THOMAS mmn BURRiLL, mom 
 
*t 
 
 V 
 
 ^ 
 
 f 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF ILLINOIS 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 
 <^p.^ 
 
 f 
 
 
 
Return this book on or before the 
 Latest Date stamped below. 
 
 University of Illinois Library 
 
 JIB -8 ^"^ 
 
 APR - 6 t;i67 
 
 MS 8 1 
 
 
 MARl 
 
 m 
 
 MAR 2 
 HAR 
 
 ■7 io,()0 
 
 2 8 WSl 
 5 1994 
 3 1994 
 
 L16I — H41 
 
Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive 
 
 in 2009 witii funding from 
 
 CARLI: Consortium of Academic and Researcii Libraries in Illinois 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/installationofed1906univ 
 
l11 
 
 3 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 
 INSTALLATION 
 
 OF 
 
 Edmund Janes James, Ph.D., LL.D. 
 
 AS PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 PART L 
 
 PROCEEDINGS OF 
 
 THE NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF COLLEGE 
 
 AND UNIVERSITY TRUSTEES 
 
 October 17-19, i9o5 
 
 Edited by E. J. Townsend, Ph. D. 
 
 Urbana, 1906 
 
Copyright 1906 
 By The University of Illinois 
 
 Press of The 
 
 Illinois Printing Company 
 
 Danville, Illinois 
 
^.3 
 
 PREFATORY NOTE 
 
 During the week in which Doctor Edmund J. James was formally 
 installed as President of the University of Illinois, there was held at 
 the University in connection with the ceremonies of installation a 
 national conference of trustees of American colleges and universities. 
 The following announcement of the conference was sent to the trustees 
 of all the more prominent educational institutions of collegiate rank 
 in the country : 
 
 Anxouncement of the National Conference of the Trustees of 
 American Colleges and Universities to be held at the Uni- 
 versity of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, beginning Tuesday, 
 October 17th, 1905, 2 p.m. 
 
 A national conference of trustees of American colleges and uni- 
 versities will be held at the University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, 
 beginning Tuesday, October 17, 1905. All trustees of such institu- 
 tions and all persons who have served as trustees are cordially invited 
 to attend. 
 
 The sessions will be held during the week in which Dr. Edmund J. 
 James will be formally inaugurated as president of the University of 
 Illinois. The member of the conference will be invited to attend the 
 exercises connected with the inauguration. This will give the mem- 
 bers of the conference an opportunity to meet representative men, 
 presidents and professors, from many different institutions, who will 
 be in attendance as delegates, and also to inspect the work of one of 
 the larger of the state universities. 
 
 It is well known that the method of governing higher institutions 
 of learning by boards of trustees, that is, bodies of non-experts, — 
 laymen, so to speak, in the field of education, — is peculiarly American. 
 
 In England the old universities are self-governing bodies, con- 
 trolled largely by the faculties; in France and Germany they are 
 departments of the governments, and, so far as they are not directly 
 under the control of the government, they are autonomous, that is, 
 ruled by the faculties. In the United States alone we have felt it 
 necessary to create a third organ, an independent, often self-renewing 
 body of non-experts, in whose hands the entire legal control has 
 usually been placed. 
 
 • Many authorities regard this as a most satisfactory method ; others 
 find in it some of the most serious weaknesses of our American system 
 of higher education ; all believe that the problems connected with such 
 a plan of control are far from being worked out satisfactorily. 
 
 This conference has been called for the purpose of discussing some 
 
 (3) 
 If-' r\ rr' ^ C">**^ 
 
of the most important questions of college and university administra- 
 tion, involving the relations of trustees, presidents and faculties. 
 Among the questions which will be discussed are the following: 
 
 1. What should be the real administrative body of a college or 
 university, the faculty or the trustees? 
 
 Should the trustees limit their functions to selecting a faculty 
 and then vest in the latter the actual administration, or should the 
 board itself undertake to administrate the institution, either as a 
 body or through its committees? 
 
 2. Should the president of an institution be the sole advisory 
 authority to the board of trustees, or should the other administrative 
 officers, or the various faculties, be consulted? 
 
 3. Should the faculty be authorized to nominate men to the 
 board for vacancies, or should that be done by the president or by 
 committees or by members of the board? 
 
 4. How should trustees be selected? (a) By cooptation? (6) By 
 the Alumni? (c) By outside authority? 
 
 1. In case of private institutions, by the church or other 
 
 body ? 
 
 2. In case of state institutions, 
 
 (a) Appointed by the governor? 
 (6) Elected by the people? 
 
 (c) or ex officio, e. g., governor, superintendent of 
 public instruction, etc.? 
 
 5. Should the trustees assume entire control of the financial 
 administration, or should they allow the faculties to have a repre- 
 sentation also, by allowing them to submit a budget either by depart- 
 ments or as a whole? 
 
 6. Should the trustees, if they reserve the financial authority, 
 undertake to determine the budget in all its details, or should they 
 simply distribute by departments and leave it to the individual 
 departments to make the detailed distribution. 
 
 7. Should the trustees of all institutions, public and private 
 alike, be required by law to file full financial statements with some 
 public authority and publish the same ? 
 
 8. Should the alumni have some formally recognized place in the 
 scheme of government of the institution? If so, what? 
 
 9. Should the student body have formal recognition in the scheme 
 of government by being privileged to appoint representatives to any 
 disciplinary or administrative body? 
 
 10. Is it possible to devise uniform methods of bookkeeping and 
 statistics, so as to make comparisons more valuable? 
 
 It will be seen that these are all vital questions, indicating diffi- 
 culties which every board of trustees has to meet. It is believed 
 that every university or college trustee will derive great aid in the 
 
 (4) 
 
5 
 
 performance of his duties by attending this conference and exchang- 
 ing veiws on these important topics. 
 
 Urbana, in which the University of IHinois is located, forms with 
 its adjoining city, Champaign, a single community of about twenty 
 thousand inhabitants. It is situated 128 miles due south of Chicago, 
 at the junction of three great railway systems, the Illinois Central, 
 the Chicago, Cincinnati, Cleveland and St. Louis (Big Four), and the 
 Wabash railways, and is thus easy of access from every direction. 
 
 Persons desiring to attend this conference should notify the under- 
 signed as soon as possible. Suggestions as to other desirable topics 
 for discussion will be thankfully received. Address, 
 
 David Kinley, 
 Dean of the College of Literature and Arts, University of Illinois, 
 
 Urbana, Illinois. 
 
 In response to the call about 100 trustees and others in adminis- 
 trative positions assembled for the conference. This pamphlet con- 
 tains a full account of the proceedings. 
 
 (5) 
 
PROGRAM 
 First Session: 3:30 p.m., Tuesday, October 17 
 Address of Welcome: Mr. S. A. BuUard, President of Board of Trustees, Uni- 
 versity of Illinois. 
 Address: The University Presidency: Hon. A. S. Draper, Commissioner of 
 
 Education, State of New York. 
 Address: Closer Relations between the Trustees and Faculty: Mr. James P. 
 
 Munroe, Trustee of Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 
 Discussion: Mrs. Norman Frederick Thompson, Trustee of Wellesley College. 
 
 Second Session: 9:00 a.m., Thursday, October 19 
 Address: The Academic Career: Professor Joseph Jastrow, President of the 
 
 American Psychological Association. 
 Discussion: — 
 
 President J. W. Mauck, Hillsdale College. 
 
 President Jam.es H. Baker, University of Colorado. 
 
 Professor Richard Jones, Trustee of Iowa College. 
 
 President Brown Ayers, University of Tennessee. 
 
 Mr. S. A. Bullard, President Board of Trustees, University of Illinois. 
 
 Mr. James P. Munroe, Trustee of Mass. Inst, of Technology. 
 
 Mrs. Carrie T. Alexander, Trustee of University of Illinois. 
 
 Mrs. Norman Frederick Thompson, Trustee of Wellesley College. 
 
 Professor Joseph Jastrow. 
 Address: Questions Regarding College Administration: Dean Charles E. 
 
 Bessey, Trustee of Doane College, (Presented by Professor S. A. Forbes, 
 
 University of Illinois). 
 Discussion: Mr. Henry H. Hilton, Trustee of Dartmouth College. 
 
 Third Session: 3:00 p.m., Thursday, October 19 
 Address: State Supervision of Endowment Funds: Mr. J. P. Lippincott, 
 
 Trustee of Illinois College. 
 Address: University Investments and Accounting: Mr. Wallace Heckman, 
 
 Counsel and Business Manager of University of Chicago. 
 Address: Need of Business Methods in Our Universities- Mr. William S. 
 
 Dyche, Business Manager of Northwestern University. 
 Discussion: — 
 
 Mr. Ernest Reckitt, C. P. A., Chicago. 
 
 Mr. J. E. Davidson, Trustee of Hillsdale College. 
 
 Mr. A. C. True, United States Department of Agriculture. 
 
 Fourth Session: 8:00 p.m., Thursday, October 19 
 
 Address: The Selection of Trustees: Hon. Paul Jones, Ex-trustee of Ohio 
 State University. 
 
 Discussion: Principal James E. Armstrong, Ex-trustee of University of Illinois. 
 
 Address: vSecondary Administrative Positions in University Organizations: 
 Eugene Davenport, Director of the Agricultural Experiment Station, Uni- 
 versity of Illinois. 
 
 Discussion: Dean David Kinley, University of Illinois. 
 
 Review of the Work of the Conference: Mr. S. A. Bullard, President of the 
 Board of Trustees, University of Illinois. 
 
 (6) 
 
KIRST SESSION 
 
 ADDRESS OF WELCOME 
 
 By Hox. S. A. Bullard, M. Arch. 
 President of the Board of Trustees, University of Illinois 
 
 It affords me great pleastire as President of the Board of Trustees 
 of the University of IlHnois, to welcome you as delegates and friends 
 to this conference, to the University of Illinois, and to all the enter- 
 tainments that will be given during the week ; and we trust your stay 
 here may be not only a benefit to you, but to all those people whom 
 you represent in the different colleges throughout the country. 
 
 Such an assemblv as this is unique in the history of the colleges of 
 our country. The gathering together of people representing boards 
 of trustees of the several colleges seems to me must result in great 
 advantage. We shall be able to compare notes and to exchange 
 ideas concerning the conduct of institutions of learning. The ad- 
 vantages to be derived from such an interchange of views, I am sure, 
 will more than repay the cost. 
 
 This is a conference. Therefore, there will be no standing com- 
 mittees, so that anv expression of opinion of this body will have to 
 come through resolutions introduced bv individual members of the 
 conference. In seeking the views of this conference, upon anv topic, 
 it seems to me it would be very appropriate that resolutions express- 
 ing some definite idea should be presented, to the end that we may 
 act upon them, and the work of the conference may be preserved. 
 
 The university trustee is peculiar to American institutions. He 
 is selected in different ways in different institutions, and even in the 
 same institution he is not alwavs selected in the same manner. In 
 our State the control of the University is placed in the hands of nine 
 trustees, elected by the people as such, upon the same ticket as other 
 officers of the State, together with the governor and the superintend- 
 ent of public instruction, and another, who is elected to represent the 
 agricultural people of the State as President of the State Agricultural 
 Society. These twelve people constitute our board. Other institu- 
 tions may have other and different wavs of choosing their controlling 
 boards, — such as appointment bv some official, or body of individuals, 
 election by alumni, or faculty, or by choice of the remaining members 
 of the trustees themselves. The trust imposed upon the governing 
 boards may vary in the different institutions. They do not all have 
 the same duties and responsibilities, and in all these we may not be 
 
 (7) 
 
able to make actual comparisons and draw helpful conclusions: but 
 we may be given to see how the several boards do the work devolving 
 upon them, and how they meet some of the perplexing questions which 
 are constantly arising and so be enabled, ourselves, to see more clearly 
 the pathway of duty as it dimly appears before us. 
 
 No one serving as a trustee, or at least a very few, receives a salary 
 for such service. Most of us have business interests in addition to 
 the work which we are doing as trustees. Therefore the work of the 
 trustee is a gratuity. The man of business affairs brings with him to 
 his office of trustee, his usual systematic business methods, and by his 
 advice and counsel aids largely in conserving the financial interests of 
 his institution. His relations with the business world give him also 
 decided views of the way in which the college or university may best 
 serve the world of business activity about him, and thus in one more 
 way repay to society the money expended in educational work. 
 
 The duties of trustees of our colleges are responsible duites, and, 
 if such a gathering as this will inspire us to perform those duties more 
 conscientiously, and by having the benefit of the experiences and sug- 
 gestions of others we may have more wisdom with which to perform 
 them, I shall feel that this conference has been a success. 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY PRESIDENCY 
 
 By Hon. Andrew S. Draper, LL.D. 
 
 Commissioner of Education, State of -New York 
 
 [By permission of The Atlantic Monthly] 
 
 There are at least four features which distinguish university work 
 in America and exercise a decisive influence upon the form of govern- 
 ment in American universities. 
 
 The first grows out of the universal democracy of the country and 
 the common ambitions of the people. Every one who shares in the 
 spirit of the country wants to get to the top, and continually hears that 
 he may, if he will seize his opportunities. He has no thought of fol- 
 lowing his father's work, unless, as is quite improbable, it is in line 
 with his special ambitions. The need of the higher training for all 
 kinds of work involving mental aptitude is now everywhere recognized. 
 The secondary schools have become a part of the common school sys- 
 tem, and every teacher in high school or academy leads his students 
 very near to the point of thinking that they will lose their chance in 
 life, and even be discredited, if they do not advance to college or uni- 
 versity. The university life is now specially attractive to the young, 
 and they want a share in the pleasure and enthusiasm of it. This 
 brings to the universities great numbers who in other days never went 
 to college, who in other lands would not go now. Many of these must 
 be both led and pushed. 
 
 (8) 
 
Then, the common thought about Hberal education has changed* 
 It is no longer only classical, culturing, disciplinary: it must prepare 
 students not only for the multiplying professions, but for the multi- 
 plying industries. It trains one for icork, but work which may dis- 
 tinguish him. Cultivated aimlessness is no longer the accepted ideal 
 of American scholarship. Culture which is not the product of work 
 either mental or manual, with some definite point to it, is held to be 
 at second-hand, only skin-deep, and not to be taken seriously. It 
 must not be said that mere strength and steadiness in holding down a 
 job are the marks of an educated man. There must be native resource- 
 fulness and versatility, sound training and serious studv, discrimination 
 in means and methods, and rational applications to real things in 
 life, in ways that bring results of some distinct worth to the world. 
 It makes little difference ivhat one does, but he must do something. 
 The all-important fact is not that real learning may now be found in 
 all businesses, — though that is important, — but that one must do 
 something of recognized value, to be held a scholar. It may be not 
 only in letters, or science, or law, or medicine, or theology, but it may 
 be also in administration, in planning and constructing, in mechanics, 
 in agriculture, in banking, in public service, in anything else worth 
 while. 
 
 If one's powers of observation, of investigation, of expression, and 
 of accomplishment, lead him to do something of real concern, to do it 
 completely and quite as well as, or better than, others can do it, and 
 impel him to open up new vistas and methods of doing other things of 
 larger moment, he has a better right to be held an educated 
 man than he who incubates the unpotential and brings forth nothing. 
 And not only have educational values changed, but educational 
 instrumentalities have changed. Books and academic discussions 
 have their part, but in many directions it is now a minor part. Things 
 are taught and learned, new insight and the power to do are gained, 
 through actual doing. And not only is the training through doing 
 rather than through reading and talking, but the opportunity of se- 
 lection extends to every subject and every study. It requires build- 
 ings and equipment and teachers never before within the means of an 
 institution. It has revolutionized the scope, the possessions, the plans 
 and methods, the offerings, and the outlook of the universities. While 
 this is coming to be true in a measure in other countries, the uncon- 
 ventional freedom, the industrial aggressiveness, the unparalleled 
 volume of money going into university operations in this country have 
 given us the leadership of a New- World movement in higher education. 
 
 Again, university revenues come from men who have done things 
 and want other things done. It is exclusively so in private institu- 
 tions, and the people and representatives who vote appropriations to 
 the state universities have no other thought. While few are so short- 
 
 (9) 
 
10 
 
 sighted as to tre opposed to a balanced and harmonious university 
 evolution, still, money is provided more freely for the kind of instruc- 
 tion in which the providers are most interested. This, of course, 
 gives shape and trend to the development. But it does more: it 
 creates the need of teachers not heretofore adequately prepared or 
 not prepared in adequate numbers. The vastness, the newness, and the 
 unpreparedness of it all create the need of general oversight and close 
 administration. Even more, when teachers are not supported bv 
 student fees, but are paid from the university treasurv without ref- 
 erence to the number of students they teach, or verv sharp discrimi- 
 nation about the quality of work they do, there is no automatic way 
 of getting rid of teachers who do not teach or of investigators who do 
 not produce. Some competent and protected authority must ac- 
 complish this and continually reinforce the teaching staff with virile 
 men. The competition between institutions rather than between 
 men, and the natural reluctance at deposing a teacher, are producing 
 pathetic situations at different points in many American universities, 
 and are likely to become the occasion of more weakness in our uni- 
 versity system than has been widely realized. 
 
 Yet again, the sentiment of this country does not agree, and doubt- 
 less will never agree, that American universities shall stand for mere 
 "scholarship" without reference to character, or that boys shall be 
 allowed to go to the devil without hindrance, for the lack of university 
 leadership, or to accommodate administrative cowa-rdice or convenience. 
 Students will have to be controlled and guided in this country, and 
 American universities will have to have leaders who are leaders of 
 morals as well as of learning, and who will stir the common sense, and 
 use the common sentiment, through the authoritative word spoken in 
 the crowd. 
 
 One may lament that our universities are not copied upon German 
 or English models ; that overwhelming numbers of students are going 
 to them ; that not all who go are serious students ; that we are moving 
 in new educational directions ; that our professors are not made to live 
 on fees ; and that there is neither a care for superficial culture without 
 much regard for true scholarship, nor a vaunting of mere scholarship 
 without reference to moral character. The labor is lost. These 
 things are so: they are right because thev are so; because they are the 
 outgrowth of the compounding of a great new nation in the world, and 
 because they are the logical outworkings of a marvelous advance in 
 the thinking of men who are free to do some thinking for themselves. 
 
 It is hardly worth while to be troubled because we cannot see the 
 road beyond the turns that are ahead. There is a road beyond the 
 turns, — or one will be made. President Pritchett of the Massachu- 
 setts Institute of Technology, in a recent address at the University of 
 Michigan, published in the September Atlantic, discusses, without 
 
 (10) 
 
11 
 
 answering, the question, "Shall the University become a business 
 corporation?" Dr. Pritchett ordinarily does things exactly and com- 
 pletely. He can answer questions, — particularly when he asks them 
 of himself. He did not answer this one because the answer is so 
 obvious. He used his question to express a very common skepticism. 
 Of course the university cannot become a business corporation, with a 
 business corporation's ordinary implications. Such a corporation is 
 without what is being called spiritual aim, is without moral methods. 
 Universities are to unlock the truth and turn out the best and the 
 greatest men and women; business corporations are mainly, if not ex- 
 clusivelv to make money. If this is a harsh characterization, it can 
 not be denied that it has been earned by the great business corpora- 
 tions with which the great universities must be compared if they are 
 to be compared with an v. A university cannot become such a cor- 
 poration without ceasing to be a university. The distinguishing ear- 
 marks of an American universitv are its moral purpose, its scientific 
 aim, its unselfish public service, its inspirations to all men in noble 
 things, and its incorruptibility by commercialism. But that is no 
 reason w'hy sane and essential business methods should not be applied 
 to the management of its business affairs. It is a business concern 
 as well as a moral and intellectuaj instrumentality, and if business 
 methods are not applied to its management it will break down. If 
 they are not to be employed, the university, with its vast accumula- 
 tions of materials and men, must be a mistake, or, worse yet, a wrong. 
 It is neither a mistake nor a wrong, or it would not be here. It is 
 neither an accident nor an impulse; it is a growth, the deliberate pro- 
 duct of conditions, of means, and of thought. It is a great combina- 
 tion of material resources and moral forces essential to modern compe- 
 titions, the needed inspiration of all factors in the population for large 
 areas of territory, and its usefulness depends upon giving the manage- 
 ment both moral sense and worldly knowledge. 
 
 The responsible authorities in the management of a university are 
 the trustees, the president, and the faculty. Legal enactments settle 
 in some measure the exact functions of each, but common knowledge 
 of the kinds of government which succeed when much property and 
 many interests are involved, as well as the imperative necessities of 
 the particular situation, have gone much further to establish the gov- 
 ermental procedure in the university. While the immediate purpose 
 is to exploit the functions and powers of the university president, some 
 reference necessarily brief must be made to the prerogatives and 
 duties of the trustees and faculty. 
 
 A vital principle in all government involving many cares and 
 interests is tersely expressed in the statement that bodies legislate and 
 individuals execute. It goes without saying that legislation must be 
 by a body which is both morally responsible and legally competent, 
 
 (11) 
 
12 
 
 and common observation proves to us that it must concern an actual 
 situation, to be of any real worth. If it involves special knowledge, 
 it must be by men who have the knowledge or who will respect the 
 opinions of others who have it. 
 
 Trustees, as the representatives of the founders or donors, or of 
 the state, are practically, if not altogether, unknown to foreign uni- 
 versities. Those universities are managed directly bv the govern- 
 ment, or by the faculties, or by both. The introduction of trustee 
 management into American universities has resulted necessarily from 
 their more democratic character, from their different manner of sup- 
 port, from their independence of government, and from the difference 
 between the political systems and popular purposes in the New World 
 and the Old. With the early development of American universities 
 it was obvious enough that they could not be left to the management 
 of political officers ; that they must be managed without partisanship 
 ■ and governed by law rather than supervised by legislatures ; and as 
 they have taken shape, it has been equally clear that the appointment 
 of teachers and the assignment of resources to departments could not 
 be left to the faculties. The special circumstances of the universities, 
 and the practically uniform plan of corporate management in America, 
 developed the board of trustees in our universities, with functions and 
 powers subordinate to.^nd consistent with, and exercised in a similar 
 manner with, those which are held by the sovereign legislative author- 
 ity over all corporations; Trustees stand for the legislature so far as 
 the law permits. 
 
 The trustees of a university are charged by law, either statutory or 
 judge-made, or by widely acknowledged usage, with that general over- 
 sight and that legislative direction which will assure the true execution 
 of a trust. They are to secure revenues and control expenditures. 
 They are to prevent waste and assure results. They are never to for- 
 get that they represent the people who created and who maintain the 
 university. They are not to represent these people as a tombstone 
 might, — but as living men may. The are to do the things their prin- 
 cipals would assuredly do if in their places, to enlarge the advantage 
 to the cestui que trust. This is a heavy burden. It must be assumed 
 that it is given to picked men who are specially able to bear it; who 
 would not give their time to it for mere money compensation, but are 
 happy in doing it for the sake of promoting the best and noblest things. 
 The trustees do not live upon the campus, and they are not as- 
 sumed to be professional educationalists. Their judgment is likely 
 to be quite as good as to the relations of the work to the public in- 
 terests, and as to what the institution should do to fulfill its mission, 
 as that of any expert would be. To get done what they want done, 
 they must enact directions and appoint competent agents. The in- 
 dividual trustee has no power of supervision or direction not given to 
 
 (12)' 
 
13 
 
 him by the recorded action of the board. What they do is to be done 
 in session, after the modification of individual opinions through joint 
 and formal discussion. It must be reduced to exact form and stand 
 in a permanent record. Trustees make a mess of it when they usurp 
 executive functions, and they sow dragons' teeth when they intrigue 
 with a teacher or hunt a job for a patriot who thinks he is in need of it. 
 The are bound to regard expert opinion and to appoint agents who 
 can render a more expert service than any others who can be procured. 
 They are to keep the experts sane, on the earth, in touch with the 
 world, as it were. They are to sustain agents and help them to suc- 
 ceed, and they are to remove agents who are not successful. From a 
 point of view remote enough and high enough, they are to inspect the 
 whole field. They are bound to be familiar with all that the institu- 
 tion is doing. The are to be alert in keeping the whole organization 
 free from whatever may corrupt, and up to the very top notch of 
 efficient public service. There is too much money involved to permit 
 of idle experimentation, too high interests at stake to allow of vacil- 
 lation and uncertainty. Under a responsibility that is unceasing and 
 unrelenting they must learn the truth and never hestitate to act upon 
 it. And they must find their abundant reward, not in any material 
 return to themselves, but in the splendid fact that the great aggrega- 
 tion of land and structure and equipment, of great teachers and aspir- 
 ing students, of sacred memories and precious hopes and potential 
 possibilities, is doing the work of God and man in the most perfect way 
 and in the largest measure which their knowledge and experience, their 
 entire freedom, and their combined wisdom and forecfulness can de- 
 vise. 
 
 The business of university faculties is teaching. It is not legisla- 
 tion and it is not administration, — certainly not beyond the absolute 
 necessities. There is just complaint because tlje necessities of ad- 
 ministration take much time from teaching. It lessens the most 
 expert and essential work which the world is doing. It seldom en- 
 larges opportunity or enhances reputation. It is true that teachers 
 have great fun legislating, but it is not quite certain that, ouside of 
 their specialties, they will ever come to conclusions, or that if they do, 
 their conclusions will stand. The main advantage of it is the relax- 
 ation and intellectual dissipation they get out of it. That is great. 
 And, in a way, it may be as necessary as it is great. Of course teachers 
 couKd not endure it if they were always to conduct themselves out of 
 the classroom as most of them seem to think they are obliged to do in 
 it. Perhaps others would also have difficulty in enduring it. They 
 are given to disorderliness and argumentation beyond any other class 
 who stand so thoroughly for doing things in regular order. It is not 
 strange. It is the inevitable reaction, — what some of them would 
 call the psychological antithesis, I suppose. Nor is it to be repressed 
 
 (13) 
 
14 
 
 or regretted, for it adds to the effectiveness and attractiveness of the 
 most effective and attractive people in the world. All this is often 
 particularly true of the past masters in the art. No wonder that 
 Professor North, who taught Greek for sixty years at Hamilton Col- 
 lege, — "Old Greek," as many generations of students fondly called 
 him,— wrote in his diary that it would have to be cut in the granite 
 of his tombstone that he "died of faculty meetings," for he was sure 
 that some day he would drop off before one would come to an end. 
 
 But the needs of the profession ought to be met by directing the 
 surplus' of physical and intellectual energy into really useful and po- 
 tential channels, such as sports, or battling over academic questions 
 with the doughty warriors of other universities. 
 
 Speaking seriously, university policies are not to be settled by a 
 majority vote. They are to be determined by expert opinion. The 
 very fact of extreme expertness in one direction is as likely not 
 to imply lack of it in other directions. Experts are no more success- 
 ful than other people in settling things outside of their zone of expert- 
 ness. Within that they are to have their own way so long as they 
 sustain themselves and the money holds out. But the resources are 
 not to be equally divided for mere convenience. University rivalries 
 are not to be adjusted by treaties between the rivals. More of univer- 
 sity success depends upon keeping unimportant things from being done 
 in a mistaken way than upon developing useful policies and pursuing 
 them in the correct way. Men and work are to be weighed, not 
 counted. Department experts are to determine department policies, 
 college experts college policies, and university experts university 
 policies. 
 
 What the President of the United States is to the Federal Congress, 
 the president of the university is to the board of trustees. It has not 
 long been so, becaijse American universities are recent creations. 
 When colleges were small, when the care of their property was no 
 task, when all of a college were of one sect, and theology was the main 
 if not the only purpose, when there was but one course of study and 
 the instruction was bookish and catechetical, administration was no 
 problem at all. There was nothing to put a strain on the ship. Even 
 though there was no specific responsibility and no delegation of special 
 functions, with immediate accountability, possessions did not go to 
 waste, frauds did not creep in, and injustice and paralysis did not en- 
 sue. It may easily be so now in the smaller colleges; it cannot be so 
 in the great universities. The attendance of thousands of students, 
 the enlargement of wealth and of the number of students who go to 
 college without any very definite aim, the admission of women, the 
 more luxurious and complex life, the greater need of just and forceful 
 guidance of students, the multiplication of departments, the substi- 
 tution of the laboratory for the book, the new and numberless pro- 
 
 (14) 
 
15 
 
 cesses, the care of millions of property and the handling of very large 
 amounts of money, and the continual and complete meeting of all the 
 responsibilities which this great aggregation of materials and of moral 
 and industrial powers owes to the public, have slowly, but logically 
 and as a matter of course, developed the modern university presidency. 
 It is the centralized and responsible headship of a balanced adminis- 
 trative organization, with specialized functions running out to all of 
 the great innumerable cares and activities of the great institution. 
 It is the essential office which holds the right of leadership, wliich has 
 the responsibility of initiative, which is chargeable with full informa- 
 tion and held to be endowed with sound discretion, which may act 
 decisively and immediately to conserve every interest and promote 
 everv purpose for which the university was established. 
 
 It may be well to specify and illustrate. Conditions are not wholly 
 ideal in a university. Men and women not altogether ripe for trans- 
 lation have to be dealt with. Real conditions, often unprecedented, 
 have to be met. Not only effectiveness within, but decent and help- 
 ful relations with neighbors, constituents, and the world, are to be 
 assured. Some authority must be able to do things at once, and some 
 word must often be spoken to or for the university community. When 
 spoken, it must be a free word, uttered out of an ample right to speak. 
 
 An America university may be possessed of property worth from 
 three to fifty millions of dollars. This is in lands and buildings and 
 appliances and securities. These things may be legislated about, but 
 that alone is not caring for them. To keep them from spoilation and 
 to make the most of them, there must be expert care through a com- 
 petent department, but in harmonious relations with an ever-present 
 power which has the right and responsibility of declaring and doing 
 things. 
 
 The very life of the institution depends upon eliminating weak and 
 unproductive tachers and reinforcing the teaching body with the very 
 best in the world. Unless there is a scientific aggressiveness in the 
 search of new^ knowledge, some very serious claims must be abandoned 
 and some attitudes completely changed. No board ever got rid of a 
 teacher or an investigator — no matter how weak or absurd — except 
 for immorality known to the board and likely to become known to the 
 public. The reason why a board cannot deal with such a matter is 
 the lack of individual confidence about what to do, and of individual 
 responsibility for doing either something or nothing. But, with three 
 or four hundred in the faculty, the need of attention to is this vital 
 matter always present and urgent. No board knows where new men 
 of first quality are to be found ; no board can conduct the negotiations 
 for them or fit them into an harmonious and effective whole. The 
 man who is fitted for this great burden and who puts his conscience 
 up against his responsibility can hardly be expected to tolerate the 
 
 (15) 
 
16 
 
 opposition of an unsubstantial sentiment which would protect a 
 teacher at all hazards, or the more subtle combination of selfish in- 
 fluences which puts personal over and above public interests when the 
 upbuilding of a university is the task in hand. 
 
 Not only must the teaching staff be developed, — the work must be 
 organized. It must develop a following, connect with the circum- 
 stances and purposes of a constituency, and lead as well as it can up 
 to the peaks of knowledge. It is not necessary that all universities 
 cover the same lines of work or have the same standards. It is not 
 imperative that all have the same courses or courses of the same 
 length. It is necessary that all serve and uplift their people. But 
 how? A master of literature will say through classical training and 
 literary style; a scientist will say through laboratories; a political 
 economist will say through history and figures and logic; an engineer 
 will say through roads and bridges and knowledge of materials, and 
 the generation and transmission of power* and skill at construction ; 
 and a professional man will say through building up professional 
 schools, providing no mistake be made about the particular kind of 
 school. Some one of wide experience, having a scholar's training and 
 sympathies, possessed of a judicial temperament and of decision as 
 well, must have the responsibility and the initiative of distributing 
 resources justly as between the multifarious interests, and binding 
 them all into an harmonious and effective whole. 
 
 Difficult as that is, it is not the heaviest burden of university 
 leadership. Ideals must be upheld and made attractive: they must 
 be sane ideals which appeal to real men, — and not only to old men, 
 but to young men. There must be no mistaking of dyspepsia for 
 principle, no assumption that character grows only when powers fail; 
 but a rational philosophy of life by which men may live as well as die. 
 
 Nor is this all. There must be forehandedness. Some one must 
 be charged with the responsibility of peering into the future and lead- 
 ing forward. New and yet more difficult roads must be broken out. 
 Some one in position to do it must be active in initiating things. He 
 must see what will go, — and, quite as clearly, what will not go. 
 Subtle but fallacious logic — and a vast deal of it — must be resisted, 
 greed combated, conceits punctured, resources augmented, influences 
 enlarged, forces marshaled for practical undertakings, and the whole 
 enterprise made to give a steadily increasing service to the industrial, 
 professional, political, and moral interests of a whole people. 
 
 Then there is the management and guidance of students. One 
 may as well complain because this country is a democracy as repine 
 because the sons and daughters of the masses want to go to college. 
 There is no ground for regret in the fact that our universities are not 
 just like some universities over the seas. We have much to learn from 
 them and we are likely to learn much. We have quite as much to 
 
 (16) 
 
17 
 
 avoid. It seems too much to expect to work un-American ideas, and 
 perhaps loose habits, out of American students who study in Europe, 
 when they come home. Our universities are different from the uni- 
 versities in other countries, because of our circumstances and poHtical 
 history, because of our spirit and outlook. That is reason enough 
 why they should be different. 
 
 It is useless to question whether all who come to the higher edu- 
 cational institutions are wise in coming. They are coming. The 
 work will have to be broad enough and adaptable enough to meet 
 their needs. Nor is it worth while to bewail the fact that not all who 
 come are serious students. Their purposes are good enough and 
 serious enough according to their lights. Their preparation is what 
 has been exacted by the university and provided by the high school. 
 Some of them have to be pulled up and pushed along, but the process 
 often brings out most unexpected results. Students are not all angels, 
 but every student is worth being helped by an angel up to an angel's 
 place. The task is upon the people who undertake to manage uni- 
 versities. 
 
 Students have to be directed in companies, but dealt with individ- 
 ually. They may be directed by a rule ; when they break the rule they 
 must be dealt with by a man. It must be a man who can stand pat 
 for all that ought to inhere in a university ; but such a man will get on 
 best if, in addition to being able to stand pat, he is able to like boys; 
 he is likely to get on better still if he was once a rather lively boy him- 
 self ; or, at least, if he is a kind of man for whom a boy with some 
 ginger in him can find it in his heart to have, not only considerable 
 respect, but some regard and admiration. 
 
 This is not saying that college students are to be treated like chil- 
 dren. It is not implied that they are to be excused for being ruffians. 
 Quite the contrary is true. They are to be held exactly responsible to law 
 and rule and all well-known standards of decent living. There must 
 be less viciousness in the life of American universities, or they must 
 and ought to suffer seriously for it. It is to be resented and punished 
 far more forcefully than it has been. Students who get into this kind 
 of a thing and persist in staying in are to be punished, even to the 
 point of being thrust out — and even though it changes the course of their 
 lives and breaks the hearts of fathers and mothers. The good of all 
 is the overwhelming consideration. A university is to be a university, 
 and not something else. Of all institutions, it is to stand for character 
 and ideals. The universities are not to be closed and all youth denied 
 their advantages because a few abuse their privileges. The punish- 
 ment of the bad, if there are any bad, is the protection of all the rest. 
 It is an essential safeguard to safe administration and the wholesome 
 living of the crowd. But is it not better to go farther and hold all the 
 boys we can from going to the dogs by keeping in sympathy and touch 
 
 (IV) 
 
with them, than it is to encourage them into deviltry through the 
 coldness or the downright dullness or nervelessness or cowardliness of 
 an administration? 
 
 The logic' of the situation puts this burden upon the president, or 
 upon one working with singleness of purpose with him. Perhaps the 
 president cannot deal with all directly, but that is no reason why he 
 should not go as far as he may. He must assume responsibility for 
 management, giving the right turn and inspiration to it. It is essen- 
 tially an exceutive function. The sun may as well avail himself of 
 the help of a cloud to save his face when a board of trustees begins to 
 make preachments filled with benevolent advice to a body of students ; 
 and even the man in the moon may be excused if he shuts one eye in 
 contemplation at the spectacle of a university senate of many members 
 undertaking to deal with a college boy in a scrape. 
 
 So much in reference to routine. The president who only follows 
 routine, of course falls short. He is to construct as well as to admin- 
 ister. He must initiate measures which will result in larger facilities, 
 in added offerings and enterprises, in searching out new knowledge, in 
 the wider application of principles to work, and not only in the usual, 
 but in the better training of men and women for distinct usefulness in 
 life. He is not only to see that plans are within the limits of re\'enues, 
 that the physical condition of the plant improves, that everything is 
 clean and attractive, that the faculty is scientifically productive, that 
 the instruction is exact and the spirit true ; but he is to take the steps 
 which will keep the whole organization moving ahead. He must 
 adopt and promote and give full credit for movements initiated by 
 others when their propositions are safe and practical, — ^but he must 
 also be alert in stopping movements which will not go. 
 
 Perhaps more important than all, the president is to declare from 
 time to time the best university opinion concerning popular move- 
 ments and the serious interests of the state. He must connect the 
 university with the life of the multitude, and exert its influence for 
 the quickening arid guidance of that public opinion which, as Talley- 
 rand said, is more powerful than all the monarchs who ever lived or 
 all the laws which were ever declared. 
 
 The unitv and securitv of a university can be assured only 
 thorough accountability to a central office. While every one is to 
 have freedom to do in his own way the thing he is set to do, so long as 
 his way proves to be a good way, the harmony of the whole depends 
 upon the parts fitting together and upon definiteness of responsibility 
 and frequency of accountability. No self-respecting man is going to 
 administer a great office, or an office responsible for great results, and 
 have any doubt about possessing the powers necessary or incident to 
 the performance of his work. He will have enough to think of with- 
 out having any doubt upon that subject. There need be no fear of 
 
 (18) 
 
19 
 
 his being too much inflated with power. There will be enough to 
 take the conceits out of him and keep him upon the earth. If he con- 
 not exercise the powers of his great office, and yet keep steady and 
 sane, there is no hope for him and he will speedily come to official ruin. 
 It is not a matter of uplifting or of inflating a man; but of getting a 
 man who can meet the demands of a great situation . 
 
 One flt to be trusted with large powers does not boast of them, and 
 he does not need to exercise them very often.. He will not go swag- 
 gering about, as the beadle does in Dickens's story, always pounding 
 with his staft" and proclaiming that the supreme occasion has now 
 come for which he was created a parochial beadle. If large powers 
 are overused or abused, the man who does it comes to an early official 
 end. The fact of the presence of such powers makes the occasions for 
 their exercise less frequent than they otherwise would be. There is, 
 happily, a higher law in administration, as in everything else, and it 
 both supports and limits the use of means to the accomplishing of 
 ends. 
 
 Distinct and decisive authority in both the legislative and excutive 
 branches of university government is vital to peace and productivity. 
 Nothing is so disheartening as chaotic conditions without law and 
 leadership. There is small danger from autocrats in America or ty- 
 rants in American universities. There is more danger from mistaken 
 reasoning about the means and methods by which the sentiment of a 
 democratic people may have its expression and their wishes have 
 result. Decisive executive authority is not at all inconsistent — it is 
 thoroughly consistent — with democracy in government and freedom 
 in universities. Democracies are as much entitled as any other form 
 of government to have their purposes executed and get things done. 
 Objections to this are sometimes offered, and then, of course, they are 
 placed upon public grounds, but in fact they rest upon personal con- 
 siderations. The men who see dangers in leadership, and in the sup- 
 ports which aid leadership, are the men who find it in the way of their 
 peculiar views or personal ambitions; and rather singularly they are 
 also the men who, having any measure of independent control them- 
 selves, bloom into as sizable specimens of the species martinet as can 
 develop in purely democratic conditions. 
 
 Of course, no one can realize the hopes which center in a university 
 presidency, without being able to work harmoniously with others. 
 There must be a true deference to the opinions of many, and scrupu- 
 lous recognition of the just, though unexpressed, claims of all. But 
 we must never forget that administrative freedom is quite as inviol- 
 able as any other freedom, even in a university. The president must 
 mark out his official course for himself, and bear the responsibility of 
 it without cavil. He must expect to suffer criticism and opposition, 
 even contumely. He cannot expect that the work he has to do will 
 
 (19) 
 
20 
 
 make everyone happy. It will discomfit many. In one way or 
 another thev will give him all the trouble they can. The protests will 
 be loudest because of the very acts for which his office has been de- 
 veloped. But he may comfort himself with the reflection that if the 
 job were not so heavy there would be a cheaper man to manage it, and 
 that the extent of the opposition is often the measure of real presi- 
 dential business that is being performed. In any event, his only hope 
 is in success, and he cannot go around the duty which confronts him 
 without inevitable failure. Conditions may easily make a mere 
 compromiser of him. If they do, the waves will speedily close over 
 his official remains forever. Some choice and magnanimous spirits 
 will help him; but he need entertain no doubt that there will be plenty 
 more on every side to try out the stufl^ that is in him, and that they 
 will diligently attend to the trying-out. process until enough occurs to 
 convince them that his wisdom, his rational conception of his task, his 
 love of justice and sense of humor, his constructive planning, his inde- 
 pendence, and his fearlessness, are sufficient to ignore little people and 
 prove him worthy of as great an opportunity for usefulness and honor 
 as ever comes to any man. 
 
 All this calls for a rare man. He ought, in the first place, to be 
 reasonably at peace with mankind and in love with youth. He must 
 have the gift of organizing and the qualities of leadership. He ought 
 to have been trained in the universities, not only for the sake of his 
 own scholarship, but that he may be wholly at home in their routine 
 and imbued with their purposes. He must be moved by public spirit 
 as distinguished from uni^^ersitv routine or mere scholarly purpose. 
 He must be a scholar, — but not necessarily in literature or science or 
 moral philosophy. It is quite as well if it is in law, or engineering, or 
 political historv. He must be sympathetic with all learning. He 
 can no longer hope to be a scholar in every study. He can hardly 
 hope to administer such a trust or fill such a post without some knowl- 
 edge and considerable aptitude for law. His sense of justice must be 
 keen, his power of discrimination quick, his judgment of men and 
 women accurate; his patience and politeness must give no sign of 
 tiring, and the strength of his purpose to accomplish what needs to be 
 done must endure to the very end. Yet he must determine differences 
 and decide things. He must have the power of expression, as well as 
 the more substantial attainments. Beyond possessing sense, train- 
 ing, outlook, experience, resistive power, decision and aggressiveness, 
 he ought to be a forceful and graceful writer and at least an acceptable 
 public speaker. In a word, the president of an American university 
 is bound to be not only one of the most profound scholars, but quite 
 as much one of the very great, all-around men of his generation. 
 
 (20) 
 
21 
 CLOSER RELATIONS BETWEEN TRUSTEES AXD FACULTY 
 
 By James P. Muxroe, B. S. 
 Trustee of Massachusetts Institute of Technology 
 
 [By permission of Science] 
 
 I venture to speak upon the topic: "Closer Relations between 
 Trustees and Faculty "because I am in this respect hermaphroditic. 
 I have seen service upon both college bodies, and, moreover, have 
 studied certain problems of public school administration which pre- 
 sent many points of analogy. I speak, however, with only that half- 
 knowledge which we of the east, unfamiliar with state-supported 
 universities, bring to the important questions of this conference. 
 
 It is a common cry that teachers — whether in colleges or in schools 
 — are underpaid; and the complaint (especially if one has been a 
 school official) seems amply justified. The imperative need of our 
 American college faculties, however, is not higher salaries; it is larger 
 professional authority and more genuine freedom. Those attained, 
 the wage question will take care of itself. It is true that teaching 
 offers no such money prizes as does law or medicine; nevertheless, the 
 average professor or schoolmaster is in many ways better situated 
 than the average lawyer or physician. Despite this patent fact, the 
 number of youth who deliberately prepare themselves to be teachers, 
 by years of serious study, is comparatively small. Young men of 
 power and ambition scorn what should be reckoned the noblest of 
 professions, not because that profession condemns them to poverty, 
 but because it dooms them to a sort of servitude. The American 
 la\\n^'er or physician is subject only to the judgment of his peers — 
 that is, to the well-established code of his profession. The American 
 teacher, on the contrary, especially in the public schools, is not only 
 subject to — he is often wholly at the mercy of unsympathetic lay- 
 men. 
 
 This condition is inherent in the American svstem of education, 
 and neither can nor should be wholly abrogated. The teacher serves 
 the public (for even an endowed college is a public institution) and 
 must rest, therefore, under some of a servant's disabilities. Yet, 
 without impairing the proper powers of school or college trustees, it 
 is possible, I believe, to give teachers — or rather to restore to them — 
 so much of authority, dignity and independence as shall raise teach- 
 ing to the professional status of the law — to a position, that is, where 
 it will commend itself to the most ambitious and best-trained youth. 
 
 The medieval universities, as you know, were preeminently nurs- 
 eries and citadels of intellectual freedom and political democracy. 
 They were"essentailly federated republics, the government of which 
 pertained either to the whole body of the masters * * * or to the 
 whole body of the students." Moreover, "what slight subordination 
 
 (21) 
 
22 
 
 did exist, was in the beginning, to the ecclesiastical and, later, to the 
 civil power." The American universities, also, from the frontier col- 
 lege of Harvard, in 1636, to the latest frontier (if there now is any 
 such place) college of the plains — have been strongholds of intellectual 
 freedom; but in their administration they have been profoundly 
 subordinate, in the early days to the ecclesiastical, and later — directly 
 or indirectly — to the civil power. 
 
 This subordination, under the stress of circumstances, l:as pro- 
 gressed until, as President Pritchett points out in a recent admirable 
 address, the American university has become an autocracy, wholly 
 foreign in spirit and plan to our political ideals and little short of 
 amazing to those models of thoroughgoing democracy, the German 
 universities. And this absolutism of the American university is not, 
 as in the days of the scholastics, an autocracy of teachers and scholars ; 
 it is an autocracy of ecclesiastical or lay trustees. Whence has arisen 
 this astonishing inversion? Why does the very fountain of our higher 
 life present this paradox? Mainly, I think, because the European 
 universities grew from within, while those of this country have been 
 established from without. The old theocracy of New England, the 
 younger democracies of her splendid daughters, created colleges to fit 
 youth for service in church or commonwealth, and they placed 
 over them men of notable authority. In the east, the hands of both 
 church and state have been largely withdrawn; but in their place have 
 appeared the dead or living hands of donors demanding that their 
 gifts be safeguarded by stable and substantially irremovable trustees. 
 College and public school funds are no less sacred than they are co- 
 lossal; and those who administer them assume high legal as well as 
 moral responsibility. But this large liability has been more than 
 balanced by the gift of almost absolute powers — powers surpassing, 
 perhaps, those of any other bodies. I do not know how it is here; but 
 in Massachusetts the school boards are virtually despotic, far trans- 
 cending in authority those sturdy democrats, their parent town meet- 
 ings. 
 
 Excepting those strictly denominational, the balance of the ex- 
 traordinary legal powers given to college trustees has gradually passed 
 from the hands of the clergy into those of laymen chosen, as a rule, for 
 their standing as financiers rather than as educators. From many 
 aspects this has been a salutary change; but there has followed from 
 it one signal disadvantage — that of putting the trustees more and 
 more out of touch with the faculties whose members they appoint. 
 Although the reverend gentlemen of those antique college boards 
 could scarcely have distinguished a government bond from a wildcat 
 stock, they were usually scholars by inclination and teachers by pro- 
 fession, and their relations with their faculties were close and sym- 
 pathetic; while the modern financier who, by skillful investing, secures 
 
 (22) 
 
23 
 
 every possible penny of income for his college, generally finds its 
 educational problems quite outside his range, and sees, tVerefore, less 
 and less occasion for meeting, or even knowing, that faculty over 
 which, legally, his power is of life and death. 
 
 This change in personnel, however, is not alone responsible for the 
 progressive alienation between trustees and faculty. That estrange- 
 ment has come about, no less, through the rapid growth of college 
 curriculums and in college attendance. When educational institutions 
 were small and their courses of study undifferentiated, it was possible 
 for trustees, even though not trained as teachers, to acquire an 
 admirable edvication (so far as concerned their own college) through 
 intimate relations with the facultv and personal supervision of their 
 work. But with the enormous development in numbers and com- 
 plexity, this old-fashioned contact between trustees and teachers has 
 become impossible, and, at best, a trustee can now make himself 
 familiar with only that department of the university which it is his 
 duty (more honored in the breach than in the observance) to inspect. 
 Therefore, the modern trustee has gradually withdrawn from the 
 teaching side of the college to fix his attention upon those questions 
 of revenue, housing and legislation which have multiplied even faster 
 than the undergraduates. 
 
 But here again the size and complexity of the problem are appall- 
 ing to men already overweighted with other responsibilities. These 
 material questions, however, must be met and settled just as those 
 on the educational side must be faced and solved. And both business 
 and political experience have taught men of the world that the quickest 
 and least troublesome way to solve administrative problems is to give 
 as free a hand as possible to some man with brains,with tact, with power 
 of initiative, of leadership, and of persuasion — wdth, in short, those 
 peculiar abilities which distinguish the generals of our intricate twen- 
 tieth century enterprises. 
 
 Hence has arisen the modern college president — a being as different 
 from the awe-inspiring clergymen of the eighteenth century or from 
 such men as Joshua Quincy (who was given the presidency of Harvard 
 as a sort of haven for his declining years) as it is possible to imagine. 
 The modern executives have had thrust upon them powers which give 
 to their decrees the finality of an imperial ukase. They have assumed 
 such sway, not from love of dominion, but because their task is so 
 enormous that nothing short of practically plenary powers would 
 permit of its being done at all. And it should be said to their honor 
 that they have met the demands upon them as organizers and admin- 
 istrators so ably that, today, the leaders of the country are not, as 
 formerly, the great statesmen and clergymen; they are these modern 
 Caesars — the heads of our principal colleges and universities. 
 
 These modern presidents have their cabinets in the board of 
 
 (23) 
 
24 
 
 trustees (if that board be small) or in an executive committee selected 
 from it if the board be large; they have their staff in the several 
 administrative officers, such as deans and registrars; they have their 
 field officers in the heads of departments or courses; and the work of 
 the great machine, through committees, sub-committees, labor-saving 
 devices and automatic methods of reporting, is as smooth-running 
 (and sometimes, I fear, almost as impersonal) as a well-developed 
 mercantile establishment. We have here a conspicuous example of 
 the current tendency toward one-man power, towards that concentra- 
 tion of authority which makes, of course, for ease, rapiditv and sure- 
 ness of administration; but which, in politics, undermines manhood; 
 in industrialism, destroys initiative; and in education tends to defeat 
 the very object of teaching, which should be to develop and to make 
 the most of every man's individuality. If the goal of a college were 
 the giving of mere instruction, nothing could be better than the present 
 system of administration; but colleges should be fountains of true 
 education, and the best part of education comes through the personal 
 influence of the older governors and teachers upon adolescent, and 
 therefore highl}^ impressionable, youth. 
 
 Most modern colleges have expensive and excellent material plants 
 utilized substantially to their full capacity. They possess, also, 
 admirable executives who, as I have said, are used away bevond their 
 limits of endurance. But those colleges have also other educational 
 forces which are not availed of, in my opinion, to anvthing like their 
 normal maximum. Those less used forces are: (1) The personal 
 influence, as teachers and men (not as mere administrators) of the 
 leaders of the faculty — an influence which should be exerted upon 
 both students and trustees; (2) the personal influence, as men of 
 power and broad human experience (not as mere monev-holders) 
 of the trustees — an influence which should extend to students as well 
 as faculty; and (3) the perennial and unselfish loyaltv of the alumni, 
 together with the unique experience given to those graduates in 
 gauging their collegiate training by the tests of life. The third force 
 is beyond the scope of the present paper; but let it not be inferred, 
 therefore, that I regard it as any less potent than the other two. 
 Indeed, in the last analysis, the moral as well as the financial strength 
 of a college must come from its own sons. 
 
 As has already been suggested, the complexity and autocracy of 
 the American university have converted the strongest men of the 
 faculty — the men, therefore, whose personal influence upon the stu- 
 dents would be of the highest value — into .subordinate administrators 
 harassed with details of department maintenance and committee 
 attendance. As a necessary result, the teaching is put largely into 
 the hands of recently graduated youth, zealous but not alwavs wise, 
 untrained in the science and art of teaching, and quite incapable, 
 
 (24) 
 
25 
 
 of course, of giving to their classes the inspiration which comes from 
 contact with men of wide experience. This throws the severest strain 
 of the college upon the weakest part, and from it arises much of our 
 educational ineffectiveness. Mere information, lesson -hearing, exam- 
 inations, become paramount; scholarship and character are well-nigh 
 forgotten, being impossible to register by even the most elaborate 
 machinery. 
 
 The trustees, on the other hand — excepting those who constitute 
 the president's cabinet — find less and less opportunitv for usefulness 
 in a machine so elaborate that any incursion into it, bv those un- 
 familiar, may do infinite harm. Therefore most of them drift into 
 the belief that their tru.st is discharged by attendance upon stated 
 meetings and by, perhaps, an annual visit to that department which, 
 nominally, is their especial care. Yet the personal influence upon the 
 students of men like college trustees would be second only, in educa- 
 tional value, to that of the leading members of the facultv. I am not 
 prepared to suggest any plan by which the trustees can be brought 
 into direct personal relations with the students; but I firmly believe 
 that such a plan could be devised ; and I know that nothing so vivifies 
 a man of middle life and of large responsibilities, nothing so clears 
 his brain and rejuvenates his heart, as comradeship with bubbling 
 and eager imdergraduates. 
 
 Whether or not trustees can broaden their powers and sweeten 
 their responsibilities by thus meeting their students directly, it is 
 clear that they can influence them indirectly by establishing closer 
 relations with those young men's teachers. For their pupils' sakes 
 and for their own advantage, the professors need the stimulus and 
 the breadth of view which they would get from looking at the world 
 through the eyes of such a man of affairs as the usual trustee; those 
 trustees, on the other hand, need the insight into true education and 
 into the difficulties of training youth which they would secure from 
 intimate contact with the members of their faculty. The money 
 conservatism of the trustee, hesitating to grant funds for new enter- 
 prises, needs to be enlightened by the vision which the teacher has of 
 the demands and possibilities of higher education. Per contra, the 
 academic conservatism of the scholar needs to be quickened by the 
 hard world-experience of a man of more varied responsibilities. That 
 purblind vision of the "practical" man which exaggerates material 
 success requires enlightenment through the opposite, but no less pur- 
 blind, vision of the scholar which magnifies intellectual achievement. 
 Each point of view is essential to the ends of true education, and 
 unless each in authoritv can see and understand the other's outlook, 
 the university will suffer and its youth will be defrauded of some of 
 the best things in college. 
 
 At present — except for certain perfunctory visiting — almost the 
 
 (25) 
 
26 
 
 sole point of contact between trustees and faculty is their common 
 sovereign, the president, who, as I have tried to show, has adminis- 
 trative duties and responsibilities beyond normal powers. Moreover, 
 however conscientious he may be, his personal equation cannot but 
 enter into his interpretations — so to speak — between two bodies of 
 which he alone is a common factor. It is essential to his leadership 
 that he should have large powers over the teaching staff, but the 
 opinions of the most perfect of administrators as to the individuals 
 under his benevolent despotism should have the salutary check of 
 others' close and unbiased observations. 
 
 In order, therefore, that there mav be manv instead of only one 
 channel of understanding between trustees and faculty (as well as for 
 the more subtle reasons suggested earlier), I would advocate most 
 earnestly the creation in everv board of trustees of a new standing 
 committee. This committee should be most carefully chosen, and 
 its duty should be to confer, at stated and frequent intervals, with a 
 like standing committee of the faculty, selected freely by that body 
 itself. And I would advise, further, that this conference committee 
 be distinct, if possible, from that executive committee which I have 
 called the president's cabinet, and that no legislation of any conse- 
 quence should be passed by the executive committee or by the trustees 
 as a whole without the concurrence. of this joint committee. And — 
 at least so far as relates to questions having anv educational bearing 
 — I would have it understood that the joint committee should not 
 concur until the proposed action had been submitted to the faculty 
 as a whole, had been debated, if so desired, before the standing com- 
 mittee and the executive committee sitting in joint session, and had 
 been approved by at least a majority of the teaching staff. 
 
 Such a general plan as this (the details of which, needless to say, 
 would differ with each college) could not fail, it seems to me, to in- 
 crease the educational efficiency of a college to an extraordinary degree 
 by coordinating the views of those without and those within the daily 
 routine of teaching; by establishing a clear understanding, in each 
 body, of the other's problems; by relieving the executive of a sub- 
 stantial portion of his crushing load, through increasing the legislative 
 and administrative responsibility of the faculty; and, not least, by 
 making that faculty — without adding to its legal powers — a body 
 coordinate with, instead of subordinate to, the board of trustees. 
 Unless American college teachers can be assured by some change as 
 this that they are no longer to be looked upon as mere employees paid 
 to do the bidding of men who, however courteous or however 
 eminent, have not the faculty's professional know^ledge of the compli- 
 cated problems of education, our universities will suffer increasingly 
 from a dearth of strong men and teaching will remain outside the 
 pale of really learned professions. As I said in the beginning, the 
 
 (26) 
 
27 
 
 problem is not one of wages ; for no university can ever become rich 
 enough to buy the independence of any man who is really worth the 
 purchasing. 
 
 This plan of cooperation would not, however, except to a limited 
 degree, bring the trustees as men into close contact with the faculty 
 as men. And the plan which I offer towards that second aim is put 
 forward with much greater diffidence. The scheme of a joint s.tand- 
 ing committee would be productive, I feel certain, of most happy 
 results; but of mv minor proposition I am not so sure. This second 
 plan is to make everv member of the board of trustees an adminis- 
 trative officer in that branch of the college work (so far as possible) 
 which is most congenial to him, giving him no special individual 
 powers over his assigned department, but increasing his responsibil- 
 ities by making him — together with one or more of his colleagues — 
 the direct and responsible channel of information between that de- 
 partment and the whole board of trustees. It is already customary 
 in most colleges to create visiting committees with the duty of pre- 
 senting annual reports; my suggestion would make substance out of 
 what is now little more than shadow, by having it formally under- 
 stood that in all matters relating to his department the trustee would 
 be looked to for reliable information and responsible advice. 
 
 Difficulties, of course, stand thick in the way of such a project. 
 Among them are the unwillingness of already busy trustees to accept 
 further responsibilities, the danger of personal friction between the 
 trustee and the department head, and the natural fear on the part of 
 the teacher that "administration" might spell itself to the trustee as 
 mere officiousness. It seems to me, however, that a short acquaint- 
 ance with the minutise of a college department would show the trustee 
 that the professor's as well as his own time is far too valuable to be 
 given to details of administration, and that college funds could in no 
 way be made more productive than by giving the heads of departments 
 such clerks and underlings as would release them from much killing 
 drudgery. There is no greater extravagance than to permit an 
 expensively trained man to do ten-dollar-a-week work. And that 
 same short acquaintance would, I believe, so interest the trustee and 
 so increase his respect for what is being done and what is still to do, 
 that officiousness or meddling would become impossible. 
 
 These two plans, if found practicable and if developed in a spirit 
 of enthusiasm, would lead to many other points of helpful contact 
 between trustees and faculty and would discover, I think, unsuspected 
 avenues of mutual help. And by these or some like methods trustees 
 and faculties must be brought more closely together unless we wish 
 to see the growing alienation of the administrative and teaching 
 staffs develop into a real and fatal breach. Separation involves 
 mutual misunderstanding and that, even among educated men, leads 
 
 (27) 
 
28 
 
 as in industrial enterprsies, to arrogance on the part of the employer, 
 to suspicion and dislike on the side of the employed. If cooperation 
 seems imperative — as I think it does — to the solution of the problems 
 of industrialism, how much more necessary is it if we are to solve the 
 educational riddle. Cooperation would teach the trustees the antip- 
 odal difference between the problems of a university and those of a 
 business corporation, and, at the same time, would show the faculty 
 the importance of business methods and thorough organization. 
 Cooperation would get things done without compelling our univer- 
 sities to take refuge in an autocracy which, harmful in itself, is breed- 
 ing a race of youth who scorn the slow methods of democracy. It 
 would develop trustees who actually, instead of fictitiously, compre- 
 hend their trust; it would unite faculties which, under the strain of 
 departmental complexity, are fast disintegrating; it would double 
 the educational efficiency of our colleges; and, most important of all 
 it would make our universities, as they ought to be, supreme preservers 
 instead of conspicuous destroyers, of that genuine spirit of democracy 
 which, more than schools, more than churches, more than any other 
 human agency, has uplifted mankind and builded civilization. 
 
 DISCUSSION 
 
 By Mrs. Norman Frederick Thompson, A. B. 
 Trustee of Wellesley College 
 
 In our American politics, there is at least one doctrine which is 
 generally accepted, that known as the "Monroe Doctrine;" and now 
 it would seem to me, as doubtless to you all, that the speaker, Mr. 
 Munroe, who has just finished, has enunciated an equally to be ac- 
 cepted Munroe doctrine in acadenaic politics. Certainly the ideal he 
 has formulated of a closer union between trustees and faculty is one 
 always to be held in mind, always to be striven for and perhaps 
 attained, when we shall have developed a leisure class among our men 
 of culture, with lives consecrated to social service. 
 
 Just as our American life is now organized, it is a trinity that is 
 very hard to find, that of culture united with leisure, and the desire 
 to serve. It is not found often among the members of our trustee 
 boards, and until it is, I doubt somewhat the practicability of the 
 proposed plan, except for a very limited number on a trustee board. 
 
 The academic Munroe doctrine, like the original Monroe doctrine, 
 develops difficulties in attempting to apply it, and I may be pardoned 
 for pointing out these difficulties in order that they may be avoided. 
 
 Certainly a trustee board has a large and serious trust that cannot 
 be deputized and one that must be administered in a large way. That 
 we all admit. We also admit the necessity" for as close relations as 
 possible between that board and the faculty. 
 
 Let us, for the sake of getting down to facts relative to the present 
 
 (28) 
 
29 
 
 relationship between the two, take up in detail a tj'pical board. We 
 find such a board made up of business men who are in the very midst 
 of the strain and stress of Anierican business life, professional men, 
 who are clergymen or lawyers, also occupied with affairs, usually a 
 a few older men of some leisure, perhaps two or three women, possess- 
 ing indeed the trinity of which I spoke, and on many boards, repre- 
 sentation from the Alumni, whose province is quite distinct and not 
 to be discussed now. 
 
 On examining such a board in detail, we would find the board 
 possessing an executive committee, whose relation to the faculty is 
 much the same as that suggested by Mr. Munroe. But on such a 
 board as I have described, which is, I am sure, the usual board, there 
 would be very few men available for executive committee work. 
 
 To extend from this executive committee to the board as a whole, 
 or to a large part of it, any such intimate connection as Mr. Munroe 
 advocates, would be frought with great danger. Either the relation- 
 ship would become perfunctory, and so of no value, or if we did require 
 it from these men so absorbed in such widely divergent interests, 
 short of time, biased by exclusive attention, each to his partictilar 
 business or profession, we should be in a danger of hampering seriously 
 a president and his corps of assistants. 
 
 I question also whether such a plan might not lead to too much 
 direct participation on the part of some of the trustees in the method 
 and plan of instruction, apart from the danger, also real, that such a 
 division of responsibility would hardly be desirable. 
 
 If a teacher should stand on the platform with one eye on the pupil 
 and the other on the president or trustee, we should not get his best. 
 He must have complete freedom, — the German lehrjreiheit, — if we are 
 to get from him his best self. To be a truly great teacher, he must be 
 one, who like the fabled bird that nourished its young with its heart's 
 blood, gives of himself without counting the cost. 
 
 We cannot get this if there should grow up any union of trustees 
 and faculty that should partake in any way of the nature of inter- 
 ference on the part of the trustee, with methods of instruction or 
 government. The relation should be one rather of intelligent sym- 
 pathy on the part of the trustee, carried perhaps even to the point of 
 the attitude of a learner. The point I desire to make is, that we 
 have not now in America enough men of leisure to make such a close 
 union as the one proposed practicable. 
 
 Lyman Abbott claims that the secret of his success as a journalist 
 is that he makes it a point to get the best man possible for a vacant 
 place and then give him an entirely free hand. When the subject of 
 this discussion was telegraphed to me at Washington last week, where 
 I had gone with my hu.sband to attend the Bankers' Convention, it 
 seemed to me at once that there was a close analogy between the 
 
 (29) 
 
30 
 
 trustee boards of our educational institutions and the board of direc- 
 tors of a bank. I asked several prominent bankers, "Could you or 
 would you be willing to run your banks by bringing your directors 
 into this sort of a close relationship?" Each one answered in the 
 negative. They were unanimous in asserting that where the greatest 
 liberty had been given executive officers, the greatest success had been 
 made. The directors of the bank are informed,' as are the trustee 
 boards, of the general policy to be pursued, and to a certain extent 
 determine it, but this only in the broadest outline; the actual manage- 
 ment rests with the officers, who would be much hampered if there 
 was an attempt at a closer union between them and the directorate. 
 Some such relation was in my mind when I framed these few remarks. 
 The liberty I advocate is in intimate harmony with the entire trend 
 of our American democracy and results in that self restraint which is 
 the flower of liberty, and that self respect which is the flower of man- 
 hood. 
 
 There is, however, a wide field outside of academic activity where 
 trustees, even the busy business man of to-day, can and should unfold 
 a wholesome activity, the details of which are to be taken up later in 
 these conferences; for there is not only the academic side, but the 
 administrative and financial side, while paramount always is the duty 
 of watchfulness, — not of detail, but of the whole. 
 
 Our colleges are founded, not merely to disseminate the knowledge 
 the human race has accumulated, but as exponents of the best ideals 
 of manhood, the harmonious development of man, physically, socially, 
 intellectually morally. Often the one who is watching the trend of 
 college life from some outside vantage point, such as a position on a 
 trustee board would give, is better able to judge of the result attained 
 and its relation to the larger life beyond the college walls than those 
 in intimate contact. 
 
 It seems to me whatever plan is formulated, whatever cooperation 
 is attained, it should not be too close for this wider view and that the 
 real province of the conscientious trustee is to watch, watch, watch! 
 
 (30) 
 
31 
 
 SECOND SESSION 
 
 - THE ACADEMIC CAREER AS AFFECTED BY 
 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 By Professor Joseph Jastrow 
 University of Wisconsin 
 
 It is mv purpose to discuss in accordance with the central theme 
 of this conference, the influences exerted upon the Academic Career 
 by the present administrative conduct of university affairs. Whether 
 or not we are prepared to admit that whate\'er is best administered 
 is best, it seems both fair and profitable to judge the value of admin- 
 istrative provisions by the success with which they further the vital 
 ends to which they are bvit means. Clearly the administration of a 
 universitv is no end in itself, but only a subordinate contributorv 
 measure for advancing the real interests of the higher education. 
 Boards of trustees and presidents and deans and committees would 
 be only a hindrance and not in the least a help to the cause for which 
 universities exist, if these offices could not justify their existence and 
 the methods of their maintenance by their furtherance of worthy 
 educational ideals. Altogether too long has there prevailed alike an 
 unquestioned assumption that such is the case, and — still more un- 
 fortunately — a timid suppression or unpatient frowning down of any 
 questioning in regard thereto. 
 
 It would be desirable, but may not be practicable, to consider in 
 "an historical temper, how American conditions have developed a 
 distinctive scheme of university administration, — a system that de- 
 parts from the models of the Old World in a direction peculiarly 
 incompatible with our national ideals and principles. To say that 
 the governement of universities is undemocratic may be no fatal con- 
 demnation, but it indicates a singular departure from the spirit that 
 animates many of our formal administrative measures even outside 
 of the political field. The situation, moreover, is the more notable 
 because foreign universities in pronounced aristocratic countries offer 
 the contrast of placing the welfare of the culture and academic life — 
 the authority as well as the responsibility — upon those whose life- 
 work is bound up with, and furthered by such institutions, and of 
 thus adopting for monarchical universities a thoroughly democratic 
 form of government. President Pritchett's review of this and allied 
 situations (Atlantic Monthly: September, IQf^S) may be cordially 
 commended. He does not hestiate to say that our autocratic methods 
 
 (31) 
 
32 
 
 of university management would be nothing less than intolerable to 
 the German scholar, while emphasizing that the German method is 
 precisely what the spirit of our institutions would presumably fa\'or. 
 This inconsistency of university government with the natural ideals 
 which university teaching is called upon to foster, is certainly sig- 
 nificant. 
 
 It needs no discernment to discover that the actual and author- 
 itative government of our colleges and universities does not rest with 
 the faculties thereof; it rests with the president and the Board of 
 trustees or regents. In spite of the diversity of practice, the distri- 
 bution of authority has unmistakeably emphasized, and increasingly, 
 the importance of the presidential office and the regulative function 
 of the board, and has given to the faculty a less and less influential 
 voice in the actual direction of affairs, in the initiative of educational 
 expansion and in the shaping and control of the academic career. 
 The central question that cannot and should not be longer avoided — 
 but which should be asked in a perfectly amicable, thoroughly helpful, 
 wholly impartial temper, is whether present arrangements are to be 
 approved and gradually improved ; or whether they are to be regarded 
 as fundamentally unfortunate, as something of a menace to the 
 security of our educational future. If any profit is to come from the 
 discussion, the same frankness that approaches so serious a question 
 with honest doubt but without timidity, must be adopted both by 
 those who uphold and by those who oppose the spirit and issues of 
 actual institutions. In this spirit I place myself with those who look 
 with alarm upon the further growth of present-day tendencies, and 
 who believe that both logic and policy point to an administration of 
 university affairs that shall be based upon a different emphasis of 
 principles, upon a different administrative temper. 
 
 Doubtless many of the conditions both favorable and unfavorable 
 have grown up in very indirect connection with any well-matured 
 policy. They have taken shape rather by the stress of circumstance, 
 by provisional expediency, by the necessity of advancing as one could if 
 one were to advance at all; and this fact offers not only a large measure of 
 excuse for existing deficiencies but also lightens the task of those who 
 question whether future wisdom lies where the prudent compromise 
 of the past has directed. I repeat, then, that the fundamental stand- 
 ard by which administrative means are to be judged is that of meeting' 
 the cultural ends for which universities are called into being. And 
 with equal confidence it is urged that those whose training and talents 
 and purposes in life are concerned professionally with these cultural 
 ends are best fitted and most justly entitled to the shaping of the 
 policy and the practical direction of affairs of the institutions whose 
 guidance is an intimate part of their lives. The appeal of these 
 principles to the judgment of those conversant with or appreciative of 
 
 (32) 
 
33 
 
 matters intellectual, seems to me so overwhelmingly strong that the 
 mere placing of them in this fundamental formative position is ade- 
 quate to common and general assent. 
 
 The practical interests transfer the discussion to the limitations 
 and possible dangers of too formal a following of this doctrine. For, 
 above all. the situation is a practical one; here, as elsewhere, a 
 condition confronts us, but also here, as elsewhere, a condition 
 that derives illumination from an application thereto of an appropriate 
 theory. American conditions, as they effect universities, are so com- 
 plex, so unprecedented, and so entirely unprovided for by governmental 
 or other regulations, that we must solve the problems of their mainte- 
 nance more independently than would be the case in older commun- 
 ities. It has been our national fate to be called upon to feel our way 
 by practical wisdom, often by a hand-to-mouth policy, with justi- 
 fiable satisfaction at the notable achievements that followed so closely 
 upon the remoteness from opportunity of the pioneer. This intensely 
 practical development found natural expression in assigning the man- 
 agement of academic, as of all other public concerns, particularly as 
 matters of finance, to a non-professional body of citizens; and to this 
 body has been given the largest legal authority and indirectly a pe- 
 culiarly formidable control of the entire university interests. That 
 this control has in the past been variously unfortunate is not a point 
 upon which I wish to dwell. Let the past stand as it is, and serve its 
 worthiest purpose in warning against the dangers of the future. The 
 practical issue arises not so much from the constituted authority as 
 from the mode of using it. Here is the nub of the whole matter; and 
 here some measure of human psychology enters. It seems difficult 
 for our civilization to foster the type of man who has authority but 
 finds the highest use of this possession in the restraint thereof, inhold- 
 ing it in check for an emergency. Why have authority if not to exer- 
 cise it freely and conspicuously, even to the show of power for the sake 
 of showing power! Other ways may be better; but what we say 
 "goes, " as the phrase of the street has it. Naturally such an impulse 
 can find consoling excuse for its distrust to ^deld to others any share 
 of vested authoritv, can readilv overlook that not the statutory pro- 
 visions, but the spirit in which they are carried out, forms the essence 
 of all that is writ in the laws and the prophets. It is possibly because 
 this quality of human nature — for which the American idiom has 
 evolved the term "boss" — is less pronounced in the academic man 
 than in almost anv other, that he finds it difficult to realize how vitally 
 it affects the motives and actions of men devoted to other affairs. I 
 confess that I found incomprehensible the declaration of one whose 
 character commands my admiration that he would far prefer to be 
 mayor of Chicago than President of the United States; and for no 
 other reason than that the exercise of the personal power of which the 
 
 (33) 
 
34 
 
 former officer disposes, would furnish him with the keenest satisfac- 
 tion, the most deeply felt tribute to his own success. That such type 
 of man possesses many qualities of great value must be admitted; 
 but such qualities are in no situation less appropriate than in the 
 governing boards of universities; there, if anj'where, is needed one 
 who finds within him no impulse to use power wantonly, no tendency 
 to control where cooperation alone is desired, to interpret his office 
 in any other spirit than of determining, with generous confidence in 
 expert opinion, what ends are most to be desired, and of using his 
 practical wisdom in aiding the purposes of the common cause. As 
 the national experiments in benevolent assimilation have been more 
 notable for their assimilative than for their benevolent success, so 
 has the trustees' interpretation of cooperative control emphasized 
 the latter to the disparagement of the former element. That the 
 correction for this tendency lies neither in the abolition of the board 
 of trustees, not necessarity in its reconstruction, but only in the trans- 
 formation of the policy by which the division of authority between 
 them and the faculty shall be regulated, will appear in clue course. 
 
 I must here intrude a word of explanation. My task requires that 
 I speak frankly of existing conditions; and were anyone disposed to 
 misinterpret the spirit in which that is done, personal considerations 
 and the reference to particular men or institutions might be read into 
 a discussion in which they have no place. I shall offer no affront to 
 any who may be interested in what I have to say by implying any such 
 misconstruction. The discussion will be maintained upon a wholly 
 objective basis. As is regarded as proper in speaking of the dead, I shall 
 refer to no particular institution except to praise it. Yet I would not 
 have it said that I am speaking of imaginary or exaggerated conditions, 
 not of real ones. I have constantlv in mind actual conditions in 
 definite institutions; I find it necessary to exercise caution not to refer 
 to them so definitely that their identity will be surmised. A deliber- 
 ately cultivated acquaintance with many members of many faculties, 
 a considerable range of earnest and confidential discussions of actual 
 conditions is the basis of my observation. My observations may be 
 faulty; but they are free, they are honestly acquired, and have slowly 
 matured. Some mav be inclined to consider the conditions over- 
 drawn, because they have in mind the few most exceptional univer- 
 sities in which the spirit of administration is far more fayorable than 
 I picture it. It is the average, not the exceptionally best, that counts 
 in this discussion ; and it is the average to which I address myself. 
 
 Let us remain a moment longer with the bare description of things 
 as they are. The status quo, summarily exhibited, recites that the 
 board and the president dispose of many, most, or all of the measures 
 that affect in any decisive manner the growth and official welfare of 
 the university, and that affect the personal and professional welfare 
 
 (34) 
 
35 
 
 of the professor. The board in framing its edicts looks to the presi- 
 dent as the source of the initiative; sets great store by the president's 
 approval; follows his lead in determining academic sentiment or uni- 
 versitv needs; awards medals of gold or silver or bronze, or dismisses 
 with honorable mention or without it, in accordance with his verdicts; 
 decides what shall be done first and what last and what not at all, 
 largely according to his judgment or preferences. In all this it de- 
 pends, as a rule, wholly upon the temperament of the president 
 whether he consults or does not consult the faculty opinion. His 
 measures may, and most of them do, go directly to the board; they are 
 announced by the president to the faculty as final decisions; and the 
 faculty is called upon to carry out the decision in reaching which they 
 have had no part. Officially and authoritatively, the faculty enjoys — as 
 one is said to enjoy bad health — painfully restricted rights. Its 
 members naturally make their influence felt through unofficial, mainly 
 individual prestige. Yet in many academic autocracies, the president 
 would look askance upon the direct conference of a member of the 
 faculty with a member of the board, especially to urge views opposed 
 to his own. This is the situation stated in its mildest, most objective 
 terms. Introduce a tactful, sympathetic personality, — and the even 
 tenor of academic life is likely to proceed with reasonable serenity. 
 Many colleges, particularly the smaller ones with simpler problems, 
 more unified interests, will be happily governed by any system and 
 under such leadership as they are likely to accept. But surround the 
 situation with the actual complexities of a great and expanding uni- 
 versity, and inject into this relation what the gods occasionally or 
 oftener give unto masterful men, — personal ambition, a secretive 
 habit of mind, a protective insensibility, a pseudo-diplomatic behavior, 
 and the love of power that seems to come with the executive title — 
 and you have a situation that may vary from the ridiculously irritat- 
 ing to the sublimely intolerable. 
 
 I am tempted to refer, though maintaining the incognito to a 
 recent experience. A member of a faculty propounded to me the 
 attitude of its president as a psychological problem. I was unable to 
 give any enlightenment, but this is the enlightenment that I received, 
 — the result of a careful inductive study. (1) Whenever President X 
 announced to his surprised faculty that the hoard had adopted such 
 and such a measure, it proved to mean that the president had pro- 
 posed the measure to the wholly innocent board, and that it was a 
 measure that the faculty, were it given a chance, would have cordially 
 opposed. (2) When a measure was "up" before the faculty, and 
 opposition unexpectedly developed, an announcement was made by 
 President X that there were reasons, which unfortunately he could 
 not disclose, that really made the measure necessary — and this meant 
 that if not approved by the faculty, the board would take the proposed 
 
 (35j 
 
36 
 
 step anyway. There were two other types of situations that entered 
 into this psychological analysis; but they are too individual to make 
 it proper to cite them. 
 
 The academic comment that occasionally reaches the college 
 president's ears to the effect that his troubles are largely of his own 
 making, is intended to remind him that he encourages, or complacently 
 accepts — does not, at all events, protest against and strive for the 
 abolition of — the conditions out of which troubles naturally grow. 
 When the presidential policy — or better the university policy — shall 
 favor the settlement of intrinsically educational questions by the 
 faculty and not for the faculty, the president's lot will be a happier 
 one: The principle that the essential questions, the critically forma- 
 tive and expanding measures, the issues that make or mar the aca- 
 demic career shall be shaped by faculty consideration, equally de- 
 mands that they shall not be authoritatively or virtually disposed of 
 either by the board or by the president. As to the actual business of 
 the faculty, it is a rather dreary tale. Details, routine, student 
 affairs, occasionally a real issue that somehow reaches that body, but 
 in regard to which they can act only conditionally, not authoritatively 
 — such is the situation that naturally encourages inconsequential talk, 
 inefficient deliberation, restrained initiative. It is nothing short of 
 absurd to withdraw from faculty discussion all the real educational 
 issues, and expect a company of scholarly men to grow enthusiastic 
 over the privilege of wearily debating how a sophomoric attempt to 
 vault over or climb around the regulations shall be thwarted, or 
 whether the Mandolin Club both played and behaved so badly upon 
 its last venture, that its leading strings should profitably be shortened. 
 One can comfortably resign oneself to picking the bones when one has 
 dined off the fowl; but to have the bird presented after it has been 
 shorn of its attractions at the first table makes a sorry feast. 
 
 At this stage we inust examine with the practical purpose of this 
 discussion, the types of questions and interests that require considera- 
 tion in universitv affairs. There is first the appointment of the in-' 
 structional staff. In this respect enlightened opinion has accomplished 
 a notable success. In the best type of universities, those most closely 
 concerned have adequate means of making their opinion effective; 
 the president and the board take those executive and formal 
 steps that lead to the election of the candidate and adjudicate 
 where some final authority must assume responsibility. Where 
 this is not the case, the tendency is at least favorable to such a consum- 
 mation; though abuses of privilege are by no means obsolete. Yet 
 the fact that this phase of the situation has approached a most com- 
 mendable status should be as frankly emphasized as other less satis- 
 factory phases should be frankly condemned. In principle many 
 prefer the practice of Yale University, in which such nominations are 
 
 (36) . 
 
37 
 
 presented for the approval of the faculty. With the proper spirit, 
 the essential ends are accomplished by either procedure. 
 
 When we come, secondly, to the matter of promotions and salaries, 
 the situation acquires a sombre cast. In some few institutions the 
 methods, though not perfectly so, are commendable, in many others 
 moderately perverse, in the rest intolerable. Merely because that is 
 another story, (yet a closely related one), do I reluctantly pass by the 
 burning question of the inadequacy of professors' incomes. I content 
 mvself with the expression that were those salaries as nearly adequate 
 as thev could readily become were sentiment properly effective, cer- 
 tain of the administrative problems would find readier solution ; yet 
 in saying this I wish also to emphasize the converse: that were our 
 administrative provisions more suitable, the professors' financial 
 status would ha\"e been far more favorable than it now is — and of this 
 more anon. That there obtain widely different opinions as to what 
 a professor should be paid is inevitable; that there should prevail 
 such general misconception as to what influences should determine 
 his compensation, is not inevitable, only unfortunate. This text, also, 
 I must not allow myself to elaborate, though there is strong tempta- 
 tion to do so. 
 
 As an administrative policy, the salary problems should be and in 
 large measure can be solved by preventing them from arising. Policy 
 is here all important. With many others, I hold as desirable above 
 all other arrangements, an effective provision that shall pledge a 
 definite and dependable living for worthy service. This would go 
 far toward avoiding the constant and irritating perplexities that from 
 time to time, and in some institutions at the close of each academic 
 year, present themselves with threatening features to be somehow 
 appeased. A system of this general type is well established at Har- 
 vard University. What I emphasize as essential therein is that men 
 are elected to positions of definite rank, for definite periods, with 
 definite understandings. The central issue that is to be determined 
 at the close of the period is whether the university desires to retain 
 the services of the occupant; if so, he steps to the next grade with 
 constantly increasing salary. A normal line of advancement is thus 
 provided. More rapid promotion is always open to promptly estab- 
 lished worth and efificiency, and should indeed be the rule, not the 
 exception. Such measures of elasticity the system designedly retains. 
 There is always opportunity for any one to present such considerations 
 as may be proper, and to reenforce them by such arguments as may 
 be suitable, to urge the promotion at such time and in such degree as 
 the circumstances warrant.' Speaking generally for all whose fitness 
 for the academic life has been established, the question of salary is as 
 nearly as possible disposed, of ; and advancement is secure. Such a 
 system represents about as practicable a compromise between ideal 
 
 (37) 
 
38 
 
 and available measures as present circumstances permit. It has at 
 all events the supreme advantage of minimizing, and, in a fortunate 
 environment, of avoiding wholly the endless disaffections and positive 
 injuries that are inevitable when such matters depend wholly upon 
 the decision of one or two men, whose natural ambition under present 
 circumstances is only too likely to regard the salary item in the budget 
 as the one that admittedly should be first, but is likely to come last. 
 The administrative feeling creeps in or is openly defended that so long 
 as places can be filled, salaries are not the first consideration. It is 
 this phase of the presidential activity that estranges him from col- 
 leagueship with his faculty. 
 
 How far down in the academic scale this system is applicable can- 
 not be determined off-hand. Yet in the spirit of an institution in 
 which such a system is liberally administered, it should be easy to 
 place the greatest emphasis upon offering to the men of promise in 
 the on-coming generation the utmost encouragement to rise rapidl}'' in 
 their profession; and to do this as is done in all learned professions, 
 by the judgment of their peers with reference to true academic stand- 
 ards. The point is important as indicating how one set of administra- 
 tive measures largely avoids difficult and undesirable situations, that 
 another deliberately invites. It is important that a living within the 
 academic fold should not be regarded as a reward to be given to the 
 exceptionally deserving when circumstances indicate that the only 
 method of retaining their services is to yield what for years has been 
 unwisely and unjustly withheld, but is to be regarded as a natural 
 privilege for all worthy of the academic life. There is not the slightest 
 discrepancy in the inevitable fact that A and B, men of quite unequal 
 merit and value to their institutions, should be enjoying the same 
 incomes. There is nothing in the slighest degree disconcerting in so in- 
 evitable a consequence of human variability ; and in a less commercially 
 minded community, no one would think of remarking upon so obvious 
 a situation. A man's academic worth should not and cannot in the 
 least be measured by his salary; and any attempt to do so is a deep 
 injury to the profession. If some one has made a mistake in judgment 
 in asking a wrong man to fill a chair, when better men are available, 
 and if the mistake cannot be remedied without repudiating obligations 
 already incurred, it is far better to seek any solution of the situation 
 than the one that sets the emphasis upon the very point that has no 
 place in the academic life. Endowed professorships ensuring adequate 
 livings are for this reason far more ideal a system than American 
 circumstances make practicable. 
 
 . I have thus dwelt upon the more serious of the unfortunate conse- 
 quences of the dominant systemless practices in American institutions, 
 and of the possibilities of their correction.- It is even more than a 
 misfortune ; it is indeed an indignity that a scholar of tried worth and 
 
 (38) 
 
39 
 
 reputation — one who in another country would be an homme arrive, 
 with a secure hving — should still find the very wherewithal of his 
 sustenance, and the appraisal of his rank meted out to him by the 
 uncertain esteem of one or two of his colleagues — for such the president 
 and the dean are — placed in a position of authority by reason of 
 qualities unrelated to any such Jupiterian function. His helplessness 
 in a situation, for which inadequate administration or administrative 
 autocracv. has left no place for remedy, hardly even for protest, may 
 well invite despair. 
 
 The disastrous consequences of this unfortunate situation appear 
 most notablv in the discordant notes that break into what remains of 
 the cherished harmony of the academic spirit; and it appears in the 
 loss of appeal of the academic career to those best fitted by endow- 
 ments. and interests to enter its ranks. The drift within the university 
 is toward winning those marks of success upon which administrative 
 dominance sets greatest store. Colleges engage in what the press is 
 pleased to call a friendly rivalry to secure the largest crop of freshmen ; 
 and undue influences are set at work upon departments and professors 
 to attract large classes. Facilitation of administrative measures and 
 some practical executive efifiiciency are far more apt to meet with 
 tangible rewards than are more academic talents. It takes a sturdy 
 determination, a sterling character and a large measure of actual sac- 
 rifice to withstand this manifold pressure. Those who resist it least, 
 or are least sensiti\-e to anything to be resisted, are likely to find them- 
 selves in the more prominent places ; and so the unfortunate emphasis 
 gathers strength by its own headway. The esprit of academic inter- 
 course, the inspiration of individual character, the stamp of the domi- 
 nant occupation, subtly yet inevitably lose their finer qualities. There 
 comes to be developed a type of academician (sit venia verbo) who 
 pursues his career in a decided "business" frame of mind. At the 
 worst, he degenerates into a professional commis, keen for the main 
 chance, ready to advertise his wares and advance his trade, eager for 
 new markets, a devotee of statistically measured success. At the best, 
 he loses with advancing years that mellow ripening of the scholar, lays 
 aside all too willingly the protecting aegis of his ideals and his enthu- 
 siasm, and fails to maintain in his activity the very vital quality that 
 appreciative students should, and commonly do look upon, and look 
 back upon, as the choicest advantage of their academic intercourse. 
 
 If any one consequence of this serious situation may be rated more 
 serious than the rest, it is the effect of it all upon the younger members 
 of the instructional staff during the most valued portions of their lives. 
 A Teutonic student of our educational situation recently pointed out 
 to me this disastrous phase of our unadjusted university arrangements 
 as the most potent reason for our unproductiveness in original effort 
 and the chief obstacle to our cultural advance. He contrasted the 
 
 (39) 
 
40 
 
 situation with that of the Privat-Docent, who, though with most pre- 
 carious income, found no hindrance, when once launched upon aca- 
 demic seas, to shaping his career according to his talents, in steering 
 for such ports and by such routes as his survey of the chart directed. 
 That intense and crippling sense of accountability — to which President 
 Pritchett has likewise directed attention — is all but absent from the 
 Privat-Docenfs career, as it is likely to. crowd out by its insistent 
 demands almost every other serious purpose of the young instructor. 
 Confessedly the advantages are hot all on one side ; but the unnecessary 
 hazards placed in the way of the academic aspirant among us, make 
 the academic career partake altogether too largely of the nature of an 
 obstacle race. 
 
 I am aware that the objection may arise to the sombre tones of my 
 palette, that will protest that such a delineation is the natural result 
 of viewing things through a murky atmosphere or through congenitally 
 disposed obliquities of vision. The delusion is, however, a rather 
 general one ; the difficulty is only that it does not find public expression. 
 It is in the confidential talk with others of kindred spirit and experience 
 that a man's real opinions come to the fore. The front that he shows 
 to the world — and that without any fair charge of hypocrisy — is 
 wholly different from his private opinion for home consumj^tion only. 
 I have in mind a professor of national reputation, with a quarter- 
 century of successful experience in distinguished institutions of the 
 land, with many honors to his name and many public addresses to 
 his credit extolling the successes of American education. This scholar 
 had no hesitation in admitting to me confidentially that in any true 
 sense we had no universities in this country, and certainly no aca- 
 demic life; and that in his own career a larger measure of his success 
 than he cared to reflect upon, was probably due to his yielding to in- 
 fluences that his ideals condemned. With not the slightest breach of 
 honesty in his purpose as conceived by approved standards, but with 
 the inevitable compromise to practical necessities, his career had 
 deviated from what under more favorable conditions it might well 
 have been. Such a man is not to be censured; he is the victim of an 
 unfortunate situation; and it is only because such situations may in 
 large measure be relieved by a proper administrative temper, that it 
 becomes proper to cite the instance in this connection. 
 
 It is well to return to the practical aspect of the situation. What 
 the average university presents in lieu of an academic provision is 
 little more than a corporation of an industrial type in which groups of 
 men have been engaged to perform given tasks. The tasks are often 
 liberally conceived, and personal worth properly regarded. Yet the 
 temper is such that commercial considerations enter ; and the tendency 
 is rarely absent that makes the first duty of the management that of 
 securing the work done upon the most economical basis possible. The 
 
 (40) 
 
41 
 
 irrelevancy of this attitude is too complex a tale to attempt to disen- 
 tangle here. Ideals and policy must come first; and practice can only 
 be worthy when the motiye force of such ideals can find expression. 
 With the absence or the weakness of worthy ideals, lower ideals in- 
 evitably enter. In the present consideration it may be emphasized 
 that a university can be built up about a group of professorships and 
 abovit nothing else. Academic benefactors will not have accomplished 
 their highest degree of efficiency until they recognize in such endow- 
 ments the most intrinsically valuable form of aiding universities. 
 Whatever hastens the day of liberally provided professorships will 
 ennoble and simplify the administrative problems of universities. 
 
 A further class of administrative measures relate to the direction 
 of university growth, the nature of its extensions, the distinctive 
 character of its purposes, its mode of meeting public needs. These 
 questions are far more pressing in so rapidly a developing community 
 as ours than they are in older civilizations in which the purposes of 
 tmiversity activity have become fixed by convention. It is in regard 
 to this set of measures that the initiative is so commonly taken by the 
 president alone; and it is precisely with regard to these that the prin- 
 ciples to which I adhere favor and demand a vital and authoritative 
 consideration on the part of the faculty. It is because a portion of 
 these measures must be determined by the provisions of the budget 
 that to some extent the budget itself must be included in this group. 
 As it is, faculty opinion has in most institutions no opportunity to 
 express itself in regard to that which concerns the faculty most 
 intimately. Upon this aspect of the matter I have touched in the 
 general statement. 
 
 There is finally a group of minor administrative details, also in- 
 volving financial matters, which intimately concern the academic 
 activities. I refer to'such matters as modes of conducting laboratories, of 
 securing material and all the inevitable business of handling apparattis, 
 and the house-keeping side of instructional and investigative work. 
 This is clearly partly a business matter, and as such belongs to the 
 board, but likewise is it in equal part, a matter that affects the effic- 
 iency of the laboratory and its work. The contention thus seems 
 just that some mode of administration shall be devised which shall be 
 as satisfactory to the director of the laboratory in the matter of meet- 
 ing his needs, as it shall be to the administration as business procedure. 
 This, as many another question, is one that concerns jointly these 
 two coordinating parts of university administration; and can be met 
 only by joint consideration. 
 
 And now let us bring these \'arious considerations into mutual 
 relation. The system that so generally prevails and whose deficiencies 
 detract from the value of the academic career may be called "govern- 
 ment by imposition." Possibly this is a harsh word, but to the pro- 
 
 (41) 
 
42 
 
 fessor who is obliged to pursue his calHng under it, the measures which 
 it enforces are often harsh measures. The system which is advocated 
 to replace it may in like brevity be termed "government by coopera- 
 tion, " with the explicit interpretation that the government is by the 
 faculty and the cooperation the function of the administrative officers, 
 including the president and the board. The management of the 
 university's material affairs advantageously falls to the board, and 
 what shall be included under this head is not likely to be a serious 
 point of contention, if once it be admitted that many material pro- 
 visions directly influence the work of the faculty, and that for such 
 the faculty shall have a voice in determining how these material 
 affairs shall be administered. Assent must be gained for the view 
 that the faculty is quite capable of determining whether the needs of 
 the institution make it preferable to administer certain details them- 
 selves or have them otherwise regulated. So long as measures are not 
 imposed but are the issue of deliberation of both bodies acting co- 
 operatively, concord and progress are assured. For the most part the 
 material administration may well remain where it is now placed; but 
 the right of discussion, of opinion, and of protest should be freely 
 exercised. Even with similar measures, the spirit of the adminis- 
 tration and the dignity and security of the academic career, would be 
 wholly different under the two systems. 
 
 To what measure the present system of administration is due to 
 the irrelevant transfer of methods suited to a business corporation, to 
 institutions flourishing under conditions of wholly opposed character, 
 I cannot stop to discuss. Many critics find in this perverse applica- 
 tion of glorified business procedure the source of academic inadequacy ; 
 others count it as but one of several influences, and not the chief. 
 What is unmistakable is the pernicious dominance of the business 
 spirit both in the administration and in the academic interests. I 
 prefer to speak of the internal influences as more closely allied to my 
 theme. There is at work among American universities a spirit of 
 intense rivalry, a desire for each to measure its own work by standards 
 of tangible material success. College presidents like to be remem- 
 bered by the buildings, which were erected through their initiative, 
 by the departments which have been added, and the enrollment which 
 has been increased. It is by urging these needs and presenting these 
 successes that funds are secured. If such were really the standard 
 by which educational ends are to be appraised, then the business 
 methods might well be adapted to the university affairs. It is against 
 this false standard that the warfare must be actively directed. It 
 would undoubtedly be the most beneficial fate that could happen to 
 many of our universities to-day if for a considerable period they built 
 no new buildings, added no neW departments, found their enrollment 
 gradually decreasing and centered all their energies upon the internal 
 
 (42) 
 
43 
 
 elevation of true university ends, upon providing for the student and 
 professor alike the intellectual environmet in which those interests 
 thrive for which the student and professor come together, by which 
 the academic ideal is inspired. 
 
 The same spirit is felt throughout every detail of universit^^ life, 
 from athletics up or down as our standards may be. It tempts the 
 professor to spend his energies in securing large classes ; it sets depart- 
 ments to devising means to outrank in numbers the devotees of other 
 departments; it makes the student feel that he is conferring a favor 
 upon the university by coming, and then upon the professor by choos- 
 ing his classes; it leads the administration to value the professor's 
 service by his talents in these directions, to appraise executive work, 
 at least financially, far more highly than professional service; and, 
 worst of all, it contaminates the academic atmosphere so that all life 
 and inspiration go out of it, or would, if the professor's ideals did not 
 serve as a protecting aegis to resist, often with much personal sacrifice, 
 these untoward influences. 
 
 In bringing these considerations to a close I must first defend my 
 position against certain objections that are apparent, and then focus 
 the discussion upon the remedial aspect of the situation. I am confi- 
 dent that I do not undervalue services that have been done for Ameri- 
 can education by the very types of administration against which I 
 protest. A strong case may be made out for the opinion that for the 
 work that had to be done and the conditions that obtained, it was the 
 only method available and a good one. My face is turned to the fu- 
 ture; and the recognition of past achievment and fitness is no token 
 of increasing service under more developed conditions. The general 
 advantages of the presidential form of government are equally obvious. 
 The cause and the strength — I cannot bring myself to say the justi- 
 fication — of the conditions which with so many others I deplore, are 
 not far to seek. Those who defend present academic arrangements 
 bring forward pertinent considerations, to which any one approaching 
 the issues in a practical temper will give due weight. The advantages 
 of centralized power will not lightly be set aside; nor is there any 
 reason for losing the most essential of them in such reconstruction as 
 is needed to rehabilitate the academic career. We need not repeat the 
 common educational mistake, so neatly pictured in the German phrase 
 of tumbling out the child with the bath. Wisdom as well as sanity 
 is the name for a certain perspective of values. In company with 
 those who share the attitude of my protest, I am keenly sensitive to 
 the obligations that our educational welfare has incurred to the very 
 offices whose policy and activity I cite as but slightly commendable. 
 
 I am calling attention to the fact that these pearls of price will 
 have been too dearly bought, if they lead to the deterioration of the 
 academic career through loss of dignity and attractiveness to those to 
 
 (43) 
 
44 
 
 whom they should make the worthiest appeal. The very qualities 
 upon which emphasis is laid brings types of men into high office and 
 into the academic chairs who have not within them the possibilities that 
 contribute to the inspiration of the institution of which they become 
 an organic part. Confining the issue to the administrative aspect 
 onlv, I am content to repeat the comment of one of the speakers of 
 this conference, whose point of view is hardly likely to be regarded as 
 prejudiced. He tells us that "young men of power and ambition scorn 
 what should be reckoned the noblest of professions, not because that 
 profession condemns them to poverty, but because it dooms them to 
 a sort of servitude." And as a forecast of the future in the light of 
 the present, this: "Unless American college teachers can be assured 
 * * * that they are no longer to be looked upon as mere employees 
 paid to do the bidding of men who, however courteous or however 
 eminent, have not the faculty's professional knowledge of the compli- 
 cated problems of education, our universities will suffer increasingly 
 from a dearth of strong men, and teaching will remain outside the 
 pale of the really learned professions. * * * The problem is not 
 one of wages; for no university can become rich enough to buy the 
 independence of any man who is really worth purchasing." 
 
 A situation that calls forth such earnest, disinterested protest 
 cannot but be sombre in tone. Yet I am anxious to reveal the touch 
 of optimism that makes the world akin, and record that the brighter 
 colors have as legitimate a place in academic portraiture as my en- 
 forced selection for this occasion of the neutral and darker grays. 
 The compensations of the academic life are real enough; they simply 
 form, like much else that I have omitted, another story. I should be 
 sorry to have it inferred that a happy academician must be sought by 
 the despairing light of a Diogenes lantern; though I have implied that 
 in one's less hopeful moods, the lamp of learning seems a precarious 
 illumination amid the blinding incandescence of the rival interests of 
 our intensely modern life. The devotion to the purer, more sensitive 
 flame is in fact endangered; and those whose responsibility and con- 
 solation it is to hand it on to others with undiminished ardor, have 
 cause to feel that their vocation is shorn of favoring fortune, is beset 
 by lack of power to order their lives by appropriate standards, is 
 embarrassed by needless and remediable adversities. 
 
 I must also forestall the deduction which would be quite wide of 
 my purpose, that I am in any sense advocating the abolition of presi- 
 dencies and boards, and am proposing measures far too radical to be 
 practicable. On the contrary, I concede that the present mode of 
 administration if it can be freed — as there is good reason to believe it 
 can — from the spirit of its practice that now seems dominant, is a 
 very efficient and commendable method of accomplishing a purpose 
 which from the outset has been set forth as a subsidiary means to an 
 
 (44) 
 
45 
 
 end. If it furthers that end, it would in my judgment hardly be worth 
 while to change it even if that were readily possible. If the present 
 spirit of administration is the inevitable result of the present method, 
 then the method cannot be commended, however modified. Here 
 the ways divide; and the judgment of expediency has a more com- 
 manding voice, which it sl:ould not raise, however, in defiance of 
 principle. 
 
 It would be possible to frame an academic decalogue, the obedience 
 to which, though it would not ensure the realization of all the ideals 
 would guard against the more obvious transgressions. I shall con- 
 tent myself with suggesting but two of the provisions. The first is the 
 introduction of a definite system of salaries with such liberality as may 
 be possible, that provides for promotions and increases, and estab- 
 lishes the academic applicant upon a definite footing. This measure 
 is not proposed as a panacea, and can at best be but negatively effect- 
 ive. Yet it has great positive value under present circumstances, 
 for the reason that only when this phase of the matter is disposed of, 
 is it possible satisfactorily to consider other weighty issues. It is 
 most unfortunate that this financial aspect must be placed so promi- 
 nently in present discussions; for such prominence but enforces the 
 inadequacy of the academic situation. It would however be foolish 
 to disregard this irritating stumbling-block, which must be removed 
 if academic freedom is to be maintained. The professor desires money 
 in order that money considerations may not enter disturbingly into 
 his life; and universities should once for all determine matters of 
 salary, in order that their energies may be more profitablv expended. 
 
 The second provision is that no measure shall be decided bv the 
 president or the board without giving the faculty an opportunity to de- 
 cide whether it cares to express itself upon that measure or not. Such 
 provision inevitably carries with it the right to have a share in deciding 
 in the first place what division of questions shall be made between 
 faculty and board. To accomplish this end, an advisory committee 
 of the faculty seems an efficient means. Such committee should 
 decide in each case whether and how far questions should be con- 
 sidered by the faculty; and naturally the president, as a member of 
 such committee, will bring before it first and for approval all measures 
 that he regards as worthy of the attention of the board. An ar- 
 rangement of this type is in force in Leland Stanford University. 
 With slight change in the apportionment of the present authority, 
 such a measure will be adequate to bring to the faculty a voice on all 
 questions upon which, in its own judgment, its expression of opinion 
 would be for the best interests of the university. Such committee 
 would attend the meetings of the board and participate in its dis- 
 cussions, though without right of vote. The president would serve 
 as the formal spokesman of faculty influence, and could then be, what 
 
 ■i (45) 
 
46 
 
 it should be his highest ambition to be, the leader, not the governor, 
 of the faculty and a defender of the academic life. 
 
 I have no desire to lay minute stress upon particular remedies, 
 which must always take their shape from local conditions, though in 
 still larger measure must they be framed by ideals and purposes, that 
 are much the same wherever the academic spirit is cherished. I 
 desire only to remove the objection that practical measures to remove 
 difficulties cannot be readily devised. I know very well that changes 
 of ideals and purposes must first inspire confidence and enthusiasm 
 before they reach practical possibilities; but I am encouraged by the 
 example of so many other educational and national evils, that once 
 clearly recognized, have in astonishingly brief time been swept aw^ay 
 by the strenuous purpose of the national temper. It is in such a 
 movement that the present discussion would find the most desirable 
 consummation. 
 
 I am fully aware that no such administrative reform is to be 
 looked for until the ambitions that universities and particularly their 
 presidents cherish, are considerably altered. When internal culture 
 measures are acknowledged to be the leading issues of the academic 
 life, it will fall more and more to the faculty to carry them out; there 
 will be less and less need of the present type of president, less tempta- 
 tion to develop the office primarily for those functions which it now 
 serves. The type of individual that will then be sought for the posi- 
 tion will be selected by a different perspective of considerations; and 
 the academic career will have greater promise of reaching a worthier 
 status than it now occupies. First, as last, it is directly through 
 ideals and indirectly through administrative provisions that further 
 ideals, that the welfare of academic concerns is determined. 
 
 DISCUSSION 
 
 By President J. W. Mauck, LL.D. 
 President of Hillsdale College 
 
 It has never been my privilege to be associated actively as pro- 
 fessor or as president of a large institution. I have never known the 
 type of president that has been described here, yesterday and the day 
 before, and to some extent, this morning. 
 
 This is not a criticism upon the paper read this morning, because 
 I am in thorough sympathy with it, so far as I understand it. It is a 
 clear paper, but it is prepared from the standpoint of a large university, 
 and I cannot present views upon the justice of the statements. A 
 president such as described in one of the papers on Tuesday is one that 
 I did not know existed. He would be the personification of that 
 beautiful injunction of the Scriptures — "Be ye therefore perfect, even 
 as your Father, which is in Heaven, is perfect." I do not believe that 
 type of man is to be found. There will be weaknesses in all men, 
 
 (46) 
 
47 
 
 involving failure at some point. I apprehend that a president of the 
 kind described is influenced in his decisions and administration a great 
 deal more bv the views of his colleagues than the public generally 
 understands. In a small way I have known college professors and 
 presidents and boards of trustees, who are a type very wddely differ- 
 ent from that we have been considering for the last two days. I am 
 speaking from my own personal experience in a small university, and 
 one denominational college. I have never known in either one of 
 these institutions an instance in which the president did not carefully 
 and patiently consult members of the faculty. I believe it is quite 
 commonly true, at least in smaller institutions, and I suppose to an 
 extent in the larger institutions, that appropriations for departments 
 are left largely to the discretion of the president, as advised by the 
 faculty. 
 
 I have known of two institutions, and there are a great many 
 others, in which the needs of the departments are all carefully con- 
 sidered, and, in so far as the resources of the institutions will permit, 
 the president is left free as to the applications of the funds to the 
 different departments, and is held accountable for the results. It has 
 been said, owing to the great multiplicity of the interests involved in 
 the large institutions, that this centralization of power has become a 
 necessity; but the very conditions which make centralization a ne- 
 cessity disqualify any one man for the discharge of those duties. 
 And to exercise centralized power, those conditions necessitate general 
 consiiltation with the departments. 
 
 Of the many valuable points presented in the paper just read, 
 which it wdll be a pleasure to me to remember, the central one is that, 
 after all, existing conditions arise from the changed interpretation of 
 what a college or university is. The remarks as to advertising on the 
 roofs of buildings suggest that the point which must be attacked is 
 the whole administrative spirit of institutions. It has not come to 
 be a question of development of human character, the elevation of 
 social life, which the writer of the paper has justly said is the true and 
 only function of an educational institution. It is from losing sight of 
 that ideal that all of this trouble has come. It seems to be not a 
 question of how great we are, but as to how large. To-day we have, 
 I truly believe, in many institutions, small and great, too much de- 
 votion to the popularizing of a name, and too little devotion to high 
 ideals. 
 
 (47) 
 
48 
 
 President James H. "Baker, LL.D. 
 
 University of Colorado 
 
 It seems a little inappropriate that college presidents should have 
 much to do with this discussion, but I was very much interested 
 in this paper. 
 
 The college or university system in this country is peculiar to this 
 country. We are doing work in a wav in which it was never undertaken 
 in any other country. I wonder whether Oxford to-day would not be 
 better if it were so organized that it could feel the influence of leader- 
 ship in touch with progressive sentiment. I wonder if the universities 
 in France, for instance the University of Paris, might not accomplish 
 some things better if the rector had some power that was not pre- 
 scribed for him in detail by the central government, and if the insti- 
 tution was so organized that some initiative could be taken by the 
 institution itself. In France the position of a professor is exactly 
 defined and guarded. 
 
 If the writer of this paper had referred to Clark University, or Johns 
 Hopkins University, I could appreciate his point of view, I think, 
 perfectly. It may be we are going wrong. It may be we should have 
 only the genuine university in this country entirely separate from any 
 college function. But so long as we have the college in which most 
 of the so-called university work is done, it may be that that dignity, 
 which belongs to the professor, would be hardly a substitute for the 
 kind of leadership we have in a college president. This question 
 of democracy is a great question. Somebody has recently said 
 that just now the monarchs of the old world are sitting back com- 
 fortably and saying: "Of course, in a democracy there is nobody 
 to take care of the people." 
 
 I think that a faculty which governs itself in an extreme degree is 
 likely to be exceedingly conservative ; is likely to perpetuate tradition ; 
 is likely not to be in touch with progressive thought, although it may 
 tend to produce a few great geniuses. We have a great president of 
 the republic, who is assuming some leadership, and I think to the 
 immense advantage of this country. 
 
 Let me refer to an institution that of late years has been developing 
 considerably. I know some years ago the faculty very largely con- 
 trolled its affairs. It was a state university. It had no students, or 
 almost none. But, they said, and said publicly and frankly, "We are 
 a strong facul y, we are scholarly men, we have high standards, we 
 propose to maintain them, we do not care anything about the public, 
 and we do not care to have students, unless we can have them at the 
 ideal standard. ' Now the people had established that university 
 for the graduates of the high schools, and the people began to say they 
 would abolish the institution unless it served its purpose. They 
 demanded that the professors go to every high school in the state, 
 
 (48) . 
 
49 
 
 and advertise and make known that there was an institution supported 
 bv the people of the state for the benefit of the state. That work 
 never would have been done by a faculty controlling its own affairs, 
 without leadership. We must have leadership that will connect the 
 faculty with progress and with the people. 
 
 I admire the ideal that was presented. I am so constituted that I 
 would like to see that kind of an institution exclusively in this country ; 
 but I am not sure that I am not wrong in that feeling. I am not sure 
 that the work we are doing, which requires leadership and organiza- 
 tion, is not better for our democracy. I suggest these things for dis- 
 cussion. 
 
 Professor Richard Joxes, Ph. D. 
 Trustee of Iowa College; Professor in Vanderhilt University 
 
 As bearing upon the subject before us, namely, the academic 
 career, what it has offered in the past, what it may offer in the future, 
 especiallv what it mav offer in the future, let us consider for a moment 
 the University of Illinois with its really magnificent plant — which has 
 sprung up in a night, as it were. For the very unusual additions to 
 this plant, made in so short a time as a decade, due credit has been 
 gladly given on all sides to the great administrator who has stimulated 
 and guided this remarkable development. But now that this work 
 is to a large extent accomplished — for it would appear to the visiting 
 observer, or the observing visitor, that there can be little need of 
 additions to the plant, unless perhaps something here and there to 
 round out and complete a perfect whole — this great State, it is evident, 
 has in mind nothing short of perfection, — what would now appear to 
 be the work of the incoming president and his board of trustees? 
 Obviously, to make the best possible use of this plant, to get results, 
 educational results. That is to say, the work of the individual pro- 
 fessor, both in instruction and in research, now becomes relatively of 
 greater consequence than ever before. The erection of the plant was 
 a work of such paramount importance that the teaching professor, 
 even though there were scores of him, occupied for the time a place of 
 comparative unimportance. But now that the plant is established, 
 and due honor for the great work worthily bestowed, there will be 
 leisure for observing that a plant is of small value without the best 
 possible instruction. And thus it will come about naturally and easily 
 that the individual professor will come into his own. The adminis- 
 tration, no longer under the necessity of securing funds for new build- 
 ings, can now devote its energies to making attractive to the professor 
 the academic career, to the professor who finds his joy in life in his 
 work as a professor rather than in a deanship or any form of admin- 
 istrative work — especially affording him opportunity and leisure, 
 that is, freedom for mere drudgery, for doing some research work of 
 
 (49) 
 
50 
 
 his own, which is to the university professor the breath of hfe, enabhng 
 him thus to extend the boundaries of knowledge a Httle into what 
 Carlyle has caUed the "Circumambient Realm of Nothingness and 
 Night." And as the development of the University of Illinois is 
 tvpical of that of many other American universities, except in the 
 unusual rapidity of its development, we may perhaps conclude that the 
 pains endured by the university professor generally are "growing 
 pains" and await the day of deliverance. 
 
 But though these pains are evidence of life, let us not deny the 
 pain. Even on this happy occasion, when evidences of wonderful 
 growth meet the eye and statistics greet the ear and the atmosphere is 
 filled with the halo of the greater glory yet to dawn, let us not care- 
 lessly assert that "perfection, nothing less, greets us here." There is 
 probably not an institution in all this great Mississippi Valley that 
 could offer a professorship which would induce a professor, a full pro- 
 fessor, of Oxford, for example, to resign, even leaving out of consider- 
 ation any question of home and native land. 
 
 Much vet remains to be done to make the academic career as at- 
 tractive and useful as it is possible for it to be. Happy they 
 who live under an administration which knows, which combines sweet- 
 ness and light. 
 
 President Brown Ayers, LL.D. 
 
 University of Tennessee 
 
 I confess to a great deal of sympathy with the feeling of the dis- 
 tinguished gentleman who has read the paper under discussion, and 
 have been conscious in past years of a considerable conflict in the 
 State in which I have resided in regard to those matters. I have been 
 forced to think a good deal about this whole question from my in- 
 terest in an institution that is known to all in this country, and which 
 had lately changed from an institution governed by the faculty into 
 an institution governed by the president; namely, the University of 
 Virginia. 
 
 I am verv well acquainted with a number of the faculty of the Uni- 
 versity of Virginia, and in personal conference with them, I have heard 
 from time to time in the course of years, a good deal about the grow- 
 ing impatience on their part at the amount of business detail forced 
 on the faculty because of this faculty form of government. The 
 professors in charge of departments were beginning, I think, to feel 
 that it was really no part of their business, as teachers, to attend to 
 all those business details. We have there a very excellent illustration 
 of an institution 1hat has been very conservative in regard to the 
 matter of faculty government. It has been compelled by the opinion 
 of the men, who constituted the faculty, to abandon that system, to 
 a very considerable extent, and adopt the system of having the presi- 
 
 (50) 
 
51 
 
 dent accountable for the control and disposition of the funds of the 
 institution. The system of a limited power in the hands of a chair- 
 man necessitated the agreement of the faculty to a very large number 
 of business details, which proved unsatisfactory and had a tendency 
 to produce impatience on the part of the faculty. 
 
 It seems to me desirable to have the influence of the faculty largely 
 determine the general educational policy. The only question arising is 
 "whether the system of faculty government, suggested by the speaker, 
 would have any very considerable advantage over the system in use in 
 our institutions at the present time; where the president, by means of 
 an academic council which represents the various departments, or by 
 means of an academic senate, or some similar body, gets at the senti- 
 ments of the faculty as nearly as possible, or gets them by personal 
 conference, as suggested. This is rather a difficult question for me to 
 answer. Whether any thing more would be gained by a more formal 
 system than is gained by our present somewhat informal systeni, 
 which is fairly effective, I am not prepared to say. 
 
 The business necessities of the case call for efficiency. This led to 
 organization and centralization of power; and it all reduces itself to 
 what character of man the president shall be. Of course, if the presi- 
 dent is an unfit man to hold the office, I think that would soon become 
 apparent, and dissatisfaction on the part of the faculty and the public 
 would push him to one side and make room for some one better quali- 
 fied. With this reasonable amount of preparation in scholastic learn- 
 ing, enabling him to appreciate the educational side of an institution, 
 and with common sense and tact necessary to administer the busi- 
 ness of an institution, I do not see that serious menance which Dr. 
 Jastrow has pointed out. We can see that the abuse of the office 
 would lead to a great many difficulties. I have some sympathy with 
 the general plan he suggests in regard to the system of gradual 
 promotion — a logical system of promotion; I believe, if such a 
 system as that could be devised, it would be very satisfactory and 
 every college president would be glad to have it in operation, be- 
 cause one of the most difficult things I can conceive is doing real 
 justice to all members of the faculty. But any mechanical system 
 that could be devised, I can readily see, might very often have the 
 effect to hold a man in an institution who ought not to be there, 
 and encourage those to go on who are really not fitted for 
 high positions. There would come to be, at the end of five years, a 
 very awkward condition of things, in which a man would have to be 
 turned out entirely by reason of unfitness for promotion, when other- 
 wise he might still be made useful in some minor position. 
 
 The present system, defective as it is, is elastic enough to allow a 
 man to be held for the real value that he is to the institution, and at 
 
 (51) 
 
52 
 
 the same time he will not be encouraged to think he is more valuable 
 than he is. 
 
 I realize the great difficulty along this line, but I must say I do not 
 think the scheme suggested by the paper would have many advantages 
 over the method now in use. 
 
 Mr. S. a. Bullard, M. Arch. 
 President of the Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois 
 
 I hardly feel like talking in the presence of so many college presi- 
 dents. However, I might say a few words in reference to the history 
 of the University. At the organization of the University, the trustees 
 were appointed by the governor. There were five appointed from each 
 of the three judicial divisions of the State, and one from each con- 
 gressional district of the State. There were three who held the office 
 by virtue of holding some other office in the State, one of them being 
 the president of the University. He became a member and also presi- 
 dent of the board. There were thirty-two members of the board at 
 that time. Operations under that regime did not last very long. The 
 arrangement seemed to be unsatisfactory. The board was a large 
 one, and it put into the hands of the president of the University 
 immense power. He not only had the administration of the Univer- 
 sity itself, but he had the administration of the affairs of the board; 
 and as you all know, in assemblies of that size, the president can pass 
 almost any measure by the gavel, that he wants to pass. So as a 
 matter of fact the president had almost unlimited power. Only a 
 few years after the legislature entirely changed the whole system. 
 They reduced the board of trustees to eleven members, of which the 
 president of the University was no longer one. It has been since then 
 increased to twelve members. Nine trustees are now elected. The 
 state superintendent of public instruction is now a member; as is the 
 president of the state board of agriculture, and the governor, making 
 twelve in all. 
 
 This change arose from the fact that at that time the people — I say 
 the people, because it was through the legislature — felt that too much 
 power was placed in the hands of the president of the University. A 
 change was made because of that fact, although everyone in the State, 
 including everv member of the legislature, had the highest regard for 
 the President of the University. He was our first President and he 
 remained President of the University for a good many years after that 
 change was made. While perhaps he did not approve of it, he ac- 
 cepted the change and went on with the work, and I think the Uni- 
 versitv grew and prospered more after the change than before. 
 
 I feel like saying also a word or two in regard to advancing pro- 
 fessors. The system, as laid down by the writer of the paper 
 
 (52) 
 
53 
 
 under consideration is a most excellent one. We ought to 
 have some system of that kind. However, I think the sys- 
 tem should not be made unbending. It should be elastic, and 
 . very much so. Every officer of a corporation has to pass an 
 inspection once in a while ; this is true from the president down to 
 the least important officer. Presidents of universities also have to 
 pass under inspection, and it comes up in the board every once in a 
 while whether it would not be a good idea to have a change of admin- 
 istration. This question is raised also as to heads of departments and 
 to professors, not with any serious intent perhaps; and yet there is a 
 feeling going about, especially among members of boards of trustees, 
 that we ought to continually inspect the work of each one. Every 
 president here knows that fact; so that if we have a rigid system by 
 which promotion may be expected, it is evidently going to work a 
 hardship to some members of the faculty. For instance, a certain 
 member of the faculty is apparently not strong. He does not shine 
 like some others, but he is a sober, earnest, hardworking man and 
 accomplishes what he undertakes to accomplish. He moves like a 
 great ship, slowlv, but powerfully. His character is not noticed so 
 readily as a man who is able to shine on every occasion where he 
 might be brought forward, and we see no kind of surface illumination 
 in his character, or in his position, or professorship, which expresses 
 the real relationship between him and the others of whom I have 
 spoken. Judgment has to be used in such a case, lest a man might be 
 dropped who does not shine brightly, but whose work in his depart- 
 ment gives good results, and promotes the general interest of the uni- 
 versity. What are you going to do, when the five years are up? You 
 will, under the system suggested, have to say to him that he must 
 drop out. Yet he is a good man. You can hardly find any fault with 
 him. But you say he is not nearly so good as some others, and shall 
 these men be promoted equally ? It is a difficult matter to deal with 
 and do justice. We cannot make a cast-iron rule for the promotion of 
 every man. Men must stand on their individual qualities and char- 
 acter. 
 
 I agree with the writer of the paper in very many of the things he 
 has said, but I believe that an unlimited power in the faculty is not 
 wholly desirable. There should be some pow'er that can be appealed 
 to for final settlement. Not only that, but there must be some execu- 
 tive power to determine almost all of the matters that arise, and that 
 power can be lodged in the president. It can be done, it seems to me, 
 most satisfactorily in that way. If the president is the kind of a man 
 who ought to be president he is a fellow with the facult}^ • Moreover, 
 he is a fellow with the members of the board. The fact is, I some- 
 times think, that the best president of a university, is the president who 
 can handle the board right. It shows the tact and power of the man. 
 
 (53) 
 
54 
 
 If he can handle the board right, I am sure he can handle the faculty 
 right. By this I mean a president who grasps so clearly and fully the 
 truth of matters and has the ability to put them before his board and 
 his faculty so forcibly that their indorsement of his views and recom- 
 mendations will naturally follow. This I regard as a proper way for 
 a president to handle his board or his faculty. 
 
 A board that is elected by the people has duties to perform of a 
 very different nature, and looks at things in a very different way from 
 the way a university president or faculty would view them; for, a 
 professor in a department looks usually to the students he has under 
 him with a view to making them scholars in that department. The 
 board does not look at them exactly in that way. It looks not only 
 to the making of a scholar, but a useful man. The professor who only 
 wants to make a scholar of the student is satisfied when he has made 
 the scholar. The board of trustees will not be satisfied with that kind 
 of a product from the university. Hence I say we have a different 
 view. If the professor sends out from the university a man who is a 
 scholar when he leaves the university, but is not a practical, strong 
 man, a good member of the community and society, then the board of 
 trustees, I think, ought to have the authority to go to that professor 
 and say to him, "We want better material turned out, we want men 
 rather than merely scholars. We want scholars and men combined." 
 That is the view the trustees have and which professors do not always 
 have. I think that can be adjusted. I appreciate a meeting of this 
 kind, where we can exchange opinions. 
 
 Mr. James P. Munroe 
 Trustee of Massachusetts Institute of Technology 
 
 Let me say a word in reference to questions that have not yet been 
 touched upon. One was, as stated by Mr. Bullard, that the presi- 
 dent who does not observe practically the line of democratic action, 
 suggested by Professor Jastrow, would quickly disappear. What I 
 tried to emphasize on Tuesday is, that the public mind is becoming 
 wrongly educated, that it is learning to accept and even to demand 
 the kind of college president that, to my mind, is undermining the 
 academic career. It demands of a president that he shall be auto- 
 cratic in order to "boom" the college. We must educate the public 
 to understand that the president should be simply an interpreter — 
 a sort of mouth-piece to his faculty. I have heard presidents of two 
 great universities in this country say that the presidency would be 
 comparatively an easy ofifice if they could get rid of their petty- 
 minded, meddling faculties. 
 
 Those same presidents, and others, offer as an excuse for their 
 discourtesies to their fellow-workers, that the average faculty is not 
 
 (54) 
 
55 
 
 fitted to take up these large questions — that it is too slow — and they 
 maintain that it would take too much time to educate their faculties. 
 But I think that Professor Jastrow, in his paper, has pointed out why 
 faculties at present, — many of them, — are incompetent to treat broad 
 questions in a broad way. It is because their lives are given, under 
 the present system, to the consideration of limited and petty matters 
 which neither fit nor lift their minds up to great educational prob- 
 lems. We have got to have reform in this direction, — reform not only 
 for its own sake, but for the sake of lifting faculties up to a higher plane 
 of administrative and educational thought. 
 
 Mrs. Norman Frederick Thompson 
 Trustee of Wellesley College 
 
 I am in sympathv with the view expressed that there should be 
 some connection between the faculty and the board of trustees aside 
 from the president. The system Professor Jastrow indicates is 
 fraught with some danger ; but from the alumni of our institutions we 
 have members of our board who are somewhat familiar with questions 
 that arise in the management of affairs, and who might serve as a con- 
 necting link between faculty and board of trustees. 
 
 It would be well if a system could be put in practice whereby the 
 the faculty and trustees could consult and act upon certain questions 
 without having their presentation colored by passing through the 
 prism of the president's mind. A distinct advantage would thus be 
 gained. 
 
 Mrs. Carrie T. Alexander 
 
 Trustee of the University of Illinois 
 
 The board of trustees of the University of Illinois is elective and 
 is unique in so far as women are eligible to membership. Three 
 trustees, one of whom may be a woman, are elected every two years 
 for a term of six years, and so far as I know this board is the only one 
 of its kind. 
 
 As to the wisdom or usefulness of women on the board, there may 
 be, and no doubt is, a diversity of opinion. As one of them you will 
 pardon me when I j:)resent the favorable opinion. 
 
 While women may be governed by intuition rather than by reason, 
 and (in the opinion of men) may rush in where angels fear to tread, 
 their conclusions are often surprisingly wise. Moreover, whatever 
 their conclusions may be, women will defend them in the face of great 
 opposition, unmindful of eftects upon their own interests; while men 
 with, perhaps, the same conclusion reached by a series of deductions, 
 being more politic, will shrug their shoulders and "let it go." 
 
 (55) 
 
56 
 
 Women are much more economical and careful in the expenditure 
 of money. 
 
 Several years experience as manager and owner of a street railway, 
 where revenue was made up of "nickels" and expenses ran into dollars, 
 may have warped my financial vision. However, service on the board, 
 knowledge of economical administration of state institutions, to say 
 nothing of organizations of wom^n with women as the administrators 
 of affairs, confirm my belief. 
 
 No doubt there is a reason for this. Their early training as chil- 
 dren, when they are taught to make the most of their toys and per 
 sonal belongings, together with later experience when money is doled 
 out to them in small sums by an indulgent father, husband, or other 
 male relative, has taught them how to make money go farther than 
 any man could imagine. Fortunately or unfortunately, with self- 
 supporting women on the increase, conditions will change. 
 
 My conception, therefore, of the duties of a trustee is to be ever 
 watchful, — to conserve the best interest of the institution without 
 entirely forgetting the taxpayer. 
 
 Professor Jastrow^ 
 
 I beg to remove the impression, which seems erroneously to have 
 been conveved, that I have advocated the abolition of the presidential 
 office, and desire to have no other governing body in the university 
 than the faculty. I have very explicitly stated that I believe the 
 organization of the university in America to demand an official upon 
 whom shall fall many of the responsibilities that now fall upon the 
 president. I have, however, expressed my adherence to the opinion 
 that facultv opinion be so strong, faculty consideration so authorita- 
 tive, and faculty direction so universally acknowledged, that the 
 president should have no desire to be anything more than the author- 
 ized exponent of that opinion (not of his personal one), and should 
 never take any steps of any kind that do not bear the sanction of the 
 faculty. I have maintained that the "administration" should be, first 
 and foremost, the faculty, with a coordinate body to administer finan- 
 cial affairs in the board, and a recognized centralized representative in 
 the president. Under such a system the present temper of the college 
 president would be impossible; the present method of carrying measures 
 bv the president to the board without consultation of the faculty, 
 equally so. I see no reason why the essential features and provisions 
 for university administration should not be retained, but so entirely 
 remodelled in spirit that the actual trend of administrative measures 
 will be almost the opposite of what it now is. 
 
 iln revising these notes, I am able to refer to an article by Professor Stevenson in the Popular 
 Science Monthly for December, in which the only acceptable solution of the difficulty is maintained 
 to be the abolition of the presidential office. 
 
 (56) 
 
57 
 
 QUESTIONS REGARDING COLLEGE ADMINISTRATION* 
 
 Deax Charles E. Bessey 
 
 Trustee of Doane College 
 
 ♦Read, in the author's absence, by Professor S. A. Forbes, of the University of Illinois. 
 
 1. "What should be the real administrative body of a college or 
 university, the faculty or the trustees? 
 
 "Should the trustees limit their functions to selecting a faculty and 
 then vest in the latter the actual administration, or should the board 
 itself undertake to administer the institution, either as a body or 
 through its committees?" 
 
 In all matters pertaining to and involving the expenditure of money, 
 the trustees should be the administrative body, but in educational matters 
 the faculty and the trustees should both take action. In the latter case, 
 the faculty should first act, and then submit their action to the trustees for 
 approval. It is best that the trustees should delegate the arrangement of 
 details to the faculty. 
 
 Since the power to control the expenditure of money must rest with 
 the trustees, it follows that they and not the faculty have final control 
 even in educational matters. It will help to clarify the situation if 
 this fact be well understood at the outset. In all charters with which 
 I am acquainted the trustees are made responsible for the financial 
 management of the institution. In state colleges and universities, 
 this responsibility is emphasized, and trustees are held strictly ac- 
 countable for every item of expenditure. It is plain, therefore, that 
 the real administrative body is the board of trustees, since by granting 
 or withholding money they can promote or defeat any project. I am 
 not saying what should be the real administrative body ; I am merely 
 reciting the facts as they exist, and as they must exist in all state 
 universities, and most private ones as well. 
 
 Now, as a matter of expediency, all boards of trustees should at 
 once delegate to the faculties the arrangement of all details of manage- 
 ment, and then follow the sound business policy of non-interference 
 in regard to all delegated powers. Elsewhere in society and in poli- 
 tics, there are numberless cases of such delegation of powers, and a 
 successful practice of non-interference, and there is no good reason 
 why it should not be equally feasible in college matters. 
 
 In all cases where questions of policv are concerned ultimately 
 involving the expenditure of money,. it is manifest that the trustees 
 must take action. Thus, the establishment of new departments and 
 courses of study, while the faculty is the only body capable of formu- 
 lating the matter, it must be favorably acted upon by the trustees 
 before it can receive the necessary financial support. It is clearly 
 impracticable, and therefore impossible for any board of trustees to 
 allow the faculty to pass finally upon matters which necessitate ex- 
 penditures of money not yet authorized by the board itself. 
 
 (57) 
 
58 
 
 A good working scheme is that which recognizes the powers and 
 duties of both bodies. In general, the faculty takes the initiative, 
 and proposes a plan which is then submitted to the trustees for their 
 approval. In case of non-approval, the matter must of necessity be 
 dropped for the present, or so modified as to meet with approval 
 later. In case of approval, the trustees provide for the expense of 
 the project, and should delegate the arrangement of details to the 
 faculty as the body of experts who are supposed to know more about 
 these matters than the members of the governing body. I have known 
 of cases where a progressive board of trustees took the initiative, 
 asking the faculty to prepare and present a plan for the consideration 
 of the trustees. This is quite proper, and under the circumstances 
 the only thing to do. I have, alas, known of cases where the trustees 
 did not wait for faculty action, but themselves formulated the plan 
 independently of the faculty. I cannot too strongly condemn such 
 action, and while some faculties are no doubt much too slow and con- 
 servative, yet in the end the trustees would have done better to 
 have requested previous consideration by the teaching body. 
 
 "2. Should the president of the institution be the sole advisory 
 authority to the board of trustees, or should the other administrative 
 officers, or the various faculties be consulted?" 
 
 In general, the president should he the adviser of the board of trustees 
 as well as of the faculties, hut in difficult or douhtful cases, the hoard 
 should consult with faculty officers, or even with professors and instructors, 
 hut in general, the president should he the only one to carry petitions, 
 applications, recommendations , etc., to the hoard. 
 
 In discussing this question, it is well first of all to agree upon the 
 place of the president in the college. I have found not a little feeling 
 on the part of professors that the president is a more or less high priced 
 figure head, or even a troublesome hindrance to faculty plans, and I 
 may as well confess that at times I have shared in views something 
 like these. Yet I am convinced that the president is a necessary 
 officer in every institution of learning where there are many professors 
 and instructors at work in manv departments, and having different 
 duties. The millenium has not yet approached near enough for us to 
 be able to conduct successfully a business as complex as that of a col- 
 lege without an executive head. The president is (or should be) the 
 expert in the business of education who is the executor of the plans 
 duly adopted by the trustees on the one hand and the faculty on the 
 other. Moreover, there falls to him verv naturally, the work of plan- 
 ning for improvements, some of which must go to the faculty for fur- 
 ther development, while others should be laid before the trustees. 
 Where the scope of the work of the president is fully understood by 
 faculty, trustees and the president himself, there should be no jeal- 
 ousy or fear in regard to the rights and limits of any one. From his 
 
 (58) 
 
59 
 
 position, the president is the natural adviser of trustees and faculty. 
 It would soon result in confusion if trustees were to undertake the 
 work of adviser, collectively or individually, for the professors, and in 
 like manner, it would lead to confusion if every professor were to re- 
 gard it as his duty to act the part of advisor to the trustees upon all 
 kinds of questions as they arise. The morale of the institution is best 
 maintained where suggestions of professors are first discussed in open 
 faculty meetings, and the results transmitted to the president and 
 trustees. Yet here, the fact that the president is the president, and 
 not a mere clerk must be borne in mind, and he must not be required 
 to lay before the trustees without comment any action of the faculty 
 which he does not approve In fact, every action of the faculty 
 should be freely discussed with the president, and unless it receives the 
 practically unanimous approval of the faculty, his disapproval should 
 be final. I suggest that a veto power should be accorded the presi- 
 dent, and also the power of reversing the veto by a three-fourths or 
 four-fifths vote of all members of the faculty (not of a mere quorum). 
 The troubles which have arisen between faculties and presidents have 
 often been due to the fact that the proper relations have not been 
 understood or observed. 
 
 I may say in passing, that in all institutions (possibly excepting 
 the very small colleges where the president is also a professor with full 
 work) the chief executive officer, whether called president or chancel- 
 lor, should not be a voting member of the faculty. His votes should 
 be wholly reserved for final approval or disapproval. 
 
 "3. Should the facult}^ be authorized to nominate men to the 
 board for vacancies, or should that be done by the president or by 
 committees or by members of the board?" 
 
 In some cases, a faculty should be asked by the board to make nomi- 
 nation, but in general, the nomination should be made by the president 
 upon recommendations made by the professors in nearly allied depart- 
 ments. Where there are several faculties, the dean of the faculty in winch 
 the vacancy occurs, should have a voice in the recom-m-endation, unless it 
 be a minor one in the department. 
 
 That nominations should be made by the most competent body in 
 the college, needs no argument. What is that most competent body? 
 In the case of a vacanc}^ in a minor position it is clear that the head 
 professor is the one most competent to make a nomination, and he should 
 be asked to do so. In case of a vacancy in the head professorship, 
 the president should be the most competent to make a nomination, 
 since it is his business to know who are the successful professors in 
 many lines of work in the colleges of the country. It will help him 
 to make a careful selection if he takes counsel of the head professors 
 of allied departments, and the deans of the colleges or departments in 
 which the vacancy occurs. I know of one case where an instructor 
 
 (59) 
 
60 
 
 had made such a fine record as a teacher and investigator that the 
 faculty took action unanimously recommending him to the trustees 
 for election to a full professorship. This action of the faculty was 
 ratified by the trustees with the happiest results, and I have never 
 known a better appointment. 
 
 "4. How should trustees be selected? (a) By cooptation? (b) 
 By the Alumni? (c) By outside authority? 
 
 1. In case of private institutions, by the church or other 
 
 body? 
 
 2. In case of state institutions, 
 
 (a) Appointed by the Governor? 
 
 (b) Elected by the people? 
 
 (c) or ex-ofjicio, e. g., Governor, Superintendent of 
 
 Public Instruction, etc.? 
 
 (1.) In private institutions: by election by the board itself for part of 
 the trustees and by election by the alumni for the remainder . 
 
 (2.) In state institutions: by election by the people at large; i. e., all the 
 people of the state to vote for candidates for all of the vacancies. This is 
 far better than appointment by the governor, or election by the Legislature , 
 or ex-ofjicio. The latter is the worst of all. 
 
 I have nothing further to sav in regard to the election of trustees of 
 private institutions. In state universities, appointment by the gov- 
 ernor is certain, sooner or later, to be used for selfish or political pur- 
 poses. Nearly every man elected to the governorship is under such 
 obligations to certain men that he feels compelled to listen to their 
 requests in regard to this or that appointment, and thus it happens 
 that men become trustees for the purpose of carrying out the wishes 
 of a particular politician. I know of a case where in this way a gov- 
 ernor in a western state "packed" the board of trustees with ap- 
 pointees who were pledged to dismiss two professors who had ofifended 
 certain politicians. And in due time, the pledge was carried out, and 
 the professors summarily kicked out of the college. 
 
 The same objection does not hold with respect to those who are trustees 
 ex-officio, for they are always elected for some other purpose. The 
 objection to such trustees is that they have been selected on account 
 of especial fitness for other duties, or political expediency, and they 
 quite naturally look upon their trusteeship as entirely secondary, or 
 as an opportunity of securing a little more "patronage." In one 
 case, the trustee's duties are neglected; in the other, the office is too 
 often made the occasion of political favoritism, or something worse. 
 
 Where trustees are elected "at large" for long terms of service, at 
 one of the general elections, the best results have been reached. Of 
 course, the trustees secured in this way are not either angels or edu- 
 cational experts, but they are usually honest men who honor their 
 office. They were nominated in open state convention, and elected 
 
 (60) 
 
61 
 
 by the votes of all the people in the state, so that they are not indebted 
 to a small body of men for their positions. As a consequence, they 
 are not particularly bound to any set of men and are free to act as they 
 think best. In Nebraska, where this has been the method of electing 
 the trustees of a state university for the past thirty years, there has 
 never been a case of political appointment in the faculty, or a dis- 
 missal on account of political reasons. I have seen narrow partv men 
 elected to the board, but whose election left them so wholly free and 
 unpledged that they forgot party lines when in board meetings. 
 Even when the fusion party (Populist, Silver Republicans, and Demo- 
 crats) elected a majority of the trustees in Nebraska, not a professor, 
 not an instructor, not an employe was disturbed on account of his 
 political affiliations. This was because these men came into office 
 untrammeled and unpledged. 
 
 "5. Should the trustees assume entire control of the financial 
 administration, or should they allow the faculties to have a represen- 
 tation also, by allowing them to submit a budget either by departments 
 or as a whole ? ' ' 
 
 .4 budget should be prepared by the president or finance committee, 
 based upon estimates and requests formally made by the heads of all the 
 departments. With this budget before them, the trustees must then assume 
 the, financial responsibility of ordering expenditures . 
 
 As I have shown in discussing the first question, the trustees of the 
 college actually control its expenditures. The professors know their 
 own needs better than the trustees, in fact the latter may, and prob- 
 ably do have only a very general idea of departmental needs. It 
 must be conceded, however, by every professor that the trustees know 
 better than the professors what are the aggregate needs, as well as 
 what are the available funds. Here is where the president may help 
 both trustees and faculty, by making himself as fully acquainted as 
 possible with the financial resources on the one hand, and the needs 
 on the other. The business way of managing such a matter as this, 
 is for the president to receive the estimates of the professors, and after 
 conferences with members of the faculty on the one hand, and mem- 
 bers of the board of trustees on the other, to propose such a budget as 
 will be a fair compromise between requests and resources. 
 
 "6. Should the trustees, if they reserve the financial authority, 
 undertake to determine the budget in all its details, or should they 
 simply distribute by departments and leave it to the individual de- 
 partments to make the detailed distribution ? 
 
 In providing for the expenses of departments, the details must be left 
 to the heads of departments , who should make orders and purchases 
 through the steward or proper purchasing officer of the college. 
 
 In the management of a department of any considerable size or 
 complexity, it is quite impossible for the head professor to anticipate 
 
 (61) 
 
62 
 
 every necessary item for a year in advance. Only in a general way 
 can the expenditures be anticipated, and there will arise almost daily 
 the need for something which could not have been anticipated by any 
 foresight. I have found in my own experience in the management of 
 a department, which extends over a period of nearly thirty-six years, 
 that I can estimate pretty closely as to the aggregate expenditures 
 necessary for the normal growth of the department, and I can even 
 indicate fairly well how much will be necessary for this and that 
 subdivison of the work, but it often happens that some change takes 
 place in the amount of work which must be done which makes it 
 necessary to quite materially increase the expenditures here, while 
 decreasing them there. I consider it to be a sound policy to consult 
 with the president in regard to plans for large expenditures, and es- 
 pecially for such as involve considerable expenditure for a series of 
 years. In other words, it is wise not to begin the purchase of expen- 
 sive annual distributions of specimens, or of particular sets of 
 expensive machines or other apparatus, without some assurance 
 of the continuance of sufficient annual appropriations. It 
 ought not to be necessary to write down such business commonplaces 
 as these, for these are the every day practice of business concerns the 
 world over, and yet too often these very simple and obvious rules are 
 ignored or wholly forgotten. We must remember that the business 
 side of a college must be conducted on business principles, and these 
 must be rigidly observed by both trustee and faculty. 
 
 "7. Should the trustees of all institutions, public and private 
 alike, be required by law to file full financial statements with some 
 public authority and publish the same ? ' ' 
 
 / am a believer in publicity, and favor the suggestion for both state 
 and private colleges. 
 
 In state institutions, publicity is required by law. There is no 
 valid reason why the same practice should not prevail in regard to 
 private colleges and universities, and it would certainly tend to greater 
 carefulness. Moreover, it would inspire greater confidence in the 
 trustees on the part of the public were it known that all their actions 
 were to be made public in an official manner. 
 
 "8. Should the alumni have some formally recognized place in 
 the scheme of government of the institution? If so, what? 
 
 Give the alumni some representation on the board of trustees. 
 
 The growing practice in both state and private colleges of electing 
 alumni to membership on the board of trustees, is to be commended. 
 In the private institutions, this is a matter which can easily be regu- 
 'lated by a rule of the board itself, but in state institutions, since there 
 can be no rule or law upon this point, all that can be done is for the 
 alumni to be sufficiently active and influential to secure the nomina- 
 
 (62) 
 
63 
 
 tion of graduates of the institution. In Nebraska this has given us 
 one or more alumni on the board for many years. 
 
 "Should the student body have formal recognition in the scheme 
 of government by being privileged to appoint representatives to any 
 disciplinary or administrative body?" 
 
 The ''student body'' is a community in which the intelligent and ac- 
 tive life of the individual is too short to make it available in any perma- 
 nently helpful way. Freshmen are too timid; sophomores do not under- 
 stand the college problems; juniors and seniors might render some help, 
 but they soon leave college. 
 
 In my opinion, based upon fifteen years of experience with it, 
 "student government," so-called, is impracticable in so far as perma- 
 nent results are concerned. I took prominent part in a prolonged 
 attempt to secure a condition in which the students could and would 
 govern themselves. It was fairly successful only as long as the 
 faculty watched every step taken by the student officers. When we 
 relaxed our watchfulness the "government" fell into nocuous desue- 
 tude. 
 
 In all this talk about the desirability of having the students take 
 some part in the government of the college, there is the feeling that in 
 some way wherever there is government it must be a representative 
 government in order that individual rights may be secure, and the 
 "consent of the governed" attained. Now, we may as well under- 
 stand first as last that there are a great many places in even the most 
 democratic society where "representation " is impracticable, and where 
 the "governed" are not competent to have any voice in the govern- 
 ment, or even if competent, do not want to be bothered about the 
 matter. We cannot run railway trains or steamships with their 
 hundreds of passengers by a committee of the passengers. When I 
 go on board of either, I am too busy with my own affairs to be willing to 
 "work my way" by taking part in the management. So too it is 
 with the college boy. He expects us to manage things, himself in- 
 cluded, and he rarely has time to turn to in order to take part in what 
 is manifestly our own business, that is, the business of the faculty 
 and the trustees. 
 
 "10. Is it possible to devise uniform methods of bookkeeping and 
 statistics, so as to make comparisons more valuable?" 
 
 / should like to see greater uniformity in the bookkeeping of the col- 
 leges, and no doubt much improvement may be brought about by a proper 
 committee. 
 
 This is a matter for the bookkeepers, and all that we need do here 
 is to arrange that they and the president shall take up the matter. 
 
 (63) 
 
64 
 
 Additional Remarks by Professor Forbes 
 
 I have been asked by the program committee of this conference to 
 add to this paper, in the absence of its distinguished author, anything 
 which mav seem to me to be cahed for by way of discussion. I am 
 pleased to be able to approve it most heartily in general, with some 
 exceptions in details, however, one or two of which will presently be 
 made. 
 
 Especially I approve it as exhibiting a symmetrical, well-balanced 
 plan of a university organization, drawn by a man who has had much 
 personal experience in all parts of it, who has lived virtually his whole 
 life in an American university, and who is able, consequently, to look 
 a.t it intelligently and fairly, from all points of view; and I would have 
 you contrast it with that view of university organization, sometimes 
 held up to us, which shows us a Brobdingnagian president, a common- 
 sized board of trustees, and a Lilliputian faculty — a view evidently 
 due to a radically wrong perspective, and which gives us no proper 
 understanding of right relations and proportions. 
 
 What is the real, the vital, the essential work of a university, that 
 for which alone it has been established and for which it is maintained, 
 that for which all else exists and to which all else must be subordi- 
 nated? And where is this work done and who are the real doers of it? 
 It is the work of education and research, done in lecture-rooms and 
 laboratories and libraries, and by the members of the university 
 faculty. Whatever improves and strengthens this faculty, whatever 
 best organizes its various abilities and makes them most effective for 
 the university service, is good; whatever tends to weaken it, to sup- 
 press, to depress, to disorganize it, is bad. This is the test by which 
 to try every proposition in university administration and develop- 
 ment. And what is this faculty, and of whom is.it composed? It is 
 presumably — and such it should certainly be made — a body of strong 
 capable, well-trained, well-organized men and women, themselves the 
 picked product, the very flower, of the educational processes and in- 
 stitutions of which they have now become the active agents for the 
 education of others. If they are not worthy and well developed and 
 well trained, then the whole scheme of the higher education is a blun- 
 der, for they are its final outcome. It is because I believe in univer- 
 sity education, and hence in the university facultv as its main and 
 most important agent, that I am led to respectfully dissent from 
 Dean Bessey's recommendation that the president should be given a 
 veto power over deliberate and well-considered faculty action. 
 
 The president's position of advantage in most American univer- 
 sities, in that he speaks for the faculty in trustee meetings and for the 
 trustees in faculty meetings; in that he powerfuUv influences, if he 
 does not virtually control, appointment to the facultv itself, promotion 
 in it, and removal from it; in that he stands at the center of university 
 
 (64) 
 
65 
 
 intelligence, and is presumably gifted beyond the ordinary in diplo- 
 matic capacity, in a knowledge of human nature, and in the manage- 
 ment of men, insures him all the power over faculty action which any 
 executive officer — which any one man — ought to have ; and if we add 
 to this the fact that he is free to comment to the trustees on any action 
 which the faculty may send up to trustee sessions, and that there is 
 no one to defend the faculty position if he attacks it there, we shall see, 
 I am sure, that this legislative body needs rather to be strengthened 
 in the interests of its own efficiency than to be weakened still further 
 by giving greater power over it to its own executive. 
 
 If this were the final session of this body, I should be tempted to 
 ask the privilege of saying a few words on the university budget sys- 
 tem, in the light of Dean Bessey's suggestions, but this subject will no 
 doubt be fully covered under another topic on your program. 
 
 DISCUSSION 
 
 Mr. Henry H. Hilton 
 Trustee of Dartmouth College 
 
 Because of Dr. Bessey's high standing as an educator and his long 
 experience, I have great respect for his opinion on all of these questions 
 and I find mvself in accord with many of his conclusions. Some I 
 should modify and some, in my judgment, need emphasis. 
 
 Should the president be the sole advisory authority? From the 
 standpoint of a business man, the answer to this question seems clear 
 to me. Most large business enterprises to-day have their boards of 
 directors but also their presidents, through whom all matters are 
 brought to the attention of the boards. The president is held re- 
 sponsible for results and accountable if results are unsatisfactory. 
 And so with any institution of learning. While it is to. be assumed 
 that the trustees will inform themselves through the faculty or other- 
 wise, and while it is to be assumed that the successful president will 
 advise with his faculty and endeavor to cooperate with them, yet he 
 and he alone must be the head ; and whenever a majority of the board 
 lose confidence in the judgment of the president or when it becomes 
 clear that affairs are going wrong, it is time to look for a new man for 
 the position. I see no advantage in Dr. Bessey's suggestion that the 
 president's veto should be overruled by a three-fourths' or four-fifths' 
 vote of the faculty. A wise president would commonly yield to the 
 views of a large majority of his faculty, but in special cases where he 
 felt it essential that his views prevail his word should be final. 
 
 As to the publicity of financial statements, the wisdom of such 
 action can hardly be emphasized too much. As regards all institu- 
 tions in which the public have a direct interest, mismanagement and 
 errors of judgment ultimately may assume proportions which mean 
 disaster to the institution and its officers, and these might be antici- 
 
 (65) 
 
66 
 
 pated and avoided were periodical public statements the practice. 
 Instances come to mind where public school funds have been em- 
 bezzled and college endowments seriously impaired by being wrong- 
 fully used in the payment of current expenses because incompetent or 
 dishonest men were in charge and there was no accounting to anybody 
 of the distribution of the money. Any man can profit by advice. No 
 man is too honest for supervision. 
 
 Should the student body have formal recognition in the scheme of 
 government? Dr. Bessey has the negative opinion and many will 
 agree with him. Still I was reading only the other day a statement 
 from Wellesley where student government has been in \'ogue for four 
 years and they are enthusiastic over its results, and I know of other 
 institutions where the students are participating more or less with dif- 
 ferent degrees of success. On the whole, I am inclined to believe that 
 such participation has a place in most institutions. 
 
 Would uniform statistics be of assistance? As a business proposi- 
 tion this appeals to me as being sound. Whenev.er similar lines of 
 work are being conducted in different parts of the country where the 
 results sought for are much the same, statistics are invaluable. Com- 
 parison is sure to lead to a better general average, helping as it will to 
 show weaknesses and emphasizing better methods. 
 
 What should be the relation of the alumni to the institution ? The 
 question appeals to me as vitally important. A college or university 
 fails to attain its largest success without the sympathetic cooperation 
 of faculty, president and alumni. The alumni will not, cannot sustain 
 their interest without the opportunity for active participation in the 
 affairs of the college, and general participation is only possible by 
 alumni representation on the board of trustees. In addition to the 
 regular duties of such trustees, it is my conception that they should 
 see to it especially that the alumni scattered in various directions 
 should be reached personally where it is possible, or by correspondence, 
 made cognizant of changes and plans for developing the institution, 
 and encouraged to make occasional pilgrimages to their alma mater. 
 If this is done, their children are likely to follow in the footsteps of the 
 parents. Such a consituency is peculiarly valuable because the boy 
 or girl has an appreciation of conditions and a knowledge and sym- 
 pathy with traditions which strengthen enthusiasm and kindle love, 
 no small considerations in an undergraduate body. And besides the 
 children, one's money, where there is money to give, will have a ten- 
 dency to revert to the college where one obtained his preparation for 
 life and his capacity for amassing wealth, and very properly. Apart 
 from the importance of such a constituency per se, a geographically 
 diversified constituency is recognized everywhere as a valuable leaven, 
 and while any institution expects that the great majority of its stu- 
 dent bodv w411 come from its own state or vicinity, the alumni if active 
 
 (66) 
 
67 
 
 will help to enkirge the percentage from abroad. Then, too, that in- 
 tangible something called "college spirit," which is hard to explain 
 but which means much to the individualwho understands the feeling, 
 the joy of being part of a noble body of high minded, cultivated people, 
 standing together like brothers or sisters, with a pride in the alma 
 mater which acts as a stimulus to higher ideals, — such a spirit can be 
 developed and intensified if the alumni are made to feel that thev are 
 needed and expected in the management of the institution. Unless 
 the interest of the alumni is maintained, graduates drift away, acquire 
 new interests, form new affiliations, send their children to other insti- 
 tutions, and in all probability the money goes where the children go. 
 
 Alumni representation is no longer an experiment. It has gradu- 
 ally come into vogue in the east and is at present practiced in most of 
 the institutions of importance on the Atlantic seaboard and vicinity, 
 and, so far as I have been able to ascertain, it is enthusiastically en- 
 dorsed by all who are interested and is accomplishing the desired re- 
 sults. I look for the general adoption of the plan among the remain- 
 ing institutions in the East and the non-state colleges of the West. 
 
 It seems to me that what is good for these private institutions in 
 this regard should be equally applicable to the state universities. 
 Such institutions I suppose are desirous of reaching beyond the bor- 
 ders of their states for their attendance, especially among the children 
 of the alumni; and in matter of bequests, while their principal support 
 is expected to come from state funds, I have not observed that any 
 bequests to state institutions are being declined, and I look for such 
 bequests to grow in number. Alumni representatives on the board 
 would have their beneficial influence in these and other matters. In 
 some instances which I recall state institutions have suffered seriously 
 because their affairs have gotten into state politics, a danger that can 
 never wholly disappear where the entire body of trustees are elected 
 by popular vote or appointed by the governor. As a resident of Illi- 
 nois interested in the continued rapid progress of this institution, I 
 should welcome such a change in the law, if such were possible, that 
 the University of Illinois might lead her sister universities in this 
 movement for alumni representation elected by the alumni; and even 
 if the law remains unchanged, I shall hope for such active interest on 
 the part of the alumni as to insure alumni representation on the board 
 to the extent of several members. 
 
 (67) 
 
68 
 
 STATE SUPERVISION OF ENDOWMENT FUNDS 
 
 Mr. J. P. LipPiNCOTT 
 
 Trustee of Illinois College 
 
 Should the trustees of all institutions, public and private alike, be 
 required by law to file full financial statements with some public 
 authority and publish the same? To my mind the answer is, Yes. • 
 
 Why should the people of the State of Illinois enact a law requiring 
 the trustees of private institutions to make report of their expendi- 
 tures and publish the same? They a,ct without compensation and 
 often at considerable expense of time, money and convenience. To 
 justify such a law, there should be pointed out some characteristic of 
 human nature that is deep seated and ungovernable, save under the 
 pressure of necessity of meeting the animadversion of every possible 
 critic. There should be given some reason as broad, as comprehensive, 
 and as far seeing as the highest statesmanship can give for the enact- 
 ment of any law; some reason which honorable, conscientious, benevo- 
 lent men can admit to be good without seeming to lessen their own 
 self respect. It will be the effort of this paper to point out such a 
 characteristic of human nature ; to give a reason that is a fundamental 
 and, hence, answering all the very severe requirements just stated. 
 
 Let me first make the very broad assertion that, in my opinion, 
 every private endowed college in the State of Illinois that has been in 
 existence twenty years or more, would to-day have from two to ten 
 times its present available endowment, had such a law, with appro- 
 priate sanctions, been in force during the period of its existence. In 
 modification of this assertion let me say that I do not refer to institu- 
 tions which have a foster father, ever ready to supply funds; but to 
 those institutions dependent upon such occasional gifts as may come 
 from benevolently inclined persons who at the same time do not feel 
 the responsibility of foster fathers. 
 
 A lawyer, in whose presence I may well rise and stand uncovered 
 out of respect for his years, learning, and influence, made the state- 
 ment in my hearing that the institution is a trust to be carried on with 
 the available funds as best it can and that it is the duty of the trustees 
 to keep the institution going while the funds last, depending upon 
 benevolently disposed people of wealth to make further contributions 
 to the endowment fund and thus send the institution forward to the 
 next generation. Other abler lawyers than the speaker have practi- 
 cally adopted this view. They overlook the fact that the same trus- 
 tees have separate trusts, as distinct in the attendant obligations as 
 though the separate trusts were given to distinct boards; that the 
 institutional life is one trust, while the principal of the endowmnet 
 fund is a distinct trust. They have no right to consume the body of 
 one trust in order to keep the other alive. 
 
 (68) 
 
69 
 
 Another lawyer said to the speaker: "I cHd not suppose the trust- 
 ees were bound to preserve the endowment fund. I supposed it was 
 just money given to the college and they could do what they pleased 
 with it." And I must take off my hat to him in recognition of his 
 greater success. As illustrating the practical working of this view, 
 let me mention an institution in this State, not my own, however, 
 which I am informed has now only half the endowment which it had 
 two years ago. I am informed that the fund has been directlv drawn 
 upon for current expenses. This institution has a good lawyer on 
 its board of trustees, if I am correctly informed. And yet, the supreme 
 court of this state announced, in deciding a case to which that insti- 
 tution was a party, that if the funds were insufficient to produce an 
 income with w^hich the school could be conducted, it was the duty of 
 the trustees to let the fund accumulate until it should be sufficient. 
 Views similarly mistaken, arising from a somewhat careless assump- 
 tion, without investigation, may be met in everv bodv of men concern- 
 ing subjects that are to them side issues to their regular business. 
 And such mistaken views have to do with, but do not constitute, the 
 characteristic of human nature, the broad and comprehensive reason 
 for the proposed law, of which we are in search. 
 
 There is a tendency in human nature separating the human family 
 into two classes, the one loyal to an idea or principle, the other to a 
 person; let us point to the workings of this tendency in the practical 
 affairs of to-day. Turn where you will in the affairs of man and you 
 will find the personal embodiment of a will and purpose much more 
 potent in accomplishing practical results than any principle which 
 ought to be adhered to. Said a very intelligent and able financier, 
 then but not now on the same board with me; "We cannot refuse to 
 follow the president's recommendations unless we are ready to break 
 with him. " I did not wish to break with the president, but a certain 
 recommendation seemed to me to be bad policv for the college. I 
 was for discussing the matter and, if in the judgment of the board the 
 movement was unwise, it seemed to me that it should not be made; 
 but I found that I was speaking out in a meeting where I was not 
 expected to interrupt. And so you will discern, if you notice, that in 
 this busy day autocratic leadership is the rule. 
 
 The trustees of our colleges are simply men, very high-minded and 
 and honorable men, in the main, but men who, in genreal, will simply 
 act out their natures. If there was always a monitor present to 
 admonish them of their duty and obligation, to point out a principle 
 absolutely binding upon their consicences, they would rise from fol- 
 lowing the lead of persons to independent action upon principle. 
 But the principle of which they are not frequently admonished be- 
 comes shadowy and lost sight of. They give themselves to the per- 
 sonal leadership of the current administration. They are hoping for 
 
 (69) 
 
70 
 
 some gift or gifts to place the institution on a solid foundation and 
 make spasmodic efforts to accomplish that desideratum. In the mean 
 time the present necessities of the faculty require a slight deficit and 
 with the same illusive hope that defeats so many in the quest of for- 
 tune, they trv to keep things going, to keep up appearances, and are 
 deaf and blind to the legitimate consequences. If very technical, 
 they mav formally borrow from the endowment fund and execute the 
 note of the institution therefor, or may resort to some other subter- 
 fuge, just temporarily. Time passes. The personnel of the board 
 changes. The administration, it may be, changes. The persons now 
 carrying on the institution are not those who created the indebtedness 
 and are not responsible for it. The whole thing belongs to the past, 
 and may as well be charged out. It is charged out. Then the pro- 
 cess repeats itself, — itself, mind you! With human nature as it is, 
 this process is almost as certain to be repeated as are the seasons to 
 follow in due course. The nearness of the persons who want the things 
 done that can be done only by accumulating an indebtedness, eventu- 
 ally to be paid out of the principal fund, the remoteness of the obliga- 
 tion not to incur this indebtedness, except upon the individual respon- 
 sibilitv of the persons incurring it, the instinctive fealty to persons 
 rather than principles, all go to make it certain that the college will be 
 kept going while the principal of the endovv'ment fund lasts. These 
 make it certain, also, that from time to time the expenses will exceed 
 the income of the institution. Only while you have an administration 
 able to procure funds in excess of expenditures will the endowment 
 fund grow; and then it will be a changing fund, the new coming in 
 more rapidly than the old goes out. These general statements are 
 made rather than to do the unpleasant thing. It would be an un- 
 gracious thing to give statistics at such a gathering. I am sure the 
 trustees of everv private college here represented can acknowledge that 
 in a general way these statements may be true. Here again is loyalty 
 to persons greater than loyalty to principle. Who wants to stir up 
 troubles of this sort? Few care to do so ungracious a thing. Yet, 
 would not the courts hold trustees responsible as for a breach of trust, 
 when they thus consume the body of their trust ? 
 
 My voice is for a statute requiring the trustees of each institu- 
 tion, having an endowment fund, to give an annual statement of re- 
 ceipts and expenditures under each head to be filed with the appro- 
 priate public officer and to be published. I would suggest, further, that 
 the a umni association, whether incorporated or not, of each institu- 
 tion have the right from time to time to inspect, by appropriate com- 
 mittee, the condition of the investments of the endowment fund of 
 their respective institutions. The statute should make the trustees, 
 or administration, personally liable for every misuse of the principal 
 of the endowment fund. If any, familiar with the law of trusts, 
 
 (70) 
 
71 
 
 smile at thus restating in statute form what is really, in the main, the 
 law already, it may be said that few know it to be the law and fewer 
 still, who know the law, understand its application to, or are interested 
 in, a particular institution. 
 
 Objection may be made to requiring private institutions to make 
 their affairs public. Every private institution is very anxious to be in 
 the public eye with its best dress on. It will have a wholesome effect 
 if, seen in its working clothes, the working clothes shall be found to be 
 in good condition. But they are not private institutions in this sense. 
 They are institutions chartered by the legislature and authorized to 
 accept funds in trust for endowment purposes. They hold in their 
 custodv funds dedicated to the endowment of the institutions, the 
 principal for investment in interest bearing securities, the income for 
 expenditure in the cause of education, dedicated, it may be, by persons 
 long since dead. In this busy world there is no one to see that the 
 trustees are faithful to their trust unless the law provides some one. 
 Moreover, the state itself is not dealing fairly with the small colleges 
 when it maintains, at public expense, a great institution to do what 
 the small colleges can do better. Some great mind, such as Mr. Web- 
 ster displaved in the Dartmouth College case, should demonstrate 
 what is simply fact, that in spirit, the maintaining of this institution 
 for undergraduate work is in violation of the implied contract with the 
 founders of these private chartered institutions; that the state would 
 foster and not undermine them. Ordinarv good faith requires that 
 the legislature shall from time to time throw about these institutions, 
 and the funds committed to them, everv additional safeguard which 
 experience shows to be necessarv and wise. 
 
 Let it be known that the funds will, be preserved and will remain 
 an everlasting influence, and you will have removed the great obstacle 
 to many a generous impulse. The fear that the endowment will not 
 be permanent deters man v. 
 
 UXIVERSITY INVESTMENTS AND ACCOUNTING 
 
 Mr. Wallace Heckman 
 Counsel and Business Manager of the University of Chicago 
 
 So far as the investments of an institution are in real estate, sure to 
 constitute a substantial and increasing part, the accounting sustains 
 an intimate relation to the investment itself, and is an important 
 factor in the ultimate result of advantage or disappointment. In 
 these accounts the ledger page contains columns which will enable the 
 bookkeeper to draw oft' at any instant a statement of the special items 
 entering into the expense account, for the purpose of comparison with 
 each other, and the enforcement in all of the economies realized in 
 any particular case; for instance, items of taxes, insurance, building 
 
 (71) 
 
72 
 
 repairs, heating apparatus, machinery, elevators, electric light, water, 
 electrical, janitors' and engineers' supplies, decorating, sprinkling, 
 hauling ashes and garbage, fuel, light, wages of engineers and elevator- 
 men, and miscellaneous charges. As each item of expenditure is 
 audited on the voucher check it falls into its class and into its place on 
 the ledger page, enabling the agent in charge, or business manager, or 
 finance committee, from a glance at the ledger, or a statement easily 
 drawn from it, to note unusual expenditures or unfavorable compari- 
 sons of similar items. Similarly the rental register shows upon a 
 single page the property, the tenant, the rent for the several months, 
 — a glance disclosing whether the tenant is in arrears. This fragment 
 of the accounting facilitates economy, detects waste, prevents arrear- 
 age and loss. The multitudinous accounts upon the books with regis- 
 trars, colleges, superintendents of commons, agents, temporary 
 advances, university press, book stores, subsidy books, budgets, and 
 the long list of special endowment funds present problems peculiar to 
 these institutions. 
 
 Commercial and mercantile establishments desire to know at a 
 glance each day the actual value of their plant, their property, equip- 
 ment, available cash, etc. With the institution this is altogether 
 different. Its buildings and grounds, its books, scientific apparatus, 
 and furniture, may constitute an aggregate cost of a vast sum. Their 
 realizable value might be but a meager fraction of it. This is a matter 
 of indifference to the finance committee. A -statement each month, 
 therefore, such as banks and business houses make, would have no 
 significance or value here. The monthly balance sheet shows the 
 permanent investments in the buildings, grounds, books, apparatus, 
 furniture, and capital used in current assets. Beyond this the problem 
 is to show in the briefest and most condensed form, classified so as to 
 make clear the condition of the special endowment accounts, the 
 amount of cash on hand for investment or with agents, registrars, 
 managers, and temporary advances, classified and grouped; invest- 
 ments in the press, laboratory supplies, subsidy books, collections, 
 income accrued, accounts due and payable; in other words, items of 
 cash and items not cash, similarly classified and the aggregate shown. 
 Next, there must be shown the amount of unexpended budget items 
 listed and aggregated. The analysis of the condensed balance sheet 
 divides its items into capital items and cash items by which it can be 
 seen at a glance the balance of cash, or any need at any particular 
 date, to see what relation they bear to the total expenditures of the 
 year in order to be certain that the expenditures do not exceed the 
 budget. This involves an examination of the amount of revenue 
 derived and that expected for the balance of the year, and a compari- 
 son should be so made as to ascertain whether expenditures in excess of 
 
 (72) 
 
73 
 
 those provided for have been made so that the variation, if any, shall 
 be provided for or prevented. 
 
 The services of expert accountants are required to audit these 
 intricate and complicated accounts, but in addition to the prevention 
 of errors or irregularities in any of these various sets of books and 
 accounts, he renders the invaluable service of seeing to it that the best 
 methods are adopted in the various departments; in addition to this, 
 his clear statement supplements that of the university auditor in mak- 
 ing plain the financial situation. 
 
 The investment and management of the funds and propertv con- 
 stituting the endowments of adequate, modern, educational institu- 
 tions differs in a few particulars from the like service in connection 
 with the great insurance, guarantee, and saving concerns. To a 
 greater extent than either of the latter, however, this investor is in- 
 different to the quality of quick merchantability of its assets. If he 
 has advantages over such concerns, they, as well as the university, 
 have advantages over the broker, the merchants, and the ordinary 
 investors in securities. The quality of easy and quick realization is 
 so attractive to the broker and the temporary and spasmodic investor 
 in stocks and bonds, that the bonds of great railw^ay corporations, and 
 similar concerns, which are listed on the great exchanges, the market 
 value of which is daily published in the newspapers and bulletins, are 
 such as to enhance their value and therefore to reduce the income 
 upon them to three and one-half or even three per cent., a rate which 
 would require a vast endowment for an ordinary institution. The 
 contingencies of business, the equipment of speculations or emergen- 
 cies of trade, do not exist in the case of the university. The security 
 must be unquestionably adequate and of a permanent character. The 
 particular holding may be large in amount or may extend for a long 
 period. The university investor adopts the policy of offering consider- 
 able sums in single holdings for long periods of time at the lowest 
 possible expense to the borrower, but securing the higher rate of in- 
 terest accorded to this class of investments. Even then he finds 
 himself compelled to carry considerable sums in railway and other 
 bonds. He may do this to keep his funds invested, since these are 
 always to be had at the market rate, but, in the second place, he may 
 do it for the purpose of having in hand convertible funds with which 
 to take advantage of opportunities for securing investments particu- 
 larly adapted to his need, since, if he sifts and invests carefully from 
 ever\" standpoint, covering the long period of time the investment is 
 to run, those which will pass his test are not at all times to be had. 
 
 Even in the general class above indicated, the policy of the 
 institution will be likely to discriminate along cautious lines and 
 confine itself within well considered limits which observation and 
 experience, more or less serious, have established. 
 
 (7.3) 
 
74 
 
 Agricultural lands have been found to constitute one of the safest 
 securities, because the exercise of expert knowledge and economy in 
 the placing of these investments, collection of interest, supervision, 
 and, if necessary, foreclosure suggests allotments to restricted, 
 pre-determined territories. Structural farm improvements, while 
 valued highly by the owners, the lender largely ignores, since the long 
 term loan makes difficult the guarantee of their maintenance, while 
 the responsibility connected with insurance and detail involved in it 
 deprives the latter of any special interest. On the other hand, in 
 loans in cities, vacant land is often wholly disregarded by the uni- 
 versity investor as too speculative in character. Here the structural 
 improvement and the strategic location constitute the substantial 
 factor. In the determination of the latter qualities the nicest dis- 
 crimination and the keenest farsightedness are required in the placing 
 of the substantial sums loaned; since the active city, which is the one 
 he seeks, is constantly changing its center of trade by the trend of new 
 improvements, by the recasting of municipal transportation, by mere 
 growth itself, breaking away from old locations considered to be the 
 commercial centers permanently established. The constant menace 
 of change is such as to require the constant vigilance of the investor 
 in mortgages or in fees, and even courage at times to part with prop- 
 erty at a loss which insidious changes are evidently reducing in value 
 and must continue to reduce. The policy of secondary regard to farm 
 improvements on the one hand, and special attention to buildings and 
 location in the city investments on the other, rests on the same 
 reasoning. The substantial value in the former is the soil, in the 
 latter the structural improvement in the commercial, mercantile, and 
 manufacturing center, each yielding a revenue of comparatively slight 
 variation, each able to be relied on even in adverse periods of subsi- 
 dence in values, adding thereby also to the ultimate realization when 
 normal conditions return. To some investors the profits accruing 
 from foreclosure of loans, which occur with almost periodically regu- 
 larity, have attractions, and fortunes have indeed been made and 
 other fortunes largely increased, by the feature of that class of in- 
 vestments; but such as adopt it are not likely to succeed in it in the 
 more speculative class of improvements, namelv, on unimproved 
 property or improved property not of the first order, and therefore, 
 subject to the full effect of depressions. The policy of deriving profit 
 through foreclosures has little, if any, attraction for a university. 
 
 If mistakes happen to be made, excessive loans placed, or inferior 
 property acquired by foreclosure, it goes without saying that senti- 
 ment in this particular as to what the propertv has cost the institution, 
 or what value the donor placed upon it, should have no weight. 
 Indeed the consideration of sentiment should have no place in con- 
 nection with these investments, except to preclude loans to members 
 
 . (74) 
 
75 
 
 of faculties, or officers, or trustees, or possibly alumni, when sentiment 
 might later interfere with the course to be pursued, if the investment 
 shall prove unfortunate, and for the additional reason that such loans 
 are likely to be extended from time to time too easily and until the 
 latter event is at hand. 
 
 Prudence will probably suggest a division of investments into real 
 estate fees, loans, and bonds. Stocks are regarded, without wisdom, 
 as of too speculative a character, although some preferred stocks sus- 
 tain to the property practically the relation of bonds. 
 
 While the increase in the volume of currency is going on, fifty per 
 cent being added to it within a period of ten years, that is, from $21 
 per capita to $32, while the volume of gold is being added to by the 
 enormous output of our own West, South Africa, and Klondyke, and 
 the industries incident to this, and to agricultural prosperity, so great 
 as to double the price of our corn belt lands, as well as that large fertile 
 tract parallelling it at the North, devoted to more diversified pursuits 
 and products, the income on the bonds, mortgages, and secured fees, 
 is steadfastly diminishing. This is true, in the face of the admission 
 on all hands that the salaries of the staffs of these institutions, instead 
 of being reduced, ought to be and must be increased, in mere justice to 
 the importance of their work to the community, and the increased 
 demands constantly being made on them for added qualifications, which 
 again must be supplemented by provision for better and larger equip- 
 ments, laboratories, and laboratory supplies, and more books and library 
 facilities. In addition to this a careful study of the entire situation 
 discloses, not as a benevolence aside from the university's educational 
 purposes, but as an intimate and pressing necessity in the execution of 
 that purpose, the desirability of a studied and wisely devised system 
 of faculty pensions. 
 
 The income for all this from a rapidly falling rate on the ordinary 
 listed securities, whose attractiveness is their quick merchantability, 
 forces us to make the most of any particular advantage we can fairly 
 claim, and suggests aggressive activity on the part of friends of edu- 
 cation to see to it that these advantages are availed of. For instance, 
 every facility, it would seem, ought to be afforded by counties, cities, 
 school districts, and other municipalities to educational institutions 
 to secure municipal and other public bonds. The number of trustees 
 of these institutions is necessarily small and generally those must be 
 chosen who reside conveniently near the institution and can attend 
 the meetings of the board. However, committees of men of the 
 highest standing in all communities ought to be secured who could, 
 without undue sacrifice of time, render the important service to these 
 institutions of seeing to it that they have every advantage in securing 
 public and other appropriate choice investments to which their rela- 
 tion to the public entitles them. For all these loyal and useful ends 
 
 (75) 
 
76 
 
 I should like at this first, and I hope not the last, conference of college 
 and university trustees to suggest the inquiry whether the time has 
 not arrived when our universities should join in some form of coopera- 
 tion for the establishment of a central organization for the purpose of 
 acquiring through the most expert and best devised courses and 
 methods those securities which by their character, their safety and 
 income, are adapted to our needs. In this larger way may be secured 
 safety and rate impossible in any' diverse piece-meal and smaller way. 
 This would constitute a clearing house, if you please, for choice, large, 
 long-time investments, where an institution can secure those with the 
 best guarantee and, on the other hand, needing to cash them for 
 building and other purposes, in turn dispose of them to like institu- 
 tions needing the investment. 
 
 There will be always among business men some who recognize that 
 money getting is an incident and not an end ; and men of wealth who 
 are not satisfied with the idle conventional display of it, earnestly 
 devoted to the cause of education, and alive to its importance, who 
 consider that their best service will be to pursue with undivided aim 
 its acquisition, and in the end through gifts or final bequest, give evi- 
 dence of this large purpose. But there are others among the foremost 
 of our great merchants, manufacturers, and financiers, builders of 
 fortunes, particularly those who have had university advantages and 
 consequent university ideals — and the number is increasing as edu- 
 cational advantages increase — who regard these matters as worthy of 
 their best attention in their most active years, a field of the very high- 
 est usefulness, particularly under our form of society and system of 
 government; who regard it as broadening their horizons, and as adding 
 to their own lives a most wholesome and enjoyable interest; who are 
 willing to devote and who do steadfastly devote a substantial fraction 
 of their time to it; who attend the monthly meetings of boards of 
 trustees with the same scrupulous regularity and exactitude with 
 which they keep their business engagements in their great commercial 
 and mercantile concerns, their banks, and trust companies, and bring 
 to bear therein the same ability, vigilance, and industry which have 
 made them important and their own enterprises successful. 
 
 A central committee of the best of these strong, experienced men 
 from each university board constituting a central organization and 
 the instrument of the universities represented, ought to give to all the 
 advantages possessed by any one and the ability for service of each 
 multiplied by the weight of the combination. A compact body of 
 such men could work out, execute and maintain policies of incalculable 
 advantage in the conducting of this business, now grown by the ag- 
 gregate of university endowments, and the twenty millions lately 
 devoted to general college and university uses, on lines so convincingly 
 well conceived as to be sure to attract other large, similar donations, 
 
 (76) 
 
77 
 
 in proportions heretofore unthought of, and of an intimate public 
 interest second to none. With this central committee or organization 
 t e active non-resident committee before mentioned could be in cor- 
 respondence and render that distinct and special service which their 
 influence in their widely separated localities would command. 
 
 While in the educational departments of our institutions strong 
 bodies of men of disciplined intelligence are intently pursuing their 
 interesting and varied work, extending in new directions, retreating 
 from experimental back to methods tested by experience, inspiring 
 activity in their diversified departments of research, and in the 
 examination, enjovment and creation of literatures, studies, arts, 
 sciences, bestowing upon the throng of youth who come and go, the 
 priceless possession of "a knowledge of the utilities, the amenities, and 
 the consolation of books, " it is and always must be the gratification of 
 other men to see to it that this noble and enjoyable work has the full 
 support which the funds bestowed by unselfish and farsighted founders 
 can afford. 
 
 The spirited teams of powerful millions, harnessed by generous 
 donors, to endowed education and research, the foremost vehicle in 
 the triumphal procession of enlightened achievement, ought to be 
 encouraged, urged even, to the exercise of their full strength, guided 
 by a farsighted vigilance which shall foil, surprise, and avert disaster, 
 and hold them steadfast to their perpetual service in the grip of 
 tested methods and business policies not to be unclinched. 
 
 NEED OF BUSINESS METHODS IN OUR UNIVERSITIES 
 
 Mr. William A. Dyche 
 Business Manager of Northwestern University 
 
 The several topics for discussion at this conference are full of in- 
 terest and worthy of consideration. It is likely that a marked differ- 
 ence of opinion will be developed in regard to manv of them. They 
 cannot be decided by debate. Each college, or university must, to a 
 certain extent, work out its own scheme; yet public discussion by 
 trustees of the conditions confronting them and comparison of ideas 
 will be beneficial. 
 
 The relation of faculty and trustees in regard to finances is most 
 interesting. It seems to me that the faculty, through the president 
 and heads of departments, should have a large part in planning edu- 
 cational expenditures. It seems equally clear that the trustees should 
 have entire charge of the business management, caring for the property 
 making investments, etc. 
 
 There is one point, however, where there can be no room for differ- 
 ing opinions, namelv: that the methods used in our business offices 
 should be the best. This is so evident that there should be no necessity 
 
 (77) 
 
78 
 
 to discuss it ; yet there is a great need of publicity on this point. Many 
 of us undoubtedly know of institutions, other than great life insurance 
 companies, handling trust funds in which the loosest customs prevail. 
 I remember reading some years ago a strong article on this subject 
 published in the Outlook. I wish every trustee might read it. It was 
 a stirring rebuke to the laxity and carelessness which its author claimed 
 existed in the business offices of many of our colleges and universities. 
 I wish I had it now; it presented the matter so forcefully that I would 
 like to quote from it. The author cited numerous instances of defal- 
 cations in our colleges and in the trust societies of our churches. I hap- 
 pen to have fairly reliable information of two cases that will serve to 
 emphasize the need of correct business methods on the part of those 
 to whom a trust has been committed. 
 
 The first is that of a society engaged in a great humanitarian work. 
 It is fostered by a religious denomination; its representatives are 
 appealing every day in the year to the American public for donations; 
 it receives and disburses annually hundreds of thousands of dollars; 
 it has endowments ; it offers favorable terms for annuities ; it is a trust 
 society in the broadest sense of the word. Yet the officers of this 
 society and the trustees who have the management of its vast interests 
 have for years concealed a deficit or shortage in one class of its trust 
 funds closely approximating $100,000, and the record of this shortage 
 is kept outside of the books on a vest-pocket memorandum; its pub- 
 lished reports are misleading. I am not aware whether this shortage 
 is the result of a defalcation or mismanagement. Until within three 
 years the trustees of this great society have never realized the necessity 
 of having their books audited by non-interested experts. About that 
 time a new trustee was elected. He saw that the financial reports 
 were not satisfactory and that the officers had great trouble in pre- 
 paring them. He suggested that if the books were properly system- 
 atized, there would be no difficulty in making accurate and satisfactory 
 reports. A public accountant was called in and given instructions to 
 make an exhaustive audit and suggest better methods. In due time 
 he discovered the shortage above refered to and proceeded to make it 
 show up on the books. The old trustees were alarmed; they urged 
 him to overlook it and not to refer to it in his report. He declined; 
 they dismissed him. From that day to this these officers continue to 
 conceal the shortage, and the reverend trustees, high in the councils 
 of a great church, are too cowardly to publish the truth or even correct 
 their books. 
 
 The other illustration is that of a comparatively small educational in- 
 stitution. It was founded for a particular purpose. Its kind of work is 
 not expensive. Its endowment, when considered with reference to its 
 need, is very large. Its trustees emplov no salaried official to look after 
 its business. For fifteen years, more or less, one of their number, who 
 
 (78) 
 
79 
 
 had a reputation for business sagacity and enjoyed the confidence of 
 his associates, has acted as their business agent, managing the prop- 
 erty, looking after the endowment, collecting the income, and paying 
 the bills. This institution, I am told, has not published a financial 
 report for years. Its trustees have a general idea of the value of its 
 property, but in reality little definite information. However, some of 
 them know and have known for years that their associate some times 
 deposits the funds of their institution to the credit of his personal 
 bank account, and that its bills are sometimes paid with his personal 
 check, and that frequently he neglects to pay them until long past due. 
 When a temporary loan was needed, he was accustomed to borrow in 
 its name without specific authority from his associates. He writes 
 up his books when the spirit moves him, and that is verv rarely. 
 Apparently he thinks all necessary records can be keept on the stub 
 end of his check book. It is reported that the trustees are beginning 
 to grow tired of his carelessness and in a most peaceable and politic 
 wav are intimating to him the necessity of a more accurate system of 
 accounting. They are really disturbed, but hesitate to take radical 
 action, fearing to wound the feelings of their associate. In this case 
 I doubt if the institution has met with any loss other than that which 
 must of necessity follow such carelessness. 
 
 The thing that impresses me most is that we trustees, in accepting 
 office, fail to realize that we are accepting a great responsibility. We 
 may have visionary ideas, or no ideas at all, about the educational 
 problems our presidents continually hurl at us. We cannot be blamed 
 verv much if we make mistakes about them. But there is no excuse 
 for us if we tolerate dangerous customs and slipshod methods in the 
 business offices of our respective institutions. We cannot be expected 
 to give much time to details; hence we should learn from experts if 
 our accounting systems are adequate and from frequent audits and 
 examinations by non-interested public accountants if our books are 
 right and if our published reports can be verified by our books. Any- 
 thing short of this is neglect of duty. 
 
 The best and most approved methods of handling our property, 
 of making and taking care of investments, of looking after all the 
 material interests of our institutions are the most economical. When 
 any trustee opposes changes which will make these things possible, 
 he is assuming grave responsibility. 
 
 I have been asked to outline an accounting system suitable for a 
 university. This is a difficult task. I am not an accountant. Nothing 
 in the world so staggers me as as column of figures. Though I do not 
 know how to do the books, I know what the books ought to do for me. 
 I will offer only a few simple suggestions. 
 
 A w^ell planned system of accounting is not only essential for the 
 proper management of a university, but it helps to make proper 
 
 (79) 
 
80 
 
 management easy. A set of books may be accurate but not satis- 
 factory, in that it does not yield information quickly and clearly. 
 The satisfactory set of books must be accurate and readily yield all 
 needed information — grinding it out, as it were, month by month. 
 For instance, our books should be so systematized that at the close of 
 the first month's business of the fiscal year a few hours' labor will 
 result in a report or reports showing all the receipts and expenditures 
 of each and every department in the university. These reports should 
 also ompare the receipts and expenditures with the estimates in the 
 annual budget. Each of the general officers of the university should 
 have the reports covering all departments; thus they can by a glance 
 keep in touch with the financial condition of the whole institution. 
 The dean, or executive officer, of each department should have a copy 
 of that report referring to his own work. At the end of the second 
 month similar reports should be sent out showing the total for the 
 first two months of the fiscal year. Thus the reports for the twelfth 
 month will be a complete record of all the cash transactions of the 
 institution for the year. Reports of this kind are an invaluable aid. 
 They constitute a safeguard in checking overdrafts on appropriations 
 and misuse of funds. A series of these reports, covering several years, 
 furnishes many valuable hints in the preparation of annual budgets. 
 It costs but little to get out such reports, when once the system has 
 been established. Having learned by experience their great value 
 I would never attempt to get along without them. If you do not 
 follow this plan I urge you to give it a trial. 
 
 I once heard a trustee, noted for his unselfish devotion to his uni- 
 versity, lament that he could never tell from its published reports, or 
 even from its books, whether it was living within its income or not. 
 He feared that the annual operating expenses were gradually eating 
 into the endowment. This is a frequent experience, It is due to the 
 failure of the accounting office to distinguish between revenue and 
 expenses, and receipts and payments on other accounts. If in our 
 set of books we draw a sharp line between revenue and other receipts, 
 and a like distinction in reference to expenses, then we can always tell 
 whether our institution is living within its income or eating into its 
 endowment. It is very easy to do this. Yet the average system of 
 college accounting to which my attention has been called breaks down 
 completeh^ at this vital point. 
 
 Our records of assets and liabilities should be so clear and so classi- 
 fied that statements can be drawn from them at any time, showing 
 how they are being changed by the cash transactions of a given period. 
 The financial management of a corporation must continually compare 
 its assets and liabilities of to-day with those of a year ago. If we, in 
 college work, are to know how our institutions are ^tting on, we 
 also must do this. If our books are in good form the necessary infor- 
 
 (80) 
 
81 
 
 mation can be gotten out of them quickly and with ease. I once 
 knew of a university owning several hundred diflferent pieces of real 
 estate worth nearly five million dollars. The total value of this land 
 was entered on its books, but there was no real estate sub-ledger or 
 anv other accurate record of the individual pieces which made up the 
 total. Once an unusually diligent clerk made up a typewritten 
 statement showing these holdings. For years this was the official 
 record of this great amount of property. 
 
 Our books, our record, our vouchers — all things in our business 
 offices, should be kept so that the auditor can work with them without 
 undue labor. We trustees, of course, should never fail to have our 
 business offices audited. 
 
 I believe the auditor should be a ptiblic accountant who is not 
 afraid to criticise and to report bluntly on what he finds. It happens 
 usuallv that our offices are audited by a trustee or a committee of 
 trustees whose work is merely perfunctory; this is a dangerous custom. 
 I have pleasure, however, at this point, in stating that I know of one 
 trustee auditor, working gratuitously, who during the past year has 
 examined all the books and records in the business office of a large 
 universitv as carefullv, as thoroughly, as skillfully, as any paid ac- 
 countant could have done. But such service is rare. These trustee 
 auditors usuallv examine the payments with great care; if the record 
 of receipts on the cash-book adds up all right, they assvime that it 
 accounts for everything and go away satisfied. It is at this point 
 that there is room for great danger, for it is so easy not to enter all 
 the receipts; hence this system of ours must devise some plan which 
 will aid the auditor in finding out if all the money which ought to 
 have been received has been entered on the books, and if not, the 
 reason why. This can be done almost to a certainty. 
 
 Again, no collecting officer should ever "be allowed to receive even 
 one cent without giving a receipt for it, and he should be required to 
 keep a carbon duplicate of this receipt. These duplicates will be of 
 great assistance in checking. A careful method of daily checking 
 between the office which issues bills for tuition and the office where 
 they are paid should be enforced. These bills should be made out so 
 that an analysis of tuition receipts can be made up showing a proper 
 classification. 
 
 No collecting officer should ever be the disbursing officer. 
 
 Our different colleges and universities do not follow a uniform 
 plan in regard to annual financial reports. Some of the wealthiest of 
 them do not publish any; or, at least, do not give them general circu- 
 lation. Others send them to whomsoever asks for them. These 
 reports, however, as a rule are uniform in one respect, namely: their 
 lack of clearness, and the success with which they conceal what they 
 are supposed to make plain. 
 
 (81) 
 
82 
 
 President Eliot of Harvard was, I am told, the first educator who 
 gave attention to the business office of his university. Under his 
 direction the reports of Harvard University are models. You can 
 learn anvthing you wish to know about the finances of Harvard by 
 reading the annual report of its treasurer. Such a report, showing a 
 long list of investments of endowment funds, with the interest earning 
 of this vear compared with that of the preceding year, inspires confi- 
 dence. The prospective donor who reads one of Harvard's reports 
 will never be afraid to trust it with his money. 
 
 I believe it good policy to issue full and complete reports conceal- 
 ing nothing. We are appealing to the public for gifts; we should let 
 the public know how we take care of them. 
 
 I doubt if our state governments have any right to exercise super- 
 vision over the business management of our colleges and universities. 
 I sometimes wish they could do so. Practically every university 
 enjoys special privileges from its state government in the form of a 
 greater of less exemption from taxation. Even though the state may 
 not have the power to demand it, we trustees owe it to ourselves to 
 prove that we are not abusing these grants, and that the trust funds 
 which we are collecting by virtue of the power conferred by our char- 
 ters are not stolen or mismanaged. The least we can do is to demon- 
 strate to the state which has granted us the right to exist, and to the 
 generous public whose donations make our existence possible, that we 
 are surrounding our business interests with every reasonable safeguard. 
 
 I hope this conference will result in impressing upon the conscience 
 of trustees that it is a duty they owe to themselves and the public so 
 to manage their trusts that any publicity given their affairs will never 
 be embarrassing to them or result in loss of public confidence in their 
 institutions. The simplest way to do this is now and then to throw 
 our business offices open to an examination by public accountants and 
 to study well the advice they give us. 
 
 The suggestions of this paper are only a few of the many in my 
 mind, and I am sure, of the many you are thinking of. I shall offer 
 only one more. When on the witness stand in the insurance investi- 
 gation now being made in New York, Mr. Jacob H. Schiff, the eminent 
 financier, exclaimed — " It is not good for any corporation to be at the 
 mercy of one man. " It is very natural for us to fall into the haibt of 
 depending upon one man. This is one of the greatest dangers which 
 confronts us. Whenever anything goes wrong in handling trust funds, 
 one man power is usually the explanation. So, therefore, let me urge 
 on you to see that your institution is never placed at the mercy of one 
 man. 
 
 As I close this paper it seems only fitting to say a word about the 
 new president of the University of Illinois. I have known of him since 
 he was principal of the high school in Evanston in 1877. During his 
 
 (82) 
 
83 
 
 short term as president of Northwestern University I was inti- 
 mately associated with him. He gave us great service; but because 
 of its brief term some of the best things he did for us will never be 
 recognized as the result of his work. While at Northwestern, Presi- 
 dent James displayed evidence of leadership in his work with the 
 various faculties of the University, and soon it became clear that he 
 understood the needs of the institution and its possibilities better 
 than many who had been studying them for years. He gained the 
 confidence and loyal support of every faculty ; he completed the work 
 which his predecessor, Henry Wade Rogers, began, — of making each 
 of the colleges feel that it was a real part of the University ; he devel- 
 oped the true university spirit. So great was the confidence in his 
 advice and generalship that men, old in service as instructors in law 
 and medicine, sought his opinion and often yielded their judgment to 
 his. This was true of every department of the University. 
 
 I have never known anyone to surpass him in the gift of brief, 
 clear and forceful statement. This is one of his strongest qualities. 
 In private and on the rostrum he speaks quietly but with convincing 
 force; in debate he is vigorous, but, if opposed, so fair that he never 
 gives offense. He is of judicial mind, and though advocating some 
 policy he would have the University adopt, he always pointed out its 
 dangers as well as it advantages; he never misled. These qualities 
 won for him our confidence. 
 
 There is no room for selfishness among vmiversities, — they are all 
 working for a common end. Their true interests never clash. We, 
 of Northwestern, are gratified that our state university has secured 
 as its President one of the greatest leaders in the educational world. 
 We look for him to do great things for it and the State. We hope it 
 will become under his leadership, the strongest and most useful uni- 
 versity of its type in the country. President James is only content 
 when he feels that the institution he serves is "getting there." He 
 wants it to "get there" as the twentieth centruy limited gets to New 
 York. So we urge the alumni, faculties and trustees of the University 
 of Illinois to keep pace with him and make this institution a great 
 power in the State and country at large. Organize your alumni, send 
 them to the legislature . You will then get all the appropriations you need. 
 The other friends of higher education will help you in your good pur- 
 poses. President James has a legion of friends at Northwestern Uni- 
 versity. They unite in wishing him and the University he serves, 
 "God-speed." 
 
 (83; 
 
84 
 
 DISCUSSION 
 
 Mr. Ernest Reckitt 
 Certified Public Accountant, Chicago, Illinois 
 
 While I do not come before you this afternoon bearing official ere 
 dentials from either the " Illinois Society of Certified Public Accounts" 
 or from the national body known as the "American Association of 
 Public Accountants," I venture to believe that it is my duty, as it is 
 certainly my pleasure, to refer briefly to the history of the profession 
 to which I have the honor to belong. And in opening the discussion 
 in this manner, it is because the papers which have just been read 
 frequently allude to the necessity of periodical audits by public 
 accountants, and the further reason that some of those present may 
 have somewhat vague ideas as to the meaning of the term "Certified 
 Public Accountant," together with his duties and responsibilities. 
 
 As far back as the time of Chaucer, the profession of the auditor 
 was considered an honorable calling, while Shakespeare refers to the 
 auditor in the same terms. It was not, however, until the year 1854 
 that the accountants of Edinburgh, Scotland, organized under 
 Royal Charter the first Society of Accountants, the accountants in the 
 cities of Glasgow and Aberdeen following their excellent example 
 shortly afterwards. 
 
 In the year 1880, various associations of professional accountants, 
 practicing in London and some of the principal towns in England, 
 were incorporated into one body under the style of "The Institute of 
 Chartered Accountants in England and Wales," and received their 
 charter by special act of parliament. In all of the above societies of 
 accountants the eligibility to the use of the term "Chartered Ac- 
 countant" depends upon the serving of articles for a period of five 
 years in the office of a chartered accountant, and the successful passing 
 of certain examination. 
 
 In this country the necessity for the employment of public account- 
 ants did not become so apparent until a later date, one of the chief 
 reasons for this condition being that competition in business was not 
 so keen as in the older countries in Europe, profits made were much 
 larger than at present and in consequence the same attention to detail 
 was not given. In the year 1890, the profession of the public account- 
 ant was beginning to be appreciated in the East, it was scarcely known 
 in the West. But the stagnant condition of business which existed 
 from 1893 to 1897 acted as a stimulus to the profession of the ac- 
 countant, for the man of affairs found it necessary to watch every 
 part of his business to avoid waste and extravagance in order to make 
 the balance of his profit and loss account come out on the right side. 
 In the year 1896 the legislature of the State of New York passed the 
 first act in the United States creating the title of certified public ac- 
 countant, conferring upon the State University the power of granting 
 
 (84) 
 
85 
 
 this degree, C. P. A., to those who could qualify under same, the 
 object of the statute being to protect the public from the employment 
 of men of doubtful character or insufficient experience. There is, 
 however, nothing compulsory in the act in the nature of forbidding 
 those who are not certified public accountants from practicing as 
 accountants, but it does enable the public to discriminate between 
 the accountant who has qualified as a certified public accountant and 
 one who has not. The legislatures of other states, such as Pennsyl- 
 vania, Marvland, California, Illinois, Washington and New Jersey, 
 have passed similar laws, varying from one another onlv in minor 
 points. 
 
 It was in May, 1903, that the Illinois legislature pasesd the C. P. A. 
 law for this State, and conferred upon the University, whose guests 
 we are to-dav, the privilege of granting the degree of C. P. A., to those 
 who could qualify. The University of Illinois has taken up this fresh 
 dutv with its usual energv, and immediately after the passage of the 
 act selected three public accountants of experience to act as examiners, 
 and has given them its hearty support. 
 
 From the above short sketch, it will be seen that the profession of 
 public accountant, although comparatively young, is now a recognized 
 and honorable calling, and that the object of this legislation is to pro- 
 tect the public; for, after the completion of an audit, the last word 
 has been said on the subject, hence the importance of only engaging 
 those who are not only thoroughly competent but also conscientious. 
 
 Any attempt on my part to discuss in a critical manner the papers 
 that it has been our good fortune to listen to this afternoon would 
 indeed be foolish, for if the gentlemen responsible for them had been 
 paid advance agents of the accountancy profession, they could not 
 have more faithfully represented to you the importance of accurate 
 methods of accounts and the relation of the public accountants to the 
 trustee of colleges and universities. The fact, however, that they, 
 instead of being paid advocates of our profession, are men of large 
 business affairs lends additional weight to their argument. While, 
 therefore, in leading this discussion I cannot criticise anything con- 
 tained in their papers, I propose to briefly enlarge upon some of the 
 matters referred to by them and especially upon the necessity of the 
 supervision of the accounts of colleges and universities by professional 
 public accountants. 
 
 Mr. Dyche, in his paper, very modestly states that he is not an 
 accountant and that he is staggered by a column of figures. This 
 may be so, but I would point out that the peculiar ability exhibited 
 by the lightning calculator no more constitutes an accountant, than 
 the ability to talk rapidly or for a long period of time constitutes all 
 the requirements of a lawyer. I desire, however, to state the fact that 
 whether he be an accountant or not he posseses many of those quali- 
 
 (85) 
 
86 
 
 ties which constitute an accountant, and this is as it should be, for a 
 very intimate relation exists between the qualifications of the business 
 manager of a college or university and those of a public accountant. 
 
 The business manager must be, first and foremost, a man of large 
 business experience and incidentally he should have a knowledge of 
 the value of accounts and be able to interpret their meaning when 
 reports are presented to him. The public accountant, on the other 
 hand, must, first and foremost, be a man gifted with an intimate 
 knowledge of all systems of accounts, methods of audit, and commer- 
 cial law; and incidentally he must have such an appreciation of busi- 
 ness requirements that he instinctively knows the character of the 
 information required by the business manager. By combining the 
 qualification of an experienced man of business, as described above, 
 with those of the trained accountant, the trustees of colleges and 
 universities will not only find themselves relieved of a large part of 
 their burden of responsibility, but will find an ever ready source of 
 information upon which they can form intelligent opinions before 
 pursuing any definite course of action. 
 
 The nature of the services that can be rendered b}^ the public 
 accountant to the trustees of colleges and universities may, for the 
 purposes of this discussion, be briefly summarized under two headings. 
 Publicity and System. I shall take up these subjects in the order 
 named. 
 
 PUBLICITY 
 
 I shall only touch upon this very briefly, as it has been so well 
 covered in the papers already read. The certificate of the certified 
 public accountant has become recognized as the standard expression 
 of the accuracy and reliability of the statements to which it refers. 
 The certified public accountant has no ax to grind, no friendships or 
 affiliations in respect to the institution he investigates. His reports 
 are independent statements of facts, impartial, without fear or favor. 
 Therefore, when you appeal to the public for financial aid, whether 
 the same be a general appeal or a special appeal to some well known 
 philanthropist, the emplo3^ment of the certified public accountant 
 will not only beget confidence and an accurate knowledge of your 
 needs, but if intelligence is used, in the preparation of his report and 
 statements, they will be so simple that he who runs may read. The 
 effect of this form of publicity will, I believe, be found of direct bene- 
 fit to the finances of those institutions that depend wholly or partially 
 upon public beneficence. 
 
 SYSTEM 
 
 If you can imagine two concerns each manufacturing the same 
 
 • article and each attempting to sell its product in the same market, 
 
 one of which has an "up to date" system of accounts, while the other 
 
 concern runs along upon the same methods employed fifty years ago, 
 
 (86) 
 
87 
 
 it does not require much discrimination to decide which will succeed. 
 As it is in business, so it is with all philanthropical and educational 
 institutions. The college or university which does not appreciate the 
 advantages of using records and reports which will give the maximum 
 amount of accurate information is foredoomed to failure. 
 
 This is not the place to enter into any detailed discussion of 
 methods, but a few pointed questions may suggest the wide ground 
 covered bv a complete system of accounts and records. If you find 
 yourself unable to answer any of these questions in the affirmative, 
 then to that extent your system of accounts is deficient. 
 
 Are vour accounts of revenues and expenses so analysed that you 
 can readilly draw up an intelligent and fairly accurate budget for the 
 succeeding year? 
 
 This question suggests the thought of analysis of accounts into 
 manv and various headings and subheadings. In asking this question 
 or a similar one, I have often been met with the answer that it would 
 take too much work and cost too much; besides, what does it matter, 
 the money has been spent and was not spent foolishly. As an answer 
 to such an argument, the building in which we are convened suggests 
 a valuable thought. Chemistry is the science of synthesis and analy- 
 sis. The chemist first undertakes analysis so that he may understand 
 synthesis. He first separates to its ultimate elements the compounds 
 presented to him, so that he ma}^ know how to manufacture them. 
 Analysis may be compared to your detailed svstem of accounts with 
 their headings and sub-headings, synthesis corresponds to your bud- 
 get. To carry the illustration farther. Some gold is brought to the 
 chemical laboratory for assay. It looks all right on the face of it, 
 but under the trained hands of the chemist it. is analysed and found 
 to be seventy per cent pure gold, thirty per cent dross. How much 
 dross have vou in vour expense accounts, how much waste. You 
 cannot tell unless your accounts are accurately kept and intelligently 
 analysed. It goes without saying that no money is disbursed by 
 honest administrators for what they considered at the time was fool- 
 ish expenditure, but a proper distribution of the expense accounts 
 will show at a later date that certain expenditures have not brought 
 the results anticipated and that such items should be cut off or cur- 
 tailed in the future. In other words they are the dross, the waste. 
 
 Do you know promptlv each month what your revenues and ex- 
 penses of each and every classification amount to, and their relation 
 to the appropriations made for same, and also their relation to the 
 corresponding month or period the year prior? 
 
 This question suggests a brief digression as to the terms revenue 
 and expense. Please note that I do not use the term receipts and 
 disbursements. Many colleges have no other book of original entry 
 than their cash book, and under this system no intelligent comparison 
 
 (87) 
 
88 
 
 can be made. Every liability, either for goods purchased or for ser- 
 vices received, should be entered in the month it was incurred, and 
 the same argument holds good as to your revenues. 
 
 Do you and your business managers receive complete statements 
 of account each month, setting forth fully the revenues and expenses 
 of that month ? and does the dean of each faculty receive a copy of that 
 portion of the monthly report dealing with his department? If you 
 do not follow this practice, is it any wonder that at the close of the 
 fiscal year you find yourselves confronted with a deficit instead of a 
 surplus ? 
 
 Are the accounts with your endowment funds carefully kept, 
 distinct one from another, as also the revenues received from such 
 endowments? Are the uninvested portions of these endowments so 
 recorded as to afford . your business manager the information upon 
 which he can invest same, so as to immediately make them interest 
 bearing? 
 
 Is an account kept of every investment and a record kept of the 
 rate of interest it is bearing, as a guide to the suitablity or otherwise 
 of a similar class of investment being made in the future? When an 
 investment is one of property, have you detailed accounts to record 
 the cost of operation of such property, and with the further object of 
 being in a position to prepare comparative statements of such ex- 
 penses of each investment one with another? If you hold the title to 
 improved property, are you providing a reserve to cover depreciation; 
 or, if it be a lease, are you providing a sinking fund ? If you own bonds 
 purchased above par, are you writing off a proportionate amount of 
 the premium-each vear? 
 
 Have you a methodical manner of issuing stores by requisitions, 
 and have you what is known as a "store-room system," so as to 
 avoid waste and possible theft. Furthermore are all* supplies pur- 
 chased by a purchasing agent or the business manager acting as pur- 
 chasing agent, so as to obtain the best prices and prevent extrava- 
 gance ? 
 
 Are you figuring the total cost of operation on a per capita basis? 
 And here I would point out that while this is a valuable calculation 
 for comparing the per capita cost of one vear with another, if carried 
 out understandingly, it is more important to make a similar calcula- 
 tion after cutting out of the operation expense all tuition fees. Un- 
 like the ordinary factory or construction company whose sole end is 
 to manufacture or construct at the lowest cost, we may compare the 
 college or university to the manufacture of some specially fine piece of 
 machinery or tool, where the cost of the material or workmanship 
 upon it is not a consideration, or to the construction of a palace or 
 temple where the cost of marble is only a consideration in so far as 
 the amount of money raised for its erection must not be exceeded. 
 
 (88) 
 
89 
 
 The output of the college or university is the most wonderful piece of 
 machinery known — the brain; and what is more important still, the 
 temple it constructs, the character it builds, is fashioned after the 
 likeness of God. Therefore the cost of tuition per capita cannot be a 
 consideration in the same manner as other operation expenses, except 
 in so far that the total amount expended must be in conformity with 
 your revenues. 
 
 Finally, do you surround those employees who are entrusted with 
 the handling of your funds with every safeguard, so that in the hour 
 of temptation the fear of detection may save them from committing 
 a crime ? You may say this is a low motive for adhering to the straight 
 and narrow path. I grant it; but are we to be the sole judges and 
 condemn the man for yielding to a temptation, the severity of which 
 we have no conception. After fourteen years continuous practice as 
 a public accountant, and having come in contact with many men 
 whose defalcations I have discovered, I wish to state that honesty and 
 trustworthiness are the rule, and that it is opportunity combined with 
 adverse circumstances, that create the criminal. Not only to you, 
 trustees of colleges and universities, but to all employers of trusted 
 employees, I wish to say that you carry heavy moral responsibility if 
 you do not throw around them the well-known safeguards of proper 
 systems of account and periodical audits. The lack of this apprecia- 
 tion has been not onlv the cause of much loss of money and bank- 
 ruptcy of business institutions, but what is infinitely worse, the ruin of 
 homes and fair reputations. 
 
 James E. Davidson 
 Trustee of Hillsdale College 
 
 I have been very much interested in this discussion, and think it is 
 time there was an awakening on the questions brought out by these 
 papers this afternoon. I hoped we should hear from some of the 
 larger colleges on this subject. I am connected with one of the small- 
 est colleges represented in this gathering; but the remarks that have 
 been made come home to me, because I note the soundness of the 
 business requirements so ably set forth in the last paper read. I think 
 what is true of the college I represent is equally true of any college I 
 am acquainted with. I find them regularly having deficits, and eating 
 into their endowed funds ; and they go right along doing it year after 
 year. Some of them make an effort to make good the loss; but I 
 think there is a most regretable carelessness on this subject. I have 
 been very much afraid that the college with which I am connected 
 has been cutting into the fund with which it has no right to do any- 
 thing with but to make use of the income. I hope those papers will 
 be printed and circulated, believing their usefulness will be largely 
 
 (89) 
 
90 
 
 lost if they are only heard here. I think we need them, and I wish 
 every trustee of the college with which I am connected could have a 
 copy. I believe nothing will do more to open the fountain of public 
 benevolence than to have the donors assured that what they give as 
 a permanent endowment fund will be sacredly kept for all time. 
 There is not much to encourage one to give funds to a college if he 
 finds that the trustees are to spend the principal sum that he has set 
 aside to be kept permanently. If we can awaken the conscience of 
 the trustees of colleges to the importance of this, this meeting will 
 have been worth a great deal more than it will cost. 
 
 Mr. a. C. True 
 
 Director in the Office of the Experiment Stations of the United States 
 
 Department of Agriculture 
 
 It has been my fortune, in behalf of the United States, to examine 
 the accounts kept of one of the federal funds granted to the colleges 
 and universities of the various states. In this way I have seen the 
 books of those institutions in all the states and territories; and while 
 it is my business to examine an account which is only small in amount 
 and limitedin its application, I have, nevertheless, in connection with 
 this examination, had numerous opportunities to become acquainted 
 with the general methods of accounting in those colleges. I arise this 
 afternoon simply to say that I am sure that good will come out of such 
 a conference as this, from the getting together of representatives and 
 trustees and accounting officers of these institutions with a view of 
 comparison of methods of accounting out of which may come the 
 establishment of certain principles and methods which will bring the 
 accounts of such institutions generally into more harmonious order 
 and establish a somewhat general system of accounting for colleges 
 and universities. I have been impressed in my examinations of the 
 accounts of those institutions with the great diversity in their methods 
 of accounting. I understand, of course, the environment of these 
 institutions is very different. The funds which thev handle are natu- 
 rally under very different conditions, so that I would not expect any 
 very great uniformity of detail in their methods of accounting. But 
 there are certain principles in accounting which it seems to me are 
 general in their application, and which run through these institutions 
 as a class. I am sure that such a discussion as we have had here this 
 afternoon will lead to a better and more thorough system of account- 
 ing for colleges and universities. 
 
 (90) 
 
91 
 
 KOURXH SESSION 
 
 SELECTION OF TRUSTEES 
 
 Hon. Paul Jones 
 Former Trustee of Ohio State University 
 
 Formerly some of the universities were divided into three classes ; 
 the magistrate, the scholars, and the disciples. 
 
 To-day in the United States we have three bodies constituting our 
 universities and colleges: the trustees, the president and the faculty, 
 and the students. The trustees are charged, in part, with the intel- 
 lectual, moral, physical, and sometimes religious, development of a 
 select body of youth. The rollicking and often tempestuous young 
 men of to-day will, a generation hence, be the men who will be filling the 
 pulpits, the teachers in our public schools, the professors in our uni- 
 versities and colleges. They will be the men who will be editing our 
 great newspapers and magazines and writing our books. They will be 
 the men who are healing the sick and afiflicted, as physicians; they will 
 be the men who will, as engineers, construct and operate our great 
 thoroughfares and highways of travel ; the architects who will erect 
 our buildings; our lawyers and judges, who will administer justice in 
 our courts; the educated, intelligent, and scientific farmers who will 
 till the millions of acres of our land; in fact, the college students of to- 
 day will, when they come to full manhood and enter upon the duties 
 of life, be an epitome of what this nation then shall be. To the end 
 that these young men and young women may be educated, trustees 
 are charged with the duties of selecting presidents and faculties, of 
 determining what studies, at least in part, shall be pursued. The 
 trustees of colleges must determine what departments must be had 
 at their institutions, and the trustees of the universities must deter- 
 mine what colleges shall be added to their university. They must 
 look after the endowments, the budgets, and the appropriations. 
 They must erect the halls, libraries, laboratories, gymnasiums and 
 other buildings, and acquire land upon which they shall be constructed. 
 Surely the duties of the trustee are multitudinous and responsible. 
 The question comes to us as to what manner of man he should be. 
 He should be a man of probity and character ; and if a young man he 
 should be one who promises to attain some distinction in his business, 
 profession, or calling, in order to be an example to the students in the 
 institution which he serves. Above all things he should have a con- 
 structive mind. He should be a man who is capable of originating 
 
 (91) 
 
92 
 
 and consummating plans for the betterment of the institution. 
 Preferably he should be a graduate of a collegiate institution, — but 
 this is not essential. John Hopkins, Stephen Gerard, and Mathew 
 Vassar, never acted as center rush in a foot-ball team on a university 
 campus; they never had any college training. John D. Rockefeller, 
 the founder of one institution, and the patron of many, never burned 
 the midnight oil in a dormitory of any college or university. Such 
 men would be entirely capable of serving upon a board of trustees of 
 any educational institution in this country. One of the best trustees 
 that I ever knew was a man who, when he should have been obtaining 
 a college education, was a clerk upon a steamboat; but he was always 
 a student and served faithfully and well the institution to which he 
 was appointed. I refer to Lewis P. Wing of the Ohio State University. 
 President Thompson, who is in the audience, will, I think, bear me out 
 in that statement and also that he did more for agricultural education 
 in the State of Ohio than perhaps any man who was ever connected 
 with that institution in any manner whatever. 
 
 How are we to obtain the services of such men ? What manner of 
 appointment or selection shall be followed, in order to get progressive, 
 intelligent, able men to take these positions? I have no patience with 
 the trustee who is so conservative that he never can progress, and who 
 under the name of conservatism can never do anything but argue and 
 object. If I were called upon to revise the litany, there is just one 
 little prayer I would insist on inserting, and that is: "From all such 
 trustees, good Lord, deliver us. " Formerly, our institutions of learn- 
 ing were corporations which received their charters from the sovereign. 
 Dartmouth and Kings Colleges received their charters from the sov- 
 ereign of Great Britian, Those charters provided, whether they were 
 the charters of colleges or the charters of other public or private cor- 
 porations, that the persons named therein should be a body corporate 
 with the power of succession and power of perpetuity, and usually 
 provided that when a vacancy occurred the remaining members should 
 fill the vacancy. Such was the custom in our early institutions. 
 Harvard and the University of Pennsylvania had their boards of 
 trustees created and filled in this manner. 
 
 In 1869 John Hopkins determined to charter the institution which 
 now bears his name. After consultation with President Angell, Presi- 
 dent White, and President Eliot, it was determined that under the laws 
 of commerce an institution should be chartered with twelve incor- 
 porators who would become the twelve trustees of the institution, and 
 that they should have the power to fill any vacancies that occurred in 
 the board. The University of Pennsylvania received its charter from 
 the colonial government prior to the revolution, and it filled vacancies 
 in the same way. About the year 1832, Stephen Gerard died, leaving 
 a will whereby he created a trust and provided for an institution of 
 
 (92) 
 
93 
 
 learning; and in that will he conferred upon the city council of Phila- 
 delphia the power of taking charge of his property left in trust and 
 creating a board which should control the educational institution 
 which he created. A board was created by act of the council, and 
 Nicholas Biddle was made chairman of the board. With some changes 
 that institution was controlled by a board down to the year 1869, the 
 same year in which John Hopkins was chartered. There having arisen 
 scandals in the administration of the trust, the legislature of Penn- 
 sylvania passed an act providing that the trust should be turned over 
 to aboard of trustees consisting of sixteen members appointed by the 
 courts. We have, therefore, in recent times an institution whose 
 existence began with the advice and approval of President Angell, 
 President White, and President Eliot, having a board of trustees 
 which was a self-perpetuating body; and in the same year in Phila- 
 delphia, we have the power taken from the city council of Philadelphia 
 and transferred to a board of trustees appointed by the court. These 
 two methods seemed entirely inconsistent and irreconcilable, but in 
 each case they were only following known customs, one the custom 
 of creating corporations, the other the rules of the courts of chancery 
 in taking charge of the trusts by the courts appointing trustees. When 
 Harvard University was incorporated, it was both a church and a 
 state school. The church and state were one and the same. It had 
 a charter which provided for the filling of vacancies occurring as I have 
 described. However, Harvard has changed as Yale has changed, and 
 the overseers of those institutions are elected, at least in part, by the 
 alumni of the institution. W^e have upon the Atlantic seaboard five 
 institutions in which the trustees are appointed by the remaining 
 members of the board when vacancies occur, other institutions where 
 trustees are elected by the alumni of the institution, and still another 
 in which the trustees are appointed by the court. 
 
 Other institutions are controlled in part in the appointment of 
 their trustees by will, deeds of trust, or persons who are founders of 
 them, and who place certain provisions in those documents. Some 
 institutions are created either by special act of the legislature or by 
 charters that are authorized by general laws, and in those institutions 
 anything that is lawful may be placed in the charter. Therefore, we 
 may have in this class of institutions a multitude of different methods 
 of selecting trustees, inasmuch as the founders are permitted to inject 
 into the charters anything that is not inconsistent with the law or the 
 constitution. Another very large class of institutions, both colleges 
 and universities, have a still different method of selecting their trus- 
 tees. It is one of the curious things in the history of this country that 
 our public schools and religion are entirely divorced. This is practi- 
 cally absolute. In Ohio the supreme court decided that it was unlaw- 
 ful to hold Sunday school in a public school house in the country. In 
 
 (93) 
 
94 
 
 Nebraska the supreme court has decided that it is unlawful to read the 
 Bible in the public schools. And yet these same states have placed 
 no restriction upon religious bodies in organizing colleges and univer- 
 sities and placing in their charters language in which it is indicated 
 beyond all doubt that the founders of those institutions intended to 
 blend religion and education. Some of these charters provide in so 
 many words that the institution, founded by the incorporators and 
 provided for by the charter, is for the promotion of religion and sound 
 learning. But they are in a sense private institutions; and the state 
 does not interfere with them in any particular whatever. In those 
 institutions the church is the moving force. Without the church they 
 would never have been created. The church feeling the necessity of 
 having an educated clergy, of having educated missionaries, feels 
 called upon to organize this class of institution. Almost without 
 exception, the president of such an institution, when called to occupy 
 the chair, is taken from one of the pulpits of the church that has con- 
 trol of this institution, and he often becomes a preacher in one of the 
 churches in the place in which the institution is located. So that 
 there is a close bond of union between the church and the institution. 
 The trustees of such institutions are elected by synods, or by the 
 church association, or church bodies that patronize that particular 
 college or university. So that if there are, five patronizing conferences 
 that have an interest in the institution, they nominate and elect their 
 quota of trustees to control the institution. Sometimes some of the 
 institutions permit a number of the trustees to be elected by the 
 alumni. Again they sometimes elect trustees at large. There are 
 still other methods of electing trustees. For instance, the University 
 of South Carolina has a part of its board elected by the city council 
 of the city in which it is located. These boards vary in their member- 
 ship from five to fifty in number. There is but very little uniformity in 
 their method of selection; at all events, they are selected by the differ- 
 ent church bodies which control the institution. 
 
 Passing now to the state universities, which are not considered in 
 law as corporations, at least by some of our courts, but as a part of 
 the public educational system of the state to which they belong, we 
 find quite as many methods of selecting trustees by those institutions 
 as in any of the others mentioned. It perhaps would be proper to 
 start with the University of Michigan, inasmuch as I believe it is now 
 the largest institution in point of number of students. The University 
 of Michigan selects its trustees, or regents as they are called, by popu- 
 lar vote. They are nominated at political conventions, and submit 
 their claims to the electors of the state. I must confess that there is 
 something attractive about this method of selecting trustees. It is 
 rather captivating. The electors of the state are representatives of 
 the taxing powers of the state. The taxing powers of the state are 
 
 (94) 
 
95 
 
 the ones who nourish and sustain the institution. That is quite 
 democratic, and it seems to me useful in bringing home to every 
 elector in the state the fact that he has a duty to perform in respect 
 to the state university of the state of which he is an elector. This 
 system has worked very well in Michigan. The university of Michi- 
 gan has a large number of alumni. They see to it that proper men are 
 nominated by the different political parties, and are elected to the 
 office. A rather remarkable circumstance took place just recently in 
 that state in respect to the election of a regent. Mr. Peter White of 
 the upper peninsula, a man of large business capacity, who had served 
 for some forty years on the board of education of his city, was nomi- 
 nated by a republican convention as regent, although he was a demo- 
 crat. 
 
 In Indiana they have a still different method. There the state 
 board of education elects the board of trustees and the alumni fill 
 vacancies. I presume this is done upon the theory that the state 
 board of education represents the state in all that concerns the vital 
 interests of the institution; and the alumni represents the students 
 and those who have patronized it. Such an arrangement could not, 
 for constitutional reasons, take place in Ohio. There the constitution 
 requires the trustees of all public institutions to be appointed bv the 
 governor, thus recognizing that as an executive act. Rutherford B. 
 Hayes appointed the first board of trustees of the Ohio State Univer- 
 sity. After serving as President of the United States he himself was 
 appointed as member of that board, and served in that capacity for 
 five or six years, and died while rendering that institution that service. 
 There are, perhaps, some advantages to be obtained in having the 
 board appointed by the governor. Men like General Haves will accept 
 an appointment from the governor, but would hesitate to submit their 
 claims to the electors of the state. Since that institution has been 
 organized, seven out of eleven of the governors were college bred men. 
 So that so far as the appointment is concerned, we have had men fully 
 qualified by reason of having come through different universities to 
 make such appointments. The other governors were men of large 
 business and public experience, and were also well qualified to make 
 such appointments. There is one advantage that may arise where the 
 appointment is made by the governor rather than where the election 
 is had. Of course, in a state like Michigan, where one political party 
 controls the state year after year, unless there is an exception, as in 
 Mr. White's case, the men who are elected to the board are all of one 
 political party. Whereas, in a state like Ohio, where they are appointed 
 by the governor, the members of the board may be appointed from 
 either of the political parties. As a matter of fact, by an unwritten 
 law of the state the board of trustees of the Ohio State University, 
 consisting of seven members, has been four republicans and three 
 
 (95) 
 
96 
 
 democrats, politics being entirely eliminated from consideration in 
 making the appointments excepting that the governors take the view 
 that this is about the prqper proportion between the two leading 
 parties. I can see an advantage that would arise in a state like Indi- 
 ana, where a part of the trustees are selected by the alumni. In such 
 cases the alumni would probably pay no attention to politics. 
 
 In Iowa they have a still different method of selecting trustees. 
 The governor and superintendent of public instruction are ex officio 
 members of the board. -A trustee is selected by the legislature for 
 each congressional district. That could not take place in some of the 
 other states, because the legislatures are confined to legislative duties 
 by constitutional provisions and they would not be permitted to make 
 an appointment to office. In California, the state university has, 
 I think, state officers who are ex officio members of the board, and a 
 number of them are appointed by the governor. Let us see what we 
 have in respect to these institutions. We have trustees who are ex 
 officio officers of the institution ; they obtain their office as trustees by 
 virtue of holding some other office. Probably when the people elect 
 them to that particular office of governor or lieutenant governor or 
 superintendent of public instruction, or whatever it may be, they do 
 not have in mind the minor position, and they would consider the 
 office of trustee a minor position as compared with the other, and in 
 their selection the interests of the institution which they are called 
 upon to serve is not taken into account. The legislature, however, 
 in its wisdom has seen fit to make these officers members of boards of 
 trustees. 
 
 We have, therefore, trustees elected by the people, those appointed 
 by the governor, and those selected by a state board of public instruc- 
 tion, those elected by the alumni, those appointed by courts, those 
 appointed by city councils, and those who are appointed by the other 
 members of the board. There is absolutely no system in this country 
 in respect to the appointment of boards of trustees. 
 
 There has recently sailed in the north Atlantic a band of some forty 
 young men bound for Oxford, men who are appointed to enjoy the 
 Cecil Rhodes Scholarships. When Cecil Rhodes was approaching dis- 
 solution, although he had taken part as a statesman in forming a part 
 of the British Empire ; although he had taken part in providing in the 
 future for the education of a certain class of youth from all over the 
 world, he remarked to those about him that there was much to do and 
 so little done. I take it that any man or woman, upon being selected 
 to a membership to these boards, if they will only appreciate the 
 sentiment of Cecil Rhodes and bring to their office the sentiment that 
 there is so much to do and so little done, that it will make but very 
 little difference what the manner of their appointment is. 
 
 (96) 
 
97 
 
 DISCUSSION 
 
 James E. Armstrong 
 Former Trustee, University of Illinois 
 
 I can give you a discussion on this subject from no broad stand- 
 point. After the thorough discussion of the question to which we 
 have just listened, it would be unnecessary for me to attempt to dis- 
 cuss, if I could, that phase of the subject. 
 
 I am glad to give you in a few statements a brief account of our 
 experience in Illinois and something of the way it works, at least, as it 
 seems to me. As students in the University in the early days, it seemed to 
 many of us that this University was not coming to the notice of the peo- 
 ple of the State in the way it ought to. It seemed as if we were strug- 
 ling along without making very much progress ; and we felt with great 
 chagrin the fact that the people of the State, wherever we went, knew 
 but little of the University. People who ought to know a great deal 
 about the educational interests of the State scarcely knew that we had 
 a State University, or knew that the taxpayers of the State were con- 
 tributing to the support of that institution. Although, perhaps, the 
 idea did not originate entirely with the boys and girls who were in 
 school as students, yet that thought took hold of us in such a way 
 that I think in later years the alumni of the University were the prime 
 movers in changing the law. Without any attempt or intention to 
 cast any reflection on the men who served under the old plan, or at- 
 tempt at flatterv to those who served under the new, I will say it 
 seemed to us, and I presume it is a somewhat common experience, 
 that the executive of the State did not always have the University of 
 the State uppermost in his heart. He did not think very much about 
 the interests of the little institution many miles away from the capital 
 of the State; seldom seeing anything of the working of the University; 
 feeling no great pride in the institution ; he did not give it the care that 
 an educational institution ought to have in the appointment of the 
 trustees. While I presume all governors gave enough thought to it 
 to appoint some good men, some earnest men, some men who had good 
 educational ideas and ideals, they did appoint many who were indiffer- 
 ent, who accepted the position as an honor, and never felt obliged to 
 discharge the trust. I think that the need we felt was that our trustees 
 might have a broader outlook as to the future of the University. I 
 shall never forget the meeting of the board of trustees at which an old 
 member of the board was giving some advice to the new. He was 
 giving the advice which came out of his experience, and perhaps he 
 was not to blame for the things which happened so much as were the 
 conditions that surrounded his position, which I shall try to bring out. 
 He cautioned the new board to be conservative. " Do not go too fast," 
 he said. "Do not ask for a large appropriation of money." He 
 tried to impress upon us the fact that if we should make a mistake 
 
 (97) 
 
98 ■ 
 
 before the legislature of the State, by presenting extravagant demands, 
 that we might be dealt with in such a way that the institution would 
 suffer seriously, and we might be cut off entriely from support, and 
 the institution would have to be abandoned. He was giving this out 
 of the fullness of his heart and his experience, and believed it was 
 right. A younger member of the board, in fact, I believe it was the 
 present chairman, Mr. Bullard, made some such remark as this: "It 
 occurs to me that we have been elected to our places by the people of 
 the State of Illinois. We have a sacred trust. The same people that 
 elected the members of the legislature elected us to care for the 
 interests of this institution of learning; and, if we, as members of the 
 Board of Trustees, of this institution, do not convey to the legislature 
 the needs of the institution, who is going to do it, and how are they 
 going to find it out? Should not the responsibility rest upon us to 
 present to the legislature our estimate of what the institution needs 
 and then leave it entirely to the legislature to say whether or not it 
 shall be done? If they refuse the responsibility will be on them." 
 Well, the result of that little discussion was that one member after 
 another of that body joined in the sentiment of the last speaker, and 
 it seems to me that in that discussion was born a new life for this 
 University. 
 
 The policy was entirely changed. To go back to the history of 
 the evolution again, it seemed to me that the opinion of that retiring 
 member of the board was the dominant idea of the appointed members 
 of the board. Perhaps it is not a true view, but it seemed in the old 
 days that the average member of the board of trustees felt that his 
 appointment from the governor meant simply a reflection of the gov- 
 ernor's views of the situation; that he must keep close in touch with 
 the governor's views, and must not proceed any beyond the governor's 
 plans, which might be entirely political, and consequently there was 
 no progress, no independence. Another thought in connection with 
 the change from the appointive to the elective board was the fact that 
 it in some way brought to the notice of the taxpayers of the State, 
 more forciblv, the fact that they had a State University, which fact 
 we knew they did not wholly appreciate. Every two years names 
 were presented at the various political conventions for trustees of the 
 University; these names appeared upon the ballots, and the people 
 of the State commenced to understand that in a peculiar sense this 
 institution belonged to the people ; that it was not a private institution. 
 I dare say there are few people in this State who know how many 
 charitable institutions, and various institutions for the care of children, 
 there are in the State, supported by the public tax. Their names 
 never appear on the ballot. Their trustees are chosen by the governor 
 in a private way and their names scarcely appear in the public press, 
 unless it is just a passing notice that they have been called to those 
 
 (98) 
 
99 
 
 positions, and so attract but little attention. Of course there is 
 considerable difference in the need of the public knowing about this. 
 But it is not so with the educational institutions. Very few of the 
 people knew of this institution under the old plan. 
 
 By the new plan it is forced upon their attention, and they must 
 recognize that they have some peculiar relation to that institution 
 they are paying taxes to support. When an appointive board goes 
 before the legislature of the State — men appointed by a governor who 
 stands with one hand on the treasury and the other upon the legisla- 
 ture — they will feel the peculiar relation in which they stand to the 
 governor and the legislature. A man who is elected by the people of 
 the State, on the same ticket with the governor, and elected in the 
 same way as the members of the legislature, can be very much more 
 independent. He will not be influenced at all by the feeling that 
 would influence the man who is appointed to his position by the 
 governor. I think it has given the trustees of the State University 
 the greatest courage in going before the legislature, to say: "Gentle- 
 men, we need thus and so; and you need not tell us we have no right 
 here; we came just as you came, and we are obliged to present to you 
 in a dignified way the needs of that institution." I think it had a 
 great influence in the marvelous growth of this institution during the 
 last ten or fifteen vears. 
 
 There is one other feature about this elective system in the State 
 of Illinois that was not contemplated in the change, which I think has 
 been of great benefit. I cannot give you the full history of that 
 movement. It is unnecessary perhaps to do so, more than to say in 
 passing that soon after the enactment of this new law the women of 
 the State were given the right to vote for trustees and for school 
 officers. It gave the women of the State a new and peculiar interest 
 in the aft'airs of the University ; and ever since that we have had three 
 able women who have taken their part in the affairs of the University. 
 They have looked after the side which is usually neglected by the men, 
 and they have had an interest in the things that concern our sisters 
 and daughters. They have looked after the home side of the college 
 life. They have looked after the finer side of the culture of our boys 
 and girls, young men and young women. I think they have been of 
 great service to the people of the State. Thev seek their nomination 
 in the same way that men do. I think all those things, from the stand- 
 point of the State, have assumed large porportions, much larger than 
 were in the thought of any one who had this in mind at the beginning. 
 I should be very sorry indeed if the new law were changed to make 
 the election of the members of the board a local one. No one should 
 be elected to represent Sangamon County, although we have a very 
 able representative from that county who has served long and well. 
 He is, however, not elected to represent Sangamon County; he repre- 
 
 (99) 
 
100 
 
 sents the State of Illinois. If any man were elected to that position 
 to represent a certain county or precinct or congressional district, he 
 would be handicapped immediately. A man would feel, under those 
 circumstances, he was obliged to do something for his own community 
 and would cease to be the great public servant, such as he can be only 
 when his interests extend to the interests of the State at large, repre- 
 senting all the people of the State. 
 
 The point has been presented by many of our speakers as to the 
 influence of the alumni. I would be very sorry to see a change made 
 under the law that would require a certain number of the members of 
 the board to belong to the alumni; or that the alumni should in some 
 way ofhcially represent the institution. I do not believe it would be 
 wise. We should lose a great deal more than we should gain; because 
 people would naturally feel that the graduates of that institution 
 believe the institution belongs to them. We do not want to relinquish 
 any of the interest of the taxpayers of the State. We want them to 
 feel more and more that this is their institution. There are plenty of 
 ways for the alumni to exert their influence. It has been shown by 
 the history of some sixteen years that it is not difficult for those who 
 are interested to get together and to decide that they will make an 
 effort as a body of citizens to influence the convention to have a cer- 
 tain member of the alumni nominated. Just so the women get 
 together and decide that they will send their delegations and use their 
 influence to have a certain woman placed on the ticket. That has 
 been sufficient to secure a representation of women on the board, and 
 two or three alumni at a time ever since the beginning of the system. 
 If we should go too far in that direction we would do the cause great harm. 
 
 Perhaps we might make an improvement in our system in one par- 
 ticular, in regard to minority representation, alluded to by Mr. Jones. 
 In states that are strongly one-sided, politically, I believe minority 
 representation would be desirable. Not that I think anything would 
 be done for political reasons by a board. I am sure my own experi- 
 ence on this Board would bear me out in that. Here a democratic 
 board elected a man who was a strong republican, to the presidency 
 of this University. I refer to the Ex-president Andrew Sloan Draper. 
 At the same time I think that in certain quarters there would be a 
 feeling of more personal interest in the situation, if there were a plan 
 for minoritv representation on the board. This seems like a very 
 personal history, and perhaps we people of Illinois take more pride in 
 this than we ought to. Perhaps what they are doing in institutions 
 in other states is very much preferable to what we are doing. But 
 from my standpoint it seems to be working well, and I do believe that 
 a certain part of the great prosperity of this institution is due to the 
 fact that this institution has been so thoroughly advertised through 
 the method of selecting its trustees. 
 
 (100) 
 
101 
 
 SUBORDINATE ADMINISTRATIVE POSITIONS IN A UNI- 
 VERSITY ORGANIZATION 
 
 Dean Eugene Davenport 
 Director of the Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Illinois 
 
 This is the fourth session of the Trustees' Conference. The presi- 
 dency has been discussed, the best methods of selecting trustees, and 
 many other questions of first importance in university affairs. Wisely 
 or unwisely I accepted the invitation to speak upon the present topic 
 and I invite your attention now, at this closing session, to the working 
 points of a uni\'ersitv organization ; to the departments where subjects 
 are taught, where investigations are conducted, and where the actual 
 work is done for which institutions of this kind are founded. 
 
 Universities are established because the people recognize needs 
 which they themselves cannot satisfy. The citizens of this State, for 
 example, have declared that the arts and sciences shall be taught to 
 their sons and daughters liberally, and that certain investigations 
 shall be conducted directly for the public good. They have laid these 
 obligations upon the university. It in turn has established certain 
 departments to do the work, and here, in these departments, :s where 
 the primary obligations of the institution are discharged. Whatever 
 other good offices mav be fulfilled either incidentally or by the uni- 
 versity as a whole, it is here in these departments that the work is 
 done for which universities are established; and it is my purpose to" 
 inquire how it fares with the people of these departments under the 
 various theories of university organization that are either in actual 
 operation or stronglv advocated. 
 
 Again, certain of the purposes which the people have declared 
 should be accomplished require the service of more than one depart- 
 ment. Accordingly various groupings have been formed to meet 
 these wider needs in the most direct manner possible ; and so we have 
 our colleges and schools, as they are called when the group is given 
 mainly to teaching, and experiment stations when devoted entirely 
 research. Thus the service of the institution is exceedingly compli- 
 cated; the need of organization and of suborganization is real; prob- 
 lems of adjustment are bound to arise here and there for settlement, 
 and administration of some sort is both natural and necessary. 
 
 I shall try to bring out the distinction between teaching and re- 
 search upon the one hand, and administration upon the other; and 
 incidentally to show, if I can, which of these two enjoys primary 
 rights in a university organization, and which exists for the other. 
 
 We hear much in these days of "strong administration" and the 
 "free hand," whatever that may mean; but we hear little of the pur- 
 pose to be attained thereby. Is it to facilitate the work of the de- 
 partments, or to govern the faculty? Whose hand is to be free? 
 
 (101) 
 
102 
 
 These are deep questions, and their answer is of moment, first to the 
 individuals who occupy university positions of subordinate rank, 
 afterward to the class of service rendered the public, and in the last 
 analysis to the reputation and the future of the university. 
 
 It will save time and contribute to clearness of understanding if I 
 confess at the outset that this paper is intended as a protest against 
 what is regarded by many as an encroachment of administration upon 
 work of a university, to the injury of the service and the discomfort 
 and damage of men. The evidence of this encroachment is the grow- 
 ing use of he word "administration," with its collateral terms and 
 phrases, instead of the word "organization." 
 
 Now there are two theories of university management. They are 
 clear-cut, distinct, and diametrically opposite, in what are considered 
 as fundamental principles. Of necessity they lead their followers to 
 conclusions as wide apart as are the principles on which they are based. 
 The one looks upon a university as a great administrative machine 
 complete in all its parts, with regular gradations from top to bottom 
 and from center to circumference, each deriving its sole authority 
 from the next above — military fashion. The other looks upon a 
 university as an aggregation of working unity (departments),, and of 
 groups of departments (colleges, schools, and experiment stations), 
 each engaged in the achievement of particular and definite ends, to 
 which all organization is secondary and subservient; each finding 
 sufficient authoritv for its ivork in the nature of its obligation ; each 
 accountable to superior (administrative) officers for results. 
 
 The one regards the head of a department as a subordinate in every 
 sense of the term, placing administration ahead of and over all other 
 considerations. The other regards him as a subordinate only in an 
 administrative sense, but as a chief in a working sense. Indeed I 
 question the propriety of using the word subordinate, in any sense, as 
 applied to so important an officer as the head of a working department 
 of a university ; and the present use of the term in this sense only shows 
 the extent of the administrative hold upon university ideals. 
 
 The one regards administration as the principal, as it is the most 
 conspicious feature of university service; the other regards work in 
 the department as primary and administration as secondary ; necessary 
 not to work, but to the coordination of work. 
 
 The one seems to consider administration as a thing good in itself; 
 the other regards it as a means of facilitating business, a clearing-house 
 of university affairs, entirely subordinate to the real work of the 
 institution. 
 
 The one theorv of universitv management is simple and direct 
 because it either disregards or subordinates all other considerations 
 to those of administration. In its simplicity lies its danger, for it 
 sacrifices even the primary responsibilities of the head of a depart- 
 
 (102) 
 
103 
 
 ment to the demands and the operations of a well-rounded admin- 
 istrative machine. In its directness is its injury ; for, by the 
 edict of authority it secures promptly, even on the instant, certain 
 results to which it may have set its hand even though it override every 
 other consideration. Nobody sees the trail of blood, but everybody 
 admires the spectacular way in which it was done. The army without 
 orders is idle. It has but one thing to do, obey. A university is always 
 busy executing commissions and discharging obligations, without 
 orders, and nobody realizes how the edicts of a strong "administra- 
 tion," erratic as they often are, plow through the very center of uni- 
 versitv work. So the means becomes the end, and obedience to 
 authoritv the highest duty. Here is the danger to university, life, 
 the intoxication of unbridled power. 
 
 The alternative is more difficult, for it is more complicated. It 
 recognizes the primary obligation of work and ass\3mes that the details 
 of administration shall fit the exigencies of service. This precludes 
 an ideal organization according to the conception of the professional 
 administrationist ; but the obligation of public service is primary and 
 supreme, and in some way a plan of organization must be devised that 
 will recognize and take account of the naturally 'busy centers where 
 original obligations are discharged. 
 
 Xow the heart and core and soul of the one theory of university 
 organization is authority, absolute authority, expressed in terms of 
 administration. According to this system all action is based upon 
 authority, which, whether expressed or implied, is delegated from one 
 central point, the head of the system. The heart and core and soul of 
 the opposition is that the primary authority and rights of the individual 
 arise out of the nature of the obligations he has assumed; that heads 
 of departments, deans of colleges, directors of experiment stations, 
 presidents of universities, boards of control, all have their distinct 
 and definite duties and obligations; that properly understood, these 
 obligations do not overlap, nor do the fields conflict; so that it is a 
 safe principle that each responsibility carries with it enough author- 
 ity to discharge the obligation, and each responsible individual is su- 
 preme in affairs lying clearly within the range of his activities, and 
 free to do those things that will most directly and completely dis- 
 charge his obligations. This theory calls for less authority and more 
 work. 
 
 The advocates of strong administrations demand one central 
 source of authority ; the opposition recognizes as many sources as there 
 are lines to be served and individuals charged with their management. 
 . It maintains that this authority was neither handed down from above 
 nor delegated from below, but that it is inherent in responsibility, 
 was involved in the original engagement, and was conferred at the 
 time and by the same authority that made the appointment to office, 
 
 (103) 
 
104 
 
 all of which is held to be a good and safe principle for every man in 
 the university, from the humblest assistant up to the trustees them- 
 selves; and, whether the field be wide or narrow, the responsibility 
 little or great, there is always involved authority sufficient to discharge 
 its obligations. 
 
 The advocates of a strong administration represent that university 
 men are singularly lacking in judgment, and are valuable in proportion 
 as they are managed; that but few men have talent in this direction 
 and that therefore administration rises to the plane of a profession, 
 being the one thing needful to insure results. These men look upon 
 those suited for administration as of a different order from other men 
 and removed from the mass by an impassable gulf ; they look upon 
 subordinates in a university like those in an army, as not possessing 
 original authority of any kind, but as aids only to transmit orders. 
 
 The opposition contends that this system will retain only medi- 
 ocrity in university positions ; that the nature of department service is 
 such as to require not only technical knowledge and skill, but personal 
 initiative as well, together with large freedom of action; and that the 
 plan of management through administrative authority, though giving 
 rise to a gerat show of activity at central points, yet removes the most 
 powerful incentives to individual exertion, and fails to call out and 
 make effective more than a small fraction of the tremendous forces 
 latent in the personnel of a great university. 
 
 The so-called "strong administration" has the advantage in the 
 eyes of those who look on, or those who are more familiar with the 
 business side of university aff'airs, than with the extensive and com- 
 plicated work necessary to discharge university obligations. They who 
 do not get behind the foot-lights see little of the consequences of too 
 much administration. 
 
 The opposition is accused of advocating a weak system and of 
 attempting to break down administrative authority. That makes 
 the subject difficult of discussion because of the charge of disloyalty 
 that is thrown around the case at the outset. But discussion is not 
 rebellion, and the discussion of this question has become inevitable. 
 
 Nothing is further from the purposes of the writer than to advocate 
 a weak organization, and no one knows better than he what are its 
 certain consequences. It has always been true that a weak organi- 
 zation leaves boards of trustees at sea. In this condition they soon 
 attempt to manage details themselves. Abandoning their proper 
 functions as legislative bodies, they undertake the easier role of ad- 
 ministration, acting as their own executive. The consequences of 
 this are even more disastrous than those of too much administration. I 
 assure you there is no thought of weakness in anybody's mind. The 
 question is whether the system shall hang pendant from the sky, held 
 together only by authority from above, or be built upon a foundation 
 
 (104) 
 
105 
 
 laid in department work and held together by graded authority aris- 
 ing out of responsibility for work accomplished. 
 
 Whichever svstem shall prevail the heads of departments must 
 continue to do business and meet their obligations to the public the 
 best thev can, and I desire to call your attention to certain considera- 
 tions that seem to the writer fundamentally essential to the success of 
 these officers who, though subordinate in an administrative sense, are 
 yet the ones through n'hom the university must meet and discharge the 
 bulk of its obligations before the people. 
 
 Everv man speaks from personal bias, born of his experience and 
 his point of view. Before continuing I should like to assure you that I 
 am not the head of a department, much as I shall argue for the rights 
 of that officer. I am speaking from the standpoint of a middle man 
 in administrative affairs, subordinate to the president, superior to 
 heads of departments. Probably as Dean of the College of Agriculture 
 I have no claims that I could mention here as a sufficient warrant 
 to be heard. As director of a large Experiment Station, however, and 
 as administrative head of a group of departments discharging large 
 and difficult obligations appealing directly to the people, the case is 
 somewhat different. Even then I would not venture to lay my 
 experience and opinion before you did I not feel assured that they 
 represent, essentially, the views held by the leading men of this Uni- 
 versity, who are anxious beyond measure that a form of organization 
 shall prevail in which all can take an intelligent part, a part worthy of 
 men bearing heavy responsibilities. 
 
 The principles and practices I shall advocate are those that we 
 have hammered out together in the Experiment Station by dint of 
 much conference and careful discussion while engaged in a compli- 
 cated and difficult public service. They have been born of experience 
 and have established themselves among us as the most natural methods 
 of work. We have been very near to nature's heart, I assure you, 
 and we have felt the pulse of the people, for their needs and their 
 demands are clear-cut and real. The responsibilities they have im- 
 posed upon the University have been laid upon us, of necessity, with 
 only the most general instructions. They have been both difficult 
 and dangerous. Our system accordingly has been devised with the 
 one purpose of facilitating work and securing results. 
 
 Whether the principles and practices herein advocated are sound 
 or whether they are false, of this I am assured, — if I, as Director, 
 had attempted to maintian a so-called "close administration" over 
 these departments, we should have all broken down together long ago. 
 
 Let me tell you first, as a basis, something of the conditions under 
 which we have wrought together, in this organization of which I am 
 now speaking. Until six years ago the total funds of this Experiment 
 Station were 815,000 'a year. Suddenly these were increased to 
 
 (105) 
 
106 
 
 ,000; two years after to $90,000, and in two years -more to an even 
 $100,000, where they now stand. 
 
 This enormous and rapid increase brought large and exceedingly 
 definite duties, as follows: First, live stock investigation, especially 
 in meat production, to the extent of $25,000 annually; second, investi- 
 gation into the production of corn, wheat, oats, and clover, $15,000; 
 third, investigation into fruit growing, $15,000; fourth, investigation 
 into dairy conditions with methods for their improvement, $15,000; 
 fifth, investigation into all the soils of the state with plans for their 
 permanent treatment, $25,000. 
 
 This is an array of conditions that may well appall any man, or set 
 of men, and certainly tests the capacity of men and the elasticity and 
 efficiency of an organization. I have heard one high in the counsels 
 of this University say that the institution never before assumed such 
 tremendous responsibilities, as when it accepted these appropriations. 
 Let me show you what is involved in expending $100,000 a year in 
 investigational lines that will be directly beneficial to the public. 
 
 First, it is an enormous amount of money, more than $300 every 
 day, representing the net returns of more than fifty families. 
 
 Second, its expenditure is through a thousand channels. It is not, 
 as in erecting a building, paid out on a few contracts, covering large 
 and clearly specified values. 
 
 Third, the service is not along approved and well-known lines, but 
 is largely exploration in unknown territory. 
 
 Fourth, the scheme affects directly every principal agricultural 
 interest in the state, involving thousands of people, many of whom 
 are men of wealth, position, and influence. 
 
 At the outset I was told over and over again that our organization 
 would break down under such a load laid suddenly upon us. It has 
 not been broken down and I never feared that it would. The ma- 
 chinery has not even creaked, and we have been exceedingly happy 
 together in rendering a service that requires a bulletin issue of 35,000 
 for each edition, and that long ago gave rise to a correspondence 
 amounting to over 10,000 letters a year, involving some of the most 
 prominent men in the state, the nation, and the world. You will 
 pardon this somewhat specific allusion to our affairs. It is necessary 
 to what I have to sa3^ 
 
 How did we discharge these new and tremendous obligations? 
 Behold, now, I show you a mystery! So far as direct responsibility 
 is concerned, six men did it. One of these is the director, it is true; 
 but the work was done, and is being done, almost entirely without the 
 use of authority. 
 
 Of conference, discussion, and planning, of objects and methods 
 and interpretation of results, hours, days, yes weeks, have been spent 
 on the part of these six men and their assistants. I assure there was 
 
 (106) 
 
107 
 
 pre-arrangement in every movement, — but exercise of authority! ! 
 I question if it ever occurred to anybody to use it. Almost the only 
 authority found necessary in this work has been the statute appropri- 
 ating the funds, the election of employes upon the approval of the 
 President, and the sanction of plans and appropriation of funds by 
 the Trustees. There is a mass of authority in small compass. It 
 does not touch details, yet it is ample. But little more was needed, 
 and that in the way of relifeving a few incompetents. All the energy 
 has been expended in the accomplishment of work after the simplest 
 and most direct manner possible. 
 
 Kindly bear in mind that these six men had also the responsibility 
 for the profitable use of almost an equal amount of money for teach- 
 ing purposes, and that within the six years the total number of em- 
 ployes in the college and station increased from a dozen to nearly 
 fifty, so that the responsibilities to which I have alluded in some detail 
 are but a part of the full labor of these few men. I beg you to believe 
 that I give this specific example with the sole desire to show you what 
 men can accomplish when conditions are favorable, and when not 
 annoyed by too much oversight and not circumscribed by too much 
 administrative direction. 
 
 I could point out to you one of these men who is individually and 
 officially responsible for the profitable use of over $50,000 every year, 
 spent in his department alone in amounts from five cents up; and to 
 another whose researches bring him into close relations with the most 
 extensive dealers and the largest business interests of the country. 
 The least amount for which any one of the four principal heads is 
 responsible is $25,000 a year and each has his special clientele. Think 
 of issuing orders to that kind of men! What would be their state of 
 mind, if upon returning to the University after a conference with 
 leading citizens upon matters involving thousands and perhaps mil- 
 lions of dollars when measured by public utility, or upon policies ex- 
 tending over generations, they should pick up and read specific direc- 
 tions covering a ten dollar detail, or be compelled to take the time 
 to request authority to dispose of a superannuated cow? Yet just 
 such things are done and required, and just such things are advocated 
 in the name of administrative solidarity and such other phrases of 
 obscure meaning but of great power to confuse when real issues are up. 
 
 We attribute whatever success we may have obtained to the early 
 and mutual recognition of a few principles and practices that can be 
 briefly stated: 
 
 1. Service to the public was the only object recognized as legiti- 
 mate, and loyalty to the University and all its interests the only 
 restriction. 
 
 2. That each item of responsibility must be carried by the head 
 of that department best fitted to discharge the obligation. That he 
 
 (107) 
 
108 
 
 should have all the funds involved, and that he would be held account- 
 able for results, but that his methods and the details of his work were 
 his to devise, set in operation, and control. 
 
 3. That the head of the department, being the unit of responsi- 
 bility is therefore the unit of work, and the natural unit of organization 
 and of authority; and that he is supreme in the afifairs of his depart- 
 ment up to the point at which they touch interests wider than his own. 
 
 4. That each department should attend to its own affairs and that 
 details should be settled as near as possible to the point of origin, 
 where judgment is as good and knowledge of facts infinitely better 
 than with remote administrative offices. 
 
 5. The understanding was definite to the effect that each individ- 
 ual should confine his energies strictly to his own subject. 
 
 6. Weekly conferences were held between the Dean and Director 
 and the heads of departments, and department conferences are held 
 at stated times, in most cases weekly. 
 
 7. Work within the departments is divided between individuals 
 who, being younger than heads of departments, are supposed to be 
 working under direction, certainly under advice, but they are given to 
 understand that each has his subject and will be held accountable for 
 results. 
 
 8. Every prospective employee, recommended to the President, 
 is first nominated by the head of the department. If rejected, he 
 would nominate another. If it is the head of a department who is 
 recommended, the nomination is made by the Dean and Director upon 
 the united approval of the other heads of departments in conference. 
 The initiative in the personnel, therefore, is with the body that is to 
 live and work together, and not with a remote officer ignorant of all 
 but the most general considerations involved. 
 
 9. Every estimate sent up from me for appropriations of funds is 
 the result of conference with the heads of departments sitting together. 
 Lump sums are thus divided by the departments interested, and, 
 after the appropriation is made, each individual knows how much 
 money he may count upon for the year, with which to discharge his 
 obligations. 
 
 I beg your pardon for bringing these details before you. They are 
 the family affairs of a little group of university people, engaged in a 
 most interesting and pleasant service; interesting because we believe 
 it to be valuable, pleasant because the people love each other, for there 
 has never yet been a case of discord or of heart-burning among us. 
 We are all in the same boat, to sink or swim together. 
 
 I know of no better way to bring before you the principles that 
 some of us believe in and the reason for our belief than to do as I have 
 done, hold up a bit of real life organized and operating on plans dia- 
 metrically opposite to some that are most loudly advocated, and 
 
 (108) 
 
109 
 
 which I firmly believe, should they ever become really settled into 
 iiniversitv life, would either lead to explosion at points where affairs 
 are hot with real labor or they would settle down with crushing force, 
 smothering the very life out of individual enterprise and initiative, 
 leaving behind lethargy and time serving, ragged remnants of effic- 
 iency, responding only to the prod of administrative direction. 
 
 Our heads of departments, and their assistants as well, have had 
 everv possible opportunity for work. Every man knows exactlv his 
 responsibilities. He knows in advance how much money he can have 
 for the year with which to discharge his obligations. He knows too 
 that it was all divided for he helped to make the division and therefore 
 he thoroughly imderstands the basis on which it was made. In ex- 
 penditures his hand is free, and his judgment, after conference, is final; 
 because there is no better information than his to be had. 
 
 "We have enjoyed another signal advantage outside of our own 
 numbers. The trustees have for years maintained a committee on agri- 
 culture, and to this avenue of reliable and full information I attribute 
 much of their willingness to take action favorable to efficient service. 
 This advantage I believe to be vital to the best service, and I am con- 
 vinced that it should be enjoyed by every large university interest. 
 If trustees have no other source of information than the reports of the 
 president and of the deans and directors, they can scarcely have that 
 complete knowledge of aft'airs and policies necessary to intelligent 
 action. To act without this knowledge is almost certain to lead to 
 decisions inconsistent one wath another, and so it will always be true 
 that the most useful committees of boards of trustees will be those 
 feeling responsible for certain interests ; and so it will alwavs be true 
 that interests so represented will be assured the most intelligent 
 action, and commonly interests not so represented will be unfairly 
 treated, if only by neglect. 
 
 No other single feature of university organization is of such supreme 
 importance to good work, and if the individuals involved have no 
 better sense of propriety than to use it to the hurt of other interests or 
 the confusion of the president, then it is a very good time to revise the 
 list of employees in that branch of the- service. 
 
 Well-defined responsibilities, freedom of action, knowledge of financial 
 resources, abundant conferences , not too much administrative direction, 
 an open avenue for information to the trustees, mutual helpfulness; these 
 are the fundamental requisites for efficient university service. 
 
 This paper would not only be incomplete but subject to dangerous 
 misconstruction w'ithout a word regarding the presidency, although 
 it is a subject I am not discussing. I know the question that will first 
 be raised; viz., "If every department is to largely manage its own 
 affairs, and if each individual is to discharge his obligations with some 
 
 (109) 
 
no 
 
 freedom from direction with power of initiative, then where is the 
 authority of the president, and what is the occasion of his ofifice?" 
 
 My first answer to the question is that the exercise of authority is 
 the least of the functions of a president in such an institution as a state 
 university. The objects to be gained are not mass effects to be 
 achieved by onslaught and team work as on the battle ground and the 
 foot ball field. They are rather a complicated series of achievements 
 to be won, each by individual effort or by well considered cooperation. 
 There is very little room for, or need of, authority in the daily opera- 
 tions of the university. And if the state universities ever assume the 
 proportions of which they are capable, or if they ever succeed in serv- 
 ing the public to their limits it will be only through the power of indi- 
 vidual initiative and the stimulus of individual responsibility, acting 
 in many lines. The application of the administrative whip, or even 
 the too frequent reminder of its existence, will not contribute to the 
 efficiency of the best men; nor is it necessary, as I have heard advo- 
 cated, to remind a man of this kind at frequent intervals that he is 
 smaller in caliber than he has all along imagined. In all probability 
 if he is very busy and is really accomplishing large things, he has not 
 thought very much about himself. He is lost in his service, but it is 
 nevertheless true that if he is awakened occasionallv with a dash of 
 cold water of this kind in the face, he is likely not to develop that 
 spirit of loyalty that if nourished, ripens into a faithlufness of service 
 not far removed from the spirit that suffers even martyrdom gladly. 
 
 Nor is this fatal to good organization or strong, even invincible, 
 administration. Every man holds his place bv sufferance; every man 
 is responsible for results, and, aside from all this, a good and wise 
 president will command leadership by the principle of the universal 
 recognition of a superior mind without demanding it through the 
 exercise of authority. 
 
 My second answer is that in the system described, the plans, the 
 estimates and the lists of employees nominated, all pass under both 
 the director's and the president's hands before consideration for final 
 action. This is the administrative opportunity. Here is where the pres- 
 ident can put his finger on the very pulse of the situation. Here is the 
 place and this is the time for discussion, for influence and for authority, 
 if you please, and plenty of it. 
 
 Somebody has said, " If you will let me write the songs of the people 
 I care not who makes the laws, " and I will say, " He who puts his hand 
 upon the estimates and the personnel and the general policies will 
 control the situation, so far as authority can control it for good." 
 That men shall be elected to university positions only upon the presi- 
 dent's recommendation; this is the president's high prerogative. It 
 is one of his natural and inalienable rights arising out of the nature of 
 his responsibilities, and if this is assured, the presidency is safe. This 
 
 (110) 
 
Ill 
 
 is his peculiar source of power, and it is no restriction that his recom- 
 mendations should arise out of nominations presented by the depart- 
 ments in which the candidate is to serve, insuring at the outset the 
 judgment of his peers and an expression of confidence on the part of 
 those with whom he is to serve. 
 
 Mv next answer is that the department details are both logically 
 and phvsically outside the president's range of duties or responsibil- 
 ities. The disposition to regard him as personally and officially re- 
 sponsible for department details is as cruel to him as it is detrimental 
 to the work. It can accomplish nothing useful. It is setting our best 
 man to picking chips around the department workshops, which not 
 onlv interferes with the workmen, but consumes the time and dissipates 
 the energies that ought to be devoted to larger purposes. 
 
 Nor should these details be thrust upon him. I have seen taken 
 to the president's office, over and over again, matters of such common 
 routine and trivial detail that, ^should I permit those of equal conse- 
 quence to come to the office of the director, I should be worn to the 
 marrow, and if I should require them I should do infinite damage by 
 blundering decisions rendered on partial knowledge of the facts. 
 
 I plead for a decent amount of leisure on the part of the president 
 that he may work out presidents' problems. What are they? That 
 is not my theme, but in order to protect my position here I will indi- 
 cate some of them. The representation of the university before the 
 public through addresses, and through the wider fields of activity that 
 only the president can occupy. New lines of work, broader policies, 
 a larger public service, and the thousand and one new things that do 
 not occur to the men I have been talking about, and could not be per- 
 formed by them if they did. 
 
 Shall I mention a specific case? President James has suggested, 
 and the suggestion is receiving the most careful consideration, that 
 the vaiious religious denominations shall establish colleges or at least 
 centers of religious influence adjacent to the campus of the University. 
 This is presidents' work. Who else would have thought of it ? Would 
 it have occurred first to the agricultural or the engineering experiment 
 station? and when would it have occurred? and what could they do 
 towards its fruition ? Absolutely nothing. But what cannot a single 
 man in the right place do at certain junctures if he is big enough to 
 know when the psychological moment has arrived? and if he is there 
 clear-headed when it arrives haply he shall not be engrossed in "pick- 
 ing up chips," busy about many matters here and there when the 
 opportune moment comes his way, lest it pass by. 
 
 I place a plea for presidential leisure and a protest against a system 
 that ties a president down to the business of daily directions. A well 
 ordered university needs a president for other purposes than the 
 details of daily operation. 
 
 (Ill) 
 
112 
 
 The service of the departments is outward to the people. There is 
 a larger service outward, as I have indicated, that can be rendered only 
 by the president acting for the university as a whole. Besides this 
 there is a service that is inward to the university that no department, 
 no college, and no officer but the president can render. It is impera- 
 tive that some great mind be free to work out from time to time new 
 conceptions for the upbuilding of the university as conditions change, 
 and that these energies be not wasted by the daily drain of distracting 
 detail. The present mania for doing everything by administrative 
 control is expressing itself alike in government and in university 
 affairs. The inevitable results are to destroy individual initiative, to 
 hamper the work, and in the end to break down even the administra- 
 tion itself and destroy it for its better purposes. 
 
 If I have made the point clear, a university is one of the few things 
 that is larger than the sum of all its parts — that nobody desires to 
 relegate the functions of the president ^to the departments ; neither to 
 weaken or destroy his position, which would destroy the organization, 
 but that the purpose is to define it in justice to others and to itself, 
 then I am satisfied, and will pass to other matters. 
 
 This discussion concerning the rights of the individual, of every 
 individual in university service, especially heads of departments, 
 should proceed and will proceed until it is determined whether men 
 of capacity and power; or men of mediocrity and timidity shall fill 
 university positions. And while the discussion proceeds let me re- 
 mind you that it is a matter neither for levity nor for ridicule. It 
 seems quite the fashion now to speak slightingly of the faculty. It 
 has been done in this conference. Surely men carrying responsibilities 
 such as I have mentioned are worthy of respectful treatment; worthy 
 to be taken seriously, and accorded an honorable place among men. 
 Therefore, I say of the man who caricatures the teacher and the in- 
 vestigator and who so exhibits him that the public may laugh at him, 
 — let him rest assured that he has amused himself and others at the 
 expense of a class, many of whom will be remembered and honored 
 in the world after most men have been long forgotten. The men of 
 former times whom we now remember are those who wrought for the 
 love of it before "strong administration" were ever heard of. 
 
 University organization is not to be likened to the national govern- 
 ment, whose only purpose is to govern people. Something else must 
 be assured in university life beyond good order in the faculty. The 
 quietest man and the easiest one to manage is a dead one, but he has 
 passed the period of usefulness. 
 
 I have been told that these ideas are visionary; that, for example, 
 men will not divide money without quarreling. This is a libel on the 
 intelligence, the character and good sense of responsible university 
 men. We of the Agricultural Experiment Station are no better than 
 
 (112) 
 
113 
 
 others, but our conditions have forced us out of narrow into wider 
 conceptions of men, and of university affairs. And I thank God daily 
 that it is so. Every man who labors early and late in the discharge of 
 difficult duty, and wlio thereby wins a place high in the esteem of 
 leading men outside ought to be able to hold up his head and say with 
 reference, even to university affairs, "I also am a man." Who can 
 measure the stimulus of that feeling in the very marrow of the bones ? 
 And who can assess the deadening damage to his soul when a man is 
 told in effect that his fancy is a faction; that he is mere material, 
 attached to an adjustable tether, a child in leading strings, given rope 
 occasionally with which to amuse himself — and others — when it is not 
 likely to do damage, pulled in when its antics no longer amuse, or if 
 they threaten to become serious. 
 
 When a man of the rank and consequence of a head of a depart- 
 ment approaches the office of his administrative superior in fear or in 
 trepidation instead of anticipated pleasure at the prospect of an in 
 teresting conference^ — I say when this thing is so, then something is 
 wrong at the upper office, and something else is awfully wrong that 
 makes such conditions possible. Yet so far as I am advised this is 
 the inevitable consequences of the so-called "strong administration," 
 except with the few individuals so conditioned as to be able to protect 
 themselves or their interests, and except for the few who are admin- 
 istrative favorites. I ought not to tell tales out of school in this assem- 
 blage, yet the fact is notorious that no man is so exposed to flattery, 
 no man so frequently cajoled by small souls, no man so thoroughly 
 easy to "work" as the autocrat at the head of what he is pleased to 
 believe a strong administration. Of absolute loyalty he knows next 
 to nothing. The only logical autocrat in university affairs is the head 
 of a department. With him, assistants being comparatively young 
 men must often be directed; though here as elsewhere, influence, 
 conference, and tradition are infinitely more powerful than authority. 
 
 Some one will say, "If no body issues directions, how shall stand- 
 ards be set and how will laws be established?" On this point let us 
 remember that standards which live long are not born suddenly by 
 edict; they develop out of exigencies and experience, and after a while 
 they become traditional and then they are stronger than either law or 
 edict. The advocates of doing things by administration do not seem 
 to have remembered that influence, tradition, and the spirit of loyalty 
 are infinitely stronger than authority. They seem not to realize that 
 there is a form of organization with all the appearance of strength, but 
 which breeds only weakness; strong and very busy at the center, but 
 weak, even dead, at the circumference — out at the working points 
 where it ought to be most alive. 
 
 The strongest organization is the one that is not. always on dress 
 parade, and does not always remind us that the big stick is close at 
 
 (113) 
 
114 
 
 hand. There is an organization that is scarcely evident except when 
 occasion arises. Then it will be found very much alive indeed, being 
 based upon the department as the unit of work and the logical unit of 
 organization, with natural gradations both in responsibility and in 
 authority up to the very head — the dean, the director or the president, 
 as the case may be. Such an organization possesses an inherent power, 
 unmeasured and unmeasurable. It wih leap into instant service 
 almost of itself and will not break in two at any point, however severe 
 the strain. The power of such an organization is in its traditions, 
 and the loyalty of its members, not in the authority of its head; nor 
 does it depend altogether upon the personality of its members, for 
 once started it seems to be endowed with the genius of immortality. 
 
 While many good men have been spoiled and their work ruined 
 by too much direction, there is no case on record of securing the 
 service of a genius out of a stick by the injection of any sort of admin- 
 istrative virus. 
 
 Men grow and develop under responsibility, and they are at their 
 best under a feeling that a great public trust devolves upon them. I 
 know the objections that are raised to this proposition. It is said 
 that men of technical training are experts, and that experts are not to 
 be trusted with important affairs. My first answer is that there are 
 experts and experts; that some of them are still men, and not devoid 
 of all sense of proportions. My second answer is that any man is a 
 better man when feeling a personal sense of responsibility. If there is 
 anything in a man this course will bring it out. Therefore give him 
 every opportunity with a free hand and in good time he will demon- 
 strate either his worth or his worthlessness. 
 
 If a man be treated as a child he will either resent it or leave ; or, 
 remaining for the sake of bread for his little ones, he will grow small of 
 mind and listless of effort, — an automaton if not a marionette animated 
 only by transmitted power. I have known some of these child men; 
 they are pitifully worthless for experiment station purposes, — like 
 Jacob Riis's "perfectly good cat " — spoiled. Administration we must 
 have, but let administration take its proportional place in university 
 affairs. Let us have as few orders, as little red tape, as few card 
 catalogs, and numbered blanks and report slips as possible. There- 
 fore let us not fall in love with the system and forget or prevent what 
 it is to accomplish, and let us remember after all that an institution is 
 small or great according to the characters that compose its faculty, 
 which is the most stable element of its personnel, and without whose 
 loyal and intelligent and technical service no institution and no ad- 
 ministration can succeed. 
 
 When the university worker puts on his administrative uniform, 
 let him wear it lightly, remembering that he is to furnish oil, not vine- 
 gar for the machinery; that while he must replace worn and broken 
 
 (114) 
 
115 
 
 parts, yet above all he must keep sticks out of the gearing. I have 
 sometimes heard administrative officers say that their principal time 
 was given to preventing things from being done. Could there be 
 t)etter evidence of the cumulative effect of too much administration? 
 
 Either plan can be made to work. The primary question is what 
 kind of men will be found occupying the positions after the system has 
 been fully established. 
 
 There is a service of the heart, born of lo}-alty and tradition that 
 will serve a cause or an individual even unto death. It is born not of 
 authority, which is never able to command even a tithe of service 
 available; it is born of loyalty, of that spirit of doing and serving that 
 cannot be bought with money, that cannot be demanded by authority, 
 that cannot live under oppression or scorn. We must have this ser- 
 vice if our universities are to realize the possibilities they may attain, 
 or render to the public the service easily within their capacity. We 
 can have this service in universities if we do not drive away by childish 
 or cruel treatment those who alone are capable of rendering it. If we 
 do drive them away then God pity the state university. 
 
 DISCUSSION 
 
 Dean David Kinley 
 University of Illinois 
 
 I wish to express my hearty approval of the paper that has just 
 been read. I judge from the remarks of the chairman that, after all, 
 the advocates of the decentralized and centralized systems of admin- 
 istration are not far apart in purpose, at least. In order to bring out 
 my own thought, I would put side by side a emark made to me not 
 long since by President James and a remark once made by the present 
 Commissioner of Education of the State of New York. President 
 James said, "Do not do anything which you can get anybody else to 
 do." That, I take it, Mr. Chairman, is a sound principle of adminis- 
 tration. Put in other words, it means that every administrative act 
 should be settled at the lowest round in the scale of adininistrative 
 authority where it can be successfully handled. 
 
 The remark of Dr. Draper was to the effect that policy is deter- 
 mined by large bodies, but put into effect by one or a few. This also is 
 a sound principle of administration. But in putting the policies into 
 effect I would distinguish between what may be called concentered 
 administration and centralized administration. In the former sys- 
 tem, every administrative act, however unimportant, goes back for 
 its authority to the one central officer. In the centralized adminis- 
 tration there is a cordon of authority delegated through various steps 
 or scales. Under the former system, one could not move a piano 
 without the president's consent; under the latter system the piano 
 
 (115) 
 
116 
 
 could be moved by the man who is in charge of pianos, — in other 
 words, as I said before, at the lowest round of the administrative 
 authority where the matter can be correctly handled. 
 
 REVIEW OF THE CONFERENCE 
 
 Hon. S. a. Bullard 
 President of the Board of Trustees, University of Illinois 
 
 It was the purpose of the committee that President James should, 
 at the close of this conference, present a review of the work which the 
 conference had done. We regret the inability of the President to be 
 with us tonight and to perform that duty. He would be here were he 
 physically able to come. However, it seems fitting that some words 
 be said concerning the work of the conference, and I shall take the 
 occasion to state a few things which I have had impressed upon me. 
 
 The discussions have covered a wide range of subjects, but they 
 have concerned four classes of people; namely, trustees, presidents, 
 members of the teaching force, and students. The students have 
 received the least attention. I regret that they have not received 
 more. They form the least permanent body connected with an insti- 
 tution of learning, and yet the institution was formed and is operated 
 for their special aid and benefit, together with the benefits which may 
 accidently go to those men with whom they are associated in this 
 community. Just what the student can do for the good government 
 and well being of our colleges was not fully brought out in the papers 
 and discussions. It is possible that our presidents and those having 
 the responsibilities of administration may do well to see what aid 
 students can give in making the administration strong and successful. 
 
 The functions of the president and the power of the executive 
 office has been carefully and forcibly presented. In contrast with 
 this position, we have had the position of the member of the faculty, 
 whether instructor or head of department, presented in a logical and 
 candid way. We have seen that there must be an executive head to 
 the institution, and yet there are responsibilities which may be dele- 
 gated to the faculty, which the president should not assume nor invade. 
 And further, we have heard of the duties of the board of trustees as 
 the legislative body of the institution; that with the board largely 
 rests the responsibility of government, because the board must choose 
 the head, establish the ordinances under which the administration 
 shall operate, and act as the court of last resort. 
 
 Amid all this conflict of opinion as to the best place to locate the 
 chief authority for the best interests of all concerned, we may be able 
 to draw a lesson or two. Let us draw this one: In any institution of 
 learning there is no person who may rightfully claim to be the institu- 
 tion itself. This is an age of individuality. We have heard a great 
 
 (116) 
 
117 
 
 deal lately that every man should have "a square deal." That may 
 be a term from the card room, but it has now become good English, and 
 I shall use it. The trustee, the president, the member of the faculty, 
 and the student, each wants a square deal, and each should have it. 
 Each should have the opportunity to do his best in the work he is 
 doing. He should ask nothing less, he should be allowed nothing 
 more. The president cannot afford to believe that it is his right to 
 use the college to make his name famous and renowned. No pro- 
 fessor, without lowering his dignity as a man and a teacher, may pre- 
 sume that the college may be used to make himself noted, or to advance 
 his personal interests. There must be harmony of purpose and fra- 
 ternity of action by all the persons joined in the work of the college, in 
 order that the college may do its best. That president is the best 
 president who can cordially accord to every member of his facult}^ the 
 opportunitv to bring out the best in himself. He does more for his 
 institution and his students, reflects more honor upon his board, and 
 gathers more lustre for his name, if he can draw out of each teacher, 
 and through them draw out of each student, the best his nature will 
 produce. Such a president is a great president; such a faculty is a 
 great faculty; and such an institution is a great institution. You 
 cannot hide its light under a bushel. 
 
 Another lesson: No institution of learning can best accomplish its 
 great work — that which was prepared by its founders and is expected 
 by its patrons — unless every person connected therewith is in accord 
 with all other persons who perform parts of the work. Every one 
 connected with an institution of learning is bound to give to it more 
 than the world sees that he gets from it. Individual rights exist in 
 college as in government ; but as in government the citizen must limit 
 his actions to the good of the whole people, so in college the member 
 must loyally accord to all others every right he claims for himself, so 
 that the whole institution may be made great. The man who habit- 
 ually believes that he should get more than he gives, can have no claim 
 to an extended existence in an institution of learning. Selfishness 
 and greatness can never exist in the life of a teacher or student any 
 more than they can in the life of the saint. 
 
 These are some of the lessons I feel that I have gathered from this 
 conference. I hope that you have each gathered as many more. If 
 you have done so, I have confidence that the good derived here will 
 encourage the calling of other conferences along the line followed by 
 this one. 
 
 With the highest appreciation of your eft'orts to make this confer- 
 ence helpful to all who have been present and with the expression of a 
 hearty welcome to you to visit again the University of Illinois, I now 
 pronounce the conference adjourned without date. 
 
 (117) 
 
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 
 INSTALLATION 
 
 OF 
 
 Edmund Janes James, Ph.D., LL.D. 
 
 AS PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 PART IL 
 
 PROCEEDINGS OF 
 THE CONFERENCE ON RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 
 
 October 15-19, i9o5 
 
 Edited by W. N. Stearns, Ph. D. 
 
 Price One Dollar 
 
 Urbana, 1906 
 
Copyright 1906 
 By The University of Illinois 
 
 Press of The 
 
 Illinois Printing Company 
 
 Danville, Illinois 
 
PREFATORY NOTE 
 
 The public discussion of religious education in our higher institu- 
 tions of learning has become of so great interest that it seemed worth 
 while to call a conference for the discussion of the subject in connection 
 with the installation of Doctor E. J. James as President of the Univer- 
 sity of Illinois, October, 1905. A wide interest developed in the plans 
 and a number of distinguished gentlemen agreed to read papers and 
 to participate in the discussions. 
 
 In accordance with the arrangements the first session was held at 
 nine o'clock, Thursday, October 19, 1905. Professor Shailer Matthews 
 of the University of Chicago presided over the conference, kindly giv- 
 ing up an intended vacation to do so. 
 
 The following resolution, offered by Professor Kelsey of the Uni- 
 versity of Michigan, was unanimously passed at the evening session: 
 
 ''Resolved, that this conference recommends to the religious de- 
 nominations the consideration of the question whether the theological 
 schools in the region of the State University may not be grouped about 
 the State University to mutual advantage. 
 
 "And be it further resolved that the chairman of this conference 
 and the President of the University of Illinois be requested to act as a 
 committee to transmit a copy of this resolution to the proper ecclesi- 
 astical authorities of each denomination." 
 
 The meetings of the conference were held in the University Place 
 Church, and an expression of thanks was made at the close of the con- 
 ference to the pastor and the members of that church for their courtesv. 
 
 At the evening session the following communication was offered 
 by the chairman, and voted by the conference: 
 
 " I feel that it would be very appropriate for us to express inform- 
 ally if we do not have opportunity to do it formally, the warm appre- 
 ciation of those who have come as guests, of the perfection of the 
 arrangements which have been made, and especially of the hospitable 
 and cordial spirit with which a forum has been provided for the dis- 
 cussion of these fundamental issues, not merely to the universities 
 but to the public. 
 
 Arthur H. Daniels, ] 
 
 Franklin L. Graff, \- Committee. 
 
 Wallace N. Stearns, J 
 
 The program was as follows: 
 
 (121) 
 
PROGRAM 
 
 Professor Shatter Mathews, D.D., of the University of Chicago, Presiding. 
 
 MoRiViNG Session: 9:00 a.m., Thursday, October 19. 
 
 General Subject; What Religious Education May the State University- 
 Undertake? 
 
 Organ Voluntary: Frederick Locke Lawrence, Director of the School of Music, 
 University of Illinois. 
 
 Devotional Exercises: Conducted by Right Reverend Edward William Os- 
 borne, D.D., Bishop Coadjutor of Springfield. 
 
 Address of Welcome : Professor Thomas Arkle Clark, The University of Illinois. 
 
 Introductory Address: By the President of the Conference. 
 
 Addresses: President William Oxlev Thompson, D.D., Ohio State Univer- 
 sity; ReverendB. Cassilly, S. J., D.D., Vice-president of St. Ignatius 
 College. 
 
 Discussion : — 
 
 Reverend William Franklin Anderson, D.D., Secretary of the Board of Edu- 
 cation, Methodist Episcopal Church. 
 
 The Very Reverend Dean Duffy, Danville, Illinois. 
 
 President William Lowe Bryan, Ph.D., LL.D., Indiana University. 
 
 Reverend Jenkin Lloyd Jones, D.D., Pastor of All Souls Church, Chicago, 
 and Editor of "Unity." 
 
 General Discussion: — 
 
 Right Reverend Edward William Osborne, D.D. 
 
 President Lilian Wyckoff Johnson, Ph.D., Western College for Women. 
 President Anna Sneed Cairns, A.M., Forest Park University. 
 Reverend W. J. Bergin, C.S.V., A.M., Pastor St. Viateurs College. 
 Professor Edward Octavius Sisson, Ph.D., The University of Illinois. 
 
 Afternoon Session: 3:00 p.m. 
 Music. 
 
 Devotional 5Exercises. 
 Address: The State Universities and the Churches; Professor Francis Willey 
 
 Kelsey, Ph.D., University of Michigan. 
 Address: Obligations of the Church to its Adherents in the State Universities; 
 
 President Henry Churchill King, D.D., Oberlin College, Representative of 
 
 the Religious Education Association. 
 
 Discussion : — 
 
 President James David Moffat, LL.D., Washington and Jefferson College, 
 
 and Moderator of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church. 
 Professor John Henry Gray, Ph.D., Northwestern University. 
 Reverend Willis G. Banker, D.D., Presbyterian Church, Lawrence, Kansas. 
 
 Evening Session: 8:00 p.m. 
 Devotional Exercises. 
 
 Address: The Affiliated College; President Webster Merrifield, M.A., Univer- 
 sity of North Dakota. 
 
 Discussion: — 
 
 Dean W. J. Lahamon, A.M., Bible College of Missouri. 
 
 Reverend William S. Marquis, D.D., Representative of The Illinois Synod 
 of the Presbyterian Church. 
 
 President David Ross Boyd, Ph.D., University of Oklahoma. 
 
 Reverend Francis A. Wilber, D.D., Principal of Westminister House, L^ni- 
 
 versity of Kansas. 
 General Discussion:— Professor E. L. Rivard, C.S.V., D.D., Ph.D., St. Viateurs 
 
 College. 
 
 (122) 
 
ADDRESS OF WELCOME 
 
 Bv Thomas Arkle Clark, B.L. 
 Dean of Undergraduates, University of Illinois 
 
 It is a matter of deep regret to President James that he cannot be 
 here himself to speak a word of welcome, and it is especially so because 
 of his interest in the subject of this conference. I am glad for him, 
 however, and in his name, to welcome you to the University of Illinois. 
 
 The matter of religious education in the state universities is a vital 
 one. On account of the peculiar character of its work, the state uni- 
 versity cannot give the attention to religious education that should be 
 given. The burden of conducting this must therefore fall upon the 
 religious organizations which are found in the community in which 
 the university is located. We are all interested in this work, though 
 we may not give ourselves wholly to it. I have no doubt that statis- 
 tics will be presented to you before the close of this conference, which 
 will show you that we are not an irreligious community. A very large 
 proportion of the members of our faculty are engaged in active religious 
 work in the churches of which they form a part. The student com- 
 munity is a religious community and swells the congregations of all 
 the churches that are located here. 
 
 I well know that the reputation of the university for interest in 
 religion is not a desirable one, but my own experience, both as a stu- 
 dent and as an instructor, does not warrant such a reputation. I am 
 glad to remember that when I came to the university as a student 
 twenty years ago, when its reputation throughout the state for interest 
 in religion was in no way to its credit, the first organization I was 
 asked to join was the Christian Association, and the first impression I 
 got of the university community was one of religious interest. 
 
 I am glad that this conference has been called, because I believe 
 that there is a responsibility upon the churches of all denominations 
 to look after their interests here. The students are with us. They 
 are vitally interested in religious subjects. If they are not taken care 
 of, the church will lose a great opportunity. As members of the 
 faculty, we shall be glad to cooperate in any enterprise which may 
 develop or which will conduce to the religious growth of the commun- 
 ity. We shall be interested in the results which come from this 
 conference, and in whatever way we can help, you have only to com- 
 mand us. 
 
 Again, then, in the name of the students and the faculty and the 
 president, I welcome you heartily to the University of Illinois. 
 
 (123) 
 
INTRODUCTORY ADDRESS 
 
 Shailer Mathews, D.D. 
 Professor and Dean of the Divinity School, The University of Chicago 
 
 There was a time when education was regarded as belonging to a 
 sphere of Hfe quite distinct from that of religious experience. There 
 was a time, and that time has not altogether passed, when to be relig- 
 ious meant to surrender anything like intellectual libert}' and intel- 
 lectual power. Not so long since the leaders of education looked with 
 considerable contempt, or at least suspicion, upon religious thinkers. 
 Religion claimed a certainty where the scientific mind professed ignor- 
 ance. It was so thoroughly devoted to the exploitation of eternity as 
 to be indifferent to the demands of to-day ; and he whose passion was 
 for reality, and he who felt that only that was real which could be 
 subjected to certain tests, naturally felt suspicious, if not hostile, 
 toward those who thus refused to submit to investigation their most 
 precious claims, and who alleged that a man could know only after 
 he had believed. There, accordingly, grew up a feeling that religion 
 was in some way an unreal thing, or at best a luxury in intellectual 
 life ; that an honest man must in some way forbear to be of very sure 
 religious belief; that the sincere man must be silent as to his faith. 
 And there swept over the educational world a devotion to what might 
 be called the gospel of ignorance — not that men denied, but that men 
 did not affirm. The difference between that day and ours is the dif- 
 erence between the day in which the man did not deny, but did not 
 affirm, and the day, which I think is dawning, in which men not only 
 do not deny but begin to dare to affirm. 
 
 Now, with the rise of this new confidence in the things of faith, 
 with the rise of this new realization that life is something more than 
 the mere gaining of knowledge, with the rise of this growing conviction 
 that a man ma}* believe in God and still be true to the workings of 
 reason, with this splendid passion for reality which we are beginning 
 to see express itself, not only in the university, but also in the church, 
 there has come a determination on the part of thinkers to link educa- 
 tion and religion in some way together. It would not be so difficult, 
 I think we shall all agree, to combine those two, if to be religious and 
 if to teach religion meant to teach certain definite dogmas or certain 
 definite philosophies. There are those who could do that with sure- 
 ness, and I have no doubt with benefit. But the university man is 
 shy of dogmas,, and the university man is shy of that sort of teaching 
 which would compel the teacher to make replicas of himself and of his 
 student. If I understand the atmosphere and the ideals of the uni- 
 versity, it is not to make men like the teacher, but to make men loyal 
 to truth, keen and sensitive to truth, madly determined to have 
 reality and nothing but reality. The higher the ideal, of course, the 
 
 (124) 
 
larger the difficulty. As we push out the circumference of the circle 
 of knowledge, we increase the outside of that circle which touches 
 ignorance. As the university plunges into the depth of the unknown, 
 it is not with the feeling that the area of contact with the unknown is 
 decreased, but, rather increased. But yet there stands religion. Are 
 we to treat that simply as mortality tinged with emotion? Are we 
 to treat that simply as a feeling of awe, born of the contemplation of 
 this growing area which we do not know or cannot hope to know? 
 Or, is religion that which is positive, so truly an element of the human 
 personality that it too, like the mind devoted to other matters, is 
 subject to education? And if it be subject to education, and if the 
 religious Ego may be developed as may be the scientific Ego, then has 
 not the -university some duty in this regard? 
 
 I count it an exceedingly happy omen that the state university 
 should seriously ask advice and give an opportunity for conference 
 upon this problem. It is a testimony not to uncertainty alone, it is a 
 testimony to the growing religious faith of university spirit. We are 
 no longer confronted with the great antithesis between the teacher of 
 science (using that word not in an arrogant sense, but in the largest 
 possible sense) and the teacher of religion. The difficulty is a practical 
 one as I conceive it, no longer one of theory. We all admit that the 
 religious self should be developed as every other sort of self. But 
 how? How in the state university, particularly, in which the peculiar 
 political complications are as they are? How in the state university, 
 in which the prevailing note is rapidly becoming that of the practical 
 man rather than of that of the professional man, of the engineer rather 
 than of the doctor or lawyer, of the business man rather than of the 
 teacher? How shall these problems be settled? If we can settle 
 these questions in any sort of way in the state tmiversity, we shall have 
 settled them for good in any other sort of institution, for here the 
 problem is in its most distinct, and I am inclined to think, its most 
 important form. How to bring the state into the young men and 
 young women and make them citizens, that is one of the great prob- 
 lems in which the state tmiversity is interested. How to bring the 
 God-like nature of the young man and young woman into expression 
 and to direct that expression into something other than a mere pro- 
 fession, that also is a legitimate field of education, and that must be 
 answered in the state university, if it is ever answered to the satis- 
 faction of this country. The denominational colleges will always 
 bring their religious infiiaence to bear in some sort of way upon their 
 students, but the state university works without any influence of that 
 sort. Yet it, too, is subject to the same law. If education be not in 
 some way religious, then so much the worse for the society in which 
 we live, and I believe most thoroughly, so much the worse for the 
 state university. This conference, as I understand it, is a conference 
 
 (125) 
 
8 
 
 in the truest sense of the word. I understand that the problem has 
 been suggested to the various speakers as not a matter of mere debate. 
 I am sure that no man of us here, with his pressure of ordinary duties, 
 would pause to take a day therefrom for the mere luxury of an aca- 
 demic debate. It is because we believe that there is real need for this 
 conference that we are here. And in all seriousness and earnestness, 
 with the determination, I am sure, that from out of this conference 
 there shall come some sort of practical suggestion to the state uni- 
 versities, first of all, and to other universities as well, we are gathered 
 here to listen to one another and to join with each other in the expo- 
 sition of what we think to be practical wisdom. 
 
 WHAT RELIGIOUS EDUCATION MAY THE STATE UNIVER- 
 SITY PROPERLY UNDERTAKE? 
 
 William Oxley Thompson, D.D. 
 President, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 
 
 The question upon which I have been asked to present this paper 
 opens a difficult but fruitful topic for discussion. 
 
 The American people by conviction are thoroughly religious and 
 believe in religion as vitally concerned in the development of all true 
 education. The fact that the church was the pioneer in higher educa- 
 tion, together with the fact that religion and education have always 
 been united in their interests, has given emphasis to the importance 
 of religion in education. When, however, the common school interest 
 grew up, there was a disinclination to insist upon the presence of relig- 
 ious exercises in the school on the ground of alleged interference with 
 the rights of conscience. Associated with this was the political theory, 
 as commonly existed in this country, that the state and church should 
 be separate. This doctrine of separation of the church and state is 
 even more strongly intrenched in popular belief. Under the influence 
 of such a theory, professedly Christian people felt that it was an un- 
 christian attitude for them to insist upon conformity on the part of those 
 who were non-christian. The very principles which they espoused, pro- 
 hibited them from forcing these principles upon others. The consti- 
 tutional doctrine on this subject of education, in the first amendment 
 to the constitution of the United States, declares that "Congress shall 
 make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting 
 the free exercise thereof. ' ' This amendment virtually turns the 
 whole matter to the separate states with the assurance that Congress 
 will not legislate upon the subject. This provides for the free exer- 
 cise of religion and guarantees that it shall not be established by the 
 government. The state constitutions have followed this general 
 principle with somewhat more extended statements as to the rights of 
 
 (126) 
 
conscience and with certain protection so far as the support of religion 
 by taxation is concerned. 
 
 In the earher years, no distinction was made in legislation between 
 the church and religion. Christianity has sometimes been declared 
 to be a part of the common law of England and America, but the con- 
 fusion that arises from identifying religion with the church still con- 
 tinues in the minds of many. The fact that religion was presumably 
 the chief concern of many, whatever the different religious bodies, 
 and the fact that the Bible was the book from which all these bodies 
 took authority, lead many to assume that controversy was necessary 
 and agreement impossible. In line with this belief, a court decision, 
 "That the Bible was a sectarian book," was developed and the con- 
 clusion reached that it could not be constitutionally or legallv used in 
 schools supported by taxation. 
 
 Recent tendencies have revealed a new phase of this problem. A 
 new, or at least an enlarged, view of the state has been developed. 
 We are agreed to the theory that the state is something more than a 
 policeman with a large club ; we are proceeding upon the theory that 
 it is the duty of the state to engage in philanthropic and benevolent 
 work and that the church is not the only agency interested in religion. 
 Indeed the people have come to demand that the state engage in what 
 may be termed developmental agencies that are quite beyond any of 
 the older theories. This is the most fundamental and important argu- 
 ment for state education. This broader view of the state reveals the 
 fact that religion is a subject of common interest. The famous phase 
 in the ordinance of 1787, namely, "religion, morality and knowledge, 
 being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, 
 schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged," has 
 received a new emphasis and the popular judgment has gained cre- 
 dence that religion is fundamental to good government. If education 
 is, therefore, to prepare men not only to live under good government 
 but to maintain it, the argument for the maintenance of religion would 
 seem to have the best of support. Attention has been called in im- 
 portant legal decisions to the fact that the ordinance itself is clear on 
 this matter. This decision emphasized the position by suggesting 
 that it was not at all true that good government was necessary to 
 religion, but that the dependence was, as stated in the article, and that 
 religion was necessary to good government. It seems clear, therefore, 
 that the state will never support the institutions of religion such as 
 the church. On the other hand it seems equally clear that the abid- 
 ing interest of the state in religion will be more and more manifest. 
 Whether the state will manifest this interest by encouraging the sup- 
 port of religious education is the theme under consideration. 
 
 In order that we may discuss this subject candidly, I propose to 
 review some of the court decisions upon the general question of the 
 
 (127) 
 
10 
 
 Bible, religion, and the public schools, in order to discover the status 
 of the question before us and then to offer some remarks indicating 
 the conclusion. 
 
 (1.) The Status of State Universities 
 These institutions are brought into existence by the state through 
 provision in the constitution, as in Colorado, (one of the newer states), 
 or by act of the legislature, as in Ohio and most states where statehood 
 was a fact prior to the organization of the university. These institu- 
 tions, therefore, enjoy whatever rights are prescribed by statutes, or 
 are accorded by common consent because not contrary to law or con- 
 stitution. The state university is therefore, limited by its legal and 
 its constitutional rights. Anything contrary to either law or consti- 
 tution would be denied. It is worth while to note that in nearly every 
 case, custom has grown up in these institutions somewhat in harmony 
 with popular sentiment. In many of the state universities the ordi- 
 nary customs prevalent at denominational colleges prevail. This, 
 however, is purely a matter of custom and not a matter of legal right. 
 Many of these customs, including some religious exercises, would 
 probably cease if the question were raised in a legal or technical way. 
 Our discussion must not, therefore, assume that existing practices are 
 always matters of right. The right of the state to engage in education 
 is established beyond successful dispute ; whether there are any limits 
 to the state's right to engage in education, is sometimes debated; 
 whether it may undertake education in religion, resolves itself, there- 
 fore, into a question as to the limits to be placed upon the state's 
 right to educate. Upon this question constitutions, laws, and court 
 decisions are instructive in that they represent the popular will on this 
 
 issue. 
 
 (2.) Some Court Decisions 
 
 Among the earlier decisions on the question of the Bible in public 
 schools, I have read one from New England, (which, unfortunately, 
 is not at hand) in which the court decided that the reading of the Bible 
 was not an infringement upon the rights of conscience. The decision 
 went further and declared that for a small minoritv of people to object 
 to certain religious exercises would overturn popular government, 
 inasmuch as any one person would be able under such ruling, to thwart 
 the purpose and desire of a practically unanimous community. 
 
 The case of the Board of Education of the city of Cincinnati, 
 versus John D. Minor, et al., is reported at length in volume twenty- 
 three of the Ohio Reports. This case rose out of two resolutions, 
 namely: "Resolved, That religious instruction and the reading of 
 religious books, including the Holy Bible, are prohibited in the com- 
 mon schools of Cincinnati, it being the true object and intent of this 
 rule to allow the children of the parents of all sects and opinions, in 
 matters of faith and worship, to enjoy alike the benefit of the common 
 school fund. 
 
 (128) 
 
11 
 
 Second, "Resolved, That so much of the regulations on the course 
 of study and the text-books in the intermediate and district schools 
 (page 213. annual report), as reads af follows, 'The opening exercises 
 in every department shall commence by reading a portion of the Bible 
 by or under the direction of the teacher, and appropriate singing by 
 the pupils,' be repealed." Upon hearing, the Superior Court of Cin- 
 cinnati gave judgment for the plaintiff and granted a perpetual 
 injunction against the enforcement of the resolutions, or either of them. 
 The case was then appealed to the Supreme Court of Ohio, and the 
 judgment reversed and original petition dismissed. This case was 
 argued with great ability, and covered completely the question of the 
 Bible and religious instruction in the public schools of Ohio. In the 
 wide range of discussion the court saw fit to express its conviction 
 that there was a total abstinence of the legislature looking to the en- 
 forcement of the religious instruction or the reading of religious books 
 in the public schools. It further commented upon the term, "relig- 
 ion, " to the effect that it must mean the religion of man and not the 
 religion of anv class of men, in proof of which the Court affirmed when 
 the constitution spoke of all men having certain rights, it could not 
 mean merely all Christian men, and called attention to the fact that 
 some of the men who framed the constitution were not Christian men. 
 
 (2.) Another important decision was in the Board of Education 
 in the city of Detroit. Section thirty-nine of the constitution of 
 Michigan provides "That the legislature shall pass no law to prevent 
 any person from worshiping Almighty God according to the dictates 
 of his own conscience, or compel any person to attend, erect, or to pay 
 tithes, taxes, or other rates, for the support of any minister of the 
 gospel or teacher of religion." This case was brought to compel the 
 board to discontinue the use of a certain book known as "Readings 
 from the Bible" in the public schools of Detroit. The decision of the 
 Court finally was to the effect that reading of such extract was not in 
 violation of any constitutional provision. Some argument was there 
 made to show that historically the teacher of religion was synony- 
 mous with the minister of the gospel. It is a matter of doubt, how- 
 ever, whether that decision would be sustained by the court now if 
 the question were presented involving the demand of state funds for 
 the person whose duty would be to teach religion. 
 
 (3.) The case involving the city of Edgerton, Wisconsin, has 
 attracted wide attention. This decision involved the following items: 
 
 First, that the use of the Bible as a text book, and that stated 
 reading thereof, in the public schools, is sectarian instruction, within 
 the meaning of the constitution of Wisconsin which ordains that no 
 such instruction shall be allowed schools. The fact that children 
 were not compelled to remain did not, in the judgment of the court, 
 remove the cause for complaint. 
 
 (129) 
 
12 
 
 Second, that Bible reading, in common schools, as a text book, is 
 religious worship and constitutes the school house, for the time being 
 a place of worship, and said reading during school hours against the 
 consent of the tax-payer compels him to support a place of worship. 
 
 Third, all Bible reading in common schools as a text book, is sec- 
 tarian instruction, and the money drawn from the state treasury for 
 the support of such schools is " For the benefit of a religious seminary " 
 within the meaning of section eighteen, article one of the constitution 
 of Wisconsin, prohibiting such appropriation of the state funds. 
 
 Taking these few decisions as a basis, and probably a fair precedent 
 for any other cases that might arise, I offer the following remarks: 
 
 First, there is a distinct statement in the constitution of Michigan 
 that no person can be compelled to attend, erect or support, against 
 his will, any place of religious worship, or pay tithes, taxes, or other 
 rates for the support of any minister of the gospel, or teacher of 
 religion. Under that provision, I do not believe it would be possible 
 to use any of the public finances of the state of Michigan for the pur- 
 pose of carrying forward religious education in the University of Michi- 
 gan. If it were done it would be by concession and custom, and not 
 by authority and right of law. 
 
 Second, the decision in the Wisconsin case makes it clear that the 
 constitution there would prohibit religious education in any school 
 supported by the state. If the reading of the Bible is to be construed 
 as sectarian instruction, I can hardly conceive that any instruction in 
 religion could be provided that could not be subject to the same criti- 
 cism. The principle on which the reading of the Bible was declared 
 an act of worship, would apply equally to other instruction upon the 
 subject of religion. 
 
 Third, the decision in Ohio, while not covering exactly the points 
 in the two cases named above, is not in conflict with section seven, 
 article one, of the constitution which declares that no person shall be 
 compelled to attend, erect, or support, any place of worship, or maintai 
 any form of worship, against his consent. The constitution further 
 provides that no religious, or other sect or sects, is ever to have any 
 exclusive right to, or control of, the school fund of this state. Under 
 this clause no religious education could be undertaken that would be 
 sufficiently broad or indefinite to evade the charge of being sectarian. 
 
 Fourth, I have not had opportunity to make an examination of the 
 constitutional provisions or of the court decisions of all the states in 
 which state universities are located, but it may be fair, in addition to 
 the above, to presume that all state universities are subject to sub- 
 stantially the same limitations. This being true, the conclusion is 
 obvious that formal religious education can never have a legal status 
 in -a state university. 
 
 (130) 
 
13 
 
 (3.) May Any Religious Education Be Undertaken? 
 If we are to abide by the admission that formal religious education 
 may not be undertaken at the state's expense, the question still re- 
 mains whether there is anything in religious education that may be 
 undertaken. Here the controversy is somewhat instructive. The 
 agnostic has objected to all theological dogma, and the denominational 
 adherent objects to different types of doctrine. There seems in these 
 later days, however, a steady development among Christian people 
 toward the conclusion that religion is greater than any of its doctrines, 
 that there a-e some vital things in religion upon which all agree. The 
 essentials of religious sentiment, such as reverence, faithfulness, faith 
 in the unseen, duty of worship, obedience to the law of love as set 
 forth in the New Testament, and many others of the great principles of 
 religion, seem to be agreed upon. Furthermore, it is asserted that 
 unless a teacher can arouse this sentiment in his pupil, he is lacking in 
 complete preparation for his work. So long as the American people 
 are a religious people, it may be assumed that teachers in state uni- 
 versities will be representatives of our common religious life. Relig- 
 ion will therefore be taught by example rather than by precept. The 
 influence of the individual teacher will always be a potent factor in 
 developing the religious character of the student. It is interesting to 
 observe that professors in state universities are remarkably free from 
 adverse criticism on the ground of anti-religious tendencies, or on the 
 ground of being narrow, sectarian advocates of individual views. So 
 far, therefore, as the personal relations are involved, the religious 
 condition will compare favorably with that in schools where formal 
 religious education is attempted. One other suggestion is that a state 
 university may undertake to cooperate with religious organizations 
 who voluntarily offer to students instruction in religion. This method 
 has already been adopted in a number of state universities and seems 
 to be a practical solution of a recognized difficulty. 
 
 HOW FAR THE STATE UNIVERSITY MAY TEACH MORALS 
 
 Reverend Francis Cassilly, S. J. 
 Vice-President, St. Ignatius College, Chicago 
 
 Some thirty or forty years ago, the theory became prevalent that 
 all social ills came from ignorance, and that if ignorance were once 
 removed from the country, a millenium of peace and happiness would 
 dawn. So in every direction common schools were opened, high 
 schools were erected, gymnastic apparatus was installed, kindergartens 
 were begun, school books and stationery were given away free, and in 
 fine the educational frenzy of the hour in America reached a height 
 that the world had never seen before. Meanwhile all impatiently 
 
 (131) 
 
14 
 
 waited for crime to disappear from the earth. For some reason, how- 
 ever, the state of primieval innocence was rather slow in coming. But 
 this did not damp the ardor of the educational enthusiasts; they con- 
 cluded that they had not yet done sufficient for the education of the 
 masses, so they raised the school palaces a story or two higher, cov- 
 ered the walls of the class-rooms with art pictures, opened domestic 
 science classes, installed manual training plants, and then sat down in 
 calm confidence to await results. 
 
 The result came,, but it was quite different from what they had 
 expected. The newspapers have become catalogues of crime. The 
 old-time honesty and spirit of honor are fast disappearing from com- 
 mercial life. Disclosures are made day after day of the dishonesty of 
 men who were regarded as the bulwarks of society. The divorce mills 
 are grinding faster and faster, and still they can scarcely keep up with 
 the clamor of those waiting to be loosed from sacred obligations. Old 
 prisons are being enlarged and new ones built; special courts and 
 prisons are being established for juvenile criminals. Everywhere 
 there is a mad race for wealth, and the old ideals of peace and content 
 and honor are fading away. In fact the degeneracy of society has 
 become so notorious as to challenge the attention of the most thought- 
 less; and the query springs naturally to the lips, "Is this the result of 
 the great expenditure of time and care on education ? Certainly if it 
 is, then education is not the great panacea for all ills that it was hoped 
 it would be. " 
 
 Professor E. R. Morrison of San Bernardino, California, writing 
 in the Educational Review, (*), said: 'That some change in the 
 educational system of the country, is imperatively required, seems to 
 be generally admitted. It is an educational system which fails to 
 educate. If our schools are doing their work efficiently, how comes it 
 that our criminal statistics are the most terrible which the world has 
 to show?" 
 
 At the National Prison Congress, opened in December, 1897, at 
 Austin, Texas, the President, General RoelifE Brinkerhoff said, "First 
 and foremost what is essential is, to revolutionize our educational 
 system from top to bottom, so that good morals, good citizenship and 
 ability to earn an honest living shall be its primary purpose, instead 
 of intellectual culture as heretofore." 
 
 Only the other day in his address of welcome to the students of 
 Columbia University, President Nicholas Murray Butler said, "If we 
 fail in forming those traits and habits which together constitute 
 character, all our learning is an evil. * * * New statutes may be 
 needed, but statutes will not put moral principle where it does not 
 exist. The greed for gain and the greed for power have blinded men 
 to the old-time distinction between right and wrong. Both among 
 
 *Nov. 1897. 
 
 (132) 
 
15 
 
 business men and at the bar are found advisers, counted shrewd and 
 successful, who have substituted the penal code for the moral law as 
 the standard of conduct. Right and wrong have given way to the 
 subtler distinction between legal, not illegal, and illegal; or better, 
 perhaps, between honest, law-honest and dishonest." 
 
 Quotations might be multiplied indefinitely, all going to show the 
 general opinion that society is on the down grade, and attributing the 
 fact to the absence of religious and moral training in school. 
 
 The next question to consider is, what is to be done about it? 
 How shall we put religion and morality into our schools? In the olden 
 days before the secularizing of the school, that is before the state set 
 herself up in the business of education, there was no difficulty in the 
 wav. for all schools were Christian, they all taught religion and moral- 
 ity as well as branches of profane knowledge. It is the ill-adjusted 
 arrangement of religious and secular education as conducted by the 
 state, that has brought society to the sad pass in which it now is. 
 
 The people of England lately found themselves facing practically 
 the same conditions as ourselves, but fortunately they have evolved a 
 plan, which perhaps is the best that can be devised under the 
 circumstances. Both in England and Canada the government now 
 extends financial aid to all the denominational schools, so that the 
 people of any denomination who desire their children to have a relig- 
 ious training, can secure it for them with the aid of the government. 
 According to this plan the state does not pay for religion or religious 
 teaching, it pays merely for the secular instruction, and the religious 
 and moral training is given by the denomination. 
 
 What we have thus far said applies to education in general, but the 
 question to be discussed to-day is restricted to state universities. 
 
 No doubt most of us here to-day agree in so far, that we should 
 like to see some sort of religious or moral training put into the state 
 universities. For the young men and young women, who frequent 
 universities, are still in their formative period, they are growing and 
 expanding intellectually, and while there is intellectual growth and 
 expansion there should necessarily be moral and religious growth and 
 expansion. The faculties of man, his intellect, will, and memory, 
 must all be systematically developed if we would have him a perfect 
 being. The man whose mind is developed and vigorous, but whose 
 will is atrophied may indeed be a keen scholar, but he will be a moral 
 wreck, and the shores of history are lined with the wrecks of great 
 careers which have been shipwrecked by the lack of moral ballast. 
 How then can we inject moral training into the state university? Let 
 us examine some proposed plans in detail. First, the state might 
 found a university for each denomination. But as there are hundreds 
 of denominations in the state, this plan is evidently impossible. 
 
 Secondly, the state might turn over the spiritual direction of each 
 
 (133) 
 
16 
 
 department of the university to a different denomination, somewhat 
 on the department store plan, but this would evidently lead to "con- 
 fusion worse confounded. " 
 
 A third plan and the most obvious one, is for the state to teach 
 religion in its university. But how can this be done in a country 
 which has no state religion ? Would it be considered fair to the other 
 denominations to place the university under the control of one ? This 
 plan while the simplest of all, is open to the greatest objections of all. 
 
 In fact, evident as it is to all, that religion should be taught in a 
 university, nothing is further from the province of a government than 
 to go into the teaching of religion. A government has not unlimited 
 rights and powers. Its functions and duties are clearly prescribed 
 by its aim and object, which is the well-being and happiness of the 
 people and the safeguarding of their rights. And it certainly is not 
 conducive to the happiness of a people nor favorable to their rights 
 and liberties, to have the state sit on the seat of religious authority 
 and expound religious dogmas and duties. Surely the state has no 
 call from nature or from God to usurp the functions of religious author- 
 ity. Never was it said to the state "Going, therefore teach ye all 
 nations, * * * teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I 
 have commanded you. " 
 
 Of course in saying this, I do not mean that the state is forbidden 
 to aid and favor religion. No, it is a solemn duty of the state to pro- 
 mote what is conducive to the well-being of the people, and certainly 
 the spirit of religion and the observance of religious duties are of the 
 greatest importance to a commonwealth. But what I do maintain, 
 is that the state as such has no right to establish a school of its own, 
 and then teach of its own authority any religious dogmas. For the 
 question would naturally arise, where does the state get the dogmas 
 it teaches? If it has no religious autonomy of its pwn, it has no more 
 right to set up in the business of religion than it has to conduct agri- 
 culture or to enter upon purely commercial enterprises, and in fact 
 much less. 
 
 Thus far probably there is no difference of opinion amongst us. 
 Well-meaning people, however, feeling the pressure of necessity, and 
 being unwilling to give up the material advantages which the liberal 
 endowments of our government afford to state universities, and at the 
 same time perceiving the dire results of religionless education, are 
 hoping to cut the Gordian knot by excluding religion and putting in a 
 so-called moral training. This is on the principle, that half a loaf is 
 better than no bread. Such men reason thus. We cannot teach 
 dogma or religion in a purely state school, so we will prescind entirely 
 from positive religion, and confine ourselves to the teaching of moral 
 truths, to inculcating the beauty of virtue and the hideousness of vice. 
 
 This is practically the question at issue to-day. 
 
 (134) 
 
17 
 
 In taking up this proposition, let us ask ourselves whether it is 
 possible to divorce morality from religion. The teacher can of course 
 present to his pupils the beauty of virtue, he can tell them that it is 
 right and proper and becoming to obey their parents, to speak the 
 truth, to abstain from drunkenness. In the abstract, no doubt, all 
 students would agree with him. Even when we do wrong, our intel- 
 lect is forced to admit the fitness and beauty of the opposite virtue; 
 but that admission is not sufficient to restrain us from doing what we 
 know is wrong. Is there any one of us who has not done wrong, and 
 while we were doing it, did we not realize and admit that right-doing 
 would have been better in the abstract? We did wrong although we 
 knew it was wrong, and in spite of a natural appreciation and admira- 
 tion of what was right. To know the right is one thing, to do it is 
 quite another. Morality is not a mere theoretical science, it is emi- 
 nently and essentially practical. The greatest scoundrel in the 
 countrv often knows the moral law, and can speak its praises in glow- 
 ing words. To make the teaching of morality practical, it is necessary 
 to forge a connection between the intellect and the will, it is necessary 
 to give such motives to the will as to make our love of the good effica- 
 cious. And what motives can the teacher of abstract morality pro- 
 pose, if he prescinds entirely from religion? He can tell the young 
 man that stealing is wrong, that it is in bad form, that it is against 
 the laws of his countrv, but what if the young man says that the pos- 
 session of the stolen money is dearer to him than the approbation of 
 his conscience, more than the esteem of his fellow men, and that as to 
 the laws of his country he will trust to his own shrewdness and to the 
 cleverness of good lawyers to keep him out of prison ? That is about 
 as far as the teacher of simple morality can go. If he insists further 
 that there is an obligation and a duty to keep from stealing, because 
 God who is the Creator and Master of us all has forbidden it, and that 
 if we disobey Him, we shall incur His wrath in this world, and punish- 
 ment in the next ; if the teacher goes farther still and insists that God 
 is our loving Father, who gives us every good blessing, that He loves 
 His good children who obey his commands, and that He is wounded 
 when we disregard them, that He will love and bless us in this world 
 if we do His will, and that He will give us the delights of endless bliss 
 in the next, why the teacher certainly proposes efficacious motives, 
 which are sufficient to hold a man in check under the direst tempta- 
 tions and on the most secret occasions, but is he confining himself to 
 teaching morality? Is such a teacher not inculcating religion? He is 
 assuredly basing his teaching on religious dogmas. He asserts that 
 God exists, that He is the creator and father of the world, that He will 
 reward the good and punish the wicked after death. Are not all these 
 dogmas? And is not the inculcating of these dogmas, religious teach- 
 ing? In other words, to endeavor to teach morality without giving 
 
 (135) 
 
18 
 
 strong and sufficient motives is impossible, and strong and sufficient 
 motives can be obtained only from the arsenal of religion. 
 
 Moreover, supposing it possible to teach morality without tres- 
 passing on the forbidden grounds of religion, could the state or its 
 representatives, the professors of a state university, teach a complete 
 and consistent system of morality? To pretend to teach morality 
 and then to rest content with the inculcating of a few general prin- 
 ciples, such as "children must obey their parents," "we must not lie 
 or steal, " would be very similar to the action of one who would teach 
 a few axioms of geometry and a few theorems about the straight line, 
 and then claim that he had taught the science of geometry. Would 
 not such teaching be labeled quackery by all honest men? 
 
 Morality is a definite and complex science. And is it within the 
 sphere or competence of the state to teach this abstract and complex 
 science? Who will be its guide and authority? What religious 
 denomination will direct it and keep it from error. 
 
 Perhaps you will say that it will choose a system on which all men 
 agree. Where will you find such a system? Would the state insist 
 in its university on the Sunday closing law, would it sanction the tak- 
 ing of "tainted money," would it permit divorce, would it put a ban 
 on smoking, would it allow you to pledge your neighbor in a glass of 
 foaming wine? Men do not always agree on what is right and wrong. 
 
 Perhaps you will say the teaching of state morality would be eclec- 
 tic. This might give us an American code of morality, or rather 
 different codes of morality for every separate state, so that what would 
 be right in Illinois would be wrong in New York or Alabama. The 
 advocates of Sunday ball playing might have influence enough to have 
 it stamped with the approval of the state university in Illinois, while 
 the University of Michigan or Iowa might hold up their hands in pious 
 horor at such conduct. 
 
 No: morality is a science and an exact science, and it must be 
 taught in the same way in all the states. The axioms and conclusions 
 of geometrv are the same the world over, and so must be the principles 
 of morality. 
 
 Looking at the question then from a purely theoretical standpoint 
 as I have done, it bristles with difficulties. 
 
 The dire results of religionless education in the common schools 
 and higher institutions of learning are so evident on all sides, that men 
 of wisdom and foresight are clamoring for a change. President Eliot 
 of Harvard has said (*), "No educational system can be successfully 
 carried on without education in morals, and no education in morals 
 is possible without a religious life. " 
 
 Mr. Frederick Harrison (t) writes, "If there be such things as 
 morality and religion, and if anything can be said or done by way 
 
 *Outlook, Jan., 1898. ^Forum, Dec, 1891. 
 
 (136) 
 
19 
 
 of inculcating them or applying them to life, then education must be 
 inspired by religion as well as morality. * * * Morality apart from 
 religion is a rattling of dry bones. " 
 
 If then religion and morality are necessary, and if the state uni- 
 versity' can teach neither, both because such teaching is beyond its 
 sphere, and even if not beyond its sphere, beyond its competence and 
 ability, and especially if morality cannot possibly be severed from 
 religion, then it would seem that the state university as at present 
 conducted is an anomaly in the educational world. 
 
 Such, I wish to emphasize, is the theoretical view, but perhaps 
 wiser men than I, men whose ability has placed them in the forefront 
 of the great thinkers and doers of the day, men who are conducting 
 great universities to a wonderful height of material success, will be 
 able to devise some means or methods, which will save the state uni- 
 versity, and at the same time save the magnificent body of students, 
 those earnest young men and women who are the hope of our country, 
 from the terrible effects of naturalism and secularism which threaten 
 to engulf our countrv. 
 
 APPOINTED DISCUSSION 
 
 Reverend William Franklin Anderson, D.D. "^ 
 Secretary of the Board of Education, Methodist Episcopal Church, New 
 
 York City 
 
 There are certain questions which, by their nature, are of interest 
 chiefly, almost solely, to the friend and representative of the state 
 institution. There are other questions which, for the same reason, 
 are of chief, almost sole interest to the representative of the denomi- 
 national institution. But the question which we have before us this 
 morning has the merit of possessing a vital interest to the friends of 
 both types of institutions. The friend of the state institution is 
 interested in the subject of the religious life of the institution, if for no 
 other motive, because of the motive of self preservation. It was 
 stated yesterday by President James and emphasized by the speakers 
 this morning that the ideals of this republic are essentially Christian 
 and religious. Christian in their ideals of education. Christian in their 
 ideals as to what the product of an educational institution ought to 
 be. The friends of the state universities are very well aware that they 
 cannot afford to have it said of their institutions that they are Godless 
 and faithless; and this charge which is made against the state institu- 
 tions by wholesale in some quarters, is unjust and untrue. 
 
 The friend of the denominational institution is interested in this 
 subject, because in every state university there are representatives of 
 his denomination, toward whom his denomination has a vital re- 
 sponsibility. I have learned since coming to this place, for instance, 
 
 (137) 
 
20 
 
 that a census was taken of this student body the past year and it was 
 found that sixty -two and one-half per cent of the student body of the 
 University of IlHnois belonged to the different branches of the Chris- 
 tian Church. He would be a very stupid man, who could overlook 
 the responsibility of his denomination to the members of his denomi- 
 nation that are found in the state universities. 
 
 I have made the discovery, for instance, that among the students 
 of this university there were, last year, no less than eight hunderd 
 that belonged to the church of which I have the honor to be a repre- 
 sentative and a member. I must feel that my denomination has a 
 responsibility toward these students in the state university. 
 
 Now I was very much interested in the discussion of the legal 
 status, as presented by President Thompson in the first paper that 
 was read this morning. And considered purely from the legal status, 
 I am sure we shall all have to agree with him, but I am sure he will 
 agree with me, and that every representative of the state institution 
 will agree with me that it would be a positive misfortune if the state 
 institutions were held down to that exact legal status. We are facing 
 a condition in our state institutions, not simply a theory. The theory 
 has been set forth very clearly, but the conditions which grow out of 
 the life of the people, and which have been created in response to the 
 ideals of the people are the conditions with which we must deal. It 
 will be my purpose in the little time alotted me, to bring to your 
 thought, if possible, some practical way in which the interests of re- 
 ligion may be conserved in the state universities. 
 
 If I have grasped the problem properly, it seems to me that vital 
 help may be given to the subject of religion from at least three sources. 
 I believe that the personnel of the head of the institution and of the 
 men and women who are associated with him in the instructional work 
 of the institution is a very vital thing in the religious life of any state 
 university. A little time ago it so happened that a gentleman of my 
 acquaintance was invited to become the head of one of the state uni- 
 versities. He had been reared within the boundaries of that state; 
 he knew it was a Chrisitan commonwealth ; he well understood that 
 the only way by which the university could be made a conspicuous 
 success was by meeting the ideals of the people touching religion. He 
 made this answer to the board of regents who offered the position: 
 "Gentlemen, I understand there are three or four or five men in the 
 teaching force of your institution who are openlv and avowedly and 
 aggressively antagonistic to the Christian faith. My acceptance of 
 the position which you have offered me, must be conditioned upon the 
 dismissal of those men froin the teaching force of the institution. 
 Now, if vou will clean house at the beginning, I will make it my busi- 
 ness to see that the house is kept clean. " And they were so anxious 
 to secure his services, that they complied with his conditions. Those 
 
 (138) 
 
21 
 
 gentlemen who were openly and avowedly antagonistic to the Chris- 
 tian faith were informed that their services were needed no longer. I 
 am in touch with the conditions of that state universit}', and I am 
 glad to be able to say that it is a stronghold of Christian influence in 
 its power over the lives of the student body who are committed to its 
 care. I wish this were true always. I am bound to believe that these 
 facts are not always true of all the state universities. 
 
 Visiting in another section of the country I came in touch with a 
 gentleman who had a sympathetic interest in the life of the university. 
 He was not a cold and unsympathetic critic, but he informed me that 
 there was but one man on the teaching force of that institution whose 
 influence was in any way helpful to the religious life of the students. 
 
 I have been informed of this condition in another institution, that 
 certain professors have boasted that they have been successful in un- 
 dermining the faith of some of the s^- 'v-'nts who have come to those 
 halls of learning. 
 
 You will remember that splendid discussion of faith and religion 
 by that great teacher. Principal J. C. Sharp, and you will recall that 
 in one of his great paragraphs he declares that there is not learning 
 enough in all the universities of Europe to pay for the destruction of a 
 man's faith in God and in the things that are eternal. 
 
 Another help for the life of the state university comes from the 
 organizations that exist among the students themselves. These or- 
 ganizations are a tesitmony to the fact that the students feel the need 
 of a certain religious touch which cannot be furnished in any other 
 way. 
 
 I was greatly interested a little while a'go to come upon a discussion 
 which President Eliot of Harvard presented to the National Educa- 
 tional Association last vear, an admirable paper, entitled, "A new 
 Definition of the Cultivated Man." He says that there have been 
 many changes in our educational ideas, and it is well at the opening 
 of the new century that we should gather up the results of what has 
 been accomplished and inform ourselves of the vital things in the life 
 of the cultivated man of to-day, and he mentions this as the very first 
 thing, that the moral sense of the world makes character a more im- 
 portant element in the education of today that it has been at any 
 time in the hstory of the past. Now, religious organizations among 
 the students themselves are in the interest of the nurture of the 
 religious life. Many of these boys and girls come from religious homes. 
 If the atmosphere of the institution is unfriendly to the truths in 
 which they have been reared, they feel at a great loss. I think it goes 
 without saying that during the formative period of life, the atmos- 
 phere of any educational institution ought to be genial and helpful in 
 the nurture of the higher ideals and the best and noblest things of life. 
 I rejoice in the prosperity of such organizations as the Young Men's 
 
 (139) 
 
22 
 
 Christian Association, and was delighted to hear the statement made 
 yesterday by the distinguished president of this university, touching 
 the strength of that organization in this institution. And then such 
 movements as the student volunteer movement, — who will tell the 
 far reaching influence of the work that has been conducted under the 
 auspices of this organization under the supervision of Mr. John R. 
 Mott ? It seems to me every state institution ought to welcome such 
 organizations in their student body, for after all, the purpose of the 
 university is to make manhood, to create character of the highest and 
 noblest type. 
 
 There is yet another help to the religious life of the state university, 
 and that is the help which the church can give. And I am glad for the 
 signs that are appearing everywhere in this day in which we live, that 
 the church is becoming more vitally concerned in this problem than 
 it ever has been in the past, that it is beginning to see that the state 
 university affords a great opportunity for religious work. Just what 
 practical form this effort will take is not yet quite definitely settled, 
 but some of the denominations are thoroughly alive to the subject, 
 and I am sure it is a matter of only a short time until all of them will 
 fall into line. A vear ago, there was brought before the General 
 Assembly of the Presbyterian Church a resolution looking toward the 
 appointment of a committee that should report at each successive 
 meeting of the General Assembly touching the state of religion in state 
 universities. In sorae places already university pastors have been 
 appointed, being associated with a church located favorably for work 
 among the university students. All these I hail as signs of progress 
 along the right line, and I am perfectly confident that the different 
 denominations are seeing their opportunity and will take practical 
 steps in the near future for the realization of a better life among the 
 students of the state institutions. I am sure it would not be a difficult 
 thing to prove that the state university needs the touch of the denomi- 
 national institution in order to make it more thoroughly and more 
 genuinely and more deeply Christian. It would not be difficult, either 
 to prove that the denominational institution needs the touch of the 
 state university in order to make it more thoroughly scientific and 
 more genuinely progressive. 
 
 The Very Reverend Dean Duffy " 
 Danville, Illinois 
 
 I have been taught to think of a university as a place where lumi- 
 nous intellects and clean hearts teach all knowledge. This knowledge 
 may be viewed in relation to God in theology, to man in literature, 
 and to the world in science. These branches do not exist in them- 
 selves as isolated or independent of each other; they run into each 
 
 (140) 
 
23 
 
 other ; thev are essential to the completion of each other ; they form a 
 whole, a system, and a view of them in all their parts and relations 
 implies that knowledge that is digested and received actively into the 
 intellect. Cardinal Newman may talk of it as knowledge impreg- 
 nated with illumined reason, or the philosophic habit. Virchow may 
 speak of it as the scientific habit. It is an excellence or perfection of 
 intellect that would in itself be a sufficient reason for the existence of 
 a university. The university as a living organization has a force or bias 
 of its own and if it should view knowledge as a thing for revenue and 
 revenue onlv, it would become the mortuary vault of right human life. 
 
 We mav discuss about the utilities, or inutilities, the classical or 
 scientific in our systems of education but if our university life should 
 be imbedded in matter, it would be infinitely better, like the poor boy 
 of the widowed mother in the poem, that our youth never entered its 
 portals remaining "Dexterous Gleaners" in a narrow field with books 
 a few, and such opportunities as the village school supplied; 
 
 The true, the logical view of a university implies a clear, calm appre- 
 hension of all branches of knowledge, each in its place and each having 
 its own characteristics. I cannot consider such a university possible 
 without God and the soul as integral elements. When you exclude 
 the mental man the influence of mind on mind and of mind on matter 
 and consider physical phenomena and brute force only, then you may 
 logically exclude truths we know about God. The name university 
 is inconsistent with restriction of knowledge, even the knowledge of 
 God in both natural and revealed order, is barren, indeed, a university 
 without it is an intellectual absurdity. Mutilate the Divine and the 
 whole of secular knowledge is broken into fragments ; accept the truth 
 of God's existence and all principles run into it as the first and last. 
 There is no period or process in the growth of human life when moral 
 and religious forces can be dispensed with. How can we then consist- 
 ently with our constitutional limitations have all knowledge in our 
 university system? This is the problem we are invited here to. dis- 
 cuss. God knows, and I wish all men to know that I want no estab- 
 lished church here and no endowment from the state for the teaching 
 of my religion. Considering our conditions and the institutions we 
 are blessed with, I would call it "Blood Money." I know that my 
 church has suffered in the past from state connections, tyrant kings 
 and adulterous emperors for a nominal protection sought to make it 
 the hand-made instrument of the state. 
 
 State endowment tends to wither the generosity that is and should 
 be the vital influence in religious life. I will not Hsten to the suggestion 
 that a true and noble cause in America and especially in the fertile valley 
 of the Mississippi, can fail to obtain for its work the necessary means. 
 
 If Church Fairs and kindred efforts fail us the Childr-en of light may 
 enter the Insurance field with its promise of Golden Harvests. 
 
 (141) 
 
24 
 
 I traveled with the Archbishop of Canterbury on the good ship 
 Celtic and I was pleased with much I heard from those around him on 
 the subject of establishment and endowment. He ranks next to the 
 Princes of the Blood as they describe them at home and in his presence 
 religion is lifted up close to the throne. From his high place in the 
 House of Lords he has a voice and influence in all legislation that 
 affects religious interests and it was made clear to me that his friends 
 did not view establishment as an unmixed good. They were out- 
 spoken in regard to endowments. If the state would give us the old 
 property of the church that the charity and benevolence of the people 
 bestowed on it in the past it would be infinitelv better. It is our 
 experience, they added, that State aid impedes our work. Curates 
 and those in small livings, in the presence of the endowment system, 
 are deprived of that voluntary assistance that is so necessary for them. 
 I easily concurred with this, as these views have grown into my sys- 
 tem of thought until they have become a part of myself. A state- 
 endowed religion is a thing of the past and not to be thought of in 
 our environment. The church that seeks it will cease to be. Can we 
 hold these views as absolutely true and hope to have religion as an 
 integral elernent in our system of education? If I thought the diffi- 
 culty was inherent in the nature of education or that it was intrinsi- 
 cally impossible in our form of government, I would not be here. 
 There are grave difficulties, but I have heard much here that inspires 
 hope and courage. I listened attentively yesterday and this morning 
 and I was edified. The trend of all thought was full of God and 
 humanity. 
 
 I did not think of a prepared paper, as I was told that I was ex- 
 pected to review or discuss the papers of others. My work was light, 
 as I subscribe readily to all I heard here. It is the gravest problem 
 ever given us to solve. Individual and national life will be wholly 
 determined by it. I feel that no nation, no period in history and no 
 phase of human thought was better fitted to solve this vital question. 
 We have wisely separated church and state, looking on them as dis- 
 tinct legal entities, yet working on the whole in harmony and sym- 
 pathy for the higher ideals. America has taught the masses here and 
 elsewhere that this earth is theirs and that they may also in faith and 
 hope seek the Kingdom to come. 
 
 We saw clearly that individual and church eft'ort in education did 
 not reach the masses and as a nation we sought a remedy and poured 
 out lavishly treasures of heart and hand on it, yet preserving the free- 
 dom of education. This nation has done so much for childhood and 
 womanhood that we dare not say fail where she is seriously concerned. 
 Compromise in the fuller sense is the first principle of combination, and 
 all but the essentials mav be wiselv modified. 
 
 Those who want all things their own way will some day have all 
 
 (142) 
 
25 
 
 things to themselves. Many methods will be tried and much experi- 
 ment before final and definite results are obtained. I can only sug- 
 gest that the solution of this problem may be found in blending vol- 
 untary and state efforts without compromise of principle. It has 
 been tried in various forms in England, Canada and the Continent of 
 Europe. There has been a season when even the Fathers of the Church 
 were taught in pagan schools. Voluntary endowment and state pat- 
 ronage are seen at their best in the ancient university of Oxford, the 
 home and sanctuary of the ideal intellectual excellence that religion 
 nourishes and sanctifies. It is said that this school gave to England 
 those heroes, scholars, statesmen, and sages that enabled it to subdue 
 so much of the earth. When Old Tom rings the same curfew that has 
 been heard continuously by successive generations of Oxonians, all 
 are expected to seek the kneeling bench in their respective chapels. 
 Frequent visits taught me that religious influences are self-perpetu- 
 ating in this historic and sacred spot. 
 
 The subject of religious education must be viewed as a whole in 
 our system. Voluntary aid and state effort might be united without 
 sacrifice of principle. In England the denomination builds the school 
 houses and the government inspects them in regard to hygienic and 
 general structural conveniences. The teacher presented by the de- 
 nomination is examined rigidly and usually normal school training is 
 indispensable. They teach in these schools secular knowledge and in 
 these the child is examined by the national inspection and a grant is 
 given according to the grades and efficiency obtained. The denomi- 
 nation uses the building freely outside of school hours, and all the 
 children of the district belonging to the denomination are allowed to 
 go to these schools. The teacher is in svmpathy with the religious 
 and home life of the child and as love is the vital influence in all edu- 
 cation it is dominant. "We can teach only what we know to those 
 who know and love us." In Ireland, Scotland and Wales they have 
 what they term a mixed education. There is in no case an effort to 
 exclude religious education from the life of the child during the period 
 of its secular training. In all that we know of either prehistoric, 
 pagan or christian efforts in the domain of intellectual culture, we 
 cannot say that an organized effort was ever thought of to exclude 
 religion from budding minds. Various education bills and efforts 
 had their difificulties but they emphasized unceasingly the yearnings 
 of the soul for the need of moral and mental nourishment. 
 
 (143) 
 
26 
 
 William Lowe Bryan, Ph.D., LL.D. 
 
 President, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 
 
 I should Hke at the outset of this frank conference to emphasize 
 my sense of the extreme difficulty of the problem. I suppose there 
 has been no greater change in European and American civilization 
 within the past five hundred years than the change from the estab- 
 lished consensus of social belief which existed practically everywhere 
 among our ancestors of that time, to the present comparative chaos 
 with regard to many of the most fundamental problems and interests 
 of life. In the universities of Europe five hundred years ago, one 
 would have found an established consensus with regard to physical 
 science, with regard to morality, and with regard to religion. One 
 would have found this vast range of learning taught with authority 
 in the universities, and through the universities to the people, and one 
 would have found that this consensus was enforced wherever it was 
 thought necessary by the state. But within these five hundred years, 
 we have changed. There has been a progress toward what we call 
 liberty in regard to all these things. Without raising the question as 
 to what extent it was true, that old consensus has been broken up. 
 The old views with regard to physical science have been largely given 
 up, and in this field there has been established a new consensus. It 
 is not established by governments; it isnot established by the church; 
 it is not established by arbitrary authority ; it is not established in its 
 details; it is open to constant modification; still, we have to-day 
 among men of physical science one of the most remarkable agreements 
 that we find anywhere in the history of the world. 
 
 But we have not reached a corresponding consensus with regard 
 to those things which touch human life and human conduct. The 
 common people still maintain the old religious faith, the traditional 
 faith of Christianity, and still more generally the traditional views 
 with regard to morality, but the universities of the world do not main- 
 tain a like consensus with regard either to theology or to morality. 
 The proof of this can be found by an examination of the writings of the 
 professors of theologv and ethics in the great universities of Europe. 
 
 We are just as far from having among the university men of Europe 
 what can be called a scientific or philosophic consensus with regard to 
 morals, as we are from having there a consensus in regard to religion. 
 
 We confront a problem of extreme difficulty. I have no final 
 solution to suggest for it. I can only suggest this, that the men and 
 the women who believe in religion and morality, the men and the 
 women who believe that there is in religion and morality something 
 which is central to ever3^thing else, must regard themselves as mission- 
 aries. Admitting the difficulty to be as great as anyone can declare 
 it to be, they must hold themselves bound to stand with all their 
 
 (144) 
 
27 
 
 might for the truth and for the life which they regard as most essential. 
 
 It is a fact, as anyone may know who is acquainted with the life in 
 our state universities, that there are always some men there, however 
 they may formulate their beliefs with regard to religion or morality, 
 who have adopted a serious attitude toward the religious and moral 
 life and who, whatever they may teach, and whether they say anything 
 publicly and formally about religion or not, stand by their spirit, for 
 the truth and for a good life. As matters stand, perhaps this is the 
 best thing that is possible in the state universities, but I believe we 
 should have something more ; I believe that the churches should main- 
 tain in close connection with the state universities some men who are 
 in a peculiar sense religious leaders. 
 
 It is made the reproach of the state universities that very few of 
 the young men go into the ministry of any church. That is partly to 
 be accounted for by the fact that some of the young men who. might 
 become ministers go into the Young Men's Christian Association work, 
 and some of them go into the work of charities, and some of them 
 become teachers. But in my judgment, the reproach is not ill 
 founded. There ought to be in this generation, as in every generation, 
 a due proportion of the very best of the young men who should become 
 priests in the highest sense of the word. In order that this may be so, 
 there ought to be in close connection with the university a man who 
 represents the church at its best. 
 
 They say young people are not interested in religion. That is not 
 mv experience. My experience is that the young people are more in- 
 terested in religion than in anything else. And one such man, one man 
 fitted to be a bishop of souls, in one of these universities where there 
 are thousands of young men gathered together, would allure many a 
 yoiing man into the life that belongs to him and to the life that it is 
 his duty to follow. 
 
 I am told by those who are students of Christian history, that in 
 the first century the Christian church wen to the great capitals of 
 culture, they went to the great cities of the Roman Empire and es- 
 tablished themselves there, and presently became the greatest force 
 within the empire — an empire within an empire — and the old religion 
 sank away into the villages. If the religious people neglect the great 
 capitals of culture, at Ann Arbor, and Madison, and Minneapolis, and 
 Urbana, where thousands of young men have come up to study, 
 they will do precisely the opposite thing from what the apostles did in 
 the first century; and if the church loses the battle in such places, it will 
 sink away into a second paganism. 
 
 Today the greatest missionary field in the world, and the field which 
 is almost unoccupied by the churches, is the field which is offered in 
 the great American state universities. 
 
 (145) 
 
28 
 
 Jenkin Lloyd Jones ' 
 Pastor of All Souls Church, Chicago, and Editor of Unity, Chicago 
 
 " I dip my pen in the blackest ink, because I am not afraid of fall- 
 ing into my ink bottle, " said Emerson. The sainted Frances Willard 
 once introduced me to a good, conservative audience, as a member of 
 the W. C. T. U. She said the " W" excluded me, the "C" was doubt- 
 ful, the "T" as they taught it was sometimes a source of discontent to 
 me, but I made such a fuss about the " U " that thev had concluded to 
 take me in in good and regular standing. 
 
 If a university means anything, I suppose, etymologically and his- 
 torically, it is because of its great emphasis on the " U. " It borrows 
 its name from the biggest word in the dictionary, and therein lies its 
 inspiration. 
 
 I did not realize that the subject was fraught with such difficulties 
 until I came to hear these discussions. If it is a matter of analysis, of 
 definition, indeed the case is desperate. If religion is a thing of terms 
 and dogmas, lines and traditions, the case is hopeless. But if religion 
 is an attitude of the spirit, a tem.per of the heart, a movement of the 
 mind, a hospitality of the soul, then the university stands at the center 
 of the hope of religion, — the university as it is, — and, above all uni- 
 versities, the state university is pre-eminently so. 
 
 And so I cannot take with much conplacency or comfort the sug- 
 gestion that this question is to be solved by surrounding this campus 
 or any other campus with a cordon of denominational houses, each of 
 them flying its sectarian flag, bringing again, whether or no, the com- 
 petitive business into the field which is the last to recognize the inspira- 
 tions of the new method of cooperation and of combination. 
 
 I recognize the impossibility that the university should touch all 
 the circumference of religion as I or anybodv else understands it, but 
 I believe it is a possibility for the universitv to touch the center of 
 religion, if, as I say, religion is a movement and not an attitude, a 
 temper, a hospitality. Some kind of Catholicism, some kind of an 
 altogetherness, some kind of a common interest, some kind of a con- 
 fessed brotherhood, is the very foundation of culture, the end and aim 
 of study; and so far as the universities represent culture, they must 
 represent this altogetherness which is the hope of religion. 
 
 I look for a very decided rearrangement, — call it whatever you 
 like, you academic people, who are up on the new terms, — but there 
 is coming a recodification, surely, more rapidly than we know, of the 
 curriculum of the university. 
 
 The pedagogical ladder, as you gray-headed folks will remember 
 with me, has been something like this: In the '70's, you pedagogues 
 were demanding more English. You said, "Give the boys and girls 
 more control of the mother tongue." "English to the front," was 
 
 (146) 
 
29 
 
 the call, and in that respect the curricula were rearranged. In the 
 '80's the demand was. "Teach our boys and girls to use their eyes and 
 ears; give them a new idea of things." "Science to the front," was 
 the crv. and science came more emphatically to the front. In the 
 '90's, the demand was, "Teach our pupils to use their hands, give them 
 a means of earning their living; remember that trained muscle makes 
 for trained brain." Technical knowledge, "manual training to the 
 front," and it came to the front. In this first decade of the 20th 
 century, the last word, the one word to conjure with today in academic 
 circles, with all due respect to those of you whose work lies in other 
 fields, is sociology. "Teach our pupils their corporate relations, teach 
 them to become potent factors in the community." And that is 
 coming. I believe, my friends, all disputed questions laid aside, that 
 we are coming to another new demand in the second decade of the 
 20th century, or if not so soon, then in the third or fourth or some- 
 time, — I care not if it is a thousand years hence, — the demand will be, 
 "Make men and women; teach character; give them knowledge of the 
 forces that make for excellence and for goodness and tenderness and 
 svmpathy." "Ethics to the front!" I do not know whether this is 
 religion or not, but it is the province of the university today, a province 
 which no one disputes, from the Romanist to the Agnostic. All of 
 them want the university to make men and women. There may be 
 better and worse ways, but certainly some of the ways, some of the 
 new wavs bv which we can impress the students of our universities 
 along these high lines is the better reading of history, the rearrange- 
 ment of our text books, placing a new emphasis on the story of the 
 race, for history up to this day, as presented to our boys and girls, is 
 too much a story of generals and kings and capitalists, and material 
 triumphs. The real story of the race is an undiscovered secret, except 
 to one who studies it from the standpoint of the prophet or the bard, 
 the sage or the reformer. Away above the ruins of Babylon and 
 Xinevah of those da^'s towers the story of Hammurabi, and away back 
 of the iniquitous crime of Warren Hastings and Clive, begins to glow 
 the story of the great Prince Buddha, the enlightened, who touches 
 today, perhaps four hundred and seventy-five millions of human be- 
 ings. It is a shame and a disgrace that our universities should send 
 boys and girls out into the world unconsicous of these mighty inspira- 
 tions of history. And this is quite within the province, — I am staying 
 out of disputed territories, if you please, — of the universities, to give 
 the history from the standpoint of ethics, of spirit, the ideal standards. 
 Give them history in the concrete, if you please, give it to them in the 
 great conspicuous illustrations; let them know Confucius and his 
 power over the mighty millions of China, — this is the academic thing 
 to do. Our students need to know about it just as much as they need 
 to know the traditions of the horse, — all about the three-toed, two- 
 
 (147j 
 
30 
 
 toed and one-toed horse in which our scientists, and 1 with them, so 
 much deUght. 
 
 The man who reads the Odyssey vitally and vividly in a good 
 translation does more for himself and for his children, perhaps, than 
 if he had learned to stumble over the verbs and nominatives of it in 
 the original. We need not only English literature, but literature in 
 the English, and that means the master pieces of the past brought 
 with academic precision into the lives of our children from the gram- 
 mar grades up. The classic stories of Greece and Rome are safe in 
 academic circles, because they are our so-called "classics," but the 
 great wealth of poetry and philosophy that lies in the other literatures 
 of the world must be brought to bear upon the lives of our boys and 
 girls by direct and inspired instruction, and that will make for relig- 
 ion. I do not know whether this is religion or not. I do not care just 
 now. I want things that will shape the lives of our boys and girls and 
 make them earnest and interested and enthusiastic. 
 
 Another thing our universities can do, as the President from Indi- 
 ana has just said, they can teach inspiringly anyway. Dismiss every 
 wooden-headed teacher, however wise he may be. It was Channing 
 who said, " I would rather have my children taught error in an inspired 
 way by men who have the courage of conviction than to have them 
 taught truth listlessly and in an uninspired way." Give us more 
 inspiration in our chairs, more personality. 
 
 When I visited the campus of Berkeley a few years ago, the whole 
 place was pervaded with the spirit of such personality. Two names 
 were the words by which the University of California conjured in the 
 interest of culture and nobility, Professor Le Conte and Professor E. 
 R. Sill. Le Conte was down to teach geology, but the Lord had ap- 
 pointed him to teach life to those about him. His students took their 
 geology incidentally, but they took their inspiration directly. E. R. 
 Sill in his short life there of only three or four years, was open-eyed 
 toward the skies; he was in communion with the stars; his heart 
 throbbed with the poetry and the prophecy of life, and he left his stamp' 
 on that place. 
 
 Twenty-five or thirty years ago, we Wisconsin men remember how 
 Wisconsin University had a President who was not very much of a suc- 
 cess in politics ; he was a failure as a hustler ; the finances did not go well. 
 But John Bascom put his mark on the boys and girls as a steel stamps 
 the soft wax, and men and women now grown talk reverently of the 
 man who was President of Wisconsin University when they were there. 
 He brought the soul face to face with realities by the power of his 
 personality. 
 
 And then again, I do not know, my brethren, where the line lies 
 between ethics and religion, and I do not think we shall be troubled 
 much about it unless we undertake to survey that doubtful line, but 
 
 (148) 
 
31 
 
 you will all agree with me that Matthew Arnold was right when he 
 said that three-fourths of life was conduct, and within that three- 
 fourths of life lies the common ground of the universities. Mr. 
 Chairman, here lies the undisputed faith of inspiration. When we 
 come to that point where life, character, beauty, gentleness, are worth 
 more on the campus in the way of kindling enthusiasm than the brawn 
 of the gridiron, we shall be getting back or going forward to the in- 
 spirations of religion. 
 
 When we find today professors and their wives and the Presidents 
 of the universities witnessing gladiatorial contests with their thumbs 
 turned down in the presence of any brutality, we may well indeed 
 tremble for the fate of those forces that deal in kindness, gentleness 
 and submissiveness, in hope and prophecy, which to me are so nearly 
 religion that I am not going to waste any time or strength in trving 
 to find something finer to stand for religion. 
 
 GEXERAL DISCUSSION 
 
 Right Reverend EDW^\RD William Osborne, D.D. 
 Bishop-Coadjutor of Springfield, Springfield, Illinois 
 
 At the town of Carlisle, Pa., there is a school for Indians. There 
 are a thousand Indians there, and if you want to have your hearts 
 melted with love toward the Indian and inspired with hope of what 
 may be done, go to Carlisle. I spent three days there when Colonel 
 Pratt was at the head of the school. I asked him about religion in 
 that state institution. His answer was quite simple, methodical, 
 business-like, and good. When an Indian goes to Carlisle, he is ques- 
 tioned, not by the Christian ^Association, but by the authorities, by 
 the head of the school, as to what he is. Christian or pagan. If he 
 answers "Christian, " of what denomination or church. He is written 
 down as belonging to that denomination. His name is sent at once 
 to the pastor of that denomination, if there be one in the place; if not, 
 to the one w^hich is established at or near his home, and the pastor is 
 told that this boy or girl is there. On Sunday morning all the Chris- 
 tians belonging to a particular denomination are assembled and are 
 marched to their respective places of worship. In the afternoon, the 
 minister of any denomination may come, if he pleases, in his own per- 
 son or by accredited teachers, and give religious instructions in one of 
 the rooms of the institution to the boys and girls belonging to his own 
 denomination. Further, one day in the week is also set apart on 
 which he, personally or by accredited representatives, may give relig- 
 ious instruction to those same people as a part of their regular educa- 
 tion. It costs nothing to the state. It is a recognition of religion. 
 The Roman Catholic priest himself comes at times; at other times, he 
 sends sisters who are qualified to teach the women and the girls. And 
 
 (149) 
 
32 
 
 the other religious societies in the town do the same, and the priest of 
 our own church carries on his work. I know of no objection to it 
 there, and I see no reason why there should be anywhere. 
 
 Here is a solution, — and it costs nothing, — not a perfect solution, 
 not the final one, but a beginning, a possible one, and one that will 
 lead on and show what else ma}^ be done, and one that will, I have no 
 doubt, develop the need of further work in the way of religious instruc- 
 tion. It may bring together in the community some that are sepa- 
 rated. It will provide at least that every student in the university 
 shall have an opportunity for religious teaching brought before him 
 without any violation of conscience, without any repression of his 
 liberty, and, I believe, without any breaking of any righteous state 
 law. Let every representative of every religious society that is 
 represented among the students of the university found upon count, 
 have the right to go to the president and say, "We have so many 
 students here" — be it only ten or six hundred — "Give us a room in 
 the university buildings where we can gather our people together on 
 Sunday for religious worship and for religious teaching. Further, give 
 us a room where we may gather those same students on a week day night 
 or a week day afternoon, where we shall not interfere with your work, that 
 we may carry out the teaching in further detail. " Now, I believe if the 
 representatives of religions were to come to the president of this uni- 
 versity and ask that, it might be done. It is possible he would say, 
 "I haven't the power." And then let us say to him, "Go down to 
 Springfield and get the power, and if you go to Springfield and ask the 
 power, you will find that we will always stand behind you." With 
 the religious forces of this state standing by the president, I believe 
 the legislature at Springfield would give us the opportunity of using 
 the buildings at such times as they are standing empty to lead souls 
 upward and train them to live for the glory of God. 
 
 Miss Lilian Wyckoff Johnson, Ph.D.^ 
 President, Western College for Women, Oxford, Ohio 
 
 As president of a college for women I would have a great deal of 
 hestiation in taking part in a discussion upon religious education in 
 state universities and colleges, if it were not that in the state of Ohio 
 our state universities are all co-educational and therefore have a large 
 body of women enrolled and also if it were not for a somewhat un- 
 usually wide academic experience — for I was a student at Wellesley, 
 Universitv of Michigan and Cornell, and a teacher at Vassar, Univer- 
 sity of Tennessee and am now at the Western College for Women. I 
 have therefore known intimatelv three state universities : Michigan in 
 the Central West, Cornell in the East, and University of Tennessee in 
 the South. For the women's colleges, such as Vassar, Wellesley and 
 
 (150) 
 
33 
 
 The Western, the question of rehgious education is in a large measure 
 solved. The problem therefore concerns especially our large co- 
 educational universities, and toward the solution of this problem I 
 should like to make two suggestions. 
 
 The solution of the problem of social training as it has .been begun 
 here by the building of the Woman's Hall has interested me greatly. 
 It seems another proof that we are realizing more and more that edu- 
 cation does not mean training along intellectual lines alone but rather 
 the all-round development of the student, that is, along spiritual, 
 intellectual, physical, social and practical lines. For a long time, the 
 physical was absolutely neglected, but to-day what college campus do 
 you enter which has not its well-equipped gymnasium? If we recog- 
 nize that there should be a spiritual phase of training and education, 
 why not give to the spiritual its house, as we have done with the physi- 
 cal? Why should not every college campus have a chapel? But 
 there arises the question of denomination; however, in Europe you 
 will find churches with a Roman Catholic altar at one end and a 
 Protestant pulpit at the other. Cannot we have upon every college 
 campus a chapel which can be entirely undenominational? And I 
 would have that chapel open for the same hours that the gvmnasium 
 and the library are open. All honor to the Roman Catholic Chruch, 
 which has not only spent so much money on its beautiful architecture 
 but has added the amount necessary to keep custodians in its houses 
 of worship constantly, in order that they may be always open. Shame 
 to us Protestants that we spend what we do on our buildings and then 
 close the doors except for a few hours on the Sabbath! The college 
 chapel should be open from early morning until late evening. I would 
 have small reading rooms where there should be a religious library 
 and religious papers. I would have a conference room where the 
 pastors of the churches could come at stated times for conferences 
 with the students. I would have religious exercises conducted by 
 men of different denominations from the city itself and bv those who 
 would come from a distance for that purpose. Let our students see 
 that we have the same reverence for religious training that we have 
 for the physical by putting upon our campus the most beautiful house 
 that we can secure and leaving it open for them to come there and 
 worship, alone if they will, or enter into the conferences if they desire 
 or listen to religious services by the best thinkers that we can get for 
 them. 
 
 My second suggestion is this: a state university does not house its 
 students, and one of the greatest problems is the lack of home life. 
 Why do we not take care that our students shall have religious homes 
 in the cities where they are housed ? Do we not know worthy Christian 
 women who would be glad to come to Urbana or to other college towns, 
 for the purpose of establishing homes where groups of a dozen or more 
 
 (151) 
 
34 
 
 boys or girls could have a home, surrounded by the best religious and 
 social influence. The housing of the students is one of the great 
 problems in our state universities to-day. If we can get noble men 
 and women to come and live in these places, to sit at the table three 
 times a day with ten or more of our students would not this help to 
 solve the problem? The Mohammedan religion is in a book, but the 
 Christian religion is the life, and the young people will never get 
 religion out of a book in our state universities ; they must get it from 
 contact with noble lives, and that influence should be in the home as 
 well as in the chapel. 
 
 Mrs. Anna Sneed Cairns 
 President, Forest Park University, St. Louis, Missouri 
 
 I have felt that if when this proposition is closely stated, the 
 ■university which, by its name, turns itself around the whole circle of 
 human knowledge, is never to look or touch upon the greatest of all 
 themes, the relation of the soul to eternity, to God, to the endless ages, 
 and the relation of that soul to its brother soul, in the time that it has 
 here on earth, that it has omitted the greatest of all subjects. To 
 state such a proposition is to refute it. I have felt this in practical 
 teaching, having been a teacher now for almost forty-five years. I 
 have felt that the greatest thing that we could bring to bear upon any 
 man or woman, any boy or girl, committed to our charge, was this 
 great subject, the relation of the soul to its God, the relation of each 
 soul to its brother soul. And the university that deliberately says 
 that we cannot touch this cuts itself off from the greatest and highest 
 knowledge in this world. 
 
 In this discussion much valuable information has been given us in 
 regard to the constitutions and statutes of the different states and we 
 have been shown how in the separation between church and state it is 
 impossible to have any religion or morality taught in our schools. 
 Surely the wish is father to the thought. Is there not a confusion of 
 thought here, confusing ecclesiastical organization with religion? 
 Have we no Chaplain in our Senate? No Chaplain in the House of 
 Representatives? No Chaplains in our different State Legislatures? 
 No Chaplains in our Prisons? No Chaplains in the regiments of our 
 army? Does not our President appeal to Almighty God, to help him 
 discharge the duties of his great office ? Does not the solemn oath that 
 is taken in every court of justice show that the state must lean upon 
 Almighty God in the highest of its functions, justice between man and 
 man? 
 
 People have accustomed themselves to look at statutes as if they 
 were things that could not in any way be changed, like the everlasting 
 hills that cannot be removed forever. But we were told yesterday 
 
 (152) 
 
35 
 
 that our Legislatures are the graveyards of statutes. And I have felt 
 that when a Christian community grasps this thing, that when the 
 American people grasp this question, they will find a way to overcome 
 this difficulty in constitutions and statutes. Those technical things 
 that are brought up seem so superficial when we look at them. To 
 push the thing so greatly that any house in which religion is taught for 
 a few minutes becomes a house of worship supported by the State, is 
 pushing matters to an extreme. And there has been a reaction in 
 America, a very decided reaction, and public sentiment, the feeling of 
 the fathers and mothers for their boys and girls, has come to take a 
 very firm stand. What we need to consider is, how this can be done, 
 and I am so glad of this religious conference, and I hope that something 
 practical will grow out of it, and that fear of statutes will die away. 
 A statute is simply the will of that Legislature expressed, and the will 
 of the next Legislature is frequently very different. I know this, for 
 I was Legislative and Legal Superintendent of the Women's Christian 
 Temperance Union in the State of Missouri for seven years and at- 
 tended the Legislature steadily, and discovered that the dreaded 
 Legislator was but a "mere man," and as soon as he knew what was 
 the actual will of the people, and that the people meant to have their 
 will, even if it involved dispensing with his own services, he usually 
 found a way to come over on the people's side. 
 
 I want to say one other word, I have never found anywhere that 
 anybody objected to our teaching everything about Buddha and Con- 
 fucius. That is all right. But the instant that you lay before the 
 heart and mind of your students the life of the Lord Jesus Christ, the 
 greatest Jew that ever the Jewish race produced; the greatest political 
 and civic authority, who solved every problem in Sociology with the 
 Golden Rule, nineteen centuries before there was any sociology; the 
 greatest Philosopher, before whom Socrates pales, and Shakespeare 
 grows dim; the greatest man that humanity ever produced; yea, the 
 Divine Man, that instant there are many to say "Stop! this is sectar- 
 ianism." 
 
 W. J. Bergin, C.S.V., A.M. 
 
 Pastor, St. Viateur's College, Bourbonnais, Illinois 
 
 To me, it is a great surprise and a great pleasure to find this con- 
 ference unanimous on the proposition that religious training cannot 
 be divorced from secular instruction; that if we hope to attain the 
 highest results in our educational efforts, we must introduce into our 
 school curriculum, into our universities even, a religious education. 
 
 Now, whilst I accept this position heartily and completely, I do 
 not believe that the question of religious education is yet a university 
 question. I accept the definition of a university given yesterday by 
 
 (153) 
 
36 
 
 Dr. James in his admirable address. It is not a place where mere boys 
 and girls are to be educated; it is not a place where the rudiments of 
 knowledge are to be imparted; it is not a place where education is 
 begun. It is and it should be a place where education is completed. 
 If this principle must be admitted when applied to secular training, 
 then we must accept the logic of our position and maintain the same 
 principle for moral and religious education. 
 
 Consequently this problem is further back than the university. It 
 is not sufficiently advanced as yet to be a university problem. I do 
 not mean to say it may not become a question with which the uni- 
 versity will find it necessary to deal, but it is not so at present. It is 
 still a problem for the elementary school which we have not even at- 
 tempted to solve. What would you think of the man who should 
 begin to debate university education before he, had made the slightest 
 provision for primary training? You cannot begin with the roof, you 
 must begin with the foundation. The elementary school is the foun- 
 dation of the university, and, just as in the matter of secular training 
 the university rests upon the primary school, presupposes it, and can- 
 not exist without it, so also in religious and moral training, the uni- 
 versity presupposes and must rest upon the primary school. Take 
 this away and it is idle to talk about what you may do, can do, or 
 ought to do, in the university. Since, then, it is the unanimous opinion 
 of this conference that it is necessary to introduce religious teaching 
 into our universities, we must first of all introduce religious instruction 
 into our primary schools, into our grammar schools and colleges. 
 Then we shall have a solid foundation upon which we can base the 
 highest religious teaching in our universities. Everv speaker, who 
 has addressed this conference, has expressed the conviction that 
 religious truth is the highest, the most inspiring element that can be 
 brought to bear upon human life. Shall we deny our children what 
 we are so eager to secure for the young men and young women at our 
 universities? Having admitted that religion is the most powerful 
 factor in the development of pure, noble character, in the forpiation of 
 the best type of citizenship, would it not be criminal to deprive our 
 children of what is so essential to their well-being? If primary, 
 secular education were wholly neglected, we would readily acknowl- 
 edge that the very life of the university was threatened. Shall we be 
 less solicitous for religious training in the elementary schools ? Shall 
 we not acknowledge with equal frankness that it is impossible to carry 
 on the work of education, in any sphere, in the university, unless the 
 foundation is laid in the earlier periods of educational work? If 
 religion be the powerful influence for good which we have acknowl- 
 edged it to be, would it not be self stultification not to admit its ne- 
 cessity in every school and college as well as in the university? We 
 should be like the man willing enough to say two and two, but refusing 
 
 (154) 
 
37 
 
 to draw the conclusion as four. We have admitted without a dis- 
 senting voice, that reUgion is the most beneficent, the most upHfting, 
 the most ennobhng influence which can be brought to bear upon 
 human hfe. How, then, can we hesitate to admit its necessity for the 
 voung bovs and girls, the voung men and women, who are attending 
 our grammar schools, our high schools and colleges. In all our other 
 educational eft'orts we build from the lower schools upward. Why 
 reverse the process in religious teaching which we confess is the most 
 important of all? Therefore. I say we are approaching this question 
 from the wrong standpoint, we must begin with the elementary schools. 
 
 Edward Octavius Sisson, Ph.D. 
 Professor in the University of Illinois 
 
 I want to speak of three points which seem to me to bear upon the 
 clear comprehension of the question in hand. The first is the very 
 point on which the last speaker congratulated us, which at first sight 
 certainly seems a matter of congratulation, but to me seems almost 
 the only criticism which can be passed on this gathering and other 
 gatherings of the same sort, namely that everybody here believes in 
 religious education. Now, it seems to me there are two voices we 
 should have here, at least, in addition to those we have. Those are 
 the voices of the Jew and of the Agnostic, — the voice of the man who 
 is against the doctrines that we call technically Christian, and the 
 voice of the man who is against any religious instruction whatever, — 
 if we can find such a man. We must take account of these men. It 
 is useless for us to go on and make plans for religious instruction with- 
 out taking into consideration these important factors in our com- 
 munities. 
 
 In the second place, reference was made to the religious instruction 
 in England, in a way which seemed to imply that the English situation 
 was solved. I have had occasion in the last two or three years to give 
 very close attention to the religious instruction in several European 
 countries, particularly in England, and the situation there is far from 
 solved. The fact is rather that the question of religious instruction 
 is now blocking the whole progress of the fortunate English situation 
 as to education. England is striving almost in death throes for a 
 systeyn of public education, and can't get it, because of this tremendous 
 question of religious instruction. 
 
 In Germany each child has religious instruction. I went there 
 strongly biased in favor of religious instruction, and I came away, I 
 must say this briefly — with a strong feeling that rather than have such 
 religious instruction as Germany has, it would be better for us to go on 
 as we are; and manv Germans, both in this country and in Germany, 
 hold the same opinion. The prevailing sentiment in Germany may 
 
 (155) 
 
38 
 
 be summed up thus: The Germans are almost unanimously in favor 
 of religious instruction, and almost unanimous in the belief that their 
 present system is wrong and in need of the most radical reform. 
 
 So let us not feel that our situation is peculiar, for the whole world 
 is wrestling with the problem. The question of religious instruction 
 in state systems of education is one of the great problems of the pres- 
 ent day. 
 
 Now the last point I want to make is this: I understood one 
 speaker to imply, at least, that there was not any greater consensus 
 as to morality than as to religion. It seems to me that if we look over 
 the world we shall find that there is a vast amount of consensus as to 
 morality. We can hardly find a single distinctly religious fact which 
 will meet every one's approval; but how many moral ideas, how many 
 of our laws, how many of our conventions have the acceptance of the 
 great majority of all civilized people. How many men would deny 
 that greatest principle of morality, the most advanced, that we should 
 love our fellow men ? On the other hand how can we possibly state a 
 single distinctly religious principle or faith from which large numbers 
 would not dissent? I say this because it seems to me that we must 
 solve the problem in hand just by beginning on the common ground 
 of morality. It is unfortunate the word morality has somehow got a 
 bad name; let us say, if you please, begin with character, begin with 
 life, begin with conduct, and build up and up, always striving for a 
 greater consensus and rising toward the more spiritual, and so taking 
 with us as far as possible not only those who are represented here 
 to-day, Protestant and Catholic, but also, as we must, our Jewish 
 fellow citizen and our fellow citizens who for various reasons, some 
 good and some bad, hold themselves aloof from all religious beliefs. 
 In any case all the work in state supported institutions must be con- 
 fined to what commands practically universal assent in the community 
 concerned. 
 
 President Bryan 
 
 I wish to say with reference to what the last speaker said, that I 
 was misunderstood. The people do retain a traditional consensus. 
 What I said was that the professors of ethics do not. My judgment is 
 that in the long run the people will stand, or fall, together. 
 
 (156) 
 
39 
 THE STATE UNIVERSITIES AND THE CHURCHES 
 
 Francis Willey Kelsey, Ph.D. ' 
 Professor in the University of Michigan 
 
 Ladies and gentlemen : When I received the very courteous invi- 
 tation of the committee to present a paper on this occasion, I accepted 
 it gladly for two reason. The first is that during the past fifteen years 
 a group of men at the University of Michigan have been at work upon 
 the problem of the relation of the churches to the state universities, 
 studying it in its different phases and experimenting with different 
 methods of solution as opportunity and means made experimentation 
 possible ; and this conference seemed to present a favorable opportun- 
 ity to make ourselves familiar with similar work carried on in connec- 
 tion with other universities. The second reason is that as a result of 
 our study and experience several of us have come to hold rather 
 definite views, which we should like to submit to the consideration 
 and criticism of those who have been working upon the problem in a 
 different environment. 
 
 I felt that one coming from so far should not venture to present an 
 address on so serious a subject without carefully writing out what he 
 had to say. I essayed the task, and thought that in speaking of the 
 state universities and the churches, I should endeavor, first of all, to 
 formulate a general statement of the facts. As was pointed out this 
 morning, we are confronted not with a theory but with a condition, 
 and the first prerequisite of the solution of every such problem is an 
 inquiry so far as possible dispassionate and comprehensive, into the 
 facts of the situation for which the remedy is desired. When I came to 
 put my data on paper, I confess that I was overwhelmed by the num- 
 ber of facts and considerations which in the past few years have come 
 to the surface and which have a direct bearing on our subject; I found 
 that in the time alloted it would be impossible to present the outline 
 I had worked out. Throwing my manuscript aside, therefore, I ask 
 your indulgence if I speak in the most informal manner upon one of 
 the five main divisions into which the subject seems to fall, the present 
 divorce between advanced theological and advanced secular education. 
 
 My ideal of a university is not unlike that so felicitously set 
 forth this morning by Dean Duffy. A university which aims to 
 represent, with more or less completeness, almost every field of 
 human knowledge, and omits from the curriculum any recognition 
 of that which is after all the background of all knowledge, must be 
 considered incomplete. The uncompromising severance of religious 
 from secular education is an experiment of the past few generations. 
 The results, however, are already easilv discernible, and without dwell- 
 ing on the historical aspects of the case, we may ask ourselves frankly, 
 what are the consequences, for the university and for the church, of 
 
 (157) 
 
40 
 
 the complete separation of the advanced secular training from the 
 advanced religious training, which we find in the state universities. 
 
 First we may consider the effect upon religious education. In this 
 country the experiment has been tried, upon a large scale, of cutting 
 off instruction in theology from association with instruction in sister 
 sciences. In only a few instances is the theological faculty closely 
 associated with faculties of law, medicine, and other departments of 
 knowledge included in the university sisterhood. There are many 
 consequences, but three may easily be apprehended and concisely 
 stated. 
 
 It will be conceded, at the outset, that the lack of contact between 
 the theological faculty and the other faculties of advanced learning, 
 has had upon the former a narrowing effect. We hear much com- 
 plaint of a lack of adjustment between pulpit and pew. It is not for 
 the layman at this point to enter the field of the theological expert and 
 point out the grounds of criticism in detail. We can all see, however, 
 that if the theological faculties of the country were put side by side 
 with the faculties of other departments of advanced learning, the 
 stimulus of the contact would render their work both of research and 
 of instruction broader, more profound, and far better adapted to the 
 multifarious needs of our American life. 
 
 But, in the second place, our theological schools as a whole are 
 suffering from a lack of facilities. This is a matter of common 
 knowledge, but to illustrate at how great disadvantage the majority 
 of them are placed in this respect it is only necessary to turn to the 
 report of Commissioner Harris of the Bureau of Education for the 
 year 1903; there we read that according to the statistics furnished by 
 the schools themselves, of 153 theological seminaries listed in that 
 year thirty -five had less than 5,000 volumes in their libraries, and 
 eight more gave the number as 5,000. In some cases, undoubtedly 
 students of these theological schools have access to libraries outside 
 the institutions; but it must be remembered that in the case of the 
 branches pursued in the theological seminary, the condition is alto- 
 gether different from that of sciences of recent development, which 
 have a literature more restricted in range and relatively small in 
 quantity. The studies pursued by the student of theology have ram- 
 ifications running out in every direction, and theological instruc- 
 tion which shall unflinchingly face the problems of the present day 
 and adjust itself to modem thought, cannot be given without a large 
 working library for faculty and students. Of these 153 seminaries, 
 only sev6nty-two are recorded as reporting more than 5,000 volumes 
 in their libraries. Sweeping statements generally need to be modified, 
 and a just view would require a closer analysis of the figures than is 
 here possible; but enough has been said to indicate how lack of re- 
 sources must narrow and cramp the instruction of the theological 
 
 (158) 
 
41 
 
 faculty which without ample equipment of its own is endeavoring to 
 do its work in isolation, apart from university libraries and that 
 stimulus which comes from association with other faculties. 
 
 Again, the narrowing effect of isolation upon the theological stu- 
 dent deserves to be noted. The student of theology in an isolated 
 school meets in dormitorv and class-room only men working in his 
 own field; and though perhaps endeavoring to make practical appli- 
 cation of that which he has learned, and conscientiously pursuing his 
 lines of work, he is excluded, for the three years of his professional 
 training, from a university atmosphere. During those years of vital 
 importance to his life work he is cut off from that broadening of the 
 intellectual horizon, that expansion of sympathy and quickening of 
 mental powers, which comes from the mingling of students of different 
 professions together in their daily tasks and recreations, a phase of 
 university education not least in importance among the formative 
 influences that shape men for the largest service. 
 
 But if such are the consequences for the theological school severed 
 from its normal relations, what, we may next inquire, is the effect 
 upon the state university cut off from all contact with'the faculty that 
 represents the first among the professions in its molding influence upon 
 the ideals of society ? 
 
 The first consequence to be noted is the lack of the steadying in- 
 fluence of the theological faculty upon other faculties. Grant the 
 establishment upon the campus or near the campus of any university, 
 under whatsoever name or auspices, a body of godly scholars whose 
 whole thought is centered, as their special interest, upon the interpre- 
 tation of the things of the spirit: their influence on the university, if 
 not paramount in giving direction and emphasis to the spiritual ele- 
 ment in all its work, will at least be sane, healthful, and uplifting. 
 
 A second result for the university is a lack of such influence on the 
 student body. Those who are familiar with the inner life of the state 
 universities will agree that from the religious point of view the danger 
 at the present time is not that these institutions will become centers 
 of propagandism against religion, nor that they will even become 
 intentionally non-religious. How can such results be looked for 
 when the faculties of the state universities and the non-state 
 universities and colleges are recruited from the same body of men, 
 trained in the same institutions ; and when the percentage of church 
 members and adherents among the students in state universi- 
 ties is practically the same as that in the large non-state institu- 
 tions which draw their students from the same constituency? A 
 small denominational institution will naturally have a large percentage 
 of students representing the church which supports it; but according 
 to a religious census taken a few years ago, the percentage of church 
 members and adherents was about the same, for example, in the Uni- 
 
 (159) 
 
42 
 
 versity of Michigan as in Princeton University. In matters of this 
 kind size must be taken into account in dealing with statistics. The 
 real danger in the real large universities, as in all universities where 
 there is an intense intellectual atmosphere, lies in the tendency to 
 "atrophy" of the spiritual nature. Minds become so absorbed with 
 the details in' a particular field of investigation or study that the 
 things of the spirit are lost sight of. Thus in the three, five or seven 
 years of close devotion to lines of work that do not come directly into 
 contact with vital religion, perspective is often lost, and men begin to 
 lose their hold upon the verities that form the solid foundation of the 
 true life. 
 
 The third consequence for the state university is that this separa- 
 tion is contributing in no small degree to the decline in the number of 
 candidates for the ministry. According to the report of the Commis- 
 sioner of Education, in the year 1890-91 there were in the universities 
 and colleges of the county, 40,089 men; in the year 1902-03 there were 
 69,178, an increase of nearly three-fourths. In 1890-91 there were in 
 the schools of technology 6,131 men; in 1902-03 there were 13,216, 
 these institutions having more than doubled their attendance in thir- 
 teen years. 
 
 In the year 1890-91 in all the theological schools of the country 
 there were recorded 7,328 students. In 1897-98 this number had 
 risen to 8,871. But in 1902-03, notwithstanding the enormous in- 
 crease in the number of young men enrolled in the literary and pro- 
 fessional departhients of universities and colleges, the number of stu- 
 dents for the ministry in all denominations had sunk back again to 
 7,372. Had the enrollment of students for the ministry kept pace 
 with the increase in the enrollment of young men in colleges and uni- 
 versities, the number in 1902-03 would have been above 12,000. 
 
 Several causes have contributed to this result. We should not, 
 however, attribute too much importance to the cause which is most 
 frequently mentioned, perversion of our youth by Mammon, and the 
 influence of the so-called practical education upon those whose natural 
 endowment would fit them to do work in lines requiring a humanistic 
 preparation. We all remember how, at the call to arms at the break- 
 ing out of the war in Cuba, college men arose everywhere and offered 
 their lives. There never was a time in this country, I believe, when 
 young men were more ready to give themselves to a life of self-sacri- 
 fice, to an altruistic motive, than the present. And if in the face of 
 this condition the ministry of practically all the denominations has 
 begun to suffer from a dearth of candidates so that it looks as if the 
 religious bodies would within the next decade experience a serious 
 lack of trained leaders, there must be other reasons. Among the more 
 
 The Religious Census of the State Universities and Presbvterian Colleges in the vear 1896-97 
 pp. 22 and 48; see also Atlantic Monthly, Vol. (1897). 
 
 (160) 
 
43 
 
 important of these, I am convinced, is the fact that upon the campus 
 of the state university, as the men of the Hterary department and the 
 numerous visitors from the lower schools pass from building to build- 
 ing, the law, medicine, engineering and other specialties are silently 
 urging their claims and stimulating a choice, only the faculty of theol- 
 ogv is alwavs absent. Any direct appeal of the ministry as a calling to 
 young men is eliminated from the atmosphere of the state universit}^ 
 because there is no faculty to represent it. The denominational 
 schools of the country — be it said to their praise — have done and are 
 doing a great work in the training of men for the ministry ; yet so large 
 is the proportion of eligible young men who now go to the state uni- 
 versities, and who as a result of their environment, when they are lay- 
 ing out their plan of life eliminate all consideration of the claims of 
 the ministry, that the total number of students choosing this exalted 
 calling, especiallv students of the first rank in ability, is in consequence 
 abnormallv reduced. 
 
 What remedy may be proposed? To approach the point directly, 
 I offer for consideration the following resolution: 
 
 '^ Resolved, that this conference recommends to the religious de- 
 nominations the consideration of the question, whether the theological 
 schools in the region of the state universities may not be grouped 
 about the state university to mutual advantage. 
 
 "And be it further resolved that the chairman of this conference 
 and the President of the University of Illinois be requested to act as a 
 committee to transmit a copy of this resolution to the proper ecclesi- 
 astical authorities for each denomination. 
 
 Criticism of what exists is useful onlv as clearing the way ; after a 
 certain point is reached constructive work is much more valuable. It 
 is easy to point out defects; the test comes in the finding of remedies. 
 We are all familiar with the truism that though individuals may work 
 out an apparent solution of a sociological problem, men in masses 
 move toward results in accordance with laws which are only imper- 
 fectly apprehended. A problem like that before us can hardl}^ be 
 solved by a single off-hand solution. Nevertheless, a definite state- 
 ment in the form of a proposition mav be useful in focusing discussion 
 and we may properly turn to a consideration of the question whether 
 the final remedv of the situation which we have met here to discuss 
 may not be the planting of schools of theology about the state uni- 
 versities. 
 
 To this suggestion, which is by no means new, two objections may 
 be urged. The first is that the immediate contact of the theological 
 faculty with the atmosphere of secular instruction will diminish faith 
 and will result in a demoralization of religious teaching. Have we 
 thus learned of religion, that faith is born of ignorance? Will the 
 churches be afraid to have the foundations of belief tested by putting 
 
 (161) 
 
44 
 
 a theological faculty beside the faculties of secular science? No! 
 Never did men more clearly perceive than today that the religious 
 faith which stands for all that is true and sacred in the interpretation 
 of the divine mysteries in relation to human life and duty, will find 
 itself reinforced and sustained by the closest contact with secular 
 science. Are nature and revelation from different sources? What 
 God hath joined together let not man put asunder. 
 
 The second objection is that denominational rivalries would cause 
 unseemly scenes ; that sectarian jealousies would make impossible any 
 real cooperation between faculties of theological schools having dif- 
 ferent points of view, and would largely neutralize their influence. Is 
 it not evident that the religious denominations tend more and more 
 to emphasize points of agreement rather than of difference, and to 
 work together for common good ? To judge from what I have seen of 
 the manifestation of a spirit of brotherhood among workers of all 
 shades of belief at Ann Arbor, theological faculties grouped around a 
 state university and facing the grave responsibility of representing 
 the spiritual side of education in a microcosm of secular thought, would 
 develop a solidarity of effort and a mutual helpfulness beyond a degree 
 ordinarily thought possible today. 
 
 Several results, it seems to me, would follow from such an associa- 
 tion of advanced religious and advanced secular education. The first 
 is economy of administration, effecting on the whole no inconsiderable 
 saving. How in the great majority of theological schools the work of 
 instruction is hampered by lack of resources, those best know who 
 are carrying the burden and heat of the day. If the theological school 
 is planted beside the university, the expense for instruction will be 
 materially reduced. Greek, Hebrew, and other studies can be pur- 
 by representatives of different denominations in the university at a 
 much smaller cost than in separate institutions. Students as well as 
 professors would find the university library of the greatest possible 
 assistance; and in still other ways there would be brought about an 
 'enlargement of the facilities of instruction accompanied by a reduction 
 of cost. 
 
 A second consequence would be a normal development of the sciences 
 directly connected with theological work, in an atmosphere of freedom. 
 One of the speakers this morning referred to the perfunctory character 
 of the instruction in religion in certain foreign schools. The only true 
 service of the spirit is that which is rendered voluntarily. Such a 
 modus Vivendi as that proposed would relieve the theological school 
 from the difficulties which have arisen from the association of church 
 and state; it would make possible the best results in the adjustment 
 of religious teaching to the conditions of modern life. 
 
 Finally, experience shows that educational reforms work not from 
 the bottom up, but from the top down. The placing of groups of 
 
 (162) 
 
45 
 
 specialists in all branches of theological study about the state univer- 
 sities under such a modus vivendi would be the first and most impor- 
 tant step toward the solving of the mementous problem of the relation 
 of religious to secular education in institutions of all grades. The 
 trend of discussion shows an increasing dissatisfaction with the pres- 
 ent conditions. Special study of educational questions by competent 
 men who can give their best thought to a particular phase is the order 
 of the day. and reforms have again and again worked down from the 
 state universities and leavened the entire school system. 
 
 Within the past few years the denominations have awakened to a 
 realization of the truth that the state universities are strategic points, 
 and many efforts are being put forth, through various forms of religious 
 organization, to bring a wholesome influence to bear upon the lives of 
 their students in the period which is most critical, intellectuallv and 
 morally. Such eft"orts are worthy of all encouragement. No working 
 plan has so far been devised, however, that fully meets the need; and 
 the problem of supplying a religious atmosphere to advanced secular 
 education will probably not be fully solved in this country until it is 
 attacked through a working union of theological faculties in close 
 association with state universities. 
 
 THE OBLIGATION OF THE CHURCH TO ITS ADHERENTS 
 IN THE STATE UNIVERSITIES 
 
 Henry Churchill King, D.D. 
 President, Oherlin College, Oberlin, Ohio 
 
 I. The Need and the Opportunity. The obligation of the Church 
 lies in the need and opportunity afforded by the state universities. 
 
 In the first place, the adherents of the churches are in these uni- 
 versities in large numbers, and are bound to be there in increasing 
 numbers. Whether the churches would or would not prefer to have 
 the situation just as it is, is quite aside from the point ; for they need to 
 recognize that even if no account is made of the students in the college 
 departments of the state universities, there remains a very large num- 
 ber of adherents of the churches who naturallv must get their technical 
 or professional training in connection with the state universities. 
 
 In the second place, these students, whether in attendance upon 
 the college or other departments of the state university, are, in the 
 nature of the case, among the picked men and women of the country, sure 
 to have influence in the life of the nation quite out of proportion to 
 their numbers. If the Church means, then, to be a powerfully influ- 
 ential body in the life of the country, it cannot more surely achieve 
 such influence than by making certain that it gets strong hold upon 
 these picked men and women at the educational centers. 
 
 (163) 
 
46 
 
 In the third place, the need and opportunity of the churches in the 
 state universities is to be seen in this: that the students in thetn, Hke 
 the students in all other colleges and universities, need religious help, 
 stimulus, and association in unusual degree. Students stand at a criti- 
 cal time in their lives. They haye passed from their homes into a 
 changed environment, and are subject to a flood of new ideas. These 
 two things together require from them that they should be able to gain 
 a position of self-dependence, and should be able to make considerable 
 adjustment and reconstruction in their thinking. Many of them seem, 
 at least to themselves, to be confronted with the serious question, 
 whether it is possible to keep their religion at all? They need the 
 earnest and intelligent help of their churches. 
 
 In the fourth place, these college and university students should 
 naturally become some of the most important leaders in the Church 
 itself. For its own sake, therefore, the Church ought not to neglect 
 them. Such neglect may mean that the Church may wholly lose these 
 natural leaders, or find them later much less helpful than they might 
 easily be. 
 
 Again, the university stands for expert leadership in all depart- 
 ments of thought. If, now, religion is to hold its own in the life of the 
 student, it, too, should have expert leadership, of a kind to compare 
 favorably with that in other fields of thought and study in the uni- 
 versity. The Church, therefore, cannot simply abandon this work, 
 any more than the university could abandon chemistry, to voluntary 
 and student agencies, however good these may be in themselves. She 
 must do something toward furnishing, herself, genuinely expert 
 leadership for these student thinkers in the facing of their personal 
 religious problems. There are few places in the entire work of the 
 Church where she need to plan more wisely or execute more energeti- 
 cally. 
 
 It is also to be said that if the Church has a mission at all, she is 
 sent to minister to the life of the nation and of the world. If she fails 
 to do this, she loses her very reason for being. Now, the college and 
 university men and women are the natural social leaven of the nation. 
 It is imperative for the country that they be men and women of the 
 highest character, convictions, and ideals. And it is the very end, at 
 least of college training, to make sure that this is the case. If, now, 
 the state university is at any point hindered, in the nature of the case, 
 from the full use of the religious motive, there is all the greater reason 
 why the Churches should here feel peculiar responsibility. For if the 
 Churches believe in the fundamental need of religion for the freest and 
 largest ethical life, they must recognize, in the case of the state uni- 
 versity, a peculiar demand upon them — a demand in some respects 
 even more important than that made by their own denominational 
 colleges, where the inside influences in the religious direction are 
 
 (164) 
 
47 
 
 stronger and may be more freely used. Here, in the state universities, 
 is the place, and the student period is the time, for the churches to do, 
 perhaps, their most effective work. 
 
 And, once more, it is the very genius of Christianity to touch a few 
 lives poii'erjnlly, and to make these lives leaven for the rest. The churches 
 would be doing hardly less than neglecting-their characteristic oppor- 
 tunity, if they failed to touch powerfully these nerve-centers of the 
 nation's life. For, from out of these state universities are to go a 
 large number of graduates who are, in no small degree, to determine 
 — aside from the ministry — as editors, lawyers, physicians, engineers, 
 and industrial leaders, the tone of the communities into which they 
 are to go, toward the religious and ethical life. They are to decide 
 whether that tone is to be contemptuous, indifferent, tolerant, con- 
 vinced, or enthusiastic. 
 
 For all these reasons, then, it is high time that the Church awoke 
 to the fact that the state universities offer an almost unrivalled op- 
 portunity — an opportunity that may well challenge their strongest 
 and most enthusiastic efforts. 
 
 II. How the obligation is to be met. When we turn from this state- 
 ment of the obligation of the Church to its adherents in the state uni- 
 versities to ask how this obligation is to be met, it must be said, I 
 think, first of all, that probably the largest part of the work of the 
 Church here must be, after all, in helping universities te see what they 
 themselves can well and wisely do. For the best outside agencies can 
 never take the place of the internal ideals and associations of the 
 university itself. If those who believe in the highest ethical and 
 religious ideals are not concerned to see that the universities awake to 
 the largeness of the opportunity which is theirs, even upon the strict- 
 est construction of their constitutional policies, comparatively little 
 will be accomplished. And here we may build with great confidence 
 and hope upon the fundamental psychological principle of the unity 
 of man. If a man is, indeed, as Sabatier maintains, "incurably 
 religious," that fact is sure to come out somehow, in thoroughgoing 
 training of any kind. 
 
 And, first, the state university can insist that, just because it is a 
 state institution, it must be a preeminently law-abiding community. 
 It has an opportunity to cultivate directly, in the course of an educa- 
 tion what is the express gift of the state, a state and citizen conscious- 
 ness that is greatly needed, and may in time exert a strong influence 
 not only upon other colleges and universities, but also upon the general 
 community. Have the state institutions sufficiently seen that every 
 decent motive should call for scrupulous regard on the part of their 
 students for civil order and complete obedience to the law? The very 
 peculiarity of the situation within the state university should make it 
 possible to cultivate a positive enthusiasm toward the state, like the 
 
 (165) 
 
48 
 
 enthusiasm of a Japanese soldier's honor. It is not enough that the 
 president of a state university should pay, for example, for restaurant 
 property that has been smashed by student rowdies. The state com- 
 munity is rather to be an example, in these respects, to all other com- 
 munities. No institution of learning needs to be more clear that we 
 cannot wisely combine the'liberty of the adult with the irresponsibility 
 of the child. Now, respect for law is fundamental in all self-control, 
 and therefore in all developments of character, and is closely akin to a 
 true religious reverence. If the state universities would simply throw 
 the whole weight of their influence in favor of becoming preeminently 
 law-abiding communities, a very great contribution, therefore, would 
 be made in the entire higher life of the nation, which suffers to-day in 
 remarkable degree from this lack of respect for law. 
 
 In the second place it is peculiarly open to the state university in a 
 republic, to cultivate within its student body a pure democracy that 
 shall stand against all forms of aristocracy, of privilege of any kind; 
 against the aristocracy of sex, of color, of wealth, of the clique, and as 
 well against all interference with the liberties and rights and self- 
 respecting dignity of other men. The state university belies its call- 
 ing if it fails to be, in rare degree, a place where a man is estimated for 
 what he truly is, and where the members of the university community 
 recognize that they are members of one another, and need one another. 
 And they can hardly be true at all to their state connection, without 
 developing, in marked degree, among their students that willingness 
 for unselfish leadership which is absolutely essential to a true and 
 growing democarcy. Just so far, now, as the state university does 
 succeed in producing such a pure democracy, it is making, in my 
 judgment, a direct religious contribution. For it is bringing to pass 
 within its own borders, in considerable degree, that "civilization of 
 the brotherly man" which is the very essence of the Kingdom of God. 
 A man or institution that is in thorough earnest to bring to pass the 
 civilization of the brotherly man is doing more than can easily be 
 estimated to make it easier for men to believe in a God of love. 
 
 In the third place, it belongs, one may rightfully say, to the state 
 universities even more than to the private institutions, to insist on 
 good morals as training to good citizenship. The state cannot justify 
 to itself its expenditure upon these universities, except upon the 
 ground that they have a distinct contribution to make in the develop- 
 ment of good citizens. They are not to be supported from any other 
 point of view. We cannot too often remind ourselves of that truth 
 which has recently been so vigorously reiterated by President Butler 
 before the students of Columbia University: "This university and all 
 universities, in season and out of season, must keep clearly in view 
 before themselves and the public the real meaning of character, and 
 they must never tire of preaching that character and character alone 
 
 (166) 
 
49 
 
 makes knowledge, skill, and wealth a help rather than a harm to those 
 who possess them and to the community as a whole." It is a little 
 curious, when one examines the matter from the point of view of the 
 simple importance of self-preservation on the part of the state, that 
 it should never have been thought to be true that the state universities 
 might be more careless than private instituions in this matter of the 
 insistence upon good morals. That is not funny in college men, 
 wherever it occurs, that would be regarded as disgusting dissipation 
 or unbearable rowdyism and disturbance of the peace in .workmen. 
 Is it too much to ask that our state institutions should be — what they 
 might easily become — leaders in developing something like truly 
 knightly ideals on the part of their student bodies, leaders in develop- 
 ing college men who shall approximate, at least, to a fulfillment of 
 Newman's famous definition of a gentleman? Now, for the state 
 university to be dead in earnest in this development of moral char- 
 acter, is to deepen inevitably at the same time the student's capacity 
 for religion. 
 
 Furthermore, the churches may help the university to remember 
 that it not only has a perfect right, but in its fulfillment of the trust 
 given it by the state, it has the paramount duty of insisting on a high 
 personnel, atmosphere, and spirit in the university. In my judgment, 
 this is the one great need, lacking which all things are lacking; having 
 which the essentials are all present. Both character and faith come 
 primarily — one may not forget — by personal association. Nothing 
 will make good this lack. Without these, pedagogical methods, text- 
 books, and courses of study are all but "thunder and comedy. " And 
 there is nothing in the separation of Church and state which may re- 
 quire the ignoring of the highest qualities on the side of character and 
 ideals in instructors. In the university, the state is carrying on in- 
 struction of various kinds on the ground of its value to the state. It 
 has, therefore, not only the right, but the duty to insist that the best 
 development of its youth shall not be jeopardized by bad character 
 and low ideals in the instructors. And where the character and ideals 
 of the instructors are what they ought to be, it is impossible that 
 the university, any more than the public schools, should be properly 
 called godless. In the words of Fichte, "a godlike life is the divinest 
 proof a man can give of the being of God. " 
 
 Again, the churches mav do something to help the university to 
 see the contribution which it may make to the higher life of the nation 
 in its strict scientific teaching. For, just so far as the genuinely scien- 
 tific spirit is preserved in the university, there will be, first, open- 
 minded, eager love of the truth, and humility toward it, that means 
 hardly less than the fulfillment of the first beatitude. This same 
 strict scientific spirit should lead, also, to iviilingness to recognize all 
 data, in the interests of the entire man, and not merely those data 
 
 (167) 
 
50 
 
 which it is most easy to bring into a mathematico-mechanical view of 
 the world. If we can only keep unsullied this absolute openness to 
 all the light, the ideal interests need have no fear. But one may well 
 protest against that "sham and puerile kind of heroism," to use 
 Lotze's language, "that glories in renouncing that which no one has 
 ever any right to renounce." Scientific investigation, indeed, for the 
 very reason 'that it aims to push forward in its pursuit of truth as 
 rapidly as it can on the basis of all the facts already ascertained, is in 
 its very essence adopting the fundamental principle of "treating the 
 truth as true." And this very thing, I cannot forget, was the defini- 
 tion of my own old college president of the essence of faith. In fact, 
 it often seems to me that if our universities could only carry through 
 with complete and radical consistency, the scientific spirit, that spirit 
 would be found to be most closely and inevitably allied to the humble, 
 reverent, obedient spirit of religion. 
 
 If, now, the state universities would be in dead earnest in the points 
 already mentioned — in insisting on a pre-eminently law-abiding com- 
 munity, in persistently cultivating a pure democracy, in demanding 
 good morals as training to good citizenship, in maintaining the highest 
 personal character and ideals in the personnel of faculty and officials, 
 and in complete loyalty to the strict scientific spirit — I have no doubt 
 that the problem of religion in the university would be largely solved. 
 Still, it may be worth while still further to suggest — though in my 
 judgment far less important^-that with the strictest interpretation 
 of the separation of religion and the state, the universities might yet 
 most appropriately offer directly fundamental courses in the philosophy, 
 psychology, and history of religion, in which the religions of the world 
 and the Old Testament and the New Testament should be given their 
 simple, legitimate place, and their great involved personalities duly 
 appreciated ; in which the religion of the modern civilized world would 
 not be considered as less worthy of knowledge than that of the Egyp- 
 tians and Chinese ; and in which such literature of power and of char- 
 acter-producing energy as the Bible has abundantly proved itself 
 to be, should not be ignored. "Indeed," said Professor Budde, after 
 affirming most completely the necessity of the scientific method in the 
 study of religion, "the more we extend the range of observation and 
 the deeper we penetrate into details, the more evident will it become 
 that the reality of religion is incontestable and its vitality indestruct- 
 ible. 
 
 Perhaps the whole range of the possibilities of the universities, as 
 concerns the ethical and religious life of the student, might be put in 
 this way: the really fundamental temptations of life — underlying all 
 others of every kind — seem to me to be, (1) the temptation to abuse 
 one's trust, (2) the temptation to fall below one's highest spiritual 
 sensitiveness, (3) the temptation to seek relief in change of circum- 
 
 (168) 
 
51 
 
 stances rather than in change of self, (4) the temptation to disbelief in 
 men, and (5) the temptation to disbelief in God. There ought to be 
 no question that against all of these, certainly, except the last, the state 
 university may rightfully cast its full strength. For, in very self- 
 defense, the state can hardly do less than to require that the spirit of 
 its institutions of learning should persistently cultivate in its students 
 (1) loyalty to trust, (2) truth to their highest spiritual sensitiveness, 
 (3) determination not to relpace the needed change of self by an at- 
 tempted change of circumstances, and (4) growing faith in men. Out 
 of these, if the university attempts no more, will, with practical 
 inevitableness, grow the spirit of trust in God. 
 
 In all these possibilities we have simply been building upon the 
 principle of the indissoluble unity of man. 
 
 But the theme assigned to me looks, I suppose, still more directly 
 to the question, what the churches themselves can do to meet the need 
 and opportunity afforded them in the state universities? And here, 
 it seems to me that we must say that the greatest service the churches 
 could render of themselves would be simply to come to some adequate 
 recognition of the real need and opportunity, and to gird themselves to 
 meet them. 
 
 The first condition in any such adequate meeting of the obligation 
 upon them would be, it seems to me, a spirit of hearty cooperation 
 between all the religious and Christian forces in the university com- 
 munity, in order to present a powerful, united front and bring the full 
 force of fundamental convictions to bear on the student body. And 
 this needs the most careful guarding. The principle should be, unity 
 to the farthest degree possible — division only where unity is for the 
 present unattainable. 
 
 For the individual denomination, the first responsibility, doubtless, 
 is the maintaining at these university centers of a notably strong pul- 
 pit. It may be doubted whether there are any situations in the 
 country where such a pulpit is so much needed. These preachers to 
 imiversity audiences need to be, in the first place, genuinely scholarly 
 men, and yet much more than mere scholars. On the one hand, (1) 
 they must be alive to the modern world, and to all its questions as they 
 come to the student in his college and university years. And, (2) 
 they need to stand very close to the young, and to have some experi- 
 mental and svmpathetic feeling for their difficulties. Only so will they 
 be able to meet these difficulties with real and helpful satisfaction. 
 On the other hand, (3) these preachers at university centers must be 
 genuine prophets and seers, with power to see the great fundamental 
 Christian truths in their full meaning and power, so to re-think them 
 and re-state them in modem terms as to make them for their audiences 
 unmistakably real, rational, and vital. Above all, they must know 
 how to make real to men the great figure of Christ, that they may 
 
 (169) 
 
52 
 
 come to share in his feeling and spirit and purposes, as the great Ger- 
 man theologian, Herrmann, says of himself: 
 
 "The writer's power is insufficient for such speech concerning 
 Jesus as should make His portrait alive and powerful in the soul of the 
 reader. When a man can do that he ought to cease to be an academic 
 theologian ; he should hasten as a preacher of the gospel to give to the 
 community the best thing that can be given to it. " 
 
 Men like Phillips Brooks are, of course, not numerous; but some 
 such work as he was able to do for students is perhaps the greatest 
 work that can be done by the churches for university students. So 
 imperative is this need of a notabh^ strong pulpit in the university 
 centers, that those denominations are certainlv wise that make the 
 meeting of this need not merely a matter of local, but of denomina- 
 tional policy and enterprise. For that church which gets persistently 
 the strongest hold on the college and university men and women of 
 the nation is sure sooner or later to lord it in the thought and life of 
 the people as a whole. 
 
 Besides this need of a modern and prophetic pulpit, there is the other 
 still more individual need of personal touch. In his chapter on the 
 will. Professor James has told us to how large an extent it is true that 
 we catch both our courage and our faith from others. And at no time 
 more than in these growing years of his intellectual life does the young 
 man or woman need this life-giving touch of courageous and believing 
 personalities. This is the one great prerequisite. It is thoroughly 
 worth while for the individual church at the university center — or the 
 denomination, if the church cannot singly do it — to provide for close 
 pastoral relation for the students naturally falling to its care, and to do 
 all possible — through perhaps a guild or parish house — to furnish for 
 them some real church home, and to meet, partially at least, their 
 social needs. The enlistment of such students, also so far as is feasible, 
 in some definite work of the church, even though that work raay be 
 comparatively light, would be a distinct gain. 
 
 And, beside the strong pulpit and the real pastoral relation and 
 the church home, each church at the university center ought to pro- 
 vide in some way Bible study of the first value. This might be done in 
 connection with the Young Men's and Young Women's Christian 
 Association Bible courses in the university by offering classes, or under- 
 taking the leadership of such classes in the Association courses in 
 connection with the church. But beside that, the church ought itself 
 to be doing something so distinctly superior in the line of Bible study 
 as to get a strong hold upon the students to whom it ought naturally 
 most to appeal. No movement in the modern religious life of the 
 students is more hopeful than this Bible study movement. And the 
 young men and young women cannot be brought face to face with 
 the careful study of the Scriptures without permanent results in 
 
 (170) 
 
53 
 
 thought and life. A good deal of valuable personal conversation on 
 great religious themes can be quite naturally brought out in this way 
 when it could be achieved in no other. It ought usually to be possible 
 for a church at a university center to enlist some strong member of the 
 university faculty itself in the leadership of some such Bible study 
 work. It can easily be seen that where that can be done, a double 
 influence is exerted; for the influence of the man's position is felt, even 
 bv those who never find their way to his Bible study class. 
 
 Where the denomination undertakes, in addition to the local 
 church, to provide something like pastoral care of its own adherents 
 in the university, it mav perhaps most wisely combine with that — as 
 some of the denominations have already done — the endowment of 
 some form of Bible Chair, so that there should be open, particularly 
 to the students naturally belonging to its care, but also to any stu- 
 dents, that expert leadership in the study of the Bible to which refer- 
 ence has alreadv been made. In such a case the need of some center 
 for the work might very naturally lead, as it has already done in some 
 places, to the establishment of some form of church house, in which 
 might perhaps be gathered as a home some proportion at least of these 
 students. These latter means, however, seem to me not only much 
 more costly, but really less necessary, and I am inclined to think less 
 wholesomely influential in the life of the students than those agencies 
 which can be somewhat more directly and naturally connected with 
 the representative church of the denomination in the university town. 
 It does not seem to me to be of the first importance that the student 
 should never get out of touch with the peculiar influences of his own 
 denomination. It may quite conceivably be well for him that he 
 should not be so closely and continuously under this supervision. 
 'The broader influence of the general church and Christian life of the 
 community may actually do more for him, even from the point of 
 view of the denomination, than would the more closely centered in- 
 fluences of the denominational church house. I have, besides, the 
 strong feeling that there is clear gain in keeping the sources of the 
 religious life of the student as far as possible just those that they may 
 be through the rest of his life; and I should, therefore, myself, prefer 
 to see the denominational influence exerted largely through its repre- 
 sentative church, rather than in more independent and costly, 
 though more imposing fashion. 
 
 The only absolutely vital things for either the church or the uni- 
 versity to remember, in the work that it undertakes for students, are, 
 (1) the indispensableness and primary necessity of personal associa- 
 tion — the inspiration that comes from the personal message and the 
 personal life; (2) the psychological imperativeness of ^ome form of 
 expression for the highest ethical and spiritual life of the student; (3) 
 the recognition, both in this association and in this expression, of the 
 
 (171) 
 
54 
 
 student's ozvn choice and initiative; (4) the clear discernment, also, that 
 the life of the student is a unit, and that all sides of the university life 
 to which reference has already been made, do count most strongly for 
 the religious life, though they are not so named, and that, therefore, 
 the religious work of the churches is not to be regarded as something 
 simply mechanically tacked on to the work of the university, but 
 naturalh^ and organically knit up with it. 
 
 DISCUSSION 
 
 James David Moffat, D.D., LL.D. 
 
 President of Washington and Jefferson College, and Moderator of the 
 
 General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church, Washington, Pa. 
 
 I have been asking myself, how does this problem come to be so 
 important at this time? It seems to me that if I can find an answer 
 to that question it may throw some light upon the problem itself, and 
 later upon the question — what is to be done to meet it? My answer 
 is that this problem arises in our country because the state universities 
 are something more than universities, and somewhat less than the 
 ideal university so often held before us for our admiration and our 
 inspiration. In our universities are found some A^oung men and some 
 young women who are pursuing post-graduate studies, but more who 
 are pursuing college and even secondary studies. They are largely 
 young people from fifteen to twenty-two years of age, whereas in the 
 ideal universities you would find young people from twenty to thirty 
 years of age who had completed their college course and were engaged 
 in specializing in their chosen departments, or in preparation for their 
 professional or technical life. If our state universities were exclusive- 
 ly for post-graduate study we might give to the faculty ample liberty 
 of teaching, and might trust the students to investigate all problems' 
 for themselves, to go from one professor to another, to look into the 
 sources and the grounds of this position and that one, and determine 
 for themselves, as sooner or later every human being must determine 
 his own religious creed. 
 
 But the young people gathered together in so many of our state 
 universities are away from home for the first time. They are away 
 from their customarv church privileges. Thev are at what is called 
 the impressionable age, and, what seems to me far more important as a 
 characteristic than that, they are great respecters of authority. In 
 the earlier stages of education there is necessarily an appeal to author- 
 ity. The elementary principles of many branches of human knowl- 
 edge can only be acquired by the study of a text-book and careful 
 attention to the teacher. Those of us who are connected with college 
 education, properly so-called, are endeavoring all the time to furnish 
 the transition between respect for authority and independent personal 
 investigation ; and it is my belief that every college course ought to be 
 
 (172) 
 
55 
 
 so shaped that there may be a genuine transition from the collegiate 
 period of studv to the university period and method of study, properly 
 so-called. I should feel, in sending mv own son away at twenty-one, 
 that he must choose for himself. I do feel that until he is twenty-one 
 I am under strict obligations to supervise his education, not alone his 
 secular education, but also his religious education. Under these cir- 
 cumstances I think it cannot seem strange to the authorities of state 
 universities that parents all over our land have been somewhat con- 
 cerned about the religious development of their children, especially 
 when they have been assured that university instruction in religion is 
 entirely colorless, or that it is sometimes indefinite, or even antagonis- 
 tic to the Christian faith. At the very best, these young people must 
 come in contact with opinions and facts and references that are more 
 or less inconsistent with the fundamental beliefs in their religious life, 
 and in such circumstances the spirit of a respected professor, whatever 
 his branch of teaching, the absence of a word or the appearance of a 
 smile, may create a doubt, a difficulty that years may be required to 
 remove. Religious people understand this and w4sh to guard against 
 it, and they are asking that there shall be incorporated in the uni- 
 versity or connected in some way with it, that which may possibly 
 counteract this influence and tendency to an irreligious life. 
 
 Now, how are we to meet this practical problem? We are en- 
 deavoring to find out. It occurs to me to say, first, that I earnestly 
 believe that each denomination should look after its own children. As 
 a Presbvterian, I feel that it is a dutv of mv church not to be indift'er- 
 ent to the surroundings, the environment of the children of the church 
 during the ages from fifteen to twenty -one. We should be satisfied 
 in our own minds that something is being done, not so much to keep 
 them within the membership of our own church, as to keep them with- 
 in the membership of the Christian church. Our denominations are 
 becoming less and less sectarian, but still we feel that we have a com- 
 mon interest in our common Christianity, and we tremble for our 
 country if the educated men and women of our country shall hereafter 
 be more or less indifferent to the great claims of the Christian religion 
 upon those who hear of it and who have endeavored, for the time at 
 least, to respect its demands. The Presbyterian church, as w^as said 
 here this morning, took steps a year ago to see if we cannot do some- 
 thing toward looking after our own sons and daughters in these state 
 universities; and the plan that is at present shaping itself is to employ 
 some one person especially fitted for that work, to operate in the uni- 
 versity in connection with the Presbyterian local church and pastor. 
 The pastor alone is unable to meet all the requirements of the situation. 
 He has his charge and his adult membership to look after. But with 
 the assistance of some one specially selected for the purpose to act in 
 a measure as a pastor, it is hoped that some sort of influence may be 
 
 (173) 
 
56 
 
 brought to bear upon the boys and girls away from their homes to 
 make them feel that they have a church home near at hand, and to 
 give them such assistance in their religious lives as they may need. 
 
 A great deal that has been said here today has reference I think to 
 the higher religious education, to the settlement of the great problems 
 which are always arising and demanding settlement. But what is 
 needed at the early age of which I now speak, more than anything 
 else, is an act of commitment on the part of young people. To what? 
 to their own present sense of an obligation to God and to Jesus Christ. 
 That is of more importance than the knowledge of all history and of 
 all philosophy and theology, and that is something against which no 
 human being, whatever may be his creed, can raise objection; for 
 every human conscience attests this fact, that human beings are under 
 obligation to do for the time being what they believe to be right. The 
 step that takes a young person out of the world and into the church is 
 that particular step. It determines the character; it will have its 
 variations; later on, new knowledge will be acquired that will create 
 new aspects and new modes of construction; but the character is 
 fundamentallv determined when a human heart once surrenders to 
 the law of right. We Christians believe that law of right has been laid 
 down for us by Jesus Christ. We feel that if we can have young 
 people during the process of their education committed to Christ in 
 all loyalty, we can turn them loose in the world to hear what the world 
 has to teach them, to come face to face with every real fact, and to 
 examine the arguments to be presented. 
 
 I think the Christian people of our country have a right to demand 
 that the state university shall not be hostile to the Christian religion, 
 that its professors shall conduct the instructions of the class room in 
 a reverent spirit, that they shall not ruthlessly trample upon the tra- 
 ditions that have been learned in Christian homes, out of which this 
 great nation of ours has been builded. Somehow, every university 
 and every institution in this world of ours, must sometime settle the 
 question whether it is Christian or anti-Christian, in its spirit or at- 
 mosphere. There is no neutrality in this war, because this war is for 
 the government of God. However much Christian people differ in 
 creed and in custom they are all working to bring about a universal 
 obedience to the Divine commandments, and in the pursuit of this 
 end they have a right to sympathy and to a measure of cooperation 
 from every educational institution that does- not stand for atheism. 
 But having committed our country to the policy of the separation of 
 church and state, it seems to me that it follows that the state univer- 
 sity should seek to have the churches look after the religious culture 
 of their own children, rather than to attempt to supply that need; 
 for the endeavor to avoid all sectarian bias must leave the religious 
 teaching too colorless to be effective. The fear that the policy I am 
 
 (174) 
 
57 
 
 advocating may lead to the building of a cordon of denominational 
 houses around the campus is not well grounded. The denominations 
 will not all build around every state university, but only where their 
 interest are great enough to demand it. Where the number of their 
 children is so small that the local pastor can look after them, or where 
 thev mav be committed to the care of other churches "near of kin," 
 the expense of a separate house will not be incurred. 
 
 John Henry Gray, Ph.D. 
 Professor in Northwestern University, Evanstoii, Illinois 
 
 To those of us who have attempted to wrestle in a serious manner 
 with the betterment of mankind, it is becoming increasingly plain that 
 no great reform does or can stand alone. The problem of religious 
 education is certainly one of the most vital to the progress of humanity, 
 and rightlv deserves the promintent place given to it on this occasion. 
 The problem of religious education in the state universities is nowhere 
 more important than in this Mississippi Valley, where the state uni- 
 versitv is beyond a doubt the dominant type of higher education. 
 Whatever may be true of the eastern portions of our country, and 
 whatever great non-state institutions may flourish — it still remains 
 true that in the Mississippi Valley, containing the largest homogeneous 
 population, speaking one language, and under one flag, in the world 
 — the state university is to-day, and is sure to remain, the institution 
 that furnishes the higher education to a majoritv of the people of this 
 imperial territory. That being the case, the civilization, not only of 
 this region, but of our whole country, will be colored largely, if not 
 finally determined by the character of our state universities. 
 
 I think it fair to assume that the state university originated pri- 
 marily in two ideas. The first was that our people might obtain a 
 less expensive and more universal higher education than was possible 
 at that time in the denominational and non-state institutions; the 
 other was, I believe, an attempt to free our higher education from the 
 narrowness of the dogmatic instruction and attitude of the denomi- 
 national colleges of that time. The reaction, leading to the formation 
 of the state universities, so far as connected with both of these ideas, 
 was wholesome. The denominational colleges had set up a false 
 opposition between science and religion. In the then existing temper 
 of the public mind, the public preferred intellectual freedom to dog- 
 matic narrowness. The result, however, of such a reaction was to 
 lead the state universities to accept the challenge thrown down by 
 the church schools, and to assert that they would take the intellectual 
 or general education, and let the church colleges take the religious 
 education — an idea impossible of realization for either party. 
 
 The position was untenable for both sets of institutions. The 
 
 (175) 
 
58 
 
 church was as far wrong in attempting to maintain institutions which 
 set up a barrier against the progress of science as the state institutions 
 were to assume that they could develop independent of and separate 
 from religion. The competition of the two kinds of institutions for 
 students and financial support has, so far as our present purpose is 
 concerned, been beneficial to both. The church colleges have liberal- 
 ized, and have realized that although education does not consist 
 wholly of instruction, no amount of piety can be, or will be considered, 
 an off-set, in the public mind, for genuine learning and efficient teach- 
 ing in the ordinary sense of the word. On the other hand, the state 
 institutions are beginning to realize that their position is equally un- 
 sound, and that, being in a Christian civilization, that so-called educa- 
 tion is false, lame and impotent, which fails to develop the whole man, 
 intellectually, ethically, and spiritually. In other words, education 
 is a development, and a development of the whole man, a fitting of 
 one for living in a religious communitv, in a Christian civilization, 
 and such education cannot be attained unless the spirit of religion 
 pervades and dominates the whole institution. The result of this 
 awakening on both sides has been riot only beneficial to all, but it has 
 tended to a very great degree to bring the institutions nearer together 
 in their spirit and in their methods. 
 
 But the problem of religious education and of the relation of relig- 
 ion to education is far from a satisfactory solution in either kind of 
 institution. The real solution must be substantiallv the same in both 
 classes of institutions, the charge that the denominational college was 
 not performing its whole duty in regard to religion has led to the setting 
 up of a chair of religious or bibical instruction in manv of the colleges. 
 Although the motive back of this is admirable, the efforts to carry out 
 the plan have not so far, I believe, met with the success hoped for. 
 The original advocates of such chairs are now calling for additional 
 remedies. However excellent the man, and however pure the motive 
 in creating such a department, the effort appears to rest upon fallacy, 
 the same fallacy upon which state institutions proceeded when they 
 assumed that so-called general education, or intellectual education, 
 consisted primarily of instruction, and ought to be, and could be 
 separated from religious education. Human life is a unit, and, as 
 Professor Coe has remarked, religion is not a separate department 
 thereof, nor can religious education be promoted wholly or chiefly by 
 setting up a department of instruction for it, as you would set up a 
 department of chemistry or philosophv. The effort to solve the 
 problem in this way savors too much, at least in the public mind, of 
 proselyting, of dogmatizing, and of formalizing. It lacks the vital 
 element. It is impossible in this time of increasing freedom of elec- 
 tion of studies to prescribe courses in such a department of bibical 
 instruction for all students. If that cannot be done, the effort at best 
 
 (176) 
 
59 
 
 would reach but a relatively small part of the total student body, 
 which, in and of itself, condemns this as a chief solution of the difficulty. 
 Even if the courses could be prescribed, the case would be no better. 
 You could make students attend the courses, but you could not edu- 
 cate them religiously or cultivate their spiritual life thereby. One is 
 not made religious by a knowledge of religious facts or history. 
 
 This leads me directly to the subject in hand: How can the state 
 uni\-ersitv solve the problem? As already indicated, I believe the 
 solu|ion must come exactlv in the same way in the two sets of institu- 
 tions. The practical working out of the problem, however, is likely 
 to be somewhat more difficult in the state university because of the 
 theory on which the state universities have so long acted. Religion 
 is not maintained in our higher educational institutions, of any class, 
 by formal instruction on the subject. It must come in both cases by 
 christianizing the whole atmosphere of the respective institutions, and 
 this brings us to the most important element in all education; namely, 
 the personality and religious character of the corps of instructors. I 
 do not look to see a great development of the attempt, already carried 
 out in a few instances, to establish denominational lectureships and 
 professorships, or dwelling halls or colleges in the state universities. 
 These are all subject to exactlv the same dangers and evils as the cre- 
 ations of special departments of religious and. biblical instruction in 
 church schools, and that settles the problem. They not only appeal 
 to relatively few out of the total student body, but they tend to em- 
 phasize the purely denominational and sectarian elements, and to 
 become purely formal, instead of reaching the essence of the problem 
 by applying the principle of real development. At best, they can do 
 nothing but give instruction to a handful out of a multitude of stu- 
 dents. The attempt to substitute the husks of denominational dogma 
 for the essence of personal religious life must always fail. 
 
 It is not probable that the different branches of the Christian 
 church will become one body in organization; nor is it desirable that 
 they should ; but it is desirable from every standpoint that denomi- 
 nationalism should not be substituted for religion. It is proper that 
 children of people belonging to a certain denomination should be 
 instructed in the history and tenets of that denomination. There are 
 things, however, in my opinion, that are out of place in the state uni- 
 versity, and, generally speaking, of the higher educational institutions 
 of all sorts. The dav is past when the students of any important col- 
 lege or university all belong to one denomination, or when the manag- 
 ing bodies wish them. to belong to one denomination. Therefore, to 
 lay great emphasis on this matter in dealing with the students is not 
 only to do a wrong to a part of the student body and to substitute the 
 husks for the kernel, but it is to introduce a disintregating force, when 
 what we most need is to unify and vivify and energize the life of the 
 
 (177) 
 
60 • 
 
 whole university by the direct appeal of the best type of mature relig- 
 ious life to the young life of the student. The problem before us is a 
 problem of the teacher. When the state universities, without for 
 one moment lowering the purely intellectual standards and the special 
 qualifications in the different branches of learning, see to it that none 
 but men of religious character, who respect and reverence things 
 sacred in church and state, are put into the teaching corps, the problem 
 is solved, because the atmosphere about the place will soon take on 
 the color of their lives, and the immature and unformed student body, 
 by the unconscious process of absorption and development, the con- 
 tact of life with life, and soul with soul, will reflect the lives and char- 
 acters of the teachers about them. 
 
 What is true of the state universities is equally true of the denomi- 
 national institutions, although in view of the tradition and all the 
 history of the past, I venture to believe that the denominational 
 institutions are more likely to realize the necessity of higher intel- 
 lectual qualities and special attainments than the state universities 
 are to realize the impossibility of separating the -secular from the 
 religious, and the necessity of choosing men who respect the religious 
 ideal. Most of our attempts, heretofore, in institutions of both classes, 
 have gone on the principle of the late senator of the United States, 
 when he declared that the ten commandments have nothing to do 
 with politics. Ten commandments and religion, but not denomi- 
 national differences, have to do with education of every sort, whether 
 in the denominational school or the state university. 
 
 If we would send out from our higher institutions of learning men 
 who would stand four-square, with their minds and hearts bound to 
 the divine plans, with their intellects quickened by the assurance of 
 their divine son-ship, with their whole education vitalized by the at- 
 mosphere of religion, we should soon bring a pressure to bear in choos- 
 ing the governing boards and the faculties in our state universities 
 that would solve this vexing problem. At the same time we should 
 solve the problem of corruption in politics, and of the even more wide- 
 spread and degrading graft, thievery, heartlessness, and corruption in 
 business affairs. The time is past when general education can be 
 separated from religious education, or when politics can be separated 
 from morals, or when private business and public business can be con- 
 sidered subject to different ethical codes. The evils from which we 
 suffer in church and state are directly traceable to this attempt at 
 separation. The attempt has issued in a wide-spread belief that dog- 
 matism is religion; the next step is to the belief. that a man who gives 
 money to a church, who attends church service, and who says public 
 prayers, can behave in Wall Street as though there were no God. and 
 as though religion were a thing to put on and off at pleasure, and that 
 it ought to be put on for state occasions and Sunday only. 
 
 (178) 
 
61 
 
 Let those who desire to preserve and develop the religious life of 
 their sons at the state universities bestir themselves to see that no 
 officer of the government or instructor is elected or appointed but 
 such as they would wish their sons to emulate. Let them next see 
 that voluntary religious services are conducted here by men of differ- 
 ent denominations and of such spiritual power and leadership as to 
 sink the questions of their denominational affiliations into their proper 
 place of relative insignificance. Let them strengthen, broaden, and 
 liberalize the college Christian Associations and encourage the stu- 
 dents to take an active part in the doing the will of God by helping 
 their fellow men bv means of the various forms of practical philan- 
 thropy and religious work. Then the epithet of "Godless" will soon 
 cease to be applied to the state universities. Then, too, our young 
 men and young women will be developed religiously and the respective 
 denominations will be actuallv strengthened by the pouring back into 
 them vearlv from our state universities an ever broadening stream of 
 vitalized, spiritualized, trained, religious character for which alone 
 the denominations ought to exist. 
 
 Reverend Willis G. Banker, D.D. 
 
 Pastor Presbyterian Church, Laivrence, Kansas 
 
 My standpoint differs from that of the speakers who have preceded 
 me. Thev are educators, and I am a pastor; but my pastoral exper- 
 ience is somewhat distinctive in that most of my ministrv has been in 
 intimate relation with a state university, from which comes a consid- 
 erable part of mv congregation. Of course, the university atmosphere 
 is an element in my thinking on the subject. 
 
 On the whole, I think our young people are wiser than their ad- 
 visers, at least in our Western country, when they prefer the university 
 to the college. The university offers advantages which the church 
 college does not and cannot offer. Of the fifteen hundred and thirty 
 students in Kansas University, eight hundred and sixty are in the 
 technical and professional schools. They are preparing for industrial 
 life. Some mav sneer at bread and butter education, but the fact 
 remains that all cannot choose literary careers. Somebody must open 
 the mines, build the railroads, and manage the factories; and this 
 somebody must have technical training. 
 
 But there are six hundred and seventy students in our University 
 College of Liberal Arts, — pursuing the same courses which are pro- 
 vided by the church schools. Would they enjoy better facilities in the 
 churchs chools? I do not think so. Aside from the fact that there can 
 be no comparison between the two, as to equipment in faculty, library, 
 museums, etc. ; aside from the cultural value of larger environment in 
 the university, there seems to be a fundamental defect in our Western 
 
 (179) 
 
62 
 
 church schools which prevents their doing as good work as the 
 university. By the very terms of their foundation they are bound 
 to promulgate certain ideas. They exist primarily for the maintenance 
 and propagation of certain views of truth. Now whatever else that 
 may be, it is not education. Education is the opening up of the soul 
 and the drawing out of its powers, by bringing it into contact with all 
 forms of truth. The university is free to do this, as the denomina- 
 tional college is not. 
 
 I know of no specific commission held by the church to conduct 
 institutions of general education. It would seem to be the natural 
 and proper function of the state. We have conceded this in primary 
 and secondary education. I believe we should do so in higher educa- 
 tion. The Church inaugurated education, not because it was her 
 proper function, but because she is a missionary and herald of every 
 good thing. The State was unconcsious of her educational function, 
 and left it unfulfilled. The Church stepped into the breach, took up 
 the neglected duty of the State and discharged it. It was her right 
 and duty to do this until from her the State could learn its duty and 
 relieve the Church of the burden of general education, that she might 
 have her forces free for her own specific work. Indeed she has an edu- 
 cational function which is specifically hers. By the very terms of her 
 being, and by the specific commission received from her Head, she is 
 charged with the duty of religious education; in fact, she is the only 
 social organism charged with that duty. 
 
 From this it follows that the Church is charged with responsibility 
 for religious education in state institutions of learning. The religious 
 denominations, which are the forms that the social forces of the Church 
 practically assume, are solely responsible for the religious welfare of 
 these institutions. If the religious status of the University of Kansas 
 is not satisfactory to the churches of Kansas, they have no one to 
 blame but themselves. They have a definite function, which by reason 
 of inability or inattention they have not discharged. If the churches 
 are to meet God in judgment, and answer for the way they have done 
 the work given them to do, they must recognize these state schools as 
 fields for their labor. 
 
 Are the churches so foolish as to allow these young people to escape 
 them? Do they imagine that they can afford the loss? Why, this is 
 the best material the country affords! I can testify to the Christian 
 fidelity of the University people, and assert without hesitation, that 
 with the same amount of attention and wise application as we give to 
 the people outside of the university, the former will outweigh the 
 latter in every element of Christian value. 
 
 It must, of course, be recognized that there can be no sharp line 
 drawn between the religious and secular in education, any more than 
 elsewhere. All of religion has secular bearings, and everything secular 
 
 (180) 
 
63 
 
 has a religious side. Nevertheless, there is a real distinction which 
 we all must recognize between religious and secular education. Relig- 
 ious work must include: 
 
 I. The presentation to the student's mind of specificallv religious 
 and Christian truth. It should not dogmatically demand that certain 
 propositions be accepted without question. To attempt the dog- 
 matic in a state university is to fail at the outset and irretrievably. 
 
 II. It should include the religious interpretation of all the truth 
 which comes to the minds of young people in the progress of their 
 university study. At this point young people are overtaken by dis- 
 aster. They come up from the farm and village home with a fund of 
 theological conceptions, which they identify with the realities of the 
 faith. Plunging into scientific, historical, and critical studies, they 
 soon find a lack of congruity betw^een their theological preconceptions 
 and the new learning. Being perhaps unable to resolve the difficulties 
 and having nobody to do it for them, they feel bound to choose between 
 the two. They cannot part with the new knowledge, so they abandon 
 the old faith. It is our place to show them the mistake of this, and 
 to teach them how to harmonize secular and religious truth, and so 
 hold faith in the bonds of knowledge. 
 
 III. Our work must include the organization of religious activi- 
 ties for the development of the religious powers. This involves the 
 calling into this work of men specially fitted for the task. These must 
 be men of the university type, i. e., men of broad, intellectual outlook, 
 and sympathies with state university ideals. It is not worth while to 
 put into this work men who rail at Evolution, and rejoice in their 
 ignorance of Higher Criticism. Wholly aside from the merits of these 
 views, university people believe that they have merit and will have 
 naught to do with the man who does not approach them with an 
 intelligent and sympathetic spirit. 
 
 The fit man for this unique work will have a personality full of 
 virility as well as of Christian sweetness. He will be an embodiment 
 and illustration of the large and noble ideals for which his work stands. 
 Such a worker in order to be effective, must have university standing, 
 without being a member of the faculty. He must have the standing 
 to give him access to the student body, without being officially con- 
 nected with the university, for the work must never feel the palsying 
 hand of officialism. The very secret of its effectiveness is its spon- 
 taneity. And while it should choose a position where its fruits can be 
 garnered, and from which its influences can permeate the whole uni- 
 versity life, that position should be free from the official control of the 
 university. 
 
 The work must have a relation to the local church as well ; not for 
 the sake of the Church, but for the sake of the work. The student 
 should never be the instrument of the Church but the Church the 
 
 (181) 
 
64 
 
 instrument of the student. The specifically university work should 
 have just the relation to the local Church which will make the work 
 most effective, and no more. 
 
 Of course, the details of this work are still to be wrought out in 
 the University of Kansas. We have few precedents to guide us, and 
 no experience ; but I have personally done enough and seen enough to 
 be sure of my ground, as far as I have stated it. Of the ultimate 
 outcome I have no fear. The work will succeed. The fruit will be a 
 type of strong, robust, Christian men and women, standing four-square 
 to every wind of heaven ; able to solve their own problems and to meet 
 their own difficulties; fit to ennoble the state, and to vitalize the 
 Church. 
 
 THE COOPERATION OF DENOMINATIONAL AND STATE 
 SCHOOLS OF HIGHER EDUCATION' 
 
 Webster Merrifield, M.A. 
 President, University of North Dakota, University, North Dakota 
 
 Fourteen years ago in my annual report to the board of trustees 
 of the state university, I urged the importance of adopting some sys- 
 tem of educational cooperation between the state universitv and the 
 several denominations of the state before these denominations should 
 become hopelessly committed to the policy of separate denominational 
 colleges. The Congregationalists had already established a college at 
 Fargo, and the Methodists were agitating the question of establishing 
 a college and shortly after did so at Wahpeton in my state. My 
 trustees took no action in the matter at the time but, during the years 
 following, I discussed the matter freely with representative men of the 
 several denominations in our state as opportunity occurred. Five 
 years ago last March, in an address before the Methodist conference 
 in my state, I canvassed the question quite fully and extended to the 
 Methodists of the state a formal and cordial invitation on behalf of 
 the state university to remove their institution to a location in the 
 immediate neighborhood of the state university and to make use of 
 the facilities afforded by the university to whatever extent they might 
 deem it to their advantage to do so. Many prominent members of 
 the conference expressed themselves at the time, as did President 
 Robertson of the Methodist College, as in a general way favorable to 
 the proposition, but stated that they considered themselves under 
 moral obligation to the citizens of Wahpeton and other benefactors of v 
 their college not to agitate the question at that time. Last winter the 
 trustees of the Methodist College at Wahpeton, whose style and title 
 was the Red River Valley University, began to consider the feasibility 
 
 iln the preparation of this paper I have availed myself of many valuable data gathered by Dr. 
 James E. Bovle of our Department of Economics during the recent agitation of the qxiestion in our 
 State. 
 
 (182) 
 
65 
 
 of removing the college to another location. I again renewed my 
 invitation to remove the college to the immediate neighborhood of 
 the state university and to make use of the facilities afforded by the 
 university for the carrying on of their educational work. Dr. E. P. 
 Robertson, president of the Red River Valley University, visited me 
 on the ninth of January last for the purpose of discussing a possible 
 plan of cooperation between the Methodist college and the state uni- 
 versity in case the Methodist church should decide to take advantage 
 of the invitation extended through me by the state university. We 
 finally arrived at a possible basis of cooperation which, upon the sug- 
 gestion of Dr. Robertson, was committed to writing in the form of a 
 memorandum as follows, this memorandum bearing the date of Janu- 
 ary 9, 1905: "Memorandum: Of a conversation held between Presi- 
 dent Merrifield, of the University of North Dakota, and President 
 Robertson of the Red River Valley University, with reference to a 
 tentative plan of cooperation between the State University and the 
 educational institution of the Methodist church in North Dakota. 
 
 Whereas, The State University is in theory the university of all 
 the people of the state, and is supported by the taxes of the members 
 of the several denominations as well as of the other citizens of the 
 state, it would seem to be appropriate and fitting that the churches 
 of the several denominations in the state should avail themselves of 
 the privileges which belong to their members as citizens of the state 
 and should use, to whatever extent may seem desirable in the conduct 
 of their educational work, the facilities afforded by the State Univer- 
 sity. 
 
 It is recognized that the State University is a civic institution and 
 has for its mission the training of the youth of the state for efficient 
 service as citizens. It is recognized, also, that the distinctive object 
 of the church in maintaining schools of its own is to insure trained 
 leadership in religious and denominational work. There is, therefore, 
 logically, no conflict between their respective missions, for the same 
 young people are to serve in both these capacities. These two mis- 
 sions being in no sense antagonistic, but supplementary, it would seem 
 a part of wise economy that these two educational agencies should 
 avail themselves, so far as possible, of the facilities and appliances of 
 each other in working out of their respective missions, keeping always 
 in view the principle of the separation of church and state in so far as 
 regards the control and expenditure of the financial resources of each. 
 
 Accepting the foregoing principles as fundamentally sound, the 
 University of North Dakota cordially invites the people -of the various 
 denominations of the state to the consideration of a plan under which 
 the members of the several denominations, while preserving their 
 denominational identity and maintaining separate institutions for 
 such educational work as they may deem necessary, shall join as citi- 
 
 (183) 
 
66 
 
 zens in patronage of the State University as the common agency of 
 the state. 
 
 As a basis of cooperation between the State University and the 
 Methodist church of the state, the following suggestions seem practi- 
 cable : 
 
 1. That the Methodist church change the name of its institution 
 from Red River Valley University to Wesley College. 
 
 2. That a building or buildings be erected in near proximity to 
 the State University but on a separate campus, to include a Guild 
 Hall, such recitation rooms as may be required for the work proposed, 
 possibly dormitories for young women and young men, and a presi- 
 dent's house. 
 
 3. That the course of study may be: (a) Bible and Church history, 
 English Bible, New Testament Greek, Hebrew, Theism, and such other 
 subjects as the college may elect in pursuance of its purposes. (6) 
 A brief course that may be designated as a Bible Normal course, in- 
 tended especially to fit students to become efificient Sunday school 
 teachers and lay workers, and upon the completion of which certificates 
 of recognition may be granted, (c) Instruction in music and elocution 
 may be given if desired and appropriate certificates granted, (d) 
 Guild Hall lectures. 
 
 4. That the State University grant for work done in subjects 
 under (a) above, such credit toward the B. A. degree as it gives to 
 technical work done in its own professional schools and to work done 
 in other colleges of reputable standing. Likewise, Wesley College 
 shall give credit for work done in the State University in similar man- 
 ner as preparation for any degree or certificate it may offer. 
 
 5. Each institution shall have full control of the discipline of 
 students upon its own grounds. 
 
 6. It shall be deemed proper for students to take degrees from 
 both institutions if they so desire. 
 
 Webster Merrifield, 
 Edward P. Robertson." 
 This memorandum was subsequently approved by the faculty of 
 the State Universitv with the following proviso, viz., "that the State 
 University shall in all cases be the judge of the quality of work to be 
 accepted by it toward the B. A. degree and recognizes the right of 
 Wesley College to be the judge of the quality of work to be accepted 
 for any degrees it may grant." On May 15th last the trustees of the 
 State University passed the following resolution: ''Resolved, That 
 the Board of Trustees of the University of North Dakota extend to all 
 educational agencies within the state a cordial invitation to avail 
 themselves to whatever extent may seem desirable of the facilities and 
 appliances afforded by the University for the working out of their 
 several educational purposes." The memorandum just quoted, 
 
 (184) 
 
67 
 
 together with the resolutions of the Faculty and Trustees, constitute 
 the formal invitation of the State University. On May 16th, 1905, 
 the Trustees of the Red River Valley University voted to remove the 
 University from Wahpeton to a location adjoining the campus of the 
 State University and to change the name of the Methodist school from 
 Red River Valley University to Wesley College, it being understood 
 that when Wesley College should be opened it should be substantially 
 upon the basis indicated in the memorandum. It is believed that the 
 action of the Board of Trustees of the Methodist school has back of it 
 the substantial sympathy and support of the Methodist church of our 
 state. Indeed, no longer ago than Saturday of this last week, the 
 Methodist Conference, in session at Fargo, unanimously endorsed the 
 action of the Board of Trustees of the Red River Valley University in 
 removing the institution to the immediate neighborhood of the State 
 University, with a view to affiliation with the same upon the lines laid 
 down in the memorandum already quoted, and pledged to the new 
 Wesley College the enthusiastic support of the conference. President 
 Robertson and the Trustees of Wesley College are now engaged in 
 raising a fund of $50,000 which, with the previously existing resources 
 of Wesley College, will constitute a fund closely approximating $100,- 
 000. As soon as this fund is raised it is the plan of the Trustees to 
 build, on a site adjoining the campus of the State University, a presi- 
 dent's house, probably a dormitory each for the young men and young 
 women students of the college, and a building which may be used for 
 the two-fold purpose of a recitation hall and a guild hall. Meanwhile, 
 most of the students in attendance last year at the Red River Valley 
 University have registered as regular students in the State University. 
 It is believed that the step taken by the Methodists will, in the not 
 distant future, be followed by most, if not all, of the other denomina- 
 tions of the state. The best known representative of the Congrega- 
 tional church in the state has recently stated that, if the step taken by 
 the Methodists proves successful, the Congregational college will, in 
 his judgment, remove to the State University within ten years. The 
 Baptists of the state have already placed themselves emphatically 
 upon record as favoring the plan in the following report of their com- 
 mittee on education adopted in their annual state convention held at 
 Fargo in June, 1901: "The question is sometimes asked. Ought the 
 Baptists of this State to follow the example of the Congregationalists 
 and Methodists and found a college of their own? Your committee 
 w^ould say, emphatically, that the time for that has certainly not 
 come. Indeed, it is doubtful if it ever will come. The situation in 
 these new western states is very different from what it was in the 
 early days of the older states further east. There, the state istelf 
 made little or no provision for higher education; here, the state makes 
 ample provision along both liberal and professional lines. There is 
 
 (185) 
 
68 
 
 no such thing as Baptist mathematics, or Baptist physics, or Baptist 
 poHtical economy. To found another institution to teach these and 
 similar subjects would be to throw away money in useless duplication. 
 The State University belongs to the Baptists as much as it does to 
 anybody, and Baptists ought to appreciate and patronize it. There 
 are several Baptists in the faculty, and we are glad to say that the 
 atmosphere of the University is sympathetically and unquestionably 
 Christian. It may be that, at some time in the future, it will be wise 
 to establish in connection with the University a Baptist College, not 
 for the purpose of duplicating courses purely scholastic, but for the 
 purpose of supplementing the ordinary college course with other 
 studies, such as Church History, Hebrew, New Testament Greek, 
 Biblical Criticism, Old and New Testament Exegesis, and Theology, 
 which of course, hardly belong in the province of a State University. 
 In this way our denomination might utilize the laboratories and 
 libraries and skilled instruction provided by the State, and, at the 
 same time, provide, at small expense, instruction along jeligious and 
 denominational lines. In this way, too, halls and dormitories might 
 be provided in which young men and women, while attending the 
 University, could be kept under the influence of a distinctly religious 
 atmosphere. The University would be very willing to make such an 
 arrangement with our denomination and it seems to vour committee 
 that this is an idea which it is well to bear in mind and work toward. " 
 
 Within the past week the Presbyterian Synod in my state has 
 appointed a committee of six, with power to emplo}'" a clergyman who 
 shall nominally be assistant to the pastor of the First Presbyterian 
 Church of Grand Forks but whose duties shall practically be those of 
 Pastor at the University, having under his especial care those students 
 in the University who are communicants or adherents of the Presby- 
 terian Church. It is believed that this action is preliminary to the 
 eventual establishment of a Presbvterian Guild Hall, to be located in 
 the immediate vicinity of the State Universitv campus. This action 
 was taken by the Synod with unanimitvand, I am told, with the great- 
 est enthusiasm, and places the Presbyterian Church of North Dakota 
 directly in line with the Methodists in the matter of denominational 
 and state cooperation in educational work. The other religious 
 denominations of the state have given no formal expression of an 
 intention to follow the lead of the Methodists and Presbyterians, but 
 in conversation with representative men of these denominations I 
 learn that their attitude is entirely favorable to a similar plan of co- 
 operation with the State University and that, when their several 
 churches shall be in a position to start schools of their own, these will 
 undoubtedly be located in near proximity to the State University 
 with a view to cooperation with that institution. 
 
 This, in brief, constitutes the history of the movement toward 
 
 (186) 
 
69 
 
 cooperation between the church schools and the State University in 
 my state. That this is but an incident in a widespread movement 
 throughout the country is evidenced by the following examples of 
 cooperation elsewhere : The oldest experiment in the way of coopera- 
 tion is that at the State University of Ontario, known as the University 
 of Toronto. In cooperation with the University there are five de- 
 nominational colleges, viz., Methodist, Church of England, Presby- 
 terian, Low Anglican and Catholic. Some of these institutions are 
 affiliated and some federated, the difference being that federation is 
 an act of parliament and affiliation the act of the University Senate. 
 The federated college becomes an integral part of the University, 
 while each affiliated college has a single representative on the Univer- 
 sitv Senate but does not enter in any organic way into the composition 
 of the Universitv. Of all the cooperating colleges, Victoria College, 
 the Methodist school, alone undertakes to give instruction in Arts as 
 well as in Theology. The other cooperating schools maintain only 
 a theological facultv. All the institutions, of course, spare themselves 
 the burden of maintaining museums, laboratories and libraries. The 
 Methodist school alone duplicates any portion of the instruction 
 offered by the University. In proof of the success of the Toronto 
 experiment I am privileged to quote from a recent letter from Prin- 
 cipal J. P. Sheraton of Wyckliffe College, representing the Church of 
 England, who writes as follows: "The plan followed here has worked 
 verv successfullv. We secure for our students all the advantages 
 of the University, the broadening of view and enlarging of sympathy 
 which come from contact with some two thousand students in Arts, 
 Medicine and Theology, belonging to a number of different colleges 
 and connected with a number of churches. We are preserved from 
 the narrowness of an isolated theological college, and our men come 
 into contact with men of all churches and destined for various pro- 
 fessions, amongst whom their life work must be carried on. We get 
 all the advantages of stimulus, of fellowship, and of the whole atmos- 
 phere of the University, as well as the advantages which come to us 
 from the equipment and facilities which a great University like that 
 of Toronto is able to give." 
 
 I quote the following also from a letter recently received from the 
 President of Victoria University, the Methodist school cooperating 
 with the University of Toronto: "We think our system gives us all 
 the advantages to be derived from denominational colleges with com- 
 parative freedom from the narrowing influences of a small sectarian 
 institution. It does not make the necessary educational work unduly 
 burdensome to the church, while it furnishes the sons and daughters 
 of the church with the best educational advantages that the country 
 can afford. At the same time it surrounds the State Universitv with 
 
 (187) 
 
70 
 
 the moral and religious influences of the churches as represented by 
 their colleges. " 
 
 Last May, in response to an invitation from the University of 
 Manitoba, I attended their graduation exercises and delivered an 
 address. On that occasion eighty-four degrees were granted, all of 
 them to young men and young women who were primarily students 
 in affiliated colleges. Of these colleges, four were denominational, 
 representing respectively the Church of England, Catholic, Methodist 
 and Presbyterian churches. Thirty of the graduates were in medicine 
 and a dozen or more were in law. Both the medical and the law 
 schools, like the four denominational colleges mentioned, are inde- 
 pendently maintained, but are affiliated with the University of Mani- 
 toba, which alone has the degree-conferring power. The University, 
 supported by moderate appropriations from the local legislature, 
 offers courses in the natural sciences and maintains scientific labora- 
 tories and museums, leaving all other instruction to the affiliated 
 colleges. The University Council, which is the governing body of 
 the University, is made up of faculty representatives from the Uni- 
 versity and the affiliated schools. The titular head of the University 
 is a Vice Chancellor, the working head being an officer known as 
 the Registrar, most of whose duties are of the character usually 
 performed by the Registrar in American Universities. Each of the 
 affiliated schools is charged with the exercise of discipline over its 
 own students. The relationship existing at the University of Mani- 
 toba is in almost all respects strikingly similar to that existing at 
 Oxford between the several colleges and the University. 
 
 On this side of the line the plan of cooperation is quite different 
 from that prevailing on the Canadian side, owing to the different con- 
 ception existing in the United States as to the propriety of an entire 
 separation between church and state in matters of education. The 
 plan of cooperation between church and state schools has been carried 
 out more or less extensively and completely in six American common- 
 wealths, viz., California, Kansas, Michigan, Missouri, Oregon and 
 West Virginia. An example of cooperation is to be found on the 
 largest scale at the University of California where the Congregational 
 church has established a well endowed theological school known as 
 the Pacific Theological Seminary. The "Christian" denomination 
 has also established a theological school in cooperation with the 
 University. The Baptists, the Methodist Episcopal Church South, 
 and the Unitarians are all moving in this direction and have already 
 raised for the purpose, sums ranging from $30,000 to $250,000 each. 
 All these denominations contemplate the establishment of theological 
 schools to be grouped about the State University and to work in 
 friendly cooperation with it. The Presbyterians have a theological 
 school located some ten miles from the University across the bay, but 
 
 (188) 
 
71 
 
 it is their plan, as soon as they shall be able to dispose of their buildings 
 there, to remove to the State University and cooperate with it in the 
 same manner as the other denominations named. President Wheeler 
 in a recent letter says: "The cooperation consists mainly in this, that 
 all students in the seminaries make free use of the University's oppor- 
 tunities. They can be registered as students and take such courses 
 in the University as their own professors recommend. It is usual, 
 for instance, for these students to attend our classes in Semitic Philo- 
 logy, Philosophy, History, English Literature, etc." 
 
 At the University of Michigan the "Christian" church has, since 
 1893, maintained what are known as the Ann Arbor Bible Chairs for 
 the purpose of providing instruction of University grade in the Bible. 
 They have one building and a small but well trained faculty. More 
 than 1,700 students have taken one or more of these Bible courses 
 since the chairs were established. The Episcopal and Baptist 
 churches both maintain guild halls at the University for the benefit 
 of students of their respective communions. The Episcopal and 
 Baptist churches have also for some time maintained guild halls for 
 the oversight of students of their respective communions at the Uni- 
 versity of West Virginia and the Presbyterian church of that state is 
 moving in the same direction. Did time permit I should be pleased 
 to speak in detail of what the "Christian" church, the Northern and 
 Southern Presbyterians and the Episcopalians have done and are 
 doing at the University of Missouri ; what the Baptists have done and 
 plan to do at the University of Washington; what the Episcopalians, 
 the Lutherans and Presbyterians are doing in Nebraska; what the 
 Presbyterians have just done in Kansas, and what the Congregation- 
 alists are planning to do at the University of Wisconsin. I may note 
 in passing that on January 11th, 1905, two days after the date of the 
 memorandum between the President of the State University and the 
 President of the Methodist school in North Dakota, the Northwestern 
 Christian advocate of Chicago published the report of a committee of 
 three, consisting of the presiding elder of the Champaign district, the 
 pastor of Parks Chapel in this city, and Professor T. J. Burrill of the 
 University of Illinois, addressed to the members of the Methodist 
 church of Illinois and recommending, in terms almost identical in 
 part with those of the North Dakota memorandum, the establishment 
 of a denominational college to be known as Wesley College in connec- 
 tion with the State University of Illinois. Similarly, at the last ses- 
 sion of the synod of Illinois, held in Springfield last October, a com- 
 mittee was appointed to consider the relations, or perhaps better, the 
 duties, if any, that existed between the Presbyterian church of Illi- 
 nois and the body of Presbyterian students at the University. This 
 committee has already prepared a plan which contemplates the plac- 
 ing of a good man at the University to look after the interests of the 
 
 (189) 
 
72 
 
 Presbyterian students. This is for the immediate future. Ultimately, 
 however, it is hoped to found a theological seminary of a nature best 
 fitted to supplement the University work. In October, 1901, the 
 Congregational church of America at its triennial council held in 
 Portland, Maine, passed the following resolution: "Resolved, That 
 this council regards with favor the project of establishing foundations 
 of a religious character in connection with our great state universities, 
 whose purpose shall be to provide pastoral care, religious instruction 
 and helpful Christian influence to the students there assembled, and 
 we heartily commend this enterprise to those of generous spirit as 
 in the highest degree worthy of their sympathy and their gifts." 
 Numerous other instances might be cited of resolutions passed and 
 tentative action taken by representative bodies of the different relig- 
 ious denominations looking to some form of cooperation between these 
 denominations and our great and rapidlv growing state universities, 
 but sufficient instances have been cited to show that the movement is 
 general throughout the country and that the great religious denomi- 
 nations of America are coming to recognize not onlv their duty to 
 the great numbers of young people of their several communions 
 enrolled as students at our state universities, but the expediency from 
 every point of view of changing their old-time attitude, often one of 
 neutrality, sometimes one of positive hostility toward the state uni- 
 versity into one of friendly cooperation. Perhaps I cannot better 
 give expression to the changed and changing attitude of the great 
 religious denominations of the country toward our state universities 
 than by quoting briefly from a pamphlet recently issued by President 
 Robertson of Wesley College, North Dakota, apropos of the new 
 policy adopted by the Methodist church in our state: "In the last 
 analysis, those who found the state university and those who found 
 church colleges are one and the same people. It is clear that all 
 citizens united can give the state university richer endowment by 
 common taxation than groups of citizens can give denominational 
 colleges by private donation. It is also perfectly clear that by the 
 complete separation of the state university from church colleges the 
 larger relative importance given to religious instruction will be in the 
 church colleges, and, consequently, from them may be expected the 
 larger religious and denominational returns." 
 
 "Grant both propositions and what have we still but an irrational 
 separation of two agencies founded bv the same people for their sons 
 and daughters, who are exhorted to attend the church school for 
 religious advantages, and urged to attend the state university because 
 of superior equipment. * * * "To relate these two activities in 
 time and place is the dictate of reason and common interest. * * * 
 Good citizens want their youth to be loyal to the church, and good 
 church men are men of civic devotion. To be compelled to choose 
 
 (190) 
 
16 
 
 between church and state loyalty in selecting a college home for the 
 son or daughter has caused deep perplexity. The new idea solves 
 the difficulty. Civic pride and religious devotion join in one call to 
 the highest type of culture and for the service and honor of the state 
 and church." This quotation from President Robertson may be 
 accepted as representing the attitude of the more progressive element 
 of the Christian Church in American to-day. 
 
 In the following respects it is believed that the movement which 
 has been inaugurated in North Dakota touches high-water mark in 
 the general movement toward state and denominational cooperation 
 in educational work. 
 
 1. There will be no duplication of work in the two institutions. 
 
 2. A vear's work, quasi theological in character, done by the 
 students of Wesley College in their own institution may be credited 
 toward the B. A. degree in the State University. This concession 
 the State University can safely make, for it retains full right to judge 
 of the quality of work done in the other institution, while denomi- 
 national pride and interest alike will prompt the cooperating institu- 
 tion to make its work of a character to compare favorably with that 
 done in the State University. The subjects for which credit may be 
 given by the State University, while not perhaps the conventional 
 academic subjects, have yet had long and honorable recognition in 
 the curricula of some of the oldest and most honored colleges in the 
 land. In these days of broad electives who shall say that the study 
 of New Testament Greek, Church History, Bible History, Biblical 
 literature and the Evidences of Christianity is not as truly educational 
 and may not as truly contribute to liberal culture as many of the 
 electives offered by our state universities in their B. A. or equivalent 
 courses? It is now generally admitted by educational leaders that it 
 is the method of study rather than the content studied that determines 
 educational values. 
 
 3. The affiliated college, by retaining its degree-conferring power, 
 retains thereby in large measure its independent identity and there is 
 thus removed one of the strongest objections urged by denominational 
 schools, already established, against affiliation. To what extent this 
 independent degree-conferring power will be exercised by the affiliated 
 school in practice is, of course, yet to be determined. In any event, 
 as three-fourths of the work on which its degree, if granted, will be 
 based will have to be done in the State University and the remaining 
 one-fourth must be of a quality to be approved by the State Univer- 
 sity, there is little fear that the degree of the affiliated college, if 
 granted at all, will be discredited or will represent a low standard of 
 attainment on the part of its recipients. 
 
 The great ends to be gained by the cooperation of state and church 
 schools are, of course, economv and a wise conservation of energy. 
 
 (191) 
 
74 
 
 The gain in economy alone ought to be decisive. The members of 
 this conference certainly do not need to be reminded that modern 
 institutions of higher education are exceedingly costly enterprises. 
 Four of our state universities received during the last school 
 year incomes in excess of half a million each; nine an income in 
 excess of a quarter of a million each ; and twenty-four an in- 
 come in excess of $100,000 each. Fifteen of them possess plants 
 representing an investment of more than a million dollars each. Were 
 the different church schools in each commonwealth to group them- 
 selves about the State University their students would receive the 
 same instruction as those of the State University without a penny of 
 cost to the several denominations and with only an insignificant in- 
 crease of cost to the state. The children of the church schools would be 
 under exactly the same religious instruction and influence as at present, 
 while receiving in addition the inspiration which comes from the vigor- 
 ous intellectual life of the whole University. For students in a theo- 
 logical seminary such a connection is especially valuable, tending as 
 it does to make them broad and tolerant and affording an intellectual 
 stimulus which no detached theological seminary can offer. This in- 
 fluence, indeed, is reciprocal, the life of the University gaining, per- 
 haps, in spiritual quickening and uplift quite as much as it contributes 
 in the way of intellectual stimulus. 
 
 One of the weightiest arguments for cooperation is one, until 
 recently, rarely urged, viz., the distinctly religious influence which the 
 churches would in this way bring to bear upon the great body of young 
 people, many of them from homes not conspicuously religious, who 
 are receiving their training in our state universities. It seems to me 
 that no such opportunity for effective home missionary work was ever 
 before presented to our great religious denominations and the field is 
 one which will be constantly and rapidly widening. The growth of 
 our state universities is certainly one of the startling phenomena of 
 our time. During the ten years from 1895 to 1905 the eight leading 
 colleges of New England, — Amherst, Bowdoin, Brown, Dartmouth, 
 Harvard, Williams, Wesleyan, and Yale, all founded as denomina- 
 tional colleges, increased their attendance twenty-eight per cent. 
 The eight representative colleges of the north central states, Beloit, 
 Carleton, Cornell, Hinsdale, Iowa College, Lawrence, Ripon and 
 Knox, — all denominational colleges and all competitors, as the New 
 England colleges were not, of strong state universities, decreased 
 their attendance about one per cent. During the same period the 
 eight representative state universities, — California, Illinois, Iowa, 
 Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Nebraska, and Wisconsin, increased 
 their attendance more than ninety-three per cent. The total attend- 
 ance in the eight state universities named was eighty-six per cent, 
 greater than that of the sixteen denominational colleges together, and 
 
 (192) 
 
far more than twice as great if we omit the enrollment in the prepara- 
 tory departments of the eight denominational colleges of the north 
 central division of states. These statistics are cited with no invidious 
 intent, but simply to show what a magnificent opportunity our great 
 religious denominations have to impress themselves religiously upon 
 the voung men and young women who, in rapidly increasing numbers, 
 are thronging the halls of our great state universities. In our older 
 communities where the different denominations have large sums tied 
 up in costly and elaborate plants, the difficulties of such a union as I 
 have suggested are not to be underrated ; but in all our newer western 
 states where several of the great denominations have not yet started 
 schools of their own and where no denomination has as yet spent any 
 considerable sum in buildings and equipment, the question I have 
 raised is at least worthy of the most careful consideration. Should 
 the churches respond to the invitations for cooperation which have 
 been extended bv most, if not all, of our state universities, they will 
 find there no uncongenial atmosphere. No more vigorous Christian 
 Associations of young people are to be found anywhere than at our 
 state universities. As a communicant of one of our great religious 
 denominations and at the same time as one who has seen much of 
 student life at many of our great western state universities, I repudiate 
 with President Northrop the imputation "that our state institutions 
 of higher learning are not religious in the best sense of the word, and 
 that their graduates do not go out into life with as genuine a respect 
 for Christianity and as good a conception of what Christianity is as 
 the students of any institution in the land. " I have at hand no data, 
 if such exists, to show what proportion of the professors and instructors 
 in our state universities are communicants of Christian churches, but 
 I know that in my own institution, out of thirty-five members of our 
 general faculty (not including our professional schools) all but one are 
 communicants of a Christian church. A recent census at the Uni- 
 versity of North Dakota showed all but twelve and one-half per cent, 
 of the students reached to be professing Christians and church mem- 
 bers. A religious census of our state universities taken by Professor 
 Kelsey of the Universitv of Michigan some years ago showed fifty-seven 
 and one-half per cent, of the students in the leading state universities 
 of the country to be communicants of Christian churches. Of course, 
 a very large proportion of the remaining forty-two and one-half per 
 cent, were church adherents and regular church attendants. It is 
 stated, on what should be good authority,- that in each of our great 
 western state universities with possibly two exceptions, each religious 
 denomination in the state is represented by a larger number of com- 
 municants among the student body than are to be found in its own 
 church college in the same state. If this is true, it would seem to 
 afford sufficient reason why the denominations should begin to do 
 
 (193) 
 
76 
 
 something, in a systematic way, toward looking after the spiritual 
 welfare of that important part of their membership which is to be 
 found in the State Universities. 
 
 No one, of course, may undertake to say what is the comparative 
 value in God's sight of two human souls. But in view of the parable 
 of the talents one may be permitted to entertain the belief that the 
 very flower of our American youth, who are to be found in our State 
 Universities to-day, are, individual for individual, in the sight of God, 
 worthy of as much attention from our great religious denominations 
 as are the naked savages who roam the jungles of Africa and the bar- 
 baric or semi-civilized hordes who swarm on the plains of China or the 
 banks of the Ganges. This conference affords gratifying evidence that, 
 in the matter of our State Universities our churches are awakening to 
 a sense of their higher duty and splendid opportunity. 
 
 DISCUSSION 
 
 W. J. Lahamon, A.m. 
 Dean of the Bible College of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri 
 
 I wish simply to make a statement of the movement in adjustment 
 to the University of Missouri. 
 
 The work was begun, as I remember, about nine years ago in a 
 series of lectures by Dr. W. T. Moore, recently returned from London. 
 Four years ago, I was called to assist him in the work, and later I was 
 placed at the head of it. During these nine years we have succeeded 
 in endowing the institution to the amount of fifty thousand dollars, 
 and we now have property that represents thirty-five to forty thousand 
 dollars. Last March we completed the erection of a most beautiful 
 and commodious building on a lot directly east of the university 
 campus and immediately across the street from the academic building 
 of the university. A speaker preceding me referred to buildings of this 
 sort that should not only accornmodate the Bible College movement, 
 but should be used also as dormitories. This is our plan precisely. 
 By adjusting our work to the University of Missouri in such a way that 
 we can send our young men into the university for all of their academic 
 work, we are enabled to confine our biblical and our ministerial work in a 
 comparatively small space. We can put this work on the first floor of 
 our building for years to come. We devote the second and third 
 stories of the building to dormitories. We have thirty rooms in the 
 building for occupancy by students, and these rooms are all filled at 
 present. The building, therefore, is netting us a rather handsome 
 income. The gross income from it will be not far from twenty-five 
 hundred dollars a year. 
 
 In addition to this, we are furnishing a commodious, and moral 
 and ethical home, a home surrounded with Christian and ethical 
 influences, for a large body of young men. 
 
 (194) 
 
77 
 
 1 have already indicated to you that we are incorporated as a 
 college. It is our aim to put the work in this college on a par with the 
 work in the colleges of the University of Missouri, so that ultimately 
 we hope we shall be able to receive credits in the Universitv of Missouri 
 for work done in the Bible College of Missouri, while we ourselves are 
 already giving credits to young men who come to us from the Univer- 
 sity of Missouri. 
 
 The young men who enter our college to make preparation for the 
 ministry take, as I have said, all their academic and scientific and 
 philosophical work in the University of Missouri. It is simply a 
 matter of adjustment. 
 
 I have been asked since I came into your communitv what relation- 
 ship we bear to the University of Missouri, and I always answer, 
 "officially none. " We feel that there should be no official connection 
 between the denominational school and the state school. Our insti- 
 tution is w^holly our own ; it is managed by our own teachers and trus- 
 tees, and is simply in adjustment to the university. There is simply 
 the relationship of hospitality between these two institutions, and I 
 may say that as far as I know all the members of the faculty of the 
 University of Missouri have been wholly courteous and hospitable to 
 the movement. 
 
 I would like to speak on some of the propositions that were made 
 on the floor to-day. It was suggested, for instance, that the religious 
 need of state universities might be met by university pastors, and it 
 was still further suggested that the religious needs might be met also 
 by the religious character of the instructors in the state universities. 
 I feel justified in suggesting to you this evening that while all of this is 
 good as far as it goes, there is a large field of biblical work that cannot 
 be done by university professors from their chairs and that cannot be 
 done by university pastors. The Bible demands specialists for its 
 presentation, and university pastors as such can scarcely be expected 
 to engage in this work, and however Christlike the instructors in our 
 state universities may be they cannot do it for obvious reasons. 
 
 We believe it is competent for us to build our church schools, col- 
 leges, theological seminaries, whatever they may be called, in prox- 
 imity, as has been said, to the state universities, and to do a work that 
 shall compare favorably with the work that is being done in the 
 universities, and successfully to commend biblical and ministerial 
 work to the young men and women who are thronging our state uni- 
 versity centers in increasing numbers. There must be, in such centers, 
 the presentation of biblical truth in academic ways, and there arises, 
 therefore, the necessity for such institutions as this. 
 
 It has been suggested that one great theological institution or 
 biblical institution would meet the needs better than a number of 
 small ones. I should heartily concur in that opinion if it were not an 
 
 (195) 
 
78 
 
 impossibility for the present. If it were possible for us all to unite 
 as biblical students and teachers, without reference to denominationa 
 predilections in great institutions, that would be very much better, 
 but it is a far-off event. We must necessarily limit ourselves to 
 present possibilities. 
 
 We are reaching between two and three hundred students in the 
 University of Missouri and in other institutions in Columbia. I have 
 a class numbering from forty to fifty in the Normal Academy in Co- 
 lumbia, managed and owned by Professor George H. Beasley, who is a 
 Methodist. I go to this class once a week with a lecture on the life of 
 Jesus and on New Testament history. I have a class of thirty young 
 women who are taking lecture work in Christian College. We have 
 over a hundred students of the University of Missouri signed up with 
 us for work in such lines as Old and New Testament History, the 
 literature of the Bible, the legislation of the Hebrews, and similar 
 courses. My colleague, Prof. Charles Manford Sharpe, has charge of 
 the work in the Old Testament, and is conducting a number of suc- 
 cessful classes. I have a friend in Columbia who was an ardent ad- 
 mirer of Thomas Jefferson, and I have been assured by him that in the 
 United States at least, the idea of adjusting biblical work to our state 
 universities originated with that great man. The plan is familiar to 
 those of us who have been on the other side of the line, in Canada. I 
 understand it is the rule in Australia, and I join with many of you here 
 this evening in the hope that it shall be so in America at no distant 
 date. 
 
 Reverend William S. Marquis, D.D. 
 Moderator of the Illinois Synod of the Presbyterian Church, Rock Island, 
 
 Illinois 
 
 It is significant that in a week of festivities and exercises such as 
 you have enjoyed in the inauguration of the president of the state 
 university, one day should be given to this subject. And these re- 
 ports which we hear from every direction, of a common movement 
 upon this subject, indicates that it is a real problem, — a somewhat 
 acute problem, — and reveals the American manner of solving it. I 
 rejoice sincerely that it also reveals the spirit of unity and freedom 
 among Christian brethren, that they can meet and discuss this prob- 
 lem. 
 
 A committee was appointed one year ago by the Synod of Illinois 
 to investigate this subject; to inquire what we, as a denomination in 
 this commonwealth, could do for the students from our own homes in 
 the state university. We recognized the fact that there was a large 
 Christian influence here; we recognized the faithful work of our 
 churches in these two cities and of their pastors; we recognized, and 
 
 (196) 
 
79 
 
 have been helping to support, the Young Men's Christian Association 
 which has been doing such magnificent work in this direction, — a 
 work in which we are all interested and united. But we felt that 
 there was something more needed ; and so this committee was appointed 
 to seek for the solution. It brought in its report to-dav, and as the 
 result of that report, this resolution was adopted: 
 
 "That the Synod take steps to employ immediately a suitable 
 man for religious work among the students of the University of Illi- 
 nois, whose duties shall be to give a course in biblical instruction to 
 such students as will take it, and, as a student pastor, to bring to 
 bear all possible personal influence for a Christian life upon the in- 
 dividual student. 
 
 "Second, that arrangements be made to establish at or convenient 
 to the university a weekly or bi-weekly preaching service, and to 
 secure for it the ablest preachers possible from the Presbvterian pulpit, 
 especially of Illinois, pending the securing of the student pastor. 
 
 "Third, w^e recommend also that your committee on Christian 
 education be instructed to take steps to secure a fund- sufficient for the 
 support of the student pastor, and to take charge of this whole matter 
 together with such sub-committee as it may deem necessary." 
 
 As you will observe, this is but a beginning. It is in the direction 
 of some experiments of which you have heard, and perhaps will hear 
 more to-night. It is not so ambitions a step as that of which we have 
 just been hearing from in Dakota and in Missouri. It is the same 
 step which I understand was taken yesterday by the Baptist Asso- 
 ciation of Illinois, and we trust it will be productive of great good. 
 I may say that the idea of the "Affiliated Christian College," which 
 has been presented here to-night is the idea which I have longed to see 
 adopted. I speak now as an individual, not as the representative of 
 the Synod. I can but hope that these beginnings, — such as the reso- 
 lutions of our Synod and of the Baptist Association contemplate, — 
 may grow into this higher ideal, — the "Affiliated Christian College." 
 It has been spoken of as "chimerical ; " but let us keep on thinking and 
 talking about it until it has been realized. Let us set it before our 
 minds as the thing to be achieved, — a Christian college representing 
 all branches of the Christian Church; in which each denomination 
 shall have its individual professor, or professors, to do its distinctive 
 work, but wherein the points we hold in common will be taught in 
 common. Thus united Christianity will stand beside the state uni- 
 versity emphasizing in a material way and in an educational way the 
 real unity of the Christian Church. 
 
 It has been said that "visions are essential to tasks." We know 
 it is so. No man ever climbed to the glittering peak of a mountain 
 unless a vision of himself as the conqueror of nature led him on. No 
 man ever attains to the heights of learning without a similar vision. 
 
 (197) 
 
80 
 
 And this vision of a great united Christian College standing beside the 
 state university and affiliated with it, is a vision worthy to be cherished 
 that it mav be attained. It is the visoin of the motto written on the 
 walls of this church. The vision set before us in the chapter read, — a 
 vision of Christ the ideal man, whose character is the goal of all true 
 education. 
 
 "There is no such thing," sa3's a great educator, "as physical 
 education, or intellectual education or spiritual education." it is only 
 when you combine all of these that you have true education. That 
 is what we all desire ; it is what we are all seeking in the plans discussed 
 in this conference. The Synod of the Presbyterian Church in Illinois 
 is grateful for an opportunity to have a voice in your deliberations and 
 to lay before you the action which has been taken to-day. 
 
 David Ross Boyd, Ph.D. 
 President, the University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma 
 
 I represent a small state unversity, say of six hunderd to a thousand 
 students. The attempt was made at the University of Oklahoma the 
 year of its organization, by the Methodists, to establish a Hall, but it 
 failed because of the necessity that the Methodist church was under 
 at that time of using all the money that it had at its command in 
 establishing its churches and in taking care of the people that were 
 settling in the new country. Since then the development of the Terri- 
 tory of Oklahoma has been so rapid in population that this condition 
 has continued. There have been some attempts at founding educa- 
 tional institutions, but none as yet have been established so as to have 
 a real footing. We are therefore in the condition of having almost all 
 the education of higher grade administered by state institutions. We 
 have the state university, the agricultural and mechanical college and 
 three normal schools, with an aggregate attendance of about thirty- 
 five hundred students. The number of students in the communion 
 of any one denomination or preferring any one denomination is so 
 small that it would not be practical for a separate student pastor to 
 be provided, as has been planned for larger institutions. But the 
 local pastors in a small town such as ours, and as I remember the new 
 universities in territories and in a number of the western states are in 
 towns not larger than from three to six thousand people, are able in a 
 great degree to take care of the spiritual necessities of the students. 
 In our institution the student, on entering the university, fills out an 
 application card and answers a number of questions, among which is, 
 "What is your church preference? Are vou a member?" — and each 
 pastor is invited to take all these names, especially those who express 
 a preference for his church, and also the names of those who express 
 no preference, and to receive them into the church. And then, after 
 
 (198) 
 
the day of enrollment, we have mailing cards so that the registrar 
 may send the name of the student to the pastor of the church for 
 which the student has expressed a preference. 
 
 I think what would help more than anything else now would be to 
 get statistics of the conditions as they exist at the present time 
 similar to those collected by Dr. Kelsey some years ago, for the pur- 
 pose of circulation in all denominations, and especially in the state 
 universities. The need I think is to proceed intelligently, observing 
 the axiomatic principle, that no education, no teaching that is effectual 
 can be done by authority, that no instruction can be imposed upon 
 any one, that that instruction which is most effective is that which is 
 received gladly and voluntarily, and that religious instruction must 
 have this characteristic in precisely the same way as instruction in 
 the science and in the arts. 
 
 I should like to note one thing. I think Professor Bryan alluded 
 to-day to the fact, which I think is a significant one, that very few 
 candidates for the ministry come from the state universities. He 
 spoke very truly when he pointed out that this was on account of a 
 lack of a strong personality bringing itself to bear upon the individuals 
 that would be eligible to the call of the ministry and to impress upon 
 them properly the importance of this calling, by setting it before them 
 in a proper way. However, I can say for myself, and I think I voice 
 the feeling of those who are interested in the state universities when I 
 say it, we admit this, and it is deeply to be regretted, but at the same 
 time, I wish to remind you that the efficient, influential, hard working 
 layman in a church is of equal importance with the minister himself, 
 the efficient, influential laymen are coming from this large enrollment 
 of young men and young women that are going out from the univer- 
 sities. It is therefore just as important that we look out for these 
 young men and young women in the state universities for the sake of 
 their value to the church after they leave the university, as it is to 
 look out that the needs of the churches are supplied with candidates 
 for the ministry. 
 
 Another point I wish to mention, and that is the point that was 
 made by a preceding speaker, in which he points out the conditions 
 that you get in a number of small biblical schools representing each 
 denomination rather than one large, comprehensive theological semi- 
 nary. I suggest that possibly each denomination should have one 
 person to teach the distinctive things of his education, and then some 
 one that would teach all those things that are held by us in common. 
 Now, for myself, I have attended divine service in a number of 
 churches, but for many years I do not recall a single sermon that 
 appeared to me could not have been delivered with the same propriety 
 in any of the churches. And it occurs to me that if all these denomi- 
 nations were grouped around the state universities, their inter-rela- 
 
 (199) 
 
82 
 
 tions and their mutual discoveries may lead to a unity such as will be 
 helpful to all of us in a grand unity to which we are now looking for- 
 ward. 
 
 Again, my friends, the university itself is a great organization. 
 Surrounded with such spiritual influences as these, it will find its 
 greatest inspiration and help. It occurs to me that if here and there 
 an instructor were so indiscreet, not to say evil, as to make sarcastic 
 remarks about the sanitary conditions or about the ventilation of the 
 ark, with a university surrounded by such influences he certainly 
 would be wise enough not to do it even if he felt the impulse to do it. 
 So the university itself would feel the stimulus and the potent influence 
 of this thing which I think it lacks at the present time. 
 
 Reverend Francis A. Wilber, D.D. 
 Principal of Westminster House, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans. 
 
 The question has confronted us in Kansas, in the theoretic stage, 
 as our experimentation has been recent and brief, and precedents are 
 few; but it is theory shaped in the light of experience elsewhere, and 
 emphasizing methods of detail. For instance, the very question 
 which Professor Gray put to me this afternoon, suggested itself at the 
 outset, viz: "What name shall I give to the work, and what title to 
 my office?" Respecting one's attitude toward the student body, the 
 term "Student Pastor" seemed, all thing considered, to be the most 
 suggestive and self-explanatory. To localize the idea, the academic 
 term "House" easily suggested itself; and because the enterprise is 
 promoted and supported by Presbyterians, we decided to call the 
 student pastor "Principal of Westminster House." So much for 
 the evolution of the name ; the next thing to be considered is' the status 
 of the office itself, which implies a threefold relationship, viz., to the 
 church, to the university, and to the student body. 
 
 With respect to the church, of course one's attitude toward his 
 denomination, if he happens to represent one, is of vital importance. 
 Let me illustrate this by reference to the various forms of initiative in 
 the Presbyterian church, with which I am most familiar. In Michigan 
 and Illinois, for example, the Synod has taken the initiative, by assum- 
 ing responsibility and control from the oustet, providing for the ex- 
 pense of administration either by a direct charge upon the church at 
 large throughout the state, as in Michigan, or by accepting the gener- 
 ous offer of a private individual to assume the expense of experiment, 
 as in Illinois. In Kansas the Synod took preliminary steps, by ap- 
 pointing a committee of advisement; the experiment was actually 
 launched by the pastor of the Lawrence church, Rev. Dr. Willis G. 
 Banker, and a number of generous Presbyterians, who undertook to 
 experiment upon the general plan, pending the discussion of policy 
 
 (200) 
 
83 
 
 in the Synod. Thus you see the Synod is not financially responsible 
 for the enterprise, in its present stage, as it did not initiate it. I 
 ought to say, however, in passing, that the Synod has given it a most 
 hearty endorsement, which is all the more significant, as it is deeply 
 interested in the success of its own Synodical College. Its sole re- 
 sponsibility is expressed in a strongly worded resolution of endorse- 
 ment, and the appointment of a committee, at our request, to inspect 
 the work done, and report annually to the Synod. It is intended 
 eventually to incorporate that committee as a board of trustees. 
 Thus you see that the relation of the Synod to the project is purely 
 sympathetic and advisory. 
 
 As to the relation of the student pastor to the local church, our 
 experiment in Kansas is perhaps unique. He is not, as I understand 
 is the case in Michigan, the assistant of the local pastor. Dr. Banker 
 and I work together very cordially. It is understood that I am to 
 use his pulpit in ways not prejudicial to his own work, cooperating with 
 him in making a church home for the students, and affording to me 
 an opportunity to address them upon topics specially connected with 
 our Bible work or practical Christian life. I am in no sense a pastor 
 of the church, but only a member of the congregation. Here, too, the 
 relation is purely sympathetic and advisory. In connection with 
 the Church Bible School I conduct a Bible class, composed wholly of 
 University students; and these join freely and helpfully in the work 
 of the Y. P. S. C. E. We cultivate this relation of students with the 
 local church chiefly for social fellowship, to compensate, as far as 
 possible, for the sundering of religious ties with the home church. 
 
 I wish to speak, thirdly, of the relation of the student pastorate to 
 the university itself. Here, again, the relation is pure sympathetic. 
 My standing with the faculty of the University of Kansas is one of 
 mere social courtesy. Of cordiality I have had abundant and em- 
 phatic proofs; but the University assumes no responsibility whatever 
 for our work, beyond an official resolution, strongly worded and passed 
 unanimously by the board of regents, in which the value of this kind 
 of academic work was appreciatively recognized. I cannot see how 
 the position of the student pastor could have been strengthened by 
 his election to the rank of a college professor, as has been done else- 
 where. Indeed I have been led by a study of the problem to the con- 
 viction that the very weakness of the college pastorate, as such, 
 which seems to be generally conceded by the graduates of prominent 
 Eastern institutions, lies principally in the fact that the pastor was a 
 member of the faculty. A friend of mine, who is himself a city pastor 
 under the shadow of one of our largest universities, told me that the 
 college pastor is looked upon by the students as a faculty spy. I have 
 been assured by Chancellor Strong, of Kansas State University, 
 himself a Yale man, that the failures to which I have referred would 
 
 (201) 
 
/ 
 
 84 
 
 probably be avoided in Kansas, from the very fact that the pastorate 
 proposed to have no official connection with the University. This, I 
 think, is the true theory of the case. If the work done is efficient and 
 acceptable, the position will get proper recognition; if the plan should 
 prove impracticable, the faculty would have no responsibility for the 
 experiment. 
 
 The regents of the Kansas State University have promised that 
 when the work shall have approved itself, and established a given 
 academic standard, it shall be recognized by assigning to it credits in 
 an elective course, in the same way as is done with study equivalents 
 in other departments. In other words, there shall be no prejudice 
 created against scholarly study of the Bible because it entrenches 
 upon the subject of religion. 
 
 It would seem that such a liberal course would help to attract 
 students to our classes who might not otherwise join them. I know 
 it is said that if young people wish to take Bible study, they will do 
 so with or without the credit system. On the other hand, many come 
 to college with small means, and with the fixed idea that all their time 
 must be employed in working for a degree ; and if they could get credit 
 for the time employed in Bible study, they would elect it; not for the 
 purpose of "cinch" or "bunco" that is to avoid thorough work, but 
 to acquire scholarly and scientific methods for study of the Bible. 
 As a matter of fact, our classes are drawn from the most earnest and 
 intellectual groups of the student body. 
 
 A most important factor in this whole problem is the attitude 
 taken by the student class toward this movement. The personal 
 equation has much to do with its successful solution. Under 
 the voluntary system proposed, you cannot attract them unless they 
 like you. The relation is pre-eminently a confidential one, as the 
 name "Pastor" itself implies. It must be a matter of offered help 
 and willing response, upon a basis of thorough frankness and sym- 
 pathy. In the University of Kansas we ofiFer Bible courses, as they 
 do elsewhere, notably in the University of Missouri; and I can say 
 that the response has been quite flattering. Dr. Payne, of the 
 Christian church, has for three years conducted a "Bible Chair," 
 along lines which I have described, and with marked success; so that 
 the experiment in our institution may be said to have passed its 
 critical stage. The Christian church deserves the honor of being the 
 pioneer in the founding of Bible Chairs in state universities. 
 
 The work which we propose to undertake will, however, be a 
 larger one than the term "Bible Chair" would indicate. The "Stu- 
 dent Pastorate" will include, in our use of it, a twofold function, the 
 academic and the personal. Academically, we shall offer courses of 
 study in the English Bible and its original languages; in Christian 
 Missions, theism, and the Harmony of Science and Religion; with now 
 
 (202) 
 
85 
 
 and then a Round Table, at which matters of concern to students shall 
 have social discussion. In this way we shall attempt to put our work 
 upon what I may call an academic foundation. I hardly see how one 
 who comes into the University circle can command the interest of the 
 students, unless he avowedly adopts the university spirit. Here lies 
 his advantage over the local pastor, who stands necessarily more or 
 less outside of the university, being "town," and not "gown." One 
 should, if possible, reside in the student quarter, and mingle freely 
 and constantly with the student body, to do his best work with and 
 for the individual student. 
 
 In accordance with this theory, my home is called "Westminster 
 House," where my wife and myself dispense a cordial hospitality to 
 all students, not only for social intercourse, but, what also is far more 
 important, for personal acquaintance and confidential friendship. If 
 I conceive this problem correctly, it is in the personal touch that the 
 real secret of helpfulness will lie. One must be able to come into 
 close contact with young people in their thinking and their aspirations, 
 in their strivings and their questionings, perhaps in their failings and 
 their fallings, and if God will, in their struggles and triumphs. A 
 young lady who took tea with us last Sabbath evening, said to my wife 
 as she went away: "You don't know what a blessed thing it is for me 
 to come into a home. I have been in a boarding-house ever since I 
 came here, and I am home-sick." We have discovered that girls 
 away at school want mothering; young men, too, want brothering. 
 Young people need something that no college curriculum can give to 
 them; thev need a friend. Sometimes, in their heart experience they 
 are at the parting of the ways, and they need someone to come to 
 them, not in an official way, or with a wisdom, but with an outstretched 
 hand and a sympathetic heart. It seems to me that this personal 
 work, the personal equation, as I have called it, is the most important 
 factor, after all, in this complex problem. What we need, as was 
 reiterated to-day, is life, the life more abundant. Books alone can- 
 not impart it. It comes through contact with others. Life alone 
 can impart life. We must furnish our young people with those sug- 
 gestive lines of study which the secular curriculum of the university 
 is unable to furnish, and to lead them, in the most critical period of 
 their life, to a right decision in religion. The opportunity for useful- 
 ness thus afforded is most promising, I may say most alluring; enough 
 to attract one from the ordinary work of the ministry into a work 
 which has no statistics, and no growth that can be chronicled; a work 
 which is like casting bread upon the waters, hoping it to come back 
 after many days. It is a humble and unostentatious work, like all 
 foundation -building; but if planned broadly, and built with the Divine 
 materials ever at hand, it has in it the prophecy of a great super- 
 structure for the honor of Christ and His church. Success must 
 
 (203) 
 
86 
 
 crown our efforts, if we build after the Divine plan, "that our sons 
 may be as plants, grown up in their youth ; that our daughters may be 
 as cornerstones, polished after the similitude of a palace." 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS DISCUSSION 
 
 Reverend E. L. Rivard, C.S.V., D.D., Ph.D. 
 Professor in St. Viatetir's College, Bourbonnais, Illinois 
 
 Nothing is more significant in the field of intellectuality and moral- 
 ity than the appeal made on the part of this great center of enlighten- 
 ment to the Church, and consequently we welcome this movement and 
 feel encouraged in its ultimate hope of a wise solution of problems 
 because of the friendly unanimity with which discussion has been 
 entered into by the diverse religious bodies here represented. 
 
 Now, it seems to me that since the appeal is made by the university 
 to the church, that the churches must act as churches. Every church 
 or denomination is distinct from every other by reason of the distinct 
 meaning it takes from the Bible, the way that it looks upon religious 
 duty, its various positive religious tenets and practices. I take it 
 upon myself to say to you that all the parents of the young Catholic 
 students who are here in this university will applaud any movement 
 that will more securely place their sons and daughters in the hands 
 of the residing pastor, the popular Father Cannon, Pastor of St. 
 Patrick's Church. And I do not doubt that the parents of other 
 students will applaud likewise any movement that will insure the prop- 
 agation of their religious convictions, so that when these young men 
 and young women leave this great institution, they will not return 
 home with an intellectual equipment only that will insure their practi- 
 cal success in life, but they will return with their religious convictions 
 deepened and broadened proportionately with their intellectual educa- 
 tion. 
 
 It seems to me, therefore, that the work of religious education, so 
 far as it relates to the student body, is to be done by the local churches, 
 and the pastors must adopt such means as will seem to them best to 
 accomplish this end through a consideration of such subjects as the 
 evidences of Christianity, the philosophy of religion, and the treat 
 ment of questions that are on a parallel with the mental development 
 of the students who attend the university. It seems to me that if 
 this method is followed out we shall reap the best results, and then we 
 shall certainly have done our country and our State the best service 
 that we are able to render in the present conditions. 
 
 (204) 
 
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 
 instalIation 
 
 OF 
 
 Edmund Janes James, Ph. D., LL. D. 
 
 AS PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 PART III. 
 
 PROCEEDINGS OF 
 THE CONFERENCE ON COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 
 
 October i9-20, 1905 
 
 Edited by George M, Fisk, Ph. D. 
 
 Price One Dollar 
 
 Urbana, 1906 
 
Copyright 1906 
 By The University of Illinois 
 
 Press op The 
 
 Illinois Printing Company 
 
 Danville, Illinois 
 
PREFATORY NOTE 
 
 For the purpose of discussing some of the important problems 
 connected with the recent development of higher commercial educa- 
 tion a conference was held at Ann Arbor, Michigan, in 1903 under the 
 auspices of the Michigan Political Science Association. The success 
 of this conference led to the suggestion on the part of those who par- 
 ticipated in it, that other conferences be held from time to time for the 
 purpose of discussing some of the new questions which were bound 
 to come up in regard to different phases of commercial education. 
 
 It was thought well, therefore, to hold a second conference on the 
 general subject, at the University of Illinois, in connection with the 
 exercises of the installation of Dr. Edmund J. James as President of 
 the University. The conference met and held four sessions, accord- 
 ing to the program below. 
 
 (207) 
 
PROGRAM 
 
 First Session: 9:00 a.m., Thursday, October 19 
 Mr. Andrew McLeish, of Chicago, Presiding 
 Address of Welcome: Dean David Kinley. 
 
 General Subject: The Aim and Scope of University Courses in Commerce. 
 Address: The Essentials of a Course in University Com.mercial Education: 
 Professor John Cummings, University of Chicago. 
 
 Discussion : — 
 
 Professor William A. Scott, University of Wisconsin. 
 
 Professor Ernest R. Dewsnup, University of Chicago. 
 
 Mr. Andrew McLeish, Chicago. 
 Address: Character of Instruction; Should it be Technical? Professor Harlow 
 
 S. Person, Dartmouth College; Professor Maurice H. Robinson, University 
 
 of Illinois. 
 Discussion: Professor Matthew B. Hammond, University of Ohio. 
 Second Session: 3:00 p.m., Thursday, October 19 
 Professor William A . Scott, University of Wisconsin, Presiding 
 General Subject: The Relation of High School Commercial Courses to Uni- 
 versity Courses. 
 Address : The Essentials of a High School Course in Comm.erce : Principal J . S. 
 
 Sheppard, N. Y. High School of Commerce. 
 Address: Correlation of High School and University Courses: Principal James 
 
 E. Armstrong, Englewood High School, Chicago. 
 
 Discussion: — 
 
 Principal F. D. Thom.pson, Galesburg High School. 
 Professor M. H. Robinson. 
 Superintendent E. G. Cooley, of Chicago. 
 Professor G. M. Fisk. 
 
 Superintendent T. C. Clendenen, of Cairo. 
 Professor D. E. Burchell, University of Wisconsin. 
 Professor M. B. Hammond, State University of Ohio. 
 Principal J. E. Armstrong, Englewood High School. 
 President G. W. Brown, of Brown's Business Colleges. 
 
 Third Session: 8:00 p.m., Thursday, October 19 
 Honorable William B. McKinley, M. C, Presiding 
 General Subject: Business Practice. 
 Address: How Shall We Teach Business Practice? Professor D. E. Burchell, 
 
 University of Wisconsin. 
 Discussion: Mr. G. W. Brown, President and Manager of Brown's Business 
 
 Colleges. 
 Address: What Business Men Want Young Men to Know: Mr. David R. 
 
 Forgan, First National Bank, Chicago. 
 Discussion: — 
 
 Mr. E. L. Scott, of Sears, Roebuck & Co., Chicago. 
 Hon. W. B. McKinley. 
 Address: Ethics of Business: Rt. Rev. E. W. Osborne, D.D., Bishop Co- 
 adjutor, Springfield, 111. 
 
 Fourth Session: 9:00 a.m., Friday, October 20 
 
 Professor Edward D. Jones, University of Michigan, Presiding 
 
 Address: Commercial Museum^s: Professor W. R. Patterson, University of Iowa. 
 
 Discussion : — 
 
 Mr. W. H. Schoff, Secretary Philadelphia Commercial Museums. 
 
 Professor H. S. Person, Dartmouth College. 
 Address: Commercial Organization: Professor J. S. Hagerty, Universityof Ohio. 
 Discussion: Mr. C. C. Parsons, of the Shaw-Walker Co., Chicago. 
 Address: Training for Governm.ent Service: Dr. E. D. Durand, of the U. S. 
 
 Bureau of Corporations. 
 Discussion: — 
 
 Dean David Kinley, University of Illinois. 
 
 Professor E. D. Jones, University of Michigan. 
 
 (208) 
 
FIRST SESSION 
 
 ADDRESS OF WELCOME 
 By Deax David Kixley 
 
 It is with much pleasure, alloyed with regret, that I have the privi- 
 lege of welcoming you to this conference on Commercial Education. 
 It is a pleasure, because it gives me an opportunity to greet you; it is 
 a source of regret because our President, who, I think, was the first, 
 and certainly is the most distinguished, exponent of the demand for 
 university education for business life, is not himself able to greet you. 
 I assure you, however, that your welcome is none the less hearty, and 
 I bring his greetings and his expression of good will and interest in 
 the work for which we are gathered. 
 
 It is a new thing in the educational world that we are gathered to 
 discuss. For a long time, colleges and universities have thought that 
 their field of work was to prepare young men and young women either 
 for one of the older professions or for no specific calling. They have 
 sought to lay an educational foundation for the study of law, theology, 
 medicine and teaching. They have not, until lately, regarded prepara- 
 tion for the higher positions in business life as worthy of their atten- 
 tion; nor have educational authorities supposed that the subject 
 matter of the studies that deal with business life were capable of 
 classification and systematization sufficient to make them available in 
 the college curriculum, or of sufficient logical intricacy to make them 
 valuable as a means of mental training. We see now the error of our 
 ways, in this respect. Many of us have recognized, and soon all of us 
 in colleges and universities will recognize, the truth of the statement 
 that the higher positions in business life may truly be regarded as 
 professional, and really demand a training as rigorous and as broad 
 as is called for in preparation for one of the learned professions. Hence 
 it is that so many of our higher institutions of learning have been 
 organizing courses in commerce, or courses of business training, or 
 schools, or colleges, of commerce. The aim, I need not remind you, 
 is to develop in young men mental and moral qualities that will fit 
 them for positions as superintendents, managers, presidents or direc- 
 tors of corporations and other forms of business organizations. 
 
 Of course we do not make the mistake of supposing that our 
 graduates are going into these high positions at once; our whole plea 
 lies in the claim that young men, trained as we are trying now to train 
 them, will rise more rapidly and attain a higher eminence and greater 
 success in business life than they would be likely to attain without 
 this training. 
 
 (209j 
 
Moreover, conditions of success in business in these days are more 
 intricate and difficult than ever before. In this country, we have 
 availed ourselves of the most easily utilized of our industrial oppor- 
 tunities. Whatever success we attain now, in international compe- 
 tition, industrial and commercial, can be attained only by working 
 with a skill and intelligence equal to those possessed by our keenest 
 competitors. In other words, business life now demands, in all de- 
 partments, men who are severelv trained, mentally and morally. 
 
 It may seem difficult to determine which of the two kinds of 
 training, mental or moral, conduces more to success in business life. 
 The difficulty, however, is really, after all, a simple one. We are 
 appalled to-day at the revelations of corruption, neglect of duty and 
 small sense of responsibility displayed by some of the heads of our 
 great corporations. I have in mind particularh^ the insurance inves- 
 tigations and certain recent bank defalcations. These experiences 
 lead us to the conclusion that, no matter how abundant and excellent 
 the facilities for mental training for business life, they will be of little 
 use in the long run, either for the individuals who get the benefit of 
 them or for the business development of our country, unless they rest 
 upon a stable foundation of integrity of character. Business life 
 needs a higher standard of ethics. Business morals need to be up- 
 lifted, purified; and one of the most important duties of the colleges 
 and universities in these courses of training for business life, is to set 
 high standards and new ideals of business morality before the young 
 men who are soon to carry on the business of the country and of the 
 world. 
 
 It is not true, as is sometimes said, that a man cannot be honest 
 and successful in business at the same time. There are firms, whose 
 business life extends through many years, whose reputation for 
 integrity has always been unsullied. In the ranks of business men, 
 there are many whose standards of moral conduct in business dealings 
 are as high, whose hands are as clean, whose business lives are as pure, 
 as those of anv other man in any other calling. Such men are an 
 inspiration to the young men who are looking forward to business life. 
 It is, therefore, with peculiar pleasure that I am able to introduce to 
 you, as chairman of 3'our session this morning, one who is an example 
 of the kind of man and whose business is an example of the kind of 
 business, which I have just mentioned; one of the greatest merchants 
 in the city of Chicago ; one whose long life has been devoted to mercan- 
 tile pursuits; one whose business and whose life, through all these 
 years, have been a shining example of uprightness, high ideals and strict 
 honor in all relations; and who, at the same time, possesses the keen 
 intellectual qualities and the native talent for business that make 
 great merchant princes. Such a merchant prince and, more than 
 that, such a man, I have the pleasure of presenting to you to-day in 
 
 (210) 
 
the person of Mr. Andrew MacLeish of the firm of Carson, Pirie, Scott 
 & Co. of Chicago. 
 
 Mr. McLeish responded gracefully in acknowledgment of Dean 
 Kinley's introduction, emphasized his agreement with the opinion 
 that a high standard of business ethics is essential to the best success, 
 and then called for the opening paper. 
 
 THE ESSENTIALS OF A COURSE IX UNIVERSITY COMMER- 
 CIAL EDUCATION 
 
 By Professor John Cummings, Ph.D. 
 University oj Chicago 
 
 The university commercial education means something different 
 from the professional training which the college gives. We are 
 brought to the question, how far can the university go in this direction 
 without sacrificing something of its high ideals of scholarship? How 
 far may university work be made technical? We watch the dissolu- 
 tion of the old courses with a good deal of trepidation and anxiety lest 
 our ideals of scholarship should be impaired and lowered and narrowed, 
 or lose in character. 
 
 Of course we are all familiar with the theory of education which is 
 still the theory upon which many institutions organize their work, that 
 exactly in proportion as university work has a utilitarian character, 
 exactly in that porportion and to that extent does it lose character 
 and educational value and encourage the tendencies which I have 
 in mind when I say the liberal arts course has been broken up. 
 
 We have seen the four years' course brought down to three and 
 there is a tendency to shorten it still more. One college president has 
 said that he believes a two year course is desirable. The first year of 
 professional schools like law and medicine is made the last year of the 
 liberal arts course, thus shortening the time of the professional course. 
 W^e find the schools insisting upon certain prerequisites which shall be 
 taken in college before the student can enter these professional schools. 
 That gives the liberal arts course this bearing, and leads to this organi- 
 zation of the work with reference to the professional schools. Classics 
 are largely excluded from the liberal courses excepting for those who 
 are fitting themselves to teach them. Finally we have seen the work 
 of undergraduates organized under such general headings as schools of 
 philosophy, of commerce and science, of arts and literature, of com- 
 merce and administration. The American college today is not a 
 college so much as it is a group of colleges, each of a more or less pro- 
 fessional or technical character. It is broken up. There is still a 
 remnant left which is called the liberal arts course. Ordinarily this 
 is a course for teachers. We might recognize the fact that Latin and 
 
 (211) 
 
8 
 
 Greek are taught for the purpose of fitting people to teach them and 
 not for the purpose of getting anything educational or cultural out of 
 them. Not one student in a thousand makes his Latin or Greek a live 
 interest unless he is a teacher of it. That course is professional just 
 like commerce or administration. A man going into certain lines of 
 business wants to know something about systems of transportation. 
 If he is going to teach Greek or Latin he must know something about 
 Greek and Latin. We may say that our university work at the present 
 time is tainted with commercialism. I have been more or less associ- 
 ated with my colleagues in certain lines of work in Chicago, and I am 
 convinced that the most questionable work which a university under- 
 takes to do at the present time, the work by which it is more likely to 
 lose character in university circles, is that which takes the university 
 out into the world of affairs and makes it a factor there by dealing 
 with men who are earning their living and who have only evenings to 
 devote to the study of certain subjects in which they are interested. 
 We have taken up this work with railroad employees, Chicago being a 
 great center; it has also been taken up with men in banks, and in other 
 lines of business, in commercial houses and in insurance. That sort 
 of work will lose character for the university man because he is in such 
 close touch with the commercial world and is rather removed from 
 university work. I conceive that the problems which arise are exactly 
 the same which confront any one in his regular university work, in 
 dealing with men who come from the high schools in the ordinary 
 course. These men who are working in some great corporation want 
 to understand something of the part which this corporation plays in 
 the world. Their needs are exactly the same as that of the student 
 who is going into the industrial world. They both want a compre- 
 hensive understanding of the complex industrial organization in which 
 they are placed or expect to be placed. 
 
 That is the great object of education in general. It is to make a 
 man intelligent. But what is intelligence? It means that a man 
 should understand the environment in which he lives. What makes 
 the educated man distinct from the uneducated is the understanding 
 of the environment in which he is working and living. If he can add 
 an understanding of the environment in which the Egyptians, the 
 Romans and the Greeks lived, that is an advantage too, but is not so 
 essential. 
 
 All that I can say on commercial education relates to that simple 
 principle. The well educated man is distinguished from the ignorant 
 one by having a comprehension of the social life of which he is a part. 
 Applying this to commercial education, this must require parallel 
 knowledge of commercial and industrial development. The funda- 
 mental principle which the university should observe in these com- 
 mercial courses and in determining what is essentially a commercial 
 
 (2 2) 
 
course is thus laid down. I think it is true of the American univer- 
 sities that they have omitted the necessity of looking at the environ- 
 ment in which they live but have imitated what their associates are 
 doing under different circumstances. Of course it is all imitation 
 from the old Greek and Roman. American universities have gone on 
 for one hundred years and taught Latin and Greek. The influence of 
 the monks has come down to the present time. There is nothing in 
 history that is so extraordinary as the persistence of that old scholastic 
 ideal in a commvmity which is just as different from that old com- 
 munity in its resources and character as could possibly be conceived. 
 In determining the essentials of a commercial education let us take 
 the simple principle that I suggested. If a university is exerting its 
 influence throughout an agricultural region, what is the nature of the 
 work for that college? It is eminently fitting, I should say, for such 
 a university to devote itself largely to those great economic problems 
 which pertain to agriculture. It is exceedingly unfortunate that our 
 economics is written from the point of view of men who live in cities, 
 rather than in the country. Two-thirds of our population is rural. 
 Their economic problems have to do with that form of life and should 
 be based on the fact that the community is agricultural. The problems 
 and conditions are agricultural. It is too often true that economics 
 deals mainly with the stock exchange in New York City, with foreign 
 trade, high finance, and all that. It does not touch the real vital 
 interest with which a great population happens to be mostly concerned. 
 In a community devoted to manufacturing it would be quite natural 
 to found its commercial education upon that fact. It should be largely 
 historical of our great industries and the peculiar conditions and prob- 
 lems that arise in relation to labor and capital. In a commercial 
 center, it should deal mainly with commerce. In- Chicago we are the 
 center of great railroad interests and w^e develop along that line. 
 Where the general economic interest is agriculture, manufactures, 
 finance, insurance, and so on, the course of instruction should take 
 that form. The place of economic interest and economic development 
 may lie within one or the other of these fields. The university should 
 recognize this fact, and the work should be more or less directly re- 
 lated to the occupations of those who make up the community. If it 
 be farming, the university should recognize that fact in its work. 
 
 The so-called liberal arts course is undergoing its final dissolution, 
 that which is commonly known as liberal arts course being a course 
 for teachers now. The A. B. classical course is for teachers and not one 
 to give the cultural training which we associate with the study of Greek 
 and Latin. The organization of colleges has been effected in order to 
 bring the college and university work into relation with real life inter- 
 ests and to give these courses a utilitarian significance. That, I think, 
 is in accordance with the sound principle of the philosophy of education. 
 
 (213) 
 
10 
 
 The essential of a course in commercial education is that it shall 
 strike its roots deep into the industrial character of a community over 
 which the university happens to extend its influence. The majority 
 who go through our universities are turned into these industrial pur- 
 suits and that fact should not and cannot be ignored by the organizers 
 of our college courses. The college should offer work which will 
 enable them to take up these affairs with a greater degree of intelli- 
 gence. 
 
 Personallv, I took up certain lines of work with certain precon- 
 ceived ideas regarding it which I soon modified very materially. There 
 is some uncertainty among the universities as to the attitude of the 
 business world toward this effort on the part of universities to take 
 up this line of work. We found in Chicago that the business world 
 was willing to come more than half way; that was surprising, I think, 
 to some of us. At least I may say that I did not anticipate it. Wher- 
 ever we have approached the business community, there has been an 
 evidence of the keenest sort of desire to get anything the university 
 has to offer of value that will widen the horizon of those who are em- 
 ployed in industrial pursuits. That has been one of the most striking 
 development of our work in Chicago, — to find the business world 
 willing to take chances. They do not wait to have the thing demon- 
 strated absolutely, but are willing to take chances that certain lines 
 of work may prove beneficial. Not profitable in the sense that they 
 would add to the income of certain corporations; but beneficial in 
 another sense, — that it might prove helpful to those young men who 
 were employees in this great corporation. We have found business 
 men willing to make sacrifices in order to prove or disprove the ability 
 of the university to be of service in the world of affairs. That is re- 
 assuring for those of us who are in university and college work. Every 
 now and then we are told that the place to learn business is in business, 
 banking in the bank, railroading in the railroad; but that does not 
 quite express the feeling of the business world at the present time. 
 
 DISCUSSION 
 
 Professor W. A. Scott, Ph.D. 
 
 University of Wisconsin 
 
 I am so heartily in accord with the general propositions which 
 Professor Cummings has laid down that it will not be necessary for 
 me to do more than give a few concrete illustrations of the general 
 trend of events. Any person who has been actively engaged in this 
 movement for commercial education, and has lived in the university 
 atmosphere in which this development has taken place, will appreciate 
 very fully the remarks in regard to the general trend of university 
 courses. The breaking up of the so-called liberal course brings out 
 
 (214) 
 
11 
 
 one or two facts to our notice. If you study the development in the 
 institutions of learning in which it began you will find that a good 
 many institutions have really simply copied other institutions, and 
 have not felt within themselves the necessity and impulse to do this 
 sort of thing. You will find this situation existed in a number of 
 institutions. In the first place we changed in going from the old cut 
 and dried specific college course to what is called the elective system. 
 When students began to elect a revelation came which caused cold 
 chills to run down the backs of our old fogies. They discovered that 
 students in the university preparing for practical life selected subjects 
 almost exclusively with reference to their future work supposing these 
 subjects would be better for them after they got out in life. At the 
 beginning the changes were slow. The electives were not such as to 
 bring one very closely into life. History was valuable, and economics. 
 Students selected them. It was necessary in the classical departments 
 to develop teachers' courses because the general demand was for that 
 sort of training which would help people in teaching. The more the 
 elective system developed the more that fact became patent, — that 
 the student's primary motive was to take those subjects which would 
 be in preparation for the life he intended to enter. 
 
 In order to meet this situation there began a rapid process of de- 
 velopment in the direction of practical life in such subjects as science, 
 chemistry, physics, etc. Then the outside world demanded of the 
 chemical departments of the university that they do certain practical 
 things; that they analyze water and various other things. They were 
 forced to do it by the necessities of the situation. Thev saw how 
 extremely valuable these things were to the civilization of the present 
 time. The same thing was true of physics, and even of mathematics, 
 which was considered far removed from practical life. Economics is 
 another. The study of economics began with .a study of some very 
 remote propositions in regard to wealth, value, exchange, etc. These 
 topics were put down in the text books ; but when men really began in 
 earnest to discuss the subject of economics and investigate it they 
 began to see its practical bearing, and developed special courses along 
 these lines. The development of the science itself required this as 
 well as the necessity of studying practical life. The men had to collect 
 data and they set students at work in their seminary courses on it. 
 They thus developed courses in money and banking, transportation, 
 and commercial geography; all of these before commercial education 
 entered into university life and simply as a necessary development. 
 
 So through other departments. The study of languages; the de- 
 mand for teaching modern languages so that they would be of some 
 practical use to people. The experience of a large number of people 
 who went to Europe, after studying a Httle German or French, was 
 that they could not speak the languages sufficiently to be understood. 
 
 (215) 
 
12 
 
 This led to the demand for practical courses in the foreign languages 
 before commercial education became established. 
 
 Accompanying this rapid development of courses of a practical 
 character which you can trace in the proceedings of the educational 
 associations all over the country, was a study of the nature and educa- 
 tional value of these new subjects. Every subject has been obliged 
 to fight its way by showing that it was good for something; that it 
 was educational in character. The universities said it might be good 
 for particular public purposes, but not for the university. But grad- 
 ually history, economics, science, fought its way, and convinced fair 
 minded university people that the student could gain culture as well 
 by a study of those subjects as by a studv of Greek and Latin ; some 
 were inclined to say a broader culture. Now these three movements 
 went on side by side — ^the demand by students for practical courses 
 and the selection of them ; the development of all branches of science 
 and the humanities in the direction of practical life; and the demon- 
 stration of the practical educational value of these courses. 
 
 The movement from the outside also forced attention to commer- 
 cial education. It came from the young people themselves. Those 
 who studied the high school situation, the preparatory school people, 
 saw that a considerable proportion of the graduating classes, and per- 
 haps much of the best material, did not go to college but went directly 
 into business. They did not think it necessary to go to college 
 if they were going into business. It was felt that a certain type of 
 young men ought to have a broader training than the preparatory 
 school gave and it was a great mistake that many who were able to 
 do so were not going to college. Why was it? A man says, "My son 
 is going into business and why should he go to college ? Of course it 
 is a nice thing to have a college education, belong to a fraternity and 
 wear a pin, attend university banquets, and so on; all this gives a 
 little prestige and a sort of social power. But after all, so far as any 
 real practical value is concerned, it did not amount to anything." 
 The universities began to wonder if there was any truth in the state- 
 ment and this was forced upon the attention of state univ^ersities first 
 and they could not ignore it. They were supposed to be of use to the 
 State and they were obliged to recognize the fact that a constantly 
 increasing proportion of the best students were not going to college at 
 all, but directly into business. Business men have been criticizing 
 the universities for along time because they said they were not practi- 
 cal; because their students were "no good." When they got out of 
 college they had to unlearn so much ; and many students were unable 
 to spell, to write good English, and so on, and these criticisms were 
 freely made. Business men made themselves felt by their influence 
 on boards of trustees, in the press, and in every possible way. It was 
 this movement from within and this movement from without that 
 
 (216) 
 
13 
 
 culminated in the establishment of commercial courses in. our colleges 
 and universities. 
 
 When we began to recognize the need of a training that would 
 assist men to go into business, we discovered that we had already- 
 developed a large number of courses which were valuable for this very 
 use. To correlate them and to put them together in such a way as to 
 be effective was the next thing. The student made his own selections ; 
 some things he needed ; some things he did not. We found gaps here 
 and there which would need to be filled up; we discovered many things 
 which had been taught from time immemorial which should still be 
 taught, but in a different way. English was not being taught right; 
 students could not write a decent letter; they could not make a math- 
 ematical calculation after going through a mathematical course. So 
 the demand came for making the courses more efficient. A perfect 
 transformation took place in the methods of teaching English. And 
 the demand grows, to make efficient for practical purposes the courses 
 given in our colleges and universities. The movement is really a logi- 
 cal development out of the whole situation. It is a demand to adapt 
 universitv work to the needs of men in this twentieth century. The 
 line of development has been different in different universities, but it 
 has been substantially the same. Some have done one thing and some 
 another, but the thing is here, we are meeting it, and it is certainly 
 here to stav. 
 
 Professor E. R. Dewsnup 
 University of Chicago 
 
 While listening to the very interesting paper and to the equally 
 interesting discussion, some thoughts have occurred to me which I 
 think it is well we should keep in mind. 
 
 Professor Cummings in his paper referred to the real nature of 
 university training. He said that a university training is something 
 different from a professional or technical education or an education 
 such as can be obtained in a business college. While we all agree, I 
 think, that the business colleges are doing a very valuable work, yet 
 it is hardly an educational work. The stenographer and bookkeeper 
 want to earn money and they want that certain training which 
 enables them to get money in the shortest possible space of time. 
 That is not education. The origin of the university course of educa- 
 tion was practically professional. We talk about our course in liberal 
 arts, but I want to know in the original university was there ever a 
 liberal arts course? They studied Latin, but after the revival of 
 learning they did not study Greek. Why did they study Latin? 
 It was the language of the time ; it was the language of communication 
 between nations; there Vv^as a distinctly practical purpose to the 
 
 (217) 
 
14 
 
 attention gi^en to the study of Latin which to some extent is proved 
 by the neglect of the language until the revival of learning. More- 
 over, when we consider the nature of the courses taken in the medi- 
 aeval universities, we find that they were professional and the colleges 
 out of which the universities sprang were essentially the same in 
 character. It was the predominant idea of education. The training 
 for theory was just as much professional as for law, or medicine or 
 commerce. I think, then, we are justified in coming to the conclusion 
 that the earliest idea of education was professional, and not general 
 culture apart from the professional. 
 
 I would like to draw a distinction between technical and trade 
 schools. We talk about technical education including the trade 
 schools. The two should be distinguished. The question whether 
 the trade school is a useful adjunct to the university has been dis- 
 cussed. I define the two in this way. The technical school gives 
 that broad scientific knowledge and a general knowledge of the in- 
 dustries which each student should get. The trade school prepares 
 specifically for the larger and original work of the man's later occupa- 
 tion. There has been a good deal of mistrust as to whether the uni- 
 versity prepares the young man for the larger and original work of a 
 business life. In some respects the university cannot. I have been 
 associated both in Chicago and at Manchester with the courses in 
 commercial education as conducted by these universities, and I have 
 always tried to impress upon my students that the greatest asset they 
 can have will be good sense and experience; that without them they 
 can make no success. We can only give them the broad training and 
 general education which they can convert into material results. We 
 may try to make the student understand something of the general 
 relationship of the practical world, but we are not expected to qualify 
 him to go from school into business and industrial life and take up the 
 work as though to the manor born. 
 
 I feel inclined to disagree with one point which Professor Scott 
 makes and that is with regard to the development of the science of 
 political economy as closely associated with the development of com- 
 mercial education. I really think, as regards our ow^n science, as 
 promulgated by its earliest teachers and as understood by Adam 
 Smith and taught by him to some extent, it was very largely practical 
 in character. Questions qf definition, theory, scope and method did 
 not receive great prominence. 
 
 The point comes up in connection with the business world that the 
 university courses have been rather unfairly treated. The university 
 man has sometimes proved a failure in business; we might say very 
 frequently so, and it has been charged to university education. As an 
 instructor and an economist I wish to refute the charge and to say 
 that the potent factor has not been so much the university education, 
 
 (218) 
 
15 
 
 except in some special cases, but the failure of social training. All our 
 earlier business men, and this is true of England in particular, sprung 
 up from the custom offices. They made their positions. After they 
 had accumulated a certain amount of wealth, their children were 
 brought up in different circumstances. They were largely left to 
 the care of servants. The result of that action can only be detrimental. 
 I think that this state of affairs very largely accounts for the failure of 
 our young men of the present day who are placed in positions of 
 responsibility. It is due to the failure of social training, arising from 
 the causes pointed out, and not to the university training which, in all 
 but comparatively few instances, exerts an elevating influence on the 
 individual. This is a point the business world should take into con- 
 sideration in connection with commercial education. 
 
 Now what shall we aim at in arranging our courses in commercial 
 education? In my work in England I was very much discouraged at 
 times to find that the business and commercial men of the country 
 favored, or at least a certain portion of them did, preparation for 
 commercial business, but on a very restricted scale. We want a man 
 to have a knowledge of corporations, a sufficient knowledge of com- 
 mercial law to enable him to keep out of the hands of lawyers, some 
 knowledge of general economics and modern languages. We do not 
 want him to know anything about the fine arts or mechanics. He 
 should know something of mathematics and enough of statistics to be 
 able to use them. Some knowledge of commercial geography was also 
 desired. This was a disappointing curriculum, but at the same time, 
 if we were to get business leaders interested in our university education, 
 we would have to offer something approximate to what they desired. 
 One university, the University of London, I think, departed com- 
 pletely from this idea, and in their syllabus they offered a curriculum 
 intended to give that broad training in economic analysis, that origi- 
 nality of opinion and independence of reasoning, that is far more 
 valuable to business men in their varied associations than many sub- 
 jects offered in the universities. At Victoria University one may 
 now get a bachelor of commerce degree, by taking a course that 
 resembles to some extent the London course, a course which gives 
 that broad mental grasp of things which is necessary for entering into 
 business life. But if you wish you may substitute. A man may take 
 up the study of active industries, railway transportation, banking, so 
 that he gets a comparatively small amount of general economic train- 
 ing in his whole work. 
 
 Now there is some doubt in my mind whether we should attempt 
 to give a man equipment in a number of different subjects. Should 
 he know a little economics, a little law, a little mathematics, and a 
 little of this or that? What is the mental value of such work? Does 
 not the spreading of his college course over so many subjects tend to 
 
 (219) 
 
16 
 
 curtail the educational values of these subjects? Mathematics has an 
 educational value, the classics have another, sociology and economics 
 have another. But has the study of a small portion of each of these 
 subjects the educational value that is generally attributed to the sub- 
 ject ? Judging from the results of the young men that have come out 
 of English institutions I am inclined to think that they have not. In 
 arranging our educational courses we need more specialization on 
 broader lines. I believe that a man should know the general founda- 
 tions of economic analysis, have an acquaintance with economic facts, 
 and that he should be encouraged to specialization after getting that 
 broad foundation which must include a certain training in other lines 
 during his first two first years, training to some extent in history, 
 mathematics, etc. Instead of saying we are training a man in railroad 
 transportation by giving him a couple of quarters' work in that sub- 
 ject, we should devote far more of his time to it. We should not 
 think we are preparing a man for any specific field, whether railroading, 
 journalism, or banking, or what not, when we give him only a smatter- 
 ing of the subject. If that is going to be the case, I would far rather 
 concentrate the man's study on general economics, or general mathe- 
 matics. If we are going to prepare a man for going into transporta- 
 tion or banking, we should delve deeply into these subjects and get 
 into touch with the actual affairs of life. It should be the idea that a 
 man is to acquire knowledge which will enable him to go into these 
 businesses and get on better and faster than his untrained fellow, and 
 that he can do this is a proof of the value of the university training. 
 If he does not attain that end, it is a proof that the university courses 
 are not desirable. 
 
 By a proper arrangement I believe that we can have this detailed 
 study of particular branches. And here I would bring in another 
 thought. I would like to see some of the day courses transferred to 
 the evenings. Not duplicated, but actually transferred. I do not 
 see why young men or women should not be prepared to attend one 
 or two courses in the evening as well as in the day time. The reason 
 is that we can associate with our students, men in business who also 
 want to study along these lines. Do you not think that this combi- 
 nation would produce better final results? I think so. I know on 
 a small scale the results have been very satisfactory. I do not say 
 that we should admit Tom, Dick, and Harry into such classes There 
 are large numbers of young men in the commercial world who should 
 enter, men who are fitted through their experience to enter such 
 classes, and their seriousness and enthusiasm must be a stimulant to 
 the students in the regular courses of training, and so enable us to 
 make these courses more beneficial. 
 
 I think then that the issue lies in a correlation of studies and a 
 more thorough foundation. I believe in the study of economics and 
 
 (220) 
 
17 
 
 in basing our studies upon that in so far as we can do so ; a much more 
 elaborate study of particular fields, such as transportation, banking, 
 etc., an association, in so far as possible, with the practical side of life. 
 Inculcate in young men the idea that there must be no self-conscious 
 or petty side to the university trained man. Let the university 
 trained and the untrained man go into the market under precisely the 
 same conditions, and if the university trained man is not able to keep 
 his own in the market, it is a reflection upon university training and 
 he is not needed in the market of the dav. 
 
 • Mr. McLeish 
 
 In my judgment the failure of the college trained man in commer- 
 cial life is due less to his university training or to his defective social 
 training than it is due to the man himself; to his want of sincerity, his 
 want of honesty, his want of thoroughness, thoughtfulness and hard 
 work. There are no prizes at all, there is no inducement at all to the 
 young man who is in any of these senses defective in his college course. 
 The shirk in college work will be a shirk in business. The man who thinks 
 that commercial life is an easy way to get a living makes a mistake. 
 The man who does not learn how to work, how to properly estimate 
 his own powers and properly apply them to the university work of 
 preparation to his entrance upon commercial life is certain to prove a 
 failure when he does enter it. 
 
 SHOULD INSTRUCTION IN A UNIVERSITY COURSE IN 
 COMMERCE BE TECHNICAL? 
 
 By Professor H. S. Person, Ph.D. 
 
 Secretary, Amos Tuck School of Finance and Administration 
 
 Dartmouth College 
 
 It seems desirable at the beginning of this discussion to emphasize 
 a distinction that is suggested in the arrangement of the program of 
 this conference, the distinction between technical courses and practice 
 courses. By a technical, or practical, course, I mean any course 
 of study that has a measurable relation to the training of a man 
 for some definite activity; by a practice course I mean a course of 
 study that aims to train a man to perform with dexterity some 
 activity — in most cases a physical, in rare cases a mental one. A 
 technical course aims at imparting knowledge to be used later in the 
 formation of judgments; a practice course at forming habits of action. 
 The latter, a psychologist might say, selects some pathway of the dis- 
 charge of nervous energy, and repeatedly works it until all incoming 
 currents tend to escape by way of it ; the technical course is one that 
 aims to help the student to acquire knowledge concerning a business 
 
 (221) 
 
18 
 
 and to acquire the power of forming good judgments in its pursuit. 
 It mav be that all practice courses are technical courses, but they 
 form but a small portion of the whole group of technical courses. The 
 present contribution to this discussion has reference to technical 
 courses that are not practice courses. 
 
 In answer to vour question as to whether a course of instruction in 
 commerce of university rank should be technical, I beg leave in the 
 first place to call your attention to the aim of higher commercial edu- 
 cation as evidenced by its origin and development. Commercial 
 education is one aspect of our general educational systems, differen- 
 tiated and developed within recent years in response to what we be- 
 lieve to be a need of industry that has presented itself with the growing 
 complexity of industrial affairs. The aim of commercial education is 
 the aim of the educational system as a whole, intensified along certain 
 lines. The aim of an educational system as a whole, especially of a 
 system of free public education like our own, is, in the first place, for 
 the social welfare, to raise the general level of intelligence, and in the 
 second place, to select and equip in each new generation those best 
 suited by natural aptitude and by training for the performance of the 
 various social functions. The aim of education is equipment for 
 service — efificiency in life. 
 
 The first aim of education, the raising of the general level of intelli- 
 gence, is not to develop merely a passive better intelligence, but to 
 develop better intelligence in action. As Adam Smith said, it is for 
 better intelligence on the part of the people in judging of public 
 affairs, while we add, it is for better intelligence in the doing of 
 whatever the individual sets himself to do. No one, not even the 
 extremist who maintains that the chief aim of education is "culture," 
 would defend the suggestion that education should aim to develop 
 les homnies faineants. An intelHgence that manifests itself in social 
 life, in social service, in plying one's vocation, is the aim. 
 
 Education as a process of social selection in a democratic society 
 is a conception of its function which has developed under the influence 
 of recent habits of thought. It aims at increasing efficiency, primarily 
 by affording all a broad general education, but also by selecting 
 individuals differently constituted by nature for the performance of 
 activities for which they are respectively best adapted. In this con- 
 ception of education, efficiency is still more obviously the aim. Whether 
 one takes the social point of view, that society is to secure better ser- 
 vice ; or whether one take the individual point of view, that the indi- 
 vidual is to make a better success in Hfe — increased efficiency is the 
 central idea. 
 
 An educational system accomplishes this increasing of efificiency 
 bv the selection and training of favored individuals, by the training of 
 selected individuals through the development of special organs, each 
 
 (222) 
 
19 
 
 aiming to select and train for a special activity or group of activities. 
 Each of these new organs is called into being by a recognition of the 
 fact that some form of life work finds itself in complex conditions and 
 in need of a higher degree of intelligence for the meeting of these con- 
 ditions. As a society progresses, the number of such forms of life work 
 increases. A century ago the minister needed special training, then 
 the physician and the lawyer, then the engineer, then the electrical 
 engineer and the civil engineer, then (I am not observing chronology) 
 the teacher, then the teacher of the classics, the teacher of modern 
 languages, the teacher of sciences, and now of histor}- and of economics. 
 Special knowledge in all these professions is demanded; in other words, 
 greater technical efficiency. 
 
 That organ to which we have given the name commercial education, 
 has developed according to the same general principle, and for the 
 same general purpose — increased efficiency. In its earlier form it 
 was based upon the recognition that certain classes of industrial 
 activity required special skill in the performance of routine duties, and 
 there appeared business colleges and commercial schools. In its later 
 more highly developed form, to which we have given the name higher 
 commercial education, it is based upon the recognition that business 
 presents complex situations and that a high degree of special intelli- 
 gence is required of men who are to handle these situations. So a 
 quarter of a century ago a far-sighted man saw what business was 
 beginning to require and the Wharton School appeared. In all of his 
 utterances on the new movement I read a demand for greater effi- 
 ciency. Less than a decade ago there was generally recognized what 
 business has come to need, and that group of schools of which the com- 
 mercial department ot this university is one, came into being. In all 
 the discussions through which the movement worked itself out, I find 
 again the demand for increased efficiency in men entering business. 
 I do not find the argument, "A course in commerce will attract stu- 
 dents to my institution; "and but once or twice the statement, "A 
 course in commerce will attract to the university and give to them a 
 general training, men who would otherwise not see the advantage of 
 higher education of any sort;" but rather the argument, "A course in 
 commerce is needed by industry ; it will increase to his own advantage 
 the efficiency of the young man entering business, it will increase to 
 the advantage of the business man the efficiency of the force which he 
 employs, it will increase the efficiency of the United States in inter- 
 national trade. " 
 
 Agreeing that the aim of education, especially of those organs of 
 education whose function is one of selection, of training for special 
 activities, is to secure greater efficiency in life work; and that higher 
 commercial education is one of these special organs, we have estab- 
 lished a satisfactory basis for a consideration of the nature of the in- 
 
 (223) 
 
20 
 
 struction necessary to effect the purpose of university commercial 
 education. It seems an almost obvious conclusion that the instruction 
 should be technical. It is desirable, however, to examine this con- 
 clusion at length. 
 
 A more careful examination of the industrial situation which has 
 given rise to commercial education, brings to light the following facts 
 concerning that situation. First, that the more responsible positions 
 in business activity require a broader foundation of knowledge than is 
 acquired by the average man at the end of his preparatory school work, 
 say at the age of eighteen. This is undeniably true if so-called ex- 
 perience in business • no longer possesses the educational value it 
 once possessed. Second, experience today does not have the 
 educational value it formerly possessed, because the entrance into 
 industrial service is through the channels of routine positions so 
 specialized and narrow as not to afford the opportunity for contact 
 with many sides of a business. The young man seldom enters busi- 
 ness today as a general utility man — he enters as a routine clerk with 
 limited activities. Third, not only is the position bv which a young 
 man enters business so specialized and narrow as to shut off the view 
 of the business as a whole, but every important business as a whole 
 has come to be so very complex and has developed so many sides that 
 the mastering of it requires the most favorable circumstances. On 
 the one hand, it has come to pass that every important business re- 
 quires circumstances the most favorable for the mastering of it; on 
 the other hand, it has come to pass that the routine position presents 
 obstacles that make it almost impossible to master it as a whole. It 
 seems now almost a sine qua non to rapid promotion from routine 
 positions to managerial positions that the young man shall have before 
 entering the routine position, not only a generally well trained 
 mind but also as thorough a knowledge as possible of business in its 
 broadest aspects. With such a knowledge his routine work will be a 
 live, not a dead thing; he will perceive its relation to the whole; he will 
 perceive the relation of his work to that of other clerks; he will per- 
 form his services rationally, not as a mere machine. A knowledge of 
 these relationships is a prerequisite to the performance of responsible 
 managerial duties. 
 
 We see in this analysis two demands made by the business world 
 upon our educational institutions as leading to greater efficiency. 
 There is a demand, on the one hand, that colleges shall send to it young 
 men as intelligent and broad minded as possible. To meet this 
 particular demand is not the special function of commercial education. 
 It has been met and is now met by the non-commercial courses of the 
 college. There is no question but that the college course which has 
 no reference to business makes for efficiency in business by making the 
 young man more capable of getting something out of his business 
 
 (224) 
 
21 
 
 experience. It has its defects. It does not make for as great an 
 efficiency in business as it would did it ofifer instruction in some sub- 
 jects of a more commercial nature. That feature of college life which 
 trains men to better meet their fellow men, which makes them more 
 tactful, more able to adjust themselves to unexpected situations, and 
 in that way more efficient, often produces a misdirection of energy, 
 and does not conduce to professional enthusiasm. But after all, 
 when the balance is struck, the ordinary college course is so successful 
 in meeting the business world's first demand for efficiency, that we 
 must look elsewhere for the raison d'etre of commercial courses. 
 
 This is found in the second demand of business for instruction that 
 shall increase the efficiency of the young man entering business. This 
 second demand is for greater technical efficiency, not a technical 
 efficiency substituted for the more general efficiency afforded by non- 
 commercial instruction, but a technical efficiency in addition to and 
 built upon the more general efficiency. It is in the addition of this 
 technical efficiency that commercial education finds its justification. 
 There is no sound ground for the addition of a series of business 
 courses to the college curriculum that does not make up in an abundant 
 measure by the addition of a new sort of efficiency for its encroach- 
 ments upon the liberal course. For I believe that not to take the 
 liberal arts course is for any college graduate a loss, and that loss is 
 justifiable only by at least a corresponding gain along some other line. 
 The only corresponding gain given by a commercial course which 
 really deserves the name — that is a course offering something besides 
 theoretical and applied economics — is the gain of increased technical 
 efficiency. A commercial course that is onlv a course in economics 
 renamed cannot justify itself in claiming to offer something other than 
 was already offered by the liberal college course. A college with a 
 well organized course in economics offers as much. The establishment 
 of a new organ of commercial education must justify itself by offering 
 something new and that new thing must be technical training. 
 
 This technical efficiency consists, of course, in a knowledge of 
 technical facts, and in its highest forms what we may call, for want of 
 a better term, of technical wisdom. It consists also of something 
 more, of an esprit that we call professional enthusiasm. To inspire in 
 the student an enthusiasm for that business which he intends to enter 
 should be one of the most serious aims of commercial education. To 
 create the force for its use is no less important than to give the student 
 the instrument. Some of the most serious criticisms of college train- 
 ing for business, those of Mr. Carnegie, for instance, are based upon the 
 failure of the college course to inspire business spirit. The demand of 
 the business world for greater technical efficiency is a two-sided one; 
 one side is for the efficiency that results from a knowledge of facts, 
 the other side is for the efficiency that results from the possession of an 
 
 (223) 
 
22 
 
 enthusiasm for one's chosen work. A commercial course that does 
 not create, in the methods of its instruction and in the close grouping 
 of its courses, this class esprit, is seriously defective. 
 
 I wish to avoid any possible misunderstanding by emphasizing my 
 view that both the demands of the business world should be met in 
 both of the respects mentioned; that young men should be well edu- 
 cated, broad minded men, and that they should be technically trained. 
 I believe the first demand is best met by the liberal college course and 
 college life ; I believe the second is best met by the technical instruction 
 and the professional enthusiasm of a genuine technical course. I be- 
 lieve both should be met. How to meet both is a problem of organi- 
 zation, of the relation of the commercial course to the general college 
 course. That problem does not concern us here. 
 
 Assuming that we are agreed that the justification of higher com- 
 mercial education is in its aim to meet the need of the industrial situa- 
 tion for greater technical efficiency, and that we are further agreed 
 that the aim can be accomplished only through technical instruction, 
 there are still present the very pertinent questions, "Can there be such 
 a thing as a technical higher com.mercial education ? and what are the 
 component courses that go to make up a technical commercial course?" 
 I wish to consider each of these questions in turn. 
 
 First, the conventional college course is not a technical course and 
 should not be. As I have already said, it does increase indirectly the 
 efficiency of the average young man entering business by making him 
 a more intelligent, broad minded man. But so it does with the young 
 man entering engineering, the law, medicine and any other field of 
 activity. In my judgment it gives what no technical course can give, 
 but the technical course, on the other hand, offers what no general 
 college course can offer. They are different influences producing dis- 
 tinct efficiencies. 
 
 Second, the conventional college course modified by the addition 
 to its curriculum of numerous unusual courses in economics, courses 
 sometimes called commercial, is not a technical commercial course, is 
 not according to the views we have advanced, a commercial course at 
 all. It is a richer general college course. It may make a man a better 
 informed man for business purposes ; it may afford the desirable foun- 
 dation for a real commercial course, but it is not in itself such a course. 
 
 Third, neither is the conventional college course modified by the 
 addition of practice courses such as are offered bv the business college 
 a genuine higher commercial course. It deprives the student of more 
 opportunities than it adds. To induce a student of undergraduate 
 maturity to spend his time at college practicing the forms of account- 
 ing, typewriting or stenography for the mere sake of the practice, is a 
 waste both of the student's time and of the college's expensive plant. 
 Any student with the minimum of energy necessary for success in 
 
 (226) 
 
23 
 
 business life can acquire these of a vacation, in even the smallest vil- 
 lage. With regard to accounting, I would make a reservation; it may 
 be, and in most instances is offered for something more valuable than 
 the practice. 
 
 Fourth, a trulv higher commercial course is one in which there are 
 grouped together in close relation technical courses; courses that are 
 not practice courses except where a practice course may be an instru- 
 ment of instruction for more important matter; courses that instruct 
 in those facts of business that bear upon the live problems of the busi- 
 ness world; courses that handle business directly and concretely. 
 Such a curriculum, both by the grouping in close relation of its compo- 
 nent courses and by the technical treatment of business facts and 
 problems in these component courses, justifies its offering itself as a 
 higher commercial course because it promotes technical efficiency. 
 What, then, are these component courses that we call technical? 
 
 Let us examine first the course in accounting. This course is 
 alwavs a practical course but in many instances is not handled in a 
 wav that makes it worthy to be given a place in the curriculum of an 
 institution of higher commercial education. If the instructor's aim 
 is to direct the student in making a certain number of entries accord- 
 ing to certain prescribed rules which the student must memorize, the 
 course does not measure up to the standard of a course in higher edu- 
 cation. A course that attempts to teach the petty details of an ac- 
 counting department wastes the student's time, for the particular 
 institution which he enters may not use that detail, and whatever 
 detail it does use will be readily learned in the first week of service. 
 A course in accounting, however, in which the making of entries in 
 peculiarly ruled blank books is, like the use of a slide rule, a subsidiary 
 process, in which the real purpose is to work out the theory of 
 business organization, the real nature of profits, the forces that influ- 
 ence profits, the nature and causes of depreciation, and so on is a 
 practical course worthy of study by the maturest college mind. Let 
 the instruction dwell, not upon whether borrowed capital should be 
 entered in some debit or some credit column, but upon the relative 
 influence in business of an institution's own and of borrowed capital 
 as evidenced bv the records of the accountant's books. Such a course 
 is a practical course that is not a mere practice course. 
 
 Let us consider the course of instruction that is intended to equip 
 a voung man for the business of an import and export merchant. Shall 
 it consist of the addition to the conventional college course of a course 
 in the history of commerce which tells the student of the commerce 
 of the Eg}'ptians, the Greeks and of the trade routes and commodities 
 of exchange of the thirteenth century? There is nothing in such 
 material of instruction to warrant the name "commercial instruction;" 
 it is instruction in history and valuable as such in its proper place. 
 
 (227) 
 
24 
 
 Let the course for the student we now have in mind lead him to ask 
 himself and answer for himself such inquiries as these: with what 
 countries and with what commodities is the foreign trade of the 
 United States increasing? What are the conditions to the perma- 
 nency of such increase ? What is the routine of the import and export 
 merchant's office and what is the value to the business of this rou- 
 tine ? What is the significance of the different regulations of different 
 shipping lines? What is the practical and the legal nature of each of 
 the phases of the bill of lading? What is general average? Par- 
 ticular average? Such questions as these are practical and technical, 
 involve in their consideration great mental acumen, are what a voung 
 man should consider before entering service, and add that sort of 
 efficiency which business demands of higher commercial education. 
 
 Let us consider, for further illustration, a commercial course 
 adapted to the needs of a young man looking forward to the career of 
 a banker. Should it consist of the courses in economics, especially of 
 finance, money and banking? By all means. These economic courses, 
 however, were developed without special reference to commercial 
 education. The process of picking them out of a university curriculum 
 and naming them commercial courses does not establish a course in 
 higher education in banking, something new offering a special training 
 in banking. The new organ comes into existence only when courses look- 
 ing toward instruction in technical matters are established. In addition 
 to studying the theory and history of money and banking, the student 
 should be led to investigate the practical operations of banking, not 
 for the purpose of learning routine, but for the purpose of learning 
 what routine is for, what of it is good, what of it is obsolete. He should 
 study the law of banking, not as a course in jurisprudence, not with 
 the view of becoming able to dispense with legal services, but in order 
 to know what may be his responsibilities as cashier, president or 
 director. He should study foreign exchange; not only the theory of 
 foreign exchange but the practical operations of foreign exchange. 
 Let him learn to know thoroughly all of the factors that must enter 
 to make a documentary bill of exchange valid and safe ; let him learn 
 how to work out the problem of transferring money, to determine for 
 instance, from which center, — Paris, Berlin or Vienna. — it is cheaper 
 to transfer money at a given time and under the given circumstances. 
 Let the subject matter of his courses be the same as the subject matter 
 of the discussions before bankers' associations. Offer him a course 
 in corporation finance ; one that is not merely a course in Wall Street 
 terminology, but one that will enable him to take the reports over a 
 series of years of any corporation, and work out, so far as those reports 
 may have intended to permit him to work out, the policy and the 
 financial condition of that corporation. Such instruction as this is, 
 in my judgment, instruction that will add an efficiency that the non- 
 
 (228) 
 
25 
 
 technical instruction cannot add. The business world asks of the 
 college that efficiency which comes from the mental strengthening of 
 a college or university course; but it asks of commercial training 
 another sort of efficiency, the efficiency of technical knowledge and 
 of professional enthusiasm. 
 
 THE CHARACTER OF COMMERCIAL EDUCATION: SHOULD 
 
 IT BE TECHNICAL? 
 
 By M. H. Robinson, Ph. D. 
 
 Professor of Iiijiistry a>id Transportation, University of Illinois 
 
 The expression "technical education" is plain and needs little 
 discussion. A technical commercial education means an education 
 in the technique of business, that is in the practical routine of com- 
 mercial operations. A man with a technical commercial education is 
 fitted to take some position in the business organization and do the 
 work which that position demands, more or less successfully, according 
 to his ability, as soon as he has become acquainted with the local 
 conditions of the office and of the business. In banking, technical 
 commercial education involves a knowledge of and practical experi- 
 ence in the organization and operation of a bank, the routine work of 
 the president, teller, cashier, and auditor, the methods in use in col- 
 lecting out-of-town checks, of placing and securing loans, of collecting 
 and disbursing funds, etc. In insurance, such an education requires 
 a practical knowledge of the organization of the agency force, the 
 work of the general and special agents in securing applications and 
 writing up such applicants for the proper policies, and the work of the 
 finance department in caring for the reserve funds. In general manu- 
 facturing business, a commercial technical education demands a 
 practical knowledge of the organization of the company and of the 
 office; the duties, powers and work of the stockholders, directors, and 
 officers; the actual methods of the credit department, the sales depart- 
 ment, the advertising department, the auditing and accounting 
 department, the methods of purchasing material, keeping stock, 
 shipping goods, etc., etc. 
 
 A non-technical commercial education, on the other hand, fits one 
 to understand the general organization of industry and its workings 
 without at the same time being able to take part successfully in its 
 practical operation ; to understand the importance of generous natural 
 resources, of abundant capital, of skilled laborers and of wise industrial 
 leaders without necessarily being a great captain of industry ; in short 
 to understand economic and social conditions, the play of economic 
 forces and the limitations imposed by political regulations upon 
 business operations. Such an education must of necessity be supple- 
 mented by practical experience in business management but when so 
 
 (229) 
 
26 
 
 supplemented would, it must be admitted, fit any man well endowed 
 with brains and health to command success in the world of affairs. 
 
 It is generally conceded that it is entirely practicable to train men 
 for definite positions in the business organization in connection with 
 their general education. This is being done successfully in trade 
 schools, in business colleges, and in technical schools. Can similar 
 methods and a corresponding commercial education be provided for 
 the prospective business man with equally good results? The answer 
 to this question will depend quite largely upon the answer to another: 
 "For what kind of positions in the business organization are our 
 commerce students preparing ? ' ' 
 
 The business world is an exceedingly complex organization; its 
 work is minutely subdivided and parcelled out to many distinct 
 classes of workers. It is able to offer therefore all kinds of business 
 positions from the general utility man in the small office to the presi- 
 dency of the billion dollar steel company. The university graduate, 
 while he will in all probability be obliged to begin near the foot of the 
 ladder, is nevertheless definitely preparing himself for a position of 
 trust and responsibility in the not too far distant future. He aspires 
 to become a manager of agencies rather than simply an agent; the 
 head of a department in a manufacturing company rather than the 
 most skillful stenographer; an auditor rather than a bookkeeper; a 
 statistician rather than a human adding machine. Such being the 
 case it is of course evident that the character of the education should 
 be shaped by the end in view. 
 
 Two considerations may be urged : 
 
 (1) The work for which the college student of commerce is pre- 
 paring demands a broad general education rather than a narrow 
 technical one. Positions of responsibility require good judgment in 
 regard to present economic conditions and the prospects for the future, 
 an extensive knowledge of the market and market facilities of different 
 states and different countries, a comprehensive grasp of the char- 
 acteristic features of the present industrial organization and of the 
 changes taking place within it, together with the causes and effects of 
 such changes; a considerable acquaintance with economic history and 
 a somewhat more detailed knowledge of the internal organization of 
 the typical corporation and its various departments; and the general 
 principles of private finance, accounting and commercial law. All 
 these subjects lend themselves readily to university instruction. 
 Moreover the young man who enters upon his business career without 
 such instruction is fortunate indeed if he has either the time or op- 
 portunity to secure that broad understanding of business conditions 
 which such an education gives. The business organization has grown 
 so complex, the division of employment within it has been carried to 
 such Hmits, each kind of work is so differentiated from every other 
 
 (230) 
 
27 
 
 kind of work in character and methods, each clerk and each officer is 
 so constantly immersed in his own tasks and his own problems that 
 the young man entering the organization in one definite position soon 
 finds himself lost in the routine of his own duties unless he is possessed 
 of extraordinary ability, exceptional means or exceedingly fortunate 
 business connections. Further, to obtain a general knowledge of the 
 economic world through actual experience in all of the important 
 departments of a well organized business house leaves the possessor 
 of knowledge so gained hopelessly behind in the race. Except for the 
 fortunate few, therefore, a general knowledge of economic conditions, 
 of industrial organization and the structure of modern business must 
 be obtained in the university or not at all. 
 
 (2) The most efficient training in the technique of business is 
 unquestionably that furnished by actual experience in business life. 
 Moreover the graduate of the university course in commerce must of 
 necessity receive such training whether he wills or no. However well 
 trained he may be in the technique of industry in the school of com- 
 merce, he is obliged to take a subordinate position and work up. The 
 colleges are not attempting to turn out fully equipped Morgans, Fields 
 and Carnegies on commencement day. At the most, they may reason- 
 ably hope that from their among ranks a part of the future leaders, 
 together with many subordinates, of the world of finance, trade and 
 industry may come. Consequently the university trained business 
 man must serve an apprenticeship of greater or less duration. Such 
 apprenticeship will consist almost entirely of technical training in his 
 chosen field of work. In case his collegiate commercial education has 
 been shaped with the idea of gaining a comprehensive knowledge of 
 the industrial organization and economic conditions, the technical 
 training that he subsequently obtains will form the natural supplement 
 to his college course. In the alternate case, there is great danger at 
 least that the college course will duplicate the business apprenticeship 
 and attempt to do the same work with far less efficiency. 
 
 It is urged that it is practicable to so arrange the commercial 
 course that the technical training will accompany and thus supple- 
 ment the more general business education. Such a contention un- 
 doubtedly has considerable validity but underrates the time that a 
 broad general education appropriate for the young man who is to 
 occupy a responsible position in the business world demands. Such 
 an education should include: 1. Training in the use of the tools daily 
 employed by the educated business man, viz: reading, writing, 
 arithmetic, language, including in most cases one or more foreign 
 languages and drawing. Such training is fundamental in its nature 
 and necessarily occupies most of the time during the primary school, 
 a major portion of the high school period, and a considerable part of 
 the college course. 2. An elementary knowledge at least of physical 
 
 (231) 
 
28 
 
 geography, geology, botany, physics, chemistry, and astronomy in 
 both their scientific and economic aspects. This group of subjects 
 might be crowded into a minor portion of the high school and college 
 course. Considering the important part science plays in modern 
 industry the}' cannot safely be omitted. 3. A thorough understand- 
 ing of the social and political conditions under which business is con- 
 ducted. This part of the course ought to include a study of local, 
 national and foreign political institutions and of social organization at 
 least so far as such institutions and organization condition and limit 
 commercial operations. To these should be added a general knowl- 
 edge of international law and a more specialized study of commercial 
 law. This group of studies may be begun in the high school but will 
 necessarily occupy an important place in the college course. Such 
 studies will of course be largely supplemented by experience and 
 observation in the world of affairs. 4. A mastery of the principles 
 of economic law and its applications to the problems of the business 
 world. This part of the course naturally furnishes the backbone of 
 the university work in commerce and includes commercial geography, 
 economic history, economic principles, statistics, and the organization 
 and administration of commerce, industry, finance and transporta- 
 tion. 5. Technical training in business operations, including the or- 
 ganization of a business office, the proper division of responsibility, 
 and the routine work of the various departments, purchasing, manu- 
 facturing, sales, advertising, accounting, filing records, voucher 
 systems, office devices, etc. Such training may be furnished in con- 
 nection with the college course in commerce, as a graduate course 
 following such a course, or in the business world. 
 
 Two questions naturally arise at this point: 
 
 (1) Is the technical training in business afforded by the university 
 course an effective substitute for that furnished by practical experi- 
 ence in business? (2) Granting that such training may be provided, 
 is it possible to arrange such a course of study without sacrificing es- 
 sential subjects in that broad education demanded by modern condi- 
 tions on the one hand or without unduly prolonging the university 
 course in commerce on the other? 
 
 A final answer cannot be given to the first question at the present 
 time. This much, however, may be said with entire confidence. So 
 far as business practice is reduced to a science, it presents no inherent 
 difficulties as a subject for collegiate instruction. Such instruction 
 will demand teachers who are masters of business routine and a some- 
 what extensive equipment. It cannot be made effective by lectures, 
 reading, the use of lantern slides or the inspection of sample pages 
 from a loose-leaf ledger. It necessitates an extensive equipment and 
 actual experience in the manipulation of machines, tools, office books, 
 vouchers, cost systems, letter files, and other devices of the modern 
 
 (232) 
 
29 
 
 office. Technical commercial education thus demands two radical 
 changes from present conditions : (1) The employment of experienced 
 business men to take charge of the technical work, and (2) a commo- 
 dious building equipped with a model office for the use of the students. 
 With these changed conditions, the students would naturally organize 
 themselves into partnerships and corporations and actually conduct 
 certain kinds of business by a use of merchandise cards. They would 
 organize a bank, trade with each other, carry on correspondence, ar- 
 range a filing system, keep books, advertise their business, make annual 
 reports, prepare statistical charts, undertake audits and finally dis- 
 solve the company and distribute the assets to the owners. Technical 
 commercial education more extensive and more elaborate than that 
 here outlined is not only possible, it is actually being carried on in 
 some of the universities and in many business colleges. That is it 
 practical to train students by this method for routine positions in 
 business must be conceded; but that such education is an effective 
 substitute of the training furnished by actual business experience is 
 as yet open to doubt. In the first place, only a part of the ordinary 
 business practice has as yet been reduced to a system. For those 
 important fields in modern business not yet on a scientific basis only 
 actual experience in real business furnishes an adequate preparation. 
 In the second place, such training is based upon paper transactions 
 none of which call for the exercise of business judgment. In the real 
 business world, the shaping of policies, not the execution of routine 
 tasks, is the work of the business administrator. -Here the exercise of 
 sound business judgment is rewarded with adequate economic gain; 
 of bad judgment, with a corresponding loss. Experience in the busi- 
 ness world thus educates the business judgment, while that provided 
 by the college course in the technique of business will at the most give 
 skill and facility in business routine. The latter training may be 
 made a valuable aid to the former but never an effective substitute. 
 
 (2) The second question is more important and even more diffi- 
 cult to answer. The successful business man of the future must be 
 broadly educated. The complexity of the organization, the intricacy 
 of market conditions and the enormous size of the representative 
 business establishment all unite to demand this of the future business 
 manager. He ought also to be prepared to enter relatively early in life 
 upon his business career. The course of study outlined in a preceding 
 section, even omitting the technical training, can hardly be completed 
 during the regular college course. To substitute technical training 
 for a part of the general education there provided would seriously 
 narrow that broad education which is becoming more and more 
 necessary. To add the technical training to the commercial course as 
 a graduate year or years would extend the education for the prospec- 
 tive businessman to a length equal to that provided for the best trained 
 
 (233) 
 
30 
 
 lawyer or physician. After his education is completed, he still must 
 serve an apprenticeship in the ofifice of several years duration before 
 he is fitted to take a position of exacting responsibility. In the case 
 of the average business man, it is doubtful if such a prolongation of 
 the educational period is desirable. If the technical training of the 
 college is an indispensable part of the ideal preparation for business it 
 would in his case be better to substitute such training for the least es- 
 sential subjects in the more general courses. For the exceptional man, 
 the longer and more complete course of study combining both a broad 
 education and a techincal one will propably prove more advantageous 
 providing the technical education be given by competent instructors 
 and with adequate equipment. If it shall prove feasible to give tech- 
 nical commercial training in the colleges so efficiently that students 
 enjoying the same are thereby enabled to appreciably shorten their 
 apprenticeship period such training will be desirable for both classes. 
 To achieve such an end is the problem before the university schools of 
 commerce to-day. Fortunately this experiment is being tried at 
 several institutions of higher learning at the present time. The 
 University of Wisconsin has adopted the plan of including the techni- 
 cal training in the regular college business course, thus supplementing 
 the rriore general courses and allowing it to take the place of an equiva- 
 lent amount of college work; on the other hand, the Tuck School of 
 Dartmouth College has added the technical training as a graduate 
 school of commerce, the technical work thus following the more 
 general courses of the college period. While our discussion may serve 
 to interchange ideas and thus call attention to the probable strength 
 and weakness of the various methods, we may await in confidence for a 
 final answer as a result of these several experiments. Undoubtedly 
 the result will be quite largely conditioned by the skill and ability 
 with which the experiments are conducted. 
 
 Professor M. B. Hammond, Ph.D. 
 
 State University of Ohio 
 
 We may start with the assumption that new courses are to be 
 given in schools of commerce; that a commercial education will be 
 distinctly made up of new courses and not a regrouping of old ones 
 under a new title of commercial education. I agree with Professor 
 Person that a course made up in this way is not worthy to be called a 
 course in commercial education. I think we all likewise agree with 
 him that the incorporation of practice courses in our high schools and 
 commercial colleges will not attain the end we want. 
 
 It is true, and fortunate for our university finances, that many 
 courses that have been given in the past may very well be used in the 
 courses in commerce because the modern university has such a breadth 
 and variety of instruction, and the aim of all educational systems is 
 
 (234) 
 
31 
 
 common enough to make many courses \'aluable for the business man 
 as well as for those who are to enter professional careers. Some of 
 these courses are called cultural, and we shall have to make use of any 
 courses in history, general economics, English and foreign languages 
 which may come under this head. These courses, when pursued by 
 students in the first year of their course, will require little, if any, 
 modification to suit our needs. 
 
 In addition to these, there are to be found in all well equipped 
 universities certain courses which are essentially business in character, 
 and we mav also utilize these without change, in our commercial edu- 
 cation, or at least make them elective for students in particular lines. 
 We have at the Ohio State University in the agricultural college, for 
 example, courses on Live Stock and Commerce, on Sources of Supply 
 and Market Classification of Wools, on Farm Management, History of 
 Agriculture and Agricultural Economics; in botany and horticulture, 
 courses on Forestry and Forest Economics ; in civil engineering, courses 
 on Railway Location; in industrial arts, courses on Tools and Ma- 
 chines, Shop Equipment and Management; in the department of 
 mining engineering, a course on Mine Operation and Accounting, and 
 in the law school courses on Contracts, Negotiable Instruments and 
 Private and Municipal Corporations. Those of you from other uni- 
 versities can easily think of similar courses in your own institution 
 which could be made available for this purpose. Then we may by 
 use of the elective svstem, and not following any hard and fast lines, 
 arrange it so that a man who expects to enter business may be al- 
 lowed to select such courses as the above and secure some knowledge 
 of the technical side of business. There may be some internal dilih- 
 culties about credit for such work, etc., but these are questions which 
 we need not discuss here. But these courses in combination with the 
 general cultural courses already mentioned are not sufficient to con- 
 stitute a course in commercial education. Under the elective system 
 any student could have selected such courses as he needed for a par- 
 ticular business from among these courses, but we could not have called 
 that a new departure. We need in addition courses which have distinctly 
 in mind our purposes and will have a direct bearing upon business lines. 
 
 We are here confronted with the question, what is the purpose to 
 be accomplished, the aim of the course? Bluntly put (although I am 
 aware that some may take exception to this way of putting it and 
 accuse us of pandering to low ideals), the aim of the course is to teach 
 boys to make money. We have avoided putting it in just this way 
 but say instead we want to teach boys to promote industry, and 
 efficiency, etc. As long as we remember the old proverb that the 
 "shoemaker's children go barefooted, " we may console ourselves with 
 the thought that to invite young men to study from college professors 
 the art of money-making is not the only paradoxical situation which 
 
 (235) 
 
32 
 
 the world offers. Nor need we consider that we have lowered our 
 ideals in endeavoring to give instruction along these lines for the pur- 
 pose indicated. When we consider that nine-tenths of the people give 
 three-fourths of their time to work, the question of making money 
 should not be considered undignified or unworthy of pursuit. And 
 if this is capable of being taught, it should find a place in our higher 
 educational institutions. No greater service can be done by a teacher 
 than to train men who expect to enter industrial callings to pursue 
 wealth by legitimate methods. In the last twelve months we have had 
 our attention called frequently to the low standard of morality pre- 
 vailing in high circles. One of the best means of meeting this difficulty, 
 then, is to forewarn young men (for forewarned is forearmed) against 
 those methods by teaching them what are the legitimate methods, 
 and this knowledge ought to make it easier for men who pursue fair 
 commercial methods to compete with those who pursue unfair tactics. 
 
 If we agree, then, on the purpose of these courses, the next question 
 is, what work may we offer that will best enable our graduates to 
 attain this end? Should this instruction be made technical? If we 
 accept the narrower meaning of the word technical, such as Huxley 
 has in mind when he says, "Technical education is that sort which is 
 specially adapted to the needs of men whose business in life it is to 
 pursue some kind of handicraft, " I think that our answer will have to 
 be largely, though not entirely in the negative. I have sometimes 
 had a feeling that the courses* in commerce might more properly be 
 organized as departments in the college of engineering rather than 
 that of arts and sciences, since the class of men most likely to be at- 
 tracted bv these new courses would hitherto have been attracted to 
 the engineering rather than to the arts college. But certainly courses 
 in banking and insurance, for example, would seem more, suited to 
 the college of arts and sciences. 
 
 But I have no doubt that in this discussion the word technical was 
 intended to be taken in its broader sense as referring to that method 
 which is especially appropriate to any business or profession. Having 
 this meaning of the word in mind, I feel that our answer should be in 
 the affirmative. If we are to train men for a particular calling, it is 
 our business to make the instruction as definite as possible and to 
 furnish whatever information we can which has a direct bearing upon 
 the particular occupation. Viewed in this light, the question is as to 
 whether the courses we are to arrange fall within the general field of 
 economics. My own feeling is that they do. Our study of economics 
 in the past, so far as it has had a constructive purpose in view, has 
 been devoted to an effort to influence public policy, mainly through 
 legislation. With business ends in view our work must be largely 
 within the field of descriptive economics. Hitherto the purposes 
 which we have had in view have required emphasis upon other as- 
 
 (236) 
 
33 
 
 pects of economics. Our present task must be, therefore, to furnish 
 as detailed an analysis of the present industrial structure as the materi- 
 als we are able to gather will allow. In so doing we must keep in con- 
 stant touch with the business classes and secure the cooperation of 
 business men within and without the class room. In this connection 
 let us see what the university is able to furnish in the way of instruc- 
 tion along a particular line, that of manufacturing. 
 
 In treating this subject we ought to be able to give useful informa- 
 tion as to the causes which determine the localization of industries, 
 the degree to which the success of these industries is dependent upon 
 the physical and social environment. A discussion of the forms of 
 industrial undertakings may well be entered upon with a view to 
 showing how far market conditions affect the form of the enterprise. 
 We discover a tendency toward the corporate form of organization 
 and we should be able to point out the nature of the modern corpora- 
 tion, the conditions under which charters are granted, what privileges 
 they carry, what limitations are placed upon them. We should dis- 
 cuss the way in which capital is provided, the kinds of stock issued, 
 and the variety of securities with their relative advantages. The 
 internal organization of typical manufacturing plants may be described 
 as well as the functions and relations of the different departments; 
 the sources and methods of securing raw material ; of marketing goods ; 
 the various methods by which labor may be secured; what is being 
 done to promote efiticiency of labor, and the relations of employers to 
 labor organizations. Most of these subjects have been inadequately 
 treated in the general and special works in economics, but there is a 
 growing body of literature dealing with these subjects appearing es- 
 pecially in public reports and in the various technical and trade 
 journals. This should be supplemented by direct observation on the 
 part of the student of manufacturing plants in his own neighborhood 
 or that of the university. 
 
 Such study as I have briefly outlined would be a technical presentation 
 of this subject and, properly worked out, ought to furnish as complete a 
 guide to the man who enters the administrative department of a manu- 
 facturing plant as does the course in mechanical or electrical engineering 
 to the man who takes charge of certain of the processes of manufacture. 
 
 The technical side of a commercial course in a university may 
 perhaps be summed up in these words. In any industry, be it bank- 
 ing, insurance, transportation, manufacturing or comnaerce, the stu- 
 dent should be made familiar with the functions of every department 
 of a typical business within the industry; should understand the rela- 
 tions of each department with every other department and to the 
 industry as a whole; and, finally, should appreciate the relations of 
 the entire business unit to other business units in the same industry 
 and to other industries, institutions and markets. 
 
 (237) 
 
34 
 
 SECOND SESSION 
 
 THE ESSENTIALS OF A COMMERCIAL COURSE FOR HIGH 
 
 SCHOOLS 
 
 Principal J. S. Sheppard 
 New York High School of Commerce 
 
 According to the report of the Commissioner of Education, there 
 were, in 1894, fifteen thousand students pursuing commercial studies 
 in the public high schools of the United States. In 1902, that number 
 had increased to 76,000. This remarkable growth testifies eloquently 
 to a great present-day need in secondar}' education, and puts upon 
 those in authority the task of making provision for adequate school 
 training for business. European countries, almost without exception, 
 have done much for commercial education, but until recently our 
 reliance has been almost wholly upon the so-called "business colleges. " 
 These institutions have been, and still are,' extremely useful; but the 
 demand is now for a business training which involves much more 
 intensive and extensive study than is possible with the highly special- 
 ized curriculum of the business college, and in the very brief time 
 which such institutions demand and secure from the pupils. It very 
 properly falls to the secondary school to undertake the work, and it is 
 my province in this paper to point out as best I may just what pro- 
 gram of study seems best adapted to the purpose. 
 
 At the outset, it should be made clear that a highly trained intelli- 
 gence is as essential in business as in professional life. Trade has long 
 since ceased to be simple barter. Its rules and processes can no 
 longer be picked up by the fairly intelligent in a few weeks. In its 
 higher phases it puts to the test the keenest mind, and in its ordi- 
 nary phases it affords ample opportunity for the exercise of more 
 than ordinary gifts. The old-line commercial course of the "business 
 college" assumed that a certain technical facility was practically all 
 that was necessary, and so its studies were what might be called form 
 studies. Of content, there was little or none. The modern commer- 
 cial course must be based upon the assumption of a need for broad 
 and thorough training — broader and more thorough than can be 
 gained by a pursuit of the familiar "business college" subjects. 
 Indeed, it is my conviction that, with the exception of the dead lan- 
 guages, there is scarcely a single standard secondarv subject which 
 cannot be very profitably included in a commercial curriculum. But 
 it should be immediately added they must be given the sort of treat- 
 ment that will yield the most valuable returns for commercial purposes. 
 
 (238) 
 
35 
 
 To illustrate: History has come to be a favored secondary subject, 
 the emphasis ordinarily being upon political lines. In a commercial 
 course, the emphasis should be shifted to economic and commercial 
 phases. Indeed, it is my belief that this is the best thing to do in 
 even the classical school. In modern history, for instance, such 
 topics as the following would be given due consideration: 
 
 Security for labor from state authority ; 
 
 Nation, the unit of economic organization; 
 
 Capital assumes large proportions, and enters colonial enterprises; 
 
 Recasting of commercial and industrial practice ; 
 
 Mercantile system; 
 
 Rival commercial empires seeking colonies, treasure, shipping. 
 
 Colonial economic policy of Europe ; 
 
 The industrial revolutions; 
 
 Inventions; 
 
 Unstable industrial conditions; 
 
 Factory system; 
 
 Re-adaption and reconstruction of economic life ; 
 
 Cosmopolitanism superseding nationalism ; 
 
 Study of commercial conditions in Europe at the present time. 
 
 All of this can be made highly interesting to the secondary student, 
 and he can be led through a careful study of English and continental 
 history along these lines — by no means to the entire exclusion of other 
 lines — to a fairly adequate understanding of present-day industrialism 
 and commercialism. 
 
 The immense importance of training in English cannot be too 
 strongly emphasized.. In connection with the usual work of the 
 secondary English course there should be continuous and progressive 
 training, directed immediately toward commercial ends. The train- 
 ing should include such matters as letter writing, with drill in ordinary 
 business idioms; preparation of telegrams; writing and answering of 
 advertisements; oral and written reports on foreign commercial news; 
 study of biographies of successful men of affairs; preparation of a 
 careful discussion on some particular trade or profession; treatment 
 of topics of commercial and business interest after the manner of the 
 newspaper editorial. Nor should training in effective oral expression 
 be neglected. The power of concise and pointed speech is of much 
 moment to the business man. 
 
 As to languages other than English, it need hardly be said that 
 the modern tongues only should be given a place in the commercial 
 curriculum; for, in addition to their disciplinary and culture value, 
 they are of immediate importance in large commercial centers, es- 
 pecially in importing and exporting houses. 
 
 In a first-class commercial school, the graduate of a four-year 
 course should be expected to speak at least one foreign language with 
 
 (239) 
 
36 
 
 a fair degree of fluency. In other words, merely reading knowledge 
 is entirely inadequate for the young man who proposes to turn his 
 study to actual use in business. It is rather interesting to note in 
 passing that from several persons prominent in promoting foreign 
 trade, there has recently come a demand for the teaching of Japanese! 
 
 In connection with a study of German or French or Spanish, there 
 are excellent opportunities for giving the pupil an intimate acquain- 
 tance with the commercial activities of a foreign country. Admirable 
 texts for the purpose have already been published, and better ones 
 will be put forth to meet the growing demand. 
 
 In any school of modern type, science will be given a prominent 
 place in the curriculum. To me it seems so important that I would 
 prescribe it for at least three years of the High School Course. For 
 there is not alone the valuable scientific training — the development of 
 powers of doing and seeing and drawing conclusions at first hand — ■ 
 but there are also the numerous incidental applications to commercial 
 purposes. Biology, for instance, introduces the pupil to the raw 
 materials of commerce, their distribution, production, growth, and 
 relative vaules. Chemistry acquaints the pupil with many processes 
 bv which crude material is transformed into the manufactured pro- 
 duct. Physics familiarizes him with the fundamental transformations 
 of energy involved in all mechanical oprations. Indeed, the scientific 
 phase of its work should be a distinguishing characteristic of a school 
 of commerce; for the modern industrial world in which the business 
 man finds his sphere of action touches science at every turn. 
 
 While it may not be desirable to give mathematics the prominent 
 place in a commercial school it occupies in the ordinary secondary 
 school, the subject should, by no means, be slighted. Algebra and 
 geometry, with their definitely settled educational values, furnish a 
 sort of discipline which the intending business man needs, and I can- 
 not at all agree with the German writer who contends that commercial 
 arithmetic furnishes the same discipline. 
 
 Drawing has a peculiar value for a commercial school. The refine- 
 ment of taste which it develops is alone sufficient reason for giving it 
 a place in the curriculum. Aesthetic form is the chief element of 
 worth in many a commodity which finds wide sale in a civilized com- 
 munity. In this respect, America has much to learn from her Euro- 
 pean competitors. It requires but a casual study of present-day 
 advertisements to see what a big field has been opened up to art in 
 that one phase of business. 
 
 Another liberal subject hitherto studied almost exclusively in the 
 college deserves an important place in the commercial curriculum. 
 Economics lends itself readih^ to advantageous treatment in the 
 secondary school. The laws governing the production, exchange, 
 and distribution of wealth are within the comprehension of the high- 
 
 (240) 
 
37 
 
 school senior, though he may not any better than his college brother 
 grasp all their subtleties. Economics presents for the pupil's considera- 
 tion data of the most interesting character, and in its practical appli- 
 cations touches upon nearly all of the vital social and political ques- 
 tions of the day. Banking and finance, international trade, taxation, 
 socialism, all fall within the scope of the subject. And from the 
 purely disciplinary point of view, economics is peculiarlv adapted to 
 advanced secondary instruction. Its laws and principles are drawn 
 from facts which must be carefully weighed and balanced. It trains 
 the pupil to reach conclusions based upon considerations of a com- 
 plex character. The syllogism of mathematics is not the syllogism of 
 every-day life. The man of affairs cannot proceed from absolutely 
 fixed premises to definite and unvarving conclusions. The value of 
 his judgment will depend upon the ability to give proper weight to a 
 variety of elements which make up his premises. For training in this 
 sort of practical reasoning a better subject than economics could not 
 be selected. Closelv related to economics is economic or commercial 
 geography. The latter throws into broad relief the division of labor — 
 perhaps the most marked feature of modern industrial conditions, and 
 the fundamental basis of trade and commerce. In a large community 
 the study of commercial geography would naturally begin with a study 
 of local industries, from which it would broaden in a regular, order- 
 ly way to the large aspects of trade, domestic and foreign. 
 
 Thus far we have spoken of the typical secondary subjects, common 
 in all good high schools with the exception of economics and commer- 
 cial geography. A program of studies in a commercial school would 
 not in a mere statement of the subjects differ very much from the 
 program in the ordinary high school. What is insisted upon is that 
 they should be taught as far as possible with a commercial bias. 
 
 There remains for our consideration the group of studies which are 
 directly and immediately commercial. The business activities of to- 
 day require from those who w^ould undertake them the ability to write a 
 good hand, to use figures with accuracy and dispatch, to keep accounts 
 with intelligence and economy of time and effort. To these equip- 
 ments may be added a familiarity with business forms and documents, 
 the laws governing their use, and some knowledge of office economy. 
 In many instances, a knowledge of stenography and typewriting is 
 essential, and in any case it is a valuable addition to the young busi- 
 ness man's equipment. The commercial course should therefore 
 include business writing and arithmetic, bookkeeping, business cor- 
 respondence, and ofifice practice, commercial law, and stenography and 
 typewriting. Business writing and business arithmetic should come early 
 in the course to find their steady application in the later work of the 
 school. Bookkeeping is by no means an easy study if properly taught. 
 It does not seem advisable to begin it before the second year of the 
 
 (241) 
 
38 
 
 course, and provision should be made for its study in the third and 
 fourth years. Competent observers feel that bookkeeping as usually 
 taught is not made to show its real educational value. It is certainly 
 possible to make the instruction in accounts center about certain 
 definite principles. It is by no means necessary for the pupil merely 
 to follow a model in the spirit of an unthinking imitator. In commer- 
 cial law, also, that instruction cannot be called successful which aims 
 only at giving the pupil a certain body of facts. The subject lends 
 itself to a treatment which is in no small degree scientific. It has been 
 the fashion in four -year commercial courses to postpone the study of 
 stenography to the late years of the course. This is hardly defensible. 
 Pupils in the first and second years may with profit pursue the study 
 of shorthand, and the many opportunities for its use in school makes 
 it possible for them to secure a practical training, insuring speed and 
 accuracy at graduation. Business correspondence and ofhce practice 
 come more properly after a preliminary training which has made the 
 pupil familiar with many details of business usage. It is perhaps not 
 unwise to place them in the fourth year of the program. 
 
 Briefly stated, it should be the aim of the commercial school to 
 give the requisite technical equipment for business, but also to go far 
 beyond that, and by a wise application of practically all the standard 
 secondary subjects to commercial uses to give a depth and breadth of 
 preparation that will insure an all-around efficiency, an easy adapt- 
 ability to new and important tasks, and a degree of initiative. The 
 graduate of the commercial high school will be by no means a finished 
 business man. But no law school expects its graduates to be finished 
 lawyers, and no medical school assumes that its graduates will be 
 finished physicians. There is much that the successful business man 
 must know which no school can teach, just as there is much in the 
 practice of law for which no school ofifers a prescription. And yet 
 the day has gone by when law is learned by reading in a lawyer's 
 office. The law school has become practically indispensable. And 
 the day is fast passing, with the remarkable specialization of all 
 commercial and industrial activities, when a desirable all-around 
 training in business can be secured in a business house. The new 
 recruit is assigned to some restricted task, with small outlook into 
 other fields, and unless he has more than ordinary energies and initia- 
 tive, or is possessed of influence, he is likely to have little opportunity 
 for broader experience. 
 
 The sort of course here outlined not only am.ply meets the demands 
 of the business world, assuring to those who finish it a well-rounded 
 equipment in a necessarily elementary way for affairs, but it does 
 more than that. It opens the way to the higher school of commerce, 
 the technical school or college, and thus in every way fills the definition 
 of the modern secondary school. There is a surprisingly large number 
 
 (242) 
 
39 
 
 of parents who desire for their children the business training which a 
 commercial school gives, and at the same time are anxious that ade- 
 quate preparation for college shall go with it. A well arranged com- 
 mercial course may easily assure both things, and in course of time 
 the commercial courses of the universities ought to attract goodly 
 numbers of students who have had the preparation afforded by a 
 commercial secondarv school. 
 
 THE CORRELATION OF HIGH SCHOOL AND UNIVERSITY 
 COURSES IN COMMERCIAL STUDIES 
 
 By Principal J. E. Armstrong, A. M. 
 Engleivood High School, Chicago 
 
 Correlation presumes that two things exist and that between them 
 a mutual or reciprocal relation is to be established. This I feel is 
 almost a mistake, for there is scarcely a distinct or well defined notion 
 among high school men of a commercial course. No such doubt 
 exists if we speak of a classical course or a manual training course. 
 To the average patron of the high school, a commercial course means 
 a course in bookkeeping. This is doubtless due largely to the com- 
 mercialism of the so-called business college. If we confine our dis- 
 cussion to this conception of commercial courses, there will certainly 
 be nothing to correlate. Children from the sixth and seventh grades 
 of our public schools are learning to record imaginary business trans- 
 actions or to write rapidly and spell phonetically in order to obtain a 
 position in a business house. Whether this in any way prepares them 
 to engage in business or to fill a place of responsibility and trust or 
 not, is another matter. Parents are willing to toil and sacrifice to 
 give their children this brief automatic training because of the slight 
 advantage it will give. I suspect part of it is due to the esteem they 
 hold for the name, "Business Education." Business men are partly 
 at fault for this erroneous conception of business education, for, until 
 very recently, many of them gave preference to the boy of twelve 
 with a three months' business college course, because it was supposed 
 he would be more teachable than the high school boy, and would do 
 his task without question about the method. The boy with more of a 
 mind of his own was thought to be too independent. In other words, 
 the one who could become a machine to grind out dollars was what 
 they desired. 
 
 Thanks to the cooperation of an increasing number of secondary 
 schools and the operation of the child labor laws there is now a greater 
 demand for the high school graduate. In fact many of the large 
 business houses and corporations will not employ any boy who is not 
 a high school graduate. 
 
 (243) 
 
40 
 
 Possibly the lack of proper ideals among educators themselves, 
 and their natural conservatism are at fault. As President James once 
 pointed out, classical school men bitterly opposed the introduction of 
 science into the high schools. Later, classical and science men united 
 to oppose manual training; and now possibly all three are united 
 against their supposed common enemy, commercial education. If 
 the essence of education is found only in the sacred walks of our 
 fathers, perhaps this is a holy warfare ; but to my way of thinking it is 
 not true. Who has not met a liberal minded, refined man or woman 
 whose soul seemed touched with intellectual fire, who recognized the 
 broad relations of humanity, who reasoned logically and yet had but 
 little school learning? Have we not placed too much emphasis 
 upon certain training as essential to culture? Our whole system of 
 education seems to assume that all minds are so nearlv alike that the 
 same intellectual diet will nourish all; and then we excuse ourselves 
 for starving some and overfeeding others by blaming heredity and 
 environment. I once transplanted a little flowering plant from a cold 
 mountain top to a sunny spot in a fertile garden. On its native rocks, 
 ice-bound the greater part of the year, it had lived a tiny dwarf. In 
 its new home, it grew to great size, bloomed profusely, and perished 
 in one short season. Many a palm that would have become a stately 
 tree in its native clime, lives a miserable, sickly caricature in a dark- 
 ened parlor. We seem to say that if the human plant cannot flourish 
 on the diet we offer, let it die rather than to offend our gods of learning. 
 
 It is stated on good authority, that the hosts of youths who go 
 through our schools will soon forget their Latin arid in ten years from 
 the time they leave school they will not be able to read a dozen lines 
 of Cicero ; nor will they be able to tell why the three angles of a triangle 
 are equal to two right angles. Claim what we may for the power they 
 have gained, and the ability to think logically, yet there is great loss, 
 a waste of energy that possibly could have been saved. I dare to say 
 we send out some conspicuous failures, judged by our ordinary 
 standards, who eventually find their way to places of great trust, 
 responsibility, and honor, and are recognized as people of culture. It 
 must be that there are other means of culture that lie outside the 
 school curriculum. 
 
 A vast majoritv of the pupils who go through our schools must 
 eventually find a place in the business world. Only one here and 
 there can become a professional man. We need not dwell upon the 
 common need of the rudiments of an education as provided in our 
 splendid system of public schools; but after the child reaches the age 
 of adolescence, we recognize the need of studies that call forth the 
 exercise of the powers of the soul. Is it not reasonable to suppose 
 that those activities that are to occupy the waking hours of the 
 masses of the people engaged in a keen struggle for existence or su- 
 
 (244) 
 
41 
 
 premacy will furnish a stimulus to mental activity? Self -activity, 
 which we failed to awaken while in school, was the mainspring to 
 success and culture. It lay coiled, full of energy, awaiting the master 
 hand that could set it free. We give the would-be doctor all that 
 science can bring to his assistance. We give the embryo lawyer all 
 that history, government, and logic can contribute to his assistance. 
 Why not give the future business man what we can of knowledge and 
 discipline along the line of, and in, his chosen work? The laws of 
 trade are more important to him than the laws of Solon or the logic 
 of Plato. There are laws governing the production of corn and pork 
 as certain as the laws of falling bodies. We have relied too long upon 
 the chances for a man to rnaster both scholastic and business laws. 
 Life for the majority of men is too short. Splendid mental discipline 
 can be found in common things that lie close to the heart of the daily 
 toiler. We have allowed to lie neglected a vast fertile field. It is 
 filled with plants that bear precious grains, luscious fruits, as well as 
 noxious weeds. In adjoining fields, we have set the useful plants in 
 rows, arranging those of a kind together and removed the weeds. A 
 little work bestowed upon the other field would greatlv increase our 
 harvest. 
 
 Let no one think that I am opposed to the studv of Latin. Two- 
 thirds of my pupils take Latin with my approval. It is, to many, a 
 splendid highway to the culture of the past. I am only thinking of 
 the multitudes who cannot travel that road and who will, and do, leave 
 school rather than try it. The report of the Board of Education of 
 Chicago for last vear shows the membership bv grades in round num- 
 bers as follows: 
 "1st Grade, 43,000 7th Grade, 14,000 
 
 2nd Grade, 36,000 8th Grade, 1 1 ,000 
 
 3rd Grade, 34.000 9th Grade, or 1st year in high school, 4,600 
 
 4th Grade, 28,000 10th Grade, 2,500 
 
 5th Grade, 27,000 1 1th Grade, 1,600 
 
 6th Grade, 20,000 12th Grade, 1,100" 
 
 It will be seen from this that there is a constant and deplorable 
 dropping off from the first grade on. In the report for 1900-01, I 
 note the following: 
 
 " In 1889, 25,788 children entered the first grade. " The following 
 per cents show the relative numbers of these that returned each year : 
 "2nd year, 90% 6th year, 48% 10th year, 9% 
 
 3rd year, 80% 7th year, 37% 11th year, 6% 
 
 4th year, 65% 8th year, 28%o 12th year, 5%," 
 
 5th year, 61<% 9th year, 15% 
 
 The crowded condition of the so-called business colleges as well as 
 that of our public manual training schools show a desire of a large num- 
 ber of people to obtain a different training from that which we offer 
 
 (245) 
 
42 
 
 in the ordinary high school. Comparing the work done in the manual 
 training schools and some of the recently established commercial 
 schools with that of the ordinary high school we find a curriculum 
 requiring as close application and as logical a sequence of study. At 
 the same time that this new growth was taking place in commercial 
 schools, our other high schools have grown faster than we could pro- 
 vide for them; for, in spite of the fact that 95 per cent of the pupils 
 who entered the schools have left before graduation, our high schools 
 have increased seventy-five per cent. (Report of the Superintendent 
 of Schools, Chicago, 1901.) 
 
 While it is impossible to gather data that will show whv the ninety- 
 five per cent left the schools, it is not difficult to point out some of the 
 causes upon which we can all agree. It is certainly a noble sentiment 
 that places education above influence, power or wealth ; but food, cloth- 
 ing, fuel and shelter are stern necessities. The struggle for mere existence 
 is the all-important question for the majority of the common people. 
 Is it a base, unworthy desire, on the part of school men, to teach 
 struggling humanity how to make existence more tolerable. It was 
 thought once to be a great achievement when two blades of grass were 
 made to grow where but one grew before. We now find that two 
 may be made to grow where none grew before. Not all povert}^ is due 
 to "trusts," corporations or alcohol. A considerable part is due to 
 ignorance of the most fundamental laws of economic and domestic 
 science. Little girls in our schools taught to cook scientifically, to 
 buy the most nourishing food, and to cut and sew their own clothing 
 are saving many families from poverty. To my mind, there is no 
 doubt that a considerable part of that ninety-five per cent entered the 
 commercial world prematurely of stern necessity. Another portion 
 lost interest long before they left school because the home and the 
 school were too far apart — that is, out of harmony. Parents are 
 absorbed in making a living, and see no help ahead from the schools; 
 and the children receiving no encouragement at home, become im- 
 bued with the feeling that school will not help them do the work that 
 beckons just ahead. The schools seem to them entirely impractical. 
 
 Can we not find a new field of interest for them that will furnish 
 sufficient discipline, and lie so close to the every-da}" things of life that 
 they shall continue to grow in it? Bookkeeping and stenography 
 cannot claim this place. The great majority of those engaged in com- 
 mercial life neither keep books nor answer letters. These branches are 
 as foreign to their occupation as Latin and possess far less disciplinary 
 power for those who can grasp it. The backbone of all commercial 
 courses should be Commercial Geography. It is as yet ill defined and 
 scatters over creation about as natural history did in the early days 
 of science teaching. It must be differentiated into several branches 
 before it can take high rank in the curriculum. It is a subject that 
 
 (246) 
 
43 
 
 cannot fail to interest all who have any contact with business life. 
 It gathers its data from every field of practical knowledge. It recog- 
 nizes the part played by science and invention. It takes account of 
 the influence of religion and established social customs in the world's 
 common work. Possibly it should receive a new name, for the average 
 parent thinks of it as geography and not commerce. Geographical 
 Commerce would be an improvement in some respects. However, 
 the name will take care of itself if the subject matter is living and 
 growing as I believe it to be. Commercial geography is yet in the 
 condition of the Liberal Arts Buildings at our World's Fairs. They 
 contain too much under one roof to receive the careful attention they 
 deserve. We shall have to divide the subjects into many divisions, 
 such as the production of raw materials, influence of soil and climate, 
 distribution, manufactures, labor saving machinery, mediums of ex- 
 change, banking, influence of railroads and waterways, the influence 
 of religion and social customs on the production and exchange of 
 products, etc. 
 
 All this will require a study of the leading modern languages, the 
 whole field of science, and history — especially industrial history — 
 political economy and plain English. W^e are making some progress 
 along these lines in our city schools, but only a beginning. Most of 
 the pupils wish to study bookkeeping and stenography the first year 
 so as to take a position the next year. We insist on all pupils taking 
 English one year. A year of foreign language and of mathematics 
 with bookkeeping seems not unreasonable; so the stenography waits 
 till the second year. Commercial geography is offered in the third year 
 and political economy and commercial law in the fourth. In this way 
 we hope to keep them at work the same length of time that we do others ; 
 but the allurements of a great commercial city are still against us. 
 
 Similar courses are being offered in the progressive high schools all 
 over the country, and the time will soon come when the business world 
 will more fully recognize their merits. This will also create more of a 
 demand for the splendid courses offered here at the University of 
 Illinois. The commercial or business world has long looked upon the 
 universities and all teachers as the embodiment of the impractical. 
 Our engineering and agricultural colleges have done much to redeem 
 the rest of us from this bad reputation. Business men are beginning 
 to recognize the practical value of the courses offered here in commer- 
 cial lines. Let the high schools see to it that they do their part in 
 advancing the interests of the same good cause. 
 
 DISCUSSION 
 
 Principal F. D. Thompson 
 Galeshurg High School 
 The paper states clearly the lines of work for the commercial 
 course in a high school. 
 
 (247) 
 
44 
 
 Experience in our high school has shown that the introduction of 
 commercial studies has found favor with a large number of the patrons 
 of the school. 
 
 Our work in English, history, arithmetic and civil government has 
 been taken in the classes when these subjects were already taught. 
 This has made it possible for us to carry on a commercial course 
 simply by the introduction of a few special studies and having our 
 other work presented in as practical a way as possible. 
 
 The plan of having these studies in the school alongside of the 
 other work of the school has been appreciated by our pupils and has 
 drawn many into the school. Many who have entered school for the 
 sole purpose of taking the commercial lines of work have been brought 
 to see the value of other lines of study and have taken them up. 
 Those who have finished the commercial course alone have fitted 
 themselves for places in the business world and have made themselves 
 effective laborers in their chosen field. 
 
 Professor M. H. Robinson 
 
 The correlation of the commercial education offered by the uni- 
 versity with that provided by the high schools involves the considera- 
 tion of this important question, "What subjects in preparation for a 
 business career and what kind of instruction are adapted to the intel- 
 lectual development of the average pupil of high school age?" The 
 character of the instruction and the nature of the subjects presented 
 in the university naturally differ from those adapted to the high school 
 course. Again, it is doubtless true that the character of the education 
 and the nature of the subjects ought to be somewhat different during 
 the high school period for the pupils whose school days end with the 
 completion of the high school course and for those who are preparing 
 for college. This difference has led to the establishment of distinct 
 and separate high schools in certain cities for those who are preparing 
 for the university. Still even in such cases the courses provided in 
 the two classes of schools are more alike than different. The applica- 
 tion of sound educational philosophy to the problem before us will 
 probably necessitate agreement on the two following propositions: 
 first, the larger part of the pupil's time in school up to the beginning of 
 the college course is needed for the mastery of the intellectual tools 
 which an educated man is constantly using, — the ability to read and 
 understand his own and one or more foreign languages; a knowledge 
 of the science of numbers and skill in their use ; an elementary view of 
 the natural sciences; second, there are certain subjects essential to a 
 commercial education which are' fitted by their nature to be a part of 
 the high school curriculum. Such are commercial arithmetic, the 
 nature of accounts and the elements of bookkeeping, commercial 
 
 (248) 
 
45 
 
 geography and economic history. Each of these is based upon or is 
 an extension of studies pursued during the high school course, and thus 
 form the natural link between the high school and the college for those 
 pupils who are shaping their high school and college courses in prepar- 
 ation for a business career. 
 
 Dr. E. D. Durand 
 
 What the high schools can give which will count for business will, 
 of course, fit only for the lower ranks. This will serve to introduce 
 the man into business, and then if he has the ability and initiative he 
 can. of course, rise. But to attempt to give a man in the high school 
 or in the college a knowledge of the way in which business is carried 
 on, and especially of the conditions of any particular business which 
 he may want to enter, seem very nearly, if not quite, impracticable. 
 We can get it more in the college, perhaps, than in the high school, 
 in the way of teaching the methods of organization and administration, 
 the principles of business, the systems of banking and money, the 
 organization of the different interests of a business and their relation 
 to one another. All these will help the pupil. But so far as helping 
 him to engage in manufacturing or any kind of actual business, we 
 cannot go very far. 
 
 Now, if you teach a pupil the places and ways in which certain 
 products are produced, the manner of exportation, and all that, what, 
 after all, have you done to prepare him to go into the practical busi- 
 ness of manufacturing ? You cannot carry the instruction far enough 
 to enable him to manage a particular business. There are a few 
 businesses, of course, like the country cross-roads store, and a few 
 others which are anomalous, and take no great amount of knowledge 
 except of a general character. But for the most part, the business of 
 today is extremely concrete, so that it does not seem to me that 
 general instruction in commercial geography, for instance, will be of 
 anv particular service for that purpose. Not for a moment would I 
 decry commercial geography as a matter of science ; every pupil ought 
 to know about the methods by which goods are produced, etc.; but 
 for practical value to the man of business, there is considerable danger 
 of overestimatinsr it. 
 
 SUPERINTENDEXT E. G. COOLEY 
 
 Chicago 
 
 I am inclined to believe that the trouble with the university man 
 is the feeling on the part of the people of the high schools that they 
 must in some way follow the lead of the universities, which are the 
 most conservative part of the school svstem of the country. If we 
 
 (249) 
 
46 
 
 would do less in this way and let the universities take care of them- 
 selves, we would have better commercial high schools. 
 
 The same proposition is here in the commercial line that we have 
 in other studies in the high school, in science, history, Latin, etc., and 
 that is a domination coming from the univeristies in which they 
 inject university work into the high schools and expect the high 
 school to do the work that is done by people in the university. What 
 I mean is, that a person who teaches in a high school is expected to 
 have attended a college or university. When he goes into the high 
 school, he tries to do the same kind of work that he did in the uni- 
 versity. This is one of the greatest troubles in the high schools. 
 
 There is, as you know, a very small number of pupils that ever go 
 to the university. Hence, it is not fair to let the universities dominate 
 the work of the high schools. Mr. Armstrong called attention to the 
 small number who ever get into the high school. A still smaller 
 number ever reach the university. 
 
 Another thing: we are dominated by the notion that thoroughness 
 is absolutely out of any reasonable relation with the nature of the 
 child. Now those who study the child will see that there is only a 
 certain degree of thoroughness to be obtained. It is not reasonable 
 to hold them back until they reach a certain standard ; if you do you 
 will waste the development, and it is not reasonable to hold them back 
 to reach some ideal. They are growing and developing in their 
 thinking and in their bodies. We see a little child in the primary 
 room and we do not try to bring him down to the precise movements 
 of the adult. We high school people, with a view to doing something 
 for the young men and women who are going into business, should 
 not be made mere instruments to explain analyses and all that, and 
 keep them down. Of course we will teach them English, mathe- 
 matics, history, and so on, but we should give them some broader 
 ideas. They say it cannot be done because we cannot cover all lines. 
 We cannot cover all lines even in technical high schools. We cannot 
 keep the boys in order to graduate them in the Chicago high schools 
 because they are so greatly in demand by the business men. They 
 realize these boys have learned some things and thev want them in 
 their establishments. Now, we are finding the same thing in the com- 
 mercial work; we cannot keep the boys through the four years. 
 
 Professor G. M. Fisk 
 University of Illinois 
 
 The criticism of Superintendent Cooley regarding the conservatism 
 of the university, while applicable to American colleges and universi- 
 ties in part, hardly applies to our higher institutions of learning at the 
 present time; at least it does not apply to our state universities. 
 
 (250) 
 
47 
 
 Present university entrance requirements offer great latitude in the 
 selection of preparatory studies. What the universities want are 
 young men and young women equipped to do university work. Of 
 course, there must be some general standards of entrance, but the 
 particular subjects taught in high schools are of less concern to 
 university authorities than the character of the preparation. 
 Most of the universities are glad to give high school students credit 
 for all advanced work done in the secondary school, provided its 
 quality justifies it. This applies not only to language or mathematics, 
 but to commercial geography or any other subject. More specifically 
 as to business education it is not for the universities to say what com- 
 mercial branches should be taught in the secondary schools. These 
 must be selected by the latter in such a w'ay as to meet local require- 
 ments. The universities simply say, "We will accept and give credit 
 for all cominercial branches taught in the universities and duplicated 
 in the high schools. " 
 
 SuPERiXTEXDEXT Clendenex : How many students in the Uni- 
 versity of Illinois are taking the business course? 
 
 Professor Fisk: I presume there are at least one hundred 
 students in the University who are taking substantially all the subjects 
 in one of the business courses. On the other hand, there are approxi- 
 mately a thousand students who are taking one or more subjects in 
 these courses. 
 
 Superintexdext T. C. Clexdexex 
 Cairo, Illinois 
 
 I have come to the conclusion, based on the observation of many 
 years, that less than one-half per cent, of the whole number who enter 
 high school ever enter the university. I believe, as Mr. Hewett says, 
 that we must face our courses in the high school toward the school life. 
 The number of these boys and girls who are going into a university is 
 too small to make us face our courses toward the university. We 
 must face our courses toward the people. Any correlation, from the 
 standpoint of superintendents, between the work of elementary schools 
 and the work of the high schools has no influence whatever with us. 
 We want our boys and girls to come to the university feeling that it 
 has a business course to offer and that they want to take it. I have a 
 boy taking this course and I think the university will give him what 
 he wants. He does this without any shaping of his high school 
 course towards the university. The high school course, when it is in 
 proper working order, will not face towards the University of Illinois 
 or of Chicago or any other, but will face towards the lives of the people 
 after they leave the high school. 
 
 (251) 
 
48 
 
 Professor D. E. Burchell 
 University of Wisconsin- 
 One point has come into my mind which I would like to mention. 
 What will be the result if the high schools emphasize today the idea 
 that they are simply preparing young inen to leave the high school for 
 the business world? Will it not have a tendency to lead young men 
 to think that the high school does all that it necessary to get them 
 into business, and so they see no advantage in going further? 
 
 On the other side, the university people should realize that these 
 are the men they want, and should try to get hold of them. They 
 should say to the young men, "You are going into business; cannot 
 you make same way to enter the university and add to what you al- 
 ready have a university education and be a better man therefor and 
 get farther up with more rapid strides than you can by leaving the 
 high school now and turning into business?" 
 
 Professor M. B. Hammond 
 Ohio State University 
 
 What are the universities to do with the men who have no idea 
 when they begin these courses that they will go on? Fifty per cent, 
 have no idea of taking a college course at first, but after taking the 
 course in high school they decide that they would like to go on in the 
 university, but are not able to meet the university requirements with- 
 out going back one or two years in the high school course, unless the 
 university will accept the work offered. Should the university accept 
 commercial subjects and put them on the elective list? The univer- 
 sity ought to settle that question. 
 
 Principal J. E. Armstrong 
 Chicago 
 
 There are several points here. We cannot think of such a thing as 
 planning any course with the hope that it is going to last ten or twelve 
 years. We must also leave out of consideration that we are preparing 
 for college. We have the ninety-five per cent, to deal with before we 
 come to the college question at all. Of course the better the course, 
 the better for those who are going to college. Now we talk about a 
 commercial school preparing a man to go into the iron business, for 
 instance; but here we are referring to the trade schools. When we 
 use the word business we are still referring to commerce and not to 
 any particular line of manufacturing. The time is coming when we 
 shall have these trade schools. We are becoming more and more a 
 manufacturing nation and we shall have to give more attention to 
 these things. We need also to give attention to commerce, transpor- 
 
 (252) 
 
49 
 
 tation, etc.. and that is the subject we are considering when we are 
 talking about commercial schools. The University of Illinois gives 
 credit for anything that has been well done in any high school and will 
 examine the school. I ha\-e no sympathy with the idea that we should 
 confine ourselves to elementary things ; that we should merelv do more 
 thoroughly the elementary things. 
 
 The high school teachers were complaining because the child came 
 to them and could not spell, and that simph' called attention to the 
 fact that the high schools were at fault. The ninety-five per cent, are 
 the ones that must be considered, and we must consider the fact that 
 present lines do not meet the needs of these and that there are other 
 lines of training that would. So any effort to reach this ninety-five 
 per cent, is bound to remain in the secondarv schools and we are going 
 have the courses to do it. 
 
 ^ Mr. G. W. Brown 
 
 Brown's Business Colleges 
 
 I think it is true that the universities are conservative, 
 and I do not see how they can be otherwise. I do not 
 believe that the high schools are to adopt any course of studv until 
 they have the strong support of the people. Let the universities 
 make the course that has been outlined here today. Let them make 
 that course general and show that there is a point to it, that those 
 that follow that course are led to important positions, and my judg- 
 ment is that it will not lack persons to take it. It is not feasible to 
 arrange a high school so as to make it preparatory. 
 
 (2^.3) 
 
50 
 
 THIRD SESSION 
 
 HOW SHALL WE TEACH BUSINESS PRACTICE? 
 
 By Professor D. E. Burchell 
 
 University of Wisconsin 
 
 The term business practice has several meanings according to the 
 connection in which it is used. In the business colleges for the past 
 fifty years it has applied to that department known as the offices. 
 The work in the offices was pursued by the student at the end of the 
 course, and it was here that he was taught to put in practice the 
 theoretical work which had preceded. These offices represent whole- 
 sale houses, commission houses, insurance and real estate offices, 
 banks, etc. The idea being to give the student practice in office 
 routine and so far as possible accustom him to the atmosphere and 
 habits of business practice. This practice has not extended much 
 outside of bookkeeping processes. In the stenographic department 
 similar practice has been given in correspondence, quite as good as 
 that in the offices, although not given the name of business practice. 
 In the commercial department of high schools the term business 
 practice has come to mean the same as in the business colleges and to 
 a large extent the same meaning applies to the courses in business 
 practice being introduced into the colleges and universities. How- 
 ever, to the business man, the term business practice has not such a 
 limited meaning, but extends rather to all phases of daily business 
 activity. I shall discuss this broader meaning later. 
 
 The business colleges for more than fifty years have been training 
 young men and women for clerical positions, and they, too, have been 
 the principal means of instructing in stenography and typewriting. 
 Hundreds and sometimes thousands have been sent out from the 
 business colleges annually to take positions in the offices of business 
 houses. While many have never risen above mere clerkships, others 
 have used this small beginning as a stepping-stone to something better. 
 Many of the most prominent men in the country date their start in 
 life to the day they left the business college. A couple of years ago a 
 sign on 125th Street, New York, read something like this, — "Roose- 
 velt knows a good thing, his private secretary, Mr. Cortelyou learned 
 stenography in this college." I suppose if you were to pass there 
 today the sign would read, — "We make cabinet officers, Cortelyou 
 began his career with us." Other business colleges might make 
 s"milar statements because, until recently, they have been the only 
 means by which a young man or woman could get a start in the busi- 
 ness world without beginning at the bottom. If we were to have a 
 
 (254) . 
 
51 
 
 list of men who have attended business colleges it would surprise us 
 to find among them so many prominent and successful men. All 
 credit is not to be given to the courses in business practice, but it is 
 in this particular department that the greatest competition has arisen 
 and wherein the most prosperous business colleges have excelled. 
 It is this phase of the course that they have emphasized most in their 
 advertisements and printed matter, claiming in this particular to 
 give young men and women "actual business practice." 
 
 It has been an open criticism for years that while such courses in 
 business practice are good as far as they go, they are much too narrow, 
 and train only for clerical duties. It is for this reason that we should 
 not follow the definition of business practice as outlined by the busi- 
 ness colleges, but rather should undertake to grasp the business 
 man's meaning and extend it to all phases of business activitv. In 
 other words, courses in business practice should not only include 
 practice in bookkeeping, correspondence, commercial papers, and 
 business forms, but they should also include the science and art of 
 funding operations, buying, advertising, selling, credits, collections, 
 cost accounting, auditing, systematizing, organization, management, 
 etc. To a certain extent these titles are considered in courses in 
 economics and private law, but in each case there is a phase that is 
 peculiar to business administration and can only be treated from that 
 standpoint, which is the standpoint of the business man and not that 
 of the economist or lawyer. The emphasis is on the art not so much 
 the science or law. To the educator it may seem mercenary, but the 
 business man is not in business for his health any more than the 
 teacher, preacher, or lawyer. And the teaching of good principles 
 and practice in business should lead to wholesome results by training 
 young men for honorable business careers to be in the van of progress, 
 and the backbone of the nation. 
 
 The business colleges devote about eight hours a day for ten weeks 
 to business practice. This gives a total of nearly five hundred hours, 
 which in University time is about two hours a week, with preparation 
 for three years. But, as has been shown, the business colleges do not 
 include more than a quarter to a third of the courses that should be 
 taught. In other words, the larger course we have suggested would 
 run throughout a four years' course, five hours a week, with prepara- 
 tion. It is impossible to thus give one-third of a college course to 
 business practice. This time must be cut down either by eliminating 
 the suggested courses or working on a different plan. We should not 
 omit any of the titles suggested, for, in general, they are coordinate. 
 This necessitates introducing plans and methods which provide 
 instruction in the various subjects, and within reasonable limits. 
 
 A second limitation to be mentioned is the complete lack of books 
 suitable for college texts. Texts are not needed in the advanced 
 
 (255) 
 
52 
 
 courses, but are a necessity in the large classes of the first two or 
 two and a half years. The books on bookkeeping, etc., are made for 
 the business colleges and high schools, and are too long drawn out for 
 college work. The books on other subjects in the business series now 
 being issued by several publishing houses are written for high schools 
 and popular reading and in general are not suitable for work of uni- 
 versity grade. The results are that the instructors in business prac- 
 tice have to spend too much valuable time cutting, splicing, and 
 modifying to suit the conditions. The methods of teaching which I 
 shall consider in a moment will doubtless work most instructors to 
 death, but will enable the few who survive to get out some books 
 suitable for college texts in business practice. 
 
 The third and last limitation which I shall consider is that of 
 equipment. At present it is quite impossible to secure room and 
 furniture to equip a department of business practice similar to business 
 ofifices and where the various duties could be experienced by a large 
 body of students. In progressive universities there is a constant 
 clamor for floor space and furniture to accommodate the increase in 
 students and instructional force. With ofhce accommodations for 
 upwards of two hundreds of students, as is the case in the courses in 
 business practice at Wisconsin, it is easy to imagine the magnitude of 
 the problem. As much care should be exercised in installing a labora- 
 tory for business practice as for physics, chemistry, or engineering. It 
 is not only the question of furniture, but also of ofhce equipment in 
 general, such as adding machines, loose-leaf ledger systems, card 
 systems, filing systems, various forms and bindings, copying devices, 
 etc. It is as important for a business man to know the possibilities 
 and comparative merits of "bill and charge" machines, as for an 
 engineer to know the workings of a dynamo. Neither may have 
 occasion to operate the respective machines, but the knowledge of 
 them is essential for general purposes, and it is simply this all-round 
 knowledge that makes the college man better than he who simply 
 learned his duties as one learns a trade. He may not be as skilled an 
 artisan at the start, but he will excel the artisan in managerial ability. 
 They may not be as good machinists or bookkeepers, but will make bet- 
 ter superintendents, secretaries, or business managers. 
 
 As to just how business practice should be taught, and even as to 
 just what subjects should be considered, is a matter of opinion. The 
 organizing of this course is only in its infancy and a great manv plans 
 must be tried before a settled method can be agreed upon. For some 
 time to come the arrangement of the work will be governed largely 
 by the training and experience of the man in charge. That of the 
 man having onl}' a college training must differ from that of the man 
 who has added business experience. The difiference will not be so 
 much the quality, as the influence brought to bear upon the material, 
 
 (2 56) 
 
53 
 
 method, and subjects emphasized. The outHne I shall suggest present- 
 ly bears upon the subject matter rather than the specific title to be 
 given to the several divisions. There are many phases of business 
 practice which are important, yet in the crowded arrangement cannot 
 have separate titles and must come under some larger title and at 
 such a time as best suits the general plan. Then, too, the order is a 
 secondary matter, for most of the subjects are coordinate and inde- 
 pendent. The whole matter must be left to the discretion of the 
 instructors and made to fit the general scheme of college electives, etc. 
 First, let us consider business forms and commercial paper. I 
 believe these should be mastered before beginning bookkeeping. The 
 principle and practice of bookkeeping should not be halted at every 
 turn bv introducing new business forms and commercial paper. Let 
 these be understood and put in practice. Procure a supply of a large 
 variety of forms from business houses or have a supply printed. 
 Show the various correct ways for filling these forms. Acquaint 
 the student with the transactions in which the variations are used, 
 discuss the significance of the variations, their uses and results. 
 Then give the student typical transactions, asking them to prepare 
 forms and commercial papers to suit the transaction. This work can 
 be extended more than one might think at a glance, for instance, bills, 
 invoices, statements, receipted bills, vouchers, voucher checks, simple 
 forms of sales books, cash books, ledgers, various forms of notes, 
 drafts, checks, acceptances, stock certificates, transfers, bonds, wills, 
 deeds, time sheets, pay rolls, freight receipts, bills of lading, docu- 
 mented bills, etc., etc. In the meantime the student is getting familiar 
 with the nature and meaning of manv business transactions he never 
 heard of before, and the interest can be kept at a good pitch by dis- 
 cussions and lectures touched here and there by legal points, many of 
 which should not be omitted simplv because a course in commercial 
 law is to follow. If the latter is taught by the "case method" it will 
 be much more profitable to the student and satisfactory to the in- 
 structor if the student has a general groundwork in law closely associ- 
 ated with related business transactions. When this general study of 
 Vjusiness relations and transactions is in hand, the principles of book- 
 keeping may be represented. Emphasis should be placed upon 
 analvsis and thorough drill in journalizing. A student should be able 
 to analyze all ordinary transactions before beginning bookkeeping 
 practice. This will save time and avoid the necessity of drawing out 
 the bookkeeping, as has been customarv, by spending so much time 
 on theoretical work that is of no practical use. The elementary sets 
 may be cut out entirely if the preceding work is done well, and, after 
 a couple of lectures on the fundamental purposes and uses of the 
 books, special ruling, etc., students mav begin immediately on a 
 difficult set and do it well. This work should be typical and practical 
 
 (257j 
 
54 
 
 and accompanied by lectures. Instead of bookkeeping practice 
 being a lot of dry mechanical work it should be supplemented by a 
 complete yet economical course on the transactions and managements 
 of the business it represents. With so much else to be done, the work 
 in bookkeeping should be soon supplemented with accounting prob- 
 lems which bring into play bookkeeping of a large variety with a 
 minimum of attention given to the mechanical work. Emphasis 
 should be put on such topics as cost accounting, statements, balance 
 sheets, voucher records, new form of books, such as self-balancing 
 ledgers, with their controlling accounts, etc. Much parctice should be 
 given in opening and closing, realization and liquidation, transfers of 
 ownership, changing from partnerships to corporations, etc. The 
 material for these topics should not be theoretical and elementary 
 exercises usually given in bookkeeping texts, but rather should be 
 some of those given in English books on advanced accounting, those 
 given in the C. P. A. examinations of the various states, or, still better, 
 taken from actual business. These topics are very interesting, 
 and although they represent some knotty problems, yet the students 
 like them and feel great satisfaction when one has been solved. 
 These problems should be from various lines of business, such as 
 retailing, comm^sion, wholesale, real estate, insurance, transporta- 
 tion, manufacturing, banking institutions, etc., etc. Each business 
 gives an opportunity for a general discussion of its nature and char- 
 acteristics and affords great opportunities for acquainting the stu- 
 dents with the particulars of its administration. Of the various lines 
 of business studied, banking and manufacturing should be emphasized 
 because they give the greatest variety of business relations with a 
 minimum of repetition and bring under consideration most of the 
 transactions common to other lines. This is not onlv true of account- 
 ing, but of other phases of administration. The work in accounting, 
 which I have outlined, should not occupy the student's whole time 
 until finished, but as is convenient. Other phases of administration 
 should be considered early in the course to allow the accounting to 
 mature in the students' minds, and, too, much of the work is very 
 complex and should be left until the senior year. Fortunately a 
 great deal of material on accounting may be found in books. It is 
 only necessary to resort to business concerns for current transactions 
 and modern practice. This will be brought out later. 
 
 Business practice in correspondence presents some knotty prob- 
 lems due to the deficient preparation of the student in English com- 
 position and penmanship. Possibly it is not so much the lack of 
 preparation as it is the subsequent neglect and abuse. So few of the 
 students carry the practice of English outside the class room and have 
 no interest in the subject beyond the required courses; the teacher of 
 business is therefore obliged to teach composition as well as commercial 
 
 (258) 
 
.55 
 
 practice. Then, too, the penmanship is usually still worse, and the 
 student has to labor so to write legibly that it diffuses his efforts and 
 prevents the best results in form and composition. The limited time 
 for business practice will not permit teaching penmanship. It is a 
 habit of long standing and cannot be modified in a few weeks. Further- 
 more, between the meetings for penmanship practice the student 
 scribbles oft' several lectures and offsets all the good that can be done. 
 No, penmanship is not in our province, let him get it elsewhere, and 
 if he cannot learn, set him at the typewriter. He can soon typewrite 
 well enough to satisfv the requirements for practice in correspondence, 
 then let us hope he will soon rise to a managerial position where he 
 mav have stenographers, and thus bridge his several deficiencies in 
 technique. It, however, remains for the instructor to teach him the 
 stvle and characteristics of effectual business correspondence. When 
 one considers the magnitude of business done by correspondence, and 
 how such little things promote or defeat the correspondent's interests, 
 too great care cannot be exercised in teaching our young men what 
 constitutes good correspondence. It is a means of buying goods, 
 selling goods, collecting accounts, making contracts. Letters must 
 carrv personality, tact, persuasion, etc. They must put force upon 
 some points, and delicately avoid others. If one could only know 
 the results of a slight change in some of his letters and realize how it 
 would change success to failure or vice versa, greater care would be 
 given to develop skill in correspondence. The teaching of the subject 
 also has its problem. Letterwriting usually practiced in the public 
 schools is inadequate. It affords but little opportunity for develop- 
 ing the essentials. At first, of course, the student must study good 
 form and expression, which can be done by reproducing good copies. 
 In this connection I should use good letters secured from business 
 concerns. Lectures and discussions may accomplish much, but the 
 heart of the course must be personal instruction. Sweeping criti- 
 cisms in class do not benefit the individual. You must discuss each 
 man's work personally. Some have great possibilities which should 
 be developed, while others must be drawn out inch by inch, and then 
 get only meagre results. When this is well under way extensive 
 practice should be given in actual correspondence. The instructor 
 should simply give the purpose of the letter together with the essential 
 facts, and leave the student to shape the letter. Every letter should 
 be criticised and discussed in every detail. This takes much time, but 
 it pays. I might suggest that the work in teaching correspondence 
 can be very much reduced by using graphophones. Not only will 
 they lessen the work, but afford possibilities which cannot be accom- 
 plished otherwise. For instance, the instructor cannot have each stu- 
 dent with him when he is criticising his work, but with the grapho- 
 phone he can rapidly dictate the criticism in detail one after another at 
 
 ^259) 
 
56 
 
 his will, and the student may hear the critisicm with his letter before 
 him and without taking his instructor's time. If he does not get the 
 full meaning the first time, he has only to repeat the record until he 
 does. There are a lot of other economies of this sort. The grapho- 
 phone has its limitations, and we have all heard it squawk some 
 favorite air until we shivered, yet if it has a commercial value we 
 should not allow prejudice to debar it.* 
 
 The art of buying, advertising, and selling goods, should receive 
 due consideration. The major part must be given to advertising and 
 sales, but the art of buying must not be rejected, for the proverb that 
 "Goods well bought are half sold" is as true today as ever. It is not 
 so much the act of buying as it is to know what to buy, where to buy, 
 and when to buy. This course is preceded by economic geography, 
 where natural products are traced from the place of production to 
 home markets. In business practice these markets are compared as 
 to prices and location. Partially manufactured goods are traced in 
 the same manner. Prices and values at convenient distributing points 
 are compared with those of industrial centers. The rise and fall of 
 prices are studied and principles underlying "buying close" or "con- 
 tracting ahead" are considered. This touches familiar fields in 
 economics, yet, as stated before, deals with the art of buving rather 
 than the economics of prices. 
 
 Advertising and sales are studied together. In fact, they cannot 
 be separated in business. Several books on advertising have appeared 
 recently and help the cause somewhat, but an undergraduate course 
 in this subject is not to make ad-writers. The purpose is rather to 
 lead students to an appreciation of its uses and abuses, its powers 
 and limitations, to familiarize them with its history and modern prac- 
 tice, and to lead them to better understand its possibilities and how 
 it has come to serve a great purpose in selling products to the whole 
 world at a minimum of expense. Advertising has its drawbacks, but 
 it has been a great factor in developing modern industry. As stated 
 above, there are enough books on the subject to supply an under- 
 graduate course, but if the subject is to be presented at its best, 
 inductive work must be done. 
 
 Specimens of all kinds of advertising for the past twenty to fifty 
 years can be used to advantage with special emphasis on those of the 
 past decade. This brings out not only valuable study of the subject 
 in hand, but also a fund of information on industrial developments. 
 It gives the student great range of view together with a keener sense 
 of the essential of good advertising and the principles which underly 
 its effect on the minds of prospective purchasers. Much of the ma- 
 terial can be clipped from old magazines stored in the attics of nearly 
 every home, and running back indefinitely. Bound magazines, of 
 course, are useless, but in most libraries there are large files of unbound 
 
 (260) 
 
57 
 
 magazines and papers. While these cannot be mutilated, they may 
 be used for illustrative purposes. For general study of bill boards, 
 photographs must be used, and for street car ad\-ertising, one must go 
 direct to the advertisers or be satisfied with a current collection. 
 This all takes time, but is no greater task than has been undertaken 
 with success by educators in other lines. For " follow up " ad\-ertising 
 it is only necessary to have your business friends save the mass they 
 receive in the course of a year, and you will have ample material for 
 several courses. These afford excellent opportunity' for analysis 
 and comparison of some of the best advertising ; they are planned and 
 executed with great care. In many cases they fail because founded 
 on unsound principles of psychology and human nature. This the 
 students should discover. 
 
 What is true of advertising is generally true of selling goods. The 
 two activities are working to the same end, viz., to create a demand for 
 our" goods and dispose of the same at a profit. One can no longer 
 sell goods bv appealing to sympathy, nor can the salesman increase 
 the business naturally by tenacity or perseverance, if his product is 
 without merit. Good goods, moderate prices, and a responsible 
 house are essentials for permanent sales. While we must admit that 
 there are many lines of business not based upon sound principles, it 
 is our purpose to show their abuses and shortcomings, compare their 
 utilitv and character with stable concerns, and then dwell at length 
 upon how stable and respectable concerns market their product. 
 There are almost unlimited possibilities of production, but success, 
 after all, depends largely upon ability to sell at a profit. In this 
 connection students should be given much practice in correspondence. 
 To be able to buy and sell to advantage by correspondence is an art, 
 and in manv lines is an economy, and, as you all know, there are 
 hundreds of large concerns which do business in no other way. 
 
 To sell goods is one thing, to get your pay is another. Very little 
 business is "spot cash." Most domestic sales are on credit of from 
 seven days to four months. But to sell a bill of goods on credit to 
 be paid for on a certain dav does not assure you that at that time the 
 cash will be laid on your cashier's desk. In most cases unless you 
 take the initiative it will never reach you. Nearly everyone who 
 buys on credit lets it run just as long as possible. He does not pay 
 the bill until he receives from one to a dozen requests, and sometimes 
 waits for a lawsuit or mechanic's lien. People are anxious enough 
 to buv goods, but not so willing to pay for them, and, furthermore, 
 resent a request no matter how courteous or long deferred. These 
 conditions make collecting an art. Again the skilled correspondent 
 is at a premium. It should be much cheaper to do out-of-town 
 collecting by correspondence. The adroit and tactful credit man 
 accomplishes much by this means. The student should become 
 
 (261) 
 
58 
 
 familiar with the general principles and terms of credit and the 
 essential legal points in the various states. Several books are coming 
 out on Credits and Collections, but the instructor in collecting material 
 should make a good collection of practical information from credit 
 men, together with form letters and copies of personal letters of striking 
 quality. Students appreciate this, and the influences of some clever 
 phrases of good letters remain with them indefinitelv. 
 
 The economists are making a thorough study of credit, and have 
 been for years. It is the backbone of our commercial, industrial, and 
 financial activities. Credit and collections are one side of the question, 
 and funding operations are the other. The latter resolve themselves 
 into two distinct groups, viz., commercial or short-time credit, and long- 
 time credit. As the profits of a bank are largelv the profits on the 
 deposits of its customers, so the profits of mercantile and industrial 
 concerns may be the profits of operating on borrowed capital. If the 
 profits on the business are greater than the rate of interest, it is usually 
 a good business policy to increase the output by borrowing within 
 reasonable limits. When to borrow, and how to borrow, is no less a 
 phase of business administration than other activities, and falls under 
 the head of business practice. First, there must be a good under- 
 standing of funding institutions, viz: banks, trust companies, insur- 
 ance companies, etc. This brings out the general practice of these 
 institutions in connection with funding operations, and, knowing this, 
 the student can appreciate the significance of various methods of 
 procuring funds, together with their possibilities and limitations. 
 The art of when to borrow and how to borrow can be discussed in 
 this connection. Here again, must be added a liberal amount of 
 current information. The instructor must consult or correspond 
 with business men in various lines of business and learn from them 
 what is being done. The essential work in teaching business is to 
 discover and teach the current practice. While all must be grounded 
 on principles and history, greatest stress must be put upon the prac- 
 tice of the present. So far, we have considered the subjects of business 
 forms, commercial paper, bookkeeping, accounting, correspondence, 
 buying, advertising, selling, credits, collections, and funding opera 
 tions. There remain at least four more titles for consideration, viz: 
 organization, system, auditing, and management. Each considers 
 all that has preceded. 
 
 Organization and system run parallel and coincide at many points. 
 There are several books and magazines along this line which help a 
 great deal, but the instructor must depend upon general investigation 
 for most of his material and matter. Extended correspondence with 
 business men who are interested in educational matters is of great 
 help, but there are so few who are willing to devote valuable time to 
 such matters that it takes a great deal of effort to get a small amount 
 
 (262) 
 
59 
 
 of material. However, the only way to get it is by studying modern 
 concerns. One can get much help from the advertising matter of 
 various systems and devices. Professional accountants are often 
 quite willing to take you over one or more of the plants they have 
 organized. This helps, and in time a good course may be given. 
 Along with this should be a careful study of the various office systems, 
 filing cabinets, time saving devices, etc. Familiarity with their 
 comparative uses and values is essential if one is to understand the 
 greatest possibilities and economies. It is just as important to know 
 when devices are unnecessarv as when to install them. Out of the 
 general mass of equipment offered for sale the instructor must glean 
 the important material and present it in such a way that students 
 will get general principles rather than details. It is quite impossible 
 to discuss at length the organization and system of various lines of 
 business. Advanced work should be left for special elective courses, 
 permitting students to select those lines in which they have special 
 interest. In this connection I believe much can be accomplished if 
 the instructor is willing to work up a small clientele and do more or 
 less W'Ork in organizing and systematizing for going concerns and 
 permitting the students to help as much as lies in their power. I 
 believe there are great possibilities in this direction which will prove 
 of exceptional value in getting the student accustomed to the atmos- 
 phere and acquainted with the details of modern practice in large 
 business concerns. It is not time yet to estimate the outcome, but I 
 believe that in a few years this suggestion will be carried into opera- 
 tion, and that this particular phase of the courses in business practice 
 will accomplish quite remarkable results. As I have stated, it em- 
 bodies all that has preceded, and affords opportunity for application 
 of all knowledge that has accumulated to the student's credit. 
 
 Auditing must be taught much the same way as accounting, plus 
 the work in organization and system. The general principles and 
 many of the details may be studied from books, which at present are 
 mostly from authors who are English accountants. Some practice 
 may be given if the plan suggested for application in work systematiz- 
 ing is adopted, but, after all, auditing is so devoted to details that it 
 had better be given as an advanced course in the list of electives and 
 given enough independent time to make the men proficient in the 
 subject. When studying organization and system the subject of 
 auditing is constantly under consideration and a great deal about 
 auditing is taught indirectly. 
 
 It is not necessary to say much about the study of management. 
 If all that has preceded has been worked to a single plan and purpose, 
 the details of the various activities have received due consideration, 
 and it is hardly necessary to do more than discuss them from the 
 standpoint of the management and formulate general principles. To 
 
 (263) 
 
60 
 
 summarize and show the various activities as thev occur in various 
 lines of business is all that can be expected on the subject of manage- 
 ment at the end of so general a course. As has alreadv been stated, 
 the best we can expect is to consider the fundamental principles, and 
 enough details to fix the work, and sufficient application to acquaint 
 the student with modern business practice. More than this cannot 
 be done in a general undergraduate course. If more is to be taught 
 on any of the subjects, elective courses in advertising, accounting, 
 and auditing, organization and management, etc., should be provided. 
 Or another good arrangement is to give courses in business adminis- 
 tration for special lines of business, viz: Banking and Finance, Trans- 
 portation, Manufacturing Industries, etc. Such matters will shape 
 themselves when a good general course is provided. The planning 
 and necessary details alone will occupy the time of the few men in the 
 work for some time to come. Each, independently, will work out 
 many problems, and later the best may be remoulded into one general 
 plan embodying the best of all others. There is no reason whv the 
 courses in business practice should not do credit to any institution. 
 They do not violate educational ideals any more than other utilitarian 
 courses, such as applied courses in mathematics, chemistrv, phvsics, 
 geology, mineralogy, conversational courses in German, French, 
 Spanish, and English courses for newspaper writing, etc. If the 
 motives are right, business practice is worthy of the best educational 
 forces; and let us hope that the field will be rapidly recruited with 
 men who are not only prepared to do the work, but men who are 
 deeply interested in education, holding to high ideals for general good 
 rather than the special interest, and who are willing to persevere in a 
 calling that is bound to elevate the character and standard of the 
 commercial and industrial world. 
 
 DISCUSSION 
 
 Mr. G. W. Brown 
 President and Manager of Brown's Business Colleges 
 
 I cannot help wondering what Father Bartlett would ha\'e thought, 
 the man who fifty-odd vears ago attempted the first commercial school 
 in this country, if he could have heard this paper. He said he had 
 finished his apprenticeship when he was twenty-one, and desired to 
 know more of bookkeeping. He looked about and found no school in 
 which it was taught. He inquired of business men and was told that 
 it could not be taught in a business school, but must be taught in the 
 office. Looking about, he could find no office where he could learn it. 
 He said, "Well, this is a strange occupation, where you cannot get in 
 without knowing how and cannot know how without getting in." 
 He told me he made a resolution then to spend his life in attempting 
 
 (264) 
 
61 
 
 to make good that loss to young men. He did it, and has hved to see 
 the students in business colleges number hundreds of thousands. 
 
 But I am asked to criticize the paper. It is almost too good to be 
 believed that this kind of a course can be carried out in the State 
 University. If I should pass criticism at all I should say it seems to 
 involve such a multitude of detail that I should not think there could 
 be room for the other branches which should make part of the univer- 
 sity course. 
 
 I believe that the time will come in this countrv when some such a 
 course as has been sketched today will be very popular in the univer- 
 sities, a time when it will come to be understood that a multitude of 
 J. P. Morgans are needed to transact the business of this country. 
 There is a feature of business which has not caused much attention. 
 I refer to the consular service in which skilled vdtmg Americans will 
 be needed, who are able to speak the language of the people to whom 
 they go, and who will be well versed in the history, geographv and 
 economic conditions of the country to which, they are accredited. 
 When it becomes apparent that such young men are necessary, they 
 will be forthcoming, and the university will have its opportunitv to 
 prepare the facilities to carry the work on. 
 
 My thinking along these lines has been on a very narrow plane. 
 We have seen the problems, we have realized the necessity of a broader 
 course, but in our line, our limitations are such that such a course is 
 beyond the reach of the private commercial school; and yet, I have no 
 recollection in all my commercial school work of about fortv years of 
 the time when the pressure is as great upon us as now. There seems 
 to be no end, absolutely no end, to the desire for this education. 
 
 If the gentleman can carry out this program he will certainly 
 secure great results, and I am not afraid of the popularity of the course. 
 If the time shall come when the universities and colleges and high 
 schools are better able to do this work than any other agency now de- 
 vised, I shall thank God for it ; and I as an instructor in private schools 
 will be able to step down and out, knowing the work will be better 
 done. You will find in your universities in a couple of years that the 
 greatest demand you will have on your hands will be the solving of 
 this great commercial question. 
 
 WHAT BUSINESS MEN WANT YOUNG MEN TO KNOW 
 
 Mr. David R. Forgan 
 The First National Bank, Chicago 
 
 The subject which has been assigned to me raises a simple business- 
 like question which I shall try to answer in a brief, business-like way. 
 Before attempting to answer it specifically, however, let me say that I 
 rejoice that the day seems to be dawning when specialization in edu- 
 
 (265) 
 
62 
 
 cation is to be the rule — when the man who is to manufacture soap is 
 to have a different training from the man who is to make sermons, and 
 the one who is to follow finance is no longer to be required to pass an 
 examination in philology. 
 
 Commercial life is different from professional life, and, therefore, 
 commercial education should differ from professional education. 
 
 The question is still asked whether a young man entering business 
 life is helped or handicapped by a university course. Even so wise a 
 man as Mr. Carnegie thinks he is better without it. If anv one here 
 is inclined to that opinion I would recommend a perusal of a published 
 address by Prof. J. Scott Clark of the Northwestern University, 
 which I think will convince you that it pays to go to college. Neither 
 professor nor pupil, however, must imagine that a college course can 
 make a business rrfen. Some so-called business colleges profess to do 
 so, and that is their weakness. A graduate of a business college told 
 me when he had finished the course in banking that he felt sure he 
 could run a bank, but I soon found he could not even balance a pass- 
 book. Only experience, hard, trying and disappointing experience, 
 can make a business man. But just as the university can put the 
 student through a course of study which, with experience added, will 
 produce an able lawyer or skillful physician, so I believe that it can 
 supply the foundations upon which a successful business career may be 
 built. Such a career w411 involve industry, faithfulness to duty, the 
 welcoming instead of shirking of responsibility; it will require self- 
 reliance, judgment of men, the capacity of seeing things as they are, 
 and not as they are represented; it will call for courage, faith and far- 
 sightedness; above all, it will demand truth, square dealing, and 
 integrity of character. All that will tend to implant such principles 
 and foster such attributes of character may safely be included in a 
 commercial education. Specifically, the things a young man ought 
 to know as a result of his educational course are the things which will 
 best help him in his work and lead to his rapid promotion. They are 
 neither numerous nor difficult to learn ; but judging from mv experience 
 in employing men, they are very rare qualifications in this country. 
 
 What are they? 
 
 First: To know how to write a good legible hand, to make good 
 figures, and to place them correctly — the units below the units, the 
 tens below the tens, and so on. 
 
 Second: To know how to add, subtract or multiply figures after 
 they have been correctly taken down, and to do it rapidly, and with 
 perfect accuracy ; and 
 
 Third: To know how to express yourself clearly, briefly, and gram- 
 matically in a letter, and how to spell the words correctly. 
 
 A few years ago I was taking three young fellows of about eighteen 
 years of age into business. They had all graduated from the high 
 
 (266) 
 
03 
 
 school. As a test I gave each of them forty old checks and instructed 
 them to take down the amount of each check, and then add the column 
 to ascertain the total. After they had labored with this gigantic 
 task for half an hour I went over to see how they were doing, and found 
 them all terribly bus\' and unwilling to submit the result of their 
 labors to my inspection. I gave them more time. Returning later, 
 I found them still anxiously checking and re-checking their work, and 
 I took their examination papers from them. They had all done the 
 job several times, but not one of the three had taken down the figures 
 correctly, and not one of them had correctly added the figures thev 
 had taken down. The task was beyond their powers. Thev explained 
 to me that they had had no arithmetic for the past five years and were 
 a little "rusty" on it. I remember that word "rusty." It struck me 
 forciblv at the time. They informed me if I would try them on mvth- 
 ology, they could pass, but I told them I had no use for myths in the 
 banking business. 
 
 Xow. I left school when I was fifteen, and any one of the boys in 
 the upper half of my class could have taken down the amounts of 400 
 checks in less time and added them without a mistake. Moreover, if 
 anyone had called off the amounts of forty checks about as fast as I 
 am reading this sentence, any one of us could have given the correct 
 total without putting down a single figure. But that was in Scotland! 
 
 Let me tell you another actual experience : In my office we keep a 
 file of the letters of application received from boys, and when we want 
 a boy we select the most promising letter and look up the author. 
 Some years ago our head clerk informed me that we wanted a bov. I 
 told him to select the best six letters from the file and bring them to 
 me. Not one of the six letters was perfect in spelling, or bevond criticism 
 in grammatical construction. In the matter of penmanship I need 
 not tell any business man, nor any college professor who has examina- 
 tion papers to look over, that our schools turn out the poorest writers 
 to be found anywhere in the civilized world. I do not see how it 
 could be otherwise so long as children are taught to write with the 
 penholder sticking up perpendicularly in their fists instead of being 
 held lightly by the fingers with the end of the penholder pointing to 
 the shoulder. 
 
 I have not given this subject careful thought or wide investigation, 
 and I may be all wrong; but speaking as a business man of some ex- 
 perience, and as a father of a familv, I charge the public schools of this 
 country with attempting to teach so manv subjects that the things 
 which I consider essential and fundamental to a business education 
 are not being so thoroughly drilled into the boys as their importance 
 demands. The simple accomplishments which I have mentioned are 
 the essential tools wdth which business men want boys to be provided 
 when they begin a commercial career. 
 
 (267) 
 
64 
 
 If a boy is to achieve great success, however, there is another 
 instrument which he will need — a ^Yell-trained mind. That is what a 
 university course should give him. A mind trained to concentrated 
 study, to careful analysis of the subject in hand, and to be content 
 with nothing short of the complete mastery of it, is the best equipment 
 for business life a young man can possess. You cannot teach the 
 technical knowledge of any particular business, and to my mind it 
 does not matter so much what subjects you place in your commercial 
 curriculum. 
 
 The general culture of an educated gentleman is not wasted on a 
 business man. Naturally, however, the course should lean towards 
 subjects of practical value, such as geography, bookkeeping, general 
 banking methods, exchange and clearing house systems, note circula- 
 tion, negotiable instruments, and the uses and abuses of credit. 
 Political economy, commercial law, the history of American railroads, 
 and the wonderful development of our natural resources which is 
 continually going on — all these will help the storing and training of a 
 mind fitted for success in business life. To be a fine penman, an accu- 
 rate accountant, and a good correspondent is practically all that a 
 young man needs to begin with. But if he is nothing more his career 
 is apt to start off brilliantly and then stop short of real success. He 
 may become a good lieutenant, but if he is to develop into a general, or 
 a field marshal, or a Marshall Field, he must add to natural capacity a 
 breadth of mind which is most likely to be attained by a liberal educa- 
 tion. 
 
 In closing let me say that there is one thing business men want 
 young men to know, which is more important than all else, namely, 
 that integrity of character is, after all, the greatest power in the busi- 
 ness world. 
 
 In these days of graft and exaggerated reports of graft, it some- 
 times seems as if all business were crooked, and all men dishonest. 
 Such a conclusion, however, would be hasty and unwarranted. The 
 revelations of moral obliquity on the part of men in high positions do 
 not prove that the great solid middle classes are dishonest. They 
 only prove that, no matter how rich or influential a thief may be, his 
 sin will surely find him out. The moral sense of the great majority 
 still revolts at dishonesty, and the great mass of business is still trans- 
 acted on a perfectly straight basis — the basis of simple honesty. Think 
 for a moment of the place and potency of credit in the modern business 
 world. The life-blood of modern commerce is not gold — it is credit. 
 Over ninety percent of all business transactions involve credit. Without 
 credit modern business would simply collapse. Credit starts enter- 
 prises, builds railroads, manufactures goods, moves merchandise, wages 
 wars, sustains nations, makes civilization. Now if all this be true, if the 
 whole system- of modern business is built upon credit, then credit 
 
 (268) 
 
65 
 
 itself must rest upon a firm foundation, or the entire structure would 
 crumble to ruin. That foundation is character. Credit, derived from 
 "credo," implies faith. Every transaction accomplished by credit is 
 based upon confidence in the integrity of someone. Thus character 
 is the verv foundation of modern business, and ultimate success on any 
 other basis is almost an impossibility. 
 
 A course in commercial education should, therefore, include moral 
 teaching. The best business men in the community stand for much 
 more than the mere accun)ulation of wealth. Although devoted 
 mainlv to making money a business man's life need not be sordid. He, 
 too, mav have his ideals, his friendships, his philanthropies, his yearn- 
 ing after the higher and more excellent things of life. 
 "The grace of friendship, mind and heart 
 
 Linked with their fellow heart and mind ; 
 The gains of science, gift of art. 
 
 The sense of oneness with our kind. 
 The thirst to know and understand, 
 A large and liberal discontent — 
 These are the gifts in life's rich hand, 
 The things that are more excellent." 
 
 DISCUSSION 
 
 Mr. E. L. Scott 
 General Manager of Sears, Roebuck and Co., Chicago 
 
 In giving consideration to young men who are possibilities as 
 future executives, I have made it a practice to study them from four 
 view-points, in the following order: character, health, ability, knowl- 
 edge. 
 
 You will note that knowledge is the last named. Hence, in dis- 
 cussing what I, as a business man, want young men to know, were I 
 to assume that this subject contemplates only the practical knowledge 
 of business affairs, I would be held to the last of the four essentials 
 which make a well-rounded business man, and would thus fall short of 
 my present opportunity. 
 
 Verv frequentlv a little knowledge is a dangerous thing, and it is 
 sometimes hard for the young man who has splashed an oar in a little 
 inland lake to realize that this does not make him capable of com- 
 manding an ocean liner. 
 
 This must not be thought to imply that I have not full faith in the 
 possibilities of young men securing an advanced knowledge of busi- 
 ness affairs. On the contrary, thoughtful and far-seeing business 
 men will welcome an intelligent development of commercial education. 
 That the thinking educators are today wide awake to the commercial 
 demands of the country, is in keeping with the age which requires 
 preparedness just as much for the shop as for the office. 
 
 (269) 
 
66 
 
 I would take the subject in its broadest sense. When I demand of 
 young men that they possess knowledge, I contemplate three phases, 
 viz: Knowledge of one's self, knowledge of other people, knowledge 
 of one's business. 
 
 Leaving these three sub-divisions of knowledge for a moment, I 
 would pass to the four prime essentials for commercial manhood. 
 These are character, health, ability, practical knowledge. 
 
 If the college gives us young men crammed with practical knowl- 
 edge and seriously lacking in other essentials, or totally lacking in 
 some of the important sub-divisions of these essentials, they are un- 
 worthy and not wanted. 
 
 In order that the fullest force of this statement may be felt, I quote 
 an inventorv sheet which I use to take stock of executives in our house : 
 
 1. Character: Moralit}', temperance, industry, capacity for 
 w^ork, ambition, loyalty, faith, obedience, judgment, self-control, 
 sympathy, courtesy, cheerfulness, patience, perseverance, courage, 
 enthusiasm, will power, thoroughness, regularity, concentration, tact. 
 
 2. Health. 
 
 3. Ability: Initiative, organization, administration, instruction, 
 discipline, business economics, productiveness. 
 
 4. Knowledge: A. Merchandise — Manufacture, value, salabil- 
 ity, advertising, operation or use. B. People, correspondence, house 
 svstem, department routine, school education. 
 
 The first essential, character, is a requirement so obvious that the 
 discussion of its possession seems unnecessary ; but the ordinary under- 
 standing of character is narrowed down to a measure of the man so 
 far as his honesty and morality are concerned. These, however, are 
 onlv two of very many view-points. 
 
 In knowing one's self, one must be fully aware of the degree to 
 which one possesses all these specific qualities ; and in demanding that 
 a man shall know himself, we presuppose that he will be honest in his 
 study of himself, and when he actually knows himself, he will have a 
 correct measure of the factors which make the well-balanced business 
 man. 
 
 The reason men fail in their undertakings is not nearly so often to be 
 attributed to their lack of knowledge as to a lack of some of the essen- 
 tial qualities. For instance, many men possess ambition to a marked 
 degree ; are persevering as much as would be desired ; are filled with 
 courage and enthusiasm, but are absolutely lacking in judgment; 
 have never learned the laws of obedience, or are positively lacking in 
 concentration. These men fail, and wonder at their failures; and 
 others wonder at the failure of a man possessing many brilliant quali- 
 ties. 
 
 Figuring the qualities that make up character as perfect at one 
 hundred per cent., I would rather a thousand times that our young 
 
 (270) 
 
67 
 
 men should come to us possessing every characteristic I have named, 
 and none to a degree of over fifty per cent., than that they should come 
 with many qualities at nearly one hunderd per cent, and totally 
 lacking in one or more of the most important. You can multiplv 
 so>neihiiig — small as it may be, — but you may multiply nothing a 
 thousand times and still have nothing. What can you expect of a 
 man who totally lacks ambition? What will become of a man who 
 possesses not one iota of industry ? What can a man accomplish who 
 has absolutely no concentration ? And I want to say that after 
 watching many failures and some marked successes, the former 
 occurred through a great lacking in some of the qualities of mind and 
 soul that make character, and the successes were directly traceable 
 to the possession, to a greater or less degree, of all these same qualities. 
 And more, the successes were greater or less in proportion to the ap- 
 proximation toward perfection in all the phases of character. 
 
 It is the possession of this knowledge, the knowledge of self, that 
 the young men of today need. No other knowledge so fully portends 
 the possibilities of power. Character shortcomings mean lamentably 
 weak spots in that armor which the commercial warrior must wear if 
 he would have the slightest assurance of being a captain of industry. 
 It is not enough that a man should be sufficiently enlightened to admit 
 the propriety of being industrious or loyal or obedient or courteous or 
 courageous or thorough or patient. It is not enough that when ques- 
 tioned as to whether he should possess thoroughness or will power or 
 regular habits, he would admit the wisdom of such possession He must 
 lay the measuring stick of perfection in all soul and mind qualities along 
 the fabric of his own character, and be honest when he measures. If 
 there is any time when a man should be cool and calculating in judg- 
 ment, it must be when he is learning himself. The searchlight of 
 truth must be turned on the soul of the man, and woe be to him who 
 closes his eyes to his own weakness. The business world is full of 
 failures whose own distorted vision has magnified good qualities and 
 totally failed to disclose shortcomings. 
 
 The Gospel of Hard Work — persistent, effective work — must be 
 taught. One of the most discouraging phases of the college situation 
 today is that the young men have forgotten or never learned the 
 habits of industry. Why this is true is not for me to say. The state- 
 ment is not a theory, but a fact, and is not based on impressions of a 
 few or the testimony of another, but on a fairly close personal contact 
 with some hundred and fifty college men who have entered our insti- 
 tution as the best to be selected from four times that number. In 
 my opinion, the college attitude toward hard work has got to change 
 very materially before you will turn out acceptable candidates for 
 other than menial positions in big business houses. 
 
 In the commercial world, work — hard, intelligent work — counts, 
 
 (271) 
 
68 
 
 and counts big. True, back of work must be brains for work to count 
 most and be most effective ; but hard work with little brain power 
 will yield successfully up to the limit of one's capacity. On the other 
 hand, brains with little work is like scattering fertilizer with no seed 
 sown — the natural result is little more than a tremendous lot of weeds. 
 
 I know that the college authorities are alive to the necessity of indus- 
 try. I also know that the average college man does not know the prin- 
 ciples of hard labor. It is, perhaps, a hard thing to say, but until some 
 of the horse-play and society and cheap imitations of real athletics and 
 criminal waste of time are eliminated from the unwritten college 
 curriculum, the college will not send out embryo business men who 
 will develop beyond the embryo stage. The time is ripe for the brainy 
 college ornament to realize that the college grind is attending strictly 
 to his business in taking advantage of the opportunity made possible 
 by some one's hard earned dollars. He is attending to his business 
 in preparing himself for the great unknown business world. The 
 jolly good fellow who is only that will find a mighty small field for 
 the exercise of his peculiar talents, for the shell game is passe and cir- 
 cus barkers are in small demand and only get a six-months' job each 
 year. 
 
 The prime essential that business men want young men to know, 
 therefore, is the habit of industry. There is no excellence without 
 great labor, and since knowledge does not consist alone in the mere 
 admission of a moral truth but is only real in its practice, then industry 
 must be taught, not as a precept that is merely accepted as right, but 
 as a principle that must become a constant habit. 
 
 I might go on and talk of the other essentials that make a well- 
 rounded character. Anyone will admit that all of these are perfectly 
 proper acquirements and that their absence is harmful. The whole 
 truth lies in the fact that college faculties allow voung men to sleep 
 through their college course and never waken to the fact that Loyalty 
 and Faith and Obedience must be cultivated. Young men are per- 
 mitted to sustain an attitude of hostility toward their instructors that 
 cannot fail to grow into a serious detriment to them when they go 
 into the business world. They do not learn the necessity for loyal 
 obedience to their superiors, who are really their instructors in business 
 affairs. While it is true that periodical gradings serve to attach some 
 importance to the college work, the college does not make it a busi- 
 ness to positively require perseverance, thoroughness and concentra- 
 tion. The cultivation of these qualities, therefore, is accidental rather 
 than otherwise. 
 
 When the college man shall have lived up to his opportunity in 
 acquiring that mental training which study can give, — when he learns 
 unquestioning obedience to righteous autlioritv ; when he makes it 
 his business to cultivate all the mind and soul qualities that make up 
 
 (272) 
 
69 
 
 character; then, and not until then, will the supplementary education 
 in practical knowledge be worth while. 
 
 In following up the study of self, the second great essential is 
 Health. A great many young men have good health accidentally 
 and have never given much thought to the fact that the healthy man, 
 as compared with the unhealthy one, stands infinitely better show in 
 the strenuous business life. In this day and age of the world, especial- 
 ly when the seeker after business knowledge is a young man, he is 
 expected to be able to give the best he has in him to the affairs in 
 which he is engaged. Regularity of habit is promoted by health, and 
 of the very many qualities that go to make up character, regularity is 
 one of the essentials. He who has not a sound body cannot be sure of 
 so sound a mind as perfect health would have assured. In the battle 
 for commercial supremacy, every man needs a full battery of mentality 
 to bring to bear on commercial situations. Therefore, the college 
 which promotes commercial education must, by all means, teach to its 
 students the care of the health. It is a poor recommendation for a 
 well balanced, thoughtful, capable young man to come to a business 
 institution dvspeptic and ansmic. 
 
 I am not so interested in discussing at this time the third essential, 
 wherein one should know one's self, namely, ability; except in one 
 phase, and that is whether or not the college professor gives as full 
 attention as he should to the adaptability of the student to the com- 
 mercial life. Has the young man knowledge of his ability in its com- 
 mercial aspect so that he may be sure that his choice of labor is wise ? 
 Let me repeat my dissection of Ability as applied to the commercial 
 world: Initiative, organization, administration, instruction, disci- 
 pline, business economics, productiveness. 
 
 We find men coming to us who have never learned the value of a 
 dollar. How can they understand business economics? How can 
 the qualities of ability, initiative, organization and administration 
 come to him who shows none of them in student life? What 
 amount of productiveness can you expect from a young man in busi- 
 ness whose college life was one of lazy indifference ? 
 
 What the business men want is well cultivated land. Plow it deep 
 and turn up the soil of personal responsibility. Level it with the 
 harrow of unceasing toil. Fertilize it with the richness of loyalty and 
 obedience, judgment and thoroughness. Plant it with the first seeds 
 of practical knowledge and the keen, broad business world will culti- 
 vate and nurture such a crop of commercial giants as the world has 
 never yet seen. 
 
 Hex. W. B. McKlNLEY 
 
 As an active business man I cannot fail to express my appreciation 
 of the papers given this evening by business men, and especially the 
 
 (273) 
 
70 
 
 emphasis given to character. I cannot help thinking there is an 
 opinion among young men that those who have that quaHty of mind 
 they call "smartness" will succeed, but I do not think they will. I 
 think that industry combined with honesty will win and that "smart- 
 ness" will not. 
 
 THE ETHICS OF BUSINESS 
 
 Right Reverend Edward William Osborne, D.D. 
 Bishop Coadjutor of Springfield, Illinois 
 
 Honor all Men! Love the Brotherhood! Great words are these, 
 lying at the very root of social life, being a keynote for all relations of 
 man with his fellows. We may take them as the fine keynote of 
 Business ethics. For what do we mean by the word? Ethics is 
 defined as the science of human duty, the science of right character 
 and conduct. 
 
 Ethics teaches us of the nature of moral agents, fostering intelli- 
 gence, free will, and conscience. It bears also upon virtue, upon 
 right in conduct, action and aims. 
 
 It is not possible to conceive of moral life without honor; nor can 
 there be any idea of obligation that is centered in self or antagonism ; 
 it must carry with it fellowship, love. Any other thought of obliga- 
 tion might only lead us back to barbarism. Ethics thus governing all 
 the relations of man to man has as its foundation, "Honor all men! 
 Love the Brotherhood!" 
 
 But business does not lie outside the realm of ethics. For what is 
 business ? Shall we be wrong if we define it as a form of social service 
 in which man serves his fellow man and in doing so receives some gain 
 or profit to himself? He supplies the needs of others and is in turn 
 supplied himself. We must never lose sight of the mutual character 
 of every business action, no matter what may be the detail of the 
 trade or industry. 
 
 Let us think a little farther on this. What is the real underlying 
 idea of every kind of business or trade? Is it not the supply of the 
 wants of the community? Incidentally the supplier receives a profit, 
 but business was not and is not established and carried on for this. 
 Were there no wants to be supplied there could be no business as we 
 understand the term; the measure of the wants is the measure of the 
 prosperity of him who supplies them, or what we call profitable busi- 
 ness. The supplier is therefore the servant of the public whose wants 
 he ministers to. There is no discounting in saying this. For if he be 
 willing to serve he also lays under obligation those who are served by 
 him. If, however, courtesy and civility are required on the part of 
 the seller, they are equally to be looked for in the buyer; the obligation 
 is a mutual one. 
 
 (274) 
 
71 
 
 This aspect of business as a form of social service seems to be in 
 some degree recognized in the restraints put upon it and also by the 
 privileges accorded to it. In some countries no man can transact 
 anv business without a license from his fellows through the constituted 
 authoritv. While we have no such strict rule in this state, yet the 
 number of businesses for which a license is required is very great. 
 This social service is under many restrictions. 
 
 Or think of the privileges. The railroads for instance. The grants 
 of land and subsidies allowed them, the power of taking land necessary 
 for the roads without the consent of the owner who would rather 
 retain the land than receive compensation. What do these things 
 indicate ? Surelv that the directors and corporations of the railroads 
 are carrying on a great public service. These privileges are most 
 certainlv not granted solely that certain persons may obtain profit to 
 themselves by transporting the people hither and thither. It is a 
 public service. 
 
 The business man, therefore, of whatever grade, stands before us 
 as a public servant, bearing, by reason of that character, a responsi- 
 bility to the public, and, may we say it here, to the Supreme Being to 
 whom both the business man and the public belong. 
 
 Business ethics must then stand for the science of human duty, of 
 right conduct in actions and in aims, reaching out after the supreme 
 good, exemplified in that form of social service which consists in the 
 lawful interchange of that which either possesses, in such way that 
 both are mutually benefited. 
 
 As we say this it may be that we almost hear a voice that seems to 
 whisper, "Honor all Men! Love the Brotherhood!" While this is 
 true and honor and love should be the governing forces in business 
 transactions, so that the divine idea of social help may be developed 
 and seen, it is equally true that it is too little realized. It is realized 
 to some extent, perhaps mostly in small matters, which have an as- 
 pect of individual dealing of one with another. Our hearts fill up 
 with indignation at the absence of honor and love in some act of petty 
 tyranny. 
 
 Who is not indignant at such tales as these? A woman's husband 
 is killed on the railway. The widow desires to earn her living by keep- 
 ing an eating house for the section men at a certain junction. At the 
 end of a year she is alive and that is all: she is in utter poverty. She 
 might have been well off, but the foreman makes it a condition of her 
 having the custom of the men that she shall buy all of him, he doub- 
 ling the price of everything for his own profit. A girl in a candy store 
 knows that the scales ai'e false and every customer is cheated by her 
 hand. She remonstrates only to call forth abuse and threats. She 
 must either violate her conscience daily or go and seek other work 
 which, for such as she, would be hard to get. 
 
 (275) 
 
72 
 
 How do we feel with regard to a man who, keeping a small bakery, 
 makes his help come at seven on Sundays as on weekdays, though no 
 Sunday customer has ever been known before eight; who keeps the 
 same help until eleven o'clock, when he pays their weekly wage, 
 refusing to give it on any other day or at any other time, "Sunday on 
 time or none at all, " and does it with the avowed intention of keeping 
 them from Sunday morning rest and worship. 
 
 Have we forgotten the cry of indignation that went up from the 
 poor throughout the land when in the midst of a great coal strike a 
 mighty corporation raised the price of oil a cent a gallon without any 
 other motive than greed? 
 
 On the other hand there is a feeling of admiration for the woman 
 who, having been dishonest with her scales in her little country store 
 repents herself and turning the scales around gives extra weight to 
 every customer during as long a period as she had been fraudulent. 
 Or that other woman, who having bought her stock of coal for a coun- 
 try business when prices were low refused to raise her own price when 
 the strike came. She sold as long as her stock lasted to her poorer 
 neighbors for no more than she charged before the strike began. 
 
 Things such as these make us note failure and make us fully con- 
 scious that in transactions between man and man the law ought to 
 to be as this one, "Honor all Men! Love the Brotherhood!" In 
 other words, "Love th}- neighbor as thyself." 
 
 There are few, if any, who would deny this in such matters as we 
 have noted, but when it comes to larger matters, when the business 
 seems not of individuals dealing directly with one another, but of 
 corporations, societies, syndicates, then questions are at once raised. 
 Is the same law to hold good here? Are the same foundations to be 
 looked for in corporations that you demand in individual character? 
 Are the same ethical laws to prevail? Are there to be the same 
 standards of life and business in corporation dealings as in a country 
 store where honest people deal as much for the pleasure of it as for the 
 supply of their needs? And the answer, we are told, is no. We are 
 told it sometimes in words, angrily as if we were wrong in suggesting 
 such a thing ; sometimes with contempt as if we were fools not to know 
 that it would not be possible for men to live and partake of the life of 
 the corporations if they were required to maintain these standards. 
 The responsibility is altogether different. The very largeness of the 
 transactions makes a difference. Corporate acts are on a different 
 plane. Corporations as such have no conscience, no souls, and 
 nothing more is to be asked of the individuals composing the corpora- 
 tion than can be asked of the corporation itself. The individuals 
 sink their individuality in the corporation, they are bound by the acts 
 of others, they have not freedom of action and therefore they have no 
 responsibility. It may be doubted if this view is really sincerely held, 
 
 (276) 
 
73 
 
 but it is undoubtedly acted upon. And with what result? "Com- 
 merce and manufactures have pressed on their way with very small 
 thought of the individual, have seemed dead to all sight and feeling, 
 and modern industrial conditions have conspired to destroy all man- 
 hood and even efface individuality." Such books as Wyckoff's 
 "The Workers." afford startUng illustrations of this. Slavery has 
 passed but slavery still continues, and the very methods of labor are 
 such as to make a man a slave to a machine even if not to a hard 
 task-master. 
 
 In vears gone bv One said by the voice of a prophet, " I w^ill make 
 a man more precious than the gold of Ophir. " In the days of the 
 Gospel when we might surely look for the fulfilment we find the proph- 
 ecy forgotten, denied. Rather we find that modern civiHzation and 
 business seem at times near to receiving the curse of Babylon and for 
 the same reason. Note the summing up of the charge against her: 
 "The merchandise of gold and silver and precious stones, and of pearls 
 and fine linen and purple and silk and scarlet, vessels of most precious 
 woods, and of brass and iron and marble, of cinnamon and odorus, of 
 fine flour and wheat, and beasts and horses and chariots and slaves, 
 and souls of Men. " Her merchants were the great ones of the earth. 
 Her judgment came. She has passed forever. 
 
 Notice the result of the conditions of which we have spoken: 
 trade unions, strikes, violence, arising largely from want of considera- 
 tion of the individual ; the general attitude of hatred towards capital 
 on the part of labor on the one side ; on the other the revelation of the 
 corruption and dishonestv of the members of the corporations, them- 
 selves, names that w^ere high in the w^orld. in business, even in the 
 church, being levelled to the dirt until the world is asking, "Who 
 will be the next ? ' ' 
 
 In the whole world of business there seeriis to be a confusion and 
 perplexity as to the possibility of the application of moral principles 
 to the conduct of any kind of business. Men cannot live apart from 
 business. Is it possible to keep morality in business and not destroy 
 your chances of success? The whole commercial atmosphere is 
 tainted. Honor, love, brotherhood, manhood itself, all seem passing 
 away. Must these things be so? Must we accept such a state of 
 things as being hopelessly beyond remedy? Possibly if it were uni- 
 versal we should be compelled to do so. But it is not universal. 
 There are men, and corporations also, and men within corporations, 
 who have neither laid aside nor forgotten the higher standard of 
 business life. Permit an incident of personal experience : Some years 
 ago, preaching in one of the great churches of London, England, I took 
 occasion to speak of the responsibility of men for others' sins, for 
 spreading temptation and moral infection. Among other matters I 
 spoke of the great circulating libraries of England and that they must 
 
 (277) 
 
74 
 
 be held responsible for the books they put in the hands of the people, 
 and that the responsibility rested on the members of the firms or 
 companies. After service a gentleman much agitated wished to speak 
 to me. He was a partner in one of the largest firms in England carry- 
 ing on both the publishing and library business. My words had 
 touched him in certain matters where his conscience had refused to be 
 still. We talked long and the next day I received an invitation to 
 lunch with the members of the firm. The four high-minded and 
 honorable men I met were most courteous and withal almost patheti- 
 cally eager that I should know what their standards were. It was to 
 me almost a revelation to learn the care with which they endeavored 
 to keep their shelves clean from evil books and the methods they 
 adopted. For instance, for society to know that they had rejected a 
 book would be at once to advertise it and increase its sale. It was 
 better to put perhaps half a dozen on the shelves instead of a hundred 
 or more. They could then truthfully say the books were always 
 out, and so the circulation was practically destroyed without attract- 
 ing attention. Many books, periodicals and papers they did 
 entirely refuse to handle, and so in a difficult business recognized 
 responsibility and kept their consciences clear. And there are 
 many su(?h in every line of business. It is not every man who is 
 ruled by gold, or holds himself bound by the maxims of others whose 
 consciences have, alas, been drugged. 
 
 It follows surely that if some can maintain the highest standards 
 of business ethics we can ask, we have a right to ask it of all. Why 
 should it be a matter of surprise if we find men high-minded and up- 
 holding their own life and business principles? It ought not to be. 
 How, then, shall we make the demand for a return of the first prin- 
 ciples of honor and love? There are those who trust in the law and 
 the number of these seems increasing. Perhaps no laws have of 
 recent years been so numerous as those relating to morality and 
 honesty. Laws on the ballot or public officials, protection from 
 corporations, or from the exactions and neglects of employees, on 
 disputes between capital and labor, on protection for trusts and 
 charities, and such like have multiplied. While on the one hand these 
 laws and the necessity for them shows a terrible corruption, on the 
 other the demand for them shows a growing sense of public morality, 
 a demand for an ethical standard. But we must not expect too much 
 from the law. The state itself is made up of individuals. The best 
 laws have to be administered by individuals, and many an almost 
 perfect law has been utterly defeated in its action by a corrupt officer. 
 It has also been well said, "The law should never be allowed to stand 
 for the maximum of a man's moral obligations toward himself or 
 toward his fellowmen." (Sir Edward Fry.) The penal code should 
 not take the place of the moral law. 
 
 (278) 
 
75 
 
 There is a better way. The state has its responsibilities to dis- 
 charge and it does this by the making of laws. But the appeal is not 
 to the law alone. It is to the highest and best that is in each individ- 
 ual man. Wherever corporate action touches the li\-es, the health, 
 and the mental or money loss or gain of men and women every indi- 
 vidual member of the corporation must be brought to feel that he is 
 a steward, a servant, accountable to men, and behind that accountable 
 to Divine Law, or to God. We must reach the individual and show 
 him that on him all depends. His courage and his example are to 
 tell. It is for him to reach out after self restraint, restraint of 
 avarice, restraint of the desire of power. The personality of 
 each must be addressed, must be brought out. Ever}^ man 
 must be led to see that he cannot sink his own personality in a 
 corporation in any way such as to lose his responsibility. Every 
 one of his words and acts wherever said or done bears the stamp of 
 his own personality, and cannot be outdone or denied. We need to 
 bring into the soul of every man in business on a scale large or small 
 the spirit of Brutus — 
 
 "I had rather coin my heart, and drop my blood for drachmas, 
 than to wring 
 
 From the hard hand of peasants their vile trash 
 
 By any indirection. " 
 
 This is the task set before those, who taking up the study of 
 business ethics, desire to lift up a true standard. It is nothing less 
 than to lead men to accept as their rule, the Golden Rule, the watch- 
 word, "Honor all Men! Love the Brotherhood!" Herein comes the 
 place of education. Von Humboldt has said: "Whatever we wish to 
 introduce into the life of the nation must first be introduced into the 
 schools. " The universities set the ideals for schools, let us begin there. 
 There is the field in which to teach the principles and to train in prac- 
 tice; a training place for a complete manhood. There is great need 
 of teaching. It is the duty of men to know and to understand the 
 questions at issue. They are not easy to understand nor are they 
 capable of ready and simple answer. They must be studied and dis- 
 entangled with far more care than the finest skein of tangled silk. 
 They cannot be treated as some coarse cord, a push here and a pull 
 there and the knot is gone. The higher education. Is it not the 
 highest to learn the questions that separate men and bring injustice, 
 dishonor, sorrow; to learn to bring men together; to learn so as to be 
 able to teach and set forth the highest standard of human duty, and to 
 encourage those striving to attain them? 
 
 Has not the Church a place here? Is it not for her to penetrate 
 civil life with the Divine Spirit, to transform the worldly by bringing 
 near the Divine, to regenerate human character by the light of God 
 and to restore the whole social fabric by bringing in, as it were, a new 
 
 (279) 
 
76 
 
 soul? The University and the Church must go hand in hand in the 
 work of this higher education. 
 
 It has been well said that capital and labor need a third word and 
 that is "management." Both are dependent on management, and 
 management is business. Good management is good business. But 
 what do we mean by good management? Hard work, clever plans, 
 stirring men to the greatest amount of work, keeping our expenses to 
 the lowest. Does this differ much from slave driving? It would cut 
 out the moral element. The result would be dollars, but neither 
 honor or love. Good business, good management, is something else 
 than this. 
 
 Management is Brain, neither money nor physical labor. It is 
 brain that uses, combines, manages both. Our work is to train the 
 brain, to send out men whose brains shall be trained and moved not 
 by money, not by expediency, but by moral force, and directed by 
 conscience, by the science of human duty illuminated by the Divine 
 Spirit. This is the standard set forth in the life of Jesus Christ, the 
 Incarnate God, the workman of Nazareth. This life would bring good 
 business indeed. 
 
 Are these things possible? Is there any hope? Turn for a mo- 
 ment to other spheres of life and action. A judge of the supreme 
 court of the United States has recently said that during thirty-six 
 years on the bench no one directly or indirectlv, bv word or letter, or 
 in any other way ever proposed, suggested or intimated that any 
 decision he might be called on to make would be for his benefit pecuni- 
 arily, politically, socially or otherwise. May we not learn from this 
 something of the esteem in which his own character was held? Recall 
 the elections of President Roosevelt, and of Governor Folk in our 
 neighboring state of Missouri, and see if it is not true that in spite ot 
 the tremendous evils around there is a growing sensitiveness to con- 
 siderations of honesty and honor. Did not the heart of the nation 
 respond to the words of our late Secretary of State when he said, 
 "The application of the Golden Rule should be the essence of American 
 diplomacy in its dealings with other nations?" 
 
 There is hope, but be it ever remembered that all depends upon the 
 individuals of whom the State is composed, and especially upon those 
 individuals entrusted with political power. For this the State needs' 
 her best sons to serve with intelligence and self-sacrifice. She looks 
 to her universities to supply them. Men who, bringing business 
 ethics to bear on all their relations with their fellowmen, will show 
 the result of individual work in an elevated State. They are to come 
 from our colleges and universities for here there is not only teaching 
 of principles, but also the opportunity of application of principles to 
 life. Here it is possible in practical ways to reach out after and in a 
 measure attain the highest possible standards, from the intercourse 
 
 (2S0) 
 
77 
 
 with fellow students, from the daily contact with the faculty and the 
 relation that springs from it, from the business relations to members 
 of the fraternity, from the responsibilities of the fraternity house, 
 from perfect honesty in dealing with lodging-house keepers, stores 
 and shops, from absolute faithfulness in study, and from perfect 
 honesty in matters belonging to examinations. For the development 
 of a law-abiding consciousness, what opportunities all these give for 
 the practice of business ethics, of exemplifying the Science of human 
 dutv. It is for the University to teach and according to its oppor- 
 tunity enforce, and for the student to adopt this life. The student 
 has then bv self-control, by self-sacritice, with patience and Divine 
 help, the highest standards of the student's nature. 
 
 The student who has been so taught and has so lived goes out a man 
 prepared to face evil. He will not be so shocked by it as to become 
 incapable of action. He will not be overthrown, nor lose his faith in 
 all men, nor in God; but he will be ready, armed w4th knowledge and 
 with argument, but still more with his own personal character, to 
 meet the shock and maintain his life with a conscience blameless in 
 the sight of God and man. 
 
 He will be able to take his place in social life, in business, it may be 
 in politics. He will be able to work about by himself in mine or on 
 mountain top with theodolite and measuring chain, or to take his 
 place in great corporations and sit at the board of directors. Wher- 
 ever he is he will be a power for righteousness, his word will be re- 
 ceived, dishonor will shrink before him, and men shall recognize him 
 as they once did Daniel, as "a man in whom was the spirit of the holy 
 gods, " a man who can be neither bought nor frightened. In his time 
 and by his relations with men the State shall be lifted up and the 
 result will remain. It will not make his quiet happiness and joy less 
 if he remembers that he followed the principle, "Honor all Men! 
 Love the Brotherhood!" in the class rooms and applied them in his 
 social life, in the Universitv of the State of Illinois. 
 
 (281) 
 
78 
 
 KOURXH SESSION 
 
 COMMERCIAL MUSEUMS IN RELATION TO UNIVERSITY 
 
 COURSES 
 
 Professor William Patterson 
 
 University of Iowa 
 
 "If you wish to succeed in the commercial world do not go to 
 college, but plunge at one into business," is the sum total of recent 
 advice given young men by a noted business man. This gentleman 
 who contributes so largely of his abundant means for the welfare of 
 his fellowmen should not be dismissed without consideration. The 
 statement that he is mistaken or is an old fogy may suit the impulse 
 of the moment, but is not an answer. Moreover, Mr. Carnegie is not 
 alone in his conviction. He represents a type of stern business men 
 who today are prominent in the industrial affairs of the country. 
 Such men have no ax to grind. The schools are in no way their com- 
 petitors. The college or university to them is a business proposition. 
 It is a manufacturing establishment that offers to them its product 
 and asserts that its use will advance their output and increase their 
 profits Moreover, to continue the figure, after a fair test has been 
 made the reply is not only a refusal but carries with it the statement 
 that even the material is rendered less capable by its efforts. 
 
 When we consider that the majority of the college students must 
 not alone live in the business world but make a living in it, the criti- 
 cism, if true, becomes a most serious charge. Personally I am inclined 
 to believe that Mr. Carnegie is in a large measure justified in his 
 contention. His college or university is of an earlier period. Culture 
 was then the end in view and discipline the most important by- 
 product. Education was for education's sake. It bore the same 
 relation to the problem of daily bread that east does to the west — • 
 comes up to but never overlapped. It is perhaps unnecessary to 
 discuss here the business value of earlier college courses. That they 
 were of value is beyond question ; that they are still worth the taking 
 is also true. The fact of a conference upon commercial education, 
 however, indicates a belief that they might have been more valuable. 
 
 But what of the present university? Even if it be considered, I 
 am not surprised at the gentleman's criticism. The young man of 
 today mav spend four years in a university and come out as ignorant 
 of the conditions he is to meet in business tomorrow as the sweet girl 
 graduate. Neither is it necessary for this to be the case for him to 
 pursue classical courses to the exclusion of all else. Grant him work 
 in political economy, finance, banking, sociology; aye, commercial 
 
 (282) 
 
79 
 
 geography, commerce and statistics. Courses such as these is the reply 
 of the uniyersity of today to the business man's criticism. The ques- 
 tion is. are they adequate? 
 
 DiscipHne obtained by a study of the classics is good. The same 
 obtained through reasoning upon economic topics is better. The 
 study of the economic man is without doubt worthy the time and 
 money of the student. Marginal utility may be a determining factor, 
 but the best of us will haye difficulty in applying it to the eyeryday 
 bargain and sale. Whether the end of labor is to ayoid pain or obtain 
 pleasure is a peaceable topic for an eyening's discussion, but the man 
 who is to stand at the world's cross-roads and leyy toll needs some- 
 thing more and needs it more than he needs the other. First of all 
 he needs an intimate knowledge of the objects of barter, their source 
 and quality. All this theory is the last thing needed in the business 
 world. Only in imagination is he a captain of industry when he gets 
 his diploma. His first years haye to do with business at the bottom. 
 Checks, receipts, notes, bills, drafts, raw products, adulterants, by- 
 products, etc., are his portion for a time and in nine cases out of ten 
 that time is until death. 
 
 The work of the uniyersity for its liberal arts students should be 
 to do for them w^hat schools of engineering, dentistry, medicine and 
 law do for their matriculants; fit them for the work they expect to 
 undertake. Theory is all right, but it is not enough. The engineer 
 spends time upon theory, but the actual work is dominant. The 
 dentist sorts out the yarious tissues of the foot that he may the better 
 pull a tooth, but a large part of his time is spent at the chair. That 
 worthy character of Dickens' who w'as accustomed to impress the 
 significance of a word upon his pupils by haying them perform certain 
 manual labor, as washing windows, was not so far wrong. 
 
 The field of the college and the uniyersity on the liberal arts side 
 is the great business world outside of the professions. Of this, the 
 pupils as they come from the public schools know practically nothing. 
 The real business world is associated with "papa at the store," but 
 w^hat rules goyern or how it all acts is an abstraction. Their ignorance 
 relatiye to the common things about them is monumental. The corn, 
 the wheat and the oats are products, but where they come from, what 
 is made of them is w^holly unknown. To state that maple sugar, 
 strawberry jam and strained honey are yery largely products of corn 
 would brand the informant as an ignoramus. That starch, or sugar, 
 or oil could come from such a source is little less credulous. The 
 angora goat to them is a scayenger and has no relation to the plush 
 that covers the seats of our railway coaches or the dress their best 
 girl wears to the party. Mercerized cotton may be either silk or bril- 
 liantine and they are not the wiser. In short, the elementary facts of 
 production are not theirs. In this condition they get economic man 
 
 (283) 
 
80 
 
 and marginal utility for a diet and the theory of social forces for 
 dessert for four years and then enter the office of a business man. Is 
 it strange that he describes the fellow with the diploma as a fool and 
 expresses it with a dash before it? This busy business man is forced 
 to explain things that are as elementary to him as life and breath, and 
 he is naturally disgusted with wiiat he has received as a finished 
 product that is not at all and frequently has on an outside veneer that 
 is extremely difficult to penetrate. 
 
 The relation of a commercial museum to the university courses 
 grows out of this condition. It is one of the chief means by which the 
 student may be introduced to business forms and given an idea of the 
 products of several countries, their production and manufacture. 
 Here mav be gathered together the several kinds of checks, bills, 
 notes, bonds, mortgages; in short, specimens of all forms of commercial 
 paper, and these forms endorsed, stamped, checked and mutilated as 
 returned after their course in acutal business. With these in hand, 
 courses in banking, corporation, finance and accounting may be 
 brought down to earth. The student will receive intimation of some 
 of the methods, short-cuts, and, may I say, tricks of business. Tax 
 receipts, assessor's books, railway, telegraph and telephone reports to 
 the taxing body, will make clear many points in the method of taxing 
 that a mere description, no matter how lucid, would leave in an uncer- 
 tain state. Samples of bills of lading, rate schedules, reports of super- 
 intendents, conductors, section bosses and other railway officials, 
 will do much to put the subject of transportation on an everyday 
 basis. The theorv of rates will work out in practice, or rather, it wont. 
 
 In commercial geograph}^ we are told that outside of the great 
 corn area of the United States, corn is raised in Egypt, New South 
 Wales and Mexico. If now samples of this product from each of the 
 named countries are at hand, it may at once appear that the corn of 
 Mexico is an entirely dififerent product from that of the other countries. 
 Place Egyptian cotton beside the Sea Island or upland products of 
 the United States and the student will understand why one sells for 
 ten cents more than the other. In like manner the relative merits of 
 products produced in different parts of the world may be compared 
 in fact instead of by description. State to a class that the chief 
 products of Ceylon are spices, oils, and graphite, and the statement 
 could almost be repeated for Venezuela. But show the products of 
 the two countries and the excellence of the spice and the graphite of 
 Ceylon is at once apparent and the medicinal side of Venezuela's 
 production is seen. 
 
 Take for consideration the subject of cotton. There is an added 
 interest created when the webbing from the stock is shown, the vari- 
 ous classes of cotton goods, not commented upon alone but given the 
 student for examination. Again, it is known that products are now 
 
 (284) 
 
81 
 
 important because of their by-products. He is a wise man who can 
 tell the ancestor of the article before him. To bring in olive oil, gold 
 dust, blue cloud, fairy and half a dozen other soaps with samples of 
 cotton goods and declare them all of one mother is stimulating to the 
 pupil and knowledge of real worth. But add to this the steps in the 
 manufacture of these products and you have brought the factorv to 
 the class room or taken the student on a toiir of inspection. 
 
 In like manner any raw product may be demonstrated. On every 
 hand we hear of the adulteration of food, but what the adulterants are 
 or how food so treated appears is no part of general knowledge. Adul- 
 terants are easily obtained and foods so treated are in every show 
 window. If assembled they give as good an insight into one form of 
 business effort as can be provided. 
 
 Enough has been said to indicate the relation of the commercial 
 museum to university courses. I believe it to be at least a partial 
 answer to the criticism of Mr. Carnegie and others. It provides the 
 practical and gives concrete information upon subjects in which 
 description needs fail. Every descriptive course requires its exhibits 
 and by it alone can the intricate knowledge of products and processes 
 required for success in the commercial world be obtained. It familiar- 
 izes the workman with his tools ; gives form and substance to principles 
 and theories, and, last but not least, lends interest to courses that 
 although fundamental are difficult to present. 
 
 The various products grouped bv countries, supplemented bv views 
 showing method of culture, the means of marketing and life of the 
 producer, "will give an idea of the economic status of the place in 
 question. This supplemented by statistical charts and diagrams will 
 indicate the position in world affairs the country has occupied or 
 now maintains. If the emphasis of the course is on the world markets 
 or the commercial status of the several nations, this is perhaps the 
 best grouping. 
 
 If the products themselves are to be studied, all exhibits should be 
 grouped around given classes or families. In my own work this has 
 been the plan in view. Take for illustration wheat in cereal group. 
 So far as possible I have arranged the samples of wheat from the 
 several -countries according to the importance of the country in the 
 production of this particular product. This is because an attempt is 
 being made to consider commercial geography from the standpoint of 
 importance of the countries in the world's market. A secondary 
 grouping is provided showing different varieties of wheat and these 
 again arranged so far as possible according to the importance of the 
 varieties presented. Finally the by-products are grouped and as 
 many processes in their manufacture shown as possible. By this 
 means the student of a given industry obtains an idea of the sources 
 of supply and their relative importance, of the methods of manufacture 
 
 (285) 
 
82 
 
 and the ultimate products of the industry. In presenting the pro- 
 cesses of manufacture no attempt is made to be technical, but the 
 fundamental changes occurring in the transformation of product are 
 presented. This is the most difficult side, for me at least, to show. 
 It is in many cases impossible to hold a product in a given stage. 
 Take for example malt used in the production of liquor. The process 
 of fermentation cannot well be arrested at a given point. But in the 
 majority of cases the final by-products may be held for presentation. 
 It is not to be regretted, however, that more of these stages of pro- 
 duction cannot be shown. The danger of the commercial museum is 
 that of mere acquisition. Anyone who has witnessed the grand rush 
 of the poptilace for souvenirs, stamps, postal cards, etc., or competed 
 with fellow museum men for the spoils of some great exhibit, knows 
 the overweaning desire we all have for everything whether it can be 
 grouped and used in our work or not. The university museum should 
 be a working tool, not necessarily a place of recreation or one for the 
 presentation of novelties. These are well in their wav, but frequently 
 are so in the way as to obscure the purpose of the effort. I have been 
 told that the range of the commercial museum w^as unlimited, and 
 when I have asked my informant what new lines of effort he would 
 suggest the reply has almost invaribly been the collection of freaks in 
 the commercial world, or the presentation of primative Egvptian or 
 other methods of production. The range of the commercial museum 
 is unlimited in the abstract, but the range of a particular museum is 
 distinctly circumscribed. Personally I desire all commercial products, 
 their by-products, means of manufacture, marketing and all that, but 
 it would be an absolute waste of university monev to get it. The cost of 
 many of these are far beyond their utility, and there is so much that is of 
 highest utility and at our very door that it is not wisdom to seek them 
 at present. The aim of the particular museum should be to provide 
 illustrative material for the particular courses offered at a particular 
 place. The production of the state should be fullv represented, that 
 of the United States may be less minutely shown. A typical state of 
 a given section may be exploited for the whole, but whatever is done 
 must be done well. An exhibition of forage crops, or fibers or cereals 
 should be complete, either for the locality or the group. It is no effort 
 to accumulate ; any child can do that and many of our accumulations 
 are childish. But to make a complete exhibit requires time, patience, 
 money, and above all brains. I have no sympathy with the mad grab 
 that is so often witnessed. The collector must determine his basis of 
 classification and work to it. The danger is of getting too much rather 
 than not enough ; of seeking foreign products to the exclusion of home ; 
 of becoming a museum instead of a working laboratorv. 
 
 (286) 
 
83 
 
 DISCUSSIOX 
 
 Dr. W. H. Schoff 
 Secretary Philadelphia Commercial Museums 
 
 Of the development of a commercial museum in its relation to the 
 group of museums under the control of our organization in Philadel- 
 phia it is not necessary for me to speak here, but the extension of the 
 work so as to include a sphere of usefulness in university and prepara- 
 tory school instruction is of decided importance at the present time. 
 In a general way efforts have been made to establish this work at a 
 number of our leading universities in connection with the courses in 
 economics and commerce, notably the Universities of Pennsylvania, 
 Wisconsin, Iowa and your own University of Illinois, and I have no 
 doubt that the same subject is under consideration or is being actually 
 worked upon in a number of other universities. With this movement 
 we are in hearty accord and are anxious to do all in our power to 
 further it. 
 
 Our own attention has been much more generally called to the 
 need of placing collections of commercial material in the public high 
 schools and grammar schools where courses in geography are regularly 
 given and where a more or less consistent tendency is now observed 
 to infuse into such courses an element of commercial knowledge and 
 training. We have been actively engaged in this work in the State of 
 Pennsylvania for the past four or five years, and I think it can safely 
 be said to have passed its experimental stage. When we began to 
 call attention to the need of such collections in the public schools it 
 could truthfully be said that almost no schools in the state had made 
 any effort in that direction, with the notable exception of the Boys' 
 Commercial High School in Philadelphia. 
 
 Two years ago at a session of the State Legislature the suggestion 
 was made by some of the leaders interested in educational matters 
 that an appropriation should be made to us to continue and enlarge 
 the distribution of these school collections or miniature museums, and 
 a bill appropriating $25,000 for that purpose was adopted without 
 our having made any request or appeal for it. This fund enabled us 
 to enlarge the collection in many directions, so that it now includes 
 over one hundred original photographs of large size, many maps and 
 charts showing the distribution of staple products, and an extensive 
 series of specimens illustrating the production, shipment and various 
 stages of preparation of almost every standard article of consump- 
 tion entering into our daily life. We have gone ahead with this work, 
 and now have about eight hundred collections distributed among high 
 schools and grammar schools in every county in the state, and the 
 work was so well appreciated that at the last session of the Legislature 
 the appropriation was continued for the next two years, by which time 
 most of the important schools will have been supplied. 
 
 (287) 
 
84 
 
 We have found an unexpected degree of interest in these object 
 collections in schools of the lower grade, and are now working out a 
 plan for a less extensive collection which might meet the need of 
 secondary or even primary schools. Our purpose has been not so 
 much to send out a collection complete in all possible details as to 
 provide a working nucleus which will give the local school authorities 
 an idea of what can be done to stimulate an effort in every locality to 
 build up a school museum suited to its own needs. One of our col- 
 lections, amplified in many directions so as to make it possible for 
 more advanced work, has been presented to the Commerce Depart- 
 ment of the University of Illinois and is now in use by your students 
 under Prof. Fisk. 
 
 In Pennsylvania we have yet to find an instance where the pre- 
 sentation of one of these school museums has not resulted in a greatly 
 increased interest in commercial education and a stimulus to the school 
 authorities to continue and extend the work, and I feel that the same 
 results could be expected in any state where the same effort should be 
 made. It is a work which could be carried on to great advantage in 
 Illinois or in any of the states where the state university plays so 
 prominent a part in shaping the course of instruction in the public 
 schools and where there is so widespread and progressive an interest 
 in the general subject of commercial education. 
 
 Professor H. S. Person 
 Dartmouth College 
 
 I think commercial museums are of educational value for secondary 
 work, but are of doubtful value for university work. If they have 
 any value for university work, it would be for a mere elementary 
 course rather than for the advanced work. 
 
 COMMERCIAL ORGANIZATION 
 
 B}^ Professor J. S. Hagerty 
 Ohio State University 
 
 I shall take the privilege to limit the discussion of commercial 
 organization to mercantile institutions. Even so restricted the scope 
 of the subject is very broad for a thirty minutes' paper. However, I 
 shall attempt to consider the subject, although briefly, from three 
 points of view: 1. The evolution of mercantile institutions in the 
 United States; 2. The internal or administrative organization of 
 these institutions, and, 3. The scientific data afforded by them, and 
 the opportunities for presenting this data in our higher commercial 
 institutions. 
 
 The Evolution of Mercantile Institutions. — In discussing the evo- 
 
 (288) 
 
85 
 
 lution of mercantile institutions only the leading factors can be touched 
 upon. It will be the aim of the paper to show how some inevitable 
 forces were at work which preordained our present mercantile 
 mechanism. 
 
 In Adam Smith's time the producer found a market simply for his 
 surplus products. Producing purely for profit, with the expectation 
 of procuring a market for the entire output, is a nineteenth century 
 idea. Even in the first half of the nineteenth century, when totality 
 of production is considered, this aim in production had made but little 
 headwav. A centtiry ago the fields of business enterprise were greatly 
 restricted and the operations within those fields were necessarily slow. 
 We had no railroads and canals, no telegraph or telephone systems in 
 1800, and the methods of communication by mail were very slow and 
 awkward. If the factory, whi.ch was not thoroughly established in 
 England until 1830, had been in existence then, its output would have 
 been limited to a local market. 
 
 So long as people produced largely for personal consumption and 
 sold onlv surplus products, no elaborate distributive machinery was 
 necessarv. The factory was a specialized institution with facilities 
 for supplving a certain class of wants for a large number of customers. 
 Better means of transportation by canal and railroad came with it, 
 and shortly afterward better facilities for communication by telegraph 
 and an improved mail service appeared, and these forces broadened 
 the scope of markets and made the selling of goods complicated 
 phenomena. 
 
 The manufactures made possible by our exclusive policy prior to 
 the war of 1812, and sustained by the tariff of 1816 and succeeding 
 tariflfs, only maintained a struggling existence until the Civil W ar 
 period, and the commodities produced were of the cruder sort. As 
 the western lands were opened to settlement, as the turnpike, canal 
 and railroad were extended into western territory, transportation was 
 cheapened, and centers of production and consumption became 
 widelv separated. As the towns and cities grew they became the 
 markets for the surplus products of the farm, while they as manufac- 
 turing and commercial centers gave shape to the raw materials of the 
 farm and mine, and sent them out again in the form of farm imple- 
 ments and more highly worked up food products. There gradually 
 emerged three classes of markets: the local, the city, and foreign 
 markets. 
 
 With the rise of the factory and the perfecting of faciUties for 
 communication and transportation, it became economically advan- 
 tageous for each community to limit itself largely to the production 
 of classes of products for which it was adapted. In obedience to this 
 principle the South grew cotton and rice, the West, grain, and New 
 England manufactured textile products and shoes. The territorial 
 
 (289) 
 
86 
 
 specialization made necessary distributing centers — each creating a 
 mechanism for reaching consumers over very diverse areas. 
 
 The chemical laboratory with its practical investigations is respon- 
 sible for the multiplication of food products and the introduction of 
 by-products. The triumphs of practical chemistry have given a 
 commercial value to hundreds of things that were formerlv considered 
 pure waste. Things have been so cheapened that many things are 
 now accessible to the poor which formerly were considered as luxuries 
 for the rich. The facilities afforded for the preservation of fruits and 
 other food products in course of transportation have greatly broadened 
 the scope of markets. It was inevitable that such forces would make 
 complex the mechanism for the sale of products. 
 
 The distributive factors which appeared were the manufacturer, 
 the commission merchant or broker, or commission agent or selling 
 agent, the jobber, the travelling salesman, and the retailer. It is not 
 maintained that all these groups were necessarv to sell all classes of 
 products. Many commodities were distributed through other chan- 
 nels than these. Certain classes of manufactured goods were from 
 the outset sold to retailers. The manufacturers often sell to retailers 
 as well as to jobbers, while the jobbers frequently sell to consumers as 
 well as to retailers. The groups of exchangers referred to are presented 
 as tvpical for the distribution of a large class of commodities. 
 
 In the distribution of goods of foreign manufacture, the number of 
 groups of exchangers was even greater. Many classes of goods passed 
 through the hands of the agent of the foreign manufacturer, the 
 foreign exporter, the American importer, the jobber and the retailer. 
 When the producer and the consumer were so widely separated there 
 was of necessity a large margin between the producers' and consumers' 
 price. These distributive factors had to be supported and in absence 
 of effective competition the profits were considerable. Since the 
 United States became a manufacturing nation fewer middlemen were 
 required to distribute American than imported commodities. 
 
 Up to a certain point the increased number of factories, division of 
 labor in factory and territory, an increased number and variety of 
 comrnodities produced, and better facilities for transportation, all 
 cooperated in developing distributive channels which separated the 
 producer farther and farther from the consumer. Within the last 
 thirty or thirty-five years, other forces have been operating to bring 
 them closer together, and to reduce the cost of marketing. As soon 
 as manufacturing became an important industry in America, and when 
 large amounts of capital were utilized in single plants, the manufac- 
 turers became more independent of the middlemen, and competition 
 between the latter led to economy in methods of marketing. 
 
 In the marketing of foreign goods the jobber was compelled to 
 carry a general supply of commodities to meet the demands of retailers. 
 
 (290) 
 
87 
 
 With the rise of the American manufacturer there has been intro- 
 duced an important change in seUing goods known as "dating ahead. " 
 Frequent changes in fashion and other changes in the wants of cus- 
 tomers resulting in violent price fluctuations caused manufacturers to 
 abandon the old policy of haphazard production for one of producing 
 to fill definite demands after goods are sold. This method has now 
 become quite general. Themanufacturer sends his agent to the jobber 
 in the fall and winter to take orders to be filled in the spring and in the 
 meantime the goods are produced and shipped. Some manufacturers 
 make a practice of dating twice a year, and others do so more often. 
 The jobber goes to the retailer and dates ahead in the same way. In 
 many cases the manufacturer deals directly with the retailer in this 
 manner. Where the manufacturer is engaged in only one process of 
 manufacture, orders are then taken of another manufacturer, who car- 
 ries the process a stage farther. 
 
 Wherever the system has been introduced the strategic position of 
 the manufacturer has been improved. Instead of producing what he 
 thinks will be demanded his plant is operated to produce what has 
 already been sold. The producer and consumer are brought more 
 closely in contact, as orders for goods emanate from retailers who know 
 consumers and their wants. The speculative burden is shifted to the 
 retailer whose greatest danger lies in over-purchasing, as his goods may 
 be ordered several weeks or months before they are offered for sale. 
 
 The role of the commission merchant is less important now than 
 when American manufactures were but little developed. He pur- 
 chased commodities on his own responsibility or sold them on com- 
 mission to jobbers, retailers or consumers. He was an independent 
 dealer and often advanced capital to the manufacturer. With the 
 growth of the plant of the American manufacturer, the commission 
 merchant has been compelled to give way to selling agents of the 
 manufacturer. 
 
 With the growth in the size of the plant the manufacturer is coming 
 to hold the strategic position in distribution. In volume twenty-five 
 of the Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 
 on American domestic markets. Professor Jones of the University of 
 Michigan has shown how the manufacturer is fortifying his position by 
 securing control of raw materials, and by undertaking the various 
 processes of manufacture under a single management, by producing 
 by-products, and by controlling certain other manufacturing processes 
 subsidiary to the main purposes of the plant. It was also claimed 
 that the conditions under which the finished product is sold is deter- 
 mined by the manufacturer. The exclusive agency, the price con- 
 tract, the factor or rebate plan, and the serial numbering plan are 
 devices employed which narrow the field of the retailer and make 
 
 (291) 
 
him dependent upon the manufacturer. Other sources of similar 
 import could be mentioned. 
 
 The opportunities afforded in advertising through various avenues 
 — the magazine, trade journals, dailypapers, bill posters, etc.. — and the 
 specific methods of brands, seals, and trade-marks, have done perhaps 
 more than any single thing to bring the producer directly in contact 
 with the consumer. As soon as the manufacturer could talk directly 
 to the consumer, his prosperity was no longer dependent exclusively 
 upon the various classes of intermediate agents between him and the 
 consumer. When the reputation of certain classes of goods was 
 established, they practically sold themselves. 
 
 The need of introducing the rapidly increasing supply of new 
 commodities which could be conveniently produced, coupled with the 
 conservatism of the retailer, made talking to the consumer by the 
 manufacturer imperative. Retailers have been all along slow in 
 introducing commodities when they can just as well sell commodities 
 for which there is a regular demand. If they assist the manufacturer 
 by advertising something new, then competitors will share with them 
 the rewards of their enterprise. In the very nature of things it was 
 impossible for the retailer to bear the brunt of advertising and intro- 
 ducing new commodities. The brand, seal or trade-mark gave the 
 manufacturer an opportunity not only to introduce a good of specific 
 ingredients, but to keep the firm name before the public. In practi- 
 calh^ all other methods of advertising, as in this case, the manufac- 
 turer realizes exclusively on his enterprise. It is a feature inherent 
 in the situation, then, that the manufacturer must introduce his goods 
 and in doing so he is freed from the restraints imposed formerlv bv 
 mercantile institutions. 
 
 Within the mercantile business itself have arisen organizing forces 
 which reduce the cost of marketing. Of these the most important are 
 the department store, the mail-order house, and the cooperative 
 purchasing combines of various sorts. 
 
 The department store which organizes all the factors of distribution 
 had its origin in the United States in the Wanamaker store of Phila- 
 delphia in 1876. Since then the department store business in the 
 United States has had a steady and consistent growth. 
 
 While vast amounts of capital were being invested in transportation 
 and manufacturing concerns it was inevitable that this tendency 
 would find expression in mercantile life, and consequentlv we have 
 the enormous retail and jobbing institutions in our larger cities. 
 
 The economies effected by the department store are man v. In 
 organizing the factors of distribution in a single institution the costs 
 and profits of other middlemen are saved. In large scale advertising 
 goods may be advertised extensively with but relativelv little cost. 
 In purchasing in large quantities and by expert buyers good bargains 
 
 (2Q2) 
 
89 
 
 are made, while the costs of transportation are less for car-load than 
 less than car-load quantities. The savings from discounted bills on 
 large purchases are considerable. The rent, heating and light econo- 
 mies are large items. 
 
 While some manufacturing enterprises and several department 
 stores conduct a mail-order business, the mail-order house is an inde- 
 pendent mercantile institution. Appearing in industry at about the 
 same time as the department store, its growth has been somewhat 
 similar to that of the latter institution. The department store meets 
 the needs of the consumer in the cities, while the mail-order house 
 reaches consumers in the small towns and rural districts. Advertising 
 through the large catalogue or purchaser's guide is its medium of 
 reaching consumers. Like the department store, it organizes the 
 factors of distribution in a single institution, and effects its chief 
 economies in doing so. To accomplish the same ends retailers in 
 several cities have organized themselves in cooperative purchasing 
 combines. In the grocerv business the chain stores or a large number 
 of stores under a single management accomplish practically the same 
 results. 
 
 Within the last thirt}'-five years many striking changes have taken 
 place in mercantile industry. But with these rapid changes the 
 reduction in the costs of distribution have not kept pace with the 
 reduction of the initial or manufacturing costs. In other words, rela- 
 tively speaking, the costs of distribution have increased. Several 
 causes are responsible for this: 
 
 1. Generally speaking, industrially progress has been in a large 
 measure due to the introduction of machinery. As machinery plays 
 a much more important role in the production than in the distribu- 
 tion process, the reduction in costs resulting from improved machinery 
 will be greater in the former. 
 
 2. In production it is much easier to compute costs of various 
 factors than in distribution. Where this can be done it is easier to 
 experiment and thus eliminate unnecessary expense elements in doing so . 
 
 3. The advertising costs of distribution are extremely difificult of 
 computation. At points where this is especially true an advertising 
 warfare between firms may result in raising the price of commodities 
 offered for sale. 
 
 4. In production when a new machine surpasses an old one the 
 latter is discarded without question. In distribution the wage and 
 salar}' cost is a much more conspicuous item than the wage and salary 
 cost is in production. Consequently when displacements occur in 
 distribution, they are displacements of men to a greater degree than 
 in production. A more homogeneous and intelligent class are engaged 
 in distribution than in production, and resist vigorously changes which 
 threaten them. 
 
 (293) 
 
90 
 
 The Internal or Administrative Organization of Mercantile Concerns. 
 — The development of the large mercantile or manufacturing concern 
 has given rise to new fields of economic study, the internal or admin- 
 istrative organization of business. In the larger plants the leaders 
 have seen the necessity for and the advantage of a thorough-going 
 organization of the work. An army of emplovees needs to be thor- 
 oughly organized. There must be a careful differentiation of structure 
 and functions of the organization with authoritv and responsibility 
 resting in heads of the different divisions and subdivisions. In such 
 an organization the advantage gained in the use of experts, or men of 
 great ability at the head of divisions or sub-divisions is almost im- 
 measurable. What is said here of the mercantile concern will apply 
 with equal force to all other large industrial enterprises. 
 
 In traditional economic theory the subject of economics was 
 divided into four divisions: production, exchange, distribution, and 
 consumption, and of these exchange and distribution have received 
 most attention. The discussion has centered verv largelv upon the 
 politico-economic point of view, and the scientific work was frequently 
 submerged in the endorsement of governmental policies. Very im- 
 portant topics were the tariff, the money question, ship subsidies, the 
 justification of interest, and so forth. Economics seemed intended 
 to reach conclusions which would influence legislation along certain 
 lines. (Much of the prejudice against it in the past has been due to 
 its political bearings.) The investigation of phenomena first-hand 
 and their classification regardless of influence of the results was never 
 thought of very seriously. 
 
 In the department of production only the general aspects received 
 consideration. The treatment centered about the problems of the 
 division of labor and territorial specialization. Even here the con- 
 clusions were long-range deductions. In the discussion of the division 
 of labor but little improvement was made upon Plato's analysis. The 
 current economic texts of today improve but little on the theory of 
 the division of labor of Adam Smith. But little investigation was 
 made into the internal organization of business concerns. Until the 
 latter half of the nineteenth century there was perhaps some reason 
 for this absence of data. With the appearance of the large industrial 
 units, however, we have a considerable bodv of new economic data 
 subject to analysis and classification. 
 
 In the current treatment of the division of labor, two important 
 elements, the coordination of the various phases of industrial concerns, 
 and the unification of work, have been neglected. 
 
 In the internal organization of industrial concerns we have at 
 present a great mass of data. Every business house employs a staff 
 of experts to record accurately every transaction of financial signifi- 
 cance to the management. This information puts the manager in 
 
 (294) 
 
91 
 
 possession of all the facts with reference to the efficiency of the organi- 
 zation at every stage of the enterprise. In the determination of the 
 efficiency of the organization the profits of the concern are the guiding 
 force. All this data is kept in permanent form by the system of 
 bookkeeping. 
 
 We haye also the generalizations of business men, taking the form 
 of policies which are of scientific significance. These generalizations 
 haye weight w'hen approved by the business experience of others. 
 Business principles are thus formulated by the greater captains of indus- 
 try, based upon practical experience and stimulated by the desire for 
 gain. These results are of great validity as they are tested by success 
 or failure. 
 
 Within recent years great advancement has been made in the 
 development of machinery for the preservation and advancement of 
 this class of scientific knoweldge. Our accountancy and bookkeeping 
 systems have almost attained the dignity of sciences themselves. They 
 preserve past experience, analyze and classify facts, and make easy 
 the understanding of problems very difficult of comprehension in their 
 absence. They put the man at the head of affairs in control of the 
 industrial machinery so that errors can be discovered and adjustment 
 made. 
 
 Our larger industrial enterprises are divided and subdivided into 
 various groups. In some of our department stores, for instance, the 
 number of departments range irom fifty to one hundred. At the head 
 of the various divisions and subdivisions under which the departments 
 are organized, there are expert leaders who have definite functions to 
 perform with corresponding responsibility, and at the heads of the 
 departments themselves are competent superintendents. In the 
 larger concerns only the most general control is exercised by the 
 superintendent or manager. The details are to be carried out under 
 the orders of the superintendents of the different divisions and sub- 
 divisions. 
 
 It is generally assumed that competition takes place only between 
 rival concerns. In the larger business enterprises competition is 
 almost as active within as without. Within competition is an active, 
 progressive force, and managements avail themselves of its service. 
 There is a rivalry between different departments, and between differ- 
 ent groups and individuals, which is often just as active as the rivalry 
 between different institutions. Here the organization puts the limits 
 to competition and controls it where competition would be unpro- 
 gressive, and provides the circumstances for its active work where it 
 is most progressive. Competitive conditions, on the other hand, 
 determine frequently the form of organization. We think of compe- 
 tition usually in connection with the making of prices. Competition 
 plays just as important a role in rendering excellent service, or in 
 
 (295) 
 
92 
 
 seeking customers, or, from an individual point of view, in doing effi- 
 cient work as a basis of ad\'ancement. Through organization business 
 men have learned to shape competition and secure the best results 
 of which it is capable. 
 
 The Facilities for Presenting the Data of Mercantile Institutions in 
 our Higher Educational Schools. — Assuming that there is a body of 
 knowledge in mercantile and industrial organization which may be 
 analyzed, classified, and which may serve as the basis for generaliza- 
 tion, this question arises: Is it procurable? Is it available for the 
 teacher's purpose? The literature in these fields at the preset time 
 is decidedly limited. What would be the attitude of the business man 
 in making the facts of his business common knowledge? In recent 
 years business men have assumed an attitude favorable to the scientific 
 development of economics. They are becoming much more communi- 
 cable among themselves. In trade organizations they have discovered 
 a consciousness of kind, and have abandoned the idea of cornering all 
 trade secrets. Among the larger houses there is a tendency to com- 
 pare systems, and often to put competitors in possession of their 
 methods of business. Thev have come to feel that free trade in busi- 
 ness methods is a safer guarantee to business success than hi-gh tariff 
 walls. They believe that a more thorough knowledge of business 
 principles by the public would not be detrimental to their business. 
 Mr. Frank A. Vanderlip, vice-president of the National City Bank of 
 New York City, in an article in the Business World for August, 1905, 
 on "A New College Degree," says: "If we had in our universities 
 professors capable of a thorough scientific understanding of the prin- 
 ciples underlying many of the problems of finance and commerce, 
 these men would help us to see distinctly and to think clearly in regard 
 to some of our everyday practices and tendencies. The dissemination 
 of such knowledge would surely be of great value.'" 
 
 With reference to the value of business knowledge in a good, liberal 
 education, he has this to say: "I believe that in a proper education, 
 the highest work in commercial life might be so outlined as to be 
 entirely in harmony in its practical application with the ideals of those 
 who conceive that a universitv should be a place for scientific research, 
 a place where the scientific habit of mind should be sought purely for 
 the love of truth. " 
 
 Business men are coming to believe that a knowledge of the 
 general principles of business is of value to the young man beginning 
 a business career. They do not believe, nor does the college man 
 believe that this knowledge of general principles of business, which may 
 be presented in a university, will aft'ord to the student a "short cut" 
 to a business career. The training to fit into a certain place or de- 
 partment of business can be acquired onlv bv meeting and solving the 
 everyday problems which arise in that specific line of work; but a 
 
 (296) 
 
93 
 
 thorough-going knowledge of the general principles will give the ap- 
 prentice an imagination and a point of view w^hich will lift him in 
 efficiencv above the individuals who lack this training. 
 
 The economist has been following too long traditional methods. 
 His work is even today too largely deductive. In geology, the data 
 of science is in the soil and rock; in botany, the data is in the plant 
 kingdom; in economics, if we are to be scientific, the data should be in 
 the business world, and ought to be procured first hand. 
 
 TRAIXIXG FOR GOVERNMENT SERVICE 
 
 By Dr. E. Dana Durand 
 Special Examiner in the Bureau of Corporations 
 
 It mav doubtless be assumed that in discussing training for govern- 
 ment service, w^e are here chiefly interested in that training which 
 would fall within the scope of a school of commerce and economics. 
 There are, of course, many branches of the government service which 
 require technical training in altogether difterent lines. 
 
 It has seemed to me that, if I could contribute anything of value 
 todav, it w^ould be in the way of indicating the extent of the oppor- 
 tunities for men of special economic education in the government 
 emplov, and of describing the nature of the work to be performed, 
 rather than in the way of discussing courses of study and methods of 
 instruction. The latter task may be left chiefly to the faculties of the 
 departments of economics and commerce in the universities. The 
 suggestions with reference to instruction are ventured in a very diffi- 
 dent manner. 
 
 There is possiblv some danger of overestimating the number of 
 government positions for which special education in economic and 
 kindred subjects is or ever will be efi^ectively demanded — to use an 
 economic phrase. Much the greater part of the work of our national, 
 state and municipal governments has little to do w4th economics. It 
 is either concerned with other arts or sciences, or it is of essentially 
 routine character. For many of the higher administrative posi- 
 tions even in government services not connected with economic 
 matters, there would perhaps be some advantage in having men with 
 a good general knowledge of economics, political science and sociology, 
 though I would bv no means advocate making the academic element 
 a dominant one. But the legislators and appointing officers in the 
 various grades of government do not now recognize and probably will 
 not within a reasonable time in the future recognize the need of any 
 high degree of education in economic and allied sciences as a qualifi- 
 cation for positions of this character. 
 
 The national, state and local governments do, however, undertake 
 
 (297) 
 
94 
 
 an enormous amount of work that is essentially economic, and the 
 the scope and extent of work of this character is growing apace. For 
 proper performance of this work it is desirable that there be, in the 
 more responsible positions, a large number of men who have been 
 thoroughly trained in schools of commerce and economics. I do not 
 mean that only men so educated should hold these positions. It may 
 be that a man who has gained his ideas on economic matters from 
 experience in law, journalism or business, coupled with general 
 reading and observation, has made conspicuous success in public 
 service of a technical economic character. But in general the man 
 who has thoroughly and systematically studied the various social, 
 economic and political branches of science will obviously be better 
 fitted for such public service. 
 
 More important than the question what is desirable is the question 
 what is desired by those in authority. What are the chances that the 
 student who has specialized with a view to the government service 
 will find his training helpful in getting a job ? I think one may answer 
 that the chances are fair, and that thev are increasing every year. 
 The importance of having specially trained and thoroughly competent 
 men for the more responsible positions in the economic work of the 
 government is not yet by any means sufficiently appreciated by law- 
 makers, executive officers or the general public. But the desirability 
 of having them is more appreciated today than ever before, and the 
 trend is distinctly and rapidly in the right direction. This is, to be 
 sure, far more true of the federal government than of the state and 
 local governments, but the influence of the former is bound to react 
 upon the lower grades of government. 
 
 The opinion is still widely prevalent that men who have studied 
 economics in the universities are mere theorists, unfitted to deal with 
 practical problems. This opinion, which was always an exaggerated 
 one, is gradually giving way as our universities are more and more 
 emphasizing the study of practical econornic conditions. If those in 
 charge of our educational institutions will lav still greater stress on 
 such practical study, they will, we may trust, still more break down 
 the distrust of the academic economist. 
 
 With this introduction, let us pass to a brief enumeration of the 
 leading government departments and bureaus which are largely 
 concerned with economic and related problems. 
 
 The Department of Commerce and Labor doubtless offers the 
 broadest field. Its bureaus of the Census, Labor, Corporations and 
 Statistics, which together include some thousands of employees, are 
 or should be, in large measure scientific investigators of economic 
 conditions. Somewhat similar fields are covered, though usually 
 much less efficiently, by the many bureaus of labor or of indtistrial 
 statistics in the several states, by state bureaus for the inspection of 
 
 (298) 
 
95 
 
 factories, mines, etc., and by state and municipal authorities dealing 
 with vital statistics. In the federal Department of Agriculture also 
 much economic and statistical investigation is being made, and the 
 same is true in some measure of similar state authorities. The work 
 of the Interstate Commerce Commission and of the numerous state 
 railroad commissions ought also to demand special economic training 
 for at least part of the emplovees. 
 
 There is no question also that work in the diplomatic and consular 
 services, including some positions in the State Department at home 
 and more abroad, would be improved by a large infusion of men 
 trained in the commercial and economic departments of our colleges 
 and universities. At present these services are not under civil-service 
 rules, and appointments have been too often made for considerations 
 other than fitness, but there is good prospect of a change for the better 
 in this respect. 
 
 Another class of services in which there is need of much more 
 recognition of special training than exists today consists of those 
 which have to do with finance in its various branches — not only 
 public finance proper, but also monev, banking and insurance. Our 
 financial policy, national and local, is largely lacking in scientific 
 basis. Recent appointments of such men as Hollander, Jenks, Wil- 
 loughbv and Charles A. Conant in important temporary or permanent 
 positions of this sort give ground for hope that college men will more 
 and more find openings in the secondary as well as the highest work 
 in the financial and quasi-financial departments of the government. 
 
 While the more important fields have thus been cursorily men- 
 tioned, it may be said without further enumeration that there are, 
 in various other government departments, even in some of those 
 which have in general least to do with economic questions, a consider- 
 able number of positions for which special training in economic and 
 kindred subjects is clearly desirable. 
 
 What now is to be said with reference to the nature of the work 
 which the economic specialist may find to do in the various branches 
 of government service named? 
 
 It should be noted at the outset that, even in those government 
 departments that are most concerned with economic and allied 
 matters, the great majority of the positions are essentially clerical. 
 For such places no special preparation, other than a good secondary 
 education, is required. Moreover, in many, if not most, instances 
 experience in this purely clerical routine work is not particularly 
 useful as a training for the higher positions. There is, in my judg- 
 ment, too marked a disposition, under present civil-service rules and 
 the practice of appointing officers, to fill the more responsible positions 
 by promotion from the lower ranks. This is often carried to the 
 extent of bringing to the top men who after all are essentially clerks 
 
 (299) 
 
96 
 
 in nature and training. Such a policy is in itself a hindrance to the 
 entrance of well-trained specialists into government service. But it 
 is one of the marks of progress that the excessive preference for pro- 
 motion" is giving way to a recognition of the essential difference between 
 the qualifications required for mere routine work and those required 
 for scholarly and discretionary work. 
 
 Above the clerical level there are, of course, many gradations. 
 Broadlv speaking two main strata may be distinguished. The first 
 consists of positions in which the work, although requiring special 
 knowledge and judgment, is almost wholly under direction ; the second 
 of those where it is largely independent, responsible and discretionary. 
 
 Work of the first grade mentioned may perhaps be broadly sub- 
 divided into field work and ofifice work. These two are not exclusive 
 of one another. In practice many men pass from one to the other as 
 the exigencies of the service require, and this arrangement is often 
 beneficial both in the field and in the ofifice. The field agents of the 
 bureaus of the Census, of Labor and of Corporations are the most 
 conspicuous examples of the former class. The business of the field 
 agent is to collect economic and other statistical data at first hand, to 
 conduct interviews, secure access to records and abstract them, and 
 the like. Unfortunately the importance of good field work has been 
 generally greatly underestimated. Many of our statistical reports 
 are well nigh worthless because the original material has been gathered 
 with so little care, intelligence and honesty. Trained economists are. 
 still rarities in field investigations for the government, and even 
 college men are the exception. Fortunately there is a distinct ten- 
 dency toward insistence on higher qualifications. Much field work in 
 the bureaus mentioned and in others of kindred character needs men 
 who know a great deal about economic conditions and about business 
 methods generally, men of sound judgment, critical spirit, mental 
 honesty and industry — men, in short, such as a school of economics 
 and commerce is well fitted to produce. Some field work, indeed, 
 notably in the Bureau of Corporations, is so important and difficult 
 that it must be classed with the higher rather than the lower of the 
 two main groups heretofore distinguished. Aside from education, 
 certain personal elements — good address, tact, perseverence, force — 
 are required in the field agent, more so even than in the office worker. 
 
 The permanent field agents of the Census Bureau are for the most 
 part paid $1,200, a few $1,400 per year; those of the Bureau of Cor- 
 porations from $1,400 to $2,500, but the higher salaries are given only 
 to men of much experience and cannot be expected by those just out 
 of the university. 
 
 Office work in government bureaus which have to do with economic 
 and allied subjects is so varied that only a rough idea of some of the 
 main classes can be given. Among tasks of a subordinate character 
 
 (300) 
 
97 
 
 which yet call for special economic training may be mentioned the 
 planning, supervision, criticism and interpretation — all in their more 
 detailed aspects — of statistical tables, the direction of held agents 
 and the criticism of the material they send in, the compilation and 
 abstracting of information from published sources or from original 
 investigations, the translation of documents, and similar tasks. The 
 man engaged in such work mav or may not have clerks under his 
 direction. Evidently work of the kinds described is essentially scien- 
 tific. It calls for scientific knowledge of facts and still more of methods 
 and for the scientific spirit and judgment which, though not the mo- 
 nopoly of men trained in economics and kindred branches, are cer- 
 tainly more likely to appear among such men than among most others. 
 The number of positions requiring work of this character is very 
 considerable, and is constantly growing. The man just out of the 
 university who happens to get a position of this sort may expect at 
 the beginning to earn from $1,000 to $1,400. 
 
 A rather wide interval, which, however, is occupied by an unbroken 
 series of gradations, exists between the lowest and the highest types 
 of government work along economic lines. By the highest class I now 
 refer to work falling within the limits of positions in the "classified 
 service," as it is called, in the federal government, — that is, the ser- 
 vice ordinarily entered by competitive examination. The employee 
 of this rank, though in large measure independent and responsible, 
 is ordinarily subject to the immediate direction of a bureau chief, who 
 is a presidential appointee. The highest grade in the classified service 
 includes, for example, chiefs of division and expert special agents and 
 investigators. To such men often falls a large part in the execution 
 of policies, the direction of employees, the planning of investigations 
 and the drafting of reports. The number of places of this sort is 
 comparatively small; the maximum salary is usually from $2,500 to 
 $3,000. 
 
 It is evident that the qualifications required for positions of the 
 sort described are decidedly higher than those needed for positions at 
 the bottom of the ladder of scientific work. Not every man trained 
 in the school of commerce or economics can hope for one of these more 
 responsible places. Usually .they are filled as the result of gradual 
 promotion ; though in some cases, where new blood is needed, men who 
 have already won their spurs outside in academic life, in journalism 
 or in law are properly enough brought in. 
 
 But, I seem to hear the ambitious student ask if this is the best 
 prospect government service can offer me, with all my special train- 
 ing? Are these the limits of salaries for specialists? Can I not hope 
 that my education will at least count somewhat in competition for 
 still higher places — such as the headship of a bureau or even a depart- 
 ment ? I fear that encouraging answers to these . questions cannot 
 
 (301) 
 
98 
 
 honestly be given. It is generally recognized that the government, 
 especially perhaps the national government, underpays its more 
 responsible workers in all departments. And this is likely to continue 
 true, though there may be some increase in the scale of compensation. 
 But after all government service pays quite as well as teaching, the 
 occupation which so large a proportion of our university graduates 
 enter. Both professions must rely for getting good men on the exist- 
 ence of other motives than the desire for money or for power. Neither 
 can compete with private business in financial inducements. If our 
 schools of commerce really succeed, as I understand they hope to do, 
 in making most of their graduates men whom the world of business 
 will demand, they cannot at the same time expect to contribute 
 largely to government service, unless they preserve and cultivate 
 other ambitions besides that of acquiring wealth. 
 
 Moreover, the man with ambition for political power can count on 
 little help from special university education in any other subject than 
 law. Bureau chiefships and other positions outside the classified 
 service are occasionally filled by promotion, and still more rarely by 
 the appointment of men who have become conspicuous in academic or 
 allied scholarly pursuits. But usually other considerations and qualifica- 
 tions, sometimes perfectly legitimate, -sometimes otherwise, determine 
 such appointments, and this is likely to be the case for a long time to 
 come. I may add parenthetically that a purely academic govern- 
 ment service is in no way to be desired. It doubtless would be well 
 to have more men of special education and experience in economic 
 lines occupying political positions, but the practice might be carried 
 too far. A good deal of the work of the bureau chief, for example, is 
 business and not science. 
 
 Having seen thus the general nature of the positions in government 
 service for which special training in economic and commercial courses 
 would be desirable, we turn to this important question: By what pro- 
 cedure can the man so trained enter public employment, and what are 
 his chances in competition for appointment? In discussing this 
 question I must confine myself almost wholly to the federal govern- 
 ment. In a few states where the civil-service examination system 
 exists, as in New York and Massachusetts, the conditions bear some 
 resemblance to those in the national government, though the system 
 is usually much less satisfactory both in form and in administration. 
 In most states, however, appointments generally are still made with 
 little consideration of fitness, so that the college man's chances are 
 slight; and to discuss in any definite way the probability of future 
 improvement would be mere guesswork. 
 
 Leaving aside the places, usually of a confidential or financially 
 responsible character, which are by law or general rule exempt from 
 examination, nearly all original appointments in the federal service 
 
 (302) 
 
99 
 
 are made under competitive examinations, though appointment by- 
 special exception, under order of the president, is still not uncommon. 
 A third method, non-competitive examination, might be used, but is 
 at present confined to testing fitness for promotion. 
 
 As nearly as I can ascertain, only a few examinations have ever 
 been held by the national Civil Service Commission, for the special 
 purpose of filling positions in economic and statistical work. This is 
 partly due to the fact that, until recently, those in authority have 
 been content that many positions which should have been occupied 
 by men at least in some degree specialists should be held instead by 
 clerks of very ordinary qualifications, or bv men promoted solely on 
 the basis of their office experience. Just so far as this policy continues 
 the man specially educated in economics and allied subjects will stand 
 only a fair chance of getting into the government service at all, in 
 competition with the many who take the examinations in which no 
 special stress is laid on economic subjects. Under conditions as they 
 have been for the most part in the past, moreover, the specialist in 
 economic lines who happened to pass a clerical examination had no 
 certainty whatever of getting an appointment at the kind of work for 
 which he was particularly fitted. Candidates from the clerical rolls 
 are called for by many departments and the man who stands at the 
 top must go where he is first drafted or run the risk of waiting long for 
 a place. But, as already suggested, there is a constantly growing 
 recognition among the powers that be of the need of economic training 
 in certain branches of the government service. This means that more 
 and more special competitive examinations will be framed which will 
 give the man of superior training a far better chance of appointment. 
 Indeed several examinations have been given recentl}^ in which 
 tests for fitness to handle economic subjects were decidedly severe, and 
 the results proved quite satisfactory. At present many a' college man 
 feels it beneath his dignity to compete in a civil-service examination. 
 This feeling should largely disappear when the requirements become 
 such as to properly test fitness for responsible work, and at the same 
 time to limit the number and improve the character of the competi- 
 tors. Despite many criticisms as to the unpractical nature of the 
 tests it has prescribed, tlie United States Civil Service Commission is 
 entirely willing, and, with the aid of specialists already in the service, 
 entirely able, to frame examinations which shall effectively and fairly 
 determine fitness even for highly specialized work. All that is needed 
 is that appointing ofiicers should demand such examinations. As 
 a matter of fact hundreds of examinations have been held for highly 
 technical positions in other than economic lines, examination, for 
 example, involving the highest mathematics, chemistry, physics, 
 architecture and engineering. 
 
 It is objected to the examination system that the man who has 
 
 (.303) 
 
100 
 
 crammed his memory just before the examination, or the mere book 
 man, is likely to surpass one of really broader scholarship and greater 
 efficiency. But this danger can be, and often is, largely obviated by 
 including previous achievement as one of the tests in the examination. 
 By this arrangement the studies the candidate has pursued, the de- 
 grees he has received, the publications he has issued, and his success 
 in his profession or business, are all allowed direct and large weight in 
 determining his rank. Indeed in some competitive examinations by 
 the Civil Service Commission these factors have been almost the only 
 tests considered. With this disposition manifest there is reason to 
 anticipate that more and more examinations for positions along eco- 
 nomic and kindred lines will be held in which a degree from a school of 
 commerce, together with other evidences of successful work done by 
 the student, will alone give him a marked advantage in competition, 
 and in which, moreover, the direct questions will be such as to make 
 such education count very heavily. 
 
 It is almost exclusively through competitive examination that men 
 just out of the college or university will have to enter the government 
 service. The appointments to all of the lower positions will continue to 
 be almost wholly made by this method. Most of the higher positions 
 within the classified service will probably always be filled by promo- 
 tion. I am inclined to think, however, that we shall see in the future 
 a considerable number of special competitive examinations held even 
 for places of great responsibility and requiring advanced technical 
 training. The system can be carried further with respect to economic 
 work just as it has been with respect to other government scientific 
 work. The difficulty sometimes arises that the man who passes the 
 best examination, whatever the tests applied, may be lacking in cer- 
 tain personal elements — such as address, tact and force — which are 
 essential for the more responsible positions, especially in connection 
 with economic investigations. This difficulty, however, is partly 
 obviated by the liberty given the appointing officer to choose among 
 the three highest candidates or to reject an entire roll of candidates. 
 Aside from the restraint which it places on abuse of the appointing 
 power, there is another marked advantage in the competitive sj^stem 
 in certain cases. By the wide advertisement given to the examina- 
 tions men of special qualifications who might otherwise have remained 
 unknown to him may be brought to the attention of the appointing 
 officer. 
 
 It still remains true, however, that there are cases where competi- 
 tive examination, even though great weight is allowed for previous 
 attainment, cannot be a wholly satisfactory method of securing men 
 fitted to exercise broad discretion and to do highly responsible work. 
 Advantage may accrue to the government service at times by 
 allowing the appointing officer, under proper safeguards, to select 
 
 (304) 
 
101 
 
 men without competition. He may know of one who is obviously 
 just the man for the place, one who has specialized in just the line 
 desired and who is a recognized authority, or who combines in an 
 exceptional manner the personal characteristics required. Appoint- 
 ment without examination in such a case saves time and expense, and 
 precludes the possibility that some unfortunate arrangement of the 
 competitive tests may exclude the very best candidate. As a matter 
 of fact, a considerable number of positions in the classified service, in 
 government bureaus dealing with economic and allied problems, have 
 recently been filled by special exception order without examination. 
 This is true, for example, of some of the best appointments in the Bureau 
 of Corporations. 
 
 Such a method of appointment may be abused, under a weak or 
 partisan executive officer, but abuse might, it seems to me, be largely 
 precluded if, instead of allowing the President the first and exclusive 
 jurisdiction to authorize exceptional appointments, the law should 
 require the approval of the proposed appointment by the Civil Service 
 Commission before action could be taken by the President. Already 
 it is customary in making exceptions to lay before the Commission 
 some evidence or statement regarding the special qualifications of 
 the candidate, but this is largely perfunctory. It might easily be 
 required that full and precise evidence of superior fitness should be 
 submitted. Or, in addition to previous attainment, the Commission 
 might submit the candidate to a severe non-competitive examination. 
 If non-competitive examinations can be properly used in connection 
 with promotions there seems no reason why they should not be used 
 in connection with original appointments to the highest grades of the 
 classified service, in particular instances. 
 
 We turn now finally to consider the nature of the instruction 
 desirable for those students who aim to enter branches of the govern- 
 ment concerned with economic and social problems. I must at the 
 outset admit a large measure of ignorance as to just what instruction 
 is already being given in many of the universities and schools of com- 
 merce. It is probable, however, that in a number of our best institu- 
 tions most of the courses needed are already being offered. 
 
 If there is one point which should be emphasized more than another 
 it is the desirability of a broad foundation. There is danger of too 
 early and too narrow specialization in many branches of modem educa- 
 tion. From the standpoint solely of personal success the student 
 should indeed seek a broad training even more for government ser- 
 vice than for a private profession. For, aside from the superior 
 efficiency it will tend to give him, it will open more avenues for ap- 
 pointment. As conditions now exist the man who would enter govern- 
 ment employ has less opportunity to choose for himself the precise 
 nature of the work he shall do than is the case with men entering most 
 
 (305) 
 
102 
 
 other professions. The ways he must take are narrow and some are 
 at times closed entirely. 
 
 At the same time the greatest success in government scientific 
 work, as in other scientific work, is usually achieved by the specialist. 
 The man who has the patience to work up gradually in the government 
 service to just the influential place he wants, or to wait for it while 
 remaining in private employment, will do well to carry his studies in 
 the tmi versify to a high degree of specialization. But let him build 
 his structure on a broad foundation of culture studies and of economics 
 and allied sciences, that he may strengthen his intellect, broaden his 
 judgment and increase his ability to deal with new conditions and 
 problems. 
 
 As a preparation for government positions in the lower of the two 
 general classes distinguished in this paper, there is comparatively 
 little need of close specialization within the broad field of economic 
 and social science. It would be well for the student, in addition to 
 the ordinary culture studies, to take practically all the courses in 
 economics which are ordinarily offered in our better colleges, or which 
 are considered primarily undergraduate studies in the larger univer- 
 sities. The most advanced courses are not perhaps necessary as a 
 preparation for work of this grade. It goes without saying, however, 
 that in addition to a good elementary course in economic principles, 
 the aspirant for government employment should have comprehensive 
 courses in descriptive economics. If possible there should be in every 
 school of commerce three courses of a somewhat general character on 
 this field, aside from others which are more specialized, — or perhaps 
 all three might be comprized under the name of one course, provided 
 adequate time were given to it. This course or courses should include 
 (1) the elements of economic history; (2) general description of the 
 national, and to some extent of the world's, industry and commerce, 
 showing the nature of the leading commodities, the place and method 
 of their production, and the methods of transporting and marketing 
 them, — practically what I understand to be meant ordinarily by com- 
 mercial geography, though it is by no means confined to commerce 
 proper; and (3) a description of commercial and industrial organiza- 
 tion, dealing with the nature, organization, operation and interrela- 
 tions of the various institutions of business. Unfortunately as yet 
 the material for the proper presentation of these subjects is limited, 
 but it is in securing and systematizing such material that, as it seems 
 to me, the schools of commerce are doing and have yet to do their 
 greatest service. 
 
 The more specialized courses in practical economic problems which, 
 at least in elementary form, are desirable for every man seeking 
 government employment in the lines under consideration, include 
 money, banking and exchange, public finance, labor problems, and 
 
 (.306) 
 
103 
 
 transportation, all of which arc usually tausjjht in a fairly satisfactory 
 manner in our better institutions, though much yet remains to be 
 desired in the wav of securing an adequate basis of facts from which 
 to draw generalizations. 
 
 For the purpose of preparing for government service, emphasis 
 should be laid upon the bibliography and sources of information in 
 connection with all the courses above suggested. Indeed a short 
 course dealing especially with bibliography and sources would be 
 advantageous. The student shoukl be made familiar with the scope, 
 functions and ]niblications of the various government departments, 
 state and national, which deal with economic and kindred subjects. 
 
 A fairlv thorough course in statistical methods is also needed as a 
 preparation for government work in almost every branch within the 
 broad economic field. Statistical data do not, of course, constitute an in- 
 dependent science ; they are merely a part of the data of other sciences. 
 In other economic courses, if properly taught, the student will learn 
 not a little of the manner of handling and interpreting statistics. But 
 this method of presentation is so large a factor in government work 
 that a separate course in the art of statistics is desirable. It should 
 include instruction and practice in the methods of collecting, editing, 
 tabulating, diagramming and interpreting statistical facts in various 
 leading subjects. 
 
 Again, as a preparation for government service, the student should 
 learn the general principles of bookkeeping, of which, elementary as 
 thev are, many a college man is lamentably ignorant, including also 
 the rudiments of the higher art of analyzing and interpreting accounts. 
 He should have some instruction also in elementary law, one or more 
 courses being designed with special reference to industry, commerce 
 and labor and covering the field in such a manner as to be most useful 
 to the man who is not a lawyer. A general course in political science 
 and administrative law, with emphasis on the practical working of 
 the American governments, is exceedingly desirable, as is also an 
 elementary study of constitutional law and constitutional historyi 
 
 The training which has been outlined would go far toward fitting a 
 man for a secondary position in the scientific government service. He 
 who aims at places of high responsibility ought to take all this and 
 more. Whatever the special field toward which he would turn, he 
 w^ould do well to push further along the several lines of study already 
 .indicated. It would hardly be doing too much if he should take all 
 the courses in economics which are offered in our best universities, as 
 well as some work in law and political science beyond that required as 
 a preparation for the more subordinate positions. He would best, in 
 my judgment, not specialize too narrowly. 
 
 Excepting perhaps in the financial or quasi-financial, and in the 
 diplomatic and consular services, the student who seeks such highly 
 
 (307) 
 
104 
 
 responsible work will almost always find useful a more thorough 
 training in statistical methods than was suggested above. It seems 
 to me that the best of our universities and schools of commerce should 
 maintain statistical laboratories, giving concrete and practical experi- 
 ence. Let the student, for example, be set the problem of planning 
 broadly a statistical investigation, determining the sources of informa- 
 tion to be sought, drafting schedules, and mapping out tables and 
 diagrams. Let him be given statistical schedules already filled out to 
 criticize and revise. Let him analyze, summarize and interpret in a 
 thorough manner selected published statistics, criticizing the methods 
 of presentation given in the reports. 
 
 If schools of commerce and universities wish to prepare men for 
 the most technical and responsible economic work in the government 
 service, they ought, in view of the intensely difficult but intensely 
 practical nature of the problems such men will have to face, to give 
 even more advanced courses than are now offered in the various 
 phases of actual economic life, past and present. The nature of the 
 different government services in most instances suggests clearly 
 enough the lines of specialization for the student. For work in financial 
 and allied subjects there are evidently needed more advanced courses 
 in public finance, money and banking, and insurance. For high 
 positions in the Bureau of Corporations, the manufactures division of 
 the Census and the Interstate Commerce Commission, or in similar 
 offices in the states, there should be special study of industrial and 
 commercial geography, methods of producing, transporting and 
 marketing products, and methods of organizing and managing enter- 
 prises ; and also a more thorough training in accounting than is needed 
 elsewhere. These same courses (except perhaps the accounting) 
 would also be very useful training for the foreign consul, for in order 
 best to aid our foreign trade the consul needs to know thoroughly 
 industrial and commercial conditions in his own country. Obviously, 
 however, preparation for a consulship calls for more study of inter- 
 national commerce and of industrial and commercial conditions abroad 
 than is ordinarily needed for positions in this country. For his legal 
 and diplomatic duties the consul should have also a moderate training 
 in international law, the civil law, and the commercial and industrial 
 legislation of foreign countries. 
 
 Positions in the state department or in the diplomatic service 
 abroad demand essentially the same sort of education as is desirable 
 for the consular service, though here more stress should be laid on the 
 political and legal aspects and perhaps somewhat less on the economic 
 aspect. These places call for knowledge of the constitutional and 
 administrative law of the leading foreign countries, of their history, 
 and of the actual spirit arid working of their politics and institutions. 
 
 Doubtless this may appear a rather discouragingly high standard 
 
 (308) 
 
105 
 
 of education for positions which command no high pecuniary rewards. 
 One cannot maintain that it is essential that all the courses suggested 
 should be pursued in order that the student may secure appointment 
 and succeed in his work for the government. Indeed, as was said at 
 the beginning, men who have gained their knowledge of economic 
 matters wholly outside of the college may often fill responsible posi- 
 tions with conspicuous success. In general, however, thorough eco- 
 nomic training will surely tend to make a man more fit than his fellows 
 for government work in economic and allied fields. And it is perhaps 
 well to set up an ideal toward which to strive in such training, however 
 far short of attaining it we mav at first fall. 
 
 DISCUSSION 
 
 Dean David Kinley 
 
 The great difficulty in this country is, that we have not yet re- 
 deemed our position in the public service from the clutch of the politician . 
 Now that state of affairs is becoming less prevalent from year to year. 
 But the public of the country, not the economists, but the citizens of 
 the country, the educated people of the country, are the only ones who 
 can redeem us from conditions of that kind. And it will not be until 
 that state of affairs has passed away that it will be well worth our 
 while, generally throughout the country, to say to young men, "there 
 is a line of activity which promises a career of great success and 
 distinction. " 
 
 I wish to express my thanks, and the thanks of the University, 
 to the gentlemen who have so kindly helped us in making up the pro- 
 gram, who have come so far in order to read their papers and take 
 part in the discussions. I wish to assure you that we appreciate our 
 verv ereat obligation to vou. 
 
 Chairman Jones 
 
 In the name of the visiting delegates I take the liberty of thanking 
 Professor Kinley, personally, for organizing this conference, and of 
 expressing our obligation to the University of Illinois for bringing us 
 here and so hospitably caring for us during the conference. 
 
 (309) 
 
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 
 INSTALLATION 
 
 OF 
 
 Edmund Janes James, Ph.D., LL.D. 
 
 AS PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 THE GENERAL EXERCISES OF THE WEEK 
 
 October 15-21, 1905 
 
 Edited by S. S. Colvin, Ph. D. 
 
 Price One Dollar 
 
 URBANA, 1906 
 
Copyright 1906 
 By The University of Illinois 
 
 Press of The 
 
 Illinois Printing Company 
 
 Danville, Illinois 
 
.J^ 
 
 1 
 
 n 
 
 1 
 
 \ 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 jf^f:^'" 
 
 1 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 «|H 
 
 I 
 
 m 
 
 I^^^^^^HH^K'' '"^ '(^M 
 
 ■^HGH 
 
 ^^^^H^^^l 
 
 ^^^^^^B 
 
 ^^^^^Hfi^^^^B 
 
 1 
 
 ■ 
 
 ■ 
 
PREFATORY NOTE 
 
 The general exercises of the week of the installation of President 
 James began on Sunday, October 15th, with special services in the 
 churches of Champaign and Urbana, and a religious service at three 
 o'clock, at which the sermon was preached by the Rev. James G. K. 
 McClure. President of McCormick Theological Seminary. 
 
 On Monday, October 16, occurred the dedication of the Woman's 
 Building and the University address by Rev. F. W. Gunsaulus. This 
 address is withheld from publication. 
 
 Tuesday, October 17, was State and Nation day, and the general 
 topic of the day's exercises was "The State and Education." The 
 military reviews took place on this day. In the evening the English 
 Club presented the old English play, Frier Bacon and Frier Bungay. 
 
 Wednesday was inauguration day. In the morning occurred the 
 formal reception of delegates with the roll call of representatives of 
 tmiversities, delegates from societies and other bodies, with responses 
 from the representatives of a number of such institutions. 
 
 The Colleges of Medicine and Dentistry and the School of Phar- 
 macy held their assemblies on the afternoon of Wednesday, and were 
 addressed by Dr. John B. Murphy, the eminent surgeon, on "The 
 Evolution of Surgery." 
 
 After a review of the University regiment by the Governor of the 
 State, the academic procession formed at half-past two and the in- 
 augural exercises proper began in the Armory at three o'clock. 
 
 On Thursday assemblies of the various colleges were held. 
 The College of Engineering was addressed by Dean W. F. M. Goss, of 
 Purdue University, on "The Student Engineer;" the College of Science 
 listened to an address on "The Scientific and the Non -scientific, " by 
 Professor T. C. Chamberlain of the University of Chicago; the College 
 of Agriculture was addressed by Col. Charles F. Mills, of Springfield, 
 on "The Services of Norman J. Colman to American Agriculture;" 
 the address before the College of Law was by Hon. J. McG. Dickinson 
 of Chicago, his subject being "International Arbitration;" the College 
 of Literature and Arts and the Schools of Music and Library Science 
 were addressed by Professor A. Lawrence Lowell of Harvard Univer- 
 sity, on "The Elective System." 
 
 Other exercises of the day were the students' meeting, and the 
 historical meeting in recognition of those who have rendered distin- 
 guished services to the University. During these meetings the vari- 
 ous conferences also held sessions. 
 
 (315) 
 
PROGRAM OF THE GENERAL EXERCISES 
 Sunday, October 15 
 
 10:30 and 11:00 a.m. — Special services in the churches of Champaign and 
 
 Urbana. 
 3 :00 P.M. — Religious Service at the Armory. Sermon by Reverend James G. K. 
 
 McClure, President of McCormick Theological Seminary. 
 
 Monday, October 16 
 
 2:00 P.M. — Dedication of Woman's Building. Exercises in the Woman's Gym- 
 nasium. Addresses by Dean James M. White; Hon. Samuel A. BuUard, 
 President of the Board of Trustees; President Edmund J. James. Address of 
 Dedication by President Lilian W. Johnson, of the Western College for 
 Women: Subject — The Need of the Day: a Correlated Democratic Edu- 
 cation. Informal reception and inspection of the building. 
 
 8:00 P.M. — University Address At the Armory. Reverend Frank W. Gun- 
 saulus, President of Armour Institute: Subject — Heroism of Scholarship. 
 
 Tuesday, October 17 
 
 9:00 A.M. — General Subject: The State and Education. At the Armory. 
 Addresses by Hon. Richard J. Barr, Mayor of Joliet; Hon. James Hamilton 
 Lewis, Corporation Counsel of the City of Chicago; Hon. Lawrence Y. 
 Sherman, Lieutenant-Governor of Illinois. 
 
 1:15 P.M. — Military Exercises. On Illinois Field. Salute (13 guns) to Major- 
 General John F. Weston, of the United States Army. Review of the Uni- 
 versity Regiment by Major-General Weston. 
 
 2:30 P.M. — Military Exercises. At the Armory. The Military Training of the 
 Citizen Soldier. Addresses by Major-General Weston; Lieutenant-Colonel 
 Julius R. Kline, of the Illinois National Guard. 
 
 8:00 P.M. — Presentation of Robert Greene's Frier Bacon and Frier Bungay by 
 the students of the University at the Walker Opera House, Champaign. 
 
 Wednesday, October 18 
 
 0:00 A.M. — Formal Reception of Delegates. At the Armory. Address of wel- 
 come by Dean Oliver A. Harker. Roll call of Foreign Universities; Roll 
 call of American Universities; Roll call of Learned Societies and Other 
 Bodies. Brief Addresses by Dean Henry T. Bovey, of McGill University, 
 for Foreign Universities; President James B. Angell, of the University of 
 Michigan, for State Universities; President Ira Remsen, of Johns Hopkins 
 University, for Eastern Universities; Chancellor Frank Strong, of the Uni- 
 versity of Kansas, for Western Universities; President Edwin B. Craighead, 
 of Tulane University, for Southern Universities; Dean Harry Pratt Judson, 
 of the University of Chicago, for the Universities and Technical Schools of 
 the State; President Charles H. Rammelkamp, of Illinois College, for the 
 Colleges of the State; President John W. Cook, of the Northern Illinois State 
 Normal School, for the Normal Schools of the State; Principal James E. 
 Arm.strong, of the Englewood High School, for the High Schools of the 
 State; State Superintendent Alfred Bayliss, for the Elementary Schools of 
 the State. 
 
 10:30 A.M. — Assembly of the Colleges of Medicine and Dentistry and the School 
 of Pharm.acy. In the Chapel. Addresses by Dr. Daniel A. K. Steele, for 
 the College of Medicine; Subject, Relation of the College of Medicine to the 
 University: Dean Bernard J. Cigrand, for the College of Dentistry; Subject, 
 Dental Science and the Common Weal: Dean Frederick M. Goodman, for 
 the School of Pharmacy. Address by Dr. John B. Murphy, of Chicago; 
 Subject, The Evolution of Surgery. 
 
 1:45 p.m. — Military Exercises. On the Campus. Salute (17 guns) to the 
 Governor of the State; Salute (11 guns) to the Adjutant-General of the 
 State. Review of the University Regiment by the Governor of the State. 
 
 2:30 P.M. — Formation of the Academic Procession. 
 
 (316) 
 
3:00 p.m. — IxAicuRAi, ExKRCiSES. At the Armory. Addresses by Hon. 
 Charles S. Deneen, Governor of Illinois; Hon. Samuel A. BuUard, President 
 of the Board of Trustees; Hon. Andrew S. Draper, former President of the 
 University, and Commissioner of Education, State of New York. Inaugural 
 Address by President Edmund Janes James. Conferring of Degrees, 
 
 8:00 P.M. — Stxidents' Torchlight Parade. 
 
 8:00 to 11:00 p.m. — Official Reception. At the Armory and Gyn^nasium. 
 
 Thl"rsday. October 14 
 
 9:00 A.M. — Assembly of the College of Engineering. In the Chapel. Address 
 by Dean W. F. M. Goss, of Purdue University; Subject, The Student Engi- 
 neer. Assembly of the College of Science. In the Physics Lecture Room. 
 Address bv Professor Thomas C. Chamberlain, of the University of Chicago; 
 Subject, The Scientific and the Non-Scientitic. 
 
 10:00 A.M. — Assembly of the College of Agriculture. In Morrow Hall. Address 
 bv Colonel Charles F. Mills, of Springfield; Subject, The Services of Norman 
 y. Colman to American Agriculture. Assembly of the College of Law. At 
 the Law Building. Address by Mr. Jacob McG. Dickinson, General Counsel, 
 Illinois Central R. R. Co., Chicago; Subject, International Arbitration. 
 
 11 :00 A.M. — Assemblv of the College of Literature and Arts, and the Schools of 
 Music and Library Science. In the Chapel. Address by Professor A. 
 Lawrence Lowell, of Harvard University; Subject, The Elective System. 
 
 2:00 p. M. — Students' Meeting. At the Armory. Addresses by distinguished 
 guests of the University. 
 
 1 :00 to 4:00 p. M. — Inspection of University Buildings and Grounds. 
 
 4:00 p. M. — Historical Meeting. General Subject: Recognition of those who 
 have rendered distinguished services to the University. In the Chapel. 
 Addresses by President Edmund J. James; Hon. Emory Cobb of Kankakee 
 and Judge Joseph O. Cunningham of Urbana, former members of the Board 
 of Trustees; Mr. Henry M. Beardsley, of Kansas City, Mo., and Professor 
 Arthur N. Talbot, alumni of the University; Professors S. W. Shattuck, N. 
 C. Ricker and T. J. Burrill. 
 
 (317) 
 
Sunday, October 15 
 
 RELIGIOUS SERVICES AT THE ARMORY 
 
 PROGRAM 
 
 Hymn: Duke Street. 
 
 Scripture Reading: The Reverend Charles M. Stuart, D.D., Professor 
 
 in Garrett Biblical Institute. 
 Solo: Mr. Benjamin W. Breneman. 
 Prayer: The Reverend Doctor Stuart. 
 Hymn: America. 
 Sermon: The Reverend James G. K. McClure, D.D.. President of 
 
 McCormick Theological Seminary. 
 Doxology. 
 Benediction: The Reverend A. J. Wagner, Pastor of Saint Mary's 
 
 Roman Catholic Church, Champaign. 
 
 THE SUMMARY OF RELIGION AS EXPRESSED IN LOVE TO 
 GOD AND TO MAN 
 
 The Reverend James G. K. McClure, D.D. 
 
 President of McCormick Theological Seminary, Chicago 
 
 Text: Luke 10: 27. Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all 
 thy heart, and with all thy soul and with all thy strength, and with all 
 thy mind : and thy neighbor as thyself. 
 
 The appropriateness of this religious service to the great week on 
 which the University of Illinois is entering needs no proof. The 
 appropriateness is universally acknowledged. Our civilization as a 
 nation is built upon the recognition of a personal God, through Whom 
 life is given and supported, and to Whom every soul is responsible. 
 Our history as a State is croweded with the recognition of God, for 
 Illinois upon all its large occasions has never hesitated to bare the 
 head and the heart in the Divine Presence and seek God's gracious 
 favor. Education, too, rejoices in acknowledging the Most Wise, for 
 education can have no greater mission than to discover the thoughts 
 of God as expressed in the laws of physical nature and in the workings 
 of the human mind, and then to apply God's thoughts to the welfare 
 of the individual, the nation and the race. 
 
 In this University of Illinois may religion be a spur to study, an 
 inspiration to research : mav it put eagerness into the hearts and 
 minds of all investigators: may it cause scholars to follow light, 
 wherever light leads, with unflagging interest and devotion: may it 
 
 (31S) 
 
glorify every detail of investigation because such investigation deals 
 with truth — with truth that, whatever its parts, is one truth — with 
 truth that in any and in every manifestaiton is a declaration of God! 
 Religion today and always would lift its hand in benediction and say to 
 everv student : Prosecute your search. Do your work. Only remember 
 that truth, whether in physics, chemistry, or philosophy, is sacred — is 
 of God. Therefore take the shoes from off your feet and stand in awe. 
 You are on holy ground. Let not pride in the discovered, let not dis- 
 dain toward the undiscovered, let not haughtiness toward predeces- 
 sors be vours. But humbly, earnestly, reverently press on in the 
 work God delights to have you do — the work of uncovering and dis- 
 closing the thoughts of the Most High. Surely the scholar who can 
 in anv wise make God better known must be very dear to the heart of 
 God!' 
 
 I am to speak to you now concerning this God and concerning 
 what we call His religion We never can be too thankful that when 
 Christ was upon earth. He was asked a question that gave Him op- 
 portunity to state — in a sentence — what this religion is that the world 
 calls Christianity, the religion of the God and Father of our Lord 
 Jesus Christ. He summed it up in two statements that so correlate 
 and complete one another that they virtually are one statement — 
 when He declared that religion is the loving of the God revealed as 
 Almighty Creator and Blessed Protector, with all our powers of heart, 
 mind, soul and strength, and the loving of our fellowman as we love 
 ourselves. 
 
 After years of study of the Bible and of human society I do not 
 hestitate to say that that summary expresses the essence of religion — 
 that the living of that summary solves every problem of human wel- 
 fare, rejuvenating the individual and saving the race. God is glad 
 with the gladness of satisfaction when that summary becomes the 
 theor\' and the practice of life. There are hundreds of aids provided 
 to assist us in the carrying out of this summary, the aids of the Scrip- 
 ture, the Church and History — aids that vary in importance from 
 least to greatest: but the aids are not the essence itself — the essence 
 is devoted love towards God Himself and toward man. When we 
 live that essence we fulfil the supreme requirement of existence ; when 
 we live it we most develop ourselves, we most bless others and we 
 most please God. 
 
 The first distinguishing characteristic of our rehgion is its spiritual- 
 ity. Our rehgion primarily is not a matter of the hand, the mouth, 
 the foot — ^but of inner sentiment, named love. Our religion never 
 exists until love exists. The saying of prayers, by the lips or by the 
 machine ; the giving of the body to be burned ; the sounding of declara- 
 tions of devotion; the bestowing of all our goods to feed the poor; 
 pilgrimages, ceremonies, creeds, sacrifices — these are not the essence 
 
 (319) 
 
10 
 
 of our religion ; the essence of our religion is a hidden thing, unreachable 
 to foot or hand; the life may not touch it, the eye may not see it; a 
 hidden thing that lies away back in the recesses of being; an imper- 
 ceptible, intangible, unweighable spirit, — it is love. No man, no 
 church, no society, has our religion unless it has love. Whatever may 
 be paraded before the world as our religion is not our religion unless 
 at the center as its dominant and all-pervading force is love. Our 
 religion is -not material, it is spiritual : it is not a form, it is a motive. 
 
 The second characteristic of our religion is the nature of its spiritu- 
 ality. That nature is not destructive, but constructive; its element 
 is not the hurtful, but the helpful; its source is not hate, but love. 
 
 Love is the strongest sentiment possible to the spirit of man. It 
 is an upbuilding sentiment. True love to another is loyalty to 
 another's highest interests. There cannot be love when there is 
 intention to harm. The libertine who plots ruin to virtue is not a 
 lover of man or woman; he is a hater: he is inflamed, not with the 
 light of heaven, but with the fires of hell. Love always and every- 
 where seeks the advancement and benefit, the security and welfare of 
 him for whom it is cherished. It is a life-giving stream, it is a flower 
 of joy, it is a sunbeam brightening darkness. Where love comes, 
 protection comes, and cheer comes, and benediction comes. To love 
 is to bless. 
 
 What power there is in love! How the love of knowledge in Dar- 
 win sent him up and down the earth, through wind and wave, to 
 ascertain all the facts possible to scientific research. How the love of 
 country made Washington willing to risk property and life, and made 
 Lincoln ready to bear burden and misunderstanding. How the love 
 of Africa put Livingstone into the wilds of the forests and made him 
 brave to investigate, and to die. How the love of a mother for her 
 child causes her to pass sleepless nights without murmur as she bends 
 over the couch of fever. Love! It has been the tremendous force of 
 human development. It is the passion of passions. Love kept pure 
 and true to its nature, has given the world its most glorious deeds of 
 history. The awful wreckage caused by impure and untrue passion, 
 the direct opposite to love, tells what occurs when an angel falls from 
 loftiest heights to lowest deeps. Love is the actuating motive of the 
 highest endeavor, love it is that has caused the wildness to blossom 
 and the desert to become a garden. 
 
 This sublime sentiment, implanted in every life, a very part of 
 that life as much as the capacity to breathe is a part of that life, has 
 its perfect play only when it lays hold of every inner power — heart, 
 mind, soul and strength — and uses them all in its helpful service. 
 That there are different powers in our spiritual being we are conscious. 
 There is a heart, the power that knows joy and grief, that greets the 
 bright with gladness and grows heavy before the gloomy. When the 
 
 (320) 
 
11 
 
 heart is strong, how brave we are. and when the heart is weak, how 
 courage fails. The heart! Every one who has had a dear parent or 
 has himself become a parent, every one who has faced dangers and 
 passed through scenes of gladness knows that he has a heart. Then, 
 too, there is a mind within us, an intellect, a cooler element than the 
 heart, less emotional, more judicious, more inclined to weigh evidence. 
 When that mind examines and approves, there comes conviction. 
 The mind is different from the heart — the heart of the father loves his 
 prodigal bov, it goes out to him in tenderness, but the mind of the 
 father cannot love the prodigal because the father cannot approve the 
 prodigal's Hfe and deeds. When at last the boy becomes a changed 
 man, becomes humble and penitent, then the mind of the father can 
 love the bov because it approves of the boy. Besides heart and mind 
 there is also a soul within us, an unseen something that gives us the 
 capacitv of spirit-fellowship with others — that makes us understand 
 what we call "The Communion of Kindred Souls." It deals with 
 friendship and all that has part in friendship. It is the highest ele- 
 ment of our being, because as we stand before some mighty expression 
 of God in nature, as the Grand Canyon of the Colorado, the soul 
 becomes conscious that it is dealing with the sublime, the almighty. 
 The soul is the most weighty element within us, and a man is never a 
 saved man until his soul is made able to fellowship with the best of 
 earth and of heaven. In addition to heart, mind and soul, there 
 is still one other element within us, an element that is more an at- 
 mosphere about the heart, mind and soul than a distinct faculty — 
 the element that adds strength, and vigor to heart, mind and soul. It 
 is the glow, the fervor, the enthusiasm of our spiritual nature. We 
 are just as convinced that there is such an atmosphere as we are con- 
 vinced of our being; it expresses itself when the heart throbs with 
 energv, when the mind is intense, when the spirit is inflamed, it is the 
 strength, the enthusiasm of our being. 
 
 Our rehgion calls upon us to love God with all our heart, mind, 
 soul and strength! What a demand upon love that is! It is an ex- 
 haustive demand, a demand that our whole spiritual nature with 
 absolute loyalty devote itself to God! 
 
 The question immediately arises is God such an one that we can be 
 true to our natures and thus love Him? It is a fact of history that no 
 other god than the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ ever dared 
 to make such a claim on man's love. We search the lists of divinities 
 known among Assyrians, Egyptians. Grecians and Romans, and we 
 do not find one divinity asking his worshipers to love him with all the 
 heart and mind, and soul and enthusiasm. Every divinity known in 
 the ancient world had infirmities: he was mean, or cruel or impure. 
 Unreserved love for any one of them was a rational impossibility. 
 Gods Hke Jupiter said, "Sacrifice to me;" and like Diana said, "Bring 
 
 (321) 
 
12 
 
 me your gifts;" and like Bacchus said, "Drink to me." But as for 
 asking for love, pure, true, absolute love, they never thought of such 
 a thing. It would have been folly for Moloch, who desired parents to 
 throw their infants into his arms of fire, to have asked parents to love 
 him. They could not think of him and of his horrid worship without 
 shrinking from him; ves, and without hating him. He was the enemy 
 of their homes and of their family happiness. 
 
 Suppose a man who has known the god Bacchus for many years 
 and has been his devoted worshiper until now he is a debauchee, with 
 injured reputation, injured brain and injured character, is told that 
 he should love Bacchus, what will he say? Love Bacchus, who has 
 been the means of his disgrace, his sorrow and his ruin! He cannot 
 do it. Bacchus is his foe, his smiling but relentless foe, who laughs 
 over the misery he has wrought. Bacchus is a debased creature, 
 beyond the power of reform, bent on harm. 
 
 Ask the young woman who has thrown herself at the feet of Cybele 
 and has surrendered to Cybele's will until she has sacrificed all her in- 
 stinctive ideas of purity and is shunned as an outcast, to love Cybele, 
 to love the god that dragged her down from her pedestal of sanctity 
 and placed her amid filth, to love her destroyer. She may still obey 
 Cybele, she may go lower, lower as she obeys, but love Cybele! As 
 well may you ask a mother to love the disease that takes from her her 
 babv child, or the father to love the assassin that murders his son. No 
 heathen gods, neither in olden times nor in modern times, aware of 
 their wrong traits, can ever come to human beings and say: "Love us 
 with all your heart, mind, soul and strength." They might as well 
 tell the sun in the skies to move eastward. Man's true nature must 
 be stultified to love the unlovable. 
 
 The fact may well impress us that one God, and only one, dares 
 ask for man's unqualified love. Who is this God that thus differenti- 
 ates Himself from all others and makes this unparalleled claim ? 
 
 He is a God who takes a very large conception of man's heart, 
 mind, soul and strength. Man may be indeed very frail beside His 
 almightiness and brief beside His lastingness. Man may be very 
 ignorant beside His knowledge and very lacking beside His wholeness, 
 but man can think thoughts as long as the being of God ; man can pass 
 judgment on God Himself; man can say " no " to the very will of Heav- 
 en's King, or man can acquiesce with that will and put himself into 
 vital connection with the Eternal. God credits man with infinite 
 longings; with limitless capacities; with desires far outreaching ac- 
 complishment. God knows that as man advances in achievement he 
 advances in aspiration; that as the race moves forward its ethical 
 ideas enlarge; that man is always cherishing higher and higher con- 
 ceptions of the Perfect. 
 
 And still God does not hesitate to present Himself to man, this 
 
 (322) 
 
13 
 
 wonderful man, and ask for his absolute and enthusiastic devotion. 
 Who is He that He dares make this claim? He Himself answers our 
 question and tells us that there are three ways in which He would be 
 glad to be studied and judged. One is the way of His creation. 
 
 The word "God" in this summary is the word used when it is said: 
 "In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth." That 
 creation, comprehending physical nature and man, is a revelation of 
 marvelous skill and goodness. God says, "Hold Me responsible for 
 everything in the world excepting sin and its ravages. Look at the 
 heavens, at the oceans, at the plants, at man untainted bv sin, and 
 see My power and My intelligence. Take the telescope and search 
 into the limitless where I reign; take the microscope and penetrate 
 into the infinitesimal where I am King." "I am willing," God says, 
 "to have judgment passed on My might and skill in creation. " 
 
 There is a second way in which God would have us see him. It is 
 the way of His Providence. 
 
 The word "Lord" used in this summary is the word used when 
 God, having pitied a people in Egyptian bondage, delivered them, 
 and at Sinai as Redeemer, Jehovah, gave laws for man's place and 
 power. Immediately, through that revelation, we behold His interest 
 in the affairs of man and we catch a glimpse of His ethical character. 
 We see Him as one who sympathizes with sorrow and need, as one 
 who raises up a Moses; we see Him also through a Holy of Holies at 
 the center of a life of a chosen people, a Holv of Holies because Jehovah 
 of all the gods of earth is a spotless God, and we see Him through a 
 "mercy seat" in that Holy of Holies, because Jehovah, of all the gods 
 of earth, is a forgiving God, and we see this God. holy and forgiving, 
 as man's friend and helper and protector and bountiful benefactor. 
 God of Providence! He has a purpose, a purpose that cannot be 
 thwarted, and it is of love. He has standards for man, and they 
 always aim for man's best good and largest happiness. He has 
 responsibilities for every one, that are always fitted to our frame, day 
 and place. He never forgets His people. He is grieved in their grief; 
 He is burdened with their burdens. He is a fair God, who shapes His 
 every requirement of man according to the possibilities of the indi- 
 vidual and the aid He Himself imparts. 
 
 God would have us see Himself also through the person of the 
 historic Christ. He says, "While it is creation that shows My power, 
 and Providence that shows My general character, it is Christ that 
 shows My innermost being. As you see Christ healing humanity's 
 diseases and relieving humanity's needs you see what My heart craves. 
 As you hear Him speak of hope, and comfort, and friendship, and par- 
 don, and eternal life, you hear what I wait to give. As you see Him 
 giving Himself to the cross you see the last and greatest proof of My 
 desire that all sin be overpowered and mankind brought into very 
 
 (323) 
 
14 
 
 sonship with God. And then as you see Christ moving forward 
 through the Christian centuries, in all the progress of human benefi- 
 cence and human advance, you see what I long to do for men. I, the 
 Almighty, pure and loving, would have this whole world blessed with 
 peace and cheer and holiness. I would have slavery abolished, in- 
 temperance cured, cruelty banished, licentiousness blotted out. I 
 would have liberty, and self-control, and kindness, and purity everv- 
 where prevail. I would have hospitals, and courts of justice, and 
 schools of knowledge, and congresses of peace. I would have beauty, 
 and happiness, and holiness glorify the earth. " 
 
 It is such a God we are asked to love. What shall be the expression 
 of our love? It may be in words of adoration. There have been men 
 who have studied the revelation of God and companioned in the spirit 
 with God until the strongest words of affection they might use could 
 not indicate too great devotion to Him. Xavier, the missionary to 
 India, who labored unsparingly for all whom he could reach with his 
 message, wrote: 
 
 "My God, I love Thee not because 
 
 I hope for heaven thereby ; 
 Nor yet because who love Thee not 
 
 Must die eternally. 
 Not with the hope of gaining ought. 
 
 Not seeking a reward ; 
 But as Thyself has loved me, 
 
 O, ever-living Lord, 
 E'en so I love Thee and will love 
 
 And in Thy praise will sing 
 Solely because Thou art my God, 
 
 And my Eternal King." 
 On the dim graves of the Catacombs beneath the streets of ancient 
 Rome the worshipers often sketched a deer, a panting hart of the 
 woods. It was as though they said, "As the hart panteth after 
 the water brooks, so panteth my soul after Thee, O God. My soul is 
 athirst for God. Yea, even for the living God. When shall I come 
 and appear before God?" Augustine wrote, "O my God, Thou are 
 my life, my joy, my holy, dear delight." Ignatius said to those who 
 were putting him to death, "You may part my heart into a thousand 
 pieces and on every one of them you will find in letters of gold the dear 
 name of God. " It is told of St. Thomas of Aquinas that when Christ 
 appeared to him in a vision and said, "Thomas, you have written well 
 of Me. What reward do you wish?" Thomas replied, "No other 
 gift than Thyself, O God." 
 
 There have been men — and their number is legion — to whom God 
 has been their all. The contemplation of Him has grown to be their 
 absorbing thought. They could understand the legend of St. Theresa 
 
 (324) 
 
15 
 
 and her dream. In her dream she saw an angel — an angel who had in 
 one hand a curtain and in the other a shell of water. She inquired the 
 purpose of the curtain and of the shell full of water. The angel re- 
 plied that with the curtain he meant to hide the sight of heaven and 
 with the water he meant to quench liell, that men seeing neither 
 heaven nor hell might learn to love God for Himself alone. Surely 
 Frederick Dennison Maurice had caught this same love of God when 
 as he lay dying, and friends spoke to him of the termination of his work, 
 he answered rejoicingly, "No, I am going where I may declare God 
 forever." 
 
 Love for God mav also tind expression in deeds. To hate every 
 evil thing, to battle down the wrongs of human life, to take one's 
 stand upon the side of the brave, the true, the pure, the real — that is 
 to love God. Manv a man who never becomes capable of rapturous 
 words concerning God, may scatter deeds of kindness, may bind up 
 hearts that are broken, may relieve the distressed, and may be faithful 
 at the post of duty that has been divinely assigned him — and he too is 
 a lover of God. The deeds of beneficence inspired by this love are as 
 widespread as the knowledge of God has gone. These deeds are the 
 benisons of the centuries. Love toward God has been the source and 
 spring of humanity's greatest advances. 
 
 Our religion, however, besides love toward God, has the additional 
 element of love toward man. We are not asked to love man with all our 
 heart, and mind, and soul, and strength, but we are asked to love man 
 "as" we love ourselves. "As" refers to manner, not to degree. In 
 the same manner that we love ourselves — the manner of desiring and 
 seeking our real welfare, we are to love our fellowmen. This then is 
 what our religion asks in its practical application toward our fellows 
 — that we do evervthing within our power to help them, that we be 
 patient with them, that we sympathize with them, that we labor for 
 them, that w^e practice self-denial for them, and that we make their 
 uplifting the end and object of our lives. What could be a higher 
 practical expression of a religion than this — that we aim as definitely 
 and as positively, as we aim at our individual self-advancement, at the 
 advancement of others — that we pass by lines of demarcation, as of 
 Jew and Samaritan, Greek and Barbarian, black and white, and we 
 seek the comfort, the education, the elevation of man. How can a 
 religion rise higher than the religion which sets before the spirit devo- 
 tion to the highest ideal of character and before the conduct devotion 
 to the highest welfare of society. There never has been a religion 
 comparable to ours; there never can be a religion superior to ours. 
 Man cannot imagine a nobler Being than God, man cannot imagine a 
 nobler purpose than the perfect redemption of the human race. 
 
 And is this our religion ? May we stand on the housetops and pro- 
 claim it as our rehgion? We may. We may shout our joy in it: 
 
 (325) 
 
16 
 
 we may sound its praises far as voice will carry : we may go forth to 
 every obligation of life cheered and ennobled by it. Most wonderfully 
 it directs the attention of our inner being first to God and then to man. 
 It lifts before us one who created all that we see and handle. One who 
 Himself unites absolute holiness and infinite pity. One who loves 
 needy humanity with a love that makes the costliest sacrifice even 
 His infinite nature can provide none too costly for a world's salvation. 
 It says, "First of all in life, study this God, study Him until His beauty 
 becomes clear to you, study Him until you feel that His ideals must 
 be your ideals and His wishes must be your wishes." Then it says, 
 "With those wishes of God for you and for others flowing through 
 your being, do you devote yourself to the welfare of your brothers. " 
 It argues that the more we love God the more we shall love man, the 
 more we gaze upon God the more we shall be made like God, and 
 being like Him the more we shall love man, even as Christ, God's 
 supreme representative, loved man — and in that love died for man. 
 
 What is to be the future of this religion? A future evermore 
 glorious. It sometimes seems as though we had not understood 
 what our religion is. We have been in danger of magnifying some 
 adjunct, supposed by us to be necessary to its preservation, while we 
 have forgotten that its essence is invulnerable and eternal. Like 
 Uzzah we have put out our hand to stay the ark, when God Himself 
 will take care of the ark. 
 
 It is impossible for any thoughtful man to imagine that this relig- 
 ion can ever die. So long as man lasts, here is the ultimate ideal of 
 his being — the ultimate ideal of his usefulness and of his happiness — 
 the ultimate ideal of the development of the individual and of the race. 
 
 Let learning run as fast as it can in the ways of investigation. Let 
 all the principles and all the facts of every branch of knowledge be 
 learned. Let the lamp of study bum long into the night, let the 
 laboratories press their searches farther and still farther, let all the 
 problems of individuals, homes, cities and nations be scrutinized in 
 every detail — God will delight in every forward movement that un- 
 covers Him — for God cannot be uncovered before the sight of normal 
 men without being made wonderful, beautiful, adorable. 
 
 Oh for a tongue to speak His praise! Every voice within us, voice 
 of heart, voice of mind, voice of soul and voice of strength, cry out: 
 "We praise Thee, God, we acknowledge Thee to be the Lord. 
 All the earth doth worship Thee, the Father everlasting, 
 And we worship Thy name ever, world without end. " 
 
 (326) 
 
17 
 
 MoxDAv, October 16 
 DEDICATION OF THE WOMAN'S BUILDING 
 PROGRAM 
 
 EXERCISES IX THE WOMAN's GYMNASIUM 
 
 The President of the Board of Trustees and the President of the University 
 
 Presiding 
 
 Trio: Lift Thine Eyes (Elijah). Mendelssohn; Mrs. Breneman, Miss 
 Busey, Miss Lange. 
 
 Address: Transferring the Building to the Trustees; Acting Dean 
 James M. White, of the College of Engineering, representing the 
 Architects. 
 
 Response and Address: Committing the Building to the Immediate 
 Care of the President of the University ; The President of the Board 
 of Trustees. 
 
 Response: The President of the University. 
 
 Music: Robin Adair, Dudley Buck; The University of Illinois Wo- 
 man's Glee Club. 
 
 Address of Dedication: The Need of the Day: a Correlated Demo- 
 cratic Education; President Lilian Wyckoff Johnson, of the West- 
 em College for Women. 
 
 Prayer of Dedication: The Reverend Frank Wakeley Gunsaulus, 
 President of Armour Institute. 
 
 Trio; The Smiling Morn, Hcendel; Mrs. Breneman, Miss Busey, Miss 
 Lange. 
 
 Reception in the Club Rooms, and Inspection of the Building. 
 
 ADDRESS TRANSFERRING THE BUILDING TO THE 
 TRUSTEES 
 
 James M. White, B.S. 
 Dean of the College of Engineering 
 
 This building which we today formally occupy for the first time 
 was designed by McKim, Mead and White of New York City. There 
 stand to their credit many beautiful buildings, two of which, the 
 Boston public library and the Columbia University library, take rank 
 with the ten finest architectural monuments in this country. They 
 designed all of the buildings at Columbia University and at the uni- 
 versities of Virginia and New York and have buildings on many 
 other campuses. Among the other noted structures which they have 
 erected are the New York Herald building, Madison Square Garden, 
 the Rhode Island state capitol, the agricultural and New York state 
 
 (327) 
 
18 
 
 buildings at the World's Columbian Exposition, and the Washington 
 arch. 
 
 Mr. Charles Pollen McKim was a student at Harvard Scientific 
 School and the Ecole des Beaux Arts. Beginning practice in 1872, 
 he was joined in partnership by William R. Mead in 1877 and by Stan- 
 ford White in 1879. In 1903 he was awarded the royal gold medal by 
 King Edward for the promotion of architecture. Mr. McKim was 
 president of the American Institute of Architects at the time he ac- 
 cepted the commission to design this building. 
 
 Mr. Wilham Rutherford Mead, a brother of Larkin G. Mead, the 
 sculptor, was graduated at Amherst College in 1867, and received the 
 degree of LL.D. in 1902. He studied architecture with Russell Stur- 
 gis, Jr., of New York, and for two years abroad. 
 
 Mr. Stanford White was educated at the University of New York, 
 but received his architectural training with Charles D. Gambrill and 
 H. H. Richardson, being the chief assistant of the latter in the con- 
 struction of Trinity church, Boston. He has also traveled and 
 studied extensively in Europe. 
 
 Of no other architectural firm in this country can so much be said 
 in as few words. 
 
 Their success has been due in no small measure to their appreciation 
 of the fact that the architecture of a building should always be in 
 harmony with its purpose. Greek architecture attained its climax in 
 the temple, Gothic and Romanesque in the cathedral, and Renaissance 
 in the palace. Having been conceived and perfected with reference 
 to a particular class of building, these styles are therefore difficult of 
 adaptation to modern buildings, and yet most laymen and many 
 architects are wholly lacking in their appreciation of the appropriate 
 places in which each of the several historic styles may be used. 
 
 This building is in the style termed colonial, but more exactly 
 speaking it is the Georgian style, which was developed in England 
 during the reign of the Georges, when the people were striving to 
 develop domestic pursuits, — the arts of peace instead of war. Presi- 
 dent Draper appreciated the appropriateness of employing this style, 
 and because he knew that McKim, Mead and White were pre-eminent 
 in their mastery of it, he exerted his influence to persuade them to 
 accept the commission to design the building. The plan has been 
 logically developed and the exterior so designed as to accent the par- 
 ticular features of the plan. 
 
 The building has been erected without accident and without dis- 
 cord between the several contractors and the University authorities. 
 Therefore, Mr. President, I can, on behalf of the architects, present it 
 to you with the assurance that it has been completed without any 
 incident at variance with the ideals for which we expect the building to 
 stand. 
 
 (328) 
 
19 
 
 ADDRESS COMMITTING THE BUILDING TO THE CARE OF 
 THE PRESIDENT 
 The Honorable Samuel A. Bullard 
 President of the Board of Trustees 
 
 It affords me pleasure today, on behalf of the Board of Trustees, to 
 accept this building and to have the assurance that the work laid out 
 for the builders has been completed. From the time a building of 
 this importance is commenced till the time it is finished, a long period 
 must necessarily intervene. This time is occupied with both mental 
 and physical activity, for the plans must be perfected and the materials 
 assembled out of which the building is to be made, and the artisans 
 must go patiently forward with their work through all the stages from 
 the first breaking of earth to the final stroke of the painter's brush. 
 The building is now completed and, speaking for the Board of Trustees, 
 we today accept it. 
 
 In the beginning of this movement the President and Trustees 
 recognized the need of providing for the young women of the Univer- 
 sity increased advantages in physical culture and social life peculiarly 
 fitted to them as women. I am not sure but that this need was first 
 voiced by the mothers of the young women of the State, our great 
 constituents, and was only revoiced by the President and the Board. 
 In official action the need was reduced to a definite statement and 
 was carried to the Legislature with the request that the funds necessary 
 to construct a building for this purpose be provided. This was done 
 with success and the forty-third General Assembly of Illinois made 
 the necessary appropriation. 
 
 The needs which this building was to assist in fulfilling were now 
 more definitelv formulated, and the character and extent of the 
 functions to be served by it, and the relative sizes of the several 
 sections of the building were now accurately determined. These con- 
 clusions were then submitted to the architects for their study and 
 advice as to how they could best be carried into effect in the form of a 
 graceful and beautiful building to be erected upon our already at- 
 tractive campus. How well they succeeded in their part of this work 
 is apparent to all here present and there is no need of an eulogium from 
 me. 
 
 However, I could not rightly perform this pleasant duty today 
 without congratulating ourselves and recognizing our obligations to 
 our architects, Messrs. McKim, Mead and White, and commending 
 their eminent abilities, which have been so admirably displayed in 
 this beautiful structure. And further, I desire to say that the happy 
 result of a great enterprise like this building cannot be attained with- 
 out constant, conscientious and capable work of all the builders 
 charged with its construction. And I am pleased to commend all of 
 those artisans who have with a true spirit of art wrought out and left 
 
 (329) 
 
20 
 
 in this building parts showing their own individuality. We delight 
 to honor him whose hands have wrought with delicate skill that in 
 which his heart has found great joy. 
 
 And now that the building is completed our minds naturally turn 
 to the uses we are intending to make of it. It is not consistent in art 
 that a thing be simply beautiful. It must have more than beauty in 
 order to be good art. It riiust move man toward better things. The 
 Greeks had the most beautiful architecture of the world, but it did not 
 inspire them to live better. The people were content to dwell in even 
 ugly and ill-shaped houses. Their sculpture was equallv beautiful, 
 and it charmed men and women to a nobler physical life. There was 
 a firm step, a graceful carriage, a princely bearing, a calm and dignity 
 emanating from its graces which it enthused the people to likewise 
 possess. Hence in art the sculpture of the Greeks was away and be- 
 yond their architecture. 
 
 We trust that in this building, this stone and brick and wood and 
 metal are not piled up here in order to simply impress the students 
 with the beautiful. We want this building to represent true art by 
 being in itself beautiful, and by nursing into stalwart strength within 
 the young women around the University the high purpose of better 
 living, better doing and better being. This building is the concrete 
 expression of this high sentiment. One section of it is devoted to 
 instruction in the physical growth and nourishment of the human 
 body. This knowledge is the basis of all excellent living. The body 
 must be properly provided with the necessary quantities of pure and 
 wholesome foods, or neither the body nor the mind will be able to 
 perform its highest functions, and individuals will be prohibited from 
 attaining the highest standard of physical life. The members of the 
 human family must become well-fed animals before they may enjoy 
 the high position which every one has the right to hope for and expect. 
 Another part of this building is devoted to instruction in the physical 
 exercise of the body. The bodies of women, as of men, on whom rest 
 the responsibilities of life, must necessarily be in constant activity. 
 Ease in doing encourages ability to do, and the ability develops desire 
 to do, and desire to do is the fore-runner of determination to do. So 
 the knowledge and practice of physical exercise of the body encourages 
 better doing. And yet another part of this building is devoted to 
 the exercise of the social life. Our social lives prove more than any 
 other one thing what we are. They also more than we can tell operate 
 to make us what we are. No kind act performed but will leave the 
 performer kinder in heart. No word of cheer is spoken but leaves the 
 speaker with a more sunny nature. No loving service is rendered but 
 makes the servant possess more nearly the true spirit of the Master. 
 As we think and do so we are. Social culture therefore induces not a 
 little to the welfare of the race. In its exercise we learn and practice 
 
 (330) 
 
21 
 
 the amenities which make the roughness of Hfe endurable, and the 
 joys more thrilHng. Living and doing and being, these three, — but 
 the greatest of these is being. 
 
 These incomplete statements are short, but they exhibit the pur- 
 pose which inaugurated the movement that has culminated thus far 
 in erecting this handsome structure and fitting it with all the apparatus 
 and furnishings necessary to amply fulfill this purpose. The building is 
 completed, its equipment provided, and all these physical things are 
 ready. The work proposed must be done. The people of this com- 
 monwealth cannot do it. The Trustees of the University in whose 
 hands the people have committed this charge cannot perform it. 
 Other hands and hearts must be applied to the task, hands that are 
 strong and hearts that are confident. The Trustees therefore look to 
 the women instructors of the University, whose duties wholly or in 
 part lie in the realm covered by the original purpose to provide this 
 building and equipment, as the ones to take charge of these things and 
 conduct this work. 
 
 Into your hands, the lady members of the Faculty, the Trustees 
 commit not only this building, delightful as it is in all its appoint- 
 ments, but the superlative duty of leading the young women of this 
 University to attain the highest ideals in living, doing and being. 
 This is a lofty task which we ask of you. We ask it because we have 
 confidence in your abilities and we feel sure that you will enter into 
 your work with love and devotion which will dare and sacrifice, and 
 further because the work is a great one and it must be done. It is an 
 activity worthy of your abilities. We would have you teach our 
 young women the laws of existence and perpetuity, and the necessity of 
 activity, endurance, courage, love and sacrifice in order to obtain that 
 most exalted existence of which the human race is worthy. In other 
 words, we want you to join in that Godlike creation, the making of a 
 woman a woman. We commend this duty to you and give you our 
 blessing in it. I am persuaded that this duty will be done well. 
 
 RESPONSE OF ACCEPTANCE 
 
 Edmund J. James, Ph.D., LL.D. 
 
 President of the University 
 
 It is a unique building we are here dedicating, the like of which, 
 so far as I know, is not to be found in any other American university. 
 
 The erection and dedication of such a building as this signifies one 
 or two important things for the life of the University. It means in 
 the first place that the University of Illinois is committed to the policy 
 of coeducation, in the fullest and completest sense of that term. It 
 means that whatever other institutions may do in the way of segre- 
 gating the women in the process of education or however they may 
 
 (331) 
 
22 
 
 limit their numbers, either absolutely or by a percentual gradation, 
 the University of Illinois will admit all the women of this common- 
 wealth, who, being properly prepared for University work, desire the 
 facilities of this institution. 
 
 This building means, however, still another and a very important 
 thing for the future of college women in this State. It means that 
 the State of Illinois and the people of Illinois are still in many respects 
 old fashioned. They believe their girls should be treated in a different 
 and better way than their boys, if a choice must be made in the treat- 
 ment of the two. It means that they look upon the girls as in a 
 peculiar sense their precious possessions, and that whatever concerns 
 their training and their life as college students comes very close to 
 their hearts. It means that parents, after all, expect a different treat- 
 ment from the University for their girls than that with which they are 
 satisfied for their boys. It means that there is a difference even in 
 this social and academic way which is to be recognized in the very 
 organization and life of the institution. It means that they do wish 
 their daughters looked after in a different way and to a different 
 extent from that with which they are satisfied, per force, in the case of 
 their sons. This is perhaps old fashioned and not in accordance with 
 the idea of the new woman, but it is in accordance with the sound 
 and sensible feeling of the mothers and fathers of this great State. 
 
 It means, furthermore, that the time has come when we are finally . 
 willing to face the proposition that the higher education of women is 
 to be, in many respects, of a different type from the higher education 
 of men. When women first made their demand upon the institutions 
 of the country to be admitted to the facilities of higher education, they 
 were not satisfied with anything less than exactly the same privi- 
 leges which the men had, and they did not care for anything more. 
 Offering them an opportunity to pursue other courses of study than 
 those pursued by the men and by other methods, seemed to them an 
 insult and an attempt to sidetrack them in their efforts to obtain a 
 higher education. It was naturally spurned with indignation, but 
 today this attitude in the realm of higher education for women is 
 passing away, and the women themselves are beginning to raise the 
 question whether pursuing the same studies in the same order and by 
 the same methods as the men is really the higher education for which 
 they have been longing, and which they have been determined to 
 have. 
 
 This building is intended to house three departments of special 
 significance and importance for women. First the gymnasium. I need 
 not dwell upon this. It is the ordinary gymnasium with the ordinary 
 facilities for physical culture which our modern society demands for 
 its college women, and I regret to say that while this portion of the 
 building is a beautiful structure, eminently adapted to its purpose, it 
 
 (332) 
 
23 
 
 is after all not large enough for the great number of young ladies who 
 have already entered the University and are entitled to its use. The 
 Legislature of the State and the Trustees of the University have again 
 made the mistake which we Western people seem almost sure to make 
 in erecting our institutions, namely, not to plan for as manv students 
 as. before the buildings are finished, crowd into their halls. 
 
 But this building houses, in the second place, a social club house 
 for the women of the University, and this marks a new era in the social 
 life of the women of this institution. 
 
 We have developed here at the University of Illinois, to quite an 
 astonishing extent, the so-called sorority or sisterhood, a semi-secret 
 association of young women, limited in numbers so that each member 
 may really become an intimate friend and companion of every other. 
 It has very many advantages. It has been, under conditions prevailing 
 here, almost a necessity. If its abuses and extravagances can be 
 abolished, it will remain a permanent element of great and beneficent 
 influence in the life of the University. But all such organizations have 
 one drawback which is involved in their very essence; namely, the 
 limitation of the association, and the limitation of the intercourse to a 
 comparatively small number of people who have been selected by a 
 more or less artificial process. The very limitation necessary to the 
 intimacy which is the fundamental advantage of the sorority shuts off 
 the member from that wider intercourse with the large number of 
 college women from which a better selection might oftentimes be 
 made of the intimacies which would be a permanent value and help to 
 one's moral and intellectual development. It is believed that this 
 social club house, the privileges of which are open to every woman in 
 the University by virtue of the fact that she is a member of the Uni- 
 versity, will go far to supplementing the defects of the sorority system, 
 will give an opportunity for the women in different sororities, and for 
 the women in no sorority at all, to come together more intimately 
 upon the common ground of University membership, that ground 
 which after all is more fundamental and should be more vital than any 
 scheme of sororities or fraternities. So far as I know this is the first 
 building of this sort to be erected at any American university. I can- 
 not help but believe that the example of Illinois in this respect will be 
 followed ere long by many other institutions. 
 
 This structure also houses, in the third place, the department of 
 domestic science. This is the department referred to above, which is 
 recognizing the peculiar needs of women in the field of higher educa- 
 tion. The University of Illinois was the first university in the country 
 to establish a chair in the department of domestic science. This step 
 was taken more than twenty years ago, and was one of the many 
 evidences of the insight and outlook of that first President of this 
 institution, who was one of the greatest educational forces ever at 
 
 (333) 
 
24 
 
 work in this commonwealth, Dr. John M. Gregory. But the 
 Doctor saw what was ultimately destined to come rather than what 
 was at that time feasible; for twenty years ago the women of this 
 country who were seeking the higher education had not risen to the 
 high view that higher education for women should be in many respects 
 entirely different from higher education for men. The girls of that 
 time literally ridiculed the proposition out of existence. They refused 
 to consider that higher education could in any way be associated with 
 the art of home-making, — that there was anything in that department 
 which people could find at the universit}'. They insisted that they 
 came up to the university for calculus and astronomy and geology, 
 and if they were to study chemistry it was certainly not to be the 
 chemistry of foods; and if it was architecture it was not to be the archi- 
 tecture of the home ; if it was business management it was not to be 
 of the enterprises which the women could and do manage successfully, 
 but those which, up to the present, they are only longing to manage. 
 Today, fortunately for this State, their attitnde is entirely different, 
 and the number of women who are taking up this course of study, and 
 pursuing it by the methods in the spirit of the higher education, is 
 rapidly increasing. 
 
 I think the University of Illinois may congratulate itself upon the 
 fact that whereas the women's colleges almost without exception have 
 refused to take up these courses and provide for them in the same 
 liberal way in which they provide for courses in Latin and Greek, in 
 French and German, this institution has pointed the way, not only to 
 women's colleges, but to coeducational institutions in general, by 
 which a vast addition may be made to the facilities of higher educa- 
 tion for women. 
 
 THE NEED OF THE DAY: A CORRELATED AND DEMO- 
 CRATIC EDUCATION 
 
 Lilian Wyckoff Johnson, Ph.D. 
 
 President of the Western College for Women 
 
 Every true teacher, like the greatest Teacher of all, has a mission 
 to fulfill — a message to proclaim — and in his eagerness he proclaims 
 the message, however unwilling the ears, and rides his hobby regardless 
 of the toes of his friends. You can, therefore, imagine my pleasure 
 when I was invited to speak to you of that which lies nearest to my 
 own heart, for I see before me here in this beautiful new Woman's 
 Building a concrete expression of my pet ideas. I congratulate the 
 University of Illinois on the long step forward which it has taken in 
 the education for women by the erection of this building. I congratu- 
 late it also upon the inauguration of a president with such clear-cut 
 and progressive ideas of education. 
 
 (33i) 
 
25 
 
 I have read with much interest President James' exposition of his 
 ideas of what a great university should be, as expressed in his recent 
 article in the Rcz'iew of Rei'icws. Surely he is right in urging that the 
 universitv in all of its lines of work should be closely correlated with 
 life and that its dominant note should be service to the state and to 
 the community. Is he not right also in thinking that the university 
 must help to solve the problem of a system of education for the state? 
 Growing up spasmodically as they have, our various institutions are 
 unrelated to one another and this independence, while making in part 
 for strength, is, however, a great weakness, not only because of the 
 duplication of the work, but also because of the gaps which it leaves 
 in a progressive course of education. It is because we feel the need of 
 a system of education that we hail with delight the organization of 
 the General Education board and the recent gift of Mr. John D. 
 Rockefeller to that board of ten million dollars, with a declared pur- 
 pose that the income should be used to further the organization of a 
 svstem of education. It is only by some such disinterested body with 
 sufficient means at its command that a system truly related in all its 
 parts can be evolved, and those institutions who are anxious to see 
 in this country a system of education which, from the kindergarten 
 through the university, is not only closely related in all its parts, but 
 also is in every phase related to life and to the needs of the present 
 day, should rally heartily to the support of this board and should 
 urge that not onlv ten million dollars, but hundreds of millions should 
 be intrusted to it for this great work. 
 
 Have we not been slow to recognize that the true keynote of edu- 
 cation is service and that the highest culture can result only from an 
 education in which service is the keynote? In spite of our own pro- 
 gress in all that makes for culture, the culture of the Greeks is still 
 our ideal ; but was not this an outgrowth of the idea of service ? When 
 we examine their system of education we find that every phase of it 
 was ordered with the idea of service to the gods or to the state. Their 
 physical training was to prepare good soldiers and sailors ; every work 
 of art had behind it some idea of service to the gods, or to the state; 
 even their oratory and drama had underneath them the idea of service. 
 When we turn to the education of the Middle Ages we find that the 
 schools and the universities were organized to prepare men for the 
 service of the church. Later as the communes grew, the universities 
 prepared men for law and for medicine. This system of education, 
 worked out in order to prepare men for great professions, came to be 
 more and more thought of as the only education which could produce 
 a cultured man ; so that we have adopted it not only for our universities 
 and colleges, but have passed it down to our high schools and secondary 
 schools, until our whole scheme of education is moulded upon a sys- 
 tem which was originally devised to fit men for service in the learned 
 
 (335) 
 
26 
 
 professions. But with the coming in of the new sciences and the new 
 professions, is such a system any longer adequate? Do we not need a 
 much broader idea of the service which the present day demands of 
 us, and should not our whole system of education be related to this 
 diversified life and each part of it closely correlated with every other 
 part, so that from the kindergarten to the university, while the one 
 dominant note is service, the interpretation of the term will yet be so 
 broad as to include every phase of modern agricultural, industrial and 
 commercial life ? 
 
 If this be true of education in general, what shall we say of the 
 education of women in particular? If service is to be the keynote, 
 for what should our young women be educated? Will not by far the 
 greatest number of them be home-makers ; and even if many of them 
 enter the professions or business, will they not add the profession of 
 home-making also? If this be true should not our colleges and uni- 
 versities take cognizance of this and see to it that the courses of study 
 are such as to fit a woman for this line of work ? This does not mean 
 an education any less thorough and scientific than that which will be 
 given to men. We have been slow to discover the necessity of a 
 thoroughly scientific training for the farmer and the mechanic ; we are 
 slower still in discovering this for the home-maker, and yet it is into 
 her hands that are entrusted the very issues of life. Having learned 
 that brain and spirit are absolutely dependent for a proper functioning 
 upon the body, should we not see to it that those who have the chief 
 care of ministering to the body should understand the basic principles 
 of this work? I do not mean that I would limit the education of a 
 woman to the one profession of home-making. If God has given her 
 a special talent, be it even that of bridge-building, why then teach her 
 to build bridges; and if she can build them better than any one else, 
 there will be a place and a work for her. But need she be any less the 
 woman because of this? Was not Frances Willard right when she 
 said, "Womanliness first of all, — after that what you will"? Have 
 we women not at least come to a realization that what we wish is an 
 education as thorough and as scientific as that of the men, but not 
 necessarily along the same lines? We crave the best preparation for 
 the service which our day and generation will demand of us, but will 
 not that service for most of us be something different from what the 
 world asks of a man? 
 
 It is because I believe this that I congratulate you, the young 
 women students of the University of Illinois, upon the gift of this 
 beautiful building, where you will have the opportunities not only to 
 develop yourselves physically, but to pursue courses in household 
 economics and to secure social training. These opportunities in the 
 physical, practical and social lines, in addition to your splendid op- 
 portunities intellectually and the spiritual opportunities which, I 
 
 (336) 
 
27 
 
 understand, are offered through the Young Woman's Christian Associ- 
 ation, will give you, if rightly used, the all-round education which the 
 world demands of you in this twentieth century. Let me earnestly 
 entreat you not to neglect the social training which this beautiful 
 btiilding offers you, and do not make the mistake of confusing social 
 opportunities with social training. The former every coeducational 
 institution offers in large measure, sometimes, perhaps, too large. By 
 social training is not meant a course in manners, but the training 
 which enables one to meet his fellowmen with ease and so to draw 
 from their best. Let these rooms be your laboratory and your teachers 
 the most cultivated Christian women whom you can find in this com- 
 munity. Without such social training you are as seriously handi- 
 capped as you would be if one of your limbs were shortened; with it 
 you can not only enrich your own life but the lives of others. 
 
 Again I congratulate you and assure you that from afar we shall 
 watch with great interest your development into women, intellectual 
 and womanly, strong and sweet, cultured and Christian; — women 
 ready for the work that God is waiting to entrust to you. 
 
 University Address, 8 p. m. 
 
 THE HEROISM OF SCHOLARSHIP 
 
 Rev. F. W. Gunsaulus, D.D. 
 
 President of Armour Institute 
 
 [This address is withheld from publication.] 
 
 Tuesday, October 17 
 STATE AND NATION DAY 
 
 Exercises in the Armory, 9:00 a.m. 
 
 PROGRAM 
 
 The Honorable Shelby M. Cullom, United States Senator from Illinois 
 
 Presiding 
 
 Music: The University of Illinois Men's Glee Club. 
 
 Addresses: The State and Education: Honorable Richard J. Barr, 
 Mayor of Joliet. Honorable James Hamilton Lewis, Corporation 
 Counsel of the City of Chicago, representing the Mayor of Chicago. 
 Honorable Lawrence Y. Sherman, Lieutenant-Governor of Illinois. 
 
 Music: The Universitv of Illinois Men's Glee Club. 
 
 (337) 
 
28 
 
 THE RELATION OF THE UNIVERSITY TO THE LOCALITY 
 
 The Honorable Richard J. Barr 
 
 Mayor of Joliet 
 
 The subject assigned to me, the Relation of the University to the 
 Locality, is one that may be discussed from many points of view. As 
 localities make up the state and the states the nation, an exhaustive 
 discussion of this subject would cover the whole field of university 
 work. The university and the higher education that it furnishes 
 must prove their value to the locality, if they expect to receive 
 generous public support. 
 
 It is generally conceded that a well-trained mind makes one better 
 fitted to discharge whatever duties he may assume ; that it makes him 
 a better citizen, better able to serve himself and others; in short, makes 
 him a better man ; and perhaps the good that comes from higher edu- 
 cation, that cannot be measured in money, is of most importance; 
 nevertheless I will occupy the few minutes allotted me in discussing 
 its value from a point of view that may appear to be largely material. 
 
 With the development of our country has come the rapid growth 
 of villages, towns and cities, and with them the public utilities that 
 have become so necessary in every locality of dense population. And 
 this concentration of our people seems to have just begun. Each 
 year marks the formation of innumerable new villages, towns and 
 cities and the rapid growth in population of many of the old ones. 
 
 With the formation of towns comes the laying out and building of 
 streets, lots and blocks; the construction of sewers and water mains; 
 the establishment of water supplies from artesian wells and from 
 natural streams and lakes with their filtration plants and pumping 
 systems; the erection of lighting plants with the installation of dis- 
 tributing pole and pipe lines; the equipment of street departments 
 with their street cleaning forces; of health departments with their 
 garbage crematories and reduction plants; of fire and police depart- 
 ments with their systems of electrical connections without which they 
 are useless; of plumbing departments that are so essential to the 
 health of the occupants of every house. And each of these depart- 
 ments can be properly handled only by men who have received a 
 technical training in the college or university. 
 
 The importance to the locality or municipality of trained men in 
 these departments is well illustrated by the duties that devolve upon 
 the city engineer. 
 
 Very often the width of the streets is determined long before the 
 village or town, which afterwards becomes a city, has a city engineer, 
 but as soon as street improvements begin his services are called for 
 and he is required to establish sidewalk and curb grades that property 
 owners may build and improve their property with reference to them , 
 
 (338) 
 
29 
 
 and as nearly every street is partially built up before the sidewalks 
 and curbs are put in, and as this work is usually done a block or so at 
 a time, it is essential that these grades be given so that they will 
 conform to grades already established in different parts of the town 
 and also to those to be established as the city grows and expands. 
 
 In nearly every city we find irregular sidewalk grades. We also 
 find that these walks are being reduced to a uniform grade with the 
 result that rows of buildings erected with reference to the sidewalk 
 grade, given by some incompetent engineer, have to be lowered or 
 raised at great expense to the owner. 
 
 In building an asphalt street thirty-six feet wide, which is the 
 width of many residence streets, the cost is five dollars per running 
 foot, so that the owner of a lot sixty-six feet wide would be assessed 
 three hundred and thirty dollars. The construction of this street is 
 of considerable importance to the property owners; in fact, there are 
 many streets in cities of Illinois now in process of construction where 
 this assessment amounts to all but the value of the property itself. 
 This being true, it is very essential that when this street is completed 
 it shall be of a lasting character. 
 
 If this street is properly built, it will last for ten, fifteen or twenty 
 years without resurfacing and with little repair, while on the other 
 hand if it is built from an improper quality of material or of material 
 mixed in improper proportions, it will go to pieces at the end of two 
 3"ears and the large sum of money expended for its construction is 
 lost, and this is largely true even though you have a guarantee from 
 the company that constructed it; for if your street gets out of repair, 
 it takes time for the company to get its plants on the ground and make 
 the necessary repairs, if it is disposed, and if it is not so disposed 
 you may bring an action on its bond and thus involve the city in 
 a first-class law suit, which is usually very unsatisfactory to both 
 parties. 
 
 The importance of a competent engineering department to a 
 municipality, I believe, only fairly illustrates the importance of having 
 competent heads to every other department of the city government. 
 The necessity of having competent men to pass upon the quantity and 
 quality of light purchased from private corporations and the necessity 
 of having competent men to operate gas and electric lighting plants 
 where the cities are the owners of them, are of the greatest importance 
 to the locality. And what is true of these departments is also true in 
 a more or less degree of every other public utility, for all of them are 
 either owned or supported by the inhabitants of the community. 
 
 Each one of these utilities requires not only successful men to 
 properly handle them, but also laboratories of various kinds where 
 tests can be made. These laboratories are usually not owned in the 
 locality, and thus it seems to me that the state university is the 
 
 (339) 
 
30 
 
 proper place to have these tests made; its laboratories should be made 
 use of by the people of every locality. 
 
 This laboratory work of the university becomes valuable not only 
 to the people of the municipality, but to the people of every locality. 
 For during the last few years our own State University has done much, 
 not only to furnish trained men for our various municipalities and 
 laboratories for the testing of material used in cities, but has also done 
 much to help the people of the farming communities in the tests and 
 discoveries made along agricultural lines. It has done much good by 
 sending in pamphlet form the results of these investigations into the 
 homes of the farmers, thus enabling them to produce not only a greater 
 yield, but a better quality of the product of the soil. By the use of 
 the laboratories of the university, the people of the locality may know 
 the best uses for their soil. The establishment here of a school of 
 ceramics will enable a community to utilize its clays, to establish tile, 
 brick and pottery factories, where before it was not known that suit- 
 able clays existed. The farmer is also advised of the various diseases 
 and of insects that destroy vegetables and fruits and the best methods 
 of eradicating them. 
 
 In fact, the progress of the locality in all directions is and may be 
 largely influenced by the help it obtains from the university. 
 
 Mr. Carnegie at the opening of the laboratory of engineering which 
 he gave to the Stevens Institute in Hoboken, New Jersey, said: 
 
 "My trifling gift to Stevens was not a thing of chance. I know 
 what the institute is doing, for in all my experience in manufacturing 
 I have learned this thing above all others ; bring brains and knowledge 
 to your work, even in the smallest detail. I always follow that rule. 
 I believe that I was the first man who employed a chemist at a blast 
 furnace in the United States. And mind you, he had to be made in 
 Germany. We paid him the enormous salary of fifteen hundred 
 dollars a year. But then that is as much as I got as general manager 
 of the Pennsylvania Railroad. 
 
 "Well, with the aid of this chemist alone, we were soon able to 
 make money out of slag, scale, etc., that other manufacturers were 
 throwing away. Then we found that there was ore that was far better 
 than the ore which was being generally used then, and which had a big 
 name. Other manufacturers were buying ore by name; we got richer 
 and cheaper ore which had no name. 
 
 "But that is all past. The technical school has given to this 
 country a class of young men, the like of which are seen nowhere else 
 in the world. I had a number of famous English iron and steel men 
 at dinner not long ago. When one of them arose to drink to my 
 health, he said, 'Mr. Carnegie, it is not your superior ores nor your 
 great mills that impress me most, but the class of young men you have 
 in iron industry here. We have no corresponding class in England.' " 
 
 (340) 
 
31 
 
 The University does much for the locaUty, not alone in training 
 boys who become skilled men, but also in training girls who become 
 the women of the community. 
 
 The influence of the university is felt by the localitv in manv ways, 
 not alone through her technical men, but through her professional and 
 business men, — an influence that is greater than is realized bv many 
 of our people. These are the men who have to do with our health, 
 who govern and direct the public improvements, who plan and super- 
 intend the waterworks, the lighting and heating plants, the transpor- 
 tation facilities, the public playgrounds, parks, streets and the mani- 
 fold municipal activities in which every up-to-date citv is engaged. 
 The locality depends upon the chemist and bacteriologist to tell its 
 people of the purity of the water and its possible pollution, to furnish 
 us with examination of the foods we consume and the milk and bev- 
 erages that we drink, to give us reports of the fertility and condition 
 of the soil and the best methods of destroying noxious growths and 
 insects. To the engineer in the various ramifications of his profession 
 as municipal, hydraulic, sanitary, bridge, railroad, mechanical and 
 electrical engineer is the locality indebted not onlv for the rapid 
 strides in human progress that have been made in the last twentv-five 
 years, but for the multitudinous trifles of comfort and luxury which 
 affect the well being and happiness of each and every member of a 
 locality. 
 
 The university confers benefits upon the locality through the 
 medium of her graduates and also through her professors, who are in 
 almost daily consultation with, and who are advising the officials of 
 municipalities in the solution of the many problems of civic life. Thus 
 the university with her laboratories, open to the public generally for 
 the testing of waters, soils and materials for construction, and offering 
 advice based on the results of such examination, becomes a direct 
 factor in the progress of every municipality and locality. 
 
 ADDRESS 
 
 The Honorable James Hamilton Lewis 
 
 Corporation Counsel of the City of Chicago 
 
 I come to bring you the felicitations and encouragement of the 
 most representative American city of the world — Imperial Chicago. 
 Yet in my song of gladness I sound a note of sadness. 
 
 The great city is the graveyard of literary learning. The refine- 
 ment of letters is lost in the heaps and debris of the mill and the 
 factor\\ The song of beauty is smothered in the shriek of the whistle 
 and the clang of the bells. The speeding racer upon the trade track 
 is wrapt and absorbed in the push and shove for place as he plunges 
 
 (341) 
 
32 
 
 to the wire for the prize of gold. His is the glory of wealth and the 
 grandeur of material achievement. To him there is no beauty in 
 the crown of laurels, no victory in the wreath of bay. He forgets 
 where it was " Ilissus rolled his whispering streams," or from where 
 "Parnassus fount ran the fluids of perfect life." His is the magnifi- 
 cence of the constructor who builds with the hands. He leaves to the 
 dreamer the castle built with the beauty of a thought and polished in 
 the perfume of an ecstasy. Still, the city and the college are wedded 
 in the bond of mutual dependence — one and inseparable. The 
 genius which uplifts from the earth to the clouds the steepled wonders 
 of architecture was born in the breath of the educated life. The 
 master of the mysteries of manufacture brewed his secrets 
 from the alchemy of the college laboratory. The financier, 
 whose manipulations of the money changes bewilder the mind and 
 startle the body into revolutions and rebellion, wooed his magic art 
 from the winding college labyrinth. The profound man of civic 
 accomplishment and material development borrowed his guide of 
 action and chart of achievement from the scrolls of learning and the 
 parchment of college records. He may have been unconscious of the 
 mother of his attributes, but was no less indebted to education as the 
 source and birthplace of his profound creations. 
 
 It has become something of a popular theme to indulge the ex- 
 pression that a college education is no longer necessary to a business 
 man's welfare, nor an advantage to the man of affairs who destines the 
 course of great cities. Lately two eminent projectors of the success 
 of the material world have enunciated these views. One, a distin- 
 guished and successful manufacturer in the city of Chicago, has written 
 a book to prove that an education is not necessary to a manufacturer's 
 success; the other, a famous iron master, who has built an armor 
 plate for our national navy, has repeated this doctrine in public ad- 
 dress. Let it be understood this is not new. As we contemplate 
 these views, it is of passing interest to recall that Seneca has occasion 
 to tell us something of two characters, the same who have lately been 
 brought to our attention by the author of Quo Vadis, — Seneca gives 
 us the dialogue between Petronius and Vicinius. Note it. Petronius 
 says: "There goes (referring to one who has lived in the world of 
 letters) a scholar. He has been to the colleges in Greece and has not 
 land enough to bury himself. College education, I say, is a great 
 disadvantage to business. Behold me! There is not a bird which, 
 flying all day, can go beyond the lands which I own from this point. 
 Ah, I say, land for me; learning for him. " 
 
 It appears to me as an expression of folly for one to claim that 
 success in any form of scientific achievement or material development 
 is not necessarily aided, if not born, from education. As well might 
 one who dips water from a vessel near by, to put into a boiler for the 
 
 (■342) 
 
33 
 
 purpose of generating steam, announce that it was unnecessary to 
 know anything concerning the manner of drawing water, unconscious 
 in such statement that if there had not been those before him who 
 had drawn the water, he would not have it to convert into steam and 
 power. So, too, had there not been the forerunners with knowledge 
 and science to present the material or the thought to the practical 
 man for its adoption and use, he would not have so moulded or shaped 
 it so as to have produced its material results or financial re- 
 ward. There is nothing of today that is not of the yesterday in some 
 form or shape. Patrick Henry stated the truth when saying "We 
 have no lamp to guide our feet but history; we can only judge the 
 future by the past." So, too, the man who accomplishes today, does 
 so by some of the fruits of yesterday, though he may be un- 
 conscious that these have been produced from academic science 
 and college culture. It is a display of indifference to all that goes to 
 establish high moral standards and secure safe thought in the world 
 of affairs for one to assert that any great form of success can be 
 attained without the refinements of learning. 
 
 The city must turn to the college as the fount from which it must 
 drink the inspiration of thought or influence. It is the school of 
 higher education that in this day is more needed than at any time in 
 the history of our Republic. Indeed, if there were nothing else to be 
 taught, the municipalities and the crowded thoroughfares of commerce 
 might learn once again the early creeds which did so much to build 
 our nation in honor and hold it to the anchorage of truth and justice. 
 When from the halls of our national legislation there comes the evi- 
 dence of public pollution, when United States senators sell their high 
 offices for gain, pervert their public place for private fortune, repudi- 
 ate and betray the trust reposed in them, that they may serve those 
 who steal the substance of the poor and profit by the destruction of 
 honor — in a word, when men in high places unblushingly confess the 
 open appropriation to themselves of the trust funds placed in their 
 hands for the preservation of helpless widows and homeless children, 
 and boast with the air of bravado and indifference of having consum- 
 mated the scheme of debauching the public ballot, purchasing legis- 
 latures and juggling the judiciary of the nation, to the sole object and 
 end of enhancing private fortune, that such may be expended to ac- 
 commodate their vulgar practices and gross indulgences and to pay for 
 Bacchanalian revels for the social degenerates who occupy official 
 positions and whose highest aspiration is to ape the fool who performed 
 at the feast of Belshazzar, — surely the school, the college and univer- 
 sity could at least tender to the great cities and their clustering "corn- 
 ers" of finance and trade that lesson taught once from a mother's 
 knee, bringing forth the law which came from Sinai saying, "Thou 
 shalt not steal," or that other precept proclaimed by the Apostle of 
 
 (343) 
 
34 
 
 Peace from the mount — "Love thy neighbor as thyself. " These two 
 laws can at least be once again tendered by the university as the 
 mother of learning, the monument of truth and the guide to justice. 
 The city, therefore, may turn again to the groves of the university 
 ground to catch the spirit of truth and to the crypts of the university 
 walls for the book of knowledge. From these she may drink deep, to 
 the end that justice may be justified of her children, and that honor 
 and truth may still remain the dearest heritage man can transmit to 
 the children. It is to the fulfillment of this dream that Chicago 
 brings her hopes, her wishes and her congratulations to you upon this 
 auspicious day. 
 
 We are told that in the time of Hadrian, a tyrant emperor of Rome, 
 he condemned to death an old man for the offense of criticising the 
 corrupt state of the empire. The old man was sentenced to starve to 
 death. He was imprisoned in a close cell, with none permitted to 
 see him but the watching guard and his daughter. It was observed 
 that the hapless prisoner survived and did not perish. The incident 
 attracted attention, as no food had been allowed to the cell. Upon 
 investigation it was detected that the daughter, who had lately been a 
 mother, was feeding her famished father from the springs of her 
 maternal bosom. The incident could well have touched the emperor 
 and justify the pardon that followed. So, too, might we apply the 
 illustration — that if the Republic has become decrepit in honor, is 
 famishing in its patriotism, surely we may take lesson from the classic 
 incident as given us by the historian and perpetuated in canvas by the 
 painter, and turning to the university point to her as the daughter 
 of the state from whose exuberant bosom our government may still 
 draw the fluid of patriotism and honor, and survive, to the happiness 
 of her people and the perpetual glory of the Republic. 
 
 ADDRESS 
 
 The Honorable Lawrence Y. Sherman 
 Lieutenant-Governor of Illinois, Springfield 
 
 The common school system of this State has been elaborated, and 
 has kept pace with the growth of Illinois. It began under very humble 
 circumstances. It has developed until it is entirely worthy of such a 
 State. 
 
 I presume, from the standpoint of those who are charged with 
 legislative duties, we naturally look at the question of taxation. We 
 are interested more in furnishing the funds to support the State 
 school system, because we are primarily charged with the levy and 
 collection of that tax. We are expected to furnish the means, and if 
 the tax rate should become too high, we are expected to furnish an 
 explanation. 
 
 (344) 
 
35 
 
 The taxing question is a sensitive one among all English-speaking 
 people. Those who are charged with the taxing powers are more 
 susceptible to criticism and fear that criticism more upon that than 
 upon any other question. The taxpayer is more disposed to carry his 
 grievance to the polls or to the point of revolution among English- 
 speaking races, and even among those of Germanic or north of Europe 
 origin, upon this than upon any other question. We consequently, 
 either through ignorance, or by the development and application of 
 common law principles to our own form of government on this conti- 
 nent, and especially in the United States, have become sensitive on 
 this question, along with those who helped frame the government we 
 are enjoying today, but laid the foundation upon which these princi- 
 ples were subsequently developed. 
 
 So IlHnois has regard to her taxable property. It begins with the 
 local taxation in the humblest form of the school system. It begins in 
 the district school, that is the lowest form of corporate life with the 
 fewest powers of any taxing body in this State. Beginning here it 
 develops until it reaches the form of municipal life. It reaches the 
 graded school, then the normal school, then the university. Beginning 
 with the broad base of the common school system it ends with this 
 University., that is established by the power of the State and main- 
 tained in large part by public taxation. i\ll that has been given 
 by the national government, while it is sufficient to found, is insuffi- 
 cient to maintain. The school system of this State is administered by 
 public agencies. There are in those agencies not only institutions 
 but there are laws, and the laws must be administered by human 
 beings, and we must take them as we find them. At Springfield in 
 the levying of taxes and in the expenditure of public funds, it is 
 entirely too much to expect that any reformation will begin after a 
 representative of the Legislature lands in his seat, if I mav be allowed 
 to use that colloqiiial phrase. He is not merely a product of heredity 
 and environment; he is more than that, as this may be applied gener- 
 ally to men in public affairs and responsible places. A member of the 
 Legislature is a product of a situation that knows no heredity, knows 
 no environment. He is certainly a mixture of the strangest elements 
 that the sun in our solar system ever shone upon. It is non-racial; 
 it is political, in all that politics implies among English-speaking people, 
 from the days of the organization of the English Parliament down to 
 the Illinois Legislature. It is political in the strict sense of the word. 
 And among the political elements of Illinois there must always be 
 considered the race question, especially in Chicago. There we find 
 representatives of all the great and best races of the old world to a 
 greater extent than in any other city on the American continent. 
 There is scarcely a great race whose forebears reach back to the early 
 histon.- of the world, that has not sent liberally of its people to the 
 
 (345) 
 
36 
 
 United States. They are here as an enduring element of American 
 Ufe. They have brought with them in many instances the best 
 blood, and have contributed much to the modification of the insti- 
 tutions and customs and letters of the mother country. And while 
 they have come, some of them, with preconceived ideas of govern- 
 ment, they have modified them, have changed them, when change is 
 necessary, until they have become a component part of the adminis- 
 tration of public affairs in Illinois. 
 
 Now the state is not an abstraction, conceived by an idealist who 
 dwells in an aircastle. The state is a collection of powers making 
 towards definite ends. Those powers are lodged in and administered 
 by departments, operated by human beings. The state government 
 is not automatic either. We sometimes think it is so. The reasons 
 are evident. Take any statute in this State as an entirety. It is a 
 growth. It begins with humble surroundings, and sometimes ends 
 with great power, as population increases, and the resources of the 
 country are developed. Sometimes it ends in disaster. Always 
 remember that ideal law on paper, applied to ideal conditions, operated 
 by ideal men, is one thing; but legislation is not an exact science. It 
 is not like a mechanical power, that can be gauged or measured so 
 well that you know to the last horse-power what will be applied to the 
 working point. Its strength and instruments are unknown. In its 
 early stages legislation was nothing but an experiment operating upon 
 an aggregation of chances. The State capitol at Springfield is a 
 mausoleum of repealed statutes. Some served their purpose and 
 served them well. Some have become demonstrated errors, some have 
 become obsolete, and some have been rendered nugatory by judicial 
 construction and decisions. 
 
 At one time the General Assembly of this State was the source of 
 nearly all the governing power of Illinois. The executive was weak. 
 The judicial bodies were dependent upon it for their tenure of office 
 and the amount of salary. In its original form the primitive govern- 
 ment was a government that was either legislative or something that 
 answered to a legislature. 
 
 In every republican form of government these primitive forms 
 have been expressed in various ways, but as the population increased, 
 and the resources of the country grew, and those intangible things, 
 that are greater even than can be seen, developed, as human rights 
 began to be guarded, as institutions developed; then we began to 
 understand that the legislature needed subdivision. That subdivision 
 came; boundaries were struck off, so that those powers should be 
 exercised definitely by the three great departments, the legislative, 
 executive and the judiciary. 
 
 For many years in this State the General Assembly passed special 
 laws. Those special laws covered almost every conceivable branch 
 
 (346) 
 
37 
 
 of subjects. In those days there was not a corporation, business or 
 eleemosynary, that was not created by a special act of the General 
 Assembly ; and from that power vested in the General Assembly came 
 the breath of corporate life. This special legislation is no more, ex- 
 cept in certain portions of the State. Certain business corporations 
 have perpetual franchises and have the power to endure indefinitelv. 
 They are given the right to be a corporation in perpetuity. Others of 
 various kinds still exist as a living witness to the charter powers 
 granted by the special legislation from the early General Assemblies 
 of this State. That has changed. It has been changed by the or- 
 ganic law of this State. That change came slowly. The debates in 
 the Constitutional Convention show that every section which per- 
 mitted of any form of special legislation met with the most strenuous 
 opposition. It was an evil, an admitted evil, but like a great many 
 other evils it died hard. Illinois emerged slowly from the tangled 
 growth of special legislation, and like these repealed statutes mentioned, 
 it slumbers forgotten. We have outlived it all. 
 
 Among those special charters granted are those giving to school 
 districts the right to endure under that special act, as a school body 
 vested with the sovereign powers of taxation and the expenditure of 
 money. Out of the many hundreds of these legislative hydras that 
 were once to be found in Illinois there remain but thirty-six, in 
 various parts of this State. They are a part of the common school 
 system of this State. And they are, it is proper to be mentioned and 
 considered, here in this University as they are in the adjoining dis- 
 tricts of the territory embraced in these special charters. The pro- 
 visions in those charters are as dense and, in some instances, as con- 
 tradictory as the wishes and opinions of those who wrote them, and 
 procured them to be granted. 
 
 The State School Lands were originally more than a million acres. 
 That grant was general in its terms. It vested the title in the State 
 or in the institutions that represented branches of the State govern- 
 ment. The Legislature of this State during a critical period put much 
 of it in the hands of specially chartered districts. It authorized the 
 land to be sold, and the money invested as a school fund. 
 
 There is now in this State seventeen million dollars remaining. 
 Of this amount fifteen millions are found inside of Cook County. Two 
 millions are found outside, in the other one hundred counties of Illi- 
 nois. 
 
 Chicago, wherein the bulk of this fund is now found in concrete 
 form, has kept her lands. The school authorities in the counties 
 outside have, through enabling acts, sold theirs. Bad investments, 
 embezzlements and kindred offenses have scattered this heritage 
 until the existing remnants only tend to remind us of what might have 
 been. 
 
 (347) 
 
38 
 
 Money is a somewhat intangible blessing. It is hard to get, and 
 easy to part with. It is a harder thing to keep and an easier thing to 
 part with when it is in a school fund than in any other form. This is 
 enough to convince any person that no investment of public money 
 of any kind by a custodian subject to appointment can be long con- 
 tinued without great risk. 
 
 The school system ought to be a state system. No aboriginal or 
 special charters ought to make their districts sustain merely tribal 
 relations to the general school laws of Illinois. There ought to be in 
 every state a system complete and uniform, and that uniformity can- 
 not be while special charters remain. 
 
 No one-man power ever ought to be permitted to control or direct 
 the expenditure of money and the tax-levying power. Such funds 
 ought to be paid out for legitimate purposes under the provisions of a 
 general school law of this State. Where there are diverse bodies or 
 authorities that are given powers to inspect, examine or sustain the 
 levy in such a way that there may be a system of check and account- 
 ing, there the one-man-power evil in the expenditure as well as the 
 procurement of money will not exist. Every school board ought to 
 be more than a mere tax-levying and tax-collecting agent. 
 
 I think I remember some four or five years ago, if you will permit 
 me to become personal for a moment, when I contributed to the pas- 
 sage of an indefensible law at Springfield. That law was a mistake. 
 I will not say it was a mistake so far as it related to the particular 
 results that followed within the limits of that district, but in a vital 
 point, the uniformity that ought to characterize every state school 
 system to be successful, it was inexcusable. The arrangements under 
 which that legislation was originally enacted had ceased at the last 
 session of the Legislature. It was repealed because I believe it was 
 regarded as an extremely vicious legislative precedent. Even legis- 
 latures are sometimes bound bv precedents, not very often though; 
 and I don't blame them. Sometimes they don't know what the 
 precedents are, the representatives are changed by you so often. 
 
 Now let me suggest without mentioning any names here, that in 
 this special school district evil, for I so regard it in a general way, 
 although particular instances may procure good results, that the State 
 Superintendent of Public Instruction, now holding office in this 
 State had done more by instruction and advice, by kindly efforts in 
 the promotion of legislation, to destroy the special school districts in 
 Illinois than any other official in the history of this State. Let me 
 say in the brief time remaining that if I were a member of Congress, 
 and may a merciful and beneficent providence never visit upon me 
 or any of us that affliction — but, if I were a member of Congress (I 
 say that advisedly) — I am taking you into my confidence when I tell 
 you I wouldn't go there if I had a chance, and I am talking in earnest 
 
 (348) 
 
39 
 
 now, and not by the way of jest at all; but if I were a member of 
 Congress and there was a new state seeking to be admitted into the 
 Union to be framed out of territory now existing under territorial 
 government, there would not be a solitary dollar granted by the 
 United States government to that newly-admitted state — not a dollar 
 in money for the purpose of creating a fund to be distributed among 
 newly-created states for school purposes. I would keep the money 
 to govern the islands of the sea or to govern the people at home when 
 they need governing. 
 
 If there should be a land-grant connected with the organic act 
 admitting territories to the Union, that land-grant coming from the 
 Congress, ought to carrv with it a fixed provision that not one acre of 
 that land should ever be sold, or authorized to be sold by the general 
 assembly of any State. 
 
 It ought to be inalienable. If that provision had been in the origi- 
 nal grant as to all the school lands in Illinois, there would today 
 have been a magnificient domain of farm land in Illinois instead of 
 what we have. Outside of Cook County the lands have appreciated 
 enormously in value. Sometimes there may have been periods during 
 panics when rents were small, but they were not subject to taxation, 
 and as property has increased in value there would today have been 
 a fund that would support more schools, train more children, make 
 more beautiful school houses, hang more pictures on the walls, plant 
 more trees, and make the country school house a fit place for your 
 boys and girls than would all the taxes levied in Illinois today for 
 school purposes. 
 
 The state school system must be expanded with the growth of the 
 State, and the growing need of the people. The district school is at 
 the foundation and answered well the purposes for which it was 
 intended. It answered the needs of pioneer boys, the early fabric of 
 American life. Later it became necessary that the State establish 
 and support an institution in which special fields of learning and 
 research are open to the student. No man can live the old way. We 
 may talk about the primitive days of our great-grandfathers. We 
 may talk of the pioneers of Illinois and regret that we cannot now 
 resort to their methods of life; it would be impossible. We may 
 regret that some of their simplicity has not survived, some of their 
 directness of purpose, their energy. We may sometimes think we 
 have lost something in the transmission from then till now, but we 
 must remember they lived under widely different conditions. 
 
 This State of Illinois was a prairie; the settlements were along the 
 rivers. The flatboat owners were the common carriers to carry what 
 little they had to ship. They lived the simple life, that is true. There 
 is nothing to hinder anyone from living the simple life now; but don't 
 forget that the simple life of 1905 cannot be just as simple as it was in 
 
 (349) 
 
40 
 
 1805. As things are now, the capacities and the possibilities of the 
 present life are enormously multiplied. 
 
 Human beings live just the same way as they used to; they still 
 inhale the air, and take food and require exercise. We forget that 
 sometimes in the cities, but the civilization of today is such as to 
 require an expansion of the educational system of Illinois as well as of 
 other states, and Illinois will show herself equal to that requirement. 
 
 MILITARY EXERCISES 
 
 1 :15 p. M. 
 PROGRAM 
 Assembly of the University Regiment on Illinois Field. 
 Salute (13 guns) to Major-General John F. Weston of the United States 
 
 Army. 
 Escort of the Color. 
 Review of the Regiment by Major-General Weston, representing the 
 
 War Department of the United States. 
 Parade. 
 
 Exercises at the Armory 
 
 The Honorable Joseph G. Cannon, Speaker of the National House of 
 
 Representatives Presiding 
 
 Music: The Mihtary Band. 
 
 Addresses: The Military Training of the Citizen Soldier, Major- 
 General Weston ; Lieutenant-Colonel Julius R. Kline of the Illinois 
 National Guard. 
 
 Music: The Military Band. 
 
 MILITARY TRAINING OF THE CITIZEN SOLDIER 
 
 Major-General John A. Weston 
 
 Commissary-General of the United States Army 
 
 The formal installation of the President of this famous University 
 is the occasion of this notable gathering; and a feature of the exercises 
 is a short address which I have been invited to deliver upon the form 
 of military training at the University. The subject is one of national 
 concern and has always had an absorbing interest for military men. 
 
 More than forty years have elapsed since this institution of learn- 
 ing made the study of military science and tactics an element in its 
 educational training of the youth of the land. It will not be forgotten 
 that the bill creating the endowment fund for the purpose was signed 
 by Lincoln, the adopted son of Illinois, the great and gentle soul who 
 loved his country, who believed in her future, and blessed the patriotic 
 
 (350) 
 
41 
 
 soldiery that made possible her lofty destiny. Lincoln, and those 
 allied with him in this beneficent scheme for advancing the interest 
 and defending the Hfe of the Republic, builded better than they knew, 
 and placed posterity under lasting obligation by this exhibition of 
 wisdom and liberality. The law which gave the endowment for this 
 purpose was passed in the summer of 1862, when "War rocked the 
 continent;" but at the end of that fratricidal struggle the safety of 
 the Republic was assured and brotherhood and union secured forever. 
 These things the nation had not known since its foundation and could 
 never perhaps realize without passing through the fiery furnace of 
 war. 
 
 At the present time there are seventy-nine schools and colleges, 
 representing forty-three states and territories of the Union, where 
 militarv instruction is afforded the students under the direction of 
 officers of the regular army, detailed as professors of military science 
 and tactics. This list does not include a number of similar institu- 
 tions, or the many high schools and others where some form of military 
 training is in vogue. The subject is each year exciting more and more 
 interest. Faculties and institutions are giving loyal support to the 
 cause which means so much to the country, and the army officers 
 engaged as military professors are ranked as members of the faculty 
 and are exhibiting judgment, tact and skill, and acquitting themselves 
 with the highest of credit. The future gives every promise of a happy 
 continuance of this condition and an even wider sphere of usefulness 
 to this admirable system. 
 
 The government is fostering a proper and laudable military spirit 
 in the youth of the nation by more liberal appropriations, affording 
 completer equipment for military study and training. The President 
 is deeply interested in the cause and with that practical and far-seeing 
 wisdom with which he is gifted has authorized the announcement that 
 from six of the institutions (where officers of the army are detailed as 
 military instructors) whose students exhibit the greatest interest, 
 application and proficiency in military training and knowledge, an 
 appointment as second lieutenant in the army from each one of the 
 six institutions will be awarded to an honor graduate who has taken a 
 military course thereat. 
 
 This policv is a wise one and as it should be in a republican form 
 of government. Its sons and citizens are its natural defenders, their 
 courage and lives are its strongest bulwark, as they are the safest 
 guardians of their own rights and liberties. In the event of a war on 
 a great scale, among the most vital needs of the hour would be trained 
 officers. To supply these, the country in such a time would have to 
 draw upon the enlisted strength of the army, upon the National Guard, 
 and could perhaps in a limited degree call upon the veterans of the 
 Civil and Spanish Wars. But all of these sources would be inadequate 
 
 (351) 
 
42 
 
 to meet the demand. How necessary it is, then, that this younger 
 race, who would have to make the fight and who have the destiny of 
 their country in their keeping, should be educated in military science, 
 taught a love for the country and the flag, and fitted for the sacred 
 duty of a soldier as well as a citizen. They would be a nucleus upon 
 which to form our armies, a body of trained and intelligent patriots 
 ready at a moment's notice to answer the call of their country. 
 
 Until two years ago the militia law was lacking in comprehensive- 
 ness as a scheme to insure the efficiency of the militia of the country, 
 and Congress, recognizing the essentials which it lacked, endeavored to 
 remedy the deficiency by the passage of the act of January '31, 1903, 
 which revoked and remodeled the old militia law and system. This 
 act is likely to be still further modified and extended so as to meet 
 every requirement of national defense and place the militia system on 
 an entirely satisfactory foundation. Congress in a generous spirit, 
 having increased and broadened the scope of the law, has also made 
 more liberal appropriations. In a few years it has increased the an- 
 ual appropriation for the militia from four hundred thousand dollars 
 to a million dollars. This goes a long way towards affording ade- 
 quate equipment and facilities, as well as means for encampments 
 and maneuvers on a large and instructive scale. 
 
 The officers of the National Guard can under conditions prescribed 
 by the present militia law become students in the service schools of 
 the army, and thus receive instruction and derive the benefits that 
 come from such an admirable system of training. Under the same 
 law there is a provision for an eligible list by which trained and 
 competent officers are to hold commissions in the volunteer force and 
 to be ready to answer future calls and emergencies in times of war. 
 
 I am glad and deem it gracious and fitting that a soldier should be 
 invited and given an opportunity to interpret to those who come from 
 the walks of civil life something of the soldier's feelings and aspira- 
 tions, both of which are often misunderstood and at times deliberately 
 misjudged. Criticisms that are now and then levelled at the army 
 are unjust and unworthy of those who in thoughtless mood give ex- 
 pression to them. 
 
 Soldiers are loyal citizens in heart and purpose, if they are denied 
 the ballot. Shut out from the ambitions and rewards of civic life, 
 they are none the less devoted and consecrated to their country's 
 welfare, and love with passionate devotion the flag they follow and 
 see almost hourly in their lives. It is to them the symbol of power 
 and protection, the inspiration and hope of patriotic devotion. Our 
 soldiers, like these young men here, come from the body of the people, 
 are matured in honest homes, many are graduated from the colleges 
 and schools of the land, and come to seek honorable careers in the 
 military service of their country. They are loyal, respect the law of 
 
 (352) 
 
43 
 
 the land, and obey the orders of their superiors; and as a beautiful 
 illustration of this spirit I have only to cite the way in which hundreds 
 of thousands of men who have served in the armies of the Civil war on 
 both sides returned to the vocations they had been pursuing before 
 thev enlisted. There was no attempt on the part of the victors to 
 upset the form of government, there was none on the part of the 
 defeated except to honestly abide by the terms of peace. 
 
 There is perhaps no public question on which the two political 
 parties of this country are more closely united than on that of the 
 standing armv. Neither of them wants a very large one. That is 
 perhaps as it should be, and we will proceed on those lines, viz: by 
 educating our vouth and by organizing our state troops. In all the 
 wars we have had, perhaps in all that we will have if of any magni- 
 tude, it will have to be done largely by our volunteers. 
 
 The conditions and requirements of national defense have been 
 admirablv stated by Colonel Britton of the National Guard of New 
 York, who said: 
 
 "As a general principle, the greatest economy of man, resources, 
 and time in the conduct of war lies in the ability of a country to put 
 into the field, with the least delay, the largest forces that may be 
 necessary, properly organized, trained and equipped; otherwise, how- 
 ever great her natural resources, experience has shown that final 
 tritimph has been dearly bought at an extravagant price in blood and 
 treasure. " 
 
 If there is one lesson which history teaches it is that what is worth 
 having and worth holding in nations or individuals must be defended. 
 The benefits arising from early training cannot be over-estimated. 
 It stamps lessons that last for life. Whatever impresses and appeals 
 to loyalty, patriotism and constancy is not lost. Military education 
 insures the habits of neatness, order, subordination. It fosters self- 
 reliance and initiative — the finest qualities of the soldier; and for 
 these the American stands pre-eminent. 
 
 A citizen soldiery should be of the highest type in a republic whose 
 people estabhsh by their will and suffrage the form of government 
 under which they live and who maintain it by their courage and virtue. 
 Trained in the paths of peace, with intellectual development and lofty 
 ideals, such a body can never betray their country or become pliant 
 tools in the hands of selfish and designing leaders. Their vision is 
 too clear, their will too strong, their training too complete. Not until 
 patriotism declines and political life becomes corrupt will they con- 
 nive at the overthrow of a government founded in their will and wis- 
 dom and imder which they can from the humblest station rise to the 
 highest office and distinction. 
 
 These young men are soon to fill the ranks of civil life and pursue 
 the various callings they severally choose. They are the coming 
 
 (353) 
 
44 
 
 citizens, rulers and defenders of their native and adopted land, and 
 the military knowledge and training received here will help in any 
 field of endeavor. And when the crucial hour of the RepubHc comes 
 as it is sure to do — for universal peace is an idle dreara, as Von Moltke 
 declared — and the fight for existence begins either with foes from 
 within or foes from without, those who have gone out from institutions 
 like this one will bring elements of strength into the struggle that 
 make for peace and honor, and may prove their country's salvation. 
 They will not fail with their keen intelligence and patriotism to ap- 
 preciate the benefits of a free and enlightened government, and feeling 
 their responsibility and knowing the blessings at stake, will defend 
 the Republic with every energy and resource at their command. 
 
 After the battle these patriot sons, trained in a school which sub- 
 ordinates the military to the civil power — which is in accord with the 
 genius of our institutions and the constitution of the land — will melt 
 away into the body of the people, resume their wonted vocations, and 
 earnestly strive to solve the problems of life as their fathers did before 
 them. 
 
 If I should admonish these coming citizens and defenders of the 
 land, it would be to say to them, "Know thyself — all wisdom centers 
 there — love your country, study and have faith in its institutions, 
 regard it as a privilege to fight for, aye an honor to die for it. " 
 
 ADDRESS 
 
 Lieutenant-Colonel Julius R. Kline 
 Of the Illinois National Guard 
 
 I feel honored that I have been selected to address you upon an 
 occasion of this kind, honored indeed that you have called upon me 
 to represent the military orgainzation of this State, and more than 
 honored that it is my privilege to bring you a message on behalf of 
 the descendants of the men who followed Lincoln, Grant and Logan, 
 and who today are ready to do and dare in defense of our American 
 institutions, our flag and our country. 
 
 Ever since the time that men, roving alone over the world and 
 longing for the companionship of creatures of their kind, gathered to- 
 gether and formed the tribe, the village, the city, the state and finally 
 the nation, there has been a duty incumbent upon each and every 
 member of those organizations to protect that combination and the 
 laws which govern the same to the extent of his ability, whether it 
 required the exercise and ingenuity of the human brain or whether it 
 required physical force and implements of destruction ; and that duty 
 to protect the community was mandatory upon the citizen. Men of 
 the higher grade of intellectuality and the product of the higher 
 
 (354) 
 
45 
 
 civilization, decry the wanton killing, maiming and wounding of their 
 fellowman, and today there is no man who more ardently desires peace 
 than he who has taken part in war. Those men who have seen the 
 long line of brown, backed by the line of blue, who have heard the 
 bugle sound the advance, who have made the charge and heard the 
 singing of the shot and shell and the clashing of steel, and who have 
 seen strong men in the prime of life and vigor fall helpless and stricken, 
 who have passed through the hospitals and heard the moans and cries 
 of the sick and wounded, — those men today are the first to echo the 
 words of General Sherman, "War is hell, and for God's sake give us 
 peace!" But so long as there are nations composed of men who are 
 actuated bv sordid motives, the desire of aggrandizement and demand 
 for territorial expansion, and who are ready to back up those selfish 
 and sordid motives by men armed with steel for the slaying of their 
 kind, just so long will there be a necessity for the military within the 
 United States; but to the eternal credit of the people of this land of 
 freedom, our contentions are not and never shall be based upon a 
 sordid desire for more territory or greater power, and such armed 
 force shall only be maintained in the protection of our homes, our 
 institutions and our country. So often as the necessity for war arises, 
 brought about bv the action of other nations, shall this nation reaHze 
 that it is no greater than its natural resources, it is no more powerful 
 than its army and navy. 
 
 Under such conditions, it becomes the duty of every state to 
 inculcate into the minds of its citizens the patriotic motive, — the 
 motive that will actuate them to prepare and become available for the 
 hour of the state's or the country's need. The youth of today is the 
 citizen of tomorrow, and to the citizen, earnest, unselfish and patriotic, 
 the state and the country must ever look for its protection and its 
 higher welfare. 
 
 A valuable adjunct to the National Guard and the army of the 
 United States, stand the miHtary schools of this country. By their 
 perfect system of training in the hands of experienced men, they place 
 in the body of the country young men experienced in the art of war- 
 fare and in the handling of the weapon, men who, by reason of that 
 experience and training, are able to train other men and make them a 
 perfect and available fighting force. The National Guard also serves 
 a higher purpose than the mere training of men to warfare. The 
 National Guard does not pander to the pride of men. It is something 
 more than a body which allows the citizen to adorn himself in all the 
 panoply of war and gratify his vanity by the glare and glitter of brass ; 
 it teaches those men who enter its ranks one of the greatest cardinal 
 principles of life, discipline, the finest attribute of the perfect soldier. 
 While God in his infinite mercy has armed us with all the attributes of 
 perfect manhood, has given us eyes to see the hills and plains and 
 
 (355) 
 
46 
 
 flowers, mute messengers from heaven to beautify the earth and 
 deHght man's sense, ears to hear the soft sighing of the wind, the lan- 
 guage of the wave and the revealed word of God to man, conveying 
 His glorious message of salvation to the soul, brains and intellect to 
 comprehend the beautiful in life and nature; the "still small voice" to 
 enable us to distinguish right from wrong ; he has also implanted within 
 our breasts hope, the well-spring and foundation of honest ambition, 
 the actuating force of honest endeavor, hope, which urges us on to do 
 and to dare, hope which brings us closer to wiser and nobler things. 
 
 But with all these inherent forces for good, men are controlled by 
 a power more potent and with more control over the individual than 
 any outside person or condition. It is your own inclination, it is 
 yourself, and mightier than kings and more powerful than conquering 
 heroes is the man who can control his own inclinations when for evil, 
 and the overcoming of those inclinations brings him closer to the God 
 who made him and makes him a better man and a better citizen. 
 The National Guard, by its lessons in discipline, brings men nearer to 
 control of themselves than any lesson that can be taught them in the 
 schools or everyday life. It teaches them the responsibility of true 
 citizenship, it says to them, "We protect the life of the citizen and 
 the morals of the home that they may not be desecrated or infringed 
 upon. " It means the protection, in short, of the entire people of the 
 community which they may be serving. 
 
 Even as the sun, bring orb of day, sets in the west, and the moon, 
 queen of the night, rises in all its glory over the hills and plains of this 
 great sovereign State, from the beautiful lakes in the north to the 
 mighty river of the south, to the mighty river of the west, and over 
 the fertile field of the east, four million people sleep more securely in 
 the knowledge that they are guarded by night as well as by day by 
 eight thousand men, sworn to fealty, sworn to loyalty, sworn to pro- 
 tect them, whose motives are for God, for their country and for Ameri- 
 can institutions; and should the time ever come when men, actuated 
 by selfish principles or by lack of self-control, shall dare to raise the 
 hand of war against the cherished institutions of this State or of the 
 United States, these men will find that back of the cities stand the 
 states and back of the states stand those men who are ready to do and 
 to dare, who are ready to sacrifice home and family, yea, even life itself, 
 in defense of their country and its laws ; and as they march to victory 
 or perchance to death, under that beloved emblem of our nation, 
 which proclaims liberty and equality to all mankind, in their hearts 
 they repeat the words of that grand, sweet song, 
 "My country, 'tis of thee, 
 Sweet land of liberty. 
 Of thee I sing. " 
 
 (356) 
 
47 
 
 THE STUDENTS' PLAY 
 PROGRAM 
 
 At the Plaie-House in Champaign 
 Tuesday Evening the seventeenth of October 1905 
 .4 Right Wonderfull Comedie 
 cald 
 THE HOXORABLE HI ST OKIE OF 
 
 FRIER BACON AND FRIER BUNGAY 
 
 As it was plaid by her Maiesties servants 
 
 In London towne 1589 
 
 Made by Robert Greene Maister of Arts 
 
 Acted for the first time in this countrie, by the present companie 
 
 of students, in this Plaie-house, the 
 
 eighth of Maie 1905 
 
 Heere follow the names of all the platers: 
 
 Edward, Prince of Wales, sonne to King Henry. .William T. Gordley 
 
 Raphe Simnell, the Kings Foole R. C. Matthews 
 
 Xed Lacie, Earle of Lincoln Herman G. James 
 
 John Warren, Earle of Sussex Louis W. Mack 
 
 Will Ermsbie, a Gentleman Harry P. Reeves 
 
 Frier Bacon Allan J. Carter 
 
 Miles, Frier Bacons Poore Scholer Earl Q. Snyder 
 
 Burden, Doctor of Oxford and Maister of Brazennose 
 
 Alexander H. Gunn 
 
 Clement, Doctor of Oxford Roswell T. Pettit 
 
 The Hostess at Henly, Mistress of the Bell Tirzah Bradley 
 
 A Devill ' John S. Kendall 
 
 Thomas, a Farmers sonne David S. Meadows 
 
 Jone, a Farmers Daughter Edith Spray 
 
 Margret, the Keepers Daughter of Fresingfield Lois Clendenin 
 
 Ruth Taylor 
 
 Sarah Conard 
 
 Miriam Roberts 
 
 Gertrude Weir 
 
 F. H. Lindley 
 
 C. E. Smith 
 
 Hiram Powers 
 
 Arthur Aikman 
 
 J. Lloyd Jones 
 
 Jaques Vandermast, a Germaine Howard G. Brownsbn 
 
 King of Castile , Herbert L. Tear 
 
 Elinor, Daughter to Castile Irene M. Parsons 
 
 King Henry the Third Will J. Carey 
 
 Frier Bungay Roscoe C. Main 
 
 Constable David S. Meadows 
 
 (357) 
 
 Ladves of the Court 
 
 Gentlemen of the Court 
 
48 
 
 Hercules Lawrence T. Allen 
 
 Lambert, a Countrie Gentleman J. L. Bannon 
 
 The Keeper of Fresingfield George H. Anderson 
 
 Serlsbie, a Countrie Gentleman Homer W. Harper 
 
 A Post-boy Roswell T. Pettit 
 
 Young Lambert Alexander H. Gunn 
 
 Young Serlsbie Howard G. Brownson 
 
 A Table of the Severall Scenes in the Comedie 
 Act I — Scene 1 — The countrie side in Fremingham. 
 
 Scene 2 — Bacons study at Brazennose Colledge in Oxford. 
 
 Scene 3 — Neere Harlston Faire. 
 Act II — Scene 1 — The Court at Hampton House. 
 
 Scene 2 — Oxford. 
 
 Scene 3 — Bacons Study. 
 
 (The front of the stage shewes what is seene in the prospective 
 glasse.) 
 
 Act III — Scene 1 — The Regent House at Oxford. 
 
 Scene 2 — The contrie side at Fresingfield. 
 
 Scene 3 — Bacons Study. 
 Act IV — Scene 1 — Bacons Study. 
 
 Scene 2 — The Court. 
 
 Scene 3 — Bacons Study. 
 
 (Heere likewise the front of the stage represents what is seene in the 
 prospective glasse.) 
 
 Act V — Scene 1 — Neere the Keepers Lodge. 
 
 Scene 2 — An open place. 
 
 Scene 3 — The Court. 
 
 The Patronesses of this Plaie are 
 
 Mistresse Edmund Janes James 
 
 Mistresse David Kinley 
 
 Mistresse Daniel Kilham Dodge 
 
 Mistresse Thomas Arkle Clark 
 
 Mistresse Edward Fulton 
 
 Mistresse Edward Chauncey Baldwin 
 
 Mistresse Johii Quincy Adams 
 
 The Direction of the plaiers has beene the care of 
 
 Maister Thacher Howland Guild 
 
 The care of moneys and suchlike businesse dutees has been 
 
 the paines of 
 
 Maister Frank William Scott 
 
 The sundrie thinges about the stage have beene 
 
 paid attention to by 
 
 Maister Lester E. Rein and Maister John Stehmen 
 
 The Maister of Fence is 
 
 Maister Everett B. Murray 
 
 (358) 
 
49 
 
 Wednesday, October 18, 9:00 a.m. 
 
 FORMAL RECEPTION OF DELEGATES 
 
 AT THE Armory 
 
 PROGRAM 
 
 Judge Oliver A. Marker, Dean of the College of Law, Presiding 
 Address of Welcome: Judge Oliver A. Harker. 
 Roll Call of Foreign Universities: Responses by Representatives 
 
 bringing Congratulatory Addresses. 
 Roll Call of American Universities: Responses by Representatives 
 
 bringing Congratulatory Addresses. 
 Roll Call of Learned Societies and Other Bodies: Responses by 
 
 Representatives bringing Congratulatory Addresses. 
 Brief Addresses : — 
 
 Foreign Universities: Henry T. Bovey, LL.D., M. Inst. C. E., 
 F.R.S., Dean of the Faculty of AppHed Science, McGill Uni- 
 versity, Montreal. 
 
 The State Universities: James Burrill Angell, LL.D., President of 
 the University of Michigan. 
 
 The Universities of the East: Ira Remsen, M.D., Ph.D., LL.D., 
 President of Johns Hopkins University. 
 
 The Universities of the West: Frank Strong, Ph.D., Chancellor of 
 the University of Kansas. 
 
 The Universities of the South: Edwin Boone Craighead, LL.D., 
 President of Tulane University. 
 
 The Universities and Techincal Schools of the State: Harry Pratt 
 Judson, LL.D., Dean, University of Chicago. 
 
 The Colleges of the State: Charles Henry Rammelkamp, Ph.D., 
 President of Illinois College. 
 
 The Normal Schools of the State: John Williston Cook, LL.D., 
 President of the Northern Illinois State Normal School. 
 
 The High Schools of the State: James E. Armstrong, A.M., Princi- 
 pal of the Englewood High School. 
 
 The Elementary Schools of the State: Honorable Alfred Bayliss, 
 B.A., State Superintendent of Public Instruction. 
 
 1359) 
 
50 
 
 LIST OF DELEGATES 
 Universities and Colleges 
 
 University of Oxford: Professor Edward B. Titchener, A. M., Ph.D. 
 University of Cambridge: Dean H. T. Bovey, LL.D., M. Inst. C. E., 
 
 F.R.s! 
 Queen's College, Oxford: Professor G. W. Greenwood, A.M. 
 Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge: Professor F. F. Westbrook, 
 
 A.M., M.D., CM. 
 Trinity Hall, Cambridge: Lathum Gallup Reed, B.A., LL.B. 
 University of Glasgow: Mr. William Robert Lang. 
 Queen's College, Cambridge: Dean H. T. Bovey, LL.D., M. Inst. 
 
 C. E., F.R.S. 
 Brasenose College, Oxford: Professor B. Titchener, A.M., Ph.D. 
 Royal College of Physicians of Edinburg: Dr. James Crawfurd Dun- 
 lop, F.R.C.P.E.; Professor John Clarence Webster, F.R.C.P.E. 
 McGill College and University: Dean H. T. Bovey, LL.D., M. Inst. 
 
 C. E., F.R.S. 
 University of Toronto: George H. Locke, Ph.D. 
 St. David's College: Right Reverend D. Williams. 
 Polytechnische Lehranstalt, Copenhagen: Mr. L. Storm. 
 Technische Hochschule, Hannover: Mr. C. L. Stroebel. 
 Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario: Professor William T. Mc- 
 
 Clement, M. A. 
 Trinity College, Toronto: Right Reverend C. T. Anderson, D.C.L. 
 Victoria University of Manchester, England: Professor Ernest 
 
 Ritson Dewsnup, M.A., F.R.G.S., F.S.S. 
 University of Madras, India: S. Satthianathan, M.A., LL.D. 
 College of Engineering, Madras, India: S. Satthianathan, M.A., LL.D. 
 Royal Real Instituto tecnico superiore, Milan, Italy: Phillip Porchio. 
 Keble College, Oxford Unversity: Reverend John Charles Roper, 
 
 D.D. 
 American School of Classical Studies, Athens: Professor Paul Shorey, 
 
 Ph.D. 
 University of Leeds, England: Mr. Percy Nicholls, B.Sc. 
 Reid Christian College, Lucknow, India: Reverend J. N. West, M.A. 
 Harvard University: Professor Abbott Lawrence Lowell, B.A., LL.B. 
 Yale University: Professor R. H. Chittenden, Ph.D. 
 University of Pennsylvania: Professor Simon N. Patten, A.M., Ph.D. 
 Princeton Uinversity: Ernest C. Richardson, A.M., Ph.D. 
 Washington and Lee University: President George H. Denny, A.M., 
 
 Ph.D., LL.D. 
 Columbia University: Professor James McKeen Cattell, A.M., Ph.D. 
 Brown University: Mr. Donald L. Morrill, A.B. 
 Rutgers College: Professor Graham Taylor, D.D. 
 
 (360) 
 
51 
 
 Dartmouth College: Professor Harlow S. Person, Ph.D.; Mr. Henry 
 
 H. Hilton. A.B. 
 Georgetown University: Mr. Patrick H. O'Donnell, A.B., LL.B. 
 Dickinson College: President George Edward Reed, S.T.D., LL.D. 
 Western University of Pennsylvania: Chancellor S. B. McCormick, 
 
 A.M., D.D., LL.D. 
 University of Tennessee: President Brown Ayers, Ph.D. 
 University of Vermont: President Matthew H. Buckham, D.D., 
 
 LL.D.' 
 University of Georgia: Chancellor Walter B. Hill, A.M., LL.D.; 
 
 President H. C. White, Ph.D., of the College of Agriculture and 
 
 Mechanical Arts. 
 Washington and Jefferson College: President James D. Moffat, D.D., 
 
 LL.D. 
 United States Military Academy, West Point: Mr. Charles L. Ham- 
 mond. 
 Vincennes University: President Horace Ellis, Ph.D. 
 Andover Theological Seminary: Reverend Pearse Pinch. 
 Hamilton College: Myron H. Beach, LL.D. 
 
 Alleghenv College: President Henry William Crawford, A.M., D.D. 
 Indiana University: President William L. Bryan, A.M., Ph.D. 
 George Washington University: President Charles Willis Needham, 
 
 LL.D. 
 Central University: President Frederick William Hinitt, Ph.D., D.D. 
 Miami University: President Guy Potter Benton, A.M., D.D. 
 Kenvon College: President William Foster Peirce, A.M., L.H.D. 
 Western Reserve University: Professor Charles Harris, Ph.D. 
 Shurtleff College: President J. D. S. Riggs, A.M., Ph.D., LL.D. 
 McKendree College: President McKendree Hypes Chamberlin, A.M., 
 
 LL.D. 
 Illinois College: President C. H. Rammelkamp, A.M., Ph.D. 
 St. Loms University: Eugene C. Slevin, A.M. 
 McCormick Theological Seminary: President James Gore King Mc- 
 
 Clure, D.D.; Professor Andrew C. Zenos, A.M., D.D. 
 Dension University: Dean Francis W. Shepardson, Ph.D.; Principal 
 
 J. Stanley Brown, A.M. 
 New York University: Professor Frederick W. Carpenter, Ph.D. 
 Wabash College: President William P. Kane, D.D. 
 Oberlin College: President Henry Churchill King, B.D., A.M., D.D. 
 Haverford College: Professor Arthur M. Charles. 
 Hartford Theological Seminary : Reverend William A. Bartlett, D.D. ; 
 
 Professor Austin Bradley Bassett. 
 Union Theological Seminary: Professor William Adams Brown, 
 
 Ph.D., D.D. 
 Mt. Holyoke College: Mrs. Zella Allen Dixon. 
 
 (361) 
 
52 
 
 Rush Medical College: Professor A. C. Cotton, A. M., M. D. 
 Knox College: President Thomas McClelland, B.D., A.M., D.D. 
 University of Michigan: President James B. Angell, LL.D. 
 University of Missouri : Acting President J. C. Jones, Ph.D. ; Professor 
 
 G. E. Ladd, A.M., Ph.D.; Doctor A. L. McRae, S. D. 
 University of Notre Dame: Reverend J. W. Cavanaugh, C.S.C. 
 Albion College: President Samuel Dickie, M.S., LL.D. 
 Iowa Wesleyan University: President John W. Hancher, A. M., 
 
 S.T.D. 
 Ohio Wesleyan University: President Herbert Welch, D.D.; Dean 
 
 W. F. Whitlock, D.D.,' LL.D. 
 Earlham College: President Robert Lincoln Kelly, Ph.D.; Professor 
 
 Arthur M. Charles; Mr. Morris E. Cox. 
 Illinois Woman's College: President Joseph R. Harker, Ph.D.; Mr. 
 
 A. K. HoUowell. 
 Beloit College: President Edward Dwight Eaton, D.D., LL.D." 
 
 Professor Robert C. Chapin, B.D. 
 Otterbein University: President Lewis Bookwalter, A.M., D.D. 
 Lawrence University: President Samuel Plantz, S.T.B., Ph.D., D.D. 
 University of Wisconsin : President Charles R. VanHise, M.S., Ph.D. ; 
 
 Professor WilHam A. Scott, Ph.D.; Dean E. E. Turneaure, C.E. 
 Iowa College: Dean John Hanson Thomas Main, Ph.D.; Professor 
 
 Bruce Fink. 
 College of the City of New York: President John Hustan Finley, 
 
 Ph.D., LL.D. 
 Rockford College: President Julia Henrietta Gulliver. 
 University of Rochester: Professor C. C. Pickett, A.M., LL.B. 
 Hiram College: President C. C. Rowlinson, A.B., vS.T.B. 
 Illinois Wesleyan University: President Frank G. Barnes, A.B., 
 
 D.D. ; Pofessor Robert Orlando Graham, M.A., Ph.D. ; Judge Owen 
 
 Thornton Reeves, LL.D. 
 Austin College: President Delmar R. Bebont. 
 Lasell Seminary: Miss Nora J. Burroughs. 
 Christian Brothers' College: Professor Ralston T. Wilbur, M.E.; 
 
 Reverend Brother Bernadine Robinson, A.M. 
 Ripon College: President R. C. Hughes, A. M., D.D. 
 Lombard University: President Lewis Beals Fisher, D.D. 
 Westminster College: President David R. Kerr, D.D., Ph.D. 
 Hedding College: President Harry B. Gough, A.B. 
 University of Mississippi: President Robert B. Fulton, A. M., LL.D. 
 Northwestern University: Acting President Thomas Franklin Hol- 
 
 gate, A.M., Ph.D.; Professor Henry Crew, Ph.D.; Professor James 
 
 Alton James, Ph.D.; Professor Charles Louis Mix, A.M., M.D. 
 Western College for Women: President Lilian W. Johnson, Ph.D.; 
 
 Dean Mary A. Sawyer. 
 
 (362) 
 
53 
 
 Butler College: Professor Thomas Carr Howe. 
 
 Eureka College: President Robert Enoch Hieronymus, A.M. 
 
 Hillsdale College: President Joseph WilHam Mauck, A.M., LL.D. 
 
 Bethel College: President William H. Harrison, M.A. 
 
 Western Theological Seminary (Alleghany): Reverend Thomas D. 
 
 Logan. 
 Monmouth College: President Thomas Hanna McMichael, A.M., 
 
 B.D., D.D. 
 Cornell College: President Fletcher King, D.D., LL.D. 
 Illinois State Normal School: President David Felmley, A.B. 
 Michigan Agricultural College: President Jonathan Le Moyne 
 
 Snyder, Ph.D. 
 Upper Iowa University: President William A. Shanklin, D.D. 
 Baker University: President Lemuel Herbert Murlin, D.D., S.T.D. 
 St. Lawrence University: President Almon Gunnison, D.D., LL.D. 
 Chicago Theological Seminary: President Joseph Henry George, 
 
 A.M., Ph.D.; Professor Graham Taylor, D.D. 
 Lucy Cobb Institute: Principal M. A. Lipscomb. 
 Pennsylvania State College: President George W. Atherton, LL.D. 
 Washington University: Professor Calvin M. Woodward, A.B., Ph.D. 
 Olivet College: President Ellsworth G. Lancaster, Ph.D. 
 Adrian College: Professor H. L. Freeman. 
 Lenox College: President F. W. Grossman, D.D. 
 Blackburn College: President Thomas W. Lingle, M. A. 
 Augustana College and Theological Seminary: President Gustav 
 
 Andreen, D.D., Ph.D.; Professor Carl Esbjorn; Vice-President 
 
 Conrad E. Lindberg, D.D. 
 Louisiana State University: President Thomas D. Boyd, A.M., LL.D. 
 St. Francis Solanus College: Vice-President P. F. Hansser. 
 Wheaton College: President Charles A. Blanchard, D.D. 
 Northwestern College: President H. J. Kiekhoefer, A.M., Ph.D. 
 Grand Prairie Seminary and Commercial College: S. D. Benthuysen. 
 Washburn College: President Norman Plass, A.M., B.D. 
 Westfield College: President W. R. Shuey. 
 Lincoln College: President J. H. McMurray, A.M. ; Professor Herbert 
 
 Earle Buchanan, A.M. 
 Vassar College: Mrs. Edward Fulton, A.B. 
 
 Pritchett College: President U. S. Hall, A.B.; Dr. C. C. Hemanway. 
 Lincoln Institute: President B. F. Allen. 
 
 New Hampshire College of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts: Presi- 
 dent William David Gibbs, M.S. 
 University of Kansas: Chancellor Frank Strong, A.M., Ph.D. 
 Carleton College: President William Henry Sallmon, A.M., D.D.; 
 
 WilHam M. Payne, Ph.D.; Mr. E. A. Fath. 
 Fisk University: President James Griswold Merrill, D.D. 
 
 (363) 
 
54 
 
 Kentucky Wesley an University: President John Langdon Weber, 
 
 D.D., Litt.D. 
 Garrett Biblical Institute: Professor Charles Macaulay Stuart, M.A., 
 
 B.D., D.D. 
 University of Maine: President George E. Fellows, Ph.D., LL.D., 
 
 L.H.D. 
 University of Minnesota: Professor John J. Flather, M.M.E. 
 West Virginia University: President Daniel B. Purinton, Ph.D., 
 
 LL.D. 
 Cornell University: Professor Edward B. Titchener, A.M., Ph.D.; 
 
 Professor Waterman Thomas Hewitt, Ph.D. 
 St. Viateur's College: Reverend M. J. Marsile, C.S.V.; Reverend E. L. 
 
 Rivard, C.S.V., D.D., Ph.D. 
 University of the South: Vice-Chancellor Benjamin E. Wiggins, A.M. 
 Ewing College: President Julius A. Leavitt, D.D.; Reverend George 
 
 C. Moor, A. M., Ph.D., D.D. 
 Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts: President 
 
 Albert Boynton Storms, A.M., D.D. 
 St. Mary's School: President Charles Wesley Leffingwell, D.D. 
 Swarthmore College: President Joseph Swaim, A.M., LL.D. 
 University of Nebraska: Chancellor E. Benjamin Andrews, D.D., 
 
 LL.D. 
 Ohio State University: President William Oxley Thompson, A.M., 
 
 LL.D.; Dean Edward Orton, Jr., M.E. 
 Leland University: President R. W. Perkins, A.M.; Mr. James S. 
 
 Dickerson. 
 University of Cincinnati: President Charles William Dabney, Ph.D., 
 
 LL.D.; Reverend Henry Melville Curtis, D.D.; Professor Louis 
 
 Trenchard More, Ph.D. 
 Stevens Institute of Technology: Professor Morgan Brooks, M.E. 
 Buchtel College: President A. B. Church, D.D. 
 Carthage College: President Frederick Lester Sigmund, D.D.; 
 
 Professor William Kuhns Hill, A.M. 
 Colorado Schools of Mines: President Victor Clifton Alderson, A.M., 
 
 Sc.D.; Mr. Joseph S. Jaffa. 
 Drury College: President J. Edward Kirbye, D.D.; Professor Edward 
 
 M. Shepard, Ph.D. 
 Hardin College: President John Wilson Million, A.M.; Mrs. John 
 
 Wilson MiUion. 
 Purdue University: President Winthrop E. Stone, Ph.D. 
 Colorado College: President William F. Slocum, B.D., LL.D.; Dean 
 
 Edward S. Parsons, 'A.M., B.D. 
 St. Olaf College: President John N. Kildahl, D.D. 
 Smith College: Mrs. Alice Peloubet Norton. 
 Welleslev College: Mrs. Norman Frederick Thompson, A.B. 
 
 (364) 
 
55 
 
 Vanderbilt University: President J. H. Kirkland, A.M., Ph.D., 
 
 D.C.L., LL.D. 
 Parsons College: President W. E. Parsons, D.D. 
 Johns < Hopkins University: President Ira Remsen, M.D., Ph.D., 
 
 LL.D. 
 Lake Forest College: President Richard Davenport Harlan, D.D., 
 
 LL.D.; Professor Lewis Stuart, A.M., Ph.D. , 
 
 Shorter College: President T. J. Simmons, A.M. 
 University of Colorado: President James H. Baker, LL.D. 
 Ogden College: President William Alexander Obenchain, A.M. 
 Creighton University: Mr. Charles F. Crowley. 
 Art Institute of Chicago: Director William M. R. French, A.B. 
 Case School of Applied Sciences: President Charles Sumner Howe, 
 
 Ph.D. 
 Tuskegee Institute : Mr. Robert W. Taylor. 
 Paul Ouinn College: Reverend F. J. Peterson. 
 Yankton College: President Henry K. Warren, D.D. 
 University of South Dakota: President Garrett Droppers, A.B. 
 Tarkio College: President J. A. Thompson, D.D. 
 Universitv of North Dakota: President Webster Merrifield, A.M. 
 Western Theological Seminary (Chicago): Reverend N. B. Atcheson. 
 American International College: President Samuel H. Lee, M.A. 
 Pratt Institute: President Charles M. Pratt, A.B.; Miss Myrn Brock- 
 
 ett, B. L. 
 Midland College: President F. M. Troxell, A.M., D.D. 
 South Dakota Agricultural College: President James Chalmers, D.D., 
 
 LL.D. 
 New Mexico School of Mines: President Charles Rollin Keyes, A.M., 
 
 Ph.D.; Professor Robert N. Noble. 
 Catholic University of America: Professor Daniel W. Shea, A.M., Ph.D. 
 Throop Polytechnic Institute: Norman Bridge, M.D. 
 University of Chicago: Dean Harry Pratt Judson, A. M., LL.D.; 
 
 Professor Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin, Ph.D., LL.D.; Professor 
 
 Paul Shorey. Ph.D.; Professor Shailer Mathews, D.D.; Mr. Wallace 
 
 Heckm.an. 
 University of Oklahoma: President David R. Boyd, A.M., Ph.D. 
 Armour Institute of Technology: President Frank W. Gunsaulus, 
 
 D.D.; Mr. Fred U. Smith. 
 Fairmount College: President Nathan Jackson Morrison, D.D., LL.D. 
 Greenville College: President Augustin L. Whitcomb, M.S.; Vice- 
 President E. G. Burritt, A.M.; Reverend John La Due, A.B. 
 Graceland College: Vice-President Rolland M. Stewart, B.A. 
 Lewis Institute: Director Geo. H. Carman, A.M. 
 Eastern Illinois State Normal School: President Livingston C. Lord, 
 
 LL.D. 
 
 (365) 
 
56 
 
 Chicago Law School: Chancellor J. J. Tobias. 
 Simmons College: President Henry Lefavour, Ph.D., LL.D. 
 James Milliken University: Albert Reynolds Taylor, Ph.D. 
 Carnegie Technical Schools: Director Arthur A. Hammerschlag. 
 Forest Park University: President Anna Sneeds Cairn, A.M. 
 
 United States Army 
 Major-General John F. Weston, U. S. A. 
 
 Illinois National Guard 
 Adjutant General, State of Illinois, Brigadier-General Thomas W. 
 
 Scott. 
 
 Learned Societies 
 American Philosophical Society : Professor Thomas Chrowder Cham- 
 
 berlin, A.M., Ph.D., LL.D.; Professor A. W. Moore, Ph.D. 
 The College of Physicians: Nicholas Senn, M.D. 
 American Academy of Medicine: W. S. Hall, M.D.; Charles Mc- 
 
 Intire, M.D. 
 American Society of Civil Engineers: Octave Chanute, C.E.; Robert 
 
 Moore. 
 American Institute of Architects: William B. Mundie; William W. 
 
 Clay. 
 Chicago Academy of Sciences: Professor Thomas Chrowder Cham- 
 
 berlin, A.M., Ph.D., LL.D. 
 American Philological Association: Professor Edward Capps, Ph.D. 
 American Institute of Mining Engineers: H. L. HolHs; Edward C. 
 
 Potter. 
 American Society of Mechanical Engineers: Professor Charles Henry 
 
 Benjamin; Professor Robert H. Fernald. 
 American Water Works Association: Professor Daniel W. Mead; 
 
 John W. Alvord, C.E. 
 Illinois Society of Engineers and Surveyors: Dabney H. Maury; 
 
 John W. Alvord, C.E.; Daniel W. Mead; Edward Ernest Russell 
 
 Trautman. 
 American Folklore Society: Arthur Llewellyn Eno, A.M. 
 American Mathematical Society: Professor Arthur S. Hathaway, 
 
 B.Sc. 
 American Academy of Political and Social Science: Professor Simon 
 
 Nelson Patton, A.M., Ph.D. 
 American Psychological Association : Professor Joseph Jastrow, A.M. , 
 
 Ph.D.; Professor J. McKeen Cattell, A.M., Ph.D. 
 Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education: Professor Cal- 
 vin Milton Woodward, A.B., Ph.D. 
 American Society of Municipal Improvements: Professor Arthur 
 
 Newell Talbot, C.E.; Professor A. Prescott Folwell, C.E. 
 Washington Academy of Sciences: Professor Thomas Chrowder 
 
 (366) 
 
Chamberlin. A.M.. Ph.D., LL.D.; President Charles Richard Van 
 Hise, M.S., Ph.D., LLD. 
 American Society for Testing Materials: Professor William Kendrick 
 
 Hatt. 
 American Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association : 
 Professor William D. Pence, B.S. 
 
 Religious Organizations 
 Board of Education of the Methodist Episcopal Church: William 
 
 F. Anderson, D.D., Secretary. 
 Presbyterian Synod of Illinois: Reverend G. J. E. Richards, Stated 
 
 Clerk. 
 Religious Education Association: President Henry Churchill King, 
 A.M., D.D. 
 
 Agricultural Organizations 
 United States Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Sta- 
 tions, Washington, D. C. : A. C. True, Director. 
 Agricultural Experiment Station, Madison, Wis.: Dean William A. 
 
 Henrv. 
 Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station: Director M. A. Scovell. 
 Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station: L. A. Moorhouse. 
 State Farmers' Institute: Board of Directors — A. D. Barber, Joseph 
 Newman, B. R. Pierce, John H. Houseman, John M. Clark, Ralph 
 W. Chittenden, B. F. Wyman, Wm. H. Lyford, Ralph Allen, F. I. 
 Mann, A. P. Grout, E. W. Burroughs, J. F. McCartney; H. A. 
 Aldrich, C. P. Reynolds, M. K. Sweet, James Frake, J. F. Rehm, 
 J. P. Mason, A. N. Abbott, George W. Dean, S. B. Mason, E.E. 
 Chester, Edward Grimes, A. V. Schermerhorn, H. G. Easterly. 
 Illinois Live Stock Breeders' Association: Joseph R. Fulkerson, J. H. 
 
 Kincaid, A. P. Grout. 
 Illinois Corn Growers' Association: E. E. Chester. 
 State Board of Live Stock Commissioners: W. P. Smith. 
 State Farmers' Elevator Association: Thomas Lambe, Jr., Lee Kin- 
 caid, John McCreery. 
 Illinois Poultry Association: Hon. A. G. Murray, C. L. McCord. 
 City and County Officers 
 Champaign County, Thomas A. Burt, Clerk; Charleston, W. S. 
 Cone, Alderman; Chicago J. Hamilton Lewis, Corporation Counsel; 
 Dixon, J. F. Edwards, Mayor; Douglas County, Chas. E. Hawkins, 
 Clerk; Edwardsville, D. E. Burroughs, Alderman; Franklin County, 
 William D. Seeber, Clerk; Joliet, Richard J. Barr, Mayor, and fiye 
 Members of Council; Kane County, William F. Lynch, Clerk; Keiths- 
 burg — E. J. Glancey, Mayor; Mendota, Newton Innis, Mayor; New- 
 man, Scott Burgett, Member of City Council; Paxton, A. J. Lawrence, 
 Mayor, H. C. Hall, C. H. Swanson, J. H. Nelson, Pearl Kemp, and 
 D. D. Dennian, Aldermen; Pekin, Daniel Swapp, Mayor; Sangamon 
 
 (367) 
 
58 
 
 County, W. P. Smith, representing the County Board; Springfield, 
 Harry G. Devereux, and Members of Council; Sycamore, William J. 
 Fulton; Urbana, Samuel C. Fox, Mayor; Watseka, F. H. Burnham, 
 
 Mayor. 
 
 Illinois Boards of Education 
 
 Areola, H. U. Potter; Bloomington, Horatio B. Bent, Superin- 
 tendent J. K. Stableton; Charleston, Superintendent DeWitt Elwood; 
 Chicago, Superintendent, E. G. Cooley; Decatur, Mrs. Minnie Hostetler 
 Dixon, J. F. Edwards; Downers Grove, O. M. Searless; Earlville, Ezra 
 T. Goble, M.D.; Galva, P. S. Peck, M.D., J. S. Dickinson, M.D.; 
 Harrisburg, Harry Taylor, Mr. Bennell; Harve}-, F. L. Miller; Homer, 
 C. D. Babb, W. S. Hess, H. Oneil, E. S. Michner, F. O. Hopkins, J. J. 
 Freeman; Hoopeston, John B. Wallbridge; Joliet, John J. Allison; 
 Milford, C. M. Dazey, O. O. Hall; Naperville, S. E. Dienst, M.D.; 
 Normal, W. H. Gardner, J. B. Adam, J. L. Boling; Nuhda and Crystal 
 Lake, A. M. Shelton; Shelbyville, J. C. Westervelt, M.D., Isaac S. 
 Storm; Sheldon, Principal W. C. Chapman; Sterling, Rev. Theodore 
 Crowl; Taylorville, E. A. Vandeveer, C. M. Parker; Urbana, All the 
 members of the board; Vandalia, George E. Dieckmann, J. R. Schtilte, 
 J. R. McAfee, Wenona; Charles Burgess, Frank Hoge, A. L. Turner, 
 James Parrett. 
 
 Clubs 
 
 Chicago Athletic Association: Lawrence Heyworth, Fred Gard- 
 ner, Frank W. Teeple, Frank W. Wentworth, Rex E. Beach, Wm. J. 
 Hynes, Ralph C. Otis, Fred L. Watson, Charles M. Faye, Wm. H. 
 Lake, Everett C. Brown, P. M. Hanney, Evan E. Evans, Wm. A. 
 Cameron, Chas. S. Dennis, H. H. Loddell, A. D. Bevan, M.D., Wm. C. 
 Thorne. 
 
 Chicago Culture Club: Mrs. Donald M. Gallic. 
 
 Chicago Woman's Club: Keturah G. Beers, Mrs. Henry Solomon, 
 Mrs. Geo. B. Carpenter, Miss Maude L. Bradford. 
 
 City Club : Towner K. Webster. 
 
 Evanston Club: Frank W. Gerould, Hon. Charles G. Neely. 
 
 Marquette Club: J. T. Lenfesty, P. S. Webster. 
 
 Merchants' Club: David R. Forgan. 
 
 Social Economics Club: Frances Dickinson, M.D. 
 
 Union League Club: Reverend F. W. Gunsaulus, D.D.; Judge 
 C. C. Kohlsatt, H. H. C. Miller. 
 
 Congratulatory Addresses 
 
 Written communications were presented from the following insti- 
 tutions : 
 
 Oxford University, Cambridge University, Gonville and Cains 
 College (Cambridge), Trinity College (Cambridge), University of 
 Glasgow, Brasenose College (Oxford), University of Marburg, Univer- 
 sity of Toronto, University of London, Queen's University (Ontario), 
 
 (368) 
 
59 
 
 Trinity College (Toronto). Newnham Hall (Cambridge), Emperor 
 Nicholas II Institute of Technology (Tomsk, Siberia), Technische 
 Hochschule (Hanover), Magyar-O'var Academy of Agriculture (Hun- 
 gary), Bowdoin College, St. Louis University, University of Missouri, 
 Michigan State Agricultural College, Forest Park University. The 
 representatives of the other institutions responded orally as their 
 names were called. 
 
 ADDRESS OF WELCOME 
 
 Judge Oliver A. H.\rker 
 Dean of the College of Law 
 
 To be called upon to preside at this meeting of delegates of the 
 leading universities of the civilized world is a high honor. Appreci- 
 ating it as it comes to me unexpectedly at this hour, I cannot refrain 
 from expressing the deepest regret that the distinguished educator 
 and amiable gentleman selected for the presiding officer upon this 
 occasion is bv reason of his ill-health unable to be with us. During an 
 unbroken record of thirty-seven years of service in this institution of 
 learning this is the first public occasion on which Dr. Burrill, because 
 of ill-health, has been unable to be present and perform his full share 
 of duty. 
 
 In welcoming the delegates, who have honored us by accepting 
 the invitation to attend and assist in these installation ceremonies, we 
 can point to no splendid antiquities, no long history, as compared 
 with the leading universities of England and Germany and other 
 civilized nations of Continental Europe and the historic institutions 
 of the East. In comparison with them the University of Illinois is a 
 mere infant. But as to material equipment, student attendance, 
 teaching force, when you come to compare it with those universities, 
 it shows all the strength, vigor and size of full manhood. A study of 
 the statistics of the thirty leading universities and institutions of 
 learning in the United States. for the last ten years shows that the 
 University of Illinois in point of increase in attendance has outstripped . 
 all of them. This institution, while something like forty years old, 
 was founded not under the present name, and up to twenty years ago 
 not one-half of the people of this commonwealth had ever heard of it. 
 The half who had heard of it supposed it was an industrial school, 
 where incorrigible boys were sent for reformation, and where they 
 might learn some kind of an honest vocation. I remember something 
 like eighteen years ago, when as a member of the Board of Trustees, 
 and a member of the committee having in charge the procuring of an 
 appropriation for this building, I with others went to the Legislature 
 and asked for the modest sum of twenty-five thousand dollars. Al- 
 though the State was at that time in most excellent financial condition, 
 
 (369) 
 
60 
 
 although this senatorial district was represented by one of the most 
 popular men in the State of Illinois — Senator Mathews — all that we 
 were able to procure from the Legislature was the meagre sum of ten 
 thousand dollars. What was needed then was the hyponotic influ- 
 ence of President Draper over the Senate and House of Representa- 
 tives of Illinois. In due time it came, and for the last six or eight 
 years appropriations of one and two hundred thousand dollars have 
 been procured with less effort than was required in procuring the 
 appropriation of ten thousand dollars for this building. 
 
 Referring again to the student attendance for the last ten years of 
 this institution, the period intervening from the fall of 1894 to the fall 
 of 1904, there was an increase of from 607 to 3,391. At the beginning 
 of that time the University of Illinois ranked with the other great 
 universities, twenty-third; at the end of that decade fifth. The per 
 cent, of increase in the leading universities has been as follows: Har- 
 vard, twenty-eight; Yale, thirty-two; Michigan, thirty-two; Minne- 
 sota, sixty-two; Wisconsin, one hundred and two; Columbia, one 
 hundred and eight; the University of Illinois, four hundred and sixty- 
 one. Such an institution. Delegates of Universities, through its 
 Trustees, its President, its Faculty and its Alumni, welcomes vou. 
 
 RESPONSE FOR FOREIGN UNIVERSITIES 
 
 Henry T. Bovey, LL.D., M. Inst. C. E., F.R.S. 
 Dean of the Faculty of Applied Science, McGill University, Montreal 
 
 It is now some months since I received from the University of 
 Cambridge a request that I should act as her representative at this 
 pleasant and important function. The duties involved seemed to 
 consist mainly in having the privilege of carrying to your President an 
 address already prepared for me, and couched in the noble tongue 
 which, ensconced in its university strongholds, has so long withstood 
 the shocks of time. I was enticed into consent by the lightness of the 
 .duties and the interest of the occasion, to say nothing of the pressure 
 of a feeling which I might call "nobless oblige, " a feeling which I hope 
 will always make it difficult for any graduate to refuse the request of 
 his Alma Mater. Time, however, brought changes, if not revenges, 
 and just before leaving it was found that discussions involving im- 
 portant educational issues would unfortunately prevent our Principal, 
 Dr. Peterson, from being present today. In this way it came about 
 that I was asked to take a double responsibilitv, and to bring greetings 
 from McGill University. McGill has not been considerate enough to 
 write an address for me, so I must present her message as best I may. 
 I must hope that it will be no less warm than that of Cambridge, 
 though less sonorous, clothed as it must be in a language which we 
 
 (370) 
 
61 
 
 expect — with the help of the great American nation — to find as 
 worthy to meet the needs of the modem as Latin was to meet those 
 of the ancient world. Not only shall we find it fit for commerce and 
 the telegraph, to which its use was somewhat summarily limited the 
 other day by a wellknown Frenchman, but fit also for the tongue of 
 the masters of thought. Of course its triumphs must always depend 
 on the nicety of the adjustment with that particular kind of tongue, 
 or to misuse the words of a north western report on com lands, "the 
 yield of com which may be expected from these lands will depend on 
 manv things and first on the presence of the cultivator, a personage 
 often conspicuously absent. 
 
 In a tongue of the Old World, then, and in a tongue of the New, 
 I bring congratulations to you and to your President, the two tongues 
 being in many ways very fitting types of the two institutions which I 
 represent. In England one day I listened to a child when he was 
 taken to see many hoary buildings covered with ivy and lichen, and 
 was amused to notice how soon he reflected the prevailing spirit of 
 those around him and always asked, "How old is it?" On this side 
 there are not wanting signs that we shall come to this — only recently 
 I read of a dance managed according to a tradition of three centuries. 
 But on the whole I think our child phonograph, had he been watched 
 on this continent, would have been heard saying, "How big is it?" 
 Well, Cambridge is decidedly old, going right back to mediaeval times, 
 where its beginnings are a little obscured by the fogs of dawn, but it 
 would be a great mistake to suppose that age implies an inability to 
 see anything but its past. Cambridge certainly lives in the past, 
 pretty much, in the matter of endowment, for we do not find the 
 state giving her two million dollars after the enlightened example of 
 Illinois. In fact it seems to have been supposed that she had found 
 the elixir of life and that she required nothing more in the way of 
 financial support. In spite of this, which we cannot but consider a 
 distinct disadvantage, Cambridge lives in the present in a very real 
 sense, carries on the search for new truths and, at the same time, 
 seems to be still capable of continuing her older work, that of discover- 
 ing men — men who have written masterpieces of literature, who have 
 revolutionized science and art and who, as statesmen, have changed 
 the destinies of nations. 
 
 McGill, on the other hand, has no claims to antiquity. We cele- 
 brated our seventy-fifth birthday only two years ago, but if we have 
 lived onlv through one lifetime of the world, it is emphatically a life- 
 time which has been "crowded with culture" — culture of everything 
 from fields to the minds of men. 
 
 A French writer, however, has said that we are the true ancients, 
 and so we are, if long experience gives proof of ancientry. For are 
 we not heirs of all the ages? Which should perhaps give us a hint that 
 
 (371) 
 
62 
 
 educational structures should not be revolutions starting from demo- 
 lition, but would do better to be evolutions, building upon and em- 
 bodying the work of the past. 
 
 When I reached Champaign I found that I was requested to make 
 a further addition to my duties and to reply for foriegn universities. 
 I don't know whether that means all foreign universities or only those 
 which sent special greetings. Even if the latter it seems to me that I 
 should require the help of the Hercules we saw in the play last night 
 to enable me to support the load of such a responsibility. I can onlv 
 say that if these institutions of learning had sent representatives, they 
 would doubtless have been able to say the other things which I have 
 been obliged to leave to your kindly imagination. 
 
 On behalf of the University of Cambridge, and of Queen's College, 
 Cambridge, England, and on behalf of McGill University, Montreal, 
 Canada, I beg to tender the most cordial greetings and to express the 
 hope that continued success may mark the new regime upon which 
 this great University enters under the distinguished presidency of 
 Dr. James. 
 
 RESPONSE FOR STATE UNIVERSITIES 
 
 James B. Angell, LL.D 
 President of the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 
 
 We have been accustomed to congratulate each of the seven cities 
 which showed some claims to be the birthplace of Homer, for there 
 was honor enought to divide amongst them all. Some of us who 
 have been in collegiate service for several years have been kept 
 busy in congratulating President James on his successive calls to 
 posts of higher academic honor and the various institutions he has 
 served with so much distinction on their good fortune in securing him. 
 I have sometimes queried whether his itinerancy was due to his 
 Methodist training, which accustomed him to the rule of limited 
 pastorates. But now that his church has changed its rule and granted 
 an extension of successful service, I trust this institution may hope to 
 see him long at its helm, which his gifts and experience so fit him to 
 hold. 
 
 On this occasion it seems fitting to recall the fact that the most 
 important chapter in the history of higher education in our country 
 during the last seventy-five years has been that which describes the 
 establishment and development of the state universities. In saying 
 this I do not forget or underrate the extraordinary grow^th and the 
 vastly increased resources of the older and stronger endowed univer- 
 sities nor the recent foundation of great universities through the 
 generosity of men of immense wealth. But when we remember that 
 every state from Michigan and Ohio to the Pacific coast and from the 
 
 (372) 
 
63 
 
 Dakotas southward to Texas has been enabled by the gift of the 
 general government to lay the solid foundations of a university, and 
 in most cases by the votes of the taxpayers to build it up into strength, 
 when we see that several of these comparatively young institutions 
 are by the amount of their resources, by their completeness of outfit, 
 and by their number of students rivalling in the most friendly spirit 
 the ancient and renowned institutions of the East, are we not justified 
 in affirming that this is the most striking phenomenon in our recent 
 educational history? 
 
 Furthermore, when we observe that these state universities are 
 furnishing education at a rate merely nominal in comparison with the 
 fees of the endowed universities, that they are for the most part in 
 the states in which the population is increasing most rapidly, and in 
 which, therefore, the dominant political power is likely to be lodged, 
 is it not clear that they are to have an enormous growth in the future, 
 and that their influence in shaping the fortune of our nation is likely 
 to be qtiite beyond our power of computation? If this Central West 
 has any controlling passion, it is the passion for education. For the 
 education of their children men cheerfully pay their largest taxes. To 
 acquire education, the young men and young women cheerfully prac- 
 tice the sternest self-denails to gratify this passion for education. 
 These state universities stand with open doors, inviting these ardent 
 disciples to come and receive their training almost without money 
 and without price. Where in this broad land so abounding in oppor- 
 tunities to ingenuous youth is there a more charming spectacle than 
 these temples of learning which in every state invite them to their 
 halls? 
 
 This imperial State started later than some of her sisters in planting 
 her State University. But for her tardiness in beginning she has 
 amply compensated by the vigorous pace at which she has proceeded. 
 Of late years no state has made so generous appropriations for the 
 support of its university. In no other university has recently the 
 increase in the number of students been more rapid. With the im- 
 mense resources of this, the wealthiest state in the West, at its com- 
 mand, with the obvious desire of the students of this populous com- 
 monwealth to flock to its halls, with a Faculty trained for the diversity 
 of education which it offers, under the leadership of a President in the 
 full vigor of middle life, how can we on this auspicious day fail to 
 cherish the most confident expectations of its indefinite growth and 
 prosperity, and how can this great commonwealth fail to register its 
 vow that all reasonable needs of her University shall be met with a 
 liberal hand? 
 
 That this may be your happy future is the wish and the belief of 
 your sister state university for whom by your favor I have the honor 
 to speak. 
 
 (373) 
 
64 
 
 RESPONSE FOR THE UNIVERSITIES OF THE EAST 
 
 Ira Remsen, M.D., Ph.D., LL.D. 
 
 President of Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore 
 
 The Johns Hopkins University sends cordial greetings and hearty 
 congratulations to the University of Illinois, and best wishes for the 
 success of the new President who today is to be inaugurated. Al- 
 though I am called upon to respond for the universities of the East, I am 
 mindful of the fact that I am not the official representative of these 
 universities. They have not selected me as their spokesman. But I 
 am sure that they would join in congratulatory messages, and I there- 
 fore venture to express to you the felicitations of the universities of 
 the East. 
 
 The work you are about to undertake. President James, is not 
 new to you. You have had experience enough in the presidential 
 chair to enable you to form a judgment as to what is before you, and 
 you have shown us that you have the qualities of mind that will 
 enable you to work efficiently in the lines laid down for you. 
 
 We have difficult problems to solve in education. This is true of 
 all grades and kinds of education, but the circumstances of this day 
 lead our thoughts more especially to the problems of university edu- 
 cation. With these problems we in this country have been struggling 
 for some years past, are at present struggling, and are likely to con- 
 tinue struggling for years to come. To one who has spent most of his 
 life in investigation in the field of experimental science, the problems 
 of education seem enormously difficult and unsatisfactory to deal 
 with. We want to know what is best for those who come to us for 
 training. If this could be determined with any degree of certainty, 
 we should all act accordingly. Our systems would be based upon a 
 knowledge of the facts. But our experiments must, and do, leave us 
 in doubt at many points, and so we go stumbling on, doing the best 
 we can, but knowing that we could do better if only we had the means 
 of judging the results of our work. 
 
 Some years ago the word college had a fairly distinct meaning in 
 this country. The work done in the college was for the most part 
 disciplinary and preparatory. The graduate was prepared to enter 
 upon the study of theology, or to take up the work of a teacher or of 
 a business man. The number of subjects studied was small as com- 
 pared with the number now going to make up the college curriculum. 
 On the whole this proved satisfactory. Then came science with its 
 manifold applications, and one by one the different branches of 
 science were added. At first the effort was made simply to give the 
 student an idea of the great fundamental principles of the sciences by 
 telling about them in lectures or by the study of text -books. As a 
 teacher of science I confess to having tried this experiment as many 
 
 (374) 
 
65 
 
 others have, and I need not here report that the experiment showed 
 that this method is of httle value to the student. My own conviction 
 is that the method is of no value whatever, and I believe that is one of 
 the problems of education that calls for no further experimenting. It 
 is worth something to have one problem out of the way. When it 
 became clear that nothing was to be gained by attempts to teach the 
 great fundamental principles of the sciences by lectures alone or by 
 text-books, and the value of the laboratory as a basis for the teaching 
 of the sciences came to be more and more clearly recognized, then the 
 cry for laboratories went up over the land and nothing is more char- 
 acteristic of the changes in our colleges in the last twenty years than 
 the springing up of laboratories in every nook and corner of the 
 country. I doubt if there were a dozen laboratories all told in the 
 entire country at the time when I began my work as a teacher, and 
 these were all devoted to chemistry. I do not know how many there 
 are now, but I am sure that every college has a number of them devoted 
 to as many different subjects, and there is scarcely a school, no matter 
 what its grade may be, that cannot boast of at least one. While those 
 who have helped to bring about this state of affairs do not, I am sure, 
 regret it; while they feel that much has been gained by the adoption 
 of the scientific laboratory method, the question is often raised 
 whether something has not been lost so far as general education is 
 concerned. That is a hard question to answer. And here we see 
 exemplified the general difficulty involved in pedagogical investiga- 
 tion. How shall we draw our conclusions with confidence? Most of 
 what I have read on the subject does not appear to me convincing. 
 The writers seem to be working the problems out in their heads, draw- 
 ing upon that never-failing source of information the "inner conscious- 
 ness" for their facts and arguments. It is probably too early to draw 
 conclusions. It takes time to get together a sufficient basis of facts. 
 But the facts are being accumulated and in time the conclusions will 
 force themselves upon us whether we will or not. As a teacher of 
 science I may say that I believe that the properly conducted laboratory 
 is of great value as a means of general training and that it is highly 
 desirable that every college student should have at least a glimpse of 
 the laboratory. Whether a satisfactory general education can be 
 given by the following of courses in science to the exclusion of those 
 subjects which were formerly held to have a monopoly of culture is 
 another question. I should not care to push the experiment too far. 
 Here, then, is an important problem that is still calling for solution. 
 Education should help to develop men and women of efficiency, of 
 culture, of character. Is there any particular combination of sub- 
 jects the study of which is likely to give the desired result? And 
 what weight is to be assigned to different subjects in the curriculum ? 
 We have got far enough along, I think, to justify us in saying that, 
 
 (375) 
 
66 
 
 so far as their educational value is concerned, there are many subjects 
 that stand on a par, that the choice is not limited to a narrow range. 
 But deeper than this is the most important fact of the man behind the 
 subject. Between the two possible combinations, a good subject and-a 
 bad man, and a bad subject and a good man, it would not be difficult to 
 choose. By bad man I do not mean one who is bad in the ordinary 
 sense, but one who is bad in a pedagogical sense. 
 
 I recently listened to a rather pathetic address. The speaker with 
 tears in his voice deplored the modern tendencies in college education, 
 holding that while in the older colleges the object in view was the 
 development of character, in the modem colleges the object is to 
 develop the power of work. The inference was not quite clear to me, 
 but as well as I could judge it was this, that there is a kind of educa- 
 cation that develops character and there is another kind that does not. 
 Neither was clearly defined. Now, I should like, all of us would like 
 above all things, to know just what that kind of education is that 
 develops character. That is the kind we want in our schools and 
 colleges, for it must be acknowledged that judged from the point of 
 view of character the products of schools and colleges often leave 
 much to be desired. It is questionable whether the nature of the 
 subject studied has much to do with these results. Physics properly 
 taught and mathematics properly taught probably have as good a 
 moral influence upon the student as Latin or history or philosophy or 
 any other subject commonly classed under the head of the humanities. 
 The essential thing is the proper teaching. 
 
 Probably these is some reason for the accusation that, in conse- 
 quence of the influence of our universities, our colleges have shown a 
 tendency to become schools for specialists. Our college teachers to a 
 large and increasing extent have received their training at some univer- 
 sity. They have spent years in special and advanced studies, becoming 
 more special and more advanced as time progressed, until their attention 
 has been fixed for a year or more upon some comparatively small point 
 which has been the subject of a research. Then they have been labeled 
 doctors of philosophy and sent out into the world to take up the work of 
 teaching. During the last quarter of a century the graduate courses and 
 their products, the doctors of philosophy, have revolutionized teaching 
 in our colleges. The result has been the introduction of university 
 methods into the colleges. While, on the whole, this change has 
 probably been beneficial, it has no doubt had its disadvantages. 
 Courses have been worked out for some of the colleges that have been 
 as nearly as possible like those which the teacher has followed in the 
 university, and the college students are set to work on these somewhat 
 advanced courses before they are prepared for them. I fear there is 
 a good deal of this premature tackling of advanced courses throughout 
 the country. A few years ago a teacher of my own subject in a rather 
 
 (376) 
 
67 
 
 obscure college said to me: "I have now arranged my work so that 
 those students who select chemistry can do everything that is done in 
 the universitv except the dissertation. We shall have to send them 
 away for that." The adjustment of our college courses to our uni- 
 versitv courses is one of the most important problems before us. The 
 present condition is most unsatisfactory. It is almost intolerable. 
 What ought we to do? We have a number of answers, but no one 
 answer appears to be so much better than the others that it is generally 
 accepted as furnishing the desired solution of the problem. 
 
 The question as to the proper adjustment of the college course to 
 the university course touches not only the so-called graduate courses 
 in the non-professional school, but also the courses in the professional 
 schools, and here all along the line rapid changes are taking place. 
 Where it is to end no one can say. It is clear that we are at present 
 in a state of imstable equilibrium. 
 
 Finallv, a word in regard to the university movement in general. 
 There can be no doubt that there should be a few places at least where 
 those of scholarly tendencies may go for the purpose of developing 
 their powers to the fullest extent. As time advances the demand for 
 such opportunities will increase, but it is a fair question whether too 
 much emphasis has not been laid upon graduate work in too many 
 places. I am well aware that there is no way of regulating the present 
 practice by law. Wasteful experiments will have to continue until 
 bitter experience teaches us the right. The spread of graduate work 
 meanwhiie continues until it threatens to do away with the preparatory 
 and disciplinary college work to which we have so long been accus- 
 tomed. We have been inoculated with a particularly vigorous uni- 
 versity virus and the disease has become epidemic among our colleges. 
 We Americans catch new ideas with great ease, and we are apt to run 
 them into the ground. But we also have a saving stock of common 
 sense that gradually asserts itself and saves us from disaster. How- 
 ever unsatisfactory the outlook now may be, we may be sure that by 
 the continued efforts of those engaged in educational work the many 
 problems will be solved, and we welcome you. President James, to the 
 circle of workers with a feeling of confidence that you will give valu- 
 able aid. You have a splendid opportunity. You have the guidance 
 of a flourishing university in a flourishing state. The Eastern uni- 
 versities hope and believe that you will make the best use of the 
 opportunity. 
 
 (377) 
 
68 
 
 RESPONSE FOR WESTERN UNIVERSITIES 
 
 Frank Strong, Ph.D. 
 Chancellor of the University of Kansas, Lawrence 
 
 I highly appreciate the honor that is mine in being chosen to 
 respond in behalf of western universities. For my own institution, 
 therefore, and for all of the universities which I represent, I wish to 
 extend to the University of Illinois our sincere congratulations upon 
 the auspicious event which we are here to celebrate. We hope for 
 you still greater success and still more honorable achievements under 
 the guidance of the distinguished man who is now your President. 
 
 In responding for western universities I am somewhat perplexed 
 because President Angell, who of all men is most worthy to undertake 
 the task imposed upon him, has spoken on behalf of the state univer- 
 sities, which without exception are the best equipped and strongest 
 institutions of learning in the West. I am perplexed again because of 
 the uncertain meaning of the word "western." To John Winthrop, 
 Thomas Hooker, in leading his colonists into the Connecticut Valley, 
 was plunging indeed into the far west. When the patriots of Massa- 
 chusetts and Connecticut in return for services in the Revolution took 
 up military lands in central New York, they, too, were hailed as 
 Westerners. So, indeed, were those who followed the Cumberland 
 road or skirted Lake Erie to the Ohio country and the great State 
 whose University we honor today; and so, again, were the hardy 
 settlers of the states whose western territory is the beginning of the 
 slope of the Rocky Mountains. And finally some years residence upon 
 the Pacific coast has led me to understand the amazement with which 
 the people of Oregon, Washington, and California regard the ill- 
 advised ones who speak of Illinois, Kansas or Colorado as "West." 
 Therefore, that there may be some definiteness in my own mind, I 
 shall for this occasion speak in general for the universities located 
 west of the Mississippi River. 
 
 The University of Illinois, Mr. President, is built on the original 
 territory of the United States. You are therefore linked with the 
 earliest years of our country's history. We belong to the new territory 
 about which our fathers dreamed, but which to them was an impossible 
 country. Some of us belong to the immense tract of coimtry pur- 
 chased through the farsightedness of the third president of the United 
 States — a territory which is but beginning to show what the future has 
 in store for it. Some of us belong to the Oregon territory, whose 
 occupation and conquest are among the most thrilling episodes in the 
 history of the world. Still others of us belong to that great territory 
 which came to the United States through the victories of Buena Vista, 
 Cerro Gordo and Chapultepec. 
 
 The University of Illinois belongs to a state which for nearly a 
 
 (378) 
 
69 
 
 hundred years has been an equal member of this union of states. 
 You are therefore more firmly linked with the past than we are. The 
 state from which I come entered the Union amidst the throes of the 
 Civil War. The state upon her western border was a Centennial 
 state, and the states north and west of her, with two exceptions, were 
 admitted during the period from 1867 to 1896. I even represent the 
 institutions in the territories of the United States which are now 
 knocking for admission at the door of the Union. 
 
 We are therefore new and young. We are, like you, a part of the 
 great western movement that has been going on throughout so many 
 centuries. The Persian found his master in the Greek; the Greek in 
 the western Roman, and the Roman in the barbarians of the north 
 and west. Out of that political and social chaos came the little island 
 kingdom still farther west and for so many years the greatest nation 
 in the world. Her eldest daughter, who has succeeded to the primacy, 
 has carried the western movement across our own continent and to 
 the islands of the sea until now the West is knocking at the door of the 
 East and we, as members of the Teutonic race, are treading near the 
 border of the country from which our family of races is said to have 
 spnmg. And, Mr. President, from the days of King Darius until now, 
 the West has ruled the world. 
 
 The states I represent, Mr. President, are not among the most 
 populous of our country. They are, however, rapid in their develop- 
 ment, great in their natural resources, wonderful in their scenery and 
 second to none in the character of the people living upon their soil. 
 Although we are not among the most populous, there are nearly 
 seventeen thousand undergraduate and graduate students in our 
 public universities and technical schools, and nearly thirteen thousand 
 in our private institutions of the same class, — nearly thirty thousand 
 of as strong and noble and capable young people as our country 
 affords. The amount of state aid to higher education in these states 
 is manv millions of dollars a year, and the amount is rapidly increas- 
 ing. The amount of public funds going toward the support of pubhc 
 schools is many millions more, and it has been left for the West to 
 provide free public education for its children from the kindergarten 
 to the university. 
 
 These institutions are nearly ah coeducational, for the educational 
 movement started by the ordinance of 1787 has developed a new type 
 of institutions in which the girl as well as the boy is given the best 
 opportunities that money can buy. The result has been a new kind 
 of university life; a new university spirit; a better understanding of 
 the sexes; a higher type of moral and intellectual life. 
 
 In these western states the denominational school of the old time 
 has passed away. The schools estabhshed and controlled by Christian 
 denominations are no longer sectarian in their influence, nor do they 
 
 (379) 
 
70 
 
 seek to impress upon their students their specific forms of sectarian 
 belief. They are no longer, with few exceptions, denominational 
 schools, but Christian schools in the broadest sense, whose standard is 
 that of the highest Christian culture. In like manner the public 
 universities of the western states have departed from their old atti- 
 tude of antagonism to religious life and development, recognizing as 
 they do, that our common Christianity is the basis of our civilization, 
 of our family life and of our university discipline. They, too, have 
 come to regard the highest Christian culture as the basis of university 
 life and control, and among no class of institutions is the university 
 life sounder and purer and more wholesome and more spiritual than 
 among the state institutions of the West. 
 
 There is also noticeable among us the beginnings of a unifying 
 movement which shall lead private institutions under the guidance 
 and leadership of the state universities to cooperate in every reason- 
 able way for the educational development of the state in which they 
 may be located. This movement, Mr. President, is destined to be of 
 great value to both state and private institutions, and with the exer- 
 cise of wisdom and generosity will lead to a higher type of educational 
 life. 
 
 I have said, Mr. President, that we are new and young, and so we 
 are. We have the strength and the weakness, the advantages and the 
 defects that arise from that fact. We have alertness, power, self- 
 confidence and mental vigor. On the other hand, we have the lack of 
 polish and stability that come with age. We are not bound to the old 
 because it is old, and yet, on the other hand, we are sometimes in 
 danger of embracing that which is new simply because it is new. 
 Because we are young we lack traditions, and on the whole we are 
 thankful for it. The lack of tradition allows us that freedom which is 
 the very breath of life of true education. It is because of this freedom, 
 Mr. President, that the western universities of which you are a part 
 have made such strides in the last fifteen years. It is because of this 
 freedom that we have alertness, and courage, and mental vigor. It is 
 because of this freedom that we are developing men of ability, un- 
 selfishness and power. The very breadth of our plains and greatness 
 of our mountains react upon the lives of our young people. The 
 sunshine and vital strength of the air they breathe make independence 
 necessary and undue restraint impossible. We are free, Mr. President, 
 because we cannot help ourselves; it is in our blood and comes down 
 to us from many generations of pioneers and patriots. 
 
 And lastly, Mr. President, we are loyal to our country. Nowhere 
 does the fire of patriotism burn more brightly, and it is the high pa- 
 triotism that demands purity in our national life and the overthrow 
 of the sordid commercialism that is making our people money-mad. 
 We are democratic in our instincts. Nowhere is there less account 
 
 (380) 
 
71 
 
 taken of anything bvit the actual worth of the individual; nowhere is 
 there more of the true democracy which is the state of mind and heart 
 that leads to a real belief in the brotherhood of men. We are altruistic 
 in our ideals. The students in our vmiversities can be relied upon for 
 the highest and noblest standards of political and social life without 
 counting the cost in dollars. They will be found not only supporting 
 but demanding obedience to law, faithfulness to public trusts, integ- 
 rity in official position, and a square deal for all men. We are sound 
 in our moral and religious life and we can be counted on for the funda- 
 mentals of the religious faith that has come down to us from our 
 fathers. In other words, Mr. President, we share the high ideals and 
 purposes of this great University, and your sister universities in the 
 vast territory west of the Mississippi once more bid you God-speed. 
 
 RESPONSE FOR SOUTHERN UNIVERSITIES 
 Edwin B. Craighead, LL.D. 
 
 President of Tulane University, New Orleans 
 Thrice happy am I to be with you today, for New Orleans and the 
 South are at the end of a hundred years war — they shall never have 
 another yellow fever epidemic. They have demonstrated to the world 
 a scientific truth, which, if known a hundred years ago, would have 
 made New Orleans a real world metropolis, and saved to the South, 
 not only thousands of valuable lives, but more money than has ever 
 been spent upon all the scientific institutions and universities of the 
 Republic. To the university -trained man we are indebted for this 
 triumph over a disease that once was fitly called the awful Southern 
 scourge. To the university-trained man, and to him alone, we must 
 look for leadership in a fight to a finish against tuberculosis and 
 cholera and all other diseases that have desolated the world. It is to 
 the university that humanity must look for light and guidance in its 
 onward march to better things. For this reason, not Tulane alone, 
 not the universities of the South alone, but the universities of the 
 North and of the East and of the West and of the world, yea, all civil- 
 ized men, of whatever tongue or creed, rejoice today with the friends 
 and alumni of the University of Illinois and wish for its new President 
 long life and abundant success in the great work which he has so 
 nobly begun. All real universities are engaged in the same sacred 
 cause, to furnish a larger and larger life to larger and larger numbers 
 of human beings. For Illinois to succeed is not for Louisana to fail, 
 for Illinois' success is Louisiana's and the South's success and human- 
 ity's success. For the work of a great university is not confined to 
 the city in which it is planted nor to the state which claims it as her 
 own. Its work is as wide as the world, as enduring as civilization, 
 "Lofty as the love of God, 
 Ample as the needs of man;" 
 (381j 
 
72 
 
 for it deals not alone with the local and temporal, but with the uni- 
 versal and eternal. 
 
 It is fit, therefore, that on this great occasion all universities, all 
 lovers of light and learning, should rejoice to send hither their repre- 
 sentatives; but there is a special reason why I, as a representative of 
 the South, should find here congenial company, for in the South was 
 established the first university sustained and controlled by the state. 
 In the South the state university first found a congenial home, a not 
 unfriendly atmosphere. Of the thirteen original colonies only five 
 have universities and of these all save one are in the South. In the 
 South was established the first real American university with elective 
 courses and without a fixed, uniform, medieval curriculum — the 
 University of Virginia, in which should be taught, said Jefferson, 
 "every branch of knowledge, whether calculated to enrich, stimulate 
 and adorn the understanding, or to be useful in the arts and sciences 
 and practical business of life." Slowly, sometimes stubbornly, 
 reluctantly, have our great Northern universities been creeping up 
 for a hundred years to the high ideal of the university set by Thomas 
 Jefferson. The state university is, after all, the most splendid and 
 enduring monument of Jeffersonian democracy. The great party 
 which he founded may be doomed to hopeless defeat and disruption — 
 it has little chance to suffer from corruption — or robbed of its staunch- 
 est champions, for Mr. Roosevelt will in a few days invade the South, 
 and there are among us thousands who believe in Roosevelt and con- 
 sider him the greatest democrat since Jefferson. Political parties 
 change names or disappear, and such may be the fate of the party 
 founded by Jefferson, but in the establishment of a system of general 
 instruction which "reaches every description of our citizens from the 
 richest to the poorest," and in the foundation of state tmiversities, 
 institutions of the people and for the people, we behold, and as long as 
 this Republic endures our children's children shall behold, the tri- 
 umph of Jeffersonian principles and springing therefrom in unwithering 
 beauty the topmost flower of American democracv. 
 
 It is true that Jefferson, the greatest educational statesman of the 
 New World, did not live to see the full fruition of his hopes, nor did 
 "Virginia's grand, imperial man," the immortal Washington, who, 
 anticipating by a hundred years the plans of Cecil Rhodes for Oxford, 
 labored for the foundation of a great national university. Such an 
 institution, he hoped, would bind together the discordant sections of 
 the Republic and secure for it intellectual, as well as political, inde- 
 pendence — an institution, which, in time, might have made real the 
 dream of Bacon in his Nova Atlantis, who saw in the far West a uni- 
 versity, the end of "whose foundations was the knowledge of the 
 causes and secret notions of things, and the enlargement of the 
 bounds of the human empire to the effecting of all things possible." 
 
 (382) 
 
73 
 
 Finally, in the South was established the first real university with 
 graduate courses and departments of research — a university that 
 revolutionized the whole field of higher education — whose influence, 
 Dr. Harper tells us. has been most potent — The Johns Hopkins Uni- 
 versity of Baltimore. Why Dr. Remsen, president of this great 
 southern university, came here as a representative of eastern institu- 
 tions, he has already had the goodness to explain. 
 
 Imbued with the spirit of the South's illustrious champions of 
 education and democracv, I come to you, not as a Southerner, but as 
 an American ; and I beg of you to think of us no longer as aliens and as 
 lovers of mob law and violence, but as friends of the Republic and as 
 coworkers in the great commonwealth of letters. 
 
 RESPONSE FOR UNIVERSITIES AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS 
 
 OF THE STATE 
 
 Harry Pratt Judsox, LL.D. 
 Dean, University of Chicago 
 
 On behalf of the technical schools and universities in Illinois which 
 are of private foundation I bring greeting to the State University on 
 this auspicious occasion. It is an idle and superficial view of the 
 matter which considers institutions of this character as competitors 
 in the sense, as in certain forms of business, that the success of one is 
 at the expense of others. On the contrary, these forms of what per- 
 haps I may call the highest education are in fact of necessity allies — 
 each is a positive benefit to all the rest, as all make together for their 
 common purpose. Their true analogue is not commercial rivals 
 striving each to grasp as much as possible of a limited field of business, 
 but rather separate bodies of military volunteers operating against a 
 common enemy, and this enemy — ignorance — is the ancient foe of all 
 social welfare. In this war there is room for all who sincerely love 
 the enlightenment and the progress of humanity — there is no room 
 for the petty jealousies which mark little minds. 
 
 This I believe to be eminently true in educational finance. In a 
 late report of the national Commissioner of Education there is record 
 of benefactions from private individuals to higher institutions of 
 learning in the year 1900-01 amounting to $14,016,998, distributed 
 among thirty-three institutions, each reporting gifts of one hundred 
 thousand dollars or over. These institutions, without exception, were 
 on private foundations. While we are well aware that there have been 
 considerable gifts to state institutions, still these at the most are com- 
 paratively small, and, knowing the conditions that usually prevail, 
 it is surely safe to infer that, had it not been for the institutions which 
 as a matter of fact benefited by the gifts, there would have been a loss 
 
 (383) 
 
74 
 
 of the whole amount to the cause of education. On the other hand, 
 there is little reason to suppose that there would have been any sponta- 
 neous uprising on the part of taxpayers demanding a corresponding in- 
 crease of their burdens for a similar enrichment of state institutions. 
 
 As things have turned out, however, the great beneficence which of 
 late years has enriched the coffers of private schools and universities 
 has, it is well understood, by no means, hindered liberal appropria- 
 tions for the support of institutions maintained by the state. Indeed 
 the rapid development made possible by private benefactions has been 
 a vivid object lesson which it is said has not been lost on legislators. 
 It is perhaps not too much to say that the generosity which has estab- 
 lished Stanford and Chicago among universities, Armour and Bradley 
 and Lewis among technical schools, has thus indirectly been the means 
 of providing other millions for the state universities. Thus has 
 beneficence been thrice blessed — it has blessed those who have given 
 and those who have received and their neighbors also. 
 
 It will further be admitted, I think, that the rich endowment of 
 the private technical schools in our State has on the whole been far 
 from lessening the number of students who have thronged to the 
 excellent technical schools of the Illinois State Universitv. Each 
 of these private foundations has been the means of opening the minds 
 of many young men to the idea of technical training. Where possibly 
 one young man has been attracted from going to Champaign, doubtless 
 many have been turned to technical professions who otherwise 
 would not have dreamed of such a life, and of these the State Uni- 
 versity has had its full share. In short, all combined have merely 
 prepared for the various engineering vocations an increasing number 
 of students, and all combined have not been able to supply the grow- 
 ing demands of our complex material energies. As the nation be- 
 comes richer and as its resources progressively unfold there is a steadily 
 multiplying call for trained intelligence, with which as yet the schools 
 cannot keep pace. All the schools are needed. 
 
 If this is true of technical schools, far more emphatically is it true 
 of universities. Of course by a university I mean here not an army of 
 students, nor merely a federation of schools. I use the term in its 
 highest modern sense as implying an institution whose primary pur- 
 pose is research — the discovery of new truth. Of such institutions 
 there cannot be too many, nor can they be too richly endowed, whether 
 from public taxes or from private munificence; ^and this because on 
 all sides the call for investigation is daily more pressing. Science as it 
 broadens the circle of the known ever comes into more multifarious 
 contact with the unknown. As we painfully learn one new principle 
 we at once find that we must know a dozen others, each pressingly 
 grave in its import on human Hfe in its environment. All which the 
 state can do, all that can be done by private wealth, will still not be 
 
 (384) 
 
75 
 
 enough. The nation which does not devote every energy to the 
 tireless exploration of every field of possible knowledge is already 
 decadent. Facts in recent history bearing on this truth are too 
 significant even for mention. We can look for no richer return on 
 anv of our funds than on those which we devote to scientific research. 
 We need for this the funds of the state, and also the funds of all who 
 will give. 
 
 Again, a sound social philosophy will hold that state and private 
 foundations for these high purposes are mutually interdependent. The 
 two poles of modern society are the organized state and the individual. 
 Excessive control by the state is tyranny, and tyranny means spirit- 
 ual death, the decay of every vital force. Excess of individualism is 
 anarch V, and that means the dissolution of the social bond and the 
 disintegration of civilization. We need the state and the individual 
 each in vigorous life. Thus in the higher training and in the pursuit 
 of knowledge the institution on private foundation needs the ex- 
 ample of the stability of that maintained by the state, while the state 
 university is supplemented and stimulated by the free spirit of the 
 private institutions. The two together, then, fulfill the best ideals of 
 the republic. 
 
 It is from this point of view that, on behalf of the private technical 
 schools and universities of the State, I bring greeting today to our 
 State Universitv. It is our university also, for we too are sons of 
 Illinois. We gladly congratulate you on the wise leadership which 
 today is formally inaugurated. No one, I think, knows better than I 
 the higher ideals, the large purpose, and the intelligent energy of 
 President James. If, moreover, any apprehensiveness has been 
 aroused in your minds by the uncanny suggestion of President Angell, 
 it seems to me that it may be allayed. I trust and believe that your 
 freshmen have not learned the cigarette habit. I am convinced that 
 your President has not yet formed the inaugurative habit. It is for 
 you to keep both from these unfortunate ways. And we heartily 
 and unanimously urge on the authorities of our loved commonwealth 
 here present that they give to our State University careful and 
 thoughtful attention, generous and wise support. In giving to it they 
 give to all ; better, they give to the great cause for which all are jointly 
 working, the cause of sound learning and scientific advance. In these, 
 more than in com and cattle and railroads, lies the true wealth of 
 Illinois. 
 
 (385) 
 
76 
 
 RESPONSE FOR THE COLLEGES OF THE STATE 
 
 Charles H. Rammelkamp, Ph.D. 
 President of Illinois College, Jacksonville 
 
 Corn and colleges are the pride of Illinois. The greatest corn-pro- 
 ducing state of the Union has also been most prolific in producing 
 colleges. Like Ohio and Pennsylvania, Illinois is the mother of a 
 numerous progeny of small colleges. It is therefore, Mr. President, 
 from a large family that I bring you this morning cordial greetings 
 and best wishes, and I know that I speak not only for the institution 
 which I represent directly, but for every college of the State, when I 
 wish you God-speed in the great work which you are undertaking. 
 The colleges of Illinois rejoice that a man of your intellectual attain- 
 ments, executive ability, and broad sympathies has been called to the 
 presidency of the State University, and they look to you with hope; 
 nav,with more than hope, with confidence, that under your wise ad- 
 ministration the University of Illinois will pursue a policy that will 
 advance the general educational interests of the whole State. As a 
 representative of Illinois College it gives me peculiar pleasure to bring 
 you greetings this morning, for it was a member of our own early 
 facultv, Jonathan B. Turner, who was a pioneer in the movement for 
 the establishment of state universities and a member of the first 
 faculty of the University of Illinois. Therefore, just as Illinois College 
 aided, as it were, in founding the State University, so today she 
 rejoices in the prosperity which has come to the institution and in the 
 bright promise of its future. 
 
 The relation of the colleges of Illinois to the State University in- 
 volves, it must be confessed, a large and difficult problem. The con- 
 ditions in our State are peculiar and different from those existing in 
 manv other states. In such states as Wisconsin, Michigan, Minnesota 
 and Nebraska there exists but one large institution of higher learning, 
 and that is the state university : nor is the number of smaller colleges 
 in those states large. The result is that interest and eff'ort center 
 largely in the state institution. It is the only real university in the 
 state. The problem is comparatively simple, for it involves only the 
 relation of a single large institution to a few smaller ones. The 
 practical solution of the problem there is that the state university 
 dominates the whole educational system of the state, but in our own 
 commonwealth the conditions are different and the problem is not so 
 simple. Instead of one large institution we have at least three, and 
 instead of ten small colleges we have over thirty. We may as well 
 not close our eyes, then, to the fact that a perplexing situation con- 
 fronts us; it will be best to face the issue squarely. We may not be 
 able to settle the question in a day, or even in a year, but a frank 
 discussion will greatly aid towards a proper adjustment of our rela- 
 
 (386) 
 
77 
 
 tions and a mutually helpful settlement of our difficulties. It was 
 Matthew Arnold, I believe, who said, " It is better to discuss a question 
 without settling it than to settle it without discussing it. " 
 
 It is not to be denied that there exists in many of our states an 
 antagonism between the colleges and the state imiversities. Says a 
 well known and well informed educator of a nearby university, "The 
 source of greatest trouble to many of our small colleges in the South, 
 and especially in the western states, is the state university. Slowly the 
 influence of this institution has gained ground until in some states it 
 has become almost impossible for the colleges to continue their work 
 with satisfaction. So strong has the antagonism come to be that in 
 more than one state the smaller colleges have joined in an alliance the 
 object of which is to meet the rapid encroachments of the state insti- 
 tutions. In the whole of the Mississippi valley there are not more 
 than two or three non-state institutions which today do not stand in 
 actual fear of the state institutions." 
 
 The small college has been assured by kind, frank friends that it is 
 in danger of freezing to death in the shadow of the state university, 
 and so it has not always felt kindly towards the body which casts the 
 shadow. In the course of discussion, and more especially in the course 
 of the keen, practical competition for patronage, hot words have been 
 spoken, angry blows have been struck, some of them, I fear, even be- 
 low the belt. Is it then really a struggle for existence, and is there 
 no avenue of escape from the mean, jealous antagonism that seems to 
 be manifesting itself in some quarters? Let us see what the real or 
 supposed grounds of antagonism are. 
 
 The question of the college and the state university involves two 
 sets of problems. First, those growing out of the relation of colleges 
 and universities in general, and secondly, those arising from the 
 special relation of the colleges and the state university. Thus the 
 relation of the colleges of our State to the State University is part of 
 the greater problem of the college and the university. Far be it from 
 my purpose at this time to attempt an elaborate consideration of the 
 larger problem. That the college is in a stage of transition needs no 
 proof; nor need it be explained that in this process of transition the 
 college has undergone and must still further undergo many funda- 
 mental changes. Pressed between the upper stone of the university 
 and the nether stone of the high school, the college, once the crowning 
 glory of our educational system, is losing its earlier form and character. 
 The colleges with their decreasing endowments and their increasing 
 deficits find it a heart-breaking race to keep up with the universities 
 with their millions of endowment and magnificent equipment. The 
 college numbers its students by hundreds, the university by thousands. 
 
 But besides these difficulties which characterize generally the 
 relation between the college and the university, further special 
 
 (387) 
 
78 
 
 problems arise out of the relationship of the state university and the 
 college. If the feeling of fear or hostility on the part of the college 
 towards the privately endowed universities has been great, still 
 greater in many quarters has been the antagonism towards the state 
 university. The reasons for this attitude are several. In the first 
 place, it has been charged that the state university fosters an irreligious 
 spirit, and the friends of the small church college, ever anxious for the 
 moral and religious salvation of the young people of our land, have 
 looked with fear at the large state universities without compulsory 
 chapel services, with inadequate courses in Bible study, and with no 
 official sanction of religious effort. Not a few pastors and other well 
 intentioned persons look at the state university as a place that fosters 
 infidelity. Secondly, the absence of tuition charges at the state uni- 
 versity makes it a keener competitor than the privately endowed 
 institution. The small colleges usually appeal for patronage on the 
 ground that they can furnish an education at cheaper cost than the 
 larger universities, and in comparison with the private institutions 
 this is undoubtedly true, for in most instances their tuition is twice 
 and in many cases three times as high. But in comparison with the 
 state university the appeal loses much of its force, for although living 
 expenses and fees may be higher, tuition is free. The keener the 
 competition the stronger the hostility is apt to be. In the third place, 
 the state university is a very keen competitor becavise of what may be 
 called its public position. It is virtually a part of the system of public 
 education and is so very closely allied to the public high school that 
 the stream of students is naturally turned towards the state university. 
 
 These, then, are some of the problems. Do they imply that it is a 
 battle to the death, a fight to the finish, the finish of the small college? 
 Must there be antagonism, and is combined effort for the great cause 
 of education impossible? No one would seriously contend that the 
 death-knell of the small college has been sounded. There seems in- 
 deed to be a reaction in favor of the college. The mission of the college 
 in the educational system of the country may not be what it was a 
 half century ago, but it still has a noble work to perform which no 
 other agency can accomplish. The recent magnificent gifts to the 
 cause of the college are but the evidence of a practical faith in a just, 
 worthy, permanent cause. I hope and believe that we shall also dis- 
 cover that the grounds of antagonism between the college and the 
 state university are more imaginary than real, and that combined 
 effort is both possible and desirable. 
 
 Each institution has a wide field and a worthy mission, and if the 
 friends of each will only appreciate better the exact nature of that 
 mission, misunderstanding will cease and harmonious effort can pre- 
 vail. Many of the difficulties arising from the keen competition for 
 patronage will vanish if we only always recognize that there is an 
 
 (388) 
 
. 79 
 
 object greater than the success of any particular institution or class of 
 institutions. That object is the general educational progress of the 
 state, and with this higher aim clearly before us, the petty misunder- 
 standing must roll awav. 
 
 The small colleges with habits and traditions of a long past, will 
 have to adjust themselves to the new conditions, and those which 
 refuse to recognize that conditions have changed will simplv miss 
 their opportunity. Let us reason together and be mutuallv helpful. 
 Although it will doubtless remain a fact that the small college, if it is 
 true to its highest ideals, will offer the better opportunity for moral 
 and religious training, it is absurd to call the state university a nest of 
 infidelity. As long as state universities have on their faculties, as 
 they now have, men of high Christian character their influence must 
 be good. The small, the good small college, does not fear the con- 
 tinued growth and prosperity of the state university. Most cheerfully 
 does it surrender to the state university the whole field of technical, 
 professional and graduate instruction. The state universitv may 
 attract thousands of students, but there always will remain some, and 
 their number is large, who prefer the smaller college nearer home. 
 The close connection between the state university and the high school 
 may decrease the patronage of the college, but how small is this danger 
 in view of the good influence which the state university is exercising 
 in raising the standard of work in the preparatory schools. 
 
 We are interested in the progress of the State Universitv because it 
 is a public institution. It has the sanction and support of the public 
 opinion of our commonwealth and we unite with all good, patriotic 
 citizens in wishing it a success that shall place it in the front rank of 
 American state universities. Its glory is our glory. We rejoice in its 
 success because the institution is part of a most wise and beneficent 
 system of federal aid to education. We rejoice in its progress because 
 that means the advancement of the general cause of education in 
 Illinois. Rivalry between the colleges and the State Universitv will 
 continue, but let it be generous; let it not degenerate into antagonistic 
 jealousy. 
 
 Once more we offer our sincerest congratulations to the new Presi- 
 dent. We view with pleasure the probable results of his administra- 
 tion because we know that his varied experience and generous sym- 
 pathies have prepared him thoroughly to understand our problems. 
 Furthermore, his public utterances and his policy as president of one 
 of the largest denominational universities in the United States give 
 the friends of the college the utmost confidence in him. Again the 
 colleges of Illinois wish him God-speed. 
 
 (389) 
 
80 . 
 
 RESPONSE FOR THE NORMAL SCHOOLS OF THE STATE 
 
 John W. Cook, LL.D. 
 
 President of Northern Illinois State Normal School, De Kalb 
 
 It is my agreeable duty today to be the bearer of the cordial and 
 sincere greeting of the state normal schools of Illinois to this young, 
 vigorous, and expanding University. 
 
 While I have no official credentials from those whom I am to repre- 
 sent I am sure that I shall do no violence to their feelings in what I am 
 about to say. So far as I am informed, and I believe myself well 
 informed in this particular, there is but one sentiment among the 
 members of the boards of control and of the faculties of our normal 
 schools with regard to the University of Illinois. The poHcy of the 
 University has been so liberal, so free from academic prejudice, so 
 willing to concede to the normal schools all that their most partial 
 friends could justly ask, that the spectacle, so often and so unhappily 
 presented in some of our American states, of discordant and warring 
 factions in pubHc education has never been witnessed in Illinois. 
 
 It is an interesting fact that the existing arrangement by which 
 the graduates of the state normal schools are received at the University 
 was originated and put into operation by the University Faculty 
 without any soHcitation on the part of the normal schools. They 
 were well understood within the official circles of the Universtiy. 
 Some of the men to whom it is indebted for its honorable repute were 
 from the benches of the normal school, while others had served in its 
 faculty. When the University said to the normal schools, "If your 
 matriculates are prepared to enter all of our courses without conditions 
 we will give to your instruction full recognition," it dignified their 
 faculties by elevating them to university rank, and thus threw upon 
 them the responsibility of meeting their consequent obHgations. 
 
 This attitude of the University has told most significantly upon 
 popular elementary education. In the course of ordinary events it 
 will happen that some of its graduates will become teachers. They 
 will gravitate by natural preference to the secondary or higher schools. 
 But the normal graduates that seek these class rooms have selected 
 education as their life work. Moreover, they have generally been 
 attracted to elementary education by the impulse which they received 
 from the normal schools. Its problems have awakened their warmest 
 interest. They have discovered their difficulties and their tremendous 
 significance. They have made the further interesting discovery that 
 these problems furnish a field for the exercise of the best capacities of 
 the most generously endowed minds, and that the American public is 
 quick to recognize and reward the men and women who are able to 
 solve them in a superior way. Impressed by these considerations 
 large numbers of them are going to the University for that better 
 
 (390) 
 
81 
 
 equipment of which they keenly feel the need. Thev are to be the 
 prophets of a new educational dispensation, and with characteristic 
 ardor they press themselves against the disciplines of the University 
 in order that they may suitably prepare themselves for this fine service 
 to the children of this noble commonwealth of which we so proudly 
 declare ourselves citizens. I regard these conditions as of immense 
 import to the life of the time and I must confess myself unable to see 
 where the University can touch the masses of the people in a more 
 frmtful and inspiring way. It goes without saying that through the 
 influence of these cultured teachers, every one of whom will be a prop- 
 agandist for liberal culture for the common people, countless high- 
 ways will be opened from the elementary schools to the University, 
 thus enormously enriching our common life. 
 
 In many ways the University has been peculiarly fortunate in its 
 executive heads. They have all been men who believed in the whole 
 people. They were free from that medicevalism which forever strives 
 to separate the cultivated man from his less favored fellow. • The 
 first president was not only a man of splendid intellectual capacity 
 and fine training, but he also understood the elementary school, 
 having served as superintendent of public instruction in one of our 
 western states. It interested him profoundly, and the constant and 
 close affiliation of the University with schools of lower grade is due in 
 no small degree to the impulse in that direction which he gave during 
 his long management of its affairs. And who that heard his addresses 
 on popular education can ever forget them! They have never been 
 surpassed and have rarely been equalled in the educational history of 
 Illinois. His successor in office was full of the same spirit and had 
 served a generous term in public high schools. And when an interim 
 occurred and events needed to await the selection of a new president, 
 the man of all men connected with the University, who was the unani- 
 mous choice of the Board of Trustees to hold the reins of power 
 temporarily, began his professional career as a teacher in an elementary 
 school and also trained himself for his work by the disciplines of a 
 state normal school. The man who last retired from the presidency 
 to take up the duties of the most commanding educational position in 
 America, had been a superintendent of public instruction in the 
 Empire State and came to the University from the head of a great 
 city system. He thus added to his fine native capacities and his 
 generous culture the experience of years in the closest relations with 
 elementary schools. 
 
 Nor have I forgotten the dommiating idea that was in the minds of 
 those who deserve the distinguished honor of founding the University. 
 It came from the warm hearts and the fertile brains of men who 
 sincerely and zealously sought to join in a fine unity labor and learning, 
 and thus to enrich by a noble and practical culture the lives of the 
 
 (391) 
 
82 
 
 common man and woman. The University has been true to the 
 spirit that brought it into being. Its expansion has been along the 
 Hnes which its founders contemplated so far as their vision forsaw the 
 possibilities and demands of the modern world. If they are permitted 
 to revisit the scenes of their earthly life, with what satisfaction they 
 must view the surpassing revelations of modern science and the min- 
 istry to our common life through their adaptation to the service of 
 man by the University. Nor have the more distinctively spiritual 
 needs of men and women been forgotten. A fine idealism has kept 
 step with the development of the great agencies that make for material 
 prosperity and it has not been forgotten that man cannot live by bread 
 alone. 
 
 The latest born of the colleges of the University appeals with 
 especial force to the normal schools. Under the present organization 
 of those institutions their main function must be the preparation of 
 teachers for elementary schools. The crying need of the time is a 
 sufficient supply of trained men and women to equip the rural, village, 
 town and city schools with competent managers and teachers. There 
 is no public interest that is managed with such slight regard for the 
 most familiar economic principles. While it is true that a notable 
 gain has been made within recent years, there is no other country of 
 our rank that does not overshadow us in this particular. The recent 
 educational legislation in England aroused more popular interest than 
 the economic leanings of the ministry. France and Germany are 
 generous competitors in their efforts to professionalize their teachers. 
 The dreadful war, now so happily ended through the intervention of 
 our wise and humane President, is a thrilling chapter in the story of 
 the education of a race. 
 
 But we are now in the greatest need of an institution for the edu- 
 cation of experts on the basis of university education. The call for 
 special teachers of manual training, domestic science, art, language, 
 agriculture, is loud and insistent. The demand is far greater than the 
 supply. Every countv superintendent of schools should be equipped 
 for his work by a specific discipline. Reflect for a moment upon what 
 is possible with a man or a woman with such a preparation in every 
 one of the one hundred two counties in Illinois. We believe in the 
 principle of supervision, yet we are careless as to the qualifications of 
 our supervisors. Every village, town, and city must have its principal 
 or superintendent in the interests of common economy, yet the 
 majority are without the training to make them efficient. We hail 
 with pleasure the advent of the new School of Education. Let it 
 be generously equipped and enthusiastically supported. Let its 
 administration be so skillful that men and women aspiring to the 
 highest skill in teaching and to the completest mastery of modem 
 educational problems will not need to go to the older East for instruc- 
 
 (392) 
 
83 
 
 tion. Let it be the generous rival of the School of Education of the 
 University of Chicago, the two institutions arousing each other to a 
 noble emulation in a great cause. 
 
 The occasion that calls us here today is full of interest to the men 
 and women of the normal schools. It is thirty-seven years since my 
 attention was especially attracted by a studious lad who sat in one of 
 the forms of a room xmder my charge in the training department of a 
 normal school. The only reproof that I can recall ever having given 
 him was for too close application to his books. I have heard him 
 occasionally indulge himself with certain anecdotes that do not 
 exactly square with that statement, but they rather illustrate the 
 growth of the myth than contribute to historical verities, I suspect. 
 It was in that institution that he fitted for college and at sixteen 
 engaged in successful debate with men of twice his age. I often 
 thought that he was predestined to skip the period of youth beacuse 
 of the soberness and severity of his mental inclinations, but I have 
 since discovered that he was only deferring it in order that he might 
 make it perpetual. I need not here recite with what fondness those 
 of us who were his teachers followed his career as he availed himself of 
 the disciplines of great universities, and by the patient investigations 
 of former and existing economic conditions, by a masterful grasp of 
 the genius of the land of his nativity, and by a fearlessness and vigor 
 unsurpassed among modem scholars fitted himself for notable service 
 to his time. We know that he understands the significance of the 
 university in our modem life. Those of us who are responsible for 
 the management of normal schools know that he understands our 
 problem as well and the problem of the secondary and of the ele- 
 mentary school. We most cordially approve the wisdom of the Board 
 of Trustees in elevating him to this high office which he is so admirably 
 fitted to adom, and w^e hail with peculiar satisfaction this interesting 
 event which officially and formally endows with authority a man to 
 whom we are joined in bonds of the warmest personal affection and 
 for whose genius and scholarship and commanding character we have 
 the profoundest admiration. 
 
 RESPONSE FOR THE HIGH SCHOOLS OF THE STATE 
 
 James E. Armstrong, A.M. 
 Principal of the Englewood High School, Chicago 
 
 I regret very much that my colaborer and associate, Mr. Buck, is 
 unable to be here today; but it is a great pleasure to me, as a repre- 
 sentative of the high schools of the State, to extend to President James 
 the cordial greetings of the high schools of the State. I am sure if 
 they could have a voice here they would give an eflective address in 
 the expression of their confidence in the ability and attainments of 
 
 (393) 
 
84 
 
 the President of the University to care for the educational affairs that 
 will be entrusted to him here. 
 
 The high schools of the State occupy a rather peculiar position in 
 the State educational system. We stand half-wav between the com- 
 mon people and the university people of the State. We find ourselves 
 drawn so strongly from above and below, that we think sometimes 
 our very existence is threatened. We find some consolation, however, 
 in the fact that we have all the good things to be derived from the 
 experience of the common people, as well as the inspiration of the 
 university above us. We have the interest of both at heart. We 
 look to the university for the inspiration that leads to the higher 
 ideals of scholarship and usefulness, while we keep in mind the peculiar 
 needs of the communities in which we are placed. We come to the 
 university naturally for friendly criticism and assistance; and the 
 universities not only of our own State, but of the adjoining states, 
 have given us great assistance. But we must look especially to the 
 University of the State of Illinois in its official relation to the schools 
 of the State. We need the assistance of this University. We have 
 great confidence in the man whom the Trustees have so fortunately 
 selected for its head — the man who has had experience in all the 
 schools of the State, who knows them thoroughly from the kinder- 
 garten to the university; who has gathered up in his experience the 
 best things of the universities of the world and brings them to the 
 service of this great commonwealth ; I am sure the high schools of the 
 State will be only too glad to cooperate with president James in his 
 efforts to advance the interests of education here. We greet him 
 cordially, and wish him the greatest success in carrying forward this 
 work, and hope the time will come when his ideals will be accepted 
 throughout the State ; and when the influence of this great University 
 in scholarship and culture as well as in practical things shall be felt 
 throughout the length and breadth of this great State. 
 
 RESPONSE FOR THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS OF THE STATE 
 
 Honorable Alfred Bayliss, A.B. 
 State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Springfield 
 
 During the last year for which we have the figures, the public 
 school enrollment in Illinois reached a total of 978,554. More than 
 four and one-half per cent, were enrolled in, and about three-tenths of 
 one per cent, graduated from high schools of varying degrees of 
 efficiency. The high schools, except in thirty-six cases out of a total 
 of four hundred and fourteen, are composed of the last three or four 
 grades of the common schools in the district. But seventy-seven of 
 them are in separate buildings. It is a moderate and fair statement 
 to say that all of them do some, and most of them do considerable 
 
 (394) 
 
85 
 
 first-rate secondary school work. Nearly three-fourths of them are 
 "accredited" to the University. Upon the elementary schools in 
 the high school districts, it is evident, therefore, that the University 
 ma V and does exert an important direct influence; because, though 
 its immediate contact is with the high school, all grades share every 
 real benefit thus derived. The chief service performed by the high 
 school is probably its uplift to the grades below. By way of the high 
 school the University may send the roots of its influence deep into the 
 soil from which its growth must finally come. 
 
 But there are others. More than one-third of all the elementary 
 school enrollment is in the isolated one-room schools out in the 
 countrv. Many of these little schools are quite as good as the best 
 elementary schools. Here and there among them are veritable little 
 Drumtochty's, "having their own distinction, for scholars were born 
 there, — " and masters who see to it that the trail is kept open between 
 them and the nearest high school. Except that any sort of square 
 deal would make the high school door swing free for them, they, too, 
 find themselves within the direct current of University influence. 
 But these cases are the exception. In the nature of the present con- 
 ditions, thev must be. In eighty-four different counties of Illinois 
 monthly wages of teachers go as low as twenty-five dollars, and the 
 average annual stipend of teachers of this class falls below three 
 hundred dollars. In these schools, accordingly, are practically all of 
 the 4,428 teachers with no school education beyond the eighth grade, 
 as well as most of the 2,455 others who have had the advantage of less 
 than any full high school course. What right has the public, or this 
 University, to look for trained or otherwise qualified teachers under 
 such conditions? If we add to the children in these schools those 
 who are in the small semi-graded schools, but without direct high 
 school relations, w^e shall have more than half (four hundred fifty 
 thousand pupils) in elementary grades who are as yet without free 
 high school opportunities. For these children the wires which bear 
 the current of University influence are broken. Without violating 
 the principle that the first care of the whole common school must be 
 for the common needs, the University may affect the tributary grades 
 of the strong accredited high school to their mutual advantage. It is 
 not easv to see how it can so directly aid the others. Some adjustment 
 of relations to this large number, however, is a duty of the University, 
 if it is proposed to occupy and cultivate its whole field. For the 
 schools it is merely fair play. For the State it means everything 
 that free education can mean to fully one-half the people. To relate the 
 University to the smaller elementary schools, as it is now related to the 
 larger ones, is the problem of most immediate importance in Illinois. 
 
 Everv' highly trained man is a valuable social asset. There never 
 will be too many. Extraordinary characters will be produced by 
 
 (395) 
 
86 
 
 the schools, or in spite of them, in the future as in the past. But 
 more important than either great scholarship or "genius" to the 
 general health and strength of a democracy, is the high general av- 
 erage of qualification for good citizenship. That the number who 
 receive the amount of training represented by a complete common 
 (high) school education can ever be too large is not conceivable. No 
 formative agency of public opinion can do more than the University 
 to set up the standard. None is more willing to do all that can be 
 done to make opportunity free and equal. 
 
 Again, not everything is teaching that goes by that name. The 
 school districts paid for teaching last year nearly thirteen million 
 dollars. The totals look large, but, as was said, the sums paid to 
 individual teachers were sometimes pitifully small. Was the service 
 paid for worth more or less than it cost? Is teaching an art, trade, or 
 merely unskilled labor? If the teacher is not a skilled workman, who 
 is? Then what should be the honest price of a teacher? This Uni- 
 versity will study the question, and when it finds a result, will pro- 
 mulgate it in such a way as to enlighten public opinion. The people 
 will pay what they are convinced the best service obtainable is worth. 
 
 Why may not the educational experiment station in time take 
 rank with the agricultural and engineering experiment stations ? Our 
 knowledge of what constitutes the best educational stuff and the 
 rational methods of using it is far from complete. We can no more 
 afford to waste mind than lands or material. The University can do 
 much to so inform public opinion that a supervisor of education who 
 does not know that mere cramming of the unwilling memory of a 
 little child with unmeaning words does not even impart knowledge, 
 much less educate, will soon be a supervisor out of a job. It may 
 determine some of the tokens by which good teaching may be known, 
 as appropriately as it now teaches the standards of a good ear of corn. 
 It may even, some day, work out the whole scheme of a school of a 
 better type than any we have yet seen, and set it up to be studied as 
 a model. 
 
 The overwhelming impression upon the mind of the most casual 
 observer of the university plan and methods must be that all this pro- 
 vision for techincal training is regarded here as a legitimate part of 
 the problem of education. How far down the line should that belief 
 operate? Does it affect in any way the processes of the primary 
 schools? The elementary needs of man are food, clothing and shelter. 
 To obtain these for himself is at once the first duty and the most con- 
 stant limitation. Efficient life begins here. Power here is the first 
 thing to be obtained. Until this primary step in education is taken, 
 all others seem to be out of order. The intellectual measure of this 
 power may not be so very high. Ethically, however, it goes to the 
 heart of the whole question. The home is the corner stone of civili- 
 
 (396) 
 
87 
 
 zation. Vocation is the support of the home. Does it not follow that 
 elementary education must take vocation, the art of getting a living, 
 into account r" Should not active occupations, as educational instru- 
 ments, travel side by side with the book from the beginning? Should 
 not teachers know how to utilize the constructive and creative in- 
 stincts of very young children as the right beginning of the training 
 which culminates in the laboratory or the workshop. Will not the 
 University send out supervisors of elementary education with some 
 conception of the relation of these things to the school courses of 
 study ? 
 
 Those who have to do with elementary schools confidently look to 
 the University for these, and better things. They believe that, in its 
 capacity of general clearing house for educational ideas it will, in due 
 time, announce a better thought-out school policy than we now have. 
 They believe that the University will be the leader in the important 
 work of coordinating the now disconnected and unrelated parts of 
 our system into a harmonious whole. 
 
 Because they so believe, the workers in elementary schools are 
 profoundly interested in the events of this historic week. They re- 
 joice with all who rejoice in past achievements, and share every hope 
 of all who believe that the two most potent factors in the extension and 
 improvement of common school education, now in operation, are the 
 free public high school and the free state university. 
 
 MESSAGE FROM PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT 
 
 President Roosevelt sent the following telegram to the University 
 Trustees : 
 
 "It is with sincere rSgret that I find myself unable to accept your 
 kind invitation to attend the installation of President James. I wish 
 I were able to be with you, both because of my high regard for Presi- 
 dent James and because of my appreciation of the work being done by 
 the Universitv of Illinois." 
 
 (397) 
 
88 
 
 ASSEMBLY OF THE COLLEGE OF MEDICINE 
 
 The Chapel, Wednesday Morning, October 18 
 
 CHARACTER AS AN ELEMENT OF SUCCESS IN THE DE- 
 VELOPMENT OF PROFESSIONAL REPUTATION 
 
 Daniel A. K. Steele, M.D. 
 Professor in the College of Medicine, Chicago 
 
 On this auspicious occasion, when the professional departments of 
 the University of Illinois meet in this assembly hall to play their part 
 in the installation of a new President and to do honor to the University 
 and its distinguished head, it is my privilege to represent the College 
 of Physicians and Surgeons of Chicago — the College of Medicine of the 
 University of Illinois. 
 
 I congratulate the University upon the acquisition of such a dis- 
 tinguished educator as President James to guide its destinies and 
 develop its professional departments during a period of the world's 
 history that is marked by phenomenal advances in scientific thought, 
 material progress and professional attainment, and predict that under 
 his skillful guidance the next decade will see our University in the 
 forefront of educational institutions in this country. 
 
 At this time when public attention is daily drawn to examples of 
 shattered reputations in the ranks of our captains of industry, bankers, 
 educators and professional men — shattered because they departed 
 from the high ideals of youth and home, honesty and regard for the 
 rights of others — it may not be inappropriate to say a few words to 
 you on the value of character as an element of success in the develop- 
 ment of professional reputation. Character iS the estimate we place 
 upon ourselves. It is the innate monitor we call conscience. Repu- 
 tation is the estimate the world places upon our achievements. 
 
 Bishop Spalding says: "Our state comes closer to us than our 
 country; it awakens tenderer recollections, weaves about us the 
 tendrils of more gentle and fragrant affections. It calls forth feelings 
 which glow like the dawn, which soften and mellow like the evening 
 sky. It blends with memories of the twining arms of mothers and 
 fathers, of the warm, unselfish devotion of youthful friends. The 
 thought of it is interfused with clouds and showers and the songs of 
 birds, and all the glories of the unfolding world that accompanied us 
 when we were young. " 
 
 So character is intertwined with professional reputation as pro- 
 fessional departments are intertwined with the University. Each is 
 helpful to the other; one cannot exist without the other. 
 
 There are certain elements of character essential to professional 
 success. The well educated mind looks beyond the mere semblance 
 
 (398) 
 
89 
 
 of things into the higher realm of nature's laws and forces and I 
 cannot help but think that our early environments have much to do 
 with our future success. A study of nature and nature's God in early 
 life purifies and ennobles our whole subsequent career. 
 
 To him who has been fortunate enough to open his eyes for the 
 first time upon the light breaking over the Green Mountains of Ver- 
 mont or the rugged grandeur of Colorado peaks, or near the roaring of 
 a mightv ocean or the rushing, whirling waters of a turbid river, there 
 must ever remain an ineffaceable memory picture of nature's wonders; 
 and as his budding brain realizes and appreciates the beauties of the 
 landscape, the ever changing and yet harmonious colors of nature's 
 painting, — whether in field or forest, in graden or on hillside, in the 
 morning dawn or when lit by the glows of an autumn sunset, — his 
 mind cannot fail to be impressed with the grandeur and eloquence of 
 nature's sermons, nor can he help realizing that a higher and mightier 
 power than man rules the universe and directs by an all-wise method 
 the mysteries of life. 
 
 Thus imperceptibly, but none the less permanently, he has im- 
 pressed upon his character by reason of his environment, noble 
 thoughts, generous impulses, and an unconscious religious trend. 
 His mind is tmsullied by the murky stream of a city's vileness, that 
 too often dwarfs and destroys the one whose character is not strong 
 enough to resist its baneful blandishments. 
 
 In our own College of Medicine it is interesting to note that its 
 founders and leaders had their early environment amid such surround- 
 ings as I have sketched. 
 
 To succeed we must be in love with our profession. We must 
 have a high conception of its aims and objects ; we must idealize our 
 work. Our motives should be the love of science, the instinct of 
 investigation, the desire to search out the secrets of nature, and to 
 alleviate human suffering. We should be a composite picture, blend- 
 ing in our make-up perfect health, mental vigor, manliness, honor, 
 honesty, self-reliance, courage, truth and conscience, with a devotion 
 to high ideals and an unwavering self-confidence. We should be com- 
 posed of the rich and beautiful material gathered from all ages and 
 places. The true professional man is a mosaic and hot a single gem. 
 
 Ideals change, but there must be a permanent good — a lasting, 
 beautiful and unchanging truth. The ideal beauty has not yet come 
 in painting, statuary or music, and I sometimes think it never will 
 come this side the dawning of the great millennium, unless we hold 
 closely to the ideals of youth and home, innocence and purity. 
 
 The world demands a doctor who is educated all over, who is ten- 
 der, whose hand is steady, whose eye is clear, whose tongue is clean, 
 whose brain is cultured, whose nerves are under perfect control, one 
 who is broad minded. It wants a doctor whose knowledge of disease 
 
 (399) 
 
90 
 
 has been broadened and deepened and enriched by a wide experience 
 in general medicine, and sharpened and polished in some specialty 
 afterwards; a doctor who has had a hospital experience, who combines 
 common sense with experience and with knowledge; who has a heart 
 swelling with sympathy for the poor sufferers who seek his aid; who 
 carries a similing face on his errands of mercy ; who prefers substance 
 to show, and who regards his professional reputation as a priceless 
 treasure to be guarded against the alluring temptations of modern 
 society or the tempting bait of gold offered for the prostitution of his 
 talents to the performance of illicit or illegal practices. It demands 
 that he shall possess that innate monitor that we call conscience. 
 Our minds are given to us, but our characters we make, and the 
 molding of them is the noblest work on earth. One's resolution is 
 one's prophecy. There is no future to the man who has no great 
 inspirations. 
 
 The value of professional reputation, character and success in the 
 professional departments of the University, is of inestimable value 
 to the University itself. Such departments attract the brainy young 
 men of the State, they add a thousand earnest students to her num- 
 bers — add reputation and prestige to the University. They interest 
 the city of Chicago, with its two million inhabitants, in the University; 
 they interest the Legislature in her professional and scientific welfare. 
 They are self-supporting ; they are of incalculable value in developing 
 the University along the lines of greatest helpfulness in protecting the 
 lives and the health of her citizens. They are affiliated departments 
 that in the nature of things must become an integral part of the 
 University. 
 
 The value to the University of her professional departments is 
 unquestioned; and through all the coming days and years it will be 
 the constant aim of the Faculties of the Colleges of Medicine, Dentistry 
 and Pharmacy to cooperate with the University and our President for 
 the best development of the University, and to develop purity of life, 
 dignity of character, professional enthusiasm and nobleness of 
 purpose — to strive for the highest and best that is attainable in 
 life — that our lives may be broadened and deepened and rounded 
 out into symmetry and beauty with all the God-given faculties they 
 possess. 
 
 (400) 
 
91 
 
 DENTAL SCIENCE AND THE COMMON WEAL 
 
 Bernard J. Cigrand, B.S., M.S., D.D.S. 
 
 Dean of the School of Dentistry, Chicago 
 
 Something over one hundred years ago, while the American 
 colonies were struggling for freedom, a fleet of Frenchmen came to 
 lend their aid to an oppressed people. Among these compatriots was 
 Joseph LeMaire, a dentist, who shortly became the personal and pro- 
 fessional friend of Washington. In 1781, while the colonial troops 
 were in winter quarters, LeMaire obtained a commission from General 
 Washington to teach dentistry to those of the army who desired a 
 course. Thus from the hands of General Washington came the order 
 "to teach dentistry." This was the beginning of the instructional 
 career of our profession in America. About forty of the soldiers 
 availed themselves, and six became practitioners. Today we number 
 upward of fifty recognized colleges, publish more than two hundred 
 dental periodicals and have a dental population of twenty-six thou- 
 sand. 
 
 The art and science of dentistry during the past half century has 
 surpassed in progress that of any other vocation, and today it stands 
 among the learned professions. To this happy era in our calling the 
 American dentist has liberally contributed. The glory of establishing 
 nearlv all the potent elements of dental progress is the cherished 
 record of the American practitioner. 
 
 It would be foriegn to the purpose of my paper to recite to you the 
 evolution of dental construction or detail the processes relating to 
 dental technique or progress of digital dexterity as it pertains to our 
 profession ; hence I will confine my remarks to dentistry as it pertains 
 to the people in general, particularly from an American point of view. 
 
 It might well be said that it is the most exact, or demonstrable of 
 professional callings. There is less of the speculative and hence 
 it excludes the factor of assumption or presumption, since like 
 surgery it deals with material and adds to or displaces matter, being 
 either aphasretic or prosthetic. Its dominion is indeed, apparently 
 constricted, and does not involve great human or physical territory, 
 but its relationships are of so diverse and complicated a character as 
 to involve parts and organs quite remote from the lower third of the 
 face. That our teeth depend largely upon our mental and physical 
 condition none will at this late period of the nineteenth century deny, 
 and that in turn our mental and physical conditions are most decidedly 
 affected by the condition of the dental organs, can be demonstrated; 
 and in this chain of dependence we recognize that all organs or parts 
 of organs are influenced by the surrounding physiological circum- 
 stances, and these are acted upon primarily by the food we eat, the 
 vocation we follow and the climate we live in. 
 
 (401) 
 
92 
 
 Dentistry has contributed to the common weal some of the most 
 cherished comforts of human Hfe and lent factors to the development 
 and progress of the human family. To LeMaire Americans owe the 
 knowledge of implantation and transplantation, the principle which 
 has led to the wonderful physiological phenomena of engrafting of 
 new tissue. The first anatomical museum was founded bv Dr. Peale, 
 also distinguished for having painted the famous picture of Washington. 
 To Miller we owe the knowledge of hundreds of forms of bacteria. He 
 gave us light on cell physiology and evolved the scientific etiology of 
 dental caries. Dr. Atkinson took the speechless child, and, after 
 restoring the cleft in the palate, taught the world that where distortion 
 of features and muteness of voice existed, both could be displaced by 
 beauty and eloquence. To Dr. Horace Wells we owe the practical 
 application of nitrous oxide, the finding of which has done more to 
 relieve humanity of its sufferings than any score of other discoveries. 
 Humanity owes so much to this dental genius that he deserves a 
 statue in every center where medicine or dentistry is taught. Sixty 
 years ago, October 18, 1845, Dr. Morton, a dentist of Boston, chemi- 
 cally demonstrated the sleep-producing qualities of ether, and two 
 years later Dr. C. T. Jackson gave us chloroform. Dentists have since 
 produced five general and fourteen local anesthetics. 
 
 Mother Medicine fully recognizes the balm brought through these 
 agencies to the afflicted and distressed. These dental practitioners 
 have made it possible for your cosmopolitan centers to possess the 
 beautiful marble lined surgical amphitheaters of today, and have thus 
 opened the way to cranial and internal surgery ; they have taken from 
 the operating room the hitching post and straps and bequeathed in 
 their stead "the vapors of sweet dreams. " 
 
 A noteworthy service of our calling has been the system of post- 
 mortem identification. In criminal annals this form of exact regis- 
 tration has resulted in untold good, leading to the capture of the 
 criminal immediately after the identification of the victim, for with- 
 out the latter, the former could scarcely be anticipated. Again, in the 
 innumerable railroad accidents and public building calamities, as well 
 as steamer disasters and theater conflagrations, the dental surgeon is 
 indeed rendering great aid to the saddened, stricken relatives and 
 friends. In the Iroquois theater horror more than three hundred dead 
 were given a family burial because of the dental record. 
 
 The first instance where a body was given dental identity resulting 
 in personal identification happened in this country something less than 
 a century ago. The great patriot and hero, Paul Revere, devoted 
 much time to the prosthetic division of dentistry. He constructed 
 metal base dentures and was much interested in carving and designing 
 artificial teeth. When the remains of the patriot and soldier, General 
 Warren, were removed from Bunker Hill battlefield to their present 
 
 (402) 
 
93 
 
 resting place, it was Paul Revere who made the identification, recog- 
 nizing the partial denture which he had constructed some years pre- 
 vious to the general's death, and minutely described his remaining 
 natural teeth. 
 
 Those who are making a study of the science of neurology are free 
 to admit that dental lesions and oral disturbances inaugurate a variety 
 of mental disorders. Neurotic disturbances having their origin in 
 dental irritation do not receive the attention they merit. The dental 
 factors concerned in reliex pains which may be traced and treated 
 in the mouth are surprisingly numerous. Recent investigations 
 point to the fact that in our state asylums are patients suffering a 
 temporary dementia and various forms of neurasthenia, who, in truth, 
 require only dental attention to be relieved. Physical exhaustion, 
 suspended consciousness and other morbid mental states are too fre- 
 quently induced through neglected oral circumstances. Why not have 
 dentists appointed in these institutions to care for the distressed? 
 Nor does this disorganized dental condition relate to asylums alone. 
 The penal institutions as well are disregarding the comforts which 
 dental science could render. 
 
 The general surgeons of today are awakening to the importance of 
 our professional services. In patients awaiting operations involving 
 the alimentary system, the necessity for normal and healthy condi- 
 tions in the mouth is most essential. The most successful operation 
 would be endangered by even the presence of diseased dental pulp and 
 should there be an ulcerated area or suppurating surface super- 
 induced by a distressing tooth, the life of the patient would be threat- 
 ened. Hence, surgeons who are alive to these responsibilities, before 
 performing these specified internal operations, do not neglect an 
 examination of the oral cavity; if disturbing tissues present themselves 
 and the operation can be postponed, the patient receives the services 
 of the dental surgeon, thus assuring every precautionary measure. As 
 further evidence of good to the general public, I cite the statement of 
 Dr. Joseph Kidd of London, an eminent English physician and 
 specialist, who attributed the cause of the prevalence of appendicitis 
 to ill attention to the teeth and indifference to the laws of perfect 
 mastication. In this view the medical profession is offering some 
 hope and suggestion which is truly specific. 
 
 The morbid influence due to deranged digestion has attracted 
 attention on this side of the Atlantic in the form of the recent book by 
 Arthur MacDonald, specialist in the bureau of education at Washing- 
 ton, D. C. He attributes much of our crime to illness — to abnormal 
 health — and classes distressing and diseased oral parts as a frequent 
 cause for domestic crime. He calls attention to the fact that the poor 
 in our great cities, where crime so freely flourishes, receive practically 
 no medical, surgical or dental aid, and the depressed and suffering 
 
 (403)- 
 
94 
 
 mortals wear out their physical and neural energies in the great fight 
 against pain. The result is that an exhausted, ill tempered mind, 
 lacking the normal control, unable to carry the burdens of excruciating 
 pain, frequently through perverted judgment commits most desperate 
 crimes. Fifty years ago such a statement would have been treated 
 with derision. This emphasizes the necessity of greater care for the 
 dental organs and augments the importance of the science of dentistry. 
 
 Why are not the poor of our great metropolitan cities provided 
 with better attention of the physician, surgeon and dentist? These 
 people are burdens of the body-politic and an ounce of prevention 
 would be better than a pound of cure. Later we have them at greater 
 expense as tenants of the county hospital, the poor farm, the industrial 
 institution, the asylum or the dispensary. Would it not be wiser, 
 more charitable and Christianlike to provide at state expense, a 
 method looking to the care of the worthy poor? Today Germany, 
 recognizing the importance in this direction, has in Strassburg, Berlin, 
 Dresden and all large cities, instituted public dental infirmaries, 
 where the government appoints dentists to care for the teeth of the 
 worthy poor, the government providing the institution with all 
 necessary instruments, appliances and material. The children of our 
 public schools should have like opportunities and the colleges of 
 dentistry would gladly, without cost, provide lecturers and clinicians. 
 
 The government at Washington is awakening to the welfare of 
 the soldiers and sailors and the common weal is strengthened because 
 of it. Congress will be asked to pass a bill creating naval dental 
 officers. This would add a group of new and useful officers to the 
 American navy in the interest of comfort, health and efficiency of our 
 naval forces. The government should continue in this humanitarian 
 direction. Last year in a single county in our State eight hundred 
 and eighteen infants died from convulsions during the period of 
 dentition. If this same ratio prevails throughout Illinois, what 
 startling figures we could count! And yet this is but one of the many 
 causes of death directly traceable to oral and dental disorders. It 
 does seem that these facts, if known, would appeal to our legislators, 
 who might appropriate a small sum for original research in this most 
 fruitful and promising field. 
 
 Aside from this what is being done by the government to encourage 
 scientists to prosecute the study of diseases of infants? We may 
 keep in mind the low birth rate of France — of what avail is a high 
 birth rate with an encroaching and increasing death rate? President 
 Roosevelt has called attention to the childless marriage — thanks for 
 his drastic criticism — but he might have gone into this matter farther 
 and added, "Save the children that are born." 
 
 The United States annually spends millions of dollars in the de- 
 partment of agriculture in the hope of arresting the diseases of swine, 
 
 (404) 
 
95 
 
 cattle and sheep. The government provides scientists with the best 
 of lenses to discover and decipher bacteria and agents of destruction 
 to the animal and vegetable kingdom. But the human family is left to 
 individual enterprise, and disease hovers at every doorstep in the form 
 of consumption, dyspepsia and pyorrhea, allowing a death rate of a 
 most alarming figure. The government could well afford to publish 
 fewer books on cattle and swine and devote a portion of this enormous 
 sum to the redemption of the citizens' health. 
 
 If the general public knew the status of affairs as pertains to our 
 present meager means for prosecuting investigations into realms 
 of direct concern to human life, if we could impress the legislatures 
 and even influence the civic authorities with the fact that public 
 funds shotdd go for public good, we would have accomplished an in- 
 valuable good. 
 
 Let the University of Illinois, her alumni and friends appeal to the 
 Legislature for funds in this direction ; give dental specialists an oppor- 
 tunity and the gain will all accrue to the general public — the common 
 weal. 
 
 THE STATE PHARMACY LAW 
 
 Frederick M. Goodman, Ph. G. 
 Dean of the School of Pharmacy, Chicago 
 
 It affords me pleasure on this interesting occasion to represent 
 the oldest department of the State University — the School of Pharm- 
 acy — and not only the oldest department of the University but the 
 oldest science in existence, save one. Men became students of the 
 starry heavens before they applied themselves to the study of nature's 
 products and their application in the treatment of disease ; and as the 
 preparation of each potion preceded its administration, so pharmacy 
 antedates even the practice of medicine — by at least ten minutes. 
 
 I have no intention of dwelling upon the history of the Asclepiads 
 and their services in the interests of gods and men ; not upon that of 
 Hippocrates, the "Father of Medicine," nor upon that of the great 
 leader among pharmacists, Galen, whose father in answer to a dream 
 made a doctor of him ; but I will refer at once to the leading light in 
 pharmacy established midway between the Alleghany and Rocky 
 mountains in the infant city of Chicago in 1859. 
 
 At that time a few active pharmacists of the city engaged to 
 establish a school with the determination of providing for the systemat- 
 ic training of future apprentices. 
 
 The custom hitherto prevailing of the applicant, parent or guard- 
 ian, paying one or two hundred dollars to the employer in anticipa- 
 tion of the trouble expected in properly instructing the novice was 
 just drawing to a close. Customs which were handed down from one 
 
 (405) 
 
96 
 
 generation to the next and which may have served a useful purpose, 
 were found inadequate under the more active conditions of American 
 equality and freedom. 
 
 The employer being no longer paid for training the aspirant, 
 thought his obligations were at an end, and although he took the boy 
 as an apprentice, it was merely to have some one to do the rougher 
 work at little expense. The one engaged was usually a school boy of 
 very limited advancement, and his engagement, if it did not termi- 
 nate his scholastic work, was inclined at least to limit his education 
 to the narrow field of personal occupation. 
 
 These conditions and their possible consequences were duly con- 
 sidered by those interested, and the conclusion was reached that the 
 apprentice must be school taught to offset the employer's neglect. 
 Application for a charter was made, officers and trustees elected and 
 from among the leading chemists, pharmacists and botanists, a 
 faculty was appointed. 
 
 To follow the vicissitudes of the school through war and fire at 
 this moment might not prove of general interest, but as my knowledge 
 of events embraces almost the entire interim, I maybe allowed to say, 
 that although the school has made ample provisions for the proper 
 technical training of the apprentice, changed conditions have con- 
 stantly brought to the ranks the children of poorer and less advanced, 
 people, children from grammar grades and private schools, whose 
 advancement in some instances is limited to the barest and crudest 
 rudiments. Preliminary progress is now earnestly demanded before 
 matriculation. 
 
 Twenty-five years ago members of this school and others, in order 
 to forestall these and threatening trade conditions, ill-advisedly 
 sought legislation, self-imposed legislation, as a remedy for growing 
 evils. The public never thought of seeking legislation to control the 
 pharmacist. No man ever stood higher in public estimation than he 
 did and no professional man ever enjoyed a greater moiety of confi- 
 dence than did the old time family druggist ; and pharmacists in their 
 efforts to benefit themselves have done more toward destroying this 
 feeling of confidence than has any other influence or all influences 
 combined, and today they are openly charged with substitution and 
 adulteration, and the very word adulteration takes on a new meaning 
 when administered by the officers of the law. The law was enacted 
 and grumbling began; it has been amended but dissatisfaction con- 
 tinues; the results are not what was anticipated by its authors and 
 the I-told-you-so man has had a very long inning. 
 
 The pharmacy law has cost the profession one hundred and eighty 
 thousand dollars and the rank and file is not so good today as it was 
 twenty-five to forty years ago. Schools of pharmacy do not refuse mat- 
 riculation to the illiterate ; but having accepted them, refuse to gradu- 
 
 (406) 
 
97 
 
 ate them when they succeed in answering the examination questions. 
 Some backward students have served four years in this school before 
 being granted a diploma, but most frequently when a student finds 
 himself falling behind he leaves for some other school. 
 
 This school, which was the outgrowth of the times, has during its 
 existence introduced some of the farthest reaching and most lasting 
 innovations in pharmacal teaching and in order to raise the standard 
 to the anticipated and long wished for degree, the former members 
 sought admission as a department of this great University, the aims 
 and advancement of which they were all familiar with. 
 
 Today we set another mile post in the Universitv history, and 
 today every member of the old Chicago College of Pharmacy is looking 
 toward the new President with a full realization of his strength and 
 determination and unbounded confidence in his learning, experience 
 and capacity. We are hoping through him to have this school justly 
 recognized by the people as the State School of Pharmacy, a part of 
 the great educational institution founded and supported by them; 
 and pharmacists throughout the State, from Wisconsin to Egypt, un- 
 less they are perfectly satisfied to continue their efforts to fill the 
 ravenous maw of the State law, and this without benefit to themselves, 
 must, as their only salvation, insist upon the recognition of this as 
 the State School and the one through which that part of the State 
 law relating to educational attainment must be enforced. 
 
 The law is supposed to afford the means of testing the qualifications 
 of all who desire to practice pharmacy and determine their eligibility 
 to public confidence, and to this end the Faculty of the State School, 
 a Faculty accustomed to conducting examinations, should do the 
 work and submit the results to the State board. The diploma of 
 the State School should be accepted by the State board as satisfactory 
 evidence of knowledge, while all other applicants should be com- 
 pelled to pass an examination by the same Faculty ; and no man who 
 has the least real interest in the progress of pharmacy or in State 
 advancement will for a moment object to the matter being entirely 
 under the control of the State Institution of learning. 
 
 Under these suggested conditions the standard could be raised in 
 conformity with the intention, desire and hope of those who earnestly 
 sought the passage of the pharmacy law. As it now stands, students 
 in the midst of their school work appear before the board for examina- 
 tion and if successful, give up their class work entirely; hence, their 
 success in these examinations is frequently the premium placed on 
 ignorance. 
 
 In some states a modicum of pharmacal learning is not alone 
 demanded but certain advancement in grade school work insisted 
 upon as a prerequisite to matriculation and steps are being taken at 
 the present time to make the requirements uniform through the 
 
 (407) 
 
98 
 
 states. Some, however, contend that this is an "abridgment of one's 
 rights," but if a state can lawfully demand it, I think it ought to be 
 in a position to supply any deficiency which may exist, and this can 
 most properly be done in the public school, preparatory school or 
 state university. 
 
 If public education is worthy of support, if the university is the 
 crown of the public school system, if free education is the people's 
 inheritance, if the nation is but the reflection of the individual, then 
 miserably small and unpatriotic is the one who will stand in the way 
 of others who are endeavoring to protect the people from a horde of 
 incompetents and who are trying to raise the educational standard. 
 
 In conclusion, believing that the very fact that we submit to an 
 annual assessment for the purpose of raising funds for our own sur- 
 veillance and punishment is belittling and derogatory to professional 
 dignity and a condition not tolerated by the medical profession, I 
 would most earnestly urge the members of the State association, 
 through the association, to demand free reregistration, and I would 
 call upon every pharmacist and assistant in the State to write to the 
 senator and representatives from his district insisting upon the repeal 
 of that part of the pharmacal law relating to the reregistration fee 
 and demanding free reregistration as physicians enjoy. The future 
 progress of pharmacy depends upon our bettering ourselves. 
 
 EVOLUTION OF SURGERY 
 John B. Murphy, A.M., M.D. 
 
 To the Committee of Arrangements I wish to express my sincere 
 appreciation of the honor and privilege of appearing before you in the 
 installation exercises of President Edmund J. James. An analysis of 
 surgical events from the earliest dawn of history is interesting as an 
 evolutionary study. It will be seen that all peoples, even though 
 widely separated, progressed on the same intellectual lines. It will 
 also be noted that after a great advancement or stride forward, there 
 was a stay of progress for a long period of time. When we behold the 
 Temple of Medicine — grand, as we call it — we can see in the analysis 
 of its structure, that it is a mosaic of extremely minute particles, and 
 still a great part of an incomplete whole. We are expected then to 
 contribute only small frames to this mosaic. That the medical de- 
 partment of this University under its new and masterful leadership 
 will continue to contribute its units of advancement is an assured fact, 
 both from the history of its own inherent intellectual strength, and 
 from the past achievements of the President who is to control its 
 destinies. 
 
 A picture of the history of the evolution of medicine and surgery 
 necessarily implies a picture of the development and evolution of the 
 
 (408) 
 
99 
 
 world. The progress of science, and especially that of medicine has 
 been closely connected with social events throughout the centuries. 
 Religion, social prosperity or poverty, various phases of civilization, 
 wars and many other features are in close touch with the intellectual 
 trend of the times, and -have left their marks on the various stages in 
 the evolution of medicine and surgery. It is difficult even to give a 
 correct and complete skeleton of the evolution of surgery in the limited 
 time allowed. The journey is long; it covers a period of five thousand 
 years. The historian encoimters great obstacles; he has to span 
 valleys of historic and even traditional omissions, and when history 
 becomes more positive, medical facts are difficult of acquirement. 
 The beginning of surgery dates back to mythological times. The first 
 surgical attempts were probably aid in labor and arrest of hemorrhage. 
 The instinct of individual preservation compelled the first man to use 
 primitive weapons against wild animals and also means of protection 
 against climatic inclemencies. This is the origin of empirical hygiene. 
 Sktills of prehistoric periods show evidence of trephining. Absence 
 of documents of prehistoric and mythological times makes it impossible 
 for the eye of the historian to penetrate the darkness of those ages. I 
 shall therefore commence with the Egyptians, whose history is best 
 known of all ancient nations. The subdivisions of general history 
 mav be utilized for that of the history of medicine and surgery, as 
 follows : 
 
 1. Ancient, ending with the fall of the Western Roman Empire, 
 A. D. 476. 
 
 2. Medieval (Dark Ages) from the sixth to the end of the fif- 
 teenth century. 
 
 3. Modem, commencing with the Renaissance. 
 
 I shall divide this latter period into (1) Period of Cellular Path- 
 olog}^; (2) Pre-Pasteurian ; (3) Post-Pasteurian. Virchow represents 
 that of cellular pathology and Pasteur the border line between the 
 older and modern surgery. 
 
 First among the ancients we will consider the Egyptians. The 
 historv of this wonderful nation is open : thanks to modern scientists 
 we are able to imderstand the mysteries of hieroglyphics. Egyptian 
 temples, monuments, obelisks, pyramids and like remains tell us 
 that medicine and surgery have been practiced in Egypt. Larrey has 
 seen on the walls of Egv- ptian temples drawings of instruments similar 
 to ours and representations of amputated members. Some of the 
 characters of the hieroglyphic writings are surgical instruments. 
 Egvptians exposed their sick in public places so that some who had 
 suffered from a similar disease might tell the sick what remedy they 
 had used. Former sufferers were also required to inscribe on the walls 
 of temples both symptoms and treatment. The collection of these 
 symptons was classified by priests and formed the Egyptian medical 
 
 (409) 
 
100 
 
 code, the "secret book," the origin of empirical medicine. Informa- 
 tion obtained from Egyptian monuments is greatly augmented by 
 that given in the Papyrus Ebers, the most important of all medical 
 writings of antiquity. The papyrus was written 3000 B. C. in the 
 time of King Re-Seo-Ka (Amenophis I). It was found in Memphis 
 and is at present in Berlin. The Egyptian conception of disease was 
 that the latter was due to the anger of some deity, especially that of 
 Isis, there being always a struggle between good and bad, right and 
 wrong, and the triumph of the latter resulted in disease. Medicine 
 was professed by priests and the laity. At all times the influence of 
 religion was the characteristic note of Egyptian medicine. The 
 Egyptians were first physicians and then surgeons. The former were 
 very familiar with the various medications. The diseases best under- 
 stood were those of the eye, in which they used both medical and 
 surgical treatment. The Egyptians were affected with dreadful 
 ophthalmias; even today ophthalmic diseases predominate. Several 
 mummies were found with artificial teeth, which shows that dentistry 
 was practiced in those times. The mummies also show the most 
 wonderful bandaging, and no one today could excel them in this 
 particular art. Egyptian embalming was perfect. It was a general 
 practice, yet the people at large had a prejudice against embalmers, 
 and not infrequently were they exposed to stoning. That they had 
 any anatomical knowledge is doubtful. The apogee of Egyptian 
 medicine was reached in the Alexandrian period. Among the four 
 hundred thousand volumes of the Alexandrian library many works 
 were probably medical. The Alexandrian Museum, founded by 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus had four departments; literature, mathematics, 
 astronomy and medicine. An Egyptian doctor treated only one or 
 two diseases, which shows that the greatest specialization prevailed in 
 those times. The Greek historian, Herodotus, surprised b}^ the great 
 number of physicians in Egypt, states that he gained the impression 
 that nearly all of the Egyptians were physicians, and that one who 
 was afflicted with several symptons had to consult several physicians. 
 Egyptian medicine sank into obscurity in the time of the Ptolemies 
 and gave place to Hellenic medicine. 
 
 Among the Hebrews until 1000 B. C. (Kingdom of Solomon) 
 surgery was greatly neglected. Mosaic writings contained mostly 
 dietetic prescriptions. They also recommend cleanliness, which is 
 the essence of Mosaic religion, and hygiene. They knew something 
 of embalming, which in all probability was learned from the Egypt- 
 ians. On the death of Jacob, Joseph ordered his servants to embalm 
 the body of his father. The chief surgical attempt was circumcision, 
 which was performed with .Ethiopian stones. Moses taught the 
 people how to protect themselves from leprosy and other skin erup- 
 tions, one of them being similar in description to syphilis. The 
 
 (410) 
 
101 
 
 originality of Mosaic medicine was practically gone when they came 
 in contact with the Syrians and Persians. The influence of the latter 
 is reflected in the Talmud. In later times the Mosaic intermingled 
 with the Arabic. 
 
 Little or nothing is known of Chinese medicine. The Chinese were 
 exclusionists from the most ancient times, and a foreigner could not 
 penetrate their social life. 
 
 The Hindus had a knowledge of both medicine and surgery. An 
 English writer shows that surgical instruments were used in India 
 before the advent of Alexander. They were more numerous than 
 those used today in England. He also states that one hundred 3^ears 
 before the Christian era the Hindus performed just as good operations 
 as those performed today in Great Britian. At that epoch Susruta 
 showed that surgery was the first and highest of the healing arts and 
 the least liable to fallacy, that it was pure in itself, unapproachable in 
 its applicability, a worthy product of heaven, and a sure source of 
 fame on earth. Hindu medicine is included in the writing Vagadas- 
 astir. Their conception of disease, as that of all Asiatic people, is the 
 continual struggle between good and bad, right and wrong, the defeat 
 of the former resulting in the disease. Some of their medical philoso- 
 phers conceived the idea that disease is the result of a conflict between 
 the gases which circulate in the vessels of the body. Hindu surgery 
 may be divided into Pre-Brahmanic or the Pre-Buddhistic period, 
 which is influenced principally by superstition, and Post-Brahmanic, 
 which is the epoch of philosophy. Surgery flourished in the latter 
 period. The "Charaka Club" of New York has for its object the 
 study of Hindu surgery. In their wars military surgeons accom- 
 panied the armies to the battle field. The greatest skill in ancient 
 surgery was displayed in the operation of rhinoplasty. It is also said 
 that the Hindus later performed laparotomies. The Hindus possessed 
 a marvelous ointment which made the scars of variola disappear. 
 They also treated successfully bites of venomous serpents. 
 
 According to some historians in the Homeric period there is no 
 evidence of the practice of medicine or surgery among the Greeks. 
 Others, however, state that in that period the Greeks had surgeons 
 readv to treat emergencies and to control hemorrhage by styptic 
 powders. Esculapius, the founder of Greek medicine, accompanied 
 Castor and Pollux as surgeon during the Argonautic expedition. He 
 was greatly honored in his time, and after his death temples were 
 erected in his honor and sacrifices made. Pluto, god of hell, entered a 
 protest to Jupiter during the practice of Esculapius, stating that his 
 daily host of dead was considerably diminished. This illustrates the 
 wonderful power Esculapius had to diminish diseases. After his 
 death the practice of medicine was exclusively in the hands of priests 
 and some teaching was done in temples. In the period before Hip- 
 
 (411) 
 
102 
 
 pocrates, disease was considered the result of the anger of some of- 
 fended god, especially in the case of plagues and epidemics. From 
 the Illiad and the Odyssey we learn that Apollo was responsible for 
 the death of men and Diana for that of women. These principles 
 were inimical to the enforcement of sanitary laws. The Greeks' 
 desire for physical perfection was of greater value than the knowledge 
 of medicine or surgery. They knew the art of beautifying their 
 persons. Greek legislators made laws to promote health. It is known 
 to all of us that the Greek legislator Lycurgus ordered that all feeble 
 and crippled children should be killed by throwing them into a valley. 
 This was sometimes done by the children's parents. The most im- 
 portant personage of medicine in Greece, in fact of all ancient nations, 
 was Hippocrates. He was bom on the island of Kos between 446 and 
 450 B. C. and died 370 B. C. in Larissa (Thessaly). He lived in the 
 glorious age of Pericles, and was contemporary to Socrates. Many of 
 his ancestors devoted their lives to medicine. He traced his ancestors 
 to Esculapius and Hercules. The conception of disease that prevailed 
 during the Pre-Hippocratic period was destroyed by the Hippocratic 
 conception. Hippocrates was the founder of humoral pathology 
 which included four humors — blood, mucous, black and yellow bile. 
 Anv change in these four humors was the cause of disease. The funda- 
 mental principle of his therapeutics was to help and not to damage. 
 Until Hippocrates there were no clinicians. Most of the doctors were 
 therapeutists. Hippocrates was the greatest clinician of all times. 
 From him we have today Hippocratic fingers in chronic chest diseases 
 and the Hippocratic face. No clinician has ever excelled his description 
 of the face of the dying. The school of Hippocrates found a rival in 
 the school of Cnidos (Knidos). While the latter was treating symp- 
 tons, and principally by drastic measures, Hippocrates endeavored to 
 modify the humors, and in this way induce a cure. In the time of 
 Constantine, the school of Cnidos, together with many pagan institu- 
 tions, disappeared. The followers of Hippocrates were dogmatics. 
 They endeavored to establish the basis of a theoretical svstem of 
 medicine. The greatest hindrance to the serious advancement of 
 surgery was due to ignorance of anatomy, which is explained by the 
 respect of the Greeks for their dead. 
 
 It is proper to speak of the medicine of Rome and not of the 
 Romans, because the entire Roman knowledge was centralized in 
 Rome. In the times preceding the Republic medicine and especially 
 surgery were entirely neglected. The traces of systematic medicine 
 appear at the end of the Republic. There were men employed by the 
 city who had the responsibility of the city's hygiene. Circuses and 
 theaters employed medical inspectors. Cato in his writings teaches 
 the people how to care for themselves and their animals in disease. 
 At that time the Romans had great respect for the physician (vulner- 
 
 (412) 
 
103 
 
 arius) while the surgeon (camifex) was despised. There was no 
 originahty in Roman medicine or surgery. The Greeks taught the 
 Romans in all branches of knowledge, especially of medicine. Among 
 the most brilliant doctors in Rome was Asklepias of Bithynia (124 
 B. C). Based on the atomic theories of Epicure he conceived disease 
 as the result of the mutations of the atomic or solid elements of the 
 body. His solid pathology is opposed to the humoral theory of 
 Hippocrates. His followers, the Methodics, explained the origin of 
 disease by the properties of the tissues to expand and contract, which 
 was practically a variation of the atomic theory. The Methodics also 
 conceived the sympathies between organs. In the reign of the first 
 Roman emperors there was an influx of Greek doctors from Asia 
 Minor who laid the foundations of its various schools. Athenaeus 
 was the founder of the Pneumatic school, pneuma (air) being the 
 cause of diseases. The misunderstandings between the Pneumatic 
 and Methodic schools gave birth to a new school, the Eclectic. 
 
 Galen, who lived one hundred and thirty years after Christ, was 
 one of the greatest ancient anatomists! He was a man of principles 
 and a true scientist. He studied anatomy and physiology. He 
 dissected many animals, especiallv monkevs. He applied the anat- 
 omy of the latter to man. In other words, he was the pioneer of 
 comparative anatomy. He was familiar with the anatomy of the 
 heart and the distribvition of arteries. He knew that the left heart 
 contained blood. The presumption is that he was familiar with the 
 circulation. Medicine after Galen ceases to be original and the 
 influence of physicians from Pergamus was strongly felt. The prac- 
 tice of medicine was not controlled by laws in Rome. To a great 
 extent medicine was practiced by slaves, either natives of Rome or 
 imported from Asia Minor. They served as physicians and surgeons 
 to their masters and accompanied them in their travels and wars. 
 Specialization w^as also characteristic of Rome. There were oculists, 
 aurists, gynecologists, etc. Military surgery was first organized in 
 the time of Roman emperors of the Western Empire and reached the 
 apogee under the emperors of the Eastern Empire. An appreciation 
 of Roman surgery can be obtained by a visit to the halls of the Museum 
 of Naples. Many and perfect instruments recovered from the ruins 
 of Pompeii are exhibited there, and instruments are our best historical 
 guides to the degree of the civilization of the respective period. 
 
 Like the Romans, the Arabians were not original. However, they 
 deserve the credit of having studied Egyptian and Greek medicine, 
 which they transmitted to several European nations. The accusation 
 that the Arabians destroyed the i\lexandrian library for the purpose 
 of heating their baths is very unjust. On the contrary, from several 
 sources we learn that manv works from the Alexandrian library were 
 rescued or saved from destruction by the Arabians. There were 
 
 (413) 
 
104 
 
 great mathematicians, philosophers and doctors among them. Medi- 
 cine, however, was alway superior to surgery, which can easily be 
 explained by the Oriental conception of fatalism. In the Middle 
 Ages the Arabians of Bagdad and Cordova professed and transmitted 
 knowledge of medicine throughout southern Europe. 
 
 The history of surgery in the Middle Ages is very obscure. We 
 should not regret the absence of definite information concerning those 
 times, because it is not worthy of record. However, for a clear under- 
 standing of whatever is known, w^e must divide the first three centuries 
 into Oriental and Occidental. The Oriental world was familiar with 
 the Greek language and consequently had access to the master works 
 of Greek medical writings. The Occidental world was ignorant of 
 the great antiquity. Medicine in the Occident was practiced by 
 monks, priests or uneducated barbers. The barber shop was the 
 school, laboratory and library of the mediaeval doctor. In the first 
 half of the Middle Ages monks were uneducated, and superstition and 
 ignorance were the characteristics of the medicine they professed. 
 Superstition and supernatural belief was always a hindrance to the 
 progress of medicine ; however, many Christian institutions cared for 
 the sick in asylums and hospitals. No matter how ignorant and super- 
 stitious the monks and priests were in those times, they were by far 
 superior to barbers and bathers. The former practiced medicine only, 
 since they were prohibited from using the knife and drawing blood from 
 patients. The practice of medicine among monks and priests was 
 restricted by an edict issued by Pope Calistus II, who forbade priests 
 and monks to practice medicine. Several other popes were com- 
 pelled to issue edicts in which it was stated that the duties of a clergy- 
 man must be purely ecclesiastic. The only place where systematic 
 knowledge could be obtained during the first half of the Middle Ages, 
 was the school of Salerno. The school was founded in the Italian 
 town, Salerno, between the seventh and eighth century. They had 
 distinguished physicians among their teachers, and many travelers 
 availed themselves of the opportunities offered by the school. The 
 teachings of the school of Salerno are included in the "Compendium 
 Salernitanum. " Their knowledge of surgery, especially military 
 surgery, was strengthened during the last Crusades. 
 
 The fame of the school reached its climax between the twelfth and 
 thirteenth centuries. With the creation of new universities in Italy 
 the fame of the school greatly diminished and it soon disappeared. 
 Frederick II compelled his Neapolitan subjects to study medicine in 
 another university than Naples. The school of Montpelier, founded in 
 the twelfth century, succeeded in fame the school of Salerno. De- 
 spite all of these efforts, the ten centuries of the Middle Ages have not 
 advanced ancient knowledge of medicine, and stand like a sad valley 
 between two solid rocks, the ancient and modern world. Frederick 
 
 (414) 
 
105 
 
 the Great, when reflecting upon the Middle Ages expressed himself as 
 follows: "From Constantine the Great, 327 B. C, until the Reforma- 
 tion, the whole world must have been insane." 
 
 Until the thirteenth century most of the writers of medicine were 
 Italians and their writings passed the Pyrenees and spread throughout 
 France. French writers soon excelled Italian writers. In northern 
 Europe, and especially in the countries of the Germanic tongue, the 
 situation was deplorable. The few universities in existence refused 
 to incorporate medicine among their branches. 
 
 The greatest achievement in intellectual evolution of all the cen- 
 turies is the invention of printing, which is the most wonderful gift 
 ever offered to humanity. Faust, Schaeffer and Gutenberg deserve 
 the honor of the invention. Printing prepared the Renaissance, 
 which is the revival of learning. The Renaissance resurrected 
 Hellenic classicism; it has destroyed the ignorance that prevailed and 
 demolished the heavy walls within which were imprisoned science and 
 thought. The conquest of Constantinople bv the Turks in 1453 drove 
 out from the Orient to Italy many Christians who brought with them 
 Greek writings. 
 
 The Reformation at the beginning of the sixteenth century raised 
 the intellectual standard of religious institutions, which indirectly 
 helped the progress of science. The many wars of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury necessitated surgical aid; surgeons regularly accompanied the 
 armies to the battle field. One of the most illustrious military sur- 
 geons was Ambroise Pare. He was originally a barber, but his 
 natural vocation was so great that he soon became famous as a sur- 
 geon. Up to the time of Ambroise Pare the wounds of soldiers were 
 filled with boiling oil (200°), and he for a time applied this remedy. 
 In one campaign he failed to obtain the necessary oil for the treatment 
 of wounds and was greatlv embarrassed by this misfortune ; he was 
 very restless and could not sleep for two nights. To his great surprise 
 he found the wounds of soldiers on the third dav in a better condition 
 than when oil was used. The great inflammation caused by the hot 
 oil was not present. This event enlightened and induced Pare to 
 change his conception and treatment of wounds. In the battle of 
 Piedmont, 1536, he refused to make use of the hot iron for the arrest 
 of hemorrhage, preferring the ligature for the bleeding vessels. 
 
 The sixteenth century developed great interest in anatomy. The 
 name of Andreas Vesalius (1516) is closely connected with the progress 
 of anatomy in this century. He showed that the anatomy of the 
 monkey cannot identically be applied to that of man, and that in this 
 regard Galenus was wTong. Eustachius, Fallopius Fabricius and 
 Aquapendente were distinguished anatomists of this period. The 
 last named built an anatomical amphitheater at his own expense, 
 where he taught anatomy to the students, and made a careful study 
 
 (415) 
 
106 
 
 of the valves of the heart. After fifteen years of research he pub- 
 lished his work on circulation, but like many of the great discoverers, 
 he was ridiculed and considered demented by many. Before he died, 
 however, he had the satisfaction of seeing his theory universally 
 accepted. 
 
 Of great moment in the seventeenth century was the discovery of 
 circulation of the blood by WilHam Harvey (1628); which enabled 
 Marcello Malpighi to elucidate capillary circulation. Harvey also 
 deserves credit for the establishment of the basis of embryology by 
 his dictum: "Omne vivum ex ovo. " In this century the lacteals 
 and thoracic duct were carefully described, so that the lymphatic 
 circulation was well known about the same time with blood circulation. 
 
 Microscopic and pathologic anatomy were considered in this cen- 
 tury, and the names of Malpighi, Lowenhoeck, Morgagni are closely 
 connected with these sciences. In this century amphitheaters, hos- 
 pitals and schools were systematically established. In 1660 the cor- 
 poration of the St. Come was established, and medical consultations, 
 lectures and dissections were given in a little house, which two years 
 later had the sign "Amphitheater for Rent. " Physics and chemistry 
 were considered in this century as a new basis for therapeutic pur- 
 poses. " latrophysics and chemiatrices " originated in this century. 
 The Hippocratic clinical observation was revived, and for the first 
 time monographs were published on special diseases. In the eigh- 
 teenth century the practice of medicine was in hands of the barbers 
 almost exclusively; their moral and intellectual standing was greatly 
 raised by the systematic teachings of medicine in universities, and 
 also by the foundation of institutions for the teaching of military 
 surgery. Of great importance to the progress of surgery was the 
 foundation of the Academy of Surgery by Mareshal in Paris, 1731. 
 Its influe'nce was felt not only in France but throughout Europe. 
 Seven years after the foundation of the Academy of Surgery, it incor- 
 porated the "Ecole Pratique de Chirurgie," with Chopart as its first 
 teacher. In 1780 Joseph's Academy in Austria was established, and 
 in 1795 Frederick Wilhelm's Institute was founded in Berlin. Soon 
 afterward all of the European countries added to their universities 
 departments of medicine (University of Breslau, 1702; Bonn, 1771; 
 Gottingen, 1751). John Hunter, the great anatomist and surgeon, 
 founder of the famous Hunterian Museum, is considered the father of 
 experimental pathology in England. The empirico-materialistic 
 philosophy of the eighteenth century developed the natural and allied 
 sciences which considerably helped the practice of surgery. In the 
 second half of the eighteenth century several schools disputed their 
 superiority, as for instance, the nervosistic and vitalistic schools. 
 Mesmer was the exponent of animal magnetism or "mesmerism." 
 There is, according to his school, a close relationship between planets 
 
 (416) 
 
107 
 
 and disease. It advocated treatment by magnets. The Indian 
 Vedas informs us that the Hindus rubbed into the arms of their 
 children the pus obtained from smallpox vesicles, secured a year 
 before; the area so treated was covered with cotton saturated with 
 sacred water from the Ganges. In the tenth century B. C. it was 
 customarv in China to introduce cotton saturated with pus of variola 
 into the nostrils of children. John Brown was the originator of the 
 theorv that disease is due to alterations in the intensity of irritations. 
 Another important event is the discovery of vaccination by Jenner in 
 1796; this was the prime recognition of immunity and arrived at in 
 an empirical wav. He did not realize the colossal significance of his 
 discoverv, as it is the basis of the highest ideal of therapeutics and pre- 
 ventive medicine in the enlightenment of the first decade of the 
 twentieth centurv. Notwithstanding our boasted intellectual devel- 
 opment in the last century, it required one hundred years for this 
 truth to become grounded and bear its legitimate fruit. Toward the 
 end of the eighteenth century the progress of medical institutions in 
 France was arrested and many of their neighbors were somewhat con- 
 fused by the French Revolution. In Paris it destroyed several insti- 
 tutions, and the Academy of Surger}^ ceased to distribute its annual 
 prizes in 1793. 
 
 At the beginning of the nineteenth century great progress was 
 made in all branches of human activity. While the eighteenth cen- 
 tury is the century of literature the nineteenth is that of the positive 
 sciences. Physicians and surgeons now realize that medicine and 
 surgery must form an inseparable body, an indivisible unity, and that 
 all allied sciences should converge toward the advancement of medi- 
 cine. Electricity, chemistry and applied mechanics greatly stimu- 
 lated the progress and industry in therapeutics. Bacteriology and 
 pathological anatomy, which are the foundations of surgery, show 
 splendid development in the second half of the nineteenth century; 
 this period must be considered the beginning of modern surgery. The 
 three fundamental bases of modern surgery are anesthesia, hemostasis, 
 antisepsis and asepsis. 
 
 The history of anesthesia goes back many centuries. Herodotus 
 tells us that Scythians inhaled vapors of hemp seed to produce drunk- 
 enness 200 B. C. Hoa-Tho, a Chinese surgeon, amputated a leg by 
 using haschisch. In the thirteenth century several surgeons used 
 during an operation sponges saturated with the juice of madragora. 
 An English chemist, Humphrey Davey, accidentally discovered the 
 soporific properties of the protoxide of nitrogen; in 1834 Horace 
 Wells, an American dentist, tried it on himself and Morton and Jack- 
 son tried it on others. Wells recommended the use of ether instead 
 of protoxide of nitrogen. It is said, however, that the American 
 dentist Morton is the original discoverer of the anesthetic properties 
 
 (417) 
 
108 
 
 of ether. Later, Simpson of Edinburgh used chloroform as an anes- 
 thetic. A committee of the Chicago Medical Society after a careful 
 search and investigation established beyond a doubt that the priority 
 of the use of chloroform belongs to Guthrie. It is my hope as well as 
 my belief that chemistry will give us an anesthetic in the future which 
 will not be toxic and will never expose the patient to death from its 
 intrinsic effects. 
 
 Hemostasis was unknown to ancient and mediaeval surgeons; 
 patients affected with severe hemorrhage died, and still it seems the 
 most primitive impulse would be to stay the flow of blood by pressure. 
 Until the end of the eighteenth century sixty per cent, of the amputa- 
 tions were practiced without hemostasis. The ligature was not known 
 until the time of Pare, and only in the nineteenth century did it com- 
 mence to be generally employed. In 1733 John Louis Petit invented 
 the tourniquet. 
 
 Antisepsis and asepsis are of still later origin. Until the discovery 
 of Pasteur every wound suppurated and was complicated with 
 er^'^sipelas, gangrene, tetanus, and the like. Abdominal operations 
 were generally fatal. A good picture of the epoch before Pasteur and 
 antisepsis is given by Harold Begbie, {Pall Mall Magazine, 1904, vol. 
 a): "Thirty years ago a screaming patient was strapped and 
 pinioned to the operating table. The knives flashed at lightning 
 speed, the surgeon, sweating with his hurried carpentry, dropping 
 beads of perspiration and other foreign bodies into the wound, cut 
 through the bone with a saw, whose only virtue was its sharpness, 
 while the assistant selected his ligature from a row held in his teeth, 
 in order of size from right to left. " 
 
 Systematic and scientific antisepsis originated with Pasteur and 
 Lister. However, the ancient nations knew of certain substances, 
 marvelous balsams, which had the properties of healing wounds. Hot 
 iron and boiled oil were used as antiseptics in the Middle Ages. 
 
 In ancient Rome malaria claimed many victims. Romans con- 
 ceived the idea that some strange elements must enter the body and 
 thus cause the disease. It was customary for people affected with 
 malaria to gather in public places and make a prayer asking to be 
 delivered from these strange elements. In 1838 Ehrenberg considered 
 the infusoria as animals. In 1840, Vogel described the oidium 
 albicans. In 1850 Davaine after listening to some of Pasteur's lec- 
 tures, considered the rods (bacilli) he saw in the blood of cattle, which 
 died by the hundreds in various herds, as being responsible for the 
 terrible disease. According to Pasteur's principle he thought that 
 these rods fermented in the blood of cattle and finally caused death. 
 It was left to Pasteur to make the discovery that had the greatest 
 influence in medicine and surgery of all times. Pasteur after years 
 of research announced that fermentation and decomposition of fluids 
 
 (418) 
 
109 
 
 do not take place without the presence of some microscopic Hving 
 organisms — bacteria. His theory is today an estabhshed fact and it 
 destroyed the school of spontaneous generation. Pasteur proved that 
 boiling is unable to destroy some resistant bacteria or their spores, 
 and if their death be effected, fermentation is impossible. A strong 
 opponent to Pasteur's theory was the great chemist Liebig. He con- 
 sidered fermentation a simple chemical process, it being accomplished 
 in one of three ways, oxidation, hydration and halfing. We all know 
 today that addition of oxygen, water or splitting of a molecule, with- 
 out the presence of bacteria, makes fermentation impossible. Pasteur 
 was not a doctor of medicine, yet his discovery is the greatest funda- 
 mental principle of modern surgery. He rightly deserves the title of 
 "Father of modern surgery." Had Pasteur not announced the 
 principle of bacterial fermentation, the aspect of surgery would today 
 have been the same as two thousand years ago. Lord Lister, based 
 on Pasteur's principles, conceived the idea of treatment of infected 
 wounds by carbolic acid. His name is inseparable from that of 
 antisepsis. His personal clinical observation completed the advan- 
 tages drawn from Pasteur's discovery. He noted that compound 
 fractures, that is fractures exposed to air, were septic, while simple 
 fractures, or those not exposed to air, never suppurated. Lister, at 
 first was suspected of dishonesty, but scientific truth penetrates every 
 resistance and soon all European countries were convinced of the truth 
 of his principle and grasped the magnitude of its bearing in the elongation 
 of life and amelioration of pain. Later Von Bruns and Mickulicz gave 
 Lister's principle great consideration; by their researches they were 
 able to demonstrate that the danger of infection from the air was not 
 so great as Lister thought, and that the use of carbolic acid was not 
 absolutely indispensable. They proved that bacterial poisons were 
 also tissue poisons, and that carbolic acid modified the protoplasm of 
 the cells and even destroyed them. Therefore, they thought it would 
 be better policy to prevent any possiblity of infectious organisms 
 touching the wound by great cleanliness, and from this principle origi- 
 nated asepsis, which is the basis of our modern surgery. 
 
 The nineteenth century, or better, its second half, has excelled 
 in discoveries. One can truthfully state that the latter half of the 
 nineteenth century accomplished more than the previous four thous- 
 and years. The progress of biology and pathology, of anatomy and 
 bacteriology, the appliance of chemistry to bacteriologic and patho- 
 logic technique, the adaptation of electricity and applied mechanics to 
 surgical instruments and appliances made the surgery of the past few 
 years realize a culminant progress. Mechanical skill and surgical 
 technique have attained great perfection. 
 
 The records of the history of medicine in America are obscure, scat- 
 tered and not positive. The most successful attempt of reconstructing 
 
 (419) 
 
no 
 
 facts in their chronologic order, based upon reHable documents is that 
 of Packard in his "History of Medicine in the United States." 
 
 One of the first physicians was Dr. Wootenn,who came to Virginia 
 in 1607, as surgeon general of the London Company; he later returned 
 to England. One of the first surgeons of New England was Dr. Pratt, 
 about 1640. In 1629 the governor and Company of Massachusetts 
 Bay in New England, engaged Lambert Wilson to act as " chirurgeon " 
 to the settlers of Salem. America did not escape from the calamity 
 of the practice of medicine by barbers, which was so widely spread in 
 the Middles Ages in Europe. This can be seen from a letter of Alricks 
 (1658), the director of the colony of New Amstel, in which he states 
 with great grief "our barber surgeon died, and another well acquainted 
 with the profession is very sick. " 
 
 Among the passengers on the Mayflower was Samuel Fuller, one of 
 the earliest practitioners in Massachusetts. He was a deacon in the 
 church of Ley den and was not entitled to practice medicine, as he held 
 no diploma. This association of medical and religious practice was 
 not uncommon in the first half of the seventeenth century. We find 
 a similar example in Dr. John Fiske who in 1637 settled at Salem as a 
 clergyman, and combined the practice of medicine with that of religion. 
 In 1646 Winthrop of Boston stated in one of his letters that lues 
 venerea has fallen upon many of the population of Boston. For the 
 relief of this and other diseases fasts have been held and in 1690 the 
 general court of Massachusetts ordered a public fast for the relief of 
 small-pox. 
 
 Although in the seventeenth century medico-legal questions were 
 entirely unknown to the public and legal authorities of various com- 
 munities, we find that in 1690 Dr. Kerfbeyle performed an autopsy on 
 Governor Slaughter. He had died suddenly and there was great sus- 
 picion of poisoning. In the second half of the sixteenth and the first 
 first half of the seventeenth century the female midwife played a very 
 active and important role in the communities of early settlers. The 
 practice of midwifery by males was very unusual. The first physician 
 to practice this as a specialty was Dr. James Lloyd of Boston in 1754. 
 
 The absence of sanitary laws on the vessels carrying immigrants 
 for America resulted in the death of a great many either during the 
 voyage or shortly after landing. To illustrate we will mention only 
 one of the very numerous examples. In 1618 Francis Blackwell 
 shipped one hundred and eighty colonists intended for Virginia; of 
 these one hundred and thirty died on the voyage. There was a con- 
 stant importation of diseases from Europe; in 1677 many perished in 
 New England from small-pox. The disease decimated many Indian 
 villages. Considerably worried by these ravages physicians and 
 private citizens searched for a remedy. The first attempt at pro- 
 phylactic inoculation of small-pox was made in Boston; Reverend 
 
 (420) 
 
Ill 
 
 Walter and his nephew were inoculated by Dr. Mather. The public 
 bitterly denounced the procedure and threw a bomb into Dr. Mather's 
 house. Later they calmly accepted inoculation and one of its most 
 ardent partisans was Benjamin Franklin. In Massachusetts free 
 vaccination was done for all who desired to submit themselves. 
 
 The tirst account of the occurrence of yellow fever in New England 
 was in 1647. 
 
 Americans were slow in founding institutions for medical education. 
 Medical knowledge was obtained either from hospitals or physicians of 
 some reputation. A certificate of apprenticeship was sufficient to 
 practice medicine in those days. Those who wanted to learn "physic " 
 went to Europe, principally to London and Edinburgh. We see for 
 example that between the years 1758 and 1788, sixtv-three Americans 
 graduated from the University of Edinburgh. 
 
 These European graduates imported to America not only a sub- 
 stantial knowledge of medicine but also a knowledge of many of its 
 allied sciences and were classical scholars. Some of these phvsicians 
 possessed encyclopedic information. 
 
 The first to receive a diploma in the United States was Daniel 
 Turner, who in 1720 obtained the honorary degree of medicine from 
 Yale College, as an expression of its appreciation of a gift to the 
 institution. After a systematic course in medicine, the first diploma 
 was given to Dr. Archer of Philadelphia. One of the first systematic 
 teachers of medicine was Dr. Charles F. Wiesenthal, who settled in 
 Baltimore in 1755. 
 
 The only medical work published in the seventeenth century was 
 "A Brief Rule to Guide the Common People of New England how to 
 Treat Themselves and Others in the Small Pocks or Measels, " by 
 Thomas Thatcher. 
 
 The Pennsylvania hospital was an important medical center about 
 the middle of the eighteenth century. In 1783 Dr. John Foulke was 
 permitted to use one of the rooms of the hospital for an "elabratory ;" 
 in this room he delivered for thirteen years lectures on "chirurgical 
 and physical subjects, " charging twelve dollars for a course. 
 
 The College of Philadelphia was founded in 1749, but it had no 
 medical department for ten years. The latter was established by 
 Dr. John Morgan, who was a pupil in medicine of Dr. Redman of 
 Philadelphia. In 1768 the degree of M. B. was given to seventeen 
 graduates. 
 
 In 1637 a college was erected in Cambridge; a year later Rev. John 
 Harvard donated to the college his library and half of his fortune. 
 It was subsequently known as Harvard College, now Harvard Uni- 
 versity. The medical department of Harvard was not organized 
 until 1783. In 1798 a medical department was established in Dart- 
 mouth College, Dr. N. Smith being one of its founders. 
 
 (421) 
 
112 
 
 The teaching of medicine at this time was very primitive. One of 
 the fundamental branches of medicine, anatomy, was taught very 
 imperfectly, as bodies could not be obtained for dissection; the law 
 strictly prohibited dissection and vivisection. Occasionally a dis- 
 section was made on the body of a condemned criminal. 
 
 Great opportunity was offered for the study of military medicine 
 and surgery during the Colonial and Revolutionary wars. Those 
 desiring to enlist in the Revolutionary army had to pass a careful 
 medical examination. Military hospitals were established at various 
 points under the charge of military surgeons. In the Colonial period 
 the physician occupied one of the highest positions in the community ; 
 this is shown by the fact that several of the signers of the Declaration 
 of Independence were physicians. 
 
 One of the earliest hospitals in this country was the Pennsylvania 
 hospital, which was founded about 1732. For several years preceding 
 this date it was simply an almshouse, so that properly speaking it was 
 not a hospital. Some, however, trace the foundation of the hospital 
 back to 1709 ; its first clerk was Benjamin Franklin. It has the oldest 
 miedical library in this country. The second oldest in this country is 
 the New York hospital. Its charter was granted in July, 1771, as 
 the "Society of the Hospital of the City of New York in America." 
 The foundation was laid in 1773, but before its completion it was 
 destroyed by fire in 1775. The building was rapidly reconstructed, 
 and in 1776 received patients. The last of the eighteenth and begin- 
 ning of the nineteenth centuries witnessed the establishment of sev- 
 eral dispensaries in Philadelphia and New York. 
 
 After the example of European physicians the Americans en- 
 deavored to assemble and discuss medical topics. The first attempt 
 at a medical society was made in Boston between the years 1735 and 
 1741. The oldest organized, however, is the "New Jersey Medical 
 Society." One of the first medical journals in the country was "A 
 Journal of the Practice of Medicine, Surgery and Pharmacy in the 
 Military Hospitals of France," including translations from French 
 journals. The first and purely American medical journal was the 
 "Medical Repository" (1797 to 1824). 
 
 In the sixteenth and a part of the seventeenth century there were 
 no laws regulating the practice of medicine. In 1736 an act was 
 passed in Virginia regulating the fees and accounts of physicians. In 
 1760 an act was passed in New York that only those should be entitled 
 to practice medicine and surgery who passed an examination before a 
 board composed of "One of his Majesty's Council, a Judge of the 
 Supreme Court, the Attorney General and the Mayor." Another 
 similar law was passed in New Jersey in 1772. 
 
 At the beginning of the nineteenth century American medicine 
 was practically British, as most of the American students came from 
 
 (422) 
 
113 
 
 Great Britain, and American medical literature at this period was 
 under strong British influence. 
 
 While the Americans were greatly absorbed by the struggle for 
 independence, and naturally neglected the practice of medicine and 
 surgery, we find here and there eminent surgeons. One of the most 
 conspicuaus places in the gallery of American surgeons is occupied by 
 Ephraim McDowell, a native of Virginia and a resident of Danville, 
 Kentucky, who in 1809 made the first ovariotomy ever performed 
 and that without an anesthetic. His patient lived thirtv-two years. 
 Under those unfortunate conditions for the practice of surgery he 
 saved the lives of eleven women out of thirteen operated. Ministers 
 and colleagues condemned McDowell for this practice. They were 
 supported by the local press. When McDowell presented his manu- 
 script on the practice of ovariotomy its publication was refused be- 
 cause it was a "barbarous procedure," and as such should be aban- 
 doned. Ovariotomy was greatly ridiculed at first in England. The 
 blighting influence and caustic criticism of the "experienced" did not 
 abash the germ of truth in McDowell's achievements, though many an 
 intellectual ovtim has been destroyed by its acetic force. The second 
 surgeon to perform this operation in the United States was Nathan 
 Smith. The mortality of ovariotomy at the beginning of the eigh- 
 teenth century was about sixty-six per cent.; about 1850 the average 
 mortality in Europe w^as from sixty to seventy per cent. At the 
 present time we know that the mortality does not exceed one per cent. 
 
 One of the most important events at the beginning of the nine- 
 teenth century in America is the discovery of anesthetics. According 
 to Packard the credit for first using ether for anesthetic purpose goes 
 to Crawford W. Long; its application to practice is due of W. T. G. 
 Morton, who used it surgically after the suggestion of Jackson, who 
 did not take as much interest as Morton did. Horace Wells, after 
 listening to a lecture on the chemistry of nitrous oxide used it the 
 next day on himself. One of his teeth was extracted by one of his 
 colleagues. Recovering from the anesthetic, Wells exclaimed, "A 
 new era in tooth pulling." There was in those times a great conten- 
 tion for priority, which caused so much ill feeling that some of the 
 participants became insane. 
 
 The number of famous surgeons increased constantly in the nine- 
 teenth century. One of these was Rhea Barton of Philadelphia; he 
 had several original procedures for operating on the bone and joint. 
 Various records show that he was the first surgeon to suture the pa- 
 tella. 
 
 Physick sutured two fragments of a fractured humerus. Valentine 
 Mott, (1786 to 1865), was the first to ligate the innominate artery, 
 and the patient survived for a long time. He was famous in his time 
 
 (423) 
 
114 
 
 for his arterial surgery. In 1856, Cornochan excised the second 
 branch of the trigeminus for tic douloureux. 
 
 Nephrectomy is an American operation and was first performed by 
 Wolcott of Milwaukee for a malignant disease. British surgeons ig- 
 nored Dr. Wolcott and considered Simon of Heidelberg the first to 
 practice nephrectomy. The extirpation of the kidney for gunshot 
 wounds was first made by W. W. Keen of Philadelphia. 
 
 A great part of the credit for abdominal operations goes to Ameri- 
 cans. The first laparotomy for intussusception was practiced on a 
 negro in 1831 by Dr. Wilton. This was followed by a complete 
 recovery. In 1847 Gross advised the patient to have extirpation of 
 a segment of the intestine and repair by end-to-end suture. The 
 patient refused the operation. An operation of the same character 
 was later performed by Kinloch of South Carolina. 
 
 Pathologic anatomy and surgical pathology originated in this 
 country with Samuel B. Gross, 1805 to 1884. He is also the origi- 
 nator of experimental surgery later promoted by Charles T. Parks. 
 
 Advancements in surgery in this country became so numerous and 
 from so many sources that even a chronological enumeration of the 
 events and men would carry me beyond limitations. The American 
 Medical Association, the largest medical organization in the world, 
 was founded by Dr. Nathan Smith Davis in 1849 He was a citizen 
 of Illinois and for many years he was the guiding genius of this asso- 
 ciation. Illinois has the largest state medical society in the Union. 
 Its metropolis, Chicago, has the largest local county society in the 
 world. Chicago has a greater number of medical and dental students 
 than any other city on the globe. Illinois is geographically and 
 scientifically so situated that it is destined to become the "hub" of 
 medical education in the western hemisphere. The force and dura- 
 tion of its influence in that position must in a large degree devolve on 
 the medical department of this University, on you gentlemen of its 
 Faculty, on you alumni, on you students of the University of Illinois, 
 each performing his task to the fullest power under the leadership of 
 the intellectual giant who today is installed as your President. 
 
 From these contemporary national advancements of medicine, 
 the conviction is irresistible that it is an evolvement according to the 
 well defined laws of intellectual development, and not an arbitrary, 
 haphazard or chance result. 
 
 After the consideration of this array of historic events, both in 
 Europe and America, we naturally turn to the doctor himself aside 
 from his art and his science and ask, why have doctors been the hon- 
 ored men of all ages, conspicuous for advancement? Because of their 
 love of truth and their fearlessness in its defense. Why have they 
 exerted such an influence in the progress of science, of ethics and of 
 society? Because they have been the learned and educated people of 
 
 (424) 
 
115 
 
 all times. They pursued science for the love of knowledge, and for 
 its practical application to the diminution of human suffering. By 
 their exemplary lives, by their loyalty to the code, which is the prac- 
 tical application of the Golden Rule, they have stimulated a respect 
 for dutv that matured to the science of ethics. As scholarly and scien- 
 tific men, as models of morality and integrity, they have exerted a 
 great influence in molding society to their high ideals. Why have they 
 been in close touch with all grades and classes of people? Because of 
 their ubiqmtous admiration of knowledge, which is power; because of 
 their innate respect for the exemplars of morality and integrity ; 
 because of their avowed devotion to duty regardless of its personal or 
 physical hazards or its pecuniary rewards; because of the dominance 
 of the humanitarian principles in their life work, where the best of 
 medical store is distributed as lavishly on the penniless as on the 
 prince ; because of their recognition as a profession living close to the 
 highest ideals of the intellectuality of their time ; and the ideals of an 
 individual, of a profession or a community are the best meters of their 
 intrinsic worth. No individual, profession or nation ever attained to 
 any considerable height without lofty ideals. One cannot avoid a 
 deep admiration for those of the medical profession, and a deeper 
 respect for the fidelity with w^hich its individuals and organized bodies 
 have endeavored to attain them. The prevalence and stimulus of our 
 ideals have been the measure of strength of our progress. Their 
 neglect would signal our decadence ; their abolition would be the death 
 knell of our usefulness and influence in the world's evolution. 
 
 What are the impulses that have continually impelled the medical 
 profession in its indefatigable and untiring efforts at advancement? 
 They have been the most honorable and powerful which operate on 
 man's destiny; love and sympathy for their fellow man, admiration of 
 and desire for knowledge of the laws that govern the complex, diverse 
 and multiform, mechanical and chemical construction and affinities 
 of the human organism, so harmonious and constant in their workings 
 as to form a poem of action and a symphony of chemical changes. 
 The doctor's achievements have been the result of the operation of 
 the inexorable law of advancement which controls intellectual progress 
 in every phase of science. Medicine has not advanced independently 
 nor far beyond the collateral sciences. It has appropriated to its 
 service and to practical appHcation the principles of mechanics, the 
 elements of chemistry, the force of physics, the knowledge of biology, 
 the science of bacteriology with its changes in, and products of micro- 
 organisms as influenced by environment and physical and chemical 
 laws. The medical profession has continually advanced by its honest 
 and critical analysis of its theory and practice in the past, by its 
 enthusiasm and thirst for the establishment of fundamental principles 
 of truth in the present, and its tender and confiding solicitude for the 
 
 (425) 
 
116 
 
 intellectual and moral training of its members for the future. Medi- 
 cine has given birth to few iconoclasts ; it has nurtured many devoted, 
 honest and courageous critics. We can well say of the doctor with 
 Adams, that he was made for all ages — for the past, b}?- the sentiment 
 of reverence for the achievements of his professional forefathers ; that 
 he was made for the present by his ideal humanitarian love and sym- 
 pathy, and that he was made for all future time by the impulses of 
 affection for his progeny. The record of professional history has not 
 a discordant note to these sentiments. The working axiom of the 
 medical profession should be, "study your forefathers, build for pos- 
 terity. " 
 
 Young aspirants to medical honors, your science, your art, your 
 ethics, and your devotion to principles must command the admiration 
 of contemporary scientists, and incite the enthusiasm, stimulate the 
 endeavor and foster the perseverance of medical posterity. You 
 must see that your heritage as a member of the medical profession is 
 not only carried unsullied through your lives, but that it has been 
 enriched by your labor, that it has been refined by the heat of your 
 enthusiasm, and that you have added to it strength and courage — the 
 force which comes from a love of truth, the practice of virtue, respect 
 and solicitude for the .rights of others. You must not permit the 
 pride of attainment nor the blight of self-satisfaction to retard your 
 efforts. You must not permit the sophistries of commercialism nor 
 the delusions of immediate gain to warp the sterling- principles of 
 integrity. You must not be unmindful that you are a link in the great 
 chain of medicine, and its strength depends on you. 
 
 Finally, what an honor it is to belong to a profession to which 
 Robert Louis Stevenson has paid this great tribute : 
 
 "There are men and classes of men that stand above the common 
 herd; the soldier, the sailor and shepherd not infrequently; the artist 
 rarely; rarelier still, the clergyman; the physician almost as a rule. 
 He is the flower — such as it is — of our civilization; and when the 
 stage of man is done with, and only remembered to be marvelled at 
 in history, he will be thought to have shared as little as any in the 
 defects of the period, and most notably exhibited the virtues of his 
 race. Generosity he has, such as is possible to those who practice an 
 art based on science, never to those who drive a trade; discretion, 
 tested by a hundred secrets; tact, tried in a thousand embarrassments; 
 and what are most important, Herculean cheerfulness and courage. 
 So it is that he brings air and cheer into the sick room, and often 
 enough, though no so often as he wishes, brings healing. " 
 
 (426) 
 
117 
 
 INAUGURAL EXERCISES 
 
 The Armory, 3:00 p.m. 
 
 PROGRAM 
 
 The Vice-President of the University Presiding 
 
 Academic Procession. 
 
 Music: Festival March, Mendelssohn; The University Orchestra. 
 
 Reading of the Ninetieth Psalm: The Right Reverend George F. 
 Seymour, D.D., Bishop of Springfield. 
 
 Hymn: St. Anne. 
 
 Prayer: The Bishop of Springfield. 
 
 Address: The Honorable Charles S. Deneen, Governor of Illinois. 
 
 Address: The Honorable Samuel A. Bullard, President of the Board 
 of Trustees. 
 
 Response: The President of the University. 
 
 Chorus: The Lord bless and keep thee, Barnby. 
 
 Address: The Honorable Andrew S. Draper, Former President of the 
 University and Commissioner of Education, State of New York. 
 
 Music: Song Without Words, Tschaikoivsky; The University Or- 
 chestra. 
 
 Inaugural Address: The President of the University. 
 
 Conferring of Degrees. 
 
 Benediction. 
 
 Recessional. 
 
 ORDER OF PROCESSION 
 Part I — The Escort 
 
 Division I — The University Regiment. 
 
 Division II — The Undergraduate and Graduate Students: Mem- 
 bers of the Freshman Class, men, women; Members of the Sophomore 
 Class, men, women; members of the Junior Class, men, women; mem- 
 bers of the Senior Class, men, women ; members of the Graduate School, 
 men, women; Members of the College of Law; members of the College 
 of Medicine; members of the College of Dentistry; members of the 
 School of Pharmacy. 
 
 Division III — The Alumni in order by classes, the class of 1905 
 leading. 
 
 Division IV — The Faculty of the University: School of Pharm- 
 acy ; College of Dentistry ; College of Medicine ; College of Law ; School 
 of Music ; School of Library Science ; College of Agriculture ; College 
 of Science; College of Engineering; College of Literature and Arts. 
 Part II — The Procession 
 
 Division I — The President, the Trustees, Speakers, and Repre- 
 sentatives of the State and Nation : The Governor of the State ; The 
 
 (427) 
 
118 
 
 President of the University; The Bishop of Springfield; The Ex- 
 President of the University; The Speaker of the United States House 
 of Representatives; Major-General John F. Weston, U.S.A., Repre- 
 senting the Department of War; The Junior Senator from IlHnois; 
 The President of the Board of Trustees; The Vice-President of the 
 University; The Lieutenant-Governor of the State; The Trustees and 
 Ex-Trustees of the University; The Treasurer of the University; 
 The Speaker of the IlHnois House of Representatives; The Comp- 
 troller of the University; The Secretary of the Board of Trustees; 
 Candidates for Honorary degrees. 
 
 Division II — Representatives of Political and Administrative 
 Bodies: Representatives of Foreign Countries; Member of Congress; 
 State Officers; Judges; Members of the State Legislature; Municipal 
 Officers; Boards of Education. 
 
 Division III — Representatives of Educational Bodies: Delegates 
 from Foreign Universities; Delegates from American Universities and 
 Colleges; Delegates from Learned Societies; Trustees of Colleges and 
 Universities; School Superintendents and Principals. 
 
 Division IV — Representatives of Societies and Associations: 
 Presbyterian Synod; Clergymen; Clubs; Agricultural Societies; Repre- 
 sentatives of the Press. 
 
 ADDRESS 
 
 The Honorable Charles S. Deneen 
 Governor of Illinois 
 
 The inaugural ceremonies of this week, incident to the installation 
 of Dr. James as President of the University of Illinois, mark an im- 
 portant event in the history of our State. The very general interest 
 manifested in these ceremonies by our people indicates the confidence 
 which the people have in him. These ceremom.es are not only meant 
 as a compliment to him, but are also an expression of the interest 
 which the people have in the future of this institution. This is dis- 
 tinctively the people's University. It was not only founded by the 
 people, but its organic law provided that it should be conducted for 
 the people. 
 
 I have thought it might be of interest to speak for a moment on 
 what has been at different times the ideal of the university. 
 
 In the Middle Ages, the university was conceived to be a means of 
 methodizing, perpetuating and applying all past knowledge, and an 
 instrument for taking up every new branch as it came successively 
 into existence. The purpose of the university was primarily to train 
 the mind and faculties of mind to the highest point of culture. This 
 was a broad conception surely, but in those days a narrow view was 
 
 (428) 
 
119 
 
 entertained of the subjects fitted for the purpose. These ordinarily 
 included grammar, rhetoric, arithmetic, music, geometry and astrono- 
 my. Now it is easy to see that, important as these studies are, and 
 admirably calculated to develop the mental powers, they are some- 
 what remote from that class of knowledge which in the present day is 
 occupying a larger place in modern university education. I mean 
 the knowledge which is susceptible of ready application to the sub- 
 servience of the immediate needs of life, to the demands of agriculture 
 and of the mechanic arts, and, generally, of manufacture and commerce. 
 To be sure, in the days of which I speak, these had made so little 
 progress and knowledge of them was in so unorganized a state, 
 that thev would have furnished indifferent media for the discipline 
 and development of the mind. What I particularly wish to note, 
 however, regarding them, is that having been established for a long 
 time, they were permitted to occupy perhaps too large a place in 
 modern universities. 
 
 A change was introduced with the growth of science and the chal- 
 lenge which the scientists issued in behalf of the claims of their 
 favorite studies. These they claimed were not only equal to any 
 studies as a mental discipline, but also of the greatest intrinsic value 
 because they brought the mind into direct contact with the work of 
 things, leading naturally to that original research which gives to man 
 a mastery and dominion over the physical world. 
 
 This is the class of studies upon which Baconian philosophy be- 
 stowed the highest praise; the studies whose practical benefits were 
 obvious; the studies which, to quote Macaulay: 
 
 "Enable man to lengthen life; to mitigate pain; to extinguish dis- 
 ease ; to increase the fertility of the soil ; to give new securities to the 
 mariner; to furnish new arms to the warrior; to span great rivers, and 
 estuaries with bridges of form unknown to our fathers; to guide the 
 thunderbolt innocuously from heaven to earth ; to light the night with 
 the splendor of the day ; to extend the range of human vision ; to multi- 
 ply the power of human muscles ; to accelerate motion ; to annihilate 
 distance; to facihtate intercourse, correspondence, all friendly ofiices, 
 all dispatch of business ; to enable a man to descend to the depths of 
 the sea, to soar into the air, to penetrate securely into the noxious 
 recesses of the earth, to traverse the land in cars which whirl along 
 without horses, and the ocean with ships", which run twenty-three 
 knots an hour against the wind — and not ten as in Macaulay's day. 
 
 I speak of this change, or rather widening of the scope of instruc- 
 tion in universities, which came with lapse of time and the progress of 
 knowledge, not with a view of adversely criticising the older system. 
 In the study of knowledge then existing, it afforded perhaps a discipline 
 of the mind the best attainable. Whatever their limitations, still as 
 Gladstone had graphically observed of the old universities: "What 
 
 (429) 
 
120 
 
 the castle was to the feudal baron, what the guild was to the infant 
 middle class, they were to knowledge and to -mental freedom." I 
 speak of the narrow field covered by the old, only to praise the more 
 varied and broader scope of the modern university. 
 
 It was but natural when education was estimated as possible for 
 the few and privileged onl}^ that those things which were of chief 
 importance to the man of leisure should be given the first and largest 
 place in the higher institutions of learning. There still remained, 
 too, something of the idea of Plato, that to turn education to practical 
 account, to devote it to the amelioration of man's condition, was not 
 to put it to the best use. That the only noble purpose of education 
 was to lead men to knowledge of abstract, essentially eternal truth, 
 and that it was a sort of degradation of its high nature to apply it to 
 any purpose of vulgar utility. But, with the growth of commerce 
 and manufacture, and the intensification of industries which called 
 for expert and finallv for scientific methods in the conduct of business 
 enterprises, it was found that the training for business and affairs 
 might furnish quite as rigid a discipline for the intellect as did those 
 studies, elegant or severe, which had theretofore held all but exclusive- 
 ly the field of university education. 
 
 Now the university, covering as it did the entire field of human 
 knowledge, always conformed in some degree to the state of the 
 society which constituted its environment. With this fact in mind, 
 the idea which governed our intensely practical ancestors, in the es- 
 tablishment of the American system of state universities, is readily 
 understood. When, in 1862, the act was passed which brought into 
 being these great institutions of learning, the idea of the noblest 
 citizenship was found not in the man of wealth and leisure, but in the 
 man of action, especially that action which was useful in subduing the 
 powers of nature to the purposes of man. A continent practically 
 undeveloped was our heritage, and our fathers wisely determined that 
 our popular institutions of learning should have for their mission the 
 education of the youths of the nation in those studies which would 
 best fit them for their manifest destiny, as pioneers in agriculture, 
 mining and other industrial pursuits. Accordingly it was provided 
 that the state universities should be maintained for the education of 
 the children of the people "in agriculture and the mechanic arts, not 
 excluding scientific and classical studies, and including military 
 tactics. " 
 
 For the purpose of carrying into execution the ideas outlined in 
 the federal grant, the University of Illinois was magnificently endowed 
 by that instrument with four hundred and eightv thousand acres of 
 public land. It was hoped at that time that the states would assist 
 in their maintenance. This hope has been realized many fold in this 
 State. The public lands were sold for about half a million dollars. 
 
 (430) 
 
121 
 
 The first appropriation by the State in 1869 was sixty thousand dol- 
 lars. Twenty years thereafter it was eighty thousand dollars. The 
 last appropriation, which was the largest, was $1,512,535. The 
 aggregate appropriations by Congress for the University of Illinois, in 
 addition to the Land Grant, have been three hundred and forty-five 
 thousand dollars. The aggregate appropriations by the State, 
 $6,291,552.90. 
 
 Over one-half of this amount has been appropriated by the State 
 within the last six vears, and three quarters of it within the past 
 decade. The State now appropriates to this institution an amount 
 equal to three-fourths of that given by it in aid of the public schools. 
 Even with these vast receipts, the University is hardly able to keep 
 pace with its progress and requirements ; but it has held fast to its 
 mission to educate the children of the people in all branches of human 
 knowledge, none of which have been excluded by the instrument upon 
 which it is founded, with special departments covering those branches 
 of learning specifically mentioned, agriculture and the mechanical 
 arts. 
 
 But it is needless for me to speak to you in detail of the branches 
 of learning which now come within the scope of your institution. 
 When I say it embraces the colleges of Literature and Arts, Engineer- 
 ing, Science, Agriculture, and Law; a Graduate School; schools of 
 Music and Library Science, and colleges of Medicine, Dentistry, and 
 Pharmacy, I have to sav that the aim of the founders of our American 
 state universities has been faithfully adhered to. The significance of 
 this adherence to the federal ideal has been that the University of 
 Illinois has become one of the most efficient instruments in the State 
 for the development of its natural resources and this, not only in- 
 directly through the training of students in the sciences and arts, but 
 directly through the work of the Agricultural Experiment Station 
 which has contributed so much to our knowledge of the physical 
 situation of our State and knowledge of inestimable benefit to our 
 fanners through their free publication and distribution of the bulletins 
 issued by the Experiment Station. 
 
 Were this the proper occasion I think it would not be difficult to 
 show that the benefit derived from this branch of university work, in 
 the improvements of crops and of domestic animals, and in the devel- 
 opment of hidden resources, can scarcely be overestimated, and 
 considered as a matter of dollars and cents is one of the best invest- 
 ments which the State has ever made. 
 
 I have dwelt so far upon the tendency to the practical which is so 
 obvious and characteristic of our state universities ; the tendency to 
 train the eye and the hand for the highest grade of work in the arts 
 and for the successful management of great business enterprises. 
 But the development of this tendency has by no means displaced the 
 
 (431) 
 
122 
 
 pursuit of the more abstract studies. These still have their place and 
 a very large place in our American universities. Philosophy and 
 literature still attract a larger number of our young people and the 
 professions claim their full share. But I think it is a sign of the 
 soundness and healthiness of our institutions that the diversitv of 
 American pursuits and interests find their reflection in the character 
 of our higher institutions of learning and that a thorough preparation 
 for any useful career can be there secured. This is as it should be. 
 
 The American university should present the same aspect as does 
 our society. It should be many-sided, broad and diversified; in short, 
 a democracy of higher learning, fitted for the development of the 
 human mind and of the human body and for the training of men and 
 women for the multifarious and practical duties of American citizen- 
 ship. 
 
 THE RELATIONS BETWEEN THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES 
 AND THE PRESIDENT 
 
 The Honorable Samuel A. Bullard 
 President of the Board of Trustees 
 
 The people of the State of Illinois represented in the twenty-fifth 
 General Assembly accepted the endowment offered by the federal 
 government and created a University for the State. The government 
 and administration of the University were, in the wisdom of the 
 people, placed in the hands of a Board of Trustees. Among other 
 things this Board was charged with the duties of providing lands, 
 buildings and equipment, and of appointing a President and a Faculty 
 for the University. The Trustees are answerable to the people for 
 their acts inasmuch as none may hold his office longer than for a 
 period of six years without going to the people for a renewed expression 
 of confidence and a commission for further service. The Board is 
 further required to report every two years to the Governor of the 
 State all its acts and doings for the information of the people and their 
 representatives. The people therefore have chosen to place the con- 
 duct of this great educational institution upon twelve of its citizens 
 who are directly responsible to them. 
 
 The organic law expresses certain conditions and requirements 
 under which the University was to be operated, and aside from these 
 few limitations the scope of the University was an open field. But 
 the conditions and requirements imposed by the law expressed a great 
 purpose of the people. In general terms they were that this Univer- 
 sity should have its prime purpose to be the thorough instruction of 
 the sons and daughters of the common people in the higher branches 
 of university education. It was the application of the common school 
 system to the higher education furnished only by the universities. 
 
 (432) 
 
123 
 
 No class was legislated against, all could enjoy equally the privileges 
 of the University, but none was to receive advantages superior to or 
 bevond those given to the people representing the bone and sinew of 
 the State. These conditions and requirements affecting the Univer- 
 sitv have been persisted in by the people to this day, and they are the 
 subjects of their jealous care. 
 
 In the conduct of anv great business, even of a business that is 
 rapidlv expanding, there are periods of advancement and of decline. 
 Business enterprises like the sea have the rise and fall of the tides. 
 Thev even ha\-e their storms and calms, all of which may be ominous 
 of perils. New policies are to be tried and judged, new departments 
 are to be organized or old ones reduced, or changed to suit new con- 
 ditions. So it is in the conduct of a large institution of learning. One 
 of the periods of deepest concern in its governing board is when there 
 is a vacancv in the presidency. And one of the most difficult duties 
 to perform, and one which affects more directly the general character 
 and trend of the institution than any other, is the choice of a President. 
 In the State University the President is the educational head of the 
 University. The organic law charges him "with the general super- 
 vision of the educational facilities and interests of the University." 
 The real power is in the people and the choice of a President of the 
 University is important, in that the chief executive is so far removed 
 from the source of authority. The relation between the people and 
 the President of the University is much the same as the body of stock- 
 holders of a corporation to the president of a corporation. The 
 Trustees and the President have much the same relation as the board 
 of directors and the president of the corporation. The stockholders 
 are incorporated together to accomplish certain specific ends. They 
 choose a board of directors to determine policies and employ men to 
 put those policies into effect who will produce the ends originally 
 sought by the stockholders. If results fail, a change of administration 
 and a change of policy usually follow. 
 
 The people of the State in their determination to establish a uni- 
 versity had a definite end in view. They wanted a certain manu- 
 factured article, as it were, and that article was practical, well balanced 
 men and women after having been given the highest university train- 
 ing in their several pursuits and professions in life. If this work is 
 done right and the product in its service among the people is satis- 
 factory, and answers the requirements of practical life, then will the 
 people be mightily pleased and continue to express their approval of 
 the administration and its policies. 
 
 The Board of Trustees should therefore be constantly sensitive to 
 the wants of the people in educational subjects and call to its assistance 
 those instructors and professors, and especially a President, who are 
 
 (433) 
 
124 
 
 in hearty svmpathv with the demands of the people and who are able 
 to devise means by which the work can best be accomplished. 
 
 The relations of the President and the Board are intimate and 
 mutual. They are bound to work together to an agreed end. They 
 are bound to believe in the work of the University as prescribed in the 
 fundamental law, and endeavor to constantly and systematically 
 promote the work of the University in loyal support of the statute. 
 The Board has certain great responsibilities. The President should 
 share the work these responsibilities impose but should not assume 
 them. Bv assuming them the President cannot lessen them for the 
 Trustees. The Trustees cannot release themselves of their responsi- 
 bilities by requiring the President to assume them. Nor should the 
 Board presume to take upon itself the duties of the President. When- 
 ever it does so it fails of its purpose and creates confusion. 
 
 The same law which creates the Board of Trustees and defines its 
 duties and powers describes also the duties of the President. There- 
 fore neither may trespass legally upon the duties of the other. Broadly 
 speaking the duties of the Board are initiatory and legislative. It 
 states what shall be done, and when. It provides all the facilities and 
 equipments. It orders expenditures and audits and pays the bills. 
 It regularly returns to the Legislature and to the people with the report 
 of its work a statement of the results. It lays before them what is yet 
 to be done and by what means it may best be done, and the anticipated 
 expense of it all. In all the operations of the Board from the promulga- 
 tion of its policies to its report to the people the most important 
 factor is the presidency. The functions of the President in his relations 
 to the Board can be expressed in the following divisions. 
 
 First, he is the educational executive of the Board and of the Uni- 
 versity. He takes the general policies adopted by the Board and puts 
 them into operation. Details are to be devised so that the enactments 
 of the Board may be speedily and successfully consummated. He keeps 
 the organization in continuous operation without friction or undue 
 loss of power. If parts appear to be weak he must strengthen them ; 
 if parts break they must be mended without stopping the general 
 movement and with as little interruption as possible. If he finds 
 some order of the Board unwise and impossible of successful accom- 
 plishment, he must make the most of it in a fair, honest trial till the 
 Board is convinced of its futility and they abandon it. If funds are 
 inadequately provided he must permit some of his loved projects to 
 be pushed aside or abandoned, withal keeping a cheerful heart and 
 placid face. If the Board persists in requiring him to perform duties 
 which no man can do, but which truly belong to the realm of divinity, 
 he must keep battering away at it, as though this were yet the day of 
 miracles and fearlessly proclaim the fact that faith will remove moun- 
 tains and cast them into the sea. He must have a capacity of doing 
 
 4 
 
 (434) 
 
125 
 
 hard things easily, and disagreeable things happily. He must recog- 
 nize at once where the cause of failure is in anything that has gone 
 awry and have the skill and ability to quietly and successfully remove 
 it without a surgeon's knife or an anesthetic. He must know how to 
 amicablv discipline an insubordinate instructor without alienating the 
 affection of his friends for himself and to appropriately suspend a 
 delinquent student who plays on the football team, without destroying 
 the athletic fame of the University. 
 
 But soberly, the Board of Trustees expects him to be a man of 
 great executive power, frank, openly honest, ready to accord to every 
 one the chance to do his best, sympathetic with both teachers and 
 students and fearless in the line of duty. 
 
 The Trustees have only periodic meetings at which they consider 
 university matters; the President is in constant contact with trying 
 work and the burden of responsibihty falls from him for not a moment. 
 Few persons, perhaps, even of the Trustees, realize the amount of 
 -exacting labor and protracted alertness which sap vitality that are 
 necessitated by the duties of the presidency. 
 
 Secondly, he is the educational advisor of the Board. His judg- 
 ment must be sound, his reasoning correct, his opinions footed on the 
 best authority and his plans practicable. He must inform the Board 
 what of its proposed actions are vagaries and what are sound poHcies. 
 He must warn of danger, when all seems well. At the dividing of the 
 roads he must interpret the sign boards faithfully, whether they be in 
 Sanscrit or in modern English. He must have courageous convic- 
 tions about salaries, the qualifications of instructors and the methods 
 of promotions. His advice must be faultless upon the subject of 
 fraternities and strenuous athletics. In other words he must keep 
 the Trustees informed of all the educational good things that are good, 
 and bad things that are bad. The situation which the President holds 
 as advisor to the Board was expressed by a member a short time ago 
 in this: " It is equal to a liberal education to be an active member of 
 this Board a few years. " 
 
 Thirdly, the President is the Board's educational representative. 
 The Board's duty is not only to conduct a university for the State, but 
 also to conduct it to the satisfaction of the people. There must be 
 harmonv of opinion between the people and the Trustees. If the 
 people fail to advance with the expanding ideas of university education, 
 they must be enlightened; if the Trusteees are slow to establish and 
 promote some line of advanced work which the people want, the Board 
 must be prodded. The President is the harmonizer. He is the 
 educational educator. His insight must be a sort of barometer which 
 discloses the condition of the atmosphere and then he must lead those 
 to higher altitudes whose clouds must be removed. His duty includes 
 his being a pathfinder for the people in educational thought. He 
 
 (435) 
 
126 
 
 must break the way to better things and patiently help all to an under- 
 standing of what the best is in scholarship, in citizenship, in duty and 
 in life. With such a President there will always be an intelligent, 
 able and responsible Board of Trustees. Their responsibilities are not 
 lessened, but are most pleasantly performed. Under such conditions 
 the institution prospers, its work enlarges, its scope widens, it gains 
 enthusiastic friends and its blessed fruits are exceedingly abundant. 
 
 ADDRESS 
 
 The Honorable Andrew S. Draper, LL.D. 
 
 Commissioner of Education of the State of New York, Albany 
 
 The distinguished presence, the impressive procedure, and the 
 function and purpose of this great University convocation are surely 
 sufficient to make it memorable. Other gatherings for the discussion 
 of many subjects of the highest import to higher education in America> 
 Jiave been associated with this assemblage. The effort to accompany 
 an installation with an educational advance has been distinct. The 
 gracious attendance of the representatives of many American and of 
 some foriegn universities lends very substantial assistance to this effort. 
 Taken together, the exercises may rival if not surpass any previous 
 undertaking in the interests of the higher learning in the Mississippi 
 Valley. 
 
 Of very considerable interest to all, the occasion is certainly of pro- 
 found significance to this University. We are now at the very heart 
 of the main business for which we came together. We are taking a 
 step of the very first magnitude in our affairs. We are conferring a 
 very great honor. We are imposing a very great burden. It is 
 through the bestowal of a very great office. We are come not merely 
 to ratify an appointment or to deliver keys, but to give to a new leader 
 the expression of our confidence and the assurance of our help. We 
 would not disguise our understanding of what it all implies to him, to 
 us, and to all of the interests of this institution. We would invest 
 this occasion with all seriousness. With solemnity we pledge our 
 support. Realizing both the need and the meaning of it, we offer 
 words of cheer and the best wishes which a buoyant and expectant 
 people can lay at the feet of a new administration. 
 
 This is not the day for reminiscence, but it is the day for reflection, 
 as well as the day of hope. Rational outlook rests upon a true under- 
 standing of what is and what has been. In university building the 
 future can lift high its turrets only upon foundations laid sure and true. 
 There is no better exemplification of American spirit anywhere than is 
 found in the history of this University. Without any aid from nature 
 but a rich soil, without a single helpful feature in the landscape, upon 
 
 (436) 
 
127 
 
 almost an exact plain, without hill, or tree, or rock, or river, it has 
 made a campus as homelike and ennobling as any one of us has seen. 
 Without building materials in the neighborhood, it has erected build- 
 ings at once spacious and serviceable. With a school of architecture 
 of its own, without close association wdth the best architecture of the 
 world, with considerable of the feeling that a new building belonged to 
 an architect who had been trained by the University, and that in 
 time every graduate in architecture ought to be represented by a 
 building, it has, in one way or another, which need not be specified 
 here, worked out, or worried out, a very respectable collection of 
 architectural effects. Located between and across the borderline of 
 two small cities, it has risen above their rivalries, made them useful 
 suburbs, and given them a useful mission — even the housing of the 
 people of a universitv. Started in an environment not specially con- 
 ducive to scholarly pursuits, it has developed a setting which is 
 beginning to support its work admirably. Far from the geographical 
 or popular center of the State, it has overcome distances and become 
 a conspicuous spot on the map of Illinois. Without a large city to 
 draw upon for students, even beset with deep prejudices and sharp 
 rivalries, it has filled all the highways with happy young men and 
 maidens, coming to or going from its work. At a distance from large 
 libraries and without free association with the centers of scholarship, 
 and until now with very inadequate support, it has built up an in- 
 structional force exceptionally able at many points and of very 
 satisfactory average strength. Under the disadvantages as well as 
 the advantages of a popular support and a democratic management, 
 it has become widely celebrated for its unparalleled growth, and has 
 fought its way to a very high place in the list of large American uni- 
 versities. One hundred out of the one hundred and two counties of 
 Illinois, forty-three other states, and eight foreign countries are repre- 
 sented in its student body. In the breadth of its offerings and the 
 measure of the loftiness of its ambitions it is second to none. When it 
 was robbed of most of its invested and much of its operating funds, it 
 succeeded in three weeks — with the help of the Legislature and Gov- 
 ernor — in converting its discomfiture into better securities than 
 universities ordinarily have, — good, five per cent, everlasting bonds of 
 the commonwealth of Illinois. Later than all neighboring state 
 universities in getting started, and exceedingly slow in gaining 
 moneyed support, it has at last won the genuine pride and generous 
 confidence of a State which can do whatever it will, — for which all of 
 us make most sincere acknowledgments in the hope of yet larger 
 favors still to come. Drawing upon other universities and all other 
 sources of supply for all it can get, it is increasing its contributions to 
 the scholarship of the country and doing more than was ever foreseen 
 to train the young men and women of a rich and imperial State to the 
 
 (437) 
 
128 
 
 serious business of making the most of themselves through intelHgent 
 and tiring work of every kind and through a rational use of the results 
 of commercial and industrial prosperity. 
 
 This State is fortunate in that its State University and its Agri- 
 cultural and Mechanical colleges are being developed together. The 
 work of each supports the other. It is producing a very large institu- 
 tion, one with broad foundations and innumerable offerings. With 
 all of the departments here where there is small need of physicians, its 
 medical colleges are where medical men are most in demand and at 
 the largest center of medical education in the world. All in all, it is 
 accumulating students with a rapidity which is creating a responsi- 
 bility beyond compute. 
 
 We all know this, but it is well to express it. It gives us strength. 
 We are equal to it. By common assent and intuitive impulse this 
 institution is now to be made great as well as big. The state university 
 development in America is one of the very greatest as well as the most 
 surprising movements in world education. It is the logical outgrowth 
 of the democratic advance. Few will say that the state universities 
 are not already as potential as the universities which have preceded 
 them. In opportunities to serve a people through the applications of 
 learning to diversified life, as well as in the aspiration and the strength 
 to make that service great, they are ranking university operations 
 everywhere. Illinois expects to lag behind no other state in the 
 generosity and the intelligence of her doing for the higher learning. 
 She provides the means and calls the best men she can get for her 
 service. Then she wants a new advance. She will not temporize 
 with opportunity. She will not tolerate excuses. She will go for- 
 ward. With profound regard for all the states around her, with the 
 warmest appreciation of the aid she is getting from other universities, 
 and the most unqualified assurances of reciprocity, the key note of 
 this great week at the University of Illinois sounds a decided advance 
 to higher and stronger ground. 
 
 One who has the gifts and the strength to lead this advance is to 
 be envied the opportunity. I wish I could compound the thinking 
 and express the reflections and the hopefulness of us all. The sug- 
 gestions born of my thinking and my experience which bear upon 
 this hour and the future of this University are in these plain and 
 fundamental, briefly stated propositions: 
 
 Serve the commonwealth of Illinois, not only in her industries, but 
 in her political theories and practices, in rearing noble ideals of true 
 culture and in strengthening her conception of the moral obligations 
 of such a people. Do it when sure of your ground, even though it 
 involves the saying of some things which, at the moment, many of her 
 people may not like to hear. 
 
 Aid every educational activity, whether public school or parish 
 
 (438) 
 
129 
 
 school or proprietary school, whether endowed college or professional 
 school, or private or public library, or study club, or whatever else it 
 may be, if it has the purpose of enlarging knowledge or extending 
 culture in or out of the schools. Be true to everv other university. 
 Never forget that meanness defeats itself. In education the way to 
 get rich is through enriching others. 
 
 Bring to this University the best scholars who can be procured in 
 any part of the world. There are no artificial barriers and no political 
 boundaries in the democracy of learning. Pav what you have to pay 
 in order to have the best instruction in the countrv. This is one of 
 the leading things for which the last administration was disposed to 
 give way to the new one. The old one could have gone on in the old 
 way. It was believed that a new leader could take some important 
 steps more surely than the old one. If not taken, an opportunity will 
 be lost. He is here to fill the gap of opportunity to the full. Let the 
 fact be established and let the country come to know that no more 
 new truth is likely to be dug out anywhere, and no better instruction 
 provided anywhere, than at the University of Illinois. 
 
 Develop young men in the faculties by giving them their oppor- 
 tunities ; and assure them just credit for all the work they do. Do not 
 stunt them by letting them think that they are so very much larger 
 than they really are. 
 
 Enter into student sympathies and share student outlook. Brace 
 up the timid and the hesitating. Find ways to put surplus energies 
 to useful ends. Give all plenty of good work to do. Forgive the 
 ones who are a trifle too active but not so very bad. Let the vicious 
 know that there is no place for viciousness in the affairs of a university. 
 Command the situation through the stirring of sentiment, through the 
 development of opinion, and through reliance upon that moral sense 
 which in the last analysis is always overwhelming in a university 
 crowd. 
 
 Let justice and sense stand, whoever falls. Let there be a day in 
 court for all. Be as just to a student when a teacher is at fault as to a 
 teacher when a student is in trouble. 
 
 Fight for absolute cleanness. Insist that everything shall comport 
 with the purposes of such an institution. Demand that everyone in 
 the service shall have undivided devotion to the work which he 
 undertakes. Avoid expenditures which do not commend themselves 
 to the good sense of sane and experienced men. Reject all extrava- 
 gances. When money is expended see that a dollar buys the value 
 of a dollar. Stand for nothing until convinced; shrink from nothing 
 merely because personal interests are in the way. 
 
 Mr. President, administer your splendid estate, and execute the 
 high purpose for which this great aggregation of material things and 
 of intellectual and moral forces is maintained. Do it without fear or 
 
 (439) 
 
130 
 
 favor, without thinking much of the hazards or of the compensations, 
 and the people of the commonwealth of Illinois, and the Almighty 
 God, will take care of you. 
 
 The real growth and strength of this University have hardly 
 appeared. The future will overshadow the past. Hearts, minds, 
 money, boundless energy, the public interests and the common pride 
 are all enlisted to carry the University of Illinois to a place of the very 
 first significance in American education. All that is wanted is a 
 scholarly, a sane, and a fearless leadership. If one cannot supply it, 
 another will. With one accord we think we have found the man who 
 can. 
 
 I am transferring to him not only a title but an opportunity; not 
 only an office but my hope and mv confidence that he may enlarge it. 
 I did not impair this office ; it is a greater office than it used to be. It is 
 as precious a thing as I shall ever have to give. Before I could trans- 
 fer it with cheerfulness and with confidence there has been need to 
 think more deeply than have many others of the needs of the situation 
 here and in another state, and of the adaptation of men to differing 
 work. My attachments are no stronger there than here. The decision 
 came out of a mental process which has tried out feeling and broken 
 some strings. The new President has been an all-important factor 
 in the case. But I am ready. The attributes of the new leader give 
 me confidence and the universal acclaim makes me know that all is 
 well. 
 
 A true son of Illinois; with the fine lineage of her best pioneers; 
 with native pride in her history; with scholarly appreciation of her 
 resources and of her intellectual development; with a mature and 
 balanced understanding of her needs, as well as with patriotic enthu- 
 siasm for all that may uplift her; a severe student, trained in the best 
 schools of the world; a virile teacher; a publicist of wide reputation; 
 an experienced and trenchant administrator: we envy him the gifts 
 and the opportunity which will let him impress lives, shape ends, 
 weave his name into the history of this University, and add to the 
 greatness of his State ; and we give him all the cheer that can spring 
 out of song, with all the sincerity that can breathe through prayer. 
 
 (440) 
 
131 
 INAUGURAL ADDRESS 
 
 THE FUNCTION OF THE STATE UNIVERSITY 
 
 Edmund J. James, Ph.D., LL.D. 
 
 President of the University 
 
 The University of Illinois owes its foundation to the initiative of 
 the federal government of the United States. 
 
 The celebrated Morrill Land Grant Act of July 2, 1862, provided 
 that each state in the Union should be granted thirty thousand acres 
 of land for each senator and representative to which the state was 
 entitled in the federal Congress, for the establishment and support "of 
 at least one college, whose leading object shall be (without excluding 
 other scientific and classical studies, and including militarv tactics) 
 to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and 
 the mechanic arts, * * * {^ order to promote the liberal and 
 practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits 
 and professions of life. " 
 
 This has turned out to be one of the most magnificent endowments 
 of higher education ever made by any government, church or individ- 
 ual, whether we have regard to its immediate effects in leading to the 
 establishment of the particular institutions contemplated in the act, 
 or to its remoter effects in further increasing and stimulating state 
 benevolences for this same general purpose. 
 
 As the result of the said grant, at least one institution correspond- 
 ing to the above description has been established in each state and 
 territory in the Union. There are now more than forty -nine in all! 
 The states have in nearly every instance contributed to the further 
 endowment of these colleges in the form of permanent funds or what 
 is practically the same thing, in the form of permanent annual appro- 
 priations, exceeding, and in some cases far exceeding, the amount 
 given by the federal government itself. 
 
 In some instances the new college was incorporated in, or annexed 
 to, some existing institution. In others it was made an entirely inde- 
 pendent institution limited to instruction in agriculture and the 
 mechanic arts. In still others it became the nucleus of a great state 
 university, with all the departments properh^ belonging to an insti- 
 tution which may justly lay claim to that time-honored name. 
 
 This was the case in Illinois. The proceeds of the sale of this 
 original land grant constitute an endowment fund providing about 
 thirty-two thousand dollars a year for the support of the institution. 
 
 In 1887 the federal government passed an act known as the Hatch 
 Act, providing an appropriation of fifteen thousand dollars a year, to 
 each state in the Union, for the establishment and support of an agri- 
 
 (441) 
 
132 
 
 cultural experiment station. This, in the State of Illinois, was made 
 a department of the State University. 
 
 In 1890, by what is known as the second Morrill Act, the federal 
 government appropriated an additional sum of fifteen thousand 
 dollars a year, to be increased by one thousand dollars annually until 
 it reached the sum of twenty-five thousand dollars a year, for the 
 further endowment of colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts, 
 founded on the act of 1862. This sum, in Illinois, was naturally also 
 turned over to the State University, so that, by these various federal 
 acts, the University of Illinois now receives, either directly or indirect- 
 ly from the federal government, about seventy-three thousand dollars 
 a year, to be applied in the maintenance of an agricultural experiment 
 station, and the colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts. 
 
 The State of Illinois has added largely to this sum of seventy-three 
 thousand dollars for the support of these two enterprises. The last 
 Legislature, for example, appropriated four hundred thousand dollars 
 per annum for the support of these departments, or more than five times 
 as much as the federal government. In addition it also appropriated con- 
 siderable sums for the support of other departments which, although not 
 mentioned specifically in the Land Grant Act of 1 862 , were contemplated 
 by the words "not excluding other scientific and classical subjects. " 
 
 In other words, the State of Illinois has not only applied conscien- 
 tiously to the purposes of the federal act all the funds which the Con- 
 gress has provided, but it has actually appropriated five times as 
 much for these same purposes as the federal government itself. In 
 addition it has provided for the other departments necessary to trans- 
 form the original college of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts into a 
 full-fledged university of the modern type. 
 
 The comparatively small sums thus appropriated by the federal 
 government has led in the sequel to the expenditure of ten times as 
 much for higher education by the State of Illinois. The other states 
 have followed in the same general path, so that it is doubtful whether a 
 similar expenditure of funds to that made by the federal government 
 on this occasion ever led to proportionately greater returns for higher 
 education, in the history of any time or country. 
 
 The University of Illinois has become the largest of the institutions 
 which owe their origin to this federal grant. Opened for work on 
 March 2, 1868, with fewer than one hundred students, its growth for 
 the first twenty years was very slow, as the State at first declined to 
 give very largely in addition to the federal grant. Indeed, it seemed 
 inclined for a time to limit the institution strictly to the work of a 
 college of agriculture and mechanic arts, in the narrowest sense, as was 
 indicated by the name first selected for it, namely, " Illinois Industrial 
 University," and by the refusal of the Legislature to do more than 
 apply in good faith the proceeds of the federal grant to its support. 
 
 (442) 
 
133 
 
 But about the year 1887 a new spirit became manifest. The Hatch 
 Act, furnishing additional funds for the support of scientific work in 
 the domain of agriculture, seems to have been potent in stimulating 
 this new attitude. As a result of the activity of the alumni and of 
 other friends of higher education in the State, the Legislature was 
 prevailed upon to change the name to the "University of Illinois." 
 
 What is in a name ? Sometimes much, and so it was here. Giving 
 this name — the University of Illinois — to the institution, if not at that 
 time an indication of a conscious change of purpose on the part of the 
 people of this State, powerfully helped, at any rate, in working out 
 this change of purpose and bringing it to the public consciousness. 
 
 It did not, of course, immediately produce large results, and even 
 so late as 1890 the Faculty of the school numbered only thirty-five, 
 and the student body, four hundred and eighteen. Since that time, 
 partly as a result of the impetus given by the second Morrill Act of 
 1890; partly as a result of the changed attitude on the part of the 
 State toward the institution, evidenced, even though unconsciously, 
 in this change of name; still more, perhaps, as a result of that marvel- 
 ous increase of popular interest in higher education manifested 
 throughout the country in the last fifteen years; the Legislature of 
 Illinois has became more and more liberal in its appropriations, en- 
 abling the institution to approximate with an ever-increasing rapidity 
 toward the ideal expressed in its name, "The University of the State 
 of Illinois. " 
 
 The increase in the attendance and in the instructing body has been 
 remarkable. The Faculty has grown to number nearly four hundred 
 and the total number of matriculants in all departments for the 
 present year will probably reach four thousand. 
 
 This rapid increase has been partly the result of adding new colleges 
 — in some cases existing colleges with an honorable histor}^ and a con- 
 siderable attendance, as in the case of the Colleges of Medicine and 
 Dentistry — and partly the result of increased attendance in the older 
 departments. 
 
 To the original colleges of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, contem- 
 plated in the first act (including engineering and architecture), have 
 been added the colleges of Liberal Arts, of Science, of Law, of Medicine 
 and Dentistry, and the schools of Music, of Library Science, of Pharm- 
 acy and of Education. 
 
 In the College of Liberal Arts and the Graduate School connected 
 with it, are included the ordinary subjects of instruction embraced in the 
 modem university so far as they are not included in the other schools 
 and colleges mentioned, except those belonging to a theological school. 
 
 Associated with the University are, besides the Agricultural Exper- 
 iment Station already mentioned, che Engineering Experiment Station 
 (the first of the kind in the country) ; the State Geological Survey ; 
 
 (443) 
 
134 
 
 the State Laboratory of Natural History; the State Entomologist's 
 office and the State Water Survey. 
 
 Such is the University now. What is to be its future ? At the risk 
 of incurring the fate of a prophet I will undertake to forecast the 
 future of this institution to a limited extent; and I do it with more 
 confidence because the history of other state institutions has already 
 indicated some of the things in store for us — institutions in whose 
 footsteps we are sure to follow, and if at first longo intervallo yet with 
 increasing determination to press them ever harder in all those things 
 which pertain to a true university. 
 
 I take it first of all, then, that this institution is to be and to become 
 in an ever truer sense, a university. That, I presume, has been settled 
 once for all by the people of this State. It was settled, even though 
 unconsciously, when the word "industrial" was stricken out of the 
 title, leaving it simply "University of Illinois" — by no means the first 
 time that the subtraction of a word from an expression has indicated 
 an addition to the meaning. 
 
 It has been settled anew at each successive session of the Legislature, 
 as by one increase after another in the appropriations the representa- 
 tives of the people in the general assembly have set the seal of their 
 approval on the large and wise policy of the Trustees. 
 
 It has been settled by the ever-increasing purpose of the great mass 
 of the people of this State, the plain people of the farm and the mill, 
 of the country, the village and the city, to build here a monument 
 which will be to them and their children an honor and a glory forever, 
 an evidence which all the world can see and understand, of their cor- 
 porate appreciation of the things of the spirit. 
 
 What then is a university — that which this institution is to be and 
 become? 
 
 Men of different nations and dift'erent times would give different 
 answers to this question. Nay, men of the same nation and of the 
 same time would give different answers. In fact so different would be 
 the answer given by different men in the United States at the present 
 time, that one might well wonder whether there is any common agree- 
 ment as to what a university really is. 
 
 I must, therefore, answer this question for myself, for this time, 
 and this place, and this institution without, however, reflecting in 
 any wav upon what other institutions bearing this name are or may 
 become. I believe that the system of institutions which shall satisfy 
 the educational demands of a nation like this must embrace higher 
 institutions — universities if you will — of many different types. In 
 sketching out the future of the University of Illinois, therefore, I do so 
 with due regard to the fact that we have in this State important and 
 valuable institutions of an entirely different type whose work the 
 University of Illinois will thus supplement and complete. 
 
 (444) 
 
135 
 
 I should define a university briefly as that institution of the com- 
 munity which affords the ultimate institutional training of the youth 
 of the country for all the various callings for which an extensive 
 scientific training, based upon adequate liberal preparation, is valu- 
 able and necessary. You will note the elements in this definition. By 
 virtue of the function thus assigned to it, it is in a certain sense the 
 highest educational institution of the community. It is the institu- 
 tion which furnishes a special, professional, technical training for some 
 particular calling. This special, technical, professional training must, 
 however, be scientific in character, and must be based upon adequate 
 preliminarv preparation of a liberal sort. 
 
 By this requirement of a liberal preparatory training, the university 
 is differentiated from the technical school or trade school of secondary 
 grade. By the scientific character of its training, it is differentiated 
 from a mere preparatory "cram" school for public examinations; 
 such as were so many of our private professional schools down to a 
 recent date. 
 
 There are certain things, then, which must mark this institution 
 in order to make it a true university. The most striking peculiarity 
 is the scientific character of the training which it affords. A considera- 
 tion of this feature — for to my mind it is the fundamental and dis- 
 tinguishing quality of the university- -may properly delay us for a 
 moment. There are many ways in which a man may be prepared for 
 a profession. He may have no school training whatever of a special 
 or professional kind. Having acquired a knowledge of the elements 
 of learning, he may be thrust directly into the practice of a profession 
 in order to learn "by doing." This has been characteristic of most 
 of our professional work in this country down to within a recent date. 
 But even when schools have been organized to afford such training, 
 they may still be of very different kinds. Thus they may be merely 
 institutions to purvey what is already known in the profession, their 
 purpose being to fill the minds of their pupils with knowledge of what 
 at present is known about the subject in hand; perhaps to enable them 
 to pass a state examination which may be prescribed in this particular 
 field, or to pass a university examination set for the purpose of testing 
 one's knowledge rather than one's power. 
 
 A school may, on the other hand, be organized on the theory that 
 the best way to prepare a man for practical duties of a profession, 
 so far as it can be done in school, is to train him to V)e an independent 
 investigator in the domain appropriate to the profession. Thus, from 
 this point of view, the best way to prepare a man for a professorship 
 in mathematics would be to train him in mathematics in such a way 
 and to such a point that he might have a power of independent judg- 
 ment in the domain of mathematical problems; that in an independent 
 way he might discover the possible mathematical problems for him- 
 
 (445) 
 
136 
 
 self and be equipped to handle them one after the other as he might 
 have occasion or opportunity to take them up. In the same way the 
 best training for a lawyer or a judge would be such a training in che 
 science of law as would enable him to have a power of independent 
 judgment on any legal question he might meet, such as would qualify 
 him to take up with entire freedom and with a feeling of abilitv the 
 investigation of any topic which might come before him. 
 
 It is this latter idea which imderlies the German university and 
 the German professional school. According to the idea of the Ger- 
 mans the way to prepare a man to become a professional chemist is 
 not to load him down with all the knowledge of chemistry which the 
 world has thus far accumulated, though such an acquisition under 
 certain circumstances may be valuable, but to train him in the field of 
 chemistry in such a way as to make him an independent investigator 
 — one who will be qualified to meet any chemical problem coming up 
 in the course of chemical work. In the same way, to prepare a man 
 to be a professor of history is not, according to the German idea, to 
 fill him up with the knowledge of all historical facts, for such facts 
 have already passed, in their multiutde and magnitude, beyond the 
 power of any man to grasp, even that of a von Ranke; but to give the 
 man a historic sense, or at least to awaken it in him (for if he has it not 
 it would be difficult to create it entirely anew), to develop his critical 
 spirit, to qualify him to take up the investigation of any particular 
 historic problem in such a way that when he has finished his investi- 
 gation the last word will have been said, so far as the existing material 
 will permit. 
 
 In addition to this, the purpose of the professional school should be 
 not merely to qualify the student to do this kind of research, but to 
 inspire him with an ambition actually to do this kind of work to the 
 extent of his ability, whatever the position to which he should be 
 called. 
 
 I do not know to what extent this peculiarity in the conception of 
 a true professional school may explain the leadership which Germany 
 enjoys today in the world of science and scholarship, that is to what 
 extent this peculiarity in their educational system has produced this 
 thirst for scholarship and learning, or to what extent their natural 
 thirst for scholarship and learning has worked out this peculiar device 
 for stimulating such a spirit. Whichever may be true, I think we 
 must allow that in this particular quality the German university 
 surpasses those of the rest of the world. 
 
 They carry this thought much further in Germany than in any 
 other country. No man is allowed to teach, even in a secondarv school 
 of the first grade, who has not come under the influence of the theory 
 and practice of this sort of a professional school. And while the Ger- 
 man universities, judged from an American point of view, have many 
 
 (446) 
 
137 
 
 defects, this is certainly one of their strongest points, and one which, 
 if we can in any way secure for ourselves, in our own institutions, 
 would be a great advantage to us. 
 
 ^ It goes without the saying that in such an institution as we are 
 outlining the faculty will consist of men and women who w411 have 
 developed this quality of scholarship, this idea of learning, this notion 
 of productive work in the field of scientific investigation and research. 
 It cannot be anything else and accomplish the ends we have in view. 
 Now, of course, there is a long road to travel between our present 
 situation in this respect and that time when, judged from this point of 
 view, we shall be a true university. I say a long road, but it w411 be 
 covered, I fully believe, in a comparatively short time; for the idea of 
 this advance has already permeated this body of instructors, has 
 touched with its dynamic force every aspiring soul in the group and 
 will in the long run leave no individual untouched, and will leave no 
 person unaspiring. 
 
 What this spirit, if it could become general, would mean for our 
 scientific advance as a nation, w'hat it would mean for our industrial 
 improvement, surpasses almost the power of the human mind to con- 
 ceive. Suppose every one of our high school teachers in this country 
 had had a university training in the sense in which I am using the 
 term, so that when he goes into a community and begins his work of 
 instruction there also goes into that community a new power, a new 
 force, being itself first of all productive, and then aiming to select 
 from that community the young minds which may have it in them to 
 add to the power and resources, to the wealth, moral, intellectual and 
 material, of their communities, and kindle in them the sacred flame of 
 aspiration, as only the genuine fire of scientific enthusiasm can kindle 
 it. Suppose every student who goes forth from this chemical labor- 
 atory should carry with him the power and the determination to add 
 something to our knowledge of chemistry, what an addition to the 
 industrial resources of this country! It would mean more than the 
 annexation of many fertile islands beyond the sea, and would cost far 
 less. 
 
 In brief, then, this institution must become, in all departments of 
 professional life, a great center of scientific research and investigation, 
 and must become so, if for no other reason, because the professional 
 training itself cannot be of the highest type unless it be given by men 
 who are qualified for and eager for scientific eflfortj 
 
 This University will include within itself not merely the old pro- 
 fessions — law, medicine, teaching — but will include scientific prepara- 
 cion for any department of our community life, for the successful 
 prosecution of which an extensive scientific training of this kind is 
 desirable or necessary. We shall add, therefore, from time to time 
 schools or colleges which will take care of these new professions as they 
 
 (447) 
 
138 
 
 may appear. We have already begun with the profession of engi- 
 neering in all its various forms — mechanical, civil, electrical, sanitary, 
 chemical, etc., the profession of architecture and the profession of 
 farming. The next to be entered upon in a large and satisfactory 
 wav is the profession of business. Some of these newer callings are, 
 of course, quite different in their character, and will call for a quite 
 different kind of training from that of the old so-called learned pro- 
 fessions. It will hardly be possible to turn through the halls of our 
 universities, even though they be multiplied manv fold, all those who 
 expect to enter in one capacity or another the great world of business. 
 And for many a long day to come the great geniuses in this department 
 will probably be men who have had no university training; for the 
 "wind bloweth where it listeth" and many a genius will sprout and 
 bud and flower in this domain who has not seen even the outside walls 
 of a preparatory school or college or university. But we have already 
 reached the time when the subject matter relating to the world of 
 business has a content which is susceptible of scientific treatment, the 
 study of which, under proper conditions, mav become a valuable 
 element in the preparation for business. The time has come, there- 
 fore, when the college of commerce should be one of the constituent 
 colleges of the university. 
 
 So I expect to see this institution increase the number and quality 
 of its professional schools as the years go on, until it will have devel- 
 oped into a full-fledged university of the broadest scope, capable of 
 answering to the multiform needs of a great commonwealth. 
 
 In a word, this institution will most fully perform its duty to the 
 people of this State if it will stand simply, plainly, unequivocally and 
 uncompromisingly for training for vocation, not training for leisure — • 
 not even for scholarship per se, except as scholarship is ?. necessary 
 incident to all proper training of a higher sort for vocation, or may be 
 a vocation itself, but training to perform an efficient service for society 
 in and through some calling in which a man expresses himself and 
 through which he works out some lasting good to society. Such 
 training for vocation should naturally, and would inevitably, if the 
 training were of the proper sort, result in the awakening of such 
 ideals of service as would permeate, refine and elevate the character 
 of the student. It would make him a scholar and investigator, a 
 thinker, a patriot — an educated gentleman. 
 
 It is apparent to any one who knows the present condition of the 
 University, and for that matter of any of our American universities, that 
 such a conception as this calls for a continued growth at the top and a 
 lopping oft' at the bottom. In other words, it requires an increasing 
 standard of admission to the university, and an extension of the scien- 
 tific character and quality of the work done inside of the university. 
 And this development I consider will be as inevitable as the ebb and 
 
 (448) 
 
139 
 
 flow of the tides. My own idea is that the university ought not to be 
 engaged in secondary work at all ; and by secondary work I mean work 
 which is necessary as a preliminary preparation for the proper pursuit 
 of special, professional, that is scientific, study. Consequently, our 
 secondary schools, our high schools and our colleges will be expected 
 to take more and more of the work which is done in the lower classes 
 of the various departments of the university as at present constituted, 
 until we shall have reached a point where every student coming into 
 the university will have a suitable preliminary training to enable him 
 to take up, with profit and advantage, university studies, in a univer- 
 sity spirit and by university methods. 
 
 Everv community in this country ought to furnish the possibility 
 of securing this secondary training as near as possible to the heart of 
 the community itself. Certainly every town of fifty thousand inhabi- 
 tants, and, perhaps, every town of twenty thousand in the United 
 States — surely every county in this State — should be able, through 
 the activity of either public agencies or of private beneficence, to offer 
 the facilities for acquiring this secondary grade of education which is 
 appropriate to the high school and the college. Surely it is true that 
 the work done at present in the freshman and sophomore years at the 
 University of Illinois, and for that matter in any of our American 
 universities, may just as well be done, so far as the quahty of the 
 work is concerned, at any one of fifty or one hundred centers in the 
 State of Illinois, as at Urbana; provided only that adequate provision 
 be made for giving this instruction. And this adequate provision 
 need not be very expensive. There comes a time in the growth of 
 attendance at any institution, when it reaches its maximum efficiency. 
 I have no doubt myself that in another ten years, unless we should 
 have some great economic backset, there will be ten thousand students 
 in the State of Ilhnois, who will want the kind of work and the grade 
 of work offered in the freshman and sophomore years of the University 
 of Illinois. Now it is to my mind perfectly apparent that it would be 
 tmdesirable to have ten thousand freshmen and sophomores in the 
 State University at Urbana. It would be far better to have them 
 scattered over the State at fifty other institutions, provided we can 
 get these institutions to take care of them properly, and then send 
 those of them who may desire the more advanced work up to the 
 University. 
 
 So then, the institution must be lopped off at the bottom and ex- 
 pand at the top in order to become that true university of the State of 
 Illinois which will render the largest service to the people of this 
 community. We have in the development of our College of Agri- 
 culture a ven.' excellent illustration of how, with the growing standards 
 of this State, an individual professional school will gradually change 
 its entire character by the continued raising of its standards. Thus 
 
 (449) 
 
140 
 
 far we have been practically accepting in the college of Agriculture 
 any young man who desires to avail himself of the advantages for 
 instruction offered here, and who seemed to the Faculty likely to be 
 able to do the work, without reference to his formal preparation. At 
 the present rate of growth, in another ten or fifteen years there will be 
 five thousand young people in this State who will want to pursue 
 these studies. It would not be possible or desirable to take care of 
 these five thousand people in the College of Agriculture at Urbana. I 
 expect to see secondary schools of agriculture established at different 
 points in the State where those who wish technical work of second- 
 ary grade can secure it near home, and from these the best trained and 
 best fitted will be sent up to the College of Agriculture at the Univer- 
 sity of Illinois for their advanced training. 
 
 One may ask, at what point will you cease to raise these standards 
 of admission? I think the answer to that question is very simple, 
 namely, when we shall have succeeded in requiring from the young 
 men and women who enter the University that degree and kind of pre- 
 liminary education which, from a pedagogical and a social point of 
 view, best qualifies them for the beginning of special, i. e., scientific, 
 training. 
 
 You will see from the above sketch that I look upon the university 
 as an institution for the training of men and women, not of boys and 
 girls. The latter, I think, is distinctly the work of the high school and 
 the college, and the sooner it can be relegated to them, the better for 
 the young people themselves, for the schools and colleges, for the 
 universities and for the community. I have no doubt myself that 
 when our educational system is as fully developed as are our commerce 
 and our manufacturing, we shall see this differentiation of function. 
 
 But this institution will be and become not only a university in 
 general, but it will perforce be a particular kind of university. It is 
 and will remain a state university, and certain consequences for its 
 future flow from this fact. 
 
 The first thought in this connection is one of limitation. As a 
 state university in America, there are certain things which it cannot 
 undertake, at least within any period which is worth our while to 
 prognosticate for it. The old traditional university of the Middle 
 Ages and later times consisted primarily of the three faculties of law, 
 medicine and theology. The philosophical faculty was later added 
 and in a few instances still another faculty was added, making usually 
 four and sometimes five in the typical university. 
 
 The theological faculty was thus from the beginning an essential 
 part of the university. It was an element of the university idea. A 
 university without the theological faculty can hardly be looked upon, 
 from a theoretical or historical point of view, as a complete university. 
 Certainly the vast majority of thinkers would say that the absence 
 
 (450) 
 
141 
 
 of a theological faculty is a serious defect in an institution which aims 
 to be a complete university. From the standpoint of the church I 
 have always felt that it was a great disadvantage for it to educate its 
 priests or clergymen in theological seminaries isolated and monastic 
 instead of in theological faculties forming part and parcel of a great 
 universitv which is itself in many respects a microcosm and life in 
 which prepares for the great life of the world outside. 
 
 But in this country, of course, the state university cannot under- 
 take to establish a theological faculty for a long time to come, if ever; 
 in fact, not until there is a substantial agreement on the question of 
 religious beliefs and practices, at least so far as fundamentals are con- 
 cerned. This day is certainly far in the future, and until it comes, the 
 state universities in this country will certainly not organize or support 
 theological faculties. 
 
 But we have gone somewhat further in our actual practice than 
 our theorv of separation of church and state might call for and we 
 have cut from our curriculum of studies all courses bearing upon 
 religion, even upon the history of religion. I cannot help thinking 
 myself, that this is a serious limitation both to the university and to 
 the church, none the less real and serious, because under our circum- 
 stances it may be necessary as a condition of development of the 
 highest usefulness of the state university. 
 
 Let us not make a mistake here, however. The cutting out of 
 formal religious instruction from the curriculum does not mean that a 
 state university is necessarily non-religious, or anti-religious. An 
 institution is religious or the opposite chiefly because the community 
 of which it is a part is religious or the opposite. The character of the 
 state university, like that of all the other institutions of the country, 
 will be determined fundamentally by the character of the people 
 itself. How true this is in matters of religion may be seen by the 
 actual facts concerning our state universities. Thus, all of you who 
 have followed the work of the Young Men's Christian Association 
 must have been struck by the fact that it has no more active and vigor- 
 ous centers of life than those in our state universities, and the inter- 
 national secretary of the association stated some time ago that the 
 largest, strongest and best organized college Christian Association in 
 the world was to be found here among the students in the University 
 of Illinois. Religion, the religious spirit, the reverent attitude and 
 all which is bound up wdth what is best in religion is not something, 
 of course, which can be shut up within the dry bones of statistical 
 tables, and yet the figures collected by our young people w^ho have 
 been interested in this matter show that there is very little difference 
 between the number of students who are members of the church, for 
 instance, at our state universities and at the other great educational 
 institutions of the country — which would seem to bear out my propo- 
 
 (451) 
 
142 
 
 sition that the fundamental fact is not after all the presence or absence 
 of religious instruction, but rather the character of the community 
 from which the members of the state university are drawn. 
 
 At the same time, any one who is a believer in the state university 
 and its function cannot help regretting the feeling which certainly 
 has prevailed in certain circles in the past if not in the present, that the 
 state university is in a certain way anti-religious in its atmosphere and 
 its work; for we can not close our eyes to the fact that whatever you 
 or I as individuals may think of religion and religious training, the 
 great mass of the people of this nation are deeply concerned that their 
 children should be brought under what they conceive to be proper 
 religious influence early in life, and should remain so throughout the 
 college and university years. 
 
 It is then a matter of congratulation to those of us who have seen 
 in this opposition to the state universities a certain menace to their 
 prosperity, that there are many signs that this particular difficulty is 
 going to be met in what will be an extremely satisfactory way to all 
 concerned. The great religious denominations have come to recognize 
 that these institutions are destined to grow and' increase with every 
 passing year, and that the state of which they themselves are a part 
 will never agree that the principle of the separation of the church 
 and state shall be infringed upon to the extent of providing religious 
 instruction in state universities, and that therefore the duty is upon 
 them to see that adequate provision is made for this great need. They 
 are solving it in different ways. They are in some instances erect- 
 ing guild houses and dormitories where the children from the families 
 of their particular faith may find centers of influence and help. In 
 other places they are providing lectureships upon religious subjects 
 for the benefit of any students who choose to attend. In some places 
 they are beginning to imitate the Canadian system so well exem- 
 plified in the University of Toronto, of organizing local colleges with 
 the specific purpose of offering instruction in religious topics and in 
 other subjects which the state university may not adequately support, 
 for the benefit of students who desire to take such work. 
 
 For my own part, I believe some such device as this last named 
 will be found to be a very satisfactory and helpful one, and that by 
 this means we shall solve this problem, which is none the less real and 
 serious because we have too often been inclined to close our eyes and 
 ears to the facts and refuse to consider the question, imagining that if 
 we could only bury our heads in the sand we should be free from the 
 necessity of meeting it and grappling with it. When we can combine 
 the freedom of the state university with the opportunity for instruction 
 in religious matters which the great mass of our people holds to be 
 desirable and necessary to true education, we shall have taken a long 
 
 (452) 
 
143 
 
 step toward solving not only this particular problem, but many others 
 which touch it and ramify from it in many different directions. 
 
 But if the first thought growing out of the fact that this is to be a 
 state university is one of limitation, the second and prevailing thought 
 is one of freedom, of privilege, of ease of movement, of facility, of 
 adaptation. 
 
 No one will certainly accuse me of underestimating the work or 
 importance of the non-state university. I owe my own education 
 entirely, after leaving the public high school, to the non-state school, 
 particularly to the denominational, if not sectarian, school, and my 
 own work as professor and president has been, until I came here, 
 entirely in connection with such schools. Northwestern, Harvard, 
 Pennsylvania, which though in name a state, is in fact a private 
 institution, and Chicago represent the course of my student and pro- 
 fessional life. No one, I believe, can entertain a deeper feeling of 
 gratitude to these institutions and to the men who have founded and 
 built them up, than I. No one can have a higher appreciation of the 
 value of their services to the community than I, and I may say that 
 the more I learned about each of them, the more I was impressed with 
 the magnitude of their service to the community. 
 
 The University of Chicago, for example, has not only done the 
 ordinary service which any well equipped institution of higher learning 
 does, but it has played a most important part in advancing the stand- 
 ards and educating public sentiment on higher education throughout 
 the Mississippi Valley. It is not too much to sav that every institu- 
 tion of college or university grade in the Middle West has profited 
 ' directly or indirectly by the magnificent work of this institution — and 
 by no means the least among them, the University of Illinois. It may 
 not be out of place for me to say that the University of Chicago has 
 been in large part, from this point of view, William Rainev Harper, 
 whose absence we so much regret on this occasion. If Chicago Uni- 
 versity had done nothing else in the last fifteen years than provide an 
 opportunity for the blessing-bringing activity of William Rainey 
 Harper it would still be worth to the communitv all it has cost. 
 
 But even if I owed no personal debt or obligation to these insti- 
 tutions, if I had never for an hour enjoyed the benefit of instruction 
 within their halls or from any one who came from them as teacher, 
 still I should certainly be a blind, ignorant guide indeed if I should by 
 any remark of mine belittle these institutions or derogate in any way 
 from the glory which properly belongs to them. We believers in 
 state universities, whatever we may think of the future, must certainly 
 acknowledge that we owe everything that we have been, and almost 
 everything that we are, to these non-state institutions. If the history 
 of American education were to be closed today, certainly the chapter 
 devoted to the work of the state university would be very short and 
 
 (453) 
 
144 
 
 unimportant, indeed, as compared with that which should relate the 
 history and services of the non-state institutions — Harvard, Yale, 
 Brown, Columbia, Princeton, Leland Stanford, Dartmouth, Oberlin, 
 Johns Hopkins and the hundred others — what a galaxy! and how 
 proud we all are of them and their work! No thoughtful man, it 
 seems to me, however much he may desire that our State ll^niversity 
 should wax, would like to see these non-state institutions wane, and I 
 believe we should all feel that anything which would injure the effic- 
 iency or the work of any one of these institutions would be a calamity 
 pure and simple. 
 
 In my own view. Northwestern, the Armour Institute of Tech- 
 nology, the University of Chicago, Milliken University, and the score 
 and more of other non-state institutions engaged in the educational 
 work of this State, are a vital, fundamental and essential part of the 
 life of this community. I cannot, of course, foresee how many of the 
 numerous small colleges in this State are destined to survive. Some 
 of them, perhaps, may disappear. Others, I believe, will be newly 
 founded. All of them, and more too, will be needed when the popu- 
 lation of this State shall be ten millions, as it will be before many 
 years. But even for the present I cannot help feeling that any means 
 by which such institutions as Lake Forest, Knox College and the Wes- 
 ley an and Mc Ken dree and Illinois and Shurtleff and St. Ignatius and 
 a dozen others can be enabled to do their work in a thorough and effi- 
 cient manner, will be a cause for congratulation to every lover of edu- 
 cation. We are all part of the same enterprise, engaged in wprking 
 out the educational problems of this great commonwealth, and that 
 enterprise is going to be the greater and the more glorious in propor- 
 tion as each of us is enabled to do fully and faithfully his part and por- 
 tion in the work. 
 
 I am a great believer in the desirability, nav, from certain points 
 of view, the necessity, of a complete scheme of state education from 
 the kindergarten through the professional school. I believe the state 
 owes it to itself, to its own people, to the nation, to provide such a 
 scheme of education. 
 
 But I have never felt that the system of state education should be 
 monopolistic in character, should be exclusive, i. e., should try to 
 cover the entire territory and the entire field to the exclusion of church 
 or private agencies. The extent to which the private institution has 
 been driven out of the field in Germany and France has been and is a 
 serious intellectual, material and spiritual loss to both these countries. 
 On the other hand, the extent to which higher education has been left 
 entirely to private hands in England has been equally serious and 
 damaging to the interests of that country. The extent to which we 
 have brought about a cooperation between the principle of public and 
 private initiative in the field of higher education is a striking illustra- 
 
 (454) 
 
145 
 
 tion of our good fortune, if not of our insight — for after all it has been 
 largely accidental. It is desirable that the State of Illinois should 
 have a state university, no matter what the church or private indi- 
 viduals may do, no matter how many institutions these may build up 
 by its side. It would be equally ?nzdesirable if the State of Illinois 
 should attempt by either direct or indirect coercion to drive everybody 
 desiring higher education into the State University. Northwestern 
 University, and Chicago University, and the Armour Institute of 
 Technology, and Millikcn University and the many small colleges in 
 the State are taking care of students of college and universitv age, in 
 the aggregate far in excess of the number provided for in the State 
 University. And in my opinion they always will, and, further they 
 always should. 
 
 In other words, while I am a firm believer in the principle of a 
 state system of education from the lowest grade to the highest, .1 
 believe also thoroughly in utilizing, as far as possible, the assistance- 
 of all other agencies in the same department of education. And this 
 cooperation will, in this country, for aught that we can see, for an 
 indefinite period be not only desirable, but necessary to meet our 
 educational needs. 
 
 It is the non-state institution then in England and in this country 
 which has been in a certain sense the "Ark of the Covenant," which 
 has carried on from generation to generation the precious deposit of 
 learning and has been the intermediary by which the spiritual pos- 
 sessions of the past have been carried over and made the possessions 
 of the present. 
 
 Endowed institutions, whether under private or church control, 
 have thus done a vast service. But, on the other hand, they have 
 the defects of their virtues. Educational institutions, whether 
 private or state, are by nature conservative. They resist changes 
 and improvements. They fight progress almost as by a law of their 
 being, and the greater their endowments, the more completely they 
 are removed from the necessity of appeal to the life of their own 
 generation for support, the more set do they become in their conserva- 
 tism, the more bulwarked in their opposition to all progress. They 
 may by their wealth defy the currents of progress. They may oppose 
 themselves to all forward movements. Not only may they do so, 
 but in nearly every instance in history they have done so. The his- 
 tory of every European country demonstrates that these bodies, the 
 tmiversities and colleges, have had to be reformed by law. Left to 
 themselves they have suffered dry rot in an extreme form. Oxford 
 and Cambridge fought bitterly all attempts to force them into line 
 with modem progress. It was the forcible subjection of the German 
 university to the directing power of the government which broke up 
 the crust of conservatism and paved the way for that wonderful 
 
 (455) 
 
146 
 
 career of progress which put Germany at the head of scientific progress. 
 Even in our own country our colleges and universities have the same 
 opposition to education and progress to record. If the people in this 
 country had handed over to college and university faculties the 
 decision of the important educational questions which they have had 
 to settle in the last fifty years, we should have today practically no 
 high school system, or one of comparatively little value. We should 
 have no system of state universities. We should have, to a large ex- 
 tent, no professional schools of high quality at all. It is, indeed, a 
 question whether we should have even an efficient free common 
 school system. 
 
 Fortunately for us, however, our institutions as a whole have been 
 so poverty-stricken that they have been compelled to appeal to the 
 community continually for funds, and in doing so they have been 
 forced into lines of progress which have become more and more 
 evident in the past few years. I am a great admirer of Harvard 
 University, easily the greatest of our universities; I am a great ad- 
 mirer of Harvard professors, and especially of that great man, the 
 present president, facile princeps among the leaders in American 
 education of the last twenty-five years, Charles W. Eliot, but I do not 
 believe there has ever been a time, down to within a very recent date, 
 when if the faculties of Harvard College could have had absolutely 
 their own way, and had had money enough to persist in their own 
 way, they would not have committed themselves squarely against 
 every question of educational progress which the scope of the times 
 has brought to them. And what is true of Harvard is still truer of 
 the less progressive institutions of higher learning, of which we have 
 many. 
 
 So I believe it is necessary, friends, by the side of this system of 
 private, endowed, church institutions, to maintain a system of state 
 institutions. By the side of these other great institutions of learning 
 it is necessary in this country to maintain the state university, which, 
 because of its entirely different origin, because of the different influ- 
 ences to which it is subject, can work out a supplemental scheme of 
 education in many different directions, extending into many fields 
 which would be neglected in all probability by these other institutions. 
 Such an institution, even though not a leader by choice, will by its 
 very constitution be compelled to adjust itself to modern demands 
 and thus force the other institutions which wish to exist by its side 
 into a larger and more liberal view, and finally into what is clearly the 
 line of progress. 
 
 The state university is necessary in order to help maintain the 
 democracy of education ; to help keep education progressive ; and 
 finally in order to keep higher education close to the people, and make 
 it the expression and outgrowth of their needs. 
 
 (456) 
 
147 
 
 As a state university, we may properh- demand from this institu- 
 tion that it undertake certain functions which it is not so eas^' for 
 other institutions to assume. 
 
 This institution as a state university mav become more directly 
 and immediately the external expression of the corporate longing of 
 the people for higher things in the sphere of education than can any 
 other type of institution. This is said with all due regard for and due 
 recognition of the real way in which the private institution has entered 
 into, and is a real expression of, the life of our people. Fortunately, 
 we have never needed to fear, in this country, what some of the conti- 
 nental nations seem to have feared, namely, that institutions of 
 learning under private or church auspices would work against the 
 public interest of the community of which they are a part. The funda- 
 mental object of all institutions of higher learning may be summed up 
 from one side, as the creation of the highest and most efficient type of 
 citizen. And fortunate it is for us that we may truly sav today, as in 
 all previous periods of our national history, that all our higher insti- 
 tutions of learning, whether founded by private individuals or by 
 religious sects, have in this respect worked out the same beneficent 
 result for the community; that the graduates of all these schools 
 alike have been to the same extent good citizens, have been devoted 
 patriots, have been self-sacrificing and public-spirited members of 
 society. 
 
 And yet I cannot help but think that an institution, in the estab- 
 lishment and endowment of which every citizen feels that he has a 
 direct and immediate share, expresses in a certain way more fully his 
 desire for higher things in the field of education than can any other 
 type of institution. 
 
 As the citizens by their combined effort make it possible to raise the 
 standard, enlarge the outlook and increase the equipment of such an 
 institution, they are by this very act themselves widened in their own 
 outlook, enlarged in their own sympathies, quickened in their own 
 higher life. And as this institution is thus made more efficient, it 
 again in turn reacts upon the quality of its clientele and its constitu- 
 ency by turning back into its midst an ever-swelling number of young 
 people, who in their turn by their higher education and their more 
 efficient training raise the level of the society from which the institu- 
 tion springs. And so there is a real moral influence, and a real moral 
 power proceeding from this relationship between the state university 
 and the citizen, which is none the less real, none the less effective be- 
 cause, like all spiritual things, it is impalpable, and, to a certain ex- 
 tent, elusive. And just as the creation of the public elementary 
 school opened a new era in the consciousness of the American 
 people as to its duties toward education, just as the creation 
 of the public high school has opened a new outlook, established 
 
 (457) 
 
148 
 
 a new consciousness on a higher plane of the duties of the com- 
 munity as a whole in the field of secondary education, so the cre- 
 ation of the state university has marked a new, a forward, an upward 
 step of no mean importance and no mean power. It is a great step 
 to get a whole people to recognize in its corporate capacity that one of 
 its fundamental duties is higher education, and that one of its funda- 
 mental purposes should be the creation of organs of activity which 
 should realize and carry out this fundamental function. It means 
 that the whole people has passed on into a new and a higher state. It 
 is no longer an appeal to a man as a Christian that he should look out 
 for the education of the community of which he is a part, and to which 
 he owes a duty — surely a high appeal — it is no longer an appeal to the 
 Baptist or the Methodist or the Presbyterian that he owes it to the 
 church and that the church owes it to itself to look out and provide 
 for the existence of church institutions of higher education — surely a 
 high appeal — nor is it merely an appeal to him as a philanthropist, 
 striving as an individual to return to society some part of the wealth 
 he has achieved; but it is a far more fundamental, a far more universal 
 appeal to him in his capacity as a member of society, whether Catholic 
 or Protestant, whether Baptist or Presbyterian, whether rich or poor, 
 that this duty to assist higher education is as complete and all embrac- 
 ing and fundamental as any other duty of citizenship. There is no 
 doubt that when a community reaches this point of view it has passed 
 onward and upward into a new and a higher state of educational 
 consciousness with an ever wider educational outlook, and with the 
 promise of undreamed- of visions in the years to come. 
 
 It is a necessary part of the idea of a state university that it shall 
 be an organic member of the state system of public education, and 
 that while, therefore, in a certain sense it is the crown of this system, 
 it must rest solidly and securely upon a sound basis of secondary and 
 elementary training. No state university can become the most 
 efficient instrumentality for educational work within its jurisdiction 
 unless it is built up upon a sound system of elementary and secondary 
 schools from the kindergarten to the university itself. 
 
 It follows from this that the university must itself be an active 
 organ in developing, if necessary in creating, in refining, in elevating, 
 the character of this elementary work; for without it the university 
 cannot become a true university at all. 
 
 It follows, moreover, that the university must be most intimatelv and 
 continuously associated with the scheme of elementary and secondary 
 education. It must be so immediately based upon it that there shall be 
 no gap between the university and this scheme of preparatory work. 
 
 From this, several consequences follow, some of them beneficial 
 and some of them, if not injurious, at least antagonistic in a certain 
 sense to the highest and most rapid development of the university. 
 
 (458) 
 
149 
 
 The state university cannot require for admission what the second- 
 ary schools of the state cannot give, and if these remain few in number 
 and of a low type, the university itself must be content with living 
 upon a lower plane of usefulness than would otherwise be the case. 
 
 It is a natural outgrowth, therefore, of this essential fact that the 
 state universities were the first of the higher institutions to get into 
 close organic touch with the great element of the secondary system 
 known as the public high school, and that they have worked beneficently 
 upon this system of lower schools, sustaining, lifting and improving it. 
 
 It follows, also, from this that the state universities were the first 
 to find it necessary to adapt their own requirements of admission, to 
 adapt to some extent their own curriculum, to the needs of these 
 secondary schools which have a much wider function than that of 
 simply preparing for the university. And so the state university has 
 been determined in its educational policy by the needs of the secondary 
 school itself, thus bringing about a most intimate relation. The result 
 of this intimate relation between the state university and the secondary 
 schools has been that the university in all the states where it has been 
 put upon the proper basis, has been the most active and energetic 
 influence urging the community to develop in an adequate way the 
 secondary school system. 
 
 The statement is sometimes made by opponents of large appropri- 
 ations to the state university that you had better spend more money 
 on your lower schools, and less on your higher, if you desire to improve 
 the educational quality of the public school system. No graver mis- 
 take could be made than that which is involved in the ordinary 
 understanding of this proposition. 
 
 You cannot have good kindergartens unless you have good pri- 
 mary schools. You cannot have good primary schools unless you 
 have good intermediate schools. You cannot have good intermediate 
 schools unless you have good high schools. You cannot have good 
 high schools unless you have good universities. In other words, no 
 community reaches the upper grade' of efficiency in its elementary 
 schools, except by establishing and improving the quality of its higher 
 schools. This is so apparent to a student of education, and seeming- 
 ly so difficult of comprehension by the general public, that a further 
 word may not be out of place. 
 
 Suppose a state had ten millions of dollars to spend on its school 
 system. My proposition is that a considerable portion of that 
 shotdd be spent upon the highest grade of the system, the university, 
 in order to secure the effective expenditure of the money in the lower 
 grades, and that if you were to spend ten millions of dollars upon your 
 primary schools and nothing upon your higher schools, you would 
 have a far inferior-system of schools to what you would have if you 
 provided for an adequate scheme of higher institutions. 
 
 (.459) 
 
ISO 
 
 Certainly you cannot have good schools unless you have good 
 teachers, and all our experience shows that you cannot have good 
 teachers in any grade of schools unless you have good schools of a 
 higher grade where these teachers may secure their preparation. 
 Moreover, there is a subtle moral force ever at work in school matters 
 which makes it impossible to secure the highest point of efficiency in 
 any grade of the school system unless it looks forward to and prepares 
 for something higher. You cannot have good schools of an elementary 
 grade unless there is the opportunity for your best pupils, for those 
 who have the time and money, to pass on up to ever higher grades of 
 study. This is the justification of the high school, the college and 
 the university from the standpoint of the eighth and seventh and sixth 
 and first grades of the elementary school. 
 
 As a state university this institution will have intimate relations 
 not merely with the high schools and elementary schools of the edu- 
 cational system, but with the other great element of the secondary 
 scheme, namely, the normal schools. 
 
 Many people have thought that the normal school is in a certain 
 way merely a temporary element in our educational system. It is 
 intended to train teachers for the elementary and secondary schools. 
 And there is a feeling in many quarters that as our high schools im- 
 prove in quality and our universities multiply, the necessity of our 
 normal schools will disappear. 
 
 I have no doubt myself that the normal school will change pro- 
 foundly its character in the course of years, though how it will change 
 I do not profess to know; but that it will, within any time for which it 
 is worth our while to plan, become a superfluous element in our scheme 
 of education I do not believe at all. Develop our universities as much 
 as we may be able, develop our colleges as much as private enterprise 
 and church initiative may assist us in doing, we shall still not be able 
 to secure for our elementary and secondary schools an adequate 
 number of properlv trained men and women without the assistance 
 of these normal schools. 
 
 I believe that they should stand in the very closest relation to the 
 state university, and I believe that it should be possible to organize 
 their work in such a way that persons who intend to prepare for the 
 work of teacher in the elementary and secondary schools of the state, 
 and for the position of superintendent and other similar administra- 
 tive positions, should find it possible to pass either through the normal 
 school and then through the university, or through the university and 
 then through the normal school, as they may find it most convenient. 
 I believe that all our universities would find it to their advantage to 
 get into touch with this great normal school system, but for the state 
 university this is an absolute essential. 
 
 The State of Illinois has established five great normial schools and 
 
 (460) 
 
151 
 
 has equipped them in a most hberal wav, and will continue with in- 
 creasing liberalitv to keep them fully abreast of the times. They are 
 doing a work which no other element in our school system is doing, 
 and I expect, for my part, to see them improve and grow rather than 
 decrease, and the State University and the normal school together will 
 form, if you please, a single institution for furnishing, in the most 
 efficient and economic method practicable, properly trained men and 
 women for the great system of public schools supported by the State. 
 
 But the state university, it seems to me, must proceed further 
 than I have thus far indicated, and with one or two brief suggestions 
 as to some of the directions in which the state university will develop, 
 I shall bring these considerations to a close. 
 
 The state university will become more and more a great civil service 
 academv, preparing the young men and women of the state for the 
 civil service of the state, the county, the municipality and the town- 
 ship, exactly as the military and naval academies are preparing young 
 men for the military service of the government. 
 
 The business of the government is becoming more and more com- 
 plex with every passing year. The American people are beginning to 
 take a new attitude upon the subject of its civil service. Formerly 
 it was thought that anybody who could read and write was fit for 
 almost any position in the service of the state, and for a long time in 
 the history of the country it was thought that the most practical 
 method of selecting men and women for positions in the civil service 
 was by their affiliation with and devotion to political parties or political 
 factions. We are coming to a recognition of a new state. The 
 abuses of politics have led the American people to the general accept- 
 ance of a principle, very far from being worked out as yet, under 
 which men and women shall be selected for the civil service by a 
 method which shall eliminate the element of political affiliation (I am 
 speaking now of the administrative positions in the narrowest sense 
 of that term) , and every passing year sees some new strengthening of 
 this principle of the so-called merit system under which people are 
 selected for posts in the public service on other grounds than that of 
 party devotion. 
 
 But we shall not be satisfied very long with this condition of things. 
 Public administration is becoming with every passing year a more 
 complex subject. It calls for special knowledge. It calls for the 
 trained hand and the trained mind. It will not be long, therefore, 
 until the American people will, for many positions now practically 
 open, insist that the holder shall be properly trained and qualified to 
 perform the duties of that particular office; and now that the state 
 offers every opportunity to secure an education not merely in the 
 elements of learning, but in the secondary and higher grades as well ; 
 now that the state offers an opportunity to procure practically free 
 
 (461) 
 
152 
 
 the technical training necessary to quaHfy people for these posts, we 
 may expect to see more and more a standard of efficiency set up and 
 insisted upon by the people of this State, for all persons entering the 
 public service. In an age of excellent courses in civil engineering 
 supported by the state almost free of charge, we may expect to see 
 the state require that the civil service aspirant in the field of survey- 
 ing, for example, shall be a man of scientific training, not merely one 
 who has learned his business by the mere rule of thumb. We shall 
 expect to see every municipality demand and employ men of careful 
 scientific training to test its water supply and its food supplv. In 
 other words, the time of the haphazard, happy-go-lucky, hit-or-miss 
 public official and of the ignoramus in the department of public ad- 
 ministration is passing away in favor of the scientifically trained man 
 who knows his business. Now the people of this State have a right to 
 demand of the State University that it shall turn out men and women 
 properly equipped for this kind of work, and who will return to the 
 State in efficient service a thousandfold over the cost of their training. 
 
 Now, all this you will note is in addition to and quite apart from 
 the function of the state universit}^ as a center for the training of 
 men and women who wish to enter the learned professions, a topic 
 which has been discussed previously. To my mind, if the state re- 
 quires an examination of proficiency from anybody as a condition of 
 practicing any profession, it should itself provide the centers properly 
 equipped, where the requisite training may be obtained. And as the 
 state may undoubtedly increase this supervision over callings now 
 left free, we may expect to see the state, in the state university, pro- 
 vide opportunities for study in many directions which are not now to 
 be found at all. 
 
 But the state university must be and become more than a civil 
 service academy. It is and is destined to become to an ever-increasing / 
 extent the scientific arm of the state government, just as the governor 
 and his assistant officers are the executive arm and the judges and the 
 courts are the judicial arm. 
 
 As the business of government becomes more complex, the prob- 
 lems which the state has to solve in many different directions become 
 more difficult, requiring in many cases more careful scientific experi- 
 mentation and long-continued investigation, for the pursuit of which 
 there must be adequate laboratory equipment and trained investi- 
 gators. For all such work the state university is the natural and 
 simple means alreadv provided. 
 
 I have called attention to the fact that here in the University of • 
 Illinois are already located, for example, the State Water Survev, 
 the State Natural History Survey, the State Entomologist's office, 
 the State Geological Survey, etc. There is no doubt that if the uni- 
 versity is properly organized to undertake this scientific work in a 
 
 (462) 
 
153 
 
 wav to make it thoroughly effective, it will, to an increasing extent, 
 be constituted the scientific arm and scientific head, if vou please, of 
 the state administration. 
 
 It goes without the saying that this concentration of the scientific 
 work of the state government at the university has most valuable 
 educational results. The increasing number of scientific men centered 
 at the universities helps create that scientific atmosphere, that scien- 
 tific spirit w^hich is absolutely essential to the upbuilding of a great 
 university. This union of scientific investigation and educational 
 work is a most fortunate combination for both sides of the enterprise. 
 The scientific work for the state government offers an opportunitv 
 to train the young men in actual practice, and by thus securing their 
 interest in and training for such work the government is able to obtain 
 an ample and regular supplv of properly trained workers in this field. 
 By such a union the state secures the maximum of service at a mini- 
 muin of cost. 
 
 Further, the state university will, I believe, in combination with 
 the normal schools become practicallv, for manv concrete purposes, 
 the state department of education. We have alreadv in this State 
 and in most of the American states a state department of education, 
 consisting usually of an officer called the state superintendent of public 
 instruction. His duties, however, are comparatively narrow, as pre- 
 scribed by law. The possibilitv of performing them is determined by 
 very meager appropriations. Usually speaking, it is an office entrusted 
 with the enforcement of the school laws and the distribution of the 
 school money. The functions of the public ministry of education 
 such as one finds in so many of the European states either are entrusted 
 to him in a very small degree, or he is enabled to carry out these 
 functions only within very narrow limits. The dutv of canvassing 
 the educational needs of the state from time to time, urging and im- 
 pressing them in a strong way upon the people of the state, not merely 
 upon the teachers and the legislatures and the government, but upon 
 the great masses of the people — this is something which our American 
 departments of education have done only to a very slight extent. 
 Now and then a strong personality in the position of state superin- 
 tendent has worked out great things for the education of the state. 
 We have an example of such a personality in the superintendent's 
 office of the State at present. But there is need of a more continuous, 
 of a wider spread, of a more deeply rooted, activity in this direction, 
 than the state superintendent's office under existing conditions can 
 develop. Such a function, within certain limits, I believe the state 
 university combined wdth the normal schools can perform. The 
 department of education in the state universitv organizing the re- 
 sources of the state university for this particular purpose may bring 
 to bear upon the educational problems and upon the educational 
 
 (463) 
 
154 
 
 needs of the state, an expert opinion which it is not possible to find in 
 any other department of the state administration. 
 
 This function, it may be said, is not performed by the university 
 in its capacity as a civil service academy, preparing teachers for the 
 educational service of the state. It is larger and wider than this. It 
 is a recognition of the university as one of the organs created by the 
 state for determining, within certain limits, the policy of the state in 
 the great field of education. 
 
 And thus I might proceed with a summary of other great things 
 that are waiting for the state university if is only knows the day of its 
 visitation ; if it only measures itself up to its opportunities ; if it only 
 performs faithfully and simply the duties which the state thrusts 
 upon it. 
 
 But time presses and I must draw these considerations to a close. 
 I have left untouched many things which you may have expected me 
 to discuss, not because I do not consider them as important, but either 
 because I regard them so fundamental that we should all agree upon 
 them or because the limitation of time does not permit even of their 
 mention. You will have gathered from what I have said my concep- 
 tion in general of the function and future of the state university. 
 
 It may be defined in brief as supplementary to the great system 
 of higher education which private beneficence and church activity 
 have reared, and it is to be hoped will continue to rear. It is corrective 
 rather than directive ; it is cooperative rather than monopolistic ; it is 
 adapted for leadership in certain departments, but must look to the 
 non-state institution for leadership in others. It should be as uni- 
 versal as the American democracy — as broad, as liberal, as sympa- 
 thetic, as comprehensive — ready to take up into itself all the educa- 
 tional forces of the state, giving recognition for good work wherever 
 done, and unifying, tying together all the multiform strands of 
 educational activity into one great cable whose future strength no 
 man mav measure. 
 
 (464) 
 
155 
 
 Thursday, October 19 
 THE ASSEMBLY OF THE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING 
 
 The Chapel, 9.00 a.m. 
 THE STUDENT-ENGINEER 
 
 W. F. M. Goss, M.S. 
 Dean of the College of Engineering, Purdue University 
 
 In the forty-nine Land Grant colleges of this country, of which the 
 University of Illinois is one, there are today approximately ten thous- 
 and students in engineering courses. These students are in most cases 
 mature men. They have come to their present work as the result of 
 careful selection after long courses of preliminary training, and they 
 look out upon their life-work with high aspirations. The student- 
 engineer is in fact a force making for American citizenship, the full 
 significance of which few people yet understand. He is permitted 
 privileges such as the world has never before set before her young 
 men, and it goes without saying that these privileges carry with them 
 responsibilities which are unusual. The character of some of these 
 it is my purpose briefly to discuss. 
 
 First of all, the thinking student will not fail to consider the value 
 and extent of the college influence. The varied and dignified exercises 
 of the present week in which you as students of the University of 
 Illinois have had a part, give emphasis to this theme. Here are ample 
 grounds, fine buildings, extensive laboratories and complete equip- 
 ments — apparatus which in some cases has the delicacy required in 
 the researches of the scientist, and in others the massive proportions 
 necessary in the machinerv of the engineer. Here, also, is a staff of 
 distinguished doctors and professors, aided by numerous instructors 
 and assistants all working in an effective organization for the accomp- 
 lishment of definite results, — men who have come to their present 
 positions after special training, and some of whom have through years 
 of arduous service so well guided the destinies of this institution as to 
 make possible its effective methods and its present high standards. 
 Here, too, are students coming from every part of a great state, from 
 other states, and even from foreign lands; from city and town; from 
 the home of the farmer, the artisan, the merchant and the lawyer, here 
 to live and work as one people, to be animated by a common purpose, 
 each one to give and to receive something from his contact with every 
 other one. 
 
 Such a description, embracing the grounds, buildings and equip- 
 ment, the professors and the students, is often regarded as constituting 
 a description of the University. It represents the materials and 
 persons which appeal to the ordinary visitor. But such a conception 
 
 (465) 
 
156 
 
 is elementary. It is but a starting point from which properly to 
 apprehend the significance of such an institution. That which lies 
 immediately about us is in fact but a center toward which tend a 
 multitude of interests and activities. Beyond this campus are the 
 people of the State, who, acting through their Legislature, supply 
 with a liberal hand that which is needed for its maintenance and 
 prosperity. The University of Illinois is great because the people 
 are its keepers, and if the people are its keepers, then every tax-payer 
 may claim to be a part of it. Then there are the homes which are 
 represented b}" its students, out of hundreds of which today come 
 thoughts of love and interest, of hope and expectation. The father 
 and mother of every one of its students have a vital interest in every- 
 thing that affects its welfare, and the sympathies of the University 
 must be broad enough to include them. 
 
 Again, outside of grounds, in every part of the State, are its manu- 
 facturers who are required constantly to be increasing the efficiency 
 of their methods ; to proceed by processes which are new ; to substitute 
 a higher degree of intelligence in operation, for that which served 
 before. The steel maker, the tile maker, the cement manufacturer, 
 the engine builder, the power plant manager, all look to the college 
 for help. They require men, and the college supplies them; they 
 desire to be informed concerning a scientific fact or application, and 
 thev turn to the college and are instructed. The industries of the State 
 and the technical school of the State are in fact but two different 
 parts of the same thing. Each contributes its strength to that of the 
 other, and the college is as large as the industrial activities of the 
 State can make it. These are some of the interests which, having 
 their origin remote from this vicinity find their center here. They 
 are converging interests, but there are others which diverge. Year 
 by year men trained within these halls scatter to become a part of the 
 bone, sinew and of the intellectual force of the State, establishing 
 homes and building industries. Wherever they go, if they are true 
 to their training, they make things better and prepare a w^ay in which 
 you who are now students mav hereafter follow. Certainly, no 
 proper estimate of what constitutes the Universitv is complete which 
 does not include its graduates. 
 
 These brief statements but feebly measure the extent of the uni- 
 versity interest. The student-engineer finds not onlv buildings, lab- 
 oratories and professors awaiting his coming, but he discovers that the 
 support of a great state is behind him, that great interests center 
 in matters with which he is privileged to concern himself, and 
 that hundreds of graduates who, while busy with their own affairs, 
 look back with serious concern to the record which he is making, 
 stand ready to give him a helping hand when he is prepared to receive 
 it. 
 
 (466) 
 
157 
 
 Turning now from the university to the student-engineer, it is 
 well to remember that the conceptions which one has of his future 
 career are likely to be limited by his past experiences. A boy who 
 thinks of the thing he will do when he becomes a man usually enter- 
 tains visions which please a boy. There is in fact, nothing in a boy's 
 experience which can serve as a background upon which he can depict 
 the pleasure and the dignity which the opportunities of manhood 
 are to bring him. A New England dame, having passed sixty odd 
 vears of pastoral life in a village behind the hills having a stage-coach 
 communication with the outside world, upon hearing by chance some 
 discussion of a project to extend a railway in the direction of her home, 
 quietlv remarked that "the cars might come but she should not go out 
 to let the bars down for them." Your observation has, of course, 
 long since taught you that railway trains progress over the country 
 whether the bars are let down or not, but I assume that you are still 
 reaching out toward ideals which your present knowledge and experi- 
 ence but imperfectly sustain. In view of this fact, I cannot do better 
 than to call vour attention to some of those qualities and exercises 
 which assist in the development of the student-engineer. 
 
 In one's reaching out toward a future goal, he should place a high 
 value upon the dignity of his calling. It is hardly worth while for this 
 institution to lavish its resources upon you or for you as students to 
 subject yourselves to the discipline of a four years' course unless some- 
 thing more than ordinary is to come otit of it. Your career as a student 
 is in itself a call to leadership. Whether you achieve leadership or not 
 may be a question, but there should be no mistake concerning your 
 ideals. Such a conception raises the work of the student to a high 
 level. It places beneath his feet everything which is low and mean 
 and even commonplace, for a man selected for leadership necessarily 
 carries the responsibihties of that leadership, and many things which 
 trouble and take the time of men about him give him no concern, for 
 he lives above them. There is nothing egotistical in the acceptance 
 of such an ideal. It is hardly more than a rational business proposi- 
 tion. It is a declaration to the effect that those who enjoy exceptional 
 training must be expected to become exceptional men. 
 
 A student who feels the responsibilities of such a call will guard 
 well the disposition of his time. In this day of the newspaper, we 
 hear much of the frivolities of college students, and while it is true 
 that every large college probably counts among its members some who 
 are careless or indififerent to their obHgations, a few who are dissipated, 
 and a still smaller number who may be positively vicious, these things 
 are not characteristic of an American college community. But while 
 we may thus comfort ourselves with the feeling that we are not en- 
 titled to much of the criticism that is sometimes laid at our door, we 
 do not, by so doing, set matters right. It is not sufficient that the 
 
 (467) 
 
158 
 
 college student be better than he is sometimes thought to be; the 
 important question is as to whether the process of the college tends 
 to the upbuilding of his character. The fact is that the student who 
 does not feel that he is progressing in his ideals of simple truth and 
 honesty is on dangerous ground. These are matters, moreover, which 
 he should gauge, not by his ability to keep the law, but by the strength 
 of right impulses which animate him. He should insist upon living 
 in an atmosphere of pure speech, and suppress all practices which 
 result in a waste of time. A disregard of such reasonable requirements 
 is equivalent to a neglect of opportunities or worse, and a student 
 whose attainments are so limited that he does not desire them, is out 
 of place in a college community. In all this, you will notice that I 
 have not set my standard high. There are other and higher grounds 
 of appeal from which I do not at this time assume to speak. I merely 
 urge upon you the fact that a successful professional career cannot 
 be enjoyed except it is sustained by abiding qualities of manhood. 
 
 The student-engineer must of necessity be much absorbed in the 
 technique of his course. Upon first acquaintance, a great bridge is 
 but a bridge to him, but as he pursues his study the bridge resolves 
 itself into foundations, abutments, piers and superstructure, and each 
 of these in turn becomes separated into scores of details, and beyond 
 the details he knows there are methods of analyses, as refined as he 
 may choose to have them, by means of which the size and proportions 
 of every part have been determined. When he understands the 
 methods employed in its building, the bridge becomes a series of 
 logical facts the contemplation of which stirs his ambition and stimu- 
 lates his interest in principles of design. 
 
 In a similar manner the unskilled gaze unmoved where the roar of 
 a waterfall is converted into light, but as the student-engineer pro- 
 ceeds with his study of such an installation, he sees the stored energv 
 of impounded water, wheels for utilizing it, electric generators and 
 rotary converters for making and sending forth the current, and 
 transmission lines leading out to a distant network of service wires 
 tipped with lights which glow like the stars of the firmament. As he 
 proceeds with his examination, he finds that in each one of these 
 elements there is a labyrinth of detail and that every detail is a re- 
 sponse, more or less perfect, to the laws with which it is his purpose 
 to become familiar. In a similar way, engineering structures and 
 machines of many sorts must be studied, their functions analvzed, 
 and the theories which have been formulated to guide practice in 
 their construction or operation, studied. The student rarely fails to 
 be attentive to these studies, for he realizes that his whole purpose in 
 attending a technical school is that he may become proficient in them. 
 He is interested in them. He is conscious of the uplift which they 
 give; they serve to increase his knowledge of facts; they promise a 
 
 (468) 
 
159 
 
 larger degree of intellectual freedom, and he feels that by their use 
 he must sometime prove his value. It rarely happens, therefore, 
 that the student fails to do justice to his technical work, but he makes 
 a mistake when, having done this, be it ever so perfectly, he assumes 
 that he has met the full measure of his responsibilities. 
 
 Students who are inclined to shut themselves up with the routine 
 of their course should consider that no man can be an engineer in a 
 large sense who knows only engineering. If in his struggle for attain- 
 ment he stops with his technical training, he is in danger of becoming 
 merely an animated calculating machine, useful and valued as are 
 the slide-rules and mathematical tables, but shut out from all chance 
 of preferment because of the limitations with which he has uncon- 
 sciously hedged himself about. Such a one is on the wrong track. 
 The engineer is a man; the technical training but one of his tools. A 
 safe and reliable engineer is an honest and conscientious man. An 
 able engineer is a well-trained, far-seeing man, and a great engineer 
 is a man who, possessing all of these qualities in an unusual degree, 
 has achieved success through his work. The student, if he would 
 avoid professional suicide, must regard with care all things which 
 make for a well-rounded manhood. 
 
 The schools of engineering offer many things for his upbuilding in 
 addition to the technical work of his course to which he may well give 
 earnest attention. For example, there are the general studies of his 
 course, the literature, history and modern language upon which the 
 student often enters with some reluctance. He sometimes gives 
 expression to a feeling that such general studies are not in line with 
 his ambition ; that their trend is away from his purpose, 
 and that in the nature of the case they cannot greatly in- 
 terest him. Some candidates for engineering honors 'have been 
 known to drop their college course upon their failure to secure per- 
 mission to specialize, or, in other words, to go around these general 
 studies. All such objection arises from misinformation and from an 
 imperfect understanding of what it is to be an engineer, and if persisted 
 in will strangle the very qualities of character which the college course 
 is designed to stimulate. None will deny that a full-rounded man 
 should be able to spell, to write a fair hand, to properly capitalize and 
 punctuate his manuscript, for these are rather commonplace accom- 
 plishments and certainly should be possessed by one who aspires to 
 leadership in any field. Some knowledge of books, of historic events, 
 and of a language other than his own, constitute information which, 
 in view of the attainments of those with whom the future leaders will 
 need to deal, are hardly less elementary. The student who will 
 fairly and soberly compare the opportunities for instruction in these 
 kindred lines which are offered by schools of engineering, with the need 
 which manifests itself when he compares his own attainments with 
 
 (469) 
 
160 
 
 those of his ideal engineer, will find new interest in the general sub- 
 jects of his course. 
 
 During his college life, the student-engineer should endeavor in 
 every possible way to increase his familiarity with technical literature. 
 He should find some time for the technical periodicals, and more for 
 the books of the library. He should gain some acquaintance with the 
 proceedings of the national engineering societies, and still later he 
 may interest himself in books devoted to specific subjects, In this 
 matter, he will avoid the humiliation which sooner or later comes to 
 one who, having graduated from a technical school, finds his acquain- 
 tance with technical literature limited to the few texts which on the 
 day of his graduation, he carried away from his college under one arm. 
 
 There arise, also, in the college and perhaps in the town, many 
 occasions when lectures, sermons or music may be heard. It is an 
 unfortunate fact that those students who, through lack of advantages 
 in youth, are most in need of broadening influences, are generally the 
 last to appear on such occasions. Moreover, it must be confessed 
 that the average student does not as a rule place a high value upon 
 such opportunities. The college authorities exert themselves, the 
 intellectual table is spread, the guests are bidden, but they for whom 
 the feast is especially prepared do not come. The failure of the 
 student to avail himself of such an opportunity, is in most cases due 
 to a lack of interest. He finds himself busy with other things and so 
 does not come. In some cases doubtless the failure is the outgrowth 
 of timidity, of a feeling that that which is especially refined is a little 
 out of his class, that it would best be deferred until he can more nearly 
 measure up to the requirements. Obviously, such reasoning is trivial. 
 The student is enlisted as a leader and leadership permits no hesitation 
 in the advance. Any good or proper thing to which he is clearly 
 entitled should not be Hghtly put aside. He may not get as much 
 from the lecture or sermon as his neighbor who has been better trained ; 
 he may not be inspired by music, nor especially enjoy his early appear- 
 ances in society, but he should be wise enough to recognize that all of 
 these things which people of culture enjoy and find profitable, are 
 worthy of his attention and effort. 
 
 The importance of these matters is emphasized the moment one 
 attempts to construct a picture of his ideal engineer. For example, 
 when Captain Eads, from his knowledge of the habits of rivers, 
 conceived the plan by which the channel of the Mississippi might be 
 deepened, he saw all features of the construction just as they were 
 afterwards developed in actual materials. Here moved the water of a 
 mighty river in a shallow current spread out over a wide course. 
 There was needed to meet the requirements of commerce a channel 
 of considerable depth. The vision of the engineer made clear the 
 fact that the water if confined to a narrow course must work its way 
 
 (470) 
 
161 
 
 deeper into the -sandy bottom. All along the bank grew willows in 
 abundance. The engineer saw the willow branches cut, woven into 
 great mattresses, and then loaded with stones and sunk, one after 
 another along the course of the stream, layer upon layer, until willow 
 twigs and stems, intermixed with sand deposited by the water ex- 
 tended from the bottom of the stream to the surface, forming a sup- 
 plemental bank between which the contracted stream moved rapidly, 
 cutting its wav downward and giving the desired channel. The plan 
 is not complicated and the completed work seems simple enough. 
 But without the inspiring genius of the engineer, the Mississippi 
 might todav be rolling its slow, shallow and wide-reaching way. 
 
 The qualities which necessarily enter into our picture of the ideal 
 engineer are in fact the elements of greatness. They are the outgrowth 
 of natures which are large and sympathetic, and no one can possess 
 them who confines his views and his interests to the narrow limits of 
 his own personal affairs. 
 
 In thus urging upon you, the students of engineering of the Uni- 
 versitv of Illinois, the importance of a well-rounded development, I 
 proclaim no new doctrine, nor am I likely to find any who will disagree 
 wdth me in the general propositions which have been set forth. But 
 it will be said that the problem defined is practical rather than theo- 
 retical. In the minds of many students it at once resolves itself into 
 a question of time. In such an institution as this, the pressure of 
 technical work is necessarily heavy, and the student who would do 
 other things, has need to study well the methods by which he proceeds. 
 As the professional engineer brings the working of a machine to its 
 highest performance by the careful adjustment of each of its parts, 
 so the student-engineer must by proving his methods and by the 
 omission of all trifles, find time in which to give attention to these 
 necessary matters. 
 
 Finally, the wise student will never permit his routine to become a 
 burden. The work must not be a taskmaster; he must be the master, 
 for there can be no interest, no enthusiasm without mastery, and it is 
 these, the interest and the enthusiasm, which must be depended upon 
 to transform tasks which are difficult into opportunities to be enjoyed. 
 
 (471) 
 
162 
 
 ASSEMBLY OF THE COLLEGE OF SCIENCE 
 Physics Lecture Room, 9:00 a.m. 
 
 THE SCIENTIFIC AND THE NON-SCIENTIFIC 
 
 Thomas C. Chamberlin, Ph.D., LL.D. 
 
 Professor in the University of Chicago 
 
 This is to be a sermon ; and my text is this : Let everyone stand on 
 his own feet, and let everyone keep his feet on the ground. This text is 
 not canonical and its verse and chapter cannot be cited, but it may be 
 found embodied in every ideal contribution to true scientific education. 
 Two fundamental canons control educational endeavor in the scien- 
 tific field, independence in the worker, and reality in the subject- 
 matter. To teach the student to think for himself, to develop in him 
 the power of independent inquiry, whether it be original investigation, 
 or the more common inquiries of life, is the ideal of the modern science 
 teacher. To prepare youth to be intellectual freemen, in contradis- 
 tinction to mere followers or servile imitators, is the mission of scien- 
 tific education. Authority indeed plays an appropriate part in 
 scientific work, but chiefly as an authentication of determined facts, 
 and only guardedly in the promotion of opinions and doctrines. A 
 survey of the past reveals the significant fact that the influence of 
 authority was most dominant in those stages of intellectual develop- 
 ment when the grounds for safe conclusions were feeblest. A survey 
 of the present reveals the fact that authority is still appealed to most 
 where good reasons and sound evidence are most lacking. One need 
 not go farther afield for an illustration than the pages he reads whose 
 forms are taught on authority because they cannot well be taught 
 through reason. It is not too much to affirm that the decadence of 
 authority and the rise of appeal to individual and independent reason 
 have been directly proportionate to the amount of good evidence that 
 could be commanded. True scientific education is leading on fe- 
 licitously to individual and independent intellectual action, because 
 science has an adequate body of irrefragible evidence to offer, and 
 having such evidence can most freely leave everyone to draw his own 
 conclusions. Under the wholesome influence of scientific education, 
 the rising generation is coming to fulfil more and more effectually the 
 first admonition of our text: Let everyone stand on his own feet. 
 The preacher need only exhort to a continuance in well-doing. 
 
 The burden of our sermon rests on the second part of the text: 
 Let everyone keep his feet on the ground. I would not have you put 
 too literal and too narrow an interpretation on this injunction. It 
 is not intended to mean that a man must always stand with both heels 
 on the solid rock of demonstrated facts. That is too conservative, 
 
 (472) 
 
163 
 
 and would prevent his getting on. It is lawful for a man to stride 
 after truth, to tiptoe for it, and even to leap after it. If he can keep 
 his balance well, and light safely on his feet, it is permissible to leap 
 high and far. It is lawful to take as long philosophical or speculative 
 flights as one may be able to sustain, provided he starts from the 
 ground and returns to it without disaster. The admonition is not 
 that we should limit our studies wholly to the demonstrated conclu- 
 sions that form strict science, as distinguished from tentative en- 
 deavors to attain science, but that we should keep in touch with 
 realities in our efforts to hnd truth. In our use of the term. scientific, 
 in this preachment, we include not only strict science but all properly 
 ordered stages and processes of thought that lead toward science, even 
 though merely provisional and temporary, if controlled bv scientific 
 canons. It includes scientific philosophy and scientific speculation 
 when these start from scientific facts and properlv strive to end in 
 scientific demonstrations. The admonition is not intended to limit 
 the range of processes so much as their character. We have need of 
 every possible resource that helps on toward real science. We wish 
 only to exclude from the scientific category those methods which do 
 not conform to the canons of scientific endeavor, those that are not 
 helpful to scientific results, those that are liable to create confusion as 
 to what is scientific and those that are sure to involve wastage of 
 talent and effort. We shall be more free to use hypotheses and specu- 
 lations controlled by the canons of scientific procedure, if they are not 
 confounded with hypotheses and speculations that ignore such canons 
 and cast the shadow of their untrustworthiness over the whole field 
 of hypothesis and speculation. There are hypotheses and speculations 
 that as scrupulously scrutinize the grounds on which thev are built as 
 does science itself. These are ever and always mindful of their hypo- 
 thetical bases and of the scantiness of solid substance on which they 
 are built. They are ever mindful of the insecurities of the heights to 
 which they are reaching, and of the accumulating peril of that inse- 
 curity as the extension proceeds. 
 
 These stand in sharp contrast to hypotheses and speculations 
 which are negligent of the ground on which they are built. They 
 stand in especial contrast to those which confessedly assume that, 
 regardless of a foundation in embodied reality, the building of the 
 mental structure 'may go on indefinitely by virtue of its own logical 
 relations, and may even become a substantial system of truth, whether 
 the grotmd-proposition be a fact or a fancy. These we would have 
 labeled by some other term than scientific, since their methods are at 
 variance with those that have been found indispensable in the pro- 
 duction of science in the fields where tangible demonstrations most 
 effectually discriminate between that which is true and that which is 
 not. Such hypotheses overlook the fact that every logical step only 
 
 (473) 
 
164 
 
 extends the weakness of the fundamental postulate and that the more 
 rigorously consistent the successive steps are, the more certainly do 
 they retain the error of the primary assumption. These are cases in 
 which a logical slip affords some little opportunity for the funda- 
 mental error to slip out. 
 
 Science has acquired title to its name and has earned the equity of 
 its usage and good will by long continued labors and sacrifices of a 
 distinctive kind. The canons of method and of ethics that have con- 
 trolled these labors and sacrifices have given a distinctive character 
 to the products commonly known as science, and these have acquired 
 value because they have approved themselves in experience. Similar 
 value, so far as we know, can only be produced by similar processes. 
 It is therefore not only right but important to us and to mankind that 
 the title thus earned should be applied exclusively to the processes 
 and products that have given it value. It is not at all a matter of 
 etymology or of sometime usage ; it is a matter of rights and values 
 earned by labor. Nor it is at all a matter of subject, within the range 
 of embodied realities, whether the subject be mental or physical. 
 Nor does it necessarily involve the presumption that the non-scien- 
 tific is without value, even eminent value. It merely involves the 
 assumption that each belongs to its own category, is entitled to its own 
 name derived from its distinctive modes and processes, and that the 
 product of the distinctive labors of each should be its own possession. 
 The essential canons of scientific procedure are : 
 
 (1) Certain assumptions are necessarily made at the outset, as 
 the basis of scientific procedure. They are usually quite unconscious 
 because they are so pervasive and organic that they have become 
 essentially instinctive. They deserve to be brought into sharper 
 recognition. They are not different from the universal assumptions 
 of all sane people in the common affairs of life. They appear to be 
 ancestral inheritances, and this is doubtless why they have so nearly 
 lapsed into unconsciousness. They are an essential element in what 
 we call common sense; indeed I think some one has said that science 
 is only a specially selected and carefully assorted variety of sanctified 
 common sense. But in the course of their ratiocinations men often 
 come about to propositions not in harmony with these and fail to note 
 the incongruity because the basal assumptions are so nearly uncon- 
 scious. Scientific inquiry, though eminently skeptical in its methods, 
 proceeds on the assumption that the system in which we live is genu- 
 ine, honest and real. It assumes that there really is, as our senses 
 lead to us believe, a physical world and a mental world; that the 
 mental world takes genuine cognizance of the physical world and of 
 itself, and that such cognizance, when duly tested and rectified, con- 
 stitutes the basis of science. It is assumed that the mental world 
 possesses not only the power of true cognizance but the power of self- 
 
 (474) 
 
165 
 
 directed search 'for truth, and as a necessary means to this, has the 
 power to choose between alternatives, to control conditions, to invent 
 methods, to put its impressions to the test, and to discriminate between 
 what is true and what is false. That which is in accord with rectified 
 experience is accepted as the material of science. Such accord is 
 indeed the best definition of science. These sound like platitudes, as 
 indeed they are to us, but not a Httle that claims a place under the 
 broad mantle of the term scientific is negligent of these basal assump- 
 tions. It is well therefore to remind ourselves that as the very basis 
 of research, we assume a genuine volition with a working degree of 
 freedom, not a mere sophistical succession of highest-motive sequences ; 
 a genuine intelligence with powers of discrimination between truth 
 and error, not a mere predetermined succession of compulsory im- 
 pressions, and a genuine world of real existences, not a mere com- 
 plexity of subjective illusions. I am not speaking here the ultimate 
 truth about these matters, but simply what seems to me the assump- 
 tions actually made. Our belief in the honesty of the system of which 
 we find ourselves members compasses the genuineness of our strongest 
 organic impressions on both the mental and the physical side. In the 
 normal state, we recognize no organic illusiveness, nor any Mephisto- 
 phelian deceptiveness. We plant our feet squarely on the postulate 
 that the system of the world is essentially what it purports to be. It 
 is admitted erroneous impressions may be gained both in respect to 
 the mental and the physcial, and these constitute the antitheses of 
 science, and are made the subjects of the closest watch, but they are 
 held to be incidental, and not organic or fundamental. They grow 
 most largely out of the fact that our organism is incapable of receiving 
 impressions from more than a minute fraction of the activities by 
 which it is surrounded, and hence it has become adjusted to a select 
 portion of possible impressions which chiefly include those most 
 needed in common life; the susceptibility to those even is incomplete. 
 It is difficult to see how it could well be otherwise. An organism that 
 should do no more than take accurate cognizance of all the physical 
 motions by which we are surrounded, from the complicated revolutions 
 of the siderial system down to the immeasurably intense sub-atomic 
 vibrations, would need powers of receptivity and endurance quite 
 beyond our comprehension. We are limited to what we can stand. 
 But when we shall have need to go below and beyond the selected 
 range of impressions suited to everyday life, a multitude of mental 
 shortcomings are inevitably disclosed. With the evolution of our 
 organism we are endeavoring to extend our powers and to penetrate 
 beyond the limited range of insight of our cruder life. There are 
 indeed, incidentally, some real illusions, if the mind is not alert and 
 skilful, and there are individual insanities. But all these, we assume, 
 arise from limitations simply, not from insincerities in nature, nor from 
 
 (475) 
 
166 
 
 insanities in the normal mind, much less from Mephistophelian snares 
 systematically organized for our deception. 
 
 These assumptions do not by any means carry the conclusion that 
 the partial vision of things that we now have, is the ulterior one, or 
 that it gives the deeper interpretation of things. My belief in the 
 genuineness of a stone as a hard solid passive body, does not preclude 
 my belief that it is composed of myriads of electrons moving at in- 
 credible speed, and that it is a very miracle of internal activity. 
 It is true that the refined intra-physical interpretation is almost 
 infinitely different from the common superficial impression, but the 
 two are not at real variance. To the mason, the petrologist and the 
 physicist, three different impressions of a rock arise, each true enough 
 in its kind, and all essentially consistent with one another. So in 
 general. What the ulterior interpretation of the mental and the 
 physical world is to be, and what their relations to one another may 
 be, is yet to be worked out, like the deeper interpretations of all other 
 subjects of inquiry, but if the solution is to be what we now regard 
 as scientific, the inquiry must be based on the working assumptions of 
 existing science and must follow its canons in all its procedure. If the 
 solution is to be found in some philosophy whose assumptions and 
 methods are not those of existing science, it should be accredited to 
 such philosophy and not to science. If it is to be found in some poetic 
 or spiritual inspiration quite apart from science or philosophy, it is to 
 be accredited to such inspiration and not to science or philosophy. 
 To the laborer belong the fruits of his labor. 
 
 (2) Working upon these basal assumptions of the rectified 
 common sense of mankind, the devotees of the scientific method have 
 built up, by the most careful and persistent observation and experi- 
 mentation and by the most scrupulous scrutiny of all deductive and 
 inductive processes at every stage, traversed by a most insistent test- 
 ing of each step from every point of view, that body of conclusions 
 which we call science. This has its most substantial nucleus in the 
 tangible subjects represented in this assembly, as is properly recognized 
 in the classification of this occasion ; but it is by no means confined to 
 these subjects. Science is not a function of subjects, but rather the 
 distinctive product of a special and laborious rnethod. The distinc- 
 tive title, "the sciences, " has come to be applied more particularly to 
 the group of subjects here represented chiefly because the workers in 
 these have been more rigorously loyal to the distinctive assumptions 
 and methods of science and have thereby brought forth a product of 
 exceptional firmness and solidity. The same method carried out with 
 the same loyalty and assiduity should give to the sciences of the 
 mental world a like solidity and a like true title to the name of science. 
 
 (3) But if the scientifically-sifted products of labor on all serious 
 subjects are to be classed as science, the unsifted matter and the mat- 
 
 (476) 
 
167 
 
 ter which will not bear sifting in all these subjects is neither to be 
 called science nor scientific. Even if we generously allow that all 
 serious effort to reach determinate truth by canons of scientific pro- 
 cedure mav be called scientific though yet far from being science, 
 there is still much that lies quite outside even these broad limits. 
 There is scattered about each of our work-shops no small amount of 
 litter of nondescript stuff that ought to be swept up and winnowed 
 out, and the good metal put into the melting pot and the rest put into 
 the fire, or thrown on the dump. We have all inherited a miscellane- 
 ous assortment of presumptions and prejudices that ought to be put 
 through the renovator periodically and the decayed portions elimi- 
 nated. Even our more substantial acquisitions need occasional 
 overhaulings, and even reconstructions, attended by no small sweep- 
 ings-out of accumulated debris. 
 
 Besides all this there is a whole department of our creative work 
 that needs some other label than scientific. The department appears 
 to be larger in the non -physical than in the physical fields, but it is 
 essentiallv alike in both. Its basal feature is assumption in negli- 
 gence of fact. Its best expression is found in declared romance in 
 the field of the humanities; its most subtle if not its most beguiling 
 expression is found in ratiocination on a fictitious basis. Your 
 preacher lavs no anathema on this department. On the contrary, he 
 svmpathizes with recreation by romance. The fictitious may well 
 play its game while reality takes a rest. The fantasy may well 
 relieve the strain on the scientific imagination at due times and seasons. 
 Your preacher's plea is merely for accurate labeling and correct 
 evaluation. We all, I suppose, indulge in ideal constructions with 
 scant regard to the realities. We build intellectual castles in the air 
 of rare architectural beauty, but with very limited specific gravity. 
 A hint grows into a marvellous discovery. We dream dreams no 
 mortal dreamed before. There is a romantic annex to all the sciences. 
 But to be quite satisfactory the fictitious must simulate the real. 
 The fantasy must imitate the scientific imagination. A bare result, 
 however rich or wonderful, is insufficient. It must have a logical 
 ancestry. Our creations must be the embodiment of logi'cal relations. 
 Our novels must seem to be true to our life. They must be scientific. 
 Aye, there we go. Thus easily we slip the sheet-anchor of science, em- 
 bodied reality, and glide away unconsciously on a mere gust of ghostly 
 relations between things imaginary, and call it scientific. I suppose 
 we all do it. I confess to have planted in every grand division of the 
 globe more wonderful mines than were ever found in Africa or Alaska, 
 and much more ostentatiously logical in their internal relations. I 
 ^"d it crude entertainment to imagine the discovery of a forty-foot 
 vein, three miles long, carrying twenty-three thousand dollars per 
 ton, and to revel in the sequential wealth. Logical antecedents and 
 
 (477) 
 
168 
 
 a consistent environment must be supplied to form an artistic romance. 
 My own finest efi'ort in this line started in a real dream which found 
 me in London where two explorers, with many flattering allusions to 
 scientific availability, told me of certain signs they had seen on the 
 Saharan coast of West Africa, and proposed a joint investigation. 
 The real dream glided easily into a wakeful romance, and an ore 
 deposit of the Keweenawan type, with gold substituted for copper, 
 grew facilely and logically out of the antecedents which the imagina- 
 tion easily postulated, with all the requisite deformations, vadose 
 and thermal circu'ations, selective solutions, complex reactions, 
 concentrative precipitations, under mass action, with segregations, 
 primary and secondary, lateral, ascending and descending, supple- 
 mented by meteoric denudation, giving felicitous physiographic 
 reliefs, in short the whole complex of antecendants and consequents 
 and logical interrelations necessary for an ideal, if not a super-ideal, 
 ore deposit. Foreseeing the necessary consequences of such appropri- 
 ate antecedents before they were actually discovered by my partners, 
 with perfect human consistency, I diplomatically bought them out 
 and became sole possessor. In the actual working of the mine, the 
 logical difficulties of the situation developed consistently, bringing on 
 scrimmages with the marauding natives and trouble with the Bey of 
 Morocco. In negotiating my vast output the logic of nativity and 
 blood led me to favor America and England, and this raised a rumpus 
 with the Kaiser. But through all vicissitudes of good and ill the 
 logical interrelations were religiously preserved. I dare not say they 
 were as rigorous as those which my mathematical friends assure me 
 characterize the non-EucHdian geometry, but at least I did not strain 
 the possibilities in my primary postulate and in the outcome every one 
 of my triangles bore internally the equivalents of precisely two right 
 angles. 
 
 But in sober classification I would not call even this best of my 
 creations scientific. It lacks the one essential of substantial reahty. 
 I am just as poor a man as I was before. If scientific in any sense of 
 the term, it must be in that employed in the "sciences of the ideal. " 
 In a recent most distinguished and authoritative exposition of "The 
 Sciences of the Ideal" we were led to understand that science might 
 be developed from assumptions that possess "but a remote relation 
 to the physical world." With apologies to the mathematicians for 
 the quotation, the following were among the words used: 
 
 "Pure mathematics is concerned with the investigation of logical 
 consequences of certain exactly statable postulates or hypotheses. 
 * * * For the pure mathematician, the truth of these hypotheses 
 or postulates depends, not upon the fact that physical nature contains 
 phenomena answering to the postulates, but solely upon the fact that 
 the mathematician is able, with rational consistency, to state these 
 
 (478) 
 
169 
 
 assumed first principles, and to develop their consequences." I 
 think mv Saharan mine was a rational statability and that I devel- 
 oped the logical consequences. 
 
 I do not conceive science to be such as this. Ideas and ideals 
 seem to me to be realities as thinking events, but they do not bring 
 into existence the subjects of thought — unless these be themselves. 
 I hold that demonstrable logical relations are as much embodiments 
 in the svstem of things as are the materials, energies and motions of 
 the svstem, and that our primary perception of the logical comes from 
 such embodiment as truly as our perceptions of matter, energy and 
 motion. For convenience we will generalize all these by neglecting 
 the complexities of special concrete embodiments and thus we reduce 
 them as nearly as practicable to what we call the abstract, but the 
 essential element of concreteness in its most generalized form is re- 
 tained and holds the intellectual process to the limitations and re- 
 lations of the concrete, or else, I think, there is no safety in either the 
 processes or the conclusions. Doubtless this statement is liable to 
 misapprehension, for in this field of thought one must adapt speech 
 to unwonted uses to which another has no accurate key. Doubtless 
 the proposition, if correctly apprehended, might be challenged. Let 
 us therefore return to the safer ground of the more tangible. 
 
 The scientific and the non-scientific, as I see the matter, are dis- 
 tinguished from one another at the very first step of procedure. The 
 initial step in scientific procedure is to look to the facts. If the pro- 
 cedure lies far out on the borders of the scientific field, where facts are 
 few and ratiocination is to make up most of the procedure, it is all the 
 more requisite that such few facts as there are be brought into the 
 process and used with the greatest assiduity and the most scrupulous 
 circumspection. It is furthermore necessary that such assumptions 
 as are not directly supported by available facts shall be scrupulously 
 accordant with well-determined principles, and that these principles 
 be known to be habitually embodied in the field in which the problem 
 lies. An assumption at variance with, or aside from, the established 
 principles of the field involved, carries the whole procedure outside 
 the realm of science, as I understand science, and into the field of 
 romance. 
 
 In the good old school-days, mathematical romance was closely 
 mingled with the mathematics of reality. Mental arithmetic was held 
 to be a superlative discipline, and with some justice, but questions of 
 the following kind found a place with those of better birth: "If the 
 third of six were three, what would the fourth of twenty be?" 
 These questions were held sufficiently important to find a place in 
 teachers' examinations and I encountered one in my first candidacy 
 for a certificate . I have never been ashamed that , at the risk of results , 
 for I understood perfectly what was meant, I answered substantially 
 
 (479) 
 
170 
 
 that the fourth of twenty is five under any and all circumstances and 
 is in no way affected by erroneous suppositions about the third of six. 
 The first part of the question assumed organic insanity, the second 
 part assumed a return to partial sanity in the subsequent pro- 
 ceeding, but not to complete sanity. To preserve a consistent 
 basis of procedure, such a question should read something like this: 
 If a mind were so insanely constituted that it supposes the third of 
 six is three and if it were proportionately insane respecting other 
 mathematical relations, what would be its insane conception of the 
 fourth of twenty? In my own field there is an embarrassment of 
 illustrative cases of the like import, but you cannot fairly be supposed 
 to have made the personal acquaintance of such a multitude of un- 
 fortunates, and besides the edges and angles of the few in the mathe- 
 matical field are cleaner cut and keener, and that is doubtless why the 
 philosopher of the ideal and he of earth alike have recourse to them. 
 To me it seems that if the logical system of thought on which mathe- 
 matics is founded be in organic error in one vital particular, the rest 
 of the system carries no presumption of trustworthiness. And so 
 generally, if the mind permits itself to go outside the existing order of 
 things in its adoption of an imaginary postulate not strictly in har- 
 mony with known entities and relations, there is little more ground for 
 confidence in its processes than in its assumptions. The sanction of 
 sanity rests as much with postulates as processes. The canons of 
 scientific procedure require that both shall be tested to the utmost 
 before adoption, all the more so in proportion as they may be lacking 
 in the support of a body of determinate facts. If an intellectual 
 structure is to be built on a slender basis, it is the more important that 
 the basis be solid and strong. No strength is acquired in mid-air, 
 unless new attachments to substantial truth are added. 
 
 (4) Not only does the scientific procedure require special circum- 
 spection relative to the foundation, but further scrutiny at every 
 step with constant loyalty to embodied facts and principles. If any 
 term is allowed to slip outside the limits of actual or symbolic reality 
 into strict unreality, there is, I think, no dependence on the results. 
 If at any stage, a ghostly factor is permitted to replace a concrete 
 factor, or its generalized substitute or symbol, a ghostly result is likely 
 to follow. In the physical sciences, the chief preventive of and remedy 
 for insidious errors of all kinds is an unceasing testing of every step 
 by related phenomena or by crucial experimentation. The logical 
 process by itself commands but little confidence beyond the simpler 
 steps, because experience has disclosed a multitude of pitfalls set all 
 along its path and has revealed its oft-occurring incompetency. Why 
 should we rest much on unassisted logic in the solution of the complex 
 problems of the world, when it must be conceded that all the powers 
 of ratiocination that came into function between the days of the Para- 
 
 (480) 
 
171 
 
 doxides and the present, working alone, unaided by experimental 
 means, would scarcely have discovered the elements or the internal 
 logical relations of a pinch of salt ? Workers in the physical field long 
 ago learned that they must keep in close touch with concrete realities. 
 They have found this especially necessary in such exploratory work 
 as involves hypotheses and logical deductions when facts are yet few 
 and poorly determined. Safety here, so far as there is any safety, 
 depends on a constant recurrence to such facts as are available, 
 conjoined with an ever-present realization of the uncertain basis of 
 the whole procedure. 
 
 To the worker in the field of substantial science the following is a 
 sufficient working guide : Whatever has been embodied in the system of 
 things of which we are a part, may be asstim-ed to be a worthy subject of 
 research; whatever has not been so embodied may be safely neglected, even 
 if we could suppose ourselves competent to deal with it. A preacher 
 mav be allowed to put it thus: Whatever the Divine Artificer has seen 
 fit to use in the making of the system, we may safely study; whatever He 
 found no use for, we may safely conclude has no value for tis. 
 
 Accepting as a primary tenet of faith that the system is genuine 
 and honest, that our powers are adapted to give us true results when 
 properlv used, that it is our mission to use them, and that the highest 
 productiveness comes from the closest contact with actualities of the 
 svstem, we bid all workers join us in loyalty to these articles of faith 
 and in fidelitv to these working maxims. Let each enjoy the inde- 
 pendence of a free worker, but let each accept loyally the realities 
 he cannot escape. Let everyone stand on his own feet, and let everyone 
 keep his feet on the ground. 
 
 (481. 
 
172 
 
 ASSEMBLY OF THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 
 Morrow Hall, 10:00 a.m. 
 
 SERVICES OF NORMAN J. COLMAN TO AMERICAN 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 Colonel Charles F. Mills 
 Editor of the Farm Home, Springfield 
 
 The very pleasant duty has been assigned me of briefly referring 
 on this very appropriate occasion and place to the services of Norman 
 Jay Colman to American agriculture. The honor of my selection for 
 this very agreeable duty is highly appreciated, and I enter upon its 
 discharge with the conviction that the man and his eminent services to 
 American agriculture are deserving of a far more gifted compiler. 
 
 To the student of our literature pertaining to the farm, Mr. Colman 
 is well and widely known as second to none of the active and successful 
 promoters of American agriculture. The very full reports of the 
 highly creditable and far reaching work for good of Mr. Colman, in 
 advancing the best conditions of our agriculture, are well known to 
 this assembly. It is fortunate for the interested student that the 
 results of his labors have been so fully and widely published in the 
 official records of the National and State Departments of Agriculture, 
 the farm press and in the books relating to advanced methods in rural 
 husbandry. 
 
 My effort will therefore be that of a compiler of the historical data 
 necessary to complete the record for this occasion. All present, I 
 believe, will rejoice in this fitting opportunity to refer to the familiar 
 and worthy achievements of a patriotic, painstaking man who has 
 merited the distinguished honors so freely bestowed upon him by a 
 conservative, discriminating and appreciative constituency. 
 
 Mr. Colman was born on a farm near Richfield Springs, Otsego 
 county. New York, and his abiding interest in farming pursuits has 
 never been questioned. From an early age he was a diligent student, 
 reading every volume in the common school library in his school 
 district before the age of sixteen, and carrying on his other studies in 
 his thoroughly characteristic manner. He worked his way through 
 school by teaching in winter and attending the seminaries in the 
 vicinity in summer, until twenty 3^ears of age, when his ambition to 
 identify himself with the growing West influenced him to remove to 
 Kentucky. Here he taught school in Louisville and thus provided 
 himself with means to attend the Louisville Law University, where he 
 took the degree of bachelor of law and later was licensed as an attor- 
 ney. He practiced law at New Albany, Indiana, and was elected dis- 
 trict attorney. In 1852, young Colman removed to St. Louis, con- 
 
 (482) 
 
173 
 
 tinuing in the successful practice of his profession. His love for rural 
 pursuits soon induced him to purchase a country home, and establish 
 an agricultural journal known as Caiman's Rural World, now of 
 national reputation as an influential exponent of the best methods in 
 all that pertains to advanced agriculture. 
 
 He soon became a prominent leader and advocate of agricultural 
 progress in the Mississippi Valley. He was called upon to take an 
 active part in every movement in behalf of the interests of the farmer, 
 and became generally known as a forceful and eloquent advocate of 
 better methods in farming and of state and national legislation needed 
 to give the producer the full return for his labors. 
 
 His loyalty to his constituency and his unswerving devotion to the 
 fanners' interest prompted the agricultural classes to secure him the 
 following well-merited honors, viz: a member of the Missouri Legis- 
 lature, Lieutenant-Governor of his state, president of the Missouri 
 State Horticultural Society, president of the Missouri State Board of 
 Agriculture, trustee for fifteen years of the Missouri State University, 
 president of the Missouri State Press Association for two terms. United 
 States Commissioner of Agriculture, and when the United States De- 
 partment of Agriculture was created he was made the first secretary. 
 
 But few persons appreciate the magnitude of the work accom- 
 plished by Mr. Colman in behalf of our agricultural interests. It was 
 more than a score of years ago, that he took his seat as United States 
 Commissioner of Agriculture, under the appointment of President 
 Grover Cleveland. At that time the standing of the department was 
 low. It was the butt of ridicule of the Washington correspondents 
 of the public press. The great interests it represented had no voice 
 in the President's cabinet. Not a single government experiment 
 station existed in connection with an agricultural college or university 
 in the United States. Many of the most important and useful 
 divisions now existing in the department had never been thought of, 
 or at least established. At that time also that terrible and incurable 
 disease of contagious pleuro-pneumonia existed among our dairy 
 herds and in cattle yards in various parts of the United States. 
 
 It was a critical period in the history of the department, and it 
 needed a man of great administrative and executive ability to place it 
 in that position which the great interests it represented entitled it to 
 occupy. 
 
 Fortunately, the right man was found to take charge of it and place 
 it on the high plane it should occupy. Its elevation could be made only 
 by slow degrees. Congress must furnish every dollar required to raise 
 the quality of the work and expand it. Great diplomacy was necessary 
 to secure the proper appropriations. It was only by showing Congress 
 the value of the work being accomplished that new and increased 
 appropriations could be secured. 
 
 (483) 
 
174 
 
 Mr. Colman was well equipped for the important work to which he 
 was assigned. For more than thirty years prior to his appointment 
 he had been editor of the leading agricultural paper of the Mississippi 
 Valley. He had discussed not only with pen, but with tongue, the 
 great problems that confronted the farmers, and that were identified 
 with their interests. He was a forcible and eloquent speaker, and 
 always held the rapt attention of his listeners. But few public meetings 
 in his section were held where agricultural interests were considered 
 at which he was not one of the invited speakers. Having been born 
 and brought up on a farm, and having been a practical, as well as 
 theoretical farmer all his life, he was in close touch and sympathy 
 with his brother farmers. He knew their needs and also what was 
 necessary to be done to secure them. He was well aware of the great 
 prejudice existing against theoretical farming, or "book larnin' " as it 
 is sometimes called, then existing to a far greater extent than at the 
 present day. He had had legislative experience, which was of much 
 value in enabling him to deal with Congress, in order to secure proper 
 appropriations to elevate the standard of the department. He had 
 served as a member of the legislature of his state, and also as Lieu- 
 tenant-Governor, presiding over the senate. 
 
 We have presented these facts in order to show how well equipped 
 he was to fill the important position to which he had been elevated, 
 and it was to this admirable equipment that his great success was 
 attributable. 
 
 He repeatedly told us that in accepting the office his highest 
 ambition would be achieved, if he could secure government experiment 
 stations, or experimental farms in connection with our agricultural 
 colleges, so that practical and scientific agriculture could walk hand 
 in hand, and thus obviate the prejudice which existed against scientific 
 farming. The other object of his ambition was to make the depart- 
 ment worthy of becoming one of the great executive departments of 
 the government, with a voice in the President's cabinet, during his 
 administration. By his wise administration of the office, both houses 
 of Congress passed a bill almost unanimously, creating it one of the 
 great executive departments of the government, and Mr. Colman had 
 the distinguished honor of being appointed the first Secretary of 
 Agriculture. 
 
 The bill establishing experiment stations in connection with our 
 agricultural colleges was also passed, and the stations put into practical 
 working order during his administration, so that both of the highest 
 objects of his ambition were accomplished. 
 
 But it is much easier to tell of the achievements of these great 
 objects than of the steps that had to be taken to secure them. And 
 first, as to the establishing of experiment stations. Feeling that it 
 was essential to achieve the cooperation and influence of the agricul- 
 
 (484) 
 
175 
 
 tural colleges in order to secure the passage of a bill through Congress 
 to create them, Mr. Colman, not long after taking his seat as Commis- 
 sioner, issued a call to the agricultural colleges in every state of the 
 Union, requesting them to send delegates to a convention to be held 
 in the department building in Washington, July 8, 1885. This invi- 
 tation was accepted, all the colleges sending delegates, forming what 
 historv will proclaim on account of the great results achieved by it, 
 one of the most important agricultural conventions ever held. By 
 unanimous vote Mr. Colman was chosen president of the convention, 
 and that part of his address relating to experiment stations was 
 referred to a special committee, to which Mr. Colman was afterward 
 added, and that committee finally reported the Experiment Station 
 bill, which was afterwards passed by Congress and approved by the 
 President, establishing experiment stations in every state in the Union. 
 Mr. Colman thought that by enlisting the cooperation and active work 
 of each of the agricultural colleges in the different states and of the 
 senators and representatives in Congress, such a bill could be passed, 
 and the result was a justification of his judgment. 
 
 To secure the passage of a bill evolving the department into one 
 of the great executive departments of the government was a much 
 more difficult task. Mr. Colman knew^ that this could only be accom- 
 plished by the department meriting such promotion. It must be made 
 worthy of such advancement. It would take too much space to give 
 a history of the work accomplished by him, during his four years' 
 term of service. We can only refer to a few of the many things 
 secured under his administration. 
 
 The first matter that attracted his attention was the stamping out 
 of that dread disease among our cattle, known as contagious pleuro- 
 pneumonia. It was found to exist in nearly twenty states of this 
 Union. The disease is incurable, and the only way to extirpate it 
 was to kill every affected animal and every animal that had been 
 exposed to an affected one. Whole herds had to be slaughtered. 
 Of course great opposition was raised to such action, but the heroic 
 course was the only safe way to proceed. Millions of dollars were 
 required to pay for slaughtered herds, but Congress freely made the 
 proper appropriations, and this dread disease was practically elimi- 
 nated from this country during his administration. 
 
 The great fruit growing interests of the nation had been over- 
 looked by the department, and one of his first acts was to take them 
 under consideration, and establish a division of pomology to look after 
 and encourage the interests of the fruit growers in all parts of the 
 United States. It has become one of the leading divisions of the 
 department. 
 
 Another of the important divisions established was that of veg- 
 etable pathology. Vegetable life is fully as subject to disease as 
 
 (485) 
 
176 
 
 animal life. Mildews, blights, rusts, smuts, moulds destroy millions 
 of dollars worth of crops annually, and to guard against these dis- 
 eases, and to give remedies for them, and to recommend such courses 
 of cultivation as to avoid them, were the objects of Mr. Colman in 
 starting this division. 
 
 The division of ornithology and mammalogy was also established 
 by him in order to secure information as to which varieties of birds 
 and smaller animals as gophers, moles, minks, skunks, field mice, etc., 
 were friends, and which were enemies to the farmer, and how their 
 depredations might be prevented. 
 
 The division of United States experiment stations was likewise 
 established by him to take advantage of and utilize the vast fund of 
 information to be secured at the various experiment stations of the 
 different states of the Union, so as to make it available to those most 
 needing it. 
 
 But it was not only in establishing new divisions, but in greatly 
 extending the scope of those that existed that commended his work 
 to Congress and to the active workers in the cause of agricultural 
 progress. It was this great advancement that secured the confidence 
 of the members of Congress and caused them to aid in the rapid eleva- 
 tion of the department. 
 
 It was, however, because of the establishment of experiment sta- 
 tions throughout the states of the Union, and the elevation of the 
 department to one of the great executive departments of the govern- 
 ment, during his administration, and his appointment as the first 
 Secretary of Agriculture, that Mr. Colman will be longest and most 
 widely known and remembered. So highly was his work appreciated 
 that the Republic of France, through its Minister of Agriculture, 
 conferred on him la croix d' Officier du Merite Agricole, an honor which 
 but few Americans have received. 
 
 The University of Missouri at its late commencement exercises, 
 in recognition of his services to the cause of agriculture, conferred on 
 him the honorary degree of LL. D. The Missouri State Horticultural 
 Society, at its last session, created the office of Honorary Vice-Presi- 
 dent, and elected him to fill it for life, as a slight tribute for what he 
 had done in behalf of pomology. Such appreciation of his services 
 during his lifetime cannot be otherwise than most agreeable to him. 
 
 The official life of Mr. Colman referred to above covers but a small 
 portion of his useful services to the farmer and stockman. Even a 
 brief reference to the helpful services rendered the farmers of the 
 United States by him in all the departments of rural life would fill 
 several volumes. 
 
 The man we meet to honor today has not only rendered efficient 
 and acceptable services to the farmers of the United States in the 
 various state and national positions to which he has been chosen with 
 
 (486) 
 
177 
 
 such heartv unanimity, but he has made an enviable reputation in 
 the private walks of life as a good farmer and a successful breeder of 
 the best types of registered live stock. 
 
 This brief and hastily prepared sketch would be far from complete 
 without some reference to his long and highly esteemed services as a 
 director in various registration and other live stock organizations, 
 state fairs, industrial expositions, world's fairs, etc., but the time at 
 mv command will not allow me to refer to them further. 
 
 The distinguished honor bestowed on Mr Colman on this occasion 
 bv the conferring of the degree of doctor of agriculture by the great 
 University of Illinois, has been well earned. His earnest and success- 
 ful advocacv of the practice of the best methods in all that pertains to 
 rural husbandry contained in the weekly messages he has sent through 
 Colman s Rural World, to the progressive farmers of the Mississippi 
 Vallev for more than half a century is not the least of his great achieve- 
 ments. 
 
 His writings and speeches have made him a leader in the campaign 
 of education he has so ably conducted, and his influence for good in 
 encouraging the residents of the farm to obtain the best results in the 
 growing of crops, breeding of live stock and perfecting the high stand- 
 ard of rural citizenship by the education of their sons and daughters 
 cannot be measured or overestimated. All the honors that have been 
 conferred upon him have been most worthily bestowed and particu- 
 larly that of doctor of agriculture conferred by this University. 
 
 (487) 
 
178 
 
 ASSEMBLY OF THE COLLEGE OF LAW 
 
 Law Building, 10:00 a.m. 
 
 INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION 
 
 Honorable Jacob McG. Dickinson 
 General Counsel of the Illinois Central Railroad Company, Chicago 
 
 In 1904 there was organized in Chicago an International Arbitra- 
 tion Society, and Doctor Edmund J. James was elected as president 
 and at present holds that office. Its purpose is to promote the policy 
 of submitting international disputes to impartial courts of arbitration 
 instead of the decision of the sword. 
 
 Dr. James took the initiative in the propaganda in the Middle West 
 to arouse and give expression to public sentiment for ratifying the 
 treaties submitted by the President to the Senate at its last session, 
 and it was through the enthusiastic and self-sacrificing efforts of him 
 and his coworkers, whose zeal he aroused and constantly stimulated, 
 that a large and representative meeting, held in Chicago, and presided 
 over by Mr. Robert Lincoln, adopted resolutions favoring the exten- 
 sion by the government of the United States of the principle of inter- 
 national arbitration to all questions which cannot otherwise be brought 
 to a pacific determination, and requesting their representatives in 
 the United States Senate to exert their influence in behalf of such 
 treaties and of their prompt consideration and approval by the 
 Senate. 
 
 The great office in which Dr. James has just been installed, will not 
 withdraw him from the humanitarian work of endeavoring to realize 
 the wish expressed by Washington of banishing from the earth war, 
 which he denominated a "plague to mankind," but rather with in- 
 creased prestige, will consecrate him anew to the noblest aspiration 
 that can in respect of mundane affairs fill the mind and heart of man. 
 At the Mohonk Lake conference of this year, attended by many of the 
 most distinguished judges, jurists, diplomats, educators and clergy- 
 men of the nation, and presided over by the Honorable George Gray, 
 on the motion of Dr. Daniel C. Oilman, it was unanimously resolved to 
 suggest to the universities and colleges of the United States that 
 concerted efforts be put forth to secure among undergraduates early 
 and careful consideration of the principles of international arbitration. 
 
 In compliment to your distinguished President, who is so con- 
 spicuously associated with this noble movement, and desiring, even 
 though in an humble way, to collaborate with Dr. Oilman and his 
 associates, I shall address you upon the subject of "International 
 Arbitration." 
 
 It is a product of the centuries, the resultant of all ideas and efforts 
 
 (488) 
 
179 
 
 for the substitution of some other tribunal than that of war for the 
 adjustment of international affairs. Every theory of the doctrin- 
 aires, however impracticable for the times, which contained a germ of 
 truth, as well as every real achievement, no matter how small in com- 
 parison with the total of international depravity which prevailed, has 
 become a common heritage of humanity, an inspiration transmitted 
 from age to age, advancing the thoughts and ideals of men and pre- 
 paring them for international arbitration, which, entering upon a 
 new era about 1815, has so progressed in our time that no one can 
 doubt that it is the most powerful force now working upon the nations 
 for the temporal happiness of mankind. 
 
 International arbitration, as we know it, is no more a product of 
 the last hundred years than was the Federal Constitution of 1789 a 
 product of that vear It is a flower of our time, but the roots of the 
 plant which matured it found their beginnings in the soil of previous 
 centuries. 
 
 The Amphictyonic Council, the earliest institution established by 
 independent states clothed with the office of preventing war between 
 themselves, antedating authentic Greek history and enduring for 
 more than fifteen hundred years; the arbitration of the rights of 
 Adrastus and Amphiaraus to the Kingdom of Argos; the adjustment 
 of the conflicting claims of the Athenians and the Megarians to Sal- 
 amis; the plan of Henry IV to consolidate Europe into a practical 
 federation of all the powers to be styled the "Christian Republic," 
 with assurances for liberty of commerce and the establishment of a 
 general council modeled upon that of the Amphictyons; the epochal 
 work of Hugo Grotius, coming as one of the greatest boons to human- 
 ity at a period of its greatest agony, a fair flower of peace springing up 
 in the midst of the carnage of the Thirty Years' War; the plan of Wil- 
 liam Penn, published in 1693-94 and entitled "An Essay Toward the 
 Present and Future Peace of Europe by the Establishment of an 
 European Dyet Parliament or Estates," which proposed that the 
 sovereigns of Europe should meet by deputies in a "General Dyet" 
 and establish rules of justice between themselves, that a "Sovereign 
 Assembly" should adjust differences and coerce recalcitrant states, 
 that a balance of power should be maintained by the distribution of 
 votes, and that unwilling powers should be forced to adhesion; the 
 "projet" of Abbe Saint Pierre in the eighteenth century, which em- 
 bodied the essential principles of the plans of Henry IV and Penn; 
 the scheme put forward by Bentham, 1780-1889, for an international 
 tribunal to secure universal and perpetual peace, in which he proposed 
 a reduction of armaments and coercive powers, and as a last resource 
 the enforcement of decrees by a contingent furnished by the several 
 states, but, exalted above all other effective remedies, publicity, the pro- 
 mulgation of the decision and an appeal to the enlightened judgment 
 
 (489) 
 
180 
 
 of mankind, which would by its moral force, put recalcitrant nations 
 under the ban of public disapprobation; the plan of Kant of 1796 to 
 establish a "Universal Union of States," such as would obliterate 
 separate governmental independence, or a voluntary "Permanent 
 Congress of Nations," which might determine their differences by a 
 civil method; all of these are a part of the literature of international 
 arbitration, although some of them were chimerical and others really 
 did not embody any essential principle of international arbitration. 
 They were all antagonistic to continuous wars and advanced in a 
 greater or less degree the cause of peace. 
 
 The thoughts and sentiments thus implanted in the mind of 
 humanity, though, like all great things, slow of development, at last 
 stirred the public conscience and subdued, having as a powerful 
 auxiliary the economic conditions involved in the direct and indirect 
 costs of modern warfare, the fierce tendencies of nations. But little 
 practical progress was made during the period of blood and carnage 
 that prevailed until the beginning of the nineteenth century. 
 
 The formation of our federal Constitution, creating for the first 
 time a court with full and final power to settle all controversies be- 
 tween sovereign states, was the greatest step ever taken toward 
 substituting judicial procedure for appeal to arms. 
 
 About a year ago the supreme court gave judgment in a large sum 
 in favor of South Dakota against North Carolina, which was promptly 
 paid, althought it was earnestly contended that the court had no 
 jurisdiction over the controversy. 
 
 The Jay treaty of 1794 contained provisions for adjusting by 
 arbitration three questions which threatened to involve us in war 
 with Great Britain, and under it three separate boards of arbitration 
 were created. Our treaty of 1795 with Spain likewise contained a 
 provision for arbitration. B}^ the Treaty of Ghent in 1814 three 
 boards of arbitration were created. 
 
 After the overthrow of Napoleon a general reaction began in all 
 civilized countries against barbarous methods of settling disputes. 
 Peace ideas were fostered and promoted in every way. Peace socie- 
 ties and peace congresses constantly stirred the conscience of the world. 
 
 The Treaty of 1848, which concluded peace between the United 
 States and Mexico, provided that the two nations would in the future 
 adjust their disagreements by pacific negotiations and by arbitration. 
 
 In 1851 the Committee on Foreign Relations reported to the United 
 States Senate a resolution declaring that it was desirable to secure in 
 treaties a provision for arbitration. Similar resolutions were intro- 
 duced in Congress in 1854, 1872, 1874, and 1888. 
 
 The treaty which most profoundly influenced the ideas of the 
 world on the subject of arbitration was that of Washington of 1871, 
 which provided four arbitrations. 
 
 (490) 
 
181 
 
 John Morley says: 
 
 "The Treaty of Washington and the Geneva arbitration stand out 
 as the most noticeable victory in the nineteenth century of the noble 
 art of preventive diplomacy and the most signal exhibition in their 
 history of self-command in two of the three chief democratic powers 
 of the Western World. " 
 
 The arbitration held in Paris in 1893, in the Fur Seal case, and the 
 arbitral tribunal, w^hich decided the Alaskan boundary dispute, were 
 next in importance. There have been upward of two hundred in- 
 stances since 1815 where international diflferences have been settled 
 by reference to arbitration and quasi-arbitration, and the United 
 States has been a party to more than sixty of these. 
 
 A variety of questions, such as those involving disputed boundar- 
 ies, injuries to public and private property and persons, disputed 
 sovereignty over islands, seizure of ships, and interference with 
 fisheries and commerce, have been peaceably and economically ad- 
 justed, which in former times would probably have led to war. Al- 
 though it has been often said that questions of national honor cannot 
 be submitted to arbitration, experience has shown that the term 
 "national honor" is variable and in some degree shadowy, and that 
 many questions which, under a former code, would have been cata- 
 logued under "national honor" have been submitted and settled in 
 this wav, even though at the outset, as was said by Lord Russell in 
 regard to the Alabama claims, such a submission Avas thought to be 
 incompatible with national dignity. 
 
 The Hague conference stands as the most notable event in the 
 history of the world bearing upon international peace. The nations 
 participating w^ere Germany, United States of America, Austria- 
 Hungary, Belgium, China, Denmark, Spain, France, Great Britain 
 and Ireland, Greece, Italy, Japan, Luxemburg, Mexico, Montenegro, 
 Netherlands, Persia, Portugal, Roumania, Russia, Servia, Siam, 
 Sweden and Norway, Switzerland, Turkey and Bulgaria, twenty-six 
 in all, represented bv one hundred members. Of the independent 
 governments of the world, the Central and South American Republics, 
 the Stdtanates of Morocco and Muscat, the Orange Free State, the 
 Principality of Monaco, the Republic of San Marino, and the Kingdom 
 of Abyssinia were the only ones not represented. 
 
 The conference held ten sessions, the last being on July 29. They 
 agreed for submission for signature by the plenipotentiaries up to 
 December 31, 1899, on three conventions and three declarations to 
 form so many separate acts. The signatory powers agreed to use 
 their best efforts to insure the pacific settlement of interna- 
 tional differences ; in cases of disagreement or conflict before an 
 appeal to arms, to have, as far as circumstances allow, recourse to 
 the good ofHces or mediation of one or more friendly powers ; to sanc- 
 
 (491) 
 
182 
 
 tion, even during hostilities, the intervention of powers, strangers to 
 the dispute, by offering their good offices as mediators in reconcihng 
 opposing claims and in appeasing feelings of resentment. They 
 recommended, when circumstances will allow, a resort by the parties 
 at variance to special mediation of powers selected by them, and during 
 the period allowed for the execution of such mandate the states in 
 conflict shall cease from all direct communications. In differences 
 involving neither honor nor vital interests, and only matters of fact, 
 they recommended that the parties interested institute an inter- 
 national commission of inquiry, whose report shall be limited to a 
 statement of the facts, and shall be only advisory. 
 
 Title IV deals with international arbitration. It defines as its 
 object "the determination of controversies between states by judges 
 of their own choice upon the basis of respect for law," and declares 
 that the signatory powers recognize arbitration as the most effica- 
 cious and most equitable method of deciding questions regarding the 
 interpretation or application of international treaties. Then follows 
 the solemn declaration that "the agreement of arbitration implies 
 the obligation to submit in good faith to the decision of the arbitral 
 tribunal. '" 
 
 They undertook to organize a permanent court of arbitration, 
 accessible at all times, which shall have jurisdiction of all cases of 
 arbitration unless the parties shall establish a special tribunal. 
 
 An international bureau at the Hague is provided for, which shall 
 be the record office for the court. Each signatory power shall select 
 not more than four persons of recognized competence in questions of 
 international law, enjoying the highest moral reputation, who shall 
 constitute the court, the term of each appointee to be for six vears, 
 with capacity for renewal. 
 
 Signatory powers resorting to the court must select arbitrators 
 from the list of members, each party, in the absence of special agree- 
 ment, to select two, and these together, an umpire; but if they divide 
 equally, then the choice of umpire shall be made by a third power 
 selected by the parties. To give dignity to the court, its members, 
 while in the discharge of their duties and outside of their own country, 
 shall enjoy diplomatic priviliges and immunities. 
 
 The court shall sit at the Hague, unless in cases of necessitv the 
 parties shall agree on a different place. Non-signatory powers 
 may submit to the jurisdiction. It is declared by Article XXVII 
 that the signatory powers consider it their duty to remind each other 
 that the court is open to them, and that such act can onlv be considered 
 as an exercise of good offices. 
 
 In acceding to this article, the representatives of the United States 
 presented a declaration which was received without objection bv the 
 conference, that nothing contained in the convention should make it 
 
 (492) 
 
183 
 
 the duty of the United States to intrude in or become entangled with 
 European poHtical questions or matters of internal administration, or 
 to relinquish the traditional attitude of our nation toward purely 
 American questior,s. It was regarded by our representatives that 
 such a caveat was necessary to negative an implied abandonment of 
 the Monroe Doctrine. The occasion was utilized for officially announc- 
 ing the Monroe Doctrine to the assembled representatives of all the 
 great powers and obtaining their implied assent to it. 
 
 The award shall be bv a majority of votes in writing, signed by 
 each raember, and setting forth the reasons for the decision. The 
 minority may, in signing, state their dissent. There shall be no 
 appeal ; but in the submission a right to demand a rehearing may be 
 reserved, based only on the discovery of new facts. It was early made 
 manifest that not one of the nations represented was willing to agree 
 to compulsory arbitration. 
 
 Sixteen powers signed this treat v on July 29th It was ratified 
 unanimously by the Senate of the United States on February 5, 1900. 
 All of the powers represented at the conference have signed it. They 
 govern nine-tenths of the world, and their populations embrace 
 fourteen hundred millions of the total sixteen hundred millions of 
 the earth's inhabitants. 
 
 Although not invited to become parties to the Hague convention, 
 the South American Republics, animated by a spirit that rose above 
 all littleness, and which commanded the admiration of the world, by a 
 resolution passed at the Mexican International American Conference 
 in 1902, recognized the principles set forth in the three Hague con- 
 ventions as international law, and conferred upon the United States 
 and Mexico the authority to negotiate with the other signatory 
 powers for their becoming parties to these treaties. President Mc- 
 Kinley appointed Ex-presidents Harrison and Cleveland as two of the 
 American members of the court, the former accepting and the latter 
 declining. 
 
 There had been other peace congresses, such as the conferences of 
 Miinster and Osnabriick in 1648, those of Utrecht in 1713, of Paris in 
 1763, the Congress of Vienna in 1815, and that of Berlin in 1878; but 
 as Mr. Holls, one of the members of the Hague conference from the 
 United States remarked: 
 
 "The vital distinction between these gatherings and the peace 
 conference at the Hague is that all of the former were held at the end 
 of a period of warfare, and their first important object was to restore 
 peace between actual belligerents; whereas the peace conference was 
 the first diplomatic gathering called to discuss guarantees of peace 
 without reference to any particular war — past, present, or prospec- 
 tive . ' ' 
 
 "Before this court was established nations drifted into war. A 
 
 (49.3) 
 
184 
 
 difiference arose ; a vista revealing an opportunity for party advantage 
 opened up to the demagogue, who is nothing if not loudly and ag- 
 gressively patriotic; issues where obscured or falsified; some of the 
 public prints misled and fired popular sentiment; all rational inter- 
 course between the contending nations was made impossible ; other 
 powers failed to intervene; there was no tribunal whose offices had 
 been previously sanctioned to appeal to; and war was the inevitable 
 consequence. " 
 
 No event that has transpired in history has even approximated 
 the profound and lasting effects of this conference upon the peace of 
 the world. International law had been evolved by jurists, and its 
 principles had from time to time been sanctioned by occasional 
 recognition of nations. It was merely a collection of moral teachings 
 upon relations between governments. By this treaty practically all 
 of the powers of the world gave formal assent to some of the most 
 important principles of international law, and established a perma- 
 nent court composed of competent jurists from all nations, open at all 
 times for its continuous development and sanction, a court to which 
 it is made the duty of all signatory powers to admonish other signa- 
 tory powers which have differences to resort; it being expressly pro- 
 vided that such reminder shall be regarded as an exercise of good 
 offices. 
 
 As Americans, whose government has always been in the advance 
 guard contending for humanitarian principles, we take a laudable 
 pride in the fact that the United States proposed to our sister republic 
 of Mexico to submit to the Hague tribunal the Pious Fund contro- 
 versy, the first case brought under its authority. 
 
 The reference of the Venezuelan case to the Hague was an event 
 of vast import. The interested powers suggested that the President 
 should decide the controversy. He wisely declined this, and recom- 
 mended that the offices of the Hague tribunal be invoked. His reas- 
 ons are admirably stated in his message to Congress, December 7, 1903 : 
 
 "It seemed to me to offer an admirable opportunity to advance 
 the practice of the peaceful settlement of disputes between nations 
 and to secure for the Hague tribunal a memorable increase of its 
 practical importance. The nations interested in the controversy 
 were so numerous, and in many instances so powerful, as to make it 
 evident that beneficent results would follow from their appearance 
 at the same time before the bar of that august tribunal of peace. 
 
 "Our hopes in that regard have been realized. Russia and Austria 
 are represented in the persons of the learned and distinguished jurists 
 who compose the tribunal; while Great Britain, Germany, France, 
 Spain, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, Sweden and Norway, Mexico, 
 the United States, and Venezuela are represented by their respec- 
 tive agents and counsel. 
 
 (4941 
 
185 
 
 "Such an imposing concourse of nations presenting their argu- 
 ments to and invoking the decision of that high court of international 
 justice and international peace can hardly fail to secure a like sub- 
 mission of many future controversies. The nations now appearing 
 there will find it far easier to appear there a second time, while no 
 nation can imagine its just pride will be lessened by following the 
 example now presented. This triumph of the principle of internation- 
 al arbitration is a subject of warm congratulation, and offers a happy 
 augury for the peace of the world. " 
 
 The settlement of the North Sea incident, the way to which was 
 opened up directly by the Hague convention, greatly increased the 
 confidence in its beneficence and gave assurance of its efficacy in 
 maintaining the peace of the world. 
 
 When it became known that the Baltic fleet had fired at Dogger 
 Bank upon English fishermen, the most intense excitement prevailed 
 all over the world and war between Russia and Great Britain seemed 
 imminent. Great Britain made known to Russia that apology, dis- 
 claimer, reparation to sufferers, a searching inquiry followed by pun- 
 ishment of responsible parties, and security against repetition of such 
 incidents would be expected, and when there was delay in adequately 
 responding to these views it was further communicated that if the 
 Russian fleet continued its course without calling at Vigo in Spain, 
 there might be war before the week was over The fleet stopped at 
 Vigo and Admiral Rojestvensky gave his version of the affair. Not- 
 withstanding his statement Great Britain pressed her demand coupled 
 with a proposition for a court of inquiry analogous to that provided 
 for by the Hague convention. Russia made a similar proposal under 
 the Hague convention. 
 
 Thus was brought about through the direct inspiration of the 
 Hague convention, the international commission, composed of British, 
 French, Russian, Austrian and United States admirals, which by its 
 finding of February 25, 1905, averted a war between two powerful 
 nations. 
 
 Since the Hague convention, over thirty treaties providing for 
 obligatory arbitration have been signed and the one between Den- 
 mark and the Netherlands makes no reservation whatsoever. 
 
 During the last year the Hague court has denied the contention 
 of Japan that she had a right under her treaties of commerce with 
 western powers, to tax improvements on land held by foreigners 
 under perpetual lease. 
 
 The question of the French protectorate over the Sultan of Muscat, 
 has, under the treaty between France and Great Britain, been referred 
 to that tribunal. 
 
 The outlook was never brighter for widening the usefulness of the 
 Hague tribunal and we may confidently expect through its instru- 
 
 (495) 
 
.186 
 
 mentality, a systematic and harmonious development of interna- 
 tional law. 
 
 Under the corrective influence of international jurists, unsound 
 doctrine will be repudiated. This is more easy of accomplishment by 
 the Hague court than by any other. The same members are rarely 
 chosen to sit. There will be a constant change in judges. As new 
 cases arise, not having any pride of opinion in the decisions of others, 
 they will the more promptly expound as the law that which the 
 enlightemnent of the time shall demand, for international law will 
 always develop and stand as the exponent of such international justice 
 and morality as the consensus of nations shall approve. 
 
 The rejection by the Senate in 1897 of the treaty between the 
 United States and Great Britain known as the Olney-Pauncefote 
 treaty, profoundly stirred the country, and it was felt that the United 
 States, for so long a time the recognized leader in the modern develop- 
 ment of peace movements, had taken a backward step. Again there 
 was deep disappointment and wide and outspoken dissatisfaction 
 when the Senate at the last Congress amended the treaties negotiated 
 between this country and France, Great Britain, Germany, Italy, 
 Portugal, Switzerland, Spain, Austria-Hungary, Sweden and Norway 
 and Mexico. They were all alike and substantially like those con- 
 cluded between Great Britain and France and other countries. A 
 like treaty was concluded with Japan on the day the Senate acted on 
 the other treaties and on account of such action, was not submitted 
 to the Senate. The Senate has been memorialized by a large meeting 
 of representative citizens which met in Washington in January, 1904, 
 to ratify these treaties. They were approved by the National Board of 
 Trade, the Commercial Club of Chicago, the New York State Bar 
 Association and by commercial bodies all over the country. 
 
 Article I of the Anglo-French treaty provided as follows: 
 
 "Differences which may arise of a legal nature, or relating to the 
 interpretation of treaties existing between the two contracting parties, 
 and which it mav not have been possible to settle bv diplomacy, shall 
 be referred to the permanent court of arbitration established at the 
 Hague by the convention of the 29th of July, 1899, provided, never- 
 theless, that they do not affect the vital interests, the independence, 
 or the honor of the two contracting states, and do not concern the 
 interests of third parties. " 
 
 This was a general obligation assumed by the contracting parties 
 to submit all questions outside of the excepted classes to arbitration. 
 
 Article II provided that: "In each individual case the high con- 
 tracting parties, before appealing to the permanent court of arbitra- 
 tion, shall conclude a special agreement." 
 
 The Senate by a vote of fifty to nine, amended Article II by 
 substituting the word "treaty" for "agreement." In doing this it 
 
 (496) 
 
187 
 
 acted clearly within its rights. There is no doubt that the Senate 
 could provide, if it had been willing to do so, for special cases as they 
 might arise under a general treaty. Such action would satisfy both 
 the letter and the spirit of the Constitution. 
 
 It has been published from sources represented as authentic 
 notwithstanding the veil of secrecy enshrouding the proceedings of 
 the Senate, that a reason for the amendment was that it was under- 
 stood bv senators that the President would regard the word "agree- 
 ment " ' as conferring upon him full power to enter upon arbitration 
 with a foreign power on any question embraced in the treaty, without 
 submitting the case to the Senate, and that the term, "of a legal 
 nature," would embrace all such claims as the Alabama question, the 
 indemnitv claimed by Columbia and our action as to the Panama 
 Canal, and that under "interpretation of treaties," the President 
 might submit to arbitration our commercial rights in China, the 
 threatened trade retaliation of Germany and many other questions of 
 the utmost importance to which the Senate should give special con- 
 sideration. 
 
 The President forthwith upon the action of the Senate, aban- 
 doned the treaties. This was regarded by some of the ablest and 
 most earnest friends of international arbitration, notably Hon. John 
 W. Foster, as unwise, and that the action of the President as well as 
 that of the Senate was unfortunate. 
 
 It leaves America alone of the signatory powers to the Hague 
 convention, in not having entered into a treaty providing for sub- 
 mission of cases as they arise to that tribunal. Notwithstanding the 
 effect of the amendment of the second article, it was regarded by many 
 that the moral obligation assumed under the first article was a glorious 
 step in the cause of international arbitration. 
 
 However friends of arbitration may differ as to the effect of the 
 action of the Senate and that of the President, it is certain that 
 nothing done in respect of these treaties will seriously retard the 
 cause. Public attention has been challenged as never before, discus- 
 sion has been more general and profound, zeal has been stimulated to 
 a higher degree than ever, and when action follows, it will go distinctly 
 in advance of the highly conservative boundaries maintained in those 
 treaties. 
 
 In 1888, upon the initiative of Randal Cremer, a member of the 
 British Parliament, was established the Interparliamentary Union. 
 It is made up of men of every class and condition, the only indispens- 
 able requirement for admission being that they shall be members of 
 some national parliament. 
 
 Secretary^ Hay has stated that in the conference held by the union 
 in Holland in 1894, the declaration made by it in favor of a per- 
 manent court of arbitration was a forerunner of the most important 
 
 (497) 
 
achievement of the peace conference of the Hague in 1899. Its 
 membership, now exceeding two thousand, and the prestige it has 
 gained by its wide activity, command the greatest consideration, as 
 is shown by the fact that it was invited by Congress to hold its 1904 
 meeting at the St. Louis Exposition, and fifty thousand dollars were 
 voted for the entertainment of the delegates. At that meeting, by 
 unanimous vote, a resolution was adopted as follows: 
 
 "Whereas, enlightened public opinion and modern civilization 
 alike demand that differences between nations should be adjudicated 
 and settled in the same manner as disputes between individuals are 
 adjudicated, namely by the arbitrament of courts in accordance with 
 recognized principles of law, this conference requests the several 
 governments of the world to send delegates to an international con- 
 ference to be held at a time and place to be agreed upon by them for 
 the purpose of considering: 
 
 1 . The questions for the consideration of which the conference at 
 the Hague expressed a wish that a future conference be called. 
 
 2. The negotiation of arbitration treaties between the nations 
 represented at the conference to be convened. 
 
 3. The advisability of establishing an international congress to 
 convene periodically for the discussion of international questions. 
 
 And this conference respectfully and cordially requests the Presi- 
 dent of the United States to invite all the nations to send representa- 
 tives to such conference." 
 
 On the 24th of September, 1904, this resolution was presented to 
 the President by a large representation of the delegates to the union. 
 The President at once announced that he would, at an early date, 
 invite the other nations parties to the Hague convention, to reassemble 
 with a view of still further advancing the work already so happily 
 begun. 
 
 In pursuance of this action, on October 21, 1904, Secretary Hay 
 addressed a letter to the representatives of the United States ac- 
 credited to the governments signatories to the acts of the Hague 
 conference, directing them to bring the matter to the attention of the 
 ministers of foreign affairs of the governments to which they were 
 severally accredited, to ascertain to what extent that government 
 would be disposed to act in the matter. He concluded as follows: 
 
 "You will state the President's desire and hope that the undying 
 memories which cling around the Hague as the cradle of the benefi- 
 cent work which had its beginning in 1899 may be strengthened by 
 holding the second peace conference in that historic city." 
 
 The replies received to this communication indicated that the 
 proposition had been received with general favor. No dissent was 
 made known. The governments of Austria-Hungary, Denmark, 
 France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Luxemburg, Mexico, the 
 
 (498) 
 
189 
 
 Netherlands, Portugal, Roumania, Spain, Sweden and Norway, and 
 Switzerland exhibited sympathy with the purpose of the proposal, 
 and generally accepted it in principle. Japan and Russia replied with 
 friendly recognition of the spirit and object of the invitation, but on 
 account of the existing war, it did not seem to Russia to be practicable 
 at that moment, to take part in such a conference. Japan made the 
 reservation only that no action should be taken by the conference 
 relative to the then existing war. 
 
 In a subsequent communication, it was further suggested to all 
 the powers that the further and necessary interchange of views be- 
 tween the signatories of the Act of 1899, be effected through an inter- 
 national bureau under the control of the permanent administrative 
 council of the Hague. Now that the great war which held the pro- 
 posed conference in abeyance has been terminated, it has been an- 
 nounced (on the fourteenth of this month) that the Czar has again 
 taken the initiative and has invited another conference of the Hague. 
 We mav confidently look forward to a second conference which will, 
 with advanced views, take up not only the questions which were 
 reserved at the former conference such as the rights and duties as 
 neutrals, the inviolability of private property in naval warfare and 
 the bombardment of ports, towns and villages by naval force, but the 
 proposals for further increasing the power of the court and the obli- 
 gation to submit controversies to it along lines which would not have 
 been seriously contemplated by any of the greater powers in 1899. 
 
 That Japan and Russia, two of the signatory powers, plunged into 
 war without resorting to the Hague tribunal, gives no ground for 
 serious concern as to the future of arbitration. No one but a dreamer 
 ever expected all war to be abolished. The world was not expected 
 to be petrified into states in their present form without the possibility 
 of a change of territory. It is manifest that there was no place for 
 arbitration between Russia and Japan. The advancement of Russia, 
 and its acquisition of new territory in a country foreign to Japan pre- 
 sented no question of title as between these two nations. The belief 
 of Japan, that such encroachment jeopardized its future prosperity 
 and the very life of the nation, presented no question which could be 
 solved by any principles of international law. 
 
 It was a case where a policy of expansion, deemed to be essential 
 for national prosperity, was regarded by another power, though not 
 the owner of the territory in question, as vitally inimical to its welfare. 
 Such a question could only be settled by a voluntary abandonment of 
 its position by one of the powers, or by war. No principle of inter- 
 national law applicable to the settlement of such a conflict has yet 
 been accepted. 
 
 Although this great war cast a pall over the peace movement, and 
 filled some of its advocates with despair, it also furnished the occasion 
 
 (499) 
 
190 
 
 for one of the most dramatic incidents in history, one that will for all 
 time stand as a precedent. President Roosevelt, he of the strenuous 
 life, usually portrayed in his milder moods with a big stick, supposed 
 by many to be so rash that his very existence imperilled the peace of 
 the world, casting aside the old world restraints that imposed silence 
 upon a nation so long as sister nations were engaged in cutting each 
 other's throats, became the great apostle of peace, and acting within 
 the spirit if not the letter of the Hague convention, opened up for 
 pacification the way which Japan and Russia could not find for them- 
 selves. He not only won recognition as the foremost man of the world, 
 but reestablished the prestige of the United States for peace, which 
 had been seriously impaired by the rejection of the arbitration treaties. 
 If his overture had been repelled, or if after negotiations had been 
 entered upon, there had been no settlement, his intervention would 
 have taken its place with other laudable but unfruitful efforts which 
 are chronicled but do not change the current of history. 
 
 As surely as the stars fought against Sisera, so surely have they 
 fought on the side of Roosevelt. His intervention was not only 
 welcomed, but it was crowned with the most brilliant success. If he 
 had left it to the stars alone, or the stars in conjunction with the 
 Russian and Japanese, it would have been a fiasco. The history of 
 that negotiation may not be fully disclosed in our time, but we know 
 enough to feel assured that he pursued the work that he initiated with 
 the tireless zeal and inexhaustible resources that characterize all of 
 his undertakings, and that his supremest efforts were made at the 
 darkest moment. A new phase in international relations has been 
 developed, one that will be a powerful conservator of the peace of the 
 world. 
 
 The University of Illinois, consecrated to the work of uplifting 
 humanity, will, I trust, under its new leadership, by the action of 
 both Faculty and students, give not merely the prestige of its great 
 name, but its earnest cooperation in carrying international arbitra- 
 tion to yet higher and broader planes of effective operation. 
 
 (500) 
 
191 
 
 ASSEMBLY OF THE COLLEGE OF LITERATURE AND ARTS, 
 
 THE SCHOOL OF MUSIC AND THE SCHOOL 
 
 OF LIBRARY SCIENCE. 
 
 The Chapel, 11:00 a.m. 
 
 SOME RESULTS OF THE ELECTIVE SYSTEM 
 
 A. Lawrence Lowell, A.B., LL.B. 
 Professor in Harvard University 
 
 Speaking of democracy, Edmond Scherer remarks that after all it 
 is only a stage in an inevitable march towards an unknown goal, and 
 merits neither the praise it calls forth, nor the dread it inspires. This 
 is no doubt in some measure true of every movement. It neither 
 plunges man into chaos nor leads him to paradise. It does not essen- 
 tially change his moral nature and fortunately it does not lessen the 
 need of moral effort. Improveraents in agriculture may increase the 
 crops, but they do not render plowing, sowing and reaping unnecessary. 
 
 Twenty years ago the college curriculum was earnestly discussed. 
 In the larger colleges the old fixed courses of studies required alike 
 for everyone was visibly breaking down; giving way not so much 
 before the criticism of those who had lost faith in its usefulness, as 
 before the assaults of newer subjects of learning which were, so to 
 speak, clamoring for recognition in a program that could not make 
 room for them. The time had come when no man could possibly learn 
 all the things that educated men like to know. As Professor William 
 James has observed, the aggregate ignorance even of the members of 
 a faculty is encyclopedic. In fact, the defence of a fixed curriculum 
 on the ground that it furnished a complete education had become an 
 anachronism. 
 
 Some variation of studies is now permitted in almost all our larger 
 colleges, and yet after a generation of experiments we have not reached 
 a common opinion about the best form of curriculum. At first sight 
 the policies of different institutions seem to be based upon radically 
 divergent principles, and certainly their catalogues present almost 
 every conceivable variety of system. Now such a condition after 
 long experience might indicate that we were all on the wrong track, 
 for error is more multifarious than truth. This supposition,' however, 
 need not be discussed. On the other hand, the condition may indi- 
 cate that our paths are not so far apart as they appear: and this is, I 
 believe, very largely the case. In the first place it seems to be uni- 
 versally conceded that so far as variations in the choice of studies are 
 allowed at all, the choice between possible alternatives shall be made 
 by the student himself. Then the chief differences between the 
 
 (501) 
 
192 
 
 systems in use are rather in degree than in kind. They turn upon the 
 question what subjects shall still be required, for something is still 
 required almost everywhere : and they turn also upon the question how 
 far the student shall be restricted in his choice. In all "colleges he is 
 restricted to some extent. Nowhere is he allowed to make a new 
 choice every month; his selection in the freshman year is usually 
 limited to a small number of courses; and he is constantly under the 
 necessity of taking some elective that he may not care for, if he wants 
 to take another elective of a more advanced character in the same 
 field. At the present moment, for example, a student at Harvard 
 must, as a rule, take a preliminary course in mediaeval history, or in 
 modern government, before he can elect American constitutional 
 history. Restrictions of this kind arise from the nature of things. 
 Those of a more general character deliberately imposed by college 
 regulations are usually intended to secure, on the one hand, a certain 
 concentration of work, and to prevent, on the other, excessive special- 
 izing. Such regulations differ a good deal in the amount of restriction 
 imposed. In this University, for example, where the latitude allowed 
 is rather large, a candidate for the degree of bachelor of arts must take 
 for his principal subject electives in some one department amounting 
 to not less than three, nor more than five-sixteenths of his total work; 
 and he must take one-sixteenth of his work in each of five groups of 
 studies. These groups are (1) English, (2) ancient and modern 
 languages, (3) history, economics, and political science, (4) philosophy 
 and mathematics, and (5) natural science. I was interested to see 
 what proportion of the students under the elective system of Harvard 
 actually comply with these conditions. Taking for the purpose the 
 class that graduated this year, and discarding those men who had 
 entered with such advanced standing as to relieve them of a year's 
 work, there remained three hundred and sixty-one who had taken 
 thirteen of the seventeen courses required for the degree of A. B. 
 First as regards the scattering of electives among the five groups of 
 subjects already mentioned: An amount of work equal to that which 
 must be taken here is substantially required in two of them — English 
 and modern languages : and for the other three groups all but thirteen 
 of the three hundred and sixty-one men had taken some elective in 
 history or political science, all but fifty-five had taken one in the group 
 of philosophy and mathematics, and all but forty-one in natural 
 science. In the great majority of cases, though not always, the pro- 
 portion of time devoted to the subject was as large as that which must 
 be done here. So that in this respect by far the greater part of the 
 students fulfill the requirements made in the University of Illinois. 
 As regards concentration of work the comparison is less exact, for 
 the fields covered by separate departments vary much in different 
 universities. In fact I made no statistics by departments, but by 
 
 (502) 
 
193 
 
 eight groups of closely related departments. These cover on the 
 average considerably more ground than the fifteen departments here, 
 and hence the proportion of work in each of them would naturally be 
 greater. Now I found that every one of the three hundred and sixty- 
 one Harvard graduates had taken at least three courses in one of these 
 groups of related departments. All but seven had taken four courses, 
 and all but twenty-four, five courses. A large number of men had 
 taken in one group more than the maximum amount permitted in a 
 single department by the regulations of this University. But few of 
 them took more than they might under the rules have taken here in a 
 similar group of departments. In short the greater part of the class 
 of 1905 at Harvard would have had to make no changes whatever in 
 their choice of electives to comply with the regulations in force here, 
 and for most of the rest the changes would probably have been slight. 
 
 Moreover, no regulations can in terms provide an absolute security 
 against ignorance even of most elementary facts. It is theoretically 
 possible, although in practice inconceivable, that a man might graduate 
 either here or at Harvard, without having heard the name of Charle- 
 magne, without knowing whether the Book of Job was written by 
 Isaiah or by Aristotle, and without the faintest idea of the difference 
 between a planet and a fixed star. 
 
 The time seems to have come when it ought to be possible to 
 measure the ultimate results actually achieved by our various systems, 
 and to substitute much more fully than heretofore experience for 
 foresight. This is what I propose to do here in a tentative way for 
 the only system of which I have had personal experience or the means 
 of obtaining accurate information — that is the system of nearly free 
 election. In doing so I have no intention of contrasting that system 
 with others that I have not myself observed. An attempt to compare 
 something of which one has had actual experience, with something 
 else that one knows only by imagination, is more apt to show the 
 prepossessions of the speaker than the relative merits of the things 
 compared. 
 
 The subject naturally divides itself into material or external, and 
 the moral effects of the system ; and by the material or external I do 
 not mean the financial, — although there can be no doubt that the free 
 election system is highly expensive, — I mean the actual use made by 
 the student of his freedom of choice. 
 
 In the discussions during the early days of the elective system 
 grave fears were expressed that students would avoid the subjects 
 requiring strenuous mental effort, and seek out those which were 
 easy. It is no doubt true that mathematics is regarded as a severe 
 training, and is not generally popular; but this is largely due to the 
 immemorial tradition of boys' schools that mankind is divided into 
 a small minoritv to whom mathematics presents no difficulty, and a 
 
 (503) 
 
194 
 
 large majority who are by nature unfitted to learn it. The ordinary 
 boy finding obstacles at the outset concludes that he belongs to the 
 latter class, and had better leave the subject alone. There is also 
 some tendency to avoid courses that are supposed to be peculiarly 
 hard. On the other hand there seems to be no general purpose to 
 select the easy, or as they are commonly called, soft courses. A 
 student, especially if he is trying to carry more electives than he can 
 attend to properly, will often take one or two that are reputed soft; 
 and there will always be a small percentage of indolent men with 
 whom the desire to shirk work is unusually strong. But both statis- 
 tics and the opinion of those who are best qualified to judge, sustain 
 the belief that any systematic attempt to base the choice of electives 
 upon ease is rare,^ and that is distinctly my own impression. 
 
 There are other reasons, also, why this should not prove a serious 
 danger. Instructors do not like to have their courses thought soft, 
 and it is only a man of strong individuality, of earnest faith in the real 
 value of his work, who is indifferent to criticism of that kind. Nor is 
 the existence of a very small' number of such courses necessarily an 
 evil. A couple of years ago I happened to see a collection of brief 
 college reminiscences by all the members of a class that had graduated 
 about ten years before. Among other things they spoke of their 
 studies, and the course to which the largest number referred with 
 grateful satisfaction was one that was notoriously easy. Without 
 requiring much labor on their part a great teacher had opened their 
 eyes to a new region of thought. Moreover, soft courses are not con- 
 fined to an elective system. Of the few required courses in my own 
 college days one or two were closely akin to a farce. I might, indeed, 
 add that the minimum amount of work required for the degree of 
 A. B. seems to me distinctly greater than it was in those days. 
 
 Another prevalent fear was that freedom of election would lead 
 either to excessive specialization, or to such a scattering of choices 
 over wide fields that the student would have a superficial acquaintance 
 with many subjects, without a profound knowledge of any one of 
 them. That each of the evils occurs in some cases cannot be gainsaid, 
 but how often they occur may be illustrated from the choice of elec- 
 tives of the class of 1905. If we divide the subjects taught into eight 
 groups, (1) ancient languages, (2) English, (3) other modern languages, 
 (4) history and political science, (5) philosophy, (6) fine arts, (7) 
 mathematics, and (8) natural sciences, we find that almost everyone 
 took something in English, modern languages^, and history and politi- 
 cal science. About two-thirds of the class took some philosophy, 
 about one-half some fine arts, rather more than half some classics, and 
 
 iCf. Report of President Eliot, 1884-85, pp. 39-45. Report of Dean Briggs, 1899-1900, pp. 
 116-17. "The Elective System at Harvard," Harv .Grad. Mag., June, 1903, p. 532, and some results 
 compiled from the answers of recent graduates in Harv. Grad. Mag., March, 1902, pp. 357-360. 
 
 2These two subjects are practically required. 
 
 (504) 
 
195 
 
 rather less than half some mathematics. Except, therefore, for 
 classics and mathematics, which almost all the members of the class 
 had studied at school, and for fine arts, which is treated in many 
 places as quite outside the ordinary curriculum, the great bulk of the 
 men had obtained in college at least a slight acquaintance with all the 
 principal fields of knowledge. There were, of course, exceptions, and 
 very bad ones. Three men. for example, devoted their time almost 
 exclusively to natural science, or engineering, taking a little mathe- 
 matics, just enough modem languages to read scientific books in a 
 foreign tongue, and nothing else. These men failed to appreciate the 
 object of a college education. But perhaps their error can hardly be 
 ascribed to the elective system, for had they not been free to conse- 
 crate their time to science they would probably not have gone to col- 
 lege, but to a scientific school. Except for a few such cases of erratic 
 over-specialization, the result cannot be said to justify the fear that 
 under a system of free election students will concentrate their attention 
 on one narrow field to the exclusion of other subjects with which all 
 educated men ought to have some familiarity. In regard to the op- 
 posite peril, that of a general smattering of many things with a real 
 command of none, the figures are interesting. Over ninety-four per 
 cent, of the class took five or more of the seventeen courses required 
 for a degree in some one of the eight groups already described; eighty 
 per cent, took six or more courses in one of them; fifty-six percent, 
 took eight (that is about one-half) or more in one group ; thirteen and 
 one-half per cent, took eleven (that is about two-thirds) or more in one 
 group, and, in fact, the tendency to concentrate a large part of one's 
 choices in a single field seems on the whole to be growing.^ With 
 such an array of figures there might seem to be no danger of a lack of 
 that concentration which insures a thorough knowledge of one subject. 
 But this is not always true. Suppose, for example, a student were to 
 choose the introductory courses in French, German, Italian, Spanish 
 and Russian, he would have taken five electives in modern languages, 
 and would not have more than a rudimentary idea of any foreign 
 tongue. A choice like that would be absurdly improbable; and yet 
 the only criticism of the elective system commonly heard among the 
 instructors at Harvard is that too many men fail to take enough 
 advanced work to acquire a mastery of one subject. One of the chief 
 advantages, indeed, of the system is that it affords a chance to go far, 
 even to the point of taking courses intended primarily for graduates ; 
 that it enables the student to make an offing on the sea of knowledge, 
 and learn to sail in deep water. I do not say that this cannot be done 
 under other systems, but I suspect that it cannot be done so well. 
 The men who do it with a part of their electives, while scattering the 
 rest broadly, get the best kind of training; but there are a considerable 
 
 iReport of Pres. Eliot, 1884-85, pp. 21-24. 
 
 (505) 
 
196 
 
 minority who do not do it, and never get much beyond work of a some- 
 what elementary nature.' This difficulty can be overcome if not by 
 suggestion and encouragement on the part of the faculty, then by 
 requiring a certain amount of advanced work in some department. 
 But after all the number of elementary courses in any one field is 
 small, and the figures already given upon the concentration of choice 
 show that the prophesies of general smattering have not been fulfilled. 
 
 It would appear that the students as a rule concentrate a part of 
 their electives upon one field, and scatter the rest broadly. No 
 doubt the proportion of time allotted to the principal subject and the 
 accessories, to the major and the minors, is by no means always wise. 
 But probably no two professional educators would agree exactly upon 
 what that proportion ought to be. In Oxford and Cambridge the 
 honor degree is conferred after an examination in a single field or 
 group of subjects. In this country we are generally in favor of a much 
 wider basis for our colleges. At Harvard the Faculty has recently set 
 up a standard, by deciding to grant a degree with distinction to stu- 
 dents who attain a certain grade of excellence in work in one subject, 
 or in closely related subjects, amounting to about one-half of all their 
 studies ; and this may serve as a type for the proper extent of concen- 
 tration. After all education is not limited to the class room. A stu- 
 dent ought to cultivate himself in other lines, both in college and 
 throughout his life, and for the man who does not do so college has 
 been little short of a failure. 
 
 If the fears that were aroused by the elective system have been 
 only in small part justified, the hopes that were cherished have also 
 proved in some measure delusive. It was assumed that each student 
 would follow his natural bent, and it was believed that in so doing 
 he would choose the subjects that he most needed for his own future 
 career and his own intellectual growth. It was thought, also, that 
 the very process of reflecting upon the problem of his own education 
 would be of great value to him. Now, apart from the question how 
 far a student's inclinations are his own best guide, apart from the 
 eternal question of education as a pleasure and a discipline, of the 
 relative importance of developing the strong and fortifying the weak 
 mental qualities, apart from these things which bear upon the wisdom 
 of a student's following his own bent, a large proportion of the stu- 
 dents have no very definite bent; no clear idea of the object of college 
 studies, or the means of attaining that object ; and many of them have 
 not decided upon their future career. Few of them have in their 
 minds any general plan of education, and fewer still, perhaps, devote 
 any systematic thought to an effort to work out such a plan, although 
 in their defense it may be observed that the same criticism often 
 applies to the discussions of professional educators. 
 
 iCf. Report of Dean Briggs, 1899-1900, p. 117. "The Elective Svstem at Harvard," Harv. 
 Grad. Mag., June, 1903, pp. 533-34. 
 
 (506) 
 
197 
 
 The motives of the students for the selection of their courses are 
 manifold, and doubtless not always either simple or completely con- 
 scious. In 1903 a committee of the Faculty at Harvard sent to 
 students series of questions relating to the courses they had taken 
 •during the previous year. The students were selected so as to represent 
 every grade of achievement in each course in the college, and more 
 than seventeen hundred answers were received. One of the questions 
 asked was the reason for electing that particular course, and although 
 undergraduates are not more competent than other men to analyze 
 aright the motives of their conduct, still the answers show what they 
 believe their motives to have been, and the nature of the considera- 
 tions they take consciously into account. 
 
 One of the motives most commonly given was a liking for the sub- 
 ject. This may mean anything from a strong interest to the passing 
 fancy of a man who is obliged to choose among subjects for none of 
 which he really cares, and hence it is too vague to form the basis for 
 any conclusions. 
 
 Another motive that appears is a liking for the instructor, and this 
 is wholly good. The liberty to select one's teacher is, in fact, among 
 the chief advantages of the elective system, although it is not fullv 
 appreciated at the time by most undergraduates. In after life a man 
 often looks back upon some teacher as a landmark in his education. 
 An instructor suited to one pupil may not be suited to another; but 
 the student with the discrimination or good fortune to come in contact 
 with a man who stirs his enthusiasm for intellectual effort obtains a 
 lasting benefit that far outweighs any intrinsic value in the subject he 
 is taught. 
 
 Another motive assigned for the choice of subjects was their educa- 
 tional value, or the fact that they are an essential part of the equip- 
 ment of a citizen, and one is naturally curious to see what subjects are 
 viewed in that light. In their report the committee say, " It is notice- 
 able that the students regard English and other modern languages, 
 philosophy, history, geology and some other studies, as culture sub- 
 jects in a higher sense than mathematics, the classics and most of the 
 sciences."^ Now it may be observed that these subjects which 
 appear to be considered by the students as especially valuable for 
 culture are on the whole the ones most largely chosen. The whole 
 number of choices made by all the students last year (counting a half 
 course as a half choice) was 13,463, and of these 3,136 were history, 
 government and economics, 2,047 and one-half in modern languages, 
 and 1,603 in English,^ while seven hundred and sixty-four and one- 
 half were in classics and four hundred and fifty-four in mathematics. 
 It may be observed also that the subjects most largely chosen are 
 
 iReport of the Committee on Improving Instruction in Harvard College, p. 9. 
 2This includes the required course in English, but the number of elective courses in English 
 was, by chance, reduced that year below the normal. 
 
 (507) 
 
198 
 
 those which a number of recent graduates, in response to a circular of 
 the seminary of pedagogy, most commonly said they would like to see 
 required. One cannot fail to regret the comparative neglect of the 
 classics and of mathematics, the very subjects formerly regarded as the 
 very basis of culture, and as the essentials in any liberal education 
 But it has been the result of a slow process, and in the case of the class 
 ics, at least, it is not due to any sudden revulsion against the old 
 curriculum. In the year 1872-73, when the elective system was still 
 in its infancy, elective courses in Latin and Greek were among the 
 most numerously attended. One course in Greek contained two- 
 fifths, and one in Latin three-fifths of the class, while five other classical 
 courses contained one-fifth of the class apiece. Ten years later only 
 one course in Greek and one in Latin contained a fifth of the class. In 
 1892-93 Greek disappears even from this category, and in 1902-03, 
 although the number of largely attended courses had increased very 
 much, a single Latin elective represents the classics among the courses 
 that attracted one-fifth of the class. 
 
 A counterpart to the motive of culture is that of professional 
 utility, which bulks large in the mind of the undergraduate. Strictly 
 professional subjects are not supposed to find a place among college 
 studies. But there is one important exception which is brought into 
 strong relief by a survey of the choices made. Among the members of 
 the class of 1905 there were forty-nine men who specialized to excess — 
 for I suppose we should all agree that taking eleven or more courses 
 out of seventeen is specializing to excess. Now mark how these 
 forty-nine were distributed. One was in mathematics, three each in 
 fine arts and modern languages, seven in ancient languages, fourteen 
 in history and political science, and twenty-one in natural science. 
 Of those who devoted themselves to history several, no doubt, pro- 
 posed to practice law, for this often happens. Probably by far the 
 greater part of the other specializers were studying their professions. 
 Most of those in natural science were engrossed bv engineering courses, 
 and might more appropriately have been registered in the scientific 
 school. The three men in fine arts may well have been preparing for 
 architecture. It is safe to assume that almost all the rest intended to 
 be teachers in colleges or schools. In short, among men doing what 
 is properly college work over-specialization is largely confined to those 
 who propose to teach. It is the future educators, the men of our own 
 profession, who are especially guilty of that sin. To them the college 
 is a professional school, and too often is not first of all a place to get a 
 liberal education. 
 
 For the rest of the men the college courses furnish as a rule no 
 specific professional training, but a large proportion of students choose 
 their electives with a view to preparation for their future careers. In 
 this they would appear to be neither more or less intelligent than other 
 
 (508) 
 
199 
 
 people who talk about the matter. They seem to think chiefly of the 
 acquisition of facts, and are continually asking whether the knowledge 
 of such and such a subject is not valuable in a certain profession. 
 Now, knowledge vanishes away, but mental training, habits of thought 
 and methods of looking at the problems of nature and man endure. 
 Fortunately, students are usually unable to gratify a desire to acquire 
 facts that will be useful to them in their subsequent career, and, 
 indeed, have somewhat distorted notions about the class of facts that 
 will be valuable to them. They are continually asking whether the 
 knowledge of American history is not very useful to a lawyer. From 
 the point of view of business success it is probably not as useful as a 
 familiarity with literature, or with mechanics; but the training it 
 gives is of inestimable value to a lawyer, whether he remembers the 
 chronological order of the presidents of the United States or not, not 
 because the methods of thought in history and law are the same. On 
 the contrary, they are very different. The process of reasoning in law 
 is perhaps more purely deductive, than in any other form of mental 
 work in which a large number of men are habitually engaged at the 
 present day; w-hereas history stands very nearly at the opposite pole 
 of thought. It is, indeed, partly because the methods of thought are 
 so different that history is not a bad thing for a lawyer to study. A 
 man who has specialized in college in one line, and in his professional 
 school in a very different one, has not a bad foundation for an educa- 
 tion, whatever else he may or may not have done. Moreover, the 
 training that a student in history gets in weighing evidence, in the use 
 of sources, and generally in the method of historical research, is of 
 great value to a lawyer, or, for that matter, to a man who pursues any 
 other career. The training that a lawyer would get in the study of 
 literature or natural science would be valuable also, and I shall return 
 to this point in a moment. In general, however, I believe that the 
 students take their future career too much into consideration, and that 
 it is a mistake to look upon college as a preparation for earning bread. 
 In discussing education the whole world today seems a little prone to 
 forget that a man has a soul as well as a pocket, and that the two are 
 not necessarily filled by the same process. No doubt a college edu- 
 cation does, by broadening a man's capacities, make him in the long 
 run far more effective as a bread winner, but it is chiefly because he 
 has a soul that the existence of colleges as distinguished from profes- 
 sional schools is justified. 
 
 We are said to live in a material age, where the ruling passion is the 
 love of money; but this is hardly fair to ourselves. Every age has the 
 defects of its qualities. In mediaeval times the ideal of Hfe was trans- 
 cendentally high, but it was not thought necessary that the great 
 mass of men should attempt to conform to it. There was a gulf 
 between theory and practice, which no one but the saint bridged. 
 
 (509) 
 
200 
 
 There was a sharp contrast between the ecstasy of the beatific vision 
 and the barbarism of the world. Today men demand the carrying out of 
 professions. They demand that people shall live up to their ideals, 
 with the result that the actual life is far more humane, and perhaps 
 the ideal is not so high. We live not so much in a material, as in a 
 practical age, where the thing which we demand, and the test which 
 we apply is efficiency; and in the case of efficiency, as in other things, 
 money comes to be regarded as a measure of value, and therefore as a 
 test of success and the aim of ambition. Now, just as the monasteries, 
 and the universities that grew out of them, held up a light in a dark 
 world, so it is one of the most important functions of our colleges to 
 hold up an ideal in a practical world. Not that there is anything 
 wrong or improper in the consideration of future utility in a college 
 curriculum, but it is a misfortune that it should to the extent that is 
 now true crowd out considerations of a higher nature. 
 
 There is another common motive for choice which is not recognized 
 by the students themselves, for only two out of the seventeen hundred 
 spoke of it: it is that of fashion. Since the elective system was intro- 
 duced the large courses have not only grown very much in actual 
 numbers, but they have even increased in proportion to the number 
 of undergraduates. In the year 1872-73, there were nineteen elective 
 courses which contained one-fifth or more of the class. As the system 
 progressed, and the number of electives offered was increa.sed, one 
 would naturally expect to find a smaller proportion of the men in each 
 course, and hence a smaller number of courses that contained large 
 fractions of the class. This was at first true. In 1882-83, there were 
 only fifteen courses that contained one-fifth or more of the class ; but 
 then a change began. In 1892-93, the number of courses containing 
 one-fifth of the class had increased to twenty-five, and one of them was 
 taken by four-fifths of the students. In 1901-02, the number of 
 courses that contained one-fifth or more of the class had increased to 
 twenty-seven and a half, of which two were taken by four-fifths of all 
 the students. 
 
 Now, when a flock of sheep turns and runs in a mass across a field 
 it mav be that one motive acting independently upon a number of 
 rational minds produces simultaneously in them all the same convic- 
 tion, but that is not the usual explanation. The truth is that the 
 elective system, like the doctrine of laissez faire, and like the whole 
 political philosophy of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, as- 
 sumed that a man was strictly a rational being, whereas in fact he is 
 mainlv an imitative animal. His actions are onlv partially deliberate, 
 and are in the main governed by habits, traditions and suggestions 
 over which he has, in fact, little control. 
 
 This brings me to another question, and that is whether any great 
 wisdom is required to make a useful choice of electives. It is easy 
 
 (510) 
 
201 
 
 enough to teach a dog to pick out the ace of spades from a number of 
 cards laid face down on the floor, if everyone of them is an ace of 
 spades. Now a proper distribution of a man's studies, his attitude 
 of mind toward them, and the methods in which he studies them, are 
 of the utmost importance ; but what the particular subjects are is a 
 matter of far less consequence, whether we regard his own mental 
 development or his preparation for a subsequent career. This may 
 not be equally true of all professions, but it is certainly true of most of 
 them. In my own class in the Law School there were men who had 
 distinguished themselves in classics, philosophy, history and mathe- 
 matics. These men all had a great initial advantage over those who 
 had had no severe mental training of any kind, but they showed no 
 marked advantage in preparation over each other. With the increas- 
 ing range of human knowledge we may today define a liberal education 
 as knowing a little of everything, and something well, and it makes no 
 great difference what that something is. 
 
 We have been dealing with the results of the elective sys- 
 tem so far as the actual choice of studies is concerned, but the 
 moral aspects of the system are certainly of not less consequence. 
 The moral effect on the instructor has been, as far as I can see, entirely 
 beneficial. It has made him feel that he is to his pupils more of a 
 guide, philosopher and friend, and less of a task-master. The fact 
 that he can say to a slothful or reluctant pupil, "If you do not like 
 this course, you need not take it. You can find something you do 
 care for," puts him in the right relation towards his students, for he 
 assumes that they are interested in the subject. Moreover, the system 
 makes it possible for him to give highly advanced courses to the few 
 pupils who are prepared to follow him. No doubt this is true, in any 
 case, of a graduate school, but the elective system gives to the instruc- 
 tor in the college much the same position that he has in a graduate 
 school. 
 
 The moral effect upon the students has certainlv been less wide- 
 spread than was hoped, although it is hard to tell with precision how 
 many students have been stimulated by it. In response to the circular 
 of the Pedagogical Seminary a few vears ago, sixty-two per cent, of the 
 recent graduates who answered, said that the elective system had 
 promoted strenuous work; six per cent, said it had undermined it; 
 seventeen per cent, that it had done neither; while fifteen per cent, 
 were doubtful. But, in considering evidence of that kind, two things 
 must be remembered: first, that only a very small part of the men 
 to whom the circular was sent answered at all, and presumably that 
 part consisted in large measure of those who held decided opinions ; and 
 in the second place ^ these men were comparing a system they had 
 known with another at which they could only guess. One of the 
 arguments formerlv adduced in favor of free elective courses was that 
 
 (511) 
 
202 
 
 young men who were incorrigibly indolent in college suddenly experi- 
 enced a change of heart, and worked furiously when they entered a 
 professional school. It was hoped that they would do the same in 
 college if they could choose their own studies, but this type of man 
 has not disappeared. He is still with us, and unfortunately far too 
 common. He keeps above the minimum line required for his college 
 degree, but he does not find in the elective pamphlet anything of 
 really absorbing interest, nor does the privilege of selecting his own 
 line of work fire his imagination. Owing to the habit that I have 
 already deplored of estimating college studies too exclusively by the 
 value of the facts imparted, and by their visible bearing upon a future 
 career, he does not appreciate the true meaning of college, or its value 
 to himself. Too often it seems to him an interlude, a sort of holiday, 
 and not an integral fragment of his life that moulds his character and 
 shapes his intellect. 
 
 A survey of the results of the elective system after nearly a genera- 
 tion of experience, would, therefore, seem to show that it has not led 
 us to perfection and certainly not to disaster. In some form it was 
 inevitable; but it has wrought no vast change for good or evil in the 
 human nature of undergraduates. It has done good, and it has defects, 
 but although some of those who have had experience of it may desire 
 to modify its working in details, probably no one at Harvard would 
 now think it possible or desirable to return to an earlier state of things. 
 Much of what I have said in the form of criticism is, I presume, equally 
 true of every form of college curriculum, and is not the product of any 
 one system. Are we not, in fact, mistaken in expecting great moral 
 results to flow from merely imposing or removing restrictions ? What- 
 ever may have been true in earlier days, have we not reached a time 
 when we cannot rely for the moral and intellectual tone of the under- 
 graduate either upon rigid discipline or upon his own impulses ? Is it 
 not true that throughout the length and breadth of our land the ordi- 
 nar}' college man is less deeply in earnest in his work than the student 
 in a professional school? Is it not true, also, that in our colleges 
 athletics appeal far more forcibly to the imagination of the student 
 than scholarship; and that the successful athlete is incomparably 
 more of a hero than the scholar? Is not this so true that we assume it 
 must be so in the nature of things? And, yet, is there any intrinsic 
 reason why men should take more pleasure or pride in the exercise of 
 their muscles than in that of their brains, or should hold physical 
 triumphs in so much greater honor than intellectual ones? 
 
 I would not depreciate the use of athletics, or the value of the 
 enthusiasm they create. They are a healthful spring of energy and 
 should not be discouraged, but have we not suffered them to monopo- 
 lize the interest of students too much? Have we not allowed the 
 publicity of the newspapers, and of the crowds cheering on the bleach- 
 
 (512) 
 
203 
 
 ers to distort in the minds of students the proportion of things ? And 
 have we not been ourselves misled by our discussions about the cur- 
 riculum, to allow too much the moral and intellectual welfare of our 
 students to take care of itself? Ought we not to make greater use of 
 the fact that man is an imitative animal, a creature of fashion, and 
 create a higher intellectual tone by getting hold of the natural leaders, 
 and starting them to set the pace aright? The cowboy knows that 
 although he must urge on the lame and lazy steers, it is an unkind and 
 thankless task, and that the real progress of his herd depends upon 
 starting the leaders betimes where he would have them go, well know- 
 ing that the whole herd will follow. Is not a part of our problem to be 
 solved in the same way, not by formal systems, but by imparting to 
 the stronger man in each class a truer conception of the real meaning 
 and privilege of college life, and thereby make the ordinary student 
 attach greater esteem and honor to scholarship and intellecutal power? 
 But this raises a large question quite distinct from the subject of this 
 address. I wanted merely to point out that just as neither laissez 
 faire over commercial regulation has changed the nature of man, so no 
 system of arranging college work can revolutionize the character of 
 students; that for moral effects we must relv mainly on moral agencies. 
 
 (513) 
 
204 
 
 THE HISTORICAL MEETING 
 The Chapel, 4:00 p.m. 
 
 PROGRAM 
 The President of the University Presiding 
 
 General Theme: The Recognition of Those Who Have Rendered 
 
 Distinguished Services to the University. 
 Music: University Anthem; University of IlHnois Men's Glee Club. 
 Introductory Address: The President of the University. 
 Addresses on "The Builders of the University:" Professor Arthur N. 
 
 Talbot, Class of 1881 ; Honorable Henry M. Beardsley, Class of 187 9. 
 Music: Illinois. 
 Responses : — 
 
 For the Board of University Trustees, Honorable Emory Cobb; 
 
 For the Early Resident Trustees, Honorable Joseph O. Cunning- 
 ham; 
 
 For the Senior Members of the Faculty, Professors Samuel W. 
 Shattuck, N. Clifford Ricker, and Thomas J. Burrill; 
 Closing Remarks: The President of the University. 
 Music: Auld Lang Syne. 
 Benediction: The Reverend Professor Charles M. Moss. 
 
 THE OLD-TIME FACULTY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 
 Arthur N. Talbot, C.E., Class of 1881 
 Professor in the University of Illinois 
 
 It would be difficult for one who sees the Universitv of Illinois 
 today for the first time, with its spacious buildings, its extensive 
 equipment, its long list of students, and its numerous and varied 
 interests and activities, to conceive of the institution as it existed 
 twenty-five and thirty years ago. With one principal building, barely 
 four hundred students, less than a score in the instructional force, and 
 limited and inadequate financial support, the contrast with present 
 conditions is striking. And yet there was a personality, a purpose, a 
 promise, a character that attracted attention and commanded respect, 
 and there were elements of virility and strength, of individuality and 
 freshness that made for the development of manhood and character 
 in its students. The newness of its plans, the very freshness of its 
 methods appealed to the student body. The freedom permitted in 
 the choice of studies was even greater than that allowed at the present 
 day. The variety of courses of study offered and the extent and 
 variety of the equipment of the school seemed quite wonderful to 
 
 (514) 
 
205 
 
 students of neighboring colleges. Although the scholarship require- 
 ments for admission were not high, it must be remembered that the 
 high schools of the State had not generally risen to their present grade 
 and that it was a public duty to fit the educational requirements to 
 the conditions of the time. A new type of education, a revolt from 
 the old-time cast-iron classical curriculum, the introduction of labora- 
 tory methods, the appearance of "useful" studies as well as of culture 
 subjects, the attempts to dignify labor and the starting of courses in 
 technology', the very name Illinois Industrial University (a name 
 which imfortunately was misunderstood and did not convey the high 
 pvirpose intended), — these gave an individuality to the institution. 
 If to these be added the enthusiasm for study and a reputation for 
 earnest steady work in the student body, a general feeling among the 
 Faculty that thoroughness and efficiency in instruction were essential, 
 and a deep feeling that provision for higher education by the State 
 entailed a duty upon the recipients to make good in citizenship and in 
 loyalty to the interests of the commonwealth, we may trace something 
 of the characteristics which apply to the institution of the present 
 day. 
 
 It was the reputation along some of these lines which attracted 
 many of the students. The feature of compulsory student labor had 
 early been discarded, but instruction in the shops was being developed, 
 the earhest of its sort in the United States. The laboratories were 
 prominent in the interests of the institution. The military organiza- 
 tion and the daily chapel convocation with its military arrangements 
 were noteworthy features. But beyond the buildings and equipment 
 and above the methods and plans, that which most impressed the 
 student and to him gave character to the University was the personal- 
 ity of the Faculty. To the student of a quarter of a century ago it 
 was the professors who constituted the University of Illinois. And 
 this opportunity is here given to express an appreciation of the ser- 
 vices of the men whom I knew in the early days. 
 
 It was nearly a decade after the opening of the Illinois Industrial 
 University when I entered the institution. Of course the most promi- 
 nent name was the first President, or Regent as the officer was then 
 termed, John Milton Gregory. The halls were full of tradition of his 
 oratory, of his wonderful ability, of the inspiration of his teachings 
 and the vigor and keenness of his intellect. It was not my good 
 fortime to have advanced far enough to enter his classes, but the 
 reports of his teaching were enthusiastically commendatory. His 
 strongest efforts lay in his chapel talks and public addresses. His 
 interpretation of current thought and of the trend of events in history, 
 sociology- , and government, his exposition of conduct and character 
 and his inspiration to high ideals in ambition and citizenship were 
 helpful, inspiring, and character-developing. In fact it may be said 
 
 (515) 
 
206 
 
 that one of the greatest accomplishments of his life was the stimulus, 
 the imprint, the impulse given to the graduates of that early day, and 
 this influence is yet apparent wherever those men may be found. 
 
 In educational lines he was a pioneer and a seer. Brought to the 
 head of a new institution to develop and put into effect new methods, 
 departures from the beaten path, his was both an opportunity and a 
 responsibility. The lines of industrial education were to be developed, 
 — in agriculture, in mechanic arts, in technology. Laboratories and 
 laboratory methods were to be employed. Without discarding what 
 was valuable in classical education, he outlined new courses and pro- 
 vided instruction which has since been accepted bv the most conserva- 
 tive colleges of the country. His papers and reports on the educational 
 plan and policy of the young university show an insight, a wisdom, and 
 a broad-minded and intelligent conception of the possibilities of 
 state universities, particularly along industrial, technical, and general 
 lines. Surely it was a master hand that guided the University in 
 the thirteen years from 1867 to 1880, and the imprint that he made 
 will be visible as long as the University of Illinois exists. 
 
 But large as should be the credit given to the head of the institu- 
 tion, there were others who rendered distinguished service to the 
 University throughout its developmental stage. The conditions of 
 its growth gave the Faculty of the institution peculiar opportunities 
 for impressing their personality upon the student body and for mould- 
 ing the form and fixing the trend of the school which was to be unlike 
 the college of the past. Not only did the smallness of the number of 
 students make conditions such that the students became acquainted 
 with each other through and through, so that there was no chance for 
 pretense or false distinctions, but the opportunity was had and given 
 for the student to come in contact with the professors and to learn 
 to know them. This acquaintance and association was highly esteemed 
 by the students, and its influence was an important element of their 
 education. 
 
 One of the earliest of the names on the roll of the Faculty and 
 one long in the service of the University is that of Edward 
 Snyder, professor of modern languages, for many years colonel in 
 charge of the military battalion, always known as the friend of the 
 student. Throughout his twenty-six years of service to the Univer- 
 sity, his characteristic was his absorbing interest in the welfare of the 
 student, and the pathway of many a student was smoothed and his 
 courage renewed by the kindly attention of Professor Snyder. He 
 was a friendly soul, and his helping hand and sympathetic heart were 
 of even more service than was his work in the class room. His un- 
 swerving interest in student life is attested by his act in leaving the 
 savings of a life time to the University for a student's aid fund to be 
 loaned to worthy students to enable them to finish their courses in 
 
 (516) 
 
207 
 
 the University. His death occurred in 1903. His memory will ever 
 be revered by all students of his time. 
 
 The student of the long ago always turns pleasantly to the name of 
 the Professor of Mathematics and Business Manager of the University, 
 Samuel Walker Shattuck. His friendly greeting, his gentlemanliness 
 and courtesy, the elegant carriage of his military bearing were lessons 
 in themselves. Those who had the privilege of knowing him more 
 closely, in the class room and in the home, gladly do honor to him as a 
 teacher and friend. In continuous service since September, 1868, 
 serving as head of the military department, as professor of civil engi- 
 neering, as professor of mathematics, as Vice-President of the Univer- 
 sity, and as Regent pro tempore, his duties have been varied and many, 
 but probably his greatest service has been in the management of the 
 business affairs of the University. His uprightness and probity, his 
 business sagacity and prudence, his loyal and firm control of affairs 
 have contributed largely to the confidence placed in the University 
 by the State. Changes in politics and political parties, in the govern- 
 ing Board of Trustees, and in the executive head of the University 
 have not changed this controlling hand of the exchequer. No taint 
 of wrong or charge of graft could ever be made against this office, and 
 it is undoubtedly true that the model condition of the books and 
 accounts of the business office from the beginning of its history, shown 
 in the investigation made in all state institutions when a new political 
 party took control of the State government in 1893, was a potent 
 influence in securing aid from the State administration for the larger 
 appropriations, and that when the University suffered from the de- 
 falcation of a treasurer the State Legislature had full confidence in the 
 internal administration of the Universit^-'s finances and increased the 
 appropriations. It is no small task to handle the business of the Uni- 
 versity of Illinois today, and thirty years ago the work, though smaller 
 in magnitude, was no less perplexing. The University owes Professor 
 Shattuck a debt of gratitude for the fidelity and sagacity with which 
 he has discharged this trust. 
 
 To us in other lines came reports of the inspiring teaching of a 
 man of science, who has since had a leading part in the affairs of the 
 University, Thomas Jonathan Burrill, professor of botany. The 
 enthusiasm he generated, the spirit of delight in scientific study, the 
 joyous pleasure in investigation, seemed contagious. He was perhaps 
 the earliest of the men of Illinois to become noted as an investigator 
 in science, and his early work in bacteriology was noteworthy. Who 
 shall measure the sacrifice which he made in giving up his research 
 work when it was white with the harvest for his hands alone and in 
 accepting the duty of the hour by taking up the work of the retiring 
 President ? He had filled the position of Vice-President, and he under- 
 took the duties and responsibilities of Acting-President and soon 
 
 (517) 
 
208 
 
 generated the same enthusiasm and dehght in the student body, the 
 same spirit of vigor and Hfe in university affairs, the same confidence 
 and hopefulness in the pubhc mind that had characterized the class 
 room. Led by his guiding hand and inspired by his genius, the 
 University bounded forward and started on its era of expansion. 
 The three years of his administration (1891-94) were fruitful years. 
 Growth in number of students and Faculty, increase in legislative 
 appropriations, a new era in building operations, healthful student 
 life, higher ideals of university work, the extension of the influence 
 and name of the school, characterized this period. The institution 
 was changing from a college to a university. The results of his ener- 
 getic and wise administration were apparent everywhere. When he 
 turned over his trust to the incoming president, all the conditions 
 were auspicious for the continued development and expansion which 
 time and wise and able administration have since brought about. The 
 University owes much to Dr. Burrill for his able and efficient work. 
 The alumni voiced their appreciation of his efficiency and loyalty and 
 all friends of the University recognized the great service he had ren- 
 dered. Later years have brought other valuable service, as Vice- 
 President, as Dean of the Graduate School, and in various other 
 capacities, until the measure of his accomplishment is overfull. 
 Longest in point of service, having served continuously since the spring 
 of 1868, full honor should be accorded to this beloved servant of Illi- 
 nois. 
 
 It has been said that Illinois has been fortunate in the devotion of 
 some of its alumni teachers. From the first class, the Class of '72, 
 Nathan Clifford Ricker, chosen instructor in architecture in 1873 
 after a period of study in Europe, and appointed professor of archi- 
 tecture in 1877, is a conspicuous example. Athough instructing 
 unaided for the first seventeen years, he built up the architectural de- 
 partment of the University and made it early recognized as one of the 
 principal schools of architecture in the country. In addition to this 
 he carried the duties of Dean of the College of Engineering from 1878 
 until he gave them up the past summer. Modest and unassuming, 
 industrious and painstaking, well informed and broad minded, he has 
 held the esteem and love of his students to a marked degree. To his 
 credit should be placed the introduction in 1873 of the Russian system 
 of shop practice into the curriculum of the University, the first use it 
 was given in a technical school in this country, though now almost 
 universal. His writings too are numerous and noteworthy. Several 
 bmldings on the campus are the proof of his handiwork, and his influ- 
 ence upon the architecture of the State and upon the standing of the 
 architectural profession has been beneficial. His ability and authority 
 in architectural matters are quite generally recognized. He has 
 worked diligently for the interests of the College of Engineering and 
 
 (518) 
 
209 
 
 the University, and the results of his labors are everywhere apparent. 
 In the history of the institution, the name of Professor Ricker must 
 ever have a prominent place. 
 
 No student of his time would fail to mention the services of Selim 
 H. Peabody. As a teacher of physical science his work was note- 
 worthy. It was however as President for eleven years, from 1880 to 
 1891, that he claims distinction. Placed at the head of affairs when 
 the University was in financial straits and when public opinion and 
 legislative views were not favorable to public aid for higher education, 
 he secured at the first session of the Legislature the first state appropri- 
 ation for operating expenses, an item which has been included in every 
 appropriation since, and which has grown to large proportions, saw the 
 income of the University constantly increase and new buildings 
 erected, and aided in changing the name from Illinois Industrial 
 University to the University of Illinois, and in starting the Agricul- 
 tural Experiment Station. During this period the University was 
 put on a better footing in educational standards, in business and 
 administrative methods, and in its relations with the school system 
 of the State, and the University passed through the second stage of its 
 development. The part taken by Dr. Peabody through this period 
 of educational and industrial depression should be recognized as dififi- 
 cult and trying. Dr. Peabody was a man of high character, scholarly 
 attainments, and unusual versatility, a prodigious worker, an efficient 
 administrator, and an educator of recognized standing. His name 
 must stand as one of the strong men of our University history. 
 
 Time will not permit a record of the work of others whose services 
 deserve recognition, — of George E. Morrow, that pioneer of agricul- 
 tural education; of Stillman W. Robinson, whose footprints are still 
 everywhere visible in mechanical engineering; of Joseph C. Pickard, 
 beloved teacher of English literature; of Don Carlos Taft, instructor 
 in geology and morals; of Miss Lou C. Allen, now Mrs. J. M. Gregory, 
 first teacher of hou.sehold science, and whom the women of Illinois 
 might well select as their patron saint; of Ira O. Baker, then 
 yotmg instructor in civil engineering, whose rare instructional methods 
 and educational ideas are now known and have made the University 
 of Illinois known wherever engineering science is taught, — the work of 
 these and others deserves much fuller recognition than can be given 
 here. 
 
 I have mentioned some of those I knew in my student days, 
 though I have done scant justice to their deeds. They may not have 
 built great bridges, or erected tall buildings, or managed great indus- 
 trial operations, or governed a state, but they have sent out pupils 
 who have done and are doing the world's great work for them, and 
 they may justly accept the work of these hands somewhat as their 
 accomplishments. Surely the results of their efforts are written on 
 
 (519) 
 
210 
 
 the heart and Hves and work of their students and on the form and 
 texture and life of this great University they helped to build. The 
 historian of the University of Illinois will record their accomplishments. 
 Today let us recognize their worth and do honor to these men who 
 have rendered such distinguished service to the University of Illinois. 
 
 ADDRESS 
 
 Honorable Henry M. Beardsley, Class of 1879 
 Attorney, Kansas City 
 
 This great University, with its history and its present equipment, 
 has not come by chance. It had its beginning in an epoch-making 
 time. It had then, and has had from that time until this, the thought 
 and service of men of unusual ability. 
 
 About the middle of the last century the movement began for the 
 bringing of higher education to those engaged in agriculture and the 
 mechanic industries. Looking back to those times, in the light of 
 what has come since, the men who were then the leaders stand forth 
 like prophets. Foremost among them was Professor Jonathan B. 
 Turner of Illinois College. For years he went back and forth across 
 this prairie State proclaiming everywhere the necessity of the new 
 teaching. At state fairs, at the meetings of educational bodies of 
 every character, and among men in business life, wherever he could 
 get a hearing, he was there to proclaim his cause. As the years went 
 by, the circle of those who understood grew larger and larger, until at 
 last Congress passed the act which made possible these great state 
 universities, granting an endowment out of the public domain for 
 them. Quickly following, the Legislature of this State passed the 
 necessary legislation, giving life to this University. 
 
 On that day in March, 1868, when its doors were opened, there 
 was present, taking part in the exercises of the day, Dr. Newton 
 Bateman, then Superintendent of Public Instruction of the State, a 
 man thoroughly in sympathy with the new movement. To Dr. 
 Bateman, standing there, looking back into the past and reviewing the 
 work that had been done, looking out into the future and giving voice 
 to the hope that was cherished by all, Professor Turner seemed a great 
 leader in the movement, and he so proclaimed him. It was not a 
 narrow idea which had been his, — not simply the bringing to the 
 farmer and the mechanic opportunity for education in his calling, for 
 this would not, in his mind, of necessity have elevated the man. It 
 was his idea that the university so founded should be broad and 
 liberal in its teachings, recognizing the needs of all the manhood and 
 womanhood of the State, bringing education and culture into every 
 walk of life. 
 
 (520) ' 
 
211 
 
 The years passed by, and we were met in the drill-hall yonder to 
 celebrate the twenty-fifth anniversary of the founding of this institu- 
 tion. There were .gathered here a great concourse of people. 
 Professor Turner had grown old and blind. The paper that he had 
 prepared for the occasion was to be read by his daughter, then a 
 member of the Board of Trustees of the University. But, first, he 
 himself was asked to stand, that he might be introduced to that proud 
 audience. Near him at the time sat Dr. Gregory, the first President 
 of this institution. His own thought of the past and the great present 
 so over-mastered him that he arose in his place — those of you who 
 were here will remember it well — and looking out over the audience 
 exclaimed, "Look at him! Look at him! You will not see his like 
 again." 
 
 One of the first acts of the Board of Trustees called together at 
 Springfield, Illinois, in the early part of the year 1867, was the selection 
 of a President, then named Regent, of the University. It required 
 but a short time to select the man, and Dr. John M. Gregory was 
 chosen. He had been educated as a lawyer, ordained as a minister; 
 he had been a public educator, Superintendent of Public Instruction 
 of the great state of Michigan, and president of one of its colleges. 
 He was thoroughly in sympathy with the new idea. One of the first 
 productions of his pen any curious student may find in the first annual 
 report of the University, that of 1868. It was the report of the com- 
 mittee of which he was chairman, named to outline a course of study. 
 Step bv step a plan for the future was laid down, a plan which through 
 the years since has been followed, only amplified and completed. 
 And at the last, this report upon the college curriculum ended with an 
 out-pouring of eloquent words like the closing words of some great 
 oration. The writer could see through the years to come added 
 dignitv to agricultural and mechanical industry. To him there was 
 being lighted a new light which should shine into the homes of all the 
 people. And standing here today we must declare his words truly 
 prophetic of the present and of our hope for the future. The work of 
 the world must be carried on. It is not the province of education to 
 lead men away from that work which lies at the very foundation of all 
 progress. It must be increasingly true that men must find in this 
 labor dignity and joy. It must be true, as declared by the great 
 professor of constitutional law of the University of Switzerland, that 
 in this life men ought to expect no higher happiness than that which 
 comes from work well done. 
 
 And so he came, the first President, one of the great men of his day. 
 How he moved among us, we of the older day know full well. We 
 may forget the lessons of the class room, the facts of science which 
 were taught us, the rules and theorems of higher mathematics, the 
 intricacies of logic and philosophy; but the higher ideals in fife, the 
 
 (521) 
 
212 
 
 value of character in every enterprise, the elements which enter into 
 and serve to make the highest type of manhood, — these things which 
 were taught by him can never be forgotten. The University may 
 multiply the number of its students, may increase the number and 
 magnificence of its buildings, and as well all its material equipment, 
 may broaden its curriculum and increase the facilities of education — 
 and of these things we shall always be proud — but unless at the basis 
 of things, through all the years, there shall lie the great principles of 
 his teaching, the University will not accomplish fully the work it is 
 set to accomplish. The need of the state is for the light which educa- 
 tion brings into every walk and avenue of life. But most of all and 
 always, she needs men and women; for the type of her social life and 
 character, of her social existence, and even of her commercial and 
 industrial life, depends upon the underlying character of her men and 
 women, their views, beliefs and ideals. 
 
 He was one of those great men, calmly confident of a high and 
 noble mission. He spoke as he did, like the prophets of old, because 
 the truth demanded of him expression. I remember well toward the 
 close of his life, sitting one summer afternoon talking with him. 
 Those who were acquainted with him and heard him often know that 
 there were few men of his time his equal as a platform speaker. Refer- 
 ring to the fact that there was great demand for public lecturers, he said 
 that he had often been asked by those in charge of lecture courses for 
 permission to place him in lyceum series for addresses in different 
 parts of the country, but he said, "Thinking of the hundreds of boys 
 and girls who had passed through the University when I was with 
 them, and of the ideals I had tried to lift up before them, I could not 
 consent that they should think of me as using what ability I had in 
 this direction merely for pay." So through all the years of his life 
 until the last, his intellect and his voice were at the service of those 
 whom he felt he could best serve. 
 
 At the beginning he laid down the lines along which the life of the 
 University ought to develop. His thought was far-reaching, his 
 ideas were broad and progressive. They were to include here teaching 
 in mechanic and industrial arts, teaching in literature and in the higher 
 and fine arts. The whole field, and every part of it, was to be within 
 the reach of those who came here as students. He was misunderstood 
 at the first; he was opposed, and bitterly opposed, but with firm faith 
 and great courage he held to his own ideals, and the triumph of the 
 University is in large part the triumph of his work. 
 
 He was to us of those days, not alone the teacher, but the seer and 
 prophet. Through his teachings we saw the things of life in their 
 right relationship to each other. What was left, after his soul had 
 taken its departure from the body, was placed yonder by the main 
 building beneath a simple mound. As Tom Brown sat there at Rugby 
 
 (522) 
 
213 
 
 that summer afternoon, with the Ught steahng through the painted 
 windows, casting its color against the wall, himself leaning over the 
 marble slab where they had buried the great teacher, Arnold, his heart 
 overflowing, so we come and stand by Dr. Gregory's grave. 
 
 The davs of the laying of the foundations passed. Dr. Peabody 
 organized and established the work begun. The State grew in wealth 
 and power. Her commerce and her industries multiplied. She 
 needed a great university. There came, in the fullness of time, a 
 man fitted for this task. Andrew S. Draper was not only a trained 
 educator; he understood public afifairs. He knew how to appeal to 
 the legislators and to the pride and ambition of the citizenship of the 
 State. No labor was for him too great ; no part of his task so difficult, 
 but that by skill and patience and with argument and appeal, he would 
 win his way. Funds necessary for greater things were granted. The 
 student body grew; the Faculty and teaching force multipHed, and 
 within a few short vears the University of Illinois had come to be one 
 of the chief educational institutions of our nation. Turn away for a 
 moment, if we can, from all these things that are about us today, and 
 think of the conditions here a dozen years ago. Only so can we com- 
 prehend the changes which have taken place. The present is so fixed 
 and certain, we easily forget how it was won. 
 
 To those who were of the student body in those days of marvelous 
 growth, and many more of us who were not, Dr. Draper was more 
 than the college president. His sympathies were broad, and he took 
 interest in individual men. He came out from the university life from 
 time to time into the meetings of alumni, bringing with him the 
 enthusiasm and hope of the larger university life. He let us into the 
 secrets of the larger things to come, — already planned for ; and with all 
 he won our hearts. We too knew when his affliction came — knew of 
 the unflinching courgae with which he met it, and felt him to be not only 
 a wise president, a sincere friend, but as well, one of God's brave men. 
 
 The work which Dr. Gregory began and Dr. Draper carried on so 
 well, has fallen now into other hands. We cannot doubt that there 
 shall come here, without loss of moral fibre or firm administrative 
 grip, that riper and richer scholarship which to the coming years is 
 possible. These men who have wrought at the head of affairs have 
 not worked alone. The University of lUinois could not have come to 
 be what she is without these others. There are two or three here who 
 have had a chief part in this work from the beginning. 
 
 There is one in whose person the memories of the University life 
 more center than in any other. He used to teach of trees and flowers 
 and bugs. We always felt his heart was close to nature's heart — 
 yes, and close as well to the great beating heart of student life. It 
 wovdd not be at all Hke coming back to Alma Mater if Dr. Burrill were 
 not here. One can scarcely believe the years have come and gone as 
 
 (523) 
 
214 
 
 they have when one looks into his face and hears his greeting. He 
 came out among us of the old boys and girls of the South West 
 last year. His coming was like the coming of the south winds in the 
 spring-time. Instead of the odors of grasses and flowers, he brought 
 memories of the old days so mingled with the new that we felt our- 
 selves not greyheaded men and women, but boys and girls again. He 
 had us shouting college yells we had never known before. He was the 
 same Professor Burrill as of old; only more so. He had known only a 
 few boys and girls in our time — the old days — he had known thousands 
 since. He was fresher and kindlier for it all. 
 
 We knew, too, of the things he had done. Of his discoveries in 
 his own profession of which the scientific world knew. We knew, too, 
 that through all the years of the life of the University, it was he who 
 stepped forward to take command when the chief commander's place 
 was vacant; filled the place with dignity and grace, and then stepped 
 back into his old place as the new commander came. May he be 
 spared for many years to come, linking the old with the new, beloved 
 of the alumni from 1872 down into the years of the century just begun. 
 
 I saw today another, familiar to all who have been here, even from 
 the beginning. His hair is whiter than of old, but his form is still 
 erect, and he moves among the college men and women commanding 
 respect by the complete, exact fulfillment at all time of his duty. In 
 the class room and in all public places he has insisted upon courteous 
 and kindly conduct, and has himself always exemplified it. Profes- 
 sor Shattuck has been, as well, a balance wheel in the conduct of the 
 business affairs of the University. In these times when we are priv- 
 ileged to speak of those to whom the University owes much, we must 
 place him among the foremost. 
 
 There is another who stands between us of the alumni and those 
 others who have been governors and teachers. He is himself of us, 
 among the earliest of the student body, first to step from that rank 
 into the ranks of the teachers. Master of his own calling, he has 
 always read widely in other fields. It has been gratifying to the 
 student, in whatever college or department he mav be carrying 
 forward his study, to find in him companionship and a fund of infor- 
 mation. He knew where further light could be had; knew always 
 some advantage in understanding to be gained by side lights found in 
 some other field of learning. In the college over which he has for 
 years presided as dean. Professor Ricker has the respect of his col- 
 leagues. He has had the affectionate regard and admiration of the 
 University students from year to year. We of the alumni dehght to 
 find him still here. He has laid many stones in the structures being 
 here erected. He is now and shall be as long as he remains at his post, 
 accounted among the chief of those who have guided and controlled, 
 pushed forward and strengthened the University of Illinois. 
 
 (524) 
 
215 
 
 But what a host there are whose names we could speak, and who 
 have had large part here. We would love, if time permitted, to pay 
 our tribute to those who from time to time have constituted our 
 Board of Trustees; giving out of the midst of the cares of busy lives 
 a generous part of themselves to a great work here being wrought out ! 
 Some of them like Bullard, Hatch and Armstrong bringing to the task 
 the added impetus of love for the institution which had nurtured 
 them, fine enthusiastic painstaking, far-seeing men and women all of 
 them, from that first Board who held up their hands and swore they 
 had not been and never would be guilty of duelling, down to those who 
 today guide affairs and of whom no such thing has been even sus- 
 pected. 
 
 And what shall we say of those who have been in chief power, 
 those who have held under their control the sinews of war, — the 
 executives and legislators of this State from the first until now ? There 
 have been battles fought for this University there in the legislative 
 halls well worth recounting. And these also, governors, senators and 
 representatives, shall have their place in our memory, and in our 
 praise. And now that we are here in our own house, may we not name 
 among the chief of them Henry Dunlap, of the State Senate, of Cham- 
 paign County, of the alumni, of Illinois — our Henry! 
 
 Again I see those who have labored here as tutor and professor. 
 Baker, Taft, Pickard, Snyder, Kinley, Forbes, Talbot, Parr and all 
 the long line growing stronger in numbers, and standing without loss 
 of zeal and devotion as the years have passed. These men have been 
 not only teachers, fulfilling the task paid for, they have been as well 
 university builders, and as such we give them our praise today. 
 
 And these are not all. That student body which has from year to 
 year gone out from this place to take part in the world's work — they 
 too have helped to create and to maintain a university sentiment. 
 They are the exponents of the power here developed. There is to 
 them no choicer task than to come here this day, and through their 
 representatives express the debt of gratitude they owe, and again 
 make pledge that their own lives shall, in so far as in them lies, bring 
 honor to the University to which they owe so much. 
 
 Dear Alma Mater, and all these earnest, noble souls, you are not, 
 cannot be forgotten. 
 
 "Still, o'er these scenes my memory wakes. 
 And fondly broods with miser care ; 
 Time but the impression deeper makes,- 
 As streams their channels deeper wear." 
 
 (525) 
 
216 
 
 ADDRESS 
 
 The Honorable Emory Cobb 
 Former Member of the Board of Trustees, Kankakee 
 
 During my summer outing in the Appalachian Range of the Alle- 
 ghany Mountains, in old Virginia, at an old colonial hotel, whose 
 register recorded the names of Washington, Jefferson and Monroe, 
 and where the Chicago Tribune is a daily visitor, I noticed that the 
 installation of President James was to take place in October. I 
 promised myself the pleasure, health permitting, of being in attendance, 
 not expecting, however, to take any part in the exercises. Upon the 
 urgent solicitation of members of the Faculty, requesting a short 
 paper as to the organization and early history of the University, and 
 more especially as to its finances, I reluctantly consented. 
 
 As to its organization, it was founded by an act of the Legislature 
 approved February 28th, 1867. which provided that the Governor 
 should appoint five trustees from each of the three grand judicial 
 districts of the State, one from each of the thirteen congres- 
 sional districts, and that the Governor, Superintendent of Public 
 Instruction, President of the State Board of Agriculture, and the 
 Regent elect, (who should be chairman of the Board), should be ex 
 officio members ; making a total membership of thirty-two who should 
 be a body corporate and have its management and control. It also 
 provided that it should be located at Urbana, upon conditions men- 
 tioned in the following offer made by Champaign County : 
 
 "The undersigned committee appointed by the Board of Super- 
 visors of Champaign County are instructed to make the following 
 offer to the State of Illinois in consideration of the permanent location 
 of the Illinois Industrial University at Urbana. We offer the Urbana 
 and Champaign Institute buildings and grounds containing about ten 
 acres ; also one hundred and sixty acres of land adjacent thereto ; also 
 four hundred acres of land being part of Section 21, Township 19, 
 Range 9, East; also four hundred and ten acres, part of Section 19, 
 Township 18, Range 9, East, within one mile of the buildings herein 
 offered ; also the donation offered by the Illinois Central Railway 
 company, of fift}^ thousand dollars worth of freight over said road for 
 the benefit of the University; also one hundred thousand dollars in 
 Champaign County bonds, due and payable in ten years and bearing 
 interest at the rate of ten per cent, per annum; and two thou- 
 sand dollars in fruit, shade and ornamental trees and shrubbery 
 to be selected from the nursery of M. L. Dunlap, and furnished at the 
 lowest catalog rates, making an estimated valuation of four hundred 
 and fifty thousand dollars." 
 
 The members met at Springfield upon the Governor's call on the 
 
 (526) 
 
217 
 
 twelfth of March to organize and take tip the work. In passing, it may 
 be well to call attention to the composition of the Board. They were 
 from all parts of the State, for the most part unacquainted with each 
 other. ^lanv were in the sixties, a greater number in the fifties, some 
 in the forties and two or three in the thirties. Sixteen of them were 
 farmers, most of them horticulturists, one was a manufacturer, three 
 were lawyers, three school superintendents, two college presidents, 
 one clergyman, one physician, one merchant, one architect, two rail- 
 road presidents, one the Superintendent of Public Instruction, and the 
 Regent. 
 
 As just stated the members were comparative strangers, the writer 
 being acquainted with one member of the Board, Mr. M. L. Dunlap, of 
 Champaign. The meeting was called to order by Governor Oglesby, 
 who acted as chairman, and proceeded at once to the election of per- 
 manent officers, which resulted in the selection of Dr. John M. Gregory, 
 of Michigan, as Regent. He, by the way, was known personally to 
 but two or three members of the Board. W. C. Flagg was made cor- 
 responding secretary, O. B. Galusha, recording secretary, and J. W. 
 Bunn, treasurer. 
 
 Two committees of five each were also named, one on the course of 
 study and to suggest a Faculty, and one on finances. The Board then 
 adjourned to meet in Urbana on the first Tuesday of May. 
 
 At the time appointed the Board met pursuant to adjournment, 
 Dr. Gregory and twenty-two members being present. At this session 
 two important matters came under consideration, that of finances and 
 the course of study. 
 
 Our finances consisted of the Champaign County bonds and the 
 land scrip received from the general government as an endowment, 
 amounting to four hundred and eighty thousand acres of government 
 land, which according to the enabling act of the State, could be located 
 or sold as the Board might direct. Quite a number of the older 
 members were in favor of selling it all at once at the best obtainable 
 figures, their personal experience being that lands which they had 
 owned and were conversant with at that time sold at from ten to fifteen 
 dollars per acre, and that lands that we might locate in Nebraska or 
 Minnesota would not be salable for many years. A majority, however, 
 were of the opinion that at least half of the scrip should be sold at 
 once and the balance held for future consideration, and that one hun- 
 dred thousand acres should be located at once. A respectable 
 minority begged for a location of two hundred thousand acres at least, 
 contending that we could get along with the avails of two hundred 
 and eighty thousand acres well invested, with the Champaign County 
 bonds as a reserve fund. 
 
 At subsequent meeting the demand for immediate income was so 
 great that four hundred and fifty-five thousand acres of the scrip were 
 
 (527) 
 
218 
 
 sold for about three hundred and twenty thousand dollars, and twenty- 
 five thousand acres located in Nebraska and Minnesota. 
 
 The other important matter that came up was the report 
 of the committee on the course of study. We were the first col- 
 lege to organize under the Morrill act, which provided pri- 
 marily that such branches of learning should be taught as 
 related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, not excluding 
 scientific and classical studies and including military tactics. We 
 were without any precedents to guide us, and it was inevitable that 
 there should be differences of opinion as how to best carry out the 
 provisions of the act. The course submitted by the committee with 
 some slight modifications was adopted with a strong dissenting minor- 
 ity, including some members who had been active in the passage of 
 the act by the Legislature and in securing the donations of lands and 
 bonds which determined its location. 
 
 This action of the Board was the cause of severe criticism by 
 many throughout the State, who avowed that instead of teaching 
 such studies as the act called for, we had simply set in motion another 
 old fashioned classical college. The Northern Horticultural Society 
 of the State, several members of which organization were also members 
 of our Board, passed resolutions to that effect, and the State Agri- 
 cultural Board was also dissatisfied and would have passed similar 
 resolutions had it not been that several members of our Board were 
 also members of that body and were able to prevent it. All of the 
 denominational colleges and schools in the State, with perhaps one 
 exception, and the normal school were anything but friendly. The 
 members of the Legislature were more or less prejudiced against us 
 and were loath to grant us the ordinary assistance provided for in the 
 act. 
 
 As our college building was inadequate, the Board decided to ask 
 of the General Assembly of 1870 and 1871 a main university building, 
 submitting plans and specifications with an estimated cost of about 
 one hundred and fifty thousand dollars. Seventy-five thousand 
 was appropriated to commence the building according to plans. A 
 large majority of the Board construed this-act as an implied agreement 
 that the next General Assembly would appropriate the additional 
 seventy-five thousand dollars, or so much thereof as might be needed to 
 finish the building. 
 
 A respectable minority were opposed to incurring an}- indebtedness 
 beyond the amount actually appropriated. Bids were, however, 
 called for and contract entered into for the construction of the build- 
 ing according to the plans and specification, and the seventy-five 
 thousand dollars was expended on the building during the summer 
 and autumn of 1871, leaving it about half completed. 
 
 At the meeting of the full Board in March, 1872, the question of 
 
 (528) 
 
219 
 
 finishing the building by selling the Champaign County bonds for 
 that purpose was brought up and rejected on the ground that it would 
 be more easy to obtain the additional appropriation of seventy-five 
 thousand dollars from the Legislature if the building were left in its 
 incompleted state. 
 
 An executive meeting was called for May twelfth following and at 
 that meeting steps were taken to complete the building by the sale of 
 so many Champaign County bonds as might be necessary. 
 
 The Committee appointed by the Board (the Regent acting as 
 chairman) to visit Springfield in the interest of the University at the 
 session of the General Assembly in 1872 and 1873 made prominent in 
 their askings the refunding by the State of the amount advanced 
 to finish the building, about sixty thousand dollars, urging it on the 
 implied promise of the former General Assembly. The Senate com- 
 mittee refused to recognize any such promise and a disagreement 
 finally culminated in an open rupture and refusal to make any appro- 
 priation whatever. 
 
 At this juncture (not being a member of the committee) I received 
 a telegram from a friend of the University at Springfield, saying that 
 my presence was needed as the University was in peril ; also another 
 telegram from the chairman of the Senate committee requesting my 
 presence. I complied with their request and upon arrival was met 
 by the chairman of the Senate committee, and catechized in regard to 
 what he conceived to be irregularities in the management of the 
 University, stating that as matters appeared to his committee, they 
 would be unable to give the institution any assistance whatever. My 
 reply was that I was a member of the Board and as such held myself 
 responsible for the acts of my fellow members, and refused to discuss 
 in detail the alleged irregularities but stated to him that the records 
 of the Board, the University being a State institution, were public 
 records and at his disposal, and that he could probably obtain from 
 them all the information he desired. I also told him that it would be 
 a very serious matter should the General Assembly refuse to assist us. 
 I also met the chairman of the House committee, and explained as 
 best I could our needs. After investigations by both committees 
 they passed the Reorganization act, carrying an appropriation of 
 about forty-five thousand dollars for completing and furnishing the 
 main building; and fifteen hundred dollars in aid of the experiments 
 on the experimental farm. This act provided for a reorganization of 
 the Board, stating that the Governor should appoint nine trustees, 
 three from each grand judicial district of the State, who, together with 
 the Governor and the president of the State Board of Agriculture, for 
 the time being, were to constitute the Board of Trustees. 
 
 The new Board met and organized on July 10th, 1873, Emory Cobb, 
 president; Edward Snyder, corresponding secretary; J. W. Bunn, 
 
 p29) 
 
220 
 
 treasurer, the Governor and President Reynolds of the State Agricul- 
 tural Board being present. During the winter of 1872 and 1873, our 
 contractor, Mr. Gehlmann, became financially embarassed and gave up 
 his contract. The new Board took up the work, finished and furnished 
 the building and had it ready for the winter term, our Acting-Regent, 
 Professor Shattuck, and Professor Snyder rendering valuable assistance. 
 
 At the first meeting of the new Board Mr. Reynolds offered the 
 following resolutions, which were adopted: 
 
 "Resolved that a compliance with the spirit of the law of Congress 
 which provides for the establishment of agricultural colleges in the 
 several states, requires that this institution be devoted, as a leading 
 object, to imparting such instruction to its pupils as shall be necessary 
 to the intelligent practice of agriculture and mechanic art, and in- 
 struction in other branches of learning, whether enjoined or only 
 permitted by the aforesaid law, is to be regarded as merely secondary. 
 
 Resolved, that in establishing a curriculum, in selecting the corps 
 of teachers and in the general policy as adopted, this Board of Trustees 
 will adhere to the views expressed in the foregoing resolutions. " 
 
 At the September meeting of the Board Dr. Gregory, having 
 returned, was present. He cheerfully accepted the conditions of the 
 new law, and was informed by the chairman that it was expected and 
 desired that he should be present at all the meetings of the Board. 
 Professor Shattuck was appointed business agent. 
 
 On December 10th, 1873, the new building was dedicated with 
 appropriate exercises. Dr. Gregory, Governor Beveridge, Gen. Eaton, 
 United States Commissioner of Education, Professor Turner and 
 others making addresses. With our new building formally dedicated 
 and with an attendance of between four and five hundred, we all took 
 new courage and unitedly pressed on with the work. 
 
 At the annual meeting in March, 1874, the course of study was 
 somewhat changed to meet the requirements of the new law and in 
 accordance with the resolution of Mr. Reynolds, previously referred to. 
 
 At the annual meeting in March, 1876, the Regent's report con- 
 tained the following: 
 
 "It is gratifying to know that the University has at last sur- 
 mounted the hostile and injurious criticism which so hotly assailed it 
 in its earlier years and did so much to injure its proper growth. " 
 
 It was the policy of the new Board and of the Faculty to do all in 
 their power to win public favor, and to attend strictly to the aims 
 and wants of the University, the Board going so far in that direction 
 as to request the Faculty not to participate in any political contro- 
 versy, by speech making, correspondence, or otherwise, which request 
 was cheerfully complied with. We also kept the school of mechanical 
 engineering well to the front, sacrificing other departments at times to 
 further its requirements with highly satisfactory results. 
 
 (530) 
 
221 
 
 At the June meeting, 1880, Dr. Gregory tendered his resignation, 
 which was accepted. Dr. S. H. Peabody succeeded him and entered 
 upon his duties at the commencement of the fall term in September. 
 He was not a stranger to the Board nor the University, as he had 
 occupied the chair of mechanical engineering during the years of 1877 
 and 1878, and was at the time of his appointment connected with a 
 college in New England. He took up the work enthusiastically and 
 proved an able executive officer. His appointment was well received 
 by the industrial classes of the State, he being one of their number. 
 His administration was conservative. One of the first things he did 
 was to bring the high schools throughout the State in touch with the 
 University by making them accredited branches. 
 
 The Legislature in the meantime became more liberal in their 
 appropriations. The name of the University was changed from the 
 Illinois Industrial University to that of the University of Illinois. 
 The State Laboratory of Natural History was removed from Normal 
 to Urbana and made a department of the University. At the Decem- 
 ber meeting in 1887 the Experiment Station was organized, and a 
 board of control was created for its management. This board in- 
 cluded members of our Faculty and representatives of the State 
 Agricultural Society, the State Horticultural Society, and the Illinois 
 Dairymen's Association, and members of our own Board. 
 
 In 1890 Congress passed an act for the benefit of the Land Grant 
 colleges established under the act of 1862, ultimately giving twenty- 
 five thousand per year to each college established under the act. At 
 a previous session Congress had liberally endowed the experiment 
 stations connected with such colleges. 
 
 At the June meeting 1891 Dr. Peabody resigned and Prof. Burrill 
 was appointed Acting-Regent. He served as such until the appoint- 
 ment of Dr. Draper, in 1893. 
 
 My term of office as Trustee of the University expired in March, 
 1893, having served continuously since its organization in 1867 under 
 the appointment of the several governors of the State during that time. 
 
 I shall ever cherish the pleasant associations connected with that 
 service, and more especially my associations with the first members 
 of the Faculty. They were loyal and true and worked faithfully 
 under the most adverse circumstances for the interest of the Univer- 
 sitv. On account of the state of our finances, we were obliged at one 
 time to temporarily reduce salaries ten per cent., which they accepted 
 without a murmur. 
 
 I will close by assuring the newly installed President and all 
 connected with the teaching force of the University that they have the 
 best wishes of the few surviving members of the original Board for 
 their success in carrying forward the great work committed to their 
 charge. 
 
 (531) 
 
222 
 
 ADDRESS 
 
 Judge Joseph O. Cunningham 
 Former Member of the Board of Trustees, Urhana 
 
 Amid all these festivities over the inauguration of a new President 
 of the University, the tendency of which is to turn attention to the 
 present and future, a look backward is contemplated by the convo- 
 cation of this hour, which should not be without its benefits, however 
 much the present and future may engross our attention. 
 
 The University of Illinois, and its kindred institutions as well, 
 owe their origin and distinctive character to the needs of society for 
 educated hands as well as for educated heads, which was felt by a few 
 half a century since. Then engineers, architects, chemists and agri- 
 culturalists were, with no view to scholastic preparation, taken from 
 the ranks of practical men; and while good engineers, architects, 
 chemists and farmers were generally the result, it took too long and 
 cost too much to get them. The schools of that day educated men 
 away from these practical and necessarv callings rather than to them, 
 and the so-called learned professions greedily claimed the lion's share 
 of their output. 
 
 Practical men, not theorists merely, saw the one sided error of 
 educating the head and not the hand also. The demand of a few far 
 seeing Illinoisans, met together in an obscure Illinois town, for the 
 education of the hand as well as the head, after a few years of agitation, 
 became the demand of the nation, and Congress enacted the same into 
 a law providing for the "endowment, support and maintenance of at 
 least one college (in each state) where the leading object shall be, 
 without excluding other scientific and classical studies, and including 
 military tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are related to 
 agriculture and the mechanic arts." The object to be attained by 
 this new departure was by the statute declared to be "to promote the 
 liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several 
 pursuits and professions in life;" surely then a new departure in 
 educational matters. 
 
 In practice this University was one of the first to be organized 
 under this law, as it has been one of the most successful; for in less 
 than six years after the approval of the law by the President of the 
 United States, and as soon as the condition of peace in the country 
 would permit, it was launched by our Legislature. 
 
 No beaten track lay before it for its guidance and no successful 
 precedents presented themselves to be followed. No enlightened 
 public sentiment stood behind it to prompt financial aid. Divided 
 sentiment among its friends as to the policy to be followed darkened 
 counsels and added to the confusion. On the one hand were those 
 who clamored for a policy narrowed down to instruction in those 
 pursuits which related to practical agriculture and the mechanic arts 
 
 (532) 
 
223 
 
 and that too without any preparatory scholarship other than such as 
 was to be had in the common schools of the country, then none too 
 good. The metropolitan press lent the powerful aid of its columns to 
 this claim, and not satisfied by such advocacy, it aggressively threw 
 in the way of the management of the University every obstacle at 
 hand. So, an opposition which had grown out of the location, in an 
 out of the way part of the State, of the institution, for a time 
 joined hands with this faction, making the enemies of the University, 
 entrenched as they were within the Board of Trustees, almost too 
 formidable for its feeble strength. 
 
 A Board of Trustees of thirty men, chosen, it was feared, more with 
 reference to future political movements than for their personal fitness 
 for the organization and management of the new institution along 
 untried educational lines, was an embarassment for seven years and 
 until its numbers were reduced to nine. 
 
 It is remembered too that the free school system of Illinois was 
 then in its infancy, not having accomplished its first ten years of ser- 
 vice. No high school then as now prepared the ambitious youth of 
 the State for admission to college classes, and the first recitation heard 
 within the w^alls of the University was a class in algebra, and that to 
 the then President of the institution. 
 
 Added to all these hindrances, the name given to the new Univer- 
 sity by its charter, from the first imposed embarassment and gave its 
 friends plenty to do in explaining the fact that it was not a penal nor 
 reformatory institution. 
 
 Out of all this confusion of counsels and conflicts of factions, under 
 the able and experienced labors of the first President or Regent, John 
 Milton Gregory, to whose memory be all honor, and whose labors were 
 constant and untiring for thirteen years, supplemented as they were 
 by the wisdom and work of his able successors and a hard worked 
 Faculty, came what we behold today a university admitted by those 
 who know how to judge of its merits to be second to but few of the 
 great institutions of the Republic or of the world. 
 
 The time alloted is too brief to permit a willing and deserved 
 tribute to all who have by their devotion to the University helped to 
 make it what it is today, but among the numbers outside the Faculty 
 who bv their counsel and wisdom have rendered distinguished service 
 should be named the Honorable Newton Bateman, for many years 
 Superintendent of Public Instruction for the State of Illinois, who 
 with Regent Gregory and others at the second meeting of the Board of 
 Trustees, held in Champaign on May 8, 1867, rendered the report 
 upon Faculty and Course of Instruction. The committee it may well 
 be said, "builded better than it could have known," for a reference 
 to that distinguished document will convince the reader that, as to 
 the future of the institution it contained words of real prophesy. 
 
 (533) 
 
224 
 
 Whether intentional or not on the part of the successors of Dr. Greg- 
 ory and the Board of Trustees, it would seem that this document has 
 been the chart and guide of all administrations for almost forty years 
 and during the marvelous growth of the University. It is safe to say 
 that this document, drawn by Gregory, has been the safe guiding star 
 to which success may be traced. 
 
 Rev. Dr. J. C. Burroughs, a member of the first Board, although at 
 the time president of the Chicago University and interested in its 
 success, brought to the discharge of his duties the wisdom acquired by 
 his years of experience with educational institutions, and contributed 
 greatly to success. • So of General Mason Brayman, S. S. Hayes, 
 Honorable Horatio C. Burchard and John M. Van Osdell, all of them 
 ripe with experience, devoted it to the work of the University. Per- 
 haps of the greatest value to the University were the labors of Emory 
 Cobb, Esquire, of Kankakee, who, appointed upon the first Board, 
 continued to hold office until succeeded in 1893. An experienced 
 financier before then, his counsels when followed, carried the finances 
 of the institution over many a rough place, and when disregarded, as 
 they were. sometimes, the University suffered. 
 
 These early friends of the University, where yet in life, as few of 
 them are, must look with great pride and satisfaction to what we see 
 and hear today. To them and to their coworkers be all praise for 
 what has been accomplished. 
 
 In these festivities the names of those gentlemen, members of the 
 General Assembly, who from the inception of the University, have, as 
 local representatives, yielded to it their influence and agency in secur- 
 ing financial aid, should by no means be forgotten or omitted from 
 prominent mention. Hon. Clark R. Griggs, now of the city of New 
 York, was a member of the lower house in 1867, when the charter was 
 granted, and by his wisdom and legislative experience, aided in laying 
 the foundation of the institution. He was afterwards a member of 
 the Board of Trustees, where he exerted a strong influence in its 
 management. Hon. John W. Scroggs, a member of the first Board 
 of Trustees, was elected a member of the lower house in 1868, and was 
 instrumental in securing for the University the first appropriation 
 given for the erection of buildings. Hon. J. C. Sheldon was elected to 
 the House of Representatives at the election in 1870, and as a member 
 of the Senate in 1872, where for six years he was able to serve the 
 institution by securing the appropriations which constructed the main 
 university building. Hon. James S. Wright was elected to the Senate 
 in 1880, and for four years ably represented the interests of the Uni- 
 versity, securing for it further recognition by the legislative branch of 
 the State government. Hon. Martin B. Thompson succeeded Mr. 
 Wright in the Senate, where his influence well served the University, 
 especially in securing the change of name which relieved it from the 
 
 (534) 
 
225 
 
 suspicion of being one of the reformatory institutions of the State. 
 Hon. Milton W. Mathews was, in 1888, elected the successor of Mr. 
 Thompson, where for four years he likewise was a faithful and efficient 
 friend of the University, securing the appropriation which constructed 
 the armory. Following Mr. IMathews as a member of the Senate came 
 Hon. Henry M. Dunlap, who, now serving his fourth term, has, bv his 
 long service and loyalt}' to his Alma Mater, been able to accomplish 
 much for the University in the way of larger appropriations for current 
 expenses and for new buildings. 
 
 These gentlemen, all local representatives, have at all times been 
 well supported by their colleagues from the local district as well as by 
 other friends of the institution and of the work it has accomplished in 
 the General Assemblv. 
 
 ADDRESS 
 
 Samuel W. Shattuck, C.E. 
 Comptroller and Professor in the University of Illinois 
 
 I thank the gentlemen for their very kind words for me I trust 
 the recording angel has taken note of them and that when my balance 
 sheet is written up I shall have full credit for the same. 
 
 Mv first connection with the business operations of the University 
 was in the summer of 1871 when I w^as appointed superintendent of 
 construction for this building and the military and mechanical one 
 then being erected. This position I held until class instruction began 
 in the fall. 
 
 In March, 1873, Dr. Gregory, Regent of the University, was given 
 a leave of absence of six months for a much needed rest. Upon his 
 recommendation I was appointed Acting-Regent for the time of his 
 absence. 
 
 Under the original organization of the University the Regent was 
 president of the Board of Trustees and the business of the University 
 was conducted by him. These duties I performed in addition to 
 teaching three hours each day. Those were strenuous times for me. 
 
 In July of that year a new organization of the University went 
 into effect. This relieved the Regent from the business operations 
 and from acting as president of the Board of Trustees. Mr. Emory 
 Cobb was elected to that position, which he held for many years with 
 honor to himself and great benefit to the University. 
 
 Professor Edward Snyder was recording secretary of the Board at 
 this time, which position he held till 1888 when William L. Pillsbury 
 was appointed recording and corresponding secretary. 
 
 Professor Snyder came to the University in 1868 and was for 
 twenty -eight years a beloved and respected member of its faculty. 
 
 In September, 1873, when Dr. Gregory again took up his duties as 
 
 (535) 
 
226 
 
 Regent, I was put in charge of the business of the University; this 
 position I have held since. I have also been the head of the depart- 
 ment of mathematics for thirty-seven years. In this connection I 
 cannot refrain from speaking of an incident that happened in 1869. 
 
 In that year when the ground on which this building stands was part 
 of acorn field, I was surveying the field for the purpose of tile drainage, 
 when one of the iron pins used was lost. I told a young man to get a 
 wooden one by cutting a sprout from a clump which I had noticed, 
 but to leave such as were not needed as they would be trees some day. 
 At least two were left, and form today the large double hackberry tree 
 on the north side of the walk in front of the Library Building. 
 
 I have looked at this tree many times, and thought that it repre- 
 sented my duties in the University, those of a professor and those as 
 business manager. I have often spoken of it as my tree. Dr. Burrill 
 has his avenue; I am satisfied with a tree. But it is the only one on 
 our grounds not planted by man. It is not as symmetrical as many, 
 but I trust it will be allowed to remain a long time yet. 
 
 In 1893, as one of its members expressed it, a new element appeared 
 in the Board of Trustees. This element called for the resignation of 
 the treasurer, John W. Bunn, who had well served the University for 
 twenty-six years. 
 
 A new treasurer, Charles W. Spalding, was elected who served for 
 four years and was defaulter for all the current funds, and the greater 
 part of the endowment of the University. The business office for four 
 months was under a severe strain to meet the current obligations, but 
 through the wise guidance of President Draper and the powerful help 
 of Senator Dunlap the University was put upon a better financial 
 basis than it had ever been before. 
 
 The business operations and resources of the Universitv have 
 increased in as great a degree as has the number of its students. 
 
 At the meeting of the Board of Trustees in March, 1873, Mr. Emory 
 Cobb, chairman of the committee on finance, made a report in which 
 the estimated resources available for the year 1873-74 amounted to 
 $43,825.87 and the estimated expendittire for the same time as $42, 
 560. 
 
 The estimated resources for the year 1905-06 amount to over one 
 million dollars. One million dollars may be expended, leaving a bal- 
 ance July 1, 1906, larger than the entire income in 1873-74. 
 
 (536) 
 
227 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THIS UNIVERSITY 
 
 Nathan C. Ricker, Dr. Arch. 
 Professor in the University of Illinois 
 
 Professor Morrow sometimes jocosely said to his intimate friends, 
 "Tell me all that you know in five minutes." Similar would be any 
 attempt to adequately discuss the development of this great Univer- 
 sity within the limits of the time assigned me. There is merely 
 opportunity for some brief notes on its origin, with a glance at its 
 present and its future. 
 
 The origin of this institution was primarily due to strongly felt 
 doubts of the real worth and utility of the educational training former- 
 ly imparted in the colleges of the olden time. This was usually re- 
 stricted to the ancient languages and literatures, almost ignoring the 
 pure and applied sciences, then in a crude condition and not reduced 
 to a systematic discipline. College equipment rarely existed, except- 
 ing the indispensable buildings, library, and a very limited chemical 
 and physical apparatus for class room demonstrations. Graduates 
 were almost compelled to enter one of the three professions, then 
 recognized as learned. The public schools were believed to supplv all 
 the knowledge required by the farmer, gardener, mechanic, and even 
 the surveyor. 
 
 Under the leadership of the late Professor Turner of this State, 
 agitation arose for the proper educatiqn of young men not intending 
 to become physicians, lawyers, or clergymen, to better fit them for 
 life's vocations and for good service to their fellow men. This 
 eventually led to a munificent grant of public lands by the national 
 government and the establishment of the Land Grant universities in 
 each state. These were then designed to train men, and later women, 
 for the practical pursuits, to which miuch the larger part of mankind 
 must always be devoted. It was intended to make their labors in the 
 fields and shops more efficient and productive, both as workmen and 
 as leaders of the industrial masses. For this idea was later substi- 
 tuted the production of teachers of applied science, chemists, archi- 
 tects, and engineers of all kinds, leaving the training of artizans to 
 special schools and to apprenticeships in shops and manufactories. 
 
 President Gregory was a graduate of a small classical college, with 
 later experience as clergyman, state superintendent of schools, and 
 president of a very small college. He seems to have had no previous 
 opportunity to acquire any deep interest in any one of the sciences or 
 in their application. But the outline scheme of organization of the 
 future university was drawn up by him, and it may be found in the 
 first volume of the Trustees' reports. He had no precedent in any 
 similar existing institution, little acquaintance with the details of 
 
 (537) 
 
228 
 
 education in the sciences, or practice in their appHcation, in architec- 
 ture or in engineering. Nor had he any prescience of the marvelous 
 material growth of this State, or of its future interests and resources, 
 to be most intimately connected with this institution. Yet he pro- 
 duced a wonderful work in the plan of the University, an outburst of 
 genius guided by common sense. 
 
 The main lines then laid down by him have scarcely been changed 
 in later years, excepting in case of a profession based upon scientific 
 discoveries then unknown, as in the case of electrical engineering. 
 
 One would naturally suppose that a new university of such a 
 practical character would at once be thronged by students preparing 
 to become scientific farmers, chemists, and practicing engineers. But 
 it was strongly opposed by conservatives and by industrial leaders, 
 who believed that university graduates were a kind of "horned cattle," 
 dangerous until their collegiate training had been forgotten. Engi- 
 neers continued to assert that the only sure foundation for the training 
 of future engineers was to wield the axe and carry the surveyor's 
 chain. Farmers were scornful, while land was cheap and careless 
 farming was profitable, asserting that scientific agriculture could only 
 be learned in the fields by personal toil. They long opposed the insti- 
 tution, claiming that the instructors were mere theorists. But when 
 the value of land had so risen that a better system of culture became 
 imperative, they found increased profits in following the advice of the 
 formerly despised scientists. For years the farmers and gardeners of 
 this State have been most loyal and appreciative supporters of this 
 institution. Indeed, the present danger seems to be that they may 
 eventually expect impossibilities to be made possible by the University. 
 
 The institution was opened thirty-seven years since, with a presi- 
 dent, a few professors, and seventy-five students. A single large 
 building on the north end of Illinois Field contained the entire edu- 
 cational plant, and it at the same time served as a dormitory for most 
 of the students. There were then no shops or laboratories, no gym- 
 nasium or armory, no fraternities or athletic sports, nothing that now 
 makes university life attractive or endurable for the average student. 
 The equipment consisted mainly of a small library and a very limited 
 outfit of chemical and physical apparatus. The student was required 
 to contribute two hours of daily unpaid toil for the improvement of 
 the grounds in order that he might learn something of agriculture and 
 gardening. 
 
 The entrance examinations were very easy, for fortv-two high 
 school credits would at that time have been thought an impossible 
 requirement, only to be realized in a dififerent century. Moreover, 
 four years of military drill were demanded, even from men who had 
 served as soldiers during the .Civil War, then just closed. 
 
 But the students worked diligently, perhaps because there was 
 
 (538) 
 
229 
 
 nothing else to do on a prairie a mile from either cit}'. No distinctions 
 then existed between them, for all were alike freshmen, and class 
 organizations were only formed much later with difficulty and little 
 enthusiasm. Class hazing and the color rush are recent innovations. 
 
 From this primitive period not a single building now remains, 
 only two of its original possessions being retained by the University, 
 its endowment lands, and Dr. Burrill, its honored Vice-President. 
 Most of the noble trees which grace the campus were planted by stu- 
 dents during its first years, but they left no other memorial, save the 
 fame won by their later work. 
 
 My own personal experiences as a student in the institution com- 
 menced with 1870, when I found one hundred and forty students in 
 attendance, with some additional instructors. Professor Shattuck 
 still taught mechanics, materials, and surveying, in addition to his 
 chief work in mathematics. Professor Snyder taught all German, 
 French, bookkeeping, and military science; was also commandant of 
 the regiment, secretary and bookkeeper of the University. 
 
 Professor Robinson commenced his labors here at the same time 
 as professor of mechanical engineering and physics. He was the 
 first regular instructor in the College of Engineering, and also its first 
 dean. He was a tireless worker, day and night, and apparently had 
 deeply studied every subject pertaining to any branch of engineering, 
 was an expert mathematician, and he earned well deserved fame by 
 opening the first shop in this country connected with an educational 
 institution for the practical instruction of mechanical engineers. 
 During his leisure moments he also taught civil engineering, materials, 
 and made numerous inventions. 
 
 Few textbooks then existed in engineering, except those of ancient 
 date, instruction by lecturers was a slow process, practicing engineers 
 were too busy to write, blue-print and mimeographic copying processes 
 w^ere still unknown. 
 
 Some of the older students still cherish the memories of the Chicago 
 campaign in 1871, of three companies of students, which then formed 
 the sixth regiment of Illinois state troops. When ordered to load 
 w'ith ball cartridges and stationed as sentries, they certainly met with 
 real service. 
 
 Professor Webb came later to open the department of civil engi- 
 neering, devoting his entire time to its specialties and establishing a 
 reputation as a mathematician, with some eccentricities. Civil 
 engineers of that time still remember him as the author of the "Bag- 
 dad" lectures on geodesy. He had the first blue-print copies of 
 lecture notes made, an idea which was largely developed later, and 
 W'hich soon greatly enriched the courses of instruction in the College 
 of Engineering, extending its reputation among engineers. 
 
 The department of architecture came next, practically established 
 
 (539) 
 
230 
 
 in 1873, with a half dozen students, few books and no equipment, 
 among very unpromising surroundings for its purposes. But it first 
 imported the Russian system of shop practice instruction in 1875, 
 which is now universal, and much later established the earliest pro- 
 fessional course in architectural engineering in the United States. 
 
 As a few specimens of the product of the College of Engineering 
 during the early period, I may raention Col. J. A. Ockerson, Professor 
 I. O. Baker, President-Trustee S. A. Bullard, and Architect C. H. 
 Blackall. 
 
 The department of municipal and sanitary engineering was opened 
 much later by Professor Talbot, in addition to his chief work in me- 
 chanics and in the development of the testing and hydraulic kibora- 
 tories. 
 
 Electrical engineering was established by Professor S. W. Stratton, 
 now director of the National Bureau of Standards. It at first oc- 
 cupied a portion of the main hall beneath the university chapel. 
 
 From these rudimentary beginnings has grown the present College 
 of Engineering, with its sixty-five special instructors, its thousand 
 students, magnificent buildings and equipment costing at least three- 
 fourths of a million dollars, and its seven four -year professional 
 courses, offered without charge for instruction. Its graduates are 
 assured of good positions with increasing salaries, the supply of 
 competent men never equalling the demand for them, so that it has 
 become very difficult to retain the best graduates as instructors. 
 
 Under President Peabody occurred a period of slow, but solid 
 growth, with a steady elevation in the quality of instruction, a time 
 of foundation building. 
 
 This University was at first a scientific academy, then a small col- 
 lege, differing from the old time college only in the substitution of 
 scientific for classical studies. It grew very slowly for twenty years, 
 in consequence of cheap land, conservative opposition, diminishing 
 income caused by the lessening rate of interest on investments, to- 
 gether with small aid from the State. 
 
 The change from a small college to a real university actually 
 occurred but fifteen years since, under the wise and energetic admin- 
 istration of Dr. Burrill, as Acting-President, although this fact is 
 obscured by its marvelous extension and growth later, resulting from 
 the great executive skill, experience and foresight of President Draper. 
 He consolidated the great edifice on the eternal foundations required 
 for a great and permanent university. During his administration, 
 the number of students doubled biennially by increase and by affilia- 
 tion, and it is reasonable to say that its public importance and value 
 grew in like proportion. It has become the undisputed leader in this 
 State in most branches of education, without interfering with the good 
 work of other state and private institutions. Far removed from their 
 
 (540) 
 
231 
 
 fomier disbelief in its utility, Illinois farmers now expect it to solve 
 the economic problems of modem agriculture by improving the useful 
 plants and animals, by better methods of culture, by preserving the 
 fertility of the soil, and especially by instruction in making every acre 
 do its utmost in contributing to the comfort and welfare of mankind. 
 
 The casual visitor to the University sees its magnificent and well 
 kept grounds, its numerous buildings, and the groups of busy students 
 hastening from class to laboratory. Perhaps he enters a few buildings, 
 sees a class room, a library or a shop, but he gains no knowledge of the 
 University as a whole, and of its numerous activities. It is probable 
 that the residents of the two cities know less of the University than of 
 the clock factory, or of the new fair ground. Even its students have 
 little acquaintance with colleges other than their own, and its instruc- 
 tors scarcely remember each other's faces. Certainly the public can 
 have but the slightest knowledge of its work and of the opportunities 
 offered to students. To make it fully known to the people of the State 
 is a great problem, not solved by the insertion of advertisements in 
 journals. To calmly await the fame earned by its graduates is too 
 slow a process for this century. 
 
 Four thousand students in the University of a state containing five 
 millions of people is but one to twelve hundred and fifty persons. 
 This is certainly not a maximum ratio, but one that may be increased 
 especially while the value of land continues to rise and opportunities 
 for untrained and uneducated men occur less frequently in future. 
 Success for young men without capital will require a more complete 
 and lengthened educational training. 
 
 The University of Berlin was founded about a century since, and 
 it has become the largest and leading university in the world. It does 
 not comprise a faculty of engineering, as this is provided in a separate 
 institution of full university rank, likewise the largest and most 
 famous in its special field. Location in the chief city of Germany has 
 certainly contributed much to the importance of both these institu- 
 tions. But the available resources of the Prussian state and people 
 will not always excel those at hand in rich Illinois. 
 
 If the population of the State continues its rapid rate of increase 
 in future, it is reasonable to believe that it will be doubled at some 
 future date, and that ten millions of people will be comfortably sup- 
 ported, when intensive farming is practiced thoroughly, and its 
 natural resources and manufactures are fully developed. Crowded 
 Chicago will then be abandoned for the smaller cities and the country, 
 for the pursuit of vocations perhaps yet unknown. 
 
 The number of students in this University should then be doubled 
 or it might increase to one person in a thousand. With ten thousand 
 students in all its departments, this University might well aspire to be 
 the best, the strongest, and the most useful in the world, as well as the 
 
 (541) 
 
232 
 
 largest. Its supreme advantage over the college or universitv of the 
 olden type is, that its endowment consists not of monev, stocks, and 
 like investments, but chiefly in the good will and public spirit of the 
 people of Illinois, willing and anxious to provide the most useful and 
 most thorough training for 3'Oung men and women, without restriction 
 by sex, creed, or race. 
 
 THREE ITEMS IN UNIVERSITY HISTORY 
 
 Thomas J. Burrill, Ph.D., LL.D. 
 
 Vice-President of the University of Illinois 
 
 The growth of the University of Illinois has been, with slight re- 
 gressions, continuously forward from the beginning. The momentum 
 has varied greatly at different times but it has seldom decreased to 
 zero and the resting periods, such as they were, have been more appar- 
 ent than real. In the development from a small beginning it is 
 inevitable that there should have been certain crises in the history, 
 certain prominent happenings, which affected for weal or woe in each 
 case the institution and its vital interests. I am now to speak of three 
 of these and what came of them. They are selected with the clear 
 apprehension that others might equally as well have been chosen for 
 the purpose now in hand, but the builders who are mentioned should 
 not be forgotton whoever else are left out in the recital. 
 
 I. The Foundation Plans 
 
 Owing especially to the initiative of Professor Jonathan B. Turner 
 and his coadjutors the people of the State had been aroused to the 
 need of higher education adapted to the special requirements of people 
 engaged in industrial pursuits, so that when the general government 
 made its famous donation of land scrip in 1862 to the several states, 
 individual opinions in Illinois were very pronounced as to what use 
 should be made of the fund. But these opinions were verv diverse. In 
 fact no two were even substantially alike, if details were at all considered. 
 While Professor Turner and his followers argued for the founding of 
 one generously endowed and strongly manned institution in which 
 real scholarship should be promoted, certain others contended for the 
 distribution of the fund among the then existing colleges of the State, 
 or among certain of them, for the establishment therein of departments 
 to be devoted to practical affairs. Still others, and these were very 
 assertive, demanded the establishment of a separate and distinctively 
 technical institution solely for the agricultural interests. 
 
 When the matter came up in the General Assembly various 
 attempts were made to settle by law some of these conflicting propo- 
 sitions, but the legislators themselves held decidedly too divergent 
 views to make agreement possible except that there should be created 
 
 (542) 
 
233 
 
 one new institution to be called the Illinois Industrial University and 
 to this the whole congressional fund should be given. Other than 
 this the only legal provision by which the first Board of Trustees were 
 directed in determining what this institution should be or do is con- 
 tained in these words: 
 
 "The Trustees shall have power to provide the requisite buildings, 
 apparatus and conveniences ; to fix rates for tuition ; to appoint such 
 professors and instructors and establish and provide the management 
 for such model farms, model art and other departments and professor- 
 ships as may be required to teach in the most thorough manner, such 
 branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic 
 arts, and military tactics, without excluding other scientific and classi- 
 cal studies. " 
 
 This was the charter presented to the first Board of Trustees, by 
 which they were to determine what character this Illinois Industrial 
 Universitv should have. The last part of the name did not mean 
 anything; for were there not already in the State several so-called 
 universities whose names were the biggest part of them? One could 
 found a university as easily as he could an academy or a college, and 
 among the masses there was little distinction between them. Note, 
 too, the Trustees were simply given poiver to do certain things, they 
 were apparently not required to do those things and were not forbidden 
 to do anything unless as some claimed they could not exclude "other 
 scientific and classical studies." This Board of Trustees were not 
 educators professionally. Among the thirty-two members only two 
 had ever had any personal experience in building up or managing an 
 institution of higher learning, and only three more were entitled to 
 write after their names an academic degree. They were mostly men 
 of afifairs — farmers, business men, two or three lawyers, one doctor, 
 one pastor of a church, and so on. Like other people these men held 
 widelv diverse opinions as to what the new institution could or should 
 be, what purposes it should fill, what methods should be adopted in 
 filling anv purpose. There were great anticipations, for the endowment 
 was usually considered large enough for the attainment of wonderful 
 things. Were there not four hundred and eighty thousand acres of 
 land scrip, besides the donation by Champaign county and allied 
 interests themselves aggregating, so it was claimed, about four hun- 
 dred thousand dollars? The sums looked phenomenally large in those 
 days, but their supposed munificence only stimulated activity in 
 planning what was to be done with the money, and thus further in- 
 creased the diversity of opinions. At the first meeting of the Trustees, 
 which was held at the newly located seat of the University in May, 
 1867, it was found necessary to pass an order that no member should 
 speak more than once upon any question without leave, and that no 
 one should speak at one time more than five minutes. This indicates 
 
 (543) 
 
234 
 
 something of the readiness for debate among the thirty members of 
 the Board present. 
 
 But at this same meeting held in the Congregational Church in 
 Champaign, a committee on courses of study and faculty read a 
 report which more than any other one thing settled at the time and for 
 all time the main features of the newly founded University. This report 
 brought together many of the nebulous ideas prevailing at the time, 
 condensed them into well-shaped forms, threw out the unassimilable, 
 arranged them in order, added new elements and put life and action 
 into the whole. The document as examined today is a masterly one, 
 but read in the light of the times when it was written, considered with 
 reference to the conditions existing forty years ago in the educational 
 world, it shows not only keenness of appreciation of the needs to be 
 met at the time, but a prophetic vision of the demands and possibilities 
 of the future. If the Trustees at their first meeting in March, in 
 Springfield, found little or nothing for their guidance in the law, they 
 now had a charter by which to shape their action. Not that all 
 accepted its provisions. There was still much variance of opinion and 
 voluble discussion, but from that day. May 8, 1867, until now, the 
 ideals presented in that paper have been closely followed, wittingly or 
 not, in the developments which now make up the history of the insti- 
 tution. The paper was written and read by Dr. John M. Gregory, the 
 first President, or Regent as he was then called. With him were 
 associated on the committee Newton Bateman, then Superintendent 
 of PubHc Instruction, Mason Brayman of Springfield, S. S. Hayes of 
 Chicago, and Willard C. Flagg of Moro, near Alton, one of the first 
 college graduates of that time, who saw enough in agriculture to meet 
 the mental activities of an educated man. Dr. Bateman was a gradu- 
 ate of Illinois college and a pupil and friend of Professor Turner. Mr. 
 Flagg was a graduate of Yale. 
 
 II. The Change of Name 
 The extravagant ideas current half a century ago as to what could 
 be accomplished in the way of founding and building a university upon 
 an endowment of a few hundred thousand dollars, as well as upon the 
 subjects of what might be expected from the new education portrayed 
 in visionary addresses by certain theoretical enthusiasts, inevitably 
 led to reaction. The administrative ofiEicers of the State and the 
 members of the Legislature could not understand why more funds 
 should be needed to support an institution already so well provided as 
 was this one founded upon the national Land Grant. Slowly and 
 grudgingly it was admitted that building and some equipment must 
 be provided from the State treasury and for these purposes certain 
 appropriations were made by every General Assembly after the found- 
 ing of the University, but for the payment of professors' salaries, 
 surely the endowment must suffice. Let it also be remembered that 
 
 (544) 
 
235 
 
 though a definite policy had been adopted by a majority of the Trustees 
 which was never abandoned, there were hundreds of thoughtful people 
 in the State who had been warmly interested in the original project 
 and who still retained their special ideas upon the subject, who were 
 in one wav or another greatly dissatisfied with what had been done. 
 It could not have been otherwise whatever had been done. Some of 
 these looked upon the whole cause as a lost one, gave up interest, did 
 nothing; others became open enemies. The newspapers well reflected 
 this condition of things and either ignored the institution altogether 
 or were ever ready with criticisms. The great dailies sneered because 
 there was nothing taught but agriculture ; the agricultural press found 
 nothing commendable in the agricultural investigations and instruc- 
 tion. Few people, and among them the editors, really knew anything 
 about what was done or taught and none seemed to care to learn. 
 The name which the founders had bestowed upon the institution, 
 though expressive and honorable in their own minds, proved to be 
 incorrectlv interpreted, and this again led to wide misunderstanding 
 of the nature of the institution. The word "industrial" had become 
 associated with charity and penal institutions. There was indeed but 
 one other in the whole country called indnstriaL which did not partake 
 of these latter characteristics. This was and is the Arkansas Indus- 
 trial University, named directly from our own and on whose campus 
 there exists today a dupHcate from the same plans of our University 
 Hall. Well-to-do parents did not want to send their children to an 
 industrial school; those trying to provide for outcasts or criminals 
 found to their surprise that the Industrial University was not organ- 
 ized for their reception. In the early eighties, a county school super- 
 intendent of Macon County, almost adjoining ours, wrote, asking if 
 three unruly children of a widowed mother, the oldest thirteen years 
 of age, could be provided for in the Illinois Industrial University. A 
 graduate of the class of 1876, seeking employment, was asked where he 
 was educated, and upon replying, at the Illinois Industrial University, 
 the inquiry followed at once, "What were you sent up for?" 
 
 With this state of things, is there much wonder that appropriations 
 from the State came by the hardest efforts, if they were made at all? 
 Is there much wonder that growth was very slow, if any took place .'' 
 But efforts were made against discouraging odds, in the face of in- 
 difference and sometimes of ridicule, with concealed and open enemies 
 at home and abroad, during a depressed period in the financial and 
 commercial affairs of the country. With little forward movement 
 anywhere in any line of activity, the University, nevertheless, did 
 gain from 1880 onward. For the first time in its history State appro- 
 priation toward the expenses of general instruction was secured in 
 1881. The amount was indeed small but the acknowledgment thus 
 made was great. The money only amounted to five thousand seven 
 
 (545) 
 
236 
 
 hundred dollars per annum for two years ; that which went along with 
 it was the practical acceptance by the State of the fact that it pos- 
 sessed an educational institution which it must support. In 1883 the 
 next General Assembly made the sum fourteen thousand dollars per 
 annum for two years — an encouraging increase and an example that 
 has usually been followed ever since. In 1885 came the change of 
 name. Other things seemed now to permit a movement which had 
 been held to be inadvisable before . The term ' ' The State University ' ' 
 had begun to be somewhat commonlv applied to the institution. The 
 name Industrial University as usually understood was recognized as a 
 misnomer, though many of the friends of the institution felt reluctant 
 to any change which should imply in any way or to any degree a 
 change in character or purpose. All enemies were at once aroused. 
 The old name suited these to perfection. When it was found that 
 some change was probable, attempts were made under various pre- 
 texts to prevent the adoption of the name which was proposed and 
 afterwards applied. The graduates of the earlier classes took the 
 most active part in this name propaganda, the Trustees and Faculty 
 deeming it unwise to be known as urging the change. The "boys" 
 had the influential help of a few interested members of both the Senate 
 and House and in spite of the opposition encountered the movement 
 succeeded. 
 
 But the victory, for such it was, thus won in 1885, was due to 
 other activities and agencies than those apparent at the time. One 
 man especially had been carefully making ready for this battle for five 
 years. Not that this change of name was the main object in view, but 
 this was the best outward evidence of an accomplished purpose. The 
 appropriations for current expenses beginning in 1881, and the change 
 of name meant in good part the same thing, or it may be said that the 
 latter expressed what the other really signified, viz, the University of 
 the State of Illinois, so recognized and supported. The man who more 
 than any other is to be credited with this achievement was Selim N. 
 Peabody, LL.D., the second President. Existing documentary evi- 
 dence does not give anything like proper credit to the work and services 
 of this devoted, conscientious and really able man. This little testi- 
 monial is therefore more gladly given in this place. 
 
 III. A Governor's Help 
 During the year of 1892 the Faculty as such fully discussed the 
 needs of the University upon the legislative side, and for the first time 
 in the history of the institution formulated for themselves their con- 
 ception of these requirements and caused the results to be passed on 
 to the Trustees. Again abundant consideration was given the subject 
 and while the total amount of money talked of was many times beyond 
 anything ever before asked for, the opinion became unanimous that 
 all the items were essential ones and the estimates were reasonable. 
 
 (546) 
 
237 
 
 The onlv hesitation felt by some members of the Board of Trustees 
 concerned the matter of policy- Everything in the list was needful 
 to the proper progress of the University. Would so large an asking 
 jeopardize everything? The bill for 1891 carried a total of $197, 
 300.00, and this included an unusual item, seventy thousand dollars 
 for the Natural History Building. The proposed askings for 1893 
 made a total of $345,600 and three new main structures were 
 called for, namely, a library building, one for the College of Engineer- 
 ing and one for a public museum. Claims for the latter were empha- 
 sized from the consideration that at the close of the Columbian Expo- 
 sition, to which the University was to be a large contributor, it would 
 be possible to secure a large amount of valuable material if there could 
 be offered suitable accommodations for it. 
 
 While some other members of the Board were strongly in favor of 
 including evervthing mentioned in the list prepared by the Faculty, 
 no one so unreservedly and enthusiastically advocated this as did 
 Francis M. McKay, an alumnus of the University and for many years 
 an active and influential trustee. This acknowledgment is gladly 
 made though it must not be taken as in any way disparaging others. 
 It is made more especially because of what herein follows. 
 
 The State elections in November, 1892, resulted in a Democratic 
 victorv, placing the next year John P. Altgeld in the governor's chair 
 and giving political control to the Democrats in both houses of the 
 Legislature. Here, then, was a new proposition to face in regard to 
 University appropriations. From the beginning in 1867 the Republi- 
 cans had been in continuous power. Would the new masters be 
 equallv interested and favorable? Who could tell? 
 
 The bill was introduced in the Senate, everything included. Its 
 first reference early in the session was to the committee on appropri- 
 ations and there it was well supported. But the men had previously 
 agreed on economv. They proposed to make a record for this, now 
 the chance had come to them. The askings were cut unmercifully. 
 The three buildings were thrown out. The expense fund was reduced 
 to the amount passed by the previous General Assembly; everything 
 was blue. The University representatives withdrew, perhaps wiser, 
 but no better men than before. A council was held to determine the 
 next step to take. Some one proposed a call upon the Governor. 
 Colonel Richard P. Morgan was made spokesman. An audience was 
 soon obtained and the Governor listened patiently to the story care- 
 fully told and to the plea skillfully made. After many questions 
 and replies, going deep into the merits of the cause, the Governor said, 
 "Well, gentlemen, wait until morning and come in again. I will see 
 the chairman of the Senate committee. Perhaps something can be 
 done." Something was done. The chairman did not report out the 
 action of his committee but instead called the latter together again 
 
 (547) 
 
238 
 
 the next afternoon. The matter was reconsidered and a report was 
 soon agreed upon recommending the full sums asked for except for the 
 museum and library building. The engineers' building, at one hundred 
 and fifty thousand dollars was put in. The entire complexion of 
 things had been changed over 'night. From that hour onward the 
 the passage of the amended bill was easy. A new and influential 
 friend had been found in the Governor of the State, and so he subse- 
 quently and abundantly proved himself to be. Whatever else and 
 elsewhere may be said of Governor Altgeld, his name should be a 
 luminous one on the pages of the University history and his memory 
 should be cherished for what he was and did in connection with this 
 University of Illinois. 
 
 (548) 
 
/• 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 'm 
 
 '"^-^ 
 
 i 
 
 
 ^^"■^i. 
 
 'V. 
 
 j^^-^t 
 
^-^ 
 
 
 * • '.;?. 
 
 "^■l 
 
 .1