Iowa State Teachers’ Association HIGH SCHOOL MANUAL Issued Under I he Direction of a Committee of Twelve, Appointed by The General Association, December, 1899 4* 4? Hb 10OI 4* -4 *4 / V ' Des Moines, Iowa, December, 1901. THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS S'/O.lT Io‘t Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 https://archive.org/details/manualforhighschOOiowa / ,/A n Iowa State Teachers’ Association A MANUAL FOR HIGH SCHOOLS, Setting forth the Course of Study adopted by the General Association, a discussion of each subject in the Course, and various other matters of value to High School Teachers and to School Boards. Prepared by the Committee of Twelve appointed by the General Association of the Iowa State Teachers’ Association. Thomas Nicholson, Chairman; A. T. Hukill, Secretary; H. H. Seerley, A. B. Warner, Lydia Hinman, J. J. McConnell, A. V. Storm, Charles Eldred Shelton, A. W. Stuart, . J. H. T. Main, R. C. Hughes, Hill M. Bell. Committee. Des Moines, Iowa, December, 1901. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Introductory I^etter, State Superintendent Barrett. •_ 4 PART I. General Introduction, Chairman Thomas Nicholson 5 History of Committee — Reprint of former Report— Acknowledge- ments— List of persons contributing 5-10 Secondary Education, President H. H. Seerley 10 Manual Training 14 Reports and Records, H. C. Dorcas 16 Records 18 Important Educational Documents, by Thomas Nicholson 23 PART II. High School Course of Study, adopted by Association, Decem- ber, 1899 1- 27 Botany, and Supplementary Criticism 28 Civics, I, II— - 32, 33 Economics . 35 Composition and Rhetoric • 38 English Literature 39 History 44 Latin; Logical Value of Latin 52, 55 Mathematics • - 56 Physical Geography 65 Physiology- 71 ' Physics 73 PART III. Arithmetic 80 u Astronomy 83 ‘ Business Training- 85 Chemistry 89 Drawing 95 ^ French 99 J German 102 Greek 106 Grammar, I, II. 111, 112 Geology 115 Music ^ 117 Zoology 121 PART IV. Physical Training- ___ 125 The Inner Life of the High School 127 Athletics 128 Rules Governing the Accrediting of High Schools 129 How a High School May Become Accredited 131 Association Course of Study and Entrance Requirements 132 DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. Des Moinks, Dkckmbkr 1 , 1901 . By law it is the duty of the board of directors to'prescribe a course of study for the schools over which they have control. This unfortunately results in a g-reat variety of courses even though con- ditions are the same. The Twenty-Eighth General Assembly, recog- nizing the need and value of greater uniformity, authorized the superintendent of public instruction to prepare, publish and distribute a course of study for high schools. The State Teachers’ Association having for several years, through a committee of twelve, been at work on a manual for high schools, it was deemed wise for the de- partment to co-operate. This has been done most cheerfully. The committee first studied the high school and learned its real condition; second, it ascertained the requirements for such a course as suggested by the National Educational Association; third, it considered the entrance requirements of Iowa colleges; fourth, it considered the whole question with a view to producing a course that would prove of the greatest value to pupils in general in our own high schools. I believe that no course heretofore submitted has been so carefully prepared. That it will be most cordially received, I have no doubt. That it will prove of inestimable value is unques- tioned, if rightfully used. While commending the Manual to boards of directors, we cau- tion them against attempting to do more than can be well and thoroughly accomplished with the teaching force and equipment they have. The common school, of which the high school is a part, is for all the pupils, of all the people, and in it should be taught well the fundamentals of an English education. The Manual will assist in determining the subjects to be taught, the order and best method of presenting the same, and the amount of work to be done in a given time. It is a valuable contribution to the educational literature of the state. Richard C. Barrett, Supt. Public Instruction. Part I. GENERAL INTRODUCTION. A committee consisting- of Thomas Nicholson, Chairman; A. T. Hukill, Secretary; H. H. Seerley, A. B. Warner, Tydia Hinman, J. J. McConnell, A. V. Storm, R. C. Hughes, A. W. Stuart, J. H. T. Main, R. A. Harkness, Charles O. Denny, was appointed by the General Association in December, 1898, to prepare a course of study for Iowa high schools, and to have in charge the preparation of a Manual for the same. This committee met at Iowa City in the fol- lowing April and gave long and careful attention to the work com- mitted to its charge. Frequent meetings followed, a report was made to the General Association in December, 1899, stating that the Chairman in consultation with other members early in the year had made an outline of subjects covering the chief points needing care- ful consideration, had assigned them to different members of the committee for investigation and report, and that these members had presented papers prepared with great conscientiousness and care to the committee at its general meeting. In these papers and the dis- cussions which followed, the following points were considered: What is the real condition of high school courses in Iowa? What are the requirements of the courses suggested by the National Educational Association? What are the entrance requirements of the colleges belonging to the College Department of the Iowa State Teachers’ Association? How far do the general conditions of our high schools and their constituencies demand courses differing from the college preparatory course, and what attitude ought the college men to hold toward the high schools in this regard? Is it feasible to have one course in each high school which shall be specifically a college preparatory course? How far is it possible for all the high schools to have uniform courses and what can we do to bring them into general use? The comparative value of time, kind and quality in preparatory work. Is it feasible to have a high school manual which shall outline the kind and amount of work, give suggestions for proper equipment for the teaching of each subject, give sugges- tions about proper methods of teaching in the respective branches, as to text books and various other matter of importance to the school? This committee elicted the fact that there was great confusion in our high school courses of study, that there was an utter lack of 6 uniformity, in estimate of the relative value of subjects and groups of subjects, and no uniformity as to the beginnings and the endings of the high school courses. A vast amount of other information was secured and after fre- quent consultation among themselves and with leading school men throughout the state a course of study which follows on page 27 was presented to the General Association and unanimously adopted on December 29, 1899. At this time the committee presented a con- densed summary of their discussions and of the principles which they had adopted in preparing their report and which they proposed to adopt in the preparation of the Manual which they suggested as a desirable publication. It has been thought wise to present here this summary of GENERAL PRINCIPLES: 1. It was agreed that the aim of the hig-h school was not to fit for colleg’e. People do not and will not consider it specifically a colleg'e preparatory school. No more is it a school to fit for business occupations, mechanical pursuits or any of the professions . Its specific pur- pose is TO FIT ITS PUPILS FOR THE DUTIES OF LIFE. It may become the duty of life to g-o to colleg’e, to eng’ag’ein business, to practice law or medicine or any one of a hundred other con- ceivable things unforseen by the pupil while he is in the high school. The aim of the high school course should, therefore, be to give the child a solid discipline of his faculties, a broad view of life, proper self-control, a trained judgment, an appreciation of educational values, proper methods of study and of work, an inspiration for life and for study, and such a com- mand of himself and of all his powers as shall enable him advantageously and intelligently to take up any of the legitimate things which may become the duty of life. 2. The student will not, as a rule, remain more than four years in the high school, hence the course there given should be so arranged that the pupils who complete any well-ordered four year high school course should be admitted to college without conditions. Furthermore, the pupil, at the beginning of his high school course, cannot determine what course he should pursue if he goes to college; nor is he at that time competent to decide what college course he may take, as very few enter high school with the distinct idea of completing a full college course. It should, therefore, not be easier to enter one course in college than another. Under present conditions a student who has pursued a full four years’ course without Greek or Ger- man enters the classical or the philosophical course in college at a disadvantage, since he is burdened with language conditions which must be made up, either at the expense of heavier work than that required of the scientific student, which is almost certain to endanger either his health or his scholarship, or at the expense of an extra year or a part of a year in college, which he will not and should not be required to take. The colleges should recognize that for the great majority of their Freshmen the high schools will be the place of preparation and they should so arrange their courses of study that four years of straight work of sound colle- giate grade following four years pf high school work of recognized grade should admit the candidate to any degree. 3. Hence kind and quality of work should determine rather than specific subjects pur- sued, provided such fundamentals as Latin, English and Mathematics be in every course. It was argued that no inconsiderable part of the advantage claimed for the discipline gained from four years of Latin arises from the fact that the student is held to the one study con- tinuously, and term after term he must follow his own work in such a way that defects are sure to appear if there be any. By this process, also, he gains something like a mastery of one subject which is a very desirable thing. If physics, or botany, or history or any other subject taught by modern and sound pedagogical methods were to be pursued in the same way, so that the student be held to it term after term until he gained the advantage of a continous discipline and an approximate mastery of the subject so far as it lay within the range of his actual or possible power, these subjects would gain very much of the advantage now claimed for language and mathematics. The committee, therefore, recommends that, wherever possible, the high school course be so framed as to provide for continuous study in a few subjects, rather than for superficial and limited work in a number. Physics, botany, zoology, chemistry and such studies should continue through at least one year, wherever undertaken, and should only be attempted where there is proper equipment for laboratory work. The school authorities should select the subject for which they can provide the best equipment, the best teaching force and which, owing to local conditions, will create the greatest interest among pupils and patrons, and secure the most thorough and scientific work. When these conditions are observed, the colleges will allow quite a wide range of choice in the selection of subjects from the same or from related groups. It was shown that the spirit of the collies was to require subjects which they can get rather than those which they desire, provided the work is shown to have sound educational value and is sufficient in kind and quality. There is a wide divergence in college academies 7 both as to subjects and grade of work, and in some instances they need to increase the ed- ucational value of their work if the colleg-e to which they belong- is to retain its proper rank. Some thoug-ht it would be better for the collesre academies to outline a four year course rather than the present three years with a sub-preparatory year. An interesting- paper was read before one of the sections of the South-eastern Iowa Teachers’ Association, showing- that a careful investig-ation of the records of one of the best colleg-es in our state indicates that through periods of years the average record of students whose college courses had been pursued after a preparatory course taken in a high" school with a four year Latin course and in the preparatory department of the college itself did not var3^ in any degree worthy of mention, while the average record of those who had been pre- pared in a four vear English course in a high school fell from six to fifteen per cent below that of those in the courses above mentioned. The writer gave it as his opinion that this was accounted for by the fact that the English course is often, if not generally, made up in a scrappy way, and too frequently admits subjects which have not the sound educational value of those in the Latin course. He thought there was no evidence that the students from the English courses were in general below the others in native ability or in application. 4. In regard to the movement to shorten either the secondary or the college course to three years, it was agreed that we should insist upon four years in each. There should also be four years of grammar grade work, and it was considered all important that this should be carefully outlined and made of sufficient strength to preclude the necessity of forcing into the high school studies which properly belong in the grammar grades. Too many high schools are so only in name, a large percentage of their work being that which properly be- longs to the grades below. All agreed that it was quite desirable to have Latin, German, (where taught,) concrete geometry and possibly one or two other such studies, begin in the grammar grades. In view of the above, it was considered wise to allow pupils above the average in natural ability, or who for any reason show that the3’- are able to do more than the regular work well, an opportunity to complete the course in a shorter time. The aim should be to fix the quantity of work, to make frequent and thorough tests of the quality, and let each student take the time necessary for him. Some strongly urged the wisdom of strict college entrance examinations, not on the ground alone of the good of the college, but as a stimulus to the pupils in the high school to do better and more thorough work, and that, for the same reason, rigid examinations set upon sound pedagogical principles are valuable in the high school itself; but it was agreed that under the present conditions, we must be satisfied with less than this ideal, contenting ourselves with the use of every possible en- deavor to secure thorough mastery of subjects and a method of teaching which would give the student a clear grasp of the subject studied and a desire for and the abilit3' to take up further study of that or any other subject independently. 5. It was shown that of nearly 800 schools listed in Iowa School Directory, 140 announce a four year course, 24 a three year course, 1 a two year course and 2 a one year course. This would seem to indicate that nearly six hundred of these schools offer no work in any foreign language, and the best information which the committee could command pointed to the probability that a greater part of this large number of schools had courses decidedly inferior in educational value. They were thus met with the mournful probability that a ver>' large percentage of our youth go out into life with a ver3^^ defective preparation for its duties. This should be an incentive to the general Association and to all friends of educa- tion to join a campaign for arousing educational spirit throughout our state, to overlook minor differences and to unite on some scheme that will enable us to work together in har- mony and educational fellowship and to exert all our strength to secure for the coming gen- eration the fullest educational equipment for life’s best work. There should not be and there is no conflict of interest between the high school and the college, and their courses should be mutually considered and should be framed in the light of a frank recognition and a vivid realization of the facts here presented. 6. The committee was unanimousl3^ of the opinion that all should unite in an effort to have schools of Law, Medicine, Pharmacy, Dentistry, etc., require at least the full four year high school course, or the full college entrance requirement for admission to these courses. The highest interest of the state and of the nation demands this preliminary equipment for these duties of life and for anything like proper efficiency in these professions. 7. All this indicates that the general Association and educators at large should agree upon a definite standard which any school must reach in order to be considered a high school at all. There is no reason why we should not set at least a minimum standard, as to number and kind of teachers employed, subjects taught, equipments, methods, etc. The committee saw no reason why within reasonable latitude of electives, the courses in one. two or three year high schools should not parallel tho.se in the fully equipped four year high school, and it seemed desirable to work toward this end. 8. The committee considers it wise that the high school should have shorter recitation periods and usually more subjects than the college, because children are younger, are able to give continuous attention for a shorter period of time, have outside duties, because in the nature of things the foundation must be broad before specialization begins, and for numerous other reasons. A scheme calling for seventeen to twenty recitations of thirty to thirty- five minutes each per week was agreed upon as the best. The general sentiment of the committee was that in no case should more than four recitations per day for five days in the week, or twenty periods per week be prescribed. 9. There was quite a sentiment in favor of music, drawing and possibly manual train- ing in the high school. 8 AS TO SPECIFIC SUBJECTS. 1. Mathematics offered no subject for controversy. All ag-reed that its place was fixed and that at least algebra and plane geometry should be included in any course. 2. The committee was quite decidedly of the opinion that history and political science should have a larger place and that we should endeavor to secure scientific teaching of these subjects. The later work should be by topics and the study should be a thorough master}?- of facts, a careful analysis of the data and a clear apprehension of the underlying principle which they indicated. Of course, it is not expected that original investigation will be taken up in the high schools. The.tendency to bring university methods and plans serviceable only to trained minds and experienced workers into high school work is to be avoided, but a careful study of recognized authorities, the cultivation of habitsof keen discrimination, the understanding of fundamental principles and a fairly comprehensive survey of the practical side of history and political science is within the reach of any good high school and should be considered . 3. It seemed wise to make liberal provision for English, and for English and American Literature. The reasons will be obvious. In place of eight or nine required works in English Classics which are usually prescribed, it was thought best to set down a list of fifty or one hundred suitable works, from which the required number might be selected. This would leave room for the individuality of the teacher. It was conceded that those authors would be best taught which appealed most powerfully to the individual teacher and her pupils. 4. That Science should have a proper place and be treated as indicated under general principle “3.” 5. Latin should have a conspicuous place. The School Review ior June, 1897, tabulates the replies given by 416 high school men as to whether Latin should be taught in the high school and a great majority say unequivocally “yes.” The following considerations influ- enced your committee: (a) Latin affords one of the best opportunities for that continued and exacting discip- line which is one of the greatest benefits derived from an education. (b) Prudential reasons suggest its wisdom. It is comparatively easy to secure efficient teachers of Latin; the committee of ten strongly recommends it; the required equipment is small and inexpensive; and it is a general requirement for entrance to all colleges east and west . (c) It is the best basis for English. All agreed that much more efficient work should be done in English, and Latin was one of the most powerful aids to a complete mastery of the mother tongue. Where a teacher makes the instruction in Latin a menace to the culti- vation of a good English style, he or she should be dismissed at once. There will be little need for “word analysis” which occupies so conspicuous a place in some courses, if Latin be properly taught, and especially if German be added to the Latin. (d) We are living in a scientific age. The scientific spirit seeks for sources and urges us back to foundations and fundamentals. Latin, German and Anglo-Saxon are the sources of our English speech. Among these, Latin is conspicuous and hence a scientific knowl- edge of English requires a proper study of Latin. After mature deliberation upon all the points involved and a careful survey of Iowa conditions, the committee agreed that the Latin requirements of the Classical Course recom- mended b}^ the committee of ten of the National Educational Association could not be ob- tained in Iowa high schools at present. All agreed that the Latin- Scientific course recom- mended by the committee afforded at least a satisfactory starting point for THE ONE NECESSARY COURSE for our schools. It was accordingly made the basis of the report and of the course agreed upon, and herewith presented for adoption by Iowa teachers. This report was unanimously adopted and the committee was continued with instructions to prepare the Manual. The General Association substituted President Charles Kldred Shelton for Profes- sor R. A. Harkness, resig-ned. The next year the work of preparing this Manual was in the hands of a sub-committee consisting of J. H. T. Main, of Iowa College, and J. J. McConnell, of the State University, with Principal Uydia Hinman, of East Waterloo. They did much work and secured the first draft of papers. At a meeting in Council Bluffs, November, 1900, at which all members of the committee were present, together with State Super- intendent Barrett, arrangements were made to submit each paper to six or more public school men who had a state-wide reputation for practical knowledge in the given subject. These lists were prepared 9 with care; the papers were passed around, the criticisms were col- lected, carefully examined by the committee, and all suggestions which seemed weighty were noted. The letters thus annotated to- gether with the original paper were turned back to the writers for revision and final preparation. These men gave uniform and courte- ous attention to all criticisms and an extended correspondence was carried on. The committee having in charge the Manual cannot too highly express its appreciation of the vast amount of work done, the uniform courtesy under circumstances which might have made irrita- tion possible, and the painstaking revision made by the gentlemen who have prepared these papers. They deserve fitting recognition at the hands of the teachers of Iowa. Upon the removal of Charles O. Denny from the state. Dean Hill M. Bell, of Des Moines, was appointed in his place. In the work of preparing the papers, securing criticisms and re- visions, much work was performed by President Seerley, of the State Normal School, President Hughes now of Ripon College, Wis- consin, Professor Main, Superintendent McConnell, Superintendent A. T. Hukill, and Principal Uydia Hinman. State Superintendent Barrett has from the first given the committee his hearty support, has been present at every meeting at which opportunity has been afforded, and the thanks of the body is hereby extended to him for his valuable suggestions, his uniform courtesy and his deep interest in the work. It is due, also, that mention should be made of Mr. H» C. Dorcas, of the Department of Pedagogy of the State University. He has been at almost every meeting of the committee from the first, has done a large volume of clerical work, made some of the most valuable suggestions, and his services are hereby acknowl- edged. The final editing, printing and proof reading were committed to a committee consisting of Superintendents J. J. McConnell and A T. Hukill, President J. H. T. Main, and the chairman. A list of the teachers of the state who have aided the committee* by suggestions, written or oral criticisms, and in various other ways, is hereby appended; space will not permit the mention of every name, but the list will indicate the range of consultation and the effort of the committee to secure the widest possible adaptability to Iowa schools. The thanks of the committee are extended to all those here mentioned and to many others whose names cannot be printed for lack of space, who have so willingly and kindly given of their time, their thought and their attention. It is intended to keep a record of the main criticisms offered upon the work, of any valuable suggestions which may come from any quarter, with the view of publishing a revision of this book, enlarged and improved within the next two or three years. The work already done can hardly fail to be of service to a large number of schools 10 throughout our state if used in the same spirit in which it has been prepared. In behalf of the Committee of Twelve, Thomas Nicholson, Chairman. The list ol persons who have rendered assistance in various ways to the work of the com- mittee: State Superintendent Barrett, Assistant State Superintendent A. C. Ross, H, E. Kratz. F, H. Bloodgrood, E. W. Graff, F. T. Oldt, W. I. Simpson, S. H. Sheakley, A. W. Merrill, W. C. VanNess, W. A. Doron, Maurice Ricker, E. W. Bej^eman, Amy Bogcfs. W. W. Gist, Jeannette Carpenter, O. W. VVe3^er, J. B. Knoepffler. Mrs. Marie Riddell, L. W. Par- rish, Georg-e Chandler, W. F. Chevalier, F. E. Willard, F. E. Palmer, A. R. Sale, John E. Cameron, F. M. Witter, Jennie E. Curtis, D. M. Kelly. Mae L. MacLeod. George H. Betts, Harry M. Kelly, W. F, Barr, F. L Douglas, H. H. Freer, J. S. Gochenauer, J. P. Hugget, C. A. Fuherton, F. C. Eastman, D. S. Wright, G. E. Finch, G. H. Hanawalt, M. F. Arey, A. G. Smith, A. C. Piersel, F. C. Bolton. Charles Noble, George E. Maclean, Alice Young, and many others. Much valuable assistance has been rendered by the Faculty of theState Normal School. Cedar Falls, the Faculty of the State University at Iowa City, and the professors of Iowa College at Grinnell. The names of the writers of the papers are appended to each document. SECONDARY EDUCATION, By President H. H. Seerley, LL. D. State Normal School. America commonly classifies the schools of her several common- wealths as elementary, secondary and higher. The historic devel- opment of the so-called American system began with the college, then came the elementary schools and finally the secondary school was created as a necessary connecting link between the elementary school and the college. The first secondary schools were not public, but private and endowed fitting schools having as their chief busi- ness the preparation of young men for higher education. The stand- ard of the courses of study maintained by these academies was de- termined by the college requirements for entrance and changes were readily and easily made to suit the new or additional demands that the colleges deemed necessary for better preparation. With the growth and development of free public schools there came a common feeling among the people that it would be better to keep the boys at home during these years of attendance at the academy and at the same time the pride and ambition of communities also aided in ex- panding the courses of study of the elementary schools by the intro- duction of academic studies until the modern public high school became a fact in every enterprising, progressive town and city. The high school was a new type of a secondary school. It was not sub- ject to the dictation of the college as the academy had been. It be- came an institution that was specially under the dominion of local public opinion and was directed and developed by representatives of the people selected by a majority vote at the popular election. The high school became therefore a secondary school with a broader mission than its predecessor, the academy, as it was soon attended by a large number of pupils who sought the education there obtain- able for its own sake as a fitting training for practical life, rather than as simply a preparation for higher study in the colleges and universities. The opening of such secondary schools in every center 11 where the people were willing to tax themselves for their support has developed an educational field which for importance to public welfare and for largeness of promise as a teaching vocation has had no parallel in the educational history of the past century. The last decade has witnessed a most remarkable expansion of secondary schools. The most palatial structures that are to be found devoted to any public work have been erected, the most expensive and com- plete laboratories have been provided, the most modern and decided equipments have been selected, the latest ideas in ventilation and heating have been adopted; in fact, nothing is too modern or too good for these most popular institutions, while the course of study in all its phases has been modified and enlarged until almost every- thing taught in all sorts of schools is today offered to the children and youth who enroll and accept the free instruction and training thus granted. THE) SCOPK OF SFCONDARY EDUCATION. What may properly be included in the work of a secondary school, organized, equipped, supported and patronized as the public high school is today, is a difiicult problem to outline and more diffi- cult to limit. The people can evidently extend the work of the school to any grade they please as public educational limits depend entirely upon public opinion, decision and action, but it seems rea- sonable to assume that for general purposes the public high school has its limits of service in the fact that it is a connecting link be- tween the elementary schools and higher and professional education, as well as a school fitting its pupils for the practical and business occupations of human life. It must certainly be conceded that a high school which does not through its courses of study open up the opportunity for its graduates to go on into higher education, without loss of time or effort, fails to fulfil its entire function. If it provides more than the minimum requirements for entrance of pres- ent day colleges, it is not to be assumed that it exceeds its true func- tion, but if through doing this its managers sacrifice thoroughness and completeness, substituting a smattering of many branches fora substantial knowledge of a few essentials, such education does an irreparable injury. It will tend to disgust or discourage the children who sooner or later become conscious of lack of power in the use of the knowledge supposed to be acquired and it will also deprive them of the development and training which all true education is assumed positively to give. THE PURPOSE OF SECONDARY EDUCATION. Education as an organized effort always has a definite purpose. The general motive in completing a course of study is not the at- tainment of rank nor the honor of graduation. The sacrifices made by parents and children have a more substantial basis than the mere 12 gaining- of diplomas and compliments. It must have as its chief object the betterment of the individual in such lines of efficiency and usefulness as can never be satisfied by the factitious nor the fanci- ful. It is evident that schools are to be judged more by what they actually do for the generation under their instruction than by what they advertise to do or claim to do. Their inner life has more to do with the outcome of their pupils than their plans of organization or methods of instruction. The making of men and women in thought and action is the fundamental purpose rightly assumed as the fore- most duty of a good high school, whether those under its influence go to college or go at once to the activities of practical life. the: ideats of the: se:condary school. The reality that will be attained by any system of education is dependent to a large degree upon the ideals evolved and accepted. The over expansion of a course of study; the attempt to maintain a high school without sufficient teaching force or without teachers of good extensive scholarship, are results of false ideals. So with the placing of the factitious and pretentious foremost in educational work and the underestimate often put upon accuracy and thorough- ness. All are the logical result of false ideals. High school educa- tion conducted by the unprepared, by the untrained, by the un- schooled or by the narrow minded will always fail to produce effici- ency in scholarship, largeness in skill, thoughtfulness in thinking or strength in constructive ability or executive power. The ideals of culture, of manly power, or readiness of action, of thoughtfulness, of investigation, are all essential in the kind of results that true edu- cation can and does supply. The secondary education of the pres- ent day undertakes too much with the little, hopes to accomplish too much in too short a time and believes too much in books and facili- ties as substitutes for personality, character and scholarship in the teachers. FAULTS TO be: AVOIDED. That there are faults in present-day secondary education which should be studied carefully, corrected judiciously and assisted de- terminedly, is certain. They are the product of several agencies. We shall enumerate a few simply to call attention to them, hoping that the people, the school boards and the teachers may jointly work out a better condition as the improvement of the schools de- pends upon the intelligence and interest of local authorities rather than upon law in itself. 1. Generally there are too many isolated branches or subjects in the course of study. The time given to a specific subject is too brief to really accomplish enough to profit the pupil. Yearly units of work are regarded by the best authorities to-day as the minimum time that should be accorded to any branch of study that is worth 13 introducing- into the program of instruction. The term-unit so fre- quently found is actually a waste of time as such an arrangement gives no body of knowledge which contributes to educational pro- gress in the pupils afterwards or which gives them capacity in prac- tical affairs. 2. The study of sciences requires well equipped laboratories. Text-book study and recitations as frequently conducted may give some general knowledge, but such methods fail to accomplish the real purpose of the study of these sciences. Properly taught these branches will leave pupils capable of investigation, of careful and in- dependent observation, and will put them in possession of the prin- ciples upon which legitimate conclusions from observed facts are reached. 3. The teachers in secondary schools need a much more ex- tended knowledge of the branches taught than is usual, while ability and skill in handling apparatus and in giving instruction that is of the highest order is vital to success. The modern text-book has so many excellencies and contains so much method and direction for teachers that many incompetent teachers aspire to do high school work with only such pedagogical preparation as is thus gained. The authority which the modern text-book has attained in popular favor is of such a character that the patrons are satisfied, if their children seem to have a moderate knowledge of what the book con- tains. So far has this gone that many people accept the text-book as a fetich and believe that with its supremacy, even ignorant teach- ers can succeed in advancing the education of children by thus caus- ing them to acquire knowledge. We need to learn the philosophy of the German maxim, “The teacher is the school.” 4. The needs of language, history and allied studies demand that a superior library of reference and general books, specially selected to make all such studies profitable and possible, be pro- vided in every school. Under the present system of text-book study, these important branches are made so formal, so limited in informa- tion and so technical that the personal, individual work, most es- sential, is omitted. The public library of the city or community cannot be a substitute for such school library. With the common extensive selection of temporary and light fiction for public libraries, there is likely to be more detriment than benefit to those pupils in school who make a large use of the public library privileges. Since this cannot be controlled nor easily managed, the good of the pupils in a high school demands that the opportunity for wide study in a school library be provided so that the school and its library may be one in interest and object. 5. Economical methods may be so seriously and extensively applied by the authorities appointed by the people to manage the school system (1) in the small salaries paid the teachers, (2) in the 14 few appliances granted with which to do the work, (3) in the large number and variety of branches and classes expected to be taught by an extremely limited teaching force, that the pupils enrolled en- joy a high school in name and not in fact. There are limits below which a school board cannot go in salary and get a competent and satisfactory teacher. There are possibilities in instruction that can- not be reduced unless the essential appliances are at hand. There is a common custom in too many schools to give a teacher so many classes, so many branches or so many pupils that his work is much depreciated in efficiency. There is a point where so called economy becomes reckless waste and useless extravagance. MANUAL TRAINING. Of the genuine benefits to be derived from Manual Training there is now no question. Owing to the concentration of our population in towns and cities children do not and cannot get the exercise and development that comes from the active life of the country. This lack of exercise must be supplied in part at least through our schools and Manual Training seems to be the most natural channel through which to give this necessary exercise and training. In brief Manual Training does the following for the child: 1. It teaches him self-reliance, brings him in contact with real things and thus helps to awaken his reasoning powers. 2. It awakens a deep interest in school and invests dull subjects with new life. 3. It keeps boys longer in school. 4. It develops a healthy respect for labor and industry. 5. It develops thoroughness, accuracy, perseverance and honesty. The course here outlined is suggested as a basis for Manual Training work in the public schools from the fifth grade through the high school. It is not intended that this course shall be rigidly fol- lowed, for it is readily seen that no course can be outlined that will be exactly suited to all pupils in the grades mentioned. It must be remembered that what we are after is the development of power in the pupils and the teacher must use such models as will in his judg- ment, best bring about this development in each individual. FIFTH GRADE. Mechanical drawing, consisting of instruction in use of T square, triangle and compasses and the making of working drawings of ar- ticles constructed in wood. The simplest principles of projections showing views in two planes, may be taught here. Wood work consisting of instruction in the use of the saw, plane, file and chisel. 15 Make such articles as rule, pencil sharpener, fish line winder, paper file, match scratcher, flower pot stand, bread-board, etc. SIXTH GRADE. Continue the work in mechanical drawing-, require complete shop drawing of each article constructed in wood. Continue instruction in use of tfie other bench tools, using such models as sand-paper, blocks, bench-hook, coat-hanger, paper knife, weather vane, match-box, etc. Encourage original designs. SEVENTH GRADE. Require shop drawings. In the wood works use such models as pencil tray, mortise and tenon frame, book-rack, knife and fork box, hat and coat rack, etc. Give instruction in care of tools and how to sharpen them. eighth grade. Require shop drawings. Encourage original designs. Allow the pupil considerable latitude in the choice of models he shall make. Suggested models, picture frame, sled, photo box, book-case, foot stool, tabourette, etc. Instruction in the decoration of models by means of chip carving, may be given here. HIGH SCHOOE GRADES. In the high school the mechanical drawing may be continued, and the principles of orthographic projections, shades and shadows, and machine drawing be taught. The wood work may also be con- tinued and more difficult articles be constructed such as tables, desks, cabinets, etc. Also give advanced work in carving. Cost of equipment: The following is given as the approximate cost of tools and equipment required: 1 double work bench, hard wood top $20.00 2 quick action vises 10.00 2 -24 in. rip saws 3.50 2 -22 in. cross cut saws 3.00 2 -12 in. back saws 2.00 2 adze eye hammers 90 2 -8 in. marking guages 15 2 -4 in. screw drivers 40 2 -8 in. iron smooth planes 2.25 2 -1 in. chisels 1.50 2 'Yz in. chisels 1.15 2 -Y in. chisels 1.00 2-1 in. gouges 1.00 1 bench brush 75 2 -2 ft. rules 15 2 -8 in. try squares 50 2 sloyd knives 60 Total $49.20 16 The foreg-oing- is the approximate cost of one double bench and equipment and answers for two pupils at a time. The above cost may be considerably reduced by using a lig-hter and cheaper style of bench and having only a limited number of some of the tools (such as chisels, goug-es and hammers) instead of one for each pupil in class. In addition to the above a number of tools for general use are needed such as grind-stones, oil-stones, fore planes, glue pot, files, spoke shave, brace and bits, nail sets, barrels, panel guage, clamps, block planes, pliers, steel square. The cost of such general tools will be from $30.00 upwards ac- cording to the completeness of the equipment. If provision is made for giving instruction in drawing in con- nection with the bench work the additional cost will be about $10.00 for a class of twenty pupils. If extra drawing tables are not pro- vided, then, of course, the expense would be greater. A room fitted up with ten double benches will accommodate a class of twenty, and by allowing pupils to come to the room at differ- ent periods such a room can be utilized to give instruction to some four hundred pupils. The total cost for equiping such a room will be about as follows : Tools for ten double benches and benches $492.00 General tools 30.00 Drawing tools 10.00 Total cost $532.00 To supply pupils with material to work with costs about forty cents per year for each pupil. The foregoing is respectfully submitted, C. H. Bailky. D. U. McKinney. S. K. Stevenson. REPORTS AND RECORDS. By Mr. H. C. Dorcas, State University. It is just as important to gain an accurate knowledge of general and special tendencies in the educational theory and practice of a state as to gain such a knowledge of the industries and commerce of that state. Such tendencies can be discovered and made the basis of intelligent further provision for the educational needs of the state through the periodic gathering of certain data relative to general school conditions, and through a comparative study of these data. The committee, therefore, solicits the cordial co-operation of princi- 17 pals of hig-h schools and city superintendents in the gathering of such information, as well as in determining what sorts of informa- tion should be gathered. Each year blanks will be furnished calling for statistics on points like the following: I. TKACHKRS. 1. The name of each teacher in the high school. 2. His academic preparation for high school teaching. a. Number of years during which he attended a high school or academy. b. A state normal school. c. A college or university. d. The names of all such schools which he attended. e. The academic degree (or degrees) which he holds. 3. His professional preparation for high school teaching. a. Number of years during which he carried on distinctively pedagogical studies in state normal school, college or university. b. The kind of teacher’s certificate he holds (or has held). (1) . Grade of county teacher’s certificate. (2) . State teacher’s certificate. (3) . State diploma. (4J. State certificate in special subjects. 4. The extent of his experience as a teacher. a. Number of months in rural schools. b. In elementary graded schools. c. In high schools or academies. d. As principal or superintendent. 5. Number of recitations and laboratory exercises which he conducts daily. 6. Names of the branches of study which he is teaching. 7. His monthly salary. II. PUPII.S. 1. Number enrolled in the high school. a. 9th grade : Boys Girls . -Total. b. 10th grade: Boys —Girls.. Total c. 11th grade: Boys ___Girls_. Total. d. 12th grade: Boys. -Girls. Total 2. Number studying in each of the five or six main groups of subjects. a. Greek. b. Latin. c. French. d. German. 18 e. Bng-lish and Literature. f. History, Civics, etc. g-. Mathematics. h. Science. 3. Average age of class at graduation, a. Boys Girls 4. Number who go (directly from the high school) to higher in- stitutions of learning within three or four years after gradu- ation. a. To colleges of letters, arts or science. b. To colleges of law. c. To colleges of medicine. d. To colleges of dentistry. e. To colleges of theology. f. To state normal schools. g. To higher schools of agriculture or technology. III. MATEJRIAIy EQUIPMENT. 1. Building. 2. Library. 3. Apparatus and supplies. 4. Text-books used. a. Furnished by school? b. Furnished by pupils? RECORDS. More and more are the colleges, universities and higher techno- logical schools admitting students by the certificate plan. It is realized that it is difficult to determine, by means of a short period of examination on a rather wide range of subjects and in the midst of more or less strange surroundings, whether the applicant for ad- mission is really prepared advantageously to pursue the higher courses of study. It is fairly well known that not infrequently ap- plicants who are really well fitted for carrying on more advanced studies fail to indicate their fitness in the formal entrance examina^ tions ; and that often others who are really poorly prepared for col- lege work pass such entrance examinations successfully. There is large wa.rrant for the belief that the certificate of the high school principal, specifying the extent and character of the pupil’s high school work in each of the subjects pursued by him, and specifically recommending him as capable of going forward with advanced studies, is better evidence of the pupil’s preparation for college work than entrance examination papers can be. 19 Therefore, the making* and preserving of adequate records of pupils’ hig-h school work becomes a thing* of much importance. Every pupil who graduates from a high school, and even every pupil who successfully completes the work or one or more entire terms or semesters is entitled to the assurance that he can have, at any time after he leaves the school, a complete certified record of what- ever high school work he has done, adequate for the reasonable needs of any college or school of technology which admits students by certificate. The school owes this to each pupil as much as it owes him an education. To this end it is certainly worth while to consider carefully the following four questions: 1. What data should such records include? 2. What is the most convenient and the best form in which to arrange and preserve these data? 3. How can the danger of the loss or destruction of such records be most certainly avoided? 4. What is the most practicable means of making these records available immediately upon request, at any time within ten or more years after tlie pupil has left the school? The following suggestions are given on these points, each in its turn, not because they are deemed the best that can be offered, but in the hope that better ones may be forthcoming and generally adopted: 1. The data to be included. a. Name of the high school. b. Name of the pupil. c. Date^of the issuance of the certificate. d. Date of graduation or withdrawal from the school. e. Age of the pupil at graduation or withdrawal. f. Name>f each particular branch of study pursued by the pupil. g. Numberlof terms (or semesters) during which he pursued each branch. h. Length in weeks of the term (or semester) . i. Number of recitations or laboratory periods per week in eachibranch. j. Length in*minutes of: a. The regular recitation period. b. The regular laboratory exercise. k. Text-books used. l. Average standing in each branch of study. m. A specific recommendation of the pupil as to his charac- ter, studiousness and ability to carry on college studies successfully. 20 2. The form in which to arrange and preserve pupil’s records. Many good forms have been and may be devised, and it would be folly to specify any one of them as certainly the best. However, two general forms may be suggested, either of which should answer. In this connection it is suggested and recommended, in view of the decided tendency inlowa high schools to divide the school year into semesters for admin- strative purposes, and the further decided tendency to require one half-year’s work, or some multiple thereof, in each branch of study introduced into the program of studies that a credit- unit, named and defined as follows, be generally adopted in the making and reporting of pupils’ high school records; One term-hour — one study once a week during one semester (a semester being 18, 19 or 20 weeks in length). The two general forms for making pupils’* records given below are constructed in accordance with a credit-unit as defined above. a. A substantial book specially ruled and printed for the purpose and in such a way that each pupil’s work may be recorded as he completes each half-year or year section of it, and so that his entire high school record, including the data mentioned above under 1, may appear on on^ page. The book should be of first class material and bound in the most substantial way. It should be worth preserving carefully, for itself as well as for the records which it contains, and should be large enough to last through several years. The form suggested is given herewith. It constitutes one page of the book mentioned, upon which the records of as many as twenty pupils can be made. All figures, letters and words appearing in script do not belong to the form, but illustrate the method of filling out the form. (See Table I on inserted page.) b. Cards, or heavy sheets of paper, specially ruled and printed for the purpose and cut in such size and shape as that they can be filed in one of the several kinds of substantial card catalog cases now used in the best mod- ern libraries. These cases should be of the most sub stantial construction. A form of card is here given as an illustration. (See Table II on inserted page.) I. BOOK RBOORD. . (REVERSE StDE) _ ,IOWA, HIGH SCHOOL NAME. Doe, John. BORN WHERE, Scranton, Penn. John Doe v WHEN, <9-/^, 11 is f of, 11 f or 13^.’’ With such questions as % of 13 is | of what? f of 17 is ^ of what? etc., the form of analysis should be: of 13 is f of, % of 13 ^ f or f of 13, which is 21%; f of 17 is % of, | of 17 ^ % or of 17, which is 15i%.” It will be observed that in all such work the fraction becomes a unit in the reasoning and is not segregated, as is nearly always done. It also makes use in the analysis of the identical language of problems which the pupil will meet in his subsequent work. From these illustrations concise forms can easily be arranged for the drills in percentage. 2. A thorough mastery of all of the signs used in arithmetic is essential to the best cultivation of thought in the teaching of arithmetic. The drills in this should be of such a nature that after completing the drills the pupil will be able to complete all classes of indicated work with a certainty of having it correct. He should know the exact force or meaning of each sign and just how far its force extends. 3. In reviewing the four fundamental operations, addition, sub- traction, multiplication and division observe that subtraction is the reverse of addition, and division the reverse of multiplication, and hence in all of the work in arithmetic there can be but four classes of elements, viz: addends and sums or products and factors. This at once circumscribes the number of possible operations in any sub- ject. Thus in percentage the work is all based on products and fac- tors, in mensuration the same, and in common fractions each of the four classes is found. Much drill should be given in simply determ- ining which class of arithmetic element each number, given in the problem, represents. To do this the pupil must ravel the problem and form his conclusions from the inter-relations as expresed by the words of the problem. 82 4. Following: this last drill, and very closely allied to it, is an- other which aids very g:reatly in the development of independent thought upon the part of the pupil. All problems from those in the fundamentals to the most complicated, should be read into state- ments giving the necessary operations for the solution. These should be in the form of an equation whose right hand number is the name of the result and not the result. These separate equations will be the successive steps necessary in the solution. To illustrate : A man bought 225 acres of land at $15 and sold the whole of it for $3,125. How much did he lose? STATE^MKNTS. Fifteen dollars multiplied by two hundred and twenty-five equals the cost of the land. Fifteen dollars multiplied by two hundred twenty-five minus thirty-one hundred twenty-five dollars equals the amount he lost. THE SOLUTION. $15 X 225 equals the cost of the land. $15 X 225 equals $3,125 which equals the amount he gained. Again, a man paid f of his money for improvements upon his house and of it for machinery and implements. If he still had $960 left, how much had he at first? STATEMENTS. Two-fifths plus one-third equals the part of his money expended. One minus the vinculum two-fifths plus one-third equals the part of his money he has left. Nine hundred sixty dollars divided by the parenthesis, one minus the vinculum two-fifths plus one-third equals what he had at first. SOEUTION. I + Yz equals the part of his money which he spent. 1 — \-\- Yz equals the part of his money he has left. $960 — (1 — I -\-Yz) equals the amount he had at first. It will be seen that this work in its final statement shows the numbers of the problem in all their inter-relations. 5. Much attention should be given to the synthesis of problems from indicated statements. To illustrate : 1. $1,150 — ($9 X 150—25) equals the amount he lost on stock. 2. 7.5 gal. X 2 X .7854 x 3 equals the number of gallons the can will hold. 3. $205f f of 4 X ^ of 2 equals the value of ^ of 2 acres. 4. $9600 ^ .40 .60 equals the value of the whole mill. PROBLEMS. 1. A man paid $1150 for 150 head of young stock, 25 of them died and he sold the balance at $9 per head. How much did he lose? 2. How many gallons will a can hold which is 2 feet in di- ameter and 3 feet deep ? 83 3. If I of 4 acres of land be sold for $205f, at the same rate, what is the value of U of 2 acres f A man owning 60% of a mill sold 40% of his share for $9600. At the same rate what is the value of the whole mill? Also form problems requiring simple given operations. Thus, 1 . Form a problem which in the solution requires the square root of the sum of two numbers. 2: One which requires the square root of the sum of the squares of two numbers. 3. One which requires the dividing by one plus a rate expressed decimally. 4. One which requires the multiplying by a fraction. 5. One which requires the dividing of a number by a compound fraction. 6. Arithmetic is most decidedly a deductive science and as such the reasoning is based upon definitions, axioms and princi- ples . These are, as it were, the measuring sticks by means of which the pupil is to do his work, hence, to fail to have him well grounded in these is to turn him out a cripple. Insist upon having definitions and principles contain all that they should contain and then have them committed verbatim. Far more trouble arises from having inductively lead up to a process with no language or with poor language to describe it than from what is so glibly called a crowned memory. A definition in arithmetic to be complete should tell not only what a thing is, but also what it is arithmetically. This last element in the definition will give its relation to other things with which it must be considered. 7. Let all processes and methods of operations be determined by the definitions, the principles, and when they are to be applied. This .manner of procedure will very materially change the com- monly accepted process. The most practical application of the G. C. D. is in reducing fractions and for that purpose the common processes are of no value. Also with the L. C. M. Involution, when presented in the light of the fact that it is the forerunner of the roots, will be presented in processes which will enable the pu- pil to reverse the order of the processes and thereby master the roots with much greater ease. A. W. Rich. ASTRONOMY. In the consideration of suitable scientific branches for high school courses it is necessary to bear in mind the limited equip- ment of the schools, and the mental capacity of the students. The study of astronomy is eminently adapted to the requirements of the small high school, as it may be pursued with advantage with al- most no outlay for apparatus, and a very good elementary knowl- edge of the subject may be acquired by the student of average ability at quite an early age. Astronomy is a subject which appeals to the mind of the young for the reason that its phenom- ena are of daily occurrence, and force themselves upon the atten- 84 tion of even the most casual observer. That astronomy is essentially a natural science study is shown by its being the oldest of our sciences, its profoundly mathematical aspect being of comparatively modern development. The professional value of a study is not the only point to be considered in determining its fitness for the high school curricu- lum. On the other hand, we have passed beyond the time when even the laboring man should limit his knowledge to the “Three R’s,” and the high school fails in its most important duty when it fails to train its students to observe the world about them. It is not usually necessary for the teacher to awaken keen en- thusiasm in the study of astronomy, as it often is in the case of chemistry, dr of physics, for the average student has from child- hood felt an almost reverential interest in “those shining orbs that bespangle the dark robe of night. “ Consequently, astronom- ical facts fall upon eagerly receptive minds, and the student’s powers of observation are trained almost without his realizing that he is applying himself to a serious study. In the teaching of this, or of any other science, the true teacher will seize upon the opportunities offered to stimulate the inventive genius of his students, by requiring them, with but little assistance, to make simple apparatus by which they may deter- mine roughly many fundamental facts — in this case those that are connected with the local latitude and longitude of the student’s home. The student may, in effect, be asked this question : What facts regarding your position upon the earth’s surface can you de- termine by the use of apparatus made by yourself ? Let him make the apparatus and demonstrate these facts. By such methods he may be trained not only in the invention of his own ways and means of research, but also in the use of simple tools and appli- ances. His interest will be stimulated by a brief historical study of the subject, in which special attention is called to the develop- ment of simple astronomical apparatus by early workers in this line. Some very practical suggestions for the student’s help in the arrangement and use of simple devices, and also in locating important lines, circles and directions, may be found in David P. Todd’s “A New Astronomy,’’ published by the American Book Co. The interest of the average high school student in Astronomy may be greatly increased by the devotion of a number of evenings to the identification of some of the prominent constellations. For this purpose he should have access to a small star atlas, such as R. A. Proctor’s “Half Hours with the Stars,’’ published by W. H. Allen & Co., 13 Waterloo Place, London. We would recommend that not only evenings when there is no moon, but also evenings when there is considerable moonlight be chosen for this work, as the starry heavens are radically different in appearance at such 85 times. It is not 'necessary that the student identify more than a few of the very prominent constellations. The method of obtaining exact time, and the relations between the various kinds of time should be carefully considered. Atten- tion should be called to the importance of uniform standards of time and to the necessities which have led to the division of the country into a few time belts. In the study of the planets the stu- dent should be asked to locate by his own observation all those that are visible during the time that he is engaged in astronomi- cal study, it having been explained to him that the planets show a steady and not scintillating light, that they are close to the plane of the ecliptic, and that by careful observation their move- ment may be noted in the course of a few days. Attention should be called particularly to astronomical units, stress being laid upon the necessity of using units in terms of which all magnitudes may be expressed by rather small numbers, large numbers being in general quite meaningless to the student. Thus terrestrial dimensions maybe given in miles; while the moon’s distance is preferably expressed in terms of the earth’s radius. The mean distance of the sun is a convenient unit with which to measure all planetary distances, while “light years” are needed to reduce the incomprehensible stellar distances to our ordinary numerical con- ception. For help in identifying constellations, and also for use in the classroom, the diameter of the moon’s disc should be kept in mind as about one-half of a degree, while the distance between the “pointers” of the “Dipper” is about five degrees, and one side of the great “Square of Pegasus” about eleven degrees. In connection with the latter constellation it may be noted that the east side of this square lies in the Equinoctial Colture, thus en- abling the student to form some definite conception of the position of the Vernal Equinox. By means of such facts as the above the student will acquire concrete ideas of the angular distance, sepa- rating stellar bodies, and of the dimensions of figures upon the celestial sphere. Without these ideas, many of the fundamental notions of the science must be vague and unintelligible to the student and their statement a mere memory exercise. L. G. Wkld. BUSINESS TRAINING. This is a commercial age and the educators of to-day are faced with a condition, not a theory. This condition demands that the public schools prepare young people for the necessity of the hour, which is a thorough technical and commercial education. It is also true that this is an age of specialists, and the expert or the 86 specialist in commercial, professional and public affairs is every- where in demand. Investigation has shown that the thorough business and tech- nical training provided by the public schools of Germany has had an intimate relation to her high and enviable position in the world’s commerce. The German government has for many years maintained, at public expense, free commercial high schools and free technical schools, and in spite of the natural physical disad- vantages of the country, the German government and the German people are to-day reaping the benefits of a liberal education. A man who is known to the world as a successful business man and author says, “I can with confidence recommend the busi- ness career as one in which there is abundant room for the exer- cise of man’s highest powers and of every good quality in human nature. I believe the career of the great merchant or banker or captain of industry to be favorable to the development of the pow- ers of the mind and to the ripening of the judgment upon a wide range of general subjects, to the freedom from prejudice and the keeping of an open mind.” In addition to the pecuniary advantage to the student, there is a great public benefit which will result from the teaching of busi- ness branches in the public schools. If all the accounts of the public officials were kept by competent bookkeepers and the pub- lic officials themselves were familiar with business customs, there would certainly be a great saving to the taxpayers, and the morals of public offices would rise several degrees in the scale. The stu- dent of bookkeeping sees in every transaction the nice balancing of values in his debits and credits. He learns in a practical way that nothing of value is acquired without an outlay of its equiva- lent in some form. The mental training thus derived from the constant balancing of values received with values given out is second to none furnished by the public schools. So the study of bookkeeping and business methods commends itself as a means of practical, moral and intellectual training. Practical, because it fits one for success in business, professional and public life; moral, because it reduces the chance and temptation for profligate or fraudulent use of private and public money. Intellectual, be- cause it broadens and trains the mind on a wide range of subjects. A business course can scarcely be called such unless it include short-hand and typewriting. The average business man of to-day has no time to devote to the training of stenographers, book-keepers and other office assistants, and the young man or woman with a knowledge of business forms, business transactions, and customs has a great advantage over the one who lacks such knowledge. A few years ago young men were taken into an office and trained to do the general work of that office and were called office clerks. Now the trained stenographer has almost wholly superseded the office clerk. 87 For this reason the young men and women are leaving the public schools early and attending the business colleges in order to prepare for this work. In the interest of a general education I believe it is the duty of the public schools, wherever it is possible, to provide a course in commercial geography, book-keeping, shorthand and typewriting. If general intelligence is the bulwark of our liberties and welfare, let us throw out this inducement to keep our young people in the public schools, where they may attain a broader, more liberal education than they now receive. Shorthand commends itself as a high school study because of the mind and hand training that it provides. All the principles employed in this scientific art are governed by definite rules. The correct application of each rule trains the mind to discern and apply principles in rapid succession* This not only develops judgment, but activity of thought and executive volition. There is no study in the high school course that so constantly compels the correct use of English as does shorthand and typewriting. Every transcript is a lesson in English, punctuation and spelling. The typewriter is probably the best censor in the school because it shows to the pupil clearly and impartially, privately first, then in full view of the public, all his little weaknesses in the use of English. Dr. Taylor says: “The three elements necessary to success are accuracy, speed and comprehensiveness. The student must learn not only the theory, but must be accurate in the application of the theory. But this will be of little practical use unless he be able to command accuracy with speed. A person who can do a given amount of work in one day is worth twice as much as one who requires two days for the task, and three times as much as one who requires three days, etc. In this commercial age we have learned to value people for what they can accomplish— not according to what they may know how to do. By comprehensiveness in this connection is meant the knowing of what each occasion demands or the power to grasp the situation and make the most of it, instead of doing each individual thing as commanded. Teach the pupil to see things, and to turn his knowledge, ability and tact to the accomplishment of a purpose. The first matter of importance in the teaching of kook-keeping is the selection of a good modern text-one that treats of up-to-date methods, gives due attention to penmanship and the writing out and filing of such business and legal documents as are called for in ordinary business transactions. The saving of a few cents should not influence school authorities toward the selection of a text that deals with antiquated methods and practices that are never used outside of the school room. 1. Put into the hands of the pupils a model daybook journal and have them make a neat and correct copy of it. Show them the 88 relations existing- between the day book record and the journal entry. Show them that the day book record is a history of the transaction and that the journal entry is the same, arranged briefly as debits and credits for convenience of posting. 2. Now show them a model ledger with the same transactions carried from the journal, i. e., posted into accounts. Teach them the nature and object of these accounts, and the characteristics of the various accounts showing how they are affected by the business transactions. Trace the transactions from the journal to the ledger making the pupils understand how, when and why, these accounts are debited and credited. 3. Have the pupils post the transactions from their day book journals into their ledgers correctly and systematically one day’s transactions after another giving careful attention to form and penmanship. 4. Pencil-foot the accounts in the model ledger and list them, i. e., take a trial balance, teaching the nature and object of the same. Then have the pupils take a trial balance to prove the correcteess of their work. See that all this is done in a neat and business like manner. Have the work written as many times as may be neces- sary to get a well written copy devoid of errors. 5. Now review the work and lead the pupils to see why the sides of a trial balance are equal. Show them that in the journal each debit has an equal credit and that therefore the total debits and total credits in the journal are equal. These debits and credits being carried to their respective sides in the ledger, that book must balance. Therefore, the trial balance is used to prove the correct- ness of the work. 6. Next have the pupils carry on business transactions, writing out the various papers necessary and using representative currency, and cards to represent the merchandise bought and sold. When the pupil has completed each transaction and understands it, have him make a neat record of it in his day book journal, making such a record as would enable any one to learn by reading it just what the transaction was. These transactions should be so graded that each one will give the pupils a broader insight into the science of accounts. 7. After a sufficient number of transactions to make a good showing have been recorded, say thirty or forty, have the pupils post them and take a trial balance. 8. Have them take an inventory of stock on hand. 9. Teach them the nature and purpose of a balance sheet, when and how to make it, then have one taken of. their work. 10. Have all accounts showing loss or gain closed and make the proprietors account show the net loss or gain and present capital. When the subject has been taught in this way the pupil will see 89 the gradual unfolding of the science, and if the transactions have been made clear by the use of business papers, such as are used in actual business transactions, the study becomes not only profitable, . but interesting and fascinating to the pupil. Clay D. Slinkkr. (Notk: — This chapter was overlooked until late, hence was not subjected to the method of criticism applied to the others, and was not read and approved b3^ the committee as a whole. We suspect that members of the committee might dissent from Mr. Blinker’s plea for stenography in the high school, though all would approve his excellent practical sugges- tions at the close the chapter, — Chairman.) CHEMISTRY. Perhaps in no other subject of the school curriculum is there such wide diversity in the nature and method of the introductory courses offered as in chemistry. Leaving out of account the in- ferior intrinsic value of certain varieties of courses, the want of uniformity is unfortunate for two reasons. First: — Almost any school with continuity of ideal or policy could soon accumulate the requisite laboratory facilities for a good course, but this is hardly practicable if the nature of the work, and therefore, the character af the apparatus demanded, is changed with the incom- ing of every new teacher. Second: — Without at least a fair degree of uniformity in the courses in the secondary schools, the colleges and universities cannot offer courses specially adapted to those who have taken chemistry in the high schools. This paper has reference to only one type of course in element- ary chemistry. It is the sort ot course that is approved and taught by the great majority of able teachers and students of the pedagogy of chemistry and it consists, briefly stated, of recita- tions or lectures on general chemistry, with parallel and distinctly related laboratory work. Time Devoted to Chemistry. To cover the ground of ele- mentary chemistry as a science requires at least a three-hour course extending throughout the year. A five-hour course would be better. If so much time cannot be given to the subject, it would be better to confine the work mostly to the so-called non-metals, since this will suffice for the development of the elements of the theory, rather than to attempt to study all the common elements in detail. Proportion of Laboratory Work. V7ith a good equipment nearly or quite one-half of the time should be devoted to labora- tory work. More time can be given to make clear the significance of the work by individual instruction at the pupil’s desk. All lab- oratory work without a clear idea of its relation to chemical prin- ciples is just as bad as all text-book. Character of Laboratory Work. The chief value of lab- oratory work consists in manual training, in the exercise of judg- ment in applying means to ends and, most important of all, in its 90 bearing upon scientific facts and principles. It is evident, there- fore, that good experiments should not be too simple nor yet beyond the powers of the pupil, and they should bring out facts and suggest principles. An experiment which brings to light several facts and has a direct bearing upon a principle is to be preferred to one that brings out only an isolated fact. A few experiments of the first importance, done with thoroughness and care, are of more value than many experiments of minor importance, done with haste and carelessly. In general, the standard experiments relating to the prepara- tion and properties of the non-metallic elements and their com- pounds are of more importance to the beginner than precipitating compounds of the metals, blowpiping or testing in other ways. A few simple quantitative experiments should be included in every course, but if too many or too difficult they are likely to produce failure and discouragement. Length of Laboeatory Periods. The laboratory period should be at least twice the length of a recitation period. It is surprising to find that in some of the best high schools the labora- tory periods are only forty minutes in length. In many cases it is almost absolutely necessary that the pupil should perform without interruption a group of closely related experiments such as in the prepartion and study of the properties of oxygen, chlorine, am- monia, and this cannot be done in forty minutes. Again, many of the most valuable experiments in both chemistry and physics de- mand more than that amount of time. In a large high school the author recently asked the instructor how he managed to have his pupils do certain experiments within the prescribed period, and the answer was, “We have the apparatus all ready set up for them at the beginning of the period. “ In other words the pupil merely pressed the button. Is that teaching science? The Inductive Method. It is probably neither practicable nor desirable to carry out in the strictest sense the inductive method in teaching chemistry. Most pupils have neither the abil- ity nor the time to re-discover the science of chemistry. The pres- ence of the descriptive text-book makes it impracticable to pursue a strictly inductive plan. Nevertheless, the spirit of the course should be inductive. By this is meant facts first and then princi- ples and theories as the logical inferences from facts. The laboratory work upon any topic should precede the reci- tation or lecture upon the same topic. The experiments should be discussed in the recitation-room after the laboratory work has been done, and the facts they teach should be made clear. Other experiments should be performed by the teacher and their significance made plain. Around the facts brought out by the experiments should be grouped other related facts, and then 91 principles and theories may in the true inductive spirit be dis- cussed in the light of these facts. The Order of Study. Unfortunately that part of general chemistry offering most difficulty, both in the laboratory and in the recitation- room must come near the beginning of the course; that is the non-metallic elements, where are met most of the gase- ous elements and compounds. It is very desirable that the ele- ments of theoiy be introduced near the beginning of the course, and for the consideration of theory a knowledge of the composi- tions and reactions of gases by volume is essential. For this reason a good order of study is, oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine, bro- mine, iodine, nitrogen and their compounds, and air. A little theory may then be introduced, after which the non-metallic ele- ments may be taken up, so far as practicable, in groups, as they occur in the periodic arrangement. This arrangement is probably not final, but it is practically of great advantage to study nearly related elements together instead of in the purely artificial order as they occur in the analytical groups. Leaving out the above elements as already studied, perhaps the groups whose elements are most important in the study of chemical theory are in order, VI, V, IV, III, I, II, VIII, VII. Chemical Theory. Chemical theory is difficult, but it may be made far easier for the pupil if introduced as he is prepared for it and it is skillfully presented. Only a knowledge of chemical facts can prepare the pupil for the comprehension of the theory. The common practice of the text-books in presenting a mass of theory at the very beginning, including atomic and molecular weights, formulae, valence cannot be too strongly condemned. This is seemingly done in order that reactions may be repre- sented by equations of formulae, which seems to be the end and goal of chemical study in the minds of some text-book writers and teachers. The foundation of chemical theory as regards atoms, mole- cules and reactions is proportion by weight and by volume. The logical procedure in the earlier part of the course is, therefore, to represent reactions by weight, and by volume if gases are con- cerned. The laws of definite and multiple proportions naturally and even inevitably come to the fore, and these lead naturally to the ideas of atom and molecule. The ideas of atoms and mole- cules may be presented as soon as oxygen and hydrogen and their compounds have been studied. After the study of chlorine, bro- mine, nitrogen and their compounds, these ideas may be brought up again and enlarged upon. At this point proportions by weight and by volume may be translated into formulae and these may be used in a tentative way. About the middle of the course may be introduced, in an elementary way, the determination of atomic and molecular weights, and the calculation of formulae. 92 In short, the theory should be presented in small amounts as the pupils are ready for it, and each time that which has been pre- viously presented should be reviewed. One of the greatest evils in the teaching of elementary chem- istry is the misuse of formulae and equations. They are merely the receptacles of truth, or forms of expressing truth inferred from experiments and not means of discovering truth. The teacher is often asked to give rules for writing equations. Mani- festly in the very nature of the case there can be no such rules, since equations merely represent reactions that take place. With a knowledge of a part of a reaction, related reactions and valence, the remainder of the reaction may, with much probability, be inferred, but the result of such inference is never certain until proved by experiment. Laboratory Management. It is not advisable to undertake the study of chemistry in a high school without some facilities for laboratory work by students. A beginning may be made with a few essentials and a prospect of increasing the equipment. With a consistent purpose, care of apparatus and judicious small expenditures each year, a good working equipment is soon accu- mulated. The first requisites for good laboratory work are sufficient space and desk room for individual students. The apparatus should be sufficient in quality and quantity, every student should have his own and should be held responsible for it. There should be no such thing as two students v/orking together upon the same experiment at the same time. The chemicals and apparatus absolutely necessary to good lab- oratory work are not expensive. Fortunately schools may import, through American dealers, chemicals and apparatus duty free or at prices only a little more than half those paid at home. Importers are willing to handle orders of $100 or even less. In purchasing supplies two mistakes are very commonly made. The first is the purchase of a few expensive pieces for the teacher to use before the class instead of getting a large number of simpler things for the same amount of money, suitable for the use of stu- dents. It is not at all uncommon to find in a high school laboratory half a dozen show pieces of physical apparatus which cost enough money, had it been judiciously expended, to fit up very fairly a phys- ical laboratory for a dozen pupils doing elementary work. The second mistake applies chiefly to chemistry, and is that of buying chemically pure chemicals for almost everything. Such chemicals cost as a rule three or four times as much as the ordinary commer- cial chemicals, which in nine cases in ten' are just as good as the chemically pure. Another extravagance is the purchase of Bohemian glassware which costs twice as much as the modern German ware which for most purposes is just as good. 93 Everything connected with the laboratory should be reduced to system. All chemicals and apparatus needed in any laboratory period should be provided beforehand. Failure at one or two points may throw the whole class into confusion. Work of the initiated should not be committed to wholly inexperienced hands. For example, hard glass tubing should be w^orked into the necessary forms beforehand by the teacher. Only the experienced can quickly and surely bore cork stoppers and set up gas-tight apparatus with them. Endless annoyance and failure are spared by using rubber stoppers, counting waste of corks, rubber stoppers are cheaper. Shelf reagents and other solutions for students’ use should never be made up by guess, but by following a definite system of concentrations that experience has proved good. Laboratory Teaching. The printed or written directions for the experimental work should be clear and explicit, and even then it is best to supplement the directions and illustrate difficult points in the work before the pupils enter the laboratory. The efficient teacher will take such occasions to make necessary changes in the directions, if they are not his own, to suit his own environment. On such occasions apparatus at all complicated should be set up before the class, and it is well to place it in the laboratory as a model. While good laboratory work is indispensible in the proper study of chemistry, it cannot be too strongly urged that even a well se- lected course of experiments may be so done as to result in little more than inferior manual training. The teacher must ever be on the alert to prevent pupils from falling into mechanical and slovenly habits of work. Nothing but persistent questioning and suggestion will prevent the former, and nothing but unsparing criticism with suggestions having the force of commands will prevent the latter. The common idea that any apparatus that “will work’’ is good enough should not be tolerated. The teacher should unhesitatingly require thepupiltoreconstruct any piece of apparatus not properly set up and to readjust it until it is right. An experiment performed with only partial success should be repeated until proper results are obtained. It should not be expected that all experiments will be successful the first time they are tried by inexperienced hands. With rare exception the teacher should resist the temptation to help the pupil out of a difficulty with his own hands, and should confine his aid to suggestions. Note-taking. The laboratory note-book should contain a faith- ful record of the student’s work, including a description of the apparatus, a statement of the chemicals used, conditions, results and any inferences that may legitimately be drawn. The notes should be written as the experiments are performed and never copied. Only those notes that are original records are of value. Such note books with their poor penmanship and stains made by chemicals do not look so well as the elaborated, faultless copies 94 made at home, but that fact is not to be considered when we remember that such copied notes lose their value as records. The teachers should beware of the note books sold by.publishers and having- such headings as “Requirements,” “Conditions,” “Observations,” Conclusions,” followed by blanks for the student to fill in. Do not quench any spark of originality the pupil may have by any such stereotyped artifices. The notes should read as records of work done, and should be in the most accurate and con- cise language. They should be self-explanatory and not require the laboratory hand-book for their interpretation. Beyond requiring proper arrangement, title of the experiment, paragraphing and placing numbers to be compared in the same vertical column, the individuality of the pupil may be allowed to assert itself. Outline drawings of apparatus should be specially encouraged. The: Te;ache:r. A man of first rate ability, bright, energetic and resourceful, may teach chemistry well in a high school though he has taken only one full year course in the science in a college or university, but two or three years of preparation are very much better. It is only the exceptional man who can do good work with one year’s preparation, and one who has had good training in related sciences, such as physics. The author wishes to make a plea against the over-burdening of the science teacher. To conduct the recitations in chemistry or physics, manage the laboratory, prepare apparatus and chemicals, and do the laboratory teaching demands an amount of time and energy equivalent to that required by two or three classes in other subjects. Until this fact is recognized, work of the same degree of excellence as that done in the languages and mathematics need not be expected in chemistry and physics. The conscientious teacher who is overburdened by classes in other subjects may do his science work well for a time by overwork, but in the majority of cases he will leave the profession for some other occupation or perforce fall into easier and inferior methods of conducting his science teaching. To build up a good science laboratory it is necessary to have continuity of plan and purpose, and it is hardly necessary to say that it is, therefore, very important that a good science teacher once secured should be retained if possible through a series of years. Text^and Re:fkre:nce: Books. Most teachers prefer to use a text-book and in general this may be advisable, though there are those who believe that the very well prepared teacher who is some- thing of an artist in his w'ork may do better if free from the restric- tions inseparable from the use of a text-book. Anyone selecting a text-book for the class room should choose that one having in the greatest degree these characters. (1) The book: should cover the ground of the common elements and chemical theory in an elementary way. 95 (2) It should have the true inductive spirit. By this is meant not only that the pupil should be led to draw inferences from his laboratory work, but also, that the ground for all fundamental con- ceptions in chemical theory should be made clear. (3) The laboratory work should be practicable and well chosen, and the cuts to illustrate it should represent present day forms of apparatus intead of forms long since relegated to the scrap-pile or to the museum of antiquities. (4) It should discuss general chemistry as a pure science and for its own sake and not as a preparation for analysis. (5) Formulae should have their proper place as a means of expressing ascertained truth, and not as an end of study, or worse yet, as means of ascertaining truth. Whether a text-book is used or not, the laboratory should contain a number of text and reference books for the use of teacher and pupils. Omitting many text-books and laboratory manuals which may be had for the asking, the books in the following list will be found useful: Remsen: Inorganic Chemistry. Theoretical Chemistry. Roscoe and Schorlemmer : Treatise on Chemistry, Vols. I. and II. Newth: Text-book of Chemistry. Chemical Lecture Experi- ments. Thorpe: Essays on Historical Chemistry. Ostwald: Grundlinien der Anorganischen Chemie (when trans- lated) General Chemistry. Solutions. E . von Meyer: History of Chemistry. Mendelejeff : Principles of Chemistry. Richter: Organic Chemistry. Ramsay: Gases of the Atmosphere. Walker- Dobbin: Chemical Theory for Beginners. Fresenius: Qualitative Analysis. Lassar-Cohn: Chemistry of Every-day Life. Borchers: Electro-Smelting and Refining. Walter S. He:ndrixson. DRAWING. Pupils entering the high school are full of restless activity and their ideas about themselves and their relation to society and the future are uncertain. Too frequently the parents have had no definite plans for the child, who rambles [on through the grades and through the high school without the slightest idea what he is to do when he is through. The instruction of our high schools then should be necessarily 96 broad and fundamental. The body as well as the mind should be broug-ht under subjection and suggestions should be given along many lines which tend toward full development. If the graduate goes out with mind, eye and hand trained he is prepared to enter upon professional, scientific, mechanical or manual work. Drawing then should be regarded as a necessity in our schools, for it develops thought and reasoning power, trains the eye and hand and equips one for life’s work. We are all united in opinion as to the necessity of drawing in connection with physiology, zoology, geology, geometry, geography, botany, physics, history and reading. The teacher should draw on the blackboard when explaining the lesson and the pupil should illus- trate his note book and written lessons making his knowledge more accurate and expressing it unequivocally. But all this is of minor importance. Prof. Wm. Jones, of Harvard says: “As much, if not more can be got from drawing in the way of general training than from either the languages or mathematics. In fact no other single subject is capable of training the mental faculties to the same extent.’’ Deftness and inventiveness in shaping material is a basis for all kinds of skillful work as well as all aesthetic expression. Drawing has a right to an independent existence and should be recognized because of its own power and purpose. Teach the pupil to see truth and beauty and he will represent it according to the cast of his mind, either scientifically or artistically. Help him to realize that such appreciation is laudable and the world will have more Audubons, Agassiz, Longfellows and Bryants. If all cannot attain to greatness all can be taught to appreciate it in others. Better work will come from the foundries, tin shops, planing mills, potteries, woolen mills, book binderies, printing offices, silver mills and manufactories in general if drawing is properly taught in the public schools and of course from the high school alone can we expect to get practical results. England’s experience in competing with France in textile fabrics should be recalled. Recognizing her artistic deficiencies she established a national school of design, where artist artizans were trained with little or no improvement in the manufactured articles. It was evident that the factories were not being influenced and in order that they should be, it was necessary to place instruction within the reach of all. Lessons in design were made obligatory in the common schools and trade improved. We, as a people have been learning the same lesson. Only through instruction in drawing, given in our public schools, can we expect to compete with other nations in manufactured articles. It is through the general dissemination of the fundamental art princi- ples that the workman and the public are trained. If we would sell our goods at home or abroad they must be as good as the best. 97 It is necessary to make use of our own abundant material to get the full share of profit from commercial activities. The dec- orative designs of the present should be based largely on those of the past. In historical art the spirit of the nation, not a fleeting idea of an individual, is studied. A unit of design that has re- ceived the approbation of centuries is certainly worthy of our respect. In addition to the art culture received in this Vvay, his- tory itself becomes more impressive and a sense of comradeship exists for the one who copies the ancient ornament. Botany, too, comes to the assistance of the designer, for nature, as well as ge- ometry and art, is his inspiration. An excellent knowledge of the growth, habit and form of a plant is necessary if its correct type is given by conventionalization. The application and combination of color is both attractive and instructive. As a people we are very deficient in the color sense and should put forth an effort towards its acquirement. Taste depends upon education, not heredity. Satisfactory work can be done in color by the use of choice papers prepared by the educational companies for this purpose or of colored pen- cils if their range is great enough, but far more preferable and educational is the use of water colors. With them almost every variety of hue and tone can be obtained and much more skill is developed in their management. Closely connected with this sub- ject is that of the work of dravdng. Both demand refined precis- ion, accuracy, order and symmetry. Beauty as well as utility should enter into the construction of buildings, machines and furnishings in general. Constructive drawing is of prime import- ance. It developes the inventive faculties and requires apprecia- tion of proportion and propriety. If drawing has been taught in the grades and a knowledge of correct drawing and placing of the views has been obtained from the type forms and common objects, more elaborate designs should be attempted in the high school. Objects should be selected for the exercises which possess beauty of form as well as good con- struction. The work might commence with a review of the facts of some of the type forms, afterwards drawing from objects based upon them, e. g.: the principles of the square prism are the same as those of any rectangular object, as a table, bench, settee, chair, desk, cupboard, etc. The pupil should himself take the measurements from the ob- jects and give them the top, front and side views of most of the forms studied. A cast of the Doric, Tuscan or Ionic order might be used advantageously, requiring the top and front views. Orig- inal designs and plans of articles in common use should be re- quired. Plans of elevations of houses should also be expected. Copy one or two, then call for original work such as drawing the 98 top, front and side views of the house in which he lives and its several floor plans or such diagrams of the school house or other public buildings. These views might be combined in mechanical perspective exercises giving the appearance as well as facts of the models. This subject is clearly and attractively presented by C. F. Ed- minister in “Architectural Drawing” and L. W. Miller in “Essen- tials of Perspective.” Drawing boards, T squares and triangles, rulers, compass and dividers should be in the possession of each pupil. Water colors may also be used here if the standard of the school is high enough. Representation must necessarily occupy the greater portion of time assigned to drawing and in presenting it great pains should be taken to insist that appearance, not fact, is wanted. Art is not a mirror* like reproduction of nature, but is what an intellectual being sees or desires to see in certain moods. He may be interested in the dawn or evening with results in the manner of Corot or Guido Remi. His sympathies may be enlisted with the poor and suffering as were Millet’s and Muncaczy’s. He may see the faithfulness and devotion of the brute and present them as did Rosa Bonheur and Landseer, or he may see beauty in the human form and express it as did Praxitiles and Michael Angelo. Realizing that the pupil of the high school is of the most im- pressible age, that the after course of his life is usually deter- mined there, it should be one of the first aims of the public school to instil an appreciation of art. The silent forces are often the most potent. Good prints of the best architecture, designs, stat- ues and paintings should be held essential in school room furnish- ing, especially where the community is barren of such adornments. Art gives more inspiration and encouragement than nature, for in the midst of the grandeur and beauty of the latter the ama* teur is confused and overwhelmed, but the former gives encouragement, a feeling of emulation and enables him to acquire the grammar of art. We add the following miscellaneous suggestions : Much can be accomplished in the study of composition under the influence of the Perry pictures so comimon in cur day. Arthur W. Dow has given most valuable assistance in his book on this subject. “How to Enjoy Pictures” should be in every school library. It should be remembered that forms are made vis- ible by light and shade alone; consequently in representing them, not outline but light and shade should appear. Good spirited work should be done in water colors from life and still life as well as in design. Every effort should be made to develop the color sense. 99 Drawing" from memory and imagination can be profitably pur- sued in the high school. The most lasting impressions and the most artistic results are to be obtained in this way. The medium used is of slight importance, ^whether brush, pen- cil, charcoal or pen. The result depends upon mental perception. When we realize that drawing is a mental process and not an inborn talent, then, and not until then, can we expect to have gcod work in our schools. FRENCH. I. ELEMENTARY COURSE. 1. The Aim of the Instruction. At the end of the element- ary course the pupil should be able to pronounce French accurately, to read at sight easy French prose, to put into French simple English sentences taken from the language of every-day life, or based upon a portion of the French text read, and to answer ques- tions on the rudiments of the grammar as defined below. 2. The Work to be Done. During the first year the work should comprise (a) careful drill in pronunciation: (b) the rudi- ments of grammar, including the inflection of the regular and the more common irregular verbs, the plural of nouns, the inflection of adjectives, participles and pronouns; the use of personal pro- nouns, common adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions; the order of words in the sentence, and the elementary rules of syn- tax; (c) abundant easy exercises, designed not only to fix in the memory the forms and principles of grammar, but also to culti- vate readiness in the reproduction of natural forms of expression; (d) the reading of from 100 to 175 duodecimo pages of graduated texts, with constant practice in translating into French easy vari- ations of the sentences read, the teacher giving the English, and in reproducing from memory sentences previously read; (e) writ- ing French from dictation. During the second year the work should comprise: (a) the reading of from 250 to 400 pages of easy modern prose in the form of stories, plays, or historical or biographical sketches; (b) con- tinued practice in translating into French easy variations upon the texts read; (c) frequent abstracts, sometimes oral and some- times written, of portions of the text already read; (d) writing French from dictation; (e) continued drill upon the rudiments of grammar, with constant application in the construction of sen- tences; (f) mastery of the forms and use of pronouns, pronominal adjectives, of all but the rare irregular verb forms, and of the simpler uses of the conditional and subjunctive. 100 When only one year’s work in Frencn is attempted, at the close of the secondary course, the total amount of reading indi- cated above must be reduced by about one- fourth. Suitable texts for elementary reading are About’s Le Roi des montagnes; Brunot’s Le tour de la France; Daudet’s easier short tales; De la Bedolliere’s La Mere Michel et son chat; Krck- madn-Chatrian’s stories; Froa’s Contes biographiques and Le petit Robinson de Paris; Foncin’s Le pays de France; Labiche and Martin’s La poudre aux yeux and Le voyage de M. Perrichon; Legouve and Labiche’s La cigale chez les fourmis; Malot’s Sans famine; Mairet’s La tache du petit Pierre; Merimee’s Colomba; extracts from Michelet; Sarcey’s Le siege de Paris; Verne’s stories. 3. Suggestions to the Teacher. The suggestions oifered below upon the teaching of elementary German are, in the main, equally applicable to the teaching of elementary French. While each language has its own peculiar difficulties that require special attention from the teacher, the general principles that should reg- ulate the work are the same for both. Only a few supplementary observations need be added here. The educational value of the study of French in cultivating habits of careful discrimination, of mental alertness, of clear statement, must never be lost from view, and the expediency of an exercise must often be determined by its utility in attaining these ends. With regard to drill in grammar, it is not for the secondary school to spend time over the many pages of exceptions, peculiar- ities in gender and number, idioms that one rarely sees and never thinks of using, and grammatical puzzles for which each learned grammarian has a different solution, that form so large a part of some grammars. The great universals, however, (the regular and the common irregular verbs; negative and interrogative varia- tions; the common use and meaning of moods and tenses; the personal pronouns and their position; the general principles gov- erning the agreement of adjectives, pronouns and participles; the partitive ‘[constructions; the possessives, demonstratives, inter- rogatives, and relatives; the most common adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions), should all be thoroughly understood by the end of the elementary course, and subsequent study should give con- siderable facility in using them. The verb seems most formidable; but when it is perceived that most forms of all verbs may be treated as identically derived from the “primitive tenses,’’ the difficulties appear less numerous, and when the principle of stem differentiation under the influence of tonic accent, persisting in the older and more common verbs, is a little understood, the number of really unique forms is inconsid- erable. 101 No attempt should be made to teach literature until the pupil is quite familiar with ordinary prose and can read page after page of the text assigned with no great need of grammar and diction- ary. The classics of dramatic literature may very properly be postponed until the fourth year, and are not always desirable even then; but a few are given below among texts suitable for the inter- mediate course in the hope that these, rather than others, will be selected by teachers who, for reasons of their own, choose to read something of the kind at this stage of the course. II. INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 1. The Aim of the Instruction. At the end of the interme- diate course the pupil should be able to read at sight ordinary French prose or simple poetry, to translate into French a con- nected passage of English based on the text read, and to answer questions involving a more thorough knowledge of syntax than is expected in the elementary course. 2. The Work to be Done. This should comprise the addi- tional reading of from 400 to 600 pages of French of ordinary difficulty, a portion to be in the dramatic form; constant practice in giving French paraphrases, abstracts, or reproductions from memory of selected portions of the matter read; the study of a grammar of moderate completeness; writing from dictation. This represents the amount of work contemplated in the two years’ preparatory course adopted by the College Department of the Iowa State Teachers’ Association. Suitable texts are: About’s stories; Augier and Sandeau’s Le Gendre de M. Poirier; Beranger’s poems; Corneille’s Le Cid and Horace; Coppee’s poems; Daudet’s La Belle Nivernaise; La Brete’s Mon oncle et mon cure; Mme. de Sevigne’s letters; Hugo’s Hernani and La Chute; Labiche’s plays; Loti’s Pecheur d’Islande; Mignet’s historical writings; Moliere’s L’Avare and a Le Bour- geois Gentil’homme; Racine’s Athalie, Andromaque, and Esther; George Sand’s plays and stories; Sandeau’s Mile, de la Seigliere; Scribe’s plays; Thierry’s Recits des temps merovingiens; Thier’s L’Expedition de Bonaparte en Egypte; Vigny’s La canne de jonc; Voltaire’s historical writings. III. ADVANCED COURSE. 1. The Aim of the Instruction. At the end of the advanced course the pupil should be able to read at sight, with the help of vocabulary of special or technical expressions, difficult French not earlier than that of the seventeenth century; to write in French a short essay on some simple subject connected with the works read; to put into French a passage of easy English prose, and to carry on a simple conversation in French. 2. The Work to be Done. This should comprise the addi- 102 tional reading of from 600 to 1,000 pages of standard French, classical and modern, only difficult passages being explained in the class; the writing of numerous short themes in French; the study of syntax. Suitable reading matter will be: Beaumarchais’s Barbier de Seville; Corneille’s dramas; the elder Dumas’s prose writings; the younger Dumas's La question d’argent; Hugo’s Ruy Bias, lyrics, and prose writings; La Fontaine’s fables; Lamartine’s Graziella; Marivaux’s plays; Moliere’s plays; Musset’s plays and poems; Pellissier’s Le Mouvement litteraire au xix siecle; Renan’s Souvenirs d’enfance et de jeunnesse; Rousseau’s writings; Sainte- Beuve’s essays; Taine’s Origines de la France contemporaine; Voltaire’s writings; selections from Zola, Maupassant, and Balzac. John S. Nollen, Francis A. Wood. GERMAN. I. ELEMENTARY COURSE. 1. The Aim of the Instruction. At the end of the elementary course the pupil should be able to read at sight, and to translate, if called upon, a passage of very easy dialogue, or narrative prose, help being given upon unusual words and constructions; to put into German short Eng- lish sentences taken from the language of every-day life or based upon the text given for translation, and to answer questions upon the rudiments of the grammar as defined below. 2. The Work to be Done. During the first year the work should comprise: (a) Careful drill upon pronunciation; (b) the memorizing and frequent repeti- tion of easy colloquial sentences; (c) drill upon the rudiments of grammar, that is, upon the inflection of the articles, of such nouns as belong to the language of everyday life, of adjectives, pronouns, weak verbs, and the more usual strong verbs, also upon the use of the more common prepositions, the simpler uses of the modal aux- iliaries, and the elementary rules of syntax and the word order; (d) abundant easy exercises designed not only to fix in mind the forms and principles of grammar, but also to cultivate readiness in the re- production of natural forms of expression; (e) the reading of from 75 to 100 pages of graduated texts from a reader, or in the form of simple stories, with constant practice in translating into German easy variations upon sentences selected from the reading lesson (the teacher giving the English), and in the reproduction from mem- ory of sentences previously read. During the second year the work should comprise: (a) The 103 reading- of from 150 to 200 pages of literature in the form of easy stories and plays; (b) accompanying practice, as before, in the translation into German of easy variations upon the matter read, and also in the off-hand reproduction, sometimes orally and some- times in writing, of the substance of short and easy selected pas- sages; (c) continued drill upon the rudiments of the grammar, directed to the ends of enabling the pupil, first, to use his knowledge with facility in the formation of sentences, and, secondly, to state his knowledge correctly in the technical language of the grammar. 3. Suggestions to the Teacher. Stories suitable for the elementary course can be selected from the following list (arranged alphabetically) : Anderson’s Maerchen and Bilderbuch ohne Bilder; Arnold’s Fritz auf Ferien; Baumbach’s Maerchen, Die Nonna, and Der Schwiegersohn Gerstaecker’s Germel- shausen, Heyse’s L’Arrabbiata, Das Maedchen von Treppi, and Anfang und Ende; Hillern’s Hoeher als die Kirche; Jensen’s Die braune Erica; Eeander’s Traumereien and Kleine Gerschichten; Seidel’s Maerchen; Stokl’sUnter dem Christbaum; Storm’s Immensee and Geschichten aus der Tonne; Zschokke’s Der zerbrochene Krug. Good plays adapted to the elementary course are much harder to find than good^stories. Five act plays are too long. Among shorter plays the best available are perhaps: Benedix’s Der Prozess, Der Weiberfeind and Guenstige Vorzeichen; Elz’s Er ist nicht eifer- suechtig; Wichert’s An der Majorsecke; Wilhelmi’s Einer muss heiraten. It is recommended, however, that not more than one of these plays be read. The narrative style should predominate. Translation from German into English should be idiomatic, not literal. The pupil should be constantly reminded that he is trans- ferring, from one language to another, ideas not words. But from the outset it should not be forgotten that the principal object of study is not to learn to translate, but to learn to read understand- ingly without translating. This end can best be accomplished by beginning with some very easy text in connection with the grammar. And, as a rule, a class should never be put into a text, the substance of which it cannot understand at sight. Reproductive Transeation into German. The program of work provides for practice “in the off-hand reproduction, sometimes orally and sometimes in writing, of the substance of short and easy selected passages.” This is what the Germans call “ freie reproduktion,” and is one of the most profitable exercises possible. It teaches the pupil to give heed not only to the meaning, but to the form in which it is expressed, to put thoughts in German with German as a starting point. The language of the original should, of course, not be mem- orized verbatim; what is wanted is not an effort of the memory, but an attempt to express thought in German forms that are remem- bered only in a general way. The objection to independent transla- tion from English into German is that for a long time it is necessarily 104 mechanical. The translator has no help except his grammar and dictionary, and his translation is mere upsetting. In free repro- duction, on the contrary, he instinctively starts from his memory of the original. His thoughts tend to shape themselves in German form. In short, he learns to think in German. II. INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 1. The Aim of the Instruction. At the end of the interme- diate course the pupil should be able to read at sight German prose of ordinary difficulty, whether recent or classical; to put into German a connected passage of simple English, paraphrased from a given text in German; to answer any grammatical ques- tions relating to usual forms and essential principles of the lan- guage, including syntax and word formation, and to translate and explain (so far as explanation may be necessary) a passage of classical literature taken from some text previously studied. 2. The Work to be Done. The work should comprize, in addition to the elementary course, the reading of about 400 pages of moderately difficult prose and poetry, with constant practice in giving, sometimes orally and sometimes in writing, paraphrases, abstracts, or reproductions from memory of selected portions of the matter read; also grammatical drill upon the less usual strong verbs, the use of articles, cases, auxiliaries of all kinds, tenses and modes (with special reference to the infinitive and subjunc- tive), and likewise upon word order and word formation. This represents the work of the second year in the two years* course adopted by the College Department of the Iowa State Teachers' Association. 3. Suggestions to the Teacher. Suitable reading matter can be selected from such works as the following: Ebner-Eschen- bach’s Die Freiherren von Gemperlein; Freytag's Die Journalis- ten and Bilder aus der deutschen Vergangenheit (e. g., Karl der Grosse, Aus den Kreuzzuegen, Doktor Luther, Aus dem Staat Friedrichs des Grossen); Fououe's Undine; Gerstaecker's Irrfahr- ten; Goethe’s Hermann und Dorothea and Iphigenie; Heine’s poems and Reisebilder; Hoffmann’s Historische Erzaehlungen; Les- sing’s Minna von Barnhelm; Meyer’s Gustav Adolfs Page; Moser’s Der Bibliothekar; Riehl’s Novellen (e. g.. Burg Neideck, Der- Fluch der Schoenheit, Der stumme Ratsherr, Das Spielmannskind); Rosegger’s Waldheimat; Schiller’s Der Neffe als Onkel, Der Geisterseher, Wilhelm Tell, Die Jungfrau von Orleans, Das Lied von der Glocke, Balladen; Scheffel’s Der Trompeter von Saek- kingen; Uhland’s poems; Wildenbruch’s Das edle Blut. The general principles of teaching set forth in the preceding section apply also to the work of the intermediate course. Trans- lation should be insisted upon so far as necessary, but the aim should be to dispense with it more and more. Every expedient 105 should be employed which will teach the scholar to comprehend and feel the original directly, without the intervention of English* Occasional exercises in preparing very careful written translations should be continued. Practice should be given in reading at sight from authors of moderate difficulty, such as Riehl or Frey- tag. The “free reproduction” should by all means be kept up. It will be found much more valuable at this stage than independ- ent translation from English into German. In dealing with classical literature, thorough literary studies are, of course, not to be expected, but an effort should be made to bring home to the learner the characteristic literary qualities of the text studied, and to give him a correct general idea of the author. In the case of the drama, at least, some study of structural technique will often add interest to the work. The teacher will find Freytag, Technik des Dramas, or Franz, Aufbau der Handlung in den klas- sischen Dramen (Velhagen und Klasing, 1892)., good guides in this study. III. ADVANCED COURSE. 1. The Aim of the Instruction. At the end of the advanced course the student should be able to read, after brief inspection, any German literature of the last one hundred and fifty years that is free from unusual textual difficulties, to answer in German questions on the lives and works of the great writers studied, and to write in German a short, independent theme upon some assigned topic. 2. The Work to be Done. The work of the advanced course (last y^ar) should comprise the reading of about 500 pages of good literature in prose and verse, reference reading upon the lives and works of the great writers studied, the writing in German of numerous short themes upon assigned subjects, independent translation of -English into German. 3. Suggestions to the Teacher. Suitable reading matter for the last year will be: Freytag’s Soli und Haben; Fulda’s Der Talisman; Goethe’s dramas (except Faust); Goethe’s prose writ- ings (say extracts from Werther and Dichtung und Wahrheit); Grillparzer’s Ahnfrau, Sappho, or Der Traum ein Leben; Hauff’s Lichtenstein; Heine’s more difficult prose (e. g., Ueber Deutsch- land); Kleist’s Prinz von Homburg; Koerner’s Zriny; Lessing’s Emilia Galotti and prose writings (say extracts from the Ham- burgische Dramaturgie or Laokoon); Scheffel’s Ekkehard; Schil- ler’s Wallenstein, Maria Stuart; Braut von Messina, and historical prose (say the third book of the Gesctiichte des dreissigjaehrigen Krieges); Sudermann’s Johannes. Tieck’s Genoveva; Wilden- bruch’s Heinrich. A good selection from this list would be (1) A recent novel, such as Ekkehard or Soli und Haben, read in extracts sufficient to 106 give a good idea of the plot, the style, and the characters; (2) Egmont or Goetz von Berlichingen; (3) some of Goethe’s prose, say the Sesenheim episode from Dichtnng mid Wahrheit; (4) Wal- lenstein’s Lager and Wallenstein’s Tod, with the third book of the Thirty Years’ War; (5) Emilia Galotti; (6) a romantic drama, such as Genoveva or Der Prinz von Homburg. It is assumed that by the time the fourth year is reached, translation in class can be largely dispensed with and the works read somewhat rapidly. Of course, they cannot be thoroughly studied, but thorough liter- ary study belongs to the college or the university. It is not sound doctrine for the secondary school that one work studied with the painstaking thoroughness of the professional scholar is worth half a dozen read rapidly. In the secondary school the aim should be to learn to read easily, rapidly, and yet with intelligent general appreciation, somewhat as an ordinary educated American reads Shakespeare. John S. Nollen, Francis A. Wood. GREEK. I. PRKI.IMINARY STATKMEJNT. The common arrangement of high school courses under present day conditions proposes, as most conductive to the attainment of all the various ends in view, Latin as a central language study, to be continued throughout the four years. As contributory to the aims of high school training, it is also proposed to offer for the last two years of the course as an optional stud 5 ’^ a second foreign language. This language may be Greek, German or French. The natural tendency will be to select a modern language from this op- tional group of studies, on the ground that as one ancient language, Latin, has already been taken, no adequate reason can be assigned for introducing a second one into the high school course. The de- cision of this matter affirmatively or negatively will depend upon the circumstances bearing upon the individual cases. It is never wise to assert dogmatically that Gree]^ should or should not be taught in the high school. If taught properly it has great and distinct ed- ucational value, and no pains should be spared in defining this value in those schools where an option is offered in its favor. II. THE JUSTIFICATION OF GREEK. Greek is peculiarly an original language in the sense that it stands chronologically at the head of the literary languages of the world, and contains in itself the first types of the most distincive and fundamental forms, particularly epic and lyric poetry, tragedy, comedy and artistic prose in history, oratory and philosophy. 107 These are not imperfect types, but, compared with those pro- duced in subsequent times in the most cultivated languages, are found to stand as models of perfection and to furnish inspiration for much of the great literature of the world. The history of what is distinctively our wwld begins with the people who used the Greek language. The new Testament is writ- ten in Greek. The spirit of democracy and of intellectual freedom is in the Greek language and in these respects it is much nearer to the spirit- ual life of the American people than Tatin. In these respects it will also bear scrutiny in comparison with modern languages. It is the language that was spoken by one of the most original and creative people that ever lived and through it has come contri- butions of inestimable value to the life and thought of the modern world. The study of a language having so many claims to pre-eminence and having in it so much that is fundamental, has a distinct value from a pedagogical point of view which ought not to escape the no- tice of those who insist on the modern or scientific spirit in edu- cation. It may be well in leaving this branch of the subject to call at- tention to the fact that there is a well-marked tendency in the secondary schools to study one ancient and one modern language if two languages are offered. In such cases Latin is al- most universally chosen. If this tendency develops into distinct educational policy, then it may be questioned whether the one ancient language should be Latin rather than Greek, and whether the philological eminence of Latin should have such undue weight in settling a question so important for the intellectual life of coming generations. III. THE FIRST REQUISITE. The first requisite for successful work in Greek is adequate un- derstanding of the subject on the part of the teacher. It may be said that this is true of every subject; it is pre-eminently true of this. Greek must secure recognition if at all, by its own intrinsic merits. The indirect and incidental support that Latin, or mathematics, or modern language, or science has, it does not have. To receive at- tention it must be presented by some one who knows something of its real and vital significance. The weary road through the Greek declension and conjugation must be relieved by the systematic and appreciative understanding of the teacher, if the pupil is to perse- vere with the proper degree of enthusiasm. Immature work in the Greek class-room will destroy interest at the most important time. The teacher who takes a class through one year of Greek study without giving him some glimpses of the more pleasing prospects beyond is a failure as a teacher of Greek. 108 IV. TIMK TO BE DEVOTED TO GREEK. Given a competent teacher the consideration of second import- ance is the time to be devoted to the study. The course of study proposed in connection with this manual assigns the second language to the third and fourth years. If any satisfactory results are to be secured in this length of time, there should be five recita- tion periods a week of not less than forty-five minutes each. Better re- sults would be secured in a one hour period. In two years under such circumstances a properly qualified teacher can prepare a pupil for admission to the majority of our colleges, at least with entrance conditions of no great difiiculty. There should be no at- tempt to “cram” or “force,” but rather there should be a normal advance according to the average ability of the class. Any college would prefer a pupil “under conditions,” because less than the full requirement had been completed, but with intelligent understand- ing of the work already done, to one hastily and superficially forced over a larger amount. For example, it is more desirable that a pu- pil be able to read easy Greek readily than that he be able to “ pass ” on the speeches of Xenophon, as a result of special cramming. The only criterion of successful work is the actual understanding of the pupil. V. ESSENTIALS FOR ABILITY TO READ GREEK. In an elementary Greek course one fundamental object should be constantly before the mind of the teacher, namely, to teach his pupils to read, Contributory to this are three essentials: 1. A knowledge of inflectional forms. 2. A knowledge of words (vocab- ulary). 3. A knowlede of the grammatical structure of the average Greek sentence (syntax). These three things are “ essentials ” only as far as they contribute to reading ability. Too often they receive the predominant share of the attention, while the one fundamental aim is almost lost to view. VI. INFLECTIONAL FORMS. The constantly recurring inflectional forms should be thoroughly mastered, gradually, as they occur in the lessons and paradigms. As far as possible this work should be correlated to the reading and writing of Greek. Nothing is so unpalatable and unprofitable as the mere memorizing of forms out of relation to any vital structure. Whenever it is necessary to insist on this, haste should be made to illustrate the functional powers of the dead forms by copious read- ing and writing exercises. Indiscriminate memorizing of forms is pernicious and will defeat its own end. Nothing said in this connection is to be construed as underrat- ing the importance of knowing the inflectional forms. This knowl- edge is fundamental, but the memorizing of forms is never to be substituted for the practical understanding which comes only 109 through work with the Greek sentence in class drill; care should be taken to discriminate between common forms and those little used. VII. VOCABULARY. The acquiring of a vocabulary is a very important problem and it should be approached in a rational and practical manner. To commit words to memory will not answer the requirements. More important it is to memorize words in their relations in the Greek sentence so that with the vocabulary there may come to the learner something of the peculiar genius of the language. In the Greek lessons a large majority of the words used in the Anabasis should become very familiar. To note how readily this may be done the following words are quoted from the preface of a well known beginner’s book: “In the eleven lessons, one hundred and sixty-five words are used. One hundred and thirteen are nouns, twenty-six are verbs. These nouns occur in the Anabasis over thirty-five hundred times. The verbs occur more than twenty-two hundred times.’ ’ It is true that the Greek vocabulary is very copious, but one may read the language with a surprising degree of ease and pleasure with a comparatively limited stock of words at command. Reading Greek aloud by the pupil, listening to it read by the teacher, mem- orizing sentences and select passages, oral exercises varied to suit the circumstances, retranslating, written exercises, all these devices will aid in acquiring a vocabulary, but none of them, or all of them together, will compensate for copious reading of simple Greek prose. VIII. GRAMMATICAL RE:LATI0NS. The third point to be emphasized, a knowledge of grammatical relation, is not to be considered apart from the others, but is to be carefully united with them, in such a way that gradually the essen- tial principles become well fixed in mind. Reviews should be frequent, and attention should be constantly called to passages already passed over in which there are points affording comparison with those in current exercises. IX. grlek prose composition. An invaluable help in all the points mentioned is Greek compo- sition used constantly and judiciously. No definite rules can be given as to the best plan for conducting this exercise. If there is sufficient blackboard space a few illustrative exercises might be put upon the board each day as a part of the regular lesson. This will often prove better than a set exercise once a week even after the pupil has laid aside the first book for the Anabasis. It has less the appear- ance of a “grind” and will, if rightly conducted, contribute most effectively toward the mastery of the work in hand. Oral and written exercises in retranslation should be frequent. Impromptu 110 exercises are likely to be more helpful than those prepared outside of the class, because they exercise to a greater degree the pupil’s mental independence and remove the possibility of reliance upon others. X. SIGHT reading Sight reading should be provided from the beginning, and should be practiced even if there are but a few moments for it. In no other way can the teacher so well get an insight into the difficulties that beset the student, and in no other way will the student himself learn so well to make practical application of the facts and principles which he is acquiring so rapidly. In all tests and examinations passages not previously seen should be chiefly used, so that the student may learn at once that an independent knowledge of Greek is the aim in view, rather than a superficial ability to read a certain number of pages of a given text. XI. kEADING BOOKS. A reading book should be in the hands of the pupil at the earliest practicable moment. Fortunately the best elementary books now introduce connected reading exercises from the first. Among such books are White’s First Greek Book (Ginn & Company) and Forman’s Greek Lessons (Harper Company). Moss’s First Greek Reader is an excellent book for high school use. XII. THE ANABASIS. The Anabasis should be introduced as early in the course as possible. After this is done a part of the time should be devoted to a careful study of the text, and a part of it to more rapid reading. About two books should be subjected to careful analysis and study. An attempt should be made to read at least two books more rapidly. The two methods should be used in conjunction so that the tedium of the slower process may be constantly relieved by the foretaste given by the more rapid reading, of the real end in view. The teacher can often gain much time and create great enthusiasm for this work by suggesting in advance the solution of some of the more troublesome difficulties. XIII. HOMER. The last part of the second year may be profitably devoted to Homer, provided the work of the preceding year and a half has secured in reasonable degree the desired results. Under the direc- tion of a skillful teacher at least two books of Homer may be studied and the student given something of an insight into the real greatness and lasting value of the Greek epic. If this be done the enlargement of view that will accrue to him as a consequence will be an adequate compensation for any labor that may have been bestowed upon Greek, and in the life of any youth of average ability it will prove a practical thing, whether he continues his work as a student or not. .Tohn H. T. Main. Ill GRAMMAR I. If there is any easy language, the language is not English. The structure of English is quite as complex and intricate as that of San- skrit or Hebrew. For a specialist to claim that he has mastered it would be as absurd as a like claim concerning chemistry. The pupil ready to enter the high school has not mastered English grammar. If a better knowledge of the subject seems sufficiently desirable, in itself and educationally, a competent teacher will find no lack of new material. A thorough, accurate knowledge of the simpler elements of Eng- lish grammar should be gained before the pupil leaves the eighth grade. If he then never enters the high school he has acquired in- formation that will have its value to him throughout life, and his course in grammar will have contributed not a little toward the de- velopment of his mind. If the pupil enters the high school, he has a preparation that is essential to the successful study of a foreign lan- guage and that will contribute to his success in studies less evidently related. If elementary grammar has been well learned before the begin- ning of the high school course, probably the time of theininth, tenth and eleventh grades may be used to better advantage than if given to repetitions of elementary grammar or even to courses in grammar somewhat more advanced. In the tw’elfth grade the pupil will bring to the work much greater capacity, both in maturity of mind and in knowledge to serve as the basis of comparisons. To teach grammar successfully is difficult, but not impossible. When the teacher is skillful and well instructed, pupils do not find the subject impractical or dull. But the teacher of English needs special training quite as much as the teacher of Latin or of French. Without it, success should not be expected. Teachers who have not studied the history of the language would find some knowledge of earlier stages in the development of English most helpful. Without a clear perception that the language has a life a and growth scientific study of English grammar is impos- sible and even merely practical study rests upon a wrong basis. Rules of grammar are not manufactured by grammarians; and dis- puted and doubtful points should be consistently referred to reason rather than to text-book authority. Unfortunately no adequate manual exists to help the ambitious teacher conscious of defective preparation. All teachers of English should be familiar with Lounsbury’s History of the English Lan- guage (Holt), and with Emerson’s like-named work (Macmillan.) These books, however, treat almost exclusively of etymology, as does Sweet’s Short Historical English Grammar (Clarendon Press) . A sound and simple introduction to Old English is given in Bright’s Anglo-Saxon Reader (Holt) ; to Middle English, in Liddell’s Chaucer (Macmillan). 112 Among’ other reference books accessible to the teacher and the pupils should be Mason’s English Grammar (Macmillan); the gram- matical works of Bain (Holt) ; Words and Their Ways in English Speech, by Greenough and Kittredge (Macmillan) ; and Toller’s History of the English Language (Macmillan). Among good modern text-books for ^lass use maybe mentioned, as examples, the grammars of Whitney (Ginn) , Whitney and Lock- wood (Ginn), Baskervill and Sewell (American Book Co.), Daven- port and Emerson (Macmillan), and Buehler (Newson&Co.) Other books will occur to any teacher, though competition in this field might well be more active. The close relation between the various departments of English study should be recognized in all classes. While teachers do not now require pupils to parse all of Paradise Lost, interesting construc- tions should never be overlooked by classes in literature or in com- position. Though grammar as a distinct subject may well be omitted in the ninth, tenth and eleventh grades, certainly no ground should be lost. The college student in the Greek New Testament is not required to parse every word, but he is required to be able to do this; and the teacher of Shakespeare should not be accused of sacri- lege if he now and then recognizes that Shakespeare wrote in English . C. F. Anslky. GRAMMAR II. English Grammar, in spite of the continual attempts to depreciate its value, is one of the leading subjects of an education. The ability to dissect, to get the “anatomy” and “physiology” of our language, then to re-create, to construct the language again from its verbal elements, this cannot be successfully depreciated by the most radical innovator. Grammar may well have a half-year of the high school student’s time. It should be studied preferably near the close of the course for if the pupil has studied Latin or any ancient or foreign language he will then have the advantage of the comparative study of lan- guage. Nothing so convinces a young person of the real “sense” of grammar as the finding of the same construction in different languages, such as the adverbial accusative for example. If the pupil has not studied any other language,his study of rhetoric, literature, science, advanced mathematics and his natural maturity of mind will fit him to see the laws of grammar in a very different light. The plan of studying grammar in the ninth grade too often is an ^excuse for idleness in the seventh and eight grades. It oughf to be possible to finish the elementary phase of grammar before enter- ing the high school. It will prove too taxing usually to teach grammar without a 113 text book, but the book should be carefully chosen. Text books in grammar are either inductive or deductive. Examples of the in- ductive class are Conklin, Metcalf, Southworth and Goddard, Reed and Kellogg, and Whitney. Of the deductive class are Harvey, Swinton, Maxwell, Raub, and Green. Each class has its supporters. To the advocate of deductive methods, inductive text books seem without plan or arrangement, while the friends of inductive methods assert that the deductive texts are dry, unnatural and unin- telligible. There is no doubt that grammar should first be presented inductively, but the high school work must be more or less a matter of review in this subject, and here the deductive method finds its proper field, for the pupil needs to group, arrange and classify his store of grammatical knowledge. He must decide, fix and retain rather than discover. If an inductive text is to be used, it ought by all means to have an analytical index as well as an alphabetical, so that the worh may be taken up in topical form, regardless of the order of the book. It is unfortunate that authors have not seen fit to arrange analytical indexes for grammars, but by patient digging the teacher can prepare one for himself. Pupils should be given much practice in looking up subjects by means of the index. At first this must be under the direction of the teacher, but the aim should be to lead the pupil to help himself to use his text book as a working manual to furnish him the help he most needs and to make him an independent student. The analysis of the sentence should be the chief work of high school grammar classes. It calls forth to the highest degree the exercise of fine discrimination and keen reasoning power. By these powers the student is enabled to read the relations and interdepend- encies in the sentence and thus determine the office of each proposi- tion, phrase and word. Try as we will in the grammar grades, the pupil will rely mainly on mechanical devices to distinguish the parts of speech. This has been the experience of the human race, as is shown by the highly inflected languages of the ancients. Asnatio ns became older they began to abandon the mechanical endings of words to show their use in a sentence. The English language being of such recent origin, has very few inflections. We must therefore tell by analysis of the thought what the ancients could recognize mechanically. The first step to be taken in grammatical analysis of involved as well as simple sentences is the separation into subject and pre- dicate. For example, the sentence, “It is one of the Indian rules of politeness not to answer a public proposition the same day it is made.” The subject is “not to answer a public proposition the same day it is made;” the predicate, “Is one of the Indian rules of polite- ness.” The predicate may ordinarily be distinguished by being of wider content than the subject. 114 Such work is purely logical and ought to be practiced freely with intricate and inverted sentences until a high proficiency is reached. Following this comes the separation of the subject into clauses, phrases and words. Much of this work is in reality a sort of disguised parsing, as when we speak of a noun clause, adjec- tive phrase, or an adverbial modifier. Written diagrams assist in analysis also, as the learner can see at every step the part of the sentence that he has finished and ail that remains to be done. As well attempt to do away with the written solution in arithmetic as with diagrams in grammatical analysis. The plan so often condemned, of giving peculiar sentences for analysis, such as “Crack went the whip!” seems to be justifiable when the sentences are used by way of introducing variety and exciting interest. Often they aid greatly in developing the keen and ready judgment so necessary in advanced work in grammar. It is akin to the prevalent practice in geometry of giving “exer- cises” for the student to solve. Inverted and elliptical sentences furnish excellent material for this work. Greater analytical power should give greater synthetic power, and hand in hand with the dissection of sentences must go the building of sentences. Learn to analyze intricate English compo- sition and then take up the original work of building such struc- tures. Great benefit may be derived by giving many original sentences illustrative of each type studied. Any one who has studied Latin knows how spontaneously the person who reads Caesar’s Gallic War adopts participial constructions. Such results should be obtained, if work in synthesis is combined with analysis. An excellent device to lead the pupil to see his own shortcom- ings in composition is to place side by side with one of the loose, inaccurate sentences from his experiment book in physics or chemistry one of the gems of a master of clear and pure English like Hawthorne or Irving and note such points as accurate use of connectives, participial abridgements, and relative clauses, and have the student compare this with his own crude work. Parsing is the application of tests to determine the use of a word in a sentence; never does it consist in going through a cer- tain routine as if the word had such inherent properties. Perhaps it is better not to have formal parsing. Taking the sentence, “There was a general rush to Cape Nome,” how is “rush” used? Subject of the affirmation, hence noun, nominative case. What does “general” do? Describes “rush,” hence descriptive adjec- tive. Thus the necessary facts are brought out and the ruts of routine are avoided. The principles of grammar which will help correct prevalent errors of speech ought to be strongly emphasized. The high 115 school pupil will correct his errors of speech by application of grammatical principles where the lower grade pupil is obliged to depend on memorizing correct forms. Hence the high school boy and girl need to emphasize the principal parts of irregular verbs, the objective and nominative forms of pronouns, agreement of the verb with its subject; in brief the entire field of inflection needs to be searched and every point of weakness thoroughly covered. G. K. Finch. GEOLOGY. Much that might be offered in the way of suggestion to teach- ers of geology has been said under the section of physical geogra- phy, the more elementary and the more widely taught of these two related earth sciences. In many of the towns of the state geology is of particular interest on account of the richness of the local field. Nowhere is there wanting a ready approach, and in cities dependent in part on mining, as Dubuque, Ottumwa, and Fort Dodge, or of national fame for the richness of fossiliferous outcrops, such as Burlington and Rockford, or fortunate in the exposures of various formations or in the topographic interest of the locality, as are towns and cities too numerous to mention, the local conditions awakening curiosity and interest may well make geology a favorite science. Geology affords, as perhaps no other subject can, a continuous discipline in inductive reasoning. It gives practice in logical statement of trains of reasoned thought, and the many problems the progressive teacher will suggest as original exercises give it a field comparable to that of inventional geometry. It enlarges the mind to conceive of ‘the vast lengths of geologic time perhaps even more than to realize in astronomy the immensity of space. For the interstellar spaces are void, while the vistas of geologic time are crowded with the events which make the history of creation. Geology is of educational value on account of its close core- lations with other subjects. It prolongs the perspective of his- tory. It gives a long and pregnant past to zoology and botany. It applies the principles of chemistry and physics, and borrows freely from astronomy. Especially is the geologic control over geography direct and far reaching, and it is exercised thus medi- ately, as well as in many ways immediately, over the life and work and history of man. Furthermore, the science is fundamental in the training of teachers. The newer geographies, with their wealth of geologic fact and principle, cannot be successfully taught by one ignorant of geology. As the eminent German geographer, Baron Richtho- fen, has well said, “The surest foundation for the study of geog- raphy is geology in its whole compass, as being the only means to 116 an understanding of the earth’s surface.” So long as the high school supplies the teachers of geography in the grades, should it provide ior the effective teaching of the subject matter of geol- ogy, under whatever name it may be known. In order to make the science of the greatest value in the equip- ment of teachers of geography, it is well to give much space to the dynamic and physiographic sides of the subject. In this, the sci- ence of land forms, we tread the overlap-land between geology and geography. It was, however, by geology that it was explored, and described. Educationally, also, the simpler and more easy approach is found on the geologic side, the path of genesis and process, instead of the geographic path of classification by form. Geology thus binds as closely as possible together causes and consequences, process and the resulting land form. The action of the geologic agents and the modeling of the earth’s surface they produce can hardly be given too much space. Land forms should be made real by model, photograph, lantern- view, and especially by the topographic map. These will be more readily understood if practice is first given in contouring some relief-form, a detached hill, or some ravine. In especial, field excursions should be taken to all accessible objects of geologic interest. Exposures of the indurated rocks and of glacial till with associated sands and loess can hardly be studied too thor- oughly. The cemetery may afford examples of at least the begin- ning of rock disintegration. Profiles of creek or river valley should be made. In this work in the field the reports of the Iowa Survey are found of great value. One result of out- door excursions should be the ^gathering of a small school museum. Collections of common rocks and rock-mak- ing minerals may be obtained cheaply from dealers, as from Ward’s Natural Science Establishment, Rochester, N. Y., and E. E. Howell, Washington, D. C. But nothing can take the place of the well- labelled collection of common specimens illustrating great principles. The block of red clay in place on the decayed limestone from which it weathered, the limestone fragment with the crystalline fossils left in relief above the softer granular matrix, the film of ferric oxide from the decomposition of hornblende, the whitened crust of felds- pathic rock changing to kaolin, the flint nodule, the ripple-marked sandstone, the pebble facetted by glacier or rounded by the river — such are the homely specimens worth more to a school than some rare and brilliant ores from distant states. Drawing should be made much of both in the laboratory and in recitation. Sections given in the text should be faithftlly reproduced on the blackboard, and many others may be obtained as inventional exercises. Profiles should be drawn from topographic maps. In making geologic sections those of the Iowa Geologic Survey will be 117 found helpful, especially those in the report on Artesian Wells in the Sixth Annual Report. Historic geology should be given a subordinate place. Its diffi- culty is due largely to the lack on the part of the pupil of definite knowledge of the present forms of life. It is an incidental value that something of zoology and botany may be thus taught. The pu- pil may perhaps learn for the first time of the splints of the horse’s leg when he studies the legs of its ancestors. It is recommended that considerable room be made for the history of the Pleistocene. Maps of the state should be drawn, showing the area of the different drift sheets, and students should be made thoroughly familiar with their topographic expressions. An increasing interest and demand is evidenced by the number of text books recently issued and announced as in preparation. Brigham’s Geology (Appleton, 1901) is well written and admirably illustrated, well up to date and perhaps not too difficult for the higher grades of the high school where considerable time can be given. Tarr’s (The Macmillan Co., 1897) is a lighter book, a simple and lucid presentation of the leading principles of the science. WiLiyiAM Harmon Norton. MUSIC. General obsejrvations. 1. Music, to be successful, must be taught with as much ear- nestness of purpose as any other branch of study. 2. Music should have an accredited place in the curriculum, counting for graduation. (The opinion of the author not yet con- curred in by the Committee.— Chairman.) 3. Music in high school should have two thirty to forty minute periods per week. 4. Glee clubs or special organizations of talented pupils should be formed and used on special days to encourage and develop such talent. 5. The music used in high school should be on the same high plane as its literature, its songs selected as carefully as its classics. 6 High school choruses, to do careful work, should contain 100 to 150 pupils. In large schools two, three or four divisions is prefer- able to one large chorus. I. CITY SCHOOLS. A. When music has been taught in the grades. 7. General Requirements, a. The work done must depend upon the thoroughness and scope of the results obtained in the grades be- low the high school. 118 b. If the children have not mastered the rudiments of sight reading — ability to sing at sight with good tone and interpretation, easy songs in all keys, this must be reviewed in high school. c. The pupil should have a correct idea of time or rhythm in simple and complicated arrangements. d. Should be able to sing easily moderately difficult chromatic tones, also the minor scales in different forms. e. Voices should have been tested and placed on part suited to the individual. Pupils should be able to carry their part, sustaining the tone true to pitch. f. Pupils should have learned a number of selections from the masters and distinguished between the styles of composition. g. If pupils are thus equipped on entering high school, the further work of studying the musical literature of the best composers becomes an easy and de- lightful task. 2. Outline for First Year or Ninth Grade. a. Review the minor and chromatic scale. b. Vocal drills with vowels e, a, o, ah and oo. Rapid scale practice with same. c. Pantomime for enunciation. d. Tone placing, forward tone, head tone for soprano. e. Study many interesting songs and glees, national and patriotic songs of all lands. f. Analyze songs — meaning of words, historical con- nection, setting, spirit and expression, phrasing and finish. g. Easy choruses, part songs, and folk songs. 3. Outline for Second Year or Eleventh Grade. a. Drills same as Ninth. b. More advanced songs and glees. c. Studies in c Musical History, evolution of modern musical instruments, biographies of the masters, growth of music. d. General light chorus work. 4. Outline for Third and Fourth YearSj or Eleventh and Twelfth Grades. a. Vocal drills continued. b. Oratorios analyzed — selections used from the best known, such as St. Paul, Elijah, Creation, and Messiah. c. Operas analyzed— selections used, d. Stories of plots of operas in current use. e. Sketches of great singers of the present. 119 f. Occasional programs of great composers. Invite musical friends to assist. g. Program of American composers. h. Advanced choral work including the standard choruses. B. When music has not been taught in the grades below the high school. 1. General Directions, a. Pupils must be interested in singing. b. A dozen problems confront the teacher in this position that do not arise when music has been taught, such as prejudice, indifference, diffidence, untrained voices, and inability to carry a part other than the melody. c. Tact is required to meet and overcome all obstacles. d. High school pupils appreciate advanced music, although they may be unable to read it. e. The rudiments of sight reading must next be taught very thoroughly. f. Blend songs and easy choruses with th^ technical work to keep up the interest until the reading has been mastered. g. The songs will be largely note work at first. h. Use songs whose spirit and style have sufficient dig- nity to attract their attention and hold the respect of critical young people, yet simple enough to be within their reach. i. Be patient, enthusiastic and get results. 2. General Work. a. Teach scale as a tune, then syllables. b. From charts or blackboard present staff , clef, measure, meter signature, scale in all positions, kinds of notes, and rests. c. Teach different rhythms, easy exercises, reading rapidly in all keys. Pitch names, key signatures. d. Introduce part singing. From book read large num- bers of carefully graded, progressive exercises. e. Teach easy chromatics, minor scales. f. Test voice. Place on part best suited for voice. g. Proceed as rapidly as possible to interesting part songs and choruses. II. VII.LAGK SCHOOI.S. A. When music has been taught in the grades. 1. The work will be much the same as in the larger schools. 120 2. If there are pupils enough to form but one chorus, com- bine the work outlined for 9th and 10th grades. 3. The work outlined! for 12th grade will be found too diffi- cult for small choruses. B. When music has not been taught. 1. The same difficulties exist as in city schools but are easier to overcome. 2. Use same outline. Sing many patriotic and national songs, bright glees. III. LIST OF COURSES SUITABLE FOR HIGH SCHOOLS. Those marked by * are difficult. Those marked t are easy. Ginn & Co. Coda, t Anchored . A moonlight Boatride, (Miserrere.) As Pants the Hart. * Be Not Afraid, (Elijah.) * Bridal Chorus, (Rose Maiden.) t Come Flit Around. Fairyland Waltz. Football Day. * Gloria, (Mozart.) * Good Night Beloved, (Pinsuti.) Hark Apollo Strikes the Eyre. Heaven and Earth Display. Let Love Undying. t Night, t Red Scarf. ' Revel of the Leaves. * The Heavens are Telling, (Creation.) * Hallelujah Chorus, (Messiah.) t Sleep While the Soft Evening Breezes, (Silver, Burdette &Co.) * And the Glory of the Lord, (Messiah.) Away to the Fields. Boatman’s Good Night. * Damascus Triumphant March, t Gallant and Gaily. Great Dagon. Little Jack Horner, (Caldicoll.) Lullaby From Ermine, t Merry June. t Now the Music Soundeth. O, Skylark for Thy Wing. Rest Thee My Little One. Unfold Ye Portals. 121 * We Free Born Sons of Wodan Octavo. * Break, Break, (Maidling-er.) * Faithful and True, (Tohengrin.) * Gypsy Life, (Schumann.) * We Watching- Over Israel, (Elijah.) * Hail Bright Abode, (Tannhauser.) * Honor and Glory, (Costa.) t O, Italia. * How Lovely are Thy Messengers. Millan’s Wooing. Oh Hush Thee, My Baby, t Praise Ye the Father, ^(Gounod.) * Song of the Mountaineers. * Spring Song, (Pinsuti.) Spring Song, (Strauss.) Stars of Summer Night, (Smart.) * Thanks Be to God, (Elijah.) * Waltz From Faust. When Daylight’s Going, (Somnambuli.) * Zion Awake, (Costa.) * The Cantata Ruth by Gaul. Mrs. Francks Ckark. Noth. — A valuable and suggestive paper on music was also con- tributed by Mrs. F. R. Davis, West Waterloo, Iowa. ZOOLOGY. I. The Tkacher. The best way to deal witn animal study when the teacher to whom the work is intrusted is inadequately trained, or not by nature endowed with a genuine interest in ani- mal life, is not to teach it at all. Special training is just as neces- sary in the case of a teacher of Zoology as in that of a teacher of Latin, and it is far better to drop the matter entirely from the course than to have the child’s conception of nature as manifested in living forms ruined by a faulty introduction at the outset. We assume, then, that the teacher has had a thorough course in Zool- ogy or Biology in university, college or properly conducted normal school, and that he or she does not teach the subject under pro- test, but because a real love for the study of animals renders such teaching a pleasure. II. The Objects to be Attained Shoule be Well Defined. There should be a clear conception in the mind of the teacher of what he is trying do, and toward this end all the work should be Intelligently centered. These objects are numerous, but there are 122 three which, in onr opinion, are of paramount importance. These are. 1. The cultivation of the power of observation. The ability to see things, and to see them correctly, is not a natural, but an acquired faculty. It is quite exceptional to find either a child or an adult who has good observational ability unless that ability has been brought out by careful training. No study surpasses that of Zoology in its value in this direction when rightly used. 2. The cultivation op the power of description. This is still more rare in children, at least, than the preceding. Indeed, the deficiency is by no means confined to children. Not one in twenty university students is able to describe an ordinary object with any facility until he has been carefully trained. The power of good description is psychologically a very high one, acquired late by the race, and usually by the individual. For this reason the sci- ence of Zoology requires considerable maturity of' mind, if the best educational results are to be obtained, and should come as late as possible in the high school course. The power of descrip- tion should be very carefully trained by the teacher, who, if faith- ful, can thus secure psychological improvement of the utmost practical importance. Animals usually have definite forms and colors and parts that lend themselves readily to concise description. But to secure this from the pupil requires all the firmness, patience, and tact that the teacher can command. 3. The cultivation of the power op reasoning. The student, having learned to see and to describe, should be led to think, to compare, to judge, and to infer. This is the crowning glory of the teacher’s service — to stimulate thought, to induce in the pupil the habit, not only of asking, but of answering questions. Such ques- tions as. Why is this so? How did it become so? Are these two organs really alike, or only seemingly so? Why are these two but- terflies so alike in form and color while so diffierent in anatomical details? How is it that the bones in my hands are so like those in the flipper of the seal? It is this part of the work that can be made the most fascinating to both teacher and taught. But it should be continually borne in mind that the pupil should be encouraged to answer his own questions, the teacher seeing to it that the proper facts be placed before him in the form of speci- mens if possible, and of books or lectures if necessary. Hasty conclusions and generalizations should not be encour- aged. An honest conclusion, although incorrect, may be of more, educational benefit than a correct conclusion that is simply “jumped at.’’ III. Method of Teaching Zoology. While almost any method (except the text-book method) can be made to do good service in animal study, there are certain ways of teaching that 123 experience has proved to be of superior merit. Perhaps these may best be embodied in the following suggestions: 1. Study those forms of animal life that are most abundant in your vicinity and that can easily be secured and often brought alive into your classroom. The hydra, the clam, the earth-worm, the crayfish, the grasshopper, the perch, the frog, the garter snake, and the rabbit are almost everywhere available and form labora- tory standbys that can hardly be dispensed with. 2. Study the external anatomy, the gross internal structure, and the life history as far as possible. Most of the more import- ant anatomical points can be made out with the unaided eye or dissecting lens. These points are in general more available than the minute structure for attaining the educational advantages mentioned above. Moreover, they can be ascertained without expensive equipment, and therefore be at the service of all high school teachers. 3. We would recommend that most of the time devoted to the course be put in the study of invertebrate animals, because they are in general more conveniently secured and handled than verte- brates, they can be more easily dissected, and their study involves less pain to the animals themselves. A few typical vertebrates should also be studied, not because they furnish better educa- tional drill, but because they afford a necessary introduction to human anatomy and physiology. 4. Some sort of guide or manual being usually necessary, we recommend as of special merit a little work called “Practical Zoology,” by Colton (Heath & Co., Boston), as embodying our ideas as to the general method to be followed. 5. As may be inferred from suggestion 4, we do not recom- mend the use of the compound microscope in high school work, except as an occasional aid in special cases. We admit the fascin- ation of the microscope and its indispensable aid in more advanced investigation, but regard it as most important that the pupil learn to use his ejes first, and to study the entire animal as a unit and its parts as organs, before being introduced to the his- tological structure, which logically comes last. IV. Equipment. This will, of course, very greatly, accord- ing to the available funds and the ideas of the school board. Among the practically indispensable requisites, the following may be mentioned: 1. Laboratory tables, plainly and solidly constructed, the main requirements being a top that will not be injured by water, a good sized drawer for each pupil, and a good light. The size and arrangement of tables must be adapted to the shape of the room and the position of the windows. 2. Dissecting Microscopes. These should be as good as the state of the treasury will permit. This is the worst place to 124 practice economy, but if economy must be used, it should be borne in mind that a good dissecting lens is, in our opinion, better than an inferior dissecting microscope. 3. Dissecting tools, such as forceps, scissors, scalpels, nee- dles, etc., should be furnished to each student; also at least one dissecting pan with a wax or cork bottom. Conveniences for washing and wiping the hands should not be neglected. 5. Specimens for study can, in most cases, be secured with- out expense if the tercher is energetic and the class genuinely interested. Living specimens can usually be secured by the stu- dents, except in the winter, if they are wisely directed, A large supply of reserve material in alcohol or formalin can be kept in store, the material being collected in spring, summer and autumn. Every opportunity to get students into the field should be utilized. 5. A collection of local animals can be made by the teacher and pupils and increased year by year. This is one cf the very best methods of stimulating and sustaining interest and utilizing the out-door activity of the pupils. It involves, however, a good deal of work such as only the truly devoted teacher will carry to a successful conclusion. Finally. The most should be made of every specimen, as an unnecessary destruction of animal life should never be permitted, much less encouraged, by the teacher. (Where further details are desired, information should be secured from some one who has had considerable practical experi- ence in conducting such work. In no case should an inexperi- enced teacher be allowed to order or select equipment without such aid.) C. C. Nutting, Gilbert L. Houser, M. F. Arey. Note: — The chapter on Manual Training was intended to be placed in Part III, but by mistake in printing was inserted in Part I. Part IV. (APPENDIX) PHYSICAL TRAIMNG. I, THINGS TO BE ACCOMPLISHED. 1. Recreation. The actively working brain needs frequent resting so that worn-out tissue may be rebuilt. This recreation can often be most effectively accomplished by a change to physical work rather than by enforced inactivity. 2. Bodily Development. By systematic physical exercise the weak body can be made active and muscular. Suitable “body work’' increases the functional activity of internal mucles and glands. 3. Mental Development. By the use of moderately complex movements the pupil should be taught to use mind and body to- gether, The will, too, is strengthened by suitable gymnastic drill. Care must be taken not to add such work to already over-burdened pupils. Complex or fatiguing work [should be used only with the greatest caution. 4. In General. Seek to promote the growth of physically per- fect men and women. II. APPLIANCES. 1. Apparatus. Good results may be obtained without the use of apparatus. It is possible to give a lesson in “freehand”, one that brings into play all the muscles of the body with no apparatus what- ever. Many exceedingly beneficial exercises may be taken while seated. If the means are at hand to procure apparatus, dumb bells, wands and Indian clubs in the order named are the most profitable. 2. Space. The lesson outlined below may be given with only the space afforded by the aisles between the desks. It is of the greatest importance to have the room well ventilated and free from dust. 3. Music. Good music as an occasional accompaniment to ex- ercise is a valuable addition. It is not necessary however. When movements are executed rythmically the teacher may count. III. qualifications necessary for good teaching. 1. An intimate personal knowledge of the pupil is necessary — his ability to resist fatigue, his mental temperament and his bodily defects. This knowledge is possible only for the grade teacher herself — considering now large town and city schools. The history of gym- 126 nasties in the schools seems to indicate that it is unwise to hire a special teacher of physical training- who shall give lessons in each room. In the high school it is wise to deputize some teacher, who seems the best fitted by nature, to undertake the direction of physical exercise. Her own ingenuity and such special training as she can secure will enable her to devise work that will be of great value to the pupils. 2. The teacher should be acquainted with the fundamental prin- ciples of physiology and hygiene, and especially with the physiolog- ical effects of exercise. Short talks on matters of personal hygiene will interest the pupil in the care of his own body. IV. A TYPICAL LLSSON IN FRLLHAND FOR BFOINNFRS. Lesson One. 1. Ordfr of Kxfrcisks: Attention; arms out, front, up. 2. keg: Rising on tiptoe, 16. 3. Neck: Clasp hands back of head and bend head backward against resistance, 8. 4. Arm: With arm out, clench fist, then fiex arm at the elbow, 16. 5. Balancing: Toe stand. 6. Shoulder: Arms front, to out, 16. 7. Waist: Hands on hips, bend body to right and left. 12. 8. Back: Bend body to front, 16. 9. Heart and kungs: Hopping on right foot, 24; left, 24. 10. Breathing: Arms up as lungs are inflated, down as they are deflated, 8. V. methods of teaching. {a). Indoor Exercise. 1. Explanatory of above lesson: The order of arrangement of these exercises is based on physiological principles. This order should be maintained in all lessons. A great variety of lessons is still possible, all following this general arrangement. The figures following each exercise are the counts given to each. The number of counts may be varied to suit circumstances. Commands should be imperative. Accent the last word of command, as: Arms up, or Raise the arms on counts. Begin. 2. Position: The teacher should insist on a good position, chest raised, hips well back, weight on the balls of the feet. These are the important points in standing. Care should be taken to seat the pupils properly. A few minutes’ daily work in calisthenics can not be expected to overcome the bad effects of a faulty position dur- ing the rest of the day. 3. Dress: The dress must be loose fitting to give opportunity for growth and movement. 4. Manuals: These are abundant. Care should be taken to procure something simple and logical. Proceed slowly to movements 127 a little more complex as your pupils and yourself become better pre- pared for them. Jessie B. Bancroft’s “Freehand Gymnastics” and “Sight Apparatus Gymnastics” are excellent for grade teachers. From the simple movements described and illustrated in W. G. An- derson’s “Gymnastic Nomenclature” combinations of any desired complexity may be built. 5. Calisthentics may become dry and uninteresting. Rely on them only as an alternative with out-of-door exercises frequently. Become interested yourself and your interest will be communicated to your pupils. (d). Out Do o r Exercise . 1. It is a mistake to think that gymnastics can ever take the place of out door exercise. Play is all important for the young child. He is only happy when active and his activity is most bene- ficial when it is of the spontaneous, involuntary sort, and when taken out of doors. 2. The teacher should share in recitation. She may supervise and even join in the play without endangering her dignity. Finally, we do not contend that a teacher can become an expert instructor of gymnastics in a few months. But she can do some- thing at once; something that will be valuable for her pupils and that will aid her in her work as well. Many difficulties will be en- countered but these are in the main more formidable in appearance than in reality. The end is worthy of the most painstaking effort. Professor DAyis, Iowa College. THE INNER LIFE OF A HIGH SCHOOL. The discussion and papers here presented are specially connected with the formal side of high school education, endeavoring to care- fully point out all the fundamental and elective phases of secondary schools as found in Iowa cities and towns. The establishment and organization of these great agencies for good have therefore these definite designs in view. But there is much that is undesigned,, which after all is specially effective in developing and training pupils of these important grades. Such powerful agencies constitute the inner life of the school and are the product of the best efforts of both teachers and pupils. Influences of this sort bring out charac- ter, test strength, measure manly and womanly gifts, original and acquired, and betoken leadership and promise in the life beyond school days. While not underestimating the work of school boards and teachers in bringing to bear% upon the pupils the great designed influences already emphasized, it is certainly not necessary to forget what the students are gaining for themselves, socially, personally, intellectually and morally through the inner life of the school. The 128 teacher as a social and religfious force can do much to elevate and encourage the pupils through the securing of self help and self dependence as well as self control. Among the influences that count the largest in the healthy development of the individual pupil is the spirit of his surroundings. This has a decided effect upon the student tendencies according as it stands for excellence in scholar- ship, high minded purpose and strength of character. The public opinion found among pupils practically determines the conduct and tendency of individual life and decides the ideas that are assumed as foremost in a pupil’s career. The so-called college spirit that is marked by yells and confusion and organized enthusiasm, and that frequently contributes to recklessness and lawlessness, has no proper place in the conduct and inner life of a superior high school. These mani- festations in American education, through athletic and other contests, while having something to do with developing zeal, power, skill and spirit, are frequently allowed to develop a disposition to scheme, to deceive and to practice fraud. The ambition to win at all hazards and by any methods, without regard to ethics or merit, is always to be treated as an evil tendency, greatly to be deplored. Hence the creation and development of an ideal spirit is the very highest aim of all the combined forces in secondary education as the formative period of youth gives promise of the largest and most effective returns for effort. School administration should never be allowed to get away from the great thought that high school work ought to be managed in character, purpose and ideals for the securing of those types of ambition, application, manhood and womanhood which are recognized as absolutely essential to the proper development of the best American citizens. H. H. Sekri^KY. ATHLETICS. This report would hardly be complete without giving the status of high school athletics and the consensus of opinion regarding these popular sports. There is a growing tendency for the high school to undertake the games that are common in colleges. This tendency must be regarded as a serious problem since neither school boards nor high school teachers have any legal authority to super- vise or control these matters at the hours or in the places that these games occur, as the high school pupils are then under the direct control of their parents and the police power of their com- munities, the teachers not being able to efficiently employ more than moral or advisory control. Fatalities and accidents are reported more commonly from high school teams than from college teams because of their immaturity and unfitness for such violent exercises. The best informed physical directors and authorities on 129 athletics do not accept foot ball for men and basket ball for women as they are played in the colleges as at all safe or desirable for high school pupils, particularly if there are to be competitive games with other high school teams. Since the colleges have long since been compelled to repudiate all athletics not directly supervised by a competent physical director as dangerous to life and limb to full grown men, it certainly cannot be considered either safe or benefi- cial for high school teams, made up of immature and undeveloped young men and women, to be encouraged to continue an unregu- lated system of games that may in the end prove harmful and dangerous. This discussion does not undertake to treat the subject of college athletics, since that does not belong to this committee’s work, and in recommending the control and regulation of all high school athletics with the elimination of every kind that endangers life or the limbs of the pupils, it is not to be understood that the college athletics as practiced are endorsed as being free from the most serious objections. H. H. Se:kri.Ey. I. RULES GOVERNING THE ACCREDITING OF HIGH SCHOOLS. High schools meeting the following conditions may, on vote of the Committee on Secondary School Relations, representing the col- lege department of the Iowa State Teachers’ Association, be accred- ited as affording their graduates full preparation for one or more col- lege courses ; and graduates of such schools will be admitted with- out conditions or examinations (except in certain subjects, e. g. English, as provided in the catalogs of the several colleges) to such college courses of study as their high school studies have prepared them to enter; provided they present certificates signed by the super- intendent of schools or the principal of the high school, specifying in detail the amount and character of their preparatory work, as shown by the branches of study pursued, the length of time spent upon each, the ground covered in each, the text-books used, and the average standings attained, and specifically recommending the ap- plicant as of good moral characrte, studious habits, and, judging from the previous records, able to carry on college work successfully. 1. The course of study must not be less than four years of thirty- six weeks each in length, following an elementary course not less than eight years of thirty-six weeks each in length. 2. The course of study must require of each pupil not more than four recitations daily. 3. The entire time of at least three teachers must be given to instruction in high school branches. 4. The quality of the instruction given and the character of the text-books used must be approved by the Committee on Secondary 130 School Relations. The present officers of this committee are: Chairman, President J. H. T. Main, Grinnell, Iowa; Secretary, Pro- fessor Thomas Nicholson, Mount Vernon, Iowa. The names of the committee in full will be found each year in the report of the Iowa State Teachers’ Association, College Department. 5. Schools seeking considerable credit in science must demon- strate their ability to do successful laboratory work. 6. Schools seeking considerable credit in history and English must give evidence of a special library equipment for teaching these branches. High schools maintaining courses of study less than four years in length, and employing less than three teachers, may by vote of the Committee on Secondary School Relations, be accredited as affording their graduates partial preparation for one or more college courses, provided they meet the following conditions: 1. The course of study must be the equivalent of at least one year of thirty-six weeks in length, following an elementary course of not less than eight years of thirty-six weeks each in length. 2. The course of study must require of each pupil not more than four recitations daily. 3. The entire time of at least two teachers for a three-yearo,ovir^^, the entire time of at least one teacher with half time of another teacher for a two-year course, and the entire time of at least one teacher for a one-year q,ovlxs^\ must be given to instruction in high school branches. 4. The quality of the instruction given and the character of the text-books used must be approved by the Committee on Secondary School Relations. 5. Schools seeking considerable credit in science must demon- strate their ability to do successful laboratory work. 6. Schools seeking considerable credit in history and English must give evidence of a special library equipment for teaching these branches. Private academies, seminaries, normal schools, or other second- ary schools, meeting the conditions mentioned above, or their equiv- alent, may be accepted on the same basis as high schools. The colleges composing the College Department of the State Association are: The State University; Cornell; Iowa College (Grinnell); State Agricultural College (Ames); Upper Iowa Univer- sity; Iowa Wesleyan (Mount Pleasant); Parsons; Penn; Drake; Western; Des Moines College; Luther; Simpson; Tabor; Coe. These have uniform entrance requirements, with very slight ex- ceptions as noted on page 132. Every school on the accredited list can thus enter its students in some one or more of the courses of each of these institutions. 131 II. HOW A HIGH SCHOOL MAY BECOME ACCREDITED. 1. Either the superintendent of schools, the principal of the high school, or an officer of the Board of Education, may make appli- cation that a high school be accredited. 2. Either should write for the necessary application and report blank to the Professor of the Science and Art of Teaching of the State University, who is also the official recorder of the committee on Secondary School Relations representing the college department or to the present secretary of the committee. Professor Thomas Nicholson, Cornell College, Mount Vernon, Iowa. 3. This blank should be signed by the president and the secre- tary of the Board of Education, the superintendent of schools, and the principal of the high school. Full and detailed information con- cerning the teachers, pupils, and material equipment of the high school should be furnished, according to the outlines given in the blank. 4. This application and report should be forwarded to the Pro- fessor of the Science and Art of Teaching in the State University of Iowa, or to the Secretary of the Committee on Secondary School Relations, as under 2 above. 5. There should be forwarded along with the application and re- port two copies of the high school courses of study, corrected to date. 6. An analysis of the courses of study will be made in the office of the official recorder of the Committee on Secondary School Rela- tions, in such a way as to show their relation to the minimum re- quirements for admission to college; and a copy of the analysis will be sent to the superintendent or principal at once. 7. After the high school shall have been duly inspected, and after the inspector’s report, together with the analysis of the courses of study, shall have been submitted to the committee on Secondary School Relations, the committee will accredit the school, if it shall appear that the conditions required shall have been met. 8. The committee desires to receive annually from accredited schools full reports as to teachers, pupils, courses of study, and ma- terial equipment in text-books, library, apparatus, and buildings, and to this end report blanks will be sent to each accredited school each year, shortly after the opening of the school year, from the Re- corder’s office at the State University. Further inquiries will receive prompt attention, as will also any correspondence relating to possi- ble changes in our adjustment of courses of study looking toward the accrediting of any given school if the correspondence is directed to the Professor of Pedagogy of the State University, Iowa City; the Chairman of the Committee on Secondary Schools, Professor J. H. T. Main, Iowa College, Grinnell, or to the Secretary of said Committee, Professor Thomas Nicholson, Cornell College, Mount Vernon, Iowa. 132 ASSOCIATION COURSE OF STUDY AND ENTRANCE RE- QUIREMENTS. So far as the Committee is able to ascertain, the course of study adopted by the General Association will enable a student to enter any of the colleges comprising the College Department of the State Teachers’ Association in some of their courses, with the slight exceptions here to be noted. Superintendents, high school principals and school boards are urgently requested to secure copies of the catalog of each of the schools (the names are given in the chapter on accrediting) and carefully examine the entrance requirements. These will afford suggestions as to the allowable subjects most desired by the colleges and which should, if possi- ble, be provided for in the high school college preparatory course. Subjects mentioned in the catalogs are desired, but the others are accepted as substitutes. The colleges have made numerous changes in their entrance requirements to make them, as far as possible, uniform with the General Association course. The Association course requires only plane geometry, three terms’ work (it proviaes for solid geometry as elective); whereas, the State University requires plane and solid geometry, four and one-half terms’ work. As it has no preparatory course, the solid geometry must be made up if it is not taken in the high school before the student can fully enter Fresh- man. Cornell, Drake and some other schools have changed solid geometry to the Freshman year to accommodate themselves the better to the Association course of study. Again, the Association course requires English only 7| terms’ work, whereas, after September, 1902, the State University, and doubtless, all the col- leges, will require 11 terms’ work in English. Some minor differ- ences will be fully met if the amount of work outlined in the body of this Manual is done, as for instance, the State Association course requires an amount of Latin which' is really the equivalent of Ilf terms’ work, whereas, the General College Entrance Require- ments are 12 full terms’ work. If the Latin outlined in the body of the Manual, page 52, is completed, the requirement will be fully met. This is true of of some other subjects. The President of Iowa College, Grinnell, writes: “Students who take the study outlined in the Manual will be able to enter the Freshman class without condition, providing they elect in the third and fourth years a second language, Greek, or German, or French. If they do not take this second language they will be admitted to Freshman classification^ but with a condition of two years in the second language. The high school course, as pro- vided in the Manual, is a very good preparatory course for Iowa College, provided the second language is elected.’’ Dean Hill M. Bell, of Drake University, writes, “We have been 133 requiring all persons entering here to bring solid geometry, but our faculty has concluded that hereafter it shall be put in the Freshman year of the college. We do this in order to manifest our willingness to conform to the committee report and the State Association requirements. We feel that it is the thing for every college in the state to do.” These letters fairly represent the sentiment of the colleges toward the high schools. It is confidently expected that within the next year or two any little discrepancies which now exist will be arranged by mutual conference of the General Association Committee and the College Entrance Requirement Committee, so that the course of study outlined by the General Association will fully meet the entrance requirements of all the colleges. A little patience and consideration on the part of all concerned during the period of the adjustment of the infinite details and the many discrep- ancies which have been a cause of irritation in the past will ensure perfect harmony and good feeling between the colleges and the high schools in the very near future, and we shall have a perfect articu- lation of courses. Great advance has been made in this direction within the past five years.” The Committee looks forward to the publication of a new edition of this Manual with such minor changes in the course of study and the write-up in the various departments as experience and the prac- tical attempt of our schools to carry out the suggestions here made may bring to them. It is hoped that such second and revised edi- tion may be brought out within the next three years at least. I I' r- >' i-, ■ , ifi - , ' • /