MARSHALL SPACE FLIGHT CENTER ANNIVERSARY REPORT UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN STACKS 5/7/ MARSHALL SPACE FLIGHT CENTER 25 ANNIVERSARY REPORT NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration Marshall Space Flight Center For sale by the Superintendent of Documents U.S. Government Printing Office Washington. DC. 20402 25M1285 WITHDRAWN University of Illinois Library a tUrtaan**Ch*rr?aign DEPOSITORY FEB 2 01986 Xt urban*champa»gn PREFACE he Marshall Space Flight Center marks its 25th anniversary with a record of notable achievements: > Launch vehicle for the free world's first manned spacecraft > World's largest launch vehicles > Launch vehicles that sent man to the moon > World's only manned lunar surface vehicle > Free world's first space station > Nation's largest orbital observatories > First materials processing experiments in space > Propulsion systems for world's first Space Shuttle > First commercial product made in space. These accomplishments are the essence of the Marshall Center's history. Behind the scenes of our space launches and missions, however, lies a story of challenges faced and problems solved. The highlights of that story are presented in this illustrated report of our first 25 years. This book is organized not as a straight chronology but as three parallel reviews of the Center's major assignments: propulsion systems and launch vehicles, space science research and technology, and manned space systems. Our general goals have been to reach space, to know and understand the space environment, and to inhabit and utilize space for the benefit of mankind. The text of each chapter reports on the past achieve- ments, present activities, and future plans of the Center as an entity; the photographs show people at work, making history. This three-part treatment of the Center's history is a convenience that enables us to trace the development of Marshall's major roles with thematic continuity. In reality, of course, there is considerable interdepend- ence and inter-relationship throughout the Center. For example, the Apollo Telescope Mount and Skylab, discussed here in different chapters, were not two separate programs; rather, the telescope was an integral part of Skylab. Within our matrix organization, all projects benefit from the shared technical and managerial capabilities of the Center. This report also includes a chronology of major events, presented as a fold-out chart for ready reference. At a glance, the reader can see concurrent events in each of the Marshall Center's major endeavors - space vehicles, space science, manned systems - and place them in the context of develop- ments within the Center and the community. We are aware that the story of Marshall Space Flight Center can be told in many voices, with different themes. Each employee has a unique perspective on the accomplish- ments of the past 25 years. This report speaks of the Center's achievements and challenges in general, none of which would have been possible without the specific accomplishments of dedicated individuals. On this anniversary, we celebrate their suc- cesses and encourage all to learn from Mar- shall's history as they remember it. We consult the past to guide our progress into the future. TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface i Commitment to Excellence V A Unique National Resource 1 Thrust into Space: Propulsion Systems and Launch Vehicles 5 Saturn 6 Space Shuttle 20 Advanced Transportation Systems 30 A Glimpse of the Future 32 Research on the New Frontier: Space Science 35 Small Scientific Payloads 36 Space Observatories 38 Spacelab Investigations and Other Flight Experiments 46 Materials Processing in Space 50 Research and Technology 52 A Glimpse of the Future 56 A Permanent Presence: Manned Space Systems 59 Lunar Roving Vehicle 60 Skylab 61 Apollo-Soyuz Test Project 68 Spacelab 69 Space Station 74 Foundation for the Future: The Marshall Center People 81 Chronology: 25 Years at Marshall Space Flight Center 86 in Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2013 http://archive.org/details/marshallspacefliOOgeor w COMMITMENT TO EXCELLENCE n this 25th anniversary of the founding of Marshall Space Flight Center, we whose careers are linked to the space program feel a nostalgia that is both communal and individual; the history of NASA and our personal lives are so intertwined as to be virtually inseparable. We have changed and matured, and so has the Center. We have grown professionally in response to the challenges of space, and we have also become a family united by shared goals and aspirations. While we reflect on the past, we are eager to proceed into the exciting future. The George C. Marshall Space Flight Center, established by Presidential Executive Order to support a vigorous national program for the exploration of space, was officially designated on July 1, 1960. During its first quarter century, the Marshall Center has been recognized as one of the most capable, most versatile science and engineering institutions in the world. Marshall has a well-earned reputation as a developer and manager of large, complex systems as diverse as launch vehigles, satellite observatories, and manned work places in space. Mar- shall is NASA's leading center for propulsion systems and launch vehicles, yet we have broad- ened our base to include many other quite different projects. By virtue of its multidisciplinary talents and resources, the Center has been, and continues to be, a major force in the nation's space program. The history of Marshall Space Flight Center is a chronicle of hard work and dependable hardware. Our products - the giant Saturn launch vehicles, Skylab, the Space Shuttle propul- sion systems, Spacelab, Space Telescope, the many scientific spacecraft and payloads - are tremendous achievements. Our people are true pioneers, visionary leaders who extend the limits of technology and boldly advance into the new frontier of space. The motivating force of Marshall Space Flight Center is a commitment to excellence, mani- fested in the work of its people. One success after another - 2 Mercury-Redstone launches, 32 Saturn launches including 9 lunar missions, 3 Skylab missions, 3 High Energy Astronomy Observatories, some 20 Space Shuttle launches, 3 Spacelab missions, a remarkable new Space Telescope to be launched in 1986, and a host of other achievements - testify to the highest standards of performance in our day-to-day business. The Marshall Center is a disci- plined organization dedicated to the common goal of a successful space program for the benefit of mankind. Because our people adhere tenaciously to the standard of excellence, despite often severe time and budgetary pressures, the history of the past 25 years is a sterling record of success. Now we are poised at the threshold of another great endeavor that will challenge us far into the future - the establishment of a permanent presence in space in an inhabited Space Sta- tion. What we do today and what we are capable of achieving tomorrow depend on our contin- ued, unstinting commitment to excellence in thought and deed, in theory and practice. We have certain traditions at Marshall: professionalism and quality in all disciplines, effec- tive management, teamwork, pioneering scientific research, and advancing technology. This heritage continues in our work today, and it must remain vital in our future efforts. Our history is not a closed book; it inspires and guides us. As I look back to the origins of Marshall Space Flight Center, our history appears in the blinding light of rockets and launch vehicles. Looking ahead, I see a future equally bright with challenges that will tax our ingenuity and demand our best efforts. As always, we will succeed if in our daily work we honor our commitment to the standard of excellence. That is the Marshall tradition; may it remain so. vC/' A . £CCoe*-*aJ W. R. Lucas, Director George C. Marshall Space Flight Center July 1985 German rocket experts in Fort Bliss before moving to Huntsville abama Space ana Rocket Center Archives photo The United States' first satellite, Explorer 1 Pioneer 4 probe, first U.S. satellite to orbit the sun, launched in 1959 In the blockhouse at Cape Canaveral awaiting launch of Pioneer 4 (1959) t Huntsville we have one of the most capable groups of space technicians in the country," a government official told Con- gress in 1959. "I think that it is a unique group ... a national resource of tremendous importance." Alabama Space and Rocket Center Archives photo Years before either the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) or Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) was established, a group of scientists and engineers known as the von Braun rocket team became prominent in America's fledgling space program. Dr. Wernher von Braun and 118 German rocketry experts and their families came to the United States in the mid-1 940's. Initially employed by the Government at Fort Bliss, Texas, the group moved to Huntsville in 1950. Here the Army's Redstone Arsenal offered an excellent site for basic rocket research and guided missile development. During the 1950's, this team was expanded by nation-wide recruitment of scientists and engineers, and it became the core of the Army's Guided Missile Development Group. The group initiated research and development of the 75,000 pound thrust Redstone guided missile, first launched in 1953, and started the larger Jupiter missile program in 1955. The next year, the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA), which incorporated this resident technical cadre in key positions, was estab- lished at Redstone Arsenal. Dr. von Braun Explorer 1 ready for launch atop Jupiter C rocket (1958) became head of the ABMA Development Operations Division. During this period of rapid change, the momentum toward space flight increased. As head of various missile development activities in Huntsville, Dr. von Braun played an influen- tial role in the formulation of national space policy. Among the many issues debated by advisory committees to the Government was the matter of military and civilian uses of space. Although affiliated with a military "I consider the exploration of space and the extension of human activities beyond the confines of our planet as the supreme challenge of the age in which we live." Dr. Wernher von Braun, 1957 Explorer project leaders: Dr. Rees, Major Gen. Med a r is, Dr. von Braun, Dr. Stuhlinger and (behind) Mr. Mrazek and Dr. Haeussermann Alabama Space and Rocket Center Archives photo A UNIQUE NATIONAL RESOURCE U S Army. Redstone Arsenal photo ABMA laboratory directors Fireworks in downtown Huntsville to celebrate Explorer I launch Mriiiin agency, Dr. von Braun was a strong proponent of the scientific exploration of space and the development of large launch vehicles for this purpose. Meanwhile, the von Braun team was busy solving the theoretical and practical problems of rocketry. Already members of the group were studying the feasibility of larger boosters with much greater thrust and payload-carrying capability for orbital and deep space missions. Through dozens of Redstone and Jupiter static firings and test flights, they were resolv- ing some of the difficulties in rocket design, propulsion, and performance. Due to their foresight in planning and prep- aration, the ABMA group was ready for the United States' first launch of a satellite. Hav- Huntsville- Madison County Public Library photo BW 5*Jfo»foffle m EXTRA ing anticipated the space age, the rocket team responded quickly when launch was author- ized. In January of 1958, the ABMA lofted America's first satellite, Explorer I, into orbit aboard the Army's Jupiter C rocket, just three months after authorization. During the next two years, the ABMA launched six other sci- entific satellites, including a Pioneer that orbited the sun. The initial success with the Jupiter rocket spurred the von Braun team and the ABMA toward an even more ambitious big booster program, originally named the Juno, for advanced space missions. In 1959, a separate Defense Department organization, the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), authorized ABMA to begin a research and development program for a vehicle having a 1.5 million pound thrust capability. This tre- mendous advance was to be achieved by clustering eight available rocket engines into one stage. The major goal of the program was a demonstration static firing by the end of 1959. The Juno program was renamed Saturn in 1959, and soon thereafter the project received the highest national priority rating. Members of the rocket group in Huntsville were enthusiastic about the new project; they had been nurturing the concept for years, and they were eager to proceed. In the meantime, NASA was founded in 1958 by an Act of Congress to support a vigor- ous civilian space program. The new space agency included elements from various exist- ing laboratories and installations, but it did not have a strong capability for developing launch vehicles and propulsion systems. After exten- sive negotiations, the ABMA's Development Operations Division headed by Dr. von Braun and the Saturn project were transferred from the Department of Defense to NASA in 1960. Wither Change j^P^d Launching -9U»iH ere Ai MWJ Nigh, President Eisenhower and Mrs. George C. Marshall at dedication ceremony for NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center "After thousands of years of clinging to our planet, man is finally about to burst the bonds of terres- trial gravity and embark on the greatest voyage of his entire existence. . . the exploration of the space around him." Dr. Wernher von Braun, 1958 This transfer strengthened the agency consid- erably and also guaranteed the rocket team's active participation in the scientific exploration of space. On July 1, 1960, the George C. Marshall Space Flight Center officially came into being as 4,670 civil servants previously associated with the Army became NASA personnel, and 1,840 acres of Arsenal property and facilities worth $100 million were transferred to the space agency. For several months, the Marshall group continued to work at the same desks in the same Army buildings. The new organization resembled the old, and the conti- nuity of personnel and activity was hardly affected by the transfer. In addition to the Saturn project, Marshall assumed responsibil- ity for the Juno II rocket, the 1 .5 million pound thrust F-1 single engine, development of the Agena B stage of the Atlas and Thor boosters, development of the Centaur launch vehicle, and development of the Mercury-Redstone vehicle for NASA's first manned program, Project Mercury. Dedicating the new NASA center in Sep- tember, President Dwight Eisenhower remarked that General George C. Marshall, the distinguished soldier and statesman, was a builder of peace. The decision to name the center in his honor was also a fitting tribute to both the agency and the team of rocketry pioneers whose origins were in military research but who aimed for the peaceful sci- entific exploration of space. Thus, when Marshall Space Flight Center opened for business in July of 1960 it was already a thriving enterprise. Its work force included many people who had already worked together for a decade or longer. Its founding director was Dr. Wernher von Braun, an advocate of space research and develop- ment activities for more than 20 years. Major programs were already established and in progress, and its organizational philosophy was in place. The new center had excellent laboratories for rocket propulsion system design, development, manufacturing, and test- ing. Its technical capabilities were unsur- passed, and its morale and team spirit were vigorous. The Center was born in an atmosphere of urgency, at a time when the nation's goals in space were not yet clearly focused. The space environment was unfamiliar territory and there were many uncertainties about appropriate technology and suitable missions. To those who had been working with rockets, the next step seemed obvious: bigger, more powerful boosters to place communications and weather satellites into orbit, to send planetary probes into deep space, to carry people and their living quarters or workshops into space, and to begin studying and using space for the benefit of all mankind. While public consensus was forming, the cadre of rocket experts in Huntsville pro- ceeded apace with the task of developing awesome new launch vehicles - the massive Saturn family. Despite the unparalleled experi- ence and expertise that made this group an invaluable national resource, the Saturn proj- ect challenged all their technical and manage- rial abilities. From this beginning arose the traditions that still characterize Marshall Space Flight Center today: engineering excel- lence and the disciplined concentration of energy essential for success. ■ SITE OF CENTRAL LABORATORY AND OFFICE BUILDING GEORGE C.MARSHALL SPACE FLIGHT CENTER WVATTAvlFnRICK FGPT WORTH, TEXAS Breaking new ground for the nation's space program ..A.-»-y i.rSH^- n a blaze of light and rumbling thunder, a space vehicle rises from its launch pad. For most observers, a lift-oft marks a beginning, a take-off, the start of an adventure. For NASA engineers, however, a launch is a climactic event, the culmination of years of hard work. While others watch expectantly, those who have designed or built a vehicle wait tensely for the moment of relief and jubilation, the spectacular moment of proof that their work has been done well. Marshall Space Flight Center developed the engines and vehicles that boosted our nation into space. Transportation systems have been a crucial part of the Center's busi- ness, from the early Redstone rockets to the sophisticated Saturn launch vehicles and on to the Space Shuttle and the advanced craft that will serve us in the Space Station era. At every stage, the development of propulsion systems and vehicles for space flight has posed techni- cal and managerial challenges. There was no precedent for the pioneering work of establish- ing safe, reliable transportation service into space. The history of this Marshall Center achievement is one of problems solved, chal- lenges met, and successes recorded. J0 ^^**m "I think we've got a fantastic and remarkable capability here. We're really not too far . . . from going to the stars." John Young Commander, STS-1, 1981 / \ o io W IK? THRUST INTO SPACE fSaturn Marshall Space Flight Center came into being with a charter to develop a launch vehicle of unprecedented size and power. As the pace of the space program quickened in the late 1950s, a bold leap was urgently needed to establish American technological pre-emin- ence. That advance, of almost inconceivable proportions, was the Saturn series - the Saturn I, Saturn IB, and Saturn V launch vehicles. The new vehicles would be gigantic com- pared to their predecessors, which were them- selves barely off the drawing boards and test stands. They would have remarkable thrust and lift capability. Whereas the 70-foot Redstone generated about 75,000 pounds of thrust for suborbital flight, the Saturn I was first envi- sioned as a 165-foot, 1.5 million pound thrust giant capable of attaining Earth orbit. Those initial specifications were soon revised upward, and the largest member of the family, the tow- ering 363-foot Saturn V, ultimately became a multi-stage, multi-engine vehicle standing taller than the Statue of Liberty. With a first-stage thrust of 7.5 million pounds and another 1.2 million pounds in combined upper-stage thrust, the Saturn V was capable of sending man to the moon. Although the origins of the Saturn concept lay in ongoing rocket research within the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and other military pro- grams, a strong impetus to the Saturn program was President John F. Kennedy's 1961 announcement of the nation's foremost goal in space: a manned lunar landing within the dec- ade. As early as 1959, NASA was already looking toward this goal in its long-range plan- ning, but not within the same time frame; a lunar landing in the early 1970's was contem- plated. Now, before a single American had been thrust into orbit, NASA and the nation were committed to an extremely ambitious "I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of land- ing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to Earth." President John F. Kennedy May 25, 1961 Saturn engines and stages rirst Saturn V launch (Apollo 4), November 9, 1967 endeavor. The Saturn program, the Marshall Center's first major responsibility, crystallized about this goal. The new family of extraordi- narily large launch vehicles was required for the Apollo lunar missions. Marshall Space Flight Center was a foun- tainhead of activity during the months of early Saturn-Apollo planning. NASA had decided to use the Army's Redstone ballistic missile and the larger Air Force Atlas missile as boosters for Project Mercury, which would lay the foun- dations of manned space flight in preparation for the Apollo missions to the moon. To Marshall fell the responsibility of modifying the Redstone vehicle for the first manned suborbi- tal missions. After several unmanned test launches in 1960 and a flight by the chimpanzee "Ham" in early 1961, the Mercury-Redstone systems were judged flight-worthy for a manned mis- sion. In May of 1961, Marshall's Redstone vehi- cle boosted America's first astronaut, Alan B. Shepard, on a successful but brief suborbital flight. A modified Redstone was used on a subsequent Project Mercury flight, and Marshall's track record of successful launches began to grow convincingly. The original Marshall organization included a Launch Operations Directorate responsible for launching test flights and the Mercury- Redstone flights. In 1962, this Marshall launch team moved to Cape Canaveral and its leader, Dr. Kurt Debus, became the first Director of the Launch Operations Center there, later renamed as Kennedy Space Center. An exceptionally close working relationship between the two Centers has continued since that time. For the next several years, other elements of NASA methodically perfected spacecraft systems and orbital rendezvous techniques through the Mercury and Gemini missions. Meanwhile, Marshall surged ahead to prepare the launch vehicle for the Apollo lunar missions. fScaling Up In the interests of time and economy, the developers of the Saturn vehicles relied heav- ily on contemporary rocket design and propul- sion technology. Nevertheless, the Saturn represented a dramatic departure from early single-engine, single-stage rockets. To achieve the thrust necessary for manned lunar mis- sions, it was essential to develop a multistage vehicle with clusters of engines and to use • higher performance propellants and propulsion systems. Advanced missions and heavy pay- loads meant more engines, bigger launch vehi- cles, and higher-energy fuels. Scaling up to the massive Saturn dimen- sions was a major challenge. Even though pro- totypes of some components existed, they were not as large as the new vehicle required. In addition to basic advances in rocket technol- ogy, related developments in materials, analyti- cal techniques, tooling, fabrication techniques, and test facilities were necessary. In fact, rapid advances in the state of the art were neces- sary in almost every technical area. How did the Marshall Center turn the Saturn concept into reality? What technical challenges did Marshall people meet, and what did they contribute to the state of the art in critical engineering disciplines? These ques- tions have been explored in detail in other doc- uments; a summary here will distill the essence of the Marshall Center's achievement. To manage the tasks of developing, pro- ducing, and integrating the large multistage vehicles, Marshall's initial organization included a Saturn Systems Office with respon- sibility for managing all aspects of the Saturn program. As the program evolved and matured, the Systems Office was subdivided into three project offices for Saturn l/IB, Saturn V, and engines. The project offices in turn were subdivided into offices for each vehicle stage or engine. By 1963, a large amount of Saturn work was being performed under contracts, and the Saturn management offices were organized under the aegis of a new Industrial Operations Directorate. Saturn I test firing at Marshall Technical expertise for Saturn was pro- vided by the Center's nine engineering labora- tories: Aero-Astrodynamics, Astrionics, Computation. Manufacturing. Propulsion and Vehicles. Quality and Reliability Assurance, Test, Launch Vehicle Operations, and Research Projects. These specialized disci- pline laboratories, which had their origins in the ABMA organization, constituted most of the Research and Development Operations Directorate. Their importance to the Saturn program was incalculable; the laboratories continually pushed the limits of the state of the art in all fields to develop the designs, materials, and technology that made Saturn possible. A major factor in the success of the program was the creative technical excellence of the Marshall Center laboratories. The Saturn family of boosters included three vehicles: the Saturn I and IB for develop- ment purposes and early Apollo flights, and the Saturn V for the actual lunar missions. Even before the Saturn project was officially NASA's responsibility, the von Braun group and other space program officials vigorously debated the question of configuration. It was a foregone conclusion that the giant boosters would need several stages and clusters of engines, but dozens of arrangements were possible. Deciding upon the basic architecture of each Saturn vehicle was a dilemma resolved by careful deliberation. How many stages, of what height and diameter, how many engines per stage, what type and arrangement of engines would stack up to make the best booster? The Saturns were "Few of man's technologi- cal endeavors compare in scope of significance to the development of the Saturn family of launch vehicles. . . . Saturn was an engineering masterpiece." Dr. W.R. Lucas Apollo Command Module Service Module Lunar Module Instrument Unit Third Stage (S-IVB) 1 J-2 Engine Second Stas (S-ll) 5 J-2 Engine 5n» 9l : iku s - "- — First Stage (S-1C) 5 F-1 Engine Test firing of Saturn IC stage at MSFC hybrid vehicles combining newly designed clustered-engine stages and new engine technology. Marshall Space Flight Center personnel were deeply involved in the vehicle concept work. The decision was made in early planning studies to use a first-stage cluster of eight modified Jupiter engines burning a kerosene distillate fuel called RP-1 with liquid oxygen. The choice of upper-stage engines and config- urations, however, was less clear. After initial consideration of various conventional missile stages, NASA opted in 1959 to use new liquid hydrogen engines in the second and third stages. Saturn configurations stayed in flux as various concepts for stages and engines were evaluated and parallel development efforts proceeded. By 1962, the broad configuration issue was settled, though many interfacing details remained to be worked out. Marshall Space Flight Center carried out development, testing, and production of the Saturn I first stage in-house until Chrysler Cor- poration became the prime contractor in late 1961. The in-house effort established the basic design for clustered engines and clustered propellant tanks, the pumping scheme for a steady and balanced propellant flow from tanks to engines, the structural skeleton and skin for the unusually large stage, and the guidance and control mechanisms for steering the vehicle during powered flight. The flawless first launch in October of 1961 validated the Saturn vehicle concept nurtured at Marshall. In ten successful Saturn I launches between October 1961 and July 1965, engine performance and vehicle reliabil- ity were convincingly demonstrated. Eight of the ten Saturn I first stage boosters were built at Marshall, the others by Chrysler Corporation Space Division. Five second stages (two for testing and three for flight, all unpowered "dummies") were built at Marshall before Douglas Aircraft Company began to supply them under contract. In addition, five Saturn V first stages (three for ground tests and two for flight) were fabricated in-house at Marshall. After this initial production, all stages of the three Saturn vehicles were produced by con- tractors (Douglas, North American, IBM, Rocketdyne, Pratt and Whitney, and Boeing) under Marshall Center management. Launch vehicle configuration was contin- gent upon powerful rocket engines, the prereq- uisite for space flight. Much of the Marshall Center's early effort was directed toward advanced engine technology and higher- energy propellants. Fuel-efficiency assess- ments pointed to liquefied gases as the most Working overtime to keep Saturn on schedule J-2 engine static firing Saturn launch vehicle engines THRUST INTO SPACE Early Saturn I launch, with "dummy" second stage and payload promising new propellants for advanced mis- sions, and to liquid hydrogen in particular, because conventional propellants could not supply the necessary thrust and high perform- ance for heavy-payload lunar missions requir- ing escape velocities. When liquid hydrogen was selected for Saturn's upper stages, its use as an engine fuel was experimental. In addition to proving its performance, engineers faced a host of logisti- cal problems associated with storing, pumping, and transporting the fuel, which is highly explosive and must be maintained at extremely low (cryogenic) temperatures, more than 400°F below zero. Advances in insulation materials and in the design of large cryogenic storage tanks and pumping systems were required by the selection of liquid hydrogen as a propellant for Saturn upper stages. As the Saturn program evolved, the Marshall Center worked closely with contrac- tors to improve or develop engines for each vehicle stage. Two first-stage engines (the H-1 and F-1) and two high-energy upper stage engines (the RL-10 and J-2) were ushered through research and development, testing, production, and launch. The most visible (and 10 audible) evidence of Marshall's role was the static firing test activity in Huntsville. Local citi- zens had frequent thunderous reminders that the space program was in progress just next door. The first-stage engines used a conven- tional kerosene-liquid oxygen propellant and existing engine concepts. The main engineer- ing challenges were to cluster and enlarge the engines for much higher thrust, which intro- duced problems that required innovative solu- tions. For example, some of the engines were gimballed for directional control of the vehicle powered by the combined thrust of eight engines. New ducting and venting techniques were used to deliver propellants to the multiple engines. Manufacturing problems resulted in new materials and manufacturing processes. Turbopumps and thrust chambers were improved for uniform propellant flow and com- bustion under very severe temperatures and pressures. Special instrumentation was devel- oped to evaluate engine performance under dynamic conditions. While the first-stage engines had a heritage of proven technology, scaling up resulted in many advances. A prototype uprated H-1 engine developed by Rocketdyne was first tested in 1958; an eight-engine cluster was tested and flight rated at Marshall in 1960, during the Center's first year. Models of this workhorse ranged in thrust from 165,000 to 205,000 pounds per engine, for a total thrust of more than a million pounds in a Saturn I or IB first-stage cluster. The F-1 engine, developed to meet the greater thrust demands for Saturn V launches, yielded an awesome 7.5 million pounds of thrust in a five- engine first-stage cluster. Also developed by Rocketdyne, this engine was first tested in 1961, then tested in a cluster at Marshall in 1963, and first flown in 1967. Both first-stage engines proved highly reliable. While suitable engines for Saturn first stages were developed by enlarging and modi- fying existing designs, there were no available liquid hydrogen propulsion systems. Without proven technology, NASA undertook the devel- opment of entirely new engines for Saturn upper stages. Management responsibility for this pioneering engine work was assigned to Marshall Space Flight Center at its founding. The new engines represented major techno- logical breakthroughs in propulsion system design and performance. The initial upper stage engines used in Saturn I vehicles were derived from the RL-10 hydrogen/oxygen engine under consideration in the late 1950's by the Air Force. When built into an upper stage, this engine would enable Atlas missiles to launch heavier payloads, such as communications satellites. NASA inherited responsibility for the RL-10 engine under development by Pratt & Whitney, and by 1959 it was destined for use in the Saturn IB upper stage. Engine testing occurred at Marshall Space Flight Center and other sites, and by 1961 the high-performance RL-10 liquid hydrogen engine was flight rated. The selected configuration for the Saturn I second stage was a cluster of six engines, each having 15,000 pounds of thrust; its first flight occurred in 1964. Concurrently with RL-10 engine develop- ment, NASA was planning ahead to liquid hydrogen engines of even greater thrust, 200,000 pounds each, to be used singly or in clusters. Beginning in 1960, development of the J-2 engine was undertaken by Rocketdyne under Marshall Center management. These huge engines became the powerhouse for Saturn IB and Saturn V upper stages. A single J-2 engine was used in the Saturn IB second stage and Saturn V third stage; five of these engines were clustered in the Saturn V second stage for a million pounds of thrust. Following successful tests in 1962, the engine entered production in 1963 and was first flown in 1965. As manager of the engine development projects, the Marshall Center was immersed in all the design issues and technical problems facing its contractors. Together, the govern- ment-industry team faced the challenges of scaling up existing concepts and simultane- ously working out new technology. The Center relied on its in-house laboratory expertise in propulsion systems, metallurgical and mate- rials research, fluid dynamics, structures, dynamics, and other disciplines for the neces- sary engineering advances. Notable achieve- ments included the application of lightweight, durable materials capable of withstanding extreme temperatures and stress, new heat Altogether the Saturn V engines produced as much power as 85 Hoover Dams. F-1 engine static firing test at Marshall J-2 engine assembly line at Rocketdyne facility in Canoga Park, California 11 THRUST INTO SPACE treatment for alloys, innovations in turbomachi- nery design for improved efficiency, and myr- iad other improvements in component designs and fabrication techniques to meet the unique operational demands of the Saturn vehicles. Throughout the 1960's, the Center also main- tained engine testing programs in Huntsville concurrent with testing at contractor sites. At its founding, Marshall had inherited the Army's Jupiter and Redstone test stands, but much larger facilities were needed for Saturn V testing and for manufacture of the giant stages. Besides expanding its own facilities, Marshall acquired three additional installations elsewhere in the early 1960's. In a related expansion, Marshall acquired or built barges and docks to develop a suitable system for transporting the huge Saturn elements to the launch site. All of these facilities operated under the jurisdiction of Marshall Space Flight Center. The complexity of this construction and logistics effort was a major challenge that required a substantial investment. From 1960 to 1964, existing test stands at Marshall were remodeled and a sizable new test area was developed. The new towers erected for propulsion and structural dynamic Transport of Saturn S-IB stage from dock to MSFC test stand 12 Temporary quarters in the Huntsville Industrial Center as MSFC grew tests were among the tallest buildings in the state. They also made up a comprehensive test complex for static firings of extremely pow- erful engines, storage and pumping of cry- ogenic fuels, and structural evaluation of inordinately large objects. The Marshall test areas were unique within the nation and the free world, and they remain so today because they were constructed with foresight to meet future as well as original needs. The Center also expanded its local production facilities for in-house fabrication of the early Saturn stages. The Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans, Louisiana, a component facility of the Marshall Space Flight Center, became the manufacturing and assembly site for the Saturn IB and Saturn V first stages. Jointly occupied by the two prime contractors, Chrys- ler and Boeing, the plant had over 3 million square feet of production and office space, with 43 acres under one roof. The facility, located on the Gulf intracoastal waterway, was well situated for barge transport of the stages to test and launch sites. Nearby in Bay St. Louis, Mississippi, the Marshall Center constructed a massive new engine test complex. Three huge test stands surrounded by laboratories, fuel storage tanks, and support facilities rose from the wilderness. Saturn stages were test fired and qualified here by a contractor workforce under Marshall management. Originally a part of the Marshall Center, the Mississippi Test Facility later became an independent NASA installation. A government-owned computer facility in Slidell, Louisiana was enlisted to support the Michoud plant and Mississippi test site. A com- ponent installation of the Marshall Center, the Slidell Computer Complex provided critical data processing services for Saturn test, checkout, simulation, and engineering activities. In parallel with the development of engines and stages, Marshall Space Flight Center was engaged in developing the Saturn vehicle's instrument unit for guidance, navigation, and control. This "brain" controlled all the ignition sequences, stage separations, guidance and control, and telemetry functions to keep the vehicle operating properly and on course. Begun as an in-house project, which evolved through several versions, the sophisticated unit eventually was contracted to IBM for final design and manufacture. Its continuing refine- ment was marked by notable advances in computer memory, logic, and instrument design using new alloys and miniaturization techniques that found a ready commercial market in a variety of consumer products. fBuilding Confidence The key word for the Saturn development effort was performance. Given a highly visible and costly space program, strong pressure to meet goals on schedule, and the importance of crew safety, everything possible was done to ensure the reliable performance of every Saturn element. As program manager, Marshall Space Flight Center led the way in establishing both technical and managerial practices that built confidence in the Saturn vehicles. The result was 32 consecutive suc- cessful Saturn launches, the complete pro- gram including 9 lunar missions. A fleet of extraordinarily reliable vehicles boosted the space program to success. The confidence factor derived from con- servative design, extensive testing, and strin- gent quality control, all based on meticulous attention to detail. Simplicity, building blocks, and tests were the key tenets of this philosophy. At virtually every point, Marshall engineers favored design simplicity. Undue complexity introduced greater risks that could jeopardize the schedule or the entire program. As they scaled up existing components and systems, engineers kept a keen eye on ways to stream- line the designs. While they developed designs for new items, they also looked for ways to Construction of towering new test stands at Marshall, 1960-1964 13 THRUST INTO SPACE make things work without burdensome com- plexities. The novel J-2 engine design admira- bly illustrated this principle; many components in this propulsion system served more than one purpose. Marshall engineers and managers favored a building block approach to the ambitious Saturn program. To ensure steady progress toward a launch vehicle that had no precedent, they organized the development effort in phases to prove the technology for each phase in a relentless step-by-step fashion. Each major element - an engine or an entire stage, for example - was a building block that was added to the configuration in due course. Sys- tems were gradually built up as components were tested and proved; likewise, the vehicle gradually evolved as one element after another was added and exercised. The Saturn I launch series illustrated this building block approach to development by successive additions: initially only the first stage was live, with a dummy upper stage; after more checkout flights, a live upper stage was added; then a functional payload was added. The Saturn I itself was a building block for the IB vehicle, which in turn was a building block for the Saturn V. This methodical devel- opment scheme proved so reliable that the Saturn I was rated operational three flights ahead of schedule, and the first Saturn V flight was an "all-up" mission with all stages live. The decision for an all-up first launch was a bold break from precedent, made after much deliberation; in balance against the inherent risk of initial failures was the confidence factor so painstakingly nurtured at Marshall. Marshall also was firmly committed to rig- orous testing. To avoid surprises in flight, engi- neers subjected Saturn components to every conceivable stress and strain anticipated dur- ing a mission. Extremes of temperatures, pressure, vacuum, and vibration even greater than those predicted for launch and space flight were devised in laboratories and test stands. New facilities were built and existing test facilities at both the Center and at contrac- tor locations were scaled up to accommodate the massive Saturn elements. Saturn test and checkout activities spawned remarkable advances in electronic simulators and auto- mated test equipment. This apparatus could Saturn I build-up at MSFC Installation of engines Checkout of the completed booster Assembly of the Instrument Unit, Saturn's complex "brain" for guidance, navigation and control 14 create a high-fidelity simulation of launch and flight or could take the pulse of hundreds of different parts to provide engineers with detailed performance data. In addition to test and checkout data, hundreds of measure- ments of actual flight performance were col- lected via telemetry. The emphasis on performance and reliabil- ity penetrated all levels of the Saturn program from top-tier management to production line 7 workers. The strategy of technical competence - of doing things right - was evident every- where. Dr. von Braun, for example, expressed a "dirty hands" philosophy, encouraging Center personnel to keep themselves steeped in technical matters. This would make them better engineers and better managers of con- tract work. One of the Saturn program's best insurance policies was the distinctive compe- tence resident in Marshall's laboratories and shops. Although all Saturn launches were suc- cessful, there were occasional problems and moments of anxiety. A particular cause of con- cern on the first Saturn V flights was the "Pogo effect," vertical vibrations that occurred during powered flight. Lasting only a few seconds, these "bounces" increased stress on the vehi- cle. A Pogo task force did the necessary detective work to understand the Pogo phe- nomenon and implement corrective measures. The vibrations were successfully suppressed in time for the first manned Saturn V flight. fWorking as a Team Marshall Space Flight Center faced a manage- ment challenge beyond the scope of any pre- vious technological endeavor. As many as 20,000 contractor companies across the nation were involved in producing the millions of parts that made up each Saturn launch vehi- cle. Furthermore, the engines and stages for the three different vehicles were evolving rap- idly and in parallel, which complicated plan- ning and coordination. To stay abreast of the status of all program activities and to foster reliability everywhere, the Center used a num- ber of new management, systems integration, and program control methods both in-house and in the contractors' territory. Teamwork characterized Marshall's rela- tionships with its contractors. As the Saturn program evolved in scope, the development and production requirements exceeded the Center's capacity to do all work in-house. Therefore, the Center set about building a strong government-industry-university team with joint participation in working groups and extensive Marshall involvement in contractor activities. In this tripartite endeavor, the aca- demic community contributed substantially to study and design activities, and the industrial community played major roles in development and manufacturing. This mutually beneficial cooperation resulted in the successful Saturn program. The purpose of the teamwork philosophy was to ensure success by frequent and candid interactions between the government customer and the industrial supplier. This was accom- plished by formal and informal meetings, by periodic progress reviews, and in most cases by a resident management office at the prime contractor sites staffed by Marshall personnel. Such close coordination and monitoring ensured that problems were recognized and resolved early, with minimal impact on costs or schedule. 1. Marshall Space Flight Center Huntsville, Alabama Vehicle Management Boeing Systems Engineering General Electric Ground Support Equipment IBM Instrument Units 2. Boeing Kent, Washington Lunar Roving Vehicle 3. SACTO Test Facility Douglas Aircraft Sacramento, California S-IVB Test Operations 4. McDonnell Douglas Huntington Beach, California S-IVB North American Rockwell Seal Beach, California S-ll North American Rockwell Canoga Park, California H-1, J-2, F-1 engines 5. Manned Spacecraft Center Houston, Texas Spacecraft, Mission Control 6. Michoud Assembly Facility New Orleans, Louisiana Boeing S-IC Chrysler Saturn IB 7. Mississippi Test Facility Bay St. Louis, Mississippi S-IC & S-ll Test Operations 8. Kennedy Space Center Launch Operations 9. NASA Headquarters Washington, D.C. 10. Bendix Teterboro, New Jersey Inertial Guidance Platform 15 1 1 A special application of team effort was the "Tiger Team.'' Technical performance has always been a critical and untouchable con- stant at Marshall. Therefore, when a difficult technical problem occurred, the Center identi- fied a group of experts from the relevant labo- ratory disciplines to examine and penetrate the problem on-site. After thorough study to under- stand the intricacies of the problem and sys- tematically evaluate alternatives, the team continued its focused effort until a workable, effective, and reliable solution was achieved and implemented. The Tiger Team concept that originated with the Saturn program subse- quently remained a valuable means of resolv- ing technical problems with dispatch. The evolutionary nature of Saturn develop- ment activities created a need for careful con- figuration control. Marshall established stringent new guidelines for documenting all design specifications, design changes, engi- neering discrepancies, and related matters that could affect the integrity of any Saturn ele- ments or their interface characteristics. For a reliable launch vehicle, everything had to mate exactly. There could be no surprises on the launch pad. To further motivate the contractors, Marshall began to offer incentive fee and award fee contracts. These incentives encour- aged the best possible performance to meet hardware deliveries on schedule. Incentives at the individual worker's level were offered by Manned Flight Awareness programs within the agency and at contractor plants to remind employees of the importance of their work. The message was clear: No one could afford to make mistakes. In-house, Marshall developed several very effective teamwork techniques that promoted accountability - keeping track of who was responsible for what - and enabled managers to make well-informed decisions. From the out- set, Marshall had a democratic propensity for convening committees, working groups, and panels to resolve problems or advise policy. An important device for fostering such teamwork was the Saturn Program Control Center, a briefing room outfitted with charts, projection screens, closed-circuit audio and television, and other aids for communication and informa- tion display. A hub of activity for several years, this was the place where managers met to monitor progress and keep the program's course on target. fSaturn Legacies As the Marshall Center's first major assign- ment, and a spectacularly successful one, the Saturn program left its imprint on the institution and its surroundings. During that time, the Center expanded into its own new buildings and, in 1965-1966, reached its peak work force of 7,327 employees and budget of almost $1.7 billion. The rapid physical expansion of the Center was accomplished by an enormous effort to plan, establish, and manage the new facilities. Similarly, the growing work force and increasing complexity of technical activities resulted in a sustaining administrative services and support organization. As NASA began to procure more technical services, a large support community of aero- space contractors and high-tech industry grew in Research Park and stimulated the local economy. During the Saturn era, the popula- tion of Huntsville increased 8-fold from 16,000 in 1950 to 136,000 in 1970. The face of the city changed as new roads, residential areas, civic facilities, a university, and the Alabama Space and Rocket Center opened. That close ties bound the institution and the community was perhaps most evident in the spontaneous pub- lic celebrations of the first American satellite launch and the successful landing on the moon; Wernher von Braun, the man who had been so influential in making Marshall and Huntsville the "Home of Saturn," was carried along the streets in triumph, like the coach of a winning team. For a decade, Marshall's human and physi- cal resources were largely devoted to Saturn work. The institution survived its growing pains, and the practices that proved effective became habitual. A changing organization chart reflected the Center's evolution toward more diverse and complex responsibilities. Many of the Center's lasting strengths are Saturn legacies: its multidisciplinary technical competence, its flair for large-scale systems engineering and systems management, its partnership with industry and universities, its perfectionism expressed in reliable products, and its dedicated work force committed to excellence. The Saturn program did not quite end with the last Apollo mission in 1972. Saturn vehicles were used to launch four Skylab missions in 1973 and the Apollo-Soyuz mission in 1975. These grand finales launched two new con- cepts in America's space program: a long-term presence in space for scientific research, and international cooperation in manned space- flight. On those notes, the Saturn era closed. During the Saturn-Apollo era, much of Marshall's attention and energy had been Celebration of the lunar landin downtown Huntsville, July 1961 At the Marshall Center family picnic a few days after the lunar landing 16 THRUST INTO SPACE Huntsvtlle-Madtson County Public Library photo Elation in the launch control center after Apollo II lift-off -.entration in the firing room Saturn launch President Kennedy greeting employees during 1962 visit to Marshall Earthrise focused on one goal, the development of pro- pulsion systems and launch vehicles for the lunar landing program. As the Apollo program waned, the Center made a deliberate and pru- dent decision to become more diversified. The key event in Marshall's transition from a single project to a multi-project Center was the crea- tion of the Program Development directorate in 1969, under the leadership of today's Center Director, Dr. W. R. Lucas. At the nucleus of the new directorate were future planners drawn from the laboratories and now charged with responsibility for coordi- nated long-range planning to conceive new programs for the agency and the Center. This group formed task forces to focus on promis- ing new programs and conducted advanced studies, feasibility studies, preliminary design and program definition. The Program Develop- ment directorate rapidly became an effective advocate of Marshall Center capabilities and a "think tank" for original project concepts. Through its efforts, the Center participated in early Space Shuttle concept work that evolved into major assignments for the Shuttle propul- sion systems. This group also did the fore- thought and planning that later culminated in major new space science programs, including the High Energy Astronomy Observatories, Spacelab, and Space Telescope. The tenure of Dr. Wernher von Braun as Director of the Marshall Center ended in 1970 when he assumed a new position at NASA Headquarters. His long-time associate, Dr, Eberhard Rees, became Director and, until his retirement in 1973, ushered Marshall through a difficult period of reduced funding and man- power. During his term, emphasis at the Center shifted from the Saturn program to Skylab and initial planning for the Space Shuttle. His successor, Dr. Rocco A. Petrone, then presided over the dramatic series of Skylab missions in America's first space sta- tion. Since 1974 when Dr. William R. Lucas became Director, the Center has assumed major new responsibilities for the Space Shuttle and other projects. As the Center looked ahead to the Space Shuttle, it was fully confident that the experi- ence gained in the Saturn program would be well applied to its next assignments. With some changes to meet the technical and man- agerial challenges of developing new propul- sion systems for a new launch vehicle, Marshall Space Flight Center had its blueprint for success. 18 Dedication of the original Redstone Test Stand at MSFC as a historic site Huntsvllle Times photo "Houston... Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed." Neil Armstrong, July 20, 1969 19 THRUST INTO SPACE fSpace Shuttle Despite the feverish pace of Saturn develop- ment and test activities, NASA was already planning a new launch vehicle for the next generation. Impressive and powerful though they were, the Saturns had one disadvantage: they were expendable. Used only once, they were expensive to manufacture, stock in inven- tory, and use, and the cost per pound of pay- load delivered into orbit was high. When the agency began looking ahead to a manned space station as the next step beyond lunar exploration, alternatives to expendable rockets were considered. The concept of a reusable Space Shuttle was particularly appealing as an economical vehicle to ferry people and sup- plies to and from orbit. With its expertise in large launch vehicles and propulsion systems, it was only natural that Marshall Space Flight Center should play a major role in the Space Shuttle program. By 1970, NASA initiated Space Shuttle development activity. At first, Marshall was heavily involved in the program definition phase leading to the current Shuttle configura- tion. When the final concept was selected, the Center became responsible for the develop- ment of the advanced propulsion systems. Of the principal Shuttle elements - the Orbiter, Main Engines, External Tank, and Solid Rocket Boosters - all but the Orbiter were developed under Marshall Center management. Much of the Shuttle effort at Marshall was performed by the same personnel and in the same facilities that had served the Saturn pro- gram so well. As Saturn activity subsided, these resources were mustered for the Space Shuttle effort. Necessary administrative and physical changes occurred to accommodate the Shuttle program, but in general the Center continued its proven practices in the develop- ment of large propulsion systems. Marshall Space Flight Center was well prepared to meet the challenge of developing a new, improved thrust into space. "You know when you ride a launch vehicle, the future standard launch vehicle of the United States of America, if it doesn't work right, if all those engines don't work right, you don't get very far down range. The Space Shuttle worked perfectly. It was a beautiful thing." John Young Commander, STS-1, 1981 Readying the Orbiter Enterprise for dynamic tests at Marshall 20 fDesign Solutions The Shuttle posed a number of technical chal- lenges to Marshall engineers. Serving as both a passenger and cargo vehicle, the Orbiter required highly efficient propulsion systems. How could that capability best be achieved? By integral engines? By external boosters? By a combination of both? How could enough fuel be provided for lift-off without burdening the Orbiter with empty tanks in flight? How could fuel efficiency be improved to get the most energy from every gallon? For Saturn vehicles, the answer to these questions was expendable booster stages that provided thrust and then were discarded. The Shuttle, however, had to meet a new require- ment - reusability - and that introduced a host of new questions. What sort of rocket engine could withstand repeated use? How much of the propulsion system could be recycled and reused on successive flights? What materials could survive the rigors of repeated launches and reentries? For each of the propulsion elements, the Marshall Center developed unique solutions. The end product was a totally new launch vehicle; its track record to date is just as impressive as that of the Saturns. The Space Shuttle Main Engines are the most advanced cryogenic liquid-fueled rocket engines ever built. From the outset, it was External Tank U' PL J °D Solid Rocket Boosters USA Space Shuttle Main Engines 21 recognized that the Main Engines required the greatest technological advances of any ele- ment in the Shuttle program. The three high- pressure engines clustered in the tail of the Orbiter each provide almost a half million pounds of thrust, for a total thrust equal to that of the eight-engine Saturn I first stage. Unlike Saturn engines, the Shuttle Main Engines can be throttled over a range from 65% to 109% of their rated power. Thus, the engine thrust can be adjusted to meet different mission needs. The design goal for each engine is multiple starts and a total firing lifetime of 7 1 /2 hours, as compared to the Saturn J-2 engine's lifetime of about 8 minutes. The engines are gimballed so they can be used to steer the Shuttle as well as boost it into orbit. To get very high performance from an engine compact enough that it would not encumber the Orbiter or diminish its desired payload capability, Marshall worked closely with its prime contractor, the Rocketdyne Divi- sion of Rockwell International. The greatest problem was to develop the combustion devices and complex turbomachinery - the pumps, turbines, seals, and bearings - that could contain and deliver propellants to the engines at pressures several times greater than in the Saturn engines. The Shuttle engine components must endure more severe internal environments than any rocket engine ever built. Working out the details of this new high- pressure system was difficult and time-con- suming, but the resultant engines represent a Space Shuttle Main Engine - the most advanced liquid-fueled rocket engine ever built. Roll-out of a new External Tank at the Michoud Assembly Facility in Louisiana significant advance in the state of the art. The Shuttle Main Engine is the first propul- sion system with a computer mounted directly on the engine to control its operation. This dig- ital computer accepts commands from the Orbiter for start preparation, engine start, thrust level changes, and shutdown. The con- troller also monitors engine operation and can automatically make corrective adjustments or shut down the engine safely. Advances in elec- tronic circuitry were required for the addition of this unit to a rocket engine. Because it oper- ates in a severe environment, special attention was paid to the design and packaging of the electronics during an extensive design verifica- tion program. Improved fuel efficiency was achieved by an ingenious staged combustion cycle never before used in rocket engines. In this two- stage process, exhaust gases are recycled for greater combustion efficiency; part of the fuel is combusted in preburners to drive the tur- bines, after which the exhaust gases are chan- neled into the main combustion chamber for full combustion at higher temperatures with the balance of the propellants. The rapid mixing of propellants under high pressure is so complete that a 99% combustion efficiency is attained. Even though they are extremely efficient, the three Main Engines consume a tremen- dous quantity of propellant, and the tank that feeds them is much larger than the Orbiter itself. Marshall also was responsible for devel- oping the External Tank, a massive container Test firing of single Space Shuttle Main Engine at National Space Technology Laboratories in Mississippi almost as tall as the Center's main office building. The External Tank actually contains two tanks, one for liquid hydrogen and one for liquid oxygen, and a plumbing system that supplies propellants to the Main Engines of the Orbiter. The External Tank presented a variety of technical problems, both as a fuel tank and as the structural backbone of the entire Shuttle assembly. Standing 154 feet tall with a 27-foot diameter, the External Tank is a towering struc- ture; fully loaded, it contains more than a half million gallons of propellant and weighs more than one and a half million pounds. Marshall personnel worked closely with the prime con- tractor, the Martin Marietta Corporation, to devise appropriate design solutions for its unu- sual requirements. The Center's prior experience on the Saturn V second stage was directly applicable to the cryogenic propellant design require- ments of the External Tank. To maintain the extremely low temperature necessary for the liquid hydrogen, the exterior skin of the tank was covered with about an inch of epoxy spray-on foam insulation. This thermal wall reduces heat into the tank and also reduces frost and ice formation on the tank after propel- lants are loaded. The tank is further protected in critical areas from the severe aerodynamic heating during flight by a localized ablative undercoat that dissipates heat as it chars away. Structurally, the External Tank is attached jMW-p ^JS^NgsJ, to the Orbiter and the Solid Rocket Boosters. The load-bearing function, both on the launch pad and during liftoff and ascent, was a major design driver. Engineers devised several solu- tions to make the tank as strong and as light- weight as possible. The aluminum alloy structure was designed to handle complex loads, and the problem of propellant sloshing in the tanks was solved with baffles to avoid instabilities that could affect the Shuttle's flight. Another important design consideration was the fact that the External Tank is not reus- able. Therefore, its design must be simple and its cost minimal. Solutions to these require- ments included locating the fluid controls and valves in the Orbiter and drawing power for the electronics and instrumentation from the Orbiter. With these economies, expendable hardware has been minimized. The External Tank is manufactured at the Michoud Assembly Facility by Martin Marietta under Marshall Center management. New tooling, such as a welding fixture half the span of a football field, was required to handle pro- duction of the huge tank. Eventually, produc- tion of 24 tanks per year is planned. The barge transportation system developed to deliver Saturn stages is now used to transport Exter- nal Tanks to the launch sites. Preparing to mate the External Tank and Solid Rocket Boosters at Kennedy Space Center, Florida 23 Lowering Solid Rocket Booster into MSFC structural test stand The Solid Rocket Boosters are the first solid propellant rockets built for a manned space vehicle and the largest solid rockets ever flown. Burning for approximately two mi: utes, each booster produces almost three m.. lion pounds of thrust to augment the Shuttle's main propulsion system during liftoff. The boosters also help to steer the Shuttle during the critical first phase of ascent. The 11 -ton booster rocket nozzle is the largest movable nozzle ever used. The Solid Rocket Boosters were designed as an in-house Marshall Center project, with United Space Boosters as the assembly and refurbishment contractor. The Solid Rocket Motor is provided by the Morton Thiokol Corporation. The Solid Rocket Boosters are deceptively simple in appearance, considering their var- ious functions. On the launch pad, the boost- ers support the entire Shuttle assembly. In flight, they provide six million pounds of thrust and respond to the Orbiter's guidance and control computer to maintain the Shuttle's course. At burnout, the boosters separate from the External Tank and drop by parachute to the ocean for recovery and subsequent refurbishment. The major design drivers for the Solid Rocket Boosters were high thrust and reuse. The desired thrust was achieved by using state-of-the-art solid propellant and by using a long cylindrical motor with a specific core Descent of spent Solid Rocket Booster for recovery and reuse Newly developed filament-wound motor case for Solid Rocket Booster segments design that allows the propellant to burn in a carefully controlled manner. The requirement for reusability dictated durable materials and construction, which led to several innovations. Paints, coatings, and sealants were extensively tested and applied to surfaces of the booster structure to preclude corrosion of the hardware exposed to the harsh seawater environment. Specifications called for motor case segments that could be used 20 times. To achieve this durability, engi- neers selected a weld-free case formed by a continuous flow-forming process. Machining and heat treatment of the massive motor case segments also were major technical efforts. Reusability also meant making provisions for retrieval and refurbishment. The boosters contain a complete recovery subsystem that includes parachutes, beacons, lights, and tow fixtures. The 136-foot diameter main para- chutes are the largest ribbon parachutes ever used in an operational system, and the Solid Rocket Boosters are the largest objects ever recovered by parachute. The boosters are designed to survive water impact at almost 60 miles per hour and maintain flotation with mini- mal damage. Besides fulfilling its primary responsibilities for propulsion systems, Marshall supported many other efforts in Shuttle systems engi- neering and analysis. The Center's technical competence in materials science, thermal engineering, structural dynamics, aerodynam- ics, guidance and navigation, orbital mechan- ics, systems testing, and systems integration all proved valuable to the overall Shuttle devel- opment program. Rigorous testing and a score of successful launches attest to the design achievement of the Shuttle propulsion systems. IShuttle Testing Shuttle test activities were a major responsibil- ity of the Marshall Space Flight Center for several years in the late 1970's. Both in Hunts- ville and at the related NASA facilities in Loui- siana and Mississippi, as well as at contractor sites around the country, Marshall personnel participated in many development and qualifi- cation tests. Whether they worked with individ- ual components within a laboratory or participated in engine static firings or dynamic tests of the mated Shuttle elements, these people held to the standard of excellence nec- essary for a successful Shuttle program. Long before the first Shuttle launch on April 12, Solid Rocket Booster - the largest solid rocket motor ever flown and the first designed for reuse. THRUST INTO SPACE 1981, Marshall had built confidence in the pro- pulsion systems. Preparing for and coordinating the many different test programs was a significant tech- nical challenge. Rather than build new test facilities for the massive Shuttle elements, Marshall modified existing resources. Test fix- tures and equipment that had stood idle since the Saturn era were revived and remodeled to support various Shuttle test efforts. In addi- tion, special new equipment was constructed. The busiest year was 1978, when the External Tank structural and vibration tests, the Solid Rocket Booster structural tests, and the Mated Vertical Ground Vibration Tests were done in Huntsville by Marshall Center employees. Meanwhile, single engine tests and main propulsion system cluster firings were in progress at the National Space Tech- nology Laboratories (formerly Marshall's Mis- sissippi Test Facility). Solid Rocket Motor tests were underway in Utah, and subsystems tests, such as checkout of the booster para- chutes, were being completed elsewhere. Marshall played a prominent role in the year- Test firing of Solid Rocket Motor at Morton Thiokol facility in Utah 25 Arrival of Enterprise at Marshall for year-long test series The Space Shuttle - a launch vehicle, cargo carrier, service station, research lab, and home in space. Congressman Ronnie Flippo touring Marshall during Shuttle test period ABOVE: MSFC test control engineer putting Shuttle elements through vibration tests RIGHT: Preparation for Mated Vertical Ground Vibration Tests long Mated Vertical Ground Vibration Test pro- gram, the critical evaluation of the entire Shut- tle complement - Orbiter, Tank, and Boosters - assembled for the first time. The phased test sequence began in March of 1978 when the Orbiter Enterprise arrived at Marshall and was greeted by throngs of employees and citizens. The Orbiter was hoisted into the modified Dynamic Test Stand originally built for Saturn V testing, mated first to an External Tank, and subjected to vibration frequencies comparable to those expected during launch and ascent. Several months later, the Solid Rocket Boost- ers were added for tests of the entire Shuttle assembly. The test series confirmed the struc- tural interfaces and mating of the entire Shut- tle system and allowed mathematical models used to predict the Shuttle's response to vibra- tions in flight to be adjusted so that effects for i future flight environments could be predicted adequately prior to launch. Marshall managed and conducted this important test program with support from the Shuttle contractors. Concurrently, both the External Tank and the Solid Rocket Boosters underwent inde- pendent structural tests. These activities occurred in Marshall's test stands and in the Building 4619 test facility, all formerly used to test Saturn stages. In addition, captive firings of a 6.4% scale model Shuttle enabled engi- neers to determine the launch acoustic envi- ronment and its effects on both the vehicle and the launch pad at Kennedy Space Center. 26 Scale model firings also influenced launch pad design criteria for the new western launch site at Vandenberg Air Force Base in California. Marshall's other principal test responsibility was for the Main Engine development. Engines were fired repeatedly during their development and later for flight qualification. The highlight of propulsion system testing was the Main Propulsion Test series of cluster fir- ings, in which three engines were mounted to an Orbiter mockup and fired simultaneously while drawing propellants from an actual Exter- nal Tank. These tests, which began in 1977, verified not only the operational compatibility of the main propulsion system elements but also propellant loading procedures and propellant feed systems. In addition, Marshall established an in-house laboratory to test and verify the avionics and software system of the Main Engines through simulations of all operating conditions. From earliest development through actual fights, major elements of the Shuttle have been, and continue to be, tested under Marshall Center supervision. These test pro- grams ensure the safe, reliable performance of the nation's Space Transportation System. Rigorous testing has always been a hallmark of Marshall's commitment to excellence. Shuttle Operations The Center's responsibilities for Space Shuttle Systems extended beyond the development phase into the operational era. Marshall per- sonnel are involved in two ongoing Shuttle efforts: launch support and production. (An additional major activity, the development and management of scientific payloads for Shuttle flights, is treated elsewhere in this text.) The Huntsville Operations Support Center (HOSC) in Building 4663 is a hub of activity during propellant loading, countdown, launch, and powered flight toward orbit. This facility has evolved considerably from the simpler Saturn era operations room and now is capa- ible of secured operations to support Depart- ment of Defense missions. From the HOSC, Marshall personnel monitor the status of the propulsion systems; via a sophisticated com- munications network, they receive data from sensors aboard the Shuttle and from Marshall management teams at the launch site. HOSC jduty entails around-the-clock work to guaran- tee a trouble-free launch on schedule. Evalua- tion of flight data is a crucial activity not only f or launch support but also to assure that 'ollow-on flights can be safely made. Marshall is responsible for the continued production of External Tanks at the Michoud Assembly Facility. To manage its manufactur- ing enterprise, the Center engages in produc- tion planning, readiness reviews, and technology improvements on the production and assembly lines to reduce costs. Marshall is meeting the new challenge of mass produc- ing high-quality hardware and doing it on schedule and with decreasing costs. After a mission, the Solid Rocket Boosters are recovered and refurbished. Postflight activities include engineering assessments of the wear-and-tear on the hardware and neces- sary repairs. Marshall engineers have devised techniques to diminish impact damage to the boosters and to streamline refurbishment oper- ations for fast turn-around between missions. Another in a long series of successful Space Shuttle launches Engineers on duty in the HOSC during Space Shuttle missions 27 Ongoing engine research and technology develop- ment at Marshall )Shuttle Improvements Shuttle responsibilities did not end with devel- opment of operational Main Engines, External Tanks, and Solid Rocket Boosters. Instead, Marshall is engaged in ongoing technology advancement to improve the Shuttle propul- sion systems at reduced costs. In various labo- ratories around the Center, engineering evaluations of Shuttle performance continue as Marshall's experts investigate ways to make a proven product less costly. The two primary challenges are to increase the Shuttle's payload-carrying capability and to improve the Shuttle's performance. To meet the first challenge, Marshall engaged in a weight-reduction campaign to trim pounds from propulsion elements in order to carry heavier payloads into orbit. A lightweight External Tank was developed by removing some insulation, trimming material from some structural elements, and using stronger mate- rials where possible; this tank is already in use. The Center also developed lighter weight steel motor cases for the Solid Rocket Boost- ers and an innovative filament-wound case that is even lighter and stronger. For improved economics and performance, Marshall is also managing the development of a Main Engine with a longer flight lifetime. The design of Shuttle propulsion elements continues to be refined through Marshall's ongoing flight certification program; many of the improvements have been installed and are now in use. The continuing advancement of Shuttle technology is as important and chal- lenging as the original design and develop- ment efforts. Shuttle improvements studied in Marshall's engineering laboratories fShuttle Legacies In 1981, Marshall and the nation once again watched expectantly as a new launch vehicle, the Space Shuttle, rose from the pad. This successful first flight with the Orbiter Columbia introduced the era of the Space Transportation System and a continuing series of Shuttle mis- sions. Three other Orbiters - Challenger, Dis- covery, and Atlantis - soon joined the fleet, and Americans felt new pride in the triumphs of the space program. The Shuttle development effort evolved naturally out of the Saturn experience in large launch vehicles and propulsion systems. Marshall continued its close working relation- ship with contractors and maintained its strong technical competence in the relevant engineer- ing disciplines. The Center also continued its successful managerial practices. However, certain changes in NASA's philosophy and resources challenged Marshall in new ways. During the Shuttle period, Marshall Space Flight Center became a leaner, stronger insti- tution as it adapted to these changes. The principal philosophical change was the necessity of reuse. In a time of declining bud gets and increased awareness of limited resources, reusability was a high priority. Marshall met the technical challenge of devel- oping durable space hardware that could be recycled for many missions. Despite delays along the way, the Shuttle development pro- gram proceeded successfully. The achievement was especially note- worthy because the Center also was tasked with the administrative challenge of reassign- ing facilities and personnel. As Saturn work tapered off and Marshall became involved in other projects, the Center had to reallocate many of its resources. Major reorganization occurred as leadership passed from Dr. von Braun in 1970 to three successors in four years. From 1965, the peak year of Saturn activity, to the first year of Shuttle activity in 1970, Marshall lost almost 20% of its civil ser- vice work force as federal budget cuts slashed the Center's funding in half. This trend contin- ued well into the 1970's until the budget and The Space Shuttle mark- edly expands man's ability to do things in space at lower cost, more often, and more effectively than ever before. 28 staffing levels stabilized with staff at approxi- mately 60% of the peak Saturn year. Dr. W. R. Lucas, who became Center Director in 1974, remarked that Marshall had survived its years of crisis with its commitment to excellence intact. The Center managed to cope with the reductions and still tackle very ambitious projects. Meanwhile, the Shuttle endeavor influ- enced the Center's work in space science and manned orbital systems. Development of a vehicle capable of routine access to space opened many possibilities for using space as a laboratory and work place. The Center's devel- opment activity in flight experiments, observa- tories, and basic research and technology accelerated noticeably during this period. Marshall also devoted considerable attention to manned space activity - servicing space- craft, assembling large structures, doing experiments - made possible by the Shuttle. 4 A work place and delivery vehicle in orbit ! Twentieth-century pilgrimage 29 THRUST INTO SPACE Deployment of NASA's Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS) and its Inertial Upper Stage from the Shuttle payload bay OMV simulator in MSFC's teleoperation and robotics research laboratory Concept for an Orbital Maneuvering Vehicle to ferry payloads to and from the Shuttle in low- Earth orbit fAdvanced Transportation Systems In 1977, Marshall acquired responsibilities for another propulsion element, an upper stage to boost payloads to higher orbits or to send spacecraft on interplanetary voyages. While the Air Force had primary responsibility for development of an Inertial Upper Stage, Marshall became NASA's management and coordination center, providing the agency's design and operational requirements to the Air Force and participating in the development of two upper stage configurations for NASA mis- sions. Marshall participated in key design reviews, interface working groups, and test activities for the NASA upper stage configurations. NASA's first use of the upper stage to launch a Tracking and Data Relay Satellite in 1983 was only a partial success; the satellite did not reach the desired orbit and further launches were delayed pending evaluation and modification of the boosters. The upper stage subsequently performed satisfactorily on a mission in 1985. The Center also became involved in two commercial ventures for upper stages. For Shuttle missions, Marshall monitors the Pay- load Assist Module developed independently by McDonnell Douglas. A larger Transfer Orbit Stage under development by the Orbital Sci- ences Corporation is also being monitored by Marshall. These upper stages broaden the variety of payloads that can be placed in orbit from the Shuttle. What kinds of cargo carriers and people movers are needed in the Space Station era? As commercial activity in space increases with people living and working there, the demand for transportation service will multiply. Planning and concept studies are well under way at Marshall Space Flight Center to forecast the space transportation needs of the future and to develop appropriate vehicles. In the future, different vehicles will be needed for travel between the ground, low orbit, high orbit, and beyond. In general, Marshall planners foresee three new classes of vehicles to satisfy different mission require- ments: Orbital Maneuvering Vehicles, Orbital Transfer Vehicles, and advanced large-lift vehi- cles. These new vehicles will augment the capabilities of the proven Space Shuttle, which will continue to offer routine passenger and cargo service between the ground and low- Earth orbit. The idea of an Orbital Maneuvering Vehi- cle, a space "tug," has been considered at the Center for several years. In 1977, Marshall was authorized to define a Teleoperator 30 Retrieval System, a remotely controlled propul- sive vehicle that could rendezvous with an orbiting spacecraft, grapple it, and move it elsewhere. Originally conceived for future on- orbit servicing missions, the teleoperator was considered for use in a possible Skylab rescue attempt. Development activity accelerated to meet a pressing schedule as Skylab's orbit decayed more rapidly than anticipated. Work on the Teleoperator Retrieval System progressed through rendezvous and docking simulations as Marshall investigated suitable hardware fixtures and remote control proce- dures. The Center also engaged in a number of studies to determine the visual and manipu- lator aids needed for remote operations; televi- sion systems, hand controls, and end effectors received careful attention. Although the Skylab reboost/deboost mission did not occur, the planning activity energized teleoperator research and technology at the Center. The capability for orbital docking simulation was expanded to include a unique six degree-of- freedom motion system for evaluation of dock- ing mechanisms. The Orbital Maneuvering Vehicle now under study is an improved version of this space tug with a larger service role than origi- nally foreseen. In addition to satellite retrieval and delivery tasks, this vehicle might perform remote maintenance, assembly, and logistics tasks to service free-flying spacecraft and also support Space Station activities. Marshall Space Flight Center has been a pioneer in advanced teleoperation and robotics technology research for more than a decade. The Center is continuing this research in a new evaluation laboratory opened in 1984. "We will undoubtedly continue to explore nearer space. We will keep going to the moon, maybe one day build a permanent camp on the moon, and then go on to Mars and Venus." Dr. Wernher von Braun, 1967 This unique facility houses a 4,000 square foot precision flat floor and air bearing vehicles; it is used as a test bed for remotely controlled vehi- cles. Simulations in the facility serve to evalu- ate remote systems concepts and also to train operators. The laboratory will play a prominent role as an Orbital Maneuvering Vehicle simulator. Orbital Transfer Vehicles are required to deliver some orbital payloads, including peo- ple, to higher altitudes beyond the Shuttle's range, which is limited to about 600 miles, and to launch interplanetary probes from Earth orbit. They also can be used to ferry space- craft between stationary geosynchronous orbit at 22,000 miles and the Space Station in low- Earth orbit for servicing or refurbishment, or they can be used to carry work crews to ser- vice distant satellites. Over the years, Marshall engineers have considered various concepts for advanced transportation systems to meet these needs for greater payload capability. Among the most promising were a Spinning Solid Upper Stage for deliveries to geosynchronous orbit and a Solar Electric Propulsion Stage that generated and used its own power. The Center is now investigating several concepts for aeroassisted braking that would enable a returning Orbital Transfer Vehicle to slow its speed without rely- ing on an engine. Although no particular hard- ware configuration has yet been selected, the Concepts for Orbital Transfer Vehicles to ferry payloads, supplies, and astronauts between low- Earth and geosynchronous orbits 31 THRUST INTO SPACE planning studies draw upon Marshall's resident propulsion and vehicle design talents. The Center has also given much attention to complementary launch vehicles derived from the basic Space Shuttle propulsion ele- ments. These may serve as logistical supply vehicles to carry needed materials and equip- ment into orbit. The challenge in this effort is to adapt existing designs for missions requiring vastly greater payload lift, perhaps a million pounds of payload as compared to the Shuttle's 65,000 pound capability. Various combinations of modified engines, tanks, and boosters are being considered. Although no specific concept has been authorized for development yet, the thrust of these studies is to augment the capabilities of the Shuttle for unmanned delivery of payloads and for launch of extremely heavy cargo. >A Glimpse of the Future Very soon, space will be a busy work place. Traffic will increase noticeably as people, materials, and equipment are routinely trans- ported back and forth between the ground and low-Earth orbit. Traffic will also begin to flow to and from more distant regions of space - geo- synchronous orbit, the moon, the neighboring Side-mount Shuttle-Derived Vehicle planets. Talk of manned lunar colonies or a manned expedition to Mars is no more idle today than talk of a Space Station was 15 years ago. Now the Space Station is becoming a real- ity; what about the other dreams? Sophisticated as it is, the current Space Shuttle is but the first generation model. It alone cannot meet all the transportation needs of the future. New vehicle models are yet to be designed and developed. Like automobiles, they will progressively become more efficient, more comfortable, more serviceable. Consider how rapidly propulsion systems and launch vehicles have evolved. It took only a decade to develop and prove the transporta- tion system that safely carried people to the moon and back. In another decade, a reusable space vehicle was in service. What was once inconceivable - spaceflight - is now taken for granted. Although it is now possible to send people back and forth, to place satellites in desired orbits, to deploy and retrieve payloads, these achievements are rudimentary compared to what can be done. Despite the advances of recent years, technology has not yet approached the limits of what is theoretically possible. Marshall is NASA's primary Center for pro- pulsion systems development, and many of the test facilities here are unmatched. Marshall also has unique facilities for the development of large structural systems and impressive lab- oratory resources in the various engineering disciplines. The necessary tools are available here to meet the challenges of future space transportation systems. Marshall people can and will make new strides in the technologies for advanced pro- pulsion systems and launch vehicles. Whereas the first quarter-century results were the Saturns and the Shuttle, in the next quarter Marshall may produce a fleet of quite different vehicles - towering ones for heavy-lift launches, agile ones for orbital maneuvering, powerful but lightweight ones for orbit trans- fers, vehicles that run on exotic fuels or novel engines, robotic vehicles, perhaps even com- pact models for manned use. The possibilities are exciting and unlimited. As it looks toward future transportation in space, Marshall is exploiting its wealth of experience and imagination. Drawing upon the technical expertise of its staff in all the engi- neering disciplines, this Center expects the thrust into space to remain one of its primary occupations and achievements in the years ahead. ■ 32 "You and I have been privileged to live and par- ticipate in a unique period in man's history, a period of explosive technological advancement that has been unequaled in any other epoch." Dr. W. R. Lucas In-line Shuttle-Derived Vehicle Concept for new Heavy-Lift Launch Vehicle Propulsion and transportation for the future: a high priority at Marshall 33 34 i.-^***. -,*^Nte W hy do we launch vehicles and peo- ple into space? What is the purpose of space flight? From a scientific point of view, the answer is that we can do research in space that is impossible on Earth. There we have a global view of our planet for atmospheric and geo- physical observations, an unobstructed view of the heavens for astronomical observations, a microgravity environment for experiments in life sciences and materials science, and direct exposure to the radiation and vacuum of space. Thus, space is a unique laboratory. NASA's charter explicitly states that "activities in space should be devoted to peaceful pur- poses for the benefit of all mankind." Space science research extends the frontiers of knowledge in accordance with that charter. Even while they were affiliated with military projects, the early rocket pioneers considered the potential uses of rockets for scientific research in space. It seemed quite practical to replace missile warheads with scientific experi- ments or to develop more powerful vehicles to place satellites, laboratories, and people into space. Dr. Wernher von Braun remarked that the driving ambition of his colleagues had been to engineer rockets for scientific research. With a singleness of purpose, they were dedicated to the evolution of space flight for the explora- tion of the universe. The Marshall Center's involvement in space science can be traced to the launch of America's first satellite, Explorer I in 1958, aboard the Jupiter C rocket developed in ' Huntsville by von Braun's group and the Army. The scientific return was immediate and star- tling: discovery of the Van Allen radiation belts encircling Earth. Shortly thereafter, the "I am convinced that man's inevitable march toward knowledge is now over the very earliest hurdles only, and the vastness of the unknown still before us is limitless." Dr. Wernher von Braun, 1958 RESEARCH ON THE NEW FRONTIER Huntsville group launched a Pioneer satellite on a solar expedition and placed another Explorer into orbit. Although some of the Explorer and Pioneer satellites were developed elsewhere, the rocket group's appetite for space science was whetted by participating in the flight experiments. Soon they began to find opportunities for scientific experiments and payloads on rocket test flights, and they began to plan future missions dedicated to science. Scientists involved with the launch team even- tually became the nucleus of Marshall's Space Science Laboratory. Over the first quarter-century of its history, space science research has evolved into a sig- nificant mission at Marshall Space Flight Center. The Center's staff includes distin- guished scientists in the disciplines of astron- omy and astrophysics, atmospheric physics, solar and magnetospheric physics, and mate- rials science. They have made important con- tributions to knowledge through work not only in the laboratories here but also in the vast nat- ural laboratory of space. Combining their tal- ents with Marshall's engineering and managerial resources, they have developed sophisticated space observatories as well as a host of smaller flight experiments and pay- loads. Furthermore, research at the Center is extending the frontiers of knowledge in several fields of science and technology. The Marshall Center's achievements in space science are sometimes overshadowed by the size and spectacle of its achievements in launch vehicle engineering. Yet, the institu- tion also has a rich scientific heritage. Marshall scientists are steadily seeking to solve the mysteries of the universe. In the quest for knowledge, they are committed to excellence. fSmall Scientific Payloads The impetus for the large Saturn booster was the exploration of space. During its develop- ment, Marshall had several opportunities to use the Saturn for research payloads. The Center also developed some small satellites that were launched by other vehicles. As a bonus on two of the early Saturn engi- neering test flights in 1962, the dummy upper stages were used for a scientific experiment called Project Highwater. Thousands of gallons of ballast water from the inert stages were released into the upper atmosphere. This effort to investigate the effects of water clouds marked the first use of a Saturn vehicle for sci- entific purposes, even though the research was clearly secondary to the engineering objectives of the flights. The first genuine scientific payloads launched by Saturn vehicles, and the first sat- ellites for which the Marshall Space Flight Center had full responsibility, were the three Pegasus micrometeoroid detection satellites orbited in 1965. The purpose of the Pegasus project was to collect information about the abundance of potentially hazardous microme- teoroids at high altitudes, where the manned Apollo missions would orbit. Spacecraft designers were keenly interested in the infor- mation, because the vehicle and crew were in jeopardy if tiny particles could puncture a spacecraft skin. As project manager, the Marshall Center was responsible for the design, production, and operation of the satellites and for data analysis. Working with the satellite contractor, Fairchild, Marshall personnel built up valuable experience in the design and operation of sci- entific payloads, particularly in sensor technol- ogy, satellite stabilization, thermal control, and data transmission. Micrometeoroid detectors and sample protective shields of varying thick- ness were mounted on the satellite's wing-like solar cell arrays. The sensors successfully measured the frequency, size, direction, and penetration of scores of micrometeoroid impacts. Marshall's first major venture in space sci- ence research paid handsomely. Micrometeo- roid penetration data collected by the Pegasus satellites and telemetered to the ground were used by spacecraft engineers to confirm Saturn-Apollo and other designs. Pegasus results also influenced thermal coating technol- ogy and gave insight into the expected lifetime of materials exposed to space for long periods. Furthermore, the data made a valuable contri- ve Marshall Center's first satellite, Pegasus 36 Assembly of Lageos satellite at MSFC bution to general knowledge of the nearby space environment; facts replaced theory. During the period after Pegasus, the focus of scientific activity at Marshall was on various experiments to fly aboard Skylab, the nation's first orbital laboratory and space station. As discussed elsewhere in this text, Marshall's multidisciplinary space science capabilities grew noticeably stronger during the Skylab era. Meanwhile, two satellites were being devel- oped for quite different missions, one practical and the other theoretical. In 1976, Marshall launched both the Laser Geodynamics Satellite (Lageos) and the Gravitational Redshift Probe A (GP-A). Lageos, which is still in orbit, is essentially a mirror in space. The 900-pound, 2-foot diam- eter satellite precisely reflects laser beams from ground stations for extremely accurate ranging measurements. The purpose of Lageos is to measure movements of Earth's crust; movements of less than an inch can be detected by timing the laser beam's 3700 mile round trip. The practical application of this ranging system is improved understanding of earthquakes, continental drift, and other geo- physical phenomena. The satellite was con- ceived and manufactured at the Marshall Center. The purpose of the 125-pound Gravita- tional Probe (GP-A) was more abstract: to test the principle of equivalence in Einstein's "We must look beyond our limited horizons to dis- cover the laws of science and the sources of energy that will govern our future on this planet." Dr. Eberhard Rees, 1970 Final checkout of GP-A experiment at Marshall 37 general theory of relativity. According to theory but never demonstrated, a clock will appear to run faster in a weaker gravitational field, at a greater distance from Earth. Scientists from Marshall and the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory jointly devised an ingenious experiment to test the theory. A very stable atomic clock was launched through Earth's gravitational field to a peak altitude of 10,000 km (6200 mi.), and its readings during free flight were compared with those of an identical reference clock on the ground. The experiment lasted about an hour, and results confirmed the theory. Marshall had overall management responsibility for the construction, integration, and systems testing of the satellite. The Marshall-designed thermal control system met unusually stringent requirements. Marshall scientists have developed a great variety of small payloads for rocket flights. Astronomers, solar scientists, magnetospheric and atmospheric physicists rely on these small experiments to gather data and test new instrument concepts. One of the Center's most successful efforts for small payloads has been the Space Processing Applications Rocket (SPAR) project. Between 1975 and 1983, Marshall accomplished 10 suborbital flights which altogether carried several dozen small materials processing experiments. Intriguing results were achieved in the five-minute periods of near weightlessness as the rocket passes through its apex. (Microgravity mate- rials processing research is discussed in detail elsewhere in this text). Small scientific payloads have an important place in Marshall's history on their own merits and as forerunners of more ambitious efforts. For example, Pegasus data are still consulted today as the standard reference on microme- teoroids. Rocket-borne payloads have served as economical test beds for new concepts, and they bridged the period between Skylab and Shuttle flight opportunities. With the advent of the Space Transporta- tion System, scientists are now concentrating on experiments to be flown on Shuttle and Spacelab missions. These new facilities are preferred because experiments can be flown frequently for a week at a time, operated by crew members, and returned for analysis, modification, and reflight. Many of the Center's scientists are thus developing small payloads for manned missions in space. f Space Observatories Given its expertise in developing large launch vehicles, it is not really surprising that Marshall Space Flight Center has also developed large scientific systems. Over the years, the Center has been responsible for a family of observa- tory-class payloads, large complements of instruments designed to operate together and make related scientific observations. Just as an observatory on the ground contains various instruments for the common use of many sci- entists pursuing their own research, so the big systems developed at Marshall function as observatories. The lineage to date includes the Apollo Telescope Mount on Skylab (1973), the three High Energy Astronomy Observatories (1977- 79), the Hubble Space Telescope (scheduled for launch in 1986), and the planned Advanced X-Ray Astrophysics Facility (1991). Each of these observatories is a unique scientific resource, offering scientists around the world the most advanced technology available in its time for new insight into the universe. Circular Apollo Telescope Mount, a sophisticated solar observatory Apollo Telescope Mount - first manned observatory in space. Materials processing experiments for a SPAR flight 38 RESEARCH ON THE NEW FRONTIER fSkylab Apollo Telescope Mount Marshall's first endeavor in observatory-class payloads was the Apollo Telescope Mount developed for use with the Skylab orbital work- shop. A complement of six solar telescopes and two related cameras, the observatory com- pared favorably in size and pointing capability to some of the best observatories on the ground. Yet, the observatory in space revealed the sun as it could never be seen from the ground underneath the obscuring atmosphere. The Apollo Telescope Mount was an unprece- dented tool for solar research, and the Marshall Center played a major role in its development and operation. ATM thermal testing in MSFC vacuum chamber Skylab scientist-astronaut at the ATM control console 39 RESEARCH ON THE NEW FRONTIER New views of a familiar sun in visible light, X- rays, hydrogen-alpha, and ultraviolet light Although its mission occurred in 1973, the observatory concept originated in 1965, when NASA began to consider a program to suc- ceed the Saturn-Apollo missions. Called the Apollo Applications Program, the effort was directed to the use of Saturn-era technology for new purposes. At the crux of the program were concepts for converting a spent Saturn stage into an orbital workshop or precursor space station. The Apollo Telescope Mount evolved from a fairly simple initial concept into an advanced observatory attached to such an orbital workshop. In 1966, Marshall Space Flight Center was assigned responsibility for developing the solar observatory. While six of the eight instruments were developed at other research institutions, Marshall coordinated the design, integration, and assembly into a single payload. In addi- tion, the Center developed two scientific instru- ments and designed, produced, and tested the mount for the entire cluster. Marshall also was responsible for the attached laboratory mod- ule, called the Multiple Docking Adapter, which housed the control and display console for the observatory and a complement of Earth resources experiments. The Apollo Telescope Mount project drew upon all the scientific, engi- neering, and managerial talents of the Center. The purposes of the Apollo Telescope Mount were to observe, monitor, and record solar features over a wavelength range from visible light through ultraviolet and X-ray emis- sions. Each of the instruments was the most advanced of its type; used together, they could examine different layers of the solar atmos- phere or simultaneously scrutinize the same solar feature across the spectrum. Marshall engineers met a number of chal- lenges to provide an observatory mount that would enable the instruments to take full advantage of being in space. Besides provid- ing a large optical bench and a protective can- ister to support and enclose the instruments, Marshall was responsible for the power, ther- mal, pointing, and deployment systems. The control and display and data systems also were developed under the Center's auspices. Marshall had overall systems integration responsibility, including alignment and calibra- tion for the entire observatory. By 1968, Marshall had awarded contracts to various industrial partners. Bendix, for example, produced an attitude control gyro for extremely precise pointing accuracy and stabil- ity. Martin Marietta was assigned the payload integration function and assembly of the con- Changing coronal hole visible in X-ray images 40 trol console. The thermal systems unit and outer canister were assembled in-house in the Center's Manufacturing Engineering Labora- tory. By mid-1970 the Apollo Telescope Mount design received final approval, and a year later the flight unit underwent engineering tests in Huntsville and Houston. In the meantime, a full-scale mockup of the observatory was installed underwater in Marshall's Neutral Buoyancy Simulator in 1969. Because the primary data collection was pho- tographic, the crew had to change film car- tridges periodically, a task done outside Skylab. Thus, extravehicular activity (EVA) reviews and crew training exercises were con- ducted in a simulated zero-gravity environment at Marshall to evaluate the crew aids and pro- cedures for changing film and otherwise serv- icing the observatory. The nine-month operation of the Skylab solar observatory was a stunning success. A harvest of more than 150,000 photographic exposures was collected, and observations revealed many unsuspected solar features and events. In particular, the Skylab data gave sci- entists an appreciation for the importance and complexity of the sun's magnetic fields. With its precise pointing accuracy and stability and its array of sensitive detectors across a wide wavelength range, the observatory revealed the sun as it had never been seen before. Solar scientists at Marshall and elsewhere gained a wealth of new information that far exceeded their expectations. Credit for the success of the observatory belonged not only to the instrumentation, which had been developed and assembled under Marshall Center management, but also to the crew, who were well-trained in solar physics and operation of the telescopes. They knew what to look for and how to use the tele- scopes in concert to gain the most revealing information. They stayed on the alert for signs of interesting solar activity and responded to many opportunities beyond the scheduled observations. Furthermore, their ingenuity in troubleshooting and repairing instruments greatly enhanced the scientific yield of the mis- sion. Marshall had participated in training the astronauts and justifiably felt pride in the crew's fine performance. Marshall scientists and engineers also were involved in mission support during the nine- month period of Skylab orbital activity. Respon- sibilities included monitoring the Apollo Telescope Mount experiments and subsystems from the Huntsville Operations Support Center and monitoring the scientific observations from the operations control center in Houston. The Skylab solar observing program was carefully planned before the mission but was updated daily in response to observations and predic- tions from a worldwide solar watch. Investiga- tive teams, including Marshall scientists, met daily to assess data and coordinate upcoming observations. During the mission, their com- munication with the crew was a contributing factor to the highly successful use of the observatory. The Skylab Apollo Telescope Mount project was Marshall's first experience in developing and managing a major scientific payload for a manned mission. In this effort, the Center built new capabilities in scientific instrumentation, crew systems, and crew training. The Skylab experience became the foundation for increas- ingly ambitious ventures in observatory devel- opment and the use of space for scientific research. Telescopes in space have opened our eyes to a new universe, invisible from the ground. Solar flare viewed in ultraviolet light 41 RESEARCH ON THE NEW FRONTIER ^c - -■ HEA01 HEA03 The family of High Energy Astronomy Observatories Checkout of HEAO-2 telescope at MSFC Crab Nebula in visible light fHigh Energy Astronomy Observatories As the Apollo Telescope Mount project reached its culmination, a new observatory project was taking shape at Marshall - a series of three large, unmanned observatories for X-ray, gamma ray, and cosmic ray investigations. The Center served as project manager for the development of the High Energy Astronomy Observatories (HEAO), working with TRW, the prime contractor for the spacecraft. The scien- tific instruments aboard the observatories were designed by scientists at universities and other research centers, with technical inputs from Marshall. The HEAO program spanned the decade of the seventies from early planning in 1970, through the year of peak activity in 1976, to the launches in 1977, 1978, and 1979. With these observatories, the new field of high energy astrophysics came of age. Thousands of celestial X-ray and gamma ray sources were discovered as astronomers had their first long, clear look at the universe in this fairly unfamil- iar part of the spectrum. For the first time, they had sharply focused X-ray images of distant galaxies, supernova remnants, pulsars, quas- ars, and other intriguing objects. The quick pace of discovery, revealing highly energetic objects and events, changed astronomers' understanding of the universe almost overnight. As usual, the Center's laboratories were heavily engaged in the technical and scientific 42 Hidden pulsar in Crab Nebula, revealed in HEAO X-ray image Andromeda Galaxy in visible light HEAO Image showing X-ray sources within Andromeda iubble Space Telescope, premier space observatory for the next generation iSpects of the new observatories. A highlight I Marshall's involvement was the testing and alibration of the HEAO-2 telescope, the first naging X-ray telescope and the largest X-ray jlescope ever built. To qualify this remarkably recise instrument and others in the future, larshall erected a unique X-ray calibration nd test facility, larger and more sophisticated lan any in the world. Completed in 1976, the icility contained a 1000 foot long by 3 foot iameter vacuum tube (for the X-ray path) con- ecting an X-ray generator and an instrument ?st chamber. The HEAO missions were unqualified suc- esses. All spacecraft exceeded their expected fetimes and the resultant data collection was normous. In their day they were the largest utomated scientific payloads with the lowest ost per pound ever placed in orbit. In the Durse of the program, there were technical ifficulties with the advanced gyro and mirror schnology needed to meet the rigorous point- g and sensitivity requirements. In addition, ie Center encountered new management lallenges, for the HEAO program fell within ASA's period of retrenchment. With con- tained budgets and reductions in work force, e HEAO program was descoped more than ice. Marshall and its partners had to rethink | id restructure the missions within new con- joints. Nevertheless, the observatories were lmensely successful, and Marshall's reputa- Dn for developing and managing scientific jiyloads grew. fHubble Space Telescope Currently, the Marshall Center is managing one of the most exciting scientific payloads in its history - the Hubble Space Telescope, named in honor of the twentieth-century American astronomer Edwin P. Hubble. Heralded as per- haps the most important scientific instrument ever flown, the Space Telescope is expected to revolutionize modern astronomy and to serve as the world's premier astronomical research facility for the rest of the century. It is an impos- ing instrument; 43 feet long, 14 feet in diame- ter, with a 2.4-meter (94-inch) primary mirror and five large detectors, the telescope weighs 12 tons. The Space Telescope will enable astronomers to see 7 times farther into space and observe objects that appear 50 times fain- ter than they can see from the best ground- based observatories. Inspecting the huge primary mirror before installation in the telescope Neutral buoyancy mockup for crew training 43 RESEARCH ON THE NEW FRONTIER Exploring the universe with powerful new telescopes Following various science and engineering concept studies in the late 1960's, Marshall Space Flight Center was assigned Space Telescope project management responsibilitie in 1972. For the next five years, the Center conducted various studies both in-house and under contract to define the science and engi neering requirements. By 1977, the basic observatory design was settled and contracto were selected for two of the major elements - Perkin-Elmer for the Optical Telescope Assembly and Lockheed Missiles and Space Company for the Support Systems Module ar systems integration. NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center was assigned responsibility for development of the scientific instruments. In exchange for a percentage of viewing time, th European Space Agency agreed to provide th solar array power system and one of the sciet tific instruments. The Center already has don< much of the definition and systems engineer- ing work in-house; Marshall is now busy man- aging the hardware deliveries and assembly ii preparation for launch. The Space Telescope represents a new observatory concept, one designed to be launched by the Space Shuttle and serviced i space by astronauts. This new feature intra- duced new challenges for the project manage ment team. More than any other previous scientific pa load, the Space Telescope has tasked Marshall's crew systems experts to develop tr, tools, workstations, and procedures for orbital] servicing. For several years in laboratory and neutral buoyancy tests, they have evaluated extravehicular activity techniques for normal and contingency servicing tasks, such as replacing components, removing scientific instruments, and handling solar arrays. The Space Telescope project also has tapped the Center's resources for structural, ' electronics, and thermal control engineering. Support teams in the laboratories have workeij on alignment, thermal balance, contamination control, and pointing. In-house design, test, and analysis were especially important in development of the instrument latches and th< telescope's fine guidance sensors. Both major elements developed under Marshall's management - the Optical Telescope Assembly and the Support System Module - presented challenging technical problems. There was no precedent in space hardware for the primary mirror, which had to be large and lightweight with an ultra-precise reflecting surface. Similarly, there was no com 44 parable pointing and attitude control system; to detect and make images of very faint objects, long duration exposures are necessary, which means that the telescope must maintain accu- rate, stable pointing for hours. Both the mirror and the pointing and control system were quantum leaps in the capability of space astronomy hardware. The Marshall Center plays a major role in ground tests and orbital checkout of Space Telescope. Marshall personnel are preparing test plans and monitoring test activities before launch to verify that the telescope responds to commands and puts out data properly. Tests on the launch pad will be monitored from the Huntsville Operations Support Center (HOSC). The Marshall HOSC team will actively support tests of the telescope and science instruments during Space Telescope's first six months in orbit. The Hubble Space Telescope is the nation's biggest single investment in space sci- ence. Its development costs and progress have attracted considerable public attention, and the telescope's fortunes and schedules have been linked to the Shuttle's. Marshall has kept the project on course despite a troublesome share of technical and budgetary difficulties. Space Telescope is scheduled for a Shuttle delivery in 1986. As launch of the observatory nears, astronomers around the world eagerly await an extraordinary view of the universe. 'There is good reason to believe that the Space Telescope . . . will be the most important scientific instrument ever flown." James M. Beggs NASA Administrator, 1982 fAdvanced X-Ray Astrophysics Facility The newest member of Marshall's family of space observatories is the planned Advanced X-Ray Astrophysics Facility (AXAF), which builds on experience gained in both the High Energy Astronomy Observatories and the Hubble Space Telescope projects. Like the for- mer, it is an observatory for X-ray investiga- tions but with appreciably improved capabilities; like the latter, it is designed to be launched from the Shuttle and serviced in orbit. In the nation's strategy for astronomical research, the AXAF is intended to be a com- panion to the Space Telescope and other advanced observatories for a coordinated, broad spectrum study of the universe. In 1978, Marshall and the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory completed a joint conceptual design study for this new tele- scope. Since then, both partners have worked with an astrophysics advisory group to define scientific requirements and a desirable set of focal plane instruments. Project definition activ- ity is now in progress. AXAF, planned X-ray observatory Seeking to understand black holes and other enigmas RESEARCH ON THE NEW FRONTIER In size and shape, the proposed X-ray observatory bears a family resemblance to Space Telescope. Inside, however, the two are entirely different: the X-ray mirror is a set of nested cylinders. The AXAF telescope is an enlarged, improved model of the HEAO-2 graz- ing incidence mirror system, with much greater accuracy. Marshall laboratories (jointly with Perkin-Elmer and Itek) are engaged in a Technology Mirror Assembly program to test the AXAF high-resolution mirror concept using the X-ray calibration facility. Although the AXAF has not yet received funding for development, it has been desig- nated the highest priority astrophysics observ- atory by the National Academy of Sciences. An X-ray telescope gives access to violent, high- energy phenomena associated with the evolu- tion of the universe. The Advanced X-Ray Astrophysics Facility is the next step in NASA's trend toward long-lived observatories for inves- tigations across the spectrum. Space science leads us from mystery to discovery and understanding of the universe. Advanced Solar Observatory, proposed new eye on the sun f New Solar Observatories Two new solar observatories are being plannec at the Center for eventual installation on the Space Station. Flight experiments in solar observation and imaging may be expanded and combined to form a Pinhole Occulter Facility and an Advanced Solar Observatory. Both observatories offer long-term, highly accurate operations of complementary instru- ments for a coordinated study of the sun across the electromagnetic spectrum. A Solar-Terrestrial Observatory also is being planned to help understand the complex inter- actions between the sun and Earth, particularly their effects on long-term trends in weather and climate. These proposed new observato- ries represent an evolution of both Skylab and Shuttle/Spacelab science. In the future, they may serve solar science as Space Telescope and AXAF serve astronomy and astrophysics. fSpacelab Investigations and Other Experiments Over the years, Marshall Center scientists and engineers have spawned a multitude of sci- ence and technology experiments for flights on aircraft, balloons, rockets, or spacecraft. At any one time, about 50 such projects are under way at the Center, and a chronology of these Launch of balloon-borne astronomical telescope from Redstone Airfield 46 11 Cloud physics research ' Hj aboard NASA's KC-135 mi crogravity research aircraft Preparation of the Spacelab 2 infrared Telescope achievements would easily fill another volume. Rather than a comprehensive history of all flight experiments, a summary of recent high- lights suggests the variety of research pro- grams and flight opportunities that attract and occupy many of Marshall's experts in the sci- ence disciplines. These flight experiments arise from many laboratory disciplines within the Center, with the heaviest concentration in the Space Science Laboratory. As more and more experi- ments are developed for flight aboard the Shuttle and Spacelab, Marshall's own scien- tists are "customers" for the Center's mission management service. Marshall people also serve as co-investigators for many experi- ments on spacecraft developed or managed elsewhere. In astrophysics, scientists here are still immersed in HEAO data analysis and in sci- ence planning for the AXAF. Additionally, the Center has mission management responsibili- ties for three Shuttle flights of the Astro ultra- violet observatory and is developing a special wide field camera as part of that payload. Marshall also provided flight hardware and test services for the Spacelab 2 Infrared Telescope (1985). Planning is under way for two new facil- ities - a Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA) and RESEARCH ON THE NEW FRONTIER Preparing the Geophysical Fluid Flow Cell (GFFC) experiment for Spacelab 3 flight a Coherent System of Modular Imaging Collec- tors (COSMIC). The Center also supports ongoing balloon flights of gamma ray and cosmic ray detectors. One such small payload has evolved into a major instrument on the Gamma Ray Observatory; Marshall is design- ing, building, and testing the Burst and Transient Source Experiment (BATSE) in- house. Eight BATSE modules for the space- craft are being produced by the Marshall princi- pal investigator and engineering team. The general thrust of atmospheric science flight experiments has been to understand nat- ural processes, such as circulation and light- ning, in Earth's atmosphere. Data from sensors at high altitudes are needed to refine concep- tual models of the behavior of Earth's environ- ment. Ultimately, experiments may lead to improved prediction and other practical appli- cations. Two experiments with Marshall co- investigators recently flew on the Shuttle, a Geophysical Fluid Flow Cell on Spacelab 3 (1985) and an Optical Survey of Lightning on several earlier Shuttle missions. For a number of years, Marshall scientists have been investigating the sun and its influ- ence on Earth's magnetosphere and iono- sphere. Solar-terrestrial physicists are using space as a vast natural laboratory for observa- tions and active experiments that stimulate the environment to provoke responses similar to natural processes. Recent highlights include stunning data from Marshall instruments on Dynamics Explorer (1981) and other spacecraft and from missions with Marshall investigators, such as the Solar Maximum Mission (1980) and Spacelab 1 (1983). The Center has been involved in several Shuttle-borne space plasma experiments that have flown and will fly again; these include an electron beam accelerator (SEPAC), a plasma diagnostics satellite (PDP), and an atmospheric imaging instrument (AEPI). A variety of sounding rocket investigations also have been com- pleted. Besides developing instruments for many of these projects, the Center's scientists are heavily involved in data analysis and publi- cation of results. Major scientific contributions include new insights into solar flares and mag- netic fields and new evidence of the iono- sphere as a major plasma source for the magnetosphere. A new project now under development is a tethered satellite to be towed by the Shuttle through otherwise inaccessible regions of the upper atmosphere. Marshall has project man- agement responsibility for this international endeavor with the Italian space agency and "Banana cell" pattern of fluid motion ob- served in GFFC experiment in space Monitoring Earth's space plasma environment from the Space Shuttle 48 Features of Earth's nearby space environment revealed in data from MSFC instrument on Dynamics Explorer satellite also has principal investigators for two scien- tific instruments. The Center will develop the tether, a thin cable that can be reeled out to a length of 60 miles. In addition to planning the science program for tethered experiments, Marshall is responsible for a broader tether applications in space program. This effort involves studies of tethered science platforms and tethered transportation related to the Space Station. Technology flight experiments generally are demonstrating new structural concepts. For example, a very large, lightweight solar array developed at Marshall was structurally and dynamically evaluated during a 1984 Shuttle mission (OAST-1). The Solar Array Flight Experiment demonstrated advanced technol- ogy for using the sun's energy in space and for remote sensing and dynamic analysis of large space structures. Planned technology experi- ments include demonstrations of large-scale structural assembly and deployable antennas. Although the majority of the Center's technol- ogy research occurs in laboratories on the ground, a growing number of Marshall scien- tists and engineers are investigators for flight experiments. "History tells us that it pays in unexpected ways to attempt to satisfy our curiosity about the universe." Dr. Eberhard Rees, 1970 Tethered satellite for exploring hard-to-reach regions of the upper atmosphere Advanced technology solar array tested in space issmai *i #ra mm mi.ii 49 Using sound waves to suspend a drop in mid-air Materials processing - basic research and com- mercial development of new products. Removal of solidified metal sample after free-fall in MSFC's 100-foot drop tube ABOVE: Perfecting techniques for casting alloys of materials that do not mix naturally RIGHT: Hundreds of material samples, some provided by Marshall, exposed to the space environment f Materials Processing in Space Marshall Space Flight Center has a long tradi- tion of microgravity research in materials pro- cessing. Exploratory investigations began during the Apollo era and were expanded in the Skylab research agenda. Early results con- firmed that certain processes could be per- formed in space and that the resultant materials were often superior to those pro- duced on the ground. Materials processing in space looked promising as a technique for basic research and as a project for commercial development. Today, materials processing is one of the major activities proposed for the Space Station and could well represent a signif- icant expansion in the commercial use of space. This would be a major new phase in the nation's space program. The Marshall Center has been assigned a leading role in the Mate- rials Processing in Space program. From modest beginnings, Marshall scien- tists learned valuable lessons in equipment design and processing techniques. Since no one knew just how the processing of materials would be affected by the low gravity of orbit, there was a great deal of trial and error and modifying early experiments for reflight. Marshall was involved in the development of microgravity furnaces, levitation devices for containerless processing, and electrophoretic (fluid separation) devices for biological pro- cessing from the outset, with first flight of such devices on the Apollo 14 mission. Marshall also plunged into the effort to build up a data base of ground-based research 50 to guide and compare with space experiments. During the 1970s many experiments were con- ducted in the Center's laboratories, a drop tower and tube on a rocket test stand, and NASA's KC-135 aircraft. In the few seconds of near weightlessness that could be achieved, scientists gained valuable insights into the pro- cesses of crystal growth, solidification, and containerless confinement of materials. For eight years, Marshall managed a series of Space Processing Applications Rocket (SPAR) flights that provided about five minutes of microgravity for materials processing experiments. Now the Shuttle and Spacelab are being used to study the effects of gravity on mate- rials processing. Marshall has recently devel- oped, managed, and flown a reusable Materials Experiment Assembly for investiga- tions in the growth of high-performance crys- tals for semiconductors, the formation of unique alloys and glasses, and the preparation of very pure materials by containerless pro- cessing and ultra-high vacuum processing techniques. In a joint endeavor arrangement pioneered and managed by the Marshall Center, NASA and private enterprise are work- ing as partners to do research in fluid separa- tion. Orbital tests of the Shuttle-borne Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System developed by McDonnell Douglas for the sepa- ration of biological materials such as blood cells and enzymes, indicate that processing in space is more efficient than processing on the ground. Another research project already has demonstrated commercial value; the Monodis- perse Latex Reactor, developed by scientists from Lehigh University and the Center, has been successfully operated on the Shuttle. Its products, extremely uniform latex spheres, are now available for the commercial market as laboratory calibration standards. Besides developing experiments, Marshall scientists perform extensive postflight laboratory evalua- tions of the various materials processed in space. The microgravity research that began on Apollo, Skylab, and rocket flights, has evolved into a Marshall Center specialty with great potential not only for improved knowledge but also for commercial development in space. NASA has formally established a Materials Processing in Space program to encourage the academic and industrial research commu- nities to make use of the space environment. The near-term goals are establishment of national and international microgravity science laboratories in space. Marshall is already involved in cooperative projects with industrial partners for microgravity flight experiments and facilities. The longer-term goal is a permanent facil- ity for commercial uses of space to solve important scientific and technical problems. In the microgravity environment, scientists can study basic properties of materials to better understand and control processes on Earth. These microgravity services are comparable to biomedical laboratory services on the ground. Space may prove to be an economically favor- able production site; the market success of the first materials manufactured in space, the monodisperse spheres, is now being tested. A vigorous Materials Processing in Space program is being pursued. The Marshall Center is playing an important role as NASA and the world prepare for the commercial uses of space. RESEARCH ON THE NEW FRONTIER LO ^M Irregular latex spheres pro- duced on the ground Uniform latex spheres produced in space A large and nearly flawless mercury-iodide crystal produced in space for potential uses on Earth 51 Pushing technology beyond present limits f Research and Technology A very important portion of the Marshall Center's work unfortunately attracts little public notice because it does not directly culminate in launches and flights. This is the work of scien- tists and engineers engaged in research and technology in the Center's diverse laboratories. These people address fundamental prohlems to advance the state of the art and the state of knowledge in their disciplines. Some of the most interesting history of the Center lies in their unrelenting efforts to understand nature. Although this aspect of Marshall's activity is less visible to the public than hardware prod- ucts, within the scientific and technical com- munity the Center's cells of excellence are well known. Marshall's achievements in research and technology have been recognized as sub- stantial contributions to knowledge and to progress within the space program. Further- more, industry has made practical applications of many of these advances. Although the Center's accomplishments in research and technology merit a comprehensive historical survey, a review of some recent efforts may suggest the vigor and variety of Marshall's assault on the unknown. In atmospheric science, researchers are involved in theoretical modeling to understand the environment. They attempt to extract from physical laws and observational data the explanations for natural processes, such as atmospheric turbulence, wind shear, circulation patterns, cloud formation, and severe storms. This work is relevant to understanding Earth's environment and other planetary atmospheres as well. In astrophysics, researchers analyze and interpret data to understand celestial phenom- ena. Their work involves theoretical modeling as they try to answer basic questions about the universe: for example, what are black holes? By what process do quasars become the most powerful known sources of energy? Astrophysics research also involves the per- fection of detectors to extend the range of observation to greater distances and sensitivi- ties. Significant laboratory effort is devoted to the search for improved telescope materials and observational techniques. Solar and magnetospheric physicists develop models of the sun, magnetosphere, and upper atmosphere to understand better the composition, density, temperature, and other features of these complex environments. Enigmatic solar flares are being investigated with data from the Center's vector magneto- graph facility, the only one of its kind in the Studying the sun from the Marshall Center's observatory 52 RESEARCH ON THE NEW FRONTIER Inventive research in Marshall's laboratories "As we identify needs that can be met through the use of space, or space tech- nology, we will move to meet them." Dr. W. R. Lucas Analyzing data in quest of discovery Subjecting materials to the rigors of space Scrutinizing materials to prevent failures 53 RESEARCH ON THE NEW FRONTIER world, along with corollary data from other ground observatories and spacecraft. Interest in spacecraft charging and electrodynamic interactions between space plasma and other moving bodies has stimulated laboratory anal- yses. Furthermore, Marshall has developed a much-needed computer-linked data network to facilitate the sharing of space science informa- tion by scientists around the country. Basic technology studies at the Center span virtually all the disciplines of engineering and materials science. Past breakthroughs in cryogenics, electronics, materials, and other technologies are mentioned throughout this text. Technology advances have always been "Man's destiny lies in the exploration of space. It is the leading edge of our technology and from it already there have been many down-to-earth benefits in addition to the long range potential that awaits us in those distant places." Dr. Wernher von Braun, 1967 the enabling agents that turn goals and requirements into reality. Many current laboratory projects are directly related to the ongoing effort to improve the already reliable Space Shuttle, while oth- ers are longer-term studies to enable technol- ogy for future spacecraft. Diverse studies in propulsion technology, for example, include investigations of ignition and combustion pro- cesses, turbopump bearings and seals, nozzle materials, cryogenics, characteristics of pro- pellants and materials, and powder metallurgy techniques. As a result, the design and opera- tion of some Space Shuttle Main Engine com- ponents have been optimized, and uprated engines are now in service. Novel solar arrays and power system components are being stud- ied for possible use on the Space Station. The Center has made strides in welding technology and robots that are of significant benefit to industry. Marshall scientists are engaged in many investigations of polymers, composites, ablatives, ceramics and coatings, lubricants and thin films. For many of these investiga- tions, Center personnel also develop novel test equipment and test facilities, mathematical models, computer codes, and data bases. As the Center moves into the Space Station era, it is investigating large space structures technology and operations. This multi-disciplinary effort involves evaluation of structural elements and materials, thermal control, dynamics, robotics and teleoperation, and crew systems for large platforms and antennas to be erected in space. The large space structures technology development pro- gram is intended to ensure that resources are available to meet future mission needs. The Marshall Center has maintained a spe- cial technology utilization program to share the benefits of space technology with industry and public services. To date, several technology transfers in materials, electronics, pumps and valves have resulted in new products in the marketplace. Unusual spinoffs from Marshall technology include biomedical devices, energy conservation techniques, and fire fighting equipment. For several years, the Center played a leading role in national solar heating and cooling programs to develop and demon- strate solar energy systems and to stimulate their use. Marshall also investigated the adap- tation of space technology for mineral extrac- tion techniques in coal mining. Marshall actively pursues a variety of technology utiliza- tion projects that apply space technology to meet new commercial needs. Down-to-Earth application of space technology for mining industry 54 ABOVE: Spacesuit technology to benefit firefighters LEFT: Practical spin- off from NASA's pump technology Working with students to develop experiments for spaceflight }Leqacies in Space Science and Technology The litany of benefits from space science and technology is familiar: miniaturized electronics, solid state circuitry, insulation materials such as spray-foam and mylar foil, new plastics, new welding techniques, worldwide communi- cation networks, freeze-dried foods, and many other products that have been marketed with success. These spin-offs have markedly changed the way people live, but they are by no means the only legacies. The intellectual benefit of space research is the primary leg- acy; people now know much more about mate- rials, processes, Earth, and the stars. The space program has opened them all to scrutiny. Two themes run through the Marshall Center's history in space science and technol- ogy: using space for research and developing improved means of doing that research. From rather modest early experiments to sophisti- cated observatories and instruments on the Space Shuttle, Marshall has earned impres- sive credentials. Among the most exciting scientific achieve- ments of this Center was the Skylab Apollo Telescope Mount, which completely altered our understanding of the sun. Previously thought to be rather steady and calm except for peri- odic bursts of sunspot activity, the sun was revealed to be violently changeable over the course of hours or minutes. Scientists saw intriguing new phenomena, such as coronal holes, and witnessed scores of explosive flares. The program was a technical, scientific, and managerial success that demonstrated the value of a concerted assault on a particular scientific problem. The nine-month collection of Skylab solar data provided grist for analysis for almost a decade until a new solar observa- tory was placed in orbit. The complex environment of our planet Learning how to harness solar energy 55 RESEARCH ON THE NEW FRONTIER The dynamic sun Similarly, the three HEAO missions pro- vided a radically new view of the high-energy universe, punctuated by exploding stars and galaxies and permeated with radiation of mys- terious origin. The HEAO surveys increased the catalogs of known high-energy sources many-fold and, like Skylab, provided enough data for years of analysis. The successor observatory, if approved for flight, is still sev- eral years from launch. Another Marshall Center legacy is mate- rials processing in space. Research here has demonstrated the advantages of microgravity for certain processes in crystal growth and alloy formation. Largely as a result of this work, space processing of materials appears to be a very promising, and commercially via- ble, new field. Microgravity research on or near the Space Station will focus on understanding and improving industrial processes on Earth, as well as processing products in space for use on the ground. The Center's technology efforts enable the successful science and engineering programs. When programs require special thermal coat- The mysteries of the universe The commercial uses of space ings or cryogenic fuels or ample power sup- plies or large but lightweight structures or high data rate telemetry or defect-free welds or zero heat leakage, the laboratories meet the chal- lenge. Much of this technology passes on to industry for other applications. A special benefit of the Center's technology efforts is the recent progress in productivity enhancement. As part of an economic drive throughout the agency and the federal govern- ment, Marshall has established a Productivity Enhancement Center to identify cost-saving improvements in programs. To date, significant savings have been realized by implementing such improvements. In many of these research efforts, Marshall has developed partnerships with universities and private industry. These partners have con- tributed significantly to the Center's advances in science and technology. For the larger sci- ence projects, the Center has used task teams to organize early planning and development activities. The resultant contracting and man- agement techniques have brought to fruition a great variety of research projects. The science and engineering laboratories have always been one of Marshall Space Flight Center's greatest assets. During the 1970's, the Center's growing involvement in space science research spawned a host of specialized facilities within the existing labs. The breadth and depth of expertise here now may be unsurpassed by any other single research institution. As a result of this resident technical competence, Marshall has evolved into a highly-respected multidisciplinary research center. |A Glimpse of the Future Now that people have crossed the border into space, there is no turning back. We have only begun to observe and explore the universe, and human curiosity demands more. Inexora- bly science and technology will move into space, because it is a uniquely favorable envi- ronment for research. Space is an excellent vantage point for both astronomical and terrestrial observations, and the effects of gravity are negligible there. Thus, space offers opportunities to answer questions and do experiments that are impos- sible on Earth. The temptation is irresistible. In the few years since space has become accessible, there has been a veritable explo- sion of knowledge. Whole new disciplines, such as X-ray astrophysics and solar-terres- trial physics, were born, and with each new 36 instrument or spacecraft the pace of discovery quickens. Who can guess what discoveries are yet to be made? One can predict that in the next 25 years, the growth of knowledge will be even more phenomenal. If there were only one major new telescope, for example, the advance would be significant, but entire families of space tele- scopes are planned. What does it really mean to look 7 times farther at much dimmer objects than now possible? What will we see? As observations are perfected along the spectrum from radio emissions to infrared, visi- ble light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays, what will we find? Something stranger than black holes and quasars? The edge of the universe? Signs of intelligent life somewhere else? By placing sensitive telescopes and observers above the hazy atmosphere that obscures our view outward, we take the risk of discovering far more than we have expected. Unimagined discoveries resulted from our first tentative steps in space; that trend should con- tinue, becoming even more dramatic, as we establish a permanent presence in space. We are just beginning to look back upon Earth with the precise scientific tools and tech- niques that reveal the distant universe in detail. Viewed from space, Earth's atmosphere is thin, complex, dynamic, influenced by radiation from remote quarters. What surprises may shake our comfortable familiarity with the ter- restrial environment, which we have barely begun to understand? The advantage of microgravity is equally tantalizing. In space it is possible to examine fundamental biological and physical processes under conditions that cannot be achieved on Earth. In space, living organisms can be stud- ied apart from the influence of gravity to under- stand just how it is that life functions, and sometimes malfunctions, on Earth. Likewise, inanimate processes can be observed without the interference of gravity to understand the properties and behavior of matter or to test physical laws. Three decades ago, no one knew whether or not a human being could survive in space. No one knew how fluids, whether blood or pro- pellants, behaved in weightlessness. No one knew about quasars and exotic celestial objects, or about the Van Allen radiation belts and the Earth's magnetosphere. Although many questions have been answered, even more have been raised. Today's space scientists at Marshall are chal- lenged to find answers. They have the oppor- "With the great tasks before us, there is a continuing need for scientists and engineers dedicated to giving man the means for reaching the stars." Dr. W. R. Lucas tunity to pursue their research in space, either by controlling sophisticated instruments from the ground or by actually working in an orbital laboratory. The rewards of orbital research undoubtedly will increase with advances in data and communications technology, making today's flood of information look like a mere trickle. Science and technology move in parallel, one asking questions and the other providing ways to answer them. Today's questions are beginning to be answered with the aid of new instruments and spacecraft. Tomorrow's ques- tions will emerge as the remarkable new space observatories and laboratories become operational. The "book of knowledge" will not close any time soon. The challenge now is to continue the quest for knowledge with all avail- able, and all imaginable, resources. ■ Space - laboratory and observatory site for the future 57 58 esides launch vehicles and space science research, Marshall Space Flight Center has a distinguished record of achieve- ment in the devel- opment of manned systems, the astro- nauts' work places in space. Since Apollo, NASA has sponsored the very successful Skylab and Spacelab pro- grams that demonstrated how readily and pro- ductively people can live and work in space. Marshall played the leading project manage- ment and engineering role for the agency in these ventures, thereby developing capabilities unforeseen in the Saturn era. Marshall also was involved in smaller scale manned projects, such as the Lunar Roving Vehicle and the nternational Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. As the Center celebrates its twenty-fifth anniversary, the most challenging new pro- gram is the development of a Space Station, a permanent manned habitat in Earth orbit. Within the agency, industry, and the scientific community, both in the United States and abroad, there is a flurry of activity to define Space Station architecture, capabilities, and uses. A casual observer might think, mistak- enly, that this initiative really is new, that designers and engineers, scientists and man- agers are starting from scratch to formulate a residence in space. Actually, many people at Marshall already are veterans in Space Station planning. The concept of a space station is older than NASA itself. To the early rocket pioneers, a space workshop or colony was a major rea- son for developing launch vehicles. Early in the space program, a space station was consid- ered to be a feasible goal to pursue immedi- ately after the Apollo program. Skylab thus evolved as the first space station, a temporary A PERMANENT PRESENCE precursor to a permanent presence. About 1970, however, NASA decided to postpone construction of a permanent space station until a suitable space transportation system was in service. In the interim, the Shuttle could serve as a short-term space station by carrying a scientific research facility, Spacelab, on missions of a week or more. Like Skylab, Spacelab is a valu- able preparation for a permanent space sta- tion; experience in hardware development and human engineering for these work environ- ments in space is directly applicable to a larger-scale effort. When President Ronald Reagan approved Space Station development in 1984, NASA responded quickly and confidently. The Space Station is the next logical step in the exploration and utilization of space. Marshall Space Flight Center has responsibility for definition and preliminary design of several major elements of the prospective Space Station and is also supporting development of some elements managed through other NASA centers. As it addresses these new challenges, Marshall will draw from its bank of past experi- ence in manned systems. For the foreseeable future, the Center's primary mission is to develop a permanent work place in space. The Space Station requires a magnitude of effort and commitment to excellence comparable to that of the Saturn and Shuttle endeavors. fLunar Roving Vehicle Marshall moved from launch systems into manned systems via a Lunar Roving Vehicle designed to transport astronauts and materials on the moon. As time drew near for the manned lunar landings, NASA decided to pro- vide a vehicle that would extend the astro- nauts' range of exploration and their ability to carry equipment and lunar samples. By 1969, Marshall was responsible for the design, devel- opment, and testing of the new article. Boeing was selected for contract award, and work began in 1970 with flight expected the following year. What a contrast the lunar rover was to the towering Saturn vehicles! It was a fragile look- ing, open-space vehicle about 10 feet long with large mesh wheels, antenna appendages, tool caddies, and cameras. Powered by two 36 volt batteries, it had four Va hp drive motors, one for each wheel. The peculiar vehicle was collap- sible for compact storage until needed, when it could be unfolded by hand. Marshall engineers tackled this new project with relish; inventing a "car" for drivers on the moon was as appealing to a grown-up imagi- nation as to a child's. Personnel from the Center's laboratories contributed substantially to the design and testing of the navigation and deployment systems. In fact, the backup man- ual deployment system developed by Marshall proved more reliable than the automated sys- I tern and became the primary method of deployment. The rover was designed to travel in forward or reverse, negotiate obstacles about a foot high, cross crevasses about two feet wide, and climb or descend moderate slopes; its speed limit was about 14 km (9 miles) per hour. To assist in development of the navigation sys- tem, the Center created a lunar surface simu- lator, complete with rocks and craters, where operators could test drive the vehicle. The sim- ulator also was used during the mission as an aid in responding to difficulties. 60 "4$ Marshall-designed vehicle in use on the moon Lunar rover (on support stand) at MSFC A lunar rover was used on each of the last three Apollo missions in 1971 and 1972 to per- mit the crew to travel several miles from the landing craft. Outbound, they carried a load of experiments to be set up on the moon; on the return trip, they carried more than 200 pounds of lunar rock and soil samples. The vehicle performed safely and reliably on each excur- sion and enhanced the astronauts' work effi- ciency. It handled as well and steered as easily on the moon as on Earth. In addition to the technical achievements, the lunar rover was a managerial success with an unusually short development cycle. More than any prior work, this project gave Marshall insight into human engineering considerations for space hardware on manned missions. Although the vehicle was not as complex as a habitable laboratory, it was in effect a small work place with some similar crew require- ments. Thus, the rover project provided valua- ble crew systems and mission support experience for later projects. During the lunar rover work, the Center also used realistic new simulation techniques for testing equipment and procedures. Simulation would soon be used extensively for design evaluation, hard- ware checkout, crew training, and mission sup- port activities in other manned projects. Bkylab The idea that ultimately became Skylab first surfaced in 1962 as a proposal to convert a spent Saturn upper stage into an orbital work- shop. Soon, planners in Huntsville were evalu- ating the feasibility of rendezvous with a cast- off stage, which would then be purged, pres- surized, and outfitted with scientific equip- ment. In 1965, NASA established the Apollo Applications Program to extend the use of Apollo and Saturn hardware; a few months later, the agency authorized a design study for a spent stage orbital workshop and named Marshall Space Flight Center as leader of the project. For the next three years, Marshall wrestled with configuration and planning. Several launch schedules were announced for an ambitious program of multiple workshop facili- ties. In 1968, Marshall proposed an alternative to the original "wet" workshop concept of refur- bishing a spent stage in orbit; instead, a fully equipped "dry" workshop could be launched as a complete unit, ready for occupancy. In 1969, NASA approved this concept and con- tracts were revised accordingly. The following year, the Apollo Applications Program and } 2-, ffe'w-txtf Practicing film change-out underwater at MSFC By the time of launch in May of 1973, Marshall people knew Skylab inside and out, and they were well prepared to support the nine-month mission. Personnel moved into the Huntsville Operations Support Center (HOSC) for real-time flight support, and mission task centers, called "war rooms," were set up in Marshall's laboratories to assist the HOSC team in resolving any problems that might occur in flight. During the three manned periods, these support groups were fully staffed for around-the-clock operations; in the unmanned intervals, a skeleton staff main- tained watch. This mission support activity was much more extensive than the launch support normally provided by the Center and the stand- by support during excursions of the Lunar Roving Vehicle. To everyone's surprise, Marshall's resources for mission support were severely tested immediately after launch. fQuick Response to a Problem Within an hour of launch on May 14, 1973, there were ominous signs of trouble aboard Skylab. Although the spacecraft had been delivered easily to its intended orbit, the micro- meteoroid shield/sun shade and solar arrays failed to deploy as planned. As a result, the Skylab workshop was rapidly heating to intoler- able temperatures (almost 200° F) and operat- ing on a fraction of the necessary power. These conditions threatened disaster to the workshop and jeopardized the manned mission scheduled for launch the next day. Marshall personnel immediately regrouped into a crisis management organization to stabi- lize the thermal condition of Skylab and to develop repairs. The manned mission was postponed and for the next 11 days Marshall, its contractors, and NASA personnel at other centers concentrated on saving Skylab. All the resources of the Center were available to the ten laboratory task groups already in existence and to the various ad hoc groups formed in response to the crisis. Technical and manage- rial personnel shifted to 12-hour duty cycles, Developing a solution to Sky lab's thermal shield problem 64 and some people worked for days at a time. The mission support teams faced three major problems and a host of smaller ones caused by the failures. The most urgent matter requiring immediate attention was the over- heating problem. Attitude control and thermal experts had to find a rapid solution to reorient Skylab and establish a better thermal balance. They were hampered, of course, by the need to keep the functional solar arrays of the Apollo Telescope Mount pointed at the sun. In the first hours of the crisis, they experimented with var- ious maneuvers to shade the workshop but maintain the limited power supply. Before long, they were able to implement a satisfactory solution that preserved Skylab until the rescue crew arrived on May 25. The next major problem was to determine the extent of damage on Skylab and devise corrective repair operations. Virtually every ele- ment of the Marshall Center, with hearty sup- port from the other NASA centers, became involved in an intense effort to fix Skylab. Data analysis suggested that the micrometeoroid shield and one solar array had been ripped off during launch and that the second solar array was tangled up in debris and only partially deployed. Since the exact condition of these elements was unknown, engineers had to rely on calculations and simulations to estimate the nature of the problem and the best solution. Over the next several days, Marshall con- sidered a variety of repair options, discarding some and pursuing others under tremendous time pressure. Eventually, three methods were developed, tested, rehearsed, and approved. Marshall was intensely involved in all three - a parasol sunshade, a twin-pole sunshade, and a set of metal cutting tools for freeing the jammed solar array - but had the lead role in developing the tools and the twin-pole sun- shade, a large protective sail. Designing the hardware and crew proce- dures, demonstrating the method, and fabricat- ing the equipment occupied hundreds of people for more than a week. Everything about the effort was a challenge under duress. Not only must it be the most practical solution to the thermal problem but also it must survive structural and dynamic stresses, stand up to intense solar radiation, meet stringent crew safety requirements, be compact and light- weight, and be available as soon as possible. What would normally be months of effort was condensed into a few days. Devising tools and procedures to release the jammed solar array also provoked a flurry Testing the twin-pole sunshade at the Skylab mockup in Building 4619 "In my opinion, the finest accomplishment of Skylab was the demonstration of the uniqueness of man in space in solving problems and overcoming obstacles in the face of extreme adversity." Dr. Rocco Petrone Refining the repair procedures underwater in Marshall's Neutral Buoyancy Simulator 65 A PERMANENT PRESENCE of activity. Again the engineers who could not "see" the problem had to solve it by the safest, most practical methods. Standard off-the-shelf shears and saws were modified and tested for anticipated use. The third major problem was degradation of the interior environment of the workshop, an unknown factor of great concern for crew safety. The prolonged, extraordinary heating of the module might have caused interior insu- lation and adhesives to deteriorate and release toxic gases. Marshall's materials sci- entists undertook a thorough evaluation of this potential problem and worked with other sys- tems engineers to define purge procedures for the habitable module. Even as they were test- ing the materials for outgassing, this group was also embroiled in testing various candi- date sunshade materials. During the Skylab crisis, Marshall's many human and physical resources were admira- bly demonstrated. The Neutral Buoyancy Sim- ulator was a special asset that proved its worth as a test environment again and again. Trial runs underwater revealed a number of difficulties and led to speedy recognition of more effective solutions. Experts around the Center - in the laboratories, machine shops, and management offices - and from Marshall's contractors united in a multidiscipli- nary team response to the emergency. Morale remained high despite the taxing work schedule. The Skylab crew and their repair kits were launched just 11 days after the incident. After docking with Skylab, the crew successfully deployed the parasol sunshade through an airlock the next day and, as the temperature dropped, began to activate the new space sta- tion. The interior environment proved safe and contamination-free, though still a rather warm work place. On the ground, Marshall's teams continued to perfect techniques for the major repairs. In a daring though well-rehearsed maneuver, the solar array was freed on June 7 by the crew working outside Skylab with a technique developed at Marshall. After that the Skylab mission settled into a fairly nominal routine, much as planned. The parasol sunshade proved effective for the first manned period on Skylab but had to be replaced by the Marshall sail during the second occupancy because interior tempera- ture was increasing again. During the interval between missions, Marshall engineers and NASA astronauts practiced and improved the repair technique during frequent neutral buoy- ancy simulations. More than any other pro- gram, the successful Skylab recovery operations clearly demonstrated the value of manned space flight. f Skylab Legacies Skylab was the first American space program wholly dedicated to scientific research. Con- ceived as a laboratory for simultaneous research in several disciplines, Skylab contrib- uted to solar physics, astronomy, biomedical science, materials science, Earth observa- tions, and basic technology. Marshall played an important part in this unprecedented scien- tific venture, both before the mission by man- aging the development and integration of the experiments and later by supporting their operations in flight. Skylab operated in orbit from May 1973 through February 1974. It was occupied for three periods for a total of 171 days. During that time, the advantages of doing research in space with a very capable scientific crew were convincingly demonstrated. Skylab results included significant discoveries in all the experiment disciplines and far more data than anticipated. Solar observations revealed unsuspected features and events, dramati- cally altering our understanding of the sun's structure and activity. Skylab offered the first opportunity for a sustained investigation of the Marshall's Skylab solar shield installed in space 66 human body in space; a plethora of biomedi- cal experiments and measurements provided new insight into physiological adaptation to weightlessness. The first set of materials pro- cessing experiments in space produced intri- guing results on crystal growth, solidification of alloys, and fluid behavior in microgravity. The Earth resources observations produced detailed new information from the unique van- tage point of space by a variety of remote sen- sing techniques, and astronomical observations also were successful. Skylab opened the era of comprehensive scientific research in space. Skylab also proved the operational con- cepts for long-term habitation in space and particularly demonstrated how capably and productively people could work in this new environment. It also demonstrated the value of a human presence for maintenance and repair to extend the useful life of systems in space. The orbital servicing and repair activities gave new insight into both design and operational considerations for future missions. For Marshall and for NASA at large, Skylab represented a transition from short manned flights to long-term manned orbital operations and from single-purpose space- craft to multipurpose space stations. The Marshall Center developed strong new capa- bilities for science payloads and mission sup- port operations. After Skylab was vacated, it remained in orbital stowage for several years in anticipation of future visits. Instead of returning to Skylab, however, NASA pursued its direct descendant - Spacelab - a Shuttle- borne research facility. Marshall was destined to play an even greater role in this new program. In the interim between the two manned laboratory projects, Marshall was preoccupied with various scientific projects and with adjust- ing to manpower and budget cuts. The unu- sual Apollo-Soyuz Test Project bridged the period between Skylab and Spacelab. Maintenance and repair tasks outside the workshop Microgravity research inside the orbital laboratory Skylab Earth resources observations (infrared image of the lower Mississippi River) Crystal growth and materials processing research on Skylab missions A PERMANENT PRESENCE )Apollo-Soyuz Test Project The period between the last Skylab mission (1973/74) and the first Shuttle flight (1981) was a quiet one for manned spaceflight. Only one manned mission was launched - the Apollo- Soyuz Test Project in 1975. This mission marked both the last use of a Saturn launch vehicle and the first cooperative, international manned flight. The purpose of the mission was to demonstrate rendezvous and docking for joint ventures in space. This capability might eventually be used for international res- cue missions and for mutually beneficial sci- ence and engineering activities. Marshall Space Flight Center participated in preparing for this historic mission. Overtures toward a joint American-Soviet mission were made in 1968, followed by talks between representatives of both space agen- cies over the next few years. Marshall person- nel served on the American delegation that met with Soviet personnel in the United States and in Moscow. In 1970, two Soviet cosmo- nauts visited the Center on a tour of NASA facilities. At a 1972 summit meeting, President Richard Nixon and Premier Alexei Kosygin signed a five-year cooperative agreement and set a target mission date in mid-1975. The major challenge of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project was to make two quite different space systems compatible enough to link up in orbit. This required design of a common docking adapter to join the two spacecraft and enable crew members to move from one mod- ule to the other for their "handshake in space." Coordination of rendezvous guidance systems and flight techniques also was necessary. Although there had been early considera- tion of a Skylab-Soyuz mission, which would have meant heavy Marshall Center involve- ment, the final decision was to dock with an Apollo spacecraft. Thus, Marshall's primary role was to provide the launch vehicle. A Saturn IB that had spent more than five years in storage was refurbished and performed flawlessly. The Center also provided several of the scientific experiments and a Multipurpose Electric Furnace similar to one flown on Skylab for processing material samples. The test project successfully demonstrated the new docking capability, but there were no subsequent missions. NASA's next interna- tional venture was with colleagues in Western Europe rather than the Soviet Union. Apollo-Soyuz: historic handshake in space Concept of the rendezvous of American and Soviet spacecraft First international meeting in space 68 fSpacelab In 1969, Europe was invited by the United States to participate in the post-Apollo space program. The European Space Research Organization, which later became the Euro- pean Space Agency (ESA), agreed in 1973 to develop a manned laboratory as Europe's contribution to the new Space Transportation System. What became Spacelab was con- ceived originally at Marshall as a "sortie can," a modular laboratory system to be periodically installed in the Space Shuttle for week-long science missions. A handful of selected NASA engineers from the Marshall Center interacted with the Europeans to initiate the Sortie Can program, later named Spacelab. The work of this small group established an important link for international space programs. The result- ant Spacelab program was a cooperative ven- ture between ESA and NASA; the European Space Agency designed and manufactured Spacelab with NASA's support in design and design requirements, and NASA now operates it on Shuttle missions. In the busy period of development between the 1973 decision and the first Spacelab flight in 1983, Marshall Space Flight Center assumed program management responsibilities for monitoring and supporting the ESA activity; developing related flight equipment, software, and ground support facilities; and directing the first missions. For the better part of a decade, the Center's resources were enlisted in the related Spacelab and Shuttle projects. While hard- ware development was in progress, NASA and ESA engaged in a parallel activity of developing the first Spacelab payload; experi- ments and crew members for the initial mis- sion were provided by both agencies. Between 1972 and 1977, the two partners con- ducted a joint airborne program, a trial run called ASSESS, to work out their mission management and operational concepts. Fur- thermore, Marshall began planning ahead to i subsequent missions. Technically, scientifically, and managerially, the Spacelab program broke new ground in international cooperation for manned space- ' flight. The Marshall Center successfully man- aged this largest-ever program of shared | responsibilities. Although the development effort and first missions are now history, Spacelab continues to be a major commit- ment at Marshall as Spacelab is used again and again for research in space. Pallet-mounted Instrument Pointing System, first used on Spacelab 2 mission Spacelab components: tunnel, enclosed laboratory module, and exposed platform (pallet) Concept verification testing of Spacelab materials science experiments in MSFC's General Purpose Laboratory 69 Spacelab payload integration for several missions at the Cape I \ I \/i Spacelab 1 module and pallet ready to be installed in the Shuttle fDeveloping Spacelab Although ESA bore primary responsibility for designing and manufacturing Spacelab, Marshall's role as the lead NASA center required broad participation in all technical and managerial activities. The international scope of the program was unprecedented; 50 manufacturing firms in 10 European countries contributed to Spacelab, and several different space organizations affiliated with ESA across Europe were involved in the program. The challenge of cohesively managing such a widespread effort was formidable. NASA and Marshall worked closely with ESA at all levels, and several key members of Marshall's staff worked on-site in Europe to participate in integration and test activities there. In the course of this ambitious effort, new management techniques were devised to control schedules, resources, and costs. The international character of the Spacelab pro- gram introduced unusual administrative, fiscal, and technical factors; for example, relatively straightforward matters, such as tracking costs or documenting engineering changes, were complicated by national differences in currency and accounting practices, language and reporting style. In addition to its program management responsibilities, Marshall was tasked with developing related hardware. As usual, this effort utilized the Center's proficiency in many engineering disciplines. Just as many Saturn facilities and personnel were reassigned to the Shuttle project, many Skylab resources were applied to the Spacelab effort. Marshall peo- ple drew upon the Skylab heritage and also developed new solutions for a laboratory com- patible with the Space Shuttle. In developing an optical window for scientific observations, for example, they pulled Skylab hardware from inventory and adapted it. On the other hand, development of a pressurized transfer tunnel for the passage of crew and equipment between the Orbiter cabin and the laboratory module was a wholly new effort. Marshall also was responsible for developing experiment software, a vertical access kit for entering the module on the launch pad, and various avion- ics and environmental control subsystems components. Furthermore, a special Software Development Facility was established to develop and verify programs for the Spacelab experiment computer. One of the most challenging problems in Spacelab design was the Command and Data Management Subsystem, the centralized con- trol and data collection authority. This three- 70 computer system is the "bridge" between Orbiter resources and individual experiments. The system also monitors its own health and that of its users, reporting them to the Orbiter and to the payload and mission controllers on the ground. Because the computer system serves two purposes - overall Spacelab sub- system management and experiment opera- tions - imaginative systems and software engineering efforts were necessary. The resultant system is flexible enough to handle diverse experiment requirements within the context of available resources and constraints such as power, attitude, and crew time. During the first mission, this system responded to 16,000 commands and a multitude of timeline changes yet kept Spacelab and experiment operations running smoothly. Data transmission also was an engineer- ing challenge that was met with state-of-the- art hardware design. The High Data Rate Multiplexer and High Data Rate Recorder have the most interfaces and most complex operations in the command and data manage- ment subsystem. Both can handle data in a range of rates to accommodate widely varying types of instruments in different scientific dis- ciplines. The multiplexer accepts data from experiments, Spacelab systems, and the recorder for transmission to the ground at digi- tal rates up to 50 million bits per second. While running at full speed, the one-inch mag- netic tape of the recorder moves at 20 feet per second. During the Spacelab 1 mission, this system was extraordinarily successful; approximately six trillion bits of science data were downlinked. Spacelab represents a broad cross-section of engineering achievements. Virtually every discipline at Marshall contributed to the design and development of Spacelab. The actual Spacelab systems required the talents of structural, mechanical, dynamic, electrical, hydraulic, metallurgical, chemical, software, and systems engineers. The ground support facilities involved civil, structural, and mechan- ical engineers, with test and checkout equip- ment developed by electrical engineers and software professionals. Development of sophisticated scientific instruments required the expertise of electrical, optical, and soft- ware specialists. Spacelab demanded the coordinated effort of all these Marshall Center resources. A PERMANENT PRESENCE Spacelab module and tunnel, first used on Spacelab 1 mission At work in a new laboratory during the Spacelab 1 mission 71 A PERMANENT PRESENCE fManaging Missions Marshall has a continuing role in the Spacelab program apart from development of the orbital research facility. Through the Spacelab Payload Project Office, the Center plans and directs a variety of missions. Having managed the first three multidisciplinary missions that demonstrated alternate Spacelab configura- tions, the Center now looks forward to manag- ing several series of flights in particular research fields, such as astronomy, Earth observations, space plasma physics, and materials science. The Center provides the mission manager, mission scientist, integra- tion engineers, and operations personnel for these missions. The business of Spacelab mission man- agement draws upon many of Marshall's skills Management conference during Spacelab 2 mission in systems engineering and integration at all payload levels from individual instruments to the mated Shuttle-Spacelab. Center person- nel plan the layout, perform systems analyses, design and develop integration hardware, oversee assembly and checkout, plan the flight timeline, conduct simulations and train- ing exercises, and provide real-time support during the mission. These activities involve specialists in many different areas, including aeronautical, electronics, software, and human factors engineering. Mission manage- ment personnel coordinate all these disparate activities to ensure that the payload meets the scientific goals and uses Shuttle-Spacelab resources most effectively. To carry out these complex responsibili- ties, the Center developed some novel meth- ods and facilities. One of the most successful is the Payload Crew Training Complex (PCTC) in Building 4612, which houses a computer- ized Spacelab simulator that can be custom- ized for different missions. This facility is a prime training site for Spacelab mission spe- cialists from the astronaut corps and payload specialists from the scientific community. The PCTC is a realistic "classroom" for practicing simultaneous in-flight experiment operations, problem solving, and maintenance proce- dures. Another achievement was Marshall's effort in outfitting the Operations and Check- out Building at Kennedy Space Center, the integration site for Spacelab payloads. Mar- shall developed the requirements for the inte- gration facility and its automated test and checkout equipment. Besides overall mission management, Marshall scientists and engineers are devising experiments for flight opportunities on Spacelab. Apparatus and procedures are being developed here for investigations in all the Center's science disciplines - astrophys- ics, atmospheric science, solar-terrestrial physics, materials science, and technology. The current level of effort is significant and is expected to remain so in the future. fSpacelab Legacies The Spacelab 1 mission, which began on November 28, 1983, was a grand success. With few anomalies, Spacelab performed just as planned and the concept of a system of laboratory modules and pallets for research in space was verified. All the Spacelab subsys- tems were well exercised by the payload of over 70 investigations in 5 different disciplines. The mission management scheme also was verified; the mission progressed so smoothly and efficiently that an extra day on orbit was Payload Crew Training Complex, where Spacelab crews prepare for missions 72 authorized for additional scientific research. The value of onboard payload specialists was confirmed as scientists on the ground commu- nicated frequently and directly with the crew, working together as a team on many experi- ment operations. Almost every investigator has reported sig- nificant findings from the first Spacelab mis- sion. Materials processing experiments produced much larger crystals with fewer defects than those produced on Earth. Investi- gations in life sciences challenged reigning theories about subtle physiological reflexes that cannot be tested in normal gravity. Exploratory investigations were carried out to evaluate the potential of Spacelab for astro- nomical observations and plasma physics research, with very promising results. Other investigations yielded important discoveries about the composition of Earth's atmosphere. Trials of new Earth observation techniques were conducted and showed promise for improved mapping and resource monitoring from space. Spacelab clearly will serve as an important facility for space science research. Monitoring crystal growth experiments on Spacelab 3 mission ■A Marsnal Spacebb opmora so Managing a Spacelab mission from the Payload Operations Control Center Members of the payload operations team on duty during Spacelab missions ABOVE: Pioneering research in fluid dynamics during Spacelab 3 mission LEFT: Payload operations conference during the Spacelab 3 mission 73 A PERMANENT PRESENCE The immediate legacy of Spacelab 1 is Spacelab 2 and 3 and a succession of dedi- cated discipline missions, such as Astro and the Earth Observation Mission, all managed by the Marshall Center. The next accomplish- ment on the horizon is the opening of a Pay- load Operations Control Center (POCC) at Marshall for consolidated local operations dur- ing Spacelab missions. In the past, Marshall personnel have participated in real-time mis- sion activities from two locations, a POCC in Houston and the Huntsville Operations Sup- port Center (HOSC). The new POCC in Huntsville will supplement the one at the Johnson Space Center for missions managed by Marshall. By virtue of its Skylab experience, Mar- shall Space Flight Center had a head start on Spacelab. Yet, Spacelab introduced the new challenges of detailed international coopera- tion and compatibility with the Space Shuttle. 74 This effort was complicated by the fact that Spacelab development occurred in parallel with Orbiter, payload, communications satel- lite, and ground support development. Changes in any one element had an impact on the others. Spacelab management person- nel and their engineering teams met the exceptional challenge of keeping Spacelab development synchronized with the other efforts and responding to changes as they arose. Marshall again proved its ability to manage development of a large, complex manned system. The Center also expanded its role to include extensive crew training responsibilities, using the time-honored tech- niques of simulation and step-by-step preparation. Beyond the series of Spacelab missions, another legacy is evolving. When the Presi- dent announced the Space Station initiative, he referred specifically to the engineering and scientific achievement of the Spacelab 1 mis- sion just a month earlier. The largest manned system ever attempted is the Space Station; architectural concepts for the new facility include Spacelab-type modules and pallets. The Space Station does not displace the Shuttle and Spacelab; rather, it extends their capabilities. The three programs are comple- mentary, and Marshall expects them to be parts of an integral system continually incor- porating new ideas and technology advances. The Spacelab work done at Marshall yes- terday and today is directly applicable to tomorrow's major project, the Space Station. The Center has sound credentials for develop- ing and managing large manned systems for space science and applications. Both the hardware and the functions of the proposed Space Station owe a debt to Spacelab which Marshall is uniquely prepared to redeem. As in the past, the Center is encouraging its resi- dent experts to meet the challenges of the future. fSpace Station The Marshall Center's three major lines of commitment converge at the Space Station. This ambitious project represents a synthesis of the Center's principal interests in vehicles, science payloads, and manned space sys- tems. As it moves into the Space Station era, Marshall Space Flight Center expects to use its various legacies for bold new ventures. In 1984, after years of preliminary concep- tual groundwork, NASA organized a full- fledged Space Station definition effort. Responsibilities for various Station elements The "Power Tower," NASA's reference configuration for Space Station planning "Tonight, I am directing NASA to develop a per- manently manned space station and to do it within a decade." President Ronald Reagan January 25, 1984 were delegated to different centers, and Mar- shall received a major portion of the work: def- inition and preliminary design of pressurized common modules for use as laboratories, liv- ing areas, and logistic transport; environmen- tal control, life support systems, and propulsive systems; a module equipped as a laboratory and others as logistics modules; and accommodations for auxiliary Orbital Maneuvering Vehicles and Orbital Transfer Vehicles. The Space Station reference configuration selected as a beginning point for design stud- ies is called a "Power Tower." It consists of a tower of beams, solar panels, antennas, co- orbiting platforms, and enclosed modules; altogether the Space Station is about 400 feet in length, somewhat longer than a football field. Most of the technology for the Station's initial structure and systems is presently avail- able. However, the Space Station presents a host of new engineering challenges as Mar- shall, once again, seeks to do something that has never been attempted. Because the Space Station is intended to be permanent, it must be designed for mainte- nance, repair, and refurbishment. All mainte- nance and reconfiguration will occur in space and will be accomplished by astronauts or automated devices under the extraordinary working conditions of weightlessness, vac- uum, and 90-minute cycles of daylight and darkness. The design requirements for long- term maintainability demand advances in long-life materials, automated "expert sys- tems" for inspection and repair and remote operations, sophisticated contamination con- trol measures, crew mobility systems and A space station envisioned years ago by Dr. von Braun 75 Assembling large space structures underwater at MSFC Evaluating techniques for construction projects in space tools, and new orbital repair techniques. Although some spacecraft are now being designed for repair or refurbishment in orbit, there is no precedent for orbital servicing on the scale of a Space Station. Astronauts have never yet welded in space, for example, nor have they had to seal punctures on a space- craft damaged by micrometeoroids. Space Station designers must plan for a variety of contingencies that were not factors in smaller, short-lived, or returnable spacecraft. The Space Station also must be designed for expansion as new technologies become available and as needs change. The initial configuration is a nucleus for an enlarged future Space Station having more elements. In addition to major structural changes, the "History will remember you as the pioneers, the bold ones who stepped out into this new frontier and made possible these great new dreams and new benefits that mankind is only just beginning to realize." Dr. Eberhard Rees, 1970 Concept for a space operations center with elements similar to those evaluated at Marshall Marshall's underwater model of the Manned Maneuvering Unit, which extends range of astronauts working in space 76 m Space Station will change payloads as sci- ence and technology evolve; an entire observ- atory or laboratory may be replaced, or individual instruments may be exchanged for newer models. Evolutionary growth means fre- quent integration and deintegration of mission equipment. These activities are normally per- formed under stringent environmental and quality control conditions on the ground; designing and planning for these operations in space is another challenge. Apart from these formidable design prob- lems, the actual construction of the Space Station is a major challenge in systems engi- neering and logistics. Delivering all the parts into orbit and assembling them properly will be quite a feat. The Space Station is a complex configuration of large beams, towers, plat- forms, modules, and solar arrays. Containing all the cables, wiring, pipes and ductwork for its utilities services, the Space Station requires advances in systems that provide electrical power, fluid storage and distribution, environmental control, and life support. Advances in assembly techniques are also required to guarantee that all parts connect properly and function well. Marshall has already addressed many of the conceptual and practical problems associ- ated with building large structures in space. Since the mid-seventies, several feasibility and definition studies have focused on space platforms and power systems. Concurrently, alternative assembly and deployment tech- niques have been evaluated in the Neutral Buoyancy Simulator and NASA's KC-135 air- plane, and demonstrations are planned for upcoming Shuttle flights. For some such stud- ies, Marshall has used a prototype beam fabri- cation machine. The Center has also assessed the roles of humans and automated systems in space. To be economical and efficient, the Station must operate without a large contingent of mainte- nance workers and service personnel. Plan- ners are looking ahead to determine what tasks and functions can be handled by auto- mation and robots. To meet the challenges of Space Station architecture, utilities services, and auxiliary vehicles, the Center will rely on its resources in many engineering disciplines. New technol- ogy is required to improve the efficiency of vir- tually every subsystem. The Marshall Center is already involved in advanced technology for environmental control, attitude control, thermal control, propulsion, and long-life materials. Experts in structures, materials, dynamics, fluids, electronics, software, crew systems, and other areas of systems engineering are prepared and eager to join this new adventure in the utilization of space as a work place. Related work is also under way to evaluate complementary systems that would enhance a Space Station; large space structures, orbital transfer vehicles, and robotics and teleopera- tors are typical examples of advanced plan- ning concepts. Thus, Marshall is involved in comprehensive planning for a broad base of operations in space. The eventual extent of the Center's sphere of influence on the Space Station depends on the evolution of the Space Station itself. Many roles or functions are possible. The Center has anticipated them and has become suffi- ciently diverse in its mix of capabilities to A PERMANENT PRESENCE Operator controlling a spacecraft rendezvous and docking simulation from remote control room Docking simulation in Marshall's teleoperation and robotics research laboratory 77 assume any of the Space Station responsibili- ties with high confidence of success. Initially, the Space Station will be used as a service center for orbital craft and scientific payloads. Marshall already has a major role developing the accommodations for orbital servicing, and the Center may become responsible for outfitting the necessary work- shops and hangars. The Center is well quali- fied to develop both manual and automated techniques for orbital maintenance and repair services as well as tools and crew systems. Some of the pioneering work at Marshall in the next few years will be in the development of accommodations and techniques for a ser- vice station in space. The initial Space Station also will serve as an observatory platform for astronomy, solar science, and Earth observations. Marshall may provide new generations of research instruments for use there. The Center is well versed in the design and operation of space telescopes in all sizes and wavelength ranges. Besides astronomy instruments, the Center also has experience in the tools for Earth observations and space plasma physics investigations. Later, when the Space Station becomes a transportation node or launch site for space vehicles. Marshall may provide craft not only for nearby operations (the space "tugs") but also for lunar and planetary expeditions. Such far-ranging missions may be either manned or unmanned. As the Space Station becomes a large orbital base of operations for a fleet of vehicles. Marshall will once again play a major role in missions to the moon and beyond. The Center undoubtedly will become heavily involved in the exploration of space beyond low-Earth orbit. When the Station becomes a logistics base to support large-scale construction proj- ects in space or mining on the moon, Marshall may well provide the necessary technology. An intriguing idea now under study is propel- lant scavenging from discarded fuel tanks and surplus reservoirs on board orbital craft. Marshall may develop technology for siphon- ing operations and fuel depots in space. Plan- ning and eventually managing the assembly of large space structures and the integration and checkout of their payloads will be major activi- ties at the Marshall Center. When the Space Station or nearby plat- forms develop into manufacturing sites for space-processed materials, Marshall's role in the commercial use of space will grow dramat- ically. Already the Center sponsors extensive research in microgravity materials processing for both commercial and scientific missions. Some participants speculate that materials science has the same potential for commer- cial development in space as that already achieved by the communications industry. Marshall is prepared to cooperate with private industry as a partner in this endeavor. A relatively recent consideration in Space Station planning is the use of tethers, long cables attached to the Station. Already under development at Marshall, these tethers can serve a variety of purposes: as "leashes" to keep co-orbiting spacecraft from drifting too far away, as lines to "reel in" freeflying craft for servicing, as "elevators" to transfer sup- plies between higher and lower craft without actual docking, or as power lines in an electri- cal power generating system. The list of potential tether applications is growing, and the Center expects to do some exciting work with tethers in the near future. In short, Space Station activities will influ- ence the growth of the Center for the next quarter century. Marshall anticipates a greatly expanded role in orbital assembly and servic- ing activities and in lunar and deep space exploration. Having already introduced joint endeavor agreements for commercial ven- tures in space, Marshall expects to develop new kinds of business partnerships in the Space Station era. Marshall also will be taking advantage of the opportunity to do continuous scientific research on orbit 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. The Center has proven capa- bilities in all the relevant disciplines of science, engineering, and management to evolve with the Space Station. With the Center's strong legacies to their credit, Marshall's experts today are in an envi- able position. They are the ones who will real- ize the dream of the early rocket pioneers - a permanent presence in space. ■ Vision of the future: concept for the Space Station Concept for a commercii materials processing facilit near the Space Statio 78 Concept for a mining base on the moon "We can follow our dreams to distant stars, living and working in space for peaceful, economic, and scientific gain." President Ronald Reagan redit for the suc- cesses of Marshall Space Flight Center during its first quarter century belongs to the employees. Refer- ences to the multidisci- plinary capabilities of this Center are really ref- erences to people - to engi- neers, scientists, managers, procurement and finance specialists, secre- taries, computer and communications techni- cians, illustrators, attorneys and personnel specialists, machinists, welders, and workers in a host of other occupations throughout the laboratories, shops, and offices. Over the years, four directors have guided the Center through a carefully planned diversification from one dominant program in the early Saturn years to the broad variety of programs today. Dr. Wernher von Braun, from 1960 to 1970, brought Marshall Space Flight Center into existence and directed the tremendous Saturn "Marshall's people are its strongest assets. . . people with a sense of the impor- tance of the work they are doing and pride in their accomplishments." Dr. W. R. Lucas Dr. Wernher von Braun Director, 1960-1970 Dr. Eberhard flees Director, 1970-1973 Dr. Rocco A. Petrone Director, 1973-1974 endeavor with energy and foresight. Dr. von Braun's challenge, indeed NASA's chal- lenge, was to form an organization of the best talent to invent and prove the technology for launch vehicles capable of sending Americans to the moon. That no one knew exactly where the moon was or precisely how to get there was no deterrent. The technological effort of the Saturn years is without parallel in our his- tory. Never before nor since have so many people in government, industry, and universi- ties been orchestrated to work together on a project of such complexity and originality as the manned lunar landing. As the Saturn launch vehicles became reality, Marshall's leadership envisioned other roles for the Center. With foresight and prud- ence, the Center embarked on a carefully planned, deliberate course of diversification into the development of scientific payloads, manned systems, and other vehicles for fur- ther exploration and utilization of space. The first Director of the Program Development office, established in 1969 to guide Marshall's evolution toward new responsibilities, was Dr. W. R. Lucas. During his tenure in this position, the Center began a concentrated effort to broaden the scope of its missions and con- ceive new post-Apollo programs for the space agency. Meanwhile, Dr. Eberhard Rees served as Center Director from 1970 to 1973 during a period of transition. Under his leadership, the Saturn-Apollo program was completed, the Skylab program was implemented, and formu- lation of the Shuttle concept began. During the tenure of Dr. Rees, the agency, and the Marshall Center in particular, experienced fis- cal and manpower reductions that presented new managerial challenges. Although many valued employees were lost, the Center retained its capabilities in all disciplines and emerged from this period with renewed energy. For the next year, Dr. Rocco Petrone served as Marshall's Director and presided over the extraordinary Skylab program. In three successful missions, including the dra- matic rescue operations, Marshall demon- strated convincing expertise in scientific payloads and manned systems. The Center reapplied experience gained in the develop- ment of launch vehicles to this ambitious sys- tems engineering project and succeeded admirably. During this period, the Center's organization was restructured to accommo- date Marshall's changing roles and responsi- bilities. The result has been a streamlined, more efficient institution, ambitious and undaunted. In 1974, Dr. W. R. Lucas began his term as Center Director, a position he holds today and has held longer than any other Marshall Center Director. Marshall bears the stamp of his influence. As Dr. Lucas advanced through key positions at all levels from the laboratory onward, he has insisted on the virtues of com- petence, discipline, and the commitment to excellence. Under his leadership, the Center has become diversified and has remained one of the foremost technical and managerial ele- ments of NASA. It has been speculated that the systems engineering capabilities of the Marshall Center could be applied to any large- scale technological challenge - a national transportation system, for example, or energy systems - and Marshall could handle the problem just as successfully as it has met its space program challenges. This multidiscipli- nary expertise is rare and valuable. With the leadership of these four directors, Marshall Space Flight Center has established a reputation for technical competence. The Center has had major responsibilities for many of NASA's key programs in launch vehi- cle development, scientific spacecraft, orbital laboratories, and pioneering research. While "Although we look with pride on our achievements of the past. . . we recognize that we must prove our- selves each year." Dr. W. R. Lucas Dr. William R. Lucas Director since 1974 82 these past achievements are a source of pride, their real importance today is that they are the foundation for the Center's future. In these accomplishments, Marshall has devel- oped the ability and experience to meet the new challenges of the Space Station era. Exciting opportunities for achievement await the next generation of Marshall leader- ship and employees. Establishment of a per- manent presence in space on a manned space station, ventures into deeper space, perhaps a return to the moon or manned excursions to the planets, development of new space vehicles, commercial enterprise in space, sophisticated orbital laboratories and observatories all demand ingenuity, skills, and talent on a scale comparable to that of the past. !■■■ ■■■■■! ■■!■■■■ I l ; l! ! : il ! imiiiiiiiiiiir I 1 |! ; . II jLii I Scenes from the Marshall Center's 25th Anniversary FOUNDATION FOR THE FUTURE The challenges of the future require expe- rienced managers, engineers, and scientists and also the abilities of highly motivated young professionals. The Marshall Center today is in an excellent posture to meet the future. The current work force is a blend of mature employees and new recruits. Many of the experienced employees have worked on several major projects and have risen to lead- ership positions, applying their competence from one program to the next. This continuity of skill and experience is enhanced by the infusion of new talent; entry level employees, fresh out of educational and training pro- grams, add new knowledge and capabilities to Marshall's inventory. Engineers and scientists make up almost two-thirds of the Marshall Center work force today, with a wide variety of business profes- sionals, clerical personnel, and technicians making up the other third. More than two- thirds of the employees have college degrees, and many have earned graduate degrees. The Center has proficiency in all the relevant engineering disciplines for complex space systems, and its cells of science are advanc- ing the frontiers of space research. The work force skills are sufficient and well balanced to meet the challenges of the present and fore- seeable future. Expertise in many fields invig- orates this Center and keeps it strong and supple. The Marshall Center is a highly disciplined organization noted for its technical excellence and meticulous attention to detail. Its bold achievements result from careful planning and methodical progress by people who are dedi- cated to the common goal of excellence. As Marshall people meet the challenges of the nation's space program, usually pushing the state of the art within tight schedule and fund- ing constraints, they insist on "doing things right" and "making it work." The personnel here are confident, creative, and well prepared to tackle any problem; if the appropriate mate- rials or methods do not exist, Marshall people will develop them. The disciplined work ethic here arises in part from the Center's proven management philosophy and also from the individual's sense of responsibility. People are aware of the historic importance of their work and are challenged daily to be perfectionists, to give their best effort. This commitment to excel- lence fosters personal satisfaction and is the basis for the Center's many successes. These attitudes and values enrich the broader community as well as the Center. Marshall's people are active in civic affairs in Huntsville and the surrounding areas, giving generously of their time and talents to enhance the quality of life here. They bring to a multitude of community projects the same devotion and energy that characterize their NASA work. The annual Combined Federal Campaign of charitable fund-raising is but one impressive example of employees' contribu- tions to the community; the roster of contribu- tors and volunteers to virtually every civic organization includes Marshall employees. The Center is fortunately situated in a sup- portive community, where it enjoys a friendly relationship with its neighbors, the United States Army on Redstone Arsenal and the universities in Huntsville. The mutually benefi- cial community ties that originated in the 1950's are sustained at the institutional and individual levels by people whose dedication reaches beyond the work place. The people of Marshall Space Flight Center are its strongest asset, as important to the present and future space program as the rocketry pioneers were to the past. Like the early von Braun rocket team, they are a unique national resource. ■ 84 .•*& 1 E •* 'i* - '^X5i?i;vi^| -■-■ ^~f 1 1 • 1 ill.. Bf ; k v_- * Alabama Space and Rocket Center Archives photo "Our community has been and continues to be vitally important to the success of America's space program." Dr. W. R. Lucas Community ties 85 IhilJiiJkHiJ^iIh 1960-1985 25 Mitt m . mm 25 YEARS AT THE MARSHALL SPACE FLIGHT CENTER 19601985 25 Hi] : [ i ] k 1 1 t\'m%musm. EHE Explorer I (Jupiter C) launched America's first satellite (1958) Saturn development authorized (1958) Saturn program given highest national priority rating 1st Mercury-Redstone launch with live payload (chimpanzee) 1st manned Mercury- Redstone launch and suborbital flight 1st Saturn I launch 2 Saturn I launches • 3 Saturn I launches. • 3 Saturn IB launches • Apollo 4. last in series of 10 1st Saturn V Saturn I launch • 3 Saturn I launches launch Apollo 14 (Saturn V). 3rd manned lunar landing Apollo 15 (Saturn V), 4th manned lunar landing MSFC Space Shuttle assignments announced EZSEgmaaazEEigiziiMsa Explorer I. discovery of Van Allen radiation belts (1958) Project Highwater completed 3 Pegasus micro- meteoroid detection satellites launched Skylab Apollo Telescope Mount project began Apollo 16 (Saturn V). 5th manned lunar landing Apollo 17 (Saturn V), 6th manned lunar landing Space Shuttle configu- ration announced dJMHEgEZIE 1st microgravity materials processing demonstrations and experiments Space Telescope assigned to MSFC Apollo Telescope Mount (Skylab) EVA exercises held in Neutral Buoyancy Simulator (NBS) Lunar Roving Vehicle driven on moon Static Test Tower (Bldg. 4572) completed (1957) NASA established by National Aeronautics and Space Act (1958) Project Mercury authorized (1958) Project Mercury astro- nauts selected (1959) MSFC established; Dr. Wernher von Braun named 1st Director President Eisenhower dedicated MSFC President Kennedy set goal of manned lunar landing by end of decade Michoud Operations production facility added Construction of Saturn launch facilities in Florida under MSFC direction President Kennedy visited MSFC Sliriell Computer Facility acquired MSFC Launch Operations Directorate became separate NASA Center in Florida 1 Central Laboratory and Office Building (4200) completed 1 Propulsion Test Facility (F1 Engined Test Stand. Bldg. 4696) completed Misissippi Test Opera- tions added (later renamed Mississippi Test Facility) Major MSFC reorgani- zation established two directorates Barge docks and Saturn Road built Saturn V Dynamic Test Facility (Bldg. 4550) completed Propulsion Systems Components Test Facility (F-1 Turbopump Test Facility) (4548) complete Engine Component Test Facility (Test Complex 300) completed Model Propulsion Systems Test Complex (Bldg. 4540) completed Target Motion Simulator activated in Bldg. 4663 HiUdihM.MITTTT Vehicle Components Hangar (4755) completed Thermal Vacuum Chamber (Bldg. 4557) installed Machine Shop and Assembly Shop (Bldg. 4550) completed Propulsion System Test Stand (3-IVB Test Stand for J-2 Engines. Bldg. 4514) and cryogenic storage facilities completed HOSC established in Bldg. 4663 Load Test Annex (Bldg 4619) constructed Propulsion System Component Test Stand/ Test Complex 500 (Bldg. 4522) and related facilities completed Welding Shop, Electrical Shop (Bldg. 4705) completed Saturn/Apollo Applica- tions Office established S-ll Structural Test Facility (Bldg. 4699) completed Neutral Buoyancy Space Simulator (Bldg. 4705) completed Major MSFC reorgani- zation, four directorates established Six-Degree-of-Freedom Motion System activated in Bldg. 4663 Solar Magnetograph Facility (Bldg. 4347) completed Space Shuttle Task Team established Lunar Roving Vehicle used on 2 missions Dr. Wernher von Braun reassigned to NASA Headquarters Dr. Eberhard Rees became Center Director Major MSFC reorganization Program offices established for Skylab and HEAO Shuttle Projects Office established President Nixon announced decision to develop Shuttle 3 multidisciplinary Skylab missions with Apollo Telescope Mount solar observatory, MSFC investigations in materials processing and solar physics. Space Telescope defin- ition and preliminary design activities began Saturn V test stand used as drop tower for microgravity materials processing experiments Final Skylab mission (84 days) completed 1st in series of 10 SPAR flights of materials processing experiments Lageos and Gravitational Probe A launched 2 SPAR flights HEA0-1 launched, discoveries reported HEA0-2 telescope tested in new X-Ray Calibration Facility Spacelab 1 and 2 investigators selected, first meetings held Space Telescope investigators selected SPAR flight Spacelab simulation (ASSESS) held HEAO-2 launched; sent 1st X-ray image of star AXAF conceptual design study completed SPAR flight MSFC studied large space platforms HEAO-2 discoveries reported HEAO-3 launched Skylab re-entered atmosphere and dis- integrated Spacelab 3 investigators selected MSFC assigned manage- ment responsibilities for OSTA-2 Shuttle mission payload, Materials Experiment Assembly SPAR flight 2 SPAR flights 1st Joint Endeavor Agreement (MSFC and McDonnell Douglas) for materials processing in space SPAR flight Space Telescope mirror polishing completed Spacelab 1 mission 70 experiments in 5 disciplines: mission scientist, some principal investigators and co-investigators from MSFC 10th and final SPAR flight Solar Array Flight Experiment/OAST-1 mission, demonstration of advanced solar array technology Space Telescope's Optical Telescope Assembly completed and delivered Spacelab 2 mission. 13 investigations in 7 disciplines Spacelab 3 mission, 15 investigations in 5 disciplines Space Telescope assembly in progress Skylab launched, 3 manned Skylab missions Many NBS tests for Skylab EVA repairs Europeans agreed to develop Spacelab for Shuttle flights Record 84-day Skylab manned mission completed Apollo-Soyuz Test Project Spacelab 1 and Spacelab 2 project management assigned to MSFC Spacelab 3 project management assigned to MSFC Skylab reactivated for possible reuse, reboost, or deboost; project discontinued within the year Spacelab 1 and Spacelab 2 payload specialists selected: crew training began Fuli-scale Orbiter cargo bay installed in NBS Tests of Space Telescope servicing procedures and assembly techniques for large space structures held in NBS ESA delivered major Spacelab components • Spacelab 3 payload specialists selected • 1st flight of Spacelab (10 days) Spacelab integration began MSFC assigned Space Station responsibilities Spacelab 2 mission Spacelab 3 mission Dr. Eberhard Rees retired Dr. Rocco A. Petrone became Center Director Spacelab Program Office established Michoud Assembly Facility modified for production of Shuttle External Tanks Dr. Petrone reassigned to NASA Headquarters Dr. William R. Lucas became Center Director Science & Engineering Directorate reorganized Mississippi Test Facility became independent NASA installation (National Space Technology Laboratories) Robotic & Teleoperator System Evaluation Facility activated in Bldg. 4705 Conversion of Saturn facilities for Shuttle testing initiated Spacelab Payload Project Office established Special Projects Office established Saturn Program Office phased out X-Ray Calibration & Test Facility completed in Bldg. 4708 Solar Heating & Cooling Test Facility opened Space Telescope Project Office established Saturn IB Static Test Stand (Bldg. 4572) modified for Solid Rocket Booster testing Saturn IC Dynamic Test Facility (Bldg. 4550) modified for Shuttle testing Materials Processing in Space Projects Office established Space Shuttle unloading facility prepared at Redstone Arsenal Shuttle route modified from Airfield to test areas HOSC reactivated for Shuttle launch support Spacelab Payload Crew Training Complex activated in Bldg. 4612 ' Integrated Software Development Facility & Ground Computer Development Laboratory activated (both in Bldg. 4708) 1 25 kW Power Module Project Office established within Program Development Space Station Platform Project Office estab- lished within Program Development (evolved from 25kW Power Module Project Office) 1st Productivity Enhance- ment Facilities con- structed in Bldg. 4707 President Reagan approved Space Station development Space Station Projects Office established Teleoperator and Robot- ics Evaluation Facility opened in Bldg. 4619 Work began on Payload Operations Control Center facility in Bldg. 4663 Huntsville population: 16 000(1950) German rocket group moved to Huntsville (1950) Huntsville Symphony organized (1955) Huntsville population 72.000 • J.F. Drake State Technical College opened • Research Institute founded Huntsville Arts Council organized Cummings Research Park established U.S. Army MICOM established UAH Foundation established New Chamber of Commerce and municipal buildings completed Jetplex Industrial Park established Lowe Industrial Park established Madison County Industrial Park established New Huntsville-Madison County Public Library opened Huntsville-Madison County Jetplex opened New Madison County Courthouse completed U.S. Army Advanced BMD Agency formed University of Alabama in Huntsville (UAH) established Huntsville Association of Technical Societies formed Grissom, White, Chaffee public schools dedicated Huntsville population: 139.000 Alabama Space