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To renew call Telephone Center, 333-8400 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN ■ "-» » . • . 8 APR 1 2 > 1989 M995 L161— O-I096 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2013 http://archive.org/details/buildingenergyha01pope ERDA-76/163/1 Building Energy Han f It If II Volume 1 December 1976 Methodology for Energy Survey and Appraisal Prepared For: (^Energy Research & Development Administration Division of Building and Community Systems Under Contract No. E(49-1)-3853 Project Managed By: Division of Facilities and Construction Management DEPOSITORY MA. vj v The BUILDING ENERGY HANDBOOK consists of two volumes: Voluae I: Methodology for Energy Survey end Apprslssl (ERDA 76/163/1) Volume 2: Forms for Energy Survey snd Apprslssl (ERDA 76/163/2) Availability snd price information are indlcsted below. Questions concerning the contents of or pertaining to this publicstion should be directed to the Division of Facilities and Construction Management, ERDA Headquarters, Washington, D.C. 20545 s NOTICE This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by the United States Government. Neither the United States nor the United States Energy Research and Development Administration, nor any of their employees, nor any of their contractors, subcontractors, or their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility lor the accuracy, completeness or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Available from: National Technical Information Service (NTIS) U.S. Department of Commerce 5285 Port Royal Road Springfield, Virginia 22161 Price: Printed Copy: $10.00 Microfiche: $ 2.25 ♦ ERDA-76/163 UC9 (Modifie I Building Energy Hai • §•• \< Volume 1 Methodology for Energy Survey and Appraisal December 1971 Prepared Fc Energy Research & Development Administrate Division of Building and Community Syster Under Contract No. E(49-1)-38! Project Managed B Division of Facilities and Construction Manageme > (1 ill Buz ■ 1 BUILDING ENERGY HANDBOOK VOLUME 1 METHODOLOGY FOR ENERGY SURVEY AND APPRAISAL TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER SECTION PARAGRAPH TITLE EXECUTIVE SUMMARY A. Introduction 1-1 B. Purpose of BUILDING ENERGY HAND- BOOK 1-2 C. Scope of BUILDING ENERGY HANDBOOK 1-2 D. Contents of BUILDING ENERGY HAND- BOOK 1-3 E. Summary of BUILDING ENERGY HAND- BOOK 1-4 1. Selection of Buildings for Detailed Energy Study 1-4 2. Building Energy Appraisal 1-6 3. ECO Survey and Appraisal 1-8 SELECTION OF BUILDINGS FOR DETAILED ENERGY STUDY A. General Considerations 2-1 1. Introduction 2-1 2. Methodology 2-1 3. Hard vs. Soft Data 2-1 4. Energy Study Team Organization 2-1 5. Input by Facility and Building Management Personnel 2-1 B. Step by Step Procedure 2-3 1. Step 1. Data Gathering and Synthesis of Available Data 2-3 2. Step 2. Establishing of Selection Criteria 2-3 3. Step 3. Preliminary Selection of Buildings 2-6 Table of Contents Vol. 1 P. 2 CHAPTER SECTION PARAGRAPH TITLE PAGE 4. Step 4. Preparation, Distribution and Evaluation of Building Questionnaire 2-7 5. Step 5. Walk-Through Survey 2-8 6. Step 6. Selection of Buildings for Detailed Study 2-10 3 BUILDING ENERGY APPRAISAL A. Introduction 3-1 B. Procedure for Building Energy Appraisal 3-2 1. General 3-2 2. Review of Building Questionnaire and ECO Checklist 3-2 3. Development of Preliminary Build- ing Flow and Balance Diagrams 3-2 4. Establishing Building Energy Indices 3-7 5. ECO Identification 3-14 C. Step by Step Procedure for Building Energy Appraisal 3-20 D. List of Forms for Buidling Energy Appraisal 3-21 E. Modified Bin Method for Manual Energy Calculations 3-22 1. General 3-22 2. Purpose 3-22 3. Description of the Modified Bin Method 3-22 SURVEY AND APPRAISAL OF BUILDING ENERGY CONSERVATION OPPORTUNITIES (ECOs) A. Purpose 4-1 B. Methodology 4-2 1. Preliminary Evaluation of ECOs 4-2 2. ECO Oriented In-Depth Energy Survey 4-2 3. Technical Appraisal of ECOs 4-4 4. Economic Appraisal of ECOs 4-4 Table of Contents Vol. 1 P. 3 CHAPTER SECTION PARAGRAPH C. D E 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. TITLE Step by Step Procedure for ECO Appraisal List of Forms Use of Computers in Building Energy and ECO Appraisal General Considerations Relating to Compu- ters vs . Manual Calculations Preliminary Selection Criteria Computer Application Available Computer Programs PAGE 4- ■7 4- ■8 4- ■9 4- ■9 4- •9 4- ■12 4- •12 4- ■16 A, B, C. 1 2 3 4 5 2 3, 4, 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 ENERGY CONSERVATION OPPORTUNITIES (ECOs) General 5-1 Building Skin 5-3 Building Comfort, Use and Occu- pancy 5-10 Electrical Systems 5-13 Service and Distribution 5-14 Power Generation 5-17 Load Management 5-18 Lighting 5-23 Maintenance 5-28 Heating and Cooling Systems 5-30 Fuel Handling and Combustion Systems 5-31 Heat Generating Plants 5-37 Refrigeration Plants 5-39 Steam Distribution Systems 5-44 Condensate Return and Feedwater Systems 5-46 Hot Water Distribution Systems 5-55 Chilled Water Distribution Systems 5-58 Air Handling HVAC Systems 5-62 Air-Water HVAC Systems 5-76 All -Water HVAC Systems 5-77 Multiple Unit and Unitary HVAC Systems 5-78 Ventilation and Exhaust Systems 5-79 Table of Contents Vol. 1 p. 4 CHAPTER SECTION PARAGRAPH TITLE PAGE F. Plumbing Systems 5-86 1. Service Hot and Cold Water Systems 5-86 2. Compressed Air Systems 5-89 3. Wastewater Systems 5-89 G. Pumping Systems 5-90 H. Coolant Systems 5-92 I. Industrial Process Systems 5-94 J. Monitoring, Control and Surveil- lance Systems 5-96 K. Waste Energy Recovery and Reduc- tion 5-101 1. HVAC Recovery Systems 5-101 2. Combustion Air and Flue Gas Systems 5-108 3. Hot Liquid Effluent or Recircula- ting Systems 5-110 4. Hot Air, Vapor or Gas Exhaust 5-111 5. Energy Leakage 5-111 6. Solid Waste Recovery 5-112 L. Operation and Maintenance 5-113 APPENDIX 1 ECO RELATED QUESTIONS (EQ) A. General APP 1-1 B. Building Skin APP 1-2 C. Comfort, Use and Occupancy APP 1-3 D. Electrical Systems APP 1-5 E. HVAC Systems (Comfort & Process) APP 1-6 F. Plumbing Systems APP 1-24 G. Pumping Systems APP 1-26 H. Coolant Systems APP 1-28 Table of Contents Vol. 1 p. 5 CHAPTER SECTION PARAGRAPH I. J. K. L. TITLE PAGE Industrial Process Systems APP 1-29 Monitoring, Control and Surveil- lance Systems APP 1-31 Waste Energy Management and Recovery APP 1-32 Operation and Maintenance APP 1-36 APPENDIX 2 A, B, ELECTRICAL ENERGY APPRAISAL Definitions of Terms APP 2-1 Guideline Values for Electri- cal Energy Appraisal APP 2-2 APPENDIX 3 A, B, C D MANUAL ENERGY CALCULATIONS FOR BUILDING 212 AT ARGONNE NATIONAL LABORATORY General APP 3-1 Preferred Bin Method Applied to Building 212 APP 3-2 Alternate Bin Method Applied to Building 212 APP 3-18 Development of Actual Building Energy Indices APP 3-28 APPENDIX 4 APPENDIX TO CHAPTER 5 APP 4-1 APPENDIX 5 BIBLIOGRAPHY APP 5-1 d r - c BUILDING ENERGY HANDBOOK VOLUME 1 METHODOLOGY FOR ENERGY SURVEY AND APPRAISAL LIST OF TABLES TABLE NO TITLE PAGE HF 3-1 APP 2-1 APP 2-2 APP 2-3 APP 2-4 APP 2-5 APP 2-6 APP 3B-1 APP 3B-2 APP 3B-3 APP 3B-4 APP 3B-5 APP 3B-6 APP 3B-7 Temperature Required for Pumping and Atomization of Typical Fuel Oils Range of Typical Values for Lighting and Receptacle Load Density, Demand & Load Factors Per Space Use Function Selection Guide: Lighting and Receptacle Load Density Selection Guide: Demand Factors Selection Guide: Load Factors Selection Guide: Demand and Load Factors - Special Loads Representative Coincidence Factor Values Midway Airport Dry Bulb Temperature Frequency Occurrence for the Occupied Period Midway Airport Dry Bulb Temperature Frequency Occurrence for the Unoccupied Period Midway Airport Dry Bulb Temperature Frequency Occurrence for the 24 Hour Total Period Midway Airport Wet Bulb Temperature Frequency Occurrence for the Occupied Period Midway Airport Wet Bulb Temperature Frequency Occurrence for the Unoccupied Period Midway Airport Wet Bulb Temperature Frequency Occurrence for the 24 Hour Total Period Derivation of Equivalent Full Load Cooling Hours (EFL C ) at Midway 5-36 APP2-3 APP2-6 APP2-7 APP2-8 APP2-9 APP2-10 APP3-7 APP3-8 APP3-9 APP 3 -10 APP3-11 APP 3 -12 APP3-13 Tables Vol. 1 P- 2 1 TABLE NO, TITLE PAGE APP 3B-8 APP 3B-9 APP 3C-1 APP 3C-2 APP 3C-3 APP 3C-4 APP 3C-5 APP 3C-6 APP 3C-7 APP 3C-8 APP 3D-1 Form 3-3 Form 3-4 ELM 2-1 ELM 2-2 W 2-1 <1 Derivation of Equivalent Full Load Heating Hours (EFLh) at Midway APP3-14 Derivation of Equivalent Full Load Hours for Ventilation (EFL v i) and Coil LH Loads-Midway APP3-15 O'Hare Airport Climatic Data: Cooling Season APP3-20 O'Hare Airport Climatic Data: Heating Season APP3-21 Redistribution of Cooling Season Dry Bulb Hourly Occurrences at O r Hare APP3-22 Derivation of Equivalent Full Load Cooling Hours (EFL C ) at O'Hare APP3-23 Redistribution of Heating Season Hourly Occurrences O'Hare APP3-2 Derivation of Equivalent Full Load Heating Hours (EFL h ) at O'Hare APP3-25 Redistribution and Summary of Mean Coincident Wet Bulb Temperature Occurrences for Each Dry Bulb Temperature Bin APP3-26 Derivation of Equivalent Full Load Ventilation Hours (EFL v i) at O'Hare APP3-27 Building Lighting and Receptacle Distribution APP3-30 Actual Building Energy Appraisal Form Pages 1 through 6 Energy Flow Diagram Synthesis Pages 5 and 7 Suggested Maximum Capacitor Rating When Motor and Capacitor are Switched as Unit APP4-3 KW Multipliers to Determine Capacitor Kilovars Required for Power Factor Correction APP4-4 Typical Fixture Flows APP4-15 d B UILDING ENERGY HANDBOOK VOLUME 1 METHODOLOGY FOR ENERGY SURVEY AND APPRAISAL LIST OF EXHIBITS AND FIGURES EXHIBIT OR FIGURE NUMBER TITLE PAGE Exhibit A Exhibit B Exhibit C Figure 3-1 Figure 3-2 Figure HF 1-1 Figure HCR 4-1 Figure HCR 4-2 Figure HCR 5-1 Figure HCH 1-1 Figure HA 3-1 Figure HVE 1-1 Figure WH 3-1 Figure WCF 1-1 Figure WCF 1-2 Selection of Buildings for Detailed Energy Study Work Flow Diagram 1-5 Building Energy Appraisal Work Flow Diagram 1-7 ECO Survey and Appraisal Work Flow Diagram 1-9 Preliminary Building Energy Flow Diagram 3-4 Steam System Energy Flow Diagram 3-6 Flue Gas Analysis vs. Percent Combustion Air 5-32 Flash Loss vs. Condensate Pressure 5-47 Injection of Make-up Into Condensate Return Tank 5-48 FW Pump Curves Variable vs. Constant Speed Chiller Flow vs. P.D. Terminal Reheat Control for Discharge Air Temperature Reset Balanced Hood with Internal By-Pass Schematic of Heat Revovery Wheel Specific Heat of Flue Gas Percent of Fuel Savings with Air Preheat 5-109 5- ■53 5- ■61 5- ■74 5- ■80 5- ■104 5- ■109 Exhibits & Figures Vol. 1 P- 2 EXHIBIT OR FIGURE NUMBER Figure APP 3B-1 Figure APP 3B-2 Figure HF 1-2 Figure HF 1-3 Figure HF 1-4 Figure HF 1-5 Figure HF 1-6 Figure HF 1-7 Figure HF 1-8 Figure HF 2-1 TITLE PAGE Hourly Occurrence Bins for Ventilation and Cooling Coil LH Loads APP3-16 Plot of Typical Aw Bin APP3-17 How to Determine Heat Loss and Fuel Loss - Fuel Oil APP4-5 Scale of Total Heat Loss - Fuel Oil APP4-6 How to Determine Heat Loss and Fuel Loss - Gas APP4-7 Scale of Total Heat Loss - Gas APP4-8 How to Figure Bituminous -Coal Combustion Quickly APP4-9 Scales and Chart for Combustion Perform- ance Estimate APP4-10 Air Required for and Products of Combustion APP4-11 Cost of Steam Atomization Versus Air Atomization APP4-12 4 ' < CHAPTER 1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY SECTION A - INTRODUCTION The United States Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) ENERGY HANDBOOKS present guidelines to investigate and analyze energy usage, to identify energy saving opportunities, and to recommend and evaluate energy conservation measures at ERDA facilities. Pope, Evans and Robbins Incorporated, Consult- ing Engineers, (PER) was selected to prepare these HANDBOOKS under ERDA Contract No. E (49-1) -3853. The methodology was developed and tested while conducting an actual energy conservation survey at a major ERDA installation: Argonne National Laboratory, ANL-East, at Argonne , Illinois. It is anticipated that the methodology will be further developed, and the HANDBOOKS appropriately revised, as additional ERDA facilities are surveyed. It is hoped that the HANDBOOKS' methodology will also prove useful for conducting energy conser- vation surveys of facilities of other Federal, state and local agencies and of the private sector. The survey methodology is presented in two parts. The SITE ENERGY HANDBOOK, published as ERDA-76/131/ 1 and ERDA-76/ 131/2 , covers site energy and utility distribution systems, and the BUILDING ENERGY HANDBOOK pertains to the interior systems. The interface is essentially the traditional "five feet outside the building line", assuming due allowance for meter location, system interaction, etc. The HANDBOOKS contain (1) discussion of techniques for conducting energy surveys, and (2) forms for gathering and collating data. The intent is that those forms germane to a specific survey will be removed temporarily from the HANDBOOK(S) and reproduced in the quantities needed for actual field use. 1-2 SECTION B. PURPOSE OF BUILDING ENERGY HANDBOOK The purpose of the BUILDING ENERGY HANDBOOK is: (1) to provide guidelines and forms to identify and select for detailed investigation those buildings which offer the greatest potential for energy conservation, (2) to identify and evaluate significant energy conservation opportunities (ECOs) within selected buildings , and (3) to rank technically feasible ECOs based on economics . The BUILDING ENERGY HANDBOOK is based on PER's analysis of Building 212 at ANL-East, with the intention that it be suitable or adaptable for use at other laboratory-office type buildings . SECTION C. SCOPE OF BUILDING ENERGY HANDBOOK The BUILDING ENERGY HANDBOOK covers all building energy systems including energy entering, converted, distributed, consumed and leaving the building. Energy systems considered include electricity, steam, hot air, recirculated hot water, chilled water, once-through hot and cold water, compressed air and waste energy systems. 1-3 SECTION D. CONTENTS OF BUILDING ENERGY HANDBOOK The BUILDING ENERGY HANDBOOK consists of two volumes: Volume 1: Methodology for Energy Survey and Appraisal and Energy Conservation § Opportunities . Volume 2: Forms for Energy Survey and Appraisal Volume 1 of the BUILDING ENERGY HANDBOOK contains the following chapters. Chapter 1: Executive Summary Chapter 2: Selection of Buildings for Detailed Energy Study Chapter 3: Building Energy Appraisal Chapter 4: Survey and Appraisal of Building Energy Conservation Opportunities Chapter 5: Energy Conservation Opportunities Appendix 1: ECO Related Questions Appendix 2: Electrical Energy Appraisal Appendix 3: Manual Energy Calculations for Building 212 at Argonne National Laboratory Appendix 4: Appendix to Chapter 5 Appendix 5: References Volume 2 of the BUILDING ENERGY HANDBOOK contains the following chapters : Chapter 1: Introduction Chapter 2: Forms for Selection of Buildings for Detailed Energy Study Chapter 3: Forms for Building Energy Appraisal Chapter 4: Forms for ECO Survey and Appraisal 1-4 SECTION E. SUMMARY OF BUILDING ENERGY HANDBOOK This BUILDING ENERGY HANDBOOK is based on a three-phased approach to building energy conservation: selection of buildings for detailed energy study; building energy apprai- sal; and energy conservation opportunity (ECO) survey and appraisal. The methodology of each phase is illustrated in Exhibits A, B and C, which are cross-referenced to appli- cable forms and data sources. IE. 1 Selection of Buildings for Detailed Energy Study: The first phase, illustrated in Exhibit A and presented in Chapter 2, consists of six steps: 1. Data gathering and synthesis 2. Establishing of selection criteria 3. Preliminary selection of buildings 4. Building questionnaire 5. Walk-through survey 6. Building selection The HANDBOOK provides forms (Form 2-1) for gathering basic data concerning the characteristics and energy consumption of each building. Guidelines for the establishment of selec- tion criteria and preliminary selection of buildings are presented. In order to obtain specific data concerning the selected buildings energy systems, a questionnaire is distri- buted to responsible operating personnel. Guidelines for preparing and distributing this questionnaire, as well as a typical questionnaire (Form 2-2) are included. Following evaluation of the questionnaires and review of all available information, each building selected is surveyed to verify existing, and collect additional information; obtain first- hand knowledge of the energy systems; and identify potential ECOs . An ECO checklist is provided to assist in identify- ing possible ECOs (Form. 2-3). The HANDBOOK presents guide- lines to assist in the final selection of buildings with high energy conservation potential for detailed study under subsequent phases of the energy conservation program. <£> o co tn >- O or UJ z UJ o < UJ _l I o >- ~ 2 w * o > -J a: a: < x = * »- to LU Ql o 3 3 m a» >- to ce _ o < z z z o Q ELIM LECT _l CD (£ UJ U. o. co O z CO o < _J H- 01 m o Ul < UJ »- »- _l — CO Ul Ql UJ CO c_> *: or CO c_> <: co 1-5 CO o O UJ O X UJ o Ql < z z o o l- _J «" — Ul m or to q or -I o — o 3 UJ co etc o >- Ql E < r- o < => x CD Q CO CO CM Ql O LU _l m C£ —I Q. Q_ - _l cu to Ul III ce > co Ul UJ < z o m UJ to < CO S or C9 o z z < 2 ^ co < UJ ►- o _l ll Q UJ UJ 1 >- o Q- co z 0T < 2 UJ _l o z < o UJ m Q_ CD Q- < < Q CD O o ^ x a: _. x uj u. o o o CD 1 >- 1 CO z a CES NERG z z o UJ _j 13 1" p _l o z a. cd - < a. lf> o *£ CO — I < >- t 2 z _l o o => o X t- CE 1- UJ O CO z o UJ 1- o ^* UJ tO z z o a: * 1- Q < UJ < o ro i CVJ 1 2 3 co < Z] u_ o UJ >- UJ CE • CD > CE O UJ < z u. Q — (Y - CO Z UJ CE CE CO UJ O < z U 00 UJ CO z Q X _l UJ sg CD ± _l >■ < to => CE f- UJ O Z ro i ro 2 CE O O >■ < CO CE CE tO UJ CO CO UJ I ro UJ Q CO x 2 CE O >- CE < -I Z < — CO — CO < _l CE CE Ul UJ Q. CE Z Q. O. UJ < CE O ro cm CE UJ 2 uj 2 a: r-3 O < o Lt_ x > CJ CJ o > CM CE UJ a. CE < CO 00 O > X o z UJ a. a. < CO z o h- co UJ o UJ o o UJ o > ID CE a. < o o CO z Q =3 CD o or o *et < o h- CD Q 1-8 IE. 3 ECO Survey and Appraisal : The third phase, illustrated in Exhibit C and presented in Chapter 4, consists of six steps: 1. Preliminary ECO appraisal 2. In-depth survey form refinement 3. ECO oriented in-depth survey 4. Technical appraisal of ECOs 5. Economic appraisal of ECOs 6 . ECO ranking An optional seventh step includes the final refinement of the energy flow diagram based on the additional data obtained during the in-depth survey. A preliminary evaluation of ECOs identified is performed using data gathered during the preceding phases. An in-depth survey is performed to obtain additional, or more accurately define existing ECO related data using Form 4-1. Technical evalua- tion of the ECOs is performed based on the ECO descriptions in Chapter 5. Economic evaluation and ranking of the tech- nically feasible ECOs is performed based on the methodology presented in "Life Cycle Costing Emphasising Energy Conserva- tion" (ERDA - 76/130). Forms 4-2 and 4-3 contain a summary of the data required and the procedures involved in the economic appraisal of building ECOs . Building ECO appraisal may be performed manually or on computer Chapter 4 contains guidelines for selection of the most appropriate mode of calculation. 1-9 - LU u_ > ^ en CO o o * UJ — 1 INED RGY FLO i BALANC ■21 * - i d k l U.UJQ,, o_ . 1 Ul Z Z . - o 1 IE UJ < Q _ 1 T _1 C3 z CO o z o < UJ CC A T _l O < a, s cn o ID ECONO ■- APPRA OF EC 1 _i -J < < CO Z < O ^" TECH APPR OF E 1 Q UJ h- 3= z h- ro ECOORIE IN-DEP SURVEY ! S (- CC z tOW £*-;= <\J IN-DEP SURVEY REFINE 1 >- cc -i < < Z CO PRELIM ECO APPRAI Z O h- Q_ UJ CO £o »~ - ' co cc - Q UJ E Q > L_ I CC UJ z = a: — co • CO CC _ •*■ U_ h- **• Q. >■ uj uj 2 O > CC I OC o z => u. = CO ^_ • UJ -~ -" o > (X) • uj — — \- CO X LU < z ^ 2 -J o 2 * UJ — z -* CC h- UJ -I CO Q_ O o lu a. > o = < LJ <3 ^, • o CE CD ^ - 4 | _J UJ (V UJ_| D1U< < UJ uJ -z z UJ Ul yl 1^ 3-5 Secondary conversion processes (i.e. chilled water to conditioned air) Distribution of tertiary energy systems (i.e. conditioned air to terminal apparatus) Consumption (i.e. end-use at terminal device for lighting, heating, etc.) Energy leaving building (i.e. exhaust air from hoods, domestic hot water discharge, etc.). The preliminary energy flow diagram need not pick up details of any component node. These details will be investigated during subsequent phases of the building energy survey and appraisal, when it appears that a particular node or node com- ponent presents an ECO. The preliminary energy flow diagram should always show the total quantities of energy entering, consumed, and rejected, for a complete energy balance. 3B.3.5 Preparation of Building Preliminary Energy Flow and Balance Diagrams ." " 3B.3.5.1 Background Data . By combining available metered data with data from the Building Questionnaire, equipment character- istics, operating procedures and other data gathered during the survey and through discussions with facility and building person- nel, it is some times possible to determine a totalized distribution of annual usage on a system by system basis and construct a building energy flow and balance diagram. Whenever data from the Building Questionnaire and information from surveys and building management are not sufficient to develop a building energy flow and balance diagram, the actual building energy appraisal procedure presented in Subsection 3B.4 in this Chapter should be applied to determine approximate energy con- sumption within various energy nodes in the building. 3B.3.5.2 Presentation. The more complex a building's energy systems, the more difficult it is to show a meaningful energy balance of all energy systems on one flow sheet. The prime purpose can still be served if selected energy flows are depicted on separate diagrams, with cross-referencing of related energy systems or components. As an example, Figure 3-2 shows a system energy flow diagram for steam. This system flow diagram 3-6 z ■: tfc « 2 f i> - 1 » i I < < ^ * 5 4 2 3 2 a Of c b» E c it IU 2 r 5 b iT - 2 u > Q IU <3 •4 Wit 1 > 5 5 2 O O 1L 2 HI 2 . i U J 2h 4 h mi i 0«rJ Ul J- x 2 £ -j nililll (0 > 2 •u 4 1- 2 il 5 5 2 2 O Q ol d > ^■i e> 5t 2 00 lid) 1 (0 P O 5 2 ID U. 4 111 UJ O « 2-i»r 11 1 Q 8 1 O 1 3 2 A w & SI i k Ik 4 k I _l til 2Q IU IU _i -J Q i< *3 Q V n > 1 II O 2 I i S3 1 ' is 1. . I S I ' 1 i-i- V n ♦ &/ T 4 2 i > T \ \ : r* \f t 1 s in \ \ : c \5 ± 4 . 1 I Irw » \ ' k \ < j Ah \o _, A_ Of j<9 Dl O c 2$ 0(1 lu; Ilk- O 01 B/ in IU in m IU oV UJ >~lli ujui uJtW 2 O »- 2< pa Q_ UJ fco? -4 m it a 4 ? 3 Jo 0/ 3 J Ik 3 > > <* 2 K3 UJ L) 3 a. 1 1- 1 1 u Z«? 1- 5 2 D •" UJ -, ■I •n hi 00 < d d/ - dl OOi i ( i 3-7 also contains the flow of chilled water produced by absorp- tion, steam turbine and electric motor driven chillers, so that the building's HVAC (or human comfort) energy balance can be analyzed as an entity. The same motor-driven chiller would also be shown on the electrical system energy flow diagram, cross referenced. 3B.4 Establishing Building Energy Indices 3B.4.1 Energy Index (EI) Concept. Quantitative analyses of the energy consumption in a building or in any of its energy nodes or node components can be advantageously pursued with the energy index (EI) concept. The energy index represents the total energy consumption within a building, or a building energy node or node component related to a significant building charac- teristic and to a specific time period. The most commonly used time period for energy indices is one year and the most commonly used building characteristics are square feet of gross or air-conditioned floor area (resulting in energy indices expressed as Btu/SF/year) . Other character- istics sometimes used are cubic feet of occupied spaces for residential and commercial buildings (resulting in EI expressed in Btu/CF/year) and pounds of products for industrial buildings (resulting in EI expressed in Btu/LB/year) . The selection of the most appropriate building characteristic for EI determination becomes extremely important when the energy performance of a building or its energy nodes is compared over different periods of operation, or under different pro- jected or actual modes of operation, and when two different buildings' energy consumptions are compared. For example, valid comparison is possible when similar functional end results (i.e. HVAC temperature, humidity control and flexibility) are obtained in similarly constructed buildings with two different HVAC systems consuming different overall quantities of energy. Here, the common characteristics are the similarity of build- ings and of functional requirements. The common characteristics of dissimilar buildings, in different locations or under different operating conditions is quite elusive, and requires cautious selection. The energy indices in this HANDBOOK are expressed either in physical units, i.e. kwh of electricity per square foot per year, pounds of steam per square foot per year, etc.; or in Btu per square foot per year. 3-8 3B.4.2 Overall Building Energy Index (Elh) . As briefly presented in Chapter 2 of this HANDBOOK, such indices can be used for identification of buildings which offer high-probabi- lity for energy conservation. If the EI of a building is greatly (say 257» or more) in excess of a guideline EI for baseline or "standard" buildings of similar type and function, then the overall building energy index (EXb) may be used as one of the criteria for selection of that building for detailed en- ergy study. Careful judgment must be used in the definition of building floor area (SF5) , if overall EI^ is to have any significance for comparison of different buildings and functions. This does not apply when comparing alternatives within the same building, as long as the same premise is used in all alterna- tives. For example, an office building with large ratios of storage or indoor garage area to gross area might appear to have a much lower EI^ than one without storage or garage, even though its heating and cooling indices might actually be higher. In such cases, the indices for various area functions should be separated for comparison. However, if the effect of any ECO in a given building is analyzed, all functions, no matter how diverse, can be lumped together because the differential accurately reflects the effect of the modifications. The Elfo is of little value, however, as a tool in judging the performance of any individual energy node within a building. Therefore, the major thrust of the guidelines offered in this HANDBOOK is toward ECO identification through the use of nodal or system energy index (EI n ) . 3B . 4 . 3 Standard Building and Standard Nodal Energy Index. A national effort has been started through ASHRAE, FEA, ERDA, NBS and other governmental agencies as well as industry trade groups to collect statistics on actual building EI for the purpose of establishing norms or ranges of energy consumption for various building types and/or functions and processes. The permutations and combinations of energy sensitive parameters that make up an EK , even for such relatively simple structures as office buildings, apartment houses and residences, are numer- ous, while those for industrial buildings are practically in- finite. Consequently any attempt, particularly for industrials, to classify specific types as to firm parameters and EI is a most difficult task. ASHRAE ' s Industrial Energy Subcommitee of the Task Group on Energy Conservation is in the process of developing a concept for industrial buildings which is based 3-9 upon synthesizing overall EI by the summation of a broad variety of energy nodes, starting from a standard structure and standard human comfort requirements. The intent is to develop a tool which may permit the isolation of process or industrially oriented energy requirements, when separate metering between comfort energy and process energy require- ments is not available. The basic premise of this methodo- logy is employed in this HANDBOOK with respect to lab-office buildings, by establishing a reasonable standard office build- ing Elb measure against the actual EI, of a lab-office building. The techniques for nodal EI analysis are fairly well estab- lished and stem from a considerable bank of widely accepted experience figures and calculation procedures . For example the range of techniques for calculating seasonal or annual refrigeration requirements for comfort conditioning vary from the simplified "equivalent full load hours" calculations, through manual load duration curve analysis, to hour-by-hour load integration analysis by computer. It is noted that the figures used in this HANDBOOK for the so- called standard building and standard nodal EI are intentionally selected to represent a high order of performance, or low EI, to better highlight any substantial differentials between the actual and the standard, thereby identifying the greatest number of possible ECOs . 3B.4.4 Adjustment from "Standard" to "Base" Building EI. The comp ar i s on of the EI of an actual building with the EI of a standard building should recognize those parameters which do not lend themselves to modifications . Parameters such as occupancy, building orientation, geographical location and climatic conditions cannot be changed in an actual existing building. The Base Building EI is an adjusted Standard Build- ing EI reflecting: actual conditions for parameters which cannot be modified; ideal conditions for parameters which can be modified. 3B . 4 . 5 Base Building and Base Nodal EI Appraisal Forms. The Base Building and Nodal EI Appraisal Forms (Forms 3-2 Chapter 3 of Volume 2 of this HANDBOOK) actually contain an abbreviated procedure for calculating a Base Building's design loads and EI]-, for an approximate evaluation of the difference between the Actual EI D and the Base EI b . 3-10 Forms 3-2 provide quantitative data for relatively efficient EI with formulae for application to the actual conditions , and provision for calculations if required. The calculated loads for cooling, heating and EI in Forms 3-2 lack several components affecting accuracy, but this will not significantly affect the ECO selections that stem from these appraisals . The loads are not intended to represent accurate heating, cooling and equipment loads, but approximate minimum loads for human comfort requirements. For example, the Base Building EI developed in Forms 3-2 ignore details of systems' design which might result in a greater or lower demand and usage of energy than the base requirements indicated, i.e. a terminal reheat system which creates artificial cooling and heating loads; credits during heating season from lighting, occupancy and solar heat gains; additional energy consumption resulting from excess summer dehumidification when coils extract more moisture than is required to maintain the design room relative humidity level. Transmission load calculations in Forms 3-2 are adequate for quick determination of the impact of the skin or total building energy loads and usage. It is assumed that if a significant impact is found, a more accurate load study will be performed for the development of ECOs . Transmission factors for inside summer /winter design conditions and ventilation quantities were taken per ASHRAE 90-75. These values do not necessarily repre- sent acceptable conditions in any particular facility. However, their use for the Base Building represents compliance with today's energy conservation ethic and permits evaluation, if desired, of the penalty for non-compliance. Outside design con- ditions, which cannot be manipulated, are taken for the actual climatic zone, at percentages that are compatible with ASHRAE 90-75. Actual transmission areas, as well as occupancy are used assum- ing that the building's physical configuration and use are not readily changeable. This does not preclude consideration and evaluation of changing glass area by blanking a portion off, or scheduling occupancy in such a way as to reduce area usage and energy consumption. All indices for heating (EI^) , cooling (EI C ) , HVAC (EIft v ) ' electrical (EI e ) and service hot water (EIh w ) are computed for equivalent Btu at both the building boundary condition (value of energy as used in actual building cycles) and at the source (value of the depletable fuel used to generate the energy consumed, whether the conversion occurs within or outside of the building boundaries) . 3-11 Since Form 3-2 represents the synthesis of an overall human comfort Elb from its component EI, there must be no duplica- tion in the components and no process loads. For example, the electrical index, EI e , must not include any allowance for electric refrigeration or electric heating energy, which would already be accounted for in EI^, EI~ and Els- Process loads are intentionally omitted from all indices in Form 3-2. Unlike refrigeration energy, which must not be duplicated in EI e , lighting and fans which are components of cooling load in EI C must appear again under EI e . Lights and fans which are a heat gain for cooled areas do constitute double energy consumption parameters, one for dissipation by refrigeration and the other as direct consumers of electrical energy. Service hot water EIw, similar to EI C and EI^, includes all energy requirements for normal human comfort , without regard to the type of energy which might provide it (i.e. fuel, elec- tric, steam, etc.). None of the Base Building energy indices include heat reclama- tion, whether or not such techniques are employed in the actual building. Specific ECO nodes will treat these as they arise in the analysis rather than by incorporation in the Base Building EL, to maintain the standardized concept of use for comparison with other Base Buildings. It should be noted that the nodal energy indices are algebrai- cally additive for obtaining the overall building energy index only when they share the same denominator (gross building floor area, for example) . 3B.4.6 Actual Building and Actual Nodal EI Appraisal Forms (Forms 3-3) . These forms are included in Chapter 3, Volume 2, of this HANDBOOK. They are intended to reflect the actual peak flow and annual consumption of all energy entering the building for the following purposes: Representation on the Energy Flow and Balance Diagram Comparison of actual EI components with those of the Base Building, for ECO identification Identification of unmetered components and approxi- mation of their magnitude to establish a reconcilia- tion with known totals and derive a rational order- of -magnitude for important components of energy. Evaluation of the need for computerized analysis of the building and its energy systems. 3-12 The raw data required for these forms are virtually identical to those which must be obtained for computer simulation of the energy systems in a building. Therefore the manual mani- pulation of data to synthesize the actual consumption has been organized in a manner which will facilitate use by either computers or calculators. It must be assumed that the analyst using these forms is familiar with the basics of heating/cooling load calculations and will make necessary adjustments to the guidelines shown, as dictated by actual building conditions. a) Actual Building Cooling Output (EI C Output) . This is an approximate simulation of the actual cooling conditions conducted in a manner similar to that described for the Base Building, but using the actual known parameters of indoor design conditions transmission factors, lighting, fans, process and ventilation loads. Conversion from peak loads to annual consumption is made on the basis of equivalent full load (EFL) hours for each component with its own load profile. Com- pilation of load profiles for significant energy components is necessary for both manual and com- puterized analysis, and is approximate for both . on many components . Computerized skin heat gains and losses are usually faster and more accurate than manual calculations. b) Cooling Load and Energy Input (EI C Input) . The procedures indicated in Forms 3-3 are the means by which calculated loads and energy consumption may be brought in line with estimated or metered figures, so that the individual load components can be isolated and analyzed. Reconciliations must be made from as many different bases as are avail- able from survey data (i.e. steam + electric refri- geration must be equal to ton-hours equivalent for these machines as shown in the tabular breakdowns in this section of Form 3-3, as well as in the breakdowns of any steam and electric meters which might monitor the equipment involved) . All quantities are expected to be consistent with reported or metered records of installed equipment. 3-13 c) Heating Load and Energy Output and Input (EI^) These calculations are conducted in much the same manner as for cooling. Although credits for internal gains in perimeter areas with exposed skin are not shown, they may be calculated manually when building systems are designed and operated to take advantage of such credits. For example, a perimeter area heated with hot water radiation, which is arbitrarily scheduled to compensate for 1007o of skin heat loss, does not benefit from either indoor heat gains or solar gains (unless it is in an exposure with zoned, solar compensated scheduling and no moving shadows from neighboring structures) . Similarly, for a computerized analysis to be accurate in this respect, its program must be capable of recognizing such factors. Some programs take such internal gain credits whether or not the energy gains actually occur. d) Actual Building Service Hot Water Consumption (Elfrw) Procedures and guidelines are given for computation and reconciliation directly in Form 3-3. e) Actual Net Process Energy Consumption (EIp) The intent of this section in Form 3-3 is to flag only those process energy quantities which can be readily identified and quantified and do not appear in the other indices . If they can be identified in this manner, they should be deleted from the other indices . f) Actual Net Building Electrical Energy Consumption (EI g ) This section in Form 3-3 identifies previously account- ed for electrical consumption and subtracts it from the overall metered consumption to derive the net consumption for further pertinent breakdown, similar to that for the Base Building, but including remain- ing process energy. The deleted items should be added back for the total electrical consumption, used in establishing total EI e and in the energy flow and balance diagram. 3-14 3B . 4 . 7 Building Energy Indices Synthesis for Building Energy Flow Diagram (.Form 13-4)7 Energy indices may be used to construct the building energy flow and balance diagram. Forms 3-4 in Chapter 3 of Volume 2 of this HANDBOOK have been prepared for this purpose. Forms 3-4 also assist in an overall reconcilia- tion of all energy system quantities in Forms 3-3 with actual av- ailable data. Forms 3-4 take the analyst through the complete path of each energy system, by keying the incoming and outgoing type and quantity of energy on each sheet to previous or subsequent flow sheets. Each tabulation in Forms 3-4 takes a single energy node through at least one conversion or degradation process. (Energy degradation without conversion is illustrated by high pressure to low pressure steam through a non-condensing turbine; or temperature drop of hot water through a heat exchanger) . The tabulations are intended to show the energy flow of each stream through each type of process change. Similar processes may be grouped together . Some values are derived from calculations in Forms 3-2 and 3-3 directly; others from new calculations, but they must all recon- cile with one another and with the totals that are metered or calculated for each energy stream (i.e. electricity, steam). 3B.5 ECO Identification 3B . 5 . 1 Direct Use of Preliminary Energy Flow and Balance Dia- grams . The preliminary energy flow and balance diagram could be used as a basis for possible ECO identification because it high- lights nodes of high energy consumption. The criterion of high energy consumption should be used with judgment and in combination with other criteria before detailed survey and analysis of nodes or node components are performed. Some of the other criteria to be considered are: average consumption rate or energy index; adaptability of the equipment or operational procedures to modifications, and extent of previous energy conservation measures for the node involved. The direct use of the preliminary energy flow and balance diagram for ECO identification should be considered only when time limita- tion does not allow for development of building energy indices and appraisal of actual vs. base building indices. 3-15 3B . 5 . 2 Appraisal of Actual vs. Base Building Indices. The intent of the appraisal is to identify the energy nodes which are most significant and to provide guidelines for estimating the feasibility of their modification, when adequate information is available. It is often possible to accomplish this without detailed examination of the nodal breakdowns. Techniques include numerical comparison of the Actual Building and Base Building energy indices, and comparison with other guidelines or norms, as indicated below (Refer to Forms 3-2 6c 3-3): a) Skin Summary and Appraisal A comparison of base building and actual building transmission EI should be performed for walls (EI W ) , roof (EI r ) , glass (EI„) and total skin transmission (EI t = EI W + EI r + ETg) . It is important to know the order of magnitude of solar loads so that the ratio of skin transmission to total load can be studied in the proper perspec- tive. Since the parameters which affect solar loading (Btuh/SF^) in any given structure are many and varied (i.e. exposure, solar isolation, percentage and shading factor of glass, "U" factor of glass walls and floor area, etc.) it is impossi- ble to refer to "typical" loading, but it is safe to say that a reasonable range of solar loading for multi-story office buildings (2 or more stories) , built circa 1954 to 1971, would be from 50 to 200% of the transmission loading. Transmission loading in the same context would be in the range of 2 to 8 Btuh/SF^, while total building loadings for summer, including solar, would range from 22 to 40 Btuh/SF^. The ratio between actual skin EI- and actual building Elfc and the ratio between base skin EI t and actual skin EI t should also be calculated. If the former ratio is more than 15% and the latter ratio is less than 5 0%, it is an indication that the magnitude of skin modification savings may have priority potential and may justify the time and cost of com- puter refinement. Weigh together with other ECOs and against cost guidelines in Chapter 4, Section E, before resolving computer issue. b) Occupancy Appr aisal. The Base Building occupancy was initially assumed at the actual level for cooled areas. Normal occupancy in an office building varies from 75 SF/occupant (densely populated) to 150 SF/occupant (sparsely popu- lated) . This is equivalent to 5.3 and 2.6 3-16 Btuh/SF respectively for the 400 Btu/occupant of sensible heat and latent heat combined. These loadings and their duration are not normally subject to variation. Benefits of change of occupancy, when possible to effect, derive from the potential of indirect savings , rather than any direct load reduction. For example, shifting of personnel to extract benefit from evacu- ated spaces might permit shut-off of lights, HVAC systems or other services, even though the occupancy total itself is not changed. Occupancy densities above 150 SF/ occupant might indicate the possibility of considering such steps, if they can be implemented without harm to the purpose, function or process for which the personnel are present. c) Lighting and Receptacle Appraisal. High local or overall lighting and receptacle load densities indicate the possibility of ECOs . Refer to Appendix 2 for definitions and usual values of watts per square foot, demand and load factors in various type buildings and building areas . Appendix 2 also contains typical selection guidelines and representative coincidence factors. Overall light- ing densities (watts/SF of gross area) can be mis- leading, especially if there is a large ratio of non- functional to gross area. There is a twofold benefit to lighting reductions in cooled spaces (lighting + refrigeration energy) . Therefore, this appraisal should consider the electrical and the cooling energy indices (EI C and EI e ) . Heated spaces may or may not receive heating credits from lighting, depending upon heating system design, configuration and operation. d) Ventilation Appraisal. Actual ventilation requirements may be governed by any one of the following factors : Local, municipal, safety, health or other jurisdictional codes; Arbitrary, rather than current good practice; Special process exhaust system requirements. Any excess of ventilation above that of the Base Building (0.075 CFM/SF) represents a high potential energy saving. This can be illustrated by the follow- ing tabulation based upon each 0.1 CFM/SF increase » 3-17 showing the peak loads for summer and winter in a northerly climate. ROOM DESIGN DB/% RH OUTDOOR DB/WB BT UH/SF/0. 1 CFM SH LH TOTAL Summer Summer Winter 78/60 75/50 72 95/75 95/75 1.84 2.16 7.76 0.82 2.32 2.66 4.48 7.76 Some of the outdated criteria upon which many existing building designs were based have resulted in present day facilities that frequently lend themselves to easily implementable ECOs involving ventilation. Examples of such criteria are; Minimum 257o ratio of outside/ supply air. With even low supply air rates of 1.0 CFM/SF, this corresponds to 0.25 CFM/SF which results in 2 . 5 times the above tabulated loads . Minimum of 2 air changes per hour, ceiling height this corresponds to 60 = 0.33 CFM/SF. With a 10' -0" 2 a/c x 10 ft./ Allowance of 20 CFM/ occupant , which corresponds to 0.26 CFM/SF @ 75 SF occupant and 0.13 CFM/SF @ 150 SF/occupant. Current ASHRAE Standards recognize that, in many circumstances, 5 CFM/occupant is acc- eptable. The results of such obsolete criteria compared with the other component Btuh/SF loads reveal that venti- lation, even in moderate quantities 0.15 CFM/SF is one of the larger components of the heating and cooling loads, which ranges in typical office build- ings from 22 to 40 Btuh/SF during summer and from 20 to 35 Btuh/SF during winter design conditions. Ventilation at 0.25 CFM/SF is approximately 25% of the total summer load and 607 o of the total winter load. Any building with more than 0.1 CFM of ventilation air per SF should be examined very carefully for ECOs in this area. e) F an Heat Gain Appraisal If fan hp for a system's supply fan is greater than 1/3 hp per 1000 CFM handled, it is an indication of static pressures higher than 1% w.g. Although duct sizes cannot be readily changed to reduce pressure requirements, there are a number of tech- niques described in Chapter 5 which can be effective 3-18 v. in reducing fan hp . Like lighting, this is a double benefit since both refrigeration and fan electrical energy may be saved. f) Process Appraisal. Any substantial difference between the actual and base figures in either EI C , EI^ W or EI e is the result of one or more of the following character- istics : Systems which have been designed for greater energy consumption than is required for base loads . Actual loads or EFL hours for human comfort in excess of those indicated for the base building (resulting from more intensive stan- dards or longer periods of occupancy) . Process loads or criteria that are in excess of the actual buildings human comfort requirements . The breakdown of these quantities without separate process system meters is elusive, involving a high degree of judgment and experience. Some guidelines may be given which will help to keep the energy com- ponents in some perspective. Since unmetered process energy evaluation is a subtractive process, this guideline appraisal technique, together with more lengthy manual or computerized calculations may be necessary. Specific knowledge of the magnitude of process load and energy consumption, separate from those of human comfort is not always necessary for effective ECO analysis. It is usually essential when there is a distinct separation of system, node or function, but is sometimes immaterial when a combined human comfort and process load are served. For example, if large ventilation quantities are mandated by process, but simultaneously serve both comfort and process, then reduction of total ventilation (if ac- ceptable to tne process) does not require a clear separation of process and comfort systems. (1) Refri geration & Heating. Design summer loads for office buildings ranging from 22 to 40 Btuh/SF corre- spond to 150 to 300 SF/Ton respectively. Any refri- geration in excess of this range in an office building 3-19 would most likely represent a process load, but an accurate determination of how much of the excess over base building requirements can be charged to process and how much to more inten- sive human comfort requirements must evolve from an individual nodal analysis of the para- meters involved. Similar considerations apply to the heating cycle for isolation of process loads. (2) Service Hot Water. Any service hot water requirements in excess of that for base building may be taken as process oriented unless some of the excess can be specifically identified for human comfort (domestic hot water) . (3) Electricity. Process loads may be isolated by the techniques indicated in Form 3-3. A listing of high electrical energy using equipment together with annual hours of use as determined by operation records or by knowledge of process management personnel will assist in accounting for a major proportion of electrical consumption for process loads. Energy for smaller loads can be approximated from connected ratings and experience demand factors. An example of filled out Forms 3-3 and 3-4 is included in para^ graph D of Appendix 3. 3-20 SECTION C. STEP BY STEP PROCEDURE FOR BUILDING ENERGY APPRAISAL Step 1. Obtain and review basic data, Building Questionnaire,, meter readings, drawings, etc. Step 2. Develop Preliminary Energy Flow Diagram Step 3. Quantify to the extent possible the energy nodes in the Energy Flow Diagram from: a) Meter readings b) Information provided by Building Questionnaire c) Other record data Step 4. Perform actual building energy appraisal. Develop total energy consumption by nodes using actual con- ditions for all parameters (equipment capacities, load profiles, occupancy data, physical characteristics, etc.). Develop actual building energy indices. Step 5. Reconcile figures developed with known totals from actual meter readings and other hard data. Identify reasons for discrepancies and recalculate building energy flows as necessary. Step 6 . Complete Energy Flow and Balance Diagram Step 7. Develop base building energy indices based on: a) Actual conditions for parameters which cannot be modified. b) Ideal conditions for other parameters . Step 8. Identify: a) Energy systems with likely ECOs based on comparison of "base" to "actual" indices. b) Specific ECOs based on knowledge of the building and its systems, developed during the foregoing process . I 3-21 SECTION D. LIST OF FORMS FOR BUILDING ENERGY APPRAISAL The following forms for building energy appraisal are included in Chapter 3 of Volume 2 of this HANDBOOK. FORMS 3-1 Preliminary Energy Appraisal Forms FORMS 3-2 Base Building Energy Appraisal Forms FORMS 3-3 Actual Building Energy Appraisal Forms FORMS 3-4 Energy Flow Diagram Synthesis Forms 3-22 SECTION E. MODIFIED BIN METHOD FOR MANUAL ENERGY CALCULATIONS 4F.1 General. This HANDBOOK contains recommendations for calculation procedures for those building energy studies which do not justify a computerized analysis. These procedures are a modified version of the Bin Method presented in ASHRAE's 1973 systems Guide CReference 1) and are referred to in this HANDBOOK as the Modified Bin Method. 4F.2 Purpose . The purpose of the calculations is to determine annual energy consumptions in various component en- ergy systems whenever detailed metering or records are not available. 4F.3 Description of the Modified Bin Method . The Modified Bin Method uses both the equivalent full load (EFL) hours and the Bin Method concepts for establishing annual energy require- ments in various energy nodes . By definition, the EFL hours is a guideline figure which by multiplication with the peak load in one energy node provides the total energy consumption in that node. For example, annual peak refrigeration tons x EFL hours = total refrigeration ton- hours per year. The Bin Method (Reference 1, Pg. 43.13) tabulates the heat gain or loss of an entire building as a function of ambient temperature and applies each load to the number of hours per year when that temperature occurred, usually in 5 or 10 degree increments. The consumption for each temperature range or bin is the average load in that bin x hours of occurrence. The annual load is the sum of all these consumptions at each bin. The shortcomings observed in Ref (1) for the Bin and EFL Hour Methods are eliminated with the technique developed in this HANDBOOK. The reasons are presented below: When the Bin Method is used as in Reference (1) to project annual consumption of a proposed new facility, many factors are unknown and there is no point of ref- erence. However, applied to existing buildings for simulation of actual consumption, the calculations can usually be reconciled with an actual reference. 3-23 The Bin Method as described in Reference Q) is applied to total building heating and cooling loads, therefore it lacks the ability to track load profiles of component loads. The concept proposed here applies the Bin hour- ly occurrences only to those load components which are sensitive to weather, considering time, temperature and coincident wet bulb slots that relate to each pertinent energy component ( i. e . EFL^ to heating transmission los- ses and winter ventilation; EFL c to cooling transmission and sensible ventilation; and wet bulb EFL v to latent ventilation load) . For components not sensitive to weather, appropriate EFL hours are used with the best available knowledge of actual load profiles, operating hours, and system spec- ifics . This separation of each component load, particularly for "before" and "after" analysis of an ECO dealing with that energy compon- ent alone, permits simplification of studies and numerous var- iations of the ECO, without recalculation of the entire Bin tab- ulation, or an entire computer run for the building. The application of the Modified Bin Method to an actual build- ing for transforming climatic hourly occurrences into usable and rational EFL hours is presented in Appendix 3. CHAPTER 4 SURVEY AND APPRAISAL OF BUILDING ENERGY CONSERVATION OPPORTUNITIES (ECOs) SECTION A. PURPOSE Chapter 4 presents the methodology for survey and technical and economic appraisal of the ECOs identified within the building energy appraisal described in Chapter 3. The ECO survey and appraisal methodology includes additional data collection for the ECOs under investigation, technical feasi- bility evaluation for these ECOs and economic evaluation and ranking of the technically feasible ECOs. Sections B, C and D in Chapter 4 contain respectively the concepts, a step-by-step procedure and a listing of the recommended forms for ECO survey and appraisal. A schematic presentation of the recommended procedure is also included in Exhibit C in the EXECUTIVE SUMMARY. Evaluation of building ECOs can be performed manually or by computer. Section E in Chapter 4 presents the major advantages and disadvantages of these two calculation modes, indicates gen- eral conditions under which a computerized approach is justified and describes the major components of a typical computer applica- tion. 4-2 SECTION B. METHODOLOGY The methodology for building ECO survey and appraisal should include the following activities : Preliminary evaluation of the ECO prospects identified Additional data gathering through ECO oriented in-dept! surveys . Technical evaluation of each ECO. Economic evaluation and ranking of the technically feasible ECOs . 4B.1 Preliminary Evaluation of ECOs . It is sometimes possibl to conduct a fairly valid feasibility study for some of the prospective ECOs without any survey. It is advisable to do thi prior to the in-depth surveys and even to run such studies as far as possible for ECOs with incomplete data. This will serve to expose missing data necessary for specific ECO evaluation and help ensure efficient collection of these data during the in-depth survey. 4B.2 ECO Oriented In-Depth Energy Survey. 4B.2.1 In-Depth Survey Forms . Chapter 4 in Volume 2 of this HANDBOOK contains a set of basic ECO oriented in-depth survey forms (Forms 4-1) . These survey forms serve as a checklist of data which should be collected to permit in-depth analysis of those nodes or node components which lend themselves to technical or proce- dural modifications resulting in possible ECOs. a - Scope . Although some energy system aspects are common to any structure, regardless of physical configuration, function and system design, it is appropriate to consider many ECOs as they apply to specific types of buildings . It is the intent of this HANDBOOK to cover primarily the specific characteristics of laboratory-office type buildings. Therefore, the in-depth survey forms as well as the ECOs contained in this HANDBOOK reflect 4-3 mainly the characteristics of laboratory office type buildings. b. Schedule. Since specific ECOs differ from building to building, the classification of the in-depth survey forms in this HANDBOOK has been based upon separation of systems which convert, distribute, consume, and reject various energy types. This classification, which allows the isolation of major energy nodes, is also used for presentation of major building ECOs and is included at the begin- ning of Chapter 5 in Volume 1. 4B . 2 . 2 Selection and Refinement of In-Depth Survey Forms. The in-depth survey forms included in this HANDBOOK cover the most common aspects relating to ECOs in laboratory-office type buildings. Not all in-depth survey form categories will be required for each building investigated. Only those categories relating to specific ECOs identified should be selected. The in-depth energy forms should be adapted to best reflect the specific conditions in each building. In addition to information in the Building Questionnaire and data gathered during the walk through survey, the ECO Related Questions included in Appendix 1 should be used for the refinement of the in-depth survey forms. 4B.2.3 In-Depth Survey Preparation. It is recommended that an agenda and schedule of survey activities be discussed with facility personnel. The survey team should specify those data requirements which might require some time for accumulation by the building staff. Prior to the survey, a meeting should be held with building operating and process personnel who are closely associated with or affected by proposed ECO modifications. The discuss- ions should cover the intent and practicality of execution and operation of ECOs and are expected to result in confir- mation of the validity of certain ECOs, raising of additional questions to be answered, or sound arguments which might 4-4 ; mandate immediate elimination of some ECOs . Such elimina- tions can save all concerned considerable time and effort which can be more productively applied to other ECOs. 4B . 2 . 4 In-Depth Survey. Using the adapted in-depth survey forms, the actual data gathering should be performed in close cooperation with pertinent building staff. The survey should be conducted with the intent to collect missing data for ECO studies and to keep a sharp lookout for any good prospects that may have been missed. 4B.3 Technical Appraisal of ECOs. The technical feasibility of each ECO should be established based on survey data, general knowledge about the building, discussions with building opera- ting personnel and specific ECO characteristics . These latter characteristics are presented under each ECO in Chapter 5, Volume 1 of this HANDBOOK. 4B.4 Economic Appraisal of ECOs. 4B.4.1 General . The economic appraisal of ECOs should be completed in accordance with ERDA standard procedures using life-cycle costing. The procedures are fully explained in other ERDA publications including "Life Cycle Costing Emphasi- zing Energy Conservation" ERDA- 76/ 130 and "Interim Life-Cycle Costing Guidelines" (ERDAM 6301 of May 4, 1976) to which the reader may refer. 4B.4.2 Measures for Economic Evaluation of ECOs . The recom- mended measures for economic evaluation of ECOs are: savings /investment ratio discounted payback period Btu savings /investment dollar capital investment a. Savings /Investment Ratio (SIR) . The SIR is considered to be the best measure of overall expenditure perfor- mance. The SIR is obtained by dividing the present value of net future ECO cost savings by the present value of the investment necessary to realize these savings. A savings /investment ratio which is greater 4-5 than 1.0 indicates that the proposed investment is cost-effective and that the ECO evaluated will return all capital funds at a greater than the discount rate. Accordingly, the greater the value of the SIR, the more cost-effective the investment opportunity. Discounted Payback Period. The payback period is one of the oldest and most widely used measures of investment performance, but it is not as reliable a measure of overall performance as is the SIR because it fails to consider the financial returns of a project after it has paid out. There are two types of payback: simple and discounted. The simple payback period is the length of time required for the accumulative savings from an ECO to equal the investment without considering the time value of money (discount rate) . The discounted payback period considers the time value of money in deter- mining the accumulative savings. The use of the discounted payback period is recommended. This measurement distinguishes between SIR's of similar value and assists in determining the attractiveness of an investment without extensive analysis. Btu Savings /Investment Dollar. The purpose of initiating energy conservation programs throughout ERDA is to conserve energy. For this reason, in addition to the strict measures of financial perfor- mance, a measurement of the number of Btus saved per investment dollar should also be made. The Btu savings /investment dollar is the ratio of the average annual amount of Btu savings divided by the average annual present value of the invest- ment, the latter representing the net present value of the investment divided by its economic life. The Btu savings /investment dollar puts into a better perspective the ECOs at facilities with low energy costs . Similar ECOs saving the same number of Btus will not yield equivalent savings /investment ratios at different sites because of differences in the cost of energy. From the standpoint of nationwide energy conservation, the Btu savings /investment dollar is considered to be a valid indicator of investment performance. Source Btus should be used in calculating Btu savings . 4-6 d. Capital Investment. This is the last recommended measure for ECO evaluation. In most applications, the funds available for energy consrvation are limited. The capital investment for a certain ECO with good savings /investment ratio, discounted pay- back period and Btu savings /investment dollar may exceed the available funds or may consume so much of these funds as to preclude implementation of other ECOs with better combined energy conservation results. 4B.4.3 Economic Evaluation of Individual ECOs . Each tech- nically feasible ECO should be evaluated using the measures described above. All ECOs with an SIR less than 1 should be eliminated from further consideration. Complete definitions and interpretation of the economic terms, as well as annuity and other financial charts and tables and detailed presentations of the calculations involved are con- tained in ERDA 76/130, referenced on page 4-4. Form 4-2, included in Chapter 4, Volume 2 of this HANDBOOK will assist in the presentation of the economic data relating to each ECO. I 4B.4.4 Ranking of ECOs . Following individual economic appraisal, the ECOs should be ranked based on SIRs . The ECO with the highest SIR will be ranked number 1. Form 4-3 in Chapter 4 of Volume 2 is designed for this purpose. After the first ranking, the savings and capital costs of each ECO should be recalculated considering the effect of implementing the highest ranking ECO on the energy balance. ECOs should then be reranked based on the recalculated SIRs . This procedure may result in elimination of some lower ranking ECOs. This is due to the fact that, by implementing one ECO, some other ECOs may no longer result in sufficiently high energy and cost savings to be economically justified. The recalculated SIR of such ECOs becomes less than 1, and the ECOs involved should be eliminated from further consideration, The above reranking procedure shall be repeated assuming that the second highest ranking ECO has also been implemented. After reranking and elimination of ECOs with SIR less than 1, the procedure shall be applied again for the third, fourth, etc. ranking ECO, until all compatible ECOs are quantified and ranked. 4-7 SECTION C. STEP BY STEP PROCEDURE FOR ECO APPRAISAL Step 1 Preliminary ECO Appraisal . Based on available infor- mation, evaluate technical feasibility of ECOs . Eliminate those ECOs which do not seem feasible and define to the extent possible the additional information required for evaluation of other ECOs. Step 2 In-Depth Survey Forms Refinement. From among Forms 4-1 in Chapter 4, Volume 2, select those form categories which are pertinent to the ECOs to be investigated. Adapt the selected forms and prepare additional survey forms, if neces- sary to suit local conditions. Use available knowledge about the building and its energy systems as basic data, and Appen- dix 1 - ECO Related Questions - as a guide for additional data requirements . Step 3 ECO 0ri3nted In-Depth Survey . Prior to survey, submit to the building staff a list ot necessary information which re- quires some time for accumulation and hold a meeting to discuss tentative ECOs. Collect additional data necessary to define the ECOs under investigation. Use refined In-Depth Survey Forms (Forms 4-1, as adapted). Step 4 Technical Appraisal of ECOs. Evaluate the feasibility of each ECO, using the ECO presentations in Chapter 5, Volume 1 as a guide. Step 5 Economic Appraisal of ECOs. Prepare estimates of savings /investment ratio (SIR) , discounted payback period, capital cost and Btu savings /investment dollar. Eliminate ECOs which are not economically justified. Use Form 4-2, Chapter 4, Volume 2 in this HANDBOOK. Follow methodology presented in Life Cycle Costing Emphasizing Energy Conservation, ERDA-76/ 130. Step 6 ECO Ranking. Rank all compatible ECOs based on SIR. Use Form 4-3" Chapter 4, Volume 2 and follow guidelines in ERDA-76/ 130. Step 7 Refined Energy Flow and Balance Diagram. (Optional) . Prepare refined diagram for existing energy conditions based on detailed data collected during the in-depth survey. Prepare diagram reflecting future energy flow and balance, considering the effects of the ECOs recommended for implementation. 4-8 SECTION D. LIST OF FORMS FORM 4-1 FORM 4-2 FORM 4-3 In-Depth Survey Forms Individual ECO Economic Appraisal Form ECO Ranking and Appraisal Summary Form 4-9 SECTION E. USE OF COMPUTERS IN BUILDING ENERGY AND ECO APPRAISAL 4E.1 General . A number of computer programs have been developed to assist in building energy studies and can be used to complete many of the steps described in the foregoing sec- tions. Such programs are listed in Chapter 5 under ECO M-4. These programs are designed to simulate the building energy sys- tems using refined input such as hour by hour weather tapes. They are largely based on energy systems found in typical office buildings. To evaluate the impact of an ECO, the pro- gram is first run without the ECO, and then with the ECO; the energy saved is the difference in energy requirements calculated in the two runs. This allows the program to be re-run with different combinations of interrelated ECOs until the energy savings are maximized. The justification for a computerized analysis varies consider- ably depending on building specifics. Some considerations and criteria for evaluating the feasibility of a computerized energy analysis for a given building are presented below. 4E . 2 Considerations Relating to Computer vs. Manual Calcula- tions . 4E . 2 . 1 Cost . Arrangements for a computerized analysis may vary considerably. At one extreme, a complete analysis, inclu- ding the collection and preparation of input data, testing and running of program may be subcontracted. At the other, all data may be prepared in-house and an in-houe program be used. The following factors affect the relative costs, whatever arrange- ments are made: a. Complexity of Building Energy Systems and Number of ECOs to be Evaluated. The initial setting up and first run of the computer program may be more costly than the manual calculations. However, re-runs to test different ECOs and combinations of ECOs, especially in a complex energy system, will probably be less expensive on computer than as manual calculations. b. The Adaptability of Available Programs. Most computer programs have been prepared for standard office buildings. ERDA buildings are largely non-standard. Additional work to adapt the program to the building being studied increases the study cost. 4-10 c . Input Data. Computer programs may require more refined input data. The additional cost of collect- ing these data must be considered. d. Time. If an off -site computer is used, delays caused by mailing and processing computerized calculations may lead to lower productivity of the survey team and hence increased costs. These can be offset by using a local terminal where available. 4E . 2 . 2 Accuracy . A computer program using hour by hour weather tapes and other refined input data can produce a higher level of accuracy than manual calculations . a. Degree of Accuracy Required. Accurate output is only justified to the extent that it will lead to the correct selection of building ECOs to be imple- mented. It is not so much the absolute level of accuracy in many calculations for ECO analysis which is important, but the accuracy of the differential between the "before" and "after" situations. So long as any error in the component consumption is consistent for both "before" and "after", and is within reasonable values based upon good judgment and experience; and so long as the effect of the modification allows for these consistent "errors", then the accuracy of the differential, which is the major purpose of the calculations, can be expected to be reasonably valid. b. Accuracy of Baseline Data. ECOs requiring more precise analysis for reasons of system complexity can be no more accurately rendered by a computer than the order of accuracy and detail of the input data used for system simulation. Some energy characteristics can be modelled much more precisely by computer than by manual calculation (i.e. skin heat gains and losses based upon hour by hour weather records tapes). Others, either because of the diversity of load magnitude and load factor, the sheer number of loads, or the lack of pre- cise load profile data, must be so simplified that the computation performed in the computer can be convenient- ly duplicated by manual calculation (i.e. lighting profiles for interior areas with 2 or 3 load steps and 3 typical days per year) . c. Accuracy and Variety of Computer Routines Available. The cost and time span for turn-around of computer runs can be justified if the available accuracy of specific program routine tracks the accuracy required for valid simulation of the selected ECOs. 4-11 In addition, the number of routines available for specific ECO manipulaton must have adequate routine option flexibility to permit before and after comparisons of each ECO. A major problem of all building energy analysis problems used today is the lack of availability of features or options which might be required in many conservation analysis, particularly for industrial buildings and process applications. Such things as hybrid HVAC systems, heat transfer or air flow from one thermal block to another; energy conversion plants such as those for heating, cooling and selective energy with even moderately sophisticated sequencing; and unconventional energy sources are either not programmed or have in- adequate sophistication. 4E . 2 . 3 Importance of Systems Which Can Be Easily Modelled on Computer in Overall Building Energy. This HANDBOOK addresses mainly laboratory-office type buildings . A laboratory-office building resembles an office building in many respects (i.e. structure, occupancy, lighting) , and the laboratory process loads may be considered as the difference between normally expected office building loads and actual laboratory-office building loads. However certain parameters, such as extremely high quantities of ventilation and exhaust air in a laboratory- office building, call for analysis and ECO treatment which can be totally different from considerations applying to office buildings . While the skin transmission and solar loads in an office build- ing may represent a substantial portion of annual energy requirements, indicating possible skin modification ECOs and justifying accurate weather tape computer analysis, the identi- cal skin configuration in a laboratory-office building might represent only a minor portion of total energy consumption. The need for hour-by-hour computer analysis of segments of total energy consumption which are of minor significance should be examined critically, especially when the internal load pro- files fed to a computer are approximate. The greater the number and importance of special purpose internal and process loads and/or the lower the accuracy of these internal load pro- files, the less justification there might be for employing computer analysis for the entire building. Conversely, if the magnitude of energy consumption in systems for which sophisticated program routines requiring accurate data is large in relation to those which are simplified, a com- puterized building energy analysis may be justified. 4-12 4E.3 Preliminary Selection Criteria. Following are some general criteria recommended for the decision making process involving computerized vs. manual building energy calculations These general criteria must be adapted to specific local conditions . Usually, a computerized building energy study may be economi- cally justified when the building under consideration has: a gross floor area of at least 60,000 sq. ft; an average annual utility bill in excess of $100,000; complex energy systems that can be readily blocked out; good metering and records for energy systems; a large number of ECOs to be investigated; and especially when the computer routines available match those building energy systems offering most significant ECOs ; high level of accuracy for energy calculations is required; the time period available for completion of the building energy study is at least three months; the computer and/or computer specialists are available in-house or nearby; personnel are not available for manual operations. 4E.4 for: Computer Application. Typical computer programs provide hour-by-hour calculation of the annual energy consump- tion of various types of air- side systems and mechani- cal plants ; application of local utility rate schedules to these demands and consumptions; and combining these costs with other owning and operating costs for year-by-year cashflow projections. 4-13 Each major step in a complete energy system analysis may be handled by a different program, thereby permitting the evaluation of the results of one part before finalizing inputs and proceeding with the next part. Representative programs in a library include: a. Energy Requirements Estimate . A program to calculate hour-by-hour thermal and electrical loads for a build- ing (or building section) and to simulate the opera- tion of the air distribution system in meeting these loads . b . To tal Coincident Requirement. A program to sum the hour-by-hour loads from multiple Energy Requirements Estimate runs for various buildings or sections to find total system loads with actual diversity. c. Equipment Energy Consumption. A program to simulate the operation of the various pieces of equipment as they respond to loads imposed by the building's air- side systems to find monthly and annual energy con- sumption for the various systems being evaluated. d. Monthly Utility Costs . A program to calculate the monthly and annual energy costs for each system using the local utility rate schedules . e. Economic Comparison of Systems . This program combines typical-year energy costs and other annual operating costs with initial investment and the associated owning cost factors to find the total owning and opera- ting costs of each system year-by-year for any period up to thirty years . 4E.4.1 Energy Requirements Estimate Program (ERE) . The ERE program calculates the hourly energy consumption for heating, cooling, process and basic electric loads of a building based on hourly climatic data and building operating schedule. Loads which can be included in the computations are solar; internal, including people, lights, equipment and miscellaneous; return air plenum solar and transmission loads; supply and return loads; outside air; and process loads. The emphasis and accuracy of this program are primarily devoted to simulating air-side system performance and handling various occupancy and operational schedules, rather than concentrating on the lagging characteristics of transmission loads or the 4-14 shifting shade patterns associated with solar loads. The intent of the program is to predict as accurately as possible the overall building energy usage with a minimum of input detail . Input climatic data includes hourly data of dry bulb tempera- ture, dew point temperature, cloud cover and solar radiation covering a typical year. Such data applicable to a local weather station may be obtained from the National Climatic Center. Subsidiary programs are available to prepare raw weather data for input to the ERE program. The next step in organizing the input data for ERE is to deter- mine the daily operational schedules of the building and hourly percentages of maximum loads for internal, process, and basic electric. These percentages reflect the movement of people in and out of the building and the resulting changes in load patterns . The maximum loads and percentage profiles are orga- nized into days of the week, and then months, so that an entire year's operation of the building can be simulated. It is important to recognize that input data should reflect actual anticipated load levels instead of design point values used to size equipment. The next major step in assembling input data is selecting an air-side system and specifying its control features. Typical systems that can be simulated are: Single duct; Terminal reheat; Induction or fan-coil; Dual- duct; and Standard variable volume. Additional features that can be utilized in the ERE program are outside air economizer cycle, cold deck reset schedules according to ambient temperature or time clock, heat recovery devices operating between return and outside airstreams, supple- mental perimeter heating systems that are independent of central system, holiday scheduling for accurate representation of operating schedules, distinction between on and off peak time periods for electrical service, capability of interrupt gas service and switch to auxiliary fuel, calculation of heat 4-15 storage effects caused by shutoff and setback, and the ability to prin. selected days during the year to observe the hourly behavior of the system. The output of the ERE program begins with a display of the in- put data which can also be obtained by using a data checking feature. This is beneficial to the user since it affords an opportunity to check all the values that will be used in the computer and correct any errors. The output printout includes monthly and annual peaks and consumptions for heating, cooling, process and basic electric loads. The hours of heating and cooling system operation are shown for each month and annually. 4E.4.2 Total Coincident Requirement Program (TCR) . The input to TCR program consists of multiple ERE hourly load output tapes plus the data called for on the input forms. A multi- plier can be used with each building or section if ERE runs have been made on a unit basis, such as in an apartment com- plex. The output of the TCR program shows the diversified peaks and time of occurrence, as well as the sum of the indi- vidual building peaks. The monthly and annual consumptions are shown for the combined plant loads, and unitized values are printed for peaks and consumptions . 4E . 4 . 3 Equipment Energy Consumption Program (EEC/B ) . The in- put to EEC/B program consists of an hourly load tape from ERE or TCR plus the data entered on the input forms . The rated capacities and part load performance are required for each piece of equipment. These data are then broken down into the various systems and the appropriate accessory equip- ment loads. Typical systems that can be simulated are total energy with heat recovery, gas heating and cooling, gas heating and electric cooling, all electric, and purchased chilled water and steam or hot water. Energy sources may be electricity, natural gas or any other fuel specified. Features of this program include: different methods of sched- uling machines on the line; various sequencing schedules for accessories; separation of on-peak and off-peak electrical usage for special rates; flexibility in handling recoverable heat and heating requirements in each system; multiple ERE or TCR hourly load tapes representing different sections in a building or different buildings in a complex, permitting separate systems in a single complex to be grouped on a single meter . 4-16 The output information includes monthly and annual peaks and consumptions for energy input to the equipment in each system. Unitized values are also shown for comparison and checking. 4E.4.4 Monthly Utility Costs Progra m (MUC) . The MUC program uses utility demand and consumption values from a tape generated in the EEC program, plus input cards containing the specific utility rate steps. Alternatively, the demands and consumptions can be entered on cards and the program run independently from any previous program. The MUC pro- gram is capable of calculating demand and consumption charges for gas service, electric service, chilled water, steam or hot water, and any special auxiliary fuel. The output shows monthly and annual costs for each energy form in each system as well as average costs per unit of energy and per square foot. The total yearly energy costs (all forms) are also shown for each system. 4E . 4 . 5 Economic Comparison of S ystem s Pro gr am (ECS/B) . The ECS/B program uses tne energy costs "cTet ermine d in MUC plus other annual operating costs, such as maintenance and opera- ting labor, and combines these costs with initial investment and associated owning cost factors, such as taxes, insurance and depreciation, to find the annual cashflow each year for the life of the system. Annual utility costs and other operating costs can be independently escalated each year by a percentage supplied by the user. The initial investment may be divided into two segments with different depreciation periods, and a provision exists for four additional reinvest- ments (for equipment replacement or staged projects) which can be on a recurring basis. In addition to straight cashflow and a discounted cashflow of each system on an independent basis, a comparison can be made of each system to the lowest first cost system to show the net savings or reduced operating costs compared to higher owning costs. 4E.5 Available Computer Programs. ERDA is currently in the final phases of development of a building energy study program referred to as CAL-ERDA. Other available programs are listed on page 5-100. CHAPTER 5 ENERGY CONSERVATION OPPORTUNITIES CECQs) TABLE OF CONTENTS SECTION ECO NO B D D.l A *A-1 A-l.l A-1.2 SK SK-1 SK-1.1 SK-1. 2 SK-2 SK-3 SK-4 COM *COM-l *COM-2 *COM-3 COM- 4 *COM-5 E ES ES-1 ES-1.1 ES-1. 2 ES-2 ES-3 TITLE General ECO Oriented Background Data Energy Related Record Keeping History of Facility's Energy Conservation Activity Building Skin Construction Sealing of Exposed Surfaces Building Insulation 1. General 2. Manipulation of General Formulae 3. Energy Savings from Insulation of Buildings Entrance Protection 1 . General 2. Entries with Short-Perimeter Platforms 3. Entries with Extended Loading Platforms 4. Entries Too Small for Truck Passage 5. Energy Analysis for Unprotected Open Doorways 6. Heating Load with Air Curtains High Bay Areas Roof Cooling Building Comfort, Use and Occupancy Revised Room Temperatures Revised Room Humidity Revised Ventilation Criteria Consolidate Functions Let the Output Track the Usage Profiles Electrical Systems Service and Distribution Transformers Utilization of Efficient Transformers Reduction of Transformer Losses Voltage Regulation Improvement Reduction of Distribution Feeder Losses * see page 5-1 SECTION ECO NO. TITLE PAGE D.2 EG Power Generation 5-17 EG-1 Total Energy (T/E) 5-17 EG-2 Selective Energy CS/E) 5-17 * EG-2.1 S/E With Fixed Segregated Load No Utility 5-17 Standby EG-2. 2 S/E With Segregated Load and Utility 5-17 Standby EG-2. 3 S/E With Variable On-Premises Portion- 5-17 Paralled with Utility EG-2. 4 S/E With Variable On-Premises Portion- 5-17 Without Paralleling EG-2. 5 S/E For Variable On-Premises Shaft Power- 5-17 Utility Alternate D.3 ELM Load Management 5-18 ELM-1 Reduction of Energy Consumption 5-18 ELM-2 Power Factor Improvement 5-19 ELM- 3 Demand Limiting 5-21 ELM- 3.1 Load Shedding 5-21 ELM-3.2 Scheduling 5-22 D.4 * EL Lighting 5-23 EL-1 Lighting Intensity Reduction and Optimization 5-23 EL-2 Task/Ambient Lighting Design 5-24 EL-3 Selective Lighting Control 5-25 EL-4 Replacement of Lamps 5-26 D.5 EM Maintenance 5-28 EMrl Voltage Levels 5-28 EM- 1.1 Transformer Tap Settings 5-28 EM-1.2 Motors 5-28 EM-2 Lighting 5-28 EM-2.1 Lamps 5-28 EM-2. 2 Luminaires 5-29 EM-2. 3 Ballasts 5-29 E H Heating and Cooling Systems 5-30 E.l HF Fuel Handling and Combustion Systems 5-31 HF-1 Combustion Control Systems 5-31 1. Ideal Combustion Efficiency 5-31 2. Actual Attainable Combustion Efficiency 5-31 3. Combustion Controls 5-31 4. Combustion Efficiency Calculations 5-33 HF-2 Replace or Modify Steam Burners with Air 5-34 Atomization * see page 5-1 HF-3 HF-3.1 HF-3. 2 E.2 HH HH-1 HH-2 HH-3 HH-4 HH-5 E.3 HR HR-1 SECTION ECO NO. TITLE Fuel Oil Preparation and Handling Avoid Continuous Pumping of Fuel Oil Monitor and Control Fuel Oil Viscosity Heat Generating Plants Develop Logs for Performance Monitoring Improve Heat Balance Avoid Stand-By Firing of Reserve Heat Generator Reduce Blow-Down Losses Reduce Stack Losses Refrigeration Plants Allow Head Pressure and/or Coolant Temp- erature to Reduce 1. Vapor Compression Cycle 2. Absorption Chillers 3. Evaluation of Energy Savings Maintain Minimum Condensing Temperature (CT) By Cleaning and Purging Keep Chiller Leaving Water Temperature 5- (LWT) High Scheduled Chiller LWT Control 5- Obtain Refrigeration at a Reduced Energy 5- Input Effect of Variable Speed Pumping on Chiller 5- Performance Heat Pump Systems 5- E.4 HS Steam Distribution System 5- System Pressure Reduction 5- Control of Steam Shut-Off to Selected Zones 5- or Branch Mains HS-3 Eliminate or Find Alternate Heat Source for 5- Residual Loads 1. Summer Reheat 5- 2. Substitute Energy Source 5- E.5 HCR Condensate Return and Feedwater Systems 5- HCR-1 Condensate Leakage 5- HCR-2 Insulation 5- HCR-3 Pumping Systems 5- HCR-4 Avoid Flash Losses 5- HCR-4.1 Inject Cold Make-up Water into Conden- 5- sate Return Tank HCR-4.2 Connect HPS & LPS Flash Vessel Vents 5- to LPS Loads HR-1. 1 HR-2 HR-2. 1 HR-3 *HR-4 *HR-5 HS HS-1 HS-2 * see page 5-1 SECTION ECO NO. TITLE PAGE HCR-4.3 Install Vent Condenser On Flash Vessels 5-50 HCR-4.4 Install Pumping Equipment That Can Han- 5-50 die Hot Condensate HCR-5 Reduce Feedwater Pumping Power Requirements 5 -50 HCR-5.1 Reduce Discharge Pressure of Feedwater 5-51 (FW) Pumps at Full Load HCR-5. 2 Let Pump Energy Follow the Plant Load 5-51 E.6 HHW Hot Water Distribution Systems 5-55 HHW-1 By-Product Hot Water 5-55 HHW-2 Conversion of Steam to HW 5-55 HHW-3 Insulation Management 5-55 HHW-4 Lower Temperatures & Raise Differentials 5-55 HHW- 5 Variable Volume Pumping 5-55 HHW-6 Schedule Hot Water Supply Temperatures 5-56 HHW-7 Cycle Hot Water Pumps 5-56 HHW- 8 Change Secondary Pumping To Terminal 5-57 Boosting E.7 HCH Chilled Water Distribution Systems 5-58 *HCH-1 Pumping Systems 5-58 HCH- 1.1 Variable Volume Pumping 5-59 HCH- 1.2 Pump Cycling & Shut-Off 5-60 HCH-1.3 Change Secondary To Terminal Booster 5-60 Pumping HCH-2 Increase Temperature Differentials 5-58 *HCH-3 Raise Chilled Water Supply Temperatures 5-58 HCH-4 Decentralized Loop 5-58 E.8 HA Air Handling HVAC Systems 5-62 1. Identification of Energy Wasting 5-62 Systems and Characteristics 2. Outside Air As a Penalty or a Benefit 5-65 *HA-1 Convert Constant Volume (CAV) Systems to 5-66 Modified Variable Air Volume (VAV) 1. General 5-66 2. Analysis and Appraisal of Energy Saving 5-67 3. Temperature/Humidity (T/H) Control 5-68 4. Fan Considerations 5-68 HA-1.1 Conversion of Dual Duct (DD) to VAV 5-69 1. Mixing Box Considerations 5-69 2. Full Shut-Off vs. Minimum Air Volume5-70 HA- 1.2 Conversion of Reheat to VAV 5-70 HA-1.3 Conversion of Induction to VAV- Indue- 5-71 tion HA-2 Reduce Outside Air (OA) Load 5-72 HA-3 Control Discharge Air Temperatures 5-73 HA-3.1 Terminal Reheat Computerized Reset 5-73 HA-3. 2 Double Duct System Computerized Reset 5-75 see page 5-1 SECTION ECO NO. TITLE PAGE E.9 HAW Air-Water HVAC Systems 5-76 E.10 HW All-Water HVAC Systems 5-77 E.ll HM Multiple Unit and Unitary HVAC Systems 5-78 E.12 *HVE Ventilation and Exhaust Systems 5-79 *HVE-1 Convert Constant Volume Exhuast (CVE) to 5-79 Variable Volume Exhaust (WE) 1. General 5-79 2. Building 212 Background Lab Data 5-79 3. Purpose and Requirements of Variable 5-81 Volume Exhaust (WE) 4. Proposed Control Equipment Modifica- 5-82 tions 5. Sequence of Temperature Controls 5-83 6. Sequence of Air Balance Controls 5-83 7. Alternate Instrumentation 5-84 8. Alternative Concept 5-85 F Plumbing Systems 5-86 F.l W Service Hot and Cold Water Systems 5 -86 W-l Reduce Pressures 5-86 *W-2 Flow Control 5-87 *W-3 Reduce Supply Temperatures 5-87 W-4 Insulation 5-88 *W-5 Recirculate Hot Water 5-88 F.2 CA Compressed Air Systems 5-89 CA-1 Leakage Loss Reduction 5-89 CA-2 Reduction of Pressure 5-89 CA-3 Improvement of Air Quality 5 -89 F.3 WW Wastewater Systems 5-89 WW-1 Reduction of Water Consumption 5-89 WW-2 Segregation of Wastewater 5-89 WW-3 Separation of Stormwater 5-89 WW-6 Miscellaneous Opportunities 5-89 G P Pumping Systems 5-90 P-l Pumping and Storage 5-90 P-2 Sequenced Parallel or Series Pumping 5-90 P-3 Impeller Shaving or Drive Speed Change 5-90 P-4 Variable Speed with Existing Motors 5-90 P-5 Free Cooling with Ground Water 5-90 * see page 5-1 SECTION ECO NO. TITLE PAGE H C Coolant Systems 5-92 *C-1 Eliminate or Reduce Refrigerated Cooling 5-92 C-l.l Obtain Refrigeration with Low Energy 5-92 Input C-1.2 Use Indirect Atmospheric Cooling for 5-92 Heat Rejection from Refrigerated Cool- ant Sys terns Surface or Groundwater Coolant Systems 5-93 Pumping Energy Reduction in Coolant Systems 5-93 Industrial Process Systems 5-94 General 5-94 High Fuel Consumers 5-94 High Steam or Hot Water Consumers 5-95 High Electrical Consumers 5-95 Monitoring, Control and Surveillance Systems 5-96 No Load, Part Load and Unoccupied Period 5-96 Controls Automate By Time Control 5-96 Automate By Remote Sensing Signal 5-98 Track Load with Automatic Equipment Cap- 5-98 acity Control Manual Control 5-99 Outside Air (OA) Reduction 5-99 Individualize Controls for Optimum Energy 5-99 Use Computerized Analysis and Control 5-100 Waste Energy Recovery and Reduction 5-101 HVAC Recovery Systems 5-101 Direct Recycling of Spent Air 5-101 Purify Exhaust Air for Recycling 5-101 Recover Heat from Building Exhaust Air 5-102 Systems Rotary Air Wheels & Plate Heat 5-102 Exchangers Heat Pipe 5-103 Run-Around System - Closed Type 5-105 Run-Around System - Open Type 5-105 Recover Internal Heat with Heat Pump 5-106 Combustion Air and Flue Gas Systems 5-108 Preheat Combustion Air and/or Feedwater 5-108 With Flue Gas C-1.3 *C-2 I I IG-1 IF-1 IS-1 IE-1 J M *M-1 M-1.1 M-1.2 M-1.3 M-1.4 *M-2 M-3 *M-4 K K.l W WH *WH-1 *WH-2 WH-3 WH-3.1 WH-3.2 WH-3.3 WH-3.4 *WH-4 K.2 WCF WCF-1 * see page 5-1 SECTION ECO NO K.3 WL *WL-1 WL-2 K.4 WHG WHG-1 K.5 K.6 *WHG-2 WLK WLK-1 WSW WSW-1 *0-l 0-2 0-3 *0-4 TITLE PAGE Hot Liquid Effluent or Recirculating Systems 5-110 Recover Heat from Process Coolant Systems 5-110 Recover Heat from Wastewater 5-110 Hot Air, Vapor or Gas Exhaust 5-111 Use Hot Air Exhaust as Preheated Combustion Air 5-111 Recover Energy from Process Gases & Vapors 5-111 Energy Leakage 5-111 Leakage & Energy Loss Management from SITE ENERGY HANDBOOK 5-111 Solid Waste Recovery 5-112 Recover Heat from Pyrolysis of Solid Waste 5-112 Operation & Maintenance 5-113 Optimize O&M Records and Analysis 5-113 Program Custodial Operations for Energy Conservation 5-114 Keep Heat Exchangers Clean 5-115 Keep Air & Liquid Circulating Systems in Optimum Balance 5-115 * see page 5-1 CHAPTER 5 ENERGY CONSERVATION OPPORTUNITIES (ECOs) SECTION A - GENERAL The purpose of this Chapter is to classify and describe building ECOs that apply, generally, to all types of buildings and some, more specifically, to laboratory-office buildings. It is expected that the evaluation of these ECOs for any specific building will be coordinated with the methodologies of Chapters 3 and 4. These ECOs apply mostly to end-use buildings, rather than to central conversion buildings such as heating and power plants. The complex characteristics of the latter group require special purpose treatment. Although primary conversion systems, (e.g. steam generation plants) are considered in this HANDBOOK, they are not covered in depth. Building ECOs were grouped in 12 major categories listed at the beginning of this Chapter. Generally the description and appli- cation principles are covered in some detail for several ECOs in each category while many others are listed with references and a brief description. The ECOs discussed in detail are those which are either more specifically applicable to laboratory- office buildings or those which are in most cases both signifi- cant in their impact on energy consumption and somewhat unusual in their application. Other ECOs considered to be practical and feasible are presented as a listing whenever they have been ade- quately described in readily available technical literature, reports or studies. References given are listed in Appendix 5. This HANDBOOK and its ECOs are intended for use by engineer- ing oriented, management operating personnel who are familiar with the fundamentals of building energy systems. It is assumed that specific ECO proposals and their justification will be initiated at that level, with the help of this HANDBOOK. The sections of this chapter are referenced to corresponding sections in the ECO Related Questions presented in Appendix 1. In addition, a number of general energy management considerations which do not relate to any one energy classifica- tion are also presented in this chapter. Various ECOs presented in this chapter may be applicable to dif- ferent buildings, depending upon building characteristics and ex- tent of previous energy conservation programs. The asterisk in front of the ECO number in the list of ECOs presented at the beginning of this chapter indicates those ECOs which are consid- ered particularly promising for laboratory-office type buildings at ERDA facilities. 5-2 ECO A-l ECO ORIENTED BACKGROUND DATA (EQ-A) ECO A- 1.1 Energy Related Record Keeping (EQ-A1) All records of energy consumption should be for the same opera- ting periods. If public utilities are involved with accessible meters, then the consumptions should be logged for all energy purchases simultaneously. These simultaneous readings, rather than the invoice figures and time periods, should be used for energy analysis. If present public utility policy forbids plant personnel's access to meters, arrangements should be made to gain access for the purpose described. ECO A-l. 2 History of Facility's Energy Conservation Activity (EQ-A2) A summary description of significant energy conservation ori- ented changes in systems, equipment, operation and maintenance should be made available. The following data should be included: Identification of system involved Description of prior operation Description of ECO; its purpose and operation Cost of implementation Expected results Actual results 5-3 SECTION B -BUILDING SKIN (EQ-B) In general, the major envelope considerations for existing buildings which affect energy conservation are closely related to HVAC loads, involving solar gains, thermal transmission and infiltration. The factors of insulation, double glazing, storm doors, leakage prevention and solar utilization or reduction have been widely written about and studied from the standpoint of energy, economics and feasibility. Only the areas outlined below, which are somewhat different from the common approach are reviewed. ECO SK-1 CONSTRUCTION (EQ-B1) ECO SK-1.1 Sealing of Exposed Surfaces Many old industrial buildings which were built for natural lighting and ventilation have bays up to 100 feet high with tremendous glass and high U-factor skins which can be a substantial energy waste. A very good case can be made for replacing both fixed and operable glass windows and provid- ing artificial lighting and mechanical ventilation. The ancil- lary benefits brought about by the lower U-f actors, greater ventilation efficiency through judicious location of mechani- cal equipment and inlet openings, and infiltration control makes consideration of this ECO worthwhile. New, well- constructed buildings with low glass ratios, adequate arti- ficial light and mechanical ventilation have already taken advantage of these principles. There has been much publicity in recent years on the virtues of retrofitting existing or designing new buildings with enough operable window area to provide natural lighting and ventilation in order to save energy. Such recommendations should not be accepted without a careful study of the penalties associated with them. The following factors must be kept in mind: a. Operable openings cannot be provided without related year-round infiltration or exfiltration energy leaks . b. It requires highly expensive glazing and hardware to provide glass for natural light without a substantial increase in year round transmission losses and solar gains compared to well-insulated solid walls . 5-4 c. Any glass area added only for natural light and ventilation provides such benefit only during the usual 8 to 10 hour daylight occupancy cycle of most buildings. However transmission, solar and air leakage penalties are acting 24 hours/day. The energy losses from this 24 hour penalty will invariably be greater than the potential savings from lighting, fans and refrigeration. d. The benefits of natural lighting and ventilation are usually available only in perimeter exposed areas (not interior areas) and only during cool, mild weather. The total number of such beneficial hours/year is limited, compared with the year-round penalties . ECO SK-1.2 BUILDING INSULATION 1. General This section deals with the energy saving aspects of insu- lating buildings walls and roofs when the sole benefits de- rive from changes in the overall coefficient of heat trans- mission (U) ; without side effects from sealing against infil- tration or exf iltration;when there is no air space between the insulation and construction material or when this space is narrow enough to permit U-factor calculations of composite assemblies without appreciable deviation from actual test results . 2. Manipulation of General Formulae 2.1 The formulae developed in this section are general in na- ture, applying to any situation within the limits stated above. The infinite variety of permutations and combinations of composite walls and roof-ceiling structure prohibits a practical, short-cut, specific-type approach to the solution of insulation economics. 2.2 This general approach presupposes that the application engineer using such procedures is versed in the techniques (Ref 3) relating to heat transmission, heating and cooling loads. 5-5 2.3 For preliminary determination of the benefits in energy and financial savings in this area, it is felt that satisfactory results may be obtained with the use of simplified U-Factor calculations based on steady- state assumptions (rather than hour-by-hour computerized calculations of thermal response) and simpler sol-air and equivalent temperature differential calculations (rather than hour-by-hour computerized transfer function methods). For practical purposes, with differential benefits being sought, rather than absolute values of energy consumption, it is considered sufficiently accurate to combine heating and cooling design load components with Equivalent Full Load Heating and Cooling Hour concepts as employed in this HANDBOOK. (Refer to Appendix 3 for EFL hour calculation.) 3 . Energy Savings From Insulation of Buildings The general formula which may be used to determine annual energy savings from insulation of walls and roofs, as qual- ified above, is as follows: A (AU h ) (At h ) EFL h + A (AU C ) (At Q ) EFL C -s where 1,000,000 Eff h 1,000,000 Eff c Q = Source Energy (millions of Btu) per year saved. A = Area insulated, sq. ft. AU = Differential in composite U-factor by addition of in- sulation, Btu/SF/°F (U for heating and U for cooling) h ^ At h = Winter design temperature difference across insulated wall or roof, F deg . (inside minus outside tempera- ture) At c = Summer design total equivalent temperature differen- tial across insulated wall, F deg. (outside sol-air temperature minus inside temperature) EF^ = Equivalent Full Load Heating Hours per year EFL C = Equivalent Full Load Cooling Hours per year Eff, = Overall efficiency of conversion of raw source fuel to utilized output energy, heating Eff = Overall efficiency of conversion of raw source fuel to utilized output energy, cooling 5-6 ECO SK-2 ENTRANCE PROTECTION (EQ-B2) 1. General Loading entrances which have a relatively high usage should be considered for protection against infiltration by the use of dock sealers, vestibules, or air curtains. 2. Entries With Short-Perimeter Platforms 2. 1 Dock Sealers When loading areas have narrow loading platforms, commercial dock sealers are sometimes used. These are capable of adaptation to a variety of enclosed truck cross sectional areas. However, they are not readily adaptable to a wide range of sizes, truck door arrangements, angle of back-ups, and some doorways. 2.2 Vestibule Seals Loading areas with short loading platforms can employ in- side or outside vestibule housing, when space permits. 2. 3 Advantages and Disadvantages Presently available commercial dock sealers and vestibules are the most desirable for positive sealing. However, com- mercial dock sealers are not as durable, positive or rugged as vestibules. Also, they are not adaptable for use at doorway openings that extend down to the same level as the bottom of the truck wheels. 3. Entries With Extended Loading Platforms Buildings with long loading docks around the building peri- meter have almost no choice but to employ air curtains, as an alternative to wide-open, unprotected door openings, as- suming that the loading platform requires free traffic movement on either side, for local material handling along the perimeter platform skirt. Without the need for such free movement a section of platform can be vestibuled, for more effective control than is possible with the air curtain, In the latter case, back-up dock sealing techniques can be used at the outside vestibule wall. 4. Entries Too Small For Truck Passage Buildings with openings too small for truck entry, or those which receive from flat-bed trailers also may employ out^ side vestibules which house the entire truck and/or trailer. Other buildings which receive closed-body trucks may employ commercial dock sealers with foam rubber 5-7 or similar buffers, or curtain enclosures. In this case the truck only backs up to the building wall. 5 . Energy Analysis (Heating Season) For Unprotected , Open Doorways 5.1 Variables The following major variables must be considered for any rational analysis leading to a resolution of the difference in energy requirements of protected and unprotected loading areas : a ) Geographical design winter condition. b) Area of opening and total hours of usage. c ) Orientation of exposure, angle and force of wind. d) Number of simultaneous openings in the same or different exposures . e) Stack effect or infiltration within building as a com- bined effect of height, number of stories, total crack- age, tightness of building. f) Type of loading such as: unprotected, air curtain, vesti- bule, dock sealer. 5.2 Lack of Reliable Handbook Data Accurate evaluation of all these factors is not possible under the present state of the art . Little or no research has been done to permit reliable calculations. Lacking such authoritative data, a basic formula has been developed which can be applied for various combinations in different buildings . There may be disagreement with these figures and factors, but it is felt that the concept is rational, To condense the approach several assumptions are made: two openings on opposite exposures; no penalty for stack effect; 7 mph wind; and the following factors for various loading methods: F u = Unprotected = 1.0 F c = Air Curtain (heated or unheated) = 0.6 (see Par. 6 of this ECO) F v = Vestibule = (with allowance for drive-in time as a percentage of total hrs . loading) F s = Dock Sealers = (with allowance for set-up time as a percentage of total hrs loading) Note : Factors for orientation, wind velocity, number of openings, stack effect, type of air curtain as to design, CFM, air velocity and height of throw have all been taken as 1.0, noting that they might vary up or down. 5-8 5 . 3 O pen Doorway Heating Load a) The basic formula for annual energy consumption in 1()9 Btu/yr for an open doorway is : A x Unit loss x Fl x E.F.L. Occ . Hrsgc where: 1,000,000 A = Area of door, SF Unit Loss = Design Load with open door at design outdoor winter condition, Btu/SF Doorway (see Par. 5.3b) E.F.L. Occ. Hrs ^^ = Equivalent Full Load Occupied Heating Hrs/yr derived from the hourly occurrences below 65° F outdoors occurring during the occupied period Fl= Load Factor on door usage, as a decimal, for the ratio of the hours of Loading/ hours of Occupancy. b) The Unit Loss for an open door is a function of the velocity of air through the doorway at a given wind pressure and direction, expressed by the formula (adapted from Ref . 4) . Unit Loss = (E x V)x 1.08 x (aT) , Btu/SF door, where E = Effectiveness of openings (0.50 to 0.60 for perpendicular winds and 0.25 to 0.35 for diagonal winds) V = Wind Velocity, fpm = 88 x wind velocity, mph aT = Differential between outdoor and indoor temperature Unfortunately there is no known available data which expresses the unprotected door's unit loss as a function of orientation, number of openings, stack effect and building tightness. As an example for an area with an average 7 mph wind, 0.3 effectiveness, and a 65°FaT: Unit Loss =(0.38 x 7 x 88) x 1.08 x65 = 10,97 7 Btuh/SF of doorway (unprotected) noting that this number may be substantially larger with a leaky building, many openings, high stack effect, etc. 6 . Heating Load With Air Curtains 6.1 The load reduction with a specific type of air curtain was tested and results for the design indicated (Reference 5) . The test results, for a non-recirculatory type of curtain mounted at the doorway of a sealed test chamber indicates a protection efficiency of 80-85%, while the previously mentioned ASHRAE Handbook (Ref. 3) cites 60 to 80% (i.e. 60-80% reduction of load) . 5-9 6.2 In view of the uncertainties involved, such as stack effect, number of other wall openings, etc., it is not felt that the use of a protection efficiency greater than 607 o is warranted, unless it is cautiously justified. 6.3 Air curtains may be largely ineffective in buildings with many cross-ventilated openings or a generally leaking envelope stemming from such characteristics as poor structure, high internal suction from multiple stories, or excess of exhaust over supply ventilation. ECO SK-3 HIGH BAY AREAS (EQ-B3) Frequently older high-bay industrial buildings are converted to functions which no longer require such heights with their attendant skin losses. Hung ceilings should be considered for such applications, especially if large skylights and windows were employed and air cooling is required for the converted use. Heat gains and losses occurring through large ceiling air spaces whose self-generated convective air current characteristics prevent the use of normal transmission procedures may be treated by other methods. Calculations may be based upon finding the ceiling cavity "balance temperature" which permits the same heat transmission between the occupied spaces and the cavity (through the hung ceiling) as exists between the cavity and the outside weather (through the roof) . Heat gains and losses through hung ceilings which carry return air (e.g. return air plenum ceilings) are treated with the technique described in Reference 6. ECO SK-4 ROOF COOLING Flat and pitched roofs above cooled spaces can be cooled with sprays to virtually eliminate solar gains. Waste water can often be employed. The savings in refrigeration energy can sometimes justify the cost of the spray piping installation. (Ref. 7). 5-10 SECTION C - BUILDING COMFORT, USE AffO UCCJUPANCY mQ-C) Original criteria for design and operation should be re-examined and re-evaluated based upon actual building use, occupancy, currently applicable comfort conditions and operating procedures. The effect of such revisions upon comfort, process control and/ or inconvenience should be balanced against the benefits. Many of these modifications involve no investment cost. ECO COM-1 REVISED ROOM TEMPERATURES (EQ-C1 & C2) Room temperature can be raised during cooling periods and dropped during heating periods. Energy savings can be evaluated by analysis of the El nodes which are affected, in Form 3-3, Page 1 of 11 for cooling and Page 5 of 11 for heating. The nodes which are affected as a direct function of out- side/ inside temperature difference (AT) are E I t (transmission) and EI S (solar) . (The effect on El y is one that combines with any simultaneous change in room humidity, covered in ECO COM- 2) a. The new AT for El t is = (design outdoor dbt) - (room dbt) for both cooling and heating b. The new AT for EI S is = (equivalent sol-air dbt()- (room dbt) This difference is approximated as (Solar Load/Transmission Load) (Original AT) Raising cooling season room temperature settings does not necessarily save energy from the EI t and EI S standpoint, when reheat and dual duct types of systems employ a non- renewable source energy for heating the space while it is simultaneously absorbing mechanical cooling. The savings in refrigeration energy- from reduced transmission and solar gains may be wiped out by the additional source energy required to heat the room to the higher level , if the cooling coil leaving air conditions are left the same as they were for the lower room temperature . However, if a higher room temperature is accompanied by a number of techniques, including the following, then savings are sub- stantial : a. Raising the coil leaving air temperature to maintain the same supply air-to-room AT (see condition 2 vs. condi- tion 1 in Fig. APP 3B-1). b. Using a cooling cycle such as VAV, which permits the system energy provided to track the load without the engagement of reheat. 5-U ECO COM- 2 REVISED ROOM HUMIDITY (EQ-C1 & C2) Room humidity (RH r ) may be raised during cooling periods and dropped during heating periods when year-round humidity control is employed. Savings may be analyzed by examination of the ventilation and reheat nodes, as above. The EI V is a direct function of the outside/ inside enthalpy difference, as long as the cooling coil and humidification controls are capable of responding to the revised RH conditions For example the summer room RH may not rise, as desired, if the cooling coil discharge dew point is too low to permit this to happen. An additional benefit for higher cooling season RH r is the reduction of reheat energy required. ECO COM- 3 REVISED VENTILATION CRITERIA (EQ-C1 & C2) When exhaust flow requirements and governing ventilation codes are below present make-up ventilation needs, the latter may be reduced to the minimum acceptable level. Design quantities are often in substantial excess of acceptable values. A variable minimum ventilation quantity, as a function of occupancy should be considered when occupancy loading varies substantially from day to day or throughout the day. Other aspects of ventilation control and reduction are covered under ECO HA and ECO HVE . ECO COM- 4 CONSOLIDATE FUNCTIONS (EQ-C4) Consideration should be given to the grouping of functional areas which have similar conditioning criteria, for handling by common HVAC systems. Energy savings are possible when widely diverse criteria are handled by separate units, with control of energy output levels for each specific need, rather than by satisfying the worst need in a group of diverse loads with a common unit . 5-12 > ECO COM- 5 LET THE OUTPUT TRACK THE USAGE PROFILES Usage modes of all diverse areas should be systematically identified with particular attention to special process or comfort criteria, extended after-hour use of energy systems and the extent of criteria reduction during such extended use. The usage modes should then be evaluated for modification (e.g. reduced operating hours, less energy -intensive criteria) Given the modification, the energy systems involved should be checked to determine whether they can satisfactorily track the load at this reduced energy level, and, if not, what system modification is required to do so. See ECO HR-2.1 and HCR-5.2 for illustrations. 5-13 SECTION D - ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS (EQ-D) In "non-shop" areas such as administration buildings, office areas, warehouse and commissary facilities, more than 507 o of the total building utility costs is for electricity. A minimum of 3 units of fossil fuel energy (coal, gas, oil) are required to produce and deliver one (1) unit of electric energy. Thus, by conserving electrical energy we save the equivalent of 300% in fossil fuel raw "in-ground" source energy. This section presents possible ECOs within electrical systems such as service and distribution, power generation, load manage ment, lighting and maintenance. One or more of the ECOs pre- sented can be applied to each of the facilities under consider- ation. The effects upon electrical energy-saving of ECOs in other systems and procedures are discussed as complementary to the ECO descriptions for those other systems elsewhere in this HANDBOOK. Examples are ECOs within mechanical systems, build- ing equipment, operation schedules for occupancy and usage and maintenance schedules. 5-14 5D.1 - SERVICE AND DISTRIBUTION This subsection presents possible ECOs within transformer stations, through voltage regulation and within building elec- trical distribution systems. ECO ES-1 TRANSFORMERS ECO ES-1.1 UTILIZATION OF EFFICIENT TRANSFORMERS The efficiency of most dry-type transformers ranges from 93% to 98%. The losses occur from the core (magnetizing), and coils (resistive and winding) . Select the most efficient dry-type transformers when replacement is required. Dry- type transformers are available in many termperature-rise classifications. The lower the temperature-rise rating, the lower the coil losses due to the larger conductors used in the winding. 80°C and 115°C are usual temperature rise ratings. Selection of the 80°C rise transformer is recommended because of both greater efficiency and longer life expectancy. These advantages may offset the higher cost of these transformers (about 70% higher than the high temperature-rise dry types) . If larger oil-filled transformers are required for new additions, the highest efficiency transformers should be selected. Note that oil-filled transformer efficiencies vary in large installa- tions . ECO ES-1. 2 REDUCTION OF TRANSFORMER LOSSES Reduction of transformer losses, discussed in the SITE ENERGY HANDBOOK, Volume 1, Paragraph 5D.4.1, also applies to energy savings in building distribution systems. Many buildings include redundant electrical system components, principally to assure reliability of service. This has result- ed in the installation of transformer capacity in excess of system load needs. Main service transformer capacity should be capable of supplying present maximum demand plus immediately foreseeable loads. Total distribution transformer capacity need not exceed 2 to 2.5 times peak demand. Deenergizing the excess capacity and redistributing loads can result in reduction of transformer load losses and more effi- cient transformer operation. No loss in reliability will be experienced where switching of primary and secondary feeders is under manual control. Where automatic transfer is in use, the sacrifice in transfer time lost by changing to manual operation must be evaluated. Rearrangement of feeders to permit deenergizing some transfor- mers at times of reduced facility usage (such as unoccupied hours) will improve the feasibility of this ECO. 5-15 It is recommended that a maintenance heating circuit be added to outdoor transformers, whether dry-type or liquid cooled, to prevent the deleterious effects of moisture on insulation while deenergized. The cost of this modification must be included in the pay-back analysis of this ECO. ECO ES - 2 VOLTAGE REGULATION IMPROVEMENT Under most conditions, voltage regulation of plus or minus 5% is satisfactory. When low voltage or poor regulation is en- countered, consideration should be given to improving either or both. The evaluation to be made is the installed cost of voltage improvement equipment compared to the energy saving of reduced losses and improved efficiency of operation .lighting, motors and equipment . Consideration to accept reduced voltages may prevail, on the other hand for incandescent lighting as an energy saving means. This may apply where the reduced efficiency does not result in leaving additional lamps energized in order to compensate for reduced lighting level. Off^normal voltage affects energy usage and process efficiency as well as raising costs: A 77o undervoltage reduces furnace operation by 14%. A 37o overvoltage means 307o less life for in- candescent lamps. Low voltage limits the performance of machine tools and other apparatus. Voltage regulators and stabilizers are available in a large assortment of sizes, types and operation methods. They can be applied in sizes to suit a sub-system for voltage-drop compensation or particular items of equipment and apparatus. Types of voltage regulators and stablizers include variable ratio autotransformers , saturable reactors, static type units using triacs. An automatic voltage-drop compensation system in a single unit is available, comprising a series transformer fed from a motor-operated, variable ratio shunt transformer. Decisions on the application of voltage regulation equipment should be made under the direction of a qualified electrical engineer . 5-16 > ECO ES-3 Reduction of Distribution Feeder Losses Reduction of line losses by load sharing between feeders as described in SITE ENERGY HANDBOOK, Volume 1, Paragraph 5D.4. applies as well for the building distribution system. In addition, line losses may be reduced by balancing of phases. 5-17 5D.2 - POWER GENERATION Energy conservation opportunities may be possible through the use of on-premises generation. Electrical energy cannot be generated as economically as it can be purchased from an electric utility company, unless turbine extraction or exhaust steam is used for heating or process requirements or waste heat generated is reclaimed and its value deducted from the cost of power generation. In this case, the cost of on-pre- mises electrical generation is often competitive with pur- chased electricity. ECOs in this category are based on the total energy (T/E) and selective energy (S/E) concepts. These concepts and the ECOs involved are similar to those presented in the SITE ENERGY HANDBOOK for on-site generation. Following is a listing of building ECOs involving on premises power generation and the corresponding site ECOs in the SITE ENERGY HANDBOOK, to which the reader may refer for ECO descriptions and related calculations. ECO EG-1 Total Energy (T/E ) - Refer to ECO E-7 in SEH ECO EG-2 Selective Energy (S/E) ECO EG-2.1 S/E With Fixed Segregated Load No Utility Standby - Refer to ECO E-9 in SEH ECO EG-2. 2 S/E with Segregated Load and Utility Standby - Refer to ECO E-1Q in SEH ECO EG-2. 3 S/E with Variable On-Premises Portion-Paralleled with Utility - Refer to ECO E-ll in SEH. ECO EG- 2. 4 S/E with Variable On-Premises Portion-Without Paralleling - Refer to ECO E-12 in SEH. ECO EG-2. 5 S/E for Variable On-Premises Shaft Power - Utility Alternate - Refer to ECO E-13 in SEH. 5-18 5D.3 - LOAD MANAGEMENT Load management principles can be applied to reduce electrical consumption through scheduling of equipment usage and power fac- tor improvement. Scheduling may also be used to limit electri- cal demand and reduce demand penalty charges. Load management principles applied to lighting are presented in Section 5D.4. The following factors should be considered when assessing the feasibility of ECOs through load management: a. Load Factor The use of load factor analysis to maximize distribu- tion system usage is discussed in the SITE ENERGY HAND- BOOK, Volume 1, paragraph 5D.6. The application of this method to building electrical distribution systems is useful for improving system efficiency and lowering demands. b. Instrumentation The application of multiple circuit demand indication is useful for load control and energy budgeting, where feeders or portions of the electrical distribution systems serve specific functions or building areas. Instantaneous indications at one central control loca- tion within the building facilitate decision making for on-off operation. Recording these data will per- mit evaluation for energy budgeting. Expansion of an existent building automation system can readily accomodate additional energy monitoring and control functions. ECO ELM-1 REDUCTION OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION Typical means of reducing consumption are listed below. a. De-energize all current consuming devices and equip- ment (transformers, motors, etc.) during non-use per- iods, if feasible. b. Revise schedule of low load factor operations to pro- vide meaningful shutdown periods for portions of the building. Where a laboratory or shop is only 807o ac- tive, it could be operated 4 days a week to permit a one day shutdown of the space. A reduction in both environmental and lighting energy and demand would be achieved. 5-19 c. Schedule custodial functions to normal working hours or to daylight periods for energy savings . d. Re-schedule the normal work-day to make use of additional periods of natural light. ECO ELM- 2 POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT The advantages of power factor improvement are described in the SITE ENERGY HANDBOOK, Volume 1, paragraph 5D.5. Power factor improvement saves energy by reducing the Utility's generating requirement and transmission losses. It also reduces distribution losses on feeders and transformers within the facility and current flow for the required work. The resulting reduction of voltage loss permits more efficient operation of motors and lighting. Power factor improvement can be achieved by the use of synchronous motors, synchronous condensers or by static capacitors. Using synchronous condensers should be considered in buildings with heavy industrial loads. Synchronous motors may be used in lieu of induction motors, in the larger horsepower range. Evaluation must include disadvantages as follows: . higher installed cost compared to use of induction motors with corrective capacitors; . additional cost for exciter, exciter generator and controls; . higher maintenance costs. Capacitors are more economical, highly f lexible,easier to install, with low maintenance and life expectancy of 10 to 20 years. There are 3 methods of application of power factor improvement. One is group installation at the electric service entrance. A second is group installation at switchboards, distribution panels or motor control centers. The third is at the individual units of low power factor equipment. This latter method is most preferred for reducing losses and improving voltage levels for the facility as well as for the utility. Ratings of capacitors for application to individual motors is presented in Table ELM 2-1 in Appendix 4. These ratings are in accordance with IEEE recommendations and are expected to improve power factor to about 95%. Installing the capacitor at the motor permits disconnecting the motor and aapacitor as one unit without separate switching. 5-20 There may be economic advantage, however, to installing grouped capacitors at motor control centers or other distribution points. This may particularly apply in retrofit cases where motors are not readily accessible. Automatic capacitor switching equipment should be considered in these cases, to avoid excessive leading reactive currents when some motors are not operating. Table ELM 2-1 also shows line current reduction in percent. Line losses will vary with circuit parameters, size of conductor, length of run, type of raceway. Savings will be evident considering that resistive losses vary as the square of the current; eddy current losses as the cube; and iron conduit losses as the fourth power. In evaluating the use of individual capacitors or distribution group installations the following considerations apply: individual capacitors cost more per KVAR than larger capacitors; wiring costs for individual capacitors may be greater than for grouped. A common practice is to use individual capacitors to correct motors rated 15 horsepower or higher and grouped capacitors for groups of smaller motors. Conditions at a particular fa- cility may favor grouped installation for other combination of motors . In application, total correction capacitor KVAR is determined. Corrective capacitors are applied to individual motors and grouped distribution points as described above. The ratings of these capacitors are then deducted from the total required. A corrective capacitor equivalent to this difference is installed as a service entrance group. Table ELM 2-2 in Appendix 4 may be used to determine building power factor improvements when kilowatt load and average build- ing power factor are known. An example of use of Table ELM 2-2 follows. If: a. kilowatt load is 400 KW; b. average power factor is 767 ; and c. correction required to 857 Q ; then d. read horizontally at line .76, vertically at line .85; with the applicable multiplier of .235, e. KVAR capacity required is: .235 x 400kw = 94 KVAR 5-21 Economic evaluation of power factor imporvement at the electric service can be readily performed, whenever the utility rate schedule includes a charge for low power factor (usually below 857o, where present) . The utility charges at the low power fac- tor can be found; charges at the corrected power factor can be computed. Typical installed cost of capacitors for grouped installation is $10 per KVAR for 480 volts and $20 per KVAR for 208 volt or 240 volt use. Cost evaluation for individual motor or distribution point group cases is more complicated, involving line losses and equipment efficiencies. For ECO evaluation, computations may b< made for the most salient cases: larger motors, power factors of 707o and lower, long feeder runs. ECO ELM - 3 DEMAND LIMITING (EQ-D4) ECO ELM - 3.1 LOAD SHEDDING Peak demand may be limited automatically or manually. Selectioi of the associated method of monitoring and control can be made through a cost payback analysis for each facility. Considera- tions in this analysis are: Presence or addition of control equipment; contactors, circuit breakers, starters, for local or remote shut- down; Frequency of shutdowns permissible for large horsepower equipment; Availability of building management personnel to perform load control operation; Presence or addition of monitoring or instrumentation to permit decision making. Potentially manageable loads within each building may be selectd from the representative group listed below. Options within eacl building for these loads should be analyzed conjunctively by the building and for process management divisions . Potentially manageable loads are: a. Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning Systems Electric reheat coils Supply and recirculation air fans Compressors Electric boilers Chilled water bypass valves Damper systems Intake and exhaust air fans Electric space heaters 5-22 Self-contained air conditioning units b. Process Equipment c. Building Support Systems Hot water circulation pumps Sump pumps, sewage ejectors Toilet exhaust fans Selected elevators in a group Selected lighting circuits Hot water heaters Electric water coolers Vending machines Incinerators Waste compactors Other types of load suitable for shedding at peak periods in addition to those listed above may be identified. Selection of manageable loads is made on the ability of systems to "coast" for up to 10 minutes during peak demand periods. The effect of load shedding upon system operation for optimally selected manageable loads will not be noticeable. Where criti- cal groups of loads are present, an additional level of control can be used to cycle each element for portions of the demand period. Many options are offered for demand limiting, load shedding and demand monitoring equipment. The equipment is low- cost, trou- ble-free, easy to maintain and control, and quite often easy to install. Installation costs will vary with individual buildings and depend upon lengths of runs for control wiring and the presence of or need for magnetic contactors, motor operated circuit breakers or other power control devices. Total costs will usually determine a payback of from 3 months to 3 years. ECO ELM-3.2 SCHEDULING Load management principles can be applied to reduce demand by rescheduling simultaneous intermittent loads. Examples are as follows: Operate water cooling and water heating equipment in off-peak periods where storage facilities are present. Use off-peak periods for such building functions as data processing, machine shops, auxiliary labora- tory work, etc. 5-23 5D.4 - LIGHTING Selected energy conservation opportunities within lighting are presented below. ECO EL-1 LIGHTING INTENSITY REDUCTION AND OPTIMIZATION The ECO available from reducing lighting intensity exists in any building designed to prevailing standards of the past 25 years . Reduction of energy usage for lighting can be achieved by one or several of the methods listed below. Even where one of the ECOs has been implemented, a new evaluation should be made using up-dated criteria discussed herein. A summary of ECOs to consider are as follows: a. Lamp removal where reduced lighting intensity is acceptable. b. Addition of fluorescent ballast switching where fluores- cent lamps are removed. c. Replacement of present lamps with units of higher ef- ficiency, i.e. fluorescent for incandescent; high intensity discharge for fluorescent or incandescent. d. Replacement of present luminaires with units of higher efficiency. e. De-energizing lighting when space is not occupied, when tasks are not being performed or when natural light is suitable. f. Dimming of lighting to suit level required for task being performed or to take advantage of natural light available. g. Redesigning lighting in accordance with task/ ambient criteria. While many of these ECOs may have been implemented during prior energy savings programs, in all likelihood, lighting design has not been applied. Where it has been, current task/ ambient, non-uniform lighting criteria may not have been consider- ed. In this event, a review of lighting ECOs implemented to date is worthwhile to attempt to increase energy savings and to main- tain effective task-oriented lighting. 5-24 Installation work may be required to implement some of the ECOs within Lighting Intensity Reduction listed before. The economic evaluation of an ECO in this category may obviate implementation on an economic basis. However, the obvious reduction of lighting is an effective demonstration of committment to energy conservation. Therefore, each area, especially management offices, should implement reduced lighting, even where energy savings achieved are of minor significance. The prototype set by management will influence the attitude of all personnel. EL- 2 TASK/AMBIENT LIGHTING DESIGN Use of task/ambient lighting design criteria to remodel exist- ing space will offer an ECO in reduced energy use while main- taining lighting levels for task performance. Design criteria in the "cheap energy" era permitted excessive lighting levels without excessive costs. The approach to lighting design favored modularity, limited control selection, uniform lighting levels for ambient and task purposes. Life cycle costing calculation for these existing installations considering present high energy rates and future higher rates may prove it advantageous to invest in task/ ambient lighting systems. This usually proves to be economically feasible even considering the depreciated value of the existing equip- ment. In redesigning lighting systems the current practice of using non uniform task/ambient lighting will offer energy saving with little or no effect on performance of building operations Present criteria of 2.25 to 2.5 watts per square foot for overall building lighting can produce sufficient illumination to meet IES recommended intensities. The program require- ments for redesigned space should follow these criteria. An energy conservation-minded lighting designer can select lamp sources of higher efficiency, improved luminaires and more sensitive concepts to meet these criteria. 5-25 Lighting levels required to meet the Federal Energy Administra- tion directive for all government buildings should be used where applicable. The FEA intensities are as follows: Footcandles Offices . 50 Conference Waiting and General Rooms 30 Corridors 10 Preparation of a lighting power budget will be a useful guide to determine the implementation of lighting energy reduction in an existing building. Indiscriminate removal of lamps may be an example of an ECO with sometimes undesirable consequences. While removing of lamps reduces energy usage, the lighting environment created may be unsuitable for safety, productivity and adequate use of the building's potentials. The lighting power budget determination procedure is described in ASHRAE Standard 90-75, ENERGY CONSERVATION IN NEW BUILDING DESIGN, Attachment B. The form for calculation, therein, makes use of data collected in the energy survey and requires choices to be made by the energy analyst. Illumination level criteria indicated are those in the IES Light- ing Handbook, 5th edition figure 9-80 and various ANSI standards covering lighting practice. Illumination levels should be selected from other criteria which may exist for the facility, such as Federal Energy Administration standards and FPMR 101-20.116-2. ECO EL- 3 SELECTIVE LIGHTING CONTROL Existing installations often contain too few selective swith- ing means to control groups of light. To implement some of the ECOs listed above, added local wall switches should be considered. Personnel using space can make choices on which lights should be off based upon: occupancy task performance natural light condition 5-26 Other means of lighting control besides local wall switches and large area control or panel circuit breaker control should be considered from the following: a. Manual time switches to replace local wall switches in intermittently used space such as reference files, storage, mechanical equipment rooms, elevator machine rooms, offices asso- ciated with laboratories. b. Automatic time switches or photoelectric controls for lights in areas with natural light available. c. Automatic time switches to reduce corridor lighting levels in unoccupied periods. d. Pull chain switches mounted on existing knock- outs of pendant luminaires in work spaces. Often a prior lamp removal program has left many areas without light available when needed and without a means of turning off when no task is being performed. An example for evaluating substitution of manual time switches for local wall switches follows. An intermittently occupied space may be actively used for 1000 hours per year. Idle time when lights are left burning need- lessly during the work-day, overnight and on weekends may ap- proach 2000 hours per year based on a 257<> "forgetfulness" factor. A space with 4 fluorescent luminaries rated at 200 watts each would consume 800 kWH/year for a cost of $24 per year at a 3c/ kWH rate. The installation of a manual time switch in place of the standard wall box snap switch is estimated to cost less than $30 for labor and material. This would mean a pay-back of less than 2 years. Larger spaces with more luminaires involv- ed would produce faster paybacks. Similar evaluations may be made for the other opportunities listed. ECO EL- 4 REPLACEMENT OF LAMPS Fluorescent lamps are presently offered to operate at reduced wattages, while also producing less light output. This ECO can be applied without added installation costs as a replacement pro- gram. As an example, rapid start fluorescent lamps are available as follows : 4' Rapid Start l"-8' Slim Line 1 l/2 M -8' Slim Line 35w. for 40 w. 54w. for 50 w. 60w. for 75 w. 5-27 8' High Output 95w. for 110 w. 8 1 Power Grove 143w. for 215 w. Use of these lamps will offer a 10% energy reduction, 207 o light reduction, 27% increase in lamp costs for rapid start and a 3 to 12% increased cost for the other types. Caution must be used in implementing this ECO. Some manufac- turers of ballasts, are reported to have withdrawn the guarantee for ballasts when these lamps are used; other manufacturers maintain the ballast guarantee. When reducing the lighting level in areas illuminated by two- lamp series ballast fluorescent light sources, all lamps con- trolled by a ballast must normally be removed. If only one lamp were removed, the life the of ballast and remaining lamp would be severely reduced. The resulting lighting level vari- ation between operating sources may, however, be unacceptable. Phantom fluorescent lamps which provide no light and consume no power are available for the replacement of single lamps in two lamp series ballast. Phantom lamps are available in two designs. One type replaces the lamp with a 2.5 mfd capaci- tor. Another type replaces the lamp with a solid wire conduc- tor. The phanton lamps are similar in structure to fluores- cent lamps. Substitution of a single lamp by a phantom lamp will reduce electrical energy consumption. However, efficiency of light output decreases and the reduction in lighting level will be proportionally greater than the reduction of energy consumption. Ballast losses remain constant even though one lamp is removed. A decrease in life of the remaining lamp may also be anticipated, Power factor is, in addition, adversely affected. Improved incandescent lamps that provide the same lumens at 107o reduced wattage are available. Lamp cost is higher. These are krypton-filled lamps offered in sizes of 36, 54, 69, 93 and 143 watts, long life to match standard long life ratings of 40, 60, 75, 100 and 150 watts, respectively. 5-28 5D.5 - MAINTENANCE Proper sizing of equipment, selection of voltage ratings and nominal system voltages are essential for efficient operation and minimization of losses. Maintenance procedures can be established to provide ECOs in routine inspection, adjustment of the electrical system and in equipment repair and replacement ECO EM-1 VOLTAGE LEVELS Most building electrical systems were probably adequate when first designed and installed. Since that time changes in con- nected load and system deterioration may have affected the working voltage level. Loose connections and poor contacts result in increased circuit resistance and low voltage condi- tions. Low voltage to motors results in high current demand and increased line losses. Overvoltage, on the other hand, decreases motor efficiency. A load survey will indicate problem circuits and identify deter- iorated conditions. After repairs and upgrading are effected, regular voltage checks should be made. ECO EM-1.1 TRANSFORMER TAP SETTINGS Adjustment of transformer tap settings may optimize nominal voltage level at utilization equipment. The voltage level should be set within the tolerance of equipment rating, for the largest energy-using items in the sub- system. ECO EM-1. 2 MOTORS Where motors are dual-rated, winding connections should be checked so that 220 volt motors are not operating on nominal 208 volt systems. In replacing or rewinding burned-out motors, new motors should properly match the available supply and load requirements. ECO EM- 2 LIGHTING ECO EM- 2.1 LAMPS Unless difficult accessibility for lamp replacement is a fore- bearing consideration, long-life incandescent lamps should be avoided. These are usually 130 volt rated lamps for use on nominal 115 volt systems. By operating at under rated voltage, in this example at 897o of rated, lamp life is increased 5-29 to 500% expectancy, with 80% efficiency (.lumens per watt) . How- ever, light level is 67% of rated. Where a lamp removal ECO has been implemented in this situation, extra lamps may have been left connected for higher wattage input than is required for the reduced light level. Operating at improved efficiency may offer the opportunity to reduce additional lamp wattage. ECO EM-2.2 LUH1NAIRES Optimum luminaire maintenance procedures will improve energy usage. Group replacement of aged lamps rather than upon burn-out will afford an ECO in permitting fewer lamps to be required in some cases. Cleaning of reflectors, shields and lenses of lum- inaires will improve energy usage in the same manner. ECO EM- 2. 3 BALLASTS Ballast replacements on burn-out can be selected from modern more efficent types available today. One manufacturer offers an 89 watt, 2 lamp 40 watt fluorescent ballast to replace the previously available 92 to 95 watt units. Multilevel ballasts with selectable tap settings at 100%, 55%, and 37.8% input and output are available to permit flexibility in changing light levels to suit various space function require- ments . 5-30 SECTION E - HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEMS (EQ-E) This section includes ECOs associated with space heating, ventilating and cooling for both process and comfort purposes. It covers the individual building conversion plant and distrib- ution systems as well as the terminal devices . Energy systems which are common to the various HVAC energy classifications are covered under other sections (e.g. pumping, coolant, control and waste recovery systems) . There will be some overlap be- cause no single classification is so distinct that it can be considered completely apart from at least one or two others. Because of the infinite number of variations in HVAC and Re- frigeration Systems, their variety of combinations and their application or use, the objective of this section will be to catalogue areas of systems and equipment design, operation, and maintenance which have a more pronounced effect on energy consumption. Any energy system, no matter how well conceived and designed for optimum conservation, can become a waste- ful consumer of energy if not properly installed, operated or maintained. Since this Handbook deals with existing facilities, rather than design of new systems, the thrust is on retrofit ECOs, rather than new design. General observations and most rules and guidelines as to wasteful systems or procedures are not necessarily appli- cable to all situations. It is not feasible to cover all pos- sibilities therefore the conclusions reached are intended to be for specific parameters cited in each situation, rather than broad, all-inclusive ones . Discussion will be largely confined to those system and design characteristics which have practical and economically justifiable alterable potential. 5-31 5E.1 - FUEL HANDLING AND COMBUSTION SYSTEMS (EQ-E'.l) This section includes the handling and preparation of fuels, as well as their firing and combustion control. Related ECOs may be found in Section 5K.2 "Combustion Air & Flue Gas Systems" and Section 51 "Industrial Process-High Fuel Consumers". ECO HF-1 COMBUSTION CONTROL SYSTEMS (EQ-E.lc 6c E.ld) 1. Ideal Combustion Efficiency Ideal combustion efficiency is attained when the products of combustion contain no CO, H2 , hydrocarbons, nor ? (07o combustibles, 07 o oxygen), or with the fuel/air ratio adjusted for a maximum percent C0 9 (Figure HF 1-1). This requires perfect atomization without flame impingement or any other form of flame quenching. 2. Actual Attainable Combustion Efficiency When burning oil, it is often necessary to provide excess air to complete combustion. Efficient combustion is not attainable with burners using mechanical positioning con- trols for the following reasons: 2.1 Variable air density will affect the fan's ability to deliver air (oxygen) . An air deficiency of 1% can waste as much heat as 10% excess air. 2.2 Variable fuel analysis. 2.3 Poor maintenance of the combustion system. 3. Combustion Controls 3.1 Instruments are available which continuously measure CO2 and stack temperature and give a direct reading of boiler efficiency. These provide boiler operators with the re- quisite information for manual adjustment. 3 . 2 In large boiler applications it is recommended that more sophisticated controls be considered. I 0) J h h lO Z u vO 4 O 11 111 J D J 0> 5-32 FIG. HFI-I FLUE GAS ANALYSIS VS % COMBUSTION AIR 24 20 16 3 - ^^^ ^*r' '1a z o \ ^2° - co N : U«2 W /CO ""^^s^ ^COz / /oz Le_S /^i 1 i ' <30 40 20 % DEFICIENCY OF AIR 40 GO SO IOO 20 120 % AIR AO OO dO % EXCESS AIR 140 I GO 160 IDEAL COMBUSTION WOULD BE WITH 100% AIR, OR 0% EXCESS AIR. ON EITHER THE RICH OR LEAN SIDE OF THIS CONDITION, EFFICIENCY AND % CO DROP OFF, AND %0 OR COMBUSTIBLES INCREASES: DOTTED LINES INDICATE EFFECTS OF POOR MIXING OR FLAME QUENCHING. 5-33 4. Combustion Efficiency Calculations Figures HF 1-2 through HF 1-8 in Appendix 4 contain excerpts from References 8,9, and 10 and show two methods of calculat- ing combustion efficiency for the purpose of evaluating savings from its improvement. Reference 8, with commonly used tables of "Total Heat Loss" in flue gas as a function of only 7 CO2, flue gas and room temperature is not as versa- tile and accurate as Reference 9 which accounts for several other flue gas losses (e.g. water vapor, CO). Reference 10 shows the relationship between the various parameters at varying excess air ratios. 5-34 ECO HF-2 REPLACE OR MODIFY STEAM BURNERS WITH AIk ATOMIZATION The replacement of existing steam atomizing burners in good condition or obsolete burners with air atomization should be evaluated for possible benefits. Existing steam atomization can sometimes be changed to air with minor burner retrofit. Steam added to the products of combustion lowers its dew point and tends to increase corrosion when economizers, air preheaters and other recovery devices are used which reduce stack tempera- ture. The higher the flue gas dew point, the more heat can be recovered safely without acid condensation in high sulfur fuels. The comparison analysis forms, Figure HF 2-1, presented in Appendix 4 illustrate a calculation procedure which may be used to evaluate this ECO. ECO HF-3 FUEL OIL PREPARATION AND HANDLING (EQ E . la & E.lc) Several ECOs may be considered. Two of them are briefly out- lined below. ECO HF-3.1 AVOID CONTINUOUS PUMPING OF FUEL OIL (EQ E.la ) Avoid continuous pumping of fuel oil, when the installation of a day tank (sized as permitted by Code) allows a reasonable "On-Off" cycle period for the transfer pump. It should be con- sidered for systems which would not result in a high-viscosity pumping problem due to off -cycle cooling. The burners require pumps that can take suction from the day tank and deliver the pressure required at the burners. There are a number of possible benefits : a. Pumping energy savings (see ECO P-l) result from the combined effect of pumping "off" time and the reduc- tion of both flow rate and discharge and pressure re- quired by continuous pumping which must employ pressure relief bypass. b. Reduction of heat loss from main storage tank as a result of reduced volume of hot fuel oil return back to this tank. 5-35 ECO HF-3.2 MONITOR AND CONTROL FUEL OIL VISCOSITY (EQ E.l.a5 & E.l.cTH The greater the variation of characteristics in fuel oil from delivery to delivery, the more important is its monitoring for the optimum preheat temperature and most effective atomization for each batch. Such adjustment may be manual or automated. Table HF 3-1 (Reference 10) gives the desired operating temper- ature for various fuel grades and viscosities. I 5-36 TABLE HF 3-1 TEMPERATURES REQUIRED FOR PUMPING & ATOMIZATION OF TYPICAL FUEL OILS * Typical No. 4 Oils Typical No. 5 Oils Typical No Oils SSU at 100OF SSF at 122°F 50 60 - 75 - 100 - 150 _ 200 - 300 21 400 26 500 30 1000 50 2000 100 3000 135 4000 160 5000 190 TEMP(F)REQ'D TEMP(F)REQ'D FOR 2000 SSU FOR 100 SSU (EASY PUMPING) (ATOMIZATION) ■23 -9 +6 24 32 45 54 62 82 100 111 116 122 +44 64 82 100 121 134 151 162 171 195 217 231 238 245 10000 342 138 264 Reference 10 5-37 5E. 2-HEAT GENERATING PLANTS This subsection classification includes all types of generators which convert depletable source fuel or electricity to heat, for comfort or process. Refer to Sections 51 "Industrial Pro- cess and 5K "Waste Energy Reduction and Recovery" for related ECOs. ECO HH-1 DEVELOP LOGS FOR PERFORMANCE MONITORING (EQ E.2.a ) Take full advantage of existing instrumentation and consider additional instruments and meters (See Section 5J) to permit on-line monitoring of sufficient parameters for calculation and logging of daily as well as full and part-load conversion efficiencies . Such evaluation logging should consider the following deter- mination for steam plants from consistent physical units or Btu equivalents: 1. Combustion Efficiency = Gross steam generated/fuel input a) From stack gas analysis (see ECO HF-1) b) From direct input fuel and generated steam mea- surement (see SITE ENERGY hANDBOOK) 2. Plant Efficiency = Net steam sent out for useful con- sumption/fuel input 3. 7 Condensate Return = lb condensate returned/ lb steam generated. When possible this should be on an individual boiler basis . For other heat generating devices (e.g. hot water generators, furnaces, etc) similar monitoring should be made possible - on a continuing regular, periodic basis for larger equipment and on a longer-period, spot-check basis for smaller ones. ECO KH-2 IMPROVE HEAT BALANCE (EQ E.2.c) Steam generating plants which employ substantial quantities of steam for power auxiliaries and plant heating services re- quire more sophisticated logging and analysis for on-going optimization and overall favorable heat balance. Extensive treatment of this subject is beyond the scope of this HANDBOOK. , 5-38 ECO HH-3 AVOID STAND-BY FIRING OF RESERVE HEAT GENERATOR Any time multiple generators are kept on line at low loadings, as a normal operating procedure, a full re-evaluation of the need for this procedure is recommended. Criteria which must be examined include the following: 1. Are there any emergency steam turbogenerators? a. What is their maximum combined steam demand and how long is the time period from power failure to full demand? b. What percentage does this represent of each boiler's capacity? c. What is the time period required for each boiler to come up to the turbogenerator minimum steam pressure at a delivery rate equal to their combined demand? d. Are there any other major steam demands which might simultaneously cut in during a take-over of emergency turbogenerators? How essential are such loads, and can they be automatically deferred in the event of a power failure? 2. Are there any non-essential steam loads which can be auto- matically shed for the period of time required by a stand- by boiler to assume load? ECO HH-4 REDUCE BLOW-DOWN LOSSES Install orifice in series with blow-down valves to avoid wire- drawing of valve, subsequent wear and excessive continuous blow-down or leakage when closed. Automate blow-down from TDS sensor to avoid unnecessary losses from excess blow down, or damage from too little. Provide a means for visual inspection of leakage in intermittent blow-down piping system. Consider installation of heat recovery exchangers in blow-down and flash tank circuitry. ECO HH-5 REDUCE STACK LOSSES Install automatic draft control dampers in breeching to shut 30 seconds after burners and to open 30 seconds before next firing cycle, to slow down boiler cooling between firing cycles Consider the installation of baffles or turbulators in the gas side of boiler heating surfaces, when excessive stack tempera- ture results from tube- fouling that cannot be remedied by more conventional methods, or from a deficiency of heating surface. 5-39 5E. 3 REFRIGERATION PLANTS (EQ-E.3 ) Included herein are all types of refrigeration apparatus, both indirect or direct expansion, central or unitary. Related ECOs are referenced at the end of this sub-section. E CO HR-1- ALLOW HEAD P RESSU RE AND /OR COOLANT TEMPERATURE tO REDUCE (EQ E-3b ) Substantial benefits may be achieved by permitting the condens- ing pressure/ temperature (vapor-compression cycles) or coolant temperature (absorption cycles) to drop as the ambient db/wb temperature reduces. 1 . Vapor-Compression Cycle 1.1 The 85°/ 95°/ 105° syndrome is unfortunately rigidly adhered to by many, who fail to realize the benefits in energy at- tainable as ambient temperature drops. This occurs by per- mitting the 105°F refrigerant condensing temperature (CT) and 95 F leaving water temperature (LOT) to drop when the chiller operating characteristics permit it. 1.2 The HP/Ton ratio of a vapor-compression cycle decreases dramatically when its pumping head (condensing pressure minus suction pressure) decreases. When a cooling tower can deliver substantially less than 85°F entering water temperature (EWT) to a condenser, it is not justified to cycle tower fans or pumps, or to engage by-pass valves to keep the CT at 105°F. It is not likely for the pump or fan HP savings to exceed the saving from HP /Ton reduction, achieved by leaving them running to drop the CT and the pumping head of the refrigerant cycle. This is especially true, when the forced high CT is maintained by tower by- pass control, with full fan and pump HP. 1.3 The CT in any cycle should be permitted to drop to the low- est tolerable point of expansion valve or chiller metering valve operation. Each machine's characteristics should be checked, and the head pressure control point set to maintain that low limit - 105° F or some other arbitrarily high setting. Taking advantage of this, normally requires no more than re-setting the head pressure or the temperature controls . 1.4 The low limit of condensing temperature or pressure is governed by the refrigerant valve pressure drop require- ments. The reduction in CT can be as much as 20°F degrees with performance increases from the customary 1 Ton/HP to as much as 1.5 Ton/HP in comfort refrigeration cycles. 5-40 2. Absorption Chillers Even the older chillers that required the use of tower by-pass valves, customarily set at 85° F EWT, have considerable tolerance to lower temperatures before acci- dental crystallization occurs from overconcentration of the liquor. With appropriate trimming, the EWT can be as low as 70 ^ on some older chillers. Newer absorption chillers can tolerate EWT as low as 45 to 55° F and do not even require by-pass valve controls (depending upon the manufacturer) . When the EWT is permitted to float with the ambient condition, the steam rate (lbs steam per hr/ ton) is markedly reduced. 3. Evaluation of Energy Saving Whether the specific machine is reciprocating, screw, centrifugual or adsorption, the actual magnitude of improvement is a function of its specific performance characteristics, which must be checked. In addition, the manufacturer should be consulted on possible operat- ing problems, if the intended operating points fall out- side the published range of performance values. ECO HR-1.1 MAINTAIN MINIMUM CT BY CLEANING AND PURGING (EQ-E.3c) To maintain the best performance at any given EWT, condenser water tubing must be kept clean and the refrigerant side must be kept free of non-condensables . From a maintenance standpoint, the cost of high condensing pressures resulting from presence of noncondensables , tube-fouling, dirty strainers, poor cooling tower performance, and poor water treatment is too high a penalty to ignore. Some plants whose refrigeration operation cannot even tolerate the time for shut-down tube cleaning employ "on-line cleaning" with automatic reverse flow (backwash) at perodic intervals. (See E&) 0-3, Section 5L) . ECO HR-2 KEEP CHILLER LEAVING WATER TEMPERATURE (LWT) HIGH (EQ-E . 3a ) Unnecessarily low chilled water temperatures are also an energy drain, for the same reason as above (i.e. improved HP/Ton ratios or reduced steam rate) . Raising the chilled LWT raises the operating suction temperatures (ST) and reduces the chiller work load. Evaluation of the energy benefits are made in the same manner as described above. In both cases, the reduced energy input per ton-hour output is applied to the annual ton-hr energy node, determined in Chapter 3 for the actual building. 5-41 ECO HR- 2 . 1 SCHEDULED CHILLER LWT CONTROL Both full load and part load LWT may be too low. Field trial and error testing, following engineering analysis, permits trim- ming the temperature to the highest tolerable temperature which meets the required conditions of leaving air temperature (LAT) and/ or room humidity control. Many installations and designs can tolerate a substantial spread between full load LWT and part load LWT. When a spread is permissible a number of techniques may be applied to control the LWT: LWT may be scheduled automatically from outside air (OA) temperatures (within set limits) to take full advantage of sensible heat load reductions, with override, if neces- sary by room humidity. The scheduling can originate from a sensor which monitors the system part load condition. This may be effected in systems using cooling coils with valve control, by picking up a signal from a select number of valves (or all valves, when necessary) which sense reduced coil loads. For systems using coils that have no valve control, reduced load can be sensed by reduced LWT off the coil. In both cases, the reset of chiller LWT may be overcalled by room high limit humidistat (s) which should be set at the highest tolerable condition. If one or more air systems in a common chiller circuit have a common dew point or dry bulb leaving air temperature (LAT) control, then the benefits of higher chiller LWT control can be increased by raising the coil LAT set point as the load decreases. In the case of reheat or dual path systems using LAT control, reduced system loads may be sensed by ambient conditions or room thermostat signals (in lieu of coil valve signals) , again with necessary room humidity overcall. The increased benefits derive from the replacement of parasitic reheat energy with reduced chilling, which reduces both refrigeration and reheat energy requirements. (See ECO HA- 3.1 and ECO KA-3.2). If it is assumed that the acceptable fan LAT might vary from 55° F to 68° F, with proper high-limit humidity control during occupied periods, then whenever the ambient wet bulb temperature is low enough to avoid room humidity overshoot, the refrigeration can be shut down. This can happen during many hours of operation between ambient dbt conditions of 55° F and 68° F. Direct sensing of these needs by the governing room conditions takes optimum advan- tage of low enthalpy weather conditions, which could not otherwise be accomplished with once-through systems (i.e. conventional enthal- py control for once-through OA systems is useless, since choice between outside and return air is non-existent) . 5-42 ECO HR-3 OBTAIN REFRIGERATION AT REDUCED ENERGY INPUT (EQ-E . 3h) A number of methods are available for both centrifugal and absorption chiller cycle retrofit. These permit reduced chiller capacity to be obtained at ambient conditions below 50 to 55° F, without running a centrifugal compressor; or, in the case of an absorption chiller, without the use of input steam, in one method, or with only a small percentage of normal steam, in another method. These techniques are only feasible when, (a) chilled water is required for a substantial number of operating hours per year below an ambient temperature level of 55 e F dbt ; (b) the air conditioning units or other terminal apparatus are unable to use direct outside air supply; (c) the refrigeration loads below 55° F ambient are not greater than 35 to 60% of design full load, depend- ing upon which method is used and other specific job conditions. The systems are proprietory and are marketed under the following names : a. "Thermocycle" - for centrifugal refrigeration compressors - is a closed system which pumps the refrigerant through the evaporator, chilling the system water. The refrigerant vapor is then cooled by migrating to the condenser, where condenser water is cooler than the chilled water. Since condenser water can be cooled to within a few degrees above the ambient wet bulb, and since the wet bulb temperature averages approximately 7° F lower than the ambient dry bulb, then 50° F or lower chilled LWT is usually avail- able through this Thermocycle heat exchange. b. "Strainer Cycle" - for absorption chillers- is an open system which uses cooling tower condenser water directly in the chilled water circuit. With proper straining and chemical treatment suitable for such an open coolant cir- cuit, the principle is similar to that of an open air washer (evaporative cooler). This coolant, however, flows through the chilled water piping system and coils, while in a refri- gerated air washer system the coolant circulates through the chilled water piping system and a spray conditioner. Comparing the Strainer Cycle with the Thermocycle , at a 55°F ambient dbt/48° F wbt, the Strainer Cycle can produce approx- imately 50% of full load cooling with 50° F tower LWT, while the Thermocycle can produce approximately 35% with the same 50o F tower LWT and 58° F chiller LWT. c. "Therma-Gain" - for absorption chillers- is a closed system, similar to the Thermocycle, using a liquor pump and cooling water to cool the chilled water. Its performance, however, differs in two respects ; 5-43 (1) It cannot cool the chilled water stream as low as either the Thermocycle or Strainer Cycle, requiring for example, 44° F wbt to produce 357o full load chilling. (2) It requires a small stream input to avoid over- concentration and crystallization of the bromide solution. This input steam rate varies from 177o of that required under normal summer operation at 10% load, to 3% steam at 60% load. (3) It cannot be retrofitted and must be purchased as a feature in a new chiller only. RELATED ECQs IN OTHER SECTIONS OF THIS CHAPTER ECO HR-4 EFFECT OF VARIABLE SPEED PUMPING ON CHILLER PERFOR- MANCE - Refer to ECO HCH-1.1, Section 5E . 7 ECO HR-5 HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS - Refer to ECOs WH, Section 5K.1 I 5-44 5E. 4- STEAM DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM (EQ-E.4) This ECO classification includes the distribution, and in some cases the control and utilization, of steam within a building. RELATED ECOs FROM SITE ENERGY HANDBOOK ECO HS-1 SYSTEM PRESSURE REDUCTION - Refer to Site ECO S-10 ECO HS-2 CONTROL OF STEAM SHUT- OFF TO SELECTED ZONES OR BRANCH MAINS Refer to Site ECOs S-ll & S-12. The principles covered in these Site ECOs for application to entire building and site distribution branches apply equally as well to building sections, zones or branch mains . RELATED ECOs IN OTHER SECTIONS OF THIS CHAPTER 1. Refer to Section 5K.l,EC0s WH for HVAC Recovery System 2. Refer to Section 5K.5, ECO WLK for Energy Leakage and Loss 3. Refer to Section 5J, ECOs M for Control. ECO HS-3 ELIMINATE OR FIND ALTERNATE HEAT SOURCE FOR RESIDUAL LOADS A profile study of steam usage during low building load periods, may reveal that the requirements of one or two utilization devices constitute an insignificant portion of full load steam demand. If the annual hours of operation under such low load conditions are coupled with a need to keep extensive portions of a steam system alive, and the piping layout does not lend itself to shut-off of major unloaded mains, then this ECO should be examined. Some possibilities are illustrated: 1 . Summer Reheat Reheat control can frequently be eliminated by substitution of variable air volume (VAV) , at least as a first stage of cooling reduction. Even applications which have high-limit humidity requirement can frequently tolerate the elimination of reheat during the warm, dry weather periods. If such reheat is the only summer steam load, extensively distributed throughout a building, then substantial savings are possible by its elimination during these periods. Detailed evaluation is similar to the procedures shown in the SITE ENERGY REPORT for pipeline losses and for heating/ cooling energy savings in ECO HA-1, Par. 2. 5-45 2. Substitute Energy Source Identify any residual steam loads which are required during mild weather conditions, are concentrated at one or two locations and can be satisfied with a seasonal alternate energy supply. For example, if the sole existing steam load(s) are from service water heaters with a light demand, then replacement with off-season electric heating may con- serve more source energy (by the elimination of widespread steam distribution losses) than is required for the electric heating. 5-46 5E.5-CONDENSATF RETURN AND FEEDWATER SYSTEMS (EQ E.5) This ECO classification includes energy nodes for all portions of a steam system which are in liquid phase, before or after the generation of steam. Related ECOs described in the SITE ENERGY HANDBOOK and in other sections of this chapter are referenced below. RELATED ECOs FROM SITE ENERGY HANDBOOK ECO HCR-1 CONDENSATE LEAKAGE - Refer to Site ECO CR-1 ECO HCR-2 INSULATION - Refer to Site ECO CR-2 ECO HCR-3 PUMPING SYSTEMS - Refer to Site ECOs W-l, W-3, W-5 & W-6 RELATED ECOs IN OTHER SECTIONS OF THIS CHAPTER 1. Refer to Section 5G, ECO P for pumping 2. Refer to Section 5K.1, ECO WH for HVAC recovery 3. Refer to Section 5K.5, ECO WLK for energy leakage ECO HCR-4 AVOID FLASH LOSSES The magnitude of flash loss from atmospheric vented vessels which contain saturated water (i . e . at psig and 212 F) is a function of the pressure and temperature (P/T) of the condensate flowing into the vessel. Figure HCR 4-1, from Reference 14 shows the condensate los-t as vented steam for various saturated condensate pressures. ECO HCR-4. 1 INJECT COLD MAKE-UP WATER INTO CONDENSATE RETURN TANK Figure HCR 4-2 shows how make-up water required by a steam gen- erating system can be injected into the vent of a condensate return tank to condense the flash steam and reduce the vent losses. If the quantity of make-up required is always ade- quate to reduce the tank contents to below 212 F, the n this is a positive means of eliminating flash loss. Several ob- servations apply: a. Only specially designed pumps can handle condensate at or near saturated pressure. Conventional condensate pumps of centrifugal or vane type design have difficulty handling condensate above 180°F without vapor binding . Therefore it is desirable to cool a receiver to this temperature, if it can be accomplished without flash loss. 5-<*7 FIG. HCZ 4-1 FLASH LOSS VS COMDEMSATTE PRESSURE PERCENTAGE OF FLASH STEAM FORMED WHEN CONDENSATE AT VARIOUS STEAM PRESSURES IS DISCHARGED TO VARIOUS BACK PRESSURES. 2 4 til H (I) I _i IL 111 I- Z ID O W IU (L 3W 25 *** - ^ p -A- _, ^ ^ _ 20 -;£---» — * '— ■» *"T ^*' 15 d ■■ i 4* i*!-** ~Dr l ?^~Z IO ~4 ? ,URVC LM/SQ.lN. 2 A A -I.O © -6 c © D IO e 20 F 30 5 p r> ~~* i o 40 50 IOO 150 200 250 SOO ORIGIMA.L CONDENSATE PRESSURE PSIC3 , SATURATED FOR AN EXAMPLE, ASSUME A CONDITION IN WHICH 20,000 LBS OF CONDENSATE PER HOUR ARE BEING RETURNED FROM PROCESSING EQUIPMENT OPERATING AT 100 PSI TO A RECEIVER WHICH IS VENTED TO ATMOSPHERE. FIRST FIND THE PROPER CURVE ON THE CHART. THE INSET TABLE SHOWS THAT FOR PSI- A VENTED RECEIVER- WE SHOULD FOLLOW CURVE C. (IF CONDENSATE WERE DISCHARGED TO A BACK PRESSURE OF 30 PSI WE WOULD FOLLOW CURVE F). LOCATE 100 PSI ON THE HORIZONTAL BASE LINE. FOLLOW THIS UP VERTICALLY UNTIL IT INTERSECTS CURVE C. NOW READ THIS POINT ALONG THE LEFT HAND VERTICAL AXIS - APPROXIMATELY 13%. OUR ANSWER, THEN IS 2600 LBS OF CONDENSATE (13% OF 20,000 LBS) FLASHES INTO STEAM WHEN CONDENSATE FROM 100 PSI PROCESSING EQUIPMENT IS DISCHARGED INTO A RECEIVER VENTED TO ATMOSPHERE. 5-48 FIG. HCR 4-2 INJECTION OF MMCE-UP INTO CONDENSATE RETURN TKNIC VALVE CLOSE* AS WATER IN TANK. RISES TO OVERFLOW LEVEL. SPRAY NOZZLE L.P. DR»PS AND DRAINS AND DRAINS OVERFLOW FROM MAKEUP SYSTEM FROM &OILER FEED WATER SYSTEM TO PREHEAT RECEIVER CONTENTS ON COLO DEA6RATOR START- UP * >S3 :3P TR-EKiCH CONDENSATE TK-ANSFER PUMP 5-49 For condensate returned at substantially psig, saturated, cooled to a final tank temperature T t , with make-up water at temperature T m , the percent make-up flow to condensate flow (before mixing) is (212 - 180°) 100 / (212° - 60°) = 21%. b. The cool make-up water should be treated to a quality equivalent to that required at the heat generating plant. If the condensate tank involved is remote from the plant (e.g. at another building) then this quality of treated water is usually not available. It is not good practice to employ untreated water for this purpose, since the corrosion and operating problems re- sulting from such use may be a greater disadvantage than the savings in energy. c. If the make-up rate is low in relation to the P/T of return condensate, then too many hours of operation during which cooling is inadequate will render this technique relatively ineffective. In most steam systems, the percentage of condensate return/ steam produced increases at part loads, since leakage tends to be constant unless steam is directly injected into utiliza- tion apparatus or just not returned from others) . Con- sequently, in the former case, a calculation of the quantity of make-up required to cool a given P/T of condensate returned at full load will permit an evalua- tion of this method's feasibility, when it is not cur- rently in use. The following heat balance applies when- ever the return condensate is above psig saturated. Qcr < h cr " h t) " Q m (T t - T m ) m where: Qcr = Condensate return flow, lb/hr ^cr = Enthalpy of condensate @ P/T of average hot return, Btu/lb h t = Enthalpy at final tank temperature, Btu/lb Q m = Make-Up flow, lb/hr T t = Final tank temperature desired, °F. T m = Original temperature of cool make-up, °F. When this type of injection is currently being used, observation of the extent of vent vapor losses will permit a determination of its. effectiveness . 5-50 ECO HCR-4.2 CONNECT HPS & LPS FLASH VESSEL VENTS TO LPS LOADS All flash vessels which are presently vented should be repiped into LP or MP steam lines which are active and close by. Provisions shall be made for atmospheric relief when the lines selected cannot absorb the flash vapor. This ECO is applicable to such vessels as flash tanks and direct-contact deaerators . ECO HCR-4.3 INSTALL VENT CONDENSER ON FLASH VESSELS When neither ECO HCR-4.1 or 4.2 is applicable, consider the installation of a vent condenser to recover all the heat of vaporization. If the coolant source is adequate and positive in availability, then most of the vapor heat content as well as its condensate may be recovered. ECO HCR-4.4 INSTALL PUMPING EQUIPMENT THAT CAN HANDLE HOT CON- DENSATE When none of the above ECOs apply, pumping equipment and tech- niques are available to either pump condensate directly back from the load into a boiler (without going through a condensate tank) or to take suction from an unvented receiver with no flash losses. In the first category (References 15, 16) are special pump assemblies which are designed to handle hot condensate in mixed phase (i.e. liquid and vapor). They are often used on large-load units such as absorption chillers (in parallel with the conventional vented receiver return from other loads) . They cycle with the chiller, and are especially useful when the elevations of the chiller and receiver would not permit gravity return in the condensate receiver. The second category includes "pumpless" return systems (Ref. 15) that alternate a condensate fill cycle into the unvented receiver with a steam injection cycle, in a manner that permits the steam to empty the receiver's contents into the boiler. ECO HCR-5 REDUCE FEEDWATER (FW) PUMPING POWER REQUIREMENTS High pumping pressure requirements of medium and high pressure boilers, together with the normally wide swings in FW flows as loads vary, provide a number of ECOs for consideration. Analysis and calculation techniques have been presented in the SITE ENERGY HANDBOOK, but this section describes the nature of some opportunities . 5-51 ECO HCR-5.1 REDUCE DISCHARGE PRESSURE OF FEEDWATER (FW) PUMPS AT FULL LOAD" FW pumps are frequently installed with excess head in specific installation situations, for such reasons as overdesign and lowering of rated pressure or capacity of a boiler plant. The maximum operating discharge pressure should be no great- er than that required to deliver actual plant full load flow (allowing for surge demand or cold startup) , with all FW supply system valving wide open. The pressure at the inlet of the FW control valving, under this condition should be higher than the operating boiler pressure as required by control stability and the pressure drop (P.D.) from the FW to the boiler drum. Thus, an excessive pressure drop in the FW supply, either from unnecessary throttling or from an under- sized valve, imposes a permanent parasitic energy load upon the pumping system. This condition of excess head at full load can be remedied in the case of steam turbine driven FW pumps by setting the governor at an appropriately lower speed, after reducing exces- sive FW valve P.D. This can be done without valve hunting by installing another valve in parallel with the existing one, to permit stable control at low loads. If a motor drive is used, the pump impeller can be shaved. Refer to SITE ENERGY HANDBOOK, ECOs W-l (including Site References 46 and 47), and W-5 for further details. This ECO results in savings in the pumping system at full load, but does not take advantage of savings possible at reduced plant and pumping loads. ECO HCR-5.2 LET PUMP ENERGY FOLLOW THE PLANT LOAD The FW pump flow requirements are directly proportional to the steam load, while frictional P.D. losses in the FW pumping circuit vary with the square of the flow. There is no reduction in the FW pump head component which represents the boiler pressure. As the boiler operating pressure increases, the P.D. component becomes a less significant portion of the total pumping energy. But, with an economizer in the FW supply of a 200 psig boiler and a 150 lb loss in the piping system, it could still represent considerable energy. 5-52 With a steam turbine drive, a fixed speed governor can be replaced with one whose speed control point can be reset by a P.D. controller that maintains a fixed P.D. across the last FW control valve. As FW flow drops, this control permits the pump to "see" the piping P.D. reduction and reduce the pump speed for minimum energy- input. An illustrated solution to such an energy analy- sis in shown in Fig. HCR 5-1 taken from one of the multi-stage FW pump curves, assuming two operating modes, for full load and 50% load: a. Full load: Boiler 220,000 lb/hr, steam @ 200 psig(463 ft) Pump - 440 gpm @ 880ft TDH . FW control valve , wide-open P.D. (assumed) = 25 psi = 57 ft . Piping system P.D. at full load = 155 psi = 360 ft . Total FW system P.D. at full load = TM psi = 417 ft . Boiler drum pressure = 200 psi = 463 ft . Total pump TDH 380 psi = 880 ft b. Constant speed pump: 3550 RPM . Point CI) rated full load 440 gpm, 880 ft TDH, 170 BHP . Point (2) 50% flow 220 gpm, 990 ft TDH, 115 BHP c. Variable speed pump: reduced speed for 220 gpm flow . Line C3)= pressure of steam + fixed valve P.D. = 463' + 57* = 520 ft . Point (4)=K3) + Full load piping P.D. x (220/440) 2 = 520' + 360' CO. 25) = 520 + 90 = 610 ft . BHP at reduced speed, 220 gpm, 610 ft TDH = 68 BHP d. Power saving from full load at 170 BHP: . at reduced speed: U)-W = 170 - 68 = 102 HP or 60% . at constant speed : CI) - (2)= 170 -115 = _55 HP or 32% . or increased savings with variable speed pumping (VSP) 47 HP or 28% 5-53 FIG. NCR 5-1 FW PUMP CURVES-VARIABLE VS COM STANT SPEED 3550 RPM FULL SPEED REDUCED SPEED 1300 1200 1U 1 IOO IOOO 111 u 300 Q eoo TOO UJ 1 <2>00 _l 500 h 400 3oo 200 IOO o O IOO 200 300 400 500 5-66 (1) A common example of such waste was described in Par. 1.3a(3) &(4) on page 5-65. (2) Another occurs in systems which use humidification during winter. The accumulated heat of vapori- zation required for large quantities of winter OA (low humidity air) can sometimes require more source energy Btu's than can be saved from refri- geration. ECO HA-1 CONVERT CONSTANT VOLU M E (CAV) SYSTEMS T O MODIFIED VARIABLE AIR VOLUME (VAV) 1. General 1.1 Many CAV systems can be partially or totally modified to employ the beneficial characteristics of VAV. See Ref. 6. Such conversions must be executed by a skilled designer, with adequate attention given to air terminals of existing installations, the turn-down ratio of throttling and its effect on room air movement, ventilation and the fan characteristics . 1.2 Any modulated reduction of supply air, not accomplished at the throat of an air outlet device (e.g. grille or diff us- er) will reduce the outlet's discharge velocity and can be a cause for concern, depending upon the type of outlet, the delivery volume at which it was selected, and the ratio of maximum to minimum air (turn-down ratio) . Smaller turn- downs , characteristic of interior areas with relatively small load variations may be treated with less concern than those which suffer large variations (high turn-down) . Also air outlets handling small volumes are of less concern than those handling large volumes . 1.3 Outside air ventilation in any VAV controlled room decreases in proportion to the room supply air variation. This factor is mitigated in all-air systems by the fact that air is not recirculated within any specific room, but is mix- ed in the total supply handled by the particular air hand- ler. This prevents the build-up of odors in any room whose air supply is only a small portion of the total air handler supply. Contamination situations which call for exhaust are no problem with reduced air quantities as long as the supply and/or transfer from adjacent areas is adequately in excess of the exhaust requirements at all times. The balance can be returned to the air handler, when process and safety requirements permit. When no return can be toler- ated at any time, as is the case in many laboratory related areas, more sophisticated measures may be considered to permit the use of VAV. These are presented in more detail in ECO HVE. 5-67 1.4. Various techniques may be applied to the fan and the outside air control of VAV systems to insure fan and control stability, as well as the continuity of adequate ventilation air as system supply reduces. These include fan discharge or variable inlet vane (VIV) dampers, variable speed fans or variable pitch fans. Generally the choice in retrofit applications is limited, for cost reasons, to discharge and VIV damper control. Energy benefits derive from the resulting fan power savings in varying degrees, in addition to those from heating, cooling and ventilation components. 1.5. True VAV, as intended in these ECOs , must be distin- guished from ceiling or return air dumping systems (Ref 6 Pg . 3.16). The latter offers no energy savings. 1.6. System types which may be converted in this context include: . CAV Dual-path (e.g. dual duct, multi-zone) systems . CAV Reheat systems . CAV Induction systems 1.7. Conversions involve either total modification to VAV, when the air volume turn-down at the lowest cooling load condition does not create a ventilation concern; or VAV control in an initial phase, down to a minimum CFM s r, followed by the conventional blending, reheat, or induction cycle inferred in each of the above re- spective system designs. In all instances, it is the intent of these ECOs to inject no more heating or cooling into any zone than that zone requires through- out its operating range, and to maintain comfort and/ or process conditions automatically without manipula- tion and disruption of the system's operation. 2 . Analysis and Appraisal of Energy Savings The many diverse and complicated energy usage considerations involved in conversions to VAV are much too broad to be han- dled in a general calculation technique that covers all or even the major types of situations. Sophisticated evaluation is required for each case . 5-68 Despite the diversities indicated above, the energy node analysis technique derived in Chapter 3 provides a good point from which studies can originate. They must involve a study of the parameters which make up the present energy consumption, such as reheat, ventila- tion, etc., and the interrelationships between those parameters in any given air-system under the present and proposed mode of use. 3. Temperature /Humidity (T/H) Control 3.1 Effective conversion presupposes an appraisal of the change in quality, if any, of T/H control. If an expected quality reduction (e.g. rise in high-limit humidity during cooling) is acceptable, as it often is, then the new control program can take advantage of the relaxed criteria to save energy. If it is not acceptable, then the range of turn-down for the VAV phase must be restricted accordingly. 3.2 Overcooling may conceivably offer a problem if a complete conversion to VAV is made (i.e. not followed by warm air blending or reheat) but only individual analysis can determine this. It need never be a problem if VAV is only the first phase of cooling reduction, in the modified VAV cycle. 3.3 In general, considerable throttling is permissible before the room humidity rises to an objectionable value, unless the room load is characterized by high internal latent loads. However even in such case, this only restricts the VAV flexibility of turn-down and only when these latent loads are present, which frequently occurs only during a limited number of operating hours throughout the season. In any event automatic overcall of thermostatic throttling by high- limit room humidity can avoid any problem in such applications. Refer also to ECO HS-3, Par. 1. 4. Fan Considerations Whenever a CAV system is converted to VAV, the design air supply volume can be substantially reduced - as much as 507o, depending upon the diversity of zone loads. CAV systems need to handle a total quantity equal to the sum of the maxima for all zones, while VAV need only handle the block load. The fan capacity can then be trimmed by a fixed speed reduction at design conditions, while additional year-round power savings are made by reduction of supply, as the block load reduces. 5-69 ECO HA-1.1 CONVERSION OF DUAL DUCT (DP) TO VAV (EQ E.8b) 1 . Mixing Box Considerations 1.1. Mixing boxes for CAV DD systems are either mechanically or pneumatically controlled to maintain room temperature and room CFM at preset, fixed values. Several box man- ufacturers market retrofit or add-on devices, which are compatible to their product or those of other manufac- turers, for the purpose of converting the box to VAV DD operation. 1.2. Mechanical constant volume regulators (MCVR) maintain set flow regardless of upstream duct pressure fluctua- tions by utilizing duct system static pressures as an actuating force, while temperature control is inde- pendently maintained by pneumatic or electric control of the hot/ cold blending. Some existing MCVR devices can be retrofitted with a control motor that permits its setting to be changed within the range of CFM values desired for VAV operation. The first phase of room thermostat control throttles the total air supplied by the box, delaying the admission of hot air until the cold air has. been reduced to some allowable predetermined minimum. The thermostat positions the MCVR setting down to this minimum total and the hot port is sequentially opened as the cold port is closed further, at a total constant CFM. In this manner the unit is converted to a mechanical vari- able constant volume regulator (MVCVR) , so designated because at any given setting within a range of vari- able values, the regulator maintains the set flow vol- ume, regardless of upstream static pressure variations. Another accepted solution to the conversion is to use one MCVR at a fixed, minimum flow setting and a second MVCVR in parallel, for regulation from maximum box de- livery to the minimum -- the latter being the fixed setting of the original regulator. 1.3. Pneumatic, electric or electronic constant volume regu- lators (PCVR) perform both the thermostatic and flow regulation functions by the respective control medium, using a static differential pressure (DP) device for flow control. Otherwise the sequencing and concept of control for CAV and VAV is the same. To convert this type of CAV box to VAV, several options are available: 5-70 a. The existing fixed, single setting DP controller can be changed to one which permits its setting to be varied down to the minimum flow volume, if any. b. The existing DP controller can be employed for the minimum flow condition by manually resetting the pressure differential, while an MVCVR regulator can be added for the regulation from maximum to minimum flow. The mechanical regulator is in parallel air flow with the minimum fixed component, and similar to the previous arrangement is throttled to zero flow before the minimum flow regulator takes over. 2. Full Shut-Off vs. Minimum Air Volume Certain applications have no minimum air supply require- ments, as long as comfort can be maintained without con- tinuous ventilation. This is frequently possible, repre- senting a condition in many unairconditioned homes and com- mercial spaces without mechanical ventilation but at accep- table T/H levels. Reference 19 and Pgs 3.14 and 3.15 of Ref 6 discuss this subject in some depth. With VAV, such a condition might occur under a no-load condition (i.e. no heating or cooling required) , if DD were converted to VAV (no blending) , which is possible to do when heating is accomplished by a separate system such as steam or HW radiation. A further benefit of full shut-off capability is that it makes possible the elimination of cooling in unoccupied zones while other occupied zones on the same air handler can be conditioned. This offers considerable economy in applications where small area operations are required during night unoccupied periods. ECO HA- 1.2 CONVERSION OF REHEAT TO VAV (EQ-E.8a) Existing reheat systems are commonly used for all-air as well as for the air side of air-water systems. (See Ref 6, Chapter 4) . In any reheat system, the opportunity exists for reduc- tion of cooling capacity of air systems by an initial phase of VAV reduction before engagement of reheat. Both refrigeration and reheat energy are saved in the process. Just as for dual path systems, conversion to VAV may be com- plete (in this case, with the elimination of reheat), or may involve the delay of reheat until after a substantial cooling load reduction has been effected by VAV, down to minimum volume. 5-71 Considerations for full shut-off are identical to those for ECO HA- 1.1, Par 2. The VAV conversion may be accomplished in small systems with the addition of direct throttling air devices in certain adapt- able air outlets; in larger air systems by mechanical, pneu- matic or electric flow controller of the VCVR type, as pre- viously described for DD. ECO HA- 1.3 CONVERSION OF INDUCTION TO VAV- INDUCTION (EQ E.9) Induction systems rely on a high velocity primary air supply to induce secondary air through a secondary cooling/heating coil in each room to accomplish the air conditioning. The primary air is the subject of this ECO. It is sometimes reheated in the primary air handler or in main zone duct branch- es covered in ECO HA 1.2. However even when not reheated, it must be recognized that these primary air systems are usually 1007o outside air at all times on a constant volume cycle. The primary air is customarily 20 to 30% of the total supply to perimeter areas (primary plus induced air) , and is always con- ditioned. No space cooling can be accomplished without primary air, but the only time that full volume is required for comfort is during design summer conditions. Insertion of a mechanical, pneumatic or electric operated VCVR in the high-velocity primary branch to each induction unit permits primary air VAV control (with simultaneous reduction of induced air) . As primary air is throttled, the secondary induced air is also reduced to a point where some primary air is introduced with a negligible quantity of secondary air. However, since this total reduction is under direct room stat control, it is immaterial, since enough air is admitted to maintain set con- ditions. In any event, if a minimum supply is desired, then the VCVR may be provided with this capability. Full shut-off considerations are the same as for ECO HA-1.1, Par 2. Perimeter induction systems can frequently operate for night heating without any primary air at elevated secondary coil HW temperatures (i.e. 180 to 200° F) . With VAV control- lers on individual units such systems can operate during many winter and summer daytime hours with substantial primary air reductions to complete primary air shut-off, or very low quantities . Economic evaluation and energy savings are illustrated in some detail in References 17 and 18. 5-72 ECO HA- 2 REDUCE OUTSIDE AIR (OA) LOAD When revised criteria, comfort, process and code requirements permit, ventilation should be reduced to the minimum accep- table level for the design condition; reduced further as the occupancy reduces; and cut off when the process requirement becomes zero or area is unoccupied. The following are only some of the steps which can be taken to reach these goals: a. No system should be operated during unoccupied per- iods, warm-up and cleaning periods with OA dampers open. b. Serious consideration should be given to trial and error total shut-down of OA, since many buildings have enough leakage through OA dampers and the build- ing itself to permit such an operation during occu- pied periods. In the absence of complaints, during periods of energy shortage, this technique should be considered, when it does not disrupt make-up needs for hazardous areas or violate governing codes. The entire issue of actual minimum OA ventilation re- quirements for normal needs is undergoing critical reconsideration by ASHRAE. A number of public agencies are reviewing their ventilation codes. c. The OA dampers for morning cool-down periods should not be arbitrarily shut, as in the' heating season. The economizer cycle should be used as governed by OA or enthalpy control and even programmed to precool below normal summer set temperatures when possible (i.e. to 70°F on cool mornings instead of to 78°F) . d. Odor absorption equipment in certain high make-up air applications are worth consideration, as are run- around cycles, heat pipes, enthalpy wheels and other heat recovery cycles. Refer to ECO WH, Section 5K. Replace or repair leaky OA dampers. Replace with high quality, tight-closing type. Allow for leakage in minimum OA damper settings. e. Avoid opening windows to compensate for overheat ing- -look for the reason and rectify. f . Shut off exhaust fans when not required. Check them for excess over required volume. Reduce exhaust in toilets, laboratories, etc. when acceptable. Auto- mate exhaust fans for shut-down or capacity control, when possible. Refer to ECO HVE. 5-73 ECO HA- 3 CONTROL DISCHARGE AIR TEMPERATURES All air systems using fixed temperatures off main heating and cooling coils can benefit by scheduling these temperatures in response to appropriate signals. This measure reduces cooling, heating and reheat energy summer and winter, avoids overshoot- ing of zone temperatures and humidities and minimizes blending leakage losses as well as simlutaneous heating/ cooling losses. Controls can be more or less sophisticated. Computerization of the scheduling, illustrated below can frequently be justi- fied, but more simplified techniques are also possible. ECO HA- 3.1 TERMINAL REHEAT COMPUTERIZED RESET (FIG HA 3-1) For terminal reheat systems, the Supply Air Reset program re- ceives an input indication of the reduced cooling load. Supply air temperature is then raised according to the amount of cooling used and also the amount of reheat required at the space. Supply air temperatures are only raised within the limits of the humidity requirements as established by the comfort chart and as controlled by return air controller over- ride. Starting with a room or zone temperature above the room ther- mostat setting, all reheat valves are shut. When each room has risen to the temperature that signals its reheat valve to start opening, this indicates that the supply air tempera- ture need not be so low. When all rooms are calling for re- heat the Supply Air Reset program will raise the supply air temperature 1 F degree periodically. The supply air tempera- ture set point will continue to be raised until at least one room controller begins to call for full cooling; i.e., the reheat coil valve has been positioned to the valve shut-off pressure. A cooling signal (signal greater than valve shut- off pressure) from any zone thermostat will automatically stop any further increase of supply air temperature. Addi- tional increases in cooling demand, from any zone, in accor- dance with a predetermined value, will result in the Supply Air Reset program lowering the supply air temperature set point 1 F degree periodically. The supply air temperature set point will continue to be lowered until all zone thermo- stats again call for reheat. When all zones are calling for reheat the process is repeated. The computer is actually in control of the zone with the greatest cooling demand during this period. 5-74 FIG. HA 3- I TEl?MlMAL REHEAT COMTROL FOR DISCHARGE AIR. TEMPERATURE RESET oa\ H^ WATCH DOG CIRCUIT MAIN COOLIMO COIL 5 SUPPLY AIR CONSTANT -f 5ET POIKIT 5IGKIAL 4 TEAMSDUCER. r (5ET POINT 1 ADJUSTMENT) TRAKJ6DUCEK. a > TCB.MIHAL &BHEAT COIL a LOCAL COMPUTER PANEL D — □ F-gQM OTHER. ZONKS 5-75 A high limit relative humidity signal in the return air pre- vents any rise in supply air temperature that would permit excessive humidity within the space. ECO HA- 3. 2 DOUBLE DUCT SYSTEM COMPUTERIZED RESET For double duct systems, the Supply Air Reset program receives both high (cooling) and low (heating) signals from the representative zones, similar to the arrangemment for terminal reheat . The lowest heating signal is used to control the hot deck at a temperature just high enough to satisfy the space calling for the maximum heating. The highest cooling signal is used to control the cold deck at a temperature just low enough to satisfy the space calling for the maximum cooling. The Supply Air Reset program can reduce hot deck temperature in lieu of increasing cold deck temperature if that is the most economical choice. To reduce the average relative humidity within the building, the return air dew point will override and readjust the cold deck temperature whenever return air relative humidity exceeds a selected high limit. When the cold deck temperature is at a maximum value and the humidity is still too high (i.e. at very low cooling loads during cool, damp weather) the program can raise the hot deck temeprature to force the zone terminal units to use more cool dehumidified air. However, by comparing total flow in the hot and cold ducts, the program will calculate which duct temperature changes provide the greatest economics. This is true for both the addition and subtraction of moisture. Because of the large number of mixing boxes in the double duct system, supply air temperature optimization must be done on a selected zone or area basis. The following guide- lines apply: a) Select zones that represent the governing heating/cooling system. b) Include as many exterior corner zones as possible . c) Include representative exterior middle and interior zones . d) Use identical spring ranges for mixing boxes in all selected zones. I 5-76 5E.9 - AIR-WATER HVAC SYSTEMS (EQ-E.9) See Chapter 4 of Ref . 3 for detailed description of these systems, which include the perimeter induction system dis- cussed in ECO HA- 1.3, Section 5E.8. Considerations similar to those covered in Section 5E.8 apply to the air supply side of any air-water system, with lesser energy benefit if some of the primary air is recir- culated. For the water side refer to ECO P, Section 5G and other pumping system economy techniques described in this Chapter 5-77 5E.10-ALL WATER HVAC SYSTEMS (EQ-E.10) See Chapter 5 of Ref . 3 for detailed description of these systems . Refer to ECO P, Section 5G for pumping systems economies and ECOs HHW and HCH, Sections 5E . 6 and 5E.7 for systems using control valves (3-way or 2-way) on the coils of the fan-coil terminal units . Fan economies should be exercised when possible. 5-78 SECTION 5EYll-7"ULTIPLE UNIT AND UNITARY HVAC SYSTEMS (EQ-E.ll) This ECO classification includes through- the -wall perimeter units rooftop units, self-contained or unitary air conditioners, and closed- loop heat pump systems. Refer to Chapter 6 of Ref . 3 for descriptive details. These systems are small scale counterparts of the classi- fications previously covered in this chapter and are frequently a composite of several of them. Some unitary systems, however, are quite large - handling as much load as some of the field assembled and field-piped systems. As such, there are many ECOs in this chapter which apply to the energy components that make up any specific system in this category. For example, any of the ECOs described for the reheat and dual duct systems apply equally to such systems when part of a rooftop conditioner. 5-79 5E.12 - VENTILATION AND EXHAUST SYSTEMS (EQ-E.12) This ECO classification includes the supply of uncooled air as well as the exhaust of conditioned or unconditioned air. ECO HVE-1 CONVERT CONSTANT VOLUME EXHAUST (CVE) TO VARIABLE VOLUME EXHAUST (WE) 1. General 1.1 The economic penalties of once-through constant volume system designs using conditioned ventilation air are well recognized. The safety requirements for appli- cations such as laboratory fume hoods , which prompt this CVE approach „also create the resistance to most efforts at reducing the design exhaust volumes as hood usage decreases . 1.2 Despite the understandable reluctance to involve hazard- ous and sensitive processes in uncertainties, it is felt that the concept described below, although untried and unproven, merits serious consideration and, perhaps a test run. 1.3 The proposed concept, which uses the parameters in Building 212 of Argonne National Laboratory-ANL East as a base, is outlined below. 2. Building 212 Background Lab Data (Fig. HVE 1-1) 2.1 Existing fume hoods are mostly the "balanced" type, with 1000 CFM nominal exhaust requirement, fitted with an upper louvred by-pass to maintain constant volume of exhaust within the hood, regardless of sash position. The sash closes fully and the hood has no bottom slot or airfoil. When closed, the entire 1000 CFM enters through the by-pass louvre. Some labs are without fume hoods and were also originally balanced with 1000 CFM exhaust per 12' x 24' module, mostly through conven- tional canopy hoods . 5-80 FIG. MVE I- I BALANCED HOOD WITH INTERNAL BY- PASS v EXISTING . EXHAUST / DAMPEP V (Oe) \ EXISTING PI TOT EXHAUST VELOCITY /p^e 1 EXISTING HEPA FILTER NEW AUTOMATIC BY- PASS CAMPER ( Dbp) EXISTING HOOD BY- PASS LOUVER EXISTING SASH HOOD VELOCITY PITOT PROBE v h c new; SAMPLING SLEEVE FOR Vh(NEW) HOOD S.P. PROBE CFOR DPh-e) COTHER S.P PROBE IN CORRIDOR) CHEW,) 5-81 2.2 Under current operations, systems have been successfully rebalanced to work with approximately 700 instead of 1000 CFM exhaust from labs with canopy hoods. This was accomplished mainly by eliminating corridor supply, and substituting smaller fan wheels for the ones originally installed in the exhaust fans. Make-up is presently based on CVE operation with each office- lab module receiving approximately 400 to 500 cfm from direct lab supply and 200 CFM transferred from the direct office supply. The average office is supplied with more than 200 CFM, but the portion which is not relieved to the lab exhaust is purged through various other building exhaust fans . 2.3 Existing hood exhaust ducts are fitted with velocity con- trollers (V e ) , primarily for the purpose of maintaining a constant, set exhaust volume as the HEPA filter pressure loss changes. Exhaust damper D e is under direct control of pitot V e . A low limit velocity setting of V e also cuts off all supply air to labs and offices to avoid a radiation spill. 2.4 In the event of a radiation spill and/or a low limit velocity at V e ,most boxes are fitted with an automatic, 2-position damper that shuts off the blended supply air. 2.5 With this description based on a typical dual duct supply system, a module presently consists of one mixing box handl- ing a 12' x 24' lab (previously handled a lab and corridor) and one mixing box handling an adjacent office. 3 . Purpose and Requirements of Variable Volume Exhaust (WE) 3.1 Permit supply and exhaust CFM in each module to vary in response to room thermostat requirements, as long as the hood face velocity, V, is satisfied (i.e. VAV-DD supply cycle as described in ECO HA-1.1). Room stats must not starve the hood in any sash position. This requires that further SA throttling in lab and/or office be prevented whenever hood exhaust volume at minimum velocity begins to exceed the combined, available SA CFM from lab and office (e.g. hood wide open when cooling load is low). 3.2 Provide the means to exhaust all air which is supplied to any module regardless of the sash position. This requires that the hood exhaust CFM be increased when SA CFM re- quirements begin to exceed hood exhaust requirements (i.e. hood sash closed with a minimum exhaust of 150 CFM, but with more than a 150 CFM supply air load in lab and office) . 5-82 3.3 Maintain fairly constant hood face velocity (120 fpm at 1000 CFM, up to a maximum tolerable value --to be established, but at least as high as 150 fpm). 3.4 When any lab module is unoccupied, no hood experiment in progress and sash is closed, permit the supply of this minimum 150 CFM without regard to thermostatic requirements. A satisfactory means can be implemented to overcall thermostats when sash is closed and occupant wishes to secure the hood. The intent would be to retain thermostatic control at a fixed 150 CFM supply air level, but prevent any increase above 150 CFM, even if stat calls for more air. 4. Proposed Control Equipment Modifications 4.1 Add the following control devices: a. Pitot probe and differential pressure sensing device (VY ) to maintain the desired sash velocity. b. Sampling sleeve in front or side of hood to permit unobstructed passage of small air quantity at all times from lab into main hood plenum. Sleeve houses theV, pitot tube, with minimum turbulence and interference effect from stray air currents and changes in sash position. c. Automatic damper (D^p) with modulating actuator, set behind existing by-pass louvre in hood, con- trolled by V h - d. Hood-corridor differential pressure control with one S.P. probe in the main hood plenum and one in the corridor (DP hc ) . See Par 4.2 and 6.4 of this ECO. e. Convert lab and office mixing boxes to variable constant volume regulation (VCVR) as described in ECO HA-1.1. If necessary, install a differential static pressure con- trol device (DPh-c) to control exhaust damper D in lieu of the existing constant velocity exhaust e control (not required with VAV) . The D.P. probes would maintain a constant negative pressure between the corridor and the hood plenum by controlling the position of D . See comments in Par 6 .4 of this ECO. 5-83 4.3 Add a set of variable inlet vanes (VIV) to the main supply air system fan, which is controlled by the static pressure requirements at the end of the hot and cold supply mains. Whichever one senses a smaller rise from its set point (approximately 1" S.P.) will restrict the VIV to avoid an excess of available pressure at the governing duct. 5 . Sequence of Temperature Controls 5.1 Start with room stats in lab and office set at 68° F, in a cool down cycle from room temperature of 78 °F. Cold port is wide open, hot port is closed. Flow regulator maintains full load air flow. 5.2 As room cools to 68° f, thermostat resets regulator toward its minimum CFM set point (i.e. approximately 100 CFM for lab and 50 CFM for office) . If, for any reason the minimum design SA (JFM per module must be higher than 150 CFM, then the minimum hood exhaust will be balanced at a correspondingly higher value. 5.3 Upon reaching the minimum SA setting of the regulator, a further drop in room temperature modulates the hot port open and cold port closed, at constant minimum SA. 6. Sequence of Air Balance Controls 6.1 Start with sash wide open exhausting 1000 CFM at 120 fpm face velocity and assume that the cooling loads only require a total of 500 CFM. The mixing box regulators will therefore be set at a level governed by sash velo- city. (Vu would have sensed a drop in velocity if the air supply were below the 1000 CFM exhaust level) . Damper D^p is full shut, V^ overcalls room stats to deliver 1000 CFM. 6.2 As the sash is moved toward closure with D-, closed, V, senses an increase in velocity and lowers the flow regulator settings until they reset to a total of 500 CFM, thereby maintaining the set velocity at V^. 6.3 As sash is lowered still further, at the 500 CFM supply level now controlled by room temperature requirements, V, senses a further velocity increase and modulates damper D, open to maintain the set velocity. Only that portion of the 500 CFM will be exhausted through the sash to main- tain the set velocity through the smaller sash opening, while the remainder is drawn through the by-pass damper. If the tolerable velocity range of 120 to 150 fpm previ- ously indicated is valid, the wide control range for V, will help avoid instability from extraneous local fluctuations . 5-84 6.4 As the exhaust reduces from 1000 to 150 CFM, the fan suction pressure increases while riding its performance curve toward shut-off. If the resulting lower hood plenum pressure disrupts the overall module's control stability and/or the required range of operation on the performance curve causes any fan surging, then several solutions are possible: a. Use the DPh_ c controller to position damper D e for constant negative pressure between hood and corridor. b. Relocate damper D e in a new outside air intake lead- ing to the fan suction in the loft area, to act as a by-pass to prevent fan starvation and to maintain a high exhaust stack ejection velocity, if required. Control of the damper is from DPh_ c . c. If the lower ejection velocity at 150 CFM without this by-pass is acceptable, then the same purpose can be served by the automatic damper being placed in a by-pass between the exhaust fan supply and suction. 6.5 In the event of a radiation spill, in addition to the present actuation of total S.A. shut-off, damper D^p opens wide and D e positions for full fan exhaust from the hood (e.g. open for option 6.4a; closed for option 6.4b) . 7 . Alternate Instrumentation 7.1 If the constant velocity controller or another mechanical instrument with necessary characteristics is not avail- able, then a hot-wire anemometer device can be used in a similar sampling tube arrangement, to permit air flow in one direction only. Either a simple "flapper-type" grav- ity damper or a more sophisticated check-valve arrange- ment will make this possible. 8. Alternative Concept 8.1 The concept, as outlined above, attempts to take full advantage of the potential savings from continuously modu- lated VAV on a 24 hr/day basis. A simplified alternative involving a two-position VAV modification may be consider- ed, based on the following concept: a. Institute a procedure which calls for closing the sash of all hoods not in experimental use. b. Simultaneously, only when separately triggered by the laboratory occupant, reduce the supply and exhaust to some minimum predetermined value such as 150 CFM. This would only be done when the spaces are to be evacuated at the end of the day. At all other times, the air systems would operate on a CAV, CVE cycle. 5-85 Thus , during normal occupancy hours , the operator could have the sash in any desired position with a constant 1000 CFM, once-through cycle in effect. When secured, only 150 CFM would be handled. c. During most of the year's off-hour, a 150 CFM com- bined supply (or an appropriately larger volume) can satisfactorily hold night temperatures so that minimal warm-up or cool-down period is required. If necessary, such start up loads may be handled by automatic timer prestart of full air volume each morning . d. The control requirements for such a two-position VAV system are much simpler to develop than for full modulation. In many cases, the 12 to 15 hr/day benefits of this simplified VAV may be preferable to those of the more complex, modulating VAV. This point may be especially true if the low-volume trig- gering device is employed in some modified fashion during working hours on the basis of the low- volume set point being adequate for unoccupied, daytime loads . 5-86 SECTION F - PLUMBING SYSTEMS (EQ-F) This ECO classification covers plumbing systems including service water, compressed air and waste water systems. 5F.1 SERVICE HOT & COLD WATER SYSTEMS (EQ-F.l) More opportunity exists in this classification than is general- ly conceded, especially in those applications which involve substantial hot water use. The following ECOs therefore should be investigated in facilities with large hot water usage. Water conservation offers most of the basic energy savings in plumbing systems . Any reduction in total flow of water results in pumping energy savings from both flow and pressure drop, either for the municipal system or the private facility system. However, the major energy savings are in the hot water heating and distribution systems. For groundwater cooling aspects see Section 5H, ECO C-1.3. ECO W-l REDUCE PRESSURES Water flow rates at fixtures and manually controlled equipment are greater at higher water pressures. Operating parts of plumbing equipment, faucets, valves and fittings wear at pressure exceeding 45 psi causing leaks and waste of water and energy. Based upon the inlet water pressure, the height of a respec- tive building and the friction losses in each piping system, pressure regulators are recommmend where excessive pressures occur. Pressure gauges are recommended on the inlet and out- let of regulating valve assembly. This will permit the build- ing operator to determine if the water pressure is properly regulated and if the regulator is functioning properly. 5-87 Hot water consumption for commercial dishwashers and many industrial units is rated by their manufacturers at various operating pressures and regulating valves are recommended. Pressure regulating valves at all equipment should be set at manufacturers' recommended pressure. ECO W-2 FLOW CONTROL Design features of faucets, showers, and other industrial and commercial devices will vary with each item. Unrestricted flows from these items are affected by their respective design features. Flow control fittings are designed to avoid exces- sive flows. They also provide an adequate water supply regardless of pressure. Flow control fittings are available as integral parts of some faucets and shower heads. They are also available as separate adaptable units which could be added to existing shower head arms, individual water supply piping, to sinks, lavatories, and other apparatus. Flow control fittings offer substantial energy and cost savings at minimum installation cost. Spring-loaded shut-off valves and faucets should be considered for faucets, hoses, and other suitable terminal devices. Facilities should be surveyed to determine if such flow control features are included. Appendix 4 "Domestic Hot Water" presents a typical feasibility analysis of the addition of flow control devices. ECO W-3 REDUCE SUPPLY TEMPERATURES The energy consumption savings possible at little or no cost, from simply reducing the hot water supply temperatures to plumbing fixtures are not as substantial as many believe, because manual or automatic blending to a given constant final temperature theoretically consumes a proportionally smaller quantity of higher temperature water at the fixture. However, careless manual blending, poor distribution system design, and higher transmission losses from higher water temperatures, still permit substantial cost savings. The minimum acceptable hot water temperature for each type of utilization apparatus should be determined. In some instances more than one supply temperature level is required. Rather than supplying the highest one to all the fixtures, piping alterations should be made to either generate several tempera- ture levels directly, or to use temperature regulators for multiple supply temperatures off a common generator. Either method insures against the possibility of scalding and allows for improved control. Should one temperature be required, the system temperature can be reduced by maintenance personnel, to take advantage of related savings at no additional cost. 5-88 Reduced water temperature will reduce heat losses from generators, tanks and piping, during periods when these los- ses do not contribute to a desired building heat gain. It will increase the life of all the hardware and piping in the system, by reduction of scaling and corrosion. Reduced supply temperature does not affect reserve recovery rate or storage if tanks are maintained at existing tempera- ture levels and the main supply is derived by blending with cold water. If reserve is adequate, tank temperature should be dropped to the desired supply temperature, without blend- ing. ECO W-4 INSULATION Water heaters, hot water storage tanks and piping insulation should be checked. Faulty insulation should be repaired and sealed. See SITE ENERGY HANDBOOK ECOs S-4, S-5, S-7, S-8 and ECOs CR-1 and CR-2. ECO W-5 RECIRCULATE HOT WATER The amount of uncirculated hot water should be determined. Uncirculated pipe lengths in excess of 25 feet will require running (wasting) the water to bring the hot water up to usable temperature. The hot water system design should be reviewed to determine if recirculation can be improved. Time clock controls should be considered to shut down the hot water circulating pumps when building hot water is not in use. 5-89 5'F,2 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS (EQ-F.2) This ECO classification includes the distribution and utilization of compressed air for process or control systems. All ECOs on this subject covered in the SITE ENERGY HANDBOOK apply equally to building energy systems. RELATED ECOs FROM SITE ENERGY HANDBOOK ECO CA-1 LEAKAGE LOSS REDUCTION ECO CA-2 REDUCTION OF PRESSURE ECO CA-3 IMPROVEMENT OF AIR QUALITY 5F . 3 WASTEWATER SYSTEMS (EQ-F.3) This ECO classification includes the collection , treatment and disposal of sanitary, process, storm and other wastewater systems. Most ECOs on this subject covered in the SITE ENERGY HANDBOOK apply equally to building energy systems. RELATED ECOs FROM SITE ENERGY HANDBOOK ECO ww- ■ 1 REDUCTION OF WATER CONSUMPTION ECO ww- •2 SEGREGATION OF WASTEWATER ECO ww- •3 SEPARATION OF STORMWATER ECO ww- •6 MISCELLANEOUS OPPORTUNITIES 5-90 5G. PUMPING SYSTEMS (EQ-G) This ECO classification includes all energy aspects of liquid pumping systems, but its close relationship to many other pre- viously described ECOs has made it necesary to cover important ECO illustrations under various other sections in this chapter as well as in the SITE ENERGY HANDBOOK. RELATED ECOs IN SITE ENERGY HANDBOOK ECO P-l "Pumping and Storage" - Refer to Site ECO W-l ECO P-2 "Sequenced Parallel or Series Pumping" - Refer to Site ECO W-3 ECO P-3 "Impeller Shaving or Drive Speed Change" - Refer to Site ECO W-5 ECO P-4 "Variable Speed with Existing Motors" - Refer to Site ECO W-6 ECO P-5 "Free Cooling with Ground Water" - Refer to Site ECO W-7 and Reference (46) & (47) of SEH RELATED ECOs ~ Section 5E FROM OTHER 1, ECO HF-3 SECTIONS OF THIS CHAPTER Section 5E . 5 , ECO HCR-4.4 Section 5E. Section 5E . Section 5E . Section 5E. Section 5E. Section 5F. Section 5H, 5, 6, 6, 6, ECO HCR- ECO HHW- ECO HHW- ECO HHW- 7, ECO HCH- 1, ECO W-5 ECO C-2 Section 5L, ECO 0-4 "Avoid Continuous Pumping of Fuel Oil" "Install Pumping Equipment that Can Handle Hot Condensate" "Reduce FW Pumping Requirements" "Variable Volume Pumping" "Cycle Hot Water Pumps" "Change Secondary Pumping to Terminal Boosting" "Pumping Systems" "Recirculate Hot Water" "Pumping Energy Reduction in Coolant Systems" "Keep Air and Liquid Circulating Systems in Optimum Balance" The above ECOs cover the subject fairly completely additional points may be helpful. A few Systems characterized by larger flow friction pressure drops, high diversity of loads, and smaller static lift or operating pressure requirements offer better potential for pumping power reduction. Thus, a feed water system for a 400 psig steam boiler with a 25 psi piping P.D. and 30 psi economizer P.D. has only 55 out of 400 psi that can be affected by reduced flow economies Similarly, a service water pumping system serving a high-rise load with a 250 ft static lift and 70 ft P.D. can only accept reduction in 70 ft portion. Closed systems, on the other hand, are 100% friction P.D., and flow reductions offer potential economies virtually for the entire pump head. 5-91 Constant volume hot and chilled water systems, es- pecially in larger buildings using motors larger than 15 HP, can be converted to variable flow operation (when compatible with system requirements) for sub- stantial annual Kwh savings. Studies for this type of change require a detailed review of existing control valves and hardware before technical feasibility can be ascertained. However many existing constant flow systems such as those using 3-way valves or wild flow lend themselves to this type of treatment. Pumping systems particularly those involving long runs to many terminal units, are large energy users and have a substantial potential for energy savings, since they frequently run around the clock. This is particularly true if the diversity of usage varies substantially within the building from day to day; if a sizable por- tion of the system load is idled during the night; and if constant volume flow design is predominant. Deriving actual BHP requirements from actual pump curves is far more reliable than theoretical calculation. This was illustrated in ECO KCR-4, page 5-47. For practical purposes, a parallel family of curves for various im- peller diameters simulates those for different speeds of a given impeller. The relationships of speed, gpm and HP as 'described in Ref . 46 of the* SITE ENERGY HANDBOOK may also be used, for construction of a family of speed and HP curves, but the first procedure is much less tedious . 5-92 SECTION H. COOLANT SYSTEMS (EQ-H) This ECO classification includes all non-refrigerated, liquid, once-through or recirculated systems used for absorption of heat rejected from space, process or equipment. ECO C-l ELIMINATE OR REDUCE REFRIGERATED COOLING Many mechanically cooled systems that operate in a range, any portion of which is above of 40°F for a substantial number of hours, may be an ECO candidate. Several are indicated below. ECO C-l.l OBTAIN REFRIGERATION WITH LOW ENERGY INPUT Examples of this are given in ECO HR-3, Section 5E . 3 under "ThermoCycle" and "Strainer Cycle", by utilization of coolant systems . ECO C-l. 2 USE INDIRECT ATMOSPHERIC COOLING FOR HEAT REJECTION FROM REFRIGERATED COOLANT SYSTEMS Open-circuit cooling towers can furnish a source of coolant which, depending upon system load, is from 2 to 15 F degrees above the ambient wet bulb temperature (wbt) . If the existing operation of a chilled water system requires a supply tempera- ture of 60°F (e.g. demineralized water coolant for electronic apparatus), especially if required on a year-round basis, then seasonal conversion to direct process heat rejection in a cool- ing tower should be considered, in lieu of year-round refrig- eration with a conventional condenser water rejection circuit. With a centrifugal compressor, an alternative to the Thermo- cycle is a water-to-water heat exchanger that chills the de- mineralized coolant to the required 60°F when the ambient wbt is below approximately 50°F (in many geographical areas this corresponds to average weather conditions below 59 °F dbt . ) . Similar techniques, as those employed for the EFL ventilating hours described in Chapter 3 for wet bulb load and energy analysis, may be used to evaluate the refrigeration energy savings . With absorption chillers, the open "Strainer Cycle" could not be used with demineralized water, but the same water-to-water exchanger could be used as described above, to avoid contamin- ation of the demineralized water. 5-93 ECO C-1.3 SURFACE OR GROUND WATER COOLANT SYSTEMS Coolant requirements presently handled by refrigeration can frequently be satisfied year-round with a ready and economic- ally attainable natural source of water. Refer to SITE ENERGY HANDBOOK, ECO W-7. State Geological authorities furnish detailed data upon in- quiry, on the location, prospective quantity and quality of well water in any geographical location. This possiblity should always be investigated. ECO C-2 PUMPING ENERGY REDUCTION IN COOLANT SYSTEMS Variable volume pumping for condenser water coolant systems is not usually advantageous, because of the better refriger- ation performance at higher volumes. The lower hp/ton ratio, particularly at higher ambient wbt, will normally save far more with the lowest possible coolant temperature than can be saved by cycling tower fans or reducing the coolant flow. When the ambient wbt reduction produces the lowest tempera- ture that the refrigeration equipment will tolerate, then tower fan or flow reduction may not only save auxiliary sys- tem energy, but may be necessary for operational reasons. Most coolant systems, however, are not associated with refrig- eration cycles. If so, especially in year round pumping systems with a high diversity of heat rejection load, and/ or inadequate equipment load flow regulation, then ECO P techniques in Section 5G should be explored. Much of the benefit of variable volume pumping can be obtain- ed by simply adding automatic throttling valves at the loads, and, for extensive systems, adding the previously described choke valves on the pump -- without resorting to variable speed pumping for greater savings, at sometimes unjustifiable investment costs. 5-94 SECTION I-INDUSTRIAL PROCESS SYSTEMS CEQ-I) This ECO classification includes all energy nodes which do not fall into the other specific sections of this Chapter. ERDA facilities have a wide variety of very special processes, such as the gaseous diffusion plant at ORNL or the ZGS building at ANL, that are not within the scope of this study. The ECO Questionnaires approach the subject in a manner that attempts to quickly identify processes which should be examined, with fairly obvious implications of the features which merit close examination. Beyond this, the specific applications can follow any number of concepts, many of which can be treated with the ECO techniques described in the other classifications, and some of which would require a very specialized and specific application of engineering principles . ECO IG-1 GENERAL (EQ-1.1) Identify process systems as follows: Significant energy use in any form. Energy flow characteristics distinctly separate from other classifications in this Chapter. High-grade clean energy effluent. High-grade dirty energy effluent. Large number of full and/or light duty stand-by hours of operation. Little or inadequate capacity control with high load diversity and/or erratic load changes. Separable energy systems which lend themselves to energy management control . Study each for ECOs, ECO IF-1 HIGH FUEL CONSUMERS (EQ-I.2) After ECO IG-1 identification, check applicability of ECOs in Sections 5E.1, 5E.2, 5 J , 5K and 5L. 5-95 ECO IS-1 HIGH STEAM OR HOT WATER CONSUMERS After ECO IG-1 identification, check applicability of ECOs in Sections 5E . 2 , 5E.4, 5E . 5 , 5J, 5K and 5L. Special consideration of: Systems without condensate return. Vapor escape, non-insulated, inadequate energy containment . Low grade energy demands using high grade energy source. ECO IE-1 HIGH ELECTRICAL CONSUMERS After ECO EG-1 identification, check applicability of ECOs in Sections 5D, 5J, 5K and 5L. Special consideration of: Voltage regulation Demand limiting Power factor • I 5-96 SECTION J- MONITORING, CONTROL & SURVEILLANCE SYSTEMS (EQ-J) This ECO classification includes all specific and general tech- niques and systems for automatic control, monitoring and sur- veillance. Some of these ECOs, intimately associated with speci- fic ECOs in other sections of this Chapter, have been presented within those categories. This section presents general ECOs, commonly associated with most of the other classifications, rather than with only one or two. ECO M-l NO-LOAD, PART LOAD AND UNOCCUPIED PERIOD CONTROLS Some of the most substantial, immediate payback modifications for reducing energy waste are based on the simple and obvious principle of turning off energy systems when not needed and tuning them down to deliver no more energy than required at any operating point. Application of this principle is almost endless. A few impor- tant applications follow. ECO M-l.l AUTOMATE BY TIME CONTROL (Reference 20) A very wide variety of automatic time controls is available for almost any desired program of switching, cycling, program- ming, etc. Some of the more common types follow; Astronomical : Automatically compensates for seasonal variations in time of sunrise. Delay Timer: Delays On or Off switching action for a set interval after automatic or manual actuation. Interval Timer : Set for a desired elapsed time interval -- manually or automatically repeatable. Percentage Cycle Repeater : Fixed cycle timer with the length of On -time or Off- time adjustable over a percentage of the cycle. Total cycle time is continuously repeatable and adjustable from a few seconds to 24 hours. Externally Initiated Time Control: Starts timing cycle upon initiation by a remote signal . Program Time Switch : An accurate time switch with programmed signals that can be set as close together as 5 minutes. 5-97 Repeat-Cycle Time Control : Continually repeats a selected cycle of less than 24 hour duration. Seven-Day Time Control : Allows different cycles each day of the week. Each day divided into Morning, Afternoon and Night with up to four On-Off cycles per day. Available with skip-a-day feature to omit the cycle (s) on any day. 24 Hour Time Control : Continuously repeats a 24 hour cycle with up to seven On-Off cycles per day. Avail- able with skip-a-day feature. Carryover : Many time controls are available with a mechanical spring-wound movement which takes over for at least 10 hours in case of a power failure. A variety of these time controls can be applied to various energy systems or nodes. Some illustrations are: a. For building warm-up control, on HVAC systems which are shut down at night, timers should be field set by trial and error to allow for some morning warm-up from lights and occupants, instead of full heating system warm-up to 70-74°F. This is especially appli- cable when interior areas are involved, since they normally follow the warm-up with a cooling cycle (i.e. requiring supply air temperatures below room temperatures, when normal occupancy ensures). The cy- cle should also shut outside air dampers (which nor- mally open with the fan start-up) during the warm-up period. During summer cool -down, similarly , the dampers should be shut. b. Program controls for premature shut-down at the end of the working day to take advantage of storage effect of building. c. Use timers on all lighting circuits whose size and potential kwh savings justify the cost of the installa- tion. Even a 300 SF office or laboratory with a 600 watt lighting load that is time-clock controlled for 3000 hrs savings per year can save $54/yr. at 3^/Kwh. Direct switching without a magnetic contactor might permit a rapid payback, if the installed cost were in the neighborhood of $150. Procedures for manual occu- pant override which still permit supervised shut-off must be developed for individual circumstances. In some instances, manually set interval timers may be acceptable for automatic Off switching after a preset time period. 5-98 ECO M-1.2 AUTOMATE BY REMOTE SENSING SIGNAL Many types of energy operating cycles lend themselves to shut down by remote control devices, such as outside air or return air thermostats. Any devices which can be located and programmed to respond automatically to termination of need for a particular form of energy, should be considered as a substitute for manual cut-off, particularly in buildings hav- ing unattended energy systems. Unoccupied period energy consuming operations associated with controls such as night set-back of temperature, should be cy- cled On and Off when possible, rather than run continually, for all forms of energy supply. Winter night set-back and summer set-up temperatures should be handled with an awareness of their effect upon companion systems. ECO COM-1 illustrates how raising summer temperas tures with reheat systems can expend more, rather than less energy. Heating season set back in areas that are automati- cally programmed for mechanical refrigeration or even tempered cold air can create unnecessary cooling or heating loads. ECO M-1.3 TRACK LOAD WITH AUTOMATIC EQUIPMENT CAPACITY CONTROL Actual building load reductions should be followed as closely as possible with the reduction of energy system capacities -- not by cancellation of one form of energy with another (e.g. reheat) . Also energy systems should be controlled to respond to actual functional needs of the space (e.g. reduce hood ex- haust loads when there are no experiments in progress and no hazardous substances being generated) . An important consideration in central capacity control vs zoned capacity control (e.g. resetting discharge air temper- ature off a cooling coil upward to satisfy only a pre-program- med requirement) is that this tends to override those ther- mostats which are set much lower than design conditions by the particular occupant. Another example is ambient tempera- ture scheduling of HWS temperatures . Various ECOs illustrating these fundamental concepts have been presented under various classifications in this HANDBOOK, 5-99 ECO M-1.4 MANUAL CONTROL When equipment shut-down and multi-unit capacity reduction is strictly manual, especially if unattended, and established by regulations and procedural orders or by off -site Contractor personnel, periodic inspections should be conducted for moni- toring of operating status and custodial procedures. It is important in such cases to provide reliable read-out instru- mentation to enable the operating staff to appraise the status of system load and capacity for rational, rather than instinc- tive system manipulation. If inspections are relatively infrequent and/or personnel in short supply, remote reporting of these status instruments for major equipment components should be considered. See ECO M-3. ECO M-2 OUTSIDE AIR (OA) REDUCTION Outside air loads are usually a substantial energy require- ment -- sometimes the largest single HVAC component. Numer- ous references have been made to the reduction of these quan- tities, including: . ECO COM-3, "Revised Ventilation Criteria" Section 5E.8 Par 2, "Penalty or Benefit" . ECO HA-1 "Convert CAV Systems to Modified Variable Air Volume" . ECO HVE-1, "Convert Constant Volume Exhaust To Var- iable Volume Exhaust". ECO M-3 INDIVIDUALIZE CONTROLS FOR OPTIMUM ENERGY USE Individual controls can frequently be justified when the po- tential for waste is otherwise uncontrollable. Examples are: a. Overheating in perimeter areas with operable win- dows from heating devices which are only central- ly controlled to satisfy the highest heating load (i.e. north zone) while simultaneously handling sunlit areas with no means of reducing the heat input. Individual thermostat control of the heat- ing unit can eliminate the usual opening of windows b. Temperature controls in a zone having simultane- ous heating and cooling, where one nullifies the other, instead of sequencing one to a minimum or zero value before starting the other. An example is the change of reheat controls to modified VAV. 5-100 ECO M-4 COMPUTERIZED ANALYSIS & CONTROL The SITE ENERGY HANDBOOK covered this subject and the same observations apply for individual buildings. A representative list of various computer analysis programs is given below. Some are applicable to computer control, as well as to design. In addition there are many dedicated (specific) programs for specific operating sequences. ENERGY PROGRAM CAL-ERDA NICAP NBS LOAD PROGRAM POST OFFICE ECUBE HCC-111 Energy Analysis AXCESS Glass Comparison Energy Program Energy Analysis Building Cost Analysis TRACE Energy Program HACE CADS SIMSHAC FINAL HVAC Load Energy Program NBSLD (Honeywell) Energy Program B.E.A.P. DEROB TRANSYS ORIGINATOR A. Government Programs Energy Research & Develop. Adm. National Aeronautics & Space Adm. National Bureau of Standards U.S. Postal Service B. Commercial Programs American Gas Association APEC Caudill Rowlett Scott Electric Energy Association Libbey-Owens-Ford MEDSI Meriwether & Associates PPG Industries TRANE Company Westinghouse Corp. WTA Computer Services, Inc. C. Research Programs/Negotiable UCLA Colorado State University Dalton, Dalton, Little & Newport Giffels Associates, Inc. Honeywell, Inc. Honeywell, Inc. University of Michigan Pennsylvania State University University of Texas University of Wisconsin Energy Program Residential & Small Commercial Energy Program D. In-House Program/Proprietary General Electric Company Honeywell, Inc. IBM 5-101 SECTION K - WASTE ENERGY RECOVERY AND REDUCTION (EQ- K) This ECO classification includes all aspects of energy recovery for productive utilization, from waste solids, gases or liquids; also the reduction of energy waste from leakage and from incom- plete use of energy potential. Many opportunities exist for utilization of an energy flow stream in two or more successive steps of degradation, from high-grade to low grade thermal levels and through conversion to other forms . Such repeated use is an important key to recovery. 5K.1 HVAC RECOVERING SYSTEMS (EQ-K.l) This classification includes recovery techniques that apply to the low grade energy common to HVAC systems - not to the higher grade levels such as flue gas or other emissions from process systems. Recovery may be by direct recycling or reuse, puri- fication and reuse, heat exchange or conversion process. ECO WH-1 DIRECT RECYCLING OF SPENT AIR (EQ-K. lb ) Uncontaminated air which has been conditioned, served its pur- pose and exhausted can often be easily transferred to an adja- cent area for heating, cooling or ventilation make-up. Examples are: a. Conditioned ventilation air to a restaurant (or other high make-up requirement area) routed to kitchen (or other exhaust -intensive area) . b. Clean, warm process exhaust, routed to nearby heated area during heating season, exhausted during cooling season, and modulated with return air or outside air for temperature control. ECO WH-2 PURIFY EXHAUST AIR FOR RECYCLING (EQ-K. la ) Filtration, spray wash or activated carbon are often justifiable for exhaust air treatment to permit its direct reuse. 5-102 Candidates for such treatment with activated carbon are central exhaust systems from toilet areas, dining rooms, lounges, etc. To recirculate the air, ducting must be installed to connect from the discharge side of the exhaust system into the return air of the HVAC system. This ductwork contains the activated carbon filters. Recirculate that portion of the quantity of total exhaust air for the building which exceeds 907 o of minimum outdoor air requirements. This technique is easier to justify from a cost standpoint than heat wheels or heat pipes, covered in the next ECO, provided that the exhaust volume returned can be bled from the exhaust without disruption of the building balance. ECO WH-3 RECOVER HEAT FROM BUILDING EXHAUST AIR SYSTEM(EQ K.l.b) With outside air supplied to a building at temperatures ranging between 0°F and 95 °F and normal exhaust air temperatures aver- aging 75 °F, heat can be effectively transferred between the sup- ply air and the exhaust air, depending upon which stream is warmer . Summer recovery to precool outside air (OA) supply from cool ex- haust presupposes that the exhaust stream is from conditioned spaces and has not been heated to temperatures approaching or above that of the OA (e.g. while passing through a process heat- ing device before being exhausted) . There is a variety of these recovery methods each having its application to a particular type of building system. Limita- tions as to the heat recovery method used are also imposed by the physical proximity of supply and exhaust equipment, possibil- ity of contamination of the supply air source and climatic con- ditions. When a heat recovery opportunity exists the following basic heat recovery methods should be considered for economic evaluation: a. Rotary air wheel b. Heat pipe c. Circulating liquid, or run-around system, ECO WH-3.1 ROTARY AIR WHEELS & PLATE HEAT EXCHANGERS Some rotary wheels and all plate exchangers transfer sensible heat only while other wheels transfer both sensible and latent heat, summer and winter. The latter are also referred to as enthalpy wheels. Factors that limit the application of the heat wheels and plate exchangers are the relative location of the supply and exhaust air streams, effect on fan static pressure, 5-103 space requirements, contamination criteria for the air stream in question and leakage between streams. Heat recovery wheels are available in single units ranging from 300 to 50,000 cfm. For larger capacities multiple units may be installed. Efficiencies at equal flow of both streams average approximately 707 o . Air flow should be designed for counterflow for maximum efficiency and to keep the wheel free of dirt. Fig. WH3-1 shows a schematic diagram of an enthalpy wheel. It employs a dessicant such as lithium chloride impregnated in the heat exchange material which absorbs moisture. The formulae for the relationships which govern are as follows (with s, o and e indices representing supply, outside and exhaust, respectively): a. For Sensible Heat Transfer, the supply air temperature T s at the wheel outlet for equal supply and exhaust cfm is given by: Ts " T + (T e - T ) Ef£ sens For unequal supply and exhaust volume it is CFM e T s = T Q 4- CFH S (T e - T Q ) Eff sens b. For Latent Heat Transfer, the humidity ratio, W in lbs moisture/ lb dry air is given by W s = W Q + (W e - W Q ) Eff lat The efficiency for sensible and latent heat transfer will vary for a given wheel operating under different conditions. This must be taken into account when designing a heat wheel system. Similar relationships govern sensible heat wheels. ECO WH-3.2 HEAT PIPE The heat pipe is a non-regenerative conducting device, air-to-air recovery unity that has no moving parts. It consists of an ar- ray of finned tubes which are sealed at both ends and arranged similar to a dehumidifying or cooling coil. Each tube is filled with a wick and a charge of wicking fluid. Common working flu- ids used for comfort air conditioning systems include refriger- ant, water and methanol. For high temperature application, liquid metals are preferred as the working fluid. The heat pipe is a reversible thermal device. When a section of the tube bundle is exposed to a temperature gradient with respect to another sec- tion, the cycle will commence and attempt to eliminate the gra- dient. Heat, applied to one end, evaporates the working fluid. The vapor flows to the cold end of the tube where it is con- densed and returned by the wick to the hot end for re-evapora- tion, completing the cycle. This device transfers only sensible heat. There is no contamination since the heat pipes are in- stalled with opposite ends projecting into each air stream and a sealed partition between hot and cold ends. 5-104 FIO. WM 3-1 5CHEMATIC OF He^T RECOVERY WHEEL ROTARY Vs/HBEL — (DRV OR DES51CANT IMPREGNATED) EKHAUST AIR ® OUT61DE Alg. To Wo W, T e ,CFM e Ts,CFM ft ^ W ^ HUMIDITY RATIO, 1bs mois+unz/ lb dry oiir T s * 5UPPL.Y Al R TEMPERATURE T = OUT€>!DE A\R TEMPERATURE T e • E*HAUf>T \\ R TEMPERATURE CFM 5 t5UPPLY AIR GUJ AK1TITY CFM e *EXHAUe>T AIR QUANTITY &^fsEHs*S>EMe>l&LE HEAT RECOVERY EFFICIENCY Eff^* LATENT HEAT RECOVERY EFFICIENCY EFFICIENCY OF WMEEU WHEN CFM S = CFM- AND *» TEMPERATURE, HUMIDITY RATIO OR ENTHALPY. 5-105 Control of the rate of recovery may be accomplished by conven- tional face and bypass dampers or tilting variation. ECO Vfti-3.3 RUN- AROUND SYSTEM-CLOSED TYPE A closed loop run-around system is a recirculated hydronic system. It mainly transfers sensible heat, although latent transfer can occur under special operating conditions. The heat passes from one air stream to a fluid medium (e.g. glycol or water) and back from the fluid to another air stream. Standard extended surface finned tube, water coils are used with one coil located in the exhaust air stream and the other in the supply air stream. A pump circulates the water or solu- tion between the coils, transferring heat from the exhaust re- covery coil to the supply air coil. For maximum efficiency the direction of flow of solution in relation to the air is generally counterflow. The air to be preconditioned by the supply air coil will reflect an approach to the temperature of the solution from the exhaust air coil, thereby preheating in the winter and precooling in the summer. The finned coils may be sprayed to acquire better recovery for summer opera- tions. During the winter it is possible for the solution temperature to be lower than the exhaust air stream dew point temperature, causing condensation on the exhaust air coil. This can result in additional air side pressure drop and a need for drainage. Although this condition would be the ex- ception rather than the rule, provisions should be made to take care of it. The use of a 3-way valve controlled by a dew point controller located in the leaving exhaust air stream can be used, at the expense of recovery efficiency, or drainage can be provided without loss of recovery potential. The pump may be located at any convenient point in the piping loop, and an expansion tank must be installed on the suction side to allow for expansion in the water and also to insure a net positive suction head. The closed loop run-around system can be used where outside air intakes and exhaust terminating locations are wide apart, and it also eliminates the cross contamination problem. ECO WH-3.4 RUN-AROUND SYSTEM-OPEN TYPE The system is similar to the closed loop system. An extended packed surface, such as a cooling tower fill, is substituted for the cooling coils and a liquid, absorbent such as lithium chloride/water, is substituted for the water/anti-freeze cir- culating liquid. Another difference is that the absorbent liquid is sprayed counterflow to the air streams through the extended packed surface. This requires two solution pumps to complete the run-around circuit. 5-106 This system provides total heat or enthalpy transfer as the solution absorbs or desorbs heat and water vapor from the exhaust air stream. By circulation and contact with the so- lution, the supply air stream is preconditioned to approach the solution's temperature and vapor pressure difference. The system is also reversible because its action, similar to that of the hygroscopic rotary exchanger, will precool and dehumidify in the summer and will preheat and humidify in the winter. During the winter operation, it is imperative that the absorbent solution be kept liquid when handling dry exhaust air. If the water concentration of the solution is reduced to about 507, when drying at approximately 117. RK or less, the lithium chloride solution will solidify and clog pumps, spray nozzles and piping. Equipment selection generally provides recovery efficiency at 557, to 707, enthalpy. The system can also serve air streams which are far apart but, because of its open spray nature, cross contamination is possible. The solution spray acts as an air washer or scrubber, with evaporative cooling benefits. ECO WH-4 RECOVER INTERNAL HEAT WITH HEAT PUMP (EQ K.l.c) The most advantageous heat pump applications are those which are used when the rejected heat can be 1007> utilized, while the refrigeration energy is in simultaneous demand—with no more refrigeration generated than is demanded. It is most desirable for the cooling load which is satisfied by the refrigeration to be one that cannot be served from an alter- nate, less expensive cooling source. Thus, an internal source heat pump which applies heat extracted from a building interior to a perimeter heating load could use outside air in a true "free cooling" cycle for the interior (rather than refrigeration) with a prime source fuel for the perimeter heating. In such a comparison, the heat pump is only an economic advantage if its electrical cost per 10° Btu of rejection output is lower than that of source fuel. This heat pump's energy advantage over an efficient fired system is approximated as follows for an 11,600 Btu/Kwh power plant conversion, and a factor of 1 Kwh of refrigeration plus auxiliaries per 15,410 Btuh of rejection: Heat pump source input per 15,410 Btu output = 11,600 Btu Fired boiler input per 15,410 Btu output @ 80%= 19,250 Btu Energy reduction with heat pump = 407, 5-107 However, if the refrigeration energy were actually required for process, while the rejected heat was also utilized, the cost of this rejected heat is virtually zero. The energy advantage improves as follows, because of the additional output of 12,000 Btu of cooling: Input Energy-Btu Heat Pump Conventional Refrigeration output of 12,000 Btu 11,600 11,600 Heating output of 15,410 Btu 19,250 Total heat pump output =27,410 Btu 11,600 30,850 Energy reduction with heat pump = 62.4% A third option would be to obtain the cooling with a Thermo- cycle (ECO HR-3), in which case a fired boiler would again be required, tending to reduce the justification for the Thermo- cycle, compared with the heat pump. An important energy caution for wheel, plate or run-around recovery systems applies to their use with heat pump systems. As long as the heat being recovered from the condenser of the heat pump is adequate to carry the heating load at any particu- lar system load point, there is no purpose in reclaiming addi- tional heat from exhaust streams. i 5-108 5K.2 COMBUSTION AIR AND FLUE GAS SYSTEMS (EQ-K.2) This ECO classification covers heat recovery techniques that apply to higher grade energy available from comfort or process combustion equipment. Flue gases emitted from boilers and incinerators and exhaust gases discharged from internal combustion engines, process equip- ment and gas turbines, are valuable energy sources. The gases from these sources range in temperature to 2000° F and offer excellent heat transfer possibilities. The recovery of this wasted heat is affected by waste heat boilers, air-to-air and air-to-water heat exchangers. There are limitations in recover- ing heat from hot gases . First it is important (when sulphur dioxide and other injurious vapors are present) to stay above their dew point to prevent condensation. For example the result- ing condensate from fuel oil combustion is highly corrosive sulphurous or sulphuric acid. Often, it is necessary to use corrosion-resistant materials in the heat exchanger. Stack gas preheating of fuels is generally prohibited by safety codes . Generally the most cost effective use of flue gases burned with normal excess air is for liquid heating (e.g. feedwater preheat) . ECO WCF-1 PREHEAT COMBUSTION AIR AND/OR FEEDWATER WITH FLUE GAS The justification for economizers and air preheaters increases with the rise in boiler pressure/ temperature . As the latter rises so does the flue gas temperature. Any stack temperature above the temperature at which condensation corrosion might occur, represents a serious energy loss. The cost effectiveness of an economizer is substantially great- er than for an air preheater, with minimal chance of condensa- tion corrosion when the economizer follows a deaerator. The heat recovered from flue gases may be determined as : Q r = M e x C p x T Where: Q r = Heat recovered, Btuh M e = Flue gas mass flow, lbs/hr C p = Specific heat, Btu/lb - oF (see Fig. WCF 1-1) T = Temperature drop of flue gas , F degrees The appropriate fuel savings derived when combustion air is preheated is shown in Fig. WCF 1-2. J)- 109 FIG.WCF 1-1 SPECIFIC HEAT OF FLUE O^S IL UJ D UJ 0. UJ I- h (/) D 1 yC 111 DJ UJ IOOO 900 aoo TOO (bOO 500 400 300 200 IOO / r ■ 536 4©2 427 3TI 316 2GO 204 14© 33 3d U I, a fk D i tu Q. 01 h l- en: 0.23 0.25 0.27 SPECIFIC HEAT Cp (BTU/LB-F) FIG.WCF 1-2 PERCEMT OF FUEL SAVINGS WITH AIR PREHEAT* ID z (/) _l DJ D IL I- Z UJ u UJ o s <2> 4 2 IOO ZOO 300 AOO SOO M a H JS W § Pi I CN P< Pi < w ►J PQ. <: CO ^ u a) e r^-cxDcr>o (U x a CX)OOC»OOOOcX^cX300CX>oOCXDOOOOOO(T^CT>CT>0^a^O^O^a^a^O^O Of4 u .-1 4-1 C 1 O CU J O <1> CO (X) d, T3 U 0) t-1 O 60 O 4-> to a; CCO m ai co cO -t-1 c0 c a> t3 Pi O Pn O !2 (0 i— ICSCNOi— ICNOO«J-LOv^>r^CX3CT>0 o K O C»CXDCX500CX3CX3CX3CX)CX5CX3<»CXDC»OOCr>ONCT>a\a\(^CT>ONCT>CT>0 m J r-l o a) T-Ph ao^o^i vOI — COCTiOHM(nCTiC^CTi(TiCT>CT>Cr>CTiO r-l co ^5 Vi CJ (0 3 -l hJ M-l C 1 3 0) O cu co U3 PL, (U-H O 60 O 4-> to ^ SCO }-l CU to CO -H CO 3 0)*O Pi O Pn O 12 CO cncnc^COoOcnc0^^^^i^LO^vOl^r-~OOCX300CX)CT>CT>Oi— 1 O SO U ,-J 3 0) 4" P-t r^r^r^r^r^r^i — r~ r-» i — r-^r-»r > ~t-~i^r--r--i'~-i — r — r~-r^r^oooo JO^OBJ ^ojcn^invor^cx)cr>Oi-vo\or--r^r^rvooooaiCT< to ^i CCO U -oocT>OHcMc , )4CNicNcsicncO(rirO(r)c^c^cncnrovd-^-^-d"-4-J"^""~> to a: }-i CU to C tu t3 O 3 CO NiAooH-dTvONNtvocrics-J'iDcooiNvj-^oooOr- i co PM T) }-l CU -i-l O 60 O 4-1 to X CCO U o CO 4-1 r-l CJ CU CO !-i fc i-H CU c0 a O C •H CU 4-) T3 CU •r-l U a o C CU •H 4^ O 4-) O c0 i£ CO CO CU s-1 4-1 o cO 4-1 o o •H c0 T) Pn C •rlt cfl CU o r-lnJ c0 C H cu CU CO 5 •H 4-1 Jl CU H ,£> W H O S3 APPENDIX 3 MANUAL ENERGY CALCULATIONS FOR BUILDING 212 A T~ ARGONNE NATIONAL LABORATORY A. General. This Appendix demonstrates two alternative procedures for applying the Modified Bin Method to transform climatic hourly occurrences into acceptable EFL* hours. The first procedure uses both dry bulb temperature and wet bulb temperature hourly occurrence frequencies at 5° intervals . These are available in condensed month-by-month tabulations. The second procedure may be used when only mean coincident wet bulb temperatures are available. An example of the develop- ment of actual building energy indices using Forms 3-3 and 3-4 is also presented in Section D of this Appendix. The first procedure is preferred because derivation of the EFL hours is simpler and more precise; the National Weather Service tapes utilized as a primary data source contain wet bulb as well as dry bulb hourly occurrences and are specific for the year under study. The second procedure can be applied in conjunction with the Air Force Weather Data Manual. The Manual is a compilation of average values over a 10-year period, and lists mean coincident wet bulb temperatures rather than hourly wet bulb temperatures. Furthermore, although the Manual provides information on all parts of the country, it treats only a select number of representative stations, where- as a National Weather Service tape may be obtained for a station close to the locality under study. In the event of limited access to either weather tape or computer, the second procedure will yield suitable estimates of EFL hours. Sections B and C in this Appendix present respectively the recommended and the alternate approaches to EFL hour estimating, through examples relating to conditions in the Argonne National Laboratory area. Note that different weather, design and operating conditions have been adopted in the two examples. These differences are summarized in the following table. * For all abbreviations in this Appendix, refer to Chapter 3. AFF3-2 SECTION B EXAMPLE: PREFERRED PROCEDURE SECTION C EXAMPLE: ALTERNATE PROCEDURE (1) Weather data obtained from Midway Airport Station; wet bulb temperature hourly occurrence frequencies used; climatic data specific for year under study (2) Correct room and cooling coil LAT conditions used as updated information became available (3) Operating schedule based upon an occupied period of 8:00 AM to 5:00 PM, to avoid extrapolation and to allow correlation of manual and computerized input data (computer is unable to adapt to 1/2 hour intervals) . (1) Weather data obtained from O'Hare Airport Station; mean coincident wet bulb temperatures used; climatic data are 10-year average values (2) Uncorrected room and cooling coil LAT conditions used (3) Operating schedule based upon an occupied period of 9:00 AM to 5:30 PM; this represents the actual reported operating schedule but adoption of this schedule requires that hourly occurrences be extrapolated to half-hour intervals. B • Preferred Bin Method Applied to Building 212 B . 1 Weather Data. The source of primary data is the National Weather Service tape of climatic conditions at Midway Airport during calendar year 1975. Tables APP3-1 through APP3-6 are the condensed monthly printouts from the weather tape of the dry bulb and wet bulb hourly occurrence frequencies, grouped according to time of day, as follows: B.l.l Data for "Dry Bulb Temperature Hourly Occurrences" B.l Table APP3B-1 Table APP3B-2 Table APP3B-3 "8 AM - 5PM, Occupied Period" "5 PM - 8AM, Unoccupied Period" "24 Hour Totals" . 2 Data for "Wet Bulb Temperature Hourly Occurrences" (Note : Not mean coincident wbt) Table APP3B-4: "8 AM - 5PM, Occupied" Table APP3B-5: "5 PM - 8AM, Unocuppied" Table APP3B-6: "24 Hour Totals" APP3-3 B.2 Annual Hourly Occurrences . Dry bulb (db) hourly occur- rence s~^uTIng — o^eraYIn^ - perToas — under study, at prescribed room temperatures, may be considered the only essential weather parameters that affect transmission and ventilation sensible heat gains or losses. (Solar loads, affected by sun time, cloud cover orientation, etc. are considered as an additional load above transmission) . Similarly, wet bulb (wb) hourly occurrences at each dry bulb temperature (dbt) bin are sufficient for calculation of latent or total heat gains or losses for ventilation air. B . 3 Operating Conditions a. Occupancy from 8 AM to 5 PM (taken to permit manual calculation procedures to be on same basis as computer runs) . b. Room design condition maintained 8760 hrs/yr except when cooling equipment has insufficnet capacity to hold 68 dbt. c. Fixed design cooling coil LAT maintained 8760 hrs/yr with some form of reheat (RHT) employed, to replace reduced internal loads in all cooling (HVAC) units. B .4 Design Conditions a. Cooling: Inside 68 dbt/55% RH/51dpt/0 .008W Outside 95 dbt/78wbt/72dpt/0 .0168W Cooling coil leaving air temperature (LAT) 52dbt/51wbt/50.5dpt/0.0078W b. Heating: Inside 68 dbt; Outside (-4) dbt B • 5 Derivation of Equivalent Full Load Cooling Hours (EFL C ). Table APP3B-7 indicates two bases: one for external SH load calculations of ventilation air or transmission gains with a 68°F room base as applied in Form 3-3, Pg. 1; the other for coil SH load calculations with a 52°F coil LAT base (which includes the total of ventilation and room SH loads on the coil) . B .5.1 Column 2 is based on full load for cooling from the design temperature of 95°F to the room condition of 68°F. The figure for each bin is the cooling load as a decimal portion of full load. Note that the average bin temperatures above 95°F represent greater than 1007 o full load. Similarly, Column 3 represents the portion of full transmission load from the design temperature of 95°F to the design coil setting of 52°F. APP3-4 B.5.2 Columns 4 and 5 are from Tables APP3B-1 and APP3B-2. B.5.3 Columns 6 through 9 are annual energy consumption figures for each bin, where the decimal percent full load x hourly occurrences = annual energy. The annual energy in each of the columns is the same as equivalent full load hours, since EFL hours = (Btu/yr) / (Btuh full load). An example of the use of these four columns: To find the annual transmission gain from 8:00 AM to 5:00 PM for a transmission full load component of 4 Btuh/SF, it is 4 Btuh/SF x Column 6 total. B.5.4 Similarly the annual energy for any component of load responsive to dbt can be calculated by taking the appropriate group of EFL bins in the appropriate time slot column and multiplying it by the full load for that component. B.6 Derivation of Equivalent Full Load Heating Hours (EFLh) Table APP3B-8 indicates two different bases: one for SH load calculations of ventilation loads or transmission losses with a 68°F room base, as applied in Form 3-3, Pg. 5; the other for transmission and ventilation loads with night set-back to room condition of 55°F. B.6.1 Similar to the above, Columns 2 and 3 represent percent full load for a 68°F room temperature and 55° night set back temperature . B.6. 2 Columns 6 to 9 are the EFL^ hours/year. B . 7 Derivation of Equivalent Full Load Hours for Ventilation (EF]Vi ) and Coil LH Loads . Table APP3B-9 indicates what appears to be only one base; but Fig. APP3B-1 and APP3B-2 reveal why it serves for both external LH load as well as coil total LH load. The psychrometric plot of design room and coil conditions shows that they are virtually at the same dpt, and therefore the same humidity ratio, W. The figure for the room, W r was used and it is assumed equal to the coil LAT W c . Fig. APP3B-1 is a psychrometric plot of the wbt bins from TAble APP3B-6, with the number in each bin representing the number of hourly occurrences in that bin for the May 1 to Oct. 31 period. All bins which are severed by the 51°F room dpt line, show the hours above 51 dpt prorated to this effective bin area. APP3-5 The hours below 51 dpt do not represent a LH load on the room or coil - only the dbt hours in Table APP3B-7 impose a load on the coil, which is sensible rather than latent and is effective down to 52°F coil dbt. B . 8 Significance of Load Greater than Design Full Load B .8.1 It is important to note that the nature of these calculations for annual Btu is predicated upon the supply of no more cooling or heating at any load than that represented by a linear relationship between space load and outside dry bulb temperature or space load and wet bulb Ah. Since the design load is based upon closed windows and reasonable (new) infiltration control, then if the occupants open windows, or windows age and become leaky, more than the calculated Btu/ year will be required. What is even more significant is that, without controls to meter the heat in an exact linear relationship with outdoor temperature, an excessive amount of heat can be added on a year round basis. This can even occur with a room thermostat control, since, for example, the stat might be satisfied with wide open windows by calling for an excessive amount of heat. However, when heat is metered on a high-limit basis with outdoor temperature scheduling, most occupants will close their windows (when they have no control over the setting of the scheduling) . B .8.2 It should be emphasized that the correct procedure for energy consumption calculations is to use the actual hourly occurrence temperature intervals, rather than some arbitrary winter design outdoor condition, for the following reasons: a. Only equipment sizing and selection is affected by outdoor design criteria, not energy consumption. When equipment is sized for example at the 97%7o winter condition (0° F at Midway), this seldom, if ever, implies that the heating system installed is incapable of heating to a room thermostat setting of, say, 68°F when weather reaches (-20°F) . Since heating systems, especially, are almost always oversized, with safety factors, pick-up and stand-by losses, usually with- out allowance for internal heat credits, it is apparent that they are able to maintain 68°F rooms at -20° or even lower outdoor conditions . Thus, if the heating system is programmed and controlled to produce 68°F at all times, then its output will match the requirements for whatever outdoor condition exists. The inevit- able result is energy consumption which corresponds to the APP3-6 actual hourly occurrences for actual outdoor conditions, not an arbitrary design outdoor condition taken as -4° F in this case. b. The above premise is true with regard to correct absolute calculations for annual energy consumption, whether applied to manual or computerized techniques. c. Not only is the concept valid for absolute energy con- sumption calculations, but even more so for differential comparisons between alternative designs or operational proce- dures on the same project. If hourly occurrences actually include periods down to -20° F, any attempt to ignore the occurrences between -4° F and-20° F would result in incorrectly low energy savings when comparing a modified system with an existing system. d. It should also be noted that the technique developed for this HANDBOOK automatically adjusts for any difference between the 1007o Full Load condition assumed and any hourly occurrecne which is at lower than design full load condition. This is what accounts for the full loads greater than 1007 o . Therefore, as a general rule for energy consumption calculations, it is proper to state that actual climatic tables of hourly occurrences for the specific facility location should be employed in deriving EFL hours, together with full load gain or loss at any assumed design condition, provided more extreme conditions are incor- porated at greater than 1007o full load values. 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IXI o H JJ a. rt o o > o z aJ < X I uJ "Oh • > a. • < o ml 3 • i/l -5 o or • Z X • * • (J |- • > a. • < a z o • -» O of • Z X • * • (J h • > a. • < o < • a. • < o a. • ts> a • < a of < • - • > a. • < o 03 UJ • u. o or • Z X • I * • O h- • > a. • < a z < • v» -> O at • Z X 3 00 Ul o > z or < o a: O <£ ia -0 -0 O IA «HlA •o <0 O O O •© mi o o o o o o o o o o m ^ oo aa m -o ia m -o -0 (M m •O lA (M CO •4- O ^ IA •* IA f~ m mi (•• IA IA IA m o IA IA c r» IA «* m (M o o o o o o I i I OO o o o o i I I oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo I I o ~o o o o o >r m OO -O IA m4 a o I oo O IN IA o (m m (M r» in ^ o m ♦ m (M •* ^ m o o mm o m m f*lt> oo oo oo; I ia o -t m 0> - o o i i >o o o o j oo .A mi m m IA *• a -t 3 O O- O 01 O IA O O O <7> 0> U0 CO NN, m o -> co a- •* tA O f- P- o •»■ IA O IA VA IA O IA kA >* m (M N (M m in o &• (M (M O CO r- j\ O 4- m m IA O m m ■o (M r».r» o o -* (M (m m »•» lAfM -0 JD 9> -0 O r- (M -i O O m r» mi (M (M «f I I - >t m o IA O OO OO OO oo i —> O —i -0 mi J3 mi Z I I <-* i-i (m (n mo II II I ino .no mo in -o l -. _i • o o • •-! -I o o o o o o o o o o o o oo o o op o o o o o o oo o o o o i 1 i 1 1 ! 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S! r— >- V 2 A O iA O UI o •n a J1 o lA O $3 J\ o iS\ o -1 o -■* o f 2 m o iA O IA <0 < oJ a£ < O O On 0> ■0 CO r» r- ■O s0 .A IA CI [>1 pa u < u H o •z £> H cd O pLj 53 < < Q u. 3 or o Z or x UJ o z JJ Of * D o o o > o z LU O 3 m 0> in o CO CO CO CO m o» m o> o *• m o IA IA o •* in IA wo -t uj ■* •* (9 Z < m o ai m fo LU ac o «r i— < or m o uj eg eg a z lU O •*• h M(M CO _i m o Zi <-■ -< CO t- o >»■ UJ iH H APP$-11 oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo ojo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o I o o oo o o o o o o o o o o o o o o oo oo oo oo ! o o o o o o o o o o o o o o oo oo oo oo oo ! o o j ob C\l ** o o o o o o o m o o I o o o o i oo IN CO fO o o oo I oo i o -o in if* in m fO (»■ »•» r ; O CO o o o o O fO eg m ~l * o o -o cm; N CO O CM <-• fM (*> 00 o o o o o o ! o o i I o o o o I o o o o o o o o o o o o o o a o o o I o o -. -I o o o o r» gj 04 ! o o o o o o i oo I oo I o o o o j oo o o I oo oo oo o i ! I oo o'o o o o o o o o o o o Op o o O I o o o o o o — CM o o o o o o i o o o o I I I j o o o o i I ob o o o o CO •O CO o o o o o o o o o o oo oo oo oo oo o o o o o o o o o o I I i : o o o o j j o'o o'o ob o o j j oo oo o o CO 00 -t o o o o o o o o O -0 o o o o I o o CO o CO O o o m ro - z oc < O at: oo oo oo oo oo oO o o o o i o o I I o o i o o o o o o o o i I I o o o o o o I I o o o o o o I i I o o o o ob o o o o o o o o O O O O i o o o o oo oo oo oo oo oo o o o o 0- ** 10 o -* in O o o o o o o o» 4 o» J. in o 0> J* oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo I i ob o o ob o o o o o o OiO I oo o o o o o o op CO a) in o co j m o L. •o -o m o -0 -o 9- ■* in j\ N \ in o in in m o •4- -4- .J m m in o (\i rg >. X m o OJ IM o> •*• O ~f in o in o % N I m o ^ (SI I I — *0 (M n vo W 1 hJ CO < en H Cu O fc H < Prf w & -J O pq K < H z 0£ i or! <-> o O > z LLI a aJ of a. UJ at < a: uJ a. r m O. O 3 O-t o o mo e> o Ift O 00 on O ■* 09 CO m O T O * IA 0> */> o «* m •*■ p* z r 1 CO uu I CC O -I 3 co en 5 I c£ in » LU CM CM 0. X dJO-t f- CM CM CO ! 3 n H 03 HO^ oi ^ r< 3 r o o o o o o o o °l° oo o o ! o o APP3-1> o o o o o o oo o o o o o o o o O oo o •* o o I I CO j o o I I o o o o i o o 00 CM in o fO «H •* CM •o o co cm .0 vt CM I op o o o'o oo oo oo 09 o O OO oio OO o OO o o o I o o 00 o o o 00 oio 00 00 00 00 O OO o o o o 0:0 00 o o I coo 00 00 ■O 03 00 00 j ! 00 00 I ' I 00 00 -00 «* >o cm co O O CM CO CO CM CO •*■ •0 03 CO OO OO OO 03 f- OO 00 00 00 ! ! 00 00 i I OO oio 00 00 OO o O OO O •-• en cm ( co in in fW (J. CM CM OO OO OO OO J I OO OO OO OO OO o o 00 o o 00 00 mo 00 o «r 00 •0 *-* 2? ' I 1 cm r* m U 7? O k0 ro I O O OO I I OO O O I 00 00 I 00 00 o o o o o 00 o o 00 00 00 00 I I 00 o o 00 00 OO o 00 00 I i 00 00 00 00 ob 00 0(0 Ol mm r-m oo m •H <0 O K0 o o 1 i op i 00 o o o o ! o o o o i o o ! o o o o o c 00 op op 00 J o o 10 .1 op OO Op OO CM O o CM CO 00 MJ O .4. Z lC < 00 00 1 I 00 00 I I o o 09 00 OO OO o I I I 00 I ob I I I o o o o a. ■* 3 O m o o o O O OO EL.^T o o- s\ o o a- o kt 03 00 m o 03 u> r- r- •s\ o 00 j o o ! o o ^ LO O -o *0 I I O 00 00 00 ob op l l O D O D O O op L ob ! ! 00 00 i 00 00 I 00 00 «»• in m in o m m m o ■t •* O •* co ro N. N U> O CO ro I o o i I 00 i i 00 i I 00 o >r CM CM m O CM CM O O 00 00 j i o o 9>«t O ^4- S\ O in o I ob OP 00 00 o o i o o o o S N in o I L_ O OO o o o O O op o o 00 00 ^b ;< m o *4 AT W r =0.008 DECIMAL % OF FULL LH LOAD TO RM w o"W r / 0.0088 HOURLY OCCURRENCE ABOVE W=0.008 EFL HOURS OUTSIDE AIR LH VENTILATION LOAD TO ROOM 75/79 90/94 .0170 .0090 1.02 48 48 85/89 .0181 .0101 1.15 48 55 * 80/84 .0193 .0113 1.28 42 53 75/79 .0195 .0115 1.31 3 3 70/75 90/94 .0125 .0045 0.51 24 12 85/89 .0138 .0058 0.66 135 89 80/84 .0150 .0070 0.80 210 168 75/79 .0162 .0082 0.93 246 228 70/74 .0163 .0083 0.94 78 73 65/69 90/94 .0094 .0014 0.16 4 85/89 .0100 .0020 0.23 34 7 80/84 .0110 .0030 0.34 120 40 75/79 .0122 .0042 0.48 246 118 70/74 .0133 .0053 0.60 360 216 65/69 .0137 .0057 0.65 120 78 60/64 85/89 .0082 .0002 0.02 80/84 .0085 .0005 0.06 9 75/79 .0091 .0011 0.13 62 8 70/74 .0099 .0019 0.22 226 49 65/69 .0110 .0030 0.34 363 123 60/64 .0114 .0034 0.39 84 32 55/59 70/74 .0083 .0003 0.03 9 2 65/69 .0084 .0004 0.05 97 4 60/64 .0092 .0012 0.14 284 39 55/59 .0094 .0014 0.16 99 15 50/54 55/59 .0084 .0004 0.05 76 3 50/54 .0084 .0004 0.05 19 1 TOTAL 3046 1476 * POINT SHOWN ON FIG. 3B-2 APP3-16 m (L Q_ LL fy O u_ z UJ o > i APP3-17 "?! si r-v tft ^ m '~N ^ „ z _j " (0 i 0^ ? N i 4 CO _J < CO 4: _i o Ol u Q_ UJ o q o o - i- 4 ii X v!) h* l/> o —— ii Ck ^ u_ 5 x h o -J 2 O cy ^ V _j IL 111 II Q_ V-> 8 w 'M'Z '4 * i~ £ APP3-18 C Alternate Bin Method Applied to Building 212 C.l Weather Data . The source of prime data for this pro- cedure is the dbt hourly occurrence frequencies at 5° intervals and mean coincident wbt for O'Hare Airport, Chicago; from the Engineering Weather Data Manual (AFM 88-8) of the departments of the Air Force, Army and Navy dated 15 June 197 6. See Tables APP3C-1 and APP3C-2. C.2 Annual Hourly Occurrences . For preliminary ECO selection, appraisal and analysis, the mean coincident wbt figures in Tables APP3C-1 and APP3C-2 may be used. This wbt for each db tempera- ture bin, is the average of all wbt readings that month within that bin. Its use, in lieu of actual wb occurrences, reduces the impact of the ECO, on the conservative side (actual energy savings will be greater than those calculated on the basis of mean coincident wbt figures) . The tables are divided into three 8 hour groupings per day, which permits proportioning the occurrences into occupied and unoccupied periods for different room temperature treat- ment such as day and night temperatures. C. 3 Derivation of Equivalent Full Load Cooling Hours (EFLr ; ) C. 3 . 1 Tables APP3C-3 and APP3C-4 convert hourly occurrences to EFL hours based upon the following operating parameters at Building 212. Occupancy from 9:00 AM to 5:30 PM Room temperature of 75° F maintained 24 hours/day, 365 days/year Cooling coil full load = 95° -55° F cooling range Transmission and ventilation sensible Load = 95° - 75 cooling range. C. 3 . 2 Table APP3C-3 shows the raw hourly occurrence data from Table APP3C-1 redistributed on a proportional basis for the periods from 9:00 AM to 5:30 PM to 9:00 AM from April 19 to Oct. 14. This was the actual reported 1975 cooling period. The last three columns, include a prorated deletion for Oct. 15 to Oct. 31 and an addition from Table APP3C-2 for April 19 to April 30. C3.3 Table APP3C-4 was derived in the same way as was its counterpart, Table APP3B-7, but on the basis of the actual operating parameters. C.4 Derivation of Equivalent Full Load Heating Hours (EFL^ ) C.4.1 Table APP3C-5 was derived in a manner identical to APP3-19 tb-\t of its counterpart, Table APP3B-8, but on the basis of a 75°F room temperature, a 55°F night setback temperature, and actual operating schedules. C . 5 Derivation of Equivalent Full Load Ventilation Hours (EFL V ) C.5.1 Table APP3C-7 shows the hours of occurrence of each mean wbt within each temperature bin, taken from Tables APP3C-1 and APP3C-2. This table is illustrated only down to 4 5°F dbt for examination of cooling season related, latent ventilation loads. (Since humidif ication has been discontinued in Bldg. 212 the wbt data was not required below 4 5° dbt) . If heating season humidif ication analysis were contemplated for any ECO study, this tabulation should be completed. C, 5 . 2 Subtotals in the last four columns were made for possible analysis of coil related and room temperature related loads. Similarly the bottom totals for 65°F and 55° wbt are for room and coil related use. C.5.3 Table APP3C-8 considers the wb hourly occurrences only above 75 F ambient because Bldg. 212 is so predominantly 100% OA all year round that the examination of occurrences below 75° dbt (otherwise needed for enthalpy economizer control analysis, the table should be similarly expanded to present the relevant temperature ranges. C.5.4 Ventilation total heat loads may be used with these EFL hours (sensible + latent) based upon Ventilation TH (Btuh/SF) x EFL V = Btu/SF/yr APP3-20 M ►J O rH I U CO' Ph Ph W hJ PQ DC < z O K e as s o s. 3 ^ H- 3 CC uq O ho OL DC < z o to CO _i •s < < s Ul to z o o O O z H- a — 1 < o z o oc •^ u Ul *<*» C3 8 £o. E ■0-^D3„ cm r- t- © ft CM O «-* cm to to o ia »-*) CO 00 iC f f» H « «) X « f< oo r- o co •H M 99 » (D O O H f* CM CO -? 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W H H « «)OCi © (4 C4 £ C O i- 15 CC N ^ £M«^e«© © «*£ v C9NNr« — e o u - t s rr-^r k r c r c o — © — © "*c-ac»*ac 1 ■ 1 1 H e £ K O K O 3 5 ~© «e*~-r-c- ec c m a c t* x v m - »-CM©--0 — 00 © C5 CM *-• a. 52S ©CM rt©^?'*-« © O © •- « © C Ct N *^ O r-i-v^- n N N M m c o K •— -^ r-^-t^rrt©^ t-oc^©is rt — © i-iCM'V© rtCM~»« c «» c © WOrtrtf— CMCMrtt-^ © ©»-o «■»« ts tf c •& c ^'crtrtW cmcji^^p^ 3 5 h n N N o ©rtrtrt© ortrt©» rt cm r-»CM-v C h O - CM «. f N > O a £ S2S N t3 N t*i3'^«-»rt O O © CO »H *-»• r*l ^CMrtX*^ C?rt z c c ^ •h ci o ci o o©o iO-»^rrt« w t< - ^ i - — t* Jl 'Mil APP3-22 CM 3 CO W u | U o o p o 3d Pi Q O CO < w CO o M ►J o o o Cn O o CQ M Pi H CO J CO » ON ON o l-s o in r-» OS o O o o o o OS NO itn on 2 2 CM r-. 1—1 1-1 a r^ CM $ m '-I < Ph o o O no o no 00 r-l CM m NO NO o m r— i NO CM 00 00 O o O o o o o o 00 00 On ltn CM CM 2 2 Ph <5 o o no o o o o in ON ON 00 CM o r^ O CM rH CM o o o o o 8 w t-H -* r-» 00 00 in r-^ ~a- NO NO <-> its on 2 2 < Ph O O CO H 2 2 < Ph O O O no o o .-1 o CO CSI r-> 5 00 CM CO CO 00 rH CO o o o NO OS rH CM CO no CO -* CM -3- CM 00 o g On ltn CM no l Z O o On o in o in O m o m 99 o in 3 m Q m o s 2 M o os ON oo 00 r- r- NO NO m in -J- CO CO CM CM ? rH CO CO Q Ph APP3 -23 w 2 ■ o fa to w W H Q fa fa i-l p< M co o HZ o> , < fa fa ►J J-l ON hJ M fao o u fa o £g X o o o c_> H fa O' ^ O O O H t-i H oo O co CO CM O CO < fa fa H O H APP3-24 o o en o o o en O o o O en en O S, u~i in CM CM o m CM CM C-idONOOLnOI^OCMONvOOOvOOCMOO^O^ j— icMmoocMOOoo>-(r~-ooo>X)ro-j-a\r^d"CMiOr^-cooin— ir— lOmmcMo-imvo i— (nmoo^jr— ia>moo^'i — on v£> un m t— 4 f— I t-l i— I CM CI LT| ITO CM .— I rorou~ioou^oocMr-~u~voovoaNONCT\voinaNoor^r-ioo 1— ICMrO-tfvOONOo-lONOO-d-CTNi— IvD^-CMr— I 1— It-Hi— I i— I CM CN i— li— I oo-j-i— iu-")a\aNc-)u-i<±COON£>.-IO 1 — l-J-i — II — <3"COi — li — li — li — I 00 O r-. o CM en i-l CM o o OOOOi— ICO-d-^OON-^CM^O,— ICMCMONr^r-~CMOOO r-~ r-i cMu-ir~-^cMi— 1 >£> r~- CM CM OOOOOi— (■— icoo£>com<]-moNcoT£><)-cMi— 1 1— ICMvOONr^LTI-J-CMi— I i— I oooo>— i<|-tnooror^Or— iLn-j-ONoor~ 4 1 I I I o in o omOLnomOL/tOLnOLrtt— it— icm in-^^TcOCOCMCMi-li-l I I I I o < APP3-25 TABLE APP3C-6 DERIVATION OF EQUIVALENT FULL LOAD HEATING HOUtlS (EFL h ) FOR ROOM TEMPERATURES AT 75° F AND 55° F AND (-5° F) DESIGN TEMPERATURE (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) OUTDOOR DECIMAL % OF FULL LOAD AT MIDPOINT HOURLY OCCURRENCES BTU/YR PER BTUH DESIGN LOAD OR EQUIVALENT FL HTG HRS/YR TEMP ROOM 75° F ROOM 55°F RANGE °F ROOM 75°F ROOM 55°F 9 : OOAM 5 : 30PM 5 : 30PM 9:00AM 9: OOAM 5 : 30PM 5:30PM 9: OOAM 9:00AM 5:30PM 5:30PM 9 : OOAM 70/75 .031 61 25 1 1 65/69 .094 82 54 7 5 60/64 .156 91 86 14 13 55/59 .219 117 129 25 28 50/54 .281 .031 159 185 44 51 4 5 45/49 .344 .094 166 240 57 82 15 22 40/44 .406 .156 213 275 86 111 33 42 35/39 .469 .219 294 427 137 200 64 93 30/34 .531 .281 349 571 185 303 98 160 25/29 .594 .344 199 384 118 228 68 132 20/24 .656 .406 119 241 78 158 48 97 15/19 .719 .469 66 170 47 122 30 79 10/14 .781 .531 45 95 35 74 23 50 5/9 .844 .594 29 63 24 53 17 37 0/4 .912 .656 18 52 16 47 11 34 -5/-1 .969 .719 7 33 6 31 5 23 -10/-6 .1031 .781 1 15 1 15 1 11 -15/-11 .1094 .844 6 6 5 -20/-16 .1156 .906 1 1 1 TOTAL BELOW 75° F 2016 3052 888 1535 - - TOTAL BELOW 55° F 1665 2758 - - 422 778 APP3-26 o o O O O rH rH o o o m eg O J J O (M eg h o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o ■P o o o eg j- eg 00 O r-i H r3 .. 4J .. r-i ■O in ON m o o ro cm o r--3 eg in no On on in in co o oo O H O O O o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o r- o o ro On in r-t t< eg rH eg in r-i rH p- .3 ro co H m h en ►j o o O O O H H o o o in eg O .3 .3 in O eg in eg 0.3 co ro o o ro H co h eg in o o o o o o o o < oo O O eg -3 eg co O H On rH -3 co eg t- eg co o eg no oo o co en H •p .. +> .. h eg cg h eg h h H rH O J3 in ON H T3 O o o IT* o o ro co eg o t— ^t eg in no on On in in co vo t— OOMftHJ -» -» m rH rH 4 1AKCO0O o o o o o o o o ltn .. +> .. ON UN m h eg iH eg in H r-i (—.3 CO o CO in no in o co rH o nj _» on H j j- oo en o o ro o o -3- NO m j- o o lf\ .. 4> .. NO o> eg -3 in 0> eg ON. O O J- eg i— o o -=r o o co H meg H — ON IT! OO r-i in o co co o o o o CNI O rH CO NO ro o O H H o "-P •• in in ON rH-3- CO eg rH eg io o o -=r o o rH in o o oo .. +» .. OX u> I o o ro o o CT vo H eg m LTN .. 4J .. NO i/n o co ro o o LTN in 0\ HrH ON o o LTN o o ro .. +j .. 0\ UN O 1 H t— COCO eg j- co co o o o o ro o O eg rH o on_» in co o .. +J .. inco o o- eg o eg \o Lf\ ON H H j- CO -3- o o \o O O CO .. 4» .. ON in no -3- »nj eg eg eg .a- rH co com eg O On o rH o o ro o o -3 coco no eg h UN .. +> .. -3 CONO t- rH o _» NO in On eg CO J- ON o o L/N o o ro .. +» .. On in co t— -3 in coNt t- o t- t-H eg o co 01 O O ro o o in co eg t-NO O .. 4» .. H [- co co mco t— in on eg HVO eg co -3 o o I— o o ro NO ON 0-3 mj o in no (M CO NO t- fc, On in rH O ON H eg o o ro o O oh eg CM rH Hno , — .. m .. +» .. OO O rH H co o ■p t— in on rH r-i eg p -a o\ o o * ' t— O O CO .. 4J .. On in in j- co no eg ro r- H J- rH On m CO CO w r-l r-i CI o o « on o o in eg .. WJ eg co eg co w On in H eg eg e- o o ro o o O o o m LT\ .. +> .. eg eg eg J CO in on 3 cq o\ CO o o o o ro ci rH eg o NO NO >-< .. +j .. rH M rH 00 CO a On in r-i rH r-i o o ro O O O O .. +j .. O in on o\ o o NO NO -3 O O ro m m On .. +> .. On in t— -* H r-i on m h fi o o CO o o O o LTN .. 4> .. ON in On o\ o o 0> o o ro ON UN co eg co eg o o H H — u — ■ 1 +> +> 10 ^> r5 .J > > < o O +> Onoo [—no m j nnirio on co ^no in -» co eg rH o onco c-no in 4 miMrlO on co t-^ m j co eg H in in .O tv > O f— r~ t— r- r-~ c- t~- r— t— r- NO NO NO NO NO kO NO NO NO NO in in in in in in in in in lp » -3? -» -* -4 -3 -a- -4 o (5%) - 77 S-S-H, 8 AM-5 PM: (1729) (18/63) (10%) = 49 5 PM-8 AM: (2159) (30/105) (2%) = JL2 Total EFL Occupancy Hours 1311 D.1.5 Lighting and Receptacle Index (EI^ r ) a. The total building lighting load is estimated to be 266 kw and the reconciliation of this with total demand is synthesized in Form 3-4, Pg 5, where the actual estimated coincident demand of 1826 is reconciled with the annual con- sumption of 10,130,000 kwh. b. The breakdown of lighting load and usage is given in Table APP3D-1, with load profiles, area breakdowns and a recon- ciliation with the building total of 266 kw. T ABLE AP P 3D-1 BUILDING LIGHTING & RECEPTACLE DISTRIBUTION AREA GROSS LIGHTING MON-FRI % DKW S-S-H % DKW TYPE SQ.FT . wTSF DKW 8 Hrs 9 Hrs 7 Hrs 8 Hrs 5 Hrs 11 Hrs HVAC 135,945 1.3 177.0 30% 100% 50% 30% 30 30% H & V 102,755 .8 82.0 30 100 50 30 30 30 Secured 28,737 .1 2.7 30 100 50 30 30 30 Vent only (covered by above units) Loft 17,458 .2 3.5 30 30 30 30 30 30 Tunnels 10,860 .1 1.1 20 20 20 20 20 20 Other 5,283 - - - 301,038 0.88 266.0 c. By weighing the above HVAC lighting profile over a typical week the annual EFL hours become 4622, which is some- what higher than the EFL hours for the total building light- ing in Form 3-4, Pg 5. This is reasonable in view of the type of increased usage for HVAC and H & V areas. APP 3-31 d. The cooling EFL hours is proportioned to the annual EFL hours on the basis of annual cooling operating hours be- tween 52° and 99° F dbt outdoors for ANL, EFL C = (3888/8760)4622 = 2051 hours D.1.6. Internal Process SH Index (EI ps ) a. Process loads chargeable to cooled areas are assumed as 85% of the total bldg . process load from Form 3-4, Pg 5, since most of the process equipment is in such spaces or (.85x257) = 222kw. b. The 2190 EFL hours from Form 3-4 is based upon a high diversity, with light annual load factor. The EFL C for cooling season operation is 2190x(3888/8760) = 972 c. With reference to note 3 of Form 3-3, Pg 2 , it is assumed that 25% of the refrigeration energy from the demin- eralized water chiller directly cools some of the electric process loads. Since Form 3-4, Pg 5 shows 300,000 kwh an- nual input to this chiller = 300,000 T-hrs, the net process load then becomes: Gross Heat Gain = 222x3413x972 EFL C hours = 730,000,000 Btu/yr Cooling Credit QQOO = 0.25 ( 300,000 T-hrs) 12, OOO^Ig- = ( 390,000,000 ) 340,000,000 Btu/yr EI ps = 340,000,000/135,945 = 2491 Btu/SF/yr Net Process Electric Load = 222-(390, 000, 000/3413) = 111 kw = 111 kw x 3,413 = 389,000 Btuh = 2.86 Btu/SF and EFL C = 2491/2.86 = 871 d. All "General Building Services" (E^) are assumed to be in non-cooled areas. APP 3-32 D.1.7. Actual SA/RA Fan Index (EI f ) a. Exhaust fans may be assumed to contribute no heat to the cooling load, if they are located in the loft and their energy is vented. b. "Comfort HVAC Fans" (E fhc ) or 350 kw from Form 3-4 Pg 5 represents all supply fans in the building, made up of the following fans from Form 4-1, Pg 15 (active fans, only): MHP KWD HVAC (cooling system) J5E TH H & V(heating only 130 50 Vent (no htg . or cooling) 10 7 5TS" 33TT c. This low part load relationship of kw and MHP re- conciles well with the nameplate vs. running amp analysis summarized for these groups in Col. 31 & 32 of Form 4-1, Pg 15. The 538 MHP, corresponding to approximately 490 Full Load kw, yields an operating load factor of 350/490 = 71% while the actual running amp ratio to Full Load amps is 60%. The cooling gain from fan motors is taken as 88% of the KWD to allow for motor inefficiency losses which are not within the air stream or 257 kw. d. These fans run 8760 hrs/yr, therefore the EFL C hours is identical to the total cooling season operating hours or 3888 hours. D.1.8. Ventilation Index (EI V ) a. The OA CFM for all the HVAC (cooling) systems com- bined is 154,697 from Col (8) and (10) of Form 4-1, Pg . 15. This includes the minimum OA load for all the once-through and recirculating HVAC units which are active. b. The EFL C hours for ventilation SH is obtained from Table App 3B-7, as the sum of Col(6) and (7) for the 99° to 68° F bins during which time the ventilation air imposes a SH gain on the system. c. An adjustment to ventilation LH load indicated on Pg 1 is only required when the room humidity resulting from the actual coil LAT is above or below the assumed design conditions for the room. In this example, the assumed de- APP 3-33 sign condition of 68 dbt/55% RH/51 dpt (refer to Fig. App . 3B-1) would actually be attained from the design coil LAT. (It is noted, however, that if a higher room design condi- tion were assumed (e.g. 75 dbt/507 o RH/57 dpt, noted as room condition 3) that it could not be attained with the same 52° coil leaving air temperature. Instead the much lower room dpt of 51°F would result, regardless of "assumed" room con- dition and if the calculation were not adjusted to reflect this differential between the room condition actually attained (51 dpt) and that assumed (57 dpt) then the calculated refri- geration load would be considerably short of the requirements) . D.1.9. Reconciliation of Supply Air & Tons of Refrigeration (T.R. ) . For this analysis , inspection of operating records showed disagreements with these results as follows: calculated vs. in-service A/C tons peak steam meter reading vs. total A/C tons calculated air quantities vs . actual unsatisfied room thermostatic settings Page 1A was prepared to simulate actual maintained room tem- perature and actual air quantities. The A/C tons and peak steam flow could not be reconciled without further investiga- tion. Despite this, page 1A is more representative of actual building conditions and is used in lieu of page 1. D.2 Gross Peak Output Cooling Load (Par lb) D2 . 1 Penalty Load. The net load and annual energy indices in Par. la represent bar building requirements exclusive of the penalty loads associated with the various system types. In Building 212 the hot deck reheat of dual duct systems imposes a 25 F degree lift on the 55° F fan LAT to provide the 80° F hot duct supply temperature at peak load. Given the condition of spillover of hot air into the cold stream (as reported in ECO HA- 3) , in addition to the minimum warm port leakage when all of them are shut (trying to maintain 68° F room) , an average condition of 8 F degree SA temperature rise based upon field reports, and 2% hot port leakage may be assumed. Dual duct SA totals 77,700 CFM. Therefore, Leakage penalty = 1.08 (77,700 x 0.02) (80° - 72°) = 671,300 Btuh Spillover penalty = 1.08 x 77,700 (8° rise) = 671,300 Btuh Total penalty = 112 T.R. = 1,342,600 Btuh APP 3-34 D.2.2. Supplementary Heat Gains Besides the system penalties, there are supplementary loads on refrigeration from pump energy, transmission gains to chilled water piping and ductwork, as well as duct leak- age. These are estimated at 10% or 118 tons because of the extensive runs and casings in unconditioned areas. D.2.3 Gross Output The resulting gross output of 1,412 tons is 243 tons less than the 1655 tons of capacity in service at full load, or 157o lower. Building staff indicated that the refrigera- tion equipment was somewhat shy of rated capacity, therefore this calculated figure reconciles with operator experience. D.3 G ross Cooling Output Load and Energy Recon ciliat ion (Par le) : D.3.1 Load Reconciliation The coincident peak loads in Col. (4) of Par. le must be reconciled with the rated capacities of all refrigeration equipment in service, by totaling to the estimated 1412 tons. These peaks must in turn reconcile with any metered or field estimated loads at the annual peak operating periods. The 1377 tons of steam absorption refrigeration load would require 26,438 lb/hr of steam without any allowance for service hot water. There is a discrepancy between this figure and survey data. Consideration of other factors appears to justify the conclusion of 1377 tons rather than 1000 tons. This assumes steam load plus the service water load of 150 lb/hr is recon- ciled with the 26,588 lb/hr shown in Form 3-4 Pg. 6 Col. (3), as the annual peak load occurring during the cooling season. (This ignores the load spikes which occur when the steam turbo- generators are tested) . Similarly, the electric refrigeration load of 35 tons = 35 kw is reconciled in Form 3-4 Pg. 5 for E rc in Col. (3) . D.3. 2 Energy Reconciliation The impact of the penalty refrigeration loads and supplementary heat gains on annual energy consumption must be estimated before the calculated T-hrs can be reconciled with overall metered steam consumption for the building in Form 3-4, Pg. 7; item S rc . APP 3-35 a. Summer Reheat: This can be approximated because all the HVAC systems employ artificial heat during cooling periods to replace the portion of the internal sensible heat load which dis- appears at part load conditions . This cumulative difference is the annual difference between the net internal SH cooling requirement (i.e. 42,762 Btu/SF/yr from Form 3-3, Pg 1A) and the annual internal SH energy available from the supply air off the cooling coil in its rise from 52° F to 72° F. The annual coil SH energy is the sum of the ventilation air SH and the available internal SH energy. It is a function of the EFL C hours for the full building load represented by cooling the total air from its average mixture temperature of 92.7° F to 52° F. The building average mixture tempera- ture is the hypothetical blend of 154,697 CFM of outside air (for the once- through and the recirculating units) with the return air to the recirculating units ; as if all units were combined into one air handler. Thus: Mix temperature on coil = 72°F + (154,697/172,000)72 = 92.7° F Total cooling coil annual SH energy from Table App 3B-7, Col (8)+(9) = 1. 08(172, 000)(92. 7-52)1687 EFL C hrs = 12,754x10° Btu/yi Less ventilation annual SH energy from Form 3-3, Pg 1A, EI VS = (18,853 Btu/SF/yr) 135, 945 SF Annual available coil SH energy Less annual net internal SH requirement, Form 3-3, Pg 1A =(42,762 Btu/SF/yr) 135, 945 SF Total cooling season reheat energy b. Hot Port Leakage: If the hot port of each mixing box is assumed closed (full cooling load) during 20% of the cooling season, leak- ing 2% of average 100° F warm duct air then the annual leak- age penalty is 1.08(0.02x77,700 CFM) (100°-68°) (0 .2x3888 hrs) = 38xl0 6 Btu/yr c. Warm Air Spillover: On the basis of spillover occurring for a total of 200 hrs. when the outdoor temperature exceeds 88° F, then (2,563xl0 6 ) 10,191xl0 6 Btu/yi (5,813x10^) 4,378xl0 6 Btu/yi APP 3-36 the annual spillover penalty from Par D.2.1. is (671,300 Btu/hr) 200 hrs 134xl0 6 Btu/yr d. Excess Radiation During 52° to 65° F Outdoor Tempera- tures : As a result of fixed hot water radiation scheduling and dif f icult-to-control steam radiation, it is assumed that 30% excess radiation input is experienced during the 223 EFL^ heating season when refrigeration is still in use. The an- nual radiation penalty from this, using the total transmis- sion loss from Form 3-3, Pg 5 as a base is (4,075,000 Btu/hr) (223 EFL h )0.3 = (908x106)0.3 273xl0 6 Btu/yr e. The sum of these penalties, totals 4,823x10" Btu/yr and represents unnecessary steam energy consumption, as well as a corresponding refrigeration energy consumption equal to (4,823xl0 6 Btu output)x (19.3x1019 Btu input) (12,000 Btu output) = 4,823xl0 6 x (19,667/12,000) = 7,904xl0 6 Btu/yr f . The supplementary heat gains to the air and water streams, plus duct leakage may be taken at 5% of the refri- geration steam input, and the gross annual absorption refri- geration is : Total net refrigeration output (Pg 1A) Less electric refrigeration output (Pg 3, Col 7) Steam refrigeration output Equivalent net steam input @19,667 Btu/T-hr Plus penalties from Par D.3.2.e Supplementary heat gains = (33,509x10^) (.05) = l,676xl0 6 output Equivalent refrigeration input @19, 667/12, 000 Gross absorption refrigeration input Energy = 1,512,000 T-hrs = 210,000 1,302,000 T-hrs = 25,605xl0 6 Btu + 7,904xl0 6 33,509xl0 6 = 2,745xl0 6 = 36,254xl0 6 Btu APP 3-37 g. The equivalent T-hrs output for this gross input of steam is (36,254xl0 6 Btu)/ (19,667 Btu/T-hr)= 1,843,392 which may be entered in Form 3-3 Pg 3 as the bracketed sum of the absorption units in Col (7) , for a preliminary re- conciliation with other survey data on the refrigeration units which may be known (i.e. metering data on steam to each refrigeration unit.) If this were the case, then the total annual energy could then be distributed among the various refrigeration units in Pg 3 based upon a reasonable load factor for each (not available from operating personnel) and the estimated operating hours (see note 2) . In this case, lacking such metered data, completion of this page may be left until the prorated steam system losses des- cribed in the final reconciliation of Par D6.4.b are made. D.4. Building Cooling Energy Indices (Par l.f.) The T-hr figures from Pg 3 are entered in Col (2) of Pg 4 and extensions made based on the indicated conversions. D.5. Net Actual Building Heating Output (Par 2. a.) Similarly to the development of cooling output, the areas are obtained from tables referenced under D.l.l. above, and the EFLu hours from Appendix Table 3B-8, on the basis of the entire building being heated to 68° F. The ventilation air is the sum of Col. (8) to (11) in Form 4-1, Pg. 15. D.5.1. Heating Energy Credits , Col (8) All the internal energy in the HVAC and H&V areas generated annually from lights, occupancy, process and fans is considered a credit to building heating requirements, in the ideal case when ventilation air is heated only to 52° F and booster coils , radiation and internally generated heat warms it up to room temperature, without excess radiation booster coil or warm duct heating. These theoretical elec- trical energy credits from Form 3-4, Pg 5 are prorated to the annual heating hours of operation from Appendix Table 3B-8. Such credits are applied to the areas which are ventilated with tempered air supply: APP 3-38 ( Lights (Table APP 3D-1) 177+82 = 259 kw in HVAC and H&V areas (259/266) (1,182,000 kwh/yr) (3, 413) (5874/8760) r = 2,634x10^ Btu Process: Area = 135,900 + 102,800 = 238,700 SF (238,700/301,000) (563,000 kwh/yr) (3 ,413) (5874/8760) = 1,021x106 Fans: (3,066,000 kwh/yr) (3 ,413) (5874/8760) = 7,017xl0 6 Occupancy: (applying the occupancy EFL C hrs ratio to heating operating hours) =(300x220 Btuh) (1311/3888) 5874 = 313xl0 6 Solar Credit: (based upon applying 70% of the summer solar gain from Par la to the HVAC and H&V areas and extrapolating it in the ratio of heating/cooling operating hours.) = (1264 Btu/SF/yr) (238,700 SF) (5874/3888) (0. 7) 319x106 Total Theoretical Energy Credit: I enter in Col (8), Par 2a ll,122xl0 6 Btu " D.5.2. Heating Load Credits , Col (5) a. The above credits are substantial for annual energy consumption reduction because they react on a 24 hour basis. The winter peak load, however, with 24 hour once-through air systems, occurs at night when solar gains are zero and many of the internal heat gains are small. With an approximate 10 F deg. temperature range between day and night, the load at night would be in a ratio of night/day T.D. of 72/62, or 16% greater during unoccupied periods, when credits can be esti- mated as follows : Lights: 259 kw x(35% from Table APP 3D-1) 3,413 376,000 Btuh Process : 257 kw (238,700/301,000) (10%) 3,413 70,000 Fans: 350 kw x 3,413 (full load 24 hrs/day) = 1,190,000 ( APP 3-39 Occupancy: 300x5%x220 = 3,000 Total heating load credit; enter Col (5) = 1,639,000 Btuh b. Since this load credit is only 6.5% of the 25,568,000 Btuh total heating output then night load still governs with the credit taken. D. 6. Gross Peak Output Heating Load & Energy Reconciliation D.6.1. Load Reconciliation . During the peak load condition, without sun effect or substantial internal loads, and with mostly once-through air supply, there is little tendency for supplementary heat- ing systems such as radiation to be out of control and to create an oversupply of heat. For the same reason, ventila- tion penalties for once-through systems are not substantial, therefore, the penalites are considered zero for Building 212, in Form 3-3, Pg 6, Par 2b. However, annual energy con- sumption for the radiation and ventilation heating systems may be substantially in excess of the net building output. D.6.2 Radiation System Energy Reconciliation The energy penalties in the radiation system arise from summer and winter excess radiation, and are additive to the transmission component of the net building heating output, since almost all transmission is handled by the radiation system. Below outdoor temperatures of 68° F, radiation which is scheduled to handle transmission losses in shaded perimeter zones tends to oversupply, because its control does not respond to sun or internal heat gains ; also, for comfort reasons, the actual schedule is lifted above theoretical transmission loss requirements. Besides the 273x106 Btu/yr excess radiation during 52 to 65° F weather, already allowed for in Par D.3.2.d., the same 30% is considered applicable below 52° F weather. From Col 8 of Form 3-3, Pg 5, the remaining winter excess radiation is: (9104-273)106x0.3 = 2,649xl0 6 Btu/yr Summer excess 273x10^ Net annual radiation requirement 9 , 104x10" Gross radiation input energy 12,026x106 Btu/yr D.6.3. Ventilation System Energy Reconciliation (Par 2a, Col 8) APP 3-40 a. Ventilation energy penalties arise from the reheat, hot port leakage and warm air spillover described under re- frigeration in Par D.3.2; as well as from other ventilation system characteristics which are not considered substantial with predominantly once-through systems. b. Net ventilation energy is determined from Form 3-3, Pg 5 by allocating all annual energy credits to ventilation, since these internal and solar loads evaluated in Par D.5.1 all contribute to a reduction of main heating coil, hot deck or booster coil heating energy input. Thus, from Col (8) Gross ventilation energy = Credits = Net ventilation heating energy = 48,016xl0 6 Btu/yr (11,122x106 ) 36,894xl0 6 Btu/yr c. Ventilation penalties from Par D.3.2 (without excess radiation = (4823 - 273)x1Q6 = 4,550x10$ Gross ventilation input energy = 41,444xl0 6 Btu/yr D.6.4. Distribution System Losses and Unaccounted for Consumption a. The steam distribution system losses in Building 212 with the steam system alive 8760 hrs/yr may be assumed at 3% of the annual gross steam consumption input calculated. To estimate this, the tabulation below summarizes all the pre- viously calculated consumption figures, as well as the one for Service Hot Water in Form 3-3, Pg 8. The losses are taken for this total and the result is reconciled with the total actual steam consumption in Form 3-4, Pg 7, Col (8). Any unaccounted for consumption plus distribution losses, are then distributed proportionally among the various steam sy- stem energy components : b. Steam Reconciliation Tabulation: APP 3-41 SOURCE ANNUAL ENERGY INPUT - 10 b BTU PAR ENERGY COMPONENT CALCULATED DISTRIBUTED ACTUAL D.3.2.f Refrigeration, S rc 36,254 1,983 38,237 D.6.3.b Ventilation Air Handlers, S ac 41,444 2,267 43,711 D.6.2 Radiation, S ro d 12,026 658 12,684 Service H.W., Sdhw 612 34 646 Total (without losses) 90,336 Distribution Losses @ 3% 2,710) = 4,942 Unaccounted for 2.3% 2,232 ) 95,278 95,278 c. The figures in the last column may now be entered in Form 3-4, Pg 7, representing a calculated reconciliation with only 2 . 37 unaccounted for steam consumption. d. After the reconciliation, the final input and corre- sponding output energy figures may be finalized in Form 3-3, Pgs 3, 4 and 7. H n x. CO r-l r-l CO r-l «-t U. in VI 3 5 QO Xl •H XI U) O r-l CX CM o CX > > > o X £ u II £ CX, ci i-i : m M r-l H M r-l h-l M r-l M n r-l 1— 1 H h-< CO jo- i^ u H f w tl II II U [JiU n 1 ii i ii W II II UJ UJ 1 UJ H CO 1 u UJ 1 H I ■ „ >" O CJ so' /•^ u. 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See Appendix 5 for references . APPENDIX TO ECO TITLE PAGE ELM 2 Table ELM 2-1 APP 4-3 Suggested Maximum Capacitor Rating When Motor and Capacitor are Switched as Unit ELM 2 Table ELM 2-2 APP 4-4 KW Multipliers to Determine Capacitor Kilovars Required for Power Factor Correction HF 1 Figure HF 1-2 APP 4-5 How to Determine Heat Loss and Fuel Loss - Fuel Oil HF 1 Figure HF 1-3 APP 4-6 Scale of Total Heat Loss - Fuel Oil HF 1 Figure HF 1-4 APP 4-7 How to Determine Heat Loss and Fuel Loss - Gas HF 1 Figure HF 1-5 APP 4-8 Scale of Total Heat Loss - Gas HF 1 Figure HF 1-6 APP 4-9 How to Figure Bituminous Coal Combustion Quickly HF 1 Figure HF 1-7 APP 4-10 Scales and Chart for Combustion Performance Estimate HF 1 Figure HF 1-8 APP 4-11 Air Required for and Products of Combustion AT FP 4-2 APPENDIX TO ECO TITLE PAGE HF 2 Figure HF 2-1 APP 4-12 Cost of Steam Atomization Versus Air Atomization W 2 A. Domestic Hot Water Fixture APP 4-14 Flow Table W 2-1 APP 4-15 Typical Fixture Flows B. Feasibility of Flow Control APP 4-16 APP 4-3 TABLE ELM 2-1 SUGGESTED MAXIMUM CAPACITOR RATING WHEN MOTOR* AND CAPACITOR ARE SWITCHED AS UNIT Induction Nominal Motor Spee d in RPM Motor Horse- 3600 1800 1200 900 720 600 Power Rating Capacitor Rating KVAR Line Current Reduction % Capacitor Rating KVAR Line Current Reduction % Capacitor Rating KVAR Line Current Reduction % Capacitor Rating KVAR Line Current Reduction % Capacitor Rating KVAR Line Current Reduction % Capacitor Ratina KVAR Line Current Reduction % 3 1.5 14 1.5 15 1.5 20. 2 27 2.5 35 3.5 41 5 2 12 2 13 2 17 3 25 4 32 4.5 37 rvt 2.5 11 2.5 12 3 15 4 22 5.5 30 6 34 10 3 10 3 11 3.5 14 5 21 6.5 27 7.5 31 15 4 9 4 10 5 13 6.5 18 8 23 9.5 27 20 5 9 5 10 6.5 12 7.5 16 9 21 12 25 25 6 9 6 10 7.5 11 9 15 11 20 14 23 30 7 8 7 9 9 11 10 14 12 18 16 22 40 9 8 9 9 11 10 12 13 15 16 20 20 50 12 8 11 9 13 10 15 12 19 15 24 19 60 14 8 14 8 15 10 18 11 22 15 27 19 75 17 8 16 8 18 10 21 10 26 14 32.5 18 100 22 8 21 8 25 9 27 10 32.5 13 40 17 125 27 8 26 8 30 9 32.5 10 40 13 47.5 16 150 32.5 8 30 8 35 9 37.5 10 47.5 12 52.5 15 200 40 8 37.5 8 42.5 9 47.5 10 60 12 65 14 250 50 8 45 i 52.5 8 57.5 9 70 11 77.5 13 300 57.5 8 52.5 7 60 8 65 9 80 11 87.5 12 350 65 8 60 7 67.5 8 75 9 87.5 10 95 11 400 70 8 65 6 75 8 85 9 95 10 105 11 450 75 8 67.5 6 80 8 92.5 100 9 110 11 500 77.5 8 72.5 6 8 fil 97.5 9 107.5 9 115 10 ->■;?. £0 cjcti t.EMA Classification B Motors to raise lull r:.A-i f .- - 1 o r to appropriately SJJJ. Reference: 24 APP4-4 TABLE ELM 2-2 KW MULTIPLIERS TO DETERMINE CAPACITOR KILOVARS REQUIRED FOR POWER- FACTOR CORRECTION CffiF" inal Power Fn:ior 7 Co r r e c te c! Power F a c to r ! 0.50 ] O.Si i 0.82 j 0.83 : 1 I 0.84 0.85 0.86 0.37 1 0.83 0.S3 0.90 0.91 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.S5 0.97 j 0.53 0.59 j 1.0 0.50 i 0.Si2J 1.003 j 1.034 1.060 ' I j 1.035 1.112 1.139 1.165 ! 1.192! 1.220 j 1.248 1.276 1.305 1.337 1.369 1.403 1.440 1.481 1.529 1.5831 1.732 0.5! 0.937 1 C.5S2 j 0.S39 1.015 1.041 1037 1.034 1.120 1.117: 1.175 1.203 1.231 1.251 1.292 1.324 1.358 1.335 1.435; 1.424 1.544; 1.637 0.52 O.-JJ; 0.913! 0.9-5 ' 0.S71 0.907 1.023 1.050 1.076 j 1.103 j 1.13! 1.159 1.187 1.217 1.248 1.283 1.314 j 1.35! | 1.392; 1.4^0 1 .500 r 1 .643 0.53 O.SiO ' 0.875 0.332 C.923 0.954 0.920 1.007 1.033 1.050 ! 1.033 1.116 1.144 1.174 1.205 1.237 1.271 1.208! 1.343; 1.337 1.457 1.600 0.54 0.S03 '[ 3.335 ,0.851 0.537 0.913 0.D39 0.966 0.592 1 1.019! 1.047 j 1.075 1.103 1.133 1.164 1.195 1.230 1.267| 1.302, 1.356 1.416 1.559 0.55 0.753 ;' 3.755 | 0.321 0.S47 0.873 0.899 0.926 0.952 i 0.579 1. 007 1.035 1.053 1.093 1.124 1.156 1.130 1.227 j 1.253' 1.315 1 1.376 1.519 0.55 0.733 ; 0.755 0.782 0.803 0.834 0.850 0.887 0.913 1 0.540 0.568 1 0.996 1.024 1054 1.085 1.117 1.151 1.183 1.229! 1.277 1.337 1.450 0.57 0.592 j 0.718 0.744 0.773 0.735 0.822 0.849 0.875 0.902 | 0.530 | 0.953 0.986 1.016 1.047 1.079 1.113 1.150 1.191 1.239 1.233 1.442 0.53 0.S55 ! 0.531 0.707 0.733 0.759 0.785 0.812 0.833 0.855 ' 0.853 0.921 0.949 0.979 1.010 1.042 1.076 1.113 1.154: 1.202 1.262 1.405 0.59 0.513 j 545 0.671 0.697 0.723 0.749 0.776 0.802 0.329 0.357 0.885 0.913 0.943 0.974 1.005 1.040 1.077 1.113: 1.156 1.225 1.363 0.60 0.533 0.603 0.635 0.651 0.637 0.713 0.740 0.765 0.793! 0.821 1 0.849 0.877 0.507 0.938 0.970 1.004 1.041 1.032 j 1.130 1.150 1.333 0.61 0.5-3 0.575 0.601 0.627 0.653 0.679 0.705 0.732 0.759:0.787 0.815 0.843 0.873 0.904 0.936 0.970 1.007 1 .043 j 1.096 1.155 1.299 0.62 0.515 0.542 0.553 0.594 0.620 0.645 0.673 0.633 0.726 j 0.754 0.782 0.810 0.840 0.871 0.903 0.937 0.974 1.015, 1.053 1.123 1.255 0.63 0.-33 0.503 0.535 0.551 0.537 0.613 0.640 0.655; 0.693; 0.721 0.749 0.777 0.807 0838 0.870 0.904 0.341 0.982! 1.030 1.030 1.233 0.64 0.451 0.474 0.503 0.523 0.555 0.531 0.608 0.634 0.651 \ 0.633 0.717 0.745 0.775 0.806 0.838 0.872 0.909 0.950 0.993 1.063 1.201 0.65 0.419 0.445 0.471 0.497 0.523 0.549 0.576 0.602 0.629 0.657 0.685 0.713 0.743 0.774 0.806 0.840 0.877 0.913 0.555 1.026 1.163 0.66 0.383 0.114 0.440 0.465 0.492 0.518 0.545 0.571 0.598 0.626 0.654 0.682 0.712 0.743 0.775 0.809 0.845 0.88? 0.935 0.995 1.138 0.67 0.353 0.384 0.410 0.435 0.462 0.488 0.515 0.541 0.568 0.595 0.624 0.652 0.682 0.713 0.745 0.779 0.815 0.857 0.905 0.965 1.108 0.63 0.323 0.354 0.330 0.406 0.432 0.458 0.485 0.511 0.538 0.566 0.594 0.622 0.652 0.683 0.715 0.749 ' 0.786 0.827 0.375 0.935 1.078 0.69 0.239 0.325 0.351 0.377 0.403 0.429 0.456 0.432 0.509 0.537 0.565 0.593 0.623 0.654 0.686 0.720 0.757 0.793 0.846 0.906 1.049 0.70 0.270 0.235 0.322 0.343 0.374 0.4C0 0.427 0.453 0.480 0.503 0.536 0.564 0.594 0.625 0.657 0.691 0.728 0.763 0.817 0.877 1.020 0.71 0.242 0.253 0.294 0.320 0.346 0.372 0.399 0.425 0.452 j 0.430 0.508 0.536 0.566 0.597 0.629 0.653 0.700 0.741 0.789 0.849 0.992 0.72 0.214 0.240 0.256 0.292 0.318 0.344 0.371 0.337 0.424 0.452 0.480 0.508 0.533 0.569 0.601 0.635 0.672 0.713 0.761 0.821 0.964 0.73 0.185 0.212 0.233 0.254 0.230 0.316 0.343 0.369 0.396 0.424 0.452 0.480 0.510 0.541 0.573 0.607 0.644 0.685 0.733 0.793 0.936 0.74 0.153 0.185 0.211 0.237 0.263 0.289 0.316 0.342 0.359 0.397 0.425 0.453 0.483 0.514 0.546 0.580 0.617 0.653 0.705 0.765 0.909 0.75 0.132 0.153 0.184 0.210 0.236 0.262 0.289 0.315 0.342 0.370 0.398 0.426 0.456 0.487 0.519 0.553 0.590 0.631 0.679 0.739 0.882 0.76 0.105 0.131 0.157 0.183 0.209 0.235 0.262 0.238 0.315 0.343 0.371 0.399 0.429 0.460 0.492 0.526 0.553 0.604 0.652 0.712 0.855 0.77 07? 0.105 0.131 0.157 0.183 0.209 0.236 0.252 0.239 0.317 0.345 0.373 0.403 0.434 0.465 0.500 0.537 0.573 0.626 0.685 0.829 0.73 0.052 0.073 0.104 0.130 0.155 0.182 0.209 0.235 0.262 0.290 0.318 0.346 0.376 0.407 0.439 0.473 0.510 0.551 0.599 0.659 0.802 0.79 0.025 0.05? 0.073 0.104 0.130 0.156 0.183 0.203 0.236 0.264 0.292 0.320 0.350 0.381 0.413 0.447 0.434 0.523 0.573 0.633 0.776 0.80 0.3>3 0.025 0.052 0.078 0.104 0.130 0.157 0.183 0.210 0.233 0.266 0.294 0.324 0.355 0.387 0.421 0.458 0.439 0.547 0.609 0.750 0.81 0.000 0.025 0.052 0.073 0.104 0.131 0.157 0.184 0.212 0.240 0.263 0.298 0.329 0.351 0.335 0.43? 0.473 0.521 0.581 0.724 0.82 O.COO 0.026 0.052 0.073 0.105 0.131 0.153 0.186 0.214 0.242 0.272 0.303 0.335 0.359 0.406 0.447 i 0.495 0.555 0.698 0.83 0.000 0.026 0.052 0.079 0.105 0.132 0.160 0.188 0.216 0.246 0.277 0.309 0.343 0.330 0.421 j 0.459 0.529 0.672 0.84 0.000 0.026 0.053 0.073 0.106 0.134 0.162 0.190 0.220 0.251 0.233 0.317 0.354 0.335 '. 0.443 0.503 0.646 0.S5 0.000 0.027 0.053 0.089 0.108 0.136 0.164 0.194 0.225 0.257 0.291 0.323 0.369 ! 0.417 0.477 0.620 0.86 0.000 0.026 0.053 0.031 0.109 0.137 0.167 0.193 0.230 0.264 0.301 0.3^2 ! 0.390 0.450 0.593 0.87 0.000 0.027 0.055 0.033 0.111 0.141 0.172 0.204 0.233 0.275 0.315 j 0.364 0.424 0.567 0.83 0.000 0.023 0.056 0.034 0.1U 0.145 0.177 0.211 0.243 0.239 ; 0.337 0.397 0.540 0.89 0.000 0.028 0.055 0.036 0.117 0.149 0.183 0.220 0.261 0.309 0.369 0.512 0.90 0.000 0.028 0.053 0.089 0.121 0.155 0.192 0.233 0.281 0.341 0.484 0.31 0.000 0.030 0.061 0.093 0.127 0.164 0.205 0.253 0.313 0.456 0.92 j 0.000 0.031 0.053 0.097 0.134 0.1 75| 0.223 0.283 0.426 0.93 1 0.000 0.032 0.055 0.103 0.144 ! 0.192 0.25? 0.395 0.94 1 0.000 0.034 0.071 0.U2J 0.160 0.220 0.363 0,5 | 0.000 0.037 0.079 ! 0.125 0.185 0.329 0.55 ! 0.000 0.041 ' 0.039 0.143 0.292 0.97 0.000 0.048 0.103 0.251 092 0.000 0.060 0.203 0.53 1 0.000 0.143 0.000 Reference: 24 APP4-5 FIGURE HF 1-2 HOW TO DETERMINE HEAT LOSS AND FUEL LOSS NO. 1 FUEL OIL On the reverse side are given Tables of Heat Losses in the burning of No. 1 Fuel Oil and No. 6 Fuel Oil. From these data Fuel losses may be determined with practical accuracy. Important: In using the tables you will need to know: 1. Percent C0 2 in your flue gas 2. Temperature of flue gas 3. Room temperature With this information, in hand, proceed as follows: Subtract the room temperature from the flue gas temperature and find this number (approximately) on the scale (top row of figures). Proceed down the scale in the proper column to the line opposite your approximate CO2 per- centage as previously determined (extreme left hand column). The heat loss will be found at the junction of these two lines. Note: The figures given on the reverse side are based on the fuel analyses given below. This should be taken into consideration when figuring your own heat loss. Example: Suppose you are burning No. 1 Fuel Oil and your flue gas temperature is 625°F with room temperature at 65°F. The difference is 560°. Find this number on the scale. Suppose your CO2 was found to be 9%. Proceeding down the "560" column to the CO2 line of 9%, you will find the figure 24.4. This is the percent of total heat loss in the flue gas. How much of this total loss is PREVENT- ABLE depends upon how high the CO2 content of the flue gases can be raised and how low the flue gas temperature can be reduced without producing CO or increasing other losses such as carbon (smoke) or ash pit losses. Carrying on with our example: if, by test or NO. 6 FUEL OIL computation, it is determined that the CO2 can be raised to 14% and the difference between flue gas and room temperatures can be reduced to 460° the total heat loss in the Due gas would be 16.5%. This represents a saving of 7.9% in HEAT. THE SAVING IN FUEL The saving in fuel is even greater. With a 24.4% loss, 75.6% of the heat is being used while with a 16.5% loss, 83.5% of the heat is being used. The consumption of fuel at the higher efficiency is therefore equal to 75.6 * 83.5 or 90.53% of that used when burned at the lower efficiency. The actual saving in FUEL is therefore 100% -90.51% or 9.47%. It is, of course, necessary that the rate of steam genera- tion remains constant, that the fuel quality be the same and that no CO be produced or the amount of smoke or ash pit losses increased while obtaining the higher percentage of CO2. FOR THE SAME FUELS OF BTU CONTENT OTHER THAN THOSE LISTED For the same fuels of BTU content other than those listed, use the scale of the fuel which has the nearer BTU value. The errors involved are: For COAL ± 2% of the calculated fuel saving. Example: If the calculated fuel saving is 5%, the actual saving will be between 4.9% and 5.1%. For OIL ± 5% of the calculated fuel saving. For NATURAL GASES ± 2% of the calculated fuel saving. For MANUFACTURED GASES the error may be as great as 20% of the calculated value de- pending upon the composition of the gas. FUEL ANALYSES No. 1 Fuel Oil (Heat Value 19750 BTU/LB) % by weight c 86.1 H ... 13.6 O 0.2 N 0.1 No. 6 Fuel Oil (Heat Value 18150 BTU/LB) % by weight C 89.36 H 9.30 S 0.90 N 0.20 O 0.19 ASH 0.05 REFERENCE 8 o 1 o_ ■ oi inlco "^}^o!cm|— "cM'-j^jrM'rM Lo \r+* o »& "0{ in vn j ^ xr f — ^-^r^.ro-co.— jro;to,co •ojro cd'ft ft CN of , )o co»' •— j cn i tf>] i>* i to j cm r^jo^oi'c' — irMtco j cn co-Tr;.jj^;'*p'csiocd !>c u-vi io • m j tt ■ rr * *c -rmjm m'rn rojrojcM rMi»o cm; cm el c 0»1 -— c> c>co oji- n tn -oo,m.o o^ co ; o j *n *^ c .-* — ' co | m CM'd t cd 1 *o|ur*.'^T!cM' — , o r^ >z> -c w> m ' "t , •rr ■ -"c l ■^ ro pj ' r> " m ' rn co , cm | cm CMJ CM CN : CM LOi ; <5Kj CD O; o ( cojo'y> m oo.cM.co-*o'^-;«iTjco'cn po. rv cM,o'iOjCM o eo'^O'm m'cMt— o*'pN.i>d : -o: iTi won rr ! -*r j -^ tt m co cn,m "om "cm (Cm]cm CM^ CM u*V "m* CM CM o 2; — fMi-c — -|iojunlco o to O'ioJ — .oopjmicN r*. o'*^ Oioleolo co!o -oicocm 1 — "o'cololin -C -0| io -jn. ■^ , tr \t? ro ro ro'ro co co fM cm'cm, cm ■sri co CM CM , |s c> ■ a _^ o j o [ r*» un co cm j co ' o -nt : ro fm. 1 cn • o r*' — rv.*- N^rl-- co ow ^i--|d o* ! co ' o uv W ^ i>c iflisn ^J ^j vico*cn>iP> ;c*> •<*>(« cm.cn .cm 'cm 'cm 0*0 cm' cm CM CM i '-U : z ; uj i< iu. u Is IS ^:° ,'Z o — UJ -J ^ uj .t; => a. U. 2 • is co 3 CO o 32 *- 5' IXl < = to «Z UJ- u :=a CO UJ :U' z Hi Of. iu u. i JO! ! . c CS ; O =0 : =0 >*jNiOiif) o ©> . o J •— O o o en O C0,0 rOr SO t?) — 'coj-Oi^'-V— O CO P^'lCju^ °" -of-c ~ol^r T l, f n|n n n m eo cm cm : cm.cm O CO rr'.ft ft '.ft 00,0 CM'CM f~ •■©'« cM,rs. rni o'rClio^cVcN d ;o" f d 'i^Ino : W *° *©{« -*j|t ^Tj T !co jco, co.ro r-> {cm] cm , cm;:m ,cm CO CN CO CN CM as CM r CM ©I© :> <> -nirC d co ■ -^rj "OjO ^o-cmIo"'>o ■^r tti co !cn cOTOiC^.Ojcojr^.r^co.cN Tj|c-i — ;d CO ft'vi ifli^ CVcoCO.COJCNiftftlftlCN o CN ft 'ao CM o;co — fd CM CM "^ ! «•' u-> O. u-t.— i co 1 O ^ 0;W> -=■ I ">r ■ t ) cn j co "^|c-> -o^rsjlojo o| — |t»- ^»icNlo;«> edlt^j-o'ioico C0|C-»CO|CN,CN|CVOl;ft'ftJ CM ft CO ft •o CO d^o* CM>- f!! 1 — .r-5 ojnid r^*u^ r>i^-c>:co T^l^'inl^r'ci o- cs CN — o:t> cN|ft;.— C(>.(s «ol cn-CM-O J-^!tN-d : C> ' )>. l-Oj'Jl t't I'cn *« --)|»j-s -^ri ** jCxIcm cn CN o e>'cd cm| — : — — o*; t> -->i cn- Oi cn-^- ,fn- s> ( cn,o oio'-- j-^[o 5 ."*»■•© -rsvJ — ■eo{m-«*>!«— t€>'cD ^ 'io!^> "^'ro'ci o CN — Ift,-^ o o>'co CM| — \ — ,0;^. ^|— , oo4u^J^j>o.c^ *n.r> jcnj-^,-J>-co'in -^ ^ir T'^r --nlcnlcnicnoi ot|CM ! CNiCM CMfcMfcM s O O CO. — \—; — S!^!^ ^»'C> -t* cn ^,c>:co ;o;w^;^ " *j-)!-r -r| mnicn'c*>:cs,r>* cm'«mJcn C3 O CO CM ft. ft ft,o.|o|-- ft o |o'c> ftlC-Mlftj^ enp-; Cfi>;|s! S ^!^ — '>• -^!cm d'cO'rC'o^jcn cn fMi-^fd!c> *" J^it "c r> rnjen |cn jcn. cm cm cm-cnIcm cm cm'cmj»— -o'co'co COftV S d'-r d'<; rnl^ 'c> 'imV o -~i-4 'cnjcM*— '— id co -~> ,*r ™t n m|Cn;cN!CM c-* rsi cm.cm'cs cm cm ; cmI — — Itt ft CO|ft ; ^o o ^ **^ ^t: ,i 5 > ti' | >0 i ^ -* 1 ^-n-o-co — un ^|tt ^ ^- r^ toi/i cm i o ■ co ' im. u-> TcnjiCMi^-* 7 *— "G'o'ed ^ T;7 .-nrn m:cn cm'cm r>* cm cmcm'cm cm rs,'^-I^- ft o -^ fto'-O cs ^ ^ B ?:^J ^i"^ i r ** !^ t o s» :=o ojcm -n o^ ^ *^|«— >Z;^ ^ c> '.-m cnlcs (cm ;cm -cm cm cmIcncm cm cm ; ^- ft ft -ci'io o ** R ^ ' °* ^i^"-^ r ^.* — '° ■~i ro ( > ° <> rt ; «*> j "^ 3 -i o s? cs O;co ( '-o'io tt m'cM — 'o o >";o r-i ^^ ■-r.^r m;m :oj ) im. I un |"^r , cn cm ' — d |d o*'s£r^. ^ ^r;m cn;r>;M|CM;cM!cM cm'Cmcm'Cmjcm — >•— )•— coj-o'co OjlO-lO O, ;, ', mi^r CMicnjNO_'^r.rn i r^.jOjcn i 'o''— 1 cm 2 cm '*o'<-n'd d'M> J^r jrn'cM i— 'd 'd 'c> co d'r«^ ■ -t ;n — CO co|co — so sj'!-rr t fOi-'dd o*lcojrC*rC ^f^al« ft cn[co ■t'co tt io cm.o oicniOjo:— cm -ojco ^ o cm O;o -r'cnlcM-d d'^id-N ™ m;r> cmIcm rM;CM;cMicM cm i— \ — ' — CO CO ico IO co jto try TT JCO C> co.r^io^-o oojcn|cM,— c^> nr> p^jeo'tM m ; r^o ^ -r '— ?Mi'in co* 1cm!— d^cs co r^|r^!<<> -o -n Vj " cn [ro cm'cm cm;cm:cm|cm — .— — —f— — ' — *^- CO|CO jm i o! O^ jcv.iA !^c >*|cn i^ 1 enj^r rM ^-'ioJo r^ cs'to g|n-lo^i«e;v cm — d !o"[co 'is" r^'oi'd'un inlxr r, COjCM CM|CM CM [CM. CM :— , ^- — *-J^-',f- — ! ^- ' ,_ o»JTf IoInb CO cojeo ft c m S,CM cm .-^ ^* ' CO ]CM CM jCM CM ^jCo ^r ro o co co r- o -o o o f o co rN.:o ; >o m'-o ^?Tr co CM: CM CM 1 l Q ' CO j ft j ©* | O '"^ j "^ | ro -n C° ft (■•* ' CrV ft , C* C3 t* i^o--c -st !ft OiO-'ra.N-o c iO,inT ^f r'ri | ft j ft, ft CN ft Mlr-l^-Jx-rF-'k- ^-|.— ;.— .— •_!_ 0> CN un jCM.rv CM;Cm|^- 1 1 i 1 1 1 j ic N - to -co to ■ tt i -cvft o ir o ; to — ft , tt co iZl ft.T cm o O:0|h.|>o -o uo t^tt'-st co n cm |";C«!ft cmjCs] — |_|,-j_ — _ _ _ _ , _ 1^ CN [ © co—- ftift toJTr tnjft co -O CO co.tt r\ o ^ i£V--5;r-! — ^'co r-v!-o jin io tt -r coco co ft ex CO -olco I o —. \ **-. =; N; • *>» «o | o g -c — oMco ft -0|to o -^ o u-^cnco u-i ro coNrcs, -^- "^ CO CO ' CO CM ft ft ^- U— . — ! lo|o «;o!in o>~_;o;uo: -_i fvl L,L T m UJ CO CO o O »- U- o UJ _J • o to ,_ o SO o so SO u-> CM ui O "st ■ CO CO to Os CO — Os o o ■sT o m to Os ft Os 00 o 1 CO o CN ft CO IO O sO ■sT * Os CO CO co sO CO u-> ro cm CO o CO CO CN ft ft to ft TT CM °i — CO |s- c> sO -sT O o o CO l> to cm — IO ^ o- OO o IO •tf to o tn I*. ST -s» CM o -7 CO ro sO to ■st c-> ro PI CO Os CM ft ft •O ft Tt ft CO ft si | o cp CO o CO -o to o ft IO CM CO "st U^ -sT ft ■st O o ■st o CO CO CM so ro SO TT CO 1 J CO CO CO CO CO Os ft o- ft CM ft SO ft Os TT ft oo ro ft ft CM CN °! t o r-i •o ^ CO CO — o> o CN ft ft — — TT Os ft -O ■o o 1 IT) CO to o- -tr to -tT CN -sY o •sf ft CO SO "st c-n ft CO CO o CO oo CM ■O CN TT CM CO CM ft ft ft o i° — o — — O CM o- o- — SO r- CO ft CO O OO to to SO •o o u-> o io SO ~7 CO O -sT ft CO u-) CO ■si CO CM CO ro Os ft CO so CN to ft ro ft ft ft ft o ft ol .o CO o to CO ui O CO o> ~- oo ■sT — o ft CO tt ft CO to UJ r SI N ft| l<> ft to u-i ft CO -sT O SsT CO CO ui CO ■st CO ft CO o CO Os ft oo ft fss CN to CM CO ft CN CM CN o ft Os °! ^ o — — CO ft — o O u-> Os ft to TT CO — Os Os ft — z UI O o o O •o CM O- CO ft CO ■o CO CO CO c> ft CM CO ft ft CM sO CM Ti- ft ro CM ft o ft o Os < to UJ UJ ° :_ :.": ft o o CO CO — o- — SO ~ o- CO CO — ft tt TT to CO *°:ft'-Oiio -sT ■^T CO CO sO CO CO CO CN CO o CO Os CN ft ft SO CM to ft TT CM CM CMJ O ft o. oo o|— !«• o O- CO — to ~- o CM Os CN w. ^- ~- to r- Os O- o ft "°iO'iO CM ft. CO T o o- ft CO to CO CO CO CO Os CM CO CM ft CM sO ft tO CM CO CM ft ft O CN O- o- 00 o!ft co CM CO CO CM IO CO ft to o sO to ■sT to o> sO TT TT sO Os o UI «;>o.ft IO ■o CM -sT Os CO SO ro CO ft CO O CO Os ft ft CM sO ft UI ft ■sT ft CM CM ft O CM O- 00 ft o gh|«> CO o O o> ro •^T CN SO CM CO ft ft OO CO O CO CO CM TT z °:«o o u-> T ft CO io CO CO CO CO o- ft CO CN sO CM to CM ■^ CM CO CM CM ft ft Os 00 00 ft l^> o ° => CN to CO o CO CO ft CO •» CM o O CM ft TT co to ft Os UJ 10 o « CO CO CO ft CO -a- CO CM CO o CO CO CN ft ft SO CN u-> CN ■sT ft CO CM M O o- 00 ft sO r- oi" =? O CM CO CO to "» o Os -O to ■ sO cm O o o CO SO < S ° f>" •o ■ o -.o CM CO ro to CO CO ro CO o. CN ft ft SO CM to ft ■sT ft CO ft CM ft CM o- CO CO ft SO UJ o ft ° ^> o to ft CO T •O ft CO ft ft 00 Os sO T» TT to 00 CM s "f <= — «'-o J1 u-> - CO ft SO -O UJ 1- :n cm CO -^ CM to CO ^r ft CO o O ft — CO O CO o — TT ft 3 ft<> O 10 -.1 •* CO CO -0 CO CO ro CO o CM ft ft so ft to CN ro CM ft CM ft CM ft O ft CO ft ft SO IO o o o ,«o -o CN — ro IO CO -r, CO ■st CN CO CO ^T •O «* CO CO so CO CO ">:« ? CM CO CO u-l CO CM CO o CO CO ft CN to ft ■sT CN CO ft CN ft ft O ft Os CO ft sO to to a z < o ! « o ^ CM -^» ^ J-! ^ CO o o CO CO CO CO ■si CO CO c> CN in ft cn CO to CN SO ■st CN to CO ft to CM CM sO CN ft O ft O O ft CO CO CO ft OO SO ft •O TT to oo TT i^i o => <= T ■* o CN ft to o ft ft -O CO O TT ft ft CO ■O o TT < ^ o - ft CN CM ft ft ft o ft O- CO ft -O to to TT T» u. o;^ -o CO o CO o CO sO CO CM CN CO to ft CN o CM Tf ft ft ft Z III CO CO CO o CO CO CN sO CN -sT ft CO CN CM CM CM o CM CT- CO 00 ft -o to TT TT CO UJ o'-ro CO "0 o o» CN ft ■sT ^T T SO CO — to u-> SO CO CO ft CO t- T ir co CO CO o- CM SO CM to CN CO ft CN ft CM O ft Os CO CO ft sO to TT TT CO CO UJ m O'^ f T CO CO CN CO to to SO ft ~- UI CO CO — tt ft CO CO iu CN CO O CO ft CN to CN CM CN CN ft O CN o- CO co ft SO u-> to TT CO CO CM u z UJ ce UJ ol"w> -o CO o sO _ CO ■O ft CO o ■sT ft ft CO IO CO CO ft CO 5° -o " -^ T) CO CO CM •o CM CN CO ft CN O ft OS 00 CO ft sO sO u-i Tt CO CO ft CM cm CO CM "^ I CO to o CO ft oo o ro sO o to ft OO CO CO TT CO u. "f Ico.co "ICO CO o CO ft CN io CN CO CN ft CN o CN o- CO CO ft •O ■O to TT CO CO CN ft — CO CN CN UI — o- OO o CO SO Os ■sT CO ft TT CO CO CD to 2J!-o ft fO CO CO CO CN CN CO CN CN CN CN o> CO CO ft SO to to TT TT CO CN ft •" 'Z- o-->.-^. CO CO CO CO o Os Os CO ■sT ft CO ft TT u-> CO CO CO TT r- ft CN CM CM CN CN o CN CO rs. ft sO to u-i ■sT TT CO ft ft — — *~ o ; ft>0 ft u-i ft CO O o — CO ft F- SO — ft Os CO 00 TT O ft 2;ft co ft r. ft u-> CN CO CM CN o CN Os CO ft SO to tO -T TT CO ft ft — " *" o o ^ ra CN CN -T CM o — ft to CO ■^r CO ■T o TT ft CO CO sO CO rJ :ro cm ft CN CN o CM o~ CO ft sO u-> ^r -sT ro CO CO CM "" — o O o o"-"> "^ CO CO CO o Os — CO SO — SO CN ft CO CO CO CO tt ft ^ico ui tM ft ft CM SO CM ICM O CO -o -O io ■st ■sT ro CO ft CM *" — o O O o "° i f CN T o CO CO ft ^T CO CO CO TT ~- ft ro ft CO 00 ft o'co M ft Ift ft o CO SO to to ■*? CO CO cs ft ft — " o o Os ' \r\ ! CO ! CO ft CO CO CO ro u-i o u^ ft ft «» ft sO ft g'^l- <» CO •o IO ■sT -sT CO CO CN ft - — — o o W) o m o u-> o in O to O ui o to o rm ft CO I to sO CO ■^ , *t to ui -O SO ft ft CO OD o- Os { CO ( i-C H 00 w u w fa APP 4-7 FIGURE HF 1-4 HOW TO DETERMINE HEAT LOSS AND FUEL LOSS NATURAL GAS PRODUCER GAS On the reverse side are given Tables of Heat Losses in the burning of Natural Gas and Pro- ducer Gas. From these data Fuel losses may be determined with practical accuracy. Important: In using the tables you will need to know: 1. Percent C0 2 in your flue gas 2. Temperature of flue gas 3. Room temperature With this information, in hand, proceed as follows: Subtract the room temperature from the flue gas temperature and find this number (approximately) on the scale (top row of fig- ures). Proceed down the scale in the proper column to the line opposite your approximate CO 2 percentage as previously determined (ex- treme left hand column). The heat loss will be found at the junction of these two lines. Note: The figures given on the reverse side are based on the tuel analyses given below. This should be taken into consideration when figuring your own heat loss. Example: Suppose you are burning natural gas and your flue gas temperature is 625 C F with room temperature at 65°F. The difference is 560°, Find this number on the scale. Suppose your CO2 was found to be 6%. Proceeding down the "560" column to the C0 2 line of 6%, you will find the figure 30, This is the percent of total heat loss in the flue gas. How much of this total loss is PREVENT- ABLE depends upon how high the CO2 content of the flue gases can be raised and how low the flue gas temperature can be reduced without producing CO or increasing other losses such as carbon (smoke) or ash pit losses. Carrying on with our example: if, by test or computation, it is determined that the CO2 can be raised to 9.5% and the difference between flue gas and room temperatures can be reduced to 400° the total heat loss in the flue gas would be 19.5%. This represents a saving of 10.5% in HEAT. THE SAVING IN FUEL The saving in fuel is even greater. With a 30% loss, 70% of the heat is being used while with a 19.5% loss, 80.5% of the heat is being used. The consumption of fuel at the higher efficiency is therefore equal to 70 * 80.5 or 87% of that used when burned at the lower efficiency. The actual saving in FUEL is there- fore 100%- 87% or 13%. It is, of course, neces- sary that the rate of steam generation remains constant, that the fuel quality be the same and that no CO be produced or the amount of smoke or ash pit losses increased while obtaining the higher percentage of CO 2. FOR THE SAME FUELS OF BTU CONTENT OTHER THAN THOSE LISTED For the same fuels of BTU content other than those listed, use the scale of the fuel which has the nearer BTU value. The errors involved are: For COAL ± 2% of the calculated fuel saving. Example: If the calculated fuel saving is 5%, the actual saving will be between 4.9% and 5-1%. For OIL ± 5% of the calculated fuel saving. For NATURAL GASES ± 2% of the calculated fuel saving. For MANUFACTURED GASES the error may be as great as 20% of the calculated value de- pending upon the composition of the gas. FUEL ANALYSES Natural Gas (Heat Value 1120 BTU/CU. FT.) % by volume CH4 79.9 C 2 H 6< 17.3 C0 2 ., , 0.3 N ? ... 2.5 CO CH 4 C 3 H< H 2 . C0 3 N, . Producer Gas (Heat Value 165 BTU/CU. FT.) % by volume 24.9 2.3 0.9 14.5 4.7 52.7 REFERENCE 8 8l Oj "i i t r 1 [olcJco 00 O CN 00 |Cn iO NT CO CO ^i-olro* ^r o'co cn.cn <>!id co \co "NT CO CI CO m O CO si 1 i^i^i^ o jcn |co -nt jcn cn CN co CN °i 5 1 ^ ^,CN o'co \~6 •rr jcn !m U0 I "nT 1 CO co fcnjco CN cn o CO CN O; Icn ro uoi f o'ro|co!>3' cn|oio IN IO CO ^ 1 CO* uo cn. o!co No itr> "^t 1 xr ro !ro Ico tt icn CN cn |cn|co CO o- CN CO CN Oj CO o o ^i^ co !cn !co ico joofco CO CO CN eo] o , so ro O'CO TT ( C0 -d lt> cn [cn cn cn'— o cn|cnjcn o CN CO CN fN CN ©! CNjCO 0;CO!oO;rolcO -5T cn^cn ■nT •O CN — col i IN ro — co '■. oj u^ jco tt ^t|cocoI coico CN cn -*|d co]cn C-N CN CO CN Pn. CN NO C-J cJ C0 : CO CO CN co ; *o j co [cn o o o CN -nT CN — i H CO; tt i— c> T CO ■Oi TT CO CN co|co rojco cn CN ON CN CO CN Cn CN NO CN CN O; cn >ojrs. rolcNJ in: oico io -o CO O CN o o X i -oicnIo r^lio ro cn o lo* ■^■j^T'rO COiCO CO; CO CO CN CO CN rN CN NO rs NO CN ■o CN "NT CN co cN-mi co coimlcol cn' — jo — CN "T CO •o NO z UJ CZ. X < u. 33 m; — | co *oi*r ^T' -^1 CO COjCO CN cn -o cn cn CN cor-. CN CN NO CN IO CN CN ro CN o! ro p— i >>f ' CO ■ CO | CO r~ colrr •vT ■3 t-- On CN CN CN) 1 CO ■c-i Oi r-I- i/>j co ■^f TTj CO; CO CO CN cn o';C> en cn CO CN CN -o CN IO CN IO CN T CN CO CN e! IN, O l CO j o o»| o* «* o oo CO o CN •nT CO r- CO UJ LU 3| co- o>{ %o* *tJcn ^ ro ro- co' co « o CO CO CN CN CN NO CN IO CN ^T CN CO CN CN CN r— ! >0 1 CN ' *— j CN I O* T Cn: CN -nT CO On CN CN cn O LU o 3 '•<> *, i" CN. CO* %o' ^T\ CN O 'Vf coj co' cojrojro o fN CO CN CN CN m CN "Nf CN CO CN CN CN o!°jo Of CO p*»; cnju-jIo CO r~- T^ CO CN "NT CO CO ON CO < C3 z golio Of rC ^T'CO uo- ro|*- © rO' coj col ro CO CN CM no CN IO CN Ul CN ■nT CN CO CN CN CN CN cy o i coiON.coicn.cojco[cN o o- O CO IO CO CO CO ^T 3 LU < LU gj cv n | exi «o | -c- cn dio-' CO CN -o CN O CN IO CN •nT CN cn CN CO CN Cn> CN CN ec 0| co! oo| co* 0; no. oojo|r^ ^T "vT r m CO — •nT CO O — P ■"i -nt] "•»] r>' c»>' cv co| co 1 cn CN CN in CN CN «n| CN cn cn CN CN CN CN < £>' CO' -o j 03- OJ l/v COJ CNiO CO CO o CN|lO o- T XT NO 0- LU 1- O O o; Q "^! -Oi — PN^^r, cn. Oi» p-I "*] '^t'T! CO.; coi cn- coiCN CN NO CN CN m -v*|cn CN| CNJ CN c-t CN CN CNJ CI o CN i q! O; CO; CO- Ol co; ojtrjcN CNJCN T CN o "NT 00 On CN 3 o -1 2*' m'oi-o. •»?! . O O N '"ITjTlc-VC-JiC-JCOJCNlCM CN CN •^•icn cn|cn CO CN CN CN CN o CN O CN q, co cNicbolo cnJccVuo u-l «o COI- IO Cn NT LO CO Jg! cVoC iiVcd: O e* pnIvo " T!n!n.n ci cn'cnIcn CN CN CO CO cnIcn CN rNi CN CN o CN O CN O-'CO cn!— u-)!OjO o o|cn|iti O ■nT CO CN ">T Ul a: < uo 2 : cn ■ in.' j «*r cnio oolrv lo ~;.n-» ( co;co co.co cnjcnicn CN ^rlcnicN CN!CN]CN CN CN o CN O CN On < O ' i O CO' CO cn ! •— cojcnJcn CN cnjco|o NnT O T NO O s Hi 5;--i-o|c-) — jo.- i-C ~ i T jn | cn co ; cn cN'Cn;cn CN Cn'CN CN CNjCMjCN CN O CN o CN O o- Cj 00 ; CO 1 U0 CN ; CO O j UO UO o CO '-I'nT O- UO o CO nO _1 210* uo cn-oI.-o -dim' ~ co'cojco; col cn cnjcn CN C*> CN CN CN cn — cn|cn o o CN o CN O CO U. ' cn ; -nt j co ex ! in ■ o "NT o IO o •nT CO LU °.;no,co|o' 001-0 i/Vt-' cn ~ co-cO|co cnIcn cnIcnicn CN CN CN o O CN o- o O CO r-N o O |o3;ojrr'cn : o iojcn|-» CO O cnjco co o IO CO cn LU u z LU Of IU 2l"TcN]C> i-Cuo "tr|cn : cN rnicn.cOjCN'CNJCNCN^CNiCN — o CN CN o \cA o- CO CO r^ PN i — jO|cn;-»rio cojr~.|CO o cn co | cn CD -nT — -nT On •O; nt id|cdi-d|N-. cn cn — cnjcn|cn|cN,CNlCN.CN|cN|cN cnJcn O iO CO CO CO f-NN -o o co;-o|CN:ioiO; o icoj.- ^ CO CNJr*. CO OS IO o IO u. u. NT cN.otlrNii/j).^- cn — 1»— COJCN CN. CN! CN CN;CM|CM o CN O o' CO CO r--. r-N NO NO oj"!^)^;^ -Tl-:^ CO *-|-o|cNJCO -nT — m — ^Ji«— IcoUo-^'cncN— (o •^l cn , cnJc^ 1 cni cn cnJcnIcn o o> CO CO r-N. Cn. r- NO NO | OlCNl — >Ol CN: cvi •*?\ CO — U-) OJnO CN O CO CO r~. l>s NO 'O NO IO o|* -— j ^"- f** > "sri ir>j»ojo •^ o- •^r — NO "NT — NO CN CNJ^: 'oUt'cn — o o*lc> CD r*. r- rN NO NO NO IO IO oj |— jcoj -o- co|0|-nt CO CN o to CN O- NO CN CO 1 i 2 ^ifini — 'd o|d|cd r-. rs •d o NO iO UO UO -nT oj °* j 03 j jo j ro cv cn|o r- r- cn O r-. "NT CN i-nn T ] i i 2 1 ""> i cn , cn 1 o ! o' a> CO N r^v •o ■o UO ifl U0 IO -nT T !iiioO|0-;o' — l-cjo w~, — r>. T CN o- NO -nT ! 5^l-T|CNo'ic>!eo;cor«!.o NO -dluS IO LO -nT -T "U o — ^l :! :! .!^ cojco CO IO JCN o -o •» CN o CM *— iO co, coi r^. r^. CO CO o o *" 1 1 APP L 8 o o o o in o CO o U0 Jtt -T CO CO >n Ul NT O- N o ■o -T nO r-N iO uo l/l cn d UO uo CO -T T "NT 0* CO PN CO uo CO cn CO CN CO o CO a> Icn CO UO ■"I |0 CO Q m o. PN co NO oo IO uo — loci NO |nO juo m 1- CN IO o |oo U0 'T -T CO T o -T PN CO uo CO CO CN CO CO o o UO Jo juo n o o- |e> — o uo CN cn CO cn o o o PN NO oi CO uo no |uo uo Cn' UO o uO pn !uo TT |-nT "NT -nT "NT CO CO NO cn -T CO CN CO CO o CO o ■nT UO m CO On c-- ui uo lr- On CN NO uo oo CO CO On l/> CO CO NO CO NO ON UO lO U0 OI iO -T PN NT UO CO nt 1-nt NT O CO NO CO NT cn Ci CO CO O- Ol CO CN o UO - -t |o ON 1-1 CN ■nT ]U0 05 ro o ON OI OO NT NT CO uo nO o NO no !cn UO IO o "NT PN m NT CO NT T On CO PN cn -rr cn CN ro cn On CN CO CN PN CN o ■n o On uo o CO o o o OI CO CO o CN NO CN o o IO rN NO -o NO no'co UO|UO o -T r-N NT -nT -nT CN "NT vr o CO PN CO uo CO cn cn C'« ON CN CO CN IN CN NO CN o CO CO T ■nt|o|o UO -nT ^J- CO CN uo CO CN uo On CO PN oo LU X o r-. co!cn -o|-o r-N uo COI O Pn uo|uo |-nt -nT CN "NT o CO CO t-N. co uo CO cn - r0|CO O CN Pn OJ NO OI uo OI NT ON o U0 O CO ojo ICO uo CO CO CO CN o UOIUO CO NT CN — OI Z LU o: X < LL uO LU LU CO NO NO NO o NO U0 U0 rNlooluo mi -nt |nt CO "NT -T o CO PN CO -o CO ■nT cn CN d cnlcn CO CN On CN NO ON U0 OJ NT CN o uo o UO o- u"> uo ■nT cn uo o* OJ O CO iCO — CO -o uo PN NO NO ^T -O On UO -nT uo o uo PN. -nT ■nT On ■nT IO NO ■nT CO cn IT CO OI On cn CN l-N cn uo uo cn 0> cn CO NO CN CO uo CO cn ON CN r-N On CS NO CN o NT CN CO cn CN CO CN CN o CN CN O IO NT UO uo CO UO o- CO o rr o uo uo U0 On NT cn CN CN UO or UJ UJ n: r- < LU a. 2 LU r- CO UO coir*. ■OlO CN uo 00 uo - a o NO 'O CO o -O U0 NO U0 uo uo O uo CN PN ^T COj CNIO CO| — 00 -nt| ■ntIco O NO cn CN uo cn uo CO CO CN CO On o CO CO o O! 00 o. CN OI CO NT CN PN cn OI ON CN CN Cn CN ON o CN ec a. o -nT IO O Pn -O 00 o >o On co m U0 ON NO uo N* CO 1 On jPN CN- On IfN •nt! cn icn CO uo cn o "NT CO U0 CN |CO_ OJ CO On o OI On CO Cnj r-N CN uo uo CN CN "NT CN cn CN OI OI CN CN UO o CN 1 O o CO — CO — cnj o|r-. CO CN uo CN'O — CO 00 uo NT UO PN On CO CO o 2 O O a CN UO •nT NO r-. uo CN uo r-N "nT NT — |cd ^T, CO CO T CO CO CO CO O On COlCN CO CN NO CN ■NT CN CO CN CN CN OI o C-l On O IO oo co ro On O-l no - co "NT CO CN CO cn ON CN cdipN. oi'oi NO OI ■nT'CO CN OJ CN CN CN o CN O CO s CO CO o l-N. ON CN r*. cnj — cn ■nT o NO UO uo NO o r-N NO -O CO On NT -J < O LU NO "NT NO NO r-- lO uo NO -nT CO o cn Pn! uo icn COi co|co ro O CN CO CN r-N OI -o CN UO CN "NT CN CN CN C^ o CN ON CO CO o rNlco CO — CO uo CO| Pn On cn co r- NO NO o. CN o CO ON — NT CO o 1- .J "NT IT coluo' •O UO o- -nT u-i ■nT ^r CO cn U0| CO co\ CO ro o CO oo CN r-~. CN '-O c-t uo CN "NT OJ CO CN OI o CN o oo On U. o If •O o uo o- o UOIPN. CO CN CO PNJrN PN o- NT OI CN co NO CO NT u. o z LU LU r- LU m CN IT NO cn uo ■nT cn TT o CO r-N. cn •«T cn CN ro o CO O PN CN nOIuO cn! cn "n» CN co CN CN OI o CN On CO On Pn Ul -I o O o -nT IO CO IO to r> uo NT r-N CO CO cn cn uo CO CN ro CO cn n UO o- C~i CO CN o NO CN PN~ UO CN P. T OI CO cn CN cn CN r^ CN U0 o OJ •O On PN CO o PN NT On CO NO O o ojo O On o On o ■n- o CO rN|co o- OJ o CO CO — NT CO CO CO LU o z LU K- LU CO CO U0 IO <> \co -nTi-nT O- co -O t-J co ro CO o CO co Cn! r» CN U0 CN -nTiCO CN CN Ol OI CN CN o CN On CO CO PN -O •o o CN C0|O. o o uo UOJ PN — o CO CO CO — "NT - — CO "NT CO cn 0- NO m CI IO •o »» ao cn uo CO CN CO o cn CO CN PN CI UO CN ^T CN CO CN CN OI OJ OJ CN o CN On CO Pn NO NO U0 o CO T CO CN uo O o NT o CO 00 CO ON — "■T CO co uo 00 CO PN CN 1L IL a T CO o ^T ■nT O CO NO cn CO CO O cn O OI r-. CN uo CN IT CN cn CN OI CN CN OJ o OI C> oo PN NO NO U0 U0 o o — On CO CO U0 CO CN CO fNN r» PN O cn Pn- NO PN CO CO PN CN On CN CO CO -nT CN ■nT r-. cn cn cn O- CN Pn CN NO CN -nT CN CO C-l CN CN CI o CN o CN o- CO Cn NO •o uo uo T o "NT o- o CO — o - NT o IN CO CN CN 1-Nn CO CO CO cn CO Cn) NO CN U0 CN CO CN CN CN OI o CN o- O CO rN PN -o uo NT ->T NT CO o — CO ON — O — r^ -nT CO T -O CO Cn| nO CN CO CO o- NT On NT — NO CN o ■nT uo CO CO o CN NO OI U0 CN CO CN CN CnI CN o OI o- CO CO PN r- NO uo NT NT CO ro ro CO r-N CN o ■nT ro CO ro CN cn NT NO o ■nT CO co uo CD oo PN NT O NO T CN r^ n CO CO o- CN r- CN U0 Cn- CO CN CN CN CN o OI o CO r-N tv NO NO uo NT NT ro CO OI CN O CN CN o iO Ci On o cn o r-N CN NO U0 CN O ro OI CI OI OI o CnI o o o Ol CO NO PS O- -T NO o CO •nT NT ■o CO cn CO OI NT CN ci uO uo o -T CO o- o. CN CO Pn NO co CN uo] o uo o r-N. ON -T CO uo OJ o CN Cni en CO CN uo CN CO CN CN CN o OI o CO PN. PN nO uo uo uo NT CO CO CN CN OJ *§ o U0 o UO o uo o iO o UO o m a Ul o ,_ CN CO NT uo NO On C) n ■nT •nT uo uo NO NO PN r-. CO CO o O APP 4-9 FIGURE HF 1-6 HOW TO FIGURE BITUMINOUS-COAL COMBUSTION QUICKLY 1 . t-*d o( fwol oitvmlnout co al 2. Hh^ii »»l»» o. fir«d 13.800 Bru pot lb 3. I**** ^-(K'cfw* 80 F 4. Pm pot rom p o iu r w 520 F 5. FJu* g o t oaoty-ut; o. COt 10.2% k. CO 0.6% c Ot 9.2% 6. &*.:•* ofRcioncir (Fram r»»rl 74.4% COMJVTATIOHS: 7. na ix.li cu . oir, from Kaio 1 10.2 lb p*> lb fval 8. Who pradvcto by t~™~g axi-lobU brdroga* (. lb par lb fu.l 10. i'i i'| i 1 ! 1 1 1 i'i 1 1' | 1 1 1 1 f ■ i i ' i | 1 1 1 1 1 i' i 1 1 | f 1 1 1 1 f xcess 0jr 6 7 I Oj percent 1 I ' I' H I ' I ' 1 ■ i ' T 0123456 7 8 NATURAL GAS ALL RANKS OF BITUMINOUS, LIGNITE, WOOD Heating value, 1000 Btu per lb 19 20 21 22 23 24 (7) l l' i l l l |'M' ' l l l i l l l i'n' /l V l 'i 'I Vl l l V |^' i l i'l 1 | l i' )^ r| l i l 14 15 16 17 Theoretieoioir, lb per lb fuel Heoting value, 1000 Btu per lb B 20 21 22 23 24 (2) W|V | Vi l V^'' ' "' l ' l ' l ' l ' l 4 ' 1 ' 1 4 6 8 10 12 Theoretieoioir, lb per lb fuel Heoting value, 1000 Btu per lb 6 8 10 12 14 16 (D l l l l l | l l l l l l 'f'|'r'f l f 'f l / 1 r l r l i "."| l VV l i"i"| l VV ^ M ' ^ ' ^ 1 0.15 Q20 025 0.30 Q35 040 Water produced, lb per lb fuel (C0 2 -r-jr CO), percent 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 II 10 — i'i ) i ' i I i' i I , \ i ' i ■' ■I t ■ S i j '. i i'i ! i' i i i j 1 1 i'i J i r nj 1 1 1 1 [ 1 1\ ■ i Excess oil (3)6 10 2b 3b <0 50 do 70 do 9b 100 peVcent w I 'i Y f v | fry ■■' V 'i ' v '■' ' V ' v ' "i" ' ' '■' 'V ' V " ■ ' ' v percen ' 'i'> i 'i'|-i' T 12 3 4 5 6 2 percent i — ' — r 7 8 9 10 30 2.5 2.0 1.5 10 0.5 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 Percent CO Percent fuels heot wosled by incomplete combustion of corbon REFERENCE 9 APP 4-11 FIGURE HF 1-3 AIR REQUIRED FOR AND PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION C"*l !*■ ui'od <>r»ow-or. Of and prodvcli tor commwi combvsttbUr bvrnod with fhoorrrticof air raquiffnmnt product! of >•«*« In moJi, cu tt ond lb fjoo foki.hond column) lor 1 mot, 1 cu // and 1 fb of tu •1 ' for 1 -oJ of FimI For 1 cu h of rVol For 1 pound o 1 fuel M ' CS« pro-d«rcti i tHon V,i Air O'fcor product! llhonNil Air ■ Olhor product! (thonNil On Ni CO, HiO 50, Oi Ni CO, HrO SOr Oi N, COi HiO SO, C 1-3 ST? 32 3.76 1425 105 1.0 379 44.0 - - — - - - .0833 31.6 2.67 .313 118 8 1.78 .0833 31.6 3.67 — — Mol. Cu ft Pounds >fc» 0-S l»»-5 l »« 712 25.6 "" 1.0 u - .00132 0.5 .0422 .00496 1 !» .139 — .00264 .0475 - .250 94.1 1.0 .940 356 26.3 — 0.5 9.0 - Molt Cu ft Pound* 5 1.0 379 32.0 3.76 1425 .105 - — 1.0 379 64 - — - - .0312 11 84 1.0 .1176 44.6 3.29 *** .0312 11.84 2.0 Molt Cu ft Pound* CO mi i6-» ».M 712 53.6 1.0 179 44.0 - — .00132 0J .0422 .00496 1.M .139 .00264 1.0 .116 - - .179 6.77 .571 .0672 25.4 1.8* .0357 13.53 1.57 - - Moll Cuft Poundi Oi. JO 75* MA 7.52 2t50 210 1.0 379 44.0 2.0 36.0 - .00521 2.0 .169 .0191 7.52 .556 .00264 1.0 .116 .0052* .0950 = .125 47.4 4.0 .470 17* 13.17 .0625 23.7 2.75 .125 2.25 = Moll Cu ft Poundt Ob 2-5 947 9.40 3560 263 2.0 75* M.O 1.0 11.0 - .0066 u .211 .024* 9.40 .694 .0052* 2.0 .232 .00264 .0475 — .0962 36.4 3.0* .362 137 10.13 .0769 29.15 3.3* .03*5 .692 - Mol. Cu ft Poundt OK. 3 1137 94.0 11.29 4280 316 2.0 75* M.O 2.0 36.0 — .00792 3.0 .253 .029* 11.29 .»34 .0052* 2.0 .232 .0052* .0950 — .1071 40.6 3.43 .403 153 11.29 .0714 27.1 3.14 .0714 1.286 — Mol. Cu ft Poundt CjM. 3.5 132* 1)2 13.17 4990 369 2.0 75* M.O 3.9 54.0 - .00923 3.5 .296 .0347 13.17 .972 .0052* 2.0 .232 .0079 .1425 - .1167 44.2 3.73 .439 166.3 12.29 .0667 25.3 2.93 .10 1.8 — Molt Cu ft Poundi *Ve»yir*9 g*** m i u ! i o«l for mokxular •4 b /d wf y n. Trwo ; »o l tculor wt i cjh* •* frodveo a it 2.02, ilighr incomi ihrr*cy in tho voluot of air and combuttion product! from th« burning but tho opproKurtato value* of 2 it utod in figuring tho oir and combuttion product*. energy per lb of fuel to be consistent Item 16. Loss due to incomplete combustion of the carbon to CO is found directly from the chart at the bot- tom o f page lit. Enter chart with 0.6% CO and move vertically up to slanting line equaling sum of CO* and CO, which is 10.3%. From this intersection move horizontally to right to lirv marked Bituminous, then down to lower right-hand scale showing percent of fuel's heating value wasted. Item 17. By setting up the table shown with lines a to g all the fore- going calculations may be summarized by entering them in the proper spaces as shown in color. The calculations needed to all the rest of the table are given in Item 18 in correspondingly let- tered '~rx~ri The unaccounted losses as shown in Item 1 3, line d, are found by difference and here include chiefly: (1) loss of carbon to ashpit (2) radiation from boiler and furnace (3) cumulative error (plus or minus) of all data and com- putations- Any marked variation in this quantity should be cause for an operator to look for trouble in his steam generator unless he can account for it directly by known factors. Co/Vex* >o»s in refuse to the ashpit is usually figured from analyses of the coal and the refuse. The foregoing method assumes that no analyses are available. If the coal- ash content is known, the carbon loss can be calcu- lated from measurements of coal fired REFERENCE 10, and refuse produced. To illustrate let's assume the following data : Ash in coal as fired, 7.4%; refuse produced per lb of coal. 0.096 lb. Then the refuse from each pound of coal fired must contain 0.096-0.074=0.022 lb of combustible material. Since this material will be pretty well "cooked" or heated to drive off the volatile gases, we can figure it as pure carbon with a heating value of 14,600 Btu per lb. Then carbon loss=0.022X 14,600=320 Btu per lb fuel fixed. This method cannot be used where substantial amounts of carbon are lost up the stack, as in certain cases of pulverized fuel and stokers operating with heavy forced draft. Where carbon loss is figured it should, of course, be inserted in the heat balance, reducing the unaccounted losses by that amount. As-ffrod vt Dry. The heating value and analysis of fuel as fired varies with the amount of moisture associated with it. The moisture, in rum, constantly changes in amount during mining, shipping and storing. Hence, chemists and coal men sometimes prefer to quote the analysis of dry coal and give the moisture separately. But all the foregoing computation and charts in this section are based on fuel as fired. If coal data are given on the dry basis they must be converted to the as-fired basis. For instance, let's assume that coal on the dry basis has 12,700 Btu per lb and 12.4% ash. If the as-fired coal has a moisture content of 4.5%, the conversion constant is 1.00 — 0.045=0.955. Then multiply the dry-basis figure by 0.955 to get the as-fired figure, or 12,700 X 0.955=12,130 Btu per lb as-fired coal. This shortcut method was designed for the engineer who wants his answer quickly though his technical resources are limited. Combustion technicians in large power plants and others who make elaborate boiler tests and studies have all the paraphernalia for a com- plete analysis based on chemical rela- tions. This method is not intended for their use. Calculation Data. Above table is com- piled for the engineer who must deal with many fuels and their combustion. It gives basic data on relation between elements in the combustion process on (1) the mol basis (2) the volumetric basis and (3) the weight basis. Study of the table will show that it enables the rapid conversion of any calculation from one base to any of the two other bases with a minimum of both time and error. Each of the three groups of columns refers to one of the calculating bases. For example, the first group of columns refers to the mol basis, that is, one mol of the fuel element shown in the first column. The first line in each box gives the corresponding mols of oxygen and nitrogen in air needed for burning this element or the number of mols of com- bustion products resulting from the completed reaction. APP 4-12 FIGURE HF 2-1 COST OF STEAM ATOM7ZATION VERSUS AIR ATOMIZATION 1. Boiler Model No. 2. Maximum Continuous Capacity 3. Operating Pressure 4. Water Temperature at Main 5. Boiler Efficiency (see Sales Manual) 6. Boiler Exit Gas Temperature 7. Cost of Number Fuel Oil 8. Btu Value of Fuel Oil #2 Fuel Oil 140, 890 Btu/gal #4 Fuel Oil 144,400 Btu/gal #5 Fuel Oil 148,520 Btu/gal #6 Fuel Oil 151,700 Btu/gal 9. Steam Required to Atomize Fuel Oil (1 to 2%) of Steam Capacity 10. Enthalpy of Steam at (See Steam Tables psig 11. Enthalpy of Water from Main at (See Steam Tables) 12. Enthalpy of Atomizing Steam at Boiler Outlet Flue Gas Temperature °F and at zero (0) psig gauge or 14. 7 psig absolute (See Steam Tables) 13. Heat Loss (Item 12 - Item 11) ( 14. Total Heat Required per lb of Steam (Item 13 -i. Item 5 ( *_ 100 15. Steam Required to Atomize Fuel Oil (Item 2 x Item 9 ( x ) = ) = 100 lb/hr psig °F $/gal Btu/gal % Btu/lb Btu/ lb Btu/lb Btu/lb Btu/lb lb/hr ) 100 100 REFERENCE 11 APP 4-13 FIGURE HF 2-1 (cont'd ) 16. Total Heat Required to Steam Atomize Btu/hr (Item 15 x Item 14) ( x ) = 17. Fuel Required to Generate Steam to Atomize gal/hr Fuel Oil (Item 16 ^ Item 8) ( i ) = 18. Cost of Fuel to Generate Atomizing Steam $/hr (Item 17 x Item 7) ( x ) = AIR ATOMIZATION 19. Compressor motor horsepower rating Actual hp required at max. capacity hp 20. Power required (Item 19 x . 746 hp/Kw) ( x . 746) = Kw 21. With motor efficiency @ 85% (Item 20 -r . 85) ( x . 85) = Kw 22. Power Cost $/Kw 23. Cost of Atomizing Air (Item 21 x Item 22) ( x )= *$/hr EVALUATION 24. Cost for Steam Atomization (Item 18) $/hr 25. Cost for Air Atomization (Item 23) $/hr 26. SAVINGS (Item 24 minus Item 25) ( - ) = $/hr TOTAL OPERATIONAL SAVINGS 27. Dollar savings at maximum continuous capacity for one (1) yr (Item 26 x 8, 000 hours) ( x ) = $/hr 28. Fuel savings, full year (Item 27 f Item 7) ( z. ) = gal/yr 29. Dollar savings for a 20-year period Item 27 x 20) ( x 20) = $/20 yrs 30. Dollar savings at 60% load (operating) factor for one (1) yr Item 27 x. 60) ( x . 60) = $/yr 31. Fuel savings at 60% load factor (Item 30 + Item 7) ( i ) = gal/yr (60%) 32. Dollar savings at 60% load (operating) factor for 20 yrs (Item 30 x 20) ( x 20) = $/20 yr (60%) REFERENCE 11. APP 4-14 APPENDIX TO ECO W-2 A. DOMESTIC HOT MATER FIXTURE FLOW Discharge pressure, flow and temperature for various fixtures both, with open, spouts and flow restrictors are presented in Table W 2-1. Required hot water flows to achieve desired fixture discharge temperature are presented for selected hot water supply temperatures and an assumed cold water supply temperature of 50oF. The discharge from lavatory fixtures with open spouts at 45 psig is typically 4.5 gpm. For a desired outlet temperature of 105°F and a hot water supply temperature of 200OF, 37 per- cent of the fixture flow or 1.05 gpm is hot water supply. If the hot water supply temperature is reduced to 110°F, 92 percent of the fixture flow or 4.14 gpm is hot water supply. Flow restrictors to limit hot and cold water flow to 1.5 gpm each may be provided on the water supply piping to lavoratory fixtures. In this event, with a hot water supply of 140OF and a maximum hot water flow of 1.5 gpm, only .96 gpm of cold water is required to maintain a desired fixture outlet temperature of 105°F. Total fixture outlet flow reduces to 2.46 gpm. If the hot water supply temperature is reduced to 110°F, again at a maximum hot water flow of 1.5 gpm, then the cold water flow must be further reduced to .13 gpm to main- tain a desired fixture outlet temperature of 105°F. The discharge from sinks with open spouts at 45 psig is typ- ically 9.5 gpm at a temperature of 110°F. As hot water supply temperature is decreased from 200 to 140°F, hot water flow must increase from 3.8 to 6.37 gpm. After installing 3.0 gpm flow restrictors on hot and cold water inlets, fixture outlet flow decreases from 9.5 gpm to 4.48 gpm while maintain- ing a constant outlet temperature of 110°F with a hot water supply temperature of 140°F. The discharge from shower arms with open spouts at 45 psig is typically 6.25 gpm at a temperature of 105°F. Flow re- strictors may be installed on the shower arm to limit outlet flow to 3 gpm. Since the total flow is reduced after blend- ing, hot and cold water requirements are both reduced in di- rect proportion in maintaining a desired outlet temperature. Pi w H < !S H o fa o p. fa , 4-1 £ O o tH ■P fa c 0) ■U a CM ■—I (T» eg o r^ r-« en vO r-» vD 1-^ CTv o o o o o fa fa £3 H 3d W 3 fa H H X! & H O fa fa s < D O H l-l X fa M >-• fa H fafa H 5 6 O PJ r-l bC fa - • /— N CO b£ CO •H CJ CO }-l P fa v —' m m m m m m m o o o o o o o o o o in m m m ^ <* ON CO oo ^o m m oo n fa gH O J-l rH O M rH CO fa o P fa C •P fa o u m c fa OJ o d fa C •P • O 3 fa • o d cu o C rH O CO o CO CJ CO fa fa • o • fa . . s o co o CM 53 r- CM o M fa . • CO CO rH CM fa o APP 4-16 B. FEASIBILITY OF FLOW CONTROL The feasibility of the installation, of flow restrictors de- pends upon the number of daily users and useage time. These parameters must be determined from field observation. Typical feasibility analysis for the installation of flow restrictors on lavoratories is presented in the following paragraphs. 4.B.1 Capital Investment Cost : The estimated capital cost for installing flow control fittings on the hot and cold water supply to a lavoratory is $25. 4.B.2 Useage Criteria : Useage criteria are assumed as fol- lows : a. persons per lavoratory fixture 7 b. useage per person per day 4 c. time per useage 15 sec. d. working days per year 248 days e . water temperature CI) hot water supply 120°F C2) cold water supply 50°F C3) fixture outlet 105°F f. water flow (refer to Table W 2-1) CI) open spout (a) hot water supply 3.56 gpm (b) cold water supply .94 gpm (c) fixture outlet 4.5 gpm APP 4-17 g C2) flow restrictor Ca) hot water supply (b) cold water supply Cc) fixture outlet energy equivalent CI) steam conversion to hot water (2) fuel to generate steam 1.5 gpm .39 gpm 1.89 gpm 1000 Btu/lb steam 1390 Btu/lb steam 4.B.3 Present Energy Consumption with Open Spout : a. hot water useage: 7 x 4 x 15 x 1 x 3.56 = 24.9 gpd. 50 b. energy consumption: 24.9 x 8.33 lb/gal x (120-50) x 1 Btu/lb-°F = 14519Btu/d 4.B.4 Projected Energy Consumption with Flow Restrictor : a. hot water consumption 7 x 4 x 15 x 1 x 1.5 = 10.5 gpd. b. energy consumption: 10.5 x 8.33 lb/gal x (120-50) x 1 Btu/lb-°F = 6123Btu/da; 4.B.5 Energy Savings a. Btu Savings (14519-6123) x 248 = 2,082,000 Btu/year APP 4-18 b. Steam Savings 2,082 QOQ m 2,082 lbs steam/year 1,000 c. Fuel Savings 2,082 x 1390 x 10~ 6 = 2.89 MMBtu/year 4.B.6 Btu Savings /Investment Dollar Capital Investment = 25 = $8. 6 5 /MMBtu/year MMBtu/year 233" 4.B.7 Savings /Investment Ratio CSIR) The cost of fuel for steam generation is estimated as $2.90 per 10^ Btu equivalent of steam. Assuming a 9 percent dif- ferential inflation rate and a 10 percent discount rate, the present value of fuel cost savings over a twenty five year period is: 2,082 x 1000 x 10" 6 x $2.90 x 22.351* - $134.95 ^present value factor SIR = Savings present worth = 134.95 =5.40 Capital Investment 25 SIR greater than 1.0 indicates that the proposed investment is cost-effective. 4.B.8 Discounted Payback The discounted payback period for the investment assuming a 10 percent discount rate and twenty five year life is 1.9 years. APP 4-19 4.B.9 Conclusions Based on the above criteria, the installation of flow restric- tors on each, lavoratory for 7 or more persons results in an- nual savings of approximately $130 after a payback period of approximately 2 years . « < < < < APPENDIX 5 REFERENCES NUMBER TITLE MENTIONED IN 1. ASHRAE Handbook, "Systems", 1973 2. Engineering Weather Data Manual CAFM 88-8) of the Departments of the Air Force, Army and Navy dated 15 June 1976 Appendix 3 3. ASHRAE Handbook, "Fundamentals',' 1972, Chapters 2, 20, 21, 22 ECO SK 1.2 4. ASHRAE Handbook, "Fundamentals" 1972, Page 344 ECO SK-2 5. ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 75, Part 2, Page 168 ECO SK-2 6. ASHRAE Handbook, Systems, 1973, Chapter 3, Page 3.5, Co-author H.P. Becker ECO SK-3 7. HPAC, January 1960, "Roof Spraying Systems", W.O. Kind ECO SK-4 8. Data From Hays Corporation ECO HF-1 9. Data From Power Editorial Feature "Fuels & Firing" ECO HF-1 10. ASHRAE Journal, May 1973 /'Conversion of Boilers to Dual Fuel" ECO HF-1 11. Cleaver Brooks Data, "Cost of Steam vs. Air Atom- ization" ECO HF-2 12. Power, 1975 Generation Handbook /'Stop Blowdown System Wear" ECO HH-4 13. HPAC, March 1967, "The Economics of Boiler Replacement", Wm. F. Zunker ECO HH-6 14. Johnson Corporation Bulletin, "Condensate Handling Systems" ECO HCR-3 15. Nash Engineering Co. Bulletin, "Multi-Phase Pump" ECO HCR-3. 4 16. Cochrane Div. , Crane Corporation ECO HCR-3. 4 17. HPAC, March 1976 /'Variable Volume Induction Systems " ECO HA- 1.3 18. Mitco Corporation Conversion Manual ECO HA-1.3 APP 5-2 NUMBER TITLE 19. HPAC, Nov. 1975, "Excessive Infiltration & Ventilation Air" 20. Actual Specifying Engineer, April 1974, "How to Select and Specify Time Controls", Donald Karman 21. Steam-It's Generation & Use, 1972 22. Amertap Corporation Bulletin 5M74 23. American M.A.N. Corporation Bulletin 24. Sprague Electric Co., Bulletin," A Guide to Tower Factor Correction " MENTIONED IN HA-1.1 ECO WCF-1 ECO D-3 ECO D-3 Appendix 4