to depths up to and including 20 feet. The weights and angles of repose for various kinds of dry and loose material are given in Table XIII, and the weights and angles of repose for various kinds of material excavated by either wet or dry processes and deposited under water are given in Table XIV. TABLE XII. EARTH PRESSURES IN POUNDS. For Various Weights of Soils and Angles of Repose. Pressure=Ljwh2 tans (45°—>£). Depth, Feet w=90 w=100 w= =110 , 1 =26°34' <£-33°41' <£-36°53' <^26°34' <£=33°41' <£-36°53' <£-36°53' 0-45° 1 20 10 10 20 10 10 10 10 2 70 50 50 80 60 50 60 40 3 150 120 100 170 130 110 120 80 4 280 210 180 310 230 200 220 150 5 430 320 280 480 360 310 340 240 6 620 460 400 690 520 450 490 340 7 840 630 550 940 700 610 670 460 8 1100 830 720 1220 920 800 880 600 9 1390 1040 910 1550 1160 1010 1110 760 10 1720 1290 1120 1910 1430 1250 1370 940 11 2080 1560 1360 2310 1730 1510 1660 1140 12 2470 1860 1620 2450 2060 1800 1980 1360 13 2900 2180 1900 3230 2420 2110 2320 1600 14 3370 2530 2200 3740 2810 2450 2690 1850 15 3870 2900 2530 4300 3220 2810 3090 2120 16 4400 3300 2880 4890 3670 3200 3520 2420 17 4970 3730 3250 5520 4140 3610 3970 2730 18 5570 4180 3640 6190 4640 4050 4450 3060 19 6200 4650 4060 6890 5170 4510 4960 3410 20 6870 5160 4500 7640 5730 5000 5500 3780 75 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY TABLE XIII. WEIGHTS AND ANGLES OF REPOSE for Various Kinds of Loose and Dry Materials Kind of Material Size Weight per Cu. Ft., Pounds Slope of Repose Angle of Repose Ashes, dry. 40 1 on 1 45° Cinders, bituminous, dry... 45 1 on 1 45° Clay, in lumps, dry. . . T. . . 63 1 on 1% 36° 53' 18° 26' Clay, damp, plastic. 110 1 on 3 Clay and gravel, dry. 100 1 on iy 36° 53' Clay, gravel and sand, dry.. 100 1 on iy 36° 53' Earth, perfectly dry, loose.. 76 1 on iy 1 on iy 36° 53' Earth, perfectly dry, packed 95 36° 53' Earth, slightly moist, loose.. 78 1 on iy 1 on 1 36° 53' Earth, more moist, packed. 96 45° Earth, soft flowing mud.... 108 1 on 3 18° 26' Earth, soft mud, packed. . . 115 1 on 3 18° 26' Gravel, dry. 1" and under 104 1 on iy 36° 53' Gravel, dry. 2y" and under 96 1 on i y 36° 53' Limestone fragments, dry. . 1" and under 85 1 on 1 45° Limestone fragments, dry. . 2 3^" and under 80 1 on 1 45° Sand, clean and dry. 90 lonlH 1 on 13 ^ 1 on 1^ 1 only 1 on 1 33° 41' Sand, river, dry. 106 33° 41' Sand, slag No. 1, dry. 55 33° 41' Sand, slag No. 2, dry. 49 33° 41' Sandstone fragments. 90 45° Shale fragments. 105 1 on iy 1 on iy 36° 53' Slag, bank. 3^" to 1" 67 36° 53' Slag, bank. 1" to 2 3^" 72 1 on iy 36° 53' Slag, bank screenings. T V' and under 117 1 on iy 36° 53' Slag, bank screenings. y n and under 98 1 on iy 36° 53' Slag, machine. 1" to 2" 96 1 on iy 36° 53' TABLE XIV. WEIGHTS AND ANGLES OF REPOSE for Various Kinds of Excavated Materials Dumped into Water (From the American Civil Engineers Pocket Book, page 580.) Kind of Material Slope of Repose Angle of Repose Weight per Cu. Ft., Pounds Sand, clean. 1 on 2 26° 34' 60 Sand and clay. 1 on 3 18° 26' 65 Clay. 1 on 3 y 1 on 2 15° 57' 80 Gravel clean. 26° 34' 60 Gravel and clay. 1 on 3 18° 26' 65 Gravel, sand and clay. 1 on 3 18° 26' 65 Soil . 1 on 3^ 1 on 1 15° 57' 70 Soft rotten rock. 45° 65 Hard rock, riprap . 1 on 1 45° 65 River mud . 1 on oo 90 76 STEEL SHEET PILING CONCRETE: Table XV gives the quantities of material required for a cubic yard of concrete mixed in various pro¬ portions of cement, sand and stone or gravel. Concrete is best mixed with a machine mixer, which will insure homo¬ geneousness in the product. If the mixing is to be done by hand, the best way is to wheel the gravel or broken stone on to a board or plate platform about 9x12 feet in size, spread it out evenly on about two-thirds of the surface, then cover the gravel with the sand, also spread evenly and then cover that with the cement. Next turn over the whole with shovels two or three times from one end of the platform towards the other until all the materials are thoroughly incorporated, after which the mixture may be thoroughly wetted with water, preferably applied a bucket at a time, and then thoroughly and evenly mixed again. The best concrete is mixed with such proportions of water that when placed in the forms and properly tamped, the water will stand on top of the surface. TABLE XV. QUANTITIES OF MATERIALS FOR ONE CUBIC YARD OF COMPACTED CONCRETE. [Portland Cement at 3.8 cu. ft. and 376 pounds per barrel. BASED ONJSand at 90 pounds per cu. ft. ] Stone or gravel at 96 pounds per cu. ft. with 45% voids. [42 cu. ft. of aggregate approximately to 1 cu. yd. of concrete Proportion by Parts Proportion by Volume Quantities of Materials Weight of Concrete perCu. Ft. Cement Sand Stone Cement Sand Stone Cement Sand Stone Barrels Cu. Ft. Cu. Ft. Barrels Cu. Ft. Cu. Ft. Pounds 1 2 3 1 7.6 11.4 1.85 14.1 21.1 148 1 2 4 1 7.6 15.2 1.60 12.2 24.3 149 1 2 5 1 7.6 19.0 1.39 10.6 26.4 149 1 2M 4 1 9.5 15.2 1.48 14.0 22.5 147 1 2H 5 1 9.5 19.0 1.30 12.4 24.7 147 1 2J^ 6 1 9.5 22.8 1.17 11.1 26.7 148 1 3 4 1 11.4 15.2 1.40 16.0 21.3 149 1 3 5 1 11.4 19.0 1.22 13.9 23.2 146 1 3 6 1 11.4 22.8 1.10 12.5 25.1 146 The strength of the concrete is very largely dependent upon the thoroughness of the mixing. It also depends somewhat on 77 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY the character of the cement and a great deal on the character of the aggregate. Broken stone makes a somewhat stronger concrete than gravel of the same proportions. The compressive strength of concrete varies with the rich¬ ness of the mixture, that is, the relative proportion of cement in a unit of volume, and is greater the less are the voids to be filled in the aggregate. According to the tests made by the Watertown Arsenal in 1899, the compressive strength of 1:2:4 concrete, one month old, is 2,400 pounds, while the compressive strength of 1:3:6 is 2,160 pounds. These results were averaged from five brands of Portland cement, coarse, sharp sand and broken stone up to 23^" in size having 49.5% voids, and specimens were tested in 12" tubes. The com¬ pressive strength of a lot of specimens of 1:3:6 concrete test¬ ed by the Carnegie Steel Company is given in Table XVI. TABLE XVI, COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE Pounds per Square Inch Summary of Average Results PROPORTION: 1-CEMENT 3-SAND 6-AGGREGATE Mixture 28 Day Tests Average 90 Day Tests Average 6 Mo. Tests Average 1 Year Tests Average Mark Sand Aggregate L River No. 1 Gravel 720 1055 1023 1054 P No. 1 Slag “ “ 592 840 914 898 K “ 2 “ “ “ 654 960 1210 927 V River No. 1 Bank Slag 1033 1377 1478 1722 A No. 1 Slag “ “ “ 863 1100 1222 1131 I “ 2 “ “ “ “ 963 1228 1363 1309 U River Machine 670 928 854 902 E No. 1 Slag “ “ 561 826 983 1038 J “ 2 “ 708 994 1057 1052 X River No. 1 Limestone 904 1190 955 1220 C No. 1 Slag “ “ 636 815 829 973 N “ 2 “ “ “ 869 950 1122 1099 Z River No. 2 Gravel 1044 1108 938 1019 G No. 1 Slag “ “ 644 751 913 783 Q “ 2 4 “ “ 648 964 1029 799 W River No. 2 Bank Slag 1028 1307 1440 1328 B No. 1 Slag 697 1040 981 666 P “ 2 “ “ “ “ 837 1076 1225 1232 Y River No. 2 Limestone 1135 1115 1322 1026 D No. 1 Slag “ “ 521 869 818 831 O “ 2 “ 959 1074 979 961 78 STEEL SHEET PILING Specimens were 12" in diameter, 16" high, molded in sheet steel cylindrical forms, marked, dated and stored under cover until ready for testing, and sprinkled with water daily for the first 27 days. Each figure given is the average of at least three tests. The tensile strength of concrete, as indicated by experi¬ ments, varies even more widely than the compressive strength, for the reason that tensile tests are difficult to make. The tensile strength is usually from T V to T y of the compressive strength, but this ratio varies widely, as the character of the material and the workmanship has probably a greater influence upon the tensile strength than upon the compressive. The tensile strength of well made concrete is about from 175 to 250 pounds per square inch for 1:2:4 concrete and 125 to 200 pounds for 1:3 :6 concrete on a thirty-day basis. The shearing strength of concrete, which is the strength of the material against a sliding failure, as determined by C. M. Spofford on cylinders 5" in diameter was 1,480 pounds per square inch for 1:2:4 concrete, and 1,150 pounds for 1:3 ;6. Tests made at the University of Illinois on rectangular speci¬ mens produced the average results of 1,418 and 1,250 pounds respectively; age of specimens not given. The strength of cinder concrete is much less than that of stone or gravel mixtures. The average crushing strength of specimens tested at the Watertown Arsenal in 1898 were: for 1:2:3 mixtures, one month old, 1,098 pounds; 1:2:4 mix¬ tures, 904 pounds; 1:3:6 mixtures, 529 pounds. The adhesion of concrete to steel is the resistance which reinforcing rods offer to longitudinal motion, also known as the bond strength. It is largely frictional resistance and varies somewhat with the roughness of the bars, the quality of the cement and the method and depth of embedding. Plain round rods embedded in 1:2:4 concrete 2^" from the surface showed an adhesive strength of 237 pounds per square inch; 6" from the surface, 438 pounds; the corresponding 79 ' CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY figures for 1:3:6 concrete being 195 pounds and 364 pounds. Owing to the variable and unreliable character of the materials of which cinder concrete is made, it cannot be recommended for structures in which strength is the con¬ trolling factor in the design. It may, however, properly be used for filling vacant spaces and other parts of structures in which the stresses are very small. Permissible working stresses on stone or gravel concrete should not exceed the following:— Bearing.600 pounds per square inch. Compression in extreme fiber.500 “ Shearing.*. 60 “ “ “ “ Tension. 50 “ “ “ “ Bond or adhesion to steel—Rolled Bars. ... 60 ' “ Bond or adhesion to steel—Drawn Wire. . . 40 “ “ “ “ The above values are based on concrete capable of develop¬ ing an average compressive strength of 2,000 pounds per square inch at 28 days. For cinder concrete capable of developing an average compressive strength of 750 pounds per square inch at 28 days, working stresses should not exceed the following:— Bearing. Compression in extreme fiber Shearing. Tension. Bond. For axial compression on concrete in columns reinforced against buckling, the same working stresses may be used as recommended for bearing. If the reinforcement is so tied together that the concrete may be considered as restrained, similar to concrete enclosed in a steel tube, the working stresses on the concrete may be increased The proportions of mixtures to be used in various classes of work are about as follows:— Foundations and mass structures.1:3:6. Piers, abutments and massive reinforced work. . . 1:2%:5. Tanks, buildings and thin wall structures.1:2:4. 225 pounds per square inch. 185 25 25 30 80 STEEL SHEET PILING TABLE XVII. AREAS, WEIGHTS AND TENSILE STRENGTHS OF STEEL BARS. Round Bars Square Bars Thick¬ ness or Diam- Weight per Tensile Strength, Pounds Weight per Foot, Pounds Tensile Strength, Pounds Area, Unit Unit Area, Unit Unit eter, Inches Inches 2 Foot, Pounds Stress 16,000 Lbs. per Sq. In. Stress 20,000 ! Lbs. per Sq. In. Inches Stress 16,000 Lbs. per Sq. In. Stress 20,000 Lbs. per Sq. In. Vs 0.012 0.042 200 250 0.016 0.053 250 310 T0 0.028 0.094 440 550 0.035 0.119 560 700 X 0.049 0.167 790 980 0.063 0.212 1000 1250 5 10 0.077 0.261 1230 1530 0.098 0.333 1560 1950 X 0.110 0.375 1770 2210 0.141 0.478 2250 2810 10 0.150 0.511 2400 3010 0.191 0.651 3060 3830 X 0.196 0.667 3140 3930 0.250 0.850 4000 5000 T0 0.249 0.845 3980 4970 0.316 1.08 5060 6330 % 0.307 1.04 4910 6140 0.391 1 1.33 6250 7810 « 0.371 1.26 5940 7420 0.473 1.61 7560 9450 X 0.442 1.50 7070 8840 0,563 1.91 9000 11250 T0 0.519 1.76 8300 10370 0.660 2.25 10560 13200 K 0.601 2.04 9620 12030 0.766 2.60 12250 15310 ii 10 0.690 ! 2.35 11040 13810 0.879 2.99 14060 17580 l 0.785 2.67 12570 15710 1.00 3.40 16000 20000 W 0 0.887 3.01 14190 17730 1.13 3.84 18060 22580 IK 0.994 3.38 15900 19880 1.27 4.30 20250 25310 1t0 1.11 3.77 17720 22150 1.41 4.80 22560 28200 IX 1.23 4.17 19640 24540 1.56 5.31 25000 31250 1.35 ' 4.60 21650 27060 1.72 5.86 27560 34450 m 1.48 5.05 23760 29700 1.89 6.43 30250 37810 1/0 1.62 5.52 25970 32460 2.07 7.03 33060 41330 1K 1.77 6.01 28270 35340 2.25 | 7.65 36000 45000 1t 9 0 1.92 6.52 30680 38350 2.44 8.30 39060 48830 1% 2.07 7.05 33180 41480 2.64 8.98 42250 52810 Hi 2.24 7.60 35780 44730 2.85 9.68 45560 56950 1M 2.41 8.18 38480 48110 3.06 10.41 49000 61250 Hi 2.58 8.77 41280 51600 3.29 11.17 52560 65700 IK 2.76 9.39 44180 55220 3.52 11.95 56250 70310 Hi 2.95 10.02 47170 58970 3.75 12.76 60060 75080 2 3.14 10.68 50270 62830 4.00 13.60 64000 80000 2t0 3.34 11.36 53460 66820 4.25 14.46 68060 85080 2K 3.55 12.06 56750 70930 4.52 15.35 72250 90310 2t 3 0 3.76 12.78 60130 75170 4.79 16.27 76560 95700 2K 3.98 13.52 63620 79520 5.06 17.22 81000 101250 2y 5 0 4.20 14.28 67200 84000 5.35 18.19 85560 106950 2K 4.43 15.07 70880 88600 5.64 19.18 90250 112810 2y0 4.67 15.86 74660 93330 5.94 20.20 95060 118830 2K 4.91 16.69 78540 98170 6.25 21.25 100000 125000 2t 9 0 5.16 17.53 82520 103140 6.57 22.33 105060 131330 2K 5.41 18.40 86590 108240 6.89 23.43 110250 137810 2« 5.67 19.29 90760 113450 7.22 24.56 115560 144450 2 X 5.94 20.20 95030 118790 7.56 25.71 121000 151250 2H 6.21 21.12 99400 124250 7.91 26.90 126560 158200 2K 6.49 22.07 103870 129840 8.27 28.10 132250 165310 2« 6.78 23.04 108430 135540 8.63 29.34 138060 172580 3 7.07 24.03 113100 | 141370 9.00 30.60 144000 180000 81 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY SAFE BEARING LOADS FOR PILES : There are two con¬ ditions under which bearing piles are used; that in which the lower end rests upon a hard stratum, in which case the load on the pile is limited by the strength of the pile considered as a column, and that in which the load is carried by the friction of the material penetrated on the sides of the pile. To determine the amount of load which the pile will carry in the latter case, there are two types of formulas in use — theoretical formulas based on a. consideration of the energy expended in driving, and empirical formulas based on experi¬ ence or experiments. The most recent formula of the first class is that given by M. J. Benabenq in the Annales des Ponts et Chaussees, Volume VI, 1911, Page 516. The formula which he recommends is R—^ 1 —+m+p, in which z e m — weight of the hammer, p=weight of the pile, h=fall of the hammer, e=penetration of the pile for any given blow, and |R=resistance of the pile at anytime during driving. The formulas in most current use are those devised by A. M. Wellington and known as the “Engineering News” formulas. They are: For a pile driven with a drop hammer, safe load in pounds W ^ s + 1 For a pile driven with a steam hammer safe load in pounds =-- W 8 + 0.1 in which w=weight of the drop hammer, or striking parts of the steam hammer, in pounds, h=fall of the hammer, or striking parts, in feet, and s=penetration, or set of the pile under the last blow, in inches. The assumed factor of safety in these formulas is 6. They are to be applied under the conditions that the loads are truly vertical, that the set is measured only when there is no visible rebound of the hammer, and that the last blow is struck upon practically sound wood. 82 STEEL SHEET PILING Table XVIII, published by the courtesy of the Vulcan Iron Works, Chicago, gives the theoretical safe load based on the above formula for a pile driven by a steam hammer:— TABLE XVIII. SAFE BEARING LOAD FOR PILES DRIVEN BY STEAM HAMMER—IN POUNDS. Set in Inches No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 0.0 350,000 180,000 90,000 22,000 0.1 175,000 90,000 45,000 11,000 0.2 116,666 60,000 30,000 7,333 0.3 87,500 45,000 22,500 5,500 0.4 70,000 36,000 18,000 4,400 0.5 58,333 30,000 15,000 3,666 0.75 41,176 21,176 10,588 2,588 1.0 31,817 16,363 8,181 2,000 1.5 21,875 11,250 5,625 1,375 2.0 16,666 8,571 4,285 1,047 2.5 13,461 6,923 3,461 846 3.0 11,290 5,806 2,903 709 The American Railway Engineering Association requires that all piles shall be driven to a firm bearing satisfactory to the engineer or until five blows of the hammer, weighing 3,000 pounds and falling 15 feet (or a hammer and fall pro¬ ducing the same mechanical effect), are required to cause an average penetration of Y" per blow, except in soft bottom, where special instructions are to be given. Good building specifications do not permit any friction pile, however large, to be loaded with more than 60,000 pounds. Force of Blow. The force given by the blow of a pile driving hammer depends upon so many considerations that no general statement can be made. In the case of a hoist operated gravity hammer or a steam operated gravity hammer, the energy of the blow, usually expressed in foot-pounds, is the product of the weight of the hammer or ram multiplied by its fall or stroke. In the case of double acting ram hammers or percussion piston hammers, the energy of the blow is the area of the piston multiplied by the steam pressure plus the weight of the ram or piston multiplied by the stroke. The useful work in foot-pounds actually done upon the pile is the product of the resistance of the pile multiplied by its set under the blow. The ratio of these two quantities is the efficiency of the blow. 83 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY TABLE XIX. STRENGTH OF HOISTING ROPES (From the American Civil Engineers’ Pocket Book, page 398) Diameter, Inches Circumference, Inches Weight per Foot, Pounds Ultimate Ten. Strength, Pounds Working Load, Pounds CAST STEEL HOISTING ROPE, 6 Strands of 19 Wires each 2M 7 8.00 310000 62000 2 6 M 6.30 250000 50000 IK 534 5.25 212000 42000 m 5 4.10 172000 34000 l'A m 3.65 154000 30000 m 3.00 126000 24000 . m 4 2.50 104000 20000 m 3J4 2.00 84000 16000 i 3K 1.58 66000 12000 % 2% 1.20 50000 10000 k 2^ 0.88 36000 7000 5 A 2 0.60 28000 5000 TS 1 y 0.48 18000 3500 V2 I'A 0.39 15000 3000 iy 8 0.29 12000 2500 K IK 0.23 9000 1750 A 1 0.16 6000 1500 STANDING ROPE FOR DERRICKS, 6 Strands of 7 Wires each 1V2 m 3.37 124000 26000 m 4 K 2.77 104000 22000 IK 4 2.28 88000 18000 iy 8 3A 1.82 72000 14000 i 3y 8 1.50 60000 12000 y 8 2M 1.12 44000 9000 k 2^g 0.92 34000 7000 a 2 y 8 0.70 28000 5500 y 8 2 0.57 22000 4000 A IK 0.41 16000 3500 a iy 2 0.31 12000 2500 T ? 6 m 0.23 10000 2000 y 8 0.21 8000 1750 1 0.16 6000 1500 -£2 y 8 0.12 5500 1250 MANILA ROPE Diameter, Inches Circumference, Inches Weight of 100 Feet of Rope, Pounds Ultimate Tensile Strength calculated by the formulas of Hunt Miller Pounds Pounds 3K 10 325 72000 70000 3 9 262 58300 56700 2 % 8 211 46100 44800 2 M 7 153 35300 34300 2 6 113 25900 25200 iy 8 5 80 18000 18100 iy 2 4H. 65 14600 14900 i t 6 ff 4 52 11500 12000 1 y 8 3^ 38 8820 9370 1 3 28.3 6480 7020 it 2 l A 20 4500 5030 y 8 2 13.3 2880 3380 l A 1H 7.7 1620 2020 y 8 1H 5 900 1140 T5 1 4 630 790 t 3 h T% 2 230 280 84 STEEL SHEET PILING TABLE Quantity in XX. WEIGHT OF STEEL IN POUNDS Various Lengths^for One SHEET PILING Lineal Foot of Wall KIND, SIZE AND WEIGHT PER SQUARE FOOT ll Friestedt Symmetrical unitea states Interlocking Interlock 9" 12}4" 12" 12" 12" 15" 15" 10" 10" 12" 12" 15" 15" 16 38 40 33 38 38 44 28 34 34 39 39 45 Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. l 21 35 40 33 38 38 44 28 34 34 39 39 45 2 43 70 80; 66 76 76 88 56 68 68 78 78 90 3 64 105 120 99 114 114 132 84 102 102 117 117 135 4 85 140 160 132 152 152 176 112 136 136 156 156 180 5 107 175 200 165 190 190 220 140 170 170 195 195 225 6 128 210 240 198 228 228 264 168 204 204 234 234 270 7 149 245 280 231 266 266 308 196 238 238 273 273 315 8 171 280 320 264 304 304 352 224 272 272 312 312 360 9 192 315 360 297 342 342 396 252 306 306 351 351 405 10 213 350 400 330 380 380 440 280 340 340 390 390 450 11 235 385 440 363 418 418 484 308 374 374 429 429 495 12 256 420 480 396 456 456 528 336 408 408 468 468 540 13 277 455 520 429 494 494 572 364 442 442 507 507 585 14 299 490 560 462 532 532 616 392 476 476 546 546 630 15 320 525 600 495 570 570 660 420 510 510 585 585 675 16 341 560 640 528 608 608 704 448 544 544 624 624 720 17 363 595 680 561 646 646 748 476 578 578 663 663 765 18 384 630 720 594 684 684 792 504 612 612 702 702 810 19 405 665 760 627 722 722 836 532 646 646 741 741 855 20 427 700 800 660 760 760 880 560 680 680 780 780 900 21 448 735 840 693 798 798 924 588 714 714 819 819 945 22 469 770 880 726 836 836 968 616 748 748 858 858 990 23 491 805 920 759 874 874 1012 644 782 782 897 897 1035 24 512 840 960 792 912 912 1056 672 816 816 936 936 1080 25 533 875 1000 825 950 950 1100 700 850 850 975 975 1125 26 555 910 1040 858 988 988 1144 728 884 884 1014 1014 1170 27 576 945 1080 891 1026 1026 1188 756 918 918 1053 1053 1215 28 597 980 1120 924 1064 1064 1232 784 952 952 1092 1092 1260 29 619 1015 1160 957 1102 1102 1276 812 986 986 1131 1131 1305 30 640 1050 1200 990 1140 1140 1320 840 1020 1020 1170 1170 1350 31 661 1085 1240 1023 1178 1178 1364 868 1054 1054 1209 1209 1395 32 683 1120 1280 1056 1216 1216 1408 896 1088 1088 1248 1248 1440 33 704 1155 1320 1089 1254 1254 1452 924 1122 1122 1287 1287 1485 34 725 1190 1360 1122 1292 1292 1496 952 1156 1156 1326 1326 1530 35 747 1225 1400 1155 1330 1330 1540 980 1190 1190 1365 1365 1575 36 768 1260 1440 1188 1368 1368 1584 1008 1224 1224 1404 1404 1620 37 789 1295 1480 1221 1406 1406 1628 1036 1258 1258 1443 1443 1665 38 811 1330 1520 1254 1444 1444 1672 1064 1292 1292 1482 1482 1710 39 832 1365 1560 1287 1482 1482 1716 1092 1326 1326 1521 1521 1755 40 853 1400 1600 1320 1520 1520 1760 1120 1360 1360 1560 1560 1800 41 875 1435 1640 1353 1558 1558 1804 1148 1394 1394 1599 1599 1845 42 896 1470 1680 1386 1596 1596 1848 1176 1428 1428 1638 1638 1890 43 917 1505 1720 1419 1634 1634 1892 1204 1462 1462 1677 1677 1935 44 939 1540 1760 1452 1672 1672 1936 1232 1496 1496 1716 1716 1980 45 960 1575 1800 1485 1710 1710 1980 1260 1530 1530 1755 1755 2025 46 981 1610 1840 1518 1748 1748 2024 1288 1564 1564 1794 1794 2070 47 1003 1645 1880 1551 1786 1786 2068 1316 1598 1598 1833 1833 2115 48 1024 1680 1920 1584 1824 1824 2112 1344 1632 1632 1872 1872 2160 49 1045 1715 1960 1617 1862 1862 2156 1372 1666 1666 1911 1911 2205 50 1067 1750 2000 1650 1900 1900 2200 1400 1700 1700 1950 1950 2250 To ascertain approximate weight of piling to cover a given area, multiply the horizontal dimensions of the area in feet by the tabular weights corresponding to the length of piling in feet of the section to be used. 85 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY TABLE XXI. METRIC CONVERSION TABLES Inches and Fractions of an Inch to Millimeters 39.37 Inches, U. S. Standard—1 Meter=100 Centimeters==1000 Millimeters Inches 0 * Vs 1 3 • T * I * 6 TS Vs 7 T5 0 0.00 1.59 3.18 4.76 6.35 7.94 9.53 11.11 1 25.40 26.99 28.58 30.16 31.75 33.34 34.93 36.51 2 50.80 52.39 53.98 55.56 57.15 58.74 60.33 61.91 3 76.20 77.79 79.38 80.96 82.55 84.14 85.73 87.31 4 101.60 103.19 104.78 106.36 107.95 109.54 111.13 i 112.71 5 127.00 128.59 130.18 131.76 133.35 ; 134.94 136.53 138.11 6 152.40 153.99 155.58 157.16 158.75 160.34 161.93 163.51 7 177.80 179 39 180.98 182.56 184.15 ! 185.74 ! 187.33 188.91 8 203.20 204.79 206.38 207.96 209.55 211.14 212.73 214.31 9 228.80 230.19 231.78 233.36 234.95 236.54 238.13 239.71 10 254.00 255.59 257.18 258.76 260.35 261.94 263.53 ! 265.11 11 279.40 280.99 282.58 284.16 285.75 287.34 1 288.93 290.51 12 304.80 306.39 307.98 309.56 311.15 312.74 314.33 315.91 13 330.20 331.79 333.38 334.96 336.55 338.14 339.73 341.31 14 355.60 357.19 358.78 360.36 361.95 | 363.54 365.13 366.71 15 381.00 382.59 384.18 385.76 387.35 388.94 i 390.53 392.11 16 406.40 407.99 409.58 411.16 412.75 414.34 415.93 417.51 17 1 431.80 433.39 434.98 436.56 438.15 ! 439.74 441.33 442.91 18 ! 457.20 458.79 460.38 461.96 463.55 465.14 466.73 468.31 19 ! 482.60 484.19 485.78 487.36 488.95 490.54 492.13 493.71 20 | 508.00 509.59 511.18 512.76 514.35 515.94 517.53 j 519.11 21 533.40 .534.99 536.58 538.16 539.75 541.34 542.93 544.51 22 558.80 560.39 561.98 563.56 565.15 566.74 568.33 569.91 23 584.20 585.79 587.38 588.96 590.55 592.14 593.73 595.31 24 609.60 611.19 612.78 614.36 615.95 I 617.54 619.13 620.71 25 635.00 636.59 638.18 639.76 641.35 642.94 644.53 646.11 26 660.40 661.99 663.58 665.16 666.75 668.34 669.93 671.51 27 685.80 687.39 688.98 690.56 692.15 693.74 695.33 696.91 28 711.20 712.79 714.38 715.96 717.55 719.14 720.73 722.31 29 736.60 738.19 739.78 741.36 742.95 744.54 746 13 747.71 30 762.00 763.59 765.18 766.76 768.35 769.94 771.53 | 773.11 31 787.40 788.99 790.58 792.16 793.75 795.34 796.93 1 798.51 32 812.80 814.39 815.98 817.56 819.15 820.74 822.33 823.91 33 838.20 839.79 841.38 842.96 844.55 846.14 847.73 849.31 34 863.60 865.19 866.78 868.36 869.95 871.54 873.13 874.71 35 889.00 890.59 892.18 893.76 895.35 896.94 898.53 900.11 36 914.40 915.99 917 58 919.16 920.75 922.34 923.93 925.51 37 939.80 941.39! 942.98 944.56 946.15 947.74 949.33 950.91 38 965.20 966.79 968.38 969.96 971.55 973.14 974.73 976.31 39 990.60 992.19 993.78 995.36 996.95 998.54 1000.13 1001.71 40 1016.00 1017.59 1 1019.18 1020.76 1022.35 1023.94 1025.53 1027.11 Feet to Meters 3.280833 Feet, U. S. Standard=l Meter=100 Centimeters=1000 Millimeters 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 0.000 .305 .610 .914 1.219 1.524 1.829 2.134 2.438 2.743 10 3.048 3.353 3.658 3.962 4.267 4.572 4.877 5.182 5.486 5.791 20 6.096 6.401 6.706 7.010 7.315 7.620 7.925 8.230 8.534 8.839 30 9.144 | 9.449 9.754 10.058 10.363 10.668 10.973 11.278 11.582 11.887 40 12.192 12.497 12.802 13.106 13.411 13.716 14.021 14.326 14.630 14.935 50 15.240 15.545 15.850 16.154 16.459 16.764 17.069 17.374 16.678 17.983 60 18.288 18.593 18.898 19.202 19.507 19.812 20.117 20.422 20.726 21 .0^1 70 21.336 21.641 21.946 22.250 22.555 22.860 23.165 23.470 23.774 24.079 80 24.384 24.689 24.994 25.298 25.603 25.908 26.213 26.518 26.822 27.127 90 27.432 27.737 1 28.042 28.346 28.651 28.956 29.261 29.566 29.870 30.175 86 STEEL SHEET PILING TABLE XXI—Continued Inches and Fractions of an Inch to Millimeters 39.37 inches, U. S. Standard=l Meter=100 Centimeters=1000 Millimeters Inches 34 9 T(> n T5 X 13 16 | 7 A H 0 12.70 14.29 15.88 17.46 19.05 20.64 1 22.23 23.81 1 38.10 39.69 41.28 42.86 44.45 46.04 47.63 49.21 2 63.50 65.09 66.68 68.26 69.85 71,44 73.03 74.61 3 88.90 90.49 92.08 93.66 95.25 96.84 | 98.43 100.01 4 114.30 115.89 117.48 119.06 120.65 , 122.24 123.83 125.41 5 139.70 141.29 142.88 144.46 146.05 147.64 | 149.23 150.81 6 165.10 166.69 168.28 169.86 171.45 173.04 174.63 176.21 7 190.50 192.09 193.68 195.26 196.85 198.44 200.03 201.61 8 215.90 217.49 219.08 220.66 222.25 223.84 225.43 227.01 9 241.30 242.89 244.48 246.06 247.65 249.24 250.83 252.41 10 266.70 268.29 269.88 271.46 273.05 274.64 276.23 277.81 11 292.10 293.69 295.28 296.86 298.45 300.04 301.63 303.21 12 317.50 319.09 320.68 322.26 323.85 325.44 327.03 328.61 13 342.90 344.49 346.08 347.66 349.25 350.84 352.43 354.01 14 368.30 369.89 371.48 373.06 374.65 376.24 377.83 379.41 15 393.70 395.29 396.88 ; 398.46 400.05 401.64 403.23 404.81 16 419.10 420.69 422.28 423.86 425.45 427.04 428.63 430.21 17 | 444.50 446.09 447.68 449.26 450.85 452.44 454.03 455.61 18 ; 469.90 471.49 473.08 1 474.66 476.25 477.84 479.43 481.01 19 ; 495.30 496.89 498.48 ; 500.06 501.65 503.24 504.83 506.41 20 : 520.70 522.29 523.88 525.46 527.05 528.64 530.23 531.81 21 546.10 547.69 549.28 550.86 552.45 554.04 555.63 557.21 22 571.50 573.09 574.68 1 576.26 577.85 579.44 581.03 582.61 23 596.90 598.49 600.08 601.66 603.25 604.84 606.43 608.01 24 622.30 623.89 625..48 ! 627.06 628.65 630.24 631.83 633.41 25 647.70 649.29 650.88 1 652.46 654.05 655.64 657.23 658.81 26 673.10 674.69 676.28 677.86 679.45 681.04 682.63 684.21 27 698.50 700.09 701.68 703.26 704.85 706.44 708.03 709.61 28 723.90 725.49 727.08 728.66 730.25 731.84 733.43 735.01 29 749.30 750.89 752.48 754.06 755.65 757.24 758.83 760.41 30 774.70 776.29 777.88 779.46 781.05 782.64 784.23 785.81 31 800.10 801.69 803.28 804.86 806.45 808.04 809.63 811.21 32 825.50 827.09 828.68 830.26 831.85 833.44 835.03 836.61 33 850.90 852.49 854.08 855.66 857.25 858.84 860.43 862.01 34 876.30 877.89 879.48 881.06 882.65 884.24 885.83 887.41 35 901.70 903.29 904.88 906.46 908.05 909.64 911.23 ; 912.81 36 927.10 928.69 930.28 931.86 933.45 935.04 936.63. 938.21 37 952.50 ! 954.09 955.68 957.26 958.85 960.44 962.03 963.61 38 977.90 i 979.49 981.08 982.66 984.25 985.84 987.43 989.01 39 1003.30 1004.89 1006.48 1008.06 1009.65 1011.24 1012.83 1014.41 40 1028.70 1030.29 1031.88 1033.46 1035.05 1036.64 1038.23 1039.81 Miscellaneous U. S. and Metric Measures Number Square Feet to Square Meters Cubic Feet to Cubic Meters Pounds to Kilo¬ grams Pounds per Foot to Kilo¬ grams per meter Pounds perSq. Inch to Kilo¬ grams per Sq. Cm. Square Meters to Square Feet Cubic Meters to Cubic Feet [ Kilo- 1 ! Kilo- 5 erarns gr t a Q ms Meter Pounds Po ‘° nd8 j per Ft. Kilograms per Sq. Centimeter to Pounds per Sq. Inch 1 0.093 0.028 0.454 1.488 0.070 10.764 35.314 2.205 i 0.672 14.223 2 0.186 0.057 0.907 2.976 0.141 21.528 70.629 4.409 1.344 28.447 3 0.279 0.085 1.361 4.464 0.211 32.292 105.943 6.614 2.016 42.670 4 0.372 0.113 1.814 5.953 0.281 43.055 141.258 8.818 2.688 56.894 5 0.465 0.142 2.268 7.441 0.352 53.819 176.572 11.023 3.360 71.117 6 0.557 0.170 2.722 8.929 0.422 64.583 211.887 13.228 4.032 85.340 7 0.650 0.198 3.175 10.417 0.492 75.347 247.201 15.432 4.704 99.564 8 0.743 0.227 3.629 11.905 0.562 86.111 282.515 17.637 5.376 113.787 9 0.836 0.255 4.082 13.393 0.633 96.875 317.830 19.842 6.048 128.011 10 0.929 0.283 4.536 14.882 0.703 107.639 353.144 22.046 6.720 142.234 87 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY TABLE XXII. DECIMALS OF AN INCH AND OF A FOOT -.— Rt 1 A 1 cb i cb t -+i Fractions of Inch or Foot •1 8^ 8*£ 8 * g o § g.s Fractions 1 of Inch or Foot Fractions of Inch or Foot Fractions of Inch or Foot 2 o p o o p ° a g.2 >-H —- .0052 13 2552 3tb .5052 6tb .7552 9/b .0104 K .2604 SVs .5104 6 X 7604 9Vs i B4 .015625 TB t* .265625 3tb 33 54 .515625 6x 3 b If .765625 9x 3 b .0208 .2708 3 X .5208 6M .7708 9 X .0260 TB .2760 3t 6 b .5260 6t 6 b .7760 9t 6 b 52 .03125 Vs 52 .28125 SVs 52 .53125 6Vs M .78125 9% .0365 .2865 3t 7 b .5365 0x 7 6 .7865 9tb .0417 X .2917 3A .5417 6 X .7917 9 X 04 .046875 TB it .296875 3 t 9 b if .546875 6xb Si .796875 9tb .0521 Vs .3021 SVs .5521 6Vs .8021 9Vs .0573 TB .3073 3tb .5573 61t .8073 9 it l6 .0625 X 5 IS .3125 3% TB .5625 m 13 TB .8125 9% .0677 TB Vs .3177 3ii .5677 6Ii .8177 9ii .0729 .3229 3Vs .5729 QVs .8229 9Vs 04 .078125 if u .328125 31t 37 64 .578125 Oft 53 64 .828125 | 9i| .0833 1 .3333 * 4 .5833 7 .8333 10 .0885 1* .3385 4tb .5885 7xb .8385 10/b 33 .09375 iy 8 33 .34375 H/s 52 .59375 7 X u .84375 103^ .0990 Itb .3490 4 t 3 b .5990 7tb .8490 10xB .1042 IX .3542 4M .6042 7M .8542 loy ei .109375 Itb 23 64 .359375 4x5 if .609375 7xb 55 B4 .859375 10xb .1146 l: Vs .3646 Ws .6146 7^ .8646 10X .1198 Itb .3698 4/5 .6198 7xb .8698 10* Vs .1250 IX .3750 4i4 5* .6250 7 H Vs .8750 ioh .1302 Itb .3802 4x 9 b .6302 7 t 9 b .8802 10 t 9 b .1354 m .3854 Ws .6354 7^8 .8854 ioy 8 35 .140625 m 64 .390625 4 15 4 1 54 .640625 7H 57 B4 .890625 10U .1458 m .3958 m .6458 7M .8958 1034 .1510 llB .4010 4« .6510 7li .9010 10ii 52 .15625 m ti .40625 4^ 52 .65625 7% 29 52 .90625 10Vs .1615 .4115 4xt .6615 715 ' TB .9115 10it .1667 2 .4167 5 .6667 8 .9167 11 a .171875 IPs 64 .421875 5x5 54 .671875 8 re if .921875 Htb .1771 .4271 5Vs .6771 8 X .9271 11 X .1823 2 t 3 b .4323 5x 3 5 .6823 8tb .9323 Htb re .1875 2M TB .4375 5H It .6875 8 X it .9375 11X .1927 2 t 5 b .4427 5x5 .6927 8x 5 b .9427 HfB .1979 2% .4479 5Vs .6979 8Vs .9479 llH 1 3 S4 • .203125 2* If .453125 5x5 45 64 .703125 8xb 64 .953125 Ht'b .2083 2M .4583 5y 2 .7083 8V 2 .9583 11X .2135 2* .4635 5 t 9 b .7135 8 t 9 b .9635 11t 9 b 52 .21875 2% 33 .46875 5Vs 23 32 .71875 8^ it .96875 HVs .2240 2\i .4740 5x5 .7240 8xt .9740 Hit .2292 2H .4792 5M .7292 8M .9792 11X if .234375 21b Si .484375 5xt 47 B4 .734375 8xi 63 64 .984375 llxi .2396 2Vs .4896 5Vs .7396 8K .9896 HVs 1 lit .2448 2« .4948 5xt .7448 8it .9948 X .2500 3 X .5000 6 X .7500 9 1 1.0000 12 88 CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY GENERAL OFFICES: Pittsburgh, Carnegie Building. DISTRICT OFFICES: Birmingham, Brown-Marx Building, Boston, 120 Franklin Street, Buffalo, Ellicott Square Building, Chicago, Commercial National Bank Building Cincinnati, Union Trust Building, Cleveland, Rockefeller Building, Denver, First National Bank Building,. Detroit, Ford Building, New Orleans, Maison Blanche, New York, Hudson Terminal, 30 Church Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Building, Pittsburgh, Carnegie Building, St. Louis, Third National Bank Building, St. Paul, Pioneer Building. EXPORT REPRESENTATIVES: UNITED STATES STEEL PRODUCTS CO., New York, Hudson Terminal, 30 Church Street. PACIFIC COAST REPRESENTATIVES: UNITED STATES STEEL PRODUCTS CO., PACIFIC COAST DEPT. Los Angeles, Jackson Street and Central Avenue, Portland, Selling Building, San Francisco, Rialto Building, Seattle, 4th Ave. South and Connecticut Ave.