The Miami Bulletin Published Monthly by Miami UNj.vEliSj.TY And Entered at Postoffice , Oxford , (ffiiof ds djtre'nd Class > 'tail Matter. Series VI. NOVEMBER,, 190?. Number 7 EVOLUTION OF PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OHIO CERTIFICATION Q JHE ihPJMY f'~ r APR 21 1930 university of • c. 1 1 . J t o THE MIAMI UNIVERSITY OXFORD, OHIO EVOLUTION OF PUBLIC EDUCATION IN OHIO. CERTIFICATION. Earliest Indications. Scarcely had the passengers of the “Mayflower” of the Ohio, constructed their log cab- ins, assembled their household utensils, set fire to their fresh brush piles, erected their family altars, when Bathsheba Rouse was seen going from cabin to cabin soliciting “sub- scription scholars” for the summer school of 1789 to be held in Belpre. In 1791 the Ohio company appropriated one hundred and sixty ($160) dollars for the instruction of the children of Marietta, Belpre and Waterford. Mayor Austin Tupper opened the Block House school soon after, and in the same year, Riley and Dunlevy opened their subscription school in Cincinnati. What professional preparation these forerunners of pub- lic education in the commonwealth had made is not chron- icled. Doubtless, however, they had been approved by the ministers of their respective communities, for we find that the ministers became the first examining committees in New England. THE TRIAD OF QUESTIONS. In determining who shall be the teachers of the children of a state, three questions arise: (1) What is the field of efficiency in character, knowl- edge and skill? (2) Who shall determine when this efficiency is suffi- cient? (3) How may the State secure the highest and most uniform efficiency with strictest economy? Efficiency in Character. The Germans believe that Religion taught in the schools will yield the moral char- 3 acter sufficient in all duties of citizenship and public office. A little more than seven per cent of the course of study in the gymnasium and fourteen to seventeen per cent in the volkschule is given to religious instruction, while in the Normal Schools we find ten year-hours out of a total of sixty-nine year-hours given to the study of Religion. To the German mind religious instruction is certis via to high public morals. In France in the ecole elementaire about ten per cent of the elementary program is given to instruction in morals and civics. Text books on morals and civics are used in all of the schools. Such instruction is considered, by the French, the method best adapted to develop moral life in the French citizen. England has long been committed to formal religious in- struction. In the established church schools it has always been required, and the school master was subservient to the parish rector— even in the Board-schools (1870-1902) religious instruction was all but universal. The Training Colleges of England, established and non-conformist, show how deep- seated is the belief in formal religion and church creed in- struction as a sine qua non to a moral state. England differs from Germany in her excessive amount of catechism and doctrinal instruction. America has departed much from these. She has rather adhered to the philosophy that the best way to preach a propaganda is to live it. She has an inalienable faith in the potency of the exemplary lives of her schoolmasters. Ohio has been peculiarly typical. “Good moral character” has been, since the first law on certification in 1829, the ini- tial phrase of every legislative requirement of the teacher. In a few city school systems of Ohio a formal course of study is planned in morals or religion, but the prevailing practice is the discretionary fifteen minutes opening exercises. It is an unobtrusive period, but has done miracles for American manhood and womanhood. The American teacher is a moral force unequalled, and the Ohio teachers not only measure to the full statutory require- ment, but rise far above, reaching into the higher region of 4 piety and religious faith. The writer has submitted a list of questions at some of the teachers' institutes to ascertain the religious status of Ohio's teaching corps. The following is a typical county : Questions No. Answering Yes No Have you a Christian belief? 134 0 Do you teach in Sunday School? 134 Do you make any use of the Bible for 56 78 your own spiritual help? (a) 54 daily. (b) 27 weekly. (c) 47 occasionally. 134 128 6 Do you use the bible in school?. . 134 100 34 (a) 52 devotional exercises. (b) 38 reading at opening exercises. (c) 10 quotations. The personal morals of Americans rank higher than those of any other civilized people; the civic morals make a fine average compared to others; the commercial morals— under- going repairs. It is believed by many students of education and sociol- ogy that regular instruction in religion and morals added to the high personal morality of the teaching staff would do much to elevate the American civic and commercial morals. Efficiency in Knowledge and SKill. The field of knowledge in which the teachers of Ohio are to be efficient —the end is not yet. From the days of Bathsheba Rouse, 1789 to 1829, the date of the first general school law, forty years, the ‘'competency" of the district teacher was left to the judgment of a local authority, Township Trustees and District School Committees. The Humble ScHool Arts. In 1829 the Assem- bly of the State presented the Course of Study for the Pub- lic Schools, the minimum course, reading , writing and arith- metic, and declared that every teacher must pass an examin- ation in these to show himself qualified to teach. These three “humble arts" have been the storm center of every discus- sion on the curriculum of the elementary school to the pres- 5 ent day. The only growth of the elementary curriculum for tfifty years was exhibited in the elaboration of the Arithme- tics in use. The next twenty years was but a part of the cloud of the ‘ 'Dark Ages’ ’ for the public schools, still hanging over the West. In 1849, Geography and Grammar were added to the triad, marking an awakening in public interest which cul- minated in the law of 1853. This law, a memorial to the public spirit and energy of Senator Harvey Rice, of Cuyahoga county, made the mini- mum elementary school curriculum, orthography, reading, writing, arithmetic, geography and English grammar. In 1882, History of the United States was added; in 1889, Physi- ology and Hygiene; in 1896, Civil Government was made a part of the History list, and in 1904 the “ New Code” framed the present requirements. The DarK Age. The reign of the “humble arts” marks the period of arrested development in public school history. The only educative forces at work were those of the Academy and the College. The public school was to be only the vorschule of Germany or the dame school of Eng- land; it was to be in no sense an entity, but a place in which pupils might learn reading, writing and rechnen , that they might be able to enter the lower, grades of the Academy, the preparatory school for College. Forty to fifty Academies and eighteen Colleges * were educating the youth of Ohio in all branches save the humble arts. * NOTE. Ohio University founded 1804, non-sectarian. Miami University , founded 1809, non-sectarian (controlled by Pres- byterians.) Western Reserve, founded 1823, non-sectarian, (controlled by Con- gregationalists. ) Kenyon, founded 1824, Protestant Episcopal. Franklin, founded 1825, Presbyterian. Lane Theological Seminary, founded 1829, Presbyterian. Dennison, founded 1831, Baptist. Oberlin, founded 1833, Congregationalist. Marietta, founded 1835, non-sectarian, (controlled by Congregation- alists.) Muskingum, founded 1837, United Presbyterian. 6 Ohio Wesleyan, founded 1844, Methodist. Wittenberg, founded 1845, Lutheran. Mount Union, founded 1846, Methodist. Otterbein, founded 1847, United Brethren. Hiram, founded 1850, Disciples. Heidelberg, founded 1850, Reformed. Urbana, founded 1850, New Jerusalem. Antioch, founded 1852, Christian. Henry Barnard, of Rhode Island, Horace Mann, of Massa- chusetts, and David Page, of New York, inaugurated the rennaissance in the Public Schools, and the influence of Henry Pestalozzi, who died in 1824, was becoming at the same time on this side of the Atlantic a real force. The cities, too, in Ohio were enriching their courses of study, that the whole child might be awakened. In Cincinnati public schools in 1849, a male principal was required to pass examination in spelling and definition, reading, writing, English grammar, including composition, geography, United States history, mental arithmetic, written arithmetic, natural history, elements of natural philosophy, American history, elements of algebra, constitution of the United States, constitution of Ohio, elements of geometry, mensuration and surveying. The Rennaissance in Public School Work in Ohio. There were many factors contributing to the school law of 1853. A new constitution was adopted by the state in 1851. The Akron law, organizing all of the separate districts of the city into one district under control of one Board of Education, had been enacted by the forty-sixth General Assembly; the Ohio State Teachers' Association was organized in 1847; in 1845 ounty Teachers' Institutes were inaugurated in Sandusky, by Salem Town, of New York, M. F. Cowdry and A. D. Lord, of the Teachers' Seminary at Kirtland, which had been running since 1837; the “Ohio Ed- ucational Journal," now the “Ohio Educational Monthly," was begun in 1852 ; good text books were being published in Cincinnati, McGuffey's readers and Ray's arithmetics, and were becoming available for all schools ; reaction had set in from the educational pathology of 1840, when Samuel Lewis resigned from the State Superintendency; Horace Mann had come to Ohio and had begun an educational cam- 7 paign for Public Schools through his addresses, and articles in the Ohio Educational Journal; and Samuel Galloway, first president of the Ohio State Teachers' Association, issued in 1845, a valuable report on the Public School condition. All these forces and many more brought the status of the schools to the high level of 1853. Under Commissioner De- Wolf, 1882, United States History was added to the list of common branches; under Commissioner Tappan, 1888, Physi- ology; and under Commissoner Corson, 1896, Civil Govern- ment was made a part of United States History. In the most aggressive legislation which characterized the energetic and efficient administrations of Commissioners Corson and Bone- brake, scholarship requirements of the teacher were also effected; in the former the eight years' certificate, open- ing the way for the High School certificate, by adding four High School branches to the common branches, and in the latter a separation of the Elementary and High School re- quirements. The New Code. The unconstitutionality of “rip- per" and special legislation necessitated a complete recon- struction of all the laws of the State. A special legislature, under Gov. Nash, was called to construct the New Munici- pal Code, and the school code became the center of the leg- islative storm in the seventy-sixth Assembly. The size of Boards of Education, manner of their election, powers and duties of Boards and superintendents, formed the cyclonic apex of the storm, and the scholastic requirements of the teacher were not widely discussed; a few committee meet- ings, some conferences among the leading school superin- tendents, college presidents and normal school deans, con- cluded the matter. We find the new code of requirements for the elemen- tary teachers' certificate in Ohio to compare with other countries as follows: OHio. Orthography. Reading— easy selections of prose and poetry. Writing. 8 Arithmetic — Fundamental rules ; fractions; denominate numbers; percentage; mensuration. English Grammar and Composition. Geography. History, including Civil Government. Physiology and Narcotics. Literature. Theory and Practice. ILngland. (Code of 1906). English Language, Literature and Composition. (The literature is equivalent to a good High School course in Ohio). Besides formal grammar, one outline course on the structure and history of the language. Elementary Mathematics, Algebra, Geometry. Elementary Science— Chemistry, Physics, Natural His- tory and Rural Science. History and Geography— History of Greece and Rome or Phases of English History, (arranged by the general Board of Education.) This geography is a part of the history, not studied as a science. Drawing— Blackboard, memory, perspective— Ornamen- tal design. Singing and the Theory of Music. Needlework (for women only.) Principles of Teaching — Elementary Psychology, Ele- ments of Logic, School Organization, Methods of Teaching the Subjects, Movements in Education (typical examination). Reading and Repetition— Reading aloud— quoting 200 lines from some standard author. Germany. Religion. Reading. Writing. Grammar. Rhetoric. Practical Teaching Geography. Drawing. Gymnastics. One foreign language. Literature. (illustrated by giving lessons in presence of examiner according to a plan previously sub- mitted. This is on some pedagogical subject.) 9 Pedagogics— History of Education; Psychology. History— General, German. Elementary Mathematics— Arithmetic, Algebra, Ge- ometry. Science — Botany, Zoology, Physics, Geology, Chemistry, Physiology. France. The examination is composed of two parts, written and oral : I. (1) A paper composed of two questions; the first on arithmetic (including, for the boys only, geometry in its practical applications) ; the second on physics and natural science, with their common application to hygiene, industry, agriculture and horticulture (four hours for the two parts) . (2) French composition on a subject from literature and ethics (three hours). (3) Drawing from a model in relief (three hours). (4) Modern languages (English, German, Spanish, or Italian) ; written questions based upon the modern language programs of the Normal Schools; written replies also in the foreign language; use of the dictionary allowed (two hours). I. Oral questions on (a) Psychology, ethics and their applications to edu- cation. (b) The essential facts of French history and its rela- tions with general history since 1492. (c) Geography of France, with map drawing on the blackboard, together with the facts of general geography. (d) Arithmetic, oral and written, with algebra and geometry for the boys. (e) Physics, chemistry and natural history, with their applications. II. Reading and explanation of a selection in French taken from a list of authors drawn up every three years by the Minister. Fifteen minutes are allowed for preparation. Grammatical questions. III. Reading aloud and rapid translation, after a quar- ter of an hour for preparation, of an easy selection from a modern language. Simple conversation in the foreign language on the text read. IO IV. Drawing from a model in relief (three hours). V. Examination in music: musical dictation, followed by simple theoretical questions on the text dictated. The above is the examination given for the Brevet Sup- erieur or Higher Diploma. This certificate is held by 67 per cent of the men and 68 per cent of the women. It is the scholastic test to be given at the end of the second year in the Normal Schools. The third and last year of the Normal School devotes less of the time to academic work and more to professional studies, preparatory to the ex- amination for the Certificat d’ Aptitude Pedagogique, or pro- fessional certificate, admitting the holder to appointment as titulaire— full teacher. The low standard in Ohio is not changed for the differ- ent grades of local elementary certificates. The same list of subjects and the same list of questions are submitted for one-year (the lowest certificate) as are submitted for a five-year (a renewable and therefore a probable permanent certificate) . Many other states of America add higher sub- jects for the better class of certificates: For a first grade local certificate, 23 states add Algebra; 16 states add Physics;! 11 states add Geometry; 10 states add Physical Geography; 9 states add Literature; 3 states add Rhetoric; 4 states add General History. The Local HigH ScHool Certificate. The most striking addition to the Certification Laws in the New Code is the local High School certificate. As early as 1853 we find a law providing for examinations in subjects to be taught in “common schools of higher grade,” a forerunner of the local high school certificate of the new code. Five states of the Union provide a local high school cer- tificate. The Brumbaugh law, defining and classifying high schools, made a definite line of cleavage between elementary school and high school. Prior to the Brumbaugh law, many of the high schools were simply elementary schools continued into a few high school subjects— a kind of stretched-up elementary school. The teacher was also a stretched-up elementary teacher. He ii held an elementary certificate with a few high school sub- jects added which he desired to teach, or which some one else desired to have taught. The “blanket” feature of the high school certificate is quite repugnant to previous legislation, in that the holder of a High School certificate may teach subjects in which he has never been examined by the state. A teacher of Latin may or may not have been examined in that branch. Since the law of 1853 in which qualifications were certified to by branch, “ that he or she is qualified to teach orthography, reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, English grammar; and in case such person intends to teach in any common school of higher grade, he or she shall first obtain a certifi- cate of requisite qualifications in addition to the branches aforesaid, it has been the practice of Boards to examine di- rectly with reference to the branches to be taught by the candidate, and to certify thereto accordingly and not to his or her qualifications in general.” This law should be supple- mented by the clause, “no person shall teach any subject for which he has not been certificated.” The “blanket” certi- ficate is one that cannot meet with wide respect, less respect when the blanket is small. Another all but unprecedented feature of the local High School certificate is the omission of all elementary school sub- jects. Doubtless, many sins have been committed against the applicant for high school certificate in the name of the elementary school branches, yet, more will be committed against the schools by such greivous entire omissions as United States History including Civil Government, Geography, Grammar or Rhetoric, and some elementary Mathematics besides Algebra. There is a strong sentiment in the states that greater effort should be made to accept college preparation, rather than results of limited examinations. Mr. Cubberly in the Fifth Year book of the National Society for the Scientific Study of Education, says that the stages of development in certification for secondary schools are, 1, local certificates, 2, state certificates and 3, recognition of college preparation. The requirements for certificates issued by the State 12 Board of School Examiners are not a subject of statute but are instituted by the Board. The state certificate from Ohio takes high rank among state certificates, and its standing has been guarded well by the “non-complimentary practice. ” Efficiency in SKill. The successful experience and professional efficiency of the teaching staff of the state have always been tested by questions on “Theory and Practice,” a phrase widely diffused by David Page’s book, and the scanty knowledge of the examiners might obtain concerning the teaching life of the candidate through personal acquain- tance, or hearsay, or written testimonials. The Second Question. By whom and how the efficiency shall be validated, presents a considerable genesis, an anomalous practice, a serious problem. That some one supposed capable should approve the teacher’s qualification is coeval with the endeavor to bring free education to all. In Massachusetts we find, (June 20, 1701), “Therefore, it is enacted and declared by the Lieuten- ant Governor, Council and Representatives in the General Court that every grammar schoolmaster to be approved by the minister of the town and the ministers of the two next adjacent towns, or any two of them, by certificate under their hands.” (A little later.) “That no person shall or may presume to set up or keep a school for the teaching and instructing of children or youth in reading, writing or any other science, but such as are of sober and good conversation, and have the allowance and approbation of the selectmen of the town in which any such school is to be kept.” In New York, in 1663, December 20, the town of Bush- week, New York (New Netherlands) asks the Director Gener- al and Council to approve their appointment of Boudewyn Maenhout, “that he should officiate as clerk and keep- school”, (400 florins in seawant annually besides house rent.) The Director General and Council approved the same, “pro- vided that he shall previously be examined by the Rev. Min- isters of this city, (New Amsterdam).” October 12, 1665, The Governor (English now) licensed 13 John Shulte “for teaching of the English tongue at Albany. ” For some years the Governor did all the licensing. In 1686, the Governor recommended that 1 'no schoolmas- ter be henceforth to come from England and to keep school within the province of New York without license of the Archbishop of Canterbury.” In Virginia the parish minister examined the school- masters; in North Carolina the teacher must belong (in 1770) to the established church and be "duly licensed to the Gov- ernor.” Our early national period followed these Colonial practices. In Ohio, the earliest examinations were by the trustees and school committee, but in 1825, the Common Pleas Court appointed three examiners each to serve for one year. 1829, the Clerk of the Court of Common Pleas was au- thorized to appoint not fewer than five nor more than the number of townships in the county, each examiner to serve for two years. 1830, the Common Pleas Court resumed the appointment under same provisions as the law of 1829. 1834, the number of county examiners was limited to five. This County Board of Examiners must appoint one ex- aminer in each township for accomodation of female appli- cants. 1836, three examiners were elected in each township. 1838, three examiners were appointed by Common Pleas Court to serve for three years. 1853, three examiners were appointed by the Probate Court to serve for two years. "As evidence that Ohio school men believe that a higher standard of scholarship should be required for admission to the examination, an inquiry was sent to the local school ex- aminers, city and country. In response to the question, ‘Should Ohio require that all applicants for elementary cer- tificates shall be graduates of at least third grade high schools?’ of the forty-four county school examining boards replying to this question, thirty-six replied in the affirma- tive; four of these affirmative replies were conditioned by stating that this requirement should be approached gradual- 14 ly, and that it should not apply to teachers already in the profession, and other similar conditions. Of the fifty-seven city boards replying, fifty-three replied in the affirmative; six of these were conditioned somewhat, as the conditions mentioned by the county boards. In the same questionnaire, inquiry was made as to what per cent of the applicants are graduates of the high schools. The average in the forty- seven counties was thirty- six per cent, many stating that the average among the younger teachers' corps was much higher, but the older teachers had not had high school prep- aration. The average from the fifty-seven cities was eighty- one per cent.” Who Shall Examine. In Germany (Prussia) - The Professors of the Normal Schools under inspection of (1) The district school inspectors. (2) A commission from the school collegium, the Pro- vincial School Board. (This is a professional body, composed of three to five inspectors appointed by the royal minister. This Board is made up of university graduates.) England -Certification is all under the control of the Board of Education. This is a general board for England and Wales. Its president is a cabinet officer. Certificates may be obtained— (1) By taking the written examination of the Board of Education. (2) The Board of Education may accept the normal school graduation without examination, further than an in- spection of the candidate's work in the training school as ex- hibited in his note book. (3) An examination may be given by a joint examining body composed of training college professors, and appointees of the President of the Board of Education ; not more than half of the Board shall be from the training college. (Ex- aminations are taken at the training college) . (4) The Board of Education may accept certain univer- sity examinations. France— (1) A primary local inspector. The inspector is ap- 15 pointed by the minister, after passing successfully a com- petitive examination, the most severe test held in connec- tion with the elementary schools. (2) Director or directress of a department state nor- mal school. (3) Two regular teachers in the normal school or high- er primary school (one representing the arts, the other the sciences, and a public school teacher who holds the higher diploma.) (4) Three ministers appointed from past and present representatives of primary, secondary or higher education. (5) The academy inspector presides over the examina- tion and the rector of the Academy appoints the commis- ison. (The academy is one of the seventeen educational dis- tricts into which France is divided. The rector is the head of all the educational interests of the academy). It will be observed that all the examination commissions and boards above mentioned are professional, with high scholastic re- quirements. No qualification had been required for the exam- iner in Ohio until the code of 1904, in which it is required for all local boards that, 4 'at least two of the examiners shall have had at least two years’ experience in teaching or super- intending schools,” and in county boards, “shall have been teachers within five years.” In both city and county the member must reside in the district for which he is appoint- ed. It is just that representatives of the elementary schools should sit upon the examining boards. The Board, how- ever, should not be entirely composed of elementary teach- ers, and all should be of high scholastic attainments. Form of tHe Examination. In Germany and France* the oral examination forms no small part of the ex- amination of teachers. In the early history of Ohio, examinations were oral. The examiner met the candidates at his home, or wherever most convenient to the examiner, and gave his oral test. When the law of 1838 went into effect, much discussion arose as to the form of the examination. Some Boards adopt- 16 ed and published rules. Among the most widely imitated rules were those adopted by the Cuyahoga Board : (1) Candidates will be expected to pass a thorough examination in spelling, and in the rudiments of the English language, as contained in the ordinary spelling books. (2) They will be required to write a fair hand, both coarse and fine. (3) They must be good readers, both in prose and poetry. (4) No female teacher will be entitled to a certificate, who does not give evidence of a thorough acquaintance with the fundamental rules of arithmetic, compound numbers, vulgar and decimal fractions, interest and the rule of three; and no male teacher who does not possess a thorough knowledge of the whole arithmetic. (5) Those who are examined in other studies, such as geography, grammar, philosophy, etc., will not be allowed a certificate to teach them, unless they make it evident that they are well qualified to instruct in these respective branches. (6) Candidates for certificates will be expected to furnish evidenca to the Board of good moral character. (7) In cases where the candidate, though deficient in qualifications, gives evidence of ability to teach a particular school the Board may, at its discretion, give a certificate to teach that school for six months only; but in no case shall a certificate of this kind be given the second time to the same individual. Much objection was made to the substitution of an en- tire written examination for the oral examination as is shown by a contribution to the Ohio Journal of Education in June, 1857, which gives the negative side of the argument used in the debate for and against the transition: The writer who signs his name “H. H.” says: <; It seems to me that the following objections are conclusive as to the use of prepared questions: (1) There is no means of testing the actual knowledge displayed in the answers, without subsequent questions on those answers. In a set of prepared questions no such test can be properly applied. (2) The prepared questions must be isolated questions, each one inde- pendent of the other, or when all are presented on a sheet they will, the one aid in the solution of the other. (3) By this mode, without the test of questions based upon and de- manding explanation of answers given, it is not possible to ascertain the comparative merits of the applicants. One person may answer glibly with the pen, and be apparently correct, and another answer badly and at the same time, the latter be much the best scholar. (4) This mode destroys all the general benefit which might and should result from the public examination of teachers. Other points of objection might be enumerated, but these are sufficieut 17 for my present purpose, which is simply to attract attention to the matter. Oral and impromptu questions commend themselves to me by the follow- ing, among other considerations; (1) They are asked and answered within the hearing of the whole class, and are much more varied than prepared questions can be. The public and general benefit of examinations is thus secured. (2) They furnish full opportunity to test all previous answers at every step, and thus to ascertain whether the knowledge displayed be actual and real, and not a mere school book echo. (3) They are much more likely to lead to knowledge of the compara- tive merits of the different applicants for certificates.” The question is often raised shall the staff who prepared the teacher for the state have any part in the examination which determines his fitness to enter the profession. The three countries referred to as types have all given the pro- fessors of training colleges much to say in the final examina- tion of of trained teachers, but in no instance does the train- ing staff alone certificate. In America it is the common practice that graduates from normal schools are given either provisional or life certificates. It is essential to keep a high standard of requirement, that the theoretical as well as the practical be represented, in all examining boards and com- missions. Every good training school is in touch with the best that there is in educational thought and practice in all parts of the progressive world, and trained teachers should bring into the schools every feature of school improvement. Increased State Supervision. We have noticed that in Germany, France and England there is no such cer- tificate as a local certificate good for a small territory, as a city or county. This local system is the continuation of what was begun in necessity and is not fully adapted to our modern standards. There is now a very strong sentiment in many states for complete state control in certification. In every state, state boards of education and state boards of examiners are increasing their facilities to meet the educa- tional situation. Ohio has moved as far as the uniform question lists. The Schurr bill provided for examination under members of the state board of school examiners at the state training schools, and those schools reaching state standards, both for 18 the elementary teacher and the secondary teacher. If added power could be given to the State School Commissioner and the state board of school examiners to provide for the read- ing of manuscripts or holding of sectional examinations, the status of the profession would be much improved. The state examinations have thus far appealed only to the superintendent and principal. A great uplift would be effected if state recognition were possible for the great ele- mentary teaching force. The Limit in Space and Time. This adds an- other humiliation to the calling of teachers. The first offense committed against the dignity of teaching is ex- perienced by a candidate entering the profession when he is told that his qualification is good only for a limited number of square miles or a limited population; outside this county or beyond this municipality boundary his credentials are invalid. The second withering stroke against the dig- nity of the calling is revealed when the candidate is told he is qualified now but in six months or a year he may not be. The court may reverse its judgment in a year, or a new court may sit in judgment next time. Looked at from the side of a high-minded examining board it is not less dissipating to all faith in a high and noble calling. The Board says, “he is inefficient,” but he can practice only a year. He cannot do much harm in a year. The word license here seems applic- able, inasmuch as we license persons to do things they ought not to do. Once a graduate, Master of Arts, from Harvard Univer- sity, came fresh from his college halls to occupy a position under the writer. A member of the local examining board insisted that this young man take his examination with others. The candidate submitted his college records, and honor grades, but the member of the board, without even a local high school education, insisted that the candidate “pass” with the rest. He passed, but the member thought it would be unjust to local applicants to give him more than a year certificate. * The Schurr bill was professional enough in spirit to remove the limit in time and provided for larger state recognition. To limit the teacher in time and space gives littleness to the calling and attracts only little minds. There can be no 'professional certificate or recognition that suffers the time limit. This is demonstrated, since certifying to a teacher’s qualifications with a time limit is so far as the writer knows indigenous to America. In Ohio prior to 1838 the examiners determined the time limit. The duration of the certificate was determined by the work of the candidate, and the exigence of the case. Three months, then six months, then nine, and finally he was entrusted for a year. In 1838, the certificate was to be valid not longer than two years and this provision continued in force for nearly a half century. In 1884, the examining bodies were authorized to issue certificates for one two, three, four and five years, and in 1898 the eight year certificate was authorized. The practice of Ohio regarding the limit has been the common practice among the states in granting local certifi- cates. The ten year certificate of New York is the longest dur- ation for which local time-limit certificate is valid. Ohio has an eight year local certificate, Texas and California a six year. One, two, three, four and five years are the common life of the local certificate. Many states have a lower max- imum than five years. State Certificates. The State Board of School Exami- ners was organized in 1864, with three members and issued at first only life certificates of one grade; but from 1881 to 1888 two grades of certificates were issued, a ten year com- mon school certificate and a life certificate. Since 1888, three life certificates have been issued, high school life, common school life and special life. * NOTE A bill for the certification of teachers was introduced into the House at the first session of the seventy-seventh General Assembly. The sponsor of the bill is the Hon. D. J. Schurr, of Madison county, a for- mer successful school superintendent. 20 There is a sentiment in the state in favor of issuing noth- ing but professional certificates, that is, without the time limit. This has contributed much to the dignity and desir- ability of such professional recognition. SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT. I. Local certificates, county and municipal. (1) Elementary Provisional. Issued, (a) Upon examinations in the common branches and the principles and methods of teaching. (b) With the time limit, one, two, or three years. (c) A limited number of times, aggregate not more than six years. (2) Elementary Professional. Issued, after successful experience, with a more thorough examination upon the principles and practice of teaching. (a) Upon examinations in common branches and the following additional branches as treated in secondary schools: Algebra, General History, Literature, Physics and three optional High School subjects. (b) Exemption from further examination in common branches if candidate has obtained satisfactory grades in previous examination for provisional certificate; exemption from High School branches where candidate presents diploma from second grade high school of state. (c) Without time limit. (3) High School Provisional. Issued, (a) Upon examination in United States history includ- ing civil government, arithmetic, English grammar, geog- raphy, literature, algebra, geometry, general history, physics, principles and history of education and four sub- jects chosen from the following: Latin, German, rhetoric, trigonometry, botany, chemistry, geology, political economy, sociology, physical geography. (b) With the limit of one, two or three years. (c) A limited number of times. 4. High school professional. Issued after successful experience. (a) Upon examination as high school provisional, with 21 more thorough examination upon the principles and practice of teaching, school organization and school law. (b) Exemption from re-examination in branches men- tioned in (a), except the professional branches, where can- didate had achieved satisfactory grades in previous examina- tion, or where candidate presents credentials in said branch- es from a college of recognized standard. (c) Without limit. (5) Special certificates. I. Provisional. Issued, (a) Upon examination in special branch or branches, hygiene and temperance instruction, principles of education. (b) Same as elementary and high school. (c) Same as elementary and high school. II. Professional. Issued after successful experience: (a) Upon examination as for Provisional with more rigid tests as to principles and practice of teaching. (b) Exemption from re-examination where candidate has made satisfactory record in previous examination, ex- cept in professional branches. Exemption also where candi- date presents credentials in said branches, except the pro- fessional branches, from a college of recognized standing. III. State certificate. (1) Elementary Provisional. Issued, (a) To holders of State Normal diplomas, or diplomas of equal rank, said diplomas to be awarded upon examina- tion held at the seat of training under supervision of State Board of examiners. (b) Valid from three to five years. (c) Not renewable. (2) Elementary Professional. Issued after successful experience: (a) Upon examination as determined by State Board. (b) To holders of the state elementary provisional without examination except in principles and practice of teaching. (These examinations could be taken before local boards, manuscripts forwarded to State Board for valua- tion. (c) To candidates for local elementary professional, 22 whose credentials and manuscripts have been forwarded to State Board, graded and approved by them. (d) Without limit of time. (2) High School Provisional. Issued, (a) To graduates of four year courses in recognized colleges with professional training. (b) Valid from three to five years. (c) Not renewable. (4) High School Professional. Issued after successful experience : (a) Upon examination as determined by the State Board. (b) To holders of high school provisional certificates without examination, except in the principles and practice of teaching, school organization and administration and school law. (c) To candidates for the local high school professional certificate whose credentials and manuscripts have been for- warded to the State Board of Examiners and graded and ap- proved by them. (5) Special. I. Provisional. Issued, (a) Upon exanination as determined by State Board. (b) To graduates from colleges especially equipped to prepare such teachers. (c) Valid from three to five years. (d) Not renewable. II. Professional. Issued after successful experience : (a) Upon examination as determined by State Board. (b) To all holders of provisional who pass satisfactory examination in principles and practice of teaching, hygiene, temperance instruction, etc.